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Crentet es im A : ey dee ieee CEL ral it vind ane aed ee Saae e ape ae ieee Com " Sb 9) ie tly be iS JA 27 aad TEES 2 * amet eas PRC ATEN Weller g 6s 8) Peokepits yaa ttt By tiat ; ap oom fai! * ; he fe thin Sa Se rel pt gtd) Te ETE ES Os OB: Oe nes aR A hy iat emaies sooo ie Rai . ; ; Wasdale eats bpeednrtelt Meter net tT i he ‘ FE to Lt) ae ef) PYRO Ne vel te ee ercrieeni at ey Ca phe ae vr A ely ie ae | RA ES A A A ea Od pe + ves Gs rn i jou ies ae iret i Fats ai hs me He fea etek! Behn 5 bbe, & x ee he AA, » ey am Ue Be 42 yee hate po ha Tet ‘ y) | % uty i ME H " . , ee alts (ie eae hs Hate a ae hes Sak WOE " ‘i on ge by we Yes fa A "hoe i te By ao eae peg Agha ‘ , ; s dishes it 1M ie nae pk Rats 4 ' tp gts ort sib} aye a a ‘ wewh We te a ‘ » ie pate tee u be 7 1 7 : Tae. ? ik ft NL: be ae Mf ai > eit ae) oie was Ce te AARAARAAA AAPAARAA a ana nin'n ae aaa EANSTTTTY AAA VAAAA ARR, ARN Ve [ f | | ¥ ! y | G'a' A\alalale\e\a : aA > Ve a\a| ala (A | | VO | NAIA AA IAAAA AAAS Ainal| | || Z E\ NN GN \NA-AAAA ~ ml! NPS oe | pan AIAN / aN SAARA 7 wz yy AA AR A AA aR AN a Ap ‘\; sm \VAX| y_ RA AV \- AAACYY.\.' ~\ VAAN VANIANIA A | / AR ARAAA AAA AAWAAAAAR y | ‘4 y y Y \ ¥ F AAAAAA lan Saaneeeees ace a AAA AAA AAA. wane AAAAAAAN \) | lie } Py f f | | y ‘i \¢g ‘i \ ’ i= —} _ y —, \ Y \ \ 6 \! \ } A lf | ] j } 7 i H i ; : a! ~ Hl | fi Y 1) j »\ = \A\ = VF | on \ I } ; scauuiouneseaan | RaRRaeRaneys Aa 3 A A b i of flatts nt Sones aia / a tee AF2 Ze 14 Bi Bim THE JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY INDEX AND TITLE PAGE VOL. XXXVI NOS. 1 & 2 Price oe Rs. 2-4-0. Zan way = . 2 \ (JAN 23 M4 Hy yp 304029 : MADRAS mm ‘Kees PRINTED AT THE D10oCcESAN PRESS 1933 INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the following order when they are being bound :— Title page = BS any Contents of Nos. 1 and2 of Vol. XXXVI List of Contributors Yo follow frontis- List of Plates ... Mee ie | 2 Index to Illustrations = piece in this order. Errata 5 se soe Index of Species en List of Office Bearers, ) To go at the end of Life Members and Members two numbers. THE JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY EDITED BY SIR REGINALD SPENCE, Kt., M.L.C., J.P., S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S., M.L.C., J.P. & C. MCCANN, F.L.S. VOL. XXXVI Nos. 1 & 2 Containing 18 Coloured Plates, 47 Black and White Plates, 31 Text-figures, and 1 Map. Dates of Publication Part I. (Pages I1to291) .,. 15th November, 1932. IH. ( 4 293t0 520) ... 15th April, 1933. 99 LONDON AGENTS DULAU & CO., Ltd., 32, Old Bond Street, London, W.I. eae PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS 1933 ~4 ! _— Li A N >) 7 10: jp COND EN IES! OF OL ONLE DOO. No. 1 PAGE THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. ype Ce SiC IBA Reins 4125, Cts, 18 VF Sioy 18g) Goan, WG) OhIUog 1861 9a OnE Part XVIII. (With a coloured plate) of Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilts, Wood Sandpiper 7rixga glareola and GiscempoanGolpen 77700 @ CCNVOPNUS. 201 sae dances sce seus vas 1 REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. IB? 1B), ISIS, Sating EID, dS. Teena DG (Uae 2 (DUDS ee SOBER TREO SLED BOR CAIRN CO a ETE rT 1) GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY, THE DECCAN AND THE NEIGHBOUR- ING DISTRICTS OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. By Sir INeoinaldi opencen Kay, (MeL«C., “h«AS., J.P. Ande oe ble JERENSIE,, Wie Soe Vinal) Wicl2e (With LD PUALES a anon st 29 THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE Pctea Guat (Ornithological section). By Hugh Whistler, m.B.0.U., assisted by IN. b; Kinnear, w.B.o.u. Part 11)...2;...0.1.-0 4s 67 THE ANDAMAN SHELL FISHERY. By S. B. Setna, M.Sc., OOS (VA: DUDA) aortas boon bee BEE COO RHEE HAE BeOS a senor 94. THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF HUROPE AND i By hla Pocock) HRs, sPart Il, (W272) 2 plates and 12 text-figures.) .. Ba IS BRR BOO Oe Bee a ramen 08 SoME BEAUTIFUL increas aT RReee By E. Blatter, s.5., ph.p., F.L.S., and W. 8. Millard, F.z.s. Part X. (With 1 coloured NOC, Jl WUTC Cel LCBO UOTE Chae), ZOE OOS Norm copocncho, LASS INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. By Lt.-Col, F. C. Fraser, I.M.s., F.E.S. ita Oe VAs Se CCU Lt U0 CS) terested ae kde tans datesaneeccene -) Lok NoTEs ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS. By C. McCann, F.L.S. (With 10 plates and 2 text-figures.)... sneigeveainess 2 MAMMALS OF THE SUYDAM CUTTING Sear Peee Erion. By Colin Campbell Sanborn.. at Suit TO THE HoOT-WEATHER FERNS’ OF EAN aey eri By Repel nine Co Ital. ©1694 EIS. 9.5 seie, .ctiascsinetes state tee) , (188 THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN. By _ Brigadier Wile sais 1C.S.ls,. Cis, Ds6.O..8 F.ROG.S-.1F.Z.S., F.E.S2) . 196 FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FRESHWATER MEDUSA. (Limnocnida indica, Annandale.) By H. Srinivasa IO; M.Ae DSC (MUL @, Plate and A 1eXt-172UVE)\iak.e.ss-... 210 iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI PAGE \/EARTH-FATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INpIA. By J. F. Caius; $:3., P.L.8., and K. H. Bharteha. BA) Bseaw 218 OBITUARY. “Chomas Burcess: Fry )1850-19si eee Doe An APPEAL TO ANGLERS. By Ae Macdonald...) 226 REVIEWS :— 1. HAND-LIST TO THE BIRDS OF SAMOA........... weal) 2. HAND-LIST OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA. 227 o: “ELE URED DEE OF MiGRATIONS.csccus eee ee 228 f TSIZE AND NORV elN see AONGRGE pert ee ee ee 230 a. POCKET UENG LELAND CORBI. sn eee ee Zonk ‘MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I. The Balinese Tiger (Panthera tigris balica). By Hod V. Sody.. ae ate Sete ee 2983 II. Remarkable Betewiout of a Tietess: ne ViS; ba Personne, NEB OU cise cee fon Ree eee 235 Ill. The Skin of a Persian Panther (Panthera pardus Sa20C0107)...) BY R: 1. POCOCK, HoRts 1-0 aoe eee OO IV.) Black Heopards, By ke win Pigey - 236 V. A Carnivorous Bear. By Madensiah: on eaten: 238 VI. Wild Dogs killing by night. By Lt.-Col. T. H. Carlisle; RASS. 2 eee ee ac ee 239 VII. Wild Dogs hunting and killing by night. By V. 58. Tea Personne, MiBsO0U (50) ise Sends cod (os alee 240 VIII. Carcases of Animals dying of Rinderpest avoided by Jackals and other Carnivora. By Randolph C. Morris.. Se ree as 242 IX. Death of an Biephant feotn. Rabies. ‘By J. Beckett. 242 X. Sounds made by Gaur or Indian Bison. By R. M. PABOY vec 5 less ada cea o RN an FR ees PE EEN tote 243 XI. Duration of Life of some Indian Mammals. By Cedric Dover.. aaa . 244 XII. The Duration of lie of some : idea: Marmianls. Tigers. By Randolph C. Morris, F.z.s.. 250 XIII. Record of Big Game shot in the Nileit Arh, | 1905-1931... By Randolph C: Morris; r2cs55..s 25% X1V. Small bore rifles and Big Game. By Capt. L. D. W. THRE ATSOY 16 34, ck25 he cee aha cA EEL ER BI MINER dai Ales 254 XV. Game Reserves and Flashlight. By F. W. Cham- DIODE” WEBic25.0s de PRA Reae bee antec bunts Sec eee \\ \ XA XVII. SWE: XIX. XXIV. XXYV. XXVI. KAVA. POOV IEE XXIX. XXX. XXXI. OO , XXXII. XXXIV. XXXV. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI The Penduline Tit (emzz coronatus, ae in the Punjab. By H. W. Waite.. j acl Notes on some Ceylon Birds. By P. 'N. Bee eters The Status of the Indian Black-headed Shrike (Lanius nigriceps, Franklin) in Lower Bengal. By oatva Churn Way Ph D., P:Z.S:, MeBO2U........ Occurrence of the White-throated Babbler (Argya gularis, Blyth) in Lower Burma. By J. K. SAMO AI C1S erasers sock eee io aes sales cekag ok RAE: A note on the Buntings of Burma. By J. K. Sram onGe le CeSassecccee Sean Map at neh onc Neco tae The Short-eared Owl (Aszo fF. Burmese ye d Mu Sramiongdi I. CSon ss vey pescegect The occurrence of the Lesser Kestrel (Cerchne/s naumannt) and Knot (7vinga c. canutus) Bunmas: by J. Ke Stamtond: 1 C:Si: Distribution of the Eastern Grey Duck ee os Zonorhynena).. tay J. C. FU SgiNs): U.C.Sv0:... a0: Flower-Birds and Bird-Flowers. By H. G. ICH EVEL Pay OL CHOI a any Ph even oor cltN a era Ue eter Ne aa soa er a ad A ease of Twin Embryos in the Egg of a Domestic Fowl (with a text-figure). By B. N. tlammeus) Notes on Monitor Lizards. By E. A. D’ Abreu, F.z.s. The Family of a Russell’s Viper or Chain Viper (Vipera russelliz). By A. L. Flynn, v.p., C.M.z.s. Snakes in Ahmednagar. By Lt.-Col. K. G. COBVRE OUST CS Vargas ll Aen a Ren tre ae A ip ee ie Gases: of Snakes “Bite. “By Lt.-Col. kK, .G (ST AVENIE: OS DIRETS Set I FACS pacman oO A Fish Pest of Fields along the Coromandel Coast (Ophichthys bore, Hb.) (With a plate). By T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar, B.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S.. : The Food Supply of Trout in the NG. “Ss Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, 1.4. (Aid.)....... Methods of dealing with plagues of Ants. By The PC AEONG shen ee DAE Unb se Sevag s tule ge Sash cv! els Behaviour of the Red Tree Ant (C&cophyla smaragdima). By S, H. Prater, M.1.C., ¢..z.S, A Scorpion (Buthus) feeding on a Galecd Spider (Galeodes agilis, Pag.). By C. McCann, F,L.S.... NeCure ior Dapeyorm. By ©: MeCanm, B.LiS.... :.. eye) 262 263 265 265 266 267 268 269 271 272 274 276 vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI PAGE XXXVI. Some Seagrasses from the Presidency of Bombay. By S. C. Dixit, m.sSc.,; M.A.. 284 XXXVII. Glimpses of the Vegetation of Seantih Bure (With 3 plates). By K.-Biswas; MAG. & nese eS XXXVIII. Scent in Relation to Flower-Colour. By ‘I. C. N. Singh... ee Tene cee En ec ent: Mav enee han hceee 287 XXX TX: y Seanae Nunes ae Brig.-Gen. R. G. Burton. 288 PROCEEDINGS OF THE MEETING HELD ON 141TH JuLy, 1932.... 290 No. 2 THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN Empire. By E. C. Stuart Baker, o.P.. (Cle, PeZicn, Holes... Me BeOnWs HE ARORUE Part XIX. (With a cotoured plate) of The Redshank Tringa totanus totanus and The Greenshank Glottis MCOUAT TM ore ener or menos om OG Cee SG Te 298 REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. By Nev. 2.) Blatter, S:., 20.0.) H.o.m tani Oe maa 2 DMT )oor es : ; 307 SOME DeeRe ee AMONGST Coe AND OTHER ine GAME OF BURMA FROM 1887-1931. By W.S. Thom. (CUA 2 MES» oo Soltis Sal THE VERNAY SCIEN Te SuRgET OF THE Ease Grane (Ornithological Section). Part 1V. By H. Whistler, MABLO.U > 2SSisteds Dy INI bs Kinmicain Mob @nUeny eee eee — 334 SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. Part XI. By Rev. B. Blatter SJ., Phiw., Fos: ands Wess Millandh = u-zas- (With 1 coloured and 1 black and white plate and 2 TART ALOR) OIE EBA RESARPL IonRC nr Se SENET 8 HEB AHO MARINO ANDO OS tise boatodc Se) Tur HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY. Part I. By Salim Ali. With Notes by Hugh Whistler. (W27th a Wap ANA —PPlAles.\ ies Micon Cente cote ee RE OOS ‘ Non-POISONOUS SNAKES.’ By 2S. ie eR AE Ree Mrslen Cae OY ay AR rains trea de are ee MMI TH Venta nae SACI A Can a: atc 391 NOTES ON THE COLOURATION AND HABITS OF THE WHITE- BROWED GIBBON OR HOOLOCK (fylobates hoolock, Hari.) J By. C) McCann, rcs (Wain 2 plates) een eee 3959 if ~fur GAME Brrps AND ANIMALS OF THE MANIPUR STATE é witH NOTES ON THEIR NUMBERS, MIGRATION AND PARTS. Ratt le) Byrd Ce riigoimeminesses : THE Civet Cars or ASIA. By KR. weocock, (ER. s. (With F MOKEATE O UVES. Voc Oih vee cee tan oc tnerede ae emEN Meese iee ham iinet enna | 406 / 493 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI Vii PAGE THE BUTTERFLIES OF BANGALORE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. Bains A Seale Seats peck Seren men oo moa Sey Re 450 ADDITIONS TO THE DRAGONFLY (Odonata) FAUNA OF INDIA WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES. By Lt.-Col. 1De (Cy IOWANS, MIS ISS (UAE ee AEBS GUA Oon ss toecononc: 460 THE SOCIAL LirE OF SNAKES.. By S. H. Prater, m.1.c., CaNIEZ. Sty Uieke Ben ioaeh cee ed Siac aaa e RTL Ae oat gore mianeie 469 NEw PLANTS FROM WAT teen in ‘By Rey. 2 Blatter, s.s., MDE ele Gera Mek toa ine thule Vilaaen eultee dca ts Gila se bans dad oe ET REVIEWS :— 1. Les OISEAUX DE L’INDOCHINE FRANCAISE.......... 485 2. Tuer NIDIFICATION OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN TEINS Ws eater sees G bath ah Peat tev yee ae Ns PAS fee ee 485 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I. How does a Tiger make a ‘Kill’. By R. K. M. TB Ey sm eee eS TA an Sa eo ee ee a in ene 488 II. Panthers of the North-West Frontier. By R. I. POCOCK, FR Gaiac tae: etgiee © “469 III. Jackal attacking Goat. By M. ea eee 490 INA Wile Docs) a) By Re CeoMoOrs WE.2iS.. EORiG:S.c...0..0 49 Vi White? Bison. By. R. ©i Mortis, ¥.z.S:, F.R:G.S.:. 492 \WI. Age of Bison. By R. C. Morris, F.z.S., F.R.G.S..... 493 VII. Elephants—Age to which they live in captivity. . By. De iNichmond, igh bE.S. Gay ~ 494 VIII. Elephants eating earth. By Te Cc; Moras Bez.Sy, AR KOS Ne ea a Shien apenas ees ee aay Fee ERNE ee eRe 496 IX. Habits of the Muntjac (AZ malabaricus). By R. C. Morris, F.zZ.S., F.R.G.S.. By 497 X. The migration of the Paradise Bivcehe (7; eiptres ea paradisiy. By Tea histler, 0 om | 9 Age of Bison -——$__ Elephants eating Earth Habits of the Muntjac (J/. malabaricus) ——$__s ue Intestinal Parasites of the Python hy | PHILLIPS, W. W. ro F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.; Some Siders died on the nesting of a pair of Ceylon Shikra Hawks (Astur badius badius, Gmelin) | PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,MAJORE G., I. A. (Réetd.); The Food Supply of Trout im the Nilgiris ate PizEv, R. M. ; Sounds made By Gaur or [ethan Bison (&z60s gaurus) ; Black Leopards. RE, FF. Rv s.2 Pre Black and Brown Bears of Kurope and Asia. Part II. (With two plates and twelve teat-figures) eas ote _—— ; Obi- tuarial notice of Thomas Burgess Fry ; The skin of a Persian Panther (Panthera pardus saxicolor)... ; The Civet-Cats of Asia (Wzth four text-figures) a — - - ; Pan- thers of the North-West Fron- tier re ee a xi PaGr 497 513 509 278 243 236 101 5 236 423 489 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xii PaGrE Pack PRATER, Seep Mine SPENCE, SIR REGINALD, KT., C.M.Z.S., J.P.; Behaviour of M.1L:C., F:Z:S., and PRATER, the Red Tree Ant (4cophyla SoH MEIC 5 ere vie Ss. smaragdaina) 280 Game Fishes of Bombay, The St a Se Deccan and the neighbouring ‘‘ Non-Poisonous Snakes ”’ 391 Districts of the Bombay Presi- —— —- —— —_— — ——_— :; dency (W1th nineteen plates)... 29 The Social Life of Snakes STANEORIDs Nag Ke Gres (With one plate) ..- 469 Occurrence of the White- = ah acarae throated Babbler (Argya See Spence, Sir Reginald. gularis Blyth)in Lower Burma 262 Rao, H.- SRINEVASA, M.A., A Note on the Buntings of D.Sc.; Further Observations Burma 263 on the Fresh-Water Medusa The Short-eared oul (Ast (Limnocnida indica, Annan- _tlammeus) in Burma 265 dale) (With a plate anda text- The occurrence of the Lesser figure) 210 Kestrel (Cerchneis nau- REVIEWS— manni) and Knot (7ringa Hand-List of the Birds of c. Canutus) in Burma 265 samoa 227 WAS TAP EON MINES, Coser, Hand-List of the Birds of Early Arrival of Snipe in the Eastern China... 227 Andamans 507 The Riddle of Migration 228 | Strip, S. A.: aie Ae ates Bele. 516 Size and Form in Plants 230 | THom, W. a: Some Experi- Pocket-Lens Plant Lore Oe ences amongst Elephant and Les Oiseaux de l’Indochine the other Big Game of Burma Francaise : 485 from 1887 to 1931 (With two The Nidification of Birds a plates)... SV the Indian Empire .. 485 | TICEHURST, cous Bo M. ne RICHMOND, R.D., Cole E., M-.D., M.B.O.U.; The occur- I.FS.; Elephants—Age to rence of the Lesser Kestrel which they live in (Cerchneis naumannti, Heisch) Captivity : .. 4904 in Burma sae Se S08 SANBORN, COLIN CAMPBELL ; Waite, H. W.; The Penduline Mammals of the Suydam Tit (Remtz coronatus Severt- Cutting Sikkim Expedition... 181 | zoff) in the Punjab ey RL SIDINGS Se 1s IWS Cog IPsID)se WHISTLER, HuGH, M.B.O.U., The Andaman Shel! Fishery AND KINNEAR, N. 13}, - (With five plates) 94 M B.O.U.; The Vernay Scien- Simmons, R. M.; Jackal ie tific Survey of the Eastern ing Goat noe a 40 Ghats. Part ILI. 67 SINGH een Cr 'N. Scent vackanes ee in Relation to Gigwes Part IV 334 colour ... sie we 287 | —— ———_ ——_ -——_-—— -—— ; SINHA, B. N.; A case of twin- The Migration of the Paradise embryos in the egg of a Flycatcher( Zchitrea paradist) 498 Domestic Fowl. (With a text- ——— Sas Oe figure) 268 See Ali, Salim. SOron7, Isl, Ua The Balinecs YatTrs, J. A.; The Butterflies Tiger ee tigris balica of Bangalore and neighbour- ‘ Schwarz.) 233 hood: 450 IGS IE OIE JIG AICTHS VOLUME XXXVI No. 1 The Game Birds of the Indian Empire— Plate (4) Marsh Sandpiper ( 77vznga ee (B) Wood Sandpiper (Zrvinga glareola) (C) Green Sandpiper (7ringa ochrophus) ... Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency— Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Ite VI. (Ad) Habenaria stennopetala Lindl. a close-up of the - inflorescence (B) Habenaria stenopetala, Lindl, entire plant Flabenaria raritlora Habenaria spencet Habenaria variabilis ... vie Habenaria variablis showing ine extreme variation in the formation of the floral parts ... Hlabenarta cerea PAGE 19 Zi The Game Fishes of Bombay, Tne Deccan and neighbourine Districts of the Bombay Presidency— Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Piate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate I. OL III. IV. V. VI. VII. The Mahseer (Barbus tor) 500 (1) Head of a young Mahseer (Barbus tor). Lateral and : ventral view (2) Head of a young Masundi (Barbus UEC Lateral and ventral view odd wee Dobson’s Carp. (Barbus jerdoni dobsont) ... ae The Olive Carp. (Barbus chrysopoma) Buchanan’s Carp. (Barbus curmuca) ek The Kudali (Barbus parrah) The Black-spot (Barbus filamentosius) i The Rohu ( Ladveo rohita) wae a as The Kanoshi (Labeo calbasu) . The Dandvan (fasbora dantcontus) The White Carp. (Cirrhina cirrhosa) Hamilton’s Carp. (Cirrhina mrigala) The Catla (Catla buchanant) Sh wits The Wallago or ‘ Fresh Water Shark’ (Wallago atlu) ... The Goonch (Bagarius yarrelliz) The Banded Murral (Ophiocephalus str AHS The Chilwa (Chela argente) e se The Indian Trout (Barzlius bola) be ae Barilius gatensis he one ae 45 46 47 48 49 50 ol Sy) 53 o4 55 56 37 58 og 60 61 62 63 XIV LSA OR ME ATEEGS' PAGE The Andaman Shell Fishery — Plate I. (1) Artistically carved shells of Zurba (2) Shells chemically treated to expose pearly layer (3) Japanese crew at shell banks - au fo A Plate II. (1) Typical Japanese boat (2) View of the holds in which shells are stored (3) A close-up of fishermen ready for operations a 96 Piate Ill. (1) A typical sanpan oa its way to fishing ground (2) The unattended sampans (3) A loaded sampan alongside motor-boat 97 Plate IV. (1) Discharging the cargo of the sampan into the fannie (2) Removing animals prepatory to storage in the holds. 93 Plate V. (1) Holds stocked with shells (2) Instrument used for removal of animals (3) Home-made goggles used by divers sn one 99 The Black and Brown Bears of Europe and Asia— Plates I. (A) Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus) (8) Malayan Bear ( Helarctos malayanus) ee 08 Plate II. (A) Russian Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos) (2) Sloth Bear (A/elursus ursinus) ay oe sie QS Some Beautiful Indian Trees— Plate XVIII. The Spotted Gliricidia (Gliricidia maculata) a Peer iS] Plate XIX. (A) Flowers of the Spotted Gliricidia (Glivicidia we maculata) (2) Spotted Gliricidia Tree in the Victoria Gardens, Bombay aS. ae ee .. 140 Indian Batrachians— Plate I. The Water Skipper (Rana cyanophliictis, oo in slush 155 Plate Il; (4) The tndian Ball: irae | eae amcton, Dard) ina pool at the break of rains (8) The Indian Bull-Frog (Rana tigrina, Daud) Bier an ets 6 Plate Ill. The Food and Enemy cycles of the Bull-Frog (Rana tigrina) fee se es aid an BL Plate IV. (ana tigrina, Daud. ’ Dorsal and lateral views of Tadpoles ae es ier OD Plate V. The Fungoid Frog (Rana malabarica, Dum.) and Bibr.) showing dorsal and lateral aspect... 166 Plate VI. (Rhacophorus maximus, Gunth.) Larva and aaannies! Vel Plate VII. (A) A spawn mass of the Giant Tree-Frog (4. maximus, Gunth) (B) (Rhacophorus maximus, Gunth.) another mass of eggs laid in the tangle of twigs covering the water ... 169 Plate VIII. (4) The Chunam Frog (fhacophorus maculatus, Boulenger), showing the adhesive discs (4) The Chunam Frog (fhacophorus maculatus, Boulenger), a female with spawn ‘ nest ’ sie Bel ae LIST OF PLATES XV PAGE Plate IX. (Rhacophorus maculatus, Boulenger), Larva and Tadpoles a ae oe convened ZAS) Plate X. The Common Indian Toad (S#ufo melanostictus, Schneid) showing the vocal-sac inflated ‘se een We) Further Observations on the Freshwater Medusa (Lizmnocnida indica, Annandale) — Plate (1) Limnocnida pool, Koyima River (2) Limnocnida pool in the course of the Yenna River ... 210 Plate Photo of the late Thomas Burgess Fry Ee See OOS Plate A Burrowing Eel (Ophichthys boro, Hb.) ... nel O Glimpses of the Vegetation of South Burma— Plate I. Top of Moulmein Hill with open mixed association at Connarus paniculatus in the foreground, and Bambusa polymorpha in the background .. ae 285 Plate If. (A) A general view of the forests by the ade of Weper Kyeinchaung River with overhanging climbers and drooping branches of Buccaurea sapida. In the fore- ground is the spreading shrub of Homonota riparia. (2) A group of Licuala peltata in the Kyeinchaung forest with the party pocge nn the author in his botanical exploration 286 Plate III. (4) Bamboo and Cane praes in the intention of the virgin forest area of Miachaung (4) Interior of a secondary formation in Tenasserim, showing Cane brakes with epiphytic Asplenium nidus and climbing Rhaphidophora pertusa on the moss- covered trunk of a tall tree 53 seus Mean EOE No. 2 The Game Birds of the Indian Empire— Plate (A) The Redshank (77viznga totanus totanus) (B) The Greenshank ( Glottis nebularia) eu aecos Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency— Plate I, (A) Impatiens acaults (BL) Impatiens pusilla Bee es een OOO Plate Il. (A) Lmpatiens balsamina (B) Impatiens pulcherrima ss 358 Boo ells Some experiences amongst Elephant and the other Big Game of Burma from 1887 to 1931— Plate I. (A) A large Tusker in the Thayetmyo Yomah (#) Elephants watering ss so HI Plate II. (A) Elephant remains near the Lemro Ree Arakan. (B) A carcase of an Elephant killed in a fight saps oil Some Beautiful Indian Trees— Plate XIX. Saraca indica , Re wise ae ODS Plate XX. (A) Saraca indica (Trees Of) aaten was SO 1 iy! (B) Saraca indica (Flowers and Fruit of)... en oOs Xvi LIST. OP PLATES Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey— Map of Hyderabad State and adjoining territories Plate I. (A) Typical boulder country Hanamkonda (Warangal District) (&) Typical country on the feecey Amrabad plateau Plate If. Vultures at a wayside carcase White-browed Gibbon or Hoolock— . Plate il, CA! & B) A young white- browed Gibbon Deiichaics hoolock) female about two months old nee Plate If. Skulls of Hoolock Gibbon at different ages ... Social Life of Snakes— Plate (A & B) Dhamans or Rat-Snakes mating ... Notes on the Nesting of Lanius nigriceps, Frankl. — Plate (.4) Date Tree with the nest zz sztu of Lanius nigh 1CE~S. (2) Close-up of the nest zz sztu PAGE 357 360 5 80) 395 402 469 499 Note on the Indo-Burmese Pied Hornbill (A/ydrocissa malabaricus Iemencasira Plate Fig. 1. Adult Q bird ‘Fig. 2. Young bird, photographed on 12-8-30 Fig. 3. Young bird, photographed on 12-8-30 Fig. 4. Adult 2 (right) and young (left), photographed on 2-9-30 Bi a oe 506 Notes on an Acridiid Grasshopper (Gesonia punctitrons, St. ) Ovipositing into stem of Colocasia plant— Plate Fig. 1. Colocasia stem showing egg mass in stem Fig. 2. Egg magnified Figs. 3&4. Younger stages Figs. 5&6. Adult 317 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS VOLUME XXXVI Nos. 1 and 2 F Pace | Asplenium nidus, P\., fig. A.... 287 Caliccita dvrothea, Thoracic Baccaurea sapida, Pl., fig. A... 286 markings of # and Q, Fig. 4 Bagarius yarrellii, Pl. — 59 (AS51853) es ae ae Bambusa polymorpha, 12]. 285 | Cirrhina cirrhosa, Pl. . Barbus chrysopoma, Pl. 48 | - —-mrigala, Pl. ... ——-— cuymuca, PI. 49 | Connarus paniculatus, PI. —_-— filamentosus, P|. 51 | Elephants— ——-— jerdoni dobsont, Pl. 47 A Large Tusker photo- = ——. i ssullan, Pl. fig. 2 46 graphed in the Thayet- = —— parral, Pi. 50 TIAN O OTM Alla we beliey a toe alee —_-— for, P|. 45 PG watering, PIl., eS P| eho ak 46 fig. 2 : ; Barilius bola, Pl. 62 Elephant remains near ‘he —-—. gatensis, Pl. 63 Lemro River, Arakan, Bufo melanoslictus, with vocal Jel Bacall. sac inflated, Pl. 173 : Oninace of an Bicphant Calicnemts erythromelas killed in a fight, Pl., fig. Dorsal headmarkings, fig. DERE Se ae aes ss 3.(2) 146 | Fry, Thomas Burgess, Photo —_——-- eximiia of.. Wings of-female, fig. 1... 141 Gentine Aamies a0, Bee ened Anal appendages, fig. 2, tudinal] section of Pee 2 . 143 | Gesonta punctifrons, Adult, Dorsal headmarkings, ig young and eggs, P1.... 3 (4) ; 146 | Glirzcidia maculata, P1.. —— mules, & Leaf and calyx, figs. Dorsal headmarkings, fig. Flowers of Pl., fig. A 3 (0) 146 Tree in Victoria Gardens, miniata g Bombay, Pl., fig. B Dorsal headmarkings, fig. | Glottzs nebularia, P\., fig. 2 .., 3 (5) 146 | Flabenaria cerea, P|. — mortont, & ee raritlora,. Pl. Dorsal headmarkings, fig. -———_——— spencel, Pl. ... 3(3) a 146 | ———--——- sfenopetala, PI. ——- = pulverulans $ —-——. — variabilis, Pls, Dorsal headmarkings, fig. Helarctos Us: 3 (6) in 146 PM 55 ke, Calla buchanant, Pl. _... SY) ewer side of cieht onic Chel argentea, Pl. 61 paw, fig.9.a Chlorogomphus olympicus, Lower side right hind ae _.Anal appendages, Fig. 3 nes We (De (A, B) 465 Rhinarium, fig. 10. G0): Pacr 331 SU sil 133 xViii Hlelarctos malayanus. DepeSy er NO, Go Gs Breast patch or collas: fe. Is @e@ Upper profile of deel of pial male, fig. 12.a Frontal profile of skull oe old male, fig. 12.6. ¢ Nasal profile of the type, fir. 12.d as ae Upper profile of adult female, fig. 12. e. f Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey.— Map of ite ads sie Typical boulder country Hanamkonda (Waran- gal District) Pl., fig. 1 Typical country on the Lesser Amrabad plateau. Vultures at a wayside car- case Hydroctss@ m. lemeamast ne Adult 2 PEs fig. 1 Young PI., Aes 2 2,3 nN Adult Q and young, FL, fig. 4 sae fon ie Hylobates hoolock A female abouttwo months .. old, Pl. die Skulls, at diferent < ages : Impatiens acaulis, Pl., fig. 1 . ———-—_— balsamina, Ph., fig. 1 —-—— pulcherrima, Pl., fig. 2 . So —-e- PUStlia, Pl., fio 2 tee Eabeo calbasu, Pl. ‘ rohita, Pl. Lanius nigriceps Date tree with nest zm séttu, lees : Close up of the socks in os Pl. B Licuala peltata, P\., fie B Limnocnida, ety Pools, Pl., figs. Aand B ... Eggs, figs. 1,5. Melursws wrsinus Lower side of right fore paw and lower side of right hind paw, fig. 1. a@..6 a Er PAGE 133 134 | 137 | 137 137 | 137 356 360 368 } 506 506 395: | 402 | 309 313 | | Rasbora daniconius,. Pl, 313 309 102 ' Rana cyanophitetis, Pt.... 506 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS Melursus ursinus Rhinarium, muzzle claws, fig. 2. a-d. ie ioe : Upper Drone of skulls, ee 3.a.6 ae Moschothera civettina Lower side of the left fere paw, fig. 3 (A) Lower side of the left hind paw, fig. 3 (B) ... a Palate of skull, fig. 4 (A)... Forehead, fiz. 4 (B) Posterior portien of man- dible, fig. 4 (D, E) megaspila Lower side of the left fore paw, fig. 3 (C) Bs Lower side of the left hind paw, tie. 3 CD) =. se Palate of skull, fig. 4 (C)... Posterior portion of man- dible, fis. 4 (F) ... and | Ophichthys boro,, Pl. Ophiocephalus striatus, P. —-— malabarica, P\., figs. A pial ds: 3 cia a | Rana tigrina, Pl., figs. A * and B ee ia ‘ Food and enemy eyoles Plies Tadpoles, Pl. Rhacophorus maculatus Pl., fig. A.showing adhe- sive discs. Fig. B. Female with spawn ‘ nest.’ Fig. a, Type of pigment in deeper layers. Fig. 6, Type of pigment at sur- face... Tadpoles. Pl. MOKUNEUS mass, Pl. Spawn and B.. . Tadpoles, Pl. sa Rhaphidophora pertusa Pl., fig. B Saraca indica, Pl. Leaf, fig. » figs. A 174 175 176 169 ya! 287 353 353 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS Saraca indica Flowers, fig.... ihree sis, fowl Be Flowers and Fruit, Pl., Tae Sy Selenarttos thibetanus Upper profile of skulls, fig. oee-6 se a P| Al it © fo — ———— fig. ——— Lower right fore paw. hind paw, fig. 4. side of Right a.b ai ais ae Breast patch or iGO, Go Coe Upper ae oe I8So U6 Coe os —-— Forasdnis Breast patch or collar, fl Sen One 83 i Upper profile of ft Cpe On G-@ ee Back of skull Tie le Reahow OG, ae -——= 7aponicus Back of skull of adult eran gu, IMCs lo IP Gor -—— thibetanus laniger Breast patch or collar, fig. Gere: + : Upper Drone of Sally, Fes a eiGeae collar, ‘skulle, Sauls of adult _— bien s Breast patch or collar, fig. Gate PAGE 354 354 354 125 125 113 119 113 Selenarctos thibelanus ussuvicus Upper profile of skulls, fig. 8 A, B As ae ah Pee fossa, fig. Sy Aes IB ¢ Upper olay, ie 8, AN. Be Snakes, Social Life of. Dhamans or Rat-Snakes mating, Pl. Tetracanthagyna water Taisen Wings, fig. 1 eee fore 2 Anal appendages, (a-c) : i Tringa glareola, Pl. ylmee 2 ——~ - ochrophus, Pl, Oe Sees - Stagnaiilis, Pl., fig. 1... -totanus totanus, P1., Sep nee TULOO SD ele. Ursus arctos, P1., Viverra zibetha fig. 1 fig. A Lower side of paws, figs. (A, B) i - zibetha Outer view of the: left auditory region, figs, 2 (A, B) : Hinder ends of pale: fee. 2 (€, D) bic OS ORE Ol Shesllils wefer, 2, (18) Go Be Palate of fouls fie, “2 (F). Viverricula indica, Lower side of paws, fig. 1 (Cy D)) ; Wallago attu, Pl, X1x Pace 125 125 125 Hee bw 293 94 103 425 439 ERRATA Vol. XXXV, No. 1. (THE BUTTERFLIES OF CoorG. Part IL.) ADDENDUM. 459. 5a. Pratapa deva deva, M. I had set aside a 2, which was neither Tajuria jehana, M. 2 nor Tajuria cippus cippus F. 2 Recently Capt. Riley of the British Museum identined it as Pratapa deva deva, M. I saw andtook no other; this I took in an open- ing in a patch of thick wood by a stream at Kolakeri near Napoklu in Coorg. CORRIGENDUM. For 1 32. 1a Caprona rausonnetti potiphera, Hew. vead ‘i 26.1.a Caprona ransonnetti ransonetti, Fd.’ y. Caprona ransonnetti taylorii, DeN. Both forms occur. Oddly enough the only Bangalore specimen I have, appears to be the rare Caprona ransonnetti lanka, nov. (Evans), but it is a rainy season specimen, taken in July. The references I give are to Evans’ J/dentificaiton of Indian Butterflies, 2nd Edition. Vol. XXXV, No. 4. Page 916, Misc. Note XXXIV, last line, instead of Helianthus - jicaberimmus vead ‘ Helianthus scaberimmus.’ Vol. XXXVI, Nos. 1 & 2, Page 252. Misc. Note No. XIII, line 8 from bottom. Instead of ‘No chital are recorded as shot since 1914. read ‘No ‘“ chital’’ are recorded as shot prior to 1914-15, the figures being tabled under ‘‘ Spotted Deer.” ’ Page 332, line 13. Instead of ‘gouge’ vead ‘ gong.’ INDEX OF SPECIES Abisara echerius prunosa Acampe 50 Acanthion Hodeaon: Acanthus ilicifolius Ake Acionyx (Cynzlurus) jubatus Acronychia laurifolia Actiniopteris dichotoma Adiantum capillus veneris —— ——— caudatum —-lunulatum ZEgele marmelos AMgithina tiphia humei .. fErides Adschna enjflromelas petalura ane 660 —— —— quadrilateralis... Aithopyga scherize Agallocha... Agnus castus Sah Agriocnemis arborense ... clauseni femina ——_ ——_——_ pyegmeea spencei Alcedo atthis pallasii Allophaea ochracea Alseonax latirostris ar —_-—___——--——_ poonensis... —_—— miuttui ... muttui aoe eS ————. ruficauda : Amblypodia amantes amantes Ambherstia nobilis Amphithemis vacillans... Ampittia dioscorides Anas platyrhyncha 16 —— Here toni. ——_ —_——— peecilorhyncha. -—_ —_ ——_—_ —- zonorhyncha Anax immaculifrons Angelonia grandiflora ... Anguilla bengalensis ——— bicolor... PaGE 85, 53-005 266, 267, 266, 456 20 187 285 245 317 190 192 190 192 320 378 27 463 463 463 268 285 355 467 468 468 468 468 508 468 387 86 82 388 86 457 354 460 459 419 421 420 421 465 288 Sd Sy) Anisogonium esculentum Anser albifrons albifrons ——-- anser —-~-- indicus Anthipes moniliger Antilope cervicapra Anurosorex assamensis... Apharitis acamas hypargyros... ————--- epargyros — -——- lilacinus Aporia leucodice balucha Appias albina darada - libythea libythea Arceus niger Arcticonus Arctictis binturong Arctogale leucotis Argya caudata caudata gularis malcolmi ... Aregynnis hyperbius -—~——- lathonia isscea —_——--—— —-— lathonia Areyrolobium mucilagineum ... ———— - purpurascens Artamus fuscus... Asarcornis scutulata Ascaris attenuata WACOM. Ham meuss.: Aspidium cicutarium ——-—-- polymorphum Asplenium falcatum -— laciniatum fo solbil eyeobanl —_—— - ——. var. me... SS = Aen —— nidus... Astragalus fernandezianus lasius Astur badius -—— badius Astycus augias augias ... trapezifor- PaGr 193 414 412 413 84 249 183 207 207 457 199 454 454 101 103 108 246 246 374 262 375 203 203 203 481 4&0 347 416 SS 2k5 193 195 195 193 193 194 194 286 482 480 162 509 459 xxii Astycus pythias lanka ... Atalantia ceylanica ————-— floribunda —— ——.- missionis -————- monophylia ... ————- puberula ——-——- racemosa Atella phalantha... Atherurus sf/.... Athyrium falcatum —— -——- filix feminina.. ——_——- gymnogrammoides... --—--——— hohenackerianum Aulocera padina burnettii Aurantium maximum ... Avicennia officinalis... O00 Axis (Cervus) axis Azanus jesous gamra -— ubaldus... —-—-- uranus Baccaurea sapida Badamia exclamationis... Bagarius yarrellii Balsamia litifolia Balsamina minor ae Balsaminifolia rosmarinifolia ... Bambusa arundinacea ... polymorpha ... Baoris conjuncta narooa guttatus bada ———— kumara kumara —_—— mathias So —_—_—_—-—— mathias thrax ——— zelleri cinnara Barbastella darjelingensis ————— = Barbus ambassis... ae ee - carnaticus - chola eae - chrysopoma (CBIATANEIOA) Goo - filamentosus - jerdeni -—— dobsoni a IFICIVOI Abe - kolus —-—- malabaricus — —- mussullah - parrah - phutunio... - pinnauratus INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE aes 459 319 319 319 319 319 ec SLO 204, 456 247 195 194 195 195 Maree A074 319 285 249 457 456 456 286 458 59 Sil) 311 312 LOO 285, 286 459 459 459 197 459 208 459 182 aerate)! wee 47, 64 Se 64 ... 48, 64 ee 49 mets Ol, OE 47 47 47 50 49 46 50 65 48 204, PAGE Barbus sarana 48 - ticto Dil - tor... ; 45 Barilius bendelisis 63 -— bola 62 ——- evezardi... 63 — gatensis... OS Barringtonia acutangula 286 Bauhinia sp. 286 Baza jerdoni ceylonensis soa NS Belenois mesentina mesentina 199, 454 Belomys pearsoni 185 Belostoma indica 161 Bergera ... ee ae ves BN Bibos frontalis 243 -——~ (Bos) frontalis BB Ces) ——- gaurus 243, 322 — sondaicus ... : 322 Blechum orientale wee & 195 Blumea balsamifera 285 Bonatea benghalensis ... 14 Bos indicus es soe ICES Boselaphus tragocamelus 249 Bothridium pythonis ols Bougainvillea ... ma ae (Mel) Brachypteryx major albiventris 67 - major 67 Bradypterus phoenicuroides .. aus 68 Bradypus ursinus 101, 103 Bruguiera... 285 Brunfelsia hopeana 288 —_—— ——latifolia 288 Bubalis (Bos) bubalis ... 248 Budorcas taxicolor 249 Bufo melanostictus 178 Bulbophyllum 35° ise 26 Bungarus ceeruleus smo 20D, 2d Butalis muttui 86, 388 Buteo superba 5 5.280 BOUIN G2 o550 Neer soMk Byblia ilithyia 456 Caesalpina gallesii 268 Calanthe 26 Calicnemis soe tel dal ——- ——— atkinsoni 143, 147 ——-—— erythromelas ; 146, 149 —-— — eximia .-o 141, 143, 146 —_—_—_——- inglisi ee Seal) —_—.———- miles 146, 147 ———_——_- miniata He ea —_—. —---- mortoni 146, 150 INDEX OF SPECIES Calicnemis pulverulans Callene albiventris Calliope calliope Callophis trimaculatus Callophrys rubi Callosciurus crumpi Camacinia gigantea Camunium — exoticum Canis indicus indicus ——- laniger ——- lupus ——-~ pallipes Capra falconeri ... hircus sibirica ee ransonnettii lenien ransonnettii Carapa obovata Carcharodus alcez swinhcei dravira balucha Caryopteris wallichiana Casarca ferruginea Castalius caleta decidia ethion ethion —— -—— rosimon rosimon Catachrysops amyntas comyntas ~ strabo Catla buchanani Catopsilia crocale ————- florella gnoma ——_——-- pomona —————- pyranthe minna Cemas goral Cerberus rhynchops Cerchneis naumanni ——-—— pekinensis Ceriops Sei Certhia spilonota Cervulus muntiacus Cervus eldi - hanglu - porcinus - unicolor - wallichii Chaclas we wee Cheetocarpus castanocarpus Chalcas —- exotica .. — paniculata 265, 508 PAGE 144, 146 . 67 72, 504 273 207 185 460 Bl SZ 184 184 246 246 248 248 249 458 458 285 208 208 288 419 456 456 456 206 206 457 | 56, Sy ‘199, 454 454 199, 454 199, 454 322 393 508 285 380 S22 322 250 322 322 250 317 285 SIlh7, oly, 317 Chamaeleon calcaratus Chaptia znea malayensis Charaxes fabius fabius ——-—— polyxena imna Cheirostylis Cheilanthes oi thontemetaetta - farinosa var. anceps ——- tenuifolia... Chela argentea ——-- bacaila ——-- boopis ——-- clupeoides ——-- phulo Chibia hottentotta Chilades laius ——_——--—— laius Chilochista Chlorogomphus oly mipious Chloropsis aurifrons insularis jerdoni Chondrorhynchus Chrysomma sinensis sinensis ... Chrysopelea ornata Cirrhina cirrhosa fulungee -——_—— mrigala ——_—— reba Citrus maxima Citrus spp. Clausena indica ... pubescens —— -——_ wampi ——-—— wildenowii Clemmys : Clerodendron odoratum Coeliccia albicauda ———— dorothea Coeloglossum luteum Coenonympha myops raaemnalionl Coffea bengalensis Coladenia dan dan — jndrani indra Colias croceus edusina erate lativita ——- -—_ war. palida — var. chrysodona ... Collurio erythronotus — nigriceps - tephronotus —-——- tricolor XXiil PaGE 513 350 455 455 28 195 194 195 195 "Bik 64 XXIV PAGE Colotis amata amata 200 —— - —— —— modesta ... 454 -——— dane dane 454 a dulcis eee e200 — etrida etrida 200, 454 eucharis 454 — fausta fausta 200 ——— -fulvia 454 protractus 200 vestalis Ses wie see OO) Coluber helena 2735 Cento ln SOC -— porphyraceus 392 -- radiatus 392 Congea tomentosa 285 Connarus paniculatus 285 Cookia dulcis 318 - punctata 318 Copsychus saularis amoenus 74 ceylonensis : 74 -- saularis 73, 384 Coracias vagabunda 369 Cornacantha 463 Corvus culminatus 368 - hottentottus Seles | OO ————-- macrorhynchus euiminacts fae OOS: - paradisi 88, 89, 389 - splendens splendens 369 Cossyphus caudatus 374 Cottonia 27 Craspedacusta omen nike) ———— ryderi 214, 217 Cremnoconchus syhradrensis ZN, Crocidura sp. 183 Crotalius horridus 471 Croton sp. 2 3 286 Culicicapa ceylonensis gejloneneis ie 87 -—— pallidior 87, 388 Cuon dukhunensis 246 ——- rutilans 246 Curetis thetis 457 Cyanopterus sphinx sont Sade suey Cyanosylvia suecica 71, 383 Cycas rumphii 285 Cymbidium és Zi, Cymodoceae isoétifolia ... 284 Cyornis pallipes pallipes 87 - poliogenys vernayi 83 ———- saturatior : 84 — tickellize 83, 387 ‘Cyperus corymbosus 66 Dacnomys millardi ae 186 INDEX OF SPECIES Danais chrysippus - genutia ————-- limniace mutina - melissa dravidarum - plexippus Delias eucharis Dendrelaphis Caudoliaeatte Dendrobium densiflorum pierardi Dendrocalamus strictus Dendrocitta leucogaster vagabunda pallies —_—_—__ ——-——_ vernayi Dendrocygna fulva javanica Dendrophis pictus Desmotrichum Be Deudoryx epijarbas Sonanhes Dichoceros bicornis ; Dicrurus ceerulescens Gece ne —-—-~ lophorhinus 56 ———— . macrocercus peninsularis Didunculus strigirostris Dillenia Dipetalum pigeniate Diplocentrum Dipsadomorphus Givens Dipsas ceylonensis - forsteni Dipterocarpus She Dissemurus lophorhinus ——- paradiseus ---—- eoulonencte -- grandis SSS -— malabaricus ... Dremomys lokriah bhotia _—______.-__— - lokriah Drynaria quercifolia # Dryocalamus nympha 580 Dryophis dispar ——_——- mycterizans -—_——- prasinus } Dumetia hyperythra alpacas — hyperythra Durio zibethinus Echis carinata 660 Edolius grandis 5b Elapbrornis palliseri 200, 351, SOR — longicaudatus longicaudatus. Zh PaGE 200, 455 200 455 455 455 454 392 26 286 286 286 370 369 369 369 419 418 393 26 458 5C6 348 348 350 348 Di 286 316 27 Zhe 393 393 286 soo BN) 370 351 so 351 185 185 195 Soe 303 393 393 377 376 286 274 Boll 20/ INDEX OF SPECIES PaGE Elephas maximus 322 Emberiza aureola 264 —- cia yunnanensis 263 —— --—— fucata arcuata 263 —______——_ -- fucata 263 ————-- pusilla 263 —— —- rutila 264 ————-- schoeniclus 263 —- spodocephala melanape 264 Entada scandens 286 Eogenes alcides alcides 209 Epipogum 27 Equus hemionus... 248 kiang ons 248 Ergolis ariadne indica .. 456 — merione merione 456 Eria : bee 26 Eriboea athamas agrarius 455 Erinaceus collaris 244 Erodium adenophorum 477 —- heterosepalum 478 —- nanum 477 Erynnis marloyi ... ay soo. AOS) Eryx conicus LI, Alay ook —- johnii 272 Euchloe ausonia sevpnelte 198 — — pulverata 198 — belemia 198 ——— charlonia doveri 198 ——_—_—-——_—- lucilla 198 —_—_—_—___—_- pila 198 ——- transcaspica 198 Euchrysops cnejus 457 - contracta : 206 ——________.____-. contracta 457 ———-—- pandava minuta ... 206 -- pandava 457 Hugenia jambolana 188 Eulophia ... : 26 Kumenis enervata i 201 - — mnioszechii balucha ... eri —__—_—____——_--- paliida ... 201, 202 ——-— parisatis shiva 201 - — thelephassa 202 Eumyias albicaudata : ae 84 — thalassina thalassina ... 85, 387 Euphorbia helicscopioides 483 —— pauciradiata 483 Euploea core core 455 — — coreta coreta ... 455 vanes ADS Euthalia garuda meridionalis ... Euthalia nais Everes parrhasius Der AaSIE: Evodia malayana —- roxburghiana Excoecaria Fagaria budrunga -- rhetsa -- triphylla Felis bengalensis - caracal - chaus is [ia —-—- nebulosa ———-- pardus —- temminckii ——- tigris ——- uncia - —- viverrina Feronia elephantum ———- limonia Ficus spp. 500 Franciscea latifolia — uniflora Francolinus pondicerianus Freveria trochilus Funambulus pennanti (Sciurus) palmarum Galeodesvacilismy.s. Garrulax delesserti ea Gegenes nostrodamus karsana Gentiana ciliata Geocichla citrina citrina Geodorum Geokichla citrina Chine —— cyanotus ——- wardii Geophilus electricus —-phosphoreus ... Gesonia punctifrons Gigantochloa albociliata Gliricidia maculata Glottis glottoides euttifer nebularia Glycosmis arborea ——_—--—-- chylocarpa ——— —-- pentaphylla ... —-- triphylla Gnetum sp. -- edule Gomalia elma Aecracciata XV PaGe oi), So; 184, 455 457 315 315 285 316 316 315 245 245 245 245 245 245 245 245 245 245 320 320 286 288 288 oz 206 186 247 281 503 209 287 501 27 78 386 78 519 sky) O17 286 USS) 302 394 301 Sl7/ 317 oy, 317 286 286 458 XXV1 PAGE Gomalia elma litoralis ... 208 subfasciata 208 Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis 199 rhamni : 199 Gracula saularis 73, 384 Graucalus javensis lapara 347 ——-- macei 346 - --__- —____—__-- nipalensis ... 346, 347 —-- macei 346 Grewia microcos 286 Gunomys bengalensis 186 Gymnogramme leptophylla OS Gymnopteris subcrenata 195 = —— variabilis ... 19] ——_ ——- var. lanceolata 192 Gynacantha 463 Gynerium argenteum 66 Habenaria ae 28 —— affinis 23 ——— —— candida 22 ——_—_-——_ cerea a: aes Bik —_——-—__—_—__--- vay. polyantha (aye —————. commelinifolia 500 20 ————— crassifolia 25 ———— crinifera 20 —_——-——- dlecipiens 20 ———_ —— digitata oe 14 ee var. foliosa 15 — —-— var. gibsoni 15 ——_—- —— diphylla 25 ——-—— foliosa 15 __—_—_—— fusifera sie 23 —_———— gibsoni : 5 es, NS — ——- var. foctida. 16 ——_—_ —— glabra S50 000 a 22 ———_——— grandiflora ... We, lus) -——— —— grandifloriformis ture Wy ——— —_——--- var. ac- quiloba 18 ——_—-——- hallbergii 24 ———-—— heyneana ... ae ae 22 ——_——_——-_ jerdoniana ... 25 eae Ilneiinialia, — ... an US ———_——_ longicalcarata ae 20 a -- var, viridis 20 ———-— longicorniculata 20 ——— —— longicornu 20 —_—__——-_ marginata : 23 —____—_________ _---_- flavescens 24 a modesta 14 —_————— multicaudata 16 INDEX OF SPECIES Pace Habenaria ovalifolia ... SS. ola 23 —_ plantaginea... oo nee 20. ——--—— platyphylla... 18 ———--— rariflora iv! — + -—_-——_ ——.__ var. iaetole 17 ———-- schizochilus 20 === Heeinee! 17 SS SSMOOSNAVA, cc. 14 =. Siaveolens -~.. 19 3 SU OVO ESET aap we 5 ASIA) 14 ———_—-- uniflora AZ —— --—— variabilis Ug => WG OR 24 —__. —- ——_——_——_ var. dalzellii 24 Heematornis luteolus 380 Halophila decipiens 284 ‘ovalis seh oe w. 284 Halpe egena ceylonica... 459 Haplochilus lineatus 69 Elasoravalexis ise) rae 208 —-—- NOSIS ame Ten oo Hebomoia glaucippe australis 454 Helarctos ... : aaG 131 ——-—— annamiticus ... 132 = a eC UbySpitus ses pene - malayanus 132, 134 Helicops schistosus 3927395 Hemichelidon ferruginia 80 Hemipus picatus picatus 338 Hemitragus hylocrius ... 249 —-—— jemlahicus... 249 Herpestes auropunctatus 246 ——--—— fulvescens ... 246 ——-—— griseus 246 —_--——— mungo 246 —--—— mungo 184 ——_-—- nyula ... 246 —--— urva te 184 ———-—— smithii Feb ie wae’ ea6 ——-—— viltticollis 246 Hesperethusia crenulata 318 Hierococcyx varius 373 Hirudo birmanica 161 Hodgsonius phoenicuroides 68 Homonoia riparia 286 Horaga anyx cingalensis 458 Huphina nerissa evagete 454 Hyaena hyaena 246 -- striata i Bee teat) Hydrocissa aoa banneTS leusonacira: 505 TINDEPXO OF SPE GILES XXVii PAGE Hydrolea zeylanica ap 288 Hyelaphus (Cervus) porcinus ... 249 Hygrorhiza aristata 65 Hylobates concolor 398 -—____—__- hainanus i 397 —_ —— hoolock See oe 244, 395 —-——_——_ lar 244 —- nasutus SN) — pileatus ES 397 Hypermnestra helios ... ta: IQ -- —- - balucha san LIS Hypothymis azurea styani_... 91, 389 Hypolimnas bolina ... Re 202, 456 misippus ... se 202, 456 Hystrix spp. 247 Impatiens acaulis 309 arnottiana ... 310 — bababudenensis Sint? 6, ———_—— balsamina ... Sa Soh ols ——_—__——_—_--——__ var. brevical- carata ahi coe One —_ ——_—__——_——-- var. agrestis ... 314 ——_—_—_——_- - var. rosea 314 ——_——__—- var. Vulgaris... 314 ——--—-— beddomei 310 — chinensis 310 ————- coccinea 314 _—— cornuta 314 — cuspidata oS —————— dalzellii 312 — dasysperma... 315 —-- diversifolia 310 ———— inconspicua... 312 —_—— kleniformis ... Sie —— kleinii 311 ————_ latifolia SUS} ——-— lawii... 3112 ————— lucida 313 ———— oppositifolia 312 —— —-——- perrottetti : et Ome ———— pulcherrima a 314, 315 — pusilla aoe 312 -—————_ ——_ var. filiformis oil SS Os MOS ISSHGO I, | SL ———_—— rivalis 310 —_——_ rosmarinifolia OZ -——_———. rufescens SZ ———_—— _rupicola 310 ——_—_——- scabriuscula meee OLA ——— scapiflora ... Sim 309, 310 ———_—-——- stocksii 310 4 PaGE Impatiens talboti a ate ster OL tomentosa ... ane we ollie ee Verruicosa... san et OO Indigofera acanthinocarpa ... ee GOs Ipomeea sp. ie ae ses on ASO Iraota timoleon arsaces... i Spano Iris persica fos see is Sob Aste) Ixias marianne .., ae Ae Kp ate - pyrene frequens ... fe ai eyo -—— Satadmnay ac. AAS soe LUO IEZORANS Pere Bee See ne eh 286 Jacaranda mimoseefolia soe Maa COO —— ovalifolia ... eee or Sts) Jamides bochus bochus shi ri! by) celenoceleno ... Sas Sa Oe: Jagmarliotian GOs ~~ sa. Ea we ZOO Jonesia asoka ... os ne Berna o)s) Josephia ... ee 6 aa sie 26 Juncoshyemialis =. Bi Sic eee LO. Kaloula obscura... ane are Sree WS Karanasa acteea nana ... Bae Ses 202 Kittacincla macroura indica ... a 74 —-— malabarica malabarica 74, 385 Labeo boga sae ie an Aa 53 CAUOBISIE Gre ee eas TOO Oe fimbriatus a ae Sea OO. OF IRBINGPIEELS coc ae a aint OS) nukta a se ue Sh 53 POKCelhasman Age 5 ae 53 potail a as Pe eS ols) rohita ae es a ars a2 Lagerstroemia ... S66 eed 500 ASG) Lalage melaschista 580 ba ses. S40 SVIEESI Sa ae ee Sac eae) Lampides beeticus sas ee 206, 457 Lanius caerulescens... See Se OLS - caniceps... ae Pe fig a OOH, === Chistalus enistatus Fae oe OOF = Stlanis 7 )..: ee nes Sen) oOo ———- malabaricus ... ue ee ool -nasutus ... oe in ee OOO ——___—__-—- nigriceps sae ei OOS - nigriceps... ah Bae 259, 499 _ - nipalensis : 500 sae oe Sh - schach caniceps PPO SOy SC OMSOT, ——_——-——-——. erythronotus ... 380, 387 —_—_ —~——— _nipalensis ie 336; 337 —--—--———_——- tephronotus ... 336, 337 -tephronotus ... ste a 80 SNARUCANIEIS) oo 203 a eso Oe Larvivora brunnea vee eee Be 67 XXVili INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Larvivora wickhami 68 Lastrea calcarata 191 = CEMA sea soa ® LES!)) - filix-mas... : ia 191, 282 —_—— var. cochleata 191 ———~ sparsa 195 Leggada pahari... 187 Leptocoma asiatica ss 267 Leptosia nina nina 454 Lepus oijostolus ... 187 ruficaudatus 187 Lethe europa ragaiva 455 ——-- rohria nilgiriensis 455 Leucocirca aureola 92 susese sss Compre iroctc) Ol, 389 —- pectoralis pectoralis OZ 00 Se vernayi : oo Leucostegia immersa 19%, 3195 ——- pulchra to) AS Licuala peltata ... ses 285, 286 Limnocnida indica PMO, Pla ZS rhodesiz ... ee RO) tanganicee DD, AAS Limonia accidissima 318 ———— arborea 317 ———— crenulata 318 ———— monophylla SMU) — oligandra aes 316 ———— pentaphylla S17 — tripolia... 50 318 ——-—— trifoliata 318 Liparis : 20 J dipumllos: 25 Luisia = 636 27 Lutra lutra nair .. 185 Luvunga elentherandra 319 Lyczena caspius susanus 207 — - phleeas stygianus 206 - phoenicurus 207 - - thetis lampon 207 Lyceenesthes lyczenina Iyexsmiaa 457 Lyceenopsis puspa gisca : bie aT Lycodon aulicus ehZ, 391, 392, 393 -— striatus... 474 Lygodium flexuosum 195 Lyroderma lyra lyra 182 Macaca assamensis 182 ————- mulatta... 181 Macacus cynomolgus 244 ——— irus 244 ——_—— mulatta 244 PAGE Macacus radiata... set 244 — silenus ... 244 ~ ——— sinicus. 244 Machlolophus Semon rs aplonotus BAL Macromia muniata -460 Macropistodon plumbicolor 272 ‘Malacocercus albogularis =| ——---——— malabaricus | 373 Mangifera indica... a 354 Maniola davendra latistigma... 201 ——-——lupinus centralis 201 ———narica 201 ——-——tenuistigma 201 ——-——- waegneri... sii 197 —__—___———_——. mandane 201 Marmota (Arctomys) caudata 247 ——-— himalayana ... 186 Martes toufceus ... is 184 Mastacembelus armatus 517 Meconopsis latifolia 287 — -——-speciosa a 287 —-sp. ... soe ye co e287 Megalops cyprinoides ... 64 Melanitis leda ismene ... 455 Melastoma malabathricum 285 Melitzea didyma didyma oe ec Oe —_ ———— hodgsoni aS) - robertsi... 203, 204 trivia persea 203 -~ trivia 203 Melophus melanicterus ove ed Melursus ... aS ww, =10) —__——.- lybius ... a Swen OS ——__—___- ursinus 103, 106,.107,.247 ————--— inornatus 105, 106 Merula bourdilloni 76 - erythrotis 76 Mesogomphus lindgreni 465 Mesua ferrea 354 Michelia compacta 275 Microhyla ornata 176 Microscelis p. ganessa ... 380 Microstylis a 25 Molpastes cafer cafer 379 Monticola cinclorhyncha sae 79 — - solitaria pandoo 80, 386 Moschothera ae ee) civettina ... 445, 449 megaspila 443, 449 Motacilla calliope saith ade, —— - cinnamomea ... 343 INDEX OF SPECIES PaGE Motacilla emeria 380 ——_———-- fulicata ae TE ——-——-- sulecica 71, 383 —— - sylvatica 69, 381 Mucuna sp. 286 Murina tubinaris 183 Murraya banati ... 317 ———— chinensis 318 ———— elongata on7, ——_— exotica 505 Sul7 ——— heptaphylla 318 — keenigii 318 ——— paniculata 317 — sumatrana uly — tavoyana 318 Mus homourus 187 — musculus 247 — pahari ; 187 Muscicapa nlbieaudata BS, 84 —— albicilla 81, 386 — erythropygia 345 —_— flammea ‘is 341 ———— latirostris 85, 387 a malabarica ... 74, 385 ——_—_—— pallipes ae 82 _____—_—— parva 50 Ue teal —_—__——-_ picata 338 ——— —— pondiceriana Se) ~--__— + rosea... 342 — tuflcauda 86 -—_—--——. strophiata 81 ————— superciliaris : 387 — — thalassina ; 85, 387 Muscicapula pallipes pallies: 82 poliogenys poliogenys ... 83, 84 ———- $$ - ——- vernayi 83 aaa rubeculoides rubeculoi- Geese es 82 ae superciliaris 81 ——_ —— superciliaris 387 eee - astioma 82 _ tickellize tickellize 83, 387 Muscipata brevirostris ... 341 ——-- princeps Sar AO Muscipeta leucogaster ... 89, 389 Mustela -kathiah 185 — subhemachalana 185 Mycalesis mineus polydecta ... 455 ——_———-- perseus typhius 455 ——_——- subdita : 455 Mynospermum chylocarpum ... Sa KX1X: PAGE Myophonus coeruleus horsfieldi 80 Myotis caliginosus 182 Sicarius 182 Nacaduba dana 457 ————-- dubiosa imaies 457 ————--- nora nora 457 Nezemorhedus (Cemas) oral. 249 Naia bungarus etiey AU ——.- tripudians ... be Olay Lda -- war. ceca 273 Nectogale sikkimensis 184 Nelumbium lotus 65 ——- speciosum... 65 Nemorhadus sumatrensis 322 Neodon sikkimensis 187 Neolyczena connee 207 ———. sinensis 207 Nephrodium molle tage OIE Nephrolepis cordifolia ... 180,195 - ——- paucifrondosa 1¢0 Neptis hylas varmona .. 455 jumbah jumbah 455 Nervilia 27 Nettapus doromandelanu: 417 Nvupia fruticans ... 285 Nyctalus Jabiatus 182 Nycticebus coucang 244 Nympheea stellata 287: Oberonia ... 25 Ochotona Anata 187 Ochromela nigrorufa 87 CEcophyla smaragdina ... , 280 (Enanthe deserti atrogularis ... 382 — rufiventris ~ 70, 382 Olcyornis olivaceus me uae 84 Oligodon subgriseus eet Oe S925 393 OCphichthys boro... 276 Ophiocephalus gachua... 60 -—— leucopunctatus 60 -—_——__——- marulius 60 —_——- ——~—— micropeltis 60 —_—_—_ —_——_ pseudomarulius 60 ——__——__———. punctatus 60 ——-—— striatus... 60 Orchis commelinifolia ... 21 ———- plantaginea 18 Orchys platyphyllos ‘ Z0 Oreocincla dauma Fone Woiiensis 72 Oriens gola goloides 459 Orsotrizeena medus mandata 455 Osmunda regalis... 193 XXX PAGE Otocompsa jocosa emeria 380 Ovis burrhel 248 —— hodgsoni 187 == ViSnel 248 Pachystoma 26 Panthera pardus sanicoll ae 236 _ sindica 490 ——-——- tigris balica 233 ——— sumatrae 235 Papilio alexanor ... 198 - crino tee Ao - demoleus ao molens 198, 453 - helenus daksha... 453 - machacn centralis 198 - polymnestor polymnestor 453 - polytes romulus 453 Paraclepsis preedatrix 163 Paradoxurus eon pnrodieier 245 ~ larvatus 245 —— leucomystax 245 niger a8 245 Paramignya monophylla 319 Pararge menava... 200 -- schakra ... 201 Parashorea , 286 Pareronia ceylanica eevee 454 —————- yaleria hippia 455 Pareudiastes pacificus ... Bee 227 Parus aplonotus .. 371 ——-- major rahi aeacnin 370 ——-- malabaricus 343 ——.-- nuchalis Seal ——-- peregrinus 343, 344 ——-- sinensis on 7 Passiflora laurifolia 288 Pathysa ncomius nomius 453 Paullinia asiatica... ade si 316 Pellorneum ruficeps ruficeps ... 378 Peranema cyatheoides ... 195 Pericrocotus andamanensis i340 -- ——- brevirostris Pg oe —_ --—— - erythropygius 314, 345 —__——-——-- flammeus ... 341 —____-——_- flammifer .. 340 —_——_-——-- fraterculus ee 340 —____-—- peregrinus ceylonensis .. 344 —————— iredalei 343 —_—_——_ -——_—_——-—. malabaricus 343, 344 ——_ —— —_. ——_ —--—. pallidus 344 ——___—__——_---——_—— peregrinus 342, 344 ———_——___ —_- —__——_ vividus 342, 344 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Pericrocotus roseus roseus 342 —-———=- == SPeCiosts) .. a: 340 ————_——- — elegans 340 a semiruber 340, 341 Renistylisiee. wae 28 ——__—--- Stenostachyus 14 Petaurista nobilis 185 ——> ((JPeerounys)) imornaes 247 Petrocincla cinclorhyncha a 79 —= pandoo 80, 386 Philautus bombayensis ... 77 Phcenicura major 67 == rubeculoides sa 82 Phoenicurus ochrurus mlhceniccwoiees. 383 ——_ ——— — -—— rufiventris 70, 382 ——-~ - pheenicuroides 7. Oligo kawen. 26 Phyllornis jerdoni 309 Pieris brassicae 1199 —- canidia canis 454 ———— - —— indica 199 === CHIOMICHOS 5. 199 ——- daplidice moorei... 199 —-- glauconome 199 —-—- krueperi devta 199 ——- rapae 199 Pipistrellus babu... 182 coromandra 182 Pithecus schistaceus 182 Platacantha 463 Platanthera at 28 —-- brachyphylla 25) —--—— heyneana ... 22 Platycerium grande 286 Platyrhynchus ceylonensis as 87 Pleopeltis linearis 192, 195 ——--——- membranacea 192 Poephagus (Bos) grunniens 248 Polyarthia fragrans 354 Polycanthagyna ... seen 463 Polyodontophis collaris.., ; 2, 393) — — subpunctatus ... 392 Polyommatus bogra 205 ——-——— christophi pranteata 204 —_—— ~~~ - cyllarus aeruginosa 205 ——_—_--——- eros balucha 206 ——--______ — ——- shingara 206. ——___--———-— hyrcana kwaja ... 205 — icarus figitiva 205 ——- iris hanna 205 —_——-- loewil chamanica 205 XXxi INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE PAGE Polyommatus pylaon indica 204 | Rattus flavipectus tiste... 187 ——~ —-—— sieversi felicia ... 205 fulvescens... 186 —— —- vicrama astabene 204 nitidus 186 Pomatorhinus horsfieldii B78 norwegicus 247 - - travancoreensis... 376 | ———rattus 247 Porpax Sat 26 ——————— ciel mensia 186 Pothos scandens ... 286 | Ratufa gigantea gigantea 185 Pratincola atrata... : 70 | = indica 247 --—— indica... Oy Seva |) Nera, Comorevenels} a5. fee SY Precis almana almana ... .. 456 | Rhacophorus maculatus 168, 172 ——-- hierta hierta 202, 456 ——-—— malabaricus 169 ——-- iphita pluviatilis... 456 maximus .. 169 ——-- lemonias vaisya .. ... 456) Rhaphidophora pertusa PAE OO —— orythyia swinhcei 202, 456 | Rhinoceros sondaicus 248, 322 Primula cernua .. 2387 | -———---—- Sumatranus... 248 Prionodon mactlosus 245 | ————--—- sumatrensis 322 -——- pardicolor ... 184 lf Beare unicornis 248 Prochilus ... 101 | Rhinolophus rouxi 245 Pseudois nahoor ... 248 | Rhizomys badius... ee ey Pseudoxenodon macrops 392 | Rhizhophora oes 1200 Pteris acquilina ... 190 | Rhodonessa Pav opnglleces 417 === [AES 191 | Rhynchcstylis Dol -—— nemoralis. ... 191 | Rucervus eldii ce as 250 —-~—— pellucida 195 | ——-——: (Cervus) duvaucelli... 249 —- quadriaurita its 190 | Rupia rostellata ... 284 var. setigera 190 | Rusa (Cervus) unicolor... 249 Pteropus giganteus 244 | Russelia juncea ... 267 — medius ... 244 | Saccolabium 27 Punica granatum : ns 282 | Salpornis spilonotus epilonctle 380 Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus ... ... 380 | Salvia patens 288 Python molurus ... ECU ZA/Aeaol Sie Sabaca: tiGica ws a... Abe 353 sebae 471 | Sarangesa sati hopkinsi... 458 Ramanella montana 178 | Sarcanthus 27 Rana breviceps ane Pa aliGry, | Sarcochilus ee D7 ——- cyanophlictis el55s lols O15) = Sarkidiornis Pero tae. 416 —- hexadactyla 514 | Saxicola atrogularis 382 ——- leithii 167 | ——-——~- caprata atrata 69, 70 —- limnocharis 166 | ———-—— - bicolor 69, 380 ——- malabarica 168 | ——— ——- burmanica... 69, 381 ——- rufescens .. 167 | ————- nigrorufa : 87 ——~ tigrina S258 ——- torquata indica 70, 382 Randia, sp. ... 286 | Saxicoloides fiulicata fulicata ... sas ne -—- uliginosa 267, 268 | -———--—-—-———_—_ intermedia 73, 384 Rapala melampus 458 | Schizotoma ensifolia 195 - schistacea 458 | Sciuropterus pearsonii ... 185 - varuna lazulina... 458 | Scopolia acnleata 316 Rasbora buchanani 54 | Scolopax erythropus 298 ——-—— daniconius 54 | —— - nebularia : 301 ——_—— rasbora... 54 | ——-——-- totanus 293, 294 Rathinda amor ... 458 | Selenarctos leuconyx ae 114, 121 Rattus eha... 187 - melli so tS Nae TO) xxxii PAGE Selenarctos thibetanus ... 239 a ———_——--—- formosanus 114; 2a, 29; 130 —__—____—_—_—..-- gedrosianus 116, 118 —_—-—__- —_—_-——_- japonicus. 125, 127, 129 -~laniger. 115, 118, 119 -———— -—__-___-—- mupinensis ie Ts thibotanis: 106; 107; 109, 111, 1127 11s, 119; 121, 123 -_—_ —_____ - —— ussuricus Wk 28) —. —-—-- wulsini lio Simotes arnensis Deli op 302, 398 ~-- teeniatus 392 -- violaceus oe nt OZ Sitta castanea castanea one ——- frontalis frontalis io OU Siphia parva albicilla 600 81, 386 —___—___——_- hyperythra be aa 81 ——_—_—__ -_ parva See 80 styani 91, 389 Solenophorus Hie cacaphales 513 Sonneratia acida 285 Soriculus caudatus 183 ——-——- nigrescens 183 Spalgis epius epius 456 Spindasis elima elima ... one oes = 457 —_—_—_—-- ictis.ictis 457 ————- lohita pazularia se: we 458 ————.- schistacea 457 ————-- vulcanus vulcanus ... w. 457 Spiranthes ites ae 7 Sees OW, Stereospermum .. 286 Sterculia : 286 — villosa... 285 Streblus-asper. ... 286 Strobilanthes sp. 286 Strymon sassanides 207 Suastus gremius gremius 459 Stncus ceruleus giganteus 183 ———- soccatus 183 Sus andamanensis 250 Sylvia cambaiensis N36 ae ae 73 Syntarucus plinius ue ASG syrichtus evanidus 1973208 —— galba 458 —_——. geron Ane 208 —--——— orbifer carnea ... 208 -- plurimacula 208 -----—. poggei 208 Tadorna tadorna 419 INDEX. OF SPECIES PAGE Teenia saginata 283". Tajuria cippus cippts ... 458 —- jehana ae 458 Talicada nyseus nyseus 456 Talpa micrura dee 183° Tamiops macclellandi ... 186 Taoaeschna frontalis S5n AGS Tapirus indicus ne 248, 322 Taractrocera moevius sagara ... 459 Tarsiger brunnea brunnea fd 67 Tarucus mediterranee ... Sen wwe 20H -—-—-- nara 456 ———-- nigra 204° —-- theophrastus oe 204 Tchitrea affinis a an 30 —— -—— paradisi lensooueters : 88, 89, 90, 389, 498 — —_—-~- — nicobarica 89, 90, 499 —_ ——.—_—— _ paradisi. 88, 89, 90, 389, 498, 499 Tecophilea cyanocrocus 287 Telchinia viol 456 Tephrodornis gularis ... & 339 -- = — fonentene 339° EEE pelvicus 1 SOS) —__——_ — sylvicola Soper see) ——_——_—_——-- pondicerianus affinis ... 339 a _ —__—_ —-- pondice- Tianus= <2. 339 —-_—_-—— sylvicola 338 Terias blanda silhetana sexe 404 ——-- hecabe IG ASS ——_-~—_—_——. simulata 454 —— laeta laeta 454 ——w— libythea 454 Terpsiphone nicobarica 89 Tetracanthagyna ls 463 —— waterhousei: 461 Tetracerus quadricornis 249 Thunia 50 26 Timalia oer ee, 376 ———- malcolmi 375 Tinnunculus inglisi 990 509 Toddalia aculeata 316 ——_——-- asiatica 316 ——----—- bilocularis: 316 ——- floribunda 316 Toluifera cochinchinensis 317 Tomares callimachus 206 Tomeutes lokroides 186 Totanus calidris “294, 297 INDEX OF SPECIES XXxili PAGE PAGE Totanus fuscus me pal .. 298 | Turdus simillimus bourdilloni. 739,95), 77 - - glareola a ae ie 0 i niisi a sis 7S) --- glottis ae x .. 301 | ————-——- mahrattensis. 76,77, 385 ~- guttifer wh fe .. 3804 | ————-—'simillimus ... 20h ,276 - hypoleucos ... hypoleucos ae see a 7 | -—--tibetanus ... oe uy PUT 247 - ochrophus oe ee ee le?) = = tonguatis -... wee SEDI 16,2238 7247 -—-— — stagnatilis et 455 ses 5) —- —— formosanus eee aia) p=. fofanus ae aie 2. = 293 | —-- ————. macneilli as ae .-__—___—_—-— terrignotee sony Cob, ZH ——-—— _ var. arboreus oe ES —__—_—__———_ totanus Sok so CRE Wewaloles 5 ae ta ae 27 Triphasia aurantiola... ae i StS) | Vanessa nialanea. as a hen DOS EOI a tie sos OS |) ——— == Carel ae ae 202, 456 Trochus niloticus ae So iis 95 | ——-—— egea balucha Bt mee 2203 Tropidia Se ech Be 27 | ————:——_ --album ee eae 203 Tropindonotus Teese se soe ORB a INC 500 oq) ADS ———— — parallelus 208 sop OB) SS TCI 3 : noo. = 408) See CaO, WGN, G2, 272, S22, |) === -SevaloO weal foreseen soe 08} 393, 472 | Varanus bengalensis Be yen 209 —— ——_——— platyceps ae soo || = ESTES 500 550 Gases 270) —__———.— stolatus. 162, 272, 392, 393, | ———— monitor ed was 269, 270 471, 472 | Vepris bilocularis Sco sae sco BIG —. —— ———. subminiatus ... 392, 393 | Vipera russellii he. ie CH 2s Tros aristolochize ube si ... 198 | Virachola isocrates He Sih Ln Oo —-— —- aristolochic wea AOS —— perse ghela ae pace -408 — hector aoe ee: ee A 5S NatISe Sp) ae ee re ete 280 Tupaia belangeri pcan dob Pe SO iVerha ashton ae ...427, 428, 437 ——-—- tana ane ol mai pe DAA - civetta matschiei awe Ape eta 249) Turbo marmoratus tis Bee 95 | ——— — orientalis ba ae AZO ‘Turdoides striatus oelieen ane a 374 - civettina sir se 439, 445 ——- - malabaricus 370, 373 - civettoides ane iis 429, 432 Turdus cafer aay Se Soo OS) - filchneri ae as mee AO ———- citrinus Le ae bis 78 | ———-malaccensis ... ser 245, 434 ———- cyanotus se ae 79, 386 | ———-- megaspila oes oes owe 443 ——- merula ie ee aie 75 - melanurus sae ate 428, 429 ———- nigropileus aa ue 75, 385 — orientalis bie sie 428, 429 XXXIV INDEX OF SPECIES PaGE Viverra tangalunga HS ae SO TASS —_—_—_—_ -——- lankavensis eee aS -— undulata ee os 428, 429 -zibetha 245, 426, 427, 428, 438, 446 —— —— ashtoni on sons ti —_—— —__——_ filchneri ee Wine LIT —___—__-—— picta 432, 437, 438 —_____—— pruinosa 434, 437, 438 ——__—_—_-—— sigillata ne 434, 436 —_-——_—-——_ surdaster ... 433, 437, 438 ——— ——-—— zibetha 184, 428, 436, 437 Viverricula indica indica ie .. 446 Volvocivora melaschistos a; wee OAD Vulpes alopex Sc ate ag CLO - leucopus ae aa a CLO ————- vulpes nes Pee DOA Wailago attu aus oo aoe ae 58 Woodfordia floribunda sols se OO, Xanthoxylum roxburghianum Ener SIS) Xylophis perroteti Ses 560 OH Oe Ypthima asterope mahratta ... 202, 455 ————- baldus madrasa ae vei PASS ———— bolanica ar ie Nene, 2, PAGE Ypthima hubneri hubneri _... we AAD Yungipicus scintilliceps kurode Baten 44C Zalacca wallichiana ste ae BA BANS Zamenis diadema on Sos Pes, SS —— fasciolatus Mise 3 Sem gee ac ——-—— gracilis Be iat Pree 41/3 ———— korros ne ee OO —— mucosus he LG?) 2125 82, SSS Zanthoxylum budrunga ety ee eS) - ovalifolium a tt eos) - (SUSE P< bec ase et J ONO Zesius chrysomallus ... oa os MEA OS Zetides agamemnon menides gases) Zeuxine as a ee mie 27 Zizania acquatica on Re a 66 Zizera gaika san 58h ae om =A od -— lysimon me sth 206, 457 - maha maha _... 6b0 BR wl vA Se ossa ee se oe ow, - otis decreta suis ee sate oy — trochilus putli ... ae dno k7/ Zizyphus cenoplia ee eer Shh AW) Zosterops palpebrosa ... nae nO ——-—— ceylonensis ... Aes Jano aon al PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS, 1933--C8741 i VOL. XXXVI, No. 1. f Publication, 15th “November 1982. ~ a5 i For terms: of : He ‘onorary S ‘ecretary’. s Address : _Bomeay NATURAL History SOCIETY, a : 6, Apollo Street, Bombay. LON DON AGENTS: | ‘DULAU & Co., Ltd., 2B. old Bond Street, w. i 5 at NS ace” BAP Birds a ae $ = 7 Ie 2 Game Birds of India, Vol. 1. nates Duels and their Allies), 2nd ‘Edition. es se : Rs. 50. eke (Price to Members Rs. 35). - - Game Birds of India, Vol. HU. (Woodeoek, ‘Snipe, Bustards| and Sandgrouse), Ist Edition. - Rs. 42. (Price to Members Rs. 30). Game Birds of India, Vol. TU. Pheasants, Ist Edition. Rs. 28. ye (Price to Members Rs. 7). Indian Pigeons and Doves with coloured illustrations, by BE. C. Stuart BAKER, O.B.E., M:B-0-U., ees Rs. 37-8. (Price to Members fs. 30). Set of Game Bird Plates (30), Vol. 1. Rs. 20. S ( Price to Members Rs. 13). Cag He Set of Game Bird is (19), Vol. il. } Rs. 13- 8. _ (Price to Members Rs. 10). Bird-Life in India, by Capt. R. ae Bates, M.B.O.U. Illustrated. Rs. 9. (Price to Members Rs. 6-12). ‘Connon fadian Birds, iilust ations in -olke of 210 Common Birds of Indian Plains, arranged in a.set of 5 Charts. a 45. ees to Members Rs. he Sidkes: 2 S Identification of Poisonous Snakes— Be AS K Ses Hanging Wall Chart, 30x40”. + | ; ca Re Se . Folding Pocket Chart. - Rs. 1-12. Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette, by S. ie PRATER, Ci M. Las S. Re. 1. Miscellaneous. Identification of Indian Butrettlves: by BRIGADIER W. Ee “Evans, OSs; C.LE., D.S.O., 2nd edition, illustrated. Rs. 15. ( Price i iMownbees Rs. 10). Atay Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal: oa a: ‘ Rs. 2-8. A fee ‘of ‘Indian Butterflies, by Coit. W. vee EVANS! Houa hy Rs. 2. ‘Wood-Destroying White Ants of the Bombay Presidency, by JOSEPH : AssMUTH, S.J. - Re, a. = Back Numbers of the Journal Back numbers of the Society’s foorpal: Rates on application. TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP. Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and a Life Membership fee of Rs. 350. Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of fs 10 and an annual subscription of Rs. 25. The subscription of members elected in October, NoveREan and Decent: covers the period from the date of their election up till the ae of the following year. MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA. The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the . amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-0 to the Society Ha Bombay on the lst January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. ras ou), a "CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI, No. 1. Tue Game Birps oF THE InpIAN Emerre. By EH. C. Stuart Baker, Cah Cancer EN Che NeBPOLU. sae HHA O.Us marie x VEE (Wath =a coloured: JOG) > Tobbeankorsondoascnangeoobc6c sd aceadoaoseeseenscEence ss puncaumrc REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE Bompay Presipency. By H. Blatter, s.J., DISD Maman ae een exerrla ie NOON mre (VV UC =: DUG UES)! reiciacls scvole ss ars sisialojesieinfores ete sla ee ae GaME FisHeS OF BomBay, THE DECCAN AND THE NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS oF THE Bompay PRESIDENCY. By Sir Reginald Spence, kt., M.L.C., 2S 9 ToRa5 @iael Whe US. Jak, Ie eIrS Wiclbe@en CM iayoSone eelela Aral 1Q)” fOlGbEGs)) 0 ond Sacnbdeb Sct pas enb Soom ANB ae Goun pednepes see Hod boed cH Gora eciccaanconcHie ic ‘aE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY oF THE HasTeRN GuHats. By H. Whistler, MEE OnURmascisicda bye Neb. Manneéar, M.B.0-U. Part WE J 22.5....<. THE ANDAMAN SHELL FISHERY. IBS tee IBS SGuiaels WS@s, 121110); (With OME NOUS) em Re OAT 2 rostrata nahn GR Oe Sa siieve ts siaieis ote aie'r safe Stoo dtichors ootease ie arsigl se THE BuLAcK AND Brown Bears oF HuRopE anD AsiA. By R. I. Pocock, Wass leew JUL, (Woe 2 jones: Cree NA aye eo UOOHEES.)). es tepnosesansonece. Some Berautirun Inpian TREES. leony Jah, Ilan, Sdieg” Wei), Toes eave! W. 5. Millard, r.z.s. Part X. (With 1 coloured plate, 1 black-and- > CTC DUC CeO CCE [UNUTCS crater atune atti Sy ace setnne a sn.ctetneeeaseeuuee cut te InDIAN Draconrites. By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, 1.M.s., F.z.8. Part XL. GAC mr RMU CHUUGIINC Si) mmm ernn cs). aini ecu Saletan wavetiie Vanceees weumie wage nanmren creer Nores on InpiAn Batracuians. By C. McCann, F.u.s. (With 10 plates OG) 5. WORT LODO o)) = Poe Scio OSE SO BE IOC OE aR CET Dacian oc ne ee ORGS Oe MAMMALS OF THE SuYDAM CUTTING Sikkim Exprepition. By C. C. Sanborn. Toe Hor-WeatHer Ferns oF MAHABLESHWAR. By R. B. Ewbank, 6.1.z., To@siSoty PSR ae SOME a aoe klar oa IB ee eA eee nary ee Ra arte RR a THe Burrerruirs oF Batucuistan. By Brigadier-General W. H. Hvans, GaSicllin ACpllesis3 WSaOs peat Halse Chass A ae AAAI Siegel Gea DT Sy) ine a Degas wacmare unter EURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE [*RESHWATER Mrpusa, Limnocnida indica. By H. Srinivasa Rao, M.A., D.sc. (With a plate and a text-figure.) HARTH-HATING AND Saut-Lickine in [np1aA. By J. F. Caius, s.J., F.L.s., hia leap omer een ne GU Clin aye MBA MEME S@ad eer mo), icuns wolastc. cu ovasech tate ata cetlodeek + « (QUBRTUIATENC 5: IN 1B} NTE SiS 5G OE Seen p SBOE He Nate Sea ann NA Nearer aN or ret eet Manni ore a ANTS] ANID IDTBVNTEN © AITO) = GENIN GITIGTIOL IS} Stree A REVIEWS :— AND OS Mee NOs Ty LED GO) HOH SOA MOA; Yilicscsharclees este nsdeaslecsascceacnieterenaes EAN DHS ORMUIEY SOMRD Ge OH: HYAGTERING CGEUENAG sonccses dcdeetnodsec cael ce raes MV ELE meee MUNN ipae Oem VEN GIR AMUN OiNic.l tasers acinarctalssiteeas sa ualded ited ines cece vaniiebe Sede hls SUZ ee AND Ree ORIMMETING seIANITG : lye teccstidratoaseanseact sees Lane Sac naar Siempre EXC OKABE Sy AUN EH? MRIOINE Bosca saagnceiet omic ecdisig sein csje sebé simalas acslce.siebeeet van « PAGE 210 retro il | CONMMEGIES: Cle Vole 2OO VIL, No. I PAGE MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I.—The Balinese Tiger—Panthera tigris balica (Schwarz). By SEN) ds VE SOU Peete ce eee: Lualoseeencaneaeee tar Api oaveee haa tc Slee 233 II.—Remarkable behaviour of a Tigress. By V. S. La Personne, I1I.—The Skin of a Persian Panther (Panthera pardus saaicolor). By ARE, SPOCOCs ARRAS se a rae tee aca vedic iaa alice eee aoe ee 236 IV Black: sheopands eye iat Mh RI ey care natn an ay che eenae 236 V.—A Carnivorous Bear. By Madansinh of Kutch. ........ is 238 VE Wilds Docs kallinesbyaNiehiea By. te Carlisle «Coll Reems e239 VIIl.—Wild Dogs Hunting and Killing by Night. By Vv. S. Ia PersOnne, ge Pia aiias ocivs ne eecuan dea co eaulsete cei game 240 VIII.—Carcases of Animals dying of rinderpest avoided by Jackals and other Carnivora. By BR. ©. Morris, B.g-8. .)......:0-s 242 TX.—Death of an Elephant from Rabies. By J. Beckett. ............ 242 X.—Sounds made by Gaur or Indian Bison (Bibos gaurus). By BR VES SP AGS yi ee See 0h lis clare are ieee ets Oma lee ane 243 XI.—The duration of life of some Indian Mammals. By C. Dover. 244 XII.—The duration of life of some Indian Mammals. Tigers. By Ry On nies Ye Soe eos oe et eee ae eg ee 250 XI1I.—Record of Big Game Shot in the A Area 1905-1931. By Bie C2 IVEOEPIB, OR ERUS ees average sles anne ee ee 252 XIV.—Small Bore Rifles and Big Game. By Capt. L. D: W. Hearsey 254 XV.—Game Reserves and Flashlight. By F. W. Champion, 1.7.s 255 XVI.—The Penduline Tit (Remiz coronatus Severtzoft) in the Punjab. By Hy Wi Waites 52% Sonu aien coast tocne ene en tcsen cn emma ce eis Zoi) XVII.—Notes on some Ceylon Birds. By F. N. Betts. .............:....... Zo) XVIII.—The Status of the Indian Black-headed Shrike (Lanius nigriceps, Frank) in Lower Bengal. By 8. C. Law, ph.p., FZ Ss MBs OW Bo ine cence eas aes Bee ee DO Cee epee eee 259 XIX.—Occurrence of the White-throated Babbler (Argya gularis, Blyth) in Lower Burma. By J. K. Stanford, 1.c.s. <.:... 262 XX.—A Note on the Buntings of Burma. By J. K. Stanford, 1.0.8. 263 XXI.—The Short-eared Owl (Asio f. flammeus) in Burma. By J. K. Stamford esi vO ioe taeda a aie clarence sae aa ee Si Lea ere 265 XXII.—The Occurrence of the Lesser Kestrel (Cerchneis naumannt) Pavel JeGnven (GUNG, en counmnetin) inay leyubeney env JJ, IC Te WeUKO1G6 PRR te GP ation Mt oI EPL e dee sera ARG AMAT oOnbooum Caos 265 XXII1.—Distribution of the Hastern Grey Duck (Anas p. zonoryncha). By ds S@.. Hen gigtn soe aC AS ai La Napa cts smmuirde oe cio Ue oem ontop cea 266 XXIV.—Flower-Birds and Bird-Flowers. By H. G. Champion, 1.F.s. 267 XXV.—A Case of Twin-embryos in the Egg of a Domestic Fowl. By Bro N 2 siunhtarn (Wit hea@ LOGE Ge.) Mennc ance ecncassacaesecees 268 XX V1—Notes “on “Monitor Tizands) Sy Hie As Abreu name seeenecee 269 CONT EINES Ol = Violm XXXVI Now 7 1] PAGE XXVII.—The Family of a Russell’s Viper, Vipera russellii, or Chain WASTES IBY AC UE\ Ej LEN iain Syren )oee 613i Cadets ol Ase ABR NAC BAE: 271 XXVIII.—Snakes in Ahmednagar. By Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, I.M.s. 272 XXIX.—Cases of Snake Bite. By Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, I.m.s. ... 274 XXX, —A Fish Pest of Fields along the Coromandel Coast [Ophichthys GoTo ee By iV. Pevnkechna Ayyar. (With a plate.) 276 XXXI.—The Food Supply of Trout in the Nilgiris. By Major EH. G. JPlORTP ANE Oa/s Cl NINS 5 1a/AcSo =). “Soeanponeccesoo0s0bp Buadaobonocb onodce cbddeBe 278 XXXII.—Methods of dealing with Plagues of Ants. LHditors. ............ 279 XXXIII.—Behaviour of the Red Tree Ant (Gicophyla smaragdina). By She ele ra veiw Min Cup eaCiMn Za Sir diner un. want. Aceieesnol denen ase 280 XXXIV.—A Scorpion (Buthus) feeding on a Galeod Spider (Galeodes CO UaS) eam yee Cra MECC ac Moyet tte wardesceh sansnoeassucssstes cece 281 SQOOV SA Cuma ioe Aeyoe orn, = IBy7 (C5 Wile Calan, aneitatsls Gosondnosecodosoosode 282 XXXVI.—Some Seagrasses from the Presidency of Bombay. By §8. C. TD HISGAR 2 UTS (O Soa aS Rey oe WA rn a a 284 XXXVII.—Ghimpses of the Vegetation of South Burma. By K. Biswas, Nie Ate a CHIAUE eemonae DUGUCS Mn « ciaueinue nist ateae enn ori s scans hiked huts 285 XXXVIII.—Scent in Relation to Flower-colour. By T. C. N. Singh. XXXIX.—Vernacular Names. By Brigadier-General R. G. Burton. EAS ® OVEN) TENG, eae ein tiiten ae rae ey ee cee, Moher Meme hh pai une i oO gen Mele aba INP ea 290, ada a} he f} vy A Journ. Bomaay Nar. Hist. Soc. Meine is JOHN BALE SONS & DANIELSSON, L™ LONDON 4 SANDPIPER GREEN *, SANDPIPER Woop SANDPIPER 4 MARSH Tringa ochrophus. Tringa glareola. Tringa stagnatilis JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. NovEMBER 1982. WO SOO Nat, INO, il. THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. BY eC a OTUNRT aby AKHE, O-1, bo Ee7.9-) iS. oM.B.O.U., H.F.A.0.U. Vorsuve THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS. Part XVIII. (With a coloured plate). , (Continued from page 721 of Volume XXXV). FAMILY: SCOLOPACIDA. Genus: Ilranga. Tringa.—lLinn., Syst. Nat., 10th. ed., i. p- 148 (1758). Type by desig.—Tringa ochrophus Linn. Blanford included in this genus, which he called Totanus instead of Tringa, eight species of Sandpiper, but these have been separated by other systematists until practically every species has been relegated at one time or another to a genus of its own. This system seems to defeat the very purpose of classification which has created the term genus for a group of species which are nearer to one another than to others which should be placed in other groups. Occasionally a single species may be so aberrant as to deserve recognition by generic separation but this should be exceptional. In the present instance the only birds I separate are the two large Amstrong’s Sandpipers:—Birds with upturned bills and with large webs between the outer and middle toe and practi- cally none between the middle and inner—and the Greenshank, which I include in the genus Glottis, now generally recognised, though possibly without sufficient reason. In the genus Tringa the bill is long, slender and straight; both mandibles are grooved, the oval nostril being placed near “the base of the bill; the tip of the upper mandible is hard and bent down; the tarsus is about the same in length as the culmen or slightly longer or shorter; it is scutellated in front and behind; the hind toe is present; the outer toe is joined to the middle by a web and 9 FOUN, ISONUBA INAEULRAIL, IeuICa, SOCMBNY, Wol, OO the inner and middle have a smaller web between them, sometimes almost obsolete. There is little difference between the breeding and non-breeding plumage, except in Tringa erythropus (fuscus auct.) which has a very dark breeding dress. As restricted in this work, the genus T7inga contains six Indian species; outside our area it is practically cosmopolitan. Key to Species. A. Legs olive-green or yellowish-green, never red. a. Intermediate in size, wing from 1380 to 150 mm. a’. Lower back brown: tarsus a little shorter than culmen ... 7. ochrophus, p. 2151. b’. Lower back white: tarsus a little longer than culmen soo EL, SUMGNOIS, TD. ALG, b. Smallest in size; wing from 93 to 128 mm. GC. NO wihaie om mum) ... soo LL, (oypollewCoS, Do ALT. d’. Rump white ot ooo, LE GhOreOlG, ~— [D. AY, B. Legs red. Largest in size: | ce. Outer secondaries all white ace Ll LOULMUS, (De alle d. Outer secondaries barred brown and white ne Te LEC TU TOPUS eee a a. TRINGA OCHROPHUS. The Green Sandpiper. Tringa ochrophus.—Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th. ed., i, p. 149 (1758) (Sweden); Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, vi, p. 215 (1929). Totanus ochropus.—Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 262. Vernacular Names.—Nelia ulanka (Tel.). Description: Breeding plumage.—Upper part and sides of head, back and sides of neck brown, each feather edged with white; mantle brown with a bronze-green gloss, spotted with white, some of the scapulars with blackish-marks between the white spots; lower back and rump blackish-brown with narrow white fringes; upper tail-coverts white; tail with the concealed base white, the rest barred black and white; innermost wing-coverts and secon- daries hke the back; other coverts brown with the same gloss as the back; remaining wing-quills dark brown; chin, throat and whole underparts white, the fore-neck, breast and flanks streaked and barred with dark brown. Colours of soft parts.—Inis brown; bill dull greenish, black at the tip; legs and feet dull greenish-brown or olive-green. Measurements.—Wing, ¢ 185 to 150 mm., Q 141 to 154 mm.; tail 54 to 60 mm.: tarsus 32 to 383 mm.: culmen 33 to 36 mm. In Winter the head and hind-neck are uniform brown, some- times with a greyish tinge; the spots on the back are smaller and "The page numbers to the Fauna of British India, second edition. THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE Cs very inconspicuous whilst, generally, the upper head is more erey-brown with less developed streaks. . Young birds in the first moult have narrow bronze margins to the feathers of the upper parts; the bands on the base of the tail are narrower and the terminal band broader. Nestling.—Above deep cinnamon-pink, crown and a line from the bill black, the crown mottled with cinnamon; a black dorsal line from nape to tail-tuft; two lateral black bands on. each side of this; a second lateral black lne across the wings and from these all round the uropygium; upper breast cinnaminon; remaining underparts white. Distribution.—Throughout Northern Europe and Asia in the breeding season and migrating south in Winter to Africa, India, China, the Indo-Chinese countries and Malaya. ! Nidification.—The Green Sandpiper breeds in the southern portions of the Baltic States and in northern Germany from the end of April to May, whilst in the extreme northern portions of its range eggs may be found from early June to early July. This little Sandpiper has the habit of depositing its eggs in the nests ol other birds, generally those of the Redwing or Fieldfare of the previous year. Among the first to obtain its eges was Herr Passler, who recorded the fact in “Normannia’ for 1851. At the time he believed the egg to be that of the Wood-Sandpiper, cor- recting his mistake in the following year, 1852. Prior to this, however, eggs had been taken by a forester in 1845 and given to Herr Wiess, who refused to believe in their authenticity. In 1846, however, he himself found a nest, presumably that of a thrush, with four eggs of this Sandpiper, in a pine tree some 25 or 80 feet from the ground. In 1856 other eggs were taken by Dr. Altum and in “Normannia’ for that year is a paper by a forester, Hintz, describing the taking of still other eges and adding that he had already found this bird breeding in old nests of the Song Thrush. This paper referred to Western Pomerania. In the Ibis for ’59 a further record of this bird’s breeding was given. Since then a great many eggs have been taken and these nearly always from nests but there are one or two records of the bird breeding on the eround in grass or marsh land in a manner very similar to that of the Wood-Sandpiper. As already stated, the nest generally selected is .one of some species of thrush, probably more often a fieldfare than any other, but Wheelwright in his ‘Ten Years in Sweden’ says that they sometimes lay in a deserted nest of a squirrel, jay, or crow and, sometimes, in new thrushes’ nests, the proper owners having been driven away. The site selected is often one at a considerable distance from water, occasionally indeed, far away even from swamp or marsh land. The nest selected may be anything from 10 to 20 feet from the ground; on the other hand there are records of its eggs having been taken from nests as high as 40 feet up. They are said invariably to select nests in fir-trees but there are certainly exceptions to. this rule, for I have myself records of eggs taken from a redwing’s nest placed quite low down in a birch-tree, and of another set of eges taken from a broken down brambling’s nest placed. in a birch -about NEC 20 1932 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,+Vol. XXXVI 8 feet from the ground. This is the only record, however, of a brambling’s nest being used and such a choice must be most exceptional. : The hen bird is said to sit very close, but to slip quietly off the nest when disturbed, slinking away amongst the trees so that it is not always easy to spot her. If suddenly surprised, however, she will sometimes get off the nest and fly straight into the air, where, after mounting to a good height, she twists and turns rapidly, much like the Broad-billed Sandpiper. The cock bird, which probably also shares in the duties of incubation—at all events during the night—has a very sweet little trilling lovesong, accompanied by a quick dipping flight as the bird moves round in circles. Occasionally, however, he will sing to his mate perched on « bare twig at the extreme top of some tree in the vicinity of the nest. The eggs are, as one would expect, always four in number. The ground colour varies between pale-vellowish or greenish-stone, and a rather more deep yellowish-buff. The primary markings generally consist of rather small specks and spots of a dark reddish-brown, occasionally interspersed with others of a rather lighter hue. The secondary markings are tiny spots of lavender or neutral tint. Compared with most Waders’ eggs they are pale and poorly marked, it being very exceptional to find an egg in which the markings are of any size or richness in colour, though one set in the Wolley Collection in Cambridge, is almost as handsomely marked as eggs of the Marsh-Sandpiper. A hundred eges average 389.0x 27.9 mm., maxima 42.0x28.0 mm. - and Al) 30.3 mm... minima 34.6 >26.0) mm and)-34,8><25.5 mma, The period for incubation is supposed to be 18 days but there is very little information on this point. Habits.—This little Sandpiper is one of our most common winter visitors over the whole of northern India and Burma, though as it wanders south it becomes less numerous. It has, however, been recorded from Ceylon and from south of the Malay Feninsula. It is also one of our earliest arrivals, as I have per- sonal records of its appearance in Assam on the 10th., 12th., and 13th. of August, when it was observed feeding in some numbers in marshes in the Brahmapootra Valley in the district of Dibrugarh. In the’ Surrma Valley, to the south of Assam, it arrives at about the same time; my earliest record being the 6th. of August, when a pair was seen feeding on the edge of a small stream in North Cachar. When the birds first appear in India they may be seen in comparatively large flocks, sometimes as many as fifty or sixty: these seem, however, to break up immedi- ately and the birds disperse at once in small parties of half a dozen or so, or in pairs or singly. | It is a very quick, active little bird, running rapidly here and there after the insects upon which it principally feeds, or probing in the shallow mud for tiny crustacea and small worms. One summer we noticed them on a lotus-covered swamp, feeding on the tiny httle water snails which were to be found on the lily leaves in great numbers. One bird which I shot contained nothing but a mass of these water snails. Walking on the lily leaves, THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE i their actions seemed to be much more deliberate than when they were running about on the shore, probably because they had to search carefully for the tiny snails which were generally hidden in the rim of the leaves. ie When not tired, it is a shy little bird and does not often allow a very close approach, but takes to flight, mounting quickly into the an’, twisting and turning as it mounts, and then flying directly away at great speed. In India the only note that will be heard is a musical little whistle of three syllables, sounding like ‘Twi, twi, twi’. The Green Sandpiper can hardly claim to be ealled a sporting bird. At the same time its flesh is by no means to be despised. TRINGA STAGNATILIS. The Marsh-Sandpiper. Totanus stagnatilis.—Bechstein, Orn. Tasch., 2, p. 292 (1803) (Germany); Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 263. Tringa stagnatilis.—Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, vol. Wily [Do UUG (ULEPAS)). Vernacular Names.—Chota Gotra (Beng.). Description: Breeding plumage.—Lores whitish; upper part. of the head, neck and upper back sandy-grey, becoming a little browne: on the inner secondaries and inner wing-coverts; head and neck streaked with black, the streaks becoming broader on the mantle and changing to broken bars on the scapulars and inner secondaries, the longest of which have ‘herring-bone’ markings of black; lower back and rump white; tail pale-brown, greyer at the base, with narrow bars of blackish, then decreasing outwardly until the outermost feathers merely have two narrow longitudinal lines ef dark brown; primaries and outer secondaries dark brown, the latter tinged with grey and both with the inner web speckled with white and brown on two-thirds of their length; primary coverts and edge of wing black; median and secondary coverts brown-grey, narrowly edged with white; lower plumage white, the sides of the neck and head, fore-neck, breast and flanks spotted with black, the spots becoming bars on the sides of the lower breast and the flanks. Colours of soft parts.—Iris brown; bill dark horny-brown to blackish, the base of the lower mandible paler and greenish; legs and feet dull sage-green, olive-green or bluish-green. Measurements.—Wing, 3 131 to 1388 mm., 9 133 to 143 mm.; tail 56 to 66 mm.; tarsus 48 to 58 mm.; culmen, ¢ 36 to 89 mm., 3 40 to 45 mm. The supposed form horsfieldi is not any smaller than typical glareola and cannot possibly be separated. In Non-breeding plumage the forehead, short supercilium, sides of the head and lower plumage are unspotted white; the upper surface is much darker and browner, the shafts showing just a trifle darker, whilst the hinder crown and neck nearly always show a few dark streaks; the sides of the upper breast are generally more ov less marked with brown. | Distribution,—South-Eastern France, South Russia and the 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Southern Baltic Provinces and Western Asia to Central South Siberia and Turkestan, Dauria and east to Mongolia. In Winter it migrates south to Africa, Palestine, Arabia, India, Burma, Malaya, South China and Awetialia, Nidification.—The Marsh-Sandpiper breeds in Southern Russia and the Southern Baltic States to Western Asia as far as Turke- stan and Dauria, whence it is said to spread as far as Mongolia. At one time it was perhaps more common in Hungary than any- where else but so many of its breeding haunts have been drained and reclaimed that it has become a very scarce breeding bird in that country. In Poland, I am told, it is still common on the Pinsk Marshes but these cover such an immense area of country that unless one knows the habits of the birds very well, it is rather like hunting for the proverbial needle in the haystack. Higgs have been taken in the last week of April and from then to the first or second week in June, whilst one set, probably a second laying, has been recorded as being taken on the 8th of July.) Whe nest is a typical Sandpiper’s—some natural hollow in among thick short grass on the edges of swamps and marshes. It is said to be generally well lined with grass and to be well hid- den, the bird sitting very close and, if the eggs are at all incubated, refusing to move until she is almost stumbled upon. On leaving the nest her actions are very similar to those of the Dunlin. Sometimes she will tumble off the nest and with dragging wings stageer across the ground in an attempt to lead the intruder away from the nest. At other times she will flick off the nest exactly as the Dunlin so often does, jumping straight into the air with extraordinary rapidity and then, after two quick zigzags, fly straight away. Occasionally the meet may be less well concealed chem usual on a small hummock in the centre of deep swampy eround, but such a site seems to be quite an exception. The eggs, as usual, are four in number and decidedly hand- some and densely marked, even for those of a wader. The ground colour varies from a pale stone or fawn to a comparatively deep buff, but, though pinkish eggs are not rare, a green tint seems to be very exceptional. Primary markings are bold blotches and smaller marks of chocolate brown or blackish, scattered profusely over the whole egg and generally still more dense at the larger end. The secondary markings are a pale neutral tint, frequently with a distinct tinge of pink. Forty-eight eggs average 38°5 x 2 ii ale annie Whether the male bird assists in incubation or not, there seems to be no record, but it is said generally to keep somewhere close to the nest while the hen bird is sitting. Habits.—The Marsh-Sandpiper is found in winter over the whole of India and Burma, extending into Africa, South China and even as far as Australia, whilst it has been recorded from many of the islands of the Australasian area. It is a bird more addicted to inland lakes and swamps than to the seashore and, though not nearly so numerous as the Green Sandpiper, may be generally found wherever there is sufficient marsh land to suit its purpose. In its actions it is very much the same as other small THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE -J birds of the genus, running rapidly about in shallow mud or short erass, feeding on insects, worms, coleoptera and tiny crustacea. This little bird is one of our disturbing factors in determining the genera into which the Sandpipers should be split. For one thing, instead of having a perfectly straight bill, it curves very slightly upwards, although the curve is so shght that it is hardly noticeable and in dried bills may not be visible at all. In this characteristic it rather approaches birds of the genus Glottis and perhaps would justify the classification of some authors by whom they are placed all together in one genus. Like all Sandpipers, it is not a bad little bird to eat, if one has not much choice, though it would take a great many to make a meal. JI remember, however, once out in camp about a dozen or more Marsh and Green Sandpipers were caught in nets by the Mahomedan wildfowlers and handed over to me for two annas. I made the skins I wanted as specimens and found the remainder cooked in a pie were really delicious. Those birds, of both species, had been feeding on very small ivory-white worm, apparently probed out of the mud. TRINGA HYPOLEUCOS. The Common Sandpiper. Tringa hypoleucos.—Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th ed., i, p. 149 (1758) (Sweden); Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, cal Wily [Os Aled (19293. Totanus hypoleucus.—Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 260. Vernacular Names.—Polte ulanka (Tel.); Kotan (Tam.). Description.—Whole upper parts and tail brown faintly tinged with olive; the feathers from the forehead to the lower back with fine dark central streaks, broadest on the back and scapulars; feathers from lower back to upper tail-coverts, scapulars, inner secondaries and wing-coverts with narrow pale rufous edges and sub-edges of black, most conspicuous on the wing-coverts; central tail-feathers like the back, outer tail-feathers barred black and white, intermediate tail-feathers intermediate in colour; primaries brown, the first white-shafted, the third and following primaries with a patch of white on the inner web; outer secondaries white, the outermost with broad subterminal blackish bands, disappearing on the central feathers; inner secondaries like the back; greater coverts dark brown, tipped with white and the outer edged with white also; chin and throat white; fore-neck and upper breast white with dark streaks and some brown on the sides of the breast; axillaries and remainder of lower plumage white. Colours of soft parts.—Iris brown; bill horny-brown or grey- brown, darker at the tip; legs and feet pale dull green. Measurements.—Wing 99 to 119 mm.; tail 50 to 58 mm.; tarsus about: 22 to 25 mm.: culmen 23 to 26 mm. Extreme Western birds have a wing 99 to 112 mm.; extreme Kastern 102 to 111 mm. In Winter the upper surface 1s more uniform, the head and hind-neck often immaculate; the general tint is also rather more olive 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Nestling in down.—Upper parts darkish cinnamon buff; a line from the upper mandible and the crown blackish and a black line through the eyes meeting behind the crown; centre of nape blackish owing to the black bases of the down showing through the buff tips; a black dorsal line from nape to uropygium; two fainter. lateral bands on the sides of the back and black bands on the wings; lower plumage white, the breast suffused with buff. Distribution.—Breeding throughout the greater part of Europe to Western Siberia and thence east to Japan and south to Kash- mi and Tibet. Mathews accepts T. h. auritat as a good race on the grounds that it is smaller and paler. I ean find no difference in the size of this httle wader in any special geographical area, nor can I see that HKastern: birds are any paler than Western; I therefore consider aurita to be merely a synonym of hypoleucos. Nidification.—The Common Sandpiper breeds within our limits all along the Himalayas at altitudes between 9,000 and 12,000 feet and less frequently as low as 5,000 feet. South of the Himalayas the only record of its breeding is that of Scrope Doeg, who records finding a nest in the Hastern Narra, Sind on the 3rd of July. I have not been able to find these eggs anywhere and the authenti- citv of this record is very doubtful. In Kashmir they are very common, breeding for the most part in May and June within a short distance cf, or actually on, the banks of the streams and rivers. Hume records their laying their eggs in mere depressions in the shingle or sand, without lining or with only a little lining of grass, quite unconcealed. As a matter of fact, however, the great majority of nests are well hidden, generally in fairly thick erass or low scrub, under some boulder or in amongst masses of stones. In most cases also, there is either a good lining of grass and leaves, or the grass itself is so beaten down as to form a warm comfortable bed. The earliest record I have for eges is a set taken on the 9th. of May by Mr. 8. L. Whymper at Harsil in the Garhwal Hills, which were found laid in a depression in a shingle bank of the Bhaghiratti River. The latest date I have is the 8th of August—four fresh eggs taken by A. EK. Ward’s collector on the Sind River. Sometimes this Sandpiper makes its nest at some considerable distance away from the bigger rivers and streams and Col. Buchanan informed me that he took several nests in Kashmir in a well-wooded ravine, where they were cleverly concealed amongst bushes or completely hidden under some boulder or over- hanging bank. At the bottom of the ravine there was generally a certain amount of water trickling down, drainage from the surround- ing high ground. Normally the eggs number four, as with all other waders, but Col. K. Buchanan had a curious experience with this bird in Kashmir in 1907. In a letter to me he writes: — ‘T did not know that there was anything strange in this bird’s (Common Sandpiper) laying 5 or 6 eggs. It is never a rare bird in Kashmir but this year in Pahlgaon it was extraordinarily com- mon and I took many nests. Three of these contained 6 eggs and there were several with 5 although of course the great majority Tringa aurita Latham, Ind. Orn., Suppl., p. [xvi (1801) (Java). THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE i) had only 4. The meets and eggs were always very well hidden o: I should doubtless have found many more. I took nests from the third week in May to the end of June.’ In ground colour the eggs vary from pale creamy-buff or yellowish-stone colour to a warm-buff or reddish-buff. Normally they are fairly profusely spotted, especially at the larger end, with small spots, blotches and specks of reddish-brown and umber- brown, with others still smaller and less conspicuous of pale-grey cr pinkish-grey underlying them. Rarely the blotches are some- what bolder and larger but, taking the eggs as a series, they are ‘not so handsomely marked as most “Waders’ and a really bold, hand- somely marked clutch is exceptional. 1 have seen Indian clutches in which the markings consist of twisted lines interspersed with a few bold blotches, the majority of these markings, as is generally the case, being confined to the larger end. Eggs almost or entirely without markings are occasicnally found but less often in this species than in some of the other Waders, such as the Ringed Plover. A hundred Indian eggs average 395.6 x 26.2 aie ; maxima BEG <2ELS iaiveay, endl Bio < 472 alan, p idaueuboarey 312 x 26.3 mm. and 32.2x 24.1 mm. Jourdain gives the average . a hundred British eggs as 36.4x 25.9 mm. Outside our Indian limits the Common Sandpiper breeds over the greater part of Northern Europe and Asia from Great Britain to Japan, eges being laid from early May to mid June over the Southern portion and in late June in the area nearer or inside the Aretic Circle. In Lapland we found quite fresh eges late in June but. on the other hand. we found one nest with four eges on the poimt of hatching on the third of that month, and these eggs must have been laid during a time of heavy frost and snow. The bird is a close sitter and both parents take a share in incubation, though this is said to be carried on chiefly by the female. In India, however, the male certainly takes its fair share, as among birds trapped on the nest, I have a record of four males to three females. Perhaps this is due to the fact that most of my birds were noosed on their nests during the night and it may be that, while the female incubates during the das. the male takes over her duties after sunset. Incubation is said to take 21 to 23 days in Europe but the only record I have in regard to India was for 20 days only, dated from the laying of the last egg. Habits.—The Common Sandpiper occurs in great numbers over the whole of India during the winter and, according to Wait, is equally common throughout the low country of Ceylon, wandering up in smaller numbers as high as Nuwara Hliya. It is equally abundant on rivers and marshes inland as it is on the seashore during the winter, where it may be seen either singly, in -pairs or in small flocks, running about hunting for its food, which consists of all sorts of insects, fresh water mollusea, worms, beetles, ete. It is a very restless little bird and seems to be constantly on the move, alternating a number of little runs with a short flight in the air, after which it returns to its original position. It is an easy bird to distinguish on the wing, having its lower back and 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI uppertail coverts all brown, a feature which distinguishes it at a glance from all the other small Sandpipers of about the same size. Further, the broad white bar across the whole upper surface olf the extended wing is a conspicuous help to identification. Its ordinary cry during the cold weather is a sharp but rather pleasant ‘Twit-twit’, uttered by the bird as it takes to wing and less often, in flight. During the breeding season it has a very sweet trill which Witherby syllabifies as ‘Kitty-needie, kitty-needie, kitty- needie’; the bird sings these notes as it flies round in wide circles, ascending and descending with outstretched quivering wings. Like most of the Waders, when disturbed from its nest, the Common Sandpiper goes through all sorts of contortions, as_ if wounded or ill, in an endeavour to entice the intruder from its nest. This little bird is quite good eating but the flesh is rather dry. TRINGA GLAREOLA. The Wood-Sandpiper. Tringa glareola.—Linn., Syst., Nat., 10th. ed., 1, p. 149 (1758) (Sweden); Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, vi. p. 215 (1929). Totanus glareola.—Blanf. and Oates, iv. p. 261. Vernacular Names.—Chupka, Chobaha, Tutwari (Hind.); Chinna ulanka (Tel.) : Description: Breeding plumage.—A narrow supercilium and round the eye white; a streak through the eye brown; upper plumage very dark brown, the feathers of the crown and hind-neck streaked with white; elsewhere spotted with white on the edges of the feathers, narrowly edged at the tip with whitish and with the terminal portion almost black; upper tail-coverts white, a few of the longest sometimes streaked with brown; tail banded dark brown and white, the brown in excess on the central, the white on the outermost feathers; primaries, primary coverts and greater coverts blackish; outer secondaries and their coverts hghter brown, with very fine edges of white soon lost by abrasion; sides of head and neck white, spotted and streaked with dark brown; chin and throat immaculate white; breast and flanks white, profusely spotted and barred with brown; remainder of lower parts white, the axillaries barred and the under tail-coverts streaked and barred with brown. Colours of soft parts.—Iris hazel to dark brown; bill blackish; the base paler horny-green; legs and feet pale sage-green or olive- ereen. Measurements.—Wing 117 to 125 mm.; tail 45 to 50 mm.; tarsus 86 to 41 mm.; culmen 26°5 to 80 mm. The sexes are alike in size. In Non-breeding plumage the white spots and black markings are not so well-defined; the fore-neck and breast are a sullied pal brown, indistinctly streaked with darker. ! Nestling.—Upper parts pale cinnamon-pink. Hi eo Se | eae SSS es) aeiS'slas S |25| & sé = 5 ao S le 2) 4 x S os = (e) a 2 fo) os SA NFA ee e\ So = S= Ae | Amurland 3 Nps | ley | elo | Ges | Ses | Wor I Oe | SILseG | Wil | Bil s, 27, Ws IL, ISOs exagl ox some recent authors. Elelarctos eunyspuus, tlorsi.. Zools:) Onis. 1, spaie2 2a. Olesya 1926. Helarctos annamiticus, Heude, Mém. Hist. Nat. Chin., v, pt. pe, plea mes de2 oO Ursus malayanus wardi, liydekker, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1906, p. 997, text-fig. 142 (skull). : Locality of type of malayanus.—Sumatra. Locality of type of euryspilus.—Borneo. Locality of type of annamiticus.—Annam. Locality of type of wardi.—alleged to be Tibet. — Distribution.—Assam, Burma, Indo-China, thence southwards through the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java and Borneo. Notes on the synonymy.—Horsfield separated the Bornean specimen he named euryspilus from typical malayanus because its breast-patch was orange-coloured and shield-shaped, not white and crescentic, and because its toes were tipped with grey hairs. Since examples from north and south Borneo which I have seen do not exhibit these features, I regard them merely as individual aber- rations. The name annamiticus was given by Heude to three skulls THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 133 from Annam, which he declared differed from the skull of the Suma- tran malayanus in the steeper slope of the muzzle and in some differences in the cheek-teeth. ‘To illustrate the steepness of the slope of the muzzle he figured a very old skull, no doubt ¢, without Fie. 16. Rhinarium of Helarctos malayanus from the front. The same from the side. Har of the same entire. The same cut open to show absence of vertical cartilaginous ridges. (For comparison with ear of Ursus figured in Part I of this paper.) GOW any cheek-teeth. But the slope of the muzzle in this bear is partly a sexual, partly a senile character and individually variable; and the alleged differences in the teeth are no doubt also individual. At all events since the unworn cheek-teeth of skulls from Annam and Cochin China that I have seen differ in no respects from those of skulls from Sumatra and elsewhere, I regard the Annam and Sumatran bears as inseparable. The story of wardi, fully told by its author, may be briefly re- stated. The name was given by Lydekker to a skull of Helarctos reported to have come from Tibet, but admittedly indistinguishable from the skull of typical malayanus. The pretext for naming it was a similar skull previously reported to have come from Tibet with its skin which carried a thick coat quite different from that of more southern examples of Helarctos. This skin, with its skull, was mounted and sent to Bergen; but the photograph Lydekker procured of it was clearly a Selenarctos with its thick coat and large ears. He thought, however, that it might be a Helarctos. I have no doubt whatever that the skin was the skin of a Sele- 134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI narctos which may have come from Tibet. But since the skull certainly did not belong to it, the evidence that the skull was from Tibet is quite inconclusive. The evidence that the second skull was from Tibet also, in my opinion, amounts to very little. At all events since I cannot distinguish this skull from Burmese and Malayan skulls of Helarctos, I have added wardi to the synonymy ot malayanus. poe Description.—The coat, when perfect; is comparatively short and sleek, although thickish and provided with underwool; but it becomes thin and harsh as the moult approaches. It further differs from that of other bears in the presence of two whorls on the shoulders whence the hair radiates in all directions, running for- wards along the nape and to a varying distance over the crown. On the sides of the neck there is, as in Selenarctos, a crest formed by the meeting of the downward stream from the nape and the upward stream from the throat. There is also in the centre of the breast-patch a parting whence the hairs radiate. This is not present in Selenarctos. | The colour is typically jet black, but the dead coat may be tinged with brown, or faintly speckled with buff. The paws are often brownish marginally. The muzzle is always ereyish tan, or mealy, above and below, and this tint blends round the eyes with iV My bx Neto Ah ft OZ l N e 4 iW seule, Mp LA gs rae La oS x GG wo N *® Z ue = Gy, Ute <-s Se ew F ee z 3 7 See Fe a ie 5 BS eZ See % % = = S “oy wx 2 Gy Se Yi, Ni ci Chi, ; %, | » oe rae Zw & 74) (, A y wa (S iy, CUANS p> Ni ! T (eM) Gh U4 WG i ea my Tg <\4 Vay at a; aad, pia, Ww f ( ( f U; = 4 Z Wz SN Y y ZY = Y, Bi ey = N YA Z De ae Soh oS me GB. Se = = ¥ Di eee RN Ree eS A, So” ae = “2 Si A y= ot =, ff y y Hid i hy L y WN A uy | . By DB WwW, yh i N INS) Fie. 11. Breast patch or collar of Malayan Bears (Helarctos malayanus). A & B. examples from the Malay Peninsula; C. from Sumatra; D. from Cochin- China. The arrows indicate the direction of the hair-growth. * Since H. malayanus has been reported from Assam—Blanford records it from the Garo Hills—it may possibly have a more northern distribution and cross the border between British territory and Tibet. But it is significant that the collectors for the Mammal Survey of British India secured no examples of it either in Assam or Upper Burma, F THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 135 the brown hairs of the head. The breast-patch is usually buff, cream or dirty white, more rarely ochreous. In shape it is typically more or less crescentic, but one arm may be much bigger than the other; not uncommonly the arms coalesce in front, enclosing a black area, the pale hairs may even invade the central area making the patch shield-shaped. The claws are black. The adult ¢ measures about 4 ft. from the snout to the root of the tail and the adult 9 about 34 ft. According to Cantor the young has the coat speckled. I have seen numbers of living examples of this bear from various localities. They were all alike; and since the skins in the British Museum from widely separated districts, nearly covering the known range of the species, supply no evidence of subspecific differentiation, it is needless to describe them in detail. There are, however, no skins from Assam, the nearest locality to that country whence a skin has come to hand being 20 miles N. of Pegu where in the Zamagi Reserve Mr. J. M. D. Mackenzie secured for the Mammal Survey an adult 9, with the head and body measuring 38 ft. 5 ins. and the ear 2 ins. Its breast-patch is crescentic. A young specimen from Cochin China (Boucard) and another, also young, from Hué in Annam (Delacour and Lowe) geographi- cally represent annamiticus Heude. There is nothing distinctive about them; and except that the Annam specimen, collected in February, has a shorter and scantier coat, the two are indistinguish- able. Of two mounted specimens, ticketed Malay Peninsula, one measures 4 ft., the other 84 ft. long. In the former the breast- patch is nearly circular, in the latter it is asymmetrical, the right branch being thick and longish, the left quite short and narrow. Both are normally coloured and in good coat. But a young female from Wellesley Province, in the Peninsula, is in poor coat, with the moult apparently imminent; there is some brownish hair on the back and a pale cast is given to the general dark hue of the upper side by a speckling of buff at the tips of the hairs. The breast-patch is simply crescentic. These three specimens from the same country are interesting from the evidence supplied of individual variation of the breast-patch and of colour-change, no doubt seasonal, in the coat. Two from Sumatra geographically represent typical malayanus. A young female from Sungei Kumbang is in good coat and has the breast-patch irregularly quadrate, the two branches joining in front. The other, ticketed merely Sumatra, has the coat short and coarse and the breast-patch crescentic. Two young specimens from Borneo geographically represent eruyspilus, Horsfield, but do not exhibit the characters upon which that alleged species was based. Both are black with the breast- patch crescentic and cream coloured. The following table gives the dimensions of the skulls of six adult examples in the British Museum. In addition to these there are immature skulls from Hué, male, and Quantri, female, in 136" JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATO GATG SEN St ams OG 1H TaVermay olen 2 OXOxey sl Annam, Cochin China; Wellesley Province, Malay Peninsula, fe- male; Sungei: Kumbang, Sumatra; Saribas, Sarawak, male, and Martopoera, Borneo. With regard to these it need only be said that the last upper and the penultimate lower tooth are about the size of those of the two Bornean specimens entered in the table, and, although unworn, are a little smaller than those of the first five examples. An exception to this is afforded by the penulti- mate lower tooth of the example from Sumatra which is 1 mm. larger each way than the same tooth, which is worn, in the female from S.-W. Siam. The smallest last upper-tooth, measuring 18x12 mm., is found in the female from Wellesley Province. Skull in English inches Upper Teeth | Lower Teeth : 2 in millim. | in millim. (zm —-+ | ——-4+ ——— | ——- +-— ee | : | 02 | : A ine IS : Locality and Sex 2 = s. Tyee, Ind. Music, Vol. xv, p. 81. 158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI on the ‘Tadpoles of the Families Ranide and Bufonide in the Plains of India’ give the measurements of two specimens of this species, one from the Chilka Lake and the other from Kashmir. They respectively measured 65 mm. and 71 mm.—one about half and the other more than half again larger than the one measured by me. This seems to show that the tadpoles of this species may vary considerably with the locality, though it must be indicated that my specimen was reared under artificial conditions. A young frog, six hours after leaving water and after completing its metamorphosis measured 17 mm. The tail was almost completely absorbed, leaving only a very small stump which did not protrude beyond the length of the animal. Young frogs, when they have completed their metamorphosis, leave the water and sit about on rocks and stones for a consider- able time, only resorting to it when danger threatens. In this way they sit about for three or four days without feeding, after which they eat greedily. Judging from comparison, I am inclined to believe that this species takes from three to four years to reach maturity. The tadpoles of this species devour mosquito larve. Mosqui- toes were totally unable to breed in the containers in which these tadpoles were kept, whereas they bred freely in some of the other containers. Rana tigRiIna Daud. The Indian Bull-Frog. The Bull-Frog, the largest of the Indian frogs, may be met with at almost any time of the year in wells and tanks. Under these conditions its colourmg is sombre brown. Some examples have a pale stripe down the back. Frequently it is mottled with darker and lighter patches of the same colour (brown) and at times there is a suffusion of dull green and yellow here and there. The under parts are generally white with a pinkish tinge on the lower portions of the thighs. Bull-Frogs living in situations where the water dries up bury themselves deep in the earth soon after the rains have ceased and reappear again at the break of the next monsoon. During the period of estivation a number of them congregate in the same hole. Aestivating frogs have frequently been found twenty and thirty feet below the surface of the earth, particularly when wells are being dug. It is probable that they go deeper in search of moisture. Frequently, disused rat holes are used for the purpose. During the dry season, a frog which has taken shelter in one of these burrows may occasionally be enticed to leave its retreat if sufficient water is poured down it. It will then come up and sit at the entrance of the burrow and take a look round, but conditions not being quite what it was given to expect, it soon pops in to ‘sleep’ again. This experiment may be repeated and the frog will respond each time—probably it gets swamped out—whatever the causes the result is always the same. Many of the Bull-Frogs which appear from their dry weather JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. HIST. Soc. PLATE II. The Indian Bull-Frog (Rava ¢grina, Daud.) in a pool at the break of the rains. Photo by C. McCann. The Indian Bull-Frog (Reva tigrina, Daud.) Photo by S. A, Al. NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 159 retreat are a pale lemon yellow. At the break of the monsoon they are to be heard and seen all over the countryside congregated about tanks and ponds. The lemon yellow raiment is the wedding garb of the males of this speeies. What is it that brings about this striking change in their colourme? It has often been thought that the yellow colour was due to the darkness or absence of light in their retreats during the long period of aestivation. If this were the case, why is it that only the adult males are so coloured? The females and the young males are the usual sombre brown yet they have lived under the same conditions. Here we have a point which explodes the theory of hght action. If the colourmg were due to the action of light alone, the females and the young males ought to be of the same yellow colour as the adult males! I am unable to offer any explanation of this most interesting question. The fact remains that the adult males alone are yellow. Beside this characteristic, the males possess another mark of distinction in the shape of a pair of large vocal sacs, one on either side of the gape (below). These are coloured a vivid cobalt blue. Boulenger and Annandale' in a note entitled ‘Further Observations on Rana tigrina’ state the following: —‘Males with white or grey external vocal sacs on each side of the throat’. This may be so in preserved specimens, but it is certainly not the case in the living frog, the vivid colouring of the vocal sacs per- sists even for a considerable time after the breeding season. The sacs are inflated and deflated when the Bull-Frog emits its powerful croak. They present a striking contrast to the yellow of the body. With its vocal sacs each frog is capable of producing ap. enormous volume of sound which can be heard over a long dis- tance. When there are several scores vying with one another the noise is deafening. When the frogs first emerge with the break of the monsoon, thei primary instinct is that of mating. All the males are in search of wives! For the first three or four days, sometimes for a week or a little more, depending much on the weather conditions these stalwarts dressed in their nuptial attire sit about and croak, all alert and on the qui vive for the discovery of a female in their midst. The females make their appearance at the same time as the males. They wear no wedding garment but appear in their sombre work- a-day garb, as such, the female is readily recognised. She sits very close, as if frightened out of her wits, by the great concourse of would-be suitors. As long as she sits still she is safe but the slightest move on her part and she is detected. There ensues a frantic scramble among the males in her vicinity—a battle royal for the possession of the female ensues. The fighting is done with the hind legs. Biting is never resorted to and in all my experience I have never known a frog to bite. This is easily accounted for by the fact that opening of the mouth interferes with the respira- tion. The competitors lick vigorously. The individual who has secured a bride—and this is generally the one who was closest to * IBCG. Stile MSs, SOs 22%) 105 Bie 160° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS Te SOCHHI «Vol. xoxox ia her when she was discovered—holds her with his fore legs and kicks his opponents aside if possible. ries Not infrequently, however, these all too eager males in mistake seize a dull coloured male, but the error is soon discovered. It must be explained here that in the gathering of males, the bright- ness or the uniformity of the yellow colouring decreases—there are some which are darker in colour which have presumably : lost the freshness of the colouring exhibited by them on emergence. These individuals, as I have stated, are occasionally mistaken for females. The conclusion suggested is that the male is guided mainly by colour. in distinguishing the female of the species. As soon as a male secures a mate his croaking ceases till the next year and, after amplexus is over, the male begins to lose his yellow coat. The yellow first becomes suffused with green and in a few days the males have resumed their usual colouration and are as imconspicuous as the females. Another curious point arises here. The males which remained above ground durmg the dry season, according to my observations, retain their normal colour- ing. Specimens kept in captivity by me exhibited no change. Do they take part in the sexual excitement displayed at this period, and do they stand the same chance of obtaining mates? There is no doubt that they croak, but I have never observed one of these males in amplexus. If mating takes place in a tank or a large pond the process is not completed there, but the female still in the grasp of the male will scramble out and make for one of the numerous shallow puddles in the vicinity. Here she dis- charges her eges, the male fertilizing them at the moment of extrusion. ; The eggs are deposited in small puddles and not in large pools as one might expect. This procedure is very often detrimental to a very large number of eggs, as the puddles dry up and the eggs are destroyed, if there is no rain in a few hours or days as the case may be. Apart from the risk of the eggs themselves drying, ants are responsible for destroying large numbers of them so stranded: Yet I believe, that the provision is a safeguard, as there are fewer enemies to destroy the eggs in such puddles. The eggs are laid singly, and each is surrounding by a transparent jelly-lke substance. In this they float about for a time drifting about with the wind till at length a number of eggs become agglutinated together and form one mass. After a couple of hours or so they sink en masse to the bottom of the pool. An examination of the mass reveals each egg is enveloped in its own jelly-like substance and united to the main mass by a stalk of the same matter. The eges with their investments have the form of minute spherical electric lamp bulbs. The upper half of the egg is black and the lower half creamy, the black half is always turned towards the sky. Seementation is very rapid, the larval stage is soon completed and under favourable circumstances, the tadpoles leave the surrounding slime in about four days. As soon as they leave the slime they come to the surface of the water and remain hanging there, tail downwards, for a considerable time, before they swim about freely. During the period they are enveloped in slime, I have found, in Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prats Jil Leeches Tadpole $ : Carncvorous ensecl C 99s & Larvae Rana ¢ ya nop licks | i Jadpoles | La. t D in ; , pee NBs eee Sra ma &er al@r ae} 7, Frogi Small \Ml Smat wmsec | tarlhurorms vUTNKS S Na k CS (ents Q ua lie b Lis and Small berds c prey Carnivorous insects Insects end Earthuworms } omell ii. | Small male The Food and Enemy cycles of the Bull-Frog (Rana tigrina). The rectangles connected by thick black lines show approximately the proportionate develop- ment of the frogs. The other rectangles indicate the food at the different stages of development. The circles show the inimical factors. VOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 16k certain Idealities, that the leech, Hirudo birmanica (Blanchard) is very inimical to both the larve and the young tadpoles. ‘his creature 1s responsible for the destruction of large numbers of them. It sucks out the larva and a quantity of its investment of shme. A leech, taken after feeding on the larve, contained mostly slime and blood in the alimentary canal. | With the continuation of the rain, the tadpoles are swept into the larger pools. Here they go through their metamorphosis. They are preyed upon by fish, other frogs, particularly, R. cyanophlictis, who captures them under water, the young of the Checkered-Water Snake (Tropidonotus piscator) which also emerges at this time, and last but not least, a host of insect larvee, among which the dragon- fly and carnivorous water beetle larve, not to mention the water bug (Belostoma indica) are the foremost. In addition to numerous external enemies the tadpoles themselves are largely responsible for their own destruction as the larger ones prey on their smaller brethren. Cannibalism is rampant among them and there is always a variation in size and numerous smaller cnes to be preyed upon as tadpoles of the same set of eggs do not develop at the same rate: When the metamorphosis is completed and the young frogs are ready to leave the water, they make their way into the grass and remain there for the rest of the season till it is time to aestivate. All immature frogs of the previous years are to be found in the erass and in the fields throughout the rains. At this stage they are much more green in colour than the adults. Judging from comparison it takes a bull frog about 6 to 7 years to mature. The first instinct of the frogs as soon as they appear with the break of the monsoon, is the propagation of the species. When this has been fulfilled their attention is next turned to feeding. The croaking has stopped—there is no time for entertainment. The yellow frogs have disappeared. When they first appear they are thin and emaciated after their long fast of nearly eight months, though, I am of the opinion that their thinness is more due to the absence of water, however, in a couple of weeks they look quite healthy. & The food of the Bull-Frog is varied. Insects constitute its chief diet. Small mammals, rarely small birds, snakes and other frogs, lizards, earthworm; in fact any creature that is easily overpowered is included in the diet. Frogs are the prey of numerous snakes and small snakes sometimes over-estimate their powers and _ fall victims in a foolhardy attempt to seize one of these giants, several times too large for them, notwithstanding the elasticity of the snake’s jaws and its extraordinary capacity of swallowing prey ex- ceeding it in calibre. I have watched one of these combats in which the hunter was ‘hoist with its own petard’. As the snake tries to capture the frog, the intended victim hops round and faces its antagonist keeping it in ‘full view’. He emits a short croak or two and bides his opportunity to pounce on the snake with. an agile leap. It seizes the snake in its mouth gripping it anywhere along its length and with the aid of its fore legs, which it uses alternately like two hands it literally stuffs the struggling reptile into its mouth. The process has of necessity to be very rapid ag it lat 164. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI is well known that a frog is unable to breathe properly with its mouth open. Qn another occasion I gave a captive frog a small Buft-striped KXeel-back (Tropidonotus stolatus), a very common snake in our fields during the monsoon. It was immediately pounced upon and swallowed. The snake bit the frog in several places as it was being swallowed, but this the frog only treated with a flick of its hind leg which soon dislodged the Jaws of the snake. Any foreign matter on the back of a frog is immediately dislodged with the hind legs while the fore legs are used for aman that might be on the ‘face’. When earth is taken along with food it is ejected and wiped away with the fore legs. In every case food has to be seen moving and it is only then that it is pounced upon. In fact anything that shows the slightest signs of movement is seized, and if not edible is at once rejected. To test this point I tied a small stone on to a thread and threw it to a Bull-Frog, as it fell it was immediately seized and as quickly rejected. If I moved the stone by drawing the thread the frog pounced on it once more and again spat it out. This performance was repeated several times with the same result. Experience did not seem to teach the frog that the stone was not edible. Anvthing small that moved was prey and the creature instinctively obeyed the impulse to seize it. When in the act of swallowing the large eyes are always depressed. Besideg the powerful croaking referred to above this frog is able to are Ke another sound which is only uttered when in pain, as when the creature is seized by a snake. It is a loud scream, almost human, which is most uneanny if heard and not recognised. When caught the batrachian inflates itself to bursting point, a common feature with most frogs when on the defence, and then cradually deflates, at the same time making a gentle noise which may be expressed by the word ‘kut’ repeated several times. The process is repeated by maximum inflation, bemg followed by gradual deflation to the accompaniment of the sounds described. The enemies of the Bull-Frog are many. Snakes, particularly the Checkered Water-Snake (7. piscator) and the Dhaman (Zamenis mucosus) feed freely on these frogs. Among the birds, I ave repeatedly seen the Shikra (Astur Teague) capture them from the water—not to mention the host of aquatie birds. Jackals are said to eat frogs but of this I have no direct evidence. Bull-Frogs have a very great power of endurance and the following experiment which I tried will illustrate this. A few frogs captured after the break of the monsoon were kept perfectly dhe. In three days the animals were bone dry, stiff, and hard, with the exception of the abdominal region which was still a httle soft. Then shr unken skins revealed every bone. The abdominal region had caved in under the transverse processes of the vertebre, “he bones appearing quite distinct. The tissues of the body had become so hard in this process of drying up, that when dropped on the table my frogs clattered like so many pieces of wood. Res- piration and other funetions had entirely ceased and the eyes were completely closed—to all appeavances my specimens were quite NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 163 dead, dead as proverbial door nails. I believed my experiment at an end. However, I left them for another day and on the night of the fourth day I placed them in a tub ot water, to see if. they would revive. When placed in water they floated on its surface like corks. About twenty minutes later, to my astonishment they began to show signs of returning life. The hind limbs stretched out gradually and sank below the surface of the water, while the rest of the body floated. The valves of the nostrils, which up to this time had been closed, opened by degrees, and the membrane, under the lower jaw, which is constantly in motion during’ acti- vity due to respiration, began to move again, but slowly, and at intervals. Till immersion it was as dry as the rest of the body. Soon after, the eyes opened gradually, the frogs were able to recog- nise my presence and made feeble efforts to submerge, they failed only to succeed a few minutes later. They floated lstlessly on the surface of the water. But the process of revival continued and an hour after they were put into the tub, they were just able to jump out of it, and after the lapse of four hours the outline of the bones disappeared the fleshy roundness of form was restored and my frogs were quite themselves once more, apparently none the worse for their experience. These frogs I kept for several months before releasing them. ‘The incident strikingly indicates this frog’s extraordinary power of endurance, and in some way helps to explain its ability to withstand the rigours of its long period of aestivation. The Bull-Frog may be kept in captivity for years. It will readily feed on cockroaches, other insects and small mammals and birds, earthworms, lizards and snakes. It will feed on raw meat, small pieces should be suspended from the top of the cage by thin thread just strong enough to hold the pieces of meat, but not to take the weight of the frog. When the pieces of meat swing about the frogs jump up and take them thread and all. External parasites.—In the Island of Salsette I have observed a large leech feeding on the larvee as I have already mentioned above, but this could hardly be considered as a case of parasitism, as the prey was generally completely destroyed. However, I have found the same leech on adult specimens as well. The most interesting instance of parasitism in connection with the Bull-Frog is that exhibited by a small leech, Paraclepsis predatrix Harding, which, beside attacking the bodies of their host in many cases caused total biimdness. The circumstances are worthy of note. In December 1931, while at Abu Road, Rajputana, I visited a well which I knew to contain many frogs, to catch some of them for study. When I put my net into the well, I noticed that many of the frogs did not pay the slightest attention to it. At first I attributed this to the temperature as it was a very cold morning. Under such conditions frogs do not appear to lke to submerge or remain long in the water. However, I dragged some of them up and on removing them from the net to the collecting bag I found that my hand was covered with small green leeches. Even then it did not strike me that the frogs were blind and that the leeches were responsible for their condition. Some of the frogs had their 164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI eyes completely closed. I put my first catch into the bag and it was not till I drew up the second lot that 1 examined the frogs. On examination, I noticed that the frogs were very badly attacked by the leeches. The leeches had lodged themselves under. both the upper and lower eyelids. On my arrival home I re-examined the frogs and to my surprise took 27 leeches out of one eye and 14 out of the other of a single specimen! The other frogs also had large numbers in their eyes, but none of them approached the number o: the specimen just referred to. The irritation set up under the eyelids by the presence of the leeches probably compelled the irogs to keep their eyes permanently closed. In each case there was generally a discharge of mucus from the eyes and the frogs would occasionally brush their eyes with the fore legs. On dissection of an eye it transpired that the leeches had not gone any further than the eyelids. The eyeball in each case appeared to be somewhat withered and the lustre of the eye, such a common feature of a frog’s eye, was completely lost. The pupil was reduced tc a fine black spot, not the usual large pupil met with in these frogs. The problem that now presented itself to me was, how were these animals able to exist in this blind condition? In order to see if they had had any food, I dissected the stcemach and the alimentary canal. In almost all the cases both the stomach and the alimenary canal were empty with the exception of a quantity of mucus. Probably these animals would have eventually died of starvation while the leeches relieved them of the little blood that they possessed. Below I give the measurements of the tadpoles of this species and also such notes as I made at the time, at different stages of their development. Notes ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 'TADPOLES. On the 9th. of June 1929, I came across a large number of the tadpoles of this species which had only just emerged from the egg stage. At this stage they come to. the surface and rest for a time before commencing an active existence. I collected a large quantity and brought them home to study the development and the following is the result :— 9-6-29. Length of tadpole 10 mm. branchial aperture open on either side of the body with the external gilis protruding. ‘Ihree sets on either side. Examination of the mouth showed the beak was but feebly horny, and as far as I could see with a high powered dissecting microscope, no rows of horny teeth were present. At this stage the tadpoles kept to the surface of the water and submerged only when disturbed, only to return to the surface almost immediately. It appears to me that the ‘suckers’ in some way help to keep them at the surface. The tadpoles were not at all active. 10-6-29. In the same condition as the previous day, but a little more active; swimming about. | 12-6-29. Length of tadpole 18 mm. The branchial pores on either side of the body were closed and the external gills had been absorbed. A single branchial pore open on the left side of the body. The beak, much. more horny than on the previous day; three rows of horny teeth visible; one above and two below. The upper row extending in a curve across the mouth, lower rows short as shown in Plate IV; Fig. 7. The lips considerably enlarged. The Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PruaTe IV poenrere? & wee, Nees cecesie net AS esc bP ) vt e* 2 Baotaveseamegerse® 7) Fang @ "VNivertraen, i RH HOw robe pens ccdynet® gS 8 Del. C. McCann. Rana tigrina, Daud. 1. Tadpole 10-6-29, x5, lateral view. 2. Dorsal view of figure 1. 38. Ventral view of figure x9 to show suckers and external gills. 4. Beak of tadpole figured in figure 1. 5. Tadpole on 12-6-29, x65. 6. Dorsal view of figure 5. 7. Arrangement of beak and teeth on 12-6-29. 8. Arrangement of beak and teeth on 13-6-29. 16-6-29. 18-6-29. 30-6-29. 4-7-29. 15-7-29. 8-8-29. NOTHS ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 165 ‘suckers’ had completely disappeared. Much more active and moving about treely, though generally near the surface; continually opening and closing the mouth. Length of tadpole 21 mm. More pigment appeared all over the body, particularly at the extremity of the tail membrane. (a very characteristic feature of the tadpoles of R. tigrina.) The beak now almost black. Additional rows of horny teeth developed Plate IV, Fig. 8. A circular horny plate appeared on the palate. Length of tadpole 28 mm. The tail more acuminate and its extre- mity more deeply pigmented. The hind limbs appeared as two minute conical protuberances at the base of the tail. On the tip of these conical structures there were four very minute buds repre- senting the digits on each. Further pigment appeared and the teeth became more horny black. Length of tadpole 81 mm. The pigmentation greatly increased. The conical hind lmbs developed further. Length of tadpole 89.5 mm. Hind legs 5.5 mm. Toes distinguish- . able. Another tadpole measured on the same day was 45 mm. long. The hind legs fully developed, complete with webs between the toes. Fore legs fully developed and distinctly visible through the skin of the branchial chamber. Metamorphosis completed. Tail partially absorbed. Beak and horny teeth shed. No teeth in the mouth. By this time not all of the tadpoles had completed their develop- ment. A young frog that had been kept alive and fed measured 22 mm. long and was fully pigmented. The teeth were feebly developed. Anothex set :—- 15-6-31. 16-6-31. 18-6-31. 20-6-31. 25-6-31. 15-7-31. The spawn was laid after some very heavy showers of rain, when it was collected. The size of the larve before they left the slimy envelope varied from. 5-7 mm. In colour they were brownish and the surface ot the body appeared to be minutely granular. The external gills were in different degrees of development, from conical pro- tuberances to feather-like structures, according to the age of the larva. The suckers were not recognisable in very small larve, but were distinct in the larve measuring 7 mm. The mouth was represented by only an invagination of the skin at that region. Hyes were not distinguishable. The position of the nostrils was distinct. Length of tadpole 12.5 mm. External gills completely lost. The brownish pigment of the larval stage disappeared and quite a different type of pigment appeared, in the deeper layers of the skin as blackish dots. The tail membrane which in the larval stage was opaque now became quite transparent. The pig- mented region of the tail was marked with reddish-brown spots. The lips were well developed. Beaks and rows of teeth distinctly horny. ; Length of tadpole 12.5 mm. In much the same condition as on the 18th. Pigment in the deeper layers more intensified and another type of pigment appeared on the surface lke minute black streaks on the upper side of the body, and on the tail. Length of tadpole 25.5 mm. (This tadpole with two others deve- loped exceedingly fast and were the largest of the group.) Tail became more acuminate. Pigment increased. Beak and _ teeth well developed. No palatine plate. Length of tadpole 17 mm. MHind legs began to appear. Terminal portion of tail very deeply pigmented, almost black. Length of tadpole 32 mm. Two tadpoles were removed. Length: (a) With hind legs partially developed 37 mm. Hind legs 5.5 mm. (b) With hind legs almost fully developed 39 mm. Hind legs 16 mm. One of the tadpoles with all the four legs developed, but which 1665 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, SNA TiO ryAG a EIS tine S\O) Oe] ayer (G me OXONG all had not left the water measured 39 mm, Hind legs 23.5 mm. Horny teeth and beak shed. Lips absorbed. , On the same day a young frog which emerged from the water - and which had completely lost its tail measured 18 mm. from vent to snout. Hind legs 24 mm. ae 8-8-31. On this day the balance of the tadpoles were bottled. Up to this time not all of them had completed their development. Many of them were still small and legless. AS SH _ These records however incomplete they may be help to indicate the approximate time occupied by these frogs to complete their metamorphosis—29 days in the first observation and 23 in the second. They also show how irregularly the tadpoles develop, though this was perhaps the more accentuated by the artificial conditions under which development took place. ~ It is obvious from the above that all frogs born during one season complete their metamorphosis well before the end of the rain and no aestivation takes place during the tadpole stage. It is interesting to note that the tadpoles of this frog, lke those of R. cyanophlictis, also feed on mosquito larve. RANA LIMNOCHARIS, Wiegm. The Streaked Frog. A very common species abounding in the neighbourhood of tanks and streams, when these are perennial. During the dry season these little animals either collect under stones etc. in damp places during the day, particularly near a spring and come out when the sun has gone down, or they aestivate. During the mon- soon they wander far and wide in the grass and may be found both day and night. At the beginning of the rains or a little before, large numbers collect on the banks of perennial streams and tanks to deposit their spawn. At this time the males, which appear to predomi- nate, keep up an incessant croaking. The croaking commences as soon as it is dusk and only ceases with daybreak, but on dull days during the early monsoon they may be heard throughout the day. The vocal sacs, one on either side of the gape are blackish. The voice is fairly powerful and. much resembles the clatter of castanettes in the distance. To produce the sound the abdomen is first inflated, and in deflation fills the vocal sacs with air, in this way the abdomen and the vocal sacs are alternately inflated and deflated. | ire When alarmed the frogs take to the water and submerge, but only for a short while, very soon they rise to the surface and swim ashore again, seeking shelter in the vegetation. They are extremely active little creatures. Annandale (l.c.) correctly observes that this species is incapable of ‘skipping’ over the sur- face of water as is the characteristic practice with R. cyanophlictis —nor does it float on water like cyanophlictis, but rests with the legs hanging down below the surface. So far I have not come across the spawn nor the tadpoles of ‘this species though T have repeatedly seen them in amplexus at the commencement of the rains, NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS | 167 In common with many other frogs, I have observed large numbers together, aestivating in crevices of rocks and under large stones. A. very common feature of this frog, is the stripe or streak (from the presence of which I have suggested the English name) down the centre of the back. In my opinion this character cannot be relied on as it may vary in width and colour and may even be absent, in the same locality. RANA RUFESCENS, Boulenge%. The Rufescent Frog. Of this species I secured several immature specimens. They vere found on bare water-washed rocks on the hillsides adjoining the Kune Kathkari Settlement, Khandala, Western Ghats. The general colour is a deep brown almost approaching the blackish colour of the rocks. The general markings of freshly caught specimens were very indistinct. Certain tracts of colour are well defined. The upper portion of the arms (humerus), the upper surface of the thighs (femur) and just behind the head the colour- ing is a bright crimson or brick-red. In some of the specimens the colour of the arms and behind the head has a tendency of forming a continuous patch. This colouring disappears some time after the specimens were put into preservative. Observed under natural conditions these patches of colour appear to break up the form of the frog and give it the semblance of alge adhering to the rock. The Rufescent Frog is a squat little animal with little to dis- tinguish it at a glance from the immature form of the next species, RN. breviceps. Dy. Smith writing to me about this species says that it is the first time that it has been found so far north. Up to this time it has only been recorded from Malabar. 3 RANA BREVICEPS, Schneid. The Burrowing Frog. A. clumsy looking species, nocturnal even durig the rains. After dark I found this frog quite common on the roads at Panchgani. Should it chance to fall into water and not be able to get out, it appears very uncomfortable, but nevertheless, it readily sub- merges if alarmed, but soon reappears on the surface. Specimens kept in captivity fed readily on insects. This species is in the habit of digging itself in during the day. At Khandala, I found one which had dug itself in almost a foot below the surtace. RANA LEITH, Boulenger. Leith’s Frog. With its digital dises and slender build this species much resembles one of the tree-frogs. Leith’s Frog was not ungommon in the short grass and in the 169 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,. Vol. XXXVI ditches on the hillsides adjoining the Kune Kathkari Settlement at Khandala. In September of 1931, I secured a few of these frogs. To all appearances this frog appears to be diurnal at least during the rains. It was frequently seen hopping about in the erass. ; ‘In colour it is a pale brown, almost sandy, with darker mark- ings. The lhmbs, particularly the hind legs, are transversely banded with dark brown. In his letter, Dr. Smith stated that up till the time of my securing the specimens sent to him for identification, this species was only known from a single individual in the collections of the British Museum—the type—which was secured from Matheran. RANA MALABARICA, Dum. & Bibr. The Fungoid Frog. This species is fairly common in the Island of Salsette and at the north end of Bombay Island. It generally inhabits forested areas, but may be seen occasionally in open country. It is terrestrial and semi-arboreal in habit, and is frequently found perched high up on the bark of trees and on the leaves of bushes. In all probability it is a diurnal species as I have often come across it during the day, but have so far not found it about at night. The colouring of the frog is strikingly characteristic. The dorsal surface, including the head, is brick- or orange-red (some- times crimson and sometimes in specimens in poor condition, vellowish). A sharp narrow white or yellowish line commencing at the snout, passing from behind the eye to the vent divides the red dorsal surface from a broad greyish black band along the flanks. The dark lateral band passes into mottlings on the under- surface of the frog. Both the hind and fore limbs are trans- versely, but irregularly barred. The eyes are tinged with bright red and gold. On the whole it is a very handsome creature. When seated on a tree trunk, the colouring on its back gives it the appearance of a red bark fungus as the outlines of its dark flanks are lost against the bark, and its limbs gathered well up under its body are lost to view. This frog is not at all shy. It sits close, and will allow one to approach quite near and may even allow one to touch it. So like a fungus indeed is the appearance of this frog, so apparent is its reluctance to get away that I have no doubt that the species relies almost entirely on its colourmg for protection. I do not mean that the animal is aware of its protecting colours, but the habit of the creature combined with its peculiar colour must enable it to escape detection by such animals that would prey on it. The extremities of the digits are sometimes swollen and adhesive, though they are not so well developed nor have they the same adhesive power as in the case of Rhacophorus maculatus—the Chunam Frog. When handled the call of this frog is not unlike the mew of a kitten plus a sort of high pitched ‘hut kut’ repeated several times. I am not familiar with the call at the time of breeding. WY OWS 49 S0t0g *yoodse [ezaie] pue [esiop surmoys (‘Iqig IW “WING “pILAOGQUIDIU DUD) SOL] prosun eu L AaLVid "20S ‘LSIH “LVN Avawog *"NYnNor ae ALG a ah ae Rate rae Fist JCURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. ; PLATE VI}. A spawn mass of the Giant Tree-Frog (R4. maximus, Gunth.) (A match box shows it’s comparative size.) Rhacophorus maximus, Gunth. Another mass of eggs laid in the tangle of twigs covering the water. Photos by C. McCann. NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 169 At the end of the rains (September) I have come across a juvenile specimen which had apparently just completed its metamorphosis but this is no indication as to the period of development for the eges out of which the particular specimens emerged may have been laid late. . When put into water this frog appears to be very uncomfortable and makes every attempt to get out. RHACOPHORUS MAXIMUS, Gunth. lie (Gicaie ince enor This species is perhaps the largest of our Indian tree frogs, as its name implies, the Malabar Tree Frog (Rh. malabaricus Jerdon) alone approaching it in size. The Fauna of British India (Reptiles), Boulenger, p. 472, gives the measurements of this species as 4.5 inches from vent to snout. This measurement is undoubtedly the ineasurement of a large female. In this frog the difference of size between the sexes is considerable as will be seen from the measurements shown in the table on p. 171. In colour it is a leaf green above, and white or greyish beneath. The underside of the digits and thighs are frequently tinged with pink. In spirit or formalin the animals turn purple or violet. Its powers of leaping on the ground are not very great. The longest jump measured was under tour feet, but there seems to be no doubt that these creatures are probably able to parachute or ‘fly’ through the air for some distance when a leap is taken from a point that is high up. The Nagas hold this belief. : This frog deposits its spawn in small stagnant pools in imiemecources om sineames. Ime tacts im all the cases, I tound the water, in which the eggs were laid very black and very foul. On the 22nd. of February (1980) while on expedition in the Naga Hills, I was able to observe the breeding of these frogs at a place called Changchang Pani (Tsu), about 500 feet above sea level. Just as it was getting dark I heard the incessant twittering of frogs (the sound was unlike the usual sonorous croak of the Bull-Frog). It was somewhat melodious much resembling the distant tinkling of bells. Following the sound I came upon the dry bed of a stream in which there were a number of stagnant pools which had been to some extent replenished by the rain cvernight. Knowing full well that the noise I heard was the production of frogs, I was anxious to investigate the cause of all this hilarity. Soon the reason for the excitement was made evident. The sound was produced by these great Tree Frogs. It was breeding time and the males, which were far in excess of the females, were adver- tising their presence and were evidently trying to excel one another in the production of ‘song’! Many of them had already found mates and were busy depositing their spawn. Once the male secures a mate the couple repair to the nearest pool to spawn. Among the males there is the accustomed quarrelling for the possession of the female. One tries to dislodge the other. The intervener hold- ing the female with his fore legs tries to kick his more successful XXXVI Vol. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, 170 ey} UL Sa] 9A0J OY} Jo ssosuy 1g v& GE | GGG VG IG I@ &¢ 6 9G L cho G8 8 oY) 8 9 9 ZL GL 6 6 OL 8 fo) 8 9 9 L ceo) G6 OT OL 8 G8 8 8 8 8 L ) ZL i 9) Oy ry eG ig Cake 9 9 8 G8 Ts) S G ce gi S iG tg 9 L L Vv Vv Gy V v i Vv IS)IL 99T 81 SIT IDE OG 16 SIT 601 901 “OZIS Mey} E/T JNoqe St 4ySOULIOUUT 9Yy 9[IYA 4seSsIq 9y} ore d];eUIET TOJNO COL} OY} FO SOSTP 9, “OSNIQO ST FI o[VUIEF OY} UL 9[LYM oyNoe st ynous oy} sTeU 9q} UT en ee Peetee qnous jo dt} wo. [l1jsou jo souR\sIcT gay nee “- gh9 JO ATOUIOD WOIZ [LySOU Jo soUeISICT ako jo jeyoureIq: unuedwA}, jo sayourerq odes jo JayoureIqy (6 pue PP 949 YJoq Ur 4sosrR] oY} SE OSIp SIY],) “Se[ a10f JO 90} ysosuo] fo ostp Jo aajoureIcy wc oes eee eve oes ([enbe-qns OLB SOSTp eu,],) S29] purty fo 904 4So suo] JO oSIp fo TIJOUTBICT (Sa 910J) 90} yseSuoy Jo yySuery ie Res ria "** (JOOF purty) 90} ysasuo] Io YySuoery i Se 52 soe (903 gsesuo, ayy Jo dy 3yy 0} WONV[NGIG [VSIVy-O1qty oY} WOT, UsyR}) yoo} Jo YSuery “* (90} Jsasuo, ayy jo dy oy} 03 ueye}) Sey puly jo qISuery coe eee coe see qnous 0} JUSA wWOIJ Y}SuerT 2 2 2 2 ‘(Saujauyjiu ut) sajpuaf pun sajypm ynpo fo sqzuauoinsvayy Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sac. PLATE VI Del. C. McCann. Rhacophorus maximus, on 26-2-30, x6. 3. Tadpole 5. Figure showing the position of t of figure 4. Gunth. 1. Larva on 26-2-80, x10. 2. Tadpole on 28-2-30, x6. 4. Tadpole on 98-3-30, X65. he horny teeth and beak. 6. Dorsal view NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS ilyal rival off with his hind imbs.The male in possession takes no active part in the quarrel, he is only concerned with keeping his position. The same tactics | have observed with most of the frogs and toads that I have come across in the breeding season. Once the male has established his right to the female both seek the water. When the egg-laying is commenced no other males interfere with the couple. The male grips the female just behind the armpits but when ege-laying is in progress he shdes down a little bit. To lay her eggs, the female selects a suitable twig and clings on to it with her fore legs, letting the rest of her body hang down quite limp, with the vent a little above the surface of the water (some- times touching it). In this position she discharges her eges. The male on his part besides fertilizing the ova, as they are produced, beats up the substance emitted with the eggs with his hind legs, alternately moving his legs up and down. ‘This is how the process appeared to me at the time, but whether frothiness of the spawn ‘nest’ is really brought about in this way alone, I am still in doubt. Tf disturbed during the process, both will disappear under the sur- face of the water together, only to reappear a few moments later, and commence, operations anew. After the spawn has _ been deposited the male releases his hold of the female and she seeks shelter, much exhausted and limp. ‘The spawn consists of a large frothy mass which floats on the surface. In colour both the eggs and the foam are at first white but gradually change to a creamy tinge. A most curious point about these frogs is that the floating mass of spawn is not the produce of a single pair, but a number of females collect and lay their spawn together in a single large mass. Exposed to the air, the frothy substance, which surrounds the ova, dries and the eggs sinking through the mass reach the surface of the water. This is not the case with all the eggs but with most of them. Under their covering the eges hatch in about four days. The larve are at first creamy white and remain attached to the mass and feeding on it. Here they remain for a few hours and eventually fall to the bottom-where they rest for some time ocea- sionally coming to the surface. The colour soon changes to har- monise with the surroundings. These tadpoles in their natural habitat are almost perfectly black. The next morning I returned to the same spot in order to take photographs of the spawn. Nothing was to be seen of the frogs, but I could distinctly hear them from time tc time in the dense undergrowth. Fortunately the previous evening when observing the adults I had a powerful torch with me and I was able to see the creatures quite clearly in the fading hght. The light of the torch did not seem to disturb them at all. NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 'TADPOLES. 22-2-30. Spawn deposited at dusk. Diameter of eggs 2.5 mm. At. first white, turning creamy. 26-2-30. The larve commenced emerging from the spawn ‘nest’ in the morning (roughly 84 hours after the eggs were laid). The tail may be curved round the body either to the right or to the left, Ma JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HI Si. sSOCHH ives Vol. XX i but the latter appears to be the commoner position. The tail in fully developed larvee before emergence is arched in a downward direction, but on emergence it soon becomes straight. Two large ‘suckers’ are present and also external branche. The larvae before emergence are microscopically pigmented, but on emer- gence become much more so. Length of tadpole on emergence 9 mm. Lips not developed. 28-2-30. Length of tadpole 12.5 mm. External gills well developed. Lips developed. No rows of horny teeth could be seen but the beak was distinctly horny. Tadpoles were very active. Pigment greatly increased—tadpole almost black. 1-3-30. Length of tadpole 14 mm. The external gills commence to be absorbed. In some cases only the remains of the left gill was to be seen at the mouth of the branchial aperture. Topmost row of teeth in the upper hp horny, other rows present but very in- distinct. Anus median. Branchial aperture on left side, directed somewhat upwards. Pigment intense. 3-3-30. Length of tadpole 15 mm. External gills completely disappeared. ‘Suckers’ partially absorbed. Rows of horny teeth well developed. No palatine plate present. Unfortunately owing to a change of camp my observations have to remain incomplete as I lost all the tadpoles in transit. RHACOPHORUS MACULATUS Boulengex. The Chunam Frog. This is quite a common species in the Islands of Salsette, at the north end of Bombay Island and in the Ghats during the rains. OO juve 1 aching Ome Waclven: (4) Cynopterus sphinx sphinx, Vahl. The Southern Short-nosed Fruit Bat. (Synonymy in No. 6.): : © 1, Sivok. (5) Lyroderma lyra lyra, Geoff. The Indian Vampire Bat. (Synonymy in No. 1.) g& ily OS, tonal. (6) Barbastella darjelingensis, Horsf. The Eastern Barbastel. (Synonymy in No. 26.) @ k,n ale Manepur (7) Nyctalus labiatus, Hodgs. The Indian Noctule Bat. (Synonymy in No. 25.) Q 4, Lingtam. (8) Pipistrellus corcmandra, Gray. The Coromandel Pipistrel. (Synonymy in No. 5.) a 3, 2am al ©) 6,3 1m ale. Haldibari se ly Oe 2bineale a Mancpur (9) Pipistrellus babu, Thomas. The Babu Pripistrel. (Synonymy in No. 26.) My Ik sin ello, Jexoraerlh. +O (10) Myotis sicarius, Thos. The Sikkim Myotis. (Synonymy in No. 26.) S iy tin Ally Q By Iomelln, (11) Myotis caliginosus, Tomes. Tome’s Whiskered Bat. (Synonymy in No. 23.) @ il, iba@imss mn el, @ il, dems, MAMMALS OF THE SUYDAM CUTTING SIKKIM EXPEDITION 188 (12) Murina tubinaris, Scully. Scully’s Tube-nosed Bat. (Synonymy in No. 25.) 3 1, Chungtang. (13) Tupaia belangeri lepcha, Thos. The Sikkim Tree Shrew. For synonomy see Fry, J. B. N. H. S., Vol. 29, p. 90. 3 5, 9 4, Mangpu; @ 1, Sangsir. (14) Talpa micrura, Hodgs. The Short-tailed Mole. (Synonymy in No. 23.) 6 2, O 2, Mangpu; So 1, Jeluk; 9 1, Darkhola. (15) Soriculus nigrescens, Gray. The Sikkim Brown-toothed Shrew. (Synonymy in No. 15.) 3 1, Lingtam. (16) Soriculus caudatus, Horsf. Hodgson’s Brown-toothed Shrew. (Synonymy in No. 15.) 3 3, 9 1, Lingtam. (17) Suncus cwruleus giganteus, Geoff. The Giant Shrew. For synonymy see Lindsay, J. B. N. H. S., Vol. 38, p. 329. 3 3, 9 18, Haldibari. (18) Suncus soccatus, Hodgs. The Darjeeling Musk Shrew. Hor Eyinomypony ses Ibninclseny, of, Jo ING lala Woy VOle wy [05 BBY GO ie Mancpuy On le Sangsin; 9 3. Q 1, Lingtam; in al. 1, Rongli. (19) Crocidura sp. 3 1, 9 1, Lingtam. (20) Anurosorex assamensis, And. The Assam Short-tailed Shrew. 1875. Anurosorex assamensis, Anderson, A. M. N. H., (4), Vol. 16, p. 282. 2 1, Lingtam. The great size of this specimen seems to leave no other course than to call it assamensis. It measures total length 114 mm.; tail 17; hind foot 15. Skull: superior margin of foramen magnum to tip of premaxillae 27.8 mm.; greatest length, including incisors 29.2; palatal length 18; mastoid width 15; upper tooth row 14.2, 184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. (21) Nectogale sikkimensis, de Wint. The Finger-tailed Water Shrew (Synonymy in No. 28.) fA, Q 1, 1 (not sexed), Chungtang; g 1, Lachen: & 24 OQ 1, ibaa. (22) Felis bengalensis, Kerr. The Leopard Cat. (Synonymy in No. 11.) Ong Oo 1 ame tame (23) Viverra zibetha zibetha, L. The Large Indian Civet (Synonymy in No. 14.) 6 i, envolks Gil, lawinvsjoos g il, g wim, 4, © wn, Il, Mangpu. (24) Prionodon pardicolcr, Hodgs. The Indian Tiger Civet. (Synonymy in No. 28.) 1 (not sexed), Lingtam; 92 1, Sedonchen; d 1, Jeluk. (25) Herpestes mungo mungo, Gmel. The Common Bengal Mongoose. (Synonymy in No. 1.) go 1, @ 2, Haldibari. (26) Herpestes urva, Hodgs. The Crab-eating Mongoose. (Synonymy in No. 28.) © 1, Sivok. (27) Canis indicus indicus, Hodgs. The Common Indian Jackal. (Synonymy in No. 1.) 6 i, Manepu; 6 25, sivolk, (28) Canis laniger, Hodgs. The Himalayan Wolf. 1885. Lupus laniger, Hodgs., Calc. Journ. N. H., Vol. 7, p. 474. § B, Q i, Iblis. (29) Martes toufceus, Hodgs. The Tibetan Beech Marten. Mustela? toufeus, Hodgson, J. A. S. B., Vol, Jul, WO, PAsue. ¢ 1, Ghora-la, 17,000 ft. AXXVI MAMMALS OF THE SUYDAM CUTTING SIKKIM EXPEDITION 185 (30) Mustela subhemachalana, Hodes. The Himalayan Weasel. (Synonymy in No. 23.) J 1, Lingtam. (31) Mustela kathiah, Hodgs. The Yellow-belied Weasel. (Synonymy in No. 15.) 3 1, Mangpu. (32) Lutra lutra nair, F. Cuv. The Common Otter. (Synonymy in No. 37.) 1 (not sexed, no skull), “‘Sikkim’’. (33) Petaurista nobilis, Gray. The Himalayan Flying Squirrel. ae (Synonymy in No. 28.) or tedeemibs in vailisn selule. (34) Belomys pearsoni, Gray. The Hairy-footed Flying Squirrel. 1842. Sciuropterus pearsonu, Gray, A. M. N. H., Vol. 10, p. 263. Q 1, Mangpu. I find no record of the Mammal Survey’s having taken this squirrel so it must be quite scare or very hard to catch. (35) Ratufa gigantea gigantea, McCl. The Assam Giant Squirrel. (Synonymy in No. 14.) Go ln (Motrsexed) i Slvolkemia\ a4 Ome oanosienag) leh Warkholas (36) Dremomys lokriah lokriah, Hodgs. The Long-snouted Nepal Squirrel. (Synonymy in No. 23.) Gi OO onmdiclukes rae Jk Machen: (37) Dremomys Ickriah bhotia, Wr. The Long-snouted Bhootan Squirrei. (Synonymy in No. 238.) 3d 6, 9 2, Chungtang; ¢ 1, Lachung. (38) Callosciurus crumpi, Wr. Crump’s Squirrel. (Synonymy in No, 23.) S&S da Ov ay Ibias: 186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI (39) Tomeutes lokroides, Hodgs. The Hoary-belliied Himalayan Squirrel. (Synonymy in No. 23.) QO My sols G 8) O G, itineienns ¢ B, © 1, Sangsir; ¢ 8, 9 4, 1 (not sexed), Mangpu; 2 1, Dikchu; @Q 1, Toong. (40) Funambulus pennanti, Wr. The Common Five-striped Squirrel. (Synonymy in No. 1.) @ By © By Jekiichionmes © ilo Sivolk. (41) Tamiops maccleliandi, Horsf. The Striped Himalayan Squirrel. (Synonymy in No. 20.) 3 16, 2 17, Lingtam; @ 4, Chungtang. (42) Marmota himalayana Hodgs. The Tibet Marmot. (Synonymy in No. 23.) 3d 8, 9 1, Thangu; @ 2, Tibet-Sikkim border, above Thangu, 16,000 ft.; 3d 1, Gyangong; @ 1, Ghora-la. (43) Gunomys bengaiensis, Gray and Hardw. The Bengal Mole Rat. (Synonymy in No. 19.) Q@ 1, Haldibari; Q 5, Mangpu. (44) Dacnomys millardi, Thos. The Large-toothed Giant Rat. (Synonymy in No. 26.) © 1, Mangpu. (45) Rattus nitidus, Hodgs. Hodgson’s Gray-bellied Rat. (Synonymy in No. 15.) 3 5, 9 2, Mangpu; ¢ 1, @ 4, Gnatong; ¢ 14, @ 19, Lingtam. (46) Rattus rattus sikkimensis, Hinton. The Sikkim Tree Rat. 1919. Rattus rattus sikkimensis, Hinton, J. B. N. H. 8., Vol. 26, p- 394. © 2, Haldibari; ¢ 4, @ 3,1 (not sexed), Mangpu; ¢ 5, Q 7, Lingtam; © 1, Tarkhola. (47) Rattus fulvescens, Gray. The Chestnut Rat. (Synonymy in No. 15.) Q 2, Mangpu; ¢ 4, Q 6, Lingtam; ¢ 1, Chungtang. MAMMALS OF THE SUYDAM CUTTING SIKKIM EXPEDITION | 187 (48) Rattus eha, Wr. The Spectacled Rat. (Synonymy in No. 23.) é& I, 2-8, acne. In one specimen there is a small strip of pure white hairs in the centre of the chest. (49) Rattus flavipectus titse2, Hinton. The Sikkim Rat. IGS; Jenne ToS mses, Isbin, o/s Jes de Jelo Sen WOl, VAdn jos Xoer S 1, © B, lilalcioams & i OQ ily Siwoks G Sy © WHY, Nitenaves jue Sangsir; ¢ 1, Lingtam. (50) Mus homourus, Hodgs. The Himalayan House Mouse. (Synonymy in No. 15.) @ 1, Chungtang. (51) Leggada pahari, Thos. The Sikkim Hill Mouse. 1916. Mins palor, WMoomes, de 13, Me Jal, So, Wo VE jo.) Zale, IG’, Jhengada julooin, Moaoraeys, dio i> INe Jele Se, WO, AO, jo. 2240. 6 1, 92 3, Lingtam. (52) Neodon sikkimensis, Hodgson. The Sikkim Vole. 1849. Neodon sikkimensis, A. M. N. H., (2), Vol. 3, p. 208 g§ 8, @ i eens gil O By AMagwaveau. (53) Acanthion hodgsoni, Gray. The Crestless Himalayan Porcupine. (Synonymy in No. 27.) 3 1, 9 1, Mangpu. (54) Lepus ruficaudatus, Geoff. The Common Indian Hare. (Synonymy in No. 15.) &o 1, Munsong. (55) Lepus oiostolus, Hodgs. The Woolly Hare. (Synonymy in No. 37.) 36 1, Gyagong, 16,000 ft. (56) Ochotona sikimaria, Thos. The Sikkim Mouse Hare. 1922. Ochotona sikimaria, Thomas, A 5 iil. ING Jélog (@), Wol, 9), Do US 6 1, 9 1, Gnatong; Ome Wiachens ipo) G4 Lhamour (57) Ovis hodgsoni, Blyth. The Great Tibetan Sheep. 1840. Ovis hodgsoni, Blyth, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 65. @ 1, juv. 2, Sikkim, border of Tibet. These specimens were taken by Mr. C. Suydam Cutting. THE HOT-WHATHER FERNS OF MAHABLESHWAR. IBN no Be Hweank, Clb Crs... ans: It has been my good fortune to spend two hot seasons (April and May) in Mahableshwar, and I have also visited the station for a few days at the end of October. During these visits I have roamed over every part of the plateau, and have prepared a hand- list of all the ferns which I have come across in the hot weather. I owe a special acknowledgment to Professor J. d’Almeida who has been kind enough to verify, and, where necessary, to correct, my identifications by reference to the herbarium at St. Xavier’s College. I have constantly referred to Beddome’s Handbook to the Ferns of British India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula and to Blatter and d’Almeida’s Ferns of Bombay and my debt to these invaluable works will be obvious to all who know them. ‘These field notes are simply intended to supplement the careful descrip- tions of the various species which they give, from the point of view of a naturalist following in their steps. The limits of the plateau are Arthur’s Seat on the north, Kate’s Point and Lingmala Waterfall on the east, Baghdad and Gaolani Points on the south, and Bombay and Lodwick Points on the west. The distance from north to south is about 9 miles and from east to west 5 miles. The plateau which is bounded by an almost continuous escarpment of rock varies in elevation from 4,000 to 4,700 feet. On the west it is covered with evergreen forest which rapidly thins towards the east as the rainfall decreases and the number of deciduous species of trees, usually associated with the monsoon forests of the Presidency, increases. The fol- lowing description quoted from Talbot succinctly explains the conditions which make the existence of so many varieties of ferns possible in so small an area: — ‘The Mahableshwar plateau (4,500 ft.) capped with laterite and with a heavy annual monsoon rainfall of 850 in., also the highest area of considerable extent in the Presidency, is covered with dwarf forests of montane type, but containing species characteristic of low elevations such as Hugenia Jambolana and others. That the constituent species in these forests: are the same as those found at lower elevations or in the plains is remarkable, as the Nilgiri montane woodland flora further south appears abruptly in the Bababuden Hills of Mysore at an elevation scarcely exceeding that at Mahableshwar. “Woodland over considerable areas along the Western Ghats, owing to the pronounced influence of the soil, assumes a transi- tional form between rain and monsoon forest in which the con- stituent species belong to one or other of these formations in vary- ing proportions. Examples are found in Kanara on the spurs of the Ghats near the sea coast whether on granitic, lateritic or schistose soils. The forests at Matheran and on the higher Nasik and Satara Ghats are further examples, THE FERNS OF MAHABLESHWAR 189 ‘The stunted elfin-wood on the Mahableshwar laterite can only be considered as an extreme kind of this formation’. Talbot is not in fact correct in his statement about the average rainiall. I am indebted to Dr. C. W. Normand, Director General of the Meteorological Department, for the following authoritative note on the climate of Mahableshwar :— ‘The rainy season begins early in June. For almost three months the sun is hidden by the thick mist and cloud that envelop the station; and rain, though not continuous, falls most of the time. Only about one per cent of the days during this period are rainless, and at intervals of vigorous monsoon the rainfall may exceed five inches a day for three or four days in succession. The month of maximum rainfall intensity is July, when the daily average of rainfall is as much as 384 inches. A very strong westerly or south-westerly wind blows continually from the gea. This constant wind and the protective thick cloak of cloud produce a remarkably steady temperature both from day to day and from day to night. The average temperature is about 64° and the difference between day and night is less than 4’. ‘The monsoon tails off in September. In October, when the drenching southwest winds have ceased, but the hills are kept fresh by occasional thunderstorms and misty evenings, Mahableshwar is at its best. The mean temperature is then about 67°. In the succeeding months the climate becomes dry, winds from easterly diréctions predominate, and the sunshine and glare by day are intense. The daily range of temperature increases to about 20° and nights become cool enough to make fires a comfort. From November to January the mean temperature is about 64°. .From February temperature rises and the hottest month is April, when on hot afternoons the air temperature rises to 90° or more. The hot days of March and April are however tempered by a cool, moist sea-wind which sweeps over the station in the evenings. As April advances, the sea wind becomes more continuous and from the ome oO! Ep iG JANOS Y to wresuenhy winds predominate and = - ae CLadually strengthen and Rainfall ! import increasing quanti- Mean | lentes!) Ole = COOls moist. alm. Month Feber eh Rainy | Occasional thunderstorms ‘Tenet CBSE | occur, and towards the ; end of May morning and January Peale en 0-1 9-24 evening mists become February iso) 6S 0-1 0-14 frequent.’ , March ee 0-1 03 The marginal statement es Fe & i Pi | gives Dr. Normand’s figures Ta le 88 46-2 | 23 | regarding average tempera- July ts |. 4 ore On mune ead ae raintall: abi August aac, Oe 749 | 30 | ‘rainy days’ is meant the ee ve Oe Pal ce | average number of days ctober a 66 6-0 Bix] co) . Si Novemiber PalerGs 1-5 y-4 per month on which the December ela 0-3 0-64 rainfall was at least 0-1 Year ..| 67 | 2656 |122 } inch. From the botanical | point of view, it is import- 190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI ant to note that cool and moist sea winds arrive about the end of April, and that morning and evening mists soon precipitate themselves on the leaves of the evergreen trees and drip on the plants below. The hot weather is of course the worst possible season for studying ferns; but it is of some interest to note what ferns are able to survive till the advent of monsoon. It is also the season when most visitors come to Mahableshwar and may wish to learn something of the ferns which they then find on the plateau. I have therefore confined my list to those ferns only which may be found in the months of April and May. I have not included in my list ferns that may be seen on the roadside on the way up the Ghats, e.g., Actiniopteris dichotoma (Bedd.), Adiantum Caudatum (l.) and Lastrea crenata (Bedd.) or terns peculiar to Panchgani, e.g., Nephrolepis paucifrondosa (d’Almeida), since they do not appear to occur within the limits to which this lst is confined. Nor have I included species which occur at Mahableshwar only in cultivation, e.g., Nephrolepis Cordifohia. i Riensieaquiling. (Ch) backers This worldwide fern grows abundantly on the plateau, preferring light shade and open grassy glades. I have found specimens 8 feet high but 2 to 3 feet is the ordinary size. In the hot weather the previous year’s fronds are withering, the decay usually starting with the lowest pinnae. The fern differs in only two respects from specimens which I have gathered in other parts of the world. The young fronds, as they begin to unroll, have not the rusty-brown knotted look which in England makes them resemble an eagle’s claw and is possibly the origin of the name of the species. In Mahableshwar they are usually pale green, loosely rolled, and stalky. The other point is that young fronds, appearing towards the end of the hot weather, are in open places sometimes so fertile that the backs of the pinnules, which are distinctly contracted, can hardly be seen owing to the continuous heavy lines of fructi- fication breaking out from below the marginal involucres. The texture of these fronds is thick and heavy; and with their finer cutting and reddish brown backs they almost appear to be a distinct variety. 2. Pteris quadriaurita (Retz.). This fern can readily be recognised by the two pinnae that descend from the lower side of the lowest or two lowest pairs of pinnae and by the long terminal pinna in which the frond culminates. Hope in this Journal (Vol. XIII, page 452, January 20th. 1901) speaks of this as a Protean species. But I find little variation in the Mahableshwar specimens. As the fern withers the pinnae decay irregularly in small orange patches. The costae are usually furnished with bristles (setae) scarcely visible to the naked eye. The variety ‘setigera’ (Bedd.), which is distinguished by narrower segments than in the type, and by stiff hairs on the rachis and costa, 1s not uncommon. THE FERNS OF MAHABLESHWAR 191 Be JPiGins lose (lb) The leading authorities (Hooker, Baker, Clarke and Beddome) classify this fern as a distinct species on the ground of differ- ence in venation. In the preceding species the veinlets are once- 1orked and free, while in this species the inferior veinlets unite in pairs to form an arch below the sinus. Hope in this Journal (Vol. XIII, page 456) expresses the opinion that the two species are abundantly unlke, but does not give details. Blatter and d’Almeida take the opposite view and regard both this and the following species as mere forms of quadriaurita. Specimens of biaurita will be found on the bank of the stream above the Chinaman’s Waterfall. Their segments are broader, blunter and closer to each other and are not cut down so far towards the costa us in quadriaurita. The pinnae are rarely quite flat, until the frond is mature, but form a sort of V-shaped channel with the costa at the base. I have however found samples of quadria- urita in damp and shady places which exhibit most or all of these characteristics. Apart from venation, I have noticed that this species has no bristles on the costa. 4. Pteris nemoralis (Willd). In habit of growth this species exactly resembles biaurita, the only difference being that both the preceding varieties of venation occur in it. The inferior veins of the segments sometimes form an arch and sometimes miss connection. Specimens can be found near the stream at Lingmala. 5. Nephrodium molle (Desv.). This fern is found in damp and shady places, and attracts. attention by the vivid green of its young fronds which begin to appear in April and are much in evidence by the end of May. It is called ‘tender’ because it wilts soon after picking. The lower pinnae are gradually more distant and often become mere auricles. It is easily recognised as it is the only nephrodium on the plateau. 6. Lastrea calcarata (Hook.)—at about 4,200 feet. a7 (. Lastrea FPiliz-mas (Presl.) (Male Fern.)—common. 8. Lastrea Filix-mas, Var, cochleata (Bedd). This is an interesting variety, common near Kate’s Point. The pinnules of the fertile fronds are much contracted and covered on the back with very prominent involucres. 9. Leucostegia immersa (Presl.). Rare. I have come across one specimen only in a damp place on the extreme western edge of the plateau. 10. Gymnopteris variabilis (Hook). This fern hkes flowing water and will be found in clumps above the Dhobi’s Waterfall, near Lingmala, and in stream beds below WS WOON. ISOMEBAN INA IMO URAL, ISUhS, SOCIIRTNY, Wal. XOOC VI Tiger Path. The sterile fronds are entire. The veins and veinlets are very irregular, but they are distinct nearly to the margin. The texture is thick and the colour dark-green. The fertile fronds are narrow, densely covered with russet sori and much longer than the sterile fronds. Not infrequently the lower half of a frond is broad and sterile, while the upper half is suddenly contracted and fertile. I venture to doubt if Blatter and d’Almeida are right in assigning the Mahableshwar specimens to the variety ‘lanceolata’ (Bedd.) of which the main veins are indistinct. I have always found the fern growing on the ground in stream beds and not on trees as stated by them. Possibly the variety to which they refer only makes its appearance during the monsoon. 11. Pleopeltis linearis (Thunb.). This is an epiphyte on trees. In the hot weather it shrivels into olive-green, leathery, corkscrew-like fronds of about the thick- ness of boot-laces. But if placed in water or subjected to heavy rain, it recovers in a few hours and expands to its original size. The frond, which is thick and entire, curls tightly outwards and backwards from the margins in the hot weather in order to protect the sori, which, on its revival appear to be undamaged. Heavy rain fell on April 22 and 23, 1929, and at once the fronds, which in. theit withered state are liable to escape notice, unrolled them- selves and became conspicuous on every mossy tree. By April 27th. they had all withered again and returned to their previous condition. : : 3 13. Pleopeltis membranacea (Don.). This fern, prefers moist rocks or trees in deep shade, it dies down soon after the rains, the decay usually starting at the outside edge. Fresh fronds will be found growing freely at the beginning of May in places where conditions are favourable, e.g., on the walls of some cisterns to the south of the bazar. Elsewhere only the skeletons of withered fronds occasionally survive. 13. Adiantum capillus veneris (L.). Maiden Hair. Small specimens may be found here and there on the walls of wells or cisterns, for instance beside the stream above the Fountain Hotel. 14. Adiantum lunulatum (Burm.). The first delicate fronds, tinged with coppery brown, begin to appear in deep shade, on the western border of the plateau, before the end of May. They die down shortly after the rains. The fern srows abundantly on the Western Ghats but at this elevation does not attain a size comparable to the specimens found at lower levels. Blatter and d’Almeida appear to be mistaken in thinking that the fern does not occur above about 3,000 feet. I have found it at about 4,100 feet. THE FERNS OF MAHABLESHWAR 198 15. Aspidium cicutarium (Sw.). The fronds are triangular in outline but very variable in size and cutting. The young fronds begin to appear in damp ‘cool places about the middle of May. They are pale green and downy, and as a rule face skywards like bracken. But single fronds sur- viving from the previous year, and in course of withering, are not uncommon in places (for instance on the golf course near the 17th. brown). ‘The sori are usually arranged in a line along the margins or on the tips of the pinnae. In the absence of sori the fronds can easily be identified by their shape and by their distinct venation, which is copiously netted. 16. Osmunda regalis (L.). Royal Fern. Fine bushes of this fern grow in the stream bed above Ling- mala. The fronds attain about 38 feet which is of course below the size attained in Europe. The specimens which I have met with have been fertile above and barren below. By the hot weather the fertile pinnules are shrivelled and drooping. The rest of the fronds are healthy enough, though a few reddish patches show that decay is at hand. 1V. Anisogonium esculentum (Presl.). Common on the banks of the stream from the lake to Lingmala. The frond is sometimes simply pinnate, but more usually pinnate above and bipinnate below. Fertile fronds are not uncommon in October, but I have never found a fertile frond in the hot weather. 18. Asplenium laciniatum (Don.). In the hot weather this fern will be found shrivelled and pen- dent on trees, looking like dry sea-weed, with the edges of the pinnae curled loosely backwards, to protect the sori. In this con- dition the plant, desiccated and olive-green, looks at first sight hike a wisp of lichen. After heavy rain it expands. again, the pinnae reviving in sequence from the bottom upwards. As they unroll themselves, the sori will be found exactly as they were when the plant dried up, some with involucres unopened, some with the sporangia just showing and some fully open. The characteristic way in which this plant weathers the dry season by rolling up its fronds is not mentioned by any authorities on Indian ferns, except Blatter and d’Almeida, and is possibly therefore peculiar to Western India. 19. Asplenium lunulatum (Sw.). This evergreen fern grows in colonies in damp places in the shade of rocks. It occurs for instance in a small cave on the edge of the lake. The old fronds are thick and fleshy with a shining surface. The light yellowish green of the young fronds as they make their appearance in the hot weather is very noticeable against the dark green of the old ones. In general appearance it very 13 194. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI closely resembles the Asplenium marinum which is not uncommon on the west coast of the United: Kingdom. Blatter and d’Almeida hold that the Mahableshwar fern is the variety trapeziforme, on the ground that the lowest pinnae are the largest. But at the three stations at which I have found the fern on the plateau, the lowest pinnae are not normally longer than those above them. Beddome who is the first describer of this variety does not in, his very sketchy description indicate clearly any other point in which the variety differs from the species. , 20. Athyrium falcatum (Bedd.). The tern at Mahableshwar corresponds exactly to Beddome’s description, but the large obtuse auricle at both the superior and inferior base of the pinna, to which he draws attention, is usually found on the superior base only. This is a common fern but dies down soon after the rains, and in the hot weather only a few brownish and decaying specimens can be found in moist cool places. . : 21. Athyrium Filia-femina (Roth). Lady Fern. Very common. after the rains on banks. In open places fronds are often curved in a sickle shape and not more than 9 inches long, but amongst other herbage they usually grow straight and longer. The pinnules are sharply serrated; but there is consider- able variation in the distance: of:the pinnules from each other and in the fineness of jthe cutting. Specimens are not found in the hot weather until the new fronds appear towards the end of May. 22. Athyrium .Hohenackerianum (Bedd.). —. Common in rains, but soon dies down. Young fronds appear towards the end of May. Apart from the bullate-indusium which is not always easy to recognise, the pinnules are slightly broader and more close-set than in Filix-femina and the serratures are sharper and deeper. 23. Cheilanthes farinosa (Kaulf). Silver Fern. This fern is common on. walls and banks in exposed situ- ations. During the hot weather the small coriaceous fronds curl up, each pinnule turning inwards and exposing its silvery back. After rain they,expand quickly and exhibit their dark green upper surfaces. Young fronds appear in the shade in May and their backs are densely covered with white farina, which extends also to the rachis and costae. They are much larger than the persistent fronds which survive the hot weather, and’ are coarser in cutting. A few dealbate specimens of this type which wither in the autumn continue till the summer but do not revive after rain. There seem to’ be two distinct types of frond, one quite lanceolate and the ether triangular, but they run into each other by innumerable eradations. Both the deltoid and the lanceolate types have scales that are sometimes chestnut, but more usually dark-centred and pale margined. I find great difficulty in distinguishing the vy or THE FERNS OF MAHABLESHWAR 19: specimens of ‘farinosa’ from ‘albo-marginata’ amongst the material which I have collected at Mahableshwar. C. B. Clarke, the author of the species Cheilanthes albo-marginata (Transactions of Linnaean Society, vol. 1 part vu, February (1880), lays stress on the lanceolate fronds, the stipe shorter than the frond, the yellow powder generally found on the lower surface and the pale-margined scales. Blatter and d’Almeida..who identify this species at Mahableshwar, but do not closely follow Clarke, state the features which distinguish albo-marginata from farinosa as (1) the pale margined scales on the stipes as well as on the primary and secondary rachises and costae, (2) the lacerate indusia, (8) dwartf- ish sturdier habit, and comparatively small size of frond; (4) out- line nearer to lanceolate than triangular. I venture to doubt if these characteristics are constant either on the triangular or lanceolate type of frond. Several of the specimens in my posses- sion approach more closely to Cheilanthes farinosa, var anceps, as described by Blanford in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. lvii, part ui, No. 4, 1888, and accepted by Hope on page 249 of vol. xiii of the Journal of this Society, dated July 1900: but the lowest pairs of pinnae are not always sub-equal. The sub- division of the types of Cheilanthes as they appear at Mahableshwar into true species has not yet in my opinion been convincingly achieved and might afford a nice problem for a botanical visitor who has time to collect and examine a large number of graded Specimens: 9 =.) | 7 J subjoin a complete list of tle species specifically ascribed to Mahableshwar by Blatter and d’Almeida,; for convenience of refer- ence. Some of them should be visible in the hot weather, e.g. Blechnum and Drynaria, but I have myself only come across those enumerated by me. The only species which I have added to the list is Athyrium Hohenackerianum. 1. Peranema cyatheoides 19. Athyrium gymnogrammoides 4. Leucostegia immersa 20. Anisogonium esculentuny 3. Leucostegia pulchra 21. Aspidium polymorphum 4. Sechizoloma ensifolia 22. Aspidium cicutarium 5. Adiantum lunulatum 23. Lastrea odontoloma 6. Adiantum capillus veneris 24. Lastrea Filix-mas (2 varie- 7. Cheilanthes farinosa ties.) 8. Cheilanthes albomarginata 25. Lastrea sparsa 9. Cheilanthes tenuifolia 26. Nephrodium molle 10. Pteris pellucida 27. Nephrolepis cordifolia 11. Pteris quadriaurita (and 38 28. Drynaria quercifolia varieties. ) 29, Pleopeltis linearis 12. Pteris aquilina 30. Pleopeltis membranacea 13. Blechum orientale 31. Gymnogramme leptophylla 14. Asplenium Junulatum 32. Gymnopteris variabilis 15. Asplenium falcatum 38. Gymnopteris subcrenata 16. Asplenium laciniatum 34. Osmunda regalis 17. Athyrium faleatum 39. Lygodium flexuosum. 18. Athyrium Filix-femina (2 varieties. ) THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN. By Bricabiprn W. H. HVANS, ©.S.I., C.1-E., D.S.0., F.B.G.S., F.Z.S., F.H.S. Many years ago I asked to be Ler iese to Baluchistan as I wished to get back to the frontier and I was certain that the butterflies of the borderland, between the Palearctic and Oriental regions, would prove interesting. I suc- ceeded in reaching the promised land in November 1911, just when insect life had become dormant for the winter, and was transferred to Simla in March 1912 before it had again awoken. However, fortune came my way in the end and I managed to spend the last four years of my service in Baluchistan in & position which enabled me to tour frequently over the whole province. The only previous butterfly record for Baluchistan is a list of the butterfiies of ‘S. Afghanistan’ (Sibi-Kandahar) published by the late Col. C. Swinhoe in T. H. S. 1895.’ About the same time the late Capt. EH. Y. Watson collected in the area and some of his results are recorded in DeNiceville’s Butterflies oj India. Odd species have been obtained from time to time, and I recorded all that I could find in the first edition of my ‘Identification of Indian, Butterflies’. Baluchistan generally consists of tablelands and dry river beds at an eleva- tion of 3,000 to 6,000 feet, interspersed with barren mountains rising sometimes to 11,000 feet. The Quetta district is situated in the basin of the Peshin Lora draining to the West through a corner of Afghanistan into the Nushki deserts, which extend Westwards to the Persian border and southwards through Kalat and Mekran to the sea West of Karachi. To the North is the Kwaja Amran range (Ixhojak Pass) extending Hastwards to the Toba plateau and separating Baluchistan from Afghanistan (Helmand basin) continuing as the inner fron- tier range to the Hindu Khush. Some 60 miles to the N.-H. of Quetta there rises the Zhob river, the cradle of the Afghan and Pathan races: North of Fort Sandeman the river meets the Gomal and then pierces the Suleiman range, draining across the Derajat plain to the Indus. South of the Zhob lies the Loralai area in the basin of the Nari which drains through the Sibi area into the Indus in Sind and is separated from India by the Suleiman range. Baluchistan is a barren country with a rainfall of only 8 inches, of which three-fourths occur in the winter. There is no doubt that in the past there was a great deal more rain and that gradually the country is getting drier, compara- tively fertile islands being left behind in a desert sea. “The Ste is severe, but is followed by a glorious spring, when insect and plant life are at their best: then follows a hot dry summer, which desiccates everything. There is no monsoon to.revive life and consequently second broods of insects are the exception rather than the rule as elsewhere in India. The butterflies, though requiring a great deal of looking for, are of great interest as might be expected in a country where West meets Hast. The insects of Baluchistan proper appertain primarily to the Persian division of the Palearctic zone, but there is a well-defined infiltration from the Himalayas and Chitral through the Zhob and Afghanistan. The Sibi area, which forms part of political Baluchistan, appertains to the plains of Western India, and here . occurs the Western limit of the Oriental zone, the Bolan and Suleiman range constituting a _ primary faunal. border, the species on either side being very distinct. The- flat tablelands contain very few butterflies: it 1s on the hillsides clothed with aromatic scrub and along the few mountain streams where the interesting species must be looked for. T have found the following localities to have been the most productive, but I have no doubt that there are many others: (a) Urak valley running Hast of Quetta to the intake of the water- supply, 5,500 to 6.500 feet. A valley w ith plenty of water and trees: it is Quetta’s only beauty spot and Sunday picnic’ ground. (b) Upper Urak is the continuation of the valley above the water-supply intake. It is a steep mountain stream and the collecting ground ranges from 6,500 to 8,000 feet. THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN 197 (c) The slopes of Chiltan in the Spring 7,000 feet (Chiltan forest). There is a track to the right from mile 12 on the Kalat road along which cars can go for two or three miles and then there is a walk of about the same distance. In the spring the ground is carpeted with red tulips between bushes of wild cherry and almond. (d) The Gwal forest (6,500 feet) into which there is a motorable track from about mile 35 on the left of the Zhob road. The country is dry but in the Spring when the wild almond is out there are good butterflies to be got. , (e) The Murgha Mehtarzai Pass 7,500 feet, at mile 50-51, on the Zhob road. The hillsides and small valleys on the South of the road are full of interest. (f) The Khojak Pass starting with the lower slopes below Shelabagh 6;000 to 7,000 feet. The one or two valleys with water may also contain good butter- thes. (g) The Bogra Pass 7,500 feet on the wild lavender (so-called) and the mint on the Chaman side and the grassy slopes below the crest on the Toba side. ! : (h) The Ziarat road from mile 12, Juniper Kotal (6,800 feet); between the Wam Pass and Kahan (7,000 to 6,000 feet); Ziarat itself (8,000 feet), particularly the catchment area and the sides of the road about mile 100 near Raighora (5,000 feet). (i) Shingarh, the hill station of Fort Sandeman, 8,600 feet, where the Chilgoza pine flourishes. Several species are only found here. : (j) The Torgarh (7,000 feet) S. W. of Fort Sandeman was visited by Col. C. H. Stockley in the Spring, and several interesting species were found. The Toba plateau, Takhti Suleiman range and the Musa Khel hills would certainly repay exploitation, also the valleys N.-W. of Hindubagh. Col. Swinhoe recorded 43 butterflies, making three species out of the Clouded Yellow (Colias erate) and two out of the common meadow blue (Polyommatus icarus). In my Identification of Indian Butterflies I gave 80 as the number from Baluchistan and Sind. As a result of four years collecting I have been able to increase the number to be found in Baluchistan to 108. The following are new species or races from Baluchistan, all of which have been included in the second edition of my Identification of Indian Butterflies : Huchloe charlonia pila and doveri: Eumenis mniszechu balucha and pallida: Aulocera padma burnett: Polyommatus sieversi felicia: Polyommatus hyrcana kwaja:. Polyommatus irs hanna: Polyommatus | bogra: Polyommatus eros shingara: Neolycaena connae: Carcharodus dravira. balucha. All the types will be placed in the British Museum. ~The following are new records for Baluchistan (* indicates new to India). Tros aristolochiae: Papilio demoleus: Pieris canidia: Catopsilia pomona. and pyranthe: Gonepteryx rhamni; Imias pyrene: Colotis amata and danae: Danas limniace and genutia: Pararge schakra: Aulocera padma: Ypthima asterope: Hypolimnas misippus and bolina: Precis. hierta: Vanessa, *atalanta and w«xanthomelas: Argynnis hyperbius : Atella phalanta: Tarucus theophrastus nigra and “*mediteranee: Azanus ubaldus: Polyommatus “*sieversi, hyrcana, irs, *cyllarus *actis: Huchrysops pandava minuta: *Tomares callimachus: Hasora alexis: Syrichtus orbifer: Erynnis marloyi: Hogenes alcides. In addition the following ex-Indian races have not been recorded from India before :— Papilio machaon centralis: Huchloe ausonia pulverata: Gonepteryx rhamni rhammu: Argynnis lathonia lathonia: Lycaena.thetis lampon: Syrich- tus orbifer carnea. Neither I nor the various people who have assisted me have succeeded in obtaining the following species recorded from Baluchistan :— Hypermnestra helios: Terias hecabe: Maniola wagneri: Chilades laius: Baoris mathias: Syrichtus evanidus. My butterfly collecting days in India are over, but it is a matter of great satisfaction to myself that I was able to close my career of 33 years in such a fascinating and interesting country as Baluchistan. _ Capt. A. F. Hemming very kindly read through the proofs and_ pointed out certain mistakes in nomenclature which have been corrected, 198 JOUBRNAL,, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN. PapPinionipH. The Swallowtails. 1. Tros aristolochiae, I. The Common Rose. A_ black swallowtail with large white and red markings on the hindwings and the body red below. Com- mon in India and the East. One specimen was obtained in September by Capt. R. R. Burnett at Fort Sandeman. 2. Papilio demoleus demolus, L. The Lime Butterfly. A tail-less yellow and black butterfly. Common enough in India and the Hast. Occurs rarely at Sibi and Mach in the Bolan. ‘3. Papilio alexanor, Esp. The Baluchi Swallowtail. A tailed salon and black swallowtail, distinguished by the yellow tips to the antenne. It occurs, never commonly, from S. Europe to Baluchistan, where it is very rare. I caught a female on Juniper Kotal on the 14th April and saw a specimen at Upper Urak in June. I recorded it in -my Identification on the strength of a Specimen presented by~ Mr. O. C. Ollenbach to the British Museum (See J BuN ees. XXily = 265i) | v3 4. Papilic machaon centralis, Steg. The Common Yellow Swallowtail: yellow and black with a tail. Occurs from England throughout Europe, W. and N. Asia and the Himalayas to N. Burma. The Baluchistan race resemble the Persian race rather than the Himalayan, in that the yellow areas are paler and more extensive and the blue powdering on the hindwing more. diffuse. Individuals are to be seen frequently from May to September at Upper Urak, Ziarat, Shingarh and Torghar (April). 5. Hypermnestra helios balucha, M. The Desert Apollo. A white butter- fly with black markings and a double red spot in the middle of the forewing. The species occurs in Persia and Turkestan as well. The type of balucha is in the British Museum and there is a co-type in my collection, marked ‘Nushki, April 1905,’ both received from Mr. O. C. Ollenbach. There is a specimen. labelled ‘“Kach’ in the Indian Museum. I have searched diligently, but have not met with it. Prerip@. The Whites. 6. Euchloe charlonia pila, Evans and doveri, Hvans. The Lemon White. A small yellow or white species with a spotted black apex and solid central spot on the forewing: below the hindwing is green. A yellow form (charlonia) flies in N. Africa, Asia Minor to Mesopotamia, where it changes to a white form (transcaspica) which prevails in W. Persia: in N.-W. India, Khyber to Camp- bellpur, there flies a yellow form (lucilla). In the Zhob ere occurs a rather pale form of lucilla, found by Col. Stockley in March and April at Fort Sande- man and Torghar: it differs from lucilla in having the dorsum of the forewing below white and I have named it pila. I have a pair of the white form (doveri) from Mr. G. E. R. Cooper: the male is marked ‘Nushki, April’ and the female ‘Baluchistan’, perhaps caught on the Toba Plateau; see a note by Mr. C. Dover on page 1144 of vol. xxvii of the Journal, who pointed out the distinct- ness of this form. 7. Euchloe belemia, Esp. The Striped White. Similar to the last, but the hindwing below is striped alternatively green and white. It flies in N. Africa, S. Spain, Asia Minor to Persia. Several specimens were obtained by Mr. W. D. Cumming at Ormarah on the Mekran Coast and are now in the British Museum. 8. Euchloe ausonia daphalis, M, and pulverata, Christoph. The Pearl White. The underside of the hindwing is green with pearly white spots. The race daphalis differs from the other forms of ausonia in missing vein 9 of the fore- wing: it flies from Chitral to Kunawur: ausonia is found in N. Africa, 8. Kurope to Persia, Central Asia and Siberia. Col. Stockley caught several specimens of daphalis on the Torghar in April and I have a male from Mr. Cooper marked ‘Burkhi Hill, 7,500 feet, May 1907’. At the end of March IT caught a few specimens in the Chiltan forest and in April at Upper Urak: all but one of these have vein 9 present and come nearest to pulverata. In this and other instances’ Baluchistan would appear to constitute the boundary between the Central Asian and Persian fauna. ‘THE BUTTERFLIES OF.BALUCHISTAN, .... . ago 9. Pieris chloridice, Hub. The Lesser Bath White. This and the next two species are very much alike, differing from Huchle in having irregularly mot- tled green and white under hindwings, with yellow veins in glauconome, a circular white cell spot in daplidice and an elongate one in chloridice. .Chloridice is found in the mountains of Europe, Central “Asia and Asia Minor, extending to the N.-W. Himalayas, Persia and Baluchistan. It is rather rare in Baluchi: stan, where I caught a few specimens in Urak :and Upper Urak, also on the Mehtarzai Pass in May-June, and a single male at Shingarh in September. 10. Pieris daplidice mooreil, Rob. The Bath White. Occurs throughout Europe, W. & N. Asia, the N.-W. Himalayas and Baluchistan, where it ‘is common above 5,000 feet from April to September. os 11. Pieris glauconome, Klug. The Desert Bath White. Occurs in E. Africa, Arabia, Persia, N.-W. India. In Baluchistan I have caught it fairly commonly at Upper Urak and on the, Mehtarzai Pass in May and June. It was found at Dalbandin, beyond Nushki in April and at Fort Sandeman in September. 14. Pieris krueperi deyta, DeN. The Green-banded White. A larger species with a peculiar under hindwing: white crossed centrally by an irregular greenish- black band. The species occurs from Greece to Baluchistan and Central Asia, reaching Chitral and-Ladak. It isa rarity: I only obtained one specimen at Ziarat in June and another at Upper Urak in May. . 138. Pieris canidia indica, Evans.. The Indian Cabbage White. This and the next two whites have unmarked undersides and no cell spot on the forewing: canidia has marginal spots on the forewing: brassice is larger with a marginal band: rape has only a black apex. Canidia is a common Himalayan and Chinese insect with a race in the hills of S. India. It is common on Shingarh in July to September and its occurrence there is surprising. 14. Pieris brassicae, L. The Large Cabbage White. Occurs commonly throughout Europe, N. and W. Asia and N. India. In Baluchistan it is common in Ziarat, less so at Urak, Shingarh and in Quetta. 15. Pieris rapae, L. The Small Cabbage White. Occurs throughout Europe, N. and W. Asia, but in India is confined to the frontier, Baluchistan to Chitral and Ladak. It is the commonest butterfly in Quetta and is found generally throughout Baluchistan over 4,000 feet practically all the year round. 16. Aporia leucodice baiucha, Marshall. The Baluchi Blackvein. The veins on the under hindwing are conspicuously black. It occurs throughout Central Asia and the Himalayas. It is common at Upper Urak and Ziarat in May and June. 17. Belenois mesentina mesentina, Cr. The: Pioneer. In addition to the veins on the under hindwing being black, there is a marginal row of black ringed white spots. It is a butterfly of African origin flying throughout the S. Pale- arctic zone and all over India except Assam. It is common throughout Baluchi- stan all the year round. 1.0 18. Catopsilia crocale, Cr. The common Emigrant. 19. Catopsilia pomona, I’. The lemon Emigrant. 20. Catopsilia pyranthe minna, Herbst. The. mottled HKmigrant. These three species are greenish yellow or ereenish white: pomona has red antenne: pyranthe has a striated underside; in the first two the females are yellow. They are all common throughout the Oriental region and appear as emigrants from the plains into Baluchistan during August and September. 21. Gonepteryx rhamni rhamni, LL. The Common Brimstone. The male is. greenish yellow and the female white with a small reddish spot at the end of the cell on each wing. It occurs throughout the ‘palearctic zone and along ‘the Himalayas to North Burma. In Baluchistan it is not common, but often seen from April to September at Urak, Ziarat and Shingarh, also occasionally in Quetta and Fort Sandeman. Baluchistan specimens appertain to the Huropean race, rather than to the Indian nepalensis, Db., in having smaller cell spots aud the narrower (or absent) marginal dark line on the forewing. 22. Terias hecabe, L. The Common Grass Yellow. A small yellow butterfly with unspotted black borders amd spotted below. It occurs throughout India: 200 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI and the Oriental region. I have no record of its capture in Baluchistan, but have no doubt whatsoever that it occurs near Sibi and Las Bela, etc. 23.. Colias erate lativita, M. lL. The Pale Clouded Yellow. Typically both sexes have a yellow spotted black border to the forewing: many males have the border unspotted: the yellow colour in these yellow forms is often orange (var. chrysodona, Bdv.): many females are white with a white spotted dark border (var. pallida, Stg.). The butterfly occurs from 8. Russia along the Himalayas, the N.-W. Frontier and the hills of South India. It is com- mon throughout Baluchistan above 3,000 ft. all the year round. 24. Colias croceus edusina, But. The Dark Clouded Yellow. Orange with dark borders, which are spotted in the female and the male has a yellow brand at the base of the costa on the hindwing. Occurs throughout the palearctic zone, along the frontier and Himalayas to Burma. The N.-W. Indian form eccurs fairly commonly on the Takhti-Suleiman and Shingarh from May to September and a single male was obtained in Ziarat. It does not seem to occur at all in Western Baluchistan, where one might expect to find the paler European form, croceus, Fourcroy. 25. Ixias pyrene satadra, M. The Yellow Orange Tip. Yellow with a black- edged orange tip. An oriental butterfly found all over India: odd specimens are to be seen in the Bolan in the Spring and Autumn. 26. Colotis amata amata,, F. The Small Salmon Arab. With salmon spots on the border and a black costa to the hindwing. Occurs over most of India. Not uncommon in tamarisk jungle near Sibi in the Autumn and Spring. 27. Colotis protractus, But. The Blue Spotted Arab. With bluish spots on the border. Occurs in Western India and with the last near ‘Sibi. 28. Colotis vestalis, But. The White Arab. White with a broad white- spotted border. Occurs in Western and Central India: very common at Sibi with amata. 29. Colotis fausta fausta, Oliv. The Large Salmon Arab. Pale salmon with a salmon-spotted border. Occurs over most of India and westwards to Asia Minor. A few were obtained in the Bolan in October and in the Sheikh Wasl Gorge (Quetta-Nushki road) in September. 20. Colotis etrida etrida, Bdv. The Little Orange Tip: otherwise white. Occurs over most of India. Found near Sibi with amata and sometimes. near Quetta, Upper. Urak, etc. 31. Colotis danae dulcis, But. ‘The Crimson Tip: otherwise white. Occurs in 8. and W. India. Found near Sibi with amata, rather rarely. Danaip&. The Danaids. 32. Danais limniace mutina, Fruh. The Blue Tiger. A large dark brown butterfly with large translucent blue markings. A common oriental species occurring throughout India and the Hast. Stragglers from the plains are not infrequently found everywhere in Baluchistan. a) &. Danais genutia, L. The Common Tiger. Tawny with a black and white apex and black veins. Also a common Indian and oriental butterfly. I saw one straggler from the plains at Ziarat in July. 34. Danais chrysippus, L. The Plain Tiger. Similar to the last species but the veins are not black: the male has 3 and the female 2 black spots on the hindwing. A common African and oriental butterfly found all over Baluchi- stan practically throughout the year. SatyRipm. The Browns. 35. Pararge menaya, M. The Dark Wall. The male is dark brown and the female has a tawny area on the forewing; both sexes have a single ocellus on each wing. It is found in Kashmir and Chitral and in Baluchistan somewhat rarely from April to September above 6,000 feet from the Khojak to. Upper Urak.. THHE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN 901 36. Pararge schakra, Koll. The Common Wall. Both sexes like the female of the last species, but on the hindwing there are 3 or more ocelli. It is a common butterfly along the Western Himalayas and is found above Para- chinar. In Baluchistan it has only been found at Shingarh commonly in August and September. 37. Coenonympha myops macmahoni, Swin. The Baluchi Heath. A small black butterfly with an ocellus on the forewing. Myops occurs in Central Asia: macmahoni is confined to Baluchistan, where it is frequently met with in the Khojak-Urak area above 6,000 feet from the end of March to early May. I found it very common one year in the Gwal forest at the end of March. 38. Maniola lupinus centralis, Riley. The Branded Meadowbrown. The male is dark brown with a broad brand on the forewing and an apical ocellus, replaced in the female by two tawny ocelli on a pale yellow band: the under- side is plain. It is a very variable butterfly occurring in several forms from S.-H. Europe to C. Asia, Chitral and the Western Himalayas. In Baluchistan it is common on the Khojak and Bogra passes in June and July. 39. Maniola narica, Hub. The 'Tawny-branded Meadowbrown. Similar to the last but the forewing is tawny and the underside striated. It occurs from S. Russia, through Turkestan and probably Afghanistan to Baluchistan, where it is common in May on the Khojak slopes, Bogra and Murgha Mehtarzai passes. 40. Maniola wagneri mandane, Koll. The Oval-spot Meadowbrown. Similar to the last, but has a peculiar elongate black centre to the ocellus on the fore- wing. It occurs from Asia Minor to Persia. Swinhoe in Lep. Ind. X, 341 stated he had received a pair from Sir H. Macmahon and there is wne in the Quetta Museum, all marked Quetta. I° have not come across it. 41. Maniola davendra latistigma, M. The White-ringed Meadowbrown. The forewing above is tawny in the male with a broad brand: in the female there are two ocelli and only the outer half is tawny: on the underside of the hindwing there are 2 or 3 prominent white-ringed ocelli as in the last species. It flies in various forms from Central Asia through Chitral, Ladak, Khyber, Afghanistan to Baluchistan, where it is very common everywhere above 3,000 feet from May to September. 42. Maniole tenuistigma, M. The Lesser White-ringed Meadowbrown. Very similar to the last but smaller, with a narrower brand and a darker underside. It had previously been considered as a variety only but an examin- ation of the genitalia shows that it is specifically distinct. (Uneus short and stout, instead of long and thin.) It is not uncommon above 7,000 feet in June and July at Ziarat, the Khojak and Upper Urak. On examining Chitral speci- mens I find that the species occurs there at high elevations in a modified form. 43. Eumenis parisatis shiva, LeCerf. The White-edged Rockbrown. A large black butterfly with a white border to the hindwing and a striated under- side with prominent ocelli. It occurs in Persia, along the frontier and the N.-W. Himalayas. In Baluchistan it 1s everywhere common above 3,000 feet from May to October. 44. Kumenis eneryata, Stg. The Dark Rockbrown. A large dark brown species with a white band on the hindwing and on the forewing a black spot surrounded by 4 quadrate white patches. It flies from S. Russia and Asia Minor to Baluchistan, Central Asia and Chitral. It is not uncommon from the end of May to August at Urak and on the Khojak. In Chitral there are two broods, the first brood having tawny instead of white markings. In Balu- chistan there is only one brood but occasional specimens are found with tawny markings (var. analoga, Alph.) 45. Eumenis mniszechii balucha, Evans and pallida, Evans. The Tawny Rockbrown. differs from the Summer form i-album of egea in being bright dark-red with well-defined comparatively small markings and small yellow spots on the dark border of the hindwing. Pallida is very much paler above and below: it re- sembles the spring form egea but on the forewing above the black discal spots in spaces 2 and 38 are missing and the yellow border-spots on the hind- wing are much larger. Pallida is far paler than any other Indian form, but both pallida and balucha differ from all such in that cell spots on the forew ing are not coalesced, but quite separate as in egea. 58. Wanessa xanthomelas fervescens, Stich. The large Tortoiseshell. A large tawny red and black butterfly shaped and marked rather like egea but with a blue border to the hindwing. Found from Europe to Japan and along the N.-W. Himalayas. I caught a single female, just emerged, at Upper Urak on the 2nd June 1929. It occurs near Miranshah (Tochi). 59. Argynnis hyperbius, L. The Indian Fritillary. A large tawny butter- fly with dull silvery-bordered black markings on the hindwing below: the female has a broad blue-edged white apical band on the forewing. It flies throughout India to Japan. *Stragglers have been caught in the late Summer and Autumn at Shingarh, Ziarat and Urak. - 60. Argynnis lathonia lathonia, L. The Queen of Spain. A smaller black-. spotted tawny butterfly with very large brilliant silver markings on the hind- wing below. Flies from Europe to W. China and as the race issw@a, Db. along the Himalayas. Typical lathonia flies in Baluchistan, differing from isse@a in being smaller, redder, with rounder wings and on the underside of the hindwing in that the discal tornal spot does not extend beyond vein 2. Tt is common. at Ziarat from the end of June to September and is to be seen in the Quetta gardens in the late Autumn and early Spring. 61. Melitaea trivia persea, Kollar. The Desert Fritillary. 62. Melitaea robertsi, But. The Baluchi Fritillary. 63. Melitaea didyma dodgsoni, GrS. The Redband Fritillary. Small black-spotted tawny butterflies: the underside of the hindwing is white with two reddish bands and covered with black dashes: trivia and didyma fly from Hurope to Persia and Chitral; trivia is found in the N.-W. F. Province and the N.-W. Punjab: didyma extends to W. China. Though I found these butterflies common from April to June on the Khojak slopes, Gwal Forests, the Murgha Mehtarzai Pass, the Ziarat road near Quetta, Urak and the Chiltan forest, and noted that they seemed very variable, it was not until T dissected a number that I found I had obtained 3 quite distinct species differ- ing as follows :— (a) trivia has the hindwing above profusely spotted, which is. not ‘die case in the other two. In spaces 2 and 3 of the hindwing below, the red spots of the outer band are inwardly convex, not black-edged but immediately followed by 2 black bars pertaining respectively to the postdiscal and discal rows of black markings, both far removed from the outer black edging of the central red band: in the other two species, discal black.markings in spaces 2 and 3 are either absent or much nearer to the central band than to the postdiscal markings, 204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI The outer spine of the clasp is no longer than the inner spine, being much longer in the other two species. I found I had only one specimen of ‘trivia, caught in May on the Ziarat road. (b) robertsi resembles trivia very closely. It differs from both species in that the black markings of the postdiscal series on the hindwing below are very prominent and V-shaped instead of nearly straight and on the underside of the forewing towards the apex, the postdiscal spots are conjoined to a continuous line. The outer spine of the clasp is stout and furnished with a second spine below the tip, not simple as in the other species. It is common nearly every- where, appearing in April and flying till June. : : (c) didyma is larger and more uniform above. It is rather rare on the Khojak and the Murgah Mehtarzai, appearing in May. 64. Atella phalantha, Dry, The Common Leopard. A medium-sized black- spotted tawny butterfly, dappled mauve below and a large spot at the tornus on the forewing below. A common Indian butterfly extending to Japan and the Malay Islands. Stragglers are frequently seen anywhere in Baluchistan in the late Summer and Autumn. Lyc@NIDm. The Blues. (Females of blue species are ordinarily brown, sometimes with red border spots.) 65. Tarucus theophrastus indica, Evans. The Painted Pierrot. 66. Tarucus nigra, BB. The Spotted Pierrot. 67. Tarucus mediterraneae, BB. The Mediterranean Pierrot. Small tailed blues with white underside to the hindwing covered with short black streaks and a marginal row of metallic spots. The male of nigra is always spotted on the forewing above, it is dusky violet blue with a narrow border. The other two have only a cell spot, dusky in theophrastus, which, has a broad dusky border, while in mediterranee the border is very narrow and clearly defined and the markings show through from below by transparency. All three species are to be found commonly about highly prickly Zizyphus shrubs and trees. Nigra is common at old Mach and elsewhere on the Bolan and near Maratangi on the Loralai Fort Sandeman road more or less throughout the year: it also occurs near Peshawar to Kalka and Central India. Theo- phrastus was found near Duki and near Karachi: it flies from Europe to Central India: mediterranee was found common at Dalbandin in May by Captain D. Harrison: it flies from South Europe to Baluchistan. _ 68. Azanus ubaldus, Cr. The Bright Babul Blue. A small blue with rather elongate wings and a striped and spotted underside: two permanent black tornal spots on the hindwing both sides. It flies throughout India and reaches Arabia. It is to be met with rather rarely throughout Baluchistan from May to September and is most frequently found on tamarisk flowers. 69. Polyommatus vicrama astabene, Hemming. The Chequered Blue. Rather dull silvery blue with dusky veins: below greyish white with prominent black spots and a marginal row of orange spots on the hindwing. Occurs from EK. Europe to C. Asia, Chitral and Kashmir and to Baluchistan, where it is rather rare, odd specimens having been caught in May to July at Urak and Ziarat. Swinhoe recorded it as common at Kandahar in May and June. 70. Polyommatus pylaon indica, Evans. The Baluchi Jewel Blue. A blue with a leaden grey underside and a complete marginal orange-red band: in the male there are traces of an orange spot at the tornus of the hindwing above. It occurs from §.-E, Russia to W. Thibet. In Baluchistan I have found it not ‘uncommon in April and early May on the Murgha-Mehtarzai Pass, Gurlama Pass, Gwal Forest, Khojak slopes and it has been caught in the Hanna valley. 71. Polyommatus christophi bracteata, But. The Small Jewel Blue. A small bright blue characterized by having a complete marginal row of metallic crowned orange spots on the hindwing below. It flies in Persia, Turkestan, Chitral and Kashmir. It is to be found in the Quetta-Khojak area about Gamelthorn (Alhagi camellorum) and is common round the Saranan tank from May to September, : THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN 205 72. Polyommatus loewii chamanica, M. The Large Jewel Blue. A large blue with a dusky border: on the hindwing below there are two very prominent orange-crowned metallic spots at the tornal angle. It occurs from Asia Minor to Chitral and Ladak. In Baluchistan it is very common on wild sage from late April to June in the Urak and Gandak valleys, Ziarat, Khojak slopes and the Gurlama Pass as well as elsewhere. ! 73. Polyommatus sieversi felicia, Hvans. The Pale Jewel Blue. A very pale lavender blue with a very narrow border and a spot at the end of the cell op the forewing: below very like lewii. Sieversi is found from Persia to Turke- stan; the race felicia from Baluchistan differs in being very much paler and having a narrower border; the female above is very like the next species. A single male was obtained at Upper Urak and a single female on the Murgha- Mehtarzai Pass in May. 74. Polyommatus hyrcana kwaja, Evans. The Dark Jewel Blue. The male of kwaja above is dark brown rather sparsely overlaid with dark-blue scales leaving a broad border on the forewing and dark marginal spots on the hindwing : the female is similar but the blue scaling is sparser and more basal, the dark marginal spots on the hindwing being obscurely orange-crowned. Below leaden grey: on the forewmg the discal spots are large, touching and in an ‘unbroken sinuous line, the submarginal markings narrow and clearly defined: on the hindwing there is a complete submarginal orange band with metallic scales around the 3 or 4 subtornal spots. It differs from the Persian hyrcana in being much darker and the discal spots on the forewing below being more regular. About a dozen specimens were obtained in May, June and early September on the Khojak and Bogra, most of them in the Shorgai nallah at Mile 66% on the Chaman road. 75. Polyommatus iris hanna, Evans. The Jewel Argus. A rather small shining dark-brown insect with a prominent black spot at the end of the cell on the forewing. Below the discal spots on the forewing are very large and on the hindwing the two subtornal black spots are crowned with orange and metallic scales. Iris from Turkestan is reddish brown: a dark race ashretha fles m Chitral which differs from the Baluchistan race in being bronzy brown above, the discal spots on the forewing below being separate and there being a’ pro- minent spot in the hindwing at the base of the cell lc. Hanna is found rather rarely in April and May at Upper Urak, the Gurlama, Murgha-Mehtarzai and Khojak passes and in early September at Ziarat. 76. Polyommatus cyllarus aeruginosa, Stg. The Western Green Under- wing. Above rather pale shining blue with broad dusky borders; below on the forewing there are very large discal spots: the hindwing is entirely powdered green and is unmarked. It occurs from Hurope to Asia Minor and N. Asia. In Baluchistan I have only secured one male and 3° females in April in the Gwal Forest and found it common on the Hastern Khojak slopes before Shela- bagh for a fortnight. 77. Polyommatus bogra, Evans. The Baluchi Meadow’ Blue. Male above bright shining blue, veins outwardly black, border narrow and_ sharply defined, a faint black streak at the end of the cell on the forewing. Below rather dark leaden grey; forewing usually a small spot in the cell, spot end cell and discal spots large, white ringed, latter conjoined in a highly sinuous series; hindwing discal spots in a regular curved line, basal spots prominent, a more or less well-defined white streak from below the cell to the middle of the termen. Double row of grey and white submarginal lunules clearly defined, enclosing very dull orange spots towards tornus on the hindwing. Female above dark shining brown, a prominent black spot at the end of the cell on the forewing: very dusky orange’ subtornal spots on the hindwing. Expanse 28-34 mm. A number of males and very few females were obtained in June to September on the Bogra, Khojak and Ziarat. A single female was caught by Capt. Burnett at Shingarh in early September. The specimens obtained seem very distinct from any named form. 78. Polyommatus icarus fugitiva, But. The Violet Meadow Blue. A bright violet blue species with a sharply defined narrow border. Below grey with small white-ringed black spots and a more or less prominent submarginal 906 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI orange band. It occurs throughout the Palearctic zone entering India in Chitral and Baluchistan, where it 1s common in cultivated areas (Quetta gardens) above 5,000 feet from March to October: there are probably 8 broods, which do not seem to differ materially. : 7%. Polyommatus eros balucha, M,. and shingara, Evans. The Common Meadow Blue. Balucha is shining silvery blue with a narrow sharply defined border: below similar to icarus, the marginal orange band being rather faint and the markings small. Shingara 1s darker shining “blue, with broader borders, a spot at the end of the cell on the forewing and more or less well developed submarginal black spots conjoined to the dark border on the hindwing: below darker than balucha: usually the orange border is prominent on the hindwing, but sometimes is absent. Eros in various forms is found throughout the Pale- arctic zone and along the frontier to Murree. Balucha is common at Mile 10 on the Urak road from May to September: there are two or three broods exactly alike. I have also caught balucha commonly on the Bogra in May to August and Col. Stockley caught a considerable number -on Torgarh in April. Of shingara Capt. Burnett obtained 8 males and a female and J obtained a male at Singarh about the end of September and a small pale male at Ziarat a few. days later. 80. Chilades laius, Cr. The Lime Blue. A blue with a white underside and rather blotchy-looking grey and black spots. Found all over India and Burma. Swinhoe records it from Quetta in-September. I have not met with it. 81. Freyeria trochilus, Frey. The Grass Jewel. A tiny dark-brown insect with a marginal row of brilliant metallic spots on the hindwing below. It occurs from §.-EK. Europe to Australia and is to be met with here and there, never very common, all over Baluchistan throughout the year. 82. Zizeeria maha maha, Ioll. The Pale Grass Blue. Pale and rather dusky blue above with a broad dusky border: below spotted as usual, but with a spot in the cell of the forewing. Found from South Persia throughout Hastern Asia to Japan. I came across it near Duki in June, and nowhere else. 83.. Zizeeria lysimon, Hub. The Dark Grass-blue. A very small dull. blue with dark spots on a grey ground below. It occurs from 8. Hurope to Australia and is to be found rather rarely anywhere in Baluchistan throughout the year. 84. Euchrysops contracta, But. The Small Cupid. A small tailed blue with grey hindwing beloWw traversed by grey catenulated bands and with two metallic-edged black spots about the tail. It flies in Ceylon and India and is to be met with, never commonly, all over Baluchistan throughout the year. 85. Euchrysops pandava minuta, Hvans. The Plains Cupid. Very similar to the preceding but the spots about the tail are unequal. Found all over India, extending to Malaya. I obtained one specimen of the race minuta near Sibi in October: it is a race that is fairly common from Lahore to Peshawar and along the frontier, differing from pandava in having the markings on the hindwing below almost obliterated and with a comparatively prominent whitish central ‘band. Swinhoe records a female taken in Quetta in September as Catachrysops species near amyntas, F., and comyntas, God., which may have been this species. 86. Lampides boeticus, L. he Peablue. A tailed blue with a striped grey and white underside. It flies throughout the Old World and is common every- where in Baluchistan all through the year. 87. Tomares callimachus, Hvers. The Red Copper. Above red with a broad brown border: under forewing pale red with conspicuous black spots and a grey border; under-hindwing grey with narrow dark dashes. It flies from Asia Minor to Persia near the coast, so I was surprised to find it in Baluchi- stan: a few specimens were obtained round wild almond bushes at 7,000 feet in the Gwal forest and the Murgha-Mehtarzai Pass at the end of March and early April. 88. Lycaena phlaeas stygianus, But. The Common Copper. Forewing copper red with large black spots: hindwing with a red border. It flies throughout the Palearctic zone, along the N.-W. frontier and the Himalayas. THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN 207 In Baluchistan it is never very common, but is often met with from March to October throughout the area, more particularly in Quetta gardens. 89. Lycaena thetis lampon, Led. The Golden Copper. Brilliant golden copper above marked only by the black border in the male, the female being spotted. Thetis occurs in Central and Western Asia; there is a tailless race in Chitral at high elevations: lampon is tailed. The only specimen I obtained was a male at the Ziarat water-supply intake during my last visit there on the 10th September 1981. 90. Lycaena phoenicurus, Led. ‘The Baluchi Copper. , Soda (Na,O) ey fs SO ae Potash (K,O) se os eg OOD ers yar, Magnesia (MgO) a ene Be Utes, Lime (CaQ) Ue ee fe OPO 2 Oe Alumina (A1,O,) iS me tay ya enaoO = as, iEnospiorus (EO). a Sede Wee) aia Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) . 3°753 Remarks.—The soil contains traces of silica (soluble), manga- nese, moisture, and organic matter. XXI. Som From Saut-Licx.. SERIAL No. 11. Locanrry—Lachmipur~ Forest Range, Gorakhpur, United Pro- vinces. OBTAINED AND SENT BY—The Divisional Forest Officer, Gorakh- pur, United Provinces. Hard yellowish grey lumps. Powder rough. | Minerals and. detritus ee =» 0-88 per cent. Clay AS ae at eae ool Ae 22a JOUKNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Sand Organic debris Tlaae Moisture Fine Harth (20 mesh sieve) Insoluble in nitric acid Potash (K,O) Magnesia (MgO) Lime. (CaO) Alumina (A1,O,) ee Silica (810,) soluble ... Phosphorus (P,O.) .. iFerriceroxide (HerOs) ie Remarks.—1. The soil enuaine traces of soaunin sulphur, ganese, moisture, and organic matter. Vol. XXXVI 79-86 per cent. 4-44, 0-37 0-97 97-460 81-288 9-997 0-395 0-329 1-280 0-286 0-199 2:145 2. The lick lies in the Lachmipur beat. XXII. Common Eartu. SERIAL No. 12. eo Forest Range, Gorakhpur, vinces. ~OBFAINED AND SENT By—The Divisional Forest Officer, pur, United Provinces. Hard greyish pellets with rootlets. Powder rough. 0-36 per cent. Minerals Clay Sand tk Organic debris Humus Moisture : oe Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) Insoluble in nitric acid Potash (K,O) Magnesia (MgO) Lime (CaQ) Alumina (AI,O,) ae Silica (Si0,) soluble ... Sulphur (So,) ; Phosphonus (22 O>)i Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) ... Moisture and organic matter Remarks.—1. The soil contains traces of sodium, Manganese. United Pro- Gorakh- chlorine, and 2. The earth was taken from an area adjoining Salt- Lick No. 10. XXIII. Som From Saut-Licx. SERIAL No. 22 Locatiry—Ngawun Reserved Forest, Mergui District, Burma.—Lat. 11938’ N.; Long. 99°15’ E. Lower EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 223 COLLECTED AND SENT BY—The Divisional lorest Officer, Mergui, Lower Burma. Friable clayish lumps, yellow outside, grey inside; rootlets. Powder slightly gritty. Minerals ce noe ... 0-42 per cent. Clay i a, as 500. OILY 3 Sand me ae ... 67-04 oF Organic dena or x Pete ORG o Mepicture eee he Se Oa a Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) =e soe OUSDOS as Insoluble in nitric acid ae ... 84-360 s Potash (K,O) ba ae megs WiC OC Hien ee Magnesia (MgO) a ee Agatti T OSGen eepee Lime (CaO) ioe es soe OelllZ Alumina (AI,O,) es a sprain: WAC mess Silica (SiO) ‘soluble >: Aes Ce eO O10 mA, Pinesolnorus (PSO. oa. a Pa enOs200r) ar Ferric oxide (Ie,O,) ... Pe ety ape (al Bh PK Moisture and organic matter... Poe OS On ne: Remarks.—l1. The soil contains traces of sodium and manganese. 2.° Fifteen separate licks were found in an open erassy ‘Kwin’, 100 acres in extent and surrounded by dense forest. 3. The licks are visited principally by elephants all the year round, and by bison during the rains. Bisons eat the soft earth when the holes are flooded with water. Hlephants appear to visit mostly during the dry weather grinding the AB earth away with their tusks or tushes. \ XXIV. Som From Saut-Lick. SERIAL No. 231. : Locatiry—Near Horse Creek, Salmon River, Idaho, U.S.A. COLLECTED AND SENT BY—Col. R. Sparrow, The Lodge, Colne, Essex, England. butty earth with ee and felspars. Powder gritty and soapy. Minerals ae Se ... of:90 per cent. Clay hie Heh oat eee A aK Sand. ie en ee soo wBOeT = Organic debris so ee 1) O22 ‘ Nesieture ae ay a 2-40 ae Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ce ... 40-100 iS Insoluble in nitric acid se ... 80°6838 7 Soda (Na,O) Pes ae tee eco Orci. 2 Potash (K, QO) oe ne eee OO Magnesia (MgO) a ae Rie ene) 2A kere Lime (CaO) we vi ei Owns: oka Alumina (A1,O,) bas tes pape. LOB OO Silica (Si0,) soluble ... ae soo ea 2X0) Phosplronusi@2.O) oe Boe ee OCIS) 204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) bee ..' 1-308 per cent. Moisture and organic matter ie ... _ O°444 ad Remarks.—l. The soil contains traces of chlorme and manga- nese. | 4. The lick is frequented by Bighorn Sheep, Black- tailed Deer, and possibly by Rocky Mountains Goat at times. 3. The sample was taken on October 30, 1929, after a very dry summer and dry Fall. XXV. Som FROM SALT-LIcK. SERIAL No. 156. Locatity—Two miles west of Nagerhole Forest Rest House, South Coorg. } COLLECTED AND SENT BY—G. Robinson, Hsq., Chief Forest Officer, Mercara, Coorg. Very dark grey clayish ee Powder rough. Minerals Le ... 03°22 per cent. Clay ee Sa ae son OIL Sand fa ae So OO i Organic debits ee “a ERG Ore i Humus an we ba 20°46 as Mioigtune =. tae Se BOAT re Fine Barth (20 mesh sieve) ie sig BBOOOT 55 Insoluble in nitric acid ne eo OTS i Potash (K,O) Ate ce iol qe CORO SUn we as Magnesia (MgO) et ne 2 ee OeZOOl nar: Lime (CaO) nee it sou oy! - Alumina (A1,0O,) AG ae Sie, Pee Od ae | wlan, Silica (Si0O,) soluble ... se 2 OOO naa. Pacgyolevorus (WP) eo oe Ae OMS ie Manganese (Mn) ss Ae ean OLSON Olean Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) . Be i Ie SOO se Moisture and organic anaidien Pe 2220 a Remarks.—The soil contains traces of sodium. (To be continued). Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Mr. THomas Burgess Fry. (Born 8th July 1850; died 20th November 1981). OBITUARY. THoMAS Bureess Fry, 1850-1931. To a great majority of Members of the Bombay Natural History Society, Mr. Thomas Burgess Fry, who died on Novem- ber 20th, 1981, aged 81, will only be known as the author, in conjunction with Mr. M. A. C. Hinton and the late Mr. R. C. Wroughton, his brother-in-law, of several reports, published in this Journal, on the collections made by the Mammal Survey of India, which was inaugurated and maintained by the Society. He was the son of Robert Burgess Fry and Jemina née Baldock and was born at Crowborough, Sussex, on July 8th, 1850. He entered the Indian Forest Service (Bombay); and soon after his retirement in July 1905 he joined Mr. Wroughton, who was working at the Natural Mistory Museum in London and _ helped him most efficiently in the sorting, cataloguing, identifying, and subsequent dispersal to various Museums of the vast collec- tion of skins and skulls procured by the Survey-collectors and sent to England for those purposes. Although to begin with he had only a general “espana with the Indian fauna, such as most sportsmen possess, and was wholly without zoological training, he applied himself diligently to acquiring the technical knowledge necessary for the determination of the species, to the extent even of learning the structural details of the skulls and teeth of obscure groups, lke the Bats, Shrews, and Mice, in which he had_ previously taken little interest. After Mr. Wroughton’s death, he carried on the task single- handed, regularly putting in some six hours work on five days of the week, the odd week-days being set aside for golf at which, considering his years, he was wonderfully adept. Thus routine was broken only by a summer holiday, usually in Scotland, and by such recreations as the University boat-race, cricket matches at Lords and the Oval, and billiard contests. Himself an athlete of considerable physical vigour in his young days, he kept up his interest in games and sports to the last, and died suddenly as he would probably himself have chosen to die in the middle of a round on the golf course. He was buried at Ealing Cemetery alongside his relative and life-long friend and colleague, R. C. Wroughton. | Only a few days before his death he handed to Mr. Hinton for revision the report upon the Mammals of the Eastern Ghats. Appropriately then might he have exclaimed ‘Nunc dimittis’, for this collection was the last of the Survey work in the field, at all events for the time being. It will be impossible to replace him and he is grievously missed at the Museum, not only because his indispensable work there has come to an end, but because his placid, kindly, cheerful and courteous disposition endeared him to all with whom he came in contact. The photograph, showing Mr. Fry at his work in the Museum, was taken during the summer of 1926 by Mr. Hinton. ibd gle 5 AN APPEAL TO ANGLERS. The Editor, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Dear Sir, May I appeal to all Angling Members of the Society through the Journal for any information they can give me on Fishing Localities in India and Burma. With the disadvantage of limited movements as in my present position it is impossible to get in touch with even a small proportion of the Angling Com- munity in this vast country. JI have in mind as you know the publication of a book dealing with the fishing locahties in India and Burma, brought up to date from the date of the last book published, Skene Dhu’s Anglers in India, 1923. Any notes on fishing in any of these localities, or new ones not hitherto mention- ed, and of general interest to all keen anglers will be included and published either under the name of the contributor or his nom-de-plume, whichever he prefers. Sketches of good spots or lettered maps will be of general interest and gratefully received, as well as any type of fishing, Sea, Estuary, Tank or Mahseer, with as full notes of the means of getting to such places. : Thanking you, I am yours faithfully, A. MACDONALD. Ryam Facrory P.O., Dist. DARBHANGA. REVIEWS. HAND-LIST TO THE BIRDS OF SAMOA. By John S. Armstrong, M.B. Pp. i-iv, 1-91, London: Bale, Sons & Danielsson, 1932. Dit Je om Ammstronc saccompanied: Dram. A. Buxton and Mr. G. E.G. Hopkins on a research expedition to Samoa sent out by the London School of Tropical Medicine, and in spite of his medical duties found time to pay attention to the birds. Samoa was discovered by the famous French navigator, de Bouganville,— after whom the well-known genus of plants Bougainvillea was called,—and in his account of the voyage are the first notes on the birds of these islands. Various naturalists have paid visits to this group from time to time but few have given much attention to the habits of the indigenous species, and the little we know is, for the most part, through the observations of the Mission- aries, the Revs. J. Powell, J. B. Stair, and S. J. Whitmee. Dr. Armstrong in his list’ gives sixty-three species as occurring in the group, thirty-seven of which are resident in the different islands, while six are migrants and the remainder sea birds widely distributed through Poly- nesia. Of these thirty-seven, twenty-one are peculiar to the Samoa Islands and indeed some are contined to one island only. The discovery of the Tooth-billed Pigeon Didunculus strigirostris im 1845 created quite a stir at the time, since, at first, it was considered to have close affinity to the extinct Dodo. In regard to its habits too, there has been a diversity of opinions and Dr. Armstrong’s notes on the subject are therefore of much value. He describes its movements on the ground as a waddling walk and when disturbed the flight is low and not continued far. We are glad to learn that little change has taken place in the fauna since the islands were discovered and the only bird to become extinct is the Pacific Water-hen Pareudiastes pacificus an example of which has not been seen for the last twenty years. This book is perhaps rather more than a Hand-List since the author gives descriptions and notes on the habits of each species, and considering that he is now resident in New Zealand, far from a good ornithological lbrary, it is a creditable piece of work. INE lL, TEEN IDEIONSI OU MMi IBIORIDS) Ol IBVASUdeN) CisiONe. Jeay da iD)5" IDE ue Touche. (Vol. ii, parts 1 & u.) Taylor and Francis, London: 1932. We now come in the first part of volume II to the non-passerine birds and beginning with the woodpeckers, the Coraciiformes, as far as the swifts are treated. In all some fifty-seven species are given as occurring in Hastern China, but in addition descriptions of other races found in China, but outside the limits of the work, which adds greatly to the usefulness of the book. ‘The author has been at great pains to collect all the available information published on Hastern Chinese birds and there appears to be little he has overlooked. One new _ subspecies is described—Yungipicus scintilliceps kuwrodae from Fokien—a woodpecker allied to the Pigmy Woodpeckers of India. In the second part, two Nightjars, twenty-two Owls and forty-four Birds of Prey are dealt with. It is strange that no form of the Barn Owl, so widely distributed in different parts of the Old and New Worlds, occurs in China. There is an interesting photograph of Chinese falconers with eagles but unfortunately the author found no opportunity of seeing the birds at work. The Golden Eagle is captured in North China both for use in falconry and for the sake of its plumage—the tail feathers are in demand for fan making. Numbers of these tail feathers were formerly imported into this country but for what purpose we do not know. This part is well up to the standard of the previous ones and we look forward to the completion of this useful work. INES Bake 598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Ill. THE RIDDLE OF MIGRATION. By Wiliam Rowan. Pp. xiv and 151. 11 Text-figures. Baltimore: ‘The Wiliams & Wilkins Company. 1931. (Agents: Ballere Tindall & Cox, London). Price, Ils. 6d. net. Thanks to the wide interest which the study of Bird Migration has aroused amongst naturalists in recent years and to the many excellent contributions to the subject that have made, and still continue to make their appearance from time to time, a vast amount of data has accumulated concerning the facts and factors relating to this absorbing natural phenomenon. Careful and systematic field observations in many parts of the globe by competent ornithologists have helped increasingly to acquaint us with the facts of migra- tion. Speculations based upon the observed facts were abundant enough, but it had long become evident that to arrive at anything like a true interpreta- tion of them it was essential that the information gathered side by ‘side in the laboratory by trained biologists—facts of structure, function, biochemistry, biophysics and so on—should be co-ordinated with the field observations. This little book, which is by far the most original and suggestive of any on the subject that have come to our notice within recent years, examines the question of the periodic movements of birds from the standpoint of the bio- logist, and deals in particular with certain aspects of the possible mechanism of migration which the author is specially qualified to handle. It is at the same time an eloquent plea for the importance of the laboratory and the microscope in the elucidation of the problems of migration, as also of other problems concerning the true nature of animal behaviour. The author, in order that his work may enjoy a wider understanding than from specialists alone, rightly begins with the living bird; he points out the general principles of the avian constitution, and shows that it is futile to try and account for the inherited racial custom of migration by attributing to the bird (as has fre- quently been done in the past), human powers of thought and reasoning when the comparatively lowly structure of its brain clearly precludes such a_possi- bility. He suggests that the ductless glands of the body—the endocrine system——-perhaps play a much larger part in controlling behaviour than has hitherto been suspected. Indeed his experiments (to be described later) on the gonads of captive migrants controlled by artificial means, clearly demon- strate that these glands at least exercise considerable influence over the migra- tory mechanism. Environment is next discussed with its bearing on the evolution of migration. Several factors hitherto held to be of a more or less controlling nature (i.e. as providing the stimulus for migration), are then scrutinised and disposed of. ‘Thus :— 1. Failure of food supply owing to adverse wintry conditions: Not tenable since many species already leave for the south in July before such conditions have manifested themselves. . 2. Temperature: Similarly ruled out. 3. Barometric pressure: While this may speed migration it cannot be a fundamental stimulus, since low and high pressures when unseasonable, 1.e. between June and August, as often happens, fail to instigate migration. 4. Change of colour of leaves in Autumn: Since experiments have shown birds to be dull in colour perception, this can hardly be considered important. 5. Ulira-violet radiation: Experiments have shown that these rays, present in sunlight, have the power to produce the substance known as Vita- min D in the avian constitution by acting on the chemical compound ergosterol contained in the preen gland possessed by the large majority of birds. The intensity of these rays varies with the angle of the sun at different seasons and is at its lowest in winter. Although they are essential for the welfare of the organism we are not justified in assuming that they are effec- tive stimuli for migration since it is doubtful if birds can appreciate seasonal variation with sufficient promptness or intensity. By such a process of elimination, Prof. Rowan arrives at the conclusion that Day-length is the most constant and unchanging factor of the environ- ment (has been so throughout the ages), and that its dependability suggests this as the inaugurating principle. Hxperiments on the roosting, waking and singing periods of many species of birds have demonstrated remarkable sensi- tivity to the intensity of light. As experiments of castration and ovariectomy both in mammals and_ birds have shown, the reproductive hormones can evoke particular modes of instine- REVIEWS 229 tive behaviour. Migration involves reproduction and must therefore be con- sidered but a phase of sexual- behaviour. Having isolated the most constant and plausible factor in the environment, i.e. Day-length, Prof. Rowan proceeds to discover whether a gonadal hormone, elaborated at a specific season—the time of migration—might not provide the stipulated physiological stimulus. It is noteworthy that in the Northern Hemisphere the northward journey coincides with the enlargement and the southward with the diminution of the sexual organs. He works on the assumption that Day-length is the factor that controls the developmental condition of the gonads. He argues that these noticeable anatomical changes might well be accompanied by physio- logical, and further assumes that the hormone which provides the physiological stimulus to migration is elaborated when the gonads are in a particular phase of their cycle i.e. either increasing or decreasing. To investigate this hypothesis he devises a series of experiments on Juncos (Junco hymenalis)—an American finch-like migratory bird. The experiments commence in November when the majority of juncos in the natural state have already left for their southern winter ans. Their gonads at the time show the minimum development. By means of electric hghts the shortening winter day-length is artificially increased in an experimental aviary by about 5 minutes daily, corresponding to the Spring increase experienced by juncos returning north to their breeding area in Southern and Central Alberta. Later, from December 3 onwards, the interval of extra day-hght is reduced to approxi- mate natural spring conditions as far as illumination is concerned. The aviaries, both experimental and control, are not artificially heated but are subjected to the natural temperature which is well below zero, mostly between -23° and -44°F. This incidentally demonstrates the resistance of birds to cold and disproves the generally accepted view that the Spring recrudescence of the gonads is attributable to rising temperatures. By January 9 it is ascertained by dissection that the gonads of the experimentals, which have been growing under the conditions created, have attained the spring maximum. The increase is particularly rapid towards the latter end, the same as is the case with juncos in Spring. During the last 7 days of most rapid growth the temperature ranges between -4° and -44° F. On the other hand, the gonads of the controls not subjected to artificial lighting, but given the same food and exposed to the saine natural temperatures, continue to diminish until they reach the winter minimum in November where they remain till February. The experi- ment is reversed. The experimentals whose gonads have been artificially enlarged, instead of being subjected to the now naturally increasing day-length of Spring, are exposed to conditions where the day-length is progressively cut down at approximately the rate it decreases in Autumn. By February 13 the organs have dwindled down to the winter minimum. The experimentals are now turned out into another aviary under natural conditions of Spring with the day-light increasing by 4 minutes daily. By May 30 their gonads have again enlarged to fuli breeding size. These experiments prove - beyond a doubt that the day-length has a direct influence on the developmental condition of the gonads. Not satisfied with this however, Prof. Rowan proceeds to ascertain the precise factor in the day-length responsible for bringing about this condition in the gonads. In the above case the possible effects of Ultra-violet radiation are precluded since ordinary electric light bulbs (which were employed in the experiments) do not emit these rays. By means of a clever device in another experimental cage the birds are subjected to compulsory exercise so as_ to prevent their remaining inactive on their perches for over 20 seconds at a time. Both the experimentals and the controls (without the exercising mecha- nism) are placed in the same room day-length is manipulated by the opening and shutting of the windows. Both cages therefore are exposed to identical lighting conditions. At the end of the experimental day, when the windows are shut, the controls promptly retire to rest while the experimentals are restrained from doing so by the exercising mechanism which keeps them on the move. This mechanism is operated for progressively increasing periods of 74 minutes daily. Under these conditions it is found that the gonads oi the experimentals develop at the same rate as those of birds given similar periods of extended illumination outside, while the gonads of the controls reinain stationary. It thus emerges that the length of time spent in activity rather than the amount of exercise obtained is ane crucia factor controlling the 230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI gonads. Activity therefore is the missing link in the chain that connects gonad changes with variations in day-length. Dissection and microscopic examination of the gonads show that the inter- stitial cells (large glandular-looking cells scattered at certain times of the year through the connective tissues separating the seminiferous tubules within the testis, and the germinal epithelium within the ovary, and not directly concerned with reproduction) are present at their maximum just when the organs are in the phase found in birds at the height of their migrations both ways. To test the hypothesis that the stimulus to the migratory impulse is provided by the interstitial or hormone-producing cells, experiments on a fairly large scale were conducted by liberating juncos and crows whose gonads had been artificially developed as described. In four successive Winters it was found that on the whole although the birds were released considerably north of their winter quarters, they showed no inclination to go south to escape the rigours of winter, but on the contrary some of them actually moved north. The experiments of Prof. Rowan immediately open up a new and extensive field for investigation into the mysteries which have shrouded the fundamental causes and mechanisms of the great riddle of migration (and incidentally the nature of animal behaviour) baffled mankind through the ages. We recommend this book to all who take an interest in hving nature and in modern methods of scientific work, and hope that the author will continue to share with us the benefits of his further researches and discoveries. IV. SIZE AND FORM IN PLANTS (With Special Reference to the Pri- mary Conducting Tracts); By i. Of Bower, BiRas:, SC:D., Eup.) (2p: sa 232. Illustrated: Ibondon: Macmillan & Co., ltd. 19380.) 12s. 6d. net. In this book Professor Bower brings together the results of his studies on a subject to which he has devoted considerable attention for a number of years. As the sub-title indicates, the author has particularly drawn upon facts for discussion from the condition of the Primary Xylem, supplemented by his observations on other limiting surfaces also. The reason for selecting the primary conducting tracts is clearly the ease with which measurements can be conveniently made both in the lving and the fossil material. The subject so vast as that of Size and Form in Plants obviously could not be treated comprehensively within the limits of a single volume. The treatment has, therefore, been primarily confined to the limited field of the Pteridophyta. This group has been chosen not so much only because Professor Bower has made a particularly deep study of it, but also because here the conducting tracts appear in their simplest condition, i.e., uncomplicated by the developments of secondary growth, as is the case in some of the highest plants. The problem can thus be studied in its simple bearings and the facts assessed at their proper worth. Nevertheless, the author does not confine his discussions exclusively to those plants, or, for the matter of that, to any particular section of the vegetable kingdom. Consistently with the prescribed limits the evidence from the Algae, the Bryophyta and the Spermaphyta,—and even the animals—is equally well examined in the light of the facts suppled by the Pteridophyta, and is shown to support the conclusions based on their study. The facts presented in the text are shown to conform to Galileo’s ‘Principle of Similarity’, which the author regrets has not, in spite of its wide applica- bility hitherto been used in the case of plants. It is well-known, for example, that as size increases, the surface increases only as the square while the volume as the cube of the linear dimensions. Therefore on any increase in size there results an increasing disparity in the relation of the surface to volume, leading thereby to decreased ratio and to increased physiological ineffi- ciency, when organisms, whose existence depends on the transit of materials through surfaces of various descriptions, are growing. In the case of the unicellular forms this menace is levelled up at each division of the cell, which more or less restores the original ratio. In the higher types with progressively differentiated multicellular bodies, on the other hand, the position becomes more and more complicated as growth proceeds. In plants particularly, accumulators of energy as they are, and with their distinctive organisation REVIEWS 231 not only allowing but favourmg unlimited growth and expansion, the working out of the principle ushers in special difficulties, and requires for the efficient discharge of functions, special, external as well as internal readjustments. In this connection the author recalls that the stele, specially in the more primitive vascular plants, has been known to undergo changes of organisation as growth proceeds, which, although they compelled attention due to the peculiarities they developed, were yet treated from a purely morphological standpoint without any attempt to imterpret them in the hght of the fune- tions which they were called upon to discharge. They thus lacked the living, vital outlook and were regarded for a long time as purely formal vagaries. _ Professor Bower brings to bear upon the facts, culled from many sources, the authority of his intensive studies and mature thought. By means of an instructive series of diagrams, drawn to same scale, he shows how, during the ontogeny of the individual, as well as in the various groups of ferns, fern- allies and the seed plants, the increasing size introduces complexities in the stele which result in effectively checking the progressive discrepancy in ques- tion. He shows how the solid core of the primary conducting strand, during the adventures of the stele, becomes medullated, fluted, corrugated and_ stel- lated, and finally broken into many separate strands in response to the necessity of maintaiming, as the size increases, an effective surface in contact with the hving cells. Material from all groups of vascular plants beginning with the Psilophytales has been chosen. And the author convincingly argues how those plants, such as lLepidodendroids, the Botryopteridee and _ large Fern-types, e.g., Thamnopteris, which were not able to modify their stellar structure in response to the growing size, became a sort of contradiction in terms and died out. In the present day flora, too, he shows that no large plant is known to exist with a similar ineffective structure. Besides these observations confined to the primary vascular tracts the author also examines in the sequel the changes undergone by the other two luniting surfaces, viz., the endodermis and the external surface. Further he also shows how branching, with its inevitable accompaniment of leaf-develop- ment, 1s a similar reaction of Form to the requirements of increasing Size, and acts as a set off against the contingent loss of proportion of surface to buik, during development. In this way are brought together, under the influ- ence of one dominating force, designated by the name of Size Factor (for the present left undefined), all the multifarious types of form, external as well as internal, that characterise the entire vegetable kingdom. The presentation of the subject in the masterly manner which characterised the other writings of the author, 1s both refreshing and stimulating. It offers, for the first time, a rational explanation, in terms of the growing size, of the various types of stellar structures found in the plant kingdom, whose evolu- tionary sequence, though more or less clearly recognised, was nevertheless confined to purely morphological considerations. The treatment embodies a happy synthesis of the morphological and the physiological aspects, and gives a direct he to the growing tendency of some to segregate morphology and physiology into water-tight compartments. The author has by his unique interpretation, the outcome of prolonged study and deep thought, has put life into what are often regarded as dry bones of Plant Morphology, whose form and evolution did not conform to any plan or law. In these studies he has struck out several new paths and freed many a problem, of great pith and moment, from the obscurity into which it had fallen or was threatened to be relegated; and restored it to its position of proper recognition. The line of treatment so successfully adopted here by the author shows how incumbent it is to revise and overhaul the present system of botanical teachings, in order to bring it up in a line with the modern developments, and give to it its fuller interpretation. ING IK, 4 Ve LOC enti nhNis soni ORT = By James Small, pisc., Fuss. (2p. 224. Wlustrated. Tiondon: J. & A. Churchill. 1931.) Price 5s. This litthe book, the author informs us, owes its birth to the inquisitiveness ef two small children—Sheila and Donn—‘who wanted to see the insides of 232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI things’, and it is the hope of the author that ‘it may be useful and interesting to youthful imquirers of all ages.’ The text is’ written in the simplest language and, of course, without the use of technical terms and of long words. The material has been arranged month by month, and the directions are straightforward and clear. They deal with: the comparatively more obvious and more easily determinable features of the specimens. There are full-page illustrations accompanying the text. All that 1s required in the shape of equipment are a pocket lens magnifying about, 10 diameters, a pair of tweezers, a sharp pocket knife (or a small razor) and a piece of stiff celluloid. There is no doubt that the book will prove useful and stimulating to all who may be interested in the ‘insides of things’. As the writer himself points out ‘a vastly interesting region hes between the high magnification of the ordinary microscope, . . . and the usual range of details which can be seen with the naked eye,* and it might therefore appear strange that before the present author no one seriously thought of bringing it within the practical range of all and sundry. This little book will no doubt fill up this gap and will further stimulate interest by unfolding the beauties of nature that ordinarily le beyond the range of the ordinary human vision. Although written primarily for the British readers yet it can be easily adapted to condi- tions elsewhere too by substituting suitable types. One only hopes that the illustrations were bigger even though in this they went beyond the original magnification of the lens itself. Nee MiSGMebeNEnOUS NOTES I—THE BALINESE TIGER. PANTHERA TIGRIS BALICA (SCHWARZ). A considerable amount of literature has appeared on this sup- posed form, but apparently, (from lack of material) none of the authors felt quite sure as to its real validity as a separate sub- species. Schwarz, in his original paper,’ described the form from a single flat skin and skull, chiefly on the ground of the smaller size and flatter bullae, as compared with the Javanese-Sumatran races. Afterwards? he published a photograph of the same skull. Then we find* a quotation on the animal, taken from a letter, written by Mr. B. Ledeboer (now dead, killed in Africa by an elephant) to Mr. Jacobson at Fort de Kock, Sumatra, translated and published by the latter. Rightly, the information given in this letter, is called ‘puzzling’ by Pocock. Amongst other data we read there that the Balinese tiger is not smaller than the Javanese, and above all that, ‘if a Sumatran tiger is laid on its back, nothing is seen but a whitish skin, the underside of head, throat, breast and belly being totally without markings!’ Here there must be considerable misunderstanding, though I cannot make out who the offender is—either Mr. Ledeboer has made a very thoughtless error, or Mr. Jacobson has mis-translated his letter in English? Mr. A. Ledeboer (brother of Mr. B. Ledeboer), whom I visited for this purpose, told me and, moreover, clearly demonstrat- ed from his collection of skins, that there is indeed no question at all about the Sumatran tiger being striped on the belly—the stripes of the back certainly invade the underparts, and therefore such a supposition has never occurred to him or to his deceased brother! As coneerns the smaller size of the Balinese Tiger, in this respect also the remarks in the letter of Mr. B. Ledeboer are quite unex- plainable. Indeed, Mr. B. Ledeboer previously published another letter? in which he (knowing nothing of Mr. Schwarz’s new descrip- tion) gave his observaticn on the smaller size of the Balinese tiger! which his brother Mr. A. Ledeboer at once confirmed. I hope that I have now removed any misconception that may have arisen from the really very puzzling information in the letter of Mr. B. Ledeboer. Again, during my short visit to Mr. A. Ledebcer, I had the opportunity of looking over his large collection of skins and skulls Aji ngm ING Elists, 8-x, l9L2F p, 325: AA Ber. Senckeno. Naturf. Ges., 1, 1913, fig. 3. 2 Sowurie IPM Ss. MNGSe5 35 ISPALS (Os: PMs 4 Journ. Bom. N.H. Soc., xxxiii, 1928, p. 534. > In Koningsberger, Java Zool. Biol., Buitenzorg, 1915, p. 422, to = PRN ORIN A, IBOMUSVED INAUEO BAIL. IEDES IS SOCIIHING, Wil. 2 AXOKW IL of the Sunda-tigers (Sumatra, Java, Bali). Mr. A. Ledeboer had just obtained his 100th tiger, while the material of Mr. B. Ledeboer was also available! Unfortunately, my very limited time (only one afternoon), and further, the fact that the whole collection (skins and skulls) was decorating the walls of the house by way of ‘hunting- trophies’, prevented me from making a thorough study of this splendid material. Nevertheless, aided by Mr. A. Ledeboer’s knowl- edge—I here publish a few data on his material—even a cursory examination showed that the differences between the 8 Sunda-races of the tiger were so obvious, that, indeed, a single glance was suffi- cient to distinguish the races and to recognise the origin of the skins and skulls from their appearance! Without claiming even approximate completeness, I enumerate the following differences: sumatrae sondaica balica Size ‘normal’ ‘normal’ smaller Ground colour of| lhghtest darker darkest the skin Colour of innerside| whitish a lighter shade} like in sondaica of forelegs of the general groundcolour Nasals short and wide long and narrow | long and narrow Occipital plane broad narrow narrow Frontal line (fore-}| most flat more vaulted still more vaulted head) | | Bullae ‘normal’ ‘normal’ | somewhat flatter Of course I very much regret not having had the opportunity to trace all the differences in detail, and especially not to be able to fix any point in exact numbers. But, in connection with the doubt expressed by Kloss’ and Pocock (l.c.) about the validity of Schwarz’s form balica (and even Mr. Schwarz himself wrote me that he should be glad to hear of a further confirmation of his race), I think that even these incomplete (but, as far as they go, quite sure) data are of sufficient importance. For myself they have removed the last doubt as to the validity of the 8 named races of tigers of the Sunda Islands. Jely Js Vs OID, | We append below a note by Mr. R. I. Pocock. ‘Knowing my interest in Tigers, the Editors kindly sent me the MS. of Mr. Sody’s paper on the races of the Sunda Islands before setting it up in type. a S hominid, MMbcSo WS5, os, ISPN, jo. 2, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 235 When writing on these Tigers in 1928, I had very fle speci- mens whereon to form completely satisfactory conclusions regard- ing the distinctness of the Tigers of Sumatra and Bali from those of ane described many years ago as sondaica. Hence the addi- tional evidence on these points now supplied by Mr. Sody is particularly valuable and interesting. It is to be hoped that he may get further opportunities of extending his observations. His disapproval of the ‘puzzling’ statement, attributed to the late Mr. B. Ledeboer, regarding the alleged absence of stripes on the lower side of the Sumatran Tiger (sumatrae) is also very eratifying’.—Lps. | II.—REMARKABLE BEHAVIOUR OF A TIGRESS. While on the survey of the Hastern Ghats I was told a very strange tale (not by Col. Longbow) of the behaviour of a tigress in the Nallamalli Hills. As a matter of fact the story has gone its “‘umteenth’ round among the Officers and Rangers of the Forest Department in the Cuddapah and Kurnool districts. The scene was in the Nallamalli Hills, at Iskakundam Bun- gealow, which is about 80 miles from Diguvametta. The Conser- vator and his Deputy had oceupied the two rooms in the forest bungalow, the rest of the staff were in the out-houses. The Deputy was writing his report under-.a petrol lamp in his room when he felt something brush against his chair. He shehtly turned his head and saw a tiger rubbing itself along the back of the chair! ! I wonder what a good many of us would have done? Shouted? Screamed? Jumped on the table? or fallen down in a dead faint? The Deputy did none of these things. He was not a big game hunter. I doubt if he had ever killed a thing in his life. He calmly got up from his chair a as calmly walked out of the room—closing the door behind him. As calmly he announced to the Conservator in the next room, that he had securely locked a tiger in his room. None of us can blame the Conservator for jumping to a quite natural, though in this instance, unwarranted conclusion. The Deputy never drank a drop of spirits in his life. They both went outside and peeping through the barred window saw the tigress placidly rubbing herself against the table. The first shot hit the animal but in leaping up she upset the lamp which fortunately was extinguished by the fall. The second shot was fired from the roof, through a hole in the thatch. On examining the animal it was found that she suffered from a wound on the thigh which was alive with maggots. Now here is something for our big-game hunters to solve Though we cannot possibly afford a prize for the best explanation put forth, it will give us an insight into the philosophy with which 236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI each big-game hunter and others approach the fascinating study of animal behaviour. What brought the tigress into the bungalow ? Bompay. V. 8. LA PERSONNE, M.23.0.U.,; March 31. 1932. Asst. Curator. Ill.—THE SKIN OF A PERSIAN PANTHER (PANTHERA PARDUS SAXICOLOR). I am indebted to Mr. 8. H. Prater for kindly sending to me for examination the skin of another Panther shot by Mr. A. A. K. Sangster. The animal was killed ‘just across the Afghan border about 17 miles north of Zambaza’, where the first was procured. The skin is unfortunately undated but appears to be in summer coat. The hairs at all events are much shorter and the rosettes in consequence better defined. The colour too is not so pale, being ereyish buff with the dorsal area and the centres of the rosettes a shade darker, the difference no doubt .being seasonal. It is a shade more buffy than the skin from Seistan, presented to the British Museum by Col. R. L. Kennion and rather paler than the one from the Perso-Baluchi border collected by Capt. J. E. B. Hotson. These skins were referred to on pp. 79 and 82 of my paper on Asiatic Panthers published in Vol. xxxiv, p. 64 of this Journal in March 1980. I may add that the four skins. here referred to no doubt belong to the same race of Panther, namely the so-called Persian Panther (P. p. sazxicolor). They are strik- ingly different from the only known skin of the Panther from the Karthar range, Sind, which I described as P. p. sindica. The coat of this is harsh and short but quite thick and woolly and the dorsal area and the centres of the rosettes are comparatively rich ochreous. Additional skins, with skulls, of this Sind Panther are much needed. May 12, 1932. 1, 1 DOCG, a.8.S. IV.—BLACK LEOPARDS. The tollowing experience with black leopards may be of interest to readers of the Journal. On the 5th. November 1931 some local Assamese came to me with the body of a fine female black leopard which they had caught in a trap, the animal had been dead some few hours and had obviously died from maltreatment. I told them if by any chance they ever caught another to let me know at once; this they promised to do, and departed. At dawn next day they were back again to tell me that another, and larger, black leopard had just been caught in the same trap. I immediately went to the spot some 15 miles away, and there sure enough was a fine male animal; with some difficulty I got it hog-tied and muzzled and MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 237 varried to my car, in which I brought it back. Meanwhile an unused godown had been prepared for its reception. The difficulty then arose as to how we were to free the animal from its bonds once it was in the godown. Eventually we decided to chloroform it, and with the help of my friend we accomplished this by cover- ing its head with an oiled silk topee-cover in which was a pad of cotton wool soaked in chloroform. In a very short time the animal was apparently nicely off, and we, in our inexperience, thought we had administered sufficient anesthetic and proceeded to drag it into the godown and cut it loose. We had just accom- plished this and I had barely slipped the muzzle off when the animal staggered to its feet. We made a rush to get out cf the godown, which we did with the leopard hot on our heels. My friend turned round and caught the still shghtly dazed animal a kick under the jaw and tried to pull the door too but there was no stopping it; it was now loose in my compound with the hitherto interested audience of over a 100 coolies flying in all directions. My friend had by this time snatched up a bamboo and dealt the leopard a blow on the head, this, instead of having the desired effect seemed to wake up the animal! I thought it was ligh time | took a hand in the proceedings, which I did with the aid of a “450 automatic pistol. I now had two specimens of black leopard. Three days after to my surprise, the same Assamese came with the tale of having caught a third black leopard, this seemed altogether too surpris- ing but was nevertheless true. This time I made a better ‘bundo- bast’ and a fine male black leopard is now reposing in a more or less leopard proof godown and will shortly be transferred to the Calcutta Zoo. IT understand that the black leopard is usually regarded as a ‘sport’ which occasionally occurs in a litter of ordinary cubs; but the apparent numbers of this type of leopard, one was caught two years ago by the same people in the same spot, rather points to the fact that they prefer to mate with each other and produce a litter of black cubs. The three leopards all had a similarity of appearance, a mark- edly long and thick tail, eyes of a curious pale-blue. The people assure me that there is still another at large, and are arranging to build a machan to enable me to sit up and get a shot at it. Would you regard the black leopard as rare in this part of India—I should be interested to receive any information as regards these animals. Nya Goera T.K., GoueurR P.O., lit, IME IRIAN Danane, ASSAM. August 3, 1932. [Black Panthers are not a distinct species as is believed by many. The phase of colouration known as melanism is the opposite of albinism. The former is due to the excessive presence of black pigment known as melanin which darkens the colour of OR SOLENT, IONE INUAUTR ALL, 1EIS5P, SOOM, Woh, XO the hairs, while albinism is a condition in which the black pigment is entirely, or partially wanting. Black Panthers are particularly plentitul in regions of heavy rainfall and great humidity. They are very common in Java and the Malay countries, and have been recorded from Burma, Assam, Nepal and in the forests of Travan- core and South-Western India. Similarly albinism appears to be more irequent in the drier regions of India. In Volume I, page 71 of this Journal Mr. Newnham draws attention to the frequency of albinism observed among animals and birds in Cutch. It has also been observed that creatures which live in colonies and are hable to imbreeding and those which from breeding often have become over abundant, are also subject to albinism. Albinism is thus frequent among domestic animals and birds or wild species, like the peacock, bred in confinement under unnatural conditions and without the stimul of natural enemies. Albinism may arise as a germinal variation, i.e. a hereditary factor which influences the normal functioning of pigment-forming substances has dropped out of the inheritance, and true albinos so effected will on inter- breeding continue to produce albino offspring. Similarly in mela- nism, the darkening of the hairs, or the plumage, or scales may of course be individual modifications, but there are cases, as with the black panther, where melanism is exhibited in a large section of the species in a given area and here we probably have to do with germinal variation and interbreeding among these black panthers results in the perpetuation of the melanistic form.—Ebs. | V.—A CARNIVOROUS BEAR. We went from Srinagar to Pahlgam for a few days’ outing and sport. Pahleam is a lovely spot in Kashmir, about 63 miles from Srinagar. The main pathway of the ancient pilgrimage to Amar- nath begins from there. It was here, on the 1st. of July, that I made my first acquain- tance with the Himalayan Black Bear (Ursus torquatus)—under somewhat strange circumstances, which have led me to write this account. The local shikari brought in news of a bear having killed a calf; and he assured us that the beast would come back to feed on the carease before sunset. This report we did not credit at first, because the bear is generally known to be herbi- vorous. Therefore I decided to investigate their report personally, as never have I known, or heard, before of an animal being attacked and killed by a bear for food. However, on visiting the spot, I found the carcase of a calf which had been killed a couple of days previously; and about half of it had been eaten already. So I decided to sit up. A fine, big bear came at about 7 p.m. and was shot; but what interested me was that the animal came to the kill just as carnivora would do. I talked about this experience of mine with the Game Warden of this State, who told me that he had heard from natives about these Himalayan black bear occa- sionally doing some damage among the natives’ live stock; but MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 939 this was the first time he had had reliable first-hand information of a bear returning to a kill. SRINAGAR. MADANSINH OF KUTCH. ules Ie) 132. |The food of the Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos thibeta- nus) consists mainly of roots and fruits in quest of which this bear is frequently found in fields and orchards. Like most bears it is fond of honey and raids beehives. It has been known to feed on swarming locusts. At the same time the Himalayan Black Bear is the most carnivorous of Indian Bears. Not only does it kill cows, sheep, goats and deer but it also feeds on carrion. In a note on the habits of these Bears (Journ. B.N.H.S., vol. xvii, po Seo) Mire Cy Ee Donald” comments on! this bear's clumsy methods of killing. He came upon a bear making a_ kill—the victim was a cow. He shot the bear and put the cow out of its misery. The animal had one leg broken, two huge pieces of flesh taken out of her flanks while her stomach and hind quarters had been horribly lacerated by the bear’s teeth and claws. Of 11 fresh kills made by bears and seen by him—one of them, a bullock, was dragged up and placed in the fork of a tree!—Mr. Donald states that except in the case of a fine big buffalo, which was mauled about the neck and shoulders, all the victims were done to death in the same crude manner. It is evident that this bear, from the horrible job he makes of it, is a prentice hand at killing animals. The Brown Bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus) may develop carnivorous habits in the absence of its regular food. This consists mainly of herbs, fruits and roots. This bear restricts its deprada- tions to goats and sheep which it kills with one blow of its powerful paw. The Brown Bear does not attack cattle but has no hesita- tion in making a meal of a dead cow or buffalo. The Indian Sloth Bear feeds mainly on fruits and insects—but will occasionally feed on dead animals. Mr. Hasted records an instance of one which made a meal of a snake, which the writer took to be a Russell’s Viper.—Eps. | Vi.—WILD DOGS KILLING BY NIGHT. J send you herewith an account of Wild Dog killing at night, which you may care to publish as being interesting. In May this year I was shooting in ane Sal forests in a reserved block about 50 miles S.-E. of Wesel, We had five bodas tied out for tiger kills, the nearest one to the bungalow being just over half a mile away on the forest road and here a Folia and a track joined it, and 3800 yards beyond a bridge over a small nullah which still had a few pools of water remaining. 240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI We were sitting at dinner at 9 p.m., pitch dark, no moon, when we heard bellowings from this boda and at once imagined it was a tiger killing it. The noise trom the buftalo however continued so long that we were puzzled, and calling one of the shikaris, we asked him what it meant; he at once said “Wild Dog’ which I queried, pointing out that it was too late and dark for wild dog to be out hunting. At daylight next morning the boda coolie came back at once saying there were about 380 Wild Dogs with puppies on the kill in the nullah. We went down at once but the dogs had all gone, and we found the remains of the boda (practically all eaten) close to a pool in the nullah. There was a clean drag from where the boda had been tied down to the nullah, a distance of about 200 yards and nothing but dog tracks visible in the vicinity. I searched all the roads and nullah but could find no sign of tiger or panther tracks. I fancy the pack were coming down the road on their way home later than usual and finding the boda, killed it; but why this long drag? I have never known them to drag their kills before. Was it anything to do with the puppies in the water? Jing Ng MESS, Tt, Ei CARIES, nee GA. cine Comes eG June 20) 1932. ViP—_WikbD DOGS HUNTING AND TOURING BY NIG Apropos of Ramanuj of Surguja’s note on “Wild Dogs Hunting at Night,’ I have on record six instances of Wild Dogs hunting and ailling their quarry by night. Four imstances are from the plains and two from the Himalayas; in four of these cases I have heard the Wild Dogs in full ery. The first instance, and thie most prolonged hunt, was that of a Sambar hind, which appeared to elude its tormentors for half the night. I had frequently seen the hind while pottering about for birds. ae was heavy with young. One night (there was-no moon), at about 11 p.m., we heard the Wild Dogs barking and yelping. The sound came from many directions as_ the Forest Bungalow at Ballepalle (Hastern Ghats) was perched on a knoll we could easily follow the gruesome chase as it circled around us. At 4 a.m. there was silence. and taking the rifle IT set out to investigate. A half mile into the forest and I could hear snarlings and yaps of pain as the Wild Dogs fought each other over the kill. ‘T shall never forget the awiul sieht which greeted me when turning in the Hitecuon of these sounds i found my hind with her head MISCELLANEOUS NOTES DAI thrust into a thick bush and the most agonising look in her glassy eyes. Her hind quarters were eaten away, and the protruding hind legs of the unborn Sambar eaten up to the knees. Case No. 2 was that of a male Sambar in the Palkonda Hills of the Eastern Ghats. The ‘baying’ began at about 9 p.m. (no moon), but the quarry was in no mood for a long run, and evaded death by taking refuge in the bungalow stables! We flashed the light on him and saw a nasty gash on his left flank. It must have been touch and go for that Sambar. He limped out at the first sign of dawn but flashed into the forest on hearing our rousing cheer. Case No. 3 was that of a Cheetal in the Nallamalai Range (Mastern Ghats). The ‘baying’ began at 10 p.m. and by mid- night the sounds stopped. It was not a full moon night, of that I am certain. Next morning we set out to find the kill. There were portions of the head and larger bones scattered about, noth- ing else! Case No. 4 was of another Cheetal but this was killed before 9 p.m. It was a dark night. The two cases from the Himalayas occurred at Lachung in Sikkim at 10,000 feet. Both kills were made at night which are usually misty during the months of June and’ July. But both these kills were cattle and I do not think they come under the category of a ‘hunt’. What particularly struck me in the Wild Dog hunts was the understanding of team work each Dog seemed to possess. The case of the Sambar hind which I mentioned first gave me a very good idea as to how these dogs work. Each foot path and track bore the imprints of their pads, always leading towards a common centre. The Dogs had come in singly or in pairs down every available tracks, a mile away from the common centre where we found the kill. The dogs seem to realise that a big creature like a Sambar cannot very well charge through undergrowth but must keep to the paths. The Ramanuj of Surguja raises a point as to the keenness of sight among Wild Dogs at night. I should not think it would be absolutely essential for Wild Dogs to possess very keen night- sight to detect game in jungles frequented by game. Mostly all game stick to the paths and tracks which show up quite distinctly at night and any object moving down or across a path would be detected. Besides sound and scent play a very great part in ai Wild Dog hunt. Dense forests into which the sun never penetrates and which are as black as ink at night, never harbour any game animals. Most game keep to the open or patchy forests. Here there are more opportunities of evading capture by fleetness of foot and here also the hunters reap their harvest. Bompay Nat. Hist. Society. V. S. LA PERSONNE, daly WS, Wey ASSt, \CUnaLOT: 16 944 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI VIII.—CARCASES OF ANIMALS DYING OF RINDERPEST AVOIDED BY JACKALS AND OTHER CARNIVORA. On reading through the Nilgiri Game Association Reports from 1895 to last year I see that in the Report of 1909 an outbreak of rinderpest among bison and sambhur is reported (imported by cattle), and it was observed that the carcases of animals found dead from rinderpest were not touched by jackals. During the severe outbreaks of rinderpest in the past three years among cattle in the Kollegal Division it was noteworthy that although the flesh of the animals that died from this disease was removed and eaten by the low caste people, neither tiger, panther, nor jackal would touch the carcases; I cannot vouch for the hyaena. That the disease spread so rapidly was due, I think, to the meat being carried by the low caste Madigars from village te village. HonnaMetti Estate, RANDOLPH C. MORRIS. ATTIKAN P.Q., Via Mysore, S8.I. Agri WD, WOsys. IX.—DEATH OF AN ELEPHANT FROM RABIES. The following case of the death of a tame elephant by rabies | may be of interest. On the 16th. of January of this year, one of my cow elephants was bitten on the trunk and round the hind quarters by a dog. Tie wounds were immediately cauterized, and on 24-1-1932 though the dog had not been recovered and identified as mad, a course of anti-rabic treatment was commenced. Fourteen injec- tions of vaccine at the rate of one per day were given, until 6-2-32. The wounds healed up properly, and until 26-2-32 the animal was in normal health, eating its rice and fodder as usual. On 27-2-382 the elephant went lame in the off hind leg. On 28-2-32 paresis set in, and the animal fell down on her stifle joints and, though in much pain, she made attempts to get up again. She ate a little fodder and drank water. This condition continued on 29-2-32, but on 1-38-32 it became aggravated, and she was only able to recline on her elbow and stifle joint. Her appetite was poor, and a few wisps of green grass was all she could manage to eat. On 2 and 38-38-32, the paresis developed into paraplegia with absolute loss of the use of the hind quarters. On 4-38-82, swelling of the tail and hind quarters was apparent, with a total loss of appetite and failing consciousness. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES p45 On 5-3-32 total paralysis set in, with loss of consciousness, rapid, irregular and feeble pulse, laboured breathing, cold and hide bound body, cynosis of ‘tthe mucous membranes and on 6-3-1932 the animal died. During the period of sickness the animal grew very thin. Microscopical examination of the brain by the Pasteur Insti- tute revealed positive rabies. It is noteworthy that, at no time, was there the slightest sign of the disease taking a violent turn. VIZAGAPATAM. Je CK April 15, 1982. District Superintendent of Police, Vizagapatam. X._SOUNDS MADE BY GAUR OR INDIAN BISON (BIBOS GAURUS). I have read many Natural History books, but in none have I seen described a curious call uttered by, I believe, only bull Gaur (Bibos gaurus). The other day I was watching these animals erazing in the late evening, when the call was heard in the dis- tance and answered by one of the herd, whether a bull or not I could not ascertain, a curious bell-like note, sustained for an appreciable time and ending in what only can be described as a rasping sigh, almost a roar, the whole being a wild combination of a sambhur’s bell and a tiger’s roar, it may be written ‘0-0-0-0-0-0-0-o-aagh’, it is notoriously difficult to describe sounds in writing, but the only book I have read in which ealls made by Gaur are described, Dunbar Brander’s Wild Animals of Central India, he mentions five distinct sounds, none of which approxi- mate anything like the sound I was so fortunate to hear. I have been informed by Dufflas, who are, of course, familiar with sounds made by the Gayal (Bibos frontalis), their domestic mithun, that a similar call is made by the bulls, but not quite the volume of sound as made by Bibos gaurus. The above may be of interest to readers of the Journal. Nya GoGRA, Goupur P.O., Lan IE EIVALO NE. ASSAM. March 26, 1982. 944 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI XI.—THE DURATION OF LIFE OF SOME INDIAN MAMMALS. (The Indian Forester, vol. lvii, Feb. 1982). The duration of life among mammals is a subject of some interest in agriculture and forestry, but practically no information on it has been hitherto available. Major Stanley 8. Flower has now concluded a series of ‘Contributions to our Knowledge of the Duration of Life in Vertebrate Animals’ in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London with a discussion (1931, pp. 145- 234) of the available information on mammals. From this splendid work, which is based on a large series of records of mammals in captivity in various parts of the world, the following information relating to Indian species has been abstracted by request. The names in brackets are those used by Blanford in his volume on mammals in the ‘Fauna of British India’ series. The Gibbons, Hylobates hoolock, H. lar, ete., reach maturity when about seven years old. ‘Instances of their living in captivity to nine years are rare, though they may live to the age of at least twenty-iour years.’ ‘The Old-World Monkeys, regardless of size, appear to have an average life of under seven years, a specific longevity of about ten years, a full-span life of about fifteen years, and a potential longevity of about twenty-five to thirty years.’ Langurs have lived in captivity in Calcutta for ten years, and a Nilgiri Langur survived for fifteen years in the Trivandrum Zoo. Among the Macacus monkeys, the common M. mulatta (better known as M. rhesus) frequently lives to fifteen years and even more. There is a record of one individual that was probably twenty-nine years old at the time of its death. The Bonnet Monkey, M. radiata (M. sinicus) averaged a life of twelve years in the Trivandrum Zoo, and one individual lived to fifteen years. The Macaque or Kra Monkey, M. irus (M. cynomolgus) lives for fifteen years, but individuals may-live for almost twice this period. M. silenus, the so-called Wanderoo or Lion-tailed Mon- key, only lives for five to ten years in captivity as a general rule. A Slow Loris, Nycticebus coucang, has been recorded as living for ten years in the Calcutta Zoological Gardens. | Of the insectivores little is known. A Bornean Tree-Shrew, Tupaia tana, has lived in the London Zoo for a little more than two years, and Hardwicke’s Hedgehog, Hrinacecus collaris, has survived in the same place for almost two and a half years. The average life of shrews and hedgehogs is probably in the neighbour- hood of two years. The Fruit-Bats have an average life of nine years with an extreme maximum of about twenty years. The common Flying Vox, Pteropus giganteus (P. medius), does well in captivity, a female having lived in London for over seventeen years and a male in Dublin for over eight years. Among the insectivorous MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 245 bats Roux’s Horseshoe Bat, Rhinolophus rouxi, seldom lives over four years and is not known to reach an age of five years. Tigers, Felix tigris, may be expected to live in captivity for four or five years, but Flower has notes of fifty individuals with an average life of eleven years. Records’ of extreme longevity show that tigers can live for thirteen to nineteen years and pro- bably more. Leopards, Felis pardus, appear to have a _ very similar span of life. Of the Snow-Leopard, Felis uncia, little is known, but it does not appear to have done well in captivity. One male lived in the London Zoo for a little over three years, and in Philadelphia a specimen died after nearly eight years of captivity. For other species of Felidae that occur in India the following records are available :— Jungle Cat, Ff. chaus. Three specimens known that lived for a little more than nine years. Lynx, F. lynx. One record (9) of sixteen years life, and one (9) or nearly eleven years. Caracal, F. caracal. Seldom lives over seven or eight years in captivity. Individuals have, however, survived for as long as sixteen years. Clouded Leopard, F. nebulosa. Difficult to keep alive in captivity. A female has, however, lived in the London Zoo for eight years. Leopard Cat, F. bengalensis. One record of twelve or thirteen years life. A female is still alive in the London Zoo after some nine years there. Golden Cat, F. temmincku. One record of life in captivity for nearly eleven years. Fishing Cat, Ff. viverrina. Two records show that the aver- age lie is in the neighbourhood of ten years. Cheeta, Acionyx (=Cynelurus) jubatus. Seldom lives for more than six years in captivity. Records of extreme longevity show, however, that individuals may live tor more than fifteen years. For Indian Civets and Palm-Civets (Viverride) the following records are known:— Indian Civet Cat, Viverra zibetha. Five records of nine to fifteen years (average about twelve years). Small Indian Civet or Rasse Civet-Cat, V. malaccensis. Between seven and eight years (two records). Burmese Tiger Civet, Prionodon maculosus. One doubtful record of a specimen having lived for more than eighteen years. : Indian Palm-Civet, Paradoxurus niger. More than fourteen years (one record). Malayan Palm Civet, P. hermaphroditus. Nearly twelve and a half years (one record). Paradoxurus leucomystax. About thirteen years (two records). | Paradoxurus larvatus. Two records, showing a life of nearly eleven years and fifteen and a half years respectively, are available, 246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Small-toothed Palm Civet, Arctogale leucotis. Two records showing a life of eight years and eleven years respectively are given by Flower. Bear Cat or Binturong, Arctictis binturong. A specimen was still living in the Trivandrum Zoo in 1918 after nearly twelve years there. Another died in London after being in captivity for eighteen years in Singapore and London. Among the Mongooses, the common Indian Mongoose or Grey Mongoose, Herpestes nyula (also known as 4H. griseus and H. mungo) has an average life of two years in captivity, the records for extreme longevity being nearly five years (London) and eight years (Trivandrum). Other species of Indian Mongoose do better in captivity as the following records show :— Spotted or Small Indian Mongoose, H. auropunctatus. The average life is about seven years according to records from Calcutta and London. Ruddy Mongoose, H. smithii. One specimen lived in the London Zoo for nearly six years. Ceylon Brown Mongoose, H. fulvescens. One specimen lived in the London Zoo for nearly five and a half years. Stripe-necked Mongoose, H. vitticollis. A male survived captivity in the Trivandrum Zoo for nearly thirteen years. Of the Hyaenas, Major Flower writes:—‘The Striped, the Brown and the Spotted Hyaenas are all long-lived animals. Fifty- four individuals in fourteen different collections had an average life of twelve years and maximums of from twenty-three to twenty- five years.’ Hight records of the striped Hyaena, Hyaena hyaena (H. striata) range from nearly twelve years to twenty-four years, the majority being in the neighbourhood of sixteen years. Regarding wolves, thirty specimens of Canis lupus averaged a life of nearly ten years, cases of extreme longevity being repre- sented by two records of nearly fourteen years. Two Indian wolves, C. pallipes, are believed to have lived in captivity for nearly thirteen and fifteen years respectively. Jackals show an average and extreme length of life similar to that of wolves. Specimens have lived for over twelve years in the Trivandrum Zoo and for over fifteen years in the Calcutta Zoo. Several English specimens of the Common Fox, Vulpes vulpes (V. alopex) have lived in the London Zoo for more than eight years. Blanford, however, states that ‘Foxes live thirteen or fourteen years’. An Indian Desert Fox, V. leucopus, lived in the London Zoo for nearly eleven years. Of the other Canidae little is known. An Indian Wild Dog, Cuon dukhunensis, was still alive in the Trivandrum Zoo after nine years, and a Malay Wild Dog, Cuon rutilans, survived captivity in the London Zoo for six and a half years. Records of the Mustelide are confined to Otters in so far as species occurring in India are concerned. Indian Otters have survived captivity for periods between eleven and sixteen years. Bears live well in captivity. The average life of the Brown Bear, Ursus arctos, seems to be over twenty years, the extreme age not less than thirty-four years. The Himalayan Black Bear, MISCHLLANEOUS NOTES 247 U. tibetanus (U. torquatus), seems to have a very similar duration of life. The Malay Bear, U. malayanus, appears to be shorter lived, the average being under twelve and the extreme under twenty-one years. Several Sloth-Bears, Melursus ursinus, have lived in captivity for an average of twelve years and some for periods between sixteen and twenty-two years. According to Blanford, a Sloth-Bear may live for forty years, but this is pro- bably an over-estimate. Among the Rodents, rats and mice have a specific longevity of two to three years and a potential longevity of five to seven years. Flying squirrels, squirrels, marmots and porcupines appeai to have a specific longevity of five to ten years and a potential longevity of fifteen to twenty years. The following information relates to Indian species :— Large Flying Squirrel, Petaurista (=Pteromys) inornatus. A specimen lived in the Calcutta Zoo for over eleven years. Palm Squirrel, Funambulus (=Sciurus) palmarum. An albino specimen lived in the London Zoo for five and a half years. Giant Squirrel, Ratufa indica. A specimen, in the posses- sion of the Bombay Natural History Society, lved for over sixteen years. Hodgson’s Marmot, Marmota (=Arctomys) caudata. Three individuals lived to over six years in the London Zoo. Black and Brown Rats, Rattus rattus and R. norwegicus. The average life of these rats is probably two to three years, but definite information is not available. House Mouse, Mus musculus. Major Flower’s longest record is only a year and a half. As a schoolboy I domes- ticated a litter of mice; they remained alive for about a year. | Bamboo Rat, Rhizomys badius. A specimen lived in Cal- eutta for at least three years; another lived in the London Zoo for nearly three and a half years. Poreupines (Hystrix spp.) and Brush-tailed Porecupines (Atherurus spp.) live from eight to twelve years, extreme longe- vity in Hystrix being represented by a specimen that lived to nearly twenty and a half years in the London Zoo. Hares and rabbits ‘live to an age of five or six years, and exceptionally to twice as long’. The specific and potential longevity of the Indian Elephant appears to have been greatly exaggerated by several writers in- cluding Blanford. According to Flower there is no ‘absolutely convineing evidence of an Elephant living to the age of 100 years’. i sixty elephants seen by him in India and Burma in 1918 the oldest were under fifty-five years of age, while from records of elephants outside India ‘that have lived longest in their respective new homes we find that they have an average life of a little over twenty-eight years’ and it is reasonable to suppose that elephants survive even better in captivity than they do in the wild state. From the evidence of dentition seventy years would appear to be a 249 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HAIST._SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI liberal estimate of the potential longevity of an Indian Elephant. It is also of interest to add that elephants become sexually mature at an earlier age than is commonly supposed. Cases are known of elephants. that have calved when between thirteen and sixteen years ol age. Asiatic Wild Asses average a life (according to twenty- ee records) of about fifteen and a half years and may live to twenty- two years or more. Records of Kiangs, Hquus kiang (H. hemio- nus) show that individuals may live in captivity for periods rang- ing from eighteen to twenty-five years. A female Indian Wild Ass died in the London Zoo after nearly sixteen years of captivity. Most Rhinoceroses are said to live for less than ten years in captivity, but “twenty-seven. selected individuals show an average life of almost twenty-two years’, and individuals have been known that have lived for over forty years. Fifteen records of the Great Indian Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis, show an average life of about twenty-nine years, a minimum of fifteen and a quarter years and a maximum of forty-seven years. An individual of the smaller Sondaic Rhinoceros, R. sondaicus, lived in the London Zoo for nearly eleven years, and another in the Calcutta Zoo for over fourteen years. Four records for the two-horned Rhino- ceros, R. sumatrensis, show a life between ten and thirty-five years. | The majority of Tapirs live less than six years. in captivity, but their potential longevity is at least thirty years. The. aver- age for eighteen individuals over seven years of age is about fifteen years. The longest records in the London Zoo for Malay Tapirs, Tapirus indicus, are nine and a half years for a male and a little over eleven years for a female. A Tapir, probably the same species, lved in the Trivandrum Zoo for twenty-three years. The larger wild cattle have a specific longevity of nine to twelve years, and a potential longevity of twenty to twenty-five years, or even (but very rarely) thirty years. The Domestic Humped Ox, Bos indicus, frequently lives between ten and four- teen years; a pair of gayals, Bibos (=Bos) frontalis, lived in London for about fifteen years; Yaks, Poephagus (=Bos) grun- niens, are capable of breeding to at least eighteen years of age, six records of long-lived Yaks ranging from fifteen to nearly twenty- four years. A very long-lived Asiatic Buffalo, Bubalis (=Bos) bubalis lived in captivity for over twenty-nine years and must have been over thirty years of age when it died. On wild sheep, goats, goat- -antelopes, and antelopes the. follow- ing information is available: Urial, Ovis vignei. Three individuals have lived for over eleven years in the London Zoo. Bharal, Pseudois nahoor (Ovis burrhel). Ten individuals have lived in the London Zoo for over eight years each, and some have survived for periods ranging from thirteen to sixteen years. Markhor, Capra dalaomnonn. aii the common goat, C. hircus, the ordinary life of the Markhor and other wild -gonts is eight to ten years. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1249 Himalayan Ibex, C. sibirica. A female was killed in the London Zoo after having lived there for a little over twenty-two years. Thar, Hemitragus jemlahicus. ‘The ordinary life is as for the goat, but individuals may live to: twelve to fourteen years and even to over sixteen years. Nilgiri Thar, H. hylocruis. Probably the same as the above. A specimen lived in the Trivandrum Zoo for nearly seventeen ears. : : Goral, Naemorhedus (=Cemas) goral. A male lived in the London Zoo for a little over eleven years; another survived for nearly eighteen years. Makin: “Budorcas’ taxicolen. «. A male lived im Iuondon for nearly nine years; a female is still alive there after about eight years. Blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra. Several records show that this antelope seldom lives longer than seven years in ealpabanay, but individuals may live to fifteen years. Four-horned Antelope, Tetracerus quadricornis. A specimen lived in the London Zoo for seven and a half years; another is said to have lived in Pretoria for ten years. : Nilgai, Boselaphus tragocamelus. This species does well in captivity and produces twins regularly, but the maximum ages it reaches are very moderate, being generally between eight and twelve years. An exceptional female in the Antwerp Zoo is said, however, to be more than twenty-one years old. The Superin- tendent of the Zoological Gardens, Calcutta, gives the average age (in a letter to the Forest Entomologist) as ten to fifteen years, the same period being also applicable in his opinion to other large antelopes. For deer the following records are available for Indian species : — Muntjac or Barking Deer. Major Flower does not give definite records for the Indian species, but it would seem that these animais seldom live more than six to eight years. | Chital, Axis (=Cervus) axis. The records for twenty-five selected individuals show an average of about ten years. -The longest records range from twelve to fourteen years, but an ex- ceptional individual lived in Paris for almost nineteen years. The Superintendent of the Caleutta Zoo informs us that the average age is ten to fifteen years. | Hog Deer, Hyelaphus (=Cervus) porcinus. The longevity of this species is similar to that of the Chital. Sambar, Rusa (=Cervus) unicolor. The longevity of this species is also similar to that of the Chital, but more cases of individuals attainme ages between fourteen and eighteen years are known. Barasingha, Rucervus (=Cervus) duvaucelu.. This species, and other Rucervine deer, appear to have a longer life than the Chital and Sambar. Records are given by Flower of specimens that have lived for periods ranging from a little over fourteen years to twenty-three years. The average life is probably in the neigh- bourhood of twelve years. 250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Thameng or Eld’s Deer, R. eldui. Three records, showing a life of thirteen years, are given by Flower. Hangul, C. hanglu and Wallich’s Deer, Cervus wallichi. These Kashmir deer may live for thirteen to fourteen and a half years according to the two records given by Flower. Regarding the Indian Wild Boar the Superintendent of the Calcutta Zoological Gardens informs us that they live for fifteen to twenty years, but Flower’s records for wild swine show that twenty years is the potential longevity, the average being in the neighbourhood of ten years. An Andaman Boar, Sus andamanen- sis, lived in the London Zoo for a little over twelve years. It may be of interest to add that among domestic animals the ordinary extreme age for cats is about fifteen years; the average life of a dog in England is less than four years, though the poten- tial hfe is very much more. A dog is old at ten years, but cases are known, especially among terriers, of survival to twice this age and more. Of horses it is said that given a fair chance it is not unusual for them to live to, and be capable of reproduction at, twenty-five years, the average extreme age being in the neigh- bourhood of thirty-five years. The oldest age claimed for a horse is sixty-two years, and authenticated cases of horses living for forty to fifty-five years are known. Donkeys may live for forty to fifty years, but the average good life is probably about twenty years. Mules appear to have much the same span of life as donkeys. For domestic oxen and cows the specific longevity les between five and twelve years, for sheep between seven (ewes) and twelve (rams) years. Goats have an ordinary life of eight to ten years, but may live and be useful for much longer. A camel generally passes the point of utility at twenty years, and should not be used for hard work before it is six years old. The extreme age of a camel may be about forty years. In concluding it may be stated that, contrary to popular belief, man tops the list of long-lived mammals. The biblical span of ‘three score years and ten’ is a fair average, but individuals may live to a hundred years and even much more. The Asiatic ele- phant and the horse are the longest lived mammals after man. Insectivorous bats, insectivores, and small rodents are the shortest lived mammals, their maximum expectancy of life being in the neighbourhood of five years. In such cases the equilibrium of population is maintained by great fecundity. CEDRIC DOVER. XI.—THE DURATION OF LIFE OF SOME, INDIAN MAMMALS. TIGERS. Writing in The Indian Forester for June 1982, referrmg to Mr. Dover’s article on the ‘Longevity of Indian Animals’, in which he | MISCELLANHOUS NOTES 251 says:— Records of extreme longevity show that tigers can live ito vO lam yearsmands provdbolngemonree- Mire sae. Le Minehing Tras: quotes a case of a man-eater having lived for about 20 years in the Ganjam District. I give below, with Mr. Minchin’s permis- sion, his note on the subject:— . ‘A man-eater who had his beat in the Chendragiri forest of Ganjam District was well known in 1913. He did most of his business on a forest road from “‘Cox’s Corner’’—named after Mr. Stephen Cox—to the edge of the sal jungle near Tilisingi. Ganjam tigers are man-eaters by ‘heredity generally, and not ‘“‘by misfortune’. There were nearly always several tigers in the locality referred to; but it is improbable that there has been any contusion about the identity of this particular tiger. He had dis- tinctive mannerisms. For example, after crossing a stream bed the road passed upwards through a cutting. Whilst a train of loaded timber carts were labouring up the incline, out on to the road would stroll our tiger, would sit him down luxuriously and enjoy the ensuing pandemonium. Some magic or telepathy would warn him when to abstain from such performances. In 1918 he was mature; probably not under four years old. Otherwise he could hardly have appropriated and defended so desirable a beat. In 1915 there were five hundred rupees on his head; and one day he would have come to an end but for ill- timed politeness between myself and another man: my fault it was. I do not know exactly how many people he is supposed to have killed both before and after this occasion. Dozens and dozens. A man-eater may seem to have been a bad institution. It must be observed though that my friend’s victims were frequently women, were never above the rank of Forest Guard, and that, in a forest where the general shooting was poorish, he certainly raised the standard of his tract far above the average. To one of his exploits we owe a memorable Service Order, which run “‘K. Lachmana to act as Forest Guard, Fourth Grade, in Tarasingi beat, vice Bamsonia devoured by tiger, with effect from March 3rd, WES”, The same tiger was there in 1920, when I left the district. In 1925 I toured in Ganjam; and once again in 1929. From what local acquaintances—forest officials and also the Khonds and Ooriyas—had to say, it was still the very same tiger. The use of the forest road had long been abandoned; and only armed parties ventured in for thinnings, fire tracing etc. About 1921 Mr. Shelswell, whilst looking after thinnings, was the victim of an unprovoked attack by a rogue elephant in this same place. Quite a warm corner in fact. In 1929 March, early one hot weather afternoon, I was watching a fire line, along which it seemed the tiger might come back towards his kill. He came unexpectedly early and took me by surprise so that I did not make up my mind to fire quickly enough; but a mental picture of him remained. He had no tawny shades in his coat: there were the dark stripes on a dull silvery grey ground colour. Obviously an old animal. Mr. 254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Ware of the Veterinary service was with me at the time. It was he and I who had had the chance at the same tiger in 1915. After this occasion in 1929 no more was heard of the “‘Chend- ragiri Man-eater’’. There is no story of any one having shot at him; but he ceased to terrorise the neighbourhood. . As far as one can be sure in a matter of this kind, the tiger, which must have been quite four years old in 1918, was the same tiger that was last seen in 1929. That would male him not less than 20 years old at the time of his presumed death.’ The above is about equalled by the history of the Bargur man- eater which was the periodic scare of the Ramapuram-Bargur Ranges (Kollegal Division, Coimbatore District) for 15 or 16 years. This tiger apparently varied its diet with men, cattle and game killing, rather a peculiar case. It was finally shot in 1928 by a poacher, who was out for a stalk in the early morning, met the tiger round a corner, fired, threw down his gun and bolted for dear life. The tiger was later in the day found lying dead. Needless to say, the man did not claim the reward, knowing he would be prosecuted under the Arms Act and for poaching. This tiger must have been quite 20 years old at the time of its death. HonnamMetti Estates, RANDOLPH C. MORRIS, F.z.s. ATTIKAN P.Q., Via Mysore, S. Inpta. June 10, 1982. XIII.—RECORD OF BIG GAME SHOT IN THE — NILGIRI AREA 1905-1931. While it would appear that Sambar have decreased consider- ably Bison seem to be fairly steady. No Chital are recorded as shot since 1914. ~ JT enclose a table showing the number of head of big game recorded as shot within the area controlled by the Nilgiri Game Association from 1905, and the number of licences each year. You may consider the table of sufficient interest to publish in the Journal of the Society. The list is published with the authority of the Association, | 253 MItSCELLANEOUS NOTES SION GO: || a 1) OL 6L | 06 | 6 ca | 96 | BFL Lo | €& | Z6L 98 6 | OO | We Zo | 69 | &8 ee Ze | G8 | OFT 205 No | |) PL pote HOMO) | tein | ey |) alte woe) VEqUES || Gr TOL | GIG w9E TBQUBS | eG cg | 661 wtOG TEQUBS Tp} pL | SET v8G *BQUIeS | Og 8G | 62I Cen Glen e1Gil : oe Cle 1G) seo veg peoids ‘fet yyuts uostg vt9G TeQUVS | Fe] pp | CFT vt LG TEQWBS | pT | EF | FOT vtOV FeQUIVS | Fe} Og | SEI veSe FeQWUeZ | OZ) EL | SET Wige TequMeg | yz} 9 | SLT wily peedds ‘,f8T Yyyatd uostg vi9g weqmeg | eZ] 6g | 08 oo €Z| 99 | FST woe peoids ‘ E)T Yyats uosiq 46 Tequieg | 1z% 89 | 6FT S di7 MAGMA |) Se ee Ee ey PLS LE CUE S| oc es BGG uLOY {6G wequieg | -~ | =| S826 SpBoy 4seq JO S}JUOMIINSBET| Sy = = M4 sogoue0lT "Ff ‘OS6L ‘ee fo ‘AUOSATL «DUA “O'q NVULLLY ‘ALVIS ILLANVNNOF, OGerlgtis | erie mele Che ak | GG ge PP ene iat TS-0&6T Gear, 1S IP ee IL | €T Gas 0€-6261 Cra eeceleenC ssh adie. O (erelel Yu =O) (eon le eT ae 6G-8Z61 QQ [1 TE | IN | IG eS sb LT 7 8Z-L61 COU ere eet pere it ee ous | ane Gs, ay leas GG er LG-9B6T vt | we | | @ |) OLE OD feet wee be pat eet 96-461 Te TS hE Oe leat 0@ Bee |i: GS-PZ6L CC a SR Te ete 76 Oeste PS-SC6L Ae ee Ro ne ap [eee ee Pb 2 qa Giles |e EB-ZEBT ay Po 1) Pee Be | a ae Ee | oe ora Gracie GS-1G6L Cian el: Gi 6 EO 1 OC | OR re 8g Ole 1Z-OZ61 ee Ne ee oO Ae) OR PGA eee ges f= eee ee 0Z-6 161 He [Page ft Slot Cer O FU eee Se Boe 6L-SI6T Sie a He PP ge aes et OIL] AE OF 7 ee SI- L161 TG. eel OR a. Heer CGH e anes OF G aloe LI-9T61 ae |) V6 OF ht Ee ewe 6 Ue 2 || Gs G 91-SI6L POON Se ae IO ae TE AEE || P= 8 NG tee GT-FI6I 99 | TE ob Se Gh ae) ae vO |) as) os ee FI-SI6L 09 | HY Go| bo Ot wei 16 FB ee Ge Ls CL-GI6L SS eal alge Tt | @ ) O88! Gel & | OL} Gal ol leeeees SL-LI6L vale al oe a pba | SG De ln oe SRS IT-O16L west ott Ge (Tt) i te Ro OL) Gay. Re] 138 G False 01-6061 se ea DO NA BELG FI Oo) -e LY 7 60-8061 esa y OOr) ev |) O | Or) qt) w | iat) Sel as Wee Se 80-L06T =~ roo ee | 1 I SIP TE @ BO] ee Ral Salen 10-9061 ° Z Gi Ohl ee llcOGs eG ia] 1 leaean| ae 8) Gin e 90-4061 > wit) wi sie] ol eS [ee tap ee S| 6o| oe Fe Be este ert ee else || oe — rs i de © © wr = (on = IVOX 954 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI XIV.—SMALL BORE RIFLES AND BIG GAME. Karly morning on the 7th. of April 1932, accompanied by my ‘sais’, I rode to the eastern side of the Dhakka Chat Kadir in Pilbhit District, U.P., which is all open sand on the right bank of the Sarda river, in order to try and get a good photograph of a big tiger’s tracks in sand, and though I saw numerous tracks of tigers I did not see a good enough impression to take a photo- eraph. Before returning home I had a look at the kadir through fieldglasses from the high ground at Pasian and to my astonish- ment saw a tiger standing in the middle of one of the swamps about 300 yds. from me. I jumped off my horse and seized my rifle, a -395 Mauser, from the ‘sais’ and ran along the bank hoping to get a nearer shot. As I reached the spot I had selected the tiger had left the water and was disappearing into high and very thick ‘khagar’ grass. JI sat down on the bank and waited for about 15 minutes in hopes that the tiger would come out nearer to me but as he did not I returned towards my horses. Just as I got to them I saw the tiger standing below me and across the stream about 80 yds. off and looking up at me on the edge of the high grass. He was broadside on so I let him have it behind the shoulder. He leapt into the air with a loud ‘woof’, took two bounds and fell over and before I could get a second shot into him he again gave a bound and a ‘woof’ and disappeared out of sight in the high grass. This was at 8-45 a.m. When I fired at him and he spoke, the tigress who was following him, and whom I had not observed, also gave a ‘woof’ and broke back through the high grass. I waited quietly for half an hour in hopes of seeing one or the other but in vain, so rode home as fast as I could to get a heavy rifle and help, leaving the ‘sais’ behind to watch. Nineteen stalwart tenants of mine volunteered to assist me so I sent them off with a feed for the sais and mare and followed after breakfast. I didn’t get back to Pasian till 3 p.m. owing to the delay in getting bullocks for a small bullock cart to take me out the five miles. On my arrival the ‘sais’ reported that he had heard and seen nothing, so it was decided that we should cross the stream and look for blood. When we got to the place where I saw the tiger fall over we found a small patch of blood and from there to the heavy grass there was plenty of blood. Before entering the heavy grass I fired two shots from my 12 bore with No. 6 shot into the erass and then we followed up the blood trail for about 50 yds. and as we did not come across the tiger dead I thought discretion was the better part of valour and turned all my stout-hearted followers back the way we had forced our way through the grass. It was just as well I did so, for next morning, when we searched the grass with a herd of buffaloes we came across a large pool of blood not 20 yds. from where we turned back where the tiger must have been lying and moved off after I fired the two shots. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 955 He left the grass accompanied by the tigress sometime during the evening or night and went north and we lost all trace of him. Moral.—Do not use a small bore rifle on tiger. JaLAR Reo, IP.O);, Jie ID. WG JeNBUNIaS ae, Conar., Kerns USP. 2nd. Lancers. XV.—_GAME RESERVES AND FLASHLIGHT. In your issue dated 15-7-82 I see a letter from Mr. Morris expressing the opinion that the use of flashlight is very disturbing to game. ‘There have also recently been articles in the ‘Field’ suggesting that eager bird-photographers are driving rare breeding birds away from their nests in England and that some photo- graphers are harrying the big-game of Africa by trying to take photographs from low-flying aeroplanes. As one who has been keen on wild-life photography for the last 25 years or more, and who has many years of experience of flashlight photography in India, I would like to write a few words on this subject. What some photographers tend to forget is that there is just as much true sportsmanship called for in the wild-lfe photographer as in the sportsman who hunts to kill. There are certain things that may be done and others that may not. I do not know who the photographer is that Mr. Morris refers to; but, in my opinion, plastermg the jungle with a dozen flashhght cameras is not sport and should not be allowed. It is quite impossible for anyone to control personally a dozen cameras and it is merely trusting to luck that a vast expenditure of money and flashight powder will, by a fluke, produce some result. The whole art and interest of flashhght work lies in personally controllng one or two cameras and trying to anticipate what some particular animal will do. To use a dozen cameras at once is about equal, in my mind, to hunting with a machine-gun and firing off many cartridges on the chance of scoring at least one hit. Further, I am of the opinion that it is quite unfair to use flashhght at all—except possibly in very exceptional cases—over drinking holes where water is scarce. Nor is it playing the game to drive animals away from dens containing cubs, or birds from their nests. In every case the photographer, if he be a true sportsman, must decide for himself whether any scheme he may evolve for obtaining a photograph is fair on the subject or not,’ and, if his conscience tells him that it is not, the chance must be let pass, however tantalising it may be. After all, the true sportsman with a gun does not shoot at every animal he sees or in every way he can contrive, and the photographer must adopt the same standard of fair-play if he is not to bring the fine hobby of wild-life photography a bad name. I write with ten years’ experience of flashlight work in India and I emphatically state that flashight photography, employed in moderation and with a sense of fair-play on the animals, does not disturb the game anything like so much as ordinary shooting. 256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXVI An occasional flash and bang in the jungle is probably mistaken by the animals for lightning, and it does not cause them any serious worry, for it 1s not accompanied by wounds or the startling crash of a missed bullet hitting the ground near the animal. As an example of this I would suggest that anyone interested should read Chapter III of my book With a Camera in Tigerland, describ- ing how a tiger was photographed by flashlight, which disturbed him so little that he killed a buffalo bait on the same road shortly afterwards and finally showed no fear whatever when photographed by daylight the following day. And I could supply dozens_of other similar examples. But the man who scatters flashlight traps in large numbers all over the place, and who is presumably taking photographs purely for monetary gain or because he has so much money that he does not know how else to waste it, is a nuisance and. should be refused entry into any sort of game preserve. The | same remark apples to professional film-makers, who, in some cases at any rate, certainly regard wild animals as a means to making money and who are not always above positive cruelty pro- vided only that they can make their films sufficiently sensational to meet the tastes of a not over-refined public. Flashlight or any other kind of wild-life photography is a magnificent sport which calls for thé maximum of pluck, skill, and wood-craft. In proper hands it must be infinitely less cruel than any kind of hunting. The callous professional photographer can be refused entry to forests containing wild animals, but I would appeal to all those amateurs who really love wild animals to remember that, in their enthusiasm for their hobby, they must always bear in mind that it is not playing the game to cause animals suffering in order to produce pictures, however fine they may be. I would also appeal to Mr. Morris to be a little less hasty in his letters to the press, and not to judge flashlight photo- eraphers as a class from his experiences of one individual. After all, I have known individual shikaries, on occasions, do extremely objectionable things, but I would never dream of making a general statement that all shikaries drive game out of a reserve or are unsportsmanlike. Jf Mr. Morris had had as much experience of the effects of an occasional flashlight on wild animals as I have, he would hesitate before making the extremely dangerous state- ment that ‘I cannot imagine anything more disturbing to the game in a jungle than the flash and explosion of flashlights’. I could tell him of a dozen things much more disturbing, one of which is the use of magazine rifles, another the noise made by a line of beaters, and a third the extremely objectionable and growing prac- tice of shooting from or with the aid of motor-cars. I would even suggest that, every time Mr. Morris fires his gun or his rifle, he disturbs the game just as much as the photographer’s harmless flashlight, and, what is more, if he shoots straight he deprives some wild creature of its most precious possession—life itself. If, by chance, he does not shoot quite straight, he may, perhaps, wound some creature and be foreed to leave it to die a lingering and miserable death—a thing the photographer never has to do. I think I have written enough to show Mr. Morris, and MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 257 others who agree with him, the other point of view, and I would close this note by suggesting that, until he and others lke him have laid aside their guns and their rifles for ever, they should remember the old old saying about people who live in glass-houses. Naini-Tau, U.P. | Ff. W. CHAMPION, August 10, 1982. * Indian Forest Service: XVI.—THE PENDULINE TIT (REMIZ CORONATUS SHEVERTZOFF) IN THE PUNJAB.. To the occurrences of the Penduline Tit (Remiz coronatus) in the Punjab, recorded in our Journal by Mr. H. Whistler from Jhelum (vol. xxin, p. 153) and Mr. A. EH. Jones from Lahore (vol. xxxv, p. 202), I can now add one from the Shahpur District. I obtained 2 9 @Q in trees bordering the Lower Jhelum Canal. at Ghullapur on March 14, 1982. __ DANDOTE, - : Ae Wo WALTER, JHELUM DISTRICT, , Indian Police. PUNJAB. | 7 MMe ll, MWB. | WUE, —NOTES ON SOME CEYLON BIRDS. The Ceylonese Warbler, Elaphrornis palliseri, Blyth. These rather odd little birds are common in the ‘owed on. the slopes of the Great Western in Ceylon at about 4,500 feet and upwards and venture into the tea where it borders on the jungle. In habits they much resemble the smaller babblers. In the off season. they go about in small parties keeping to dense under- erowth where they creep about among the stems like mice, obtain- ing much of their food off the ground, and continually flirting their long and much graduated tails. They are very silent, the only note that one normally hears being a low single explosive ‘qtz’ which is also their alarm note when the nest is approached. In the breeding season in March and April they have a feeble little song of a few scattered notes. The nests are remarkably substantial affairs of moss and dead leaves with very thick walls and a deep cup beautifully lined, usually with skeleton leaves. The four I have found have been from two to five feet from the ground... One was in a tea. bush and the others in the jungle in clumps of bamboo at the side. of a game trail. There were two eges in each case, somewhat’ remi- niscent of small bulbuls’ eges, white in ground colour, heavily covered all over with small, dull purplish spots and occasionally there- were one or two purple. hair lines. . 17 258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI They are close sitters and when put off the nest do not go far but scuttle about under cover in the near neighbourhood. I put up a hide within three feet of one nest containing young and the parents soon overcame their alarm and came freely to the nest. Both male and female brought food but the latter, distinguished by her white iris, was much the shyer. The cock, who had fine ruby eyes, was very bold. It was difficult to distinguish what they brought but on several occasions it seemed to be a whitish erub and once a worm. - Though they uttered their alarm note while I was putting up the hide, once they had overcome their suspicions they were completely silent. Legge’s Baza. Baza jerdoni ceylonensis. A pair of these birds lived on the edge of the jungle bordering the Pundalnaya tea district within a mile of my bungalow and I used to see them almost every day tor a year. I did not shoot either, as 1 should have done to make identification absolutely certain, as they were the only pair I knew of. I had plenty of opportunities, however, of observing them at close range as they were far from shy and I have no doubt that they really were Bazas. They were rather sluggish birds spending much of their time perched on trees, at the edge of the jungle or sometimes in the tea. For long periods they would soar round and round each other rismg to a great height and uttering a peculiar mewing, ‘kikiya kikiya’. When changing ground the wings were flapped strongly with short intervals of gliding. In general shape and flight they much resembled small buzzards. In flight the crest was depressed but when settled the long feathers rose vertically from the occipit in a very characteristic manner. I never saw them catch any prey or even appear to be hunting. During August and Septem- ber, one of the pair, the male presumably, used to perform some remarkable antics in the air which I can only presume were some form of nuptial display. He would be soaring normally, mewing loudly. Suddenly he would swoop downwards with half closed wings for thirty or forty feet uttermg a loud, sharp ‘kit, kit, kit’ and then turn upwards vertically until the momentum of his swoop was expended and he appeared to be just about to fall over backwards, when he would right himself and go on soaring as before, only to repeat the performance in a few seconds. On September 26th I saw one of the birds sitting on a tree uttering this ‘kit-kit’ note and it suddenly flew across t6 another tree where its mate was perched and copulation took place to the accom- paniment of loud eries. Although they haunted a definite small tract of jungle at this time I failed to find the nest though I saw them with a fully fledged young one in November. Soon aiter, when the leaves were thinner, I discovered a small stick nest forty feet up in a big tree standing by itself on the jungle edge in which I had often seen the bazas and I am almost certain that if was their nest. The young one soon disappeared and the old pair in April became very noisy and seemed to show much interest in another MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 250 patch of jungle a few hundred yards away but the male never performed his nuptial ‘aerobatics’ and I would find no rest, but, on May 10th, I saw a party of five which appeared to consist of three young birds and two adults which looks as if they are possibly double brooded. SS HALLERY, Je, IN IBJIMIOS). MercarA, Coorg. July 19, 1982. - XVIII.—THE STATUS OF THE INDIAN BLACK-HEADED SHRIKE (LANIUS NIGRICEPS, FRANK.) IN LOWER BENGAL. With observations on the plumage of specimens captured in thew breeding area. The status and distribution of the Indian Black-headed Shrike (Lanius nigriceps, Frank.) appears rather obscure, at least so far as the plains districts of India and specially Bengal are concerned. Mr. Stuart Baker has recorded in F.B.I. (Birds)—‘In winter it is tound all over the foot hills and also in the plains for some distance from them’. One will obviously infer from this record that it is a migratory species, which spreads itself in the plains during the cold weather months and retires in summer to the hills in great numbers to breed. The bird is not unknown in Bengal; ‘common’, according to Blyth, who states that it is “common in the Soonder- buns of Bengal, and on many of the Churrs (or alluvial banks and islands) in the Ganges and its branches’ (J.A.8.B., xv, 301). Jerdon records its distribution from the foot hills of the Himalayas through Purnea and Dinajpur to Calcutta and the Soonderbuns, extending eastwards into Assam and Arakan. Mr. P. W. Munn notes it as ‘a rare winter visitor’ so far as ‘the Calcutta District’ is concerned (Ibis, 1894, p. 45). Capt. Tytler mentions it as ‘rather uncommon’ in Barrackpore (Dist. 24-Pergs.), to be ‘only met with at some little distance from the Cantonments’ (A.M.N.H., xi, 1854, 370). Four specimens were collected by Blyth from the vicinity of Calcutta (Cat. B. Mus. A.S.B., 151), but, as the dates are not recorded, nothing can be inferred as to the status of the species. Its occurrence in Furreedpore in Eastern Bengal was recorded by J. R. Cripps (8.F., vu, 269), who found the bird ‘excessively common, and. a permanent resident’, breeding in the district. Ten nests with from one to five eggs in each were obtained by him during April to June, of which four were placed in bamboo clumps and the rest in Babool trees. A subsequent note by Cripps, however, appears to conflict with this observation as to the status of the species in this part of Bengal. He writes—‘They begin to arrive in the Dibrugarh district in the last week in July,- and the majority leave by the beginning of April, evidently for Bengal, where I found numbers breeding in the Furreedpore dis- trict’ (S.F., xi, 91). Certainly the birds thus recorded as migrat- 260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI ing by the beginning of April from Dibrugarh (Assam) to Bengal for the purpose of breeding cannot be called permanent residents in the Furreedpore district of East Bengal. In this state of our knowledge and intormation regarding Lanius nigriceps, Prank., it may be of interest to record what little observ- ation 1 have been able to make of a few individuals in the districts contiguous to Calcutta. The field records 1 have in my diary relate to stray birds noticed throughout winter, singly as a rule or in very small parties of two or three individuals keeping aloot from one another, in parts of the districts of 24-Perganas and Jessore. Evidently, even at this season, the species is by no means common or abundant, though one sometimes finds one or two captured birds brought down for sale to the Calcutta market. Their hunting ground is invariably open plains, where they keep to the bushes or hedges bordering cultivated fields, and also the babool and date trees standing thereon. After winter one looks in vain for a single example affecting even the favoured spots where it was noticed in the cold weather months. This arouses suspicion as to its being probably a migratory species, which may now have withdrawn itself from this part of Bengal to breed elsewhere. Of late, in an excursion to Basirhat (Dist. 24-Pergs.) on July 12, 1981, I came upon a pair of Lanius nigriceps, Frank. feeding three young (just out of nest) on a dwarf date tree. The persistent call of the latter caught my ears from afar «and on approaching the tree, | came across what struck me as a most amazing incident—the discovery of the bird’s nesting site. In- stantly with the aid of a bird-catecher who accompanied me, I had the mother bird and one young snared alive. The other two young took to their wings, having apparently been strong enough to fly. I could not find out the nest where the brood was reared. Evidently I was a little too late in arranging this excursion and the place was almost inaccessible now, partly due to its being water-logged and partly to the standing crops. During my previous trips to this place, not only in winter, but also in April and May last, I observed one or two pairs of this shrike. - I saw them again even as late as June once. I therefore suspected the bird to be a resident species, which must have been hanging on, intent on breeding in the locality. In fact I heard the song notes of a male bird in fine plumage on 17th May last. Now it is known for certain that this area, which lies beyond and to the east of Basirhat town, on the bank of the river Icha- mati about 40 miles N.-H. of Calcutta, provides a congenial nest- ing site for the Black-headed Shrike. It is principally an alluvial tract, low-lying and depressed, forming natural basins in which water collects and from which it has no other exit than what draining is possible by the configuration of the tract. As a result, the water at least on the river-side finds its way into the river. It is almost a threshold to the Soonderbuns country with the delta still in a less advanced stage of growth and with a series of tidal ereeks winding their way to the sea through numerous islands and morasses. The thickets and shrubs, and clusters of date and babool trees on the Churr lands harbour these birds in some MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 261 numbers throughout the year, so that they are permanent resi- dents here, and not quite uncommon. The progeny that are raised in this breeding area swell the number of the resident birds which, in winter, hasten to fresh fields, evidently extend- ing their range, approaching nearer villages and thereby falling to our notice. With the advent of summer they retire to the areas congenial for their nesting, which he, more often than not, along the alluvial banks of rivers, so far as this part of Bengal is concerned. Their nesting period synchronises with the rainy season, when the Chwrr lands are inundated and almost inaccessible so that the nesting operations are carried on unnoticed. The Soonderbuns and the alluvial tracts of the delta provide consider- able areas for the nesting of the species which hardly needs to migrate to the hills, at least from this part of Bengal. Within the breeding area the bird is thus a permanent resident, though away from it, whatever migration it undertakes is only very local. Variable as the plumage is of Lanius nigriceps, it will be of interest to record the body-colour and measurements of the two specimens captured alive durmg my last excursion to Basirhat. The juvenile, just out of the nest, has no barring on its under- parts which resemble the colouration of the breeding parent, and which, from its faded body-colour and constant attention to its offspring, I imagine to be a female bird. Comparing her with the skins of 9 9 collected by me during last winter I find the colouration of the upper back of this breeding Q very singular. The extent of white or grey, or rather ashy white is much greater, while the tone of rufous or chestnut on the body generally is dis- tinctly lighter. Not a single example in a fairly large series of skins in the collection of the Indian Museum, not only from Bengal, but also Assam and Burmah has such faded colouring of the upper plumage. Breeding Q 12-7-31. Wing 95 mm.; tail 125 mm.; tarsus 32 mm.; culmen 18 mm. Forehead, lores, crown, nape, hind-neck, sides of head and neck dull black, rather brown in tone, lighter towards neck, the feathers having grey bases; upper back, shading from the black, ashy-white mixed with faded chestnut, remainder of back, scapulars, rump and upper tail-coverts light chestnut; tail dull black, rather brown in tone, more broadly tipped and margined with dull chestnut from the middle pair to the outer, the two outer pairs frequently suffused with chestnut and the outer webs entirely of this colour; wing-coverts dull black with brown toning; primaries dark brown with white patch at their bases; inner secondaries with broad light chestnut edges. Under parts white washed with light chestnut, the latter rather darker in lower breast; under tail- coverts fulvous-chestnut. Tris dark brown; eyelids pinkish plumbeous; bill dark horny black lighter towards base; mouth flesh-colour; legs and feet dark plumbeous; claws _ black. Juvenile (just out of nest). Sex (?). 12-7-81. Wing 86 mm.; tarsus 80 mm.; culmen 17 mm. Forehead black, the latter extending over eye, faintly edged with pale rufous; ear-coverts black; crown, nape, hind-neck, sides of head and neck mottled black and pale rufous, the feathers with pale rufous edges and tips and with black bases; back, scapulars, rump and upper tail-coverts rufous, barred with black, the feathers having pale or grey bases; the rufous being lighter towards upper-back; wing-coverts dull black with rufous edges and tips; bastard wing tipped and edged with rufous on both webs; quills dark brown, rather dull in tone, edged and tipped with rufous; a white patch at 262, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL SES i 9S OCI Volum xeon) i their bases; inner secondaries with broad rufous edges; under wing-coverts and axillaries albescent; under parts similar to breeding Q described above. Legs, feet and claws salty-black; upper mandible dark horn, lower fleshy plumbeous, darker towards tip; gape yellow; mouth flesh-colour; iris brown. It is interesting to observe that both the mother bird and young, while in captivity within my spacious aviaries, do not appear to be shy or nervous, and readily adapt themselves to the artificial diet plus a few live insects. I had the opportunity of re-examining thei coloration two months later, and the striking changes since brought about by moult were noted as follows :— Juvenile. 5-9-31. Black increasing on crown and nape; ear-coverts black brown tipped with hght chestnut; black more prominent on wing-coverts; under parts as before, showing no barring at all. Upper mandible darker though not thoroughly black as in adult, and horny towards base; iris light brown. Adult 9. 5-9-31. Under moult. Upper back still strikingly ashy-white mixed with faint rufous, but the rufous tinge is increasing; secondaries edged on inner web from base with white instead of chestnut. CALCUTTA. SATYA CHURN LAW, April 14, 1982. Ph.D. FsZiS5) oe MsB Osu: XIX.—OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITE-THROATED BABBLER (ARGYA GULARIS, BLYTH) IN LOWER BURMA. Argya gularis has hitherto been considered a bird. of Upper Burma and particularly of the dry zone, Oates having no records of its occurrence south of Prome. I found it in 1929 in small numbers about 20 miles south of Prome (J.B.N.H.8., xxxiv, p. 670) and in January 19381 obtained specimens near the northern border of the Henzada district where the thorn jungle approximates to that of the dry zone. In the middle of May 1982, I thrice observed a party of three birds in a patch of bamboo jungle on the laterite ridge about two miles south of Mingaladon aerodrome and about eight miles from Rangoon. I made two attempts to collect one of these and. on May 19th had a good view of a single bird in the same place, which would not allow a close approach, though I managed to observe the white throat and breast as it sat on a bamboo clump, uttering its loud ‘tittering’ note. In the dry weather this country approximates closely to parts of Thayetmyo-Prome ridge but [| have ridden through it at all seasons of the vear without seeing or hearing gularis before; it is difficult to believe that these birds were migrants, and I presume they had wandered down the line of the Peeu Yomas. Mingaladon is at least 125 miles south. of any area from which gularis has previously been recorded. RaNnGOon. | : ~ dls IK, SIAN OURID, Mian 2 32, Indian Civil Service. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. as 263 XX.—A. NOTE ON THE BUNTINGS OF BURMA. The Buntings of Burma, which, except Melophus melanicterus, seem to be all ‘cold-weather’ visitors from September to May, have largely escaped the notice of observers, especially of recent years. With the exception of Wickham, who records, without much detail, the occurrence of five species from the Burma Hills, there is very little to go on. In the hope that other observers may turn their attention to these birds, I have collated the following notes which suggest that several species of buntings occur more or less all over Burma and are overlooked. (1120) Grey-headed Bunting. Emberiza fucata fucata. (1121) The Indian Grey-headed Buating. Emberiza fucata arcuata. Fucata is recorded from Toungoo and between Toungoo and Thayetmyo (Hume) ‘rare in Tenasserim as far south as Thaton’ (Davison), common in the Pegu-Sittang area (Oates). Wickham states that both sub-species ‘occur in our hills as winter visitors’ but gives no details. The Fauna records arcuata from Mount Victoria but does not say if it was breeding. I saw one at Hen- zada in April 26, 1981, in a flock of aureola, and shot several in paddy stubble in February 1982 near the mouth of the Rangoon river. J also saw a good many in mid-March 1932 in paddy stubble at various places in the plains of the Myitkyina District. On the wing this bird very closely resembles the British Reed Bunting (Hmberiza scheniclus) in winter and has much the same weak flight, fulvous brown back, and habit of flitting under tufts of grass or rushes. It is not easy to observe on the ground but allows a close approach when the reddish chestnut ear-coverts and greyish hind-neck can be seen. .The outer tail feathers show white in flight. (1122) Little Bunting. Emberiza pusilla. The Fauna describes it as a winter visitor to the hills of Burma whose southern recorded hmit is Karenni. This appears to be incorrect as Davison got it on the summit of Muleyit. It was not apparently noted by Oates, Mears, Macdonald, Hopwood, Mackenzie or Harington, but Wickham obtained one at Maymyo. As already recorded (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, p. 911) I obtained several between February and April 1929, both in the Irrawaddy valley and on the hills west of the Prome district. On March 15th, 1932, I obtained two females at Hopin in the plains of the Myit- kyina district, which were in a tree on the edge of teak jungle with some Crested Buntings. A small shy bunting like this can very easily be overlooked. (1128) Yunnan Meadow-Bunting. Emberiza cia yunnanensis. The Fauna records a nest taken by Harington at 10,000 feet in the Shan States, but Wickham (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, p. 49) gives sound reasons for disbelieving this. The bird should however occur in Burma as a winter visitor if it breeds in Yunnan. 264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI (2131) Yeliow-breasted Bunting, Emberiza aureola. This seems to occur throughout the plains of Burma until May in which month it was noted by Oates in Lower Burma and by Macdonald in Myingyan. I have never seen it in ‘well wooded country’ as the Fauna describes it. In Myitkyina recently I watched a very large flock at close range which were sitting in bushes near a stream, hawking flying ants, a most unusual sight. (1182). Yangtse Black-headed Bunting. Emberiza spodocephala melanops. — The Fauna records it from ‘Northern and Central Burma’ but it is not mentioned by any of the observers abovenamed. I saw several in the Myitkyina district in early Mareh 1982, usually in bushes along streams, and occasionally in the company of LH. aureola. They allowed a close approach and their most conspi- cuous field character was the black patch on the lores which showed up against the dark greenish head and neck. Single birds usually dived into bushes when disturbed or flew up into trees. (11385) Chestnut Bunting. Emberiza rutila. The distribution in the Fauna is ‘Burma as far south as the Tenasserim district, Shan States, Chin Hills’. Oates records it from Bassein (Blanford), near Rangoon (Hume), Toungoo and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay) north Tenasserim (Davison) and the Thaungyin valley (Bingham). Wickham records it as occurring in winter in the Chin, Kachin, and Shan Hills but gives no details. Mears describes it as ‘general throughout the Chindwin’. I have previously recorded (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, p. 912) its occurrence in Prome both in the Pegu Yoma foothills and at about 2,500 feet in heavy jungle in the Arakan Yoma, where large flocks were to be seen in mid-April. In this district it seemed to be addicted to bamboo and dense woodland and by no means similar in habit to EF. aureola as noted in the Fauna. (1189) Crested Bunting. Melophus melanicterus. ‘In Burma it extends throughout the hills from Manipur, Chin and Kachin Hills to Tenasserim’ (Fauna). Blyth records it somewhat vaguely from ‘Arakan’ and ‘Pegu’, but Oates’ only other records were from the Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ram- say) and one from Bilin (Davison). Bilin is in the plains of the Thaton district. Harington noted it in flocks up to mid-March in Bhamo and said it appeared to be breeding near Sinlumkaba. Wickham describes it as ‘a very universal bird in all our hills’. Villar and myself obtained specimens on the Prome-Sandoway border, but it was not noted bv J. C. Hopwood and Mackenzie or Mears in the Upper Chindwin or North Chin Hills. I recently noted large parties in paddy-stubble in the Namyin valley, Myit- kyina, between Hopin and Mogaung, many birds being paired in mid-March. It will probably be found breeding here in this area at a very low elevation. (1 ft. to 400 it.) RANGOON. ee Re SAIN GEO eMID). March 24, 1982, Indian Civil Service, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 265 XXI.—THE SHORT-EARED OWL (ASIO I’. FLAMMEUS), IN BURMA. ; In his Birds of British Burma Oates has only one record of the Short-eared Owl (Asio f. flammeus) in Lower Burma, Wardlaw Ramsay having obtained one at Toungoo, but quotes Blyth as stating that it occurs in Arakan. No mention of this bird appears to be made by Messrs. Hopwood, Mackenzie, Harington, Mears or Wickham in the various papers on Burma birds they have contri- buted to the Journal. The only note of it I can find is by K. C. Maedonald, who, writing of Myingyan district, states that it is very common in the grassy thamin-haunted country round Kanna and the Pin Chaung. The following notes made by me at various times suggest that it may be a regular winter visitor (not a ‘wan- derer’ as described in the Fauna) over a great part of Burma and is overlooked in the huge areas of grass, stubble or peas in which ii can rest undisturbed by day. (1) November 1924. Upper Chindwin District. Saw a num- ber round a jheel south of Tamanthi. (2) December 2nd, 1928.—Prome District. A single bird in rough grass on the Nawin marshes near Prome. (38) December 24th, 19380. Henzada District. Shot a female which was on a sandbank near the Irrawaddy. It flew about for some time in strong sunlight at midday; and when it settled, did not seem to mind the glare of the sand. It had been feeding on voles of some species. (4) February 8rd, 19381. Henzada District. I flushed one. while looking for quail, in the big peafields along the Irrawaddy near Yele, 80 miles south of where I got the other one. (5) February 6th, 19382. Hanthawaddy District. Flushed two out of paddy stubble near Kamakalok, close to the mouth of the Rangoon river. ‘The fields for miles round were riddled with rat- holes which had probably attracted the owls. (6) March 3rd, 1932. .Shwebo District. Saw three in the thin dry thorn jungle about half a mile east of Shwebo Civil lines, and flushed them near the same spot on the 4th. Both the Hantha- waddy and Shwebo birds seemed to have chosen extraordinarily hot and shadeless places to lie in by day, and all seemed to mind the sunlight as little as does Glaucidiwm cuculoides. RanGoon. J. K. STANFORD, March 21, 1982. Indian Civil Service. XXIT.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE LESSER KESTREL (CHRCHNEIS NAUMANNI) AND KNOT (TRINGA C. CANUTUS) IN. BURMA. There appear to be no records of the occurrence of the Lesser Kestrel (Cerchneis nawmanni) in Burma. TI obtained two males on April Ist, 1932, at Lunbye, south of the Sittang in the Pegu 266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI district, out of a gathering of 80-40 which were presumably on migration. They were scattered in twos and threes over a grass plain and were not at all shy. Though this grass was riddled with rat-holes, the food of those shot appeared to be some form of beetle or cockchafer. Several males moulting into fresh plumage were in the gathering and at a distance were most con- spicuous, with their grey heads and ear-coverts, pinkish breast and pinkish-chestnut back. Those obtained were shedding the tail and had nearly completed the body-moult. (w. 227-287, §- 31, ce. 17-19.) I accidentally obtained a male Knot (Tringa c. canutus) on April 14th, 1982, at Kamakalok near the mouth of the Rangoon river. The wing measured 160, culmen 31, tarsus 30, and the breast, forehead, cheeks and neck were bnght pinkish-cinnmaon, so that there seems no doubt as to its not being tenuirostris. This bird was in a flock of Curlew-Sandpipers, Sand-Plovers, ete., on the tide-line. There appear to be only two previous records of this race from India, one from Baluchistan and one from Ceylon (Fauna vii, 698). Armstrong obtained a Knot in winter plumage on the western side of the Rangoon river in 1876, but this and the single Arakan record are apparently of tenwirostris. These three skins have been sent home to Dr. C. B. Ticehurst. RANGOON. J. K. STANFORD, May 22, 1932. Indian Ciwil Service. XXIII.—DISTRIBUTION OF THE HASTERN GREY DUCK CAN ASPs ZO NOT EN Cie) May I ask your further indulgence to reply to Mr. Inglis’ note in vol. xxv, No. 3 of the Journal, on the Grey Duck? Presumably Mr. Inglis refers to the second edition of Mr. Stuart Baker’s Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon—Ducks and their Allies, which I do not possess. Nor had I the second edition of Fauna of British India—Birds, when I wrote my note of the. 18th)” March? 1931) in volt sxxv.. Nov 2 I-reterred to wlie first edition of Indian Ducks and their Allies, which as I stated in that note, attributed the specimens obtained by Messrs. Stevens, Moore, Mundy and Baker in Lakhimpur District between 1902 and 1905, as well as the Kengtung specimen of 1899, to the Kastern Grey Duck (Anas pecilorhynca zonorhyncha). Mr. Stuart Baker opened his chapter on zonorhyncha in that edition with the words ‘during the examination of the Grey Duck in the British Museum I have tried to ascertain whether there are any erounds for creating a new species for the ducks sent home by Captain Harington. I can find none!’ That he subsequently changed his opinion is shown by vol. vi (second edition) of Fauna of British India—Birds, quoted by Mr. Inglis. I presume, therefore, that the Lakhimpur specimens were actually the Burmese Grey Duck (A. p. haringtoni), though Mr. Inglis appears to be mistaken in attributing to that bird ‘a blue MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 267 and not a green speculum’. The edition of the Fauna of British India quoted says of haringtoni ‘the speculum is green’, and of zonorhyncha ‘having the speculum blue and not green’. I pre- sume also that Mr. Inglis’ bird, obtained at Darbuhnga in 1929, was zonorhyncha, with a blue speculum. The birds obtained in Sibsagar in December, 1908, and in Manipur in February, 19380, and January, 1931, were undoubtedly zonorhyncha, with the speculum blue in all lights (the speculum of A. p. pecilorhyncha is green in one light and blue in the opposite light). Im the case of the 1930 bird the shikaris noticed that it was an unusual species of Grey Duck, on account of the eolour of the abdomen and under tail-coverts, which were more yellowish-buff than in the local variety of A. p. pecilorhyncha. As regards the Burmese Grey Duck (A. p. haringtoni), identification seems to be more a matter for the scientific ornitho- logist, with a large series of Grey Ducks at his disposal. To the mere amateur field naturalist lke myself, the differentiating characteristics are hardly sufficiently defined to permit of any certainty of identification. The variation in the colour and degree of spotting of the underparts of birds which are undoubtedly A. p. pecilorhyncha is so very considerable that this characteristic can- not safely be adopted as a test, while in-young specimens of A. p. pecilorhyncha the spots at the base of the bill are admittedly absent or rudimentary. THE RESIDENCY, J. C. HIGGINS, ImpHaL, MANrPUR. Indian Civil Service. April 18, 1932. XXIV.—FLOWER-BIRDS AND BIRD-FLOWERS. Mr. Salim A. Ali’s paper on this subject must have been read with attention by all interested in birds and pollination, and will probably serve the useful purpose of leading to the recording of further data on the subject. In the meen west, our flower birds are few, but for that very reason are perhaps more closely watched when seen. The Purple Sunbird, which apparently we should eall Leptocoma asiatica, is a frequent visitor to my garden and I have seen it try a great variety of flowers including sweet peas, though its fayourite is unquestionably Nusselia juncea and it is very often to be seen on Woodfordia floribunda. It is to record its constant visits to quite a different plant representative of a big order not mentioned in Mr. Ali’s account, that the present note is written. The plant is Randia uliginosa, (tubiaceae). On one oceasion, on May 24th, 1928, this bird entertained me feeding from the large fleshy white flowers for about half an hour while a tiger beat was in progress towards the Randia in which my machhan was tied, and ten days previously, I had watched a pair on another Randia and subsequently dissected the flowers to see 268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI to what extent their structure could be considered ornithophilous. On general experience I do not find myself in complete agreement with Mr. Ali’s five points for an ornithophilous flower, parti- cularly as related to the fact that our Sunbirds, etc. at least normally alight to feed from the flowers. Randia uliginosa flowers are large, conspicuous, very solidly built, and have copious nectar, but they are definitely scented and so presumably equally attractive to Lepidoptera, etc; the large nectary is well concealed by a mass of felted hair closing the 4 in. corolla tube. These observations were made in Haldwani Forest Division, U.P. Mthopyga seheriae is much more rarely seen here and its selection has twice been the obviously ornithophilous yellow and red Leguminous ~ Caesalpinia gallesi. DenRA Dun. Be GG CEEAVERION: April 16, 1982. Forest Research Institute. XXV.—A CASE OF TWIN-EMBRYOS IN THE EGG OF A DOMESTIC FOWL. (With a text-figure. ) The abnormal egg described herein, was by chance, obtained from an egg-seller who used to supply us with eggs for our daily consumption in the Nainital Hills. The egg was of an ordinary fowl, not at all different from the ones commonly met with on the plains; but such fowls, when acclimatised to the hill-climate, usually lay bigger eges than their sisters on the plains. Although the hill-eggs are bigger than the plain ones, yet the one described here was bigger still (one and a quarter times). One morning when hard boiled eggs were served for our break- fast, the unusual size of this particular one aroused my curlosity. It was carefully shelled, but nothing abnormal was observed externally or in the white albuminous portion. IT cut the egg longitudinally and discovered that there were two yolks instead of the nor- mal one, under the cover of the white albumen. The two yolks were confluent with each other, looking like the figure eight as seen in the text-figure. As already indicated, the two yolks were completely yet even- ly embedded in the albumen; 7 fF0 JEON fp 1, ANS VANS Ai \ A) PS : a NW) LA there was, however, no albumen Longitudinal section of egg. wall separating them at the point a. albumen; y. yoke. of contiguity. The yolks were shghtly smaller than those of normal eggs. MISCELLANHOUS NOTES 269 lt is interesting to note that the yolks contained one embryo each which was quite normal. Haply this abnormal egg, u it were allowed to hatch, might have proved of greater interest. Botany DEPARTMENT, 1Bs4. Nie) SHUN BbA, RAVENSHAW COLLEGE, CUTTACK. February 15, 1982. XXVI.—NOTES ON MONITOR LIZARDS. I have read with interest Mr. Malcolm Smith’s article on the Monitors and I give below the little experience I have had with these lizards. In the Central Provinces Varanus monitor (=bengalensis) is the common form and is fairly plentitul though extremely timid and shy. No monitors from the extreme east and north of the Provinces have been examined by me. The Common Monitor (V. monitor) lives in burrows and in cracks in the ground from which it often comes out to bask in the sun during winter, retreating on the shghtest alarm. I have also noticed these monitors occupying the roof in less frequented rest houses from the eaves of which they would now and then flop to the ground. During the rains they are more in evidence. I believe that this is their breeding Season. . The flesh and skin ig much in demand by the local aboriginal tribes who eat the flesh or use it in medicine and use their skins for making their small drums (khanjeries) and fiddles (chikara). At Nagpur, during the rains, small parties of Gonds regularly hunt these lizards. They take with them a spade, a knife and a small pack of a few rather under-sized dogs. The modus operandi is as follows :— : The hunt takes place immediately after a spell of wet weather. The party, which consists of at least three men, proceeds along the uncultivated borders of fields examining every lkely hole or burrow. The presence of a lizard inside a burrow is discovered by its footprints at the entrance to the burrow. If no footprints are present the party moves on to the next burrow. If footprints are visible, one of the party stations himself at the entrance to the burrow and a search is made elsewhere for another entrance to the same burrow; when this is found another man posts him- self here while the third begins digging vigorously somewhere near the middle. The lzards on being disturbed make for the entrances and are caught by the men stationed there. On catching a lizard a noteh is cut with the knife on the top of the tail, which is now twisted round the neck and a claw of the fore limb is inserted into the notch to prevent the tail from uneoiling. The lizard is now quite unable to move; it is slung on to a stick and carried away. They are kept in this condition till sold when they fetch about twelve annas each. The Common Monitor (V. monitor) deposits its eggs during the month of September, the number laid is about 21. They are 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAI EMIS (SOC MHI © wVioln xO Val white oval and soft-shelled like snakes’ eggs and measure 45 mm. in length and 26 mm. in breadth. A pregnant female about three teet in length which I confined in a case, voided one egg on the 15th September, three on the 16th, sixteen on the 17th and one on the 18th. The above case being under abnormal conditions [ am of opinion that all the eggs would under natural conditions be voided on the same day. These lizards thrive well in captivity and can be fed on meat when other vermin is not available but they are dirty creatures, their faeces are voided in a liquid form and are Inghly odorous, and their cages must be constantly washed. Specimens in captivity have eaten the following:—Rats, mice, shrews, squirrels, frogs, toads, erasshoppers, skinks (M. maculatus) fishes, bloodsucker lizards, snakes (Ptyas mucosus, Hryx conicus, Lycodon aulicus) small turtles, small birds and beef. An adult monitor was able to dis- pose off a tull grown Hryx conicus and a Ptyas mucosus four feet long. A. Red Harth Boa (Hryx conicus) when given alive to a moni- tor was shaken about and bitten first and then the head was held down and it was swallowed tail foremost. This snake was about a foot in length and it did not seem to attack the lizard at all. A living Lycodon aulicus, on the other hand, when seized by the monitor bit it vigorously in spite of the mauling. The lizard’s body bled profusely from the numerous small wounds it had received from the snake which was game to the last. I have not yet tested these lizards with either scorpions or poisonous snakes. These lizards frequently fall a prey to the python but it takes about a day for a python to crush the life out of even a half-grown monitor. The Yellow Monitor (Varanus flavescens) is the common form in Behar in the Gangetic valley though V. monitor is also to be found in these parts. I have two hatchlings of V. flavescens taken at Patna on the 7th February and a very young specimen from Parbatipur in Bengal. During the rains the colour of V. flavescens is yellow or yellow- ish brown with broad cross bands of red; these red cross bands are indistinct or wanting at other times of the year. The young are as described in the Fauna except that in the lower surface the dark brown cross bars though continuous below the neck are not so under the chest, abdomen and tail. It will be noticed that in these lizards the outer hind toe is separated by an appreciable distance from the other four toes; this toe is used in apposition with the others in adjusting the tail of the female during coition. CENTRAL MUSEUM, ye NG ID INIBIEI DO, iota NAGE, (CIP Algor) WL, WE, [The Common Monitor (Varanus monitor) was discovered breeding on Island of Salsette by Mr. C. McCann in June. He took eleven eggs. Newly hatched monitors are very common on the island at the commencement of the rains.—Eps. | MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 971 XXVII.—THE FAMILY OF A RUSSELL’S VIPER, les (ieLUN Witeddiay, — Vivevdlaval Galva ibs oil: On the 25th April 1929 two adult specimens of the Russell’s Viper were brought to me by a local snake charmer who assured me that he secured them at a place a few miles from Malir Rail- way Station (about 18 miles from Sarachi) in a vegetable garden not far from a pool of water. The snakes were in good condition, very active, with their fangs intact and showed no signs of having been in captivity for any length of time. I had therefore little or no reason to disbelieve his statement besides the man knew that snake collecting was my hobby and was hardly likely to deceive me. I placed the two specimens in a specially constructed case with glass sides, protected by wire netting, a perforated zine top, and doors at the two narrow ends. A slot not more than 3/8th of an inch wide ran across the middle of the box, at the top, through which a board could be inserted to isolate the snakes when the case required cleaning. For the first fortnight or three weeks they refused food but later fed readily on dead rats and sparrows. The male (ascertained later when he died) desquamated on the 8th June but the female showed no signs of casting her skin for nearly a year, when she died. The female which was two or three inches longer than the male and much thicker appeared to me to be gravid so I watched her closely. On the 12th July, or 79 days after I obtained the snakes, I found, on going into the verandah at about 8 o’clock in the morning, that the glass case was swarming with young snakes three or four on top of the case and several on the floor at the base of the stand on which the case rested. I managed with difficulty to secure these and put them back. I immediately closed the slot at the top of the case through which they escaped and set about removing the young ones one by one and _ placing them in a large glass jar. There were thirty-three in all, twenty- seven fully developed and six immature and dead with portions of the egg adhering to them. Whether any got away before I saw them I am unable to say but it is quite possible as there was nothing to prevent them. The baby snakes were very active and when let loose on the floor struck readily at anything placed in their way. I chloroformed them the same day in order to ascertain their measurements, which are as follows :— 14, length 104 inches ... 250.35 mm. Series Seca Soe) ALT 6D, anion. Oust Oe ee, coo a egwls) satan The markings on the young were very distinet but the ground colour differed from that of the parent snake being slaty grey above and light cream below. KARACHI. BINS Jig MD ONINE Ay. Clits 274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI [The Russell's Viper is one of our most prolific snakes—only surpassed in this character by the Python and the Checkered Water Snake (T'. piscator). A captive female in the Society’s rooms presented us with 62 young. The eggs within the body of the parent are enveloped with a soft white leathery skin which one sees in the eggs of snakes. In the latter stages of pregnancy this investment is converted into a delicate transparent membrane through which the embryo snake can be seen distinctly. This membrane is ruptured within the body of the mother. The young are produced free but sometimes some of the young are discharged in their sacs. These if not speedily liberated perish. Often unfertilized eggs are discharged, these will be found to retain their leathery coverings. The young of the Russell’s Viper are highly poisonous at birth. The Russell’s Viper, according to the distri- bution given by Wall, (Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes, 4th. edn.) has not been recorded previously from Southern Sind.—Eps. | XXVITI.—SNAKES IN AHMEDNAGAR. The snakes mentioned in this paper were collected or sent to or seen by me whilst | was Civil Surgeon here. The collection covers a period of twenty-six months from December 1929 to end of January 1982. The total number of Snakes seen was 249; 148 from Nagar City and Cantonment limits and 101 from the Nagar District, mostly collected at the Taluka Dispensaries. They were identified here and doubtful specimens were sent to the Bombay Natural History Society for identification or confirmation. The various species were the following : — 1. The Common Blind Snake (T'yphlops braminius)—l11. Of these six were found in my Bungalow. 2. The Red Earth-Boa (Hryx conicus)—10. 3. The Black Harth-Boa (Hryx johnu)—2. There were 4 live pythons (Python molurus) seen with snake- men who had come from outside. One of these was 9 feet 4 inches long. 8 were caught in Beed District, Nizam’s territory, and one near Khandwa, C.P. 4. Checkered Water-Snake (Tropidonotus piscalone a Both these were from the district. 5. Buff-striped Keel-back (Tropidonotus stolatus)—2. Both specimens were found in Nagar Cantonment limits. 6. Green Keel-back (Macropistodon plumbicolor)—32. Another common snake. | 7. Common Wolf Snake (Lycodon aulicus)—46. A very com- mon snake. : 8. Dhaman (Zamenis mucosus)—l12. Ten were from City limits, one being 8 ft. long. 9. Fasciolated Dhaman (Zamenis fasciolatus)—7. Five were from Nagar Cantonment and City limits—one was 4 ft. 8 in. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 273 long—a record one (reported in the Bombay Natural History Society 's Journal Vol. xxv, No. 4). Another was 4 it. 6 in. long. 1G. Spotted Dhaman (Zamenis gracilis)—8. Two live speci- mens of the Royal Dhaman (Zamenis diadema) were seen with a snakeman whe brought them trom near Jodhpur (Rajputana). 11. ‘Yrinket Snake (Coluber heiena)—34. This snake is con: sidered te be seen about 1,500 ft. altitude. Nagar is about 2,000 ft. ubove sea level. 12. Brown Tree-Snake (Dipsadomorphus trigonatus)—84.° A snake as commen as Lycodon aulicus, in the vicinity of Nagar itself. 18. Common Kurki Snake (Oligodon subgriseus)—1. From the district. 14. Banded Kukri Snake (Simotes arnensis)—3. From the district. 15. Three-striped Coral Snake (Callophis trimaculatus)—2. One ot these small coral snakes was found near Cursetjee” S shop and one in 2/4th Grenadiers’ Mess. 16. The Common Krait (Bungarus ceruleus)—11. Three of these were sent from the district and two of them had bitten boys and were responsible for two deaths. These were reported in the Indian Medical Gazette of May 1931 and February 19382. Hight were found in Nagar Cantonment limits. None were secured from the City. The distribution in the Cantonments was also restricted all of these being found in the south side of Bhingar Nullah. One of these which was brought alive to me had bitten a snake catcher on 24-10-1931 and Iilled him inspite of the bitten person using what he believed to be his own specific medicine. The case is reported by me in the Indian Medical Gazette of February 1982. 17. The Cobra (Naia tripudians)—13. Twelve from Nagar it- self—one of these killed near Cursetjee’s shop was 5 ft. 9 ins. long. In addition, nine were seen with snakemen come from outside; three from Nizam’s State, one from Satara District, one from Kandwa, C.P., and four from Jodhpur, Rajputana. All Nagar specimens were binocellate with series of dark ventral plates under the neck. All others were also binocellate except one specimen from Nizam’s territory which was non-ocellate (var. ceca). It was 530, Jul mas, thera. | . 18. The Russell’s Viper (Vipera russelli)—d5. All were from the district, none from the City and Cantonment limits. . Two of these were baby ones about 11 inches long and one adult one from Rahuri was 4 ft. 8 in. | 19. The Phoorsa (Hchis carinata)—4. All these were from one place only in the district, Newasa, and were found in the local Dispensary compound. Bompay. henGea. GAP URNS Apri igen Oar line Cony a teincen Ciwil Surgeon, Ahmedabad, Deccan, Bombay Presidency. 18 274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXVI XXIX.—CASES OF SNAKE BITE. ! Since I have been stationed at Ahmednagar, I have come across the iollowing cases of snake bite, six at Ahmednagar itself and two irom the district and one from outside, during the last eighteen months. This is not a ‘snakey’ district, as during the last six years an average of only thirty deaths due to snake bite have been reported annually, in a district with a population of neatly one milhon and an area of 6,630 square miles. The tollowing are notes of the cases :— Case 1. A woman came tc the Civil Hospital, Ahmednagai, at 9-30 p.m. on 30th April, 1930, with a killed snake that was dried up. This snake had bitten her in the morning at about G6 a.m. on the right forearm about 2 inches above the wrist. The whole forearm was red and swollen as far as the elbow. She had applied “Oriental Balm’ to the arm. There were no after-effects, the swelling gradually going down. Result :—Recovery. The snake was a Trinket Snake (Coluber helena)—8 feet G inches long—non-poisonous. _ Case 2.—Case reported in the Indian Medical Gazette of March 1931 of a person bitten in Dhulia, West Khandesh, on 27th Jmlby, IB. Result: —Recovery. The snake was Hchis carinata or Phoorsa less viper. Case 3.-—-A boy, of abcut 8 vears, bitten by a Common Krait (Bungarus ceruleus). Case reported in the Indian Medical Gazette, May 1931, p. 266; Result :—Death. | Case 4.—A man from the city of Ahmednagar came at 10 a.m. on 24th June, 1931, to the Civil Hospital, Ahmednagar, complaining that when he woke up in the morning he found Tis face swollen and that he found a small snake near his pillow. His face was slightly red and swollen. The snake he brought was alive and was a baby Lycodon aulicus or the Common Wolf Snake, 8 inches long—non-poisonous. vesult :—Recovery. Case 5.—A cobra bit one of the hospital staff on 8th July, 1931; the case was repcrted in the Indian Medical Gazette of October 1931. Snake—Binocellate Cobra (Naia — tripudians)—poisonous. Antivenene used. Result :—Recovery. Case 6.—A boy, of about 7 years, who had just recovered from cholera was found vomiting and unconscious on his bed in the morning at a place named Kolhar Khurd about 86 miles from here poisonous, pit- (These notes were printed in the Indian Medical Gazctte, Vol. Ixvii, ‘Feb. 1932). MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 275 on 14th August, 1931. On removing him from his bed a small live snuke was tound under him. There were many scratches on the boy’s back. The boy was seen by Dr. Shiveshwarkar, Assistant Director ot Public Health, who was on tour. He brought the killed snake to me. It was a baby common krait—Bungarus ceruleus —1% inches long—poisonous. Result: —The boy died at about 12 noon, the same day. Case 7.—A snake bit a woman below the ankle in the even- ing of 20th August, 1981, and she came to the hospital at 8 p.m. with the killed snake. The snake was a Red Harth Boa (Hryx conicus)—16 inches long—non-poisonous. The bite had no effect on the woman. Result :—Recovery. Case 8.—Three live snakes were brought to me at the hospitai caught in a grain godown on 8th October, 1931. They were all Trinket’ Snakes (Coluber helena) non-poisonous. After being let out from a tin in which they were kept, they were identified, captured again and put into the tin. While he was capturing them, one of these bit the catcher on the right index finger on the dorsal surface about + inch behind the nail. There were no punc- ture holes but there were four scratches, two long ones about 4 inch long and 4+ inch distant and two small ones on the wrist-side ol these two scratches. ) The person who was bitten was the same one as in case 5 who was bitten by a cobra before. He was a bit nervous after the bite and complained of shght pain for two hours. Permanganate was. applied to the scratches to soothe him. He complained of itching about the eyes, beginning 15 minutes after the bite and lasting for about two hours. | There were no after-effects. Result :—Recovery. Case 9.—A snake catcher named Mahaboob Khan lived in a mosque in Bhingar, a suburb within Ahmednagar cantonment limits. He was a reputed snake catcher and used to make money irom this, job. Ele came to me on 3ist July, 19380, with a big dhaman snake about 8 feet long; he said he had a medicine which he used in cases of snake bite, invariably successfully, and wished me to try it. On talking with him for some time, it was found that he was a practical man of the world and had worked as a stable boy, groom, syce and a rider at the racing stables in Bombay and Poona. I got the impression from his previous history that he lived more by his common sense, wits, and manual dexterity in catching snakes, than by the efficacy of any snake cures. The medicine, he told me, was the powdered fruit of Michelia champaca (white variety)—N.O.—Magnoliaceae—given in goat’s milk. Only an. occasional tree of this species gives fruit. So the fruit is rare. This Mahaboob was bitten by a snake he caught on 23rd October, 1931, at about 5 p.m. in trying to extract its teeth. He collapsed and became cold, and probably died by 9 p.m. His neighbours came te my bungalow at 12 midnight reporting his condition and said his body was cold. My assistant went there with anticenene at about 1 a.m. but the man had been dead four hours before. The 276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI deceased had taken by the mouth his own medicine after having been bitten. | The snake was brought alive to me and it was a full-grown common krait—Bungarus ceruleus—poisonous—s ft. 53 ins. long. The punctures on the man were two and were on the dorsal aspect of the left middle finger on either side of the first inter-phalangial joint about 14 inches distant. As the mouth of the krait was not wide enough for the distance between the fangs on the two sides to be over an inch, it is presumed that the man put the bent joint of his left middle finger in the snake’s mouth to keep it open and used his right hand to pull out or break the snake’s teeth with tweezers. Result :—Death. UR G5 Cis AURIE Ue Ia, BomBay. : jope=Coms. TaN ce April 27, 19382. 7 Civil Surgeon, Ahmednagar, Deccan, Bombay Presidency. AXX.—A FISH PHST OF FIELDS ALONG THE COR OMAN DIGI, © ORs | Ole rt HCG Ss SOO cellos |e (With a plate). Many are aware of the injury occasionally caused to paddy fields by crabs in different tracts, especially in some of the delta areas ot the Coromandel coast but it might be a surprise, to at least some, to be told that there is a fish which has been noted as injurious in some of these tracts. This creature (which is known as Anatkuthupambu in Tamil, and the damage it causes Ramasult in Telugu) is an elongated flattish creature with the general appear- ance of a snake and believed to be a water snake. The animal is really a fish and belongs to the group of fishes called ‘Hels’. This creature generally inhabits the estuaries and tidal streams along the coast and is often found to travel inland in the channels and streams during ebb tide. Though up to the present it has been noted as a pest only in the coast of South Arcot and in the Godaveri delta, the creature has a wide distribution and is one of the commonest species of eels found along our coasts and estuaries. The nature of the damage done by this creature does not, as in the case of most other pests, consist.in any direct injury by the creature feeding on the plants or causing them any mechanical injury, but it is an indirect harm caused by numbers of these eels burrowing into and making wide passages across the bunds, thus connecting the paddy fields containing fresh water on one side and the adjacent salt water channels or tidal streams on the other. 1 Paper read at the Indian Science Congress, Bangalore, January 1932. "(0109 shyzqynydg) jeg Suimorumg y ‘0S ‘SIH “Jey Aequiog ‘‘uanor MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: . 277 This causes the salt water from these latter to enter the paddy fields and affect the growth of the plants; due to the ill effects of salt water, the plants wither and often die. The damage is thus, described by a cultivator near Chidambaram:—‘The snake bores through the flat bund of the Uppanar channel which is eleven feet wide—eradually the bund weakens in several places causing sudden breaches allowing the salt water into the paddy fields and polluting the fresh water on account of which the plants wither; lands to the extent of 500 acres are thus affected by the overflow of salt water through holes and passages made by the snakes called Anaikuthu- pambu.’ Though it was only recently that this creature was reported as a pest in paddy fields, it was known to the writer as a pest in a different role as early as 1918. In March, 1918, a report was received from the Commissioner of Salt and Abkari, Board of Revenue, Madras, to the effect that some of the salt pans and condensers in Ganjam and Godaveri were being damaged by crabs and a burrowing creature, causing injury known as Ramasuli in Telugu. The writer had the privilege of visiting these tracts to investigate the reported damage in April, 1918, and it was then that this Ramasuli was found to be an eel and evidently the same as the Anaikuthupambu. The injury caused to the salt pans was due to the burrows of the eels through the bunds of the pans, in which salt water is collected and allowed to evaporate. The burrows thus made by eels and crabs allowed the water to run out through them, leaving the pans dry before the salt had erys- talised. Thus this eel has been noted as a pest of salt pans and paddy fields. Though the agent is the same in both cases the damage done is different in the two cases. In the one it is pre- | vention of salt formation while in the other it is saline injury! This eel has recently been definitely named with the help of the Director of Fisheries, Madras, as Ophichthys (Pisoodonophis) boro and is recorded as a common species of eel with a very wide distribution along the Indian coasts. Very little is, however, known of the habits cf the creature except that it burrows in mud and underground wet areas. The very name Anaikuthupambu in Tamil means ‘embankment cutting snake’. In the salt pans of Cocanada this creature is known as Rama and the hole made is known as Ramasuli. The fish is very rarely seen, though com- mon, and is said to come up with the tide and descend into the soft mud when the tide goes down, making a long winding hole in its trail. The soil along the coast in such tracts is very fine and soft forming a favourable haunt of this mud fish. It has not been definitely investigated why it burrows into the bunds. -It is pro- bable that it may be for egg-laying but this remains to be confirmed. One cultivator suggests that the creature enters the paddy fields ta catch insects. | The remedial measures against this creature whether in salt pans. or paddy fields are similar, viz., the prevention of the creature burrowing into the dividing bunds. The radical measure will be to strengthen these bunds and in the case of irrigation channels and salt water creeks the Puble Works Department has to see that the dividing boundaries are strengthened to prevent the 278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI pest making passages into cultivated fields. The other alterna- tives consist in the trapping and destruction of the creature in different ways. The writer has already made suggestions on simi- lar lines in 1918 to the Board of Revenue in his report on the investigations made on their behalf. Now that the creature has begun to affect paddy fields also it is necessary to adopt these and other measures to control the ravages of this pest. The Director of Fisheries suggests that the creature may be trapped in numbers by burying below water level near the bunds large pots filled with rotten meat or fish and that the eels which will be trapped in these pots may be collected next morning and killed as in the case of common fresh water eels. Such and other trials in the way of preventing this injury by eels have to be tried before any definite suggestions are made. At the same time the habits of the creature have also to be studied in various aspects—when it breeds, at what seasons it is found in numbers and in what parts it is a pest, etc. The main idea of this paper is to bring to the notice of all agriculturists and economic Zoologists the existence of such a novel pest so that any one of us who may have chances to come across this fish in future may be able to add to our knowledge regarding the same. The followmg notes on this creature are taken from Day’s Fauna volume on Indian Fishes :— The fish is found in the seas and estuaries of India and Malaya, ascending large rivers to far above tidal reach. It grows to a length of two feet and in colour it is greenish olive above with numerous minute blackish spots, becoming greenish white below. Respiration in this fish is curious: it can not only respire as usual under water but can also breathe the air taken through the mouth. The natives in parts of Bengal imagine that this fish proceeds from the ear of a porpoise! Sir William Elhot says that in some parts of Madras these eels caught from salt water creeks are eaten as a remedy for weakness or pains in the loins. MADRAS. T. V. RAMAKRISHNA AYYAR, June, 1982. By elie Dee Zc Madras Agricultural Department. SOON Usa; JOO) MURAI Ol AMEOUt EN EE Ne Galena One of the chief problems in connection, with trout culture in the Nilgiris is the question of food supply. The greater part of this is provided by crabs, but it is desirable to increase as far as possible the supply of surface food in order to get the oo to rise freely. To effect this numbers of flowering trees and shrubs have been planted out along the river banks, watercress beds were formed, and a strip of erass about 20 yards broad along each bank conserved from all Thao me: it is in connection with this last ques- tion that I am addressing vou. Will it improve insect life in the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 279 grass to leave it unburnt or would it be better to burn annually? ii unburnt the grass in a year or two becomes coarse and dry and about knee-high, whereas of course if burnt annually new grass springs up with the first showers. So far as I have observed the insect life here consists of several varieties of ‘flies’ and midges (types of Mayfly, March brown, etc.), of grasshoppers of different sizes, and of beetles varying from the small green irridescent kind to the huge red-brown cockchafer several inches long. The flies are presumably water-bred; 1 have noticed small grasshoppers to be particularly plentiful in freshly burnt areas where the young erass is sprouting, but as I know nothing about the life history of either grasshoppers or beetles, I am uncertain whether young or longer grass is better suited to the various stages of their existence. I am afraid that the data offered is not much for you to go on, but perhaps you could advise as regards burning whether it would be better to continue to give complete fire protection as at present or to burn annually; or as a compromise to burn alternate banks every other year. Any suggestions you can offer will be most acceptable. LAXMIPURAM, E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, Mysore. Magsor, 1.A., Retd. May 22, 1932. [As a preliminary it would be necessary at first to investigate the sources and the nature of the food upon which the trout in the streams mainly subsist before it is possible to discover whether the burning or the conserving of the grass would be beneficial to their food supply. This implies the examination of the stomach contents of a number of specimens at different seasons of the year. Once the natural source of the food was ascertained and the insects identified it would be possible from the knowledge of their habits to so improve conditions in the neighbourhood of the streams as to attract the creatures which provide food for the trout. We are publishing the above note in the hope that those with experience of trout culture in the country may be able to suggest initial methods whereby the conditions in the Niligiri streams may be Improved. DS. || XXXIT.—METHODS’ OF DEALING WITH PLAGUES OF ANTS. We receive from time to time enquiries about effective means of getting rid of ants on lawns, gardens and in bungalows. The question has been recently the subject of correspondence in the Meld. Various remedies are suggested. A correspondent gives the folowing method of dealing with ants on lawns, ete, 280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST SOCIETY Vol. XOOCV I ‘Wherever there is to be seen a hole in the ground through which ants are coming and going invert a good sized flowerpot over the opening. After a week or so it will be found that they have transferred their elaborate system of galleries from under the ground into the pot. When on looking through the hole in the pot it is seen that the nest is almost: at this height, slip a piece of card under the mouth of the pot, then sink the whole in a tub of water when the ants in all stages of their existence will quickly be drowned. This method is particularly useful to adopt on a lawn where it is often impossible to deal effectively with an ants’ nest. without damage to the grass’. Remedies suggested for plagues of ants in houses are the sprinkling of powdered sulphur in places where ants foregather or move: in ordered procession—an effective alternative to sulphur suggested by another writer is powdered cinnamon. A. remedy found effective cn a South African fruit orchard is a quantity of bran sweetened with golden syrup thinned down with a little water—the whole making a crumbly moist mass—to this add a quantity cf Paris Green (arsenic). and place the mixture where the ants can get at it. As a safeguard against the poisoned bran being eaten by dogs, birds, etc., it is suggested that the bran should be put into a closed box into which plenty of holes have been punched. Empty cigarette tins make good containers, the holes should be plentiful and pierced low down on the sides of the tin so that the ants can get at the bait easily. For use in food cupboards, a eorrespondent suggests sprinkling the _ shelves with dry borax powder covered with white paper. A variant of the borax remedy is equal parts of borax powder and white sugar mixed with water to the consistency of cream and placed in saucers near the place where the ants congregate thickest. This, says the writer, attracts them in legions for a week and then they eradually thin out and do not appear again. Bomsay. EDITORS. Augustin ns OOF XXXIII.—BEHAVIOUR OF THE RED TREE ANT, (GHCOPHYLA SMARAGDINA). Karly one morning in May my attention was attracted by a number of Red Tree ‘Ants (Hicophyla smaragdina) clustered about the paws of a hare which had been left to dry on the terrace of our bungalow at Khandala. Overhanging the terrace was a guava tree which sheltered a number of these ants but no nest. One saw them moving about the stems and twigs. Knowing from experience how aggressive these ants usually are, I decided to test them and put my finger down a few inches away from the assemblage. Very soon one or two of the insects moving about or the outskirts of the crowd came up to my finger. I expected to to be bitten immediately but to my surprise the ants did nothing MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 281 but move round my finger. Tather surprised at this very unusual behaviour, I moved my finger closer to the ants, it was at once inspected by a few more without any active hostile demonstrations. I went further and put my finger right into the middle of the clus- ter. There was a swarming mass of these red ants around it but not one of them attempted to bite me—my small son aged 6 was an interested spectator of this experiment. Later I heard him dare two small boys to put their fingers in among the red ants and, on their declining, promptly did so and was none the worse’ for it. In the light of many experiences with these ants, and their readiness to attack, their behaviour on this occasion seems strange. It is possible that this aggressiveness is exhibited mainly in defence of their nests—but then anyone who has sat down on the ground where red ants are foraging will attest that the creatures bite actively and readily even when not defending their strongholds. Bombay. Seis PR Adu Eis August 1, 1932. Mol.C., .©.M.Z.S. XXXIV.—A SCORPION (BUTHUS) FEEDING ON A DLE ODe SRIDEh (GALEODES AGES; Poe.) Galeodes agilis 1s very common in the Chippabari Inspection Bungalow (Abu Hills, Rajputana). It rightly deserves its specific name, agilis, for iti is extremely active and can cover ground very fast. This appears to me to be true when the spider is on the ground, but when the proposition of climbing presents itself it is certainly not very agile and from this I conclude that it is truly a eround dweller and only takes to climbing to escape an enemy. In habit, it appears to be entirely nocturnal. One morning on turning over my holdall which was lying on the floor, I discovered a large scorpion (Buthus sp.), finishing the remains of a large Galeod spider. The soft abdomen and portion of the thorax had been completely eaten. The legs were discarded. At first sight it would appear somewhat strange how such a spider should fall a victim to a scorpion, comparatively, a slow moving creature. This, however, may be explained by the habit of the spider itself. Though very rapid in its movements, this spider rushes about blindly and possibly it relies on its speed to catch up with anything that forms its normal prey. Speed appears to be its mainstay in securing its food and is also probably a factor resulting in its death. Bompay Narvurant History Society, C. MeCANN, Bompay. Assistant Curator, May 4, 19382, 282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI XXXV.—A CURE FOR TAPEHWORM. In July 1980 I was admitted into hospital with severe abdo- minal pains, particularly on the right side from just below the ribs to almost the groin. My condition was at that time attributed to the after-effects of dysentery, combined with malaria and wnemia. | was treated accordingly. No one suspected. the pre- sence of tapeworm. With the first intravenous injection of quinine I passed about three yards of tapeworm. No sooner was this discovered I was treated with Male Fern (Filix-mas) with a negative result. This failing another preparation (of which I do not remember the name) was administered. This lhkewise had no effect and no further appearance of the worm was noticed. My condition remained much the same. I complained of a distinct lump just below the ribs on the mght side which moved about and in moving caused me poms orale pain. Eventually I was X-rayed but the radiograph showed nothing. Seeing there was nothing to be done and that I was weakening daily, I requested the Medical Officer to permit. me to leave the hospital, which he agreed to on condition that I went to the hills, for at least two months. My weight at the time of leaving hospital was 8st. (normal about 10st. 4 lbs.). In the first pienticen days up in the hills my weight increased rapidly with just ordinary food supple- mented with Ostomalt. After this stage progress was gradual till IT reached almost normal weight. Durmeg this time my stomach was very uncomfortable particularly after meals and I was advised to take Milk of Magnesia. This gave me temporary relief. To- wards the end of the two months my weight began to drop once more. | In the meantime I received a letter from a friend of mine advising me to take a decoction from the roots of the Pomegranate (Punica granatum, L.) after fasting for three days. But, as I was not troubled much at the moment I did not attempt it. About three days before I was due back at work I discovered segments in the stools, so I determined to try the effectiveness of the Pomegranate root and on my return to town took the matter in hand. “For the purpose IT obtained about 3lb. of fresh root and boiled it as directed in Dymock’s Pharmacographaa Indica, vol. i p. 45, but I did not follow the instructions to the letter. The roots, that I had secured, I boiled in about 4 pints of water till they were almost reduced to half the quantity and appeared lke strong tea. This I drew off and allowed to cool. The roots were then Porcned and reboiled in a like quantity of water and after the water had again boiled down to about half it was added to the first lot, thereby giving me about 4 pints. Before commencing the treatment, I took 1 ounce of Magne- sium Sulphate in the morning followed by a hot cup of tea after which I kept a rigid fast for three days. On the third day I com- menced. with the “decoction early in the morning and by noon had taken 24 pints followed by another dose of Magnesium Sulphate. About 1 p.m. the worm was ejected in a large tangled mass. Relief was almost immediate—the lump from under my ribs dis- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 283 appeared. On examination it turned out that the head remained inside. There was nothing to be done for the moment as I was not anxious to repeat the fast. My condition improved consider- ably and I felt a new man. ‘Two months later to the day I was worried once more by my guest. I repeated the experiment adding this time 45 drops of Carbon Tetrachloride after taking the last dose of Pomegranate decoction. The result was a negative one. As I did not succeed this time, and no further segments appeared, I let the matter lie till the worm showed itself again. Again two months to the date, the worm made its appearance. In sheer desperation to get rid of the beast I altered the treatment slightly. A friend of mine suggested that I should try chloroform this time, added to the Pomegranate treatment. In order to make sure of a thoroughly empty stomach I commenced by the adininistration of a strong soap and water enema in the evening before retiring, followed up next morning by one ounce of Magne- sium Sulphate. On the top of this I commenced the Pomegranate decoction and continued it throughout the day till I had consumed 21 pints. The same evening at seven o'clock I took 15 drops of pure chloroform in half a wine glass of water. By 8-30 p.m. the complete worm was expelled. The Pomegranate decoction gives one a slightly sickly feeling, but it is not unbearable, while the chloroform just made me a little unsteady. By the next morning all the effects had worn off. As the last mentioned ‘accmaimaare=a was so effective I recom- mended it to a friend of mine whom I knew had been suffering from the same complaint for over 16 years. He had tried every possible thing and had failed every time. However, eventually he followed my advice, but being a bigger man than myself, he increased the doses in each case. “He took 3 pints of the decoction and 25 drops of chloroform and eventually two ounces of Magne- sium Sulphate. The result was good. He passed 50 ounces of tapeworm. On examination of the mass it was found that there were 38 heads! In both the cases the tapeworms concerned were the Beef-Tapeworm Cae saginata Goeze). It may be mentioned here that during the treatment tea alone was taken at intervals throughout the day, a’ full meal after the expulsion of the worm. Before I end this note I give below the precise method of the treatment : (1) At ment a strong enema before retiring. (2) Karly next morning 1 oz. Magnesium Sulphate. (3) 24 pints of Pomegranate decoction from fresh roots, taken at intervals during the day. (4) 15 drops of pure Chloroform at seven in the evening (or quantity prescribed by the doctor according to the constitution of the patient). (5) Half an hour after the chloroform repeat dose of Mag. Sulph. to clear bowels of decoction. Now a word with regard to the effect of Filix-mas. J am given to understand that this drug is very efficacious in Europe in cases af tapeworm. If this be the ease the only reason for its failure sii AKO AINA, IKON evs IN AIO AIL, SaUhSUP.. (SOYIUSIPN . Val, XC XO VI in India is possibly due to the fact that the drug when used, is old, and in consequence has lost its potency. As it is stocked by chemists over long periods it in all probability degenerates. Bombay NaturaAn History Sociery, C. McCANN, F.1.s., Bompay. Assistant Curator. November 1, 1981. AXXVI.—_ SOME SHAGRASSES FROM THE PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY. While collecting seaweeds at several places the writer has collected a few flowering plants often associated with certain algae. In view of the following remarks by Dr. F. Borgesen some infor- mation about seagrasses will be of some interest. He writes: ‘At Bombay I had expected to find a rich vegetation of seagrasses at the shores, but in this respect I was disappointed as I have not found any.’ So writes Dr. Borgesen in one of his papers. This fact is to some extent corroborated by Cooke in his flora. Notwithstanding the writer has succeeded in collecting the folowing plants :— 1. Halophila ovalis Hook. (ITydrocharitaceae.) 2. Halophila decipiens Osti. (Hydrocharitaceae.) The first species which was collected at Malvan and Port Okha in the month of March, 1929, was identified at Kew through Rev. Fx. E. Blatter. The second species was identified by Prof. Ostenfield at Copenhagen according to Dr. Borgesen. Both the Species were abundant and grew ambxed up with the species of Caulerpa. It was collected at Bombay in the month of January 1926. 3. Cymodoceae sp. probably isoetifolia Asch. (Potamoge- tonaceac.) This plant covered a fairly large area of hard calcareous soil at Port Okha in March; the same place was formerly covered by Codim elongatum Ag. in January 1929. 4. Ruppia rostellata Koch. (Naiadaceae.) This plant formed the main part of vegetation (in March 1927 and 1928) of a mudflat near Santa Cruz which was flooded by seawater at high tide. It was mixed up with Chara succincta. Rev. Fr. E. Blatter has kindly identified these plants. LITERATURE CITED: 1. F. Boreesen:—Fra en Rejse i Indien 1927-28. Saertryk a Botanisk Vidsskiit. 41. Binds 2.) Welte, p. 149. 3. TT. Cooke:—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. Mag? Te Kee 3) A. Arber:—Water Plants. Cambridge. 1920. p. 128. Witson CoLLEGcE, S23 Ce Dx: Bompay, 7, Wiese, Win. Savon SON Bill dan ah : ‘SOAOLS W[BG pue coquieg tr uopprIy Apaed O18 seposed ystyppug ‘punoisyoeq oy} ut vydsowhjod vsnqubg pue punorsor0y oy} Ul snqznjnownd snupuuoy Jo UoTyBIoOSse poxtul uedo YIM Jy ULeuNop, Jo doy, one, I HLVIG "209 ‘JSIH ‘JUN Avquog ‘uanor MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 285 XAXXVII.—GLIMPSES OF THE VEGETATION OF SOUTH BURMA. (With three plates). Any one travelling in the Tropical Rain Forests of South Burma will find a striking similarity ot these forests to those of Chitta- gong Hill Tracts and Aracan Sea Coasts. In fact, the same type of forests gradually runs down along the Aracan Sea Coast and finally extends to the Malay Peninsula through Mergui and Tenasserim difiering only in their luxuriance and density and particularly in their evergreen and mixed nature due to variation in climatic and edaphic factors. Towards Chittagong and Aracan sides the vege- tation is more of a mixed deciduous and evergreen type and further down in Mergui and Tenasserim it takes more of an ever- ereen character. In swampy places along the sea coast, river sides and estuaries, these forests merge into the mangrove forma- tion. In most of the flooded and low land areas Nipa fruticans and Acanthus ilicifolius form in some places an association. In com- paratively drier and higher parts Avicennia officinalis, Hacoecaria Agallocha, Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Sonneratia acida, Carapa obovata and others are frequently found encroaching upon the hill forests of lower elevations. Thus following the vegetation all along this area one finds some o: the common representative species. During secondary forma- tion there is the same tendency of the plants developing into a tropical rain forest in which Bamboos and Canes claim supremacy, although, in some places Blwmea balsamifera gains in the begin- ning an upper hand but soon it is overtopped by bamboos. Thus in some of the most frequented areas, as noticed on the Moulmein hills of the town proper, Bambusa polymorpha is a dominant species growing in dense thickets. The other shrubby species— such as, Connarus paniculatus, Congea tomentosa, Melastoma malabathricum form a mixed association in more open areas. Along the slopes—Sterculia villosa, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Ficus species and other trees and shrubs indicate that they are the members cf the Tropical Rain Forests. Troceeding further down as I entered the Kyeinchaung Forest areas of the Cinchona Reserve; an uncharted country in Tenas- serim, Mergui District, I came across the characteristic dense mass ot vegetation of the virgin Tropical Rain Forests covering shady valleys and. slopes of ‘los ranges of hills extending ‘towards Siam in the north and Malay in the south. Here lofty trees shoot up from an impenetrable crowded mass of Bamboo brakes and Cane brakes. In moist and darker portions of the forests beautiful palms are found scattered here and there, and in some places groups of Licuala peltata, Zalacca Wallichiana, Cycas’ Rumphi and other herbacecus Scitamineae species are not infrequently met with. Thus, the vegetation of these primeval forests may be sub- divided into four strata. The highest belt consists of tall species 286. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Volk OO Vi of Dipterocarpus, Ficus, Dillenia, Stereospermum, Sterculia, Lagerstroemia, Parashorea and others forming a canopy over the next tier of mixed Bamboo and Cane brakes. This central zone of mixed Bamboo brakes interlocked with rattan is chiefly com- posed of several species of bamboos such as Bambusa arundinacea, Bambusa polymorpha, Gigantochloa albo-ciliata, Dendrocalamus strictus and others. . | : Associated with these bamboos and canes are also found smaller trees, shrubs and tall herbaceous species such as Barringtonia acutangula, Grewia Microcos, Streblus asper, lvandia species, Croton species, Ixora species and also a few species of palms noted above. This stratum again gradually dwindles down to the low shrubby and herbaceous members, namely, Strobilanthes sp., Jasminum: sp., Coffea bengalensis and smaller plants of Gnetum sp. (The young leaves of Gnetum edule are a favourite vegetable diet of the Bur- mans.) Finally, this zone of herbaceous association gradually ends in the floor vegetation of low diffused herbs and trailers which in some places appear as mosaic carpets on the ground. Pure grass mats are extremely rare inside these forests. Tall lanes, scandent shrubs and climbers, such as Bauhinia sp., Butea superba, Vitis sp., Hntada scandens, Zizyphus enoplia, Mucuna sp., Ipomaea sp., and others are found intertwined with Bamboo brakes: or over- hanging like festoons from taller trees. Along the banks of the Kyemechaung river the spreading shrubs of Homonoia riparia are commonly met with in the forest. Hpiphytic orchids, such as Dendrobium densiflorum, Dendrobium Pierardi with their long drooping bunches of beautiful flowers, and numerous plants cof the most common epiphytic fern—Asplenium nidus with its full gran- deur, adorn the branches and stems of trees often covered with thick pads of mosses. Rhaphidophora pertusa and Pothos scandens often climb up to a considerable height on the trunk of sturdy trees. The thicker leaves of the herbs and shrubs in the interior of the forests have their margins fringed with mossy outgrowths and are often studded with numerous epiphyllous lichens. Of these mention may specially be made of a magnificent specimen of nest epiphyte— Platycerium grande, (the staghorn fern) wellknown for its large pocket leaves and pendulous dichotomous foliage leaves. This plant was seen in the suburbs of Meregui on a stout high branch of a lofty tree of Durio zibethinus, one of the most favourite fruit trees of South Burma. This interesting fern which is reported here for the first time from Mergui, South Burma, is a native of Malay Peninsula, (as recorded Ibe Schimper) and it Tage have found its way up in Lower Burma as well. SoME oF THE LirERATURE CONSULTED: 1. 3. D. Hooker.—The Flora of Bytish India, Vol: i-viu, 1875-1897. Wes. Kine, ones Pend oO) Jamiisic upmia@, Vol vem, Ween, 8. A: F.- W. Schimper:—Plantgeography (English transla- tion), 1908. 4. D. Prain.—Bengal Plants, Vol. i-n, 1908. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate II A general view of the forests by the side of Upper Kyeinchaung river with overhanging climbers and drooping branches of Baccaurea sapida. In the fore ground is the spreading shrub of Homonoia riparia—the most common shrub along the bank of this river. A group of Licuala peltata in the Kyeinchaung forest with the party accompanying the author in his botanical exploration. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prare) Tt Interior of a secondary formation in enasserim, showing Cane brakes with epiphytic Asplenium nidus and climbing Rhaphidophora pertusa on the moss- covered trunk of a tall tree. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 287 5. J. H. Lace.—LlList of Trees, Shrubs and Principal Climbers, etc., recorded from Burma, 1912. 7 6. H. Ns Ridley.—Flora of the Malay. Peninsula, Vol. 1-v, 1923. 7. ©. EH. Parkinson.—A Fforest Bova of the Andaman Islands, : 1923. 8. Rk. L. Heimig.—List of Plants of Chittagong Collectorate and Hill Vracts, 1925 Saeed Dig dD). Stamp.—The V Gaehation of Burma, 1925 10) KK. Biswas:—Flora of the Salt Lakes, Calcutta, Journ.. of the Dept. of Science, C. University, 1926. 11. J. H. Watson.—Mangrove lorests of the Malay Peninusla, 1928. 12. Van Slooten.—The Dipterocarpaceae of the Dutch East lingwes, Ieulll, dail, IBuun7.. ol, xc Sere, tins Jone smi, SPs). 13. K. Biswas.—Preliminary Note on the Vegetation of the Tropical. Hoergreen “Rain Horests of the + Cimchona Reserve, Tenasserim, Mergui, South Burma, Abstracts ef Papers, Indian Science Congress, Section of Botany, INGE Oy fs 22a IBN 14. FI. Kingdon Ward.—xix. Singapore to Penang, Roosevelt Expedition in French Indo-China. The Gardeners’ Chronicle, No. 2325, Vol. ve, (contd.)—1931-1932. lo We Gs Craib.—Florae iPr howe Hnumeratio, Vol. i, Pts. I te 4, 1925-1981 16. D. Mukerji.—Notes of Ants, Zoologischer Anzeiger, Vol. 97, 11/12, 19382. kK. BISWAS, M.A., Superimtendent, (Offig.), Royvau Botanic GARDEN, CALCUTTA. XXAVITI.—SCENT IN RELATION TO FLOWER-COLOUR. The study of scent in relation. to flower-colour, has been followed during the last quarter of a century with increasing inter- est. Oz particular interest and importance, however, is the eee of blue flower-colour with scent. This combination is said » be exceedingly rare. A resumé of the known species of scented flowers of blue colour, has been well, drawn up by Hampton.t They are: Meconopsis sp. K. .W2-d751 (observed by Kingdon Ward), M. speciosa, Pram, MM. latifjola, Pram, Primula. cernua, Vranch. (observed by Kingdon Ward), Gentiana ciliata, Linn. (observed by Kerner; but Hampton is of the opinion that they are devoid of scent), Tecophilea cyanocrocus, Leyb., Nymphaea stellata, Willd. (observed by Hampton; but there are certain varieties of this * Hampton, The Scent of Flowers and Leaves, 1925. 988: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NA TUM yARIE mE Sins Oise Thain V ol Xo Oxayal species with white corolla), Salvia patens, Carv. and several inembers of the Borage family. It is thus evident that the paucity of scented flowers of pure blue, is very great indeed. Observations were made by the author in this direction on certain Indian flowering plants both indigenous and acclimatised. The results obtained are interesting in the way that they add eight species to the list of flowers having a combin- ation of blue colour with scent. The species studied are enumerated as tollows:— | Iris persica, Linn. (fam. Iridaceae): Commonly known as Fersian Iris is a small bulbous plant and bears blue flowers of delightiul fragrance. Caryopteris Wallichiana, Schau. DC. Prod., xi, 625 (Clero- dendron odoratum, D. Don, Prod. Fl. Nep., 102): This Verbe- naceous member is a spreading shrub and produces pretty blue sweet-scented flowers in great abundance during February and March. It may, however, be pointed out that there is a variety o: this species which produces only white flowers. Angelonia grandiiong, ©.; Morr. Anna soc. elorg, Gand, ie 1847 (fam. Scrophulariaceae): This herbaceous species keeps flowering all the year round. The flowers are blue having a strong scent suggesting pineapple. Passiflora laurifolia, Linn. Sp. 956 (fam. Passifloraceae): is a climber and bears fine blue flowers that are fragrant. Hydrolea zeylanica, Vahl. (fam. Hydrophyllaceae): is a water-plant quite common in Orissa ponds. Its Lone are blue and are at the same time fragrant. Jacaranda mimosaefolia, Dem, (aad, @oalaiolG, I. JEI.)3 late Bignoniaceous species is a native of Brazil and is a_ big-sized ‘bee, Its blue flowers are very sweetly scented. Brunjelsia latifolia, Benth., DC. Prod., x, 199 (=Franciscea latifolia, Pohl, Pl. Bras. Ie. 3. t. 2): belongs to the family Sola- pnaceae and is one cf the most lovely of the garden plants. It flowers by the end of February. The fine flattened flowers are exquisitely fragrant but they subsequently lose their colour and turn white. Brunfelsia Hopeana, Benth. (=Franciscea uniflora, Pohl., le. 2 t. 1): is a shrub which (from February to March) produces a great protusion of lovely blossom of pure blue or white flowers. Both the types of flowers emit a most agreeable perfume. Botany DEPARTMENT, Nos Ce INS. SRN Gal RAVENSHAW CoLLEGE, PATNA UNIVERSITY, Currack, InpIA. July 4, 1982. XXXIX.—VERNACULAR. NAMKS. Your reviewer objects to the rendering of Brinjara in my “Book of Man-eaters’. He will find Banjara in my ‘History of the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 289 Hyderabad Contingent’, published by the Government of India in 1905; and objection has been taken to that transliteration. It is scarcely necessary to say that, having a knowledge of the language concerned, and having been associated with these people, sometimes for prolonged periods, during more than thirty years, I am fully aware that the word is Banjara in the vernacular. But I wrote Brinjara deliberately. It is the common English render- ing, sanctioned by long custom, just as most of us, possibly including your reviewer, write Brahmin. If we are pedantic we may find faults, real or imaginary, in most publications. A very common mistake, made by R. W. B. and others, is spelling sambar with an ‘h’ in the middle; let us hope the mistake is not repeated in pronunciation ! mh. GG. BURLON, March 22, 1932. Brigadier-General. pom Oo PROCEEDINGS OF THE MEETING HELD ON l4ta. JULY 1932. A Meeting of Members of the Bombay Natural History Society was held at the Prince of Wales’ Museum on Thursday the 14th. July at 6 pm. Khan Bahadur C. M. Cursetjee presided. Sir Reginald Spence, Kt., the Honorary Secretary, announced the election of 16 new members since the last meeting held on the 31st. March. In all 40 new members had joined since the commencement of the year—this was an improvement on the corresponding figures of the previous year—but there was room for further improvement—he hoped that members would do what lay in their power to keep up the membership of the Society and so enable it to carry on the work it was still doing in spite of difficult condition which prevailed everywhere. NEW AQUARIUM FOR BOMBAY. There are many schemes which are awaiting better times for development. Among these is a Marine Aquarium for Bombay. Sir Reginald stated that he has harboured this project, among many others, for a long time, and he hoped that before he left India it would bear fruit. He had managed to secure from the Government sympathetic consideration for a free site for an Aquarium on the new reclamation. What he wanted now was Rs. 50,000 to put up and equip a building—not a large sum—but one which was not easy to come by in these times of depression. The prospect was not bright, but he did not give up hope that the Marine Aquarium would become at no distant future an accomplished fact. JUBILEE NEXT YEAR. Sir Reginald reminded the members that 1938 would see the 50th. anniversary of the foundation of the Society and expressed the hope that conditions in Bombay and the world in general would enable the occasion to be celebrated fittingly. EXPEDITION TO KHERI. Mr. McCann, Assistant Curator of the Society, then gave an interesting lecture illustrated with lantern slides on the recent expedition to Kheri, Garh- wal, on the Nepal border. The Expedition was undertaken on behalf of the Field Museum, Chicago. American Museums have in recent years concentrated a great deal of attention upon India and this country has been the scene of various expeditions organised by American institutions with a view to collecting specimens repre- sentative of the Indian fauna and flora. The New York Museum recently opened its hall of Indian Mammals which contains perhaps the most beautiful series of groups, illustrating the great game animals of the Indian Hmpire. The material collected for these groups was obtained mainly through Mr. Vernay, a vice-patron and generous benefactor of the Society. The Field Museum of Chicago is now going to have its Indian Hall. The specimens which are to be exhibited in the Hall, will represent, like those in New York, the larger game animals of our country. They were collected some years ago during an expedition undertaken by the late President Roosevelt's two sons. The animals are now to be set up and exhibited in groups in their natural surroundings. The Society, which helped the New York Museum in completing its work, was asked to co-operate in collecting the material and accessories required for the Field Museum groups. It is not necessary to explain what these museum groups are. We have several groups in the galleries of the Prince of Wales’ Museum which are as fine examples of the type of work as is to be seen anywhere in the world. Had we the space, and what is equally important the funds, we in Bombay could have as fine an exhibit of Indian Mammals as is now to be seen in a foreign country. PROCHEDINGS 291 4 The purpose of the modern Museum group is to reveal the facts of life as one may read them in the book of nature. Art and science combine to make the lesson pleasing and instructive. In the modern group the animal is seen not as a dead classified museum specimen but is seen in the environment in which it lives and has its being. ‘To serve its purpose the group must be true to life. It must correctly represent the animal and illustrate some phase of its life. It must with equal truth reproduce the surroundings in which the animal lives. The only way to do this is to study at first hand both the animal and its habitat. This in brief is the nature of the work which the expedition set out to do. PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS, AND PUBLISHED BY SIR REGINALD SPENCE FOR THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, BOMBAY ee IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN | ae Bg ae BUTTER LIES. BY Brigadier W. H. Fane: &.S1., G:b EDS: O. : eons Edition Lae due The BOCK contains an Introductory Chapter on Butterfly collecting. in India, hints for amateurs on collecting and treatment and preserving of specimens. Apart from this bene the book includes thirty-two black and ~ ss white plates illustrating over 200 species. ae _ Price Rs. 15/- net. (Price to members Rs. 10/- net.) BY Capt. R. S. P. Bates, M.B.0.U. _Profusely Sitgeeted ail black sna white plates. . a - - Price Rs. 9/- net. 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TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP. Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and a Life Membership fee of ‘Rs. 350. Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and an annual subscription of Rs. 25. — The subscription of members elected in October, November and December covers the Ager ete poe date of their election up till the oe of the following years“ " | MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA. ‘The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-0 to the Society in Bombay on he Ist, January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers— The National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. | | Rs. 20. TAXIDERMY Specimen of work produced in our Laboratory We have pleasure in announcing that the services of our Taxidermy Department are available to members of the Society. Work 1s carried out for members only. The object of the Society is to turn out Taxidermy work of a high standard on the most modern principles. It should be noted that orders received from members are carried out in strict rotation. The Honorary Secretary .will. be plead | to quote <6 EAE ce aXe ei mains Be terms on specific inquiry. gee 8 BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 6, Apollo Street, Bombay. Ist March, 1933. Pe wr of Ve! St et f in ay ‘ A 4 ; = ~ r = 5 rote 7 =ow rem) ‘i ies ag is ‘ 2 Spnatal a . Ca 7 F! = i H ‘ 7 9 md 5 . 2 a D « & vf é 4b : SE) fb —«¢ . ~ = if . 0p : ‘ Ky 5 : ec ts 7 : Wey + P : hi _ Pits ra . whe btu fe pee + = a G E { 2 » a ei Z * . i} we OG = % = i 4 Nes be y 4 ' yt he . fo are! es a ee - i aS ae 5 : : bps Sates 5 ¥ vv? oe, Cee 9 a r, Lg Vs: a 4 ? ? Fe, / { 2 C ie " . oar af AW . Hy Sa Ge ot PO car ww Wee rors ~ GiN' ae Bcc i‘ } : ; WY < n G z= i a3 “ P 3 ~ -S el ae ae Danie gat r * ‘ ml 4 ea = 4 i iJ a . = ‘ oo a Ae ‘ad t i i ir i d i 1 iy i i ? Ms . ty - La . , : 4 of baer , & A ft , a 3 J 2 » pa tae € 1) 6 7 , A ay 5 ‘ +, » > rc y, { i . : ny i Pr 4 ; ir a ' - - 1 we H COIN IBIN IES, O18 WAIL OAT) OOS IN aie 2 PAGE THE GamMr Birps oF THE INDIAN [imprreE. By EH. C. Stuart Baker, CIDR SET Ze Se ieee Sen emevICB: OMUR noun Her eA OxUic Partin exe (Wath: =a GOOG! (WUCON) OF. Seadodebenopadene aoe Gee nOeO eee OROOU Ee COR LOCE OAT ao anE aad anedeT = 293 REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BomBAy PRESIDENCY. By Rev. EH. Blatter, Shp AD Aais Fiala Ghpe devant wees oC VME Du DUGLOSH Nee 1 sei Nccnidansedtec ue clases 307 Some HxPERIENCES AMONGST HLEPHANT AND THE OTHER Bic GAME oF BuRMA RON GESS( 1h Silene ayaa Vis Seo SIGINOMM ah a1 WUssiesacisitaclacisine Safa sicaieiencoees SZ THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY oF THE EASTERN GuHats (Ornithological Section). Part IV. By H. Whistler, m.B.o.U., assisted by N. B. SGINNINE GRRE OS Wee escent test. ci ota a. irene Ameen iste NUM Se Is Saielaat cates Mipae ease sh cigars 334 SOME BrautiruL InpiAN Trees. Part XI. By Rev. EH. Blatter, s.1., Pde, Wells, eyacl We WS. Whllewel, isp Ciaue. I colloomedl Wind I Olacs anal wolnnte (olen ahah Pi CROMTCDG)\ ~- SoShdoceecosecdo-csobocseccsosoe 353 THe HyperabaD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL Survey. Part I. By Salim Ali, with Notes by Hugh Whistler. (With a map and 2 plates.) ... 356 »-NON=POIsonoUS, SNAKES::, Byas. He- Prater M.U.0),°O.Mez.S., J.P. ...--. 391 NoTES ON THE COLOURATION AND HABITS OF THE WHITE-BROWED GIBBON oR Hoonock (iylobates hoolock Harl.). By C. McCann, F.u.s. (With Dis DUCE CSE Retest ite ace saree ae cia ate ds acer atnaiae we ae eae Oke neste No SAREARG ocd sks Mie v Sy 395 THE Gamt Brrps AND ANIMALS OF THE MAnrpur State witH NotTEs oN THEIR NuMBERS, MicRaTION AND Hapsirs. Part I. By J. C. Higgins, A ONG pee MIC eet Ss ea oa a are, Sa a ae Guar Eee ac tee! ye SRD Us Sars Ne Bae De 406 Tue Civetr-Cars oF Asta. By R. I. Pocock, F.R.s. (With 4 text-figures.) 423 THE BUTTERFLIES OF BANGALORE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. By J. A. Yates. 450 ADDITIONS TO THE DRAGONFLY (Odonate) Fauna oF INDIA wiTH DkEsCcRIP- TIONS OF New Species. By It.-Col. EF. C. Fraser, 1.M.s., ¥F.5.S. ice EEC DERG OS, .\s = am acca cer tra actectoce seRTER att ieee acc coon Gus teectiteeses 460 THE Soctan LIFE oF SNAKES. By G. JEL, APRS, WWGh, Ovi, debs can 260 New PLAnts FROM WAZIRISTAN. By Rev. EH. Blatter, s.3., ph.p., F.L.S. 477 REvVIEWws— iPeesm Oiseaux We lilindochimes Hrancaise gal. c-cc.msccnceoneceesaae 485 2. The Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire. ............... 485 MIscELLANEOUS NoTEs— How does a) Miger make! a Kall”? “By R. K. M. Battye. ...... 488 II.—Panthers of the North-West Frontier. By R. I. Pocock, F.z.s. 489 NU ——Jeeleil hime (Cope, Tehy 1k, Wits fShiammavoyniss | Eooanecodessoneascnee 490 Ne hlde Dogs by, Re Ca Morrisns Fazess. BURUGES. By tte Colas Dt ali dyuar.dls) mene eee cscaeneeceen eee 912 XXIIT.—The Occurrence of the Green Pit Viper (Trimeresurus gramineus, Shaw)! at Nagpur. By hi sAC sy DeAbreUb Hh eZes5 seeeseceeree eee NZ XXIV.—Intestinal Parasites of the Python. By R. C. Morris, F.z.s., F.R.G.S. Mcrae roman Rb S Men ote no noputunhtedsasoshoosds 513 XXV.—The Occurrence of the Common Chamaeleon (Chamaeleon calca- ratus) in Gujarat. By Hari Narayan G. Acharya, F.z.s. ... 513 XXVI.—A Note on the Occurrence of Rana hexadactyla, Lesson in Bengal, “By: J..< Ti.) ‘Blvaduraeyee eer reece eee econ. sae 514 © XOXV i —iresh) Water ‘Hels.) (By) Ss qeAqSunipeaeneeere cece reereraceenanacern 516 XXVIII.—Notes on an Acridiid Grasshopper (Gesonia punctifrons, St.) ovipositing into stem of ‘Colocasia’ Plant. By T. V. Rama- krishna Ayyar and N. Krishna Menon. (With a plate.) .... 517 XXIX.—Phosphorescence in a Bombay Myriapoda. By A. N. Gulati, PCA 90 C.F ue Sanna ae Aria sunee.Gacqnn sea son gu adbomseadbdedbadsagbbaessy 519 Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. John Bale, Sons & Damielsson.L*¢ London Vier THE GREENSHANK Glottis nebularia. THe REDSHANK 4. Tringa totanus totanus. JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. Aprit, 1938. : Wi@ibin) RMON TES Nos 2: THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. BY ie CA STUART BAKER, C.1.E., F.Z.8., F.U.8., M.B.0.U., H-¥.A.0.U. Wom ve THEHE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS. Part XIX. (With a coloured plate). (Continued from page 12 of this volume). Genus: Trinea (contd.). TRINGA TOTANUS. Scolopax totanus Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th. ed., 1, p. 145 (1758). Type-locality.—Sweden. In 1926 Meinertzhagen, reviewing this species (Bull., B.O.C., xlvi, March 29, 1926) came to the conclusion that the race from Ladak named eurhinus by Oberholser was not separable from the typical form and he then proceeded to give a name, T'ringa totanus terrignote, to a form, based on the type from the Kuku Nor. An examination of the material in the British Museum and of some Specimens lent me by Messrs. Whistler and Osmaston convince me that Meinertzhagen is right and that the Ladak and Tibet breeding-birds cannot be separated from one another though they are both very different from his bird from the Kuku Nor. We have therefore this extraordinary distribution arising. The Euro- pean bird seems to work eastwards through Siberia, keeping north, another stream works south into the Himalayas, whilst between the two there is sandwiched another race breeding in the Altai, Kuku Nor, Tianschan and probably a considerable area in Central Asia. ) _ I can see no difference in size between Ladakan and Tibetan birds and those from Europe, so eurhinus becomes a synonym of totanus. Fifty specimens of the former have wings from 152 to 164 mm., and fifty of the latter wings from 150 to 168 mm.; the culmens respectively measure 42 to 47 and 40 to 49 mm. I should, however, state that some Naturalists still consider that the Hastern race is separable. Key to Subspecies. Much darker above and much less suffused with rufous ... oli ha bOLOn Ws: Much paler above, with the upper plumage strongly suffused with rufous oe sr See MUS Ln ION OW 294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI TRINGA TOTANUS TOTANUS. The Redshank. Scolopax totanus Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th ed., 1, p. 145 (1758) (Sweden). Totanus calidris.—Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 264 (part). } Tringa totanus totanus.—Stuart Baker, Fauna of B. I., vi, p22 aig29). | Vernacular Names.—Chota Batan (Hind.); Mali-kotan (Tam.); Maha-matuwa (Cing.). Description.—In Summer upper plumage dark brown, the feathers of the crown and neck edged with fulvous, the inner secondaries and scapulars with bars of black and notches of fulvous; wing-coverts much barred black and rufescent white; lower back and rump white; upper tail-coverts white, barred with brown; tail barred pale rufous and brown, the lateral tail-feathers white and brown; primaries dark brown, the first with a white shaft, inner primaries mottled with white on the inner webs and tips; outer secondaries pure white, the latter mottled with brown on the inner webs; chin and throat white; sides of head, neck, breast and flanks white streaked with brown, varying much in extent; centre of abdomen and axillaries pure white; under tail-coverts white streaked with blackish. Colours of soft parts.—Ivis brown; bill black, reddish on the basal third; legs and feet orange-red, claws black. Measurements.—Wing 150 to 168 mm., rarely 137 to 150 mm., probably young birds; tail 69 to 85 mm.; tarsus about 45 to 52 mm.; culmen 40 to 49 mm. In Winter the black markings and fulvous spots on the upper part disappear and the general tint is more grey, less brown; the underparts have the streaks much smaller and restricted to the sides of the neck, lower fore-neck and breast; the forehead is white and the sides of the head and neck much less heavily streaked. : Young birds are more rufous above, the fulvous spots on the scapulars ete. more marked and the flanks are more banded with black. Nestling.—Above rufous-buff, more fulvous on the sides of the head; well-marked black lines from forehead to crown, two lateral coronal bands meeting behind crown, through the eye from lores to the side of the neck; dark central and dorsal streaks; two dark lines on wings, one round the flanks and uropygium. Distribution.—Throughout Europe, Northern Asia, Asia Minor, ete. to the Himalayas as far East as Setchuan. In Winter it migrates south to South Africa and South Asia, India, Burma, China, Philippines, ete. Nidification.—The Redshank is supposed to breed from Europe into northern Asia and throughout the Himalayas from Kashmir to Setchuan but exactly where it meets the Eastern Redshank, if separated, is at present very doubtful. There is a form breeding somewhere in Central Asia, which has been named by Meinertzhagen THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 295 terignote, but the nest and eggs of this bird do not appear to have been found and its exact breeding haunts are not known. Recently also 7. t. eurhinus, an eastern breeding form of Red- shank named by Oberholser but not accepted by myself, has been resuscitated and if recognisable, would be the form breeding in Ladak and Tibet. Ludlow, again, found them breeding in Eastern Turkestan but Kinnear has identified these birds as typi- cally Common Redshank. Jn Europe, the Redshank breeds duri ing April and May honed in the higher latitudes a great many birds breed well on into June, elilet in the more southern countries, birds which breed early in April often have a second brood in late June and I have found eggs myself in August. The latest recorded date which I have is the 23rd. of that-month im Norfolk. The site selected for the nest is most often the wide marsh lands bordering the sea but they have also been found breeding -in meadows of lush erass, in swamps and by little moorland pools far inland. Typi- cally, however, they are certainly shore -breeders. As a rule I do not think they like very rank vegetation in which to make their nests, though I have often found them placed in. very dense tangles of the thick coarse grass known in the EKastern counties as ‘maram grass’, probably, but their favourite position is where the grass thins out considerably on the tops of ridges and sandhills of the foreshore. Occasionally I have taken them from tiny clumps of maram or fine grass standing quite alone and, when once found, such nests always strike one as being very conspicuous; at the same time, unless one is intent on finding the nest it is extra- ordinary how it can be passed by without being noticed. Some- times these birds breed more or less in company. On one occasion I remember, Dr. Coltart and I obtained twelve nests from one field, all of which were- built in- one corner of it and probably none were more than fifty yards from their nearest neighbour. The morning in question was cold and wet, with a thick driving mist and, for the most part, the birds sat so. close that they rose at our feet and the nests were very easy to find but, on the other hand, so thick was the mist that if they rose only a few yards ahead it was quite impossible to locate the spot from which they rose and I think we missed several other nests because of this. Another occasion I found five nests of this bird in very thin maram grass along the crest of a long low sand hill, while there were also two other pairs who were breeding in the thicker stuff at the foot of the hills. As a rule the nests are very well hidden and it is necessary to part the erass before one can see the nest and eggs, but they are given away by the curious httle whirl of grass which forms the entrance to the nest. This is, or seems to be, invariably curled round with a curious twist, leaving a tiny mouse-hole in the centre which expands sufficiently to allow Ingress and egress to the sitting bird. In the Himalayas, if our bird is the same, it breeds —aecording to Osmaston—in rushes and grass in swamps. He took two nests each containing four very hardset eggs near Shushal in Ladak at 14,200 feet in the first week of Tole. Other nests 2996 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI taken by Ward in Ladak were found early in June. A certain number of other nests and eggs were also collected for me by collectors in Tibet, these being taken at altitudes between 12 and 14,000 feet throughout June and once early in May. The number of eggs laid is, of course, four but Crump took one nest with five, while occasionally three have been taken showing signs of incubation, though in every case these were probably second layings. The eggs are extremely handsome and vary very considerably. The ground colour may be anything from a pale yellowish or buffy stone colour to a rich ochre buff or buff, whilst in a few eggs the ground varies from pale greenish stone to an almost warm olive green, these latter, however, being quite exceptional. The markings vary even more than the ground colour. In many they consist of small specks, and spots of hght to dark reddish distributed numerously over the whole surface of the ege. In others the blotches are very much larger and in these eggs are almost invariably much more numerous at the larger than at the smaller end. In a few eggs the blotches may measure as much as half an inch in diameter and generally when the blotches are very large, they are comparatively sparse and the eggs look very bold and handsome. The colour of these larger markings varies from rather dark purple brown to almost purple black and they are always more or less interspersed with smaller specks, spots and sometimes Iheroglyphics of the same colour, with secondary markings of pale purple brown and grey. These secondary markings which occur in all eges, whatever their markings may be, are never sufficiently pro- nounced to dominate the colour of the egg. Hrythristic and cyan- istic eggs occur but are very rare, but eggs the prevailing impression of which is brown are more often met with. Occasionally the blotches in more boldly marked eggs form rings or caps at the larger end. A hundred British eggs average 44.5x31.5 mm.; maxima 48.0X32.0 mm. and 46.5x33.1 mm.; minima 41.5 x 28.5 mim. In shape the eggs are pyriform, very pointed at the smaller end, obtuse ordinary ovals being quite exceptional. The surface is close but not very fine and few eggs have any pronounced gloss. Fifty eggs taken in Ladak, Turkestan, etc., average 44.0 x 30.5 mm.; maxima 48.0 x 32.0 and 46.5 x 33.1 mm.; minima 44.1 x 29.0 mm. The period of incubation is, according to Witherby, twenty- three to twenty-six days. According to Witherby, also, the incuba- tion is carried out principally by the hen, though the male bird has been killed off the eggs. In India it would appear that the cock bird sits quite as much as the hen. Except in unusual circumstances, such as in the mist as des- eribed above, the birds are not close sitters and until the eggs are fairly advanced in incubation, it is difficult to approach without putting them up off at a considerable distance generally too far to enable one to locate the nests. So long as there are only eggs in the nests, they are rather shy birds but when the young are hatched they become very noisy and circle round any intruder, calling vociferously the whole time. As a rule, as soon as the THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 297 young are hatched, however thin the grass is in which the nest may have been built, the chicks are invariably hurried into the nearest thick grass within a very few hours of their birth. Habits.—The Redshank appears in the plains of India in vast numbers during September, leaving again in early April, at which time they may be seen in quite large flocks, in some cases possibly numbering hundreds. Many birds, however, appear quite early in August, whilst others do not leave until early in May, these latter being probably our Himalayan breeding birds. Once arrived in India, the flocks are split up into smaller numbers or into single birds and pairs but these reassemble before their departure, migra- tion occurring principally in big flights. They may be found practically anywhere where there is sufficient water, whether this be marsh-land, rivers or streams. They have much the habits of many of the other small waders found throughout the cold weather in the plains but they are generally rather shy birds and do not allow of very close approach unless they are feeding with other waders who are less shy than themselves. Their flight is powerful and direct, except when they are per- forming their nuptial display, which consists of a dipping flight carried out in circles. In flight, the white of the upper tail-coverts and tail are always conspicuous but during the nuptial flight the white tail is widely spread and the soft, fluffy white feathers of the rump seem to be extended so as to show more conspicuously than ever. They run well and swim lightly and easily on the water and I have more than once seen birds when disturbed from their nest, swim across small spaces of open dyke. The love-song is a beautiful trilling call, consisting of two notes rapidly repeated, sounding something lke “Trill-lee’ and finishing up with a prolonged trill after which the bird alights on the ground. The ordinary eall note is a shrill single whistle repeated twice and the alarm note is one which might almost be described as a squawking whistle very loud and harsh. Their food consists largely of water insects and their larve but they may be constantly seen picking small beetles and flies off the grass, while they also feed freely on small molluseca and crustacea, worms, etc., and one bird we disturbed in Norfolk dropped a tiny sand-eel which it had evidently just captured. TRINGA TOTANUS TERRIGNOTA. The Central Asian Redshank. Totanus totanus terrignote Meinertzhagen, Bull. B.O.C., xlvi, p. 85 (March 1926) (Kuku Nor). Totanus calidris.—Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 264 (part). Tringa totanus terrignote.—Stuart Baker, Fauna of B.I., vi, Oe ZA (OIG 2A). Vernacular Names.—As in the other races. Description.—Much paler than the western race both in breed- ing and non-breeding plumage, whilst in the former it is much more marked and suffused with rufous on the mantle. It is also rather less heavily spotted below in some cases. 298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Colours of soft parts as in the preceding bird. Measurements.— Wings 145 (once), 148 (once), 151 to 169; ex- posed cuimen 40 to 47 mm., true culmen 46 to 53 mm.’ (Meinertzhagen). Distribution.—Probably breeding in Tianschan, Kuku Nor and Turkestan. In Winter migrating south to India, Burma, Malay States and Archipelago and South China. Some birds from Aden and one from Sokotra are also referable to this race but some from Amur Bay and Mongolia seem to belong to the typical race, though somewhat intermediate. Nidification unknown. Habits.—This form of Redshank, of which the breeding haunts are at present unknown, only straggles on rare occasions into India on the West, but is a common visitor to Hastern India, Burma, and the Malay States. It is possible that this bird may eventually be found to be merely a phase—of either the Common Redshank or of the Eastern form, if that is accepted as distinct. The habits do m no way differ from those of the Common Redshank in voice, flight or anything else. | TRINGA ERYTHROPUS. The Spotted or Dusky Redshank. Scolopax erythropus Pallas, Vroeg’s Cat. Coll. Adum., p. 6 (1764) (Holland). Totanus fuscus.—Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 2405. Tringa erythropus.—Stuart Baker, Fauna of B.I., vi, p. 2238 (G29), Vernacular Names.—Batan, Gatni, Surma (Hind.); Yerra kal ulanka (Tam.). Description.—Breeding plumage.—Whole head, neck and lower parts sooty-black, the feathers of the head and neck very narrowly margined with white, those of the chin, lower breast and abdomen with broad white fringes; the mantle black with white edges to each feather and white spots on the sides of each web; many of the scapulars and inner secondaries more bronze-grey with broken black bars and white notches; lower back and rump white; upper tail-coverts barred black and white; tail with broader bars of black and more narrow bars of white; quills blackish, the shaft of the first primary white, the inner webs mottled with white. Colours of soft parts.—As in the Redshank; legs dusky to orange- red. Measurements.—Wing 152 to 168 mm., exceptional to 172 mm: fail 76 to Ol mm tarus’ 53 to 6 mm. culmentiG soo) toroo mama, 2 56 to 65 mm. In non-breeding plumage.—Above ashy-brown, the crown and neck immaculate, the upper back with tiny white fringes to each feather, broader on the seapulars and inner secondaries, which are notehed with black and white; wing-coverts with broad white frin- ges; supercilium white; lores dark brown; sides of face and neck erey, lightly streaked darker, chin and throat white; foreneck pale ashy-brown; remainder of lower plumage white. Nestling.—Very tke that of the Common Redshank but upper THH GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 299 down paler, almost buffy-white or greyish-white; underparts greyish- white tinged with buff, the down of the breast with dark bases which show up. Markings more brown, less black than in the preceding species. ; Distribution.—Breeds throughout Arctic Europe and Asia, in Winter migrating south to Africa, India, Burma, China and the Malay States and Islands. Nidification.—The Dusky Redshank breeds practically through- out Arctic Europe and Asia. Over the greater part of this area it is more common north than south of the Arctic Cirele, but in Finland breeds as far south as Uleaborg, 65° latitude. We saw two or three pairs on the islands in the Gulf of Bothnia close to this town, which were evidently breeding, though we failed to find the nest, but at no great distance to the north of Tornea it was breeding in some numbers. It keeps for breeding purposes almost entirely to open marshland, though this may be at the level of the sea, or at some elevation on the swampy highlands of Lapland. The actual spot selected for the nest is generally fairly dry, and we never found nests placed amongst thin grass growing on the quaking swamp. Generally speaking, I do not think the nest could be distinguished in any way from that of the Common Redshank, although the eggs themselves are so strikingly different. The nest is just a depression in amongst the grass, with the latter curled round and beaten down so as to make a receptacle for the eggs. In most nests one finds a great many scraps of fine grass blades, but whether these are brought by the birds and worked into the nest, or whether they are merely strips from grass growing round it, it is difficult to say. Most of the nests I saw myself were in rather thin grass, not sufficiently thick effectually to screen the nest when once it was spotted. Occasionally, however, the nest was built in rather thicker grass and in these circumstances the grass at the entrance to the nest was twisted in the same little curl that one nearly always finds at the entrance to the nest of the Common Redshank. The bird itself gives little help in finding its nest and I have sometimes watched a pair for a long time which I knew to be breeding in the immediate vicinity, yet after half an hour’s watching, they have generally cleared off without betray- ing their home. Occasionally a nest is found in swamps in among scattered and stunted birch and it is also said occasionally to breed among stunted firs. I have, however, myself seen no such nests. On the other hand, I have more than once had them pointed out to me on grass land on the outskirts of birch forest. A few birds breed in the last week cf May in the southern portion of their breeding habitat but the great majority do not breed until the second week in June, from which time onwards eges may be found until the end of the month and yet a few more in the first week or ten days in July. I do not think this Redshank ever breeds while the snow is actually on the ground, but it does so when deep drifts of it yet remain in the shady hollows or while the summits of the adjacent hills are still white-capped. Although we found them breeding in the same swamps as those frequented by Whimbrel and Bar-tailed Godwit, both of these had 300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI hard-set eggs and even young before the Dusky Redshank had thought of laying. The eggs number four in a clutch, as with nearly all waders, and are easily distinguishable from any of the other waders with the exception perhaps of those of the Reeve, some of which they closely resemble. They are very handsome eggs and considered as a series, are more definitely green than any others that I know of. The ground colour varies from pale olive to a rather deep green; rarely olive buff or buff, with large and numerous blotches varying in depth of colour from a rather deep reddish brown to a brown that is almost black. Lines and scriggles very seldom are shown but I have a few eggs in my series upon which there are one or two of these lines of the same deep black brown as the larger blotches. The secondary or underlying markings are of a similar character and of lavender or greyish neutral tint. The browner or more buff type of egg very often closely approaches, as I have already said, the eggs of the Reeve. Jourdain gives the average of 100 eggs as—47.2x32.2 mm.; maxima 51.5X33.0 mm. and 48.0x34.0 mm.; minima 42.0X32.5 mm. and 50.0x30.0 mm. The texture is similar to that of the Common Redshank’s eggs, but the surface is rather smoother and on the whole, with a more definite gloss. The shape, of course, is the usual pyriform. The greater part of the incubation is carried on by the male and when first watching these birds, I have no doubt we missed some nests by paymg too much attention to the hen bird and too little to the cock. The Finns also say that the male bird makes the nest, the hen contenting herself with just finishing off the curves and trimmings. Whether this is so or not, I cannot say. Habits.—There is little to be said about the bird’s habits in addition to what has already been stated about those of the Common Redshank. It is equally wild, equally noisy and equally hard to catch napping on the nest. Food and flight are the same as in that bird, and the voice too is very similar, though quite recognisable when one has heard the call a few times. One little habit I noticed of this bird seems to be peculiar to itself. We noticed that when breeding on grass-land alongside the sea, both birds had the habit of perching on tiny rocks where they would sometimes sit for nearly an hour at a time, calling to one another and occasionally shifting their position from one rock to another. Every now and then the bird would appear to busy itself, picking at something in the crevices of the rock and it is probable that they were feeding on some tiny crustacea. During the breeding season J think that possibly the Dusky Redshank keeps more continually in the open than does the Common Redshank, though this may be merely due to the thin grass the bird inhabits not concealing it so well as the long maram grasses that hide our English birds. GENUS: GULOTTIS. Glottis Koch, Syst. Zool., xli, pp. 304 (1816), Type, Scolopax nebularia Gunnerus, THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 301 It is with considerable doubt that I separate the two birds contained in Glottis from Tringa. Their very decidedly recurved bills seem, however, to form a character of sufficient importance to rank as generic. The difference in the webs between the outer and inner and middle toes in these two birds and the genus Tringa is so very slight that it is of no importance at all. In Glottis the bill is upturned over the terminal half of its length; the grooves and nostrils are as in the genus Tringa, the web between the outer and middle toe is well developed, that between the inner and middle toe obsolete; the wing is long with the first primary longest; the other characters are as in Tringa. The Summer plumage differs from the non-breeding plumage in being darker. The genus 1s cosmopolitan. Key to Species. A. larger; wing 179 to 200 mm.; tarsus much longer in comparison, measuring 59 to 65 mm. oo» Go nebular. Bee smaller) wane 14° to 18i- mm. tarsus much shorter in compari- Some 20 tor oy man Savanteadi o SS S Tu Map of HYDERABAD STATE and adjoming territories = v c to show its position with reference to the Eastern and Western Ghats. \' . Y ’) TANS YIN a yr : ties Scale linch=64 Miles. (6) 20 40 60 80 100 Miles. 80 Kamptee wy, ty Wh, satis, NWS Ay Ne incsticiane: 4 SUN is I ANS Me Sy) ij, L. Me ANG Ine IS TARTAR iia Wi WivAy Mn ine NCS , ot gu 4 Me May, WEY, aw 4, fe, My, Sli, 20 ait, RUA NYA Me Is ANOS yyy ANY ti, a “Ly Z = za 1+ J John Bale. Sons & Danielsson, Lt4 Londor. Kamptee Cope? HYDERABAD STATE and adjoining territories to show its position with reference to the Eastern and Western Ghats. sii, ME aging NEN Scale linch=64 Miles. Pies 20 40 60 80 John Bale Sons & Darvelason LY Lond eee Eee THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 357 In this connection, my special thanks are due to Mr. T. J. Tasker, C.1.E., 0.B.E., I.c.S., and to Mr. Hasan Latif, M.1.c.z.E., for the interest they have shown and the trouble they have taken throughout in smoothing the work of the Survey. With their unfailing readiness to assist their members and all workers in the field of natural history, the Bombay Natural History Society consented to lend me the services of one of their museum assistants, E. Henricks, in return for any of the Hyderabad mater- iai they might require to make their collections complete. I must here take the opportunity of recording my appreciation of the good work put in by Henricks in the field. It is in a great measure due to his painstaking labours that I was able to collect nearly 750 specimens during the five months I was on the work, and on the whole I think the preparation of the skins does him credit. I am deeply indebted to Mr. Hugh Whistler for the endless pains he has taken over the examination and identification of the specimens, and for his valuable taxonomic comments thereon. These have been appended after each species in brackets with his initials. He has also contributed a number of notes from the literature dealing with neighbouring areas, wherever they appeared likely to throw light on the situation in Hyderabad. With his permission, I have taken the liberty of incorporating in my text any such notes of which I have made use. It has been a great privilege to have secured Mr. Whistler’s collaboration since he has recently had the opportunity of working exhaustively at the material obtained by the Vernay Scientific Survey in the adjoining Eastern Ghats area, which included both hill and plain birds and practically all the species met with in Hyderabad. 3 I was also fortunate in getting the assistance of my young cousin Humayun Abdulal, a keen student of Indian birds, who joined me in camp during two periods of his college vacations, 13th October —th November (1931) and 18th March—24th April (1932). As an enthusiastic birds’ nester, the careful notes which he independently kept during these periods have been very helpful in my work. I look forward with hope to his future contributions to Indian Orni- thology as a worker of the risimg generation. I am grateful to Mr. B. B. Osmaston, o.1.5., for the trouble hie has kindly taken in the preparation of the map which accom- panies this paper. Our thanks are also due to Colonel R. Sparrow, c.M.G., D.s.0., for the loan of a large number of skins collected by him near Trimul- gherry. My original proposal to Hyderabad was merely to make a cur- sory survey of the bird-hfe of the Dominions, finishing it in 8 months’ time. Experience at the very outset convinced me, how- ever, that it was far more profitable to work a small area thoroughly than to try to rush through a preliminary survey of this great tract of country in the short time at my disposal, leaving the greater portions imperfectly explored. I placed these views before the Pre- sident of the Museum Committee and appealed to him for such further adequate funds as would enable me to make a thorough job of the Survey. I suggested a period of one year as lkely to be 5 358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI required for the purpose. The President, Maharaja Sir Kishen Pershad Bahadur, whose patronage of the Arts and Sciences is so well known, was inclined to favour the proposition, and although it had yet to be formally sanctioned by the Museum Committee I anticipated little opposition and commenced working on the new programme. The Survey commenced work at Manantr in the Mahbtbnagar District on 8rd October 1981 and was in the field till 20th December, after which there was a break till the end of February. Work was resumed on the last day of that month at Kandahar (Nander Dis- trict) but as by the end of April there was still no intimation from the Hyderabad Government regarding the question of finance, I was compelled to curtail my programme and return to Bombay. It will be seen from the map that as a result of this cur- tailment practically the entire western portion of the State remains untouched. I had intended to have three collecting camps in this area, viz. Ajanta (Aurangabad Dist.), Southada (Bhir Dist.) and Gangawati (Raichur Dist.). This would have covered the State fairly thoroughly, but afterwards I had proposed to spend a further few months in the hilly portions, off the beaten track, to the extreme south and south-east of the State where I hoped to strike interesting imroads and extensions of the Eastern Ghats avifauna. It was also my intention to penetrate further afield in other direc- tions so as to cover every existing facies. I hope at some future date the Nizam’s Government will make it possible for me to take up the work at the point where it has now had to be dropped, and to complete the programme outlined above. General Topography of Hyderabad State. The Hyderabad State as it is to-day (excluding Berar) covers an area of 82,698 square miles. It forms a polygonal tract occu- pying almost the centre of the Deccan Plateau with an average altitude of about 1,250 feet above sea-level. The length diagonally from SW to NE is about 475 miles, and it has approximately the same breadth. The country generally slopes from NW to SE and the main drainage lies in this direction. The Pranhita River, known in parts of its course as the Pen- ganga, into which flow the Wardha and numerous other tributaries, runs along the northern, and part of the eastern frontier. At Sironcha it merges in the Godavari which thenceforth forms the eastern boundary. The two other principal rivers within the State, both of which also run into the Godavari at different points, are the Manjra and the Manér, each of which in turn have numerous smaller tributaries. The Krishna or Kistna River, with its tribu- taries including the Bhima and the Tungabhadra forms the other principal channel of drainage into which also numerous streams (considerable rivers during the monsoon rains) discharge their waters. It forms the southern boundary of the State for a con- siderable part of its length. The country in some parts is mountainous, wooded and _ pic- turesque, in others flat and undulating. The most important hill THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 359 ranges are: . (1) the Balaghat Range running east and west from the taluka of Biloli in Nander District to that of Ashti in Bhir Dis- trict, i.e. a distance of about 200 miles within the State, (2) the Ajanta Range, known as such, is really a stretch of about 100 miles of the Sahyadris or Western Ghats in the N.-W. corner, and (8) the Jalna Range which runs for a length of about 120 miles from Daulatabad eastward in the direction of Jalna. Besides these, many smaller ranges occur in the N.K., such as the Satmala and Nirmal Ranges with their many extensions, spurs and outliers. On the southern border, along the valley of the Krishna, the Amrabad Range runs more or less parallel with the Nallamalais. The Gazetteer furnishes the following:—‘The portion to the N. and W. belongs to the trappean region, that to the 8. and E. being eranitic and calcareous. The trappean or black-soil country, in- habited by Mahratti speakers, is a land of wheat and cotton. Telingana or the granitic region is a land of rice and tanks. The trappean or black-cotton soil region is covered with luxuriant vege- tation, with cliffs, crags and undulating hills. In the granitic and caleareous region the hills are bare of vegetation but the plains are covered with scattered brushwood of every description. Dome- shaped lulls and wild, fantastic boulders and tors abound in many parts, giving the region a gloomy aspect. The soil derived from the granite is sandy and unlike the trappean does not retain mois- ture. Consequently the rivers in this region run dry during the hot season, and this gives rise to the necessity of storing water in artificial reservoirs, known as tanks, with which the whole of the Telingana area is studded.’ These tanks for irrigation purposes, are generally formed by throwing an embankment across the lower end of a valley, thus causing the accumulation of water of such streams as may flow into it. There are over 18,000 of such tanks in the State, some of them very large as the one at Pakhal which is at least 30 miles in circuit. The newly completed Nizamsagar Tank in the Nander District covers an area of over 40 square miles and has a bund about 3 miles long. These two geologically and ethnologically different divisions, nearly equal in extent, are separated from each other by the Manjra and Godavari rivers. The mean temperature of the State is 81 deg. F’. and the average rainfall between 80 and 382 inches annually. In 1931 the rainfall was exceptionally heavy, being in many places double the average. The mid-day shade temperature at Kaulas (Nander District) was frequently over 100°F. in March. In the following notes I have endeavoured to record the vege- tational features of the various environments in particular detail. The importance of this from an ecological point of view is obvious, and I venture to hope that workers in other areas will in future also adopt this plan as far as possible. The interdependences between plant life and bird life have so far been little studied in India, and it is only data of this nature accumulated in connection with re- gional bird surveys that will enable, in course of time, advances to be made in this direction. 360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Particulars of Localities worked. 1. Hyderabad City environs, alt. ca. 1,800 ft., September 25—October 38, 1931. Broken, slightly hilly country. Basalt and granite boulders of gigantic size presenting grotesque formations, piled and balanced on one another in a perilous manner. Tanks among the boulder hillocks: Mir Alam, Himayatsagar, Umdasa- gar and others. The intervening flat spaces under cultivation or covered with scrub jungle; large trees often absent, except where planted along roadsides, etc. Soil red, chiefly laterite and moorum. Ground where not stony, covered with short straggly grass. Principal trees: Nim (Melia azadirachta), Babul (Acacia sp.), and stunted date palms. The common Deccan shrub Cassia auriculata in yellow flower everywhere. Custard apple (Anona reticulata) growing freely amongst the boulder hillocks. Shrubs of Wrightia tomentosa R. & Schl. also very common in rocky country and along with Nim, almost universally parasitized by Loranthus longiflorus Desr. 2. Mandnir, alt. ca. 2,000 ft. (on Amrabad Plateau, Mahbubnagar District) October 38—October 15 (19381). In the Amrabad Reserved Forest consisting of mixed deciduous species (now in heavy leaf). Teak (Tectona grandis) and Nallamaddi (Terminalia tomentosa) abundant, the latter growing to large size. Soil for the most part laterite. Hillsides thickly strewn with large loose stones (now hidden by tall grass) - making walking difficult and unpleasant. Occasional clumps of thin Bamboo, specially on the hillsides and by forest streams. Country mostly hilly. Jowari (Sorghum vulgare) cultivated on the ‘flats’—the valleys—and intervening spaces covered with high grass or scrub jungle with thorny Acacia or Zizyphus cnoplia bushes predominating. Here and there small tanks and water-logged grass- land formed in natural depressions by the late heavy rains, in which stunted Babul abundant. The hills on this plateau all flat-topped, rising one above the other, the summits forming extensive table-lands with open park-like country, water-logged stony grassland, dotted with small trees. MHillsides leading up to these plateaux covered with thick scrub and secondary jungle also large deciduous trees and occasional dense Bamboo clumps. They are cut up by numerous rocky nullahs, often thickly overgrown with thorn-brakes. Interspersed among the scrub jungle, on the ‘flat’, are trees of Mhowa (Bassia latifolia), Teak, Bijasal (Pterocarpus Marsupium), Ippa (Hardwickia binata), Nallamaddi (Terminalia tomentosa W. & A.), Butea frondosa, Feronia elephantum, and others. Calotropis bushes and Marsdenia volubilis T. Cooke common along the motor road and cart tracks. On many of the stony hillsides Zizyphus enoplia and other thorny bushes growing in such profusion as to make the undergrowth almost impenetrable. Yellow-flowering shrubs of Grewia flavescens and Cassia auriculata common, also Phyllanthus reticulatus. . 8. Farahabadd, alt. ca. 2,800 ft., October 15—October 20 (1981). : 12 miles S. of Mananir on another plateau rising above Amrabad Plateau. Country similar to Mananir except on the whole more thickly wooded and containing a good deal more Bamboo. ‘The Bamboo patches, especially where little rills and nullahs run through them, the facies richest in bird-life. Prin- cipal forest trees: Teak, Mhowa, Nallamaddi, also a good deal of Charoli (Buchanania latifolia). The last heavily and very generally infested with Loranthus longiflorus Desr. Mhowa with L. elasticus. Both here and around Manantr Cassia fistula and Butea frondosa occurring in profusion, mostly as small stunted trees. According to the Gazetteer among the birds found in the Amrabad forests are ‘Red Parrots and Red Minas, and Yellow and Red Bulbuls as large as pigeons.’ Unfortunately I failed to come across any of these enigmas ! 4. Borgampdd, alt. ca. 160 ft. (On the Godavari River, opposite Bhadra- chellam in the Madras Presidency) October 29—November 7 (1981). In the midst of flat cultivated country with a radius of 2-3 miles. Godavari River about 13 miles E of village. Steep muddy banks with deep and often tortuous outscourings thickly bordered by Vitex pubescens and other bushes. Beyond the ring of cultivation, laterite and moorum predominate, and dense secondary growth appears with much Zizyphus cnoplia. The country for a good distance on either side of the Kinarsani—a tributary of the Godavari into which it flows about 14 miles E of the village—is scoured Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I. ak 2 Photos by Author. (2) Typical country on the lesser Amrabad plateau. weet ee = ee ‘ t a a eS qwleswey + = dulaquesin seen ys 1G) Fes) es Riese ly THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 361 by dry watercourses caused by the monsoon downrush of water to the river. The Kinarsani at this season has numerous sandspits and shallow islets, the resort of terns, swallow-plovers and other waders. Along stretches of its banks typical riverain jungle ig met with, consisting of Z. wnoplia with drooping and sprawling branches, and thick-set thorny shrubs of Canthium parviflorum Lamk. The bushes indicate the high flood level by their bare looping and twining stems and root-tangles, which canopied by the dense foliage form ideal haunts of flycatchers and other small birds. An _ exceed- ingly prickly species of Acacia with drooping plant branches and cruel re- curved thorns, plentiful. At intervals, upright lofty trees of a species of Ficus occur. Randia malabarica, with coral red berries and vicious long straight thorns, another common shrub. Strychnos nuax-vomica Linn. of moderate size, also common. About 3 miles N of Borgampad in the direction of Nelipaka mixed timber- and scrub-forest begins, in places so dense at this season as to present an evergreen aspect. Principal trees: Dalbergia sissoo [largely parasitized. by Loranthus (longiflorus?)|, Teak, Ippa, Feronia ele- phantum, Tamarindus indica, and an Acacia with pink flowers. Zizyphus cnoplia by far the commonest shrub, now heavily laden with small round black (ripe) drupes. 5. Nelipaka, alt. ca. 160 ft. (9 miles N. of Borgampad, also on bank of Godavari River, November 7—November 18 (1981). For a radius of a mile or more around the village, flat cultivated country, fringed by dense scrub jungle giving place further to mixed deciduous forest with heavy undergrowth of seedlings and tangles of Z. @noplia. Small grassy clearings interspersed in the forest. Hillsides enclosing the large bunded tank known as Tummala Cherivu (ca. 5 miles W. of village) strewn with loose stones and clothed in dense deciduous forest. Undergrowth at the base of these hills very heavy, comprised mostly of Z. @noplia and an Acacia (Mimosa lamata?) with recurved thorns. Country broken up here and there by dry sandy overgrown watercourses caused by torrents rushing down from the numerous surrounding hills to the river after the heavy monsoon showers. On the banks of the Godavari—which runs past—growing in water, are many dense and expansive ‘Tamarisk’ beds (Phyllanthus Lawtt Grah.), haunts and roosts of Reed-Warblers, Blue-throats, Wagtails, Swallows and numerous other birds. 6. Paloncha, alt. ca. 300 ft. (7 miles W. of Borgampad) 18—26 Nov. (1981). Scrub and secondary jungle, extremely thick at this season, making for poor visibility. Tangles of Zizyphus cnoplia and the sprawling prickly bushes of Mimosa lamata extremely abundant. Paloncha Hill, the highest of a number of forest-clad hills around is 1,181 ft. It has steep rocky sides, now heavily » covered with dense shrubbed vegetation and tall grass. The heavy bush country at base, changes to mixed deciduous forest higher up the slopes, Above, among the tall grass, much Bamboo occurs. The smooth-barked Chir- wan or Tirman (Anogeissus latifolia) is plentiful though mostly thin, also a fair sprinkling of straggly Teak. Jowari and Rice cultivated on the flat country at the base of Paloncha Hill. In the scrub jungle bordering cultiva- tion Bridelia Hamiltoniana (var. glabra) is a very common shrub, 6-12 feet high. Its ripe slaty-black berries (now abundant) are a favourite food of Mynas, Green Pigeons, Bulbuls and a host of other species who act as. im- portant seed disseminators. 7. Narsampét, alt. ca. 800 ft. (Warangal District) Nov. 29—Dec. 9 (1981). Locality dotted over with numerous tanks. Owing to the abnormally heavy rainfall this season, nearly twice the average, much country surround- ing these tanks is often submerged, there being practically no reed-beds around the margins. Tanks thickly covered with lotus leaves and other floating vege- tation leaving only small patches of open water in the middle. In the intervening country Butea frondosa is the predominant species; there is a great deal of Zizyphus cenoplia now heavily laden with ripe berries, and Borassus flabeliformis palms by the hundred thousand. With the palms, a corresponding abundance of Tachornis batasiensis is noticeable. A large per- centage of the palms are in the clutches of the ‘Strangler Fig.’, apparently Ficus bengalensis. In the country surrounding the tanks are small open grassy patches among the scrub jungle. Paddy is largely cultivated in this neighbourhood. 362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Six miles EK. of Narsampet is the Pakhal Lake (17°57’ N.x79°59’ H.). This is enclosed on the N. §. and E. by ranges of low and densely wooded hills. On the W. side there is a dam thrown across the Pakhal River which is about 2,000 yards long. The water covers an area of about 13 square miles and has an average depth of 380-40 feet. Water-channels run out at various points for irrigation purposes. The lake abounds with fish and crocodiles and the surrounding jungle with game. This is H.E.H. ‘The Nizam’s private ‘Shikargah’ and guns are strictly taboo. Through the kind- ness of Nawab Hamid Yar Jung Bahadur, the Inspector-General of Forests, special permission was accorded to the Survey for collecting in this area. Fine mixed deciduous forest surrounds the lake, intersected here and there by irri- gation and seepage channels. Principal trees: Teak, Yerrmaddi (Terminalia arjuna, Bedd.)—some magnificent examples—a species of Albizzia, with lofty Bombax malabarnicum at intervals. Butea frondosa also common. Marked abundance of lanas, the tangles of whose twisting woody stems form a favourite haunt of flycatchers, especially where overhanging streams. Large buttressed termite mounds a feature of this jungle, there being one or more every few yards. Mostly 6-8 ft. high, but some well over 10 ft. In portions of the forest Tapsi (Holoptelea integrifolia Planch), Gargoo (Garuga pinnata Roxb.), Agle marmelos and Mhowa plentiful. The gigantic woody creeper, Butea superba, very common in the forest. In places a sparse lining of tallish grass at the water’s edge, but no real reed-beds. In patches the ground is water-logged by the seepage and the forest here presents an evergreen aspect. 8. Asifabad (formerly known as Jangaon) alt. ca. 1,200 ft. (Asifabad District) Dec. 10—20 (1981). In the Satmala Range. Country immediately surrounding town, open, cultivated—Jowari, Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) and Castor (Ricinus com- munis). It is undulating and cut up by ravines and nullahs, the banks of which are heavily clothed with scrub. The vegetation in these patches consists mostly of Z. wnoplia, Mimosa lamata, saplings and stunted trees of Cassia fistula and Butea frondosa. An extremely common shrub is Gymnosporia montana Laws, diffuse, 6-8 ft. high, with crimson branches and petioles, and flowers that give off a mild fragrance. Cassia auriculata is everywhere, while C. sophora grows thickly in patches both in the jungle and around villages, forming vast fields as though deliberately planted. Beyond the cultivated zone lies a ring of low hills, 500-1,000 feet above the undulating plain which stretches for many miles, and gives the place the appearance of a shallow but enormous crater. At the foot of these hills there is a good deal of Bamboo of a more or less solid species. The hillsides are covered with deciduous forest interspersed with patches of scrubwood, and are scoured everywhere with ravines and nullahs, on the sides of which much thin Bamboo is present. Plants of Goniocaulon glabrum Cass. growing abundantly in a field, were observed to be largely attended by Leptocoma asiatica who were probing assiduously into the flowers for nectar. The hillsides are covered with tall grass and littered with loose stones. Boswellia serrata, Feronia elephantum, Phyllanthus emb- lica are common, also a species of stunted Bauhinia. _Mhowa, also plentiful, is almost universally parasitized by Loranthus longiflorus. 9. Kandahar, alt. ca. 1,400 ft. (Nander District) March 1—6, (1982). Stony, undulating country with long gently-rolling hillocks, bare except for sparse stunted bushes mostly of a species of Randia and of Gymnosporia mon- tana. In the ‘valleys’ or flats, Gram (Cicer arietinum), Jowari and Cotton (Sorghum vulgare Pers. and Gossypium) are largely cultivated, and in places on the summits of the flat stony hillocks a species of Hemp and some Tooar (Cajanus indicus Spreng.) are also grown. The principal trees are Nim and Babil (mostly stunted). Occasionally groves of Date palms are met, while Mango topes (Mangifera indica) are a common feature of the village environs. Here and there are also signs of the defunct fruit gardens which disappeared in a recent drought. Kandahar has a fine old fort said to date from the time of the invasion of Muhammad Tughlak. There is a large tank in the village, very full and expansive after the heavy rains of last season, with no reed-beds. In among the ruimed walls of the fort a good deal of Nim and Phyllanthus reticulatus 1s growing from the crevices, seeds of which have undoubtedly been disseminated by birds. Portions of the country in the environs of the village THH HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY. 363 are overrun with Cobra cactus (Opuntia). In spite of the abundance of Mango trees, no Loranthus or [Flowerpeckers were seen. 10. Mukheér, alt. ca. 1,850 ft. (@8°42’ N.x77°22’ H.—18 miles S.-H. of Kandahar) March 7—10 (1982). . one ae Black cotton soil country, undulating and cut up by lines of low rolling hillocks and shallow ravines. Similar to Kandahar. Opuntia grows in profu- sion in patches of the intervening country. Hrythrina suberosa and Butea frondosa both coming into flower. Blossoms of both largely probed into by birds. Lining the banks of streams are groves and thickets of Date palms. — il. Deglur, alt. ca. 1,850 ft. (18°33’ N.x77°35’ H.—Nander District— about 16 miles 8.E. of Mukher) March 11—17 (1982). Same type of country as at Kandahar and Mukher. The river Lendi a _ tributary of the Manjra, runs through a rocky gorge about a mile N. of the town, and is here known as the Patalganga. No Loranthus was noted affecting the trees in the locality; neither were Flowerpeckers present. 12. Kaulds, alt. ca. 1,300 ft. (20 miles SE of Deglar—Nander District) March 17-28 (1982). Rocky hills and ridges covered with deciduous jungle, at present mostly bare, with thin straggly Teak here and there. There is a fine old fort on a hill, at present in ruins and much overgrown with scrub. It has an extensive surrounding wall with many ramparts and battlements, favourite nesting sites of vultures, owls and other birds. Along the base of the fort hill winds the Kaulas River, a tributary of the Manjra. Country to N. of fort: Rocky ridges of hills covered with light deciduous jungle. Loranthus longiflorus affects Nim and other trees in great profusion; Diceum erythrorhynchum observed feeding largely on the berries. Gmelina arborea common, now flowering. ‘Kundagogi’ (Tel.) (Cochlospermum Gossypium) trees, leafless, with large yellow flowers at the tips of the branches common. Among the hillocks are ravines and chasms with enormous boulders and yawning cavities and pits, often 20 ft. or more in depth, and long subterranean galleries which harbour many panther and _bears. Butea frondosa and B. superba both common in the forest, now in flower and largely attended by Leptocoma asiatica and many other birds. At the base of the hills, the undulating country presents the same aspect as at Mukhér or Deglur. About 20 miles E of Kaulas on the way to Kamareddi Railway Station is the Nizamsagar Lake, a gigantic irrigation tank lately completed. It covers an area of about 40 sq. miles and has a dam 3 miles long. Rice is extensively cultivated in the neighbourhood with the help of the water conserved. The country surrounding is rolling and stony, with ravines, nullahs and low rocky hill ranges. Deciduous forest, quite thick in patches, devoid of leaf at this time of year. Mhowa (Bassia latifolia) is plentiful but almost universally para- sitized by Loranthus (longiflorus ?). . 13. Utnoor, alt. ca. 1,250 ft. (Asifabad District) April 1—10 (1982). Country similar to Asifabad, mostly broken, with nullahs and ridges of stony hills covered with scrub jungle. There is open deciduous and high grass jungle to the N; dense mixed jungle to S; and dense jungle, high grass and scattered Bamboo among the hills to the H. Three large tanks in the vicinity of the village: Gopayya Cherivi, Gangannapét Cherava and Nyarai Chertvi. Principal trees: Mhowa, Teak, Charoli (Buchanania), Yerrmaddi (Terminalia arjuna Bedd.) on banks of forest streams, Butea frondosa etc. The large twining creeper B. superba is common, and bushes of Calycopteris floribunda plentiful in patches. co 14. Kannad, alt. ca. 2,000 ft. (Aurangabad Dist.) April 15—18 (1982). About 32 miles NW of Aurangabad and 18 from the famous rock caves of Ellora which are passed en route. Hilly, broken country similar to that at Kaulas. Extensive mango topes plentiful.. Karonda (Carissa karandas) absent elsewhere in the State, appears in profusion. Also Lantana camara. Mango and Nim trees affected by Loranthus longiflorus, Sunbirds and Flowerpeckers in attendance. 364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI 15. Bhamarvai, alt ca. 2,500 ft. (Aurangabad Dist.) April 19—25 (1932). About 7 miles NW of Kannad, on the Outram Ghat on the boundary between the Nizam’s Dominions and Khandesh, on the verge of the plateau overlooking Chalisgaon and the Khandesh plains some 1,500 ft. below. ‘The country is mostly hilly or broken and undulating deciduous forest in which Salai (Boswellia serrata) 18 a@ very prominent species. It is almost universally parasitized by Loranthus longiflorus—the variety with crimson flowers. Mhowa (Bassia lati- folia) and Charoh (Buchanania latifolia) are also very common. T am obliged to Mr. K. Biswas of the Calcutta Herbarium and to Mr. C. McCann, Assistant Curator, Bombay Natural History Society, for the identifica- tion of my specimens of many of the plants mentioned in the above notes. General Remarks on the Economic Status of Birds in the Hyderabad State. Every State and Province in India maintains at great public expense an Agricultural Department for the improvement and development of agriculture, whose activities at the present time are mainly directed towards improving and evolving strains of crops to suit particular conditions, and towards researches in soils, manures and so on. To a lesser extent, perhaps, much useful work has been, and is also being, done in the investigation of the life- histories of many insect pests and field rats, and in devising ways and means—mechanical and chemical—to deal with the devastation caused by these vermin. Unfortunately, however, practically no attention is paid to the study of the economic value and importance of birds to agriculture. Economic Ornithology is a science which has received an increasing amount of attention within recent years in North America and in many European countries with excellent and far-reaching results. It is a research which concerns itself with striking a precise balance between the damage done by birds to agriculture and vegetation (which includes forestry), as against the active benefits they confer by the destruction of injurious animals and plants, and in sundry other ways. A passing acquaintance with the work of the Department of Biological Survey of the U.S.A. in this branch of investigations, and with that of similar institutions in European countries, is enough to convince the most sceptical of the boundless importance and possibilities of this study, and particularly in an agricultural country like India with its teeming bird-life, its significance cannot be over-estimated. It is unfortunate that since the excellent work by Mason and Lefroy at Pusa on the Food of Indian Birds (Agricultural Dept. Memoir, Entomological Series, Vol. III, 1912) little systematic investigation has been undertaken in this country to determine their economic status. Even the above had as its principal object to discover which of our commoner birds inhabiting cultivated country were directly useful to agriculture by destroying injurious insects, and which species were responsible for active damage to erops and therefore injurious from this point of view. Within the limits of a single Memoir it was impossible to deal with the more subtle and indirect, but nevertheless considerable, influences exert- ed by the bird-life on its environment. Without going into details, I wish to introduce here a few bare facts, casually gleaned from my work in connection with the THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 365 Hyderabad Survey, which I hope will suffice to indicate the diverse ways in which birds affect Man and his Agriculture in particular, and the entire Environment in general, for better or for worse, in this part of the country. While their influence is considerable and undoubted, a proper investigation into the lfe-histories of the different species, and an accurate determination of their exact status as beneficial or harmful can alone lead to devising steps to meet the situation. Birds as Crop Destroyers. At Mananur, Paloncha and other places I have remarked in my diary on the appalling ravages to ripening Jowari crops caused by Parrots. In the former locality—in fact all over the Amrabad Plateau—the Blossom-headed Parakeet (Psittacula cyanocephala) is a veritable scourge to the cultivator. I constantly noticed flocks of hundreds of this species, augmented by parties of the Rose-ringed Parakeet (P. krameri) engaged on their work of devastation, in- different to the shouts and noises made by the ryots from their machans amidfield to scare them away, and studiously keeping out of range of the stones hurled at them through slings or gophuns. Nor were the parrots alone; bands and flocks of other birds, Mynas (both Acridotheres tristis and Temenuchus pagodarum). and Com- mon and Jungle Crows joined in the work of destruction. The ryots were in despair. Enquiries showed that often 50 per cent, sometimes more, of their crops went as toll to the birds by day and to pigs and deer by night. From what I personally saw of the pro- ceedings it seems a wonder how the birds left anything for the ryot at all! My first experience of the Rosy Pastor (Pastor roseus) as a crop ravisher was in the Nandér District, where flocks of countless multi- tudes were observed descending in ‘clouds’ upon fields of ripening Jowari, supremely indifferent to the frantic protests of the ryots. To form an idea of the damage these birds must cause, I shot four birds at random out of a flock. Their stomachs and crops were packed tightly with Jowari grains exclusively which aggregately weighed one tola, which means that 160 birds would account for 1 lb. Considering the size of a flock—commonly 38-4 hundred birds or more— and the number of such flocks, and taking into account the extremely rapid digestion of birds and the fact that their depredations continue intermittently from daybreak till dusk, I think it would be a conservative estimate to say that a flock of 400 Pastors would account for 25 lbs. of Jowari in a day. The enormity of this damage can be better appreciated when it is remembered that this means the food of one villager for 10-12 days! To get an adequate idea of the damage they cause, it 1s necessary to see for oneself the hordes of Pastors as they descend upon the fields. However, against this must be set to the Pastor's account the benefit he confers by devouring locusts on a large scale in times of ‘invasions’. In Uzbekistan (Russian Turkestan), from whereabouts many of our winter visitors certainly come, the nestlings have been ascertained to be fed practically exclu- sively on locusts in their various stages, 366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Birds as Crop Protectors. While the parrots may be classed as wholly destructive to crops, and so also the crows to a large extent, the same cannot be admitted of the mynas. Mynas devour large numbers of locusts and caterpillars injurious to crops and thus compensate to some degree for the losses they cause directly. Among others that seem almost wholly beneficial to agriculture may be mentioned the King Crow (Dicrurus macrocercus) and the Indian Roller (Coracias benghalensis), both of which, but especially the former, were exceedingly common in the more cultivated tracts of the State. The Finches and Weavers occupy an intermediate position, for while the staple diet of the adults is grain, to obtain which they cause much loss to the ryot, their young on the other hand are nurtured more or less exclusively on insects and caterpillars, often captured in the very fields, which are in turn highly de- structive to the crops. It must also be mentioned that this group is responsible for the destruction on a vast scale of the seeds of injurious weeds which they devour. Here, again, it remains for the economic ornithologist to determine the nett status of the various members of this group by careful research into their life- histories and feeding habits. Equally beneficial with the King Crows, but in a less direct way, are the Birds of Prey, particularly the Owls and the smaller Falcons. This year (1932) there has been a severe plague of field rats and mice in a great many districts of the Mahrattwada, and considerable damage has been caused to Wheat (Triticum vulgare), Gram and Jowar crops. I took particular care to examine the stomach contents of all the birds of prey I shot in the affected areas, for specimens or otherwise, and it is significant that in every ease the birds were found to have eaten field rats and mice. The Horned Owls (Bubo bubo) indeed appeared to be living exclu- sively on these vermin. Besides stomach contents, I had numerous opportunities of examining ‘pellets’. Among the rocks of the Patalganga Gorge at Deglur (Nander District) where dwelt a small colony of these owls, the place was littered freely with the pellets cast up by them. An examination showed that they were composed to a great extent—in many cases exclusively— of the fur, bones and skulls of field rats and mice. Considering the ravages caused by these creatures to crops, often more than 50 per cent (and indeed in some of the places I visited certainly 75 per cent or even more!) and the astounding fecundity of this eroup, the importance of owls, harriers and kestrels as a natural eheck on their increase cannot be over-estimated. Birds and Vegetation. The status of birds in the regulation of the vegetation of any country is a complicated mixture of good and bad. The role they play is nevertheless of great importance. As _ cross-pollina- tors of flowers they are perhaps only second to the insects, but as agents of seed dispersal they stand in a class by themselves. A careful serutiny of the details of the localities worked by the THE HYDERABAD STATH ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 367 Survey, and co-ordination with my field notes on the birds there met, will show that in many cases it is possible to connect the presence of certain plant species directly with the presence of certain birds. Thus, after dissection of numerous stomachs and close observation of the birds’ feeding habits, I would unhesita- tingly assign the profusion of such plants as Zizyphus cnoplia, Bridelia Hamiltoniana, Buchanania latifolia, Phyllanthus reticula- tus, Nim (Melia azadirachta), Ficus of many species and others in a greater or lesser degree to the agency of birds which eat the berries and either transport the undigested seeds within their bodies to be passed out with the excreta at distant points, or disgorge them after a while through the mouth. The birds mainly respon- sible for the distribution of the above are: Bulbuls, Mynas.. Babblers, Barbets, Hornbills, Green and Imperial Pigeons, even Grey Jungle Fowl, Flowerpeckers and a great many others. While in many cases this inter-dependence is not so readily traceable, in others it is more than obvious. The existence of the Loran- thus tree parasite, for example, is inextricably lmked with the occurrence of Sunbirds (Nectarintide) and Flowerpeckers (Diceide) on whom it is dependent both for the fertilization of its flowers and the dissemination of its seed. It is significant that in Hyderabad wherever one member of this symbiotic partner- ship was present, the other was also invariably to be met, and vice versa. Some of the flowers observed being probed into for nectar by Sunbirds and various other species are: Bombax malabaricum, Erythrina indica, E. suberosa, Butea frondosa, B. superba, Opun- tia, Grewia flavescens, many of which, as I have already shown, are more than probably fertilized by birds. The case of Lantana camara needs careful watching. I only came across this species in the extreme western portions of the State (Aurangabad and Kannad). This pernicious weed has overrun thousands of square miles of the Indian continent within recent times, from plants imported into Ceylon for ornamental purposes, and from what we know of the partiality for its berries of Bulbuls, Mynas, Babblers and numerous other species, it seems to me likely that its spread over the rest of the State is only a matter of time. As an instance of the abundance in which its seeds are dispersed, I might mention that on one occasion in 8 minutes I observed an Oriole (Oriolus kundoo) to swallow 77 berries! Birds as Scavengers. The work of vultures and their ilk in the sanitation of villages and the prevention of epidemics and pestilence struck me as in- valuable. With the complete absence of sanitary arrangements of any kind and where the entire population of a village is obliged to troop out early in the morning to attend to the calls of nature, often at no great distance from their hovels, it seems difficult to imagine what the situation would end in with all this accumulated * Flower-birds and Bird-flowers in India; Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., XxXxv, pp. 573-605, 368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI filth, augmented as it is by every other conceivable form of refuse, in the absence of the unfailing co-operation of Kites, Crows and Vultures. At Borgampad I had special opportunities of observ- ing the speed and efficiency with which these birds cleaned up the village precincts. It was a feature of the place to see numbers of Seavenger Vultures (Neophron percnopterus) perched expec- tantly on stakes by the village in the mornings. Apart from the human filth and garbage, I found that it was the usual custom in Hyderabad villages when a bullock or other animal died and the local chamars had removed their perquisites, to dump the ecarecase just outside the village precincts, there to putrify and befoul the air. During epidemics of rinderpest or other cattle diseases, when the mortality is often considerable, one shudders to think what the consequences would be in the absence of co-operation from the Vultures. The swiftness with which a party of Vultures can dispose of a carcase is truly astounding. At Kaulas, I had occasion to test this. After the skins of two bears we had shot that morning had been removed, I had the carcases—which certainly could not have weighed less than 250 lbs. between them—dragged out into a field near camp where I wished to photograph the vultures at the feast. The rabble that dropped from the blue within an astonishingly short time consisted of the following species: Pseudogyps benga- lensis, Gyps indicus, G. fulvescens, Torgos calvus, supplemented by a few Neophrons, Kites (Milvus govinda) and Crows (Corvus splendens and C. macrorhynchos). Altogether their number must have been between 60 and 70. From my photographing ‘hide’ I timed the proceedings and found that within the space of 40 minutes the birds had stripped the carcases so thoroughly that nothing but the bare bones were visible, and fresh-comers at this stage did not find it worth while to linger on the spot! Systematic List. FAMILY: CORVID2. Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes. The Southern Jungle-Crow. Corvus culminatus Sykes, P.Z.S.. 1832 (July), p. 96—Dukhun — Poona. Specimens collected: —203 ¢ 31-10-31, 206 3 1-11-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 967 G 8-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 876 ¢$ 26-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft.; 442 ¢ 8-12-31 Narsampet 800 ft.; 465 Q 18-12-81 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 595 dG 22-3-32 Kaulas 1,350 ft.; 717 Q 18-4-82 Kannad 2,000 ft.; 741 dg 23-4-382 Bhamarvadi 2,500 ft. Iris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws black; mouth slaty-black. In No. 206, mouth pink, tongue blotched with black. The Jungle Crow is a generally distributed species in the Hyderabad State. being usually met in association with C. splendens, in the neighbourhood of villages and isolated homesteads in forest. It is invariably present at carcases of cattle lying by the roadside, also at tiger and leopard kills in dense jungle, whose whereabouts it helps to proclaim. In some localities it is destructive to ripening Jowari crops. Breeding: —On 18 March one was observed sitting on nest in a tall tree near Nizamsagar tank. Specimen No. 595 (22 March) had the testes enlarged to 13x9 mm.; in No. 717 the ovarian follicles were 1-2 mm. in diameter; No. 741 (25 April) had the testes 8x5 mm. On 3 April (Utnoor) one was observed carrying a stick in its bill and on 26 April (Kannad) a pair was noted in copula on the ground, i | ‘asvoieo opisheM ®8 4e@ somnginA (8) “LOYINP fiq 010Ug ORC NAS Kal ‘209 ‘JISIH ‘3eN Aequog ‘uanor aS = oe ye THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 369 From the above, it is evident that the breeding season was in progress in March and April. Corvus splendens splendens Vieillot. The Indian House-Crow. Corvus splendens Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. vii (1817), p. 44— Bengal. Specimens collected :—204 © 31-10-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 3803 9 18-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft. Iris brown; bill, mouth, legs, feet and claws black. Both birds are adult and completing an entire post-nuptial moult. Invariably present as a commensal of man in towns and villages. Was not observed at Farahabad (thick jungle with scattered Bhil homesteads) where only small numbers of C. macrorhynchos were in evidence. Hxcess- ively plentiful in and around Borgampad. In the evenings they regularly flew across the Godavari River in small parties or large straggling rabbles coming from immense distances to roost, presumably at Bhadrachellam on the opposite bank. A regular frequenter of Butea and EHrythrina flowers and apparently an important agent in their cross-pollination. Several observed with a thick deposit of pollen on throat. Breeding: —On 14 April (Aurangabad) a pair was seen building, but the birds did not seem in earnest and it was obvious that the season had not yet begun. In the Bheema Valley, according to Davidson and Wenden, it breeds from May to July. Dendrocitta vagabunda vagabunda (Latham). The Indian T'ree-Pie. Coracias vagabunda Latham, Index Orinth., vol. i (1790), p. 171—India, restricted to Calcutta. Dendrocitta vagabunda vernayi Kinnear & Whistler. Dendrocitta rufa vernayi Kinnear & Whistler, Bull. B.O.C., ccexliv, vol. Ll (1930) p. 17—Nallamalai Range, 2,000 ft., 5. Kurnool. (For the reasons for using vagabunda and not rufa, see Hastern Ghats Sunvey weport: J-beN ES, vol; xxxv, p..ol4.): Specimens collected:—26 J (imm) 5-10-31, 32 ¢ (mm), 83 ? (imm) 6-10-31, 122 9 (mm) 18-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 160 ¢ 17-10-81 Farahabad 2,800 ft.; 195 ? 80-10-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 290 SG 11-11-31, 327 929 (mm) 16-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 853 Q@ (mm) 21-11-31, 364 9 24-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft.; 472 § 15-12-31 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 590 9, 591 Q 22-3-32 Kaulas 1,350 ft.; 620 Q 1-4-382 Utnoor 1,250 ft.; 704 gd 17-4-32 Kannad 2,000 ft. The mouth, slate coloured in the adult, is flesh-coloured in the young bird until well after the post-juvenal moult. [This is an interesting series as it well illustrates the intergradation between the various races of this species. The three juveniles 26, 32, 38, and 122 from Manantr and 160 from Farahabad are, as one might expect, true vernayt. Nos. 590-591 Kaulas, 620 Utnoor, 472 Asifabad, and 704 Kannad, as well as specimens from Hswantaraopet, Pattencheru, Mukhaid and Mallapet which Col. Sparrow has kindly lent to me, are still very close to vernayi but already show traces of the passage into the larger pallidus of the N.-West. While Nos. 353 and 364 from Paloncha, No. 195 from Borgampad and Nos. 290 and 327 from Nelpaka are markedly darker and, like Blanford’s bird from Duma- gudiam (just across the Godavari from these localities, vide Eastern Ghats Survey J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 514), though intermediate, are better classed with typical vagabunda)—H.W. | Generally distributed in well-wooded country and open deciduous forest. A regular member of the localised bird associations in forest comprising numerous insectivorous species (Drongos, Babblers, Tits, etc.) which were a conspicuous feature of the Mananur jungles and were also noted subsequently at Paloncha and elsewhere. I shall, in future, refer to these mixed gatherings or hunting parties as ‘localised forest associations’. Tree-Pies move about singly or in pairs or family parties, and are very noisy, possessing a large repertoire of calls. Frequently observed feeding on Peepal (Ficus religiosa) and Gulair (fF. glomerata) figs in an assorted company of Green Pigeons, Parrots, Mynahs, Barbets and other species. Breeding:—The breeding season apparently either varies in the different portions of the State or is much prolonged. Specimens 26, 32, 33 and 122, all 370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI obtained at Mananur between 5 and 18 October are immature birds with trans- lucent and imperfectly ossified skulls. The first three were in company of their parents who fed them from time to time and created a commotion when they were shot. ‘These birds are probably not older than a month and a half, which would take the laying of eggs back to about the end of August. 327 obtained on 16 November (Nelipaka) still had a partially soft skull, while 353 on 21 November also had the anterior portion of the skull in the same condition. In 590 (22 March, Kaulas) the ovarian follicles appeared to be developing (ca. 1 mm.) and on 23 April (Bhamarvadi)-I found a nest contain- ing 4 hard-set eggs. 704 (17 April, Kannad) had the testes (slaty-pigmented) ca. 5X3 mm. and an incubation patch present. The nest was situated in a vertical fork of a Boswellia serrata tree at a height of about 22 ft. on a densely wooded hillside. The eggs measured: 27x22, 29x22 (2) and 30x22 mm. Col. Sparrow found it breeding commonly in the jungles 15-80 miles N.-W. of Trimulgherry where he obtained eggs from 27 April to 12 July. He con- siders the second half of June as the best time for fresh eggs. A peculiar call uttered at this season is a long-drawn Mee-aao which I associate with breeding. One remark regarding the ‘localised forest associations’ might here prove of interest. In regard to the South-Indian species of Tree-Pie (Dendrocitta leucogastra) I find it has been commented by several authors that it associates habitually with Dissemurus paradiseus. Whenever I came across D. paradiseus in the Hyderabad State, in 9 cases out of 10 it was as a member of these localised forest associations of which other unfailing members were Dendrocitta vagabunda and Turdoides s. malabaricus. After careful watching with a view to discover the reason of this association, I venture to suggest that it is merely a convergence of interests—apparently an abundance of food—that brings the different species together. This doubtless is the explanation for the alleged habitual association of D. leucogastra and Dissemurus paradiseus also. I had frequent opportunities of observing that in these gatherings the component members profited not a little by the efforts of others. For instance a Grey Tit, a Nuthatch or a Woodpecker scuttling along the trunk or branches of a tree flushed a moth resting securely upon the protectingly coloured bark which was promptly seized by a Drongo in waiting hard by, or a smaller insect similarly chased and captured by a Minivet or Flycatcher. Babblers rum- maging down below among the fallen leaves also frequently discharged the function of beaters by disturbing winged insects seeking refuge on the ground. Famity: PARIDA. Parus major mahrattarum Hartert. The Southern Grey Tit. Parus major mahrattarum Hartert, Nov. Zool. Vol. xii (September 1905), p. 499—Ceylon. Specimens collected: —28 ¢ 5-10-31, 61 g (Gmm) 8-10-31, 96 (¢) 11-10-31, 1 XO) Guan) NE NO-81) Wiemerte AO) ti. 5 LH gly lOil, ity gs (unin) 19-10-31 Farahabad 2,800 ft.; 265 9, 266 G (mm) 8-11-31, 272 ¢, 273 ? (mm), HE Oy Silas Wiss ON (eivoran)) MOPS, XS OQ (Guentan), SOPs i (tucawony) Lei 399 °? (mm) 16-11-31, 336 G (mm) 17-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 347 9, 348 °? Gamm) 20-11-31, 881 ? (imm) 26-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft.; 417 dG 3-12-31, 429 ¢ (imm) 6-12-31 Narsampét 800 ft.; 468 Q 14-12-81 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 574 9 19-3-32 Kaulas 1,350 ft. Elsewhere noted at: Kandahar, Mukher, Utnoor, Kannad, Bhamarvadi. Tris brown; bill horny black; mouth pale pink; legs and feet bluish slate; claws dusky. In the juvenile the bill is horny-brown, commisure and lower mandible paler, but it rapidly becomes similar to that of the adult. [In the above series the adult $ and @Q are alike though the 9 may usually be distinguished by having the black pectoral patch smaller, the central abdominal stripe narrower and both rather less glossy. The juveniles of both sexes differ from the adults in having the black cap duller and almost without gloss, and the black pectoral patch and abdo- minal stripe smaller, duller and almost without gloss. The grey of the upper plumage is darker, more leaden in colour, with in some specimens a very faint greenish wash, that is they link up the two types of juvenile colouration referred to in the Hastern Ghats Report.—H.W. | THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 371 Common throughout the surveyed portions of the Dominions. Usually met with in small parties in deciduous forest, both hill and plain, clinging to the bark of trees or sprigs of leaves hunting insects and occasionally uttering Joyous whistling notes. Almost invariably present among the localised forest associ- ations, sometimes with Machlolophus. Breeding: —A number of the specimens collected in October and November had the skulls imperfectly ossified, indicating that they were young birds of the season. The last, No. 574 (19 March, Kaulas) although its ovaries were in an undeveloped condition, was one of a pair, and my diary records that about this time the birds were oftener seen in pairs than heretofore. Col. Sparrow obtained eggs in the Eswantaraopet jungles, near Secunderabad, between 5 July and 15 August. On 22nd July he found three nests with oung. ‘ The breeding season in Hyderabad is presumably between July and Septem- ber ) I may here remark that the Key relating to this bird on p. 74, Vol. 1 of the New Fauna is totally unsatisfactory and misleading. Referring to the tail it states: ©“... black on both webs with narrow grey edges’ but makes no mention of the outermost pair of feathers which is entirely white, and the second pair which is also largely of this colour! The question of the white in the tails and its subspecific value has already been dealt with by Dr. C. B. Meehurst (JJB.N.H.S., xxxi, p. 491) and by Mr. Whistler in the Hastern Ghats Survey Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 518). In the Hyderabad series the white wedge on the inner web of the penultimate tail feather varies from 23°5 to 34-5 mm. and in one example is as short as 16:5 mm. Moreover under the ‘Description’ of this race on p. 77, the Fauna says: . the nuchal patch hardly noticeable and the tail feathers wholly black on both webs, with only narrow grey edges to the outer webs ..’ In the case of the Hyderabad birds, both in life and where the neck had not been telescoped in preparation of the skin, the white nuchal patch was by no means inconspicuous. I kept a-special look-out for Parus nuchalis, but failed to come across it anywhere in the State. 6 Machiolophus xanthogenys aplonotus (Blyth). The -Yellow-cheeked Tit. Parus: aplonotus Biyth, J.A.S.B., xvi (1847), p. 444—Chaibasa, Singhbhum. Specimens collected: —384 ? (mm) 6-10-81, 66 d¢, 67 0? (imm) 8-10-81, 70 3g 9-10-81, 128 Q@ 14-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 158 ¢ 159 ? (mm) 17-10-31, Oh (mann) Py SMO Sil eh 2h Gana) 19-0 ok) sblarahabads 2-800) ai. 418) 7S, 419 - 3-12-31 Narsampet 800 ft.; 679 ? 8-4-3832 Utnoor 1,250 ft. Elsewhere noted at: Nirmal (Asifabad District). Iris brown; bill horny-black; mouth pinkish; legs and feet slaty-blue; claws darker. Soft parts similar in the juvenile, but the gape and mouth may be bright yellow. [This series unfortunately does not completely clear up the problem with regard to the plumages of this species to which I drew attention in the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv. p. 520), as several of the specimens could not be satisfactorily sexed. There are only two specimens (Nos. 159 and 419) in which the black band from the chin to the vent is replaced by dull olive-green, and both of these unfortunately were not sexed. Their measurements and plumages however suggest that they are adult females. Nos. 34, 66, 67, 128, 170, 172 which all appear to be in juvenile plumage or post-juvenal moult are all black breasted. I should not repose complete confidence on the sexing of these specimens but they at least show that the green stripe 1s not necessarily a sign of immaturity. Probably it will ultimately be proved that the sexes differ as regards the colour of the band at all ages. The juvenile may be distinguished from the adult by the shorter feathers and less glossy black of the crown and crest; by the large yellow terminal spots on the median coverts, the yellow terminal spots and faint yellowish edges to the greater coverts and the much narrower tips and edgings to the ter- tiaries, the latter being pale yellow rather than white; and by the narrower, softer tail feathers with the white tips smaller and less pure. These specimens provide a slight extension of the known range of this species and race.—H.W. ] 372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI The distribution of this bird within State limits appears somewhat patchy and local. After Manantr and Harahabad in the south, where it was common, it was not again met (though specially sought) until I got to Narsampet where it was distinctly rare. Of the only pair seen in the compound of the Dak Bungalow at Nirmal (29 March) one had the breast and abdomen jet black (g ?) and the other greyish-black (Q ?). At Utnoor it was also noted as not common. At Mananir and Farahabad (and elsewhere on the Amrabad Plateau) its joyous musical chee-chee was one of the commonest bird voices in the deciduous forest (hill and plain), and parties of four or five birds were invariably present amongst the localised forest associations. Breeding:—The Yellow-cheeked Tit is a late breeder. In a diary of 1925 J find that on October 15 (at Utnoor) a pair were nesting in a tree-hole about 20 ft. from the ground. There is also a note to the effect that others of the species were in family parties at that time—parents with full-fledged young. None of the specimens obtained by the Survey show any genital development, but 5 of those obtained on the Amrabad Plateau beween 3 and 20 October are, judging from the condition of their skulls, young of the season. The birds here were also in family parties consisting of the parents and 38 or 4 young. From the above evidence and from records relating to neighbouring areas I would place the breeding season as between August and October. The birds seen at Nirmal and Utnoor (29 March to 10 April) had paired off. A male was singing on 8 April. The song resembles certain snatches from that of Saxicola caprata, and the notes are more musical than those of Parus. FAMILY: SITTIDZ. Sitta castanea castanea Lesson. The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch. Sitta castanea Lesson, Traité d’Orn., 18380 (September 25), p. 316—Bengal. Specimens collected: —330 Q (imm) 16-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 575 Q (imm) 15-3-82, 588 ¢, 589 Q 21-3-82, 602 J 28-3-32 Kaulas 1,350 ft. Elsewhere noted at: Paloncha. Iris dark brown; bill brownish-black; grey on culmen near forehead and at chin; mouth pale pink; legs and feet slaty-brown. [Not otherwise recorded from the Deccan.—H.W.] inspite of the special look-out kept for these Nuthatches, none were met at any of the other camps. It was rare at Paloncha. At Nelipaka, in the course of 10 days’ collecting, only a single pair was met with in open deciduous jungle, running up and down and around the stem of a sapling. It was fairly common at Kaulas in the hilly deciduous country— mostly in pairs. The note commonly uttered is a quick-repeated double chilp-chilp. Breeding :—None of the above specimens showed any genital development. Nos. 330 and 575 were young of the season. In the former the skull was as yet unossified on 16 November, while the latter (19 March) was an older bird with merely two soft patches on the anterior portion of the skull. From this it would appear that the species breeds towards the end of the monsoon. Col. Sparrow, who found these Nuthatches fairly common in the Hswantaraopet jungles near Secunderabad, observed a pair building on 4 April and _ took fresh eggs on 22 July. Sitta frontalis frontalis Swainson. The Velvet-fronted Nuthatch. Sitta frontalis Swains., Zool. Ilus., Ser. i, pt. 1, 1820 (1 October), pl. 2— Ceylon. Specimens collected:—151 ? G@mm), 152 ¢, 1538 9, 154 ¢ 17-10-31, 178 9 19-10-31 Farahabad 2,800 ft. Hlsewhere not noted. Iris and skin round eye lemon yellow; bill coral red, tip of upper mandible brown; legs and feet brown with an orange tinge; soles of feet orange-yellow. Mouth in immature bird coral red, gape yellow. [This is an addition to the known distribution vide Eastern Ghats Survey Report, J.B.N.H.S., xxxv. 523. It has not before been recorded from the iJeccah area proper.-—H.W.] This Nuthatch was met with in heavy mixed Bamboo forest on _ hill-sides, usually in (family?) parties of 4 or 5—once only a pair. The call is a loud THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 373 | cheeping whistle, something between the notes of Diceum erythrorhynchum and Leptocoma asiatica. This call is perhaps the latest diurnal bird note in the forest, being frequently heard well after dusk, even after Gallus sonneratt cocks have ceased crowing. Breeding:—The gonads of the specimens were in an undeveloped con- dition. No. 151 (17 October) was a young bird of the season with the skull as yet soft. From this it would seem that its parents must have bred con- siderably later than the months mentioned in the Fauna (Vol. i, p. 188) or in the Hastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 528). Famity: TIMALIUDA. Turdoides somervillei malabaricus (Jerdon). The Southern Jungle-Babbler. Malacocercus malabaricus Jerdon, Ill. Ind. Ornith., text to pl. 19, 1845 (March)—Malabar. Specimens collected:—24 Q 5-10-31, 40 9, 41 ¢ 6-10-31 Mananir 2,000 ft. ; 185 ¢ (mm) 29-10-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 641 ¢ 3-4-3832, 659 ? (juv.) 6-4-8382 Utnoor 1,250 ft. Elsewhere noted at: Farahabad, Nelipaka, Paloncha, Narsampét, Asifabad, Kandahar, Kaulas, Kannad. Iris creamy white; bill pale yellow; mouth and commissure near gape bright yellow; legs, feet and claws pale yellow. | In the fledging chick (No. 659) the iris is greyish-brown; bill brownish- flesh, lower mandible yellow; gape yellowish-cream; legs, feet and claws pale flesh colour. Generally distributed throughout the State in both dense and open deciduous jungle as well as in scrub country surrounding cultivation. Also partial to the shady mango topes so abundant in the Nander and Aurangabad Districts. One of the most unfailing members of the localised forest associations giving away the presence of these gatherings by its harsh squeaks and squab- bling. Contrary to the view expressed in the Hastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 740) I have time and again found it in association with Turdoides striatus. This was specially noted in my field diary at the time. Fond of Peepal figs (Ficus religiosa) on which it feeds in mixed company, also of the round black drupes of Zizyphus cenoplia m the dispersal of whose seeds it assists to a considerable extent. An important pollinating agent of the flowers of Bombax malabaricum, Butea frondosa, and B. superba, Erythrina indica and EH. suberosa, and many other species from which it may invariably be seen sipping the nectar. IT remarked that the birds in the Western portions of the State (Kannad, Bhamarvadi, Aurangabad, etc.) also belonged to this race and were not the more rufous typical somerville: of Bombay. On 16 October (Farahabad) I came upon two young Hierococcyx varius among a sisterhood of these Babblers, clamouring to be fed, which one of the flock did from time to time. The cuckoos were already considerably larger than “their foster-parents, and it was noteworthy that immediately one of these birds left its perch and flew across to another, a member of the sisterhood promptly gave the alarm as one hears on the approach of a hawk. It was clear from this that the other birds of the flock realised that the young cuckoos were not exactly of them, and even suspected them, nevertheless the mentality of the foster-parents seems curious that in spite of these repeated alarms from their brethren, they apparently failed to recognise that they had been duped, and continued to tend the hefty impostors ! : Breeding: —No. 41 (6 October) had the testes ca. 8x5 mm. and was pre- sumably breeding. No. 185 (29 October) was immature, with a soft skull. In No. 641 (3 April) the testes measured 11x7 mm.—breeding. No. 659 (6 April) was a juvenile just out of nest and able to fly with difficulty. Its skull was quite unossified. The rest of the specimens, all adult, had the organs in an undeveloped condition. T’rom this it is clear that in Hyderabad State, as in other portions of its range, the bird has no well-defined breeding season. A point frequently observed by me, and one that I have not seen mentioned elsewhere, is that breeding birds (pairs or incubating individuals) continue to remain with the flock during this period, only detaching themselves now and again to attend their private concerns. This I have found to hold good in the case of T. striatus also. 6 $74. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Turdoides striatus polioplocamus Oberholser. The White-headed Babbler. Turdoides striatus polioplocamus Oberholser, Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, xxxlli, 1920 (December), p. 84—-Gingee [=Crateropus griseus, Fauna, ed. 1. | Specimens collected: 48 ¢ 7-10-31 Mananutr 2.000 ft.; 161 g¢ (juv) 18-10-31 Farahabad 2,800 ft.; 291 g¢ (mm), 292 Q 11-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft. Elsewhere noted at: Singarenni Collieries, Borgampad, Paloncha, Asifabad, Hyderabad City and Environs, Mukher, Utnoor. Iris creamy white; bill, legs, feet and claws pale lemon; mouth pale yellow. In the young bird the iris is greenish-grey; bill pale flesh colour; mouth bright orange-yellow. [Utnoor, Asifabad and Mukher shghtly extend the known range towards the north-west. I have not previously been able to examine a juvenile of this common species. It resembles the adult, but the streaking of the mantle and the squama- tion of the chin, throat and breast are very indistinct, these parts being pale and almost unicolorous.—H.W. This is the commonest Babbler in the gardens and environs of Hyderabad City. It is generally distributed in the eastern portions of the State, but 1s appa- rently absent to westward. None were seen at Kandahar, only a single flock of 7 or 8 at Mukher, and thence again absent at Deglur, Kaulas, Aurangabad, Kannad and Bhamarvadi. It haunts both dense and secondary jungle—being a frequent member of the localised forest associations—as well as scrub country in the vicinity of culti- vation and human habitations. Its call is distinct and quite unmistakable with that of T. s. malabaricus being a sharp musical trr-ri-ri-ri uttered as the tail is spread and the bird nervously twitches its wings and pivots from side to side. Commonly observed feeding on Gulair (Ficus glomerata) figs and berries of Zizyphus cenoplia, and like the Jungle Babbler it is invariably present on Hrythrina and Butea flowers, whose pollen may often be seen adhering to the throat feathers. Breeding :—No. 48 (7 October) had the testes enlarged to ca. 8x4 mm. and was probably breeding. No. 161 (18 October) had the skull unossified and it was just moulting out of juvenile plumage. No. 291 (11 November) was slightly older, with only a soft patch in the centre of its skull. In No. 292, apparently the mother of above, the organs had reverted to the normal condition. On 22 January three fully-fledged young were noted among a flock in a garden at Saifabad (Hyderabad City) whom the parents fed from time to time. On 8 February I observed a pair from this same flock collecting twigs and rootlets in a Loranthus clump on a Nim tree at about 14 ft., to which pieces of old newspaper were being added. The pair detached itself from the sisterhood and worked at the nest, chiefly in the early mornings. Lastly, on 12 April a nest was found (loose cup of rootlets etc.) in a stunted Ficus growing hori- zontally out of the fort ruins at Nirmal (Asifabad District) containing three fresh eggs. While the owner was sitting on the nest, the rest of the sisterhood kept within call in the vicinity. The eggs, turquoise-green and well-glossed, measured 24x17, 28x18 and 24x19 mm. respectively. rom the above evidence it appears that there is no well-defined breeding season in the Hyderabad State, and that eggs are probably laid in most months of the year. I might here repeat that in my experience of the Hyderabad State, where- ever their distributions coincided, I frequently found this species and the Jungle Babbler lving side by side, and at times indeed as members of the same localised forest association. I cannot therefore support the assertion made in the Hastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 740) that there is no association in life between the White-headed and Jungle Babblers. Argya caudata caudata (Dumont). The Common Babbler. Cossyphus caudatus Dumont, Dict. Sci. Nat., xxix (1823, December 27), p. 268—India. Specimens collected: —2 Q 25-9-81 Hyderabad City Environs 1,800 ft.; 35; CG (mm) 23-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft:; 457 SG (mm) 13-12-31, 475 ©, 476 ¢ 16-12-31 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 606 © (imm), 607 © 24-83-32 Kaulas 1,350 ft.; 713 3S 18-4-82 Kannad 2,000 ft. Elsewhere noted at: Kandahar, and along Jedcherla-Achampet Road (Mahbub- nagar District). Apparently absent on the Amrabad Plateau. THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 375 Iris brown or orange-yellow; bill fleshy-brown or brown with the base of the lower mandible yellow; mouth pale flesh colour; legs and feet yellow; claws horny brown. In the young bird the gape and mouth are bright yellow. [Il have been able to supplement this series with 5 skins collected by Col. Sparrow at Trimulgherry and Partur, which he was kind enough to lend me. Like the next species, the Common Babbler has evidently developed no races in India proper apart from the extreme north-west.—H.W. | Distributed fairly generally throughout the Dominions in open scrub jungle and boulder-hillock country with sparse thorny bushes. It avoids actual forest but, as at Asifabad and Paloncha, haunts bush jungle in the neighbourhood of cultivation and on the fringe of forest. These Babblers are particularly fond of hedges and patches of prickly scrub separating fields, where they scuttle about like rats through the undergrowth, uttering their pleasant trilly whistling calls. Vlocks of 7 to 10 birds com- monly seen. Breeding:—No. 2 (25 September) had the ovarian follicles ca. 1 mim. in diameter, and they seemed to be developing. No. 857 (23 November) was immature with as yet two soft patches clearly discernible on the skull. No. 457 (18 December) was younger still, with the entire skull unossified. Both 475 and 476 (16 December) showed signs of the beginning of genital development. No. 606 (24 March) was like 457, while 713 (18 April) had the testes enlarged to 14x7 mm. and was obviously breeding, though still member of a flock. In the case of this species also there appears to be no hard and fast breeding season within State limits. In the neighbourhood of Trimulgherry, Col. Sparrow found eggs from 2 March to 11 July. According to him, March is the best menth for fresh eggs in that locality. Argya malcolmi (Sykes). The Large Grey Babbler. Timalia malcolnu Sykes, P.Z.S., 18382 (July 31), p. 88—Deccan [ = Poona. ]. Specimens collected: —87 Q (juv), 88 Q 11-10-31 Mananur 2,000 ft.; 705 9 /E4= 30 ianmads 2-000" tt. Elsewhere noted at: Hanamkonda (Warangal District), Kandahar, Mukher, Aurangabad, Bhamarvadi, Hyderabad City Hmvirons (Himayatsagar and Muir Alam Tanks). Iris bright lemon-yellow; bill horny-brown, darker at gape and paler at base of lower mandible; mouth blackish-brown; legs and feet brownish-grey; claws dusky. In the juvenile, the mouth was bright lemon-yellow. [Has no races.—H.W. | The Large Grey Babbler appears to be much more common and generally distributed in the western portions of the State (Mahrattwada) than in the eastern (Telingana). Indeed, with the exception of a single flock seen at Hanamkonda (Warangal District) I did not meet it at all at Borgampad, Neli- paka, Paloncha, Narsampet, Asifabad or Utnoor. At Mananii, on the Amrabad Plateau, where two of the specimens were procured, it was also far from common. In the Nander and Aurangabad Districts it is certainly the com- monest Babbler, haunting open Babul forest and ‘cultivation or sparsely shrubbed country, interspersed with Mango and Nim trees. Breeding :—No. 87 (11 October) was a young bird with soft skull and loose untidy juvenile plumage. No. 88 from the same flock had undeveloped ovaries, while some of the follicles in No. 705 (17 April) were over 1 mm. in diameter and appeared to be enlarging. As in the other Babblers, the breeding season within this area seems undefined. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Sykes. The Deccan Scimitar-Babbler. Pomatorhinus horsfieldti Sykes, P.Z.S. 18382 (July 31), p. 89— Dense Woods of the Ghats’ [=Mahableshwar ]. Specimens collected:—136 Q 16-10-31, 147 2, 148 ¢g 17-10-31 Farahabad 2,800 ft. Elsewhere not noted. Tris reddish-brown; bill orange-yellow, a variable area dark brown; mouth pink; legs and feet dusky plumbeous; soles lemon yellow. [In the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 741) I dealt in some detail with subspecific variation of this Scimitar. Babbler and expressed the 376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI hope that material procured by the Hyderabad Survey might clarify the situ. ation. It has certainly helped to some extent. The bird was only met with on the Amrabad Plateau, which is physically little but a continuation of the Nallamalais. The three specimens obtained agree in size and colour with the birds obtained by the Hastern Ghats Survey in the south-eastern ghats. It therefore appears probable that this short-billed olive-brown form without a black edge to the plastron is cut off by a break in distribution from either iravancoreensis or horsfieldii or the long-billed bird of the Vizagapatum ghats. If this is in future confirmed, I am of opinion that the race should be recognised and named.—H.W. | Curiously enough, the Scimitar Babbler was only met with at Mananur and Farahabad on the Amrabad Plateau, and nowhere else within the State. They were partial to Bamboo jungle, moving about in parties of 4 or 5, or pairs— more commonly the latter—and were extremely shy. In the case of pairs the male acts as leader and is followed about from one clump or tree to another by the hen who acknowledges by a subdued kroo-kroo or krokant (accent on second syllable) every one of his musical whistling calls. The birds were some- times observed descending to the ground, hopping about and flicking over dry leaves like Turdoides, or clinging to the side of a mud-bank or cutting and digging vigorously for insects. Breeding :—In the ¢, No. 148 (17 October), the testes were ca. 8X2 mm. but the ovaries in both the 9 @ showed no signs of development. Dumetia hyperythra hyperythra (Iranklin). The Rufous-bellied Babbler. Timalia hyperythra, Franklin, P.Z.S., 1831 (October 25), p. 118—Between Calcutta and Benares and in the Vindhyan Hills between the latter place and Gurra Mundela. Specimens collected:—180 ? (mm) 20-10-31 Farahabad 2,800 ft.; 241 9 (imm) 4-11-31, 255 92 (amm) 6-11-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 300 ¢ 18-11-81, 315 ? (imm) 316 2, 817 ? (mm) 15-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 3860 ¢, 361 ? Gmm) 23-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft.; 403 G 1-12-31 Narsampet 800 ft.; 601 ¢g 23-3-32 Kaulas 1,850 ft.; 678 ¢ 8-4-3832 Utnoor 1,250 ft. Hlsewhere noted at: Nekonda (Warangal district), Pakhal Lake, Asifabad. “* Tris- hazel brown; bill pale horny-brown, darker on upper mandible; mouth pale fleshy pink; legs and feet pale yellowish. In the young bird the mouth is tinged with yellow, the iris paler and the legs more brownish-fleshy. [The above series was supplemented by the loan of 5 specimens from Mulkaram and Hswantaraopet from Colonel Sparrow. Nos. 408, 601, 678 as well as Col. Sparrow's birds are typical hyperythra. The others agree well with them, but show a slight passage to the intermediate birds which were obtained by the Hastern Ghats Survey in the Nallamalai range, a further proof if more were needed that hyperythra and albogularis should be treated as races of one species. The juvenile plumage may be recognised by the broad, soft round-tipped first primary and the soft narrow tail feathers. The post-juvenal moult is com- plete and remarkable evidently for the very sudden casting of the tail feathers. as in the case of Copsychus sauiaris.—H.W. |]. The Rufous-bellied Babbler was rare on the Amrabad Plateau where only a single family party of 4 or 5 was met with at Farahabad among tall grass imterspersed with thorn bushes. It was fairly generally distributed elsewhere (where not replaced by albogularis), affecting hedges and thorny scrub country. This little Babbler goes about in flocks of from 4 to 8 birds and lke albogularis —-from which I found its voice and habits indistinguishable—keeps up a low cheep-cheep (sometimes miustakable for Leptocoma) varied by harsh tittering notes. It is an inveterate skulker. On taking alarm the party promptly dives into the thickest portions of the undergrowth and disperses in all directions, but soon reassembles by the louder and more agitated cheep’s and tittering of its members. - Kaulas was the most westerly camp at which this race was noted. At Kannad its place had been taken by albogularis. The only occasion when I had a veal suspicion of the ranges. of the two races overlapping was at Kaulas where a party was seen in thick cover whose underparts appeared distinctly paler than those of the birds I had met all along heretofore. Unfortunately a specimen could not be secured. co | ~] THK HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 3 Breeding: —No. 180 (20 October), 315 and 317 (15 November) and 361 (28 November) all had the skulls either wholly soft or in varying degrees of ossification. A ©, No. 4038 (1 December), still had the testes ca. 3x2 mm. but they were pulpy in texture suggesting that he had finished breeding. In the rest of the specimens the gonads were undeveloped. From the above it would appear that the breeding season is in the latter part of the monsoon. Col. Sparrow, who found this bird very common in the Hswantaraopet jungles near Secunderabad and also near the Hyderabad Residency, obtained eges between 22 June and 381 August. He considers July to mid-August as the best time for fresh eggs. Dumetia hyperythra albogularis (Blyth). The White-throated Babbler. Malacocercus (?) albogularis Blyth, J.A.8.B., xvi, 1847 (after May), p. 453— Taipoor Pass and near Jaulnah. (—Jalna, north-west Hyderabad State). Specimen collected:—729 ¢ 21-4-82 Bhamarvadi 2,500 ft. Elsewhere not noted. Colours of soft parts as in hyperythra. Only once met with. A flock of about 8 birds skulking in grass and thorny undergrowth on a hillside near Outram Ghat. Testes of specimen undeveloped. Chrysomma sinensis sinensis (Gmelin). The Yellow-eyed Babbler. Parus sinensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. 1, pt 1 (1789), p. 1012—China. Specimens collected: —6 ¢ 25-9-31 Hyderabad City Environs 1,800 ft.; 91 3, 92-95 (juv) 11-10-81, 125 ¢ 14-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 209 9 (imm), 210 ¢ (imm) 1-11-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 345 ? (imm) 20-11-81, 852 ? 21-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft.; 418 ¢ .3-12-81 Narsampet 800 ft.; 469 9 (mm) 14-12-31 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 573 ¢ 19-38-32, 599 J 23-3-32 Kaulas 1,400 ft. Klsewhere noted at: Singarenni Collieries, Nelipaka, Nekonda (Warangal District), Kandahar, Utnoor and Nirmal. Tris orange-yellow; eyerim orange; bill black; legs and feet bright chrome- yellow or brownish lemon-yellow; claws dusky. The mouth apparently differs seasonally, black in the breeding season, otherwise orange-brown. In the nestlings the iris is greenish-brown; bill pale horny-brown; gape lemon-yellow; mouth bright chrome-yellow; legs and feet pinkish flesh colour; tibio-tarsal joint bright yellow. In immature birds, about the time of the post-juvenal moult, the bill is borny-brown; gape black; nostri] area yeliow, and the yellow gradually fades out of the mouth. The juvenile plumage is very similar to worn adult plumage, but the wings are a paler chestnut. The post-juvenal moult is complete. [As remarked in the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 745) it is exceedingly doubtful whether the Indian Peninsuia bird is really the typical form, but until more material is forthcoming from China the point cannot be proved.—H.W. ] Generally distributed throughout the State in suitable localities which consist of tall grass-and-scrub country and hedges etc., on the fringe of cultivation. I did not meet with this species in the north-western corner, at Aurangabad. Kannad or Bhamarvadi. Breeding:—On 11 October (Mananitir) a nest was found hung hammockwise between the stems of some monsoon weeds (at about 18 in. from the ground) in a small open patch in scrub jungle. The nest, a deep cup of rootlets etc. bound and plastered with cobwebs, contained specimens 92-95 huddled together in it. They were just old enough to flutter out when handled. From the gonads of numerous specimens examined, and the fact that a large proportion of those collected between October and December were immature with skulls in varying stages of ossification, it is evident that the breeding season is in the latter part of the monsoon. Col. Sparrow obained eggs from 2 July to 22 September in the scrub-and- grass country near Trimulgherry and in the EKswantaraopet jungles where this Babbler was very common. He considers August to be the best time for fresh eggs. The stomachs of the nestlings (Nos. 92-95) contained green caterpillars and soft portions of grasshoppers, 378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI Both parents share in the feeding of the young and also in incubation as evidenced. by No. 91 which was busy feeding the above nestlings, and by Ne. 418 which has a conspicuous incubation patch present. The males continue to sing from exposed perches although in heavy post- nuptial moult. Peliorneum ruficeps ruficeps Swainson. The Spotted Babbler. Peliorneum ruficeps Swainson, Fauna Boreal. Amer., 1832 (Iebruary) p. 487-—India. Specimens collected: —3819 ¢ 15-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 358 QG 28-11-31 Patoncha 300 ft. Elsewhere noted at: Pakhal Lake. iris orange-brown; bill pale flesh colour, horny-brown above; mouth pale brownish and lemon-yellow; legs, feet and claws yellowish flesh colour. Besides the localities named above, the Spotted Babbler was not met with aithough in many places the country appeared eminently suitable. The birds were very shy, and on the whole, silent, though where occurring they were invariably heard singing in the early mornings and at dusk. They kept to heavy scrub and secondary jungle, rummaging among dry leaves on the ground, either in pairs or small family parties of 3 or 4. The members keep in touch with one another by a subdued musical weet repeated at intervals of half a second or more. ‘They also have a pretty call of 8 or 4 rich, mellow whistling notes not unlike (and indeed sometimes easily mistakable for) those of an Iora- whi-whi-whee (‘He'll beat you’ or ‘He will beat you’, occasionally varied by merely ‘“He’ll beat’), ascending in scale. This is often repeated every two seconds or so for quite ten minutes or more at a time. The other of the pair (Q 2?) who is invariably near at hand, answers in very Iora-like notes (‘Its all-- right’). These replies, however, do not necessarily persist all the time the cé (?) is calling. The song, uttered from a perch, is a loud and pretty whistle of many rambling notes, and is often prolonged for five minutes or more at a time. Breeding:—The testes of my specimens were in an undeveloped condition and both the birds were in heavy post-nuptial moult. The family parties were observed to contain full-fledged young. As in the Konkan therefore, they appear to breed in the latter part of the monsoon, which incidentally is much later than in other parts of their range (March to June). The suggestion on p. 2389 of Vol. 1 of the New Fauna that this bird apparently does not breed below 2,000 ft. 1s certainly untenable. I have commonly found it breeding at Kihim (Kolaba District, Bombay Presidency) at practically sea- level, and there is good reason to believe that it also does so at Nelipaka 160 ft. and Paloncha ca. 300 ft. Aegithina tiphia humei Stuart Baker. The Central Indian Tora. Aigithina tiphia humei Stuart Baker, Fauna B.I., Birds (2nd. ed.), vol. i, July 1922 (—August 16, 1922), p. 342—Raipur, Central Provinces. Specimens collected :—126 9 (imm) 14-10-31 Mananuar 2,000 ft.; 240 ? (mm) 4-11-31, 257 Q 6-11-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 287. ¢ 11-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 448 3, 449 Q 8-12-31 Narsampet 800 ft.; 577 ¢ 19-38-32 Kaulas 1,350 ft.; 698 ¢ 16-4-82 Kannad 2,000 ft.; 742 9 24-4-32 Bhamarvadi 2,500 ft. Iris buff, greenish-buff, greyish-brown or silvery-fawn colour; bill bluish-grey. black on culmen; mouth brown or blackish; feet slaty-blue; claws dusky. Generally distributed and. common throughout the Dominions. Partial to secondary jungle, gardens and groves, specially Mango, Nim and Tamarind. Even <3 in non-breeding plumage indulge in their aerial displays, rising a few feet in the air and returning to the perch fluttering, with tail depressed and white rump feathers fluffed out. No. 448, an ad. ¢, although in fresh winter plumage (testes undeveloped) was assiduously courting No. 449 (ovaries undev.), flicking his wings, craning forward to bring his bill close to the hen’s. and uttering a long-drawn musical chee-ee. The hen on the whole remained supremely indifferent to his advances, merely snapping playfully at his bill from time to time. The whistling calls of the cock are invariably responded to by the hen hunting among the fohage hard by. Breeding :—On 25 September a nest with three eggs was found in a garden at Saifabad (Hyderabad City). Both parents were observed brooding in turns. No. 126 (14 October) and 240 (4 November) were immature birds with soft THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 379 skulls, and the gonads and moults of the others suggested that breeding was over. From the “evidence I have, it would appear that the latter part of the monsoon (August, September) 1s probably the most favoured for breeding in this area. It is possible that it breeds earlier in the year also since No. 698 ¢ (16 April) was in full breeding plumage and had testes measuring ca. 4x2 mm. Col. Sparrow found the Iora very common in and around Trimulgherry and also in the Kswantaraopét jungles, where he took eggs from 6 April to 11 Sep- tember. He considers July and August the best months for fresh eggs. On 20 July, he found three nests with young. Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth). Jerdon’s Chloropsis. Phyliornis jerdom Blyth, J.A.S.B., xin, 1844 (after December), p. 392— Goomsoor. Specimens collected :—87 9 6-10-31, 60 ¢ 8-10-31 Mananir 2,000 ft.; 587 ? 21-3-382 Kaulas 1,350 ft. Iris brown; bill S horny black; Q horny-brown, bluish-grey at base and basa! half of lower mandible; mouth leaden pink. Legs and feet ¢ pale bluish- slate, Q greyish plumbeous; claws dusky. Jerdon’s Chloropsis appears to be somewhat patchily distributed in the Hyderabad State, being confined to the more forested and hilly portions. I did not meet it at Kandahar, Mukher, Deglir, Aurangabad or Kannad. It was commonest at Farahabad on the Amrabad Plateau, though even here by no means plentiful, and rather rare elsewhere. The birds go about in pairs and were frequently noted as members of the localised forest associations. It is an accomplished mimic, among others imitat- ing both Dicrurus macrocercus and D. cerulescens to perfection. One near the Farahabad Forest Bungalow was timed for over 40 minutes at this mimicking game, during which it imitated in rapid succession the two Drongos, Molpastes cafer, Orthotomus sutorius, Dendrocitta vagabunda and Turdoides striatus, while some of the harsh vulgar squeals of Lanius caniceps were also reproduced. On another occasion I was taken in by its very colourable imitation of Graucalus macei and the Striped Squirre! (Funambulus). Its own call of several notes is distinct, and is occasionally wedged in between the mimicry. Breeding :—All three specimens were adult, but their breeding organs—of the two sexed—were in a quiescent state. In the Hastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 752) it is stated that Col. Sparrow found Chloropsis aurifrons insularis breeding about Eswantaraopet near Secunderabad from the end of June to the middle of August, but that most eggs were obtained in early July. On enquiry, Mr. Whistler informs me that Col. Sparrow’s collection contained no specimen of aurifrons from any part of Hyderabad and that in his breeding notes for this area he does not give jerdoni at all! As I myself failed to come across aurifrons in any of the localities surveyed it is clear that Col. Sparrow has been under a misappre- hension and that his information as regards nesting really relates to jerdoni. Faminy: PYCNONOTIDA. Molpastes cafer cafer (liinneus). The Red-vented Bulbul. Turdus cafer linneus, Syst. Nat., xi ed., vol. 1 (1766), p. 295—Cape of Good Hope, (errore), Ceylon. Specimens collected:—105 ¢ 12-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 186 $9? 29-10-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 456 Q 12-12-31 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 525 9 8-3-3832 Mukhér 1,356 ft.; 714 9 18-4-32 Kannad 2,000 ft. Iris dark brown; bill black; legs and feet brownish-black; mouth orange- yellow in No. 105, a mixture of grey, yellow and pink in the others. [Definitely of this race in plumage though shehtly larger than individuals from the extreme south as they approach the range of pallidus.—H.W. | The Red-vented Bulbul is widely distributed and exceedingly common through- out the State, being in many localities the commonest bird on the countryside. It inhabits sparse secondary jungle, scrub country and gardens, both near and away from human habitations, and avoids the more densely forested tracts. This species is largely responsible for the seed dispersal of a great many plants in Hyderabad, the commonest being Zizyphus cnoplia, and the various kinds of Ficus that fruit in such _ profusion every where. It is also an important 380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI pollinating agent of many flowers such as Bombax, EHErythrina and Butea, while on occasion I have observed it probing into the tubular scarlet flowers of Woodfordia fruticosa. Bulbuls were much prized as fighting birds in Hyderabad a few years ago, before the law prohibiting animal fights came into force. It was then a familiar sight to see the sporting ‘bloods’ sauntering about the bazaars with their birds, secured by a string brace, perched on a finger and being made much of. Large sums were wagered on those bouts and victorious birds fetched big prices. Breeding:—On 12 May (1927) I found a nest at Saifabad (Hyderabad City) containing two young, about 10 days o'd. On 28 May (1928) Mrs. Tasker had a nest in a clipped Bougainvillea shrub in her garden at Begampét (Hyderabad City Environs) containing 1 egg. On 13 October (1931) I observed a full-fledged young at Manantr being fed by its parents. The ovarian follicles of No. 714 (16 April, Kannad) clearly showed signs of enlarging. I believe in the Hyderabad State also—as in the Konkan and elsewhere—the breeding season is much prolonged, ranging between April and September. Otocompsa jocosa emeria (Linn.). The Red-whiskered Bulbul. Motacilla emeria Linneus, Syst. Nat., x ed. (1758), vol. i, p. 187—Bengal. Specimen collected :—242 J 4-11-81 Borgampad 160 ft. Tris brown; bill dark horny-brown; mouth lemon-yellow and pink; legs, feet and claws dark horny-brown. [Mr. D’Abreu has kindly let me see a female of this race, one of a pair, obtained by him at Nagptr on 7-4-1932.—H.W.|] Only seen twice within State limits: a pair in riverain jungle on the bank of the Kinarsani River near Borgampad (specimen), and another pair on 23 November in scrub jungle at Paloncha. Absent elsewhere. The organs of the specimen were in an undeveloped condition. Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus (Lesson). The White-browed Bulbul. Hematornis luteolus Lesson, Revue Zool., December 1840 (January 1841) p. 854—India, Bombay. Specimens collected: —68 9 9-10-81, 111 ? 18-10-31 Mananutr 2,000 ft.; 289 co 11-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft. Tris reddish-brown; bill horny-black; legs, feet and claws horny-brown mouth yellowish-pink (No. 68), pinkish grey (No. 111), bright yellow (No. 289). Bill of 111, in post-juvenal moult, dark horny-brown; legs and feet dark slate colour. The White-browed Bulbul is a common garden bird in Hyderabad City and environs. It is fairly generally distributed in the State, though I have no record of it from Aurangabad, Kannad or Bhamarvadi while at Kandahar Miukhér and Deglir it was definitely noted as absent. At Kaulas it was un- common. The birds were usually met with in pairs, affecting scrub jungle and bush country on the fringe of forest clearings. Along with other species, it was observed to feed largely on the small round black drupes of Zizyphus enoplia, so abundant everywhere, and it doubtless plays an important part in the dissemination of its seed. The organs of No. 68 and No. 289, both adult, were in a quiescent state. No Microscelis p. ganeesa was met in Hyderabad in spite of the range given in the New Fauna as from Matheran southwards. FAMILY: CERTHIDZ. Salpornis spilonotus spilonotus (Franklin). The Spotted Grey Creeper. Certhia spilonota Franklin, P.Z.S., 1830-81 (1831, Oct. 25), p. 121—Between Caleutta and Benares and in the Vindhyan Hills between the latter place and Guru Mundela. Specimens collected :—739 ¢@, 740 Q 22-4-32 Bhamarvadi 2,500 ft. Tris brown; bill, upper mandible and commissure of I.m. horny-brown, re- mainder of lower mandible flesh colour; legs and feet greyish-brown; claws brown. The above was the only pair met with in the Hyderabad State—in fairly open deciduous forest. Breeding :—Shot off nest containing 2 eggs. Both parents share in incuba- tion; the Q who was on the nest was relieved by the ¢ while I was watching. THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 381 The testes of the ¢ measured ca. 5X3 mm.; the follicles of the Q 1-1.5 mm. The nest, a deep cup, was fixed in a crotch of a black- and rough-barked leafless Acacia sapling at a height of about 10 ft. Its exterior was composed entirely of cobwebs, caterpillar droppings, vegetable down and spiders’ egg cases. It was blackish in colour and perfectly camouflaged among the built-in supporting branches. Inside diameter of cup 45 mm., thickness of wall 12 mm., inside depth of cup 45 mm. It was lined with soft spiders’ egg-bags and some dry Acacia leaflets which may possibly have dropped in accidentally. The eggs, slightly set, measured 19.513 and 19x13 mm. respectively. Pale greenish-grey with dark brown specks and paler phantom blotches, specially on the broad end. Faminty: . TURDIDZ. Saxicola caprata bicolor. Sykes. The Northern Indian Stone-Chat. Saricola bicolor Sykes P.Z.S., 1832 (July 81), p. 92—Dukhun. Saxicola caprata burmanica Stuart Baker. The Burmese Stone-Chat. Saxicoia caprata burmanica Stuart Baker, Bull. B.O.C., xlii (1923), p. 19— Pegu. Specimens collected: 84 ¢, 85 gd, 86 Q 11.10.31 Mananutr 2,000 ft.; 196 © (imm.) 30.10.31, 256 ¢ 6.11.81 Borgampad 160 ft.; 461 ¢ 18.12.31 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 518 G 5.38.32 Kandahar 1,400 ft.; 689 ¢ 9.4.32 Utnoor 1,250 ft. Iris dark brown; bill @ black, base of lower mandible brownish, Q dark brown; mouth pale pink; legs, feet and claws black. [It is interesting to note, and it incidentally illustrates the value of the recognition of subspecies, that I had already satisfied myself from the examina. tion of the specimens sent (before Mr. Ali’s notes arrived) that two races of the Pied Stone-Chat occur in the Dominions. Nos. 461 and 513 most clearly belong to the north-western race bicolor which is evidently a common winter visitor to the Dominion, and this is confirmed by the fact that No. 513 was extremely fat, evidently in preparation for migration. at a time when the resident form was ready to breed. It also explains how the Deccan can be the type locality for Sykes’ name. The other birds all belong to the small-billed form with very little white on the underparts which was obtained by the Eastern Ghats Survey and which I have already shown to be identical with S.c. burmanica of Stuart Baker. This hame is as a matter of fact probably antedated by Motacilla sylvatica Tickell, J.A.S.B., 1833, p. 575—Bhorabhum and Dholbum, but I have not yet been able to examine specimens from that area to confirm this identification. Some form of Pied Bush-Chat breeds very commonly along the Sahyadris and it is desirable to obtain series to show what this race is.—H.W. | The Pied Stone-Chat, or Bush-Chat as it is sometimes called, was not observed at Aurangabad, Kannad or Bhamarvadi, but was otherwise found generally distributed throughout the Dominions. I believe in the cold weather there is a great influx of birds from the N.-W. On 11 October (1931) I have the following note in my diary: ‘Appear to have increased markedly during the past two or three days. For one single specimen seen in the village precincts previously, there were at least six males in evidence this morning. Some of the males are still in song uttering this from roof-tops and other exposed situations’. The increase continued and was noted on subsequent days also. The birds are as a rule tame and confiding and frequent the neighbourhood of cultivation and villages, where they are commonly seen perched on stones. fences, etc. They appear to have a particular attraction for hedges of the Century Plant (Agave). Breeding: No. 196 (80 October) was an immature bird. with soft skull, evidently of a late brood. At the middle of March I noted males singing voci- ferously from roof-tops, etc. at Deglur. There were no hens in evidence, and from the frequent chasing off of other intruding males 1t appeared as though they were establishing breeding territories. As an alternative, however, it may be that the hens were already on eggs. The song begins with a double chich-chick, and is in many respects similar to that of Sasicoloides or of Melophus. The singing bird occasionally takes short ludicrous jumps into the air, and returns to its perch. It sometimes indulges in a song-flight, describing an aerial arc, flapping its wings deliberately 382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI over its back, like a pigeon ‘clapping’. On 27 March at Kaulas, males were in full song on every side. A nest was discovered in a crevice of the ruined fort wall. It was a shallow pad of soft grasses with a depression in the centre, sparsely lined with hair and seed-down. It contained three fresh eggs of a pale sea-green ground colour, with brownish-red specks and blotches, chiefly Pip wins) lotoRiGl eine, WMmesy imeersuncecls I)