2 i = pes es aan aes ree ere ieee ees SENSES ETS Ne i) \ yy iy ates sta ag 4 j serve fee } \ Pey d eS, a oN) ur ” ves f wn Wi ie i i | A a Ae ENTS JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY EDITED BY SALIM ALI & H. SANTAPAU VOL. 54 Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Containing 9 graphs, 3 coloured and 59 black-and-white plates, 8 photographs in text, 7 maps, and 229 text-figures Dates of Publication Part 1, (pages. 1 to 250) Ae ... 20-12-1956 Part 2, (pages 251 to 490) uae che 3-6-1957 Part 3, (pages 491 to 810) oA ... 14-10-1957 Part 4, (pages 811 to 994) on ... 24-12-1957 Agents in England WHELDON AND WESLEY LTD., Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin, Herts, England PRINTED AT LEADERS PRESS PVT. LTD., BOMBAY 1972 ren yur ee ? E me SL Si) Astleener CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54 No. 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS, PART III. By E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. (With one coloured and five black and white plates)...... NoTEes ON SOME WASPS AND BEES (HYMENOPTERA) OF POONA AND THE WESTERN GHATS. By F. L. Wain, s.s.J.£. (With a plate and 21 figures) ....cccccccccccccccccseccecscecescsecseces Ducks UNLIMITED: AND WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN CEYLON. By Philip K. Crowe. TT CAD QLE) se eR COON. SAUCERS cs MRA Soe A NOCD a, ulated aalols SoSOee vob gede seine CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA. II. THE ADVANCES, AND IN PARTICULAR THE PLANT COLLECTING, OF THE THIRTIES AND FORTIES OF THE 19TH CENTURY. By I. H. BS Urey oe le cl bam AN ie VAC aut sea ki et SN Pek kerk Bail MARINE NEMATODES FROM THE BAY OF BENGAL. I. PHASMIDEA. By Richard W. Timm. CAG IDIATE) Ph ee ee A eae, IR eS AIL o} SON R Sete ws cose esas s VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. By N. C. Nair and G. S. Nathawat... DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSE TO FORM AND PATTERN IN TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES. By NK Dixit NSC UAE TWO TEXT fISULES) 2100. co eas ce cos cke teen ewc cues Coeeda be cewcs cout tsouens BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR—Margaronia indica Saund. (PYRALIDAE: LEPI- DOPTERA). By R. C. Patel, M.sc. and H. L. Kulkarny, M.sc. (With a plate and a graph) THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS. By Max Vachon. (With a plate and 17 figures) ...........000. Some USEFUL WEEDS IN AND AROUND CUTTACK. By H. Pattnaik ................cccceceeceneenees NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA, Part III. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. ...... SOME BENEFICIAL COCCINELLIDS OF Mysore. By M. Puttarudriah and G. P. Channa BS ASA ATMA eye eer NEE As ee Pu cn NUD sla Lede e Uren nade gsebad Ween odes ceecseivedlonceos ses FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE COMMON “TREE Hopper’ Ofinotus oneratus WALK. (HOMOPTERA, MEMBRACIDEA) IN OrISSA. By Upendra Chandra Panda and IBASAMtAMKCUIM ATHENA ee eee ee ee eae ee ea eee eee v en adosedaeeceese REVIEWS :— fee howat the Angling Paradise (EMR Ge) 6.055. sec ck cece csc cccsel Gesdodicceocccesosdossues he Mcers of Mrengeam CBU Bas) ss. occ Gees sess eess slic occas aces cccsssccceeosswsseses Pelican) inpthewVVilGeEMess (RGR) (os sk scaeges esac os scseeicn ook cabaaeoncweccecedtee ces cheeses 2 3 4. The Flamingos: Their Life History and Survival (S.A.) ...........cccccececeseeeeeees 5. Embryology of Heterometrus scaber (M. L. Roonwal) ............cccccccececceeeeeeees 6 The early Embryology of Pyrilla perpusilla Walker (Homoptera) (P.J.D.) ...... PAGE 22 37 42 vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54 PAGE MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. Macaque Monkey eating Mushrooms. By M. L. Roonwal (p. 171). 2. Lion v. Tiger. By E. P. Gee (p. 171). 3. Transferring of the Indian Lion to an additional Locality. By K. 8S. Lavkumar (p. 173). 4. Wild Elephants in the Union of Burma. By Tun Yin (p. 175). 5. A large pair of Elephant’s Tusks from Burma (With a photo). By Tun Yin (p. 178). 6. Albino Elephants. By Tun Yin (p. 179). 7. Predator and Prey at Salt-licks. By E. P. Gee (p. 181). 8. Incubation Period and ‘Mortality Rate’ (?) in a Brood of the Magpie Robin [Copsychus saularis (Linn.)]. By N. G. Pillai (p. 182). 9. Some Notes on the Plumages of Centropus sinensis (Stephens). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 183). 10. The Occurrence of the Pinkbreasted Parakeet (Psittacula alexandri) in Dehra Dun. By K. S. Lavkumar (p. 185). 11. Experiences with Little Ringed-Plover (With a plate). By Loke Wan-Tho (p. 185). 12. The Dimorphic Egrets. By J. Berlioz (p. 188). 13. Bird Notes from Kutch. By K. S. Lavkumar (p. 190). 14. Fighting among Birds. By R. S. P. Bates (p. 191). 15. Bird Migration in India. By Editors (p. 193). 16. The Changing Scene: Paucity of Bird Life in Jabalpur (M.P.). By P. V. Beatty (p. 194). 17. Solar Eclipse and Animal Behaviour. By G. H. Marsden (p. 194). 18. Jumping Snakes. By H. A. N. Medd (p. 195). 19. A Python’s Meal (With a photo). By Tun Yin (p. 196). 20. Dhaman or Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus) drinking Milk. By J. E. C. Turner (p. 196). 21. Strange Accident to a Frog (Rana breviceps Schneid.) By Humayun Abdulali (p. 197). 22. The Spawning of Carps. By J. D. Lovatt (p. 197). 23. On the Occurrence of Mummified Eels in the internal organs of Polydactylus indicus (Shaw) and Pomadasys sp. By K. H. Mohamed. (p. 199); 24. Occurrence of the Echiuroid Worm Ikedella misakiensis (Ikeda) in Indian Waters (Gulf of Kutch). (With a text figure). By P. W. Gideon, P. K. B. Menon, S. R. V. Rao and K. V. Jose (p. 201). 25. The unusual resistance to starvation of Saccharicoccus sacchari (Ckll.). By D. V. Murthy (p. 202). 26. Some interesting Obser- vations on the Royal Chamber in the Mound of the Termite Odontotermes redemanni (Wasmann). By B. Banerjee (p. 203). 27. Some common Termites of Calcutta. By Barundeb Banerjee (p. 204). 28. Notes on the Common Black Garden Beetle Basilianus neelgherriensis. By (Miss) M. E. Wolfe Murray (p. 206). 29. Tarache nitidula F., a Semilooper Pest on Cotton in South India (With a plate). By S. Venugopal (p. 207). 30. Partial Emergence of the Imagines of Dragonflies (Odonata) due to the absence of a holding place (With two figures). By D. R. Krishnan (p. 210). 31. Hesperiidae of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. By Sir Keith Cantlie (p. 212). 32. Further Notes and additions to the List of Butterflies from Bombay and Salsette. By A.E.G. Best (p. 215). 33. On the phenomenon of Drumming in Egg-laying Female Butterflies. By Vidyadhar G. Vaidya (p. 216). 34. The Poisonous Qualities of Calotropis gigantea R. Br. By H. Santapau (p. 218). 35. Parthenium hysterophorus Linn., a new record for India (With a plate). By R. Seshagiri Rao (p. 218). 36. Notes on Aerides maculosum Lindl. (With a text figure). By H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia (p. 220). 37. Some New Plants for the Dangs Forest, Bombay State (With two plates). By H. Santapau and D. P. Panthaki(p. 221). 38. China’s Book-like Rock Formation with 25-million-year old Plant Fossils. By Prof. Hsen Hsu Hu (p. 225). 36. Wild Life Preservation in India. By Tolaram K. Mirchandani (p. 226). GELEANINGS ): 6c655 Geo S85 ob cides Siac Sgeeisla hohe Sle wists Gea ie iS AS alee TRIS RO LED Uap neta aTe Ure rer nre oV eco RI tole See 228 INOTES AND: NEWS 00.2355 25.c Soc clacere's os ss sialetere crorslsccle's ge Ea STs Rae UETs aie EDS OS irate aietetes eisteratteeicte seers 234 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31ST TECEMBER 1955 oe Oe BPG Ge a EE I each C Ta Seve TS tare PR Cte 235 THE HONORARY SECRETARY'S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1955 .......ccccceccscccceccccccececcccscees 236 APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO PRUGUST: V9SG occ oie eh emia Coe ee ae EEE Ieee Ua CLAS Meta aE Te tate lattia 243 MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING .....ccccccccccccccccccvccccccccccccccccenccceesccccenses 245 GEORRECTIONS so sisicc ccc sc cece chose eee I SIRE PEE OLED eB NN ENE Ea eiciovn 245 STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ......--c-eseeeeeeeeeeee 246 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54 Vii No. 2 PAGE HIsTORY OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES. By H. Srinivasa INAOINAS DESC aEANG Ls GHEEIE LWOUDIQKES is waiia's sais oeFc since soeiciaie' ole Soiessin cise diel veldowledion weenie. 251 VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALLI HILLS. By N. C. Nair and G. S. Nathawat. (TEE @. TUBE D)). ASSO 8B ce SSUES AEN Ado CIE aPIeIe Gs HER EIOEICG ESP ra betarel unease ni an MR Pt atta ai 281 NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA, PART IV. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S........ 302 VOICE AND LARYNX IN AFRICAN AND ASIATIC COLOBIDAE. By W. C. Osman Hill, m.p., BRS Evang A. H Booths: (With twodtexk fiZULeS)), cokceseds vaste selen's deste vaseoeescbaes ed soos seid 309 ON A ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING TOUR OF THE ISLANDS OFF JAFFNA. By P. H. D. H. De SlAemULIAIOIE CTO i ea re ene secu yeas cone CuGitbiac esas see ge seaacceemeukcemeeccecc sss 322 FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAMILY LIFE OF THE FIVE-STRIPED SQUIRREL, Funambulus pennanty Wr. By (Mrs.) Aruna Banerye 7.012) Lec o weleesseacsocecsectecccccascossces 335 THE SHIPWORMS OF SOUTH INDIA WITH A NOTE ON THE BREEDING SEASON OF Bankia indica Nair. By N. Balakrishnan Nair, Ph.D. (With a plate, three text figures anda graph)... 344 THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN, By Swami Pranavananda, F.R.G.S. ......cccccescccesceccesscesssees 358 A BOTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS. By B. N. Ghildyal. (With a sketch map) 365 SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF THE SLENDER Loris Loris tardigradus (LINNAEUS). By (Mrs.) Swarna Subramoniam, M.SC. (With five plates) .......cecceccccecccccceccescccscees 387 ON THE MARINE CRABS (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA) OF BOMBAY STATE, PART I. By B. F. Chhapgar, M.Sc. (With one coloured and eleven line plates, and two text figures) ...... 399 OBITUARY :— Brigadier W.. El. Evans. G:S.1.,C.1.B., DiS.Oc, RB aes sa, Bun oon cates teee dehy 2 ceseeceae, 440 REVIEWS :— 1. Features of Evolution in the Flowering Plants (P.V. Bole)...............cseseeeesees 442 Dae line Shetpayand the Snowman CHA.) coeds. ocsccscccsccsccseceeocecheodedeccescectseceseos 443 Be Birds of Ceyloms 32'(S As) eee a ae heh ods wane es Sk vo owe ss deka baachance See 444 4. An Introduction to the Botany of Tropical Crops (J. A. Ali) ..............cceceeeees 444 a Open Air Guides— Bark (EH Santapau) i cccccccceseccesesseesesussssntaccsscsescoscseesess 445 6. List of Indian Fungi—1952-1956 (H. Santapau) .................sceecescceesseccesevsoes 446 dmeButtentites ofthe indian Region (Ll. Ni) ai. cc suecedesecdoccsscdcespess savieneeocesiocions ces 447 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. Footprints of ‘Snowman’. By Swami Pranavananda (p. 448). 2. Hairless Lion Cubs in the Trichur Zoo. By M. Govindankutty Menon (With a plate) (p. 450). 3. “Scent Trails’ and ‘Pooking’ in Tiger. By Capt. K. Boswell (p. 452). 4. Following up wounded Tiger at night. By Capt. K. Boswell (p. 454). 5. Further notes on the Himalayan Mouse- hare, or Pika (Ochotona rufescens). By S. A. Akhtar (p. 455). 6. A note on Insects consumed as food by Squirrels and Birds at Kundri Forest, Palamau District, Bihar. By S. Krishnaswami and N. S. Chowhan (p. 457). 7. Tusks of Indian Elephants. By R. C. Morris (p. 460). 8. Hypnotic Behaviour of a Whiteheaded Babbler (Turdoides striatus). By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 460). 9. Drumming of the Malabar Goldenbacked Wood- pecker Brachypternus benghalensis. By B. Vijayaraghavan (p. 461). 10. Accidental Vili CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54 death of a Crimsonbreasted Barbet [Megalaima haemacephala (Miller)]. By B. Vijaya- raghavan (p. 462). 11. Halcyon pileata inland. By F. N. Betts (p. 462). 12. Redlegged Falconet, Erythropus amurensis (Radde), near Bombay. By Salim Ali (p. 463). 13. An incubating Peacock (Pavo cristatus Linn.). By Y. S. Shivrajkumar (p. 464). 14. Occur- rence of the Ruff and Reeve [Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus)] near Coimbatore. By Editors (p. 464). 15. Rednecked Phalarope (Lobipes lobatus Linn.) in Bhavnagar, Bombay State. By Shivrajkumar of Jasdan and R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (With a plate) (p. 465). 16. Some Riddles of Game-bird Migration in Kutch. By H. H. Madansinhji of | Kutch (p. 466). 17. The Liver Fluke of the Frog, Rana tigrina—a new record of Meh- raorchis ranarun Srivastava, 1934 (Pleurogenitinae). By R. S. Tandon (p. 468). 18. Ticks from Baluchistan, West Pakistan. By Henry Field (p. 469). 19. Bionomics of the Pump- - kin Caterpillar, Margaronia indica Saund. By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 470). 20. A new pest of Screwpine in Kerala: Agonia fuscipes Baly (Hispinae, Chrysomelidae). By M. R. G. K. Nair (With four figures) (p. 470). 21. A giant form of Celosia argentea L. By J. Sakharam Rao (With a photo) (p. 474). 22. Eclipta prostrata, E. erecta, or E. alba: Which is the correct name ? By H. Santapau (p. 475). 23. Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hil.—A Correction. By H. Santapau (p. 476). 24. Habenaria panchganiensis—New name for a Bombay Orchid. By H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia (p. 478). 25. Wild Life Preservation in India: Predator Control and the Introduction of Exotic Species, By C. L. Boyle (p. 478). FURTHER NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD, Ploceus philippinus LINN. By Salim Ali and Vijaykumar -C:. Ambedkar. (With a. plate) oe. ce 20 ak ON THE MARINE CRABS (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA) OF BOMBAY STATE, PART II. By B. F. Chhapgar, M.Sc. (With one coloured and five line plates, and one text figure) ...........- INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY AND SYSTEMATICS. By K. M. Gupta and T. N. Bhardwaja. (With 48 ‘text figures): 2025 GRE, AG OT re a I THE LION OF THE Gir. By Lt.-Col. A. H. Mosse (Deceased) ......... cee ccc eece esc eeeceeveecees NOTES ON THE Briielia GROUP OF MALLOPHAGA (FEATHER-LICE), WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF FOUR NEW SPECIES. By Wolfdietrich Eichler, D.sc. (With four text figures) ..........0.++. BRIEF NOTES ON CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB (INDIA). By K. N. aumear M.SC., PH.D. (London), F.E.S.1. (With 34 text fiQures) ..cccccccccccnccvcceccceccecccecceececscs NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF A SELECTED AREA OF DEHRA DUN—JUNE 1946 To JULY 1951. By Mrs. M. D. Wright (Deceased). (With a Sketch map) ....cccsccsccseccencencccnccecesncesacs TIMBER BORING MOLLUSCS OF THE INDIAN CoAsT. 1. REPORT ON A COLLECTION FROM TONDI AND ADIRAMPATNAM, East Coast. By N. Balakrishnan Nair and O. N. Guru- mani. (With eight text figures). oo. cowseotssccceca once a hae bes eeke ce aeeac ates an eeee een eee ee eor GRASS FLORA OF COIMBATORE DISTRICT (SOUTH INDIA) WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FODDER GRASSES.: BY, 0.) SakharamlRao 25 dac5 cise suede oe vamioad oaicion 6 tes apiscalinetes Gane seen see mrancees ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: A PRELIMINARY SURVEY. By P. W. Gideon, P. K. B. Menon, S. R. V. Rao and K. V. Jose. (With a map, one plate and five text PIEULES) iis dice acces cade uc dels cheb Sacer seer aee ee seek oe eB TO te ee eee eee Tue GENUS Cuscuta IN BoMBAY. By H. Santapau, s.J., and (Miss) V. Patel, B.sc. (With a plate)”: vee oe ks Sa BP SRI ok acc ARNON cae a a Ree aN recy, fotats Dead te ne A aE EO OPERATION OF THE Dol NET OFF THE SAURASHTRA COoAsT. By S. V. Gokhale. (With seven LEXEYIBUTES)F. hb bcc ELC REE be LU EE SE REE SON NN EOE IN PAGE 482 488 489 PAGE 491 503 550 568 577 581 627 663 674 690 707 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54 Notes ON SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION IN THE TAWNY Pipit (Anthus campestris), BLYTH’S Pieit (A. godlewskii), AND RICHARD’s Prprt (A. novaeseelandiae) IN Asta. By B. P. AMEE ALOE ESUITE)) Vasil eke seca dosnt ca secstac toe Uelvastsdiesecvsccescscacseesds A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE EELS OF BomsAy. By D. V. Bal and K. H. Mohmed. (With WO LRECCTIRTC NEMESUMES rice eee ese canoe ees cco eeuna once tec ssieos solesistes hie oan Gndee cclage segues THe BIOLOGY AND BIONOMICS OF Lestodryinus pyrillae Kigrr. (DRYINIDAE: HYMENOPTERA) A NYMPHAL PARASITE OF Pyrilla perpusilla Walk., AND A NOTE ON ITS ROLE IN THE CONTROL OF Pyrilla. By B. R. Subba Rao. (With a plate)... cc cicccc ccc cece ecccccseceuees REVIEWS :— 1. eeAnimals of the Ruhuna National Park (HY Ac). osc eles led acc cee f), Viihyptintss Soaliony J8sutGls, CD): 08, 189) cceonccoacsye5¢scrde sdesbecasoeeeceaco: conc sae ueSH use Sue eco 3. Audubon Western Bird Guide: Land, Water and Game Birds (D. E. R.)......... aya the Amphibia,otGeyvion (Es Gy Si) era ee ke ek leek Oils bike csuees So Britismitees: A Guide for Everyman (D. EIR.) cic. oo cceetkc ccs cssceceedsesees SORE Gi INO Passport, coubibet GRE Ia) eee Ue ccs a sce o ie scceceeccsces 7. Natural History of Birds: A Guide to Ornithology (S. A.) .............c..eeseeeeeees 8. The Ornithologists’ Guide: Especially for Overseas (S. A.) ............c000ceee00 ie OFT Onitheyirailof Vanishing, Birds (Di Ey R.) oon 8 22.005 i ded. ee el ee NDDULIONS TO) DHENSOCIEDY:S IEIBRARY, (oc ccc sade lack oe ule Seen eee ee kb a ose cue Coeue owes see cele MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. The Abominable Snowman. By D. E. Reuben (p. 762). 2. On the status of the Great Indian Rhinoceros (R. unicornis) in Nepal (With a map). By P. D. Stracey (p. 763). 3. The Spiny Babbler in Kathmandu Valley. By R. L. Fleming (p. 766). 4. ‘A Dabchick is Born’. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 767). 5. Bird Life of Madhya Pradesh. By H. G. Alexander (p. 768). 6. Reflected glow from the eyes of the Gharial [Gavialus gangeticus (Gmelin)]. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 769). 7. Occurrence of a rare Sting Ray [Taeniura melanospila (Bleeker)] in Bombay Waters (With one plate and one text figure). By H. G. Kewalramani and B. F. Chhapgar (p. 770). 8. The ‘Marala’—a sink net used in the backwaters of Ganjam, Orissa (With two text figures). By P. Mohapatra (p. 773). 9. Migration of Insects. By Editors (p. 775). 10. Notes on the Butterflies of Rangoon. By A. E. G. Best (p. 776). 11. An episode from the life history of the Moth Suana concolor Walker. By S. Szafranski (p. 784). 12. Notes on the biology and control of the Lily Moth Brithys crini Fabricius (With a plate). By Nawab H. Khan and Zille Hasan Abedi (p. 785). 13. An undescribed luminous Beetle Larva from South India (With one photo- graph). By J. Samuel Raj (p. 788). 14. Two new species of Priochirus (Staphylinidae: Coleoptera) from India (With two text figures). By Rudolf Dvorak (p. 790). 15. The Swarming Termites of Delhi. By H. S. Vishnoi (p. 792). 16. On the Harpacticoid Cope- pod Phyllognathopus viguieri (Maupas) (With one plate). By S. Krishnaswamy (p. 793). 17. A note on the Nematode Mermis indica v. Linstow parasitising insects. By O. S. Bindra and §. U. Kittur (p. 796). 18. A new variety of Gymnosporia falconeri Lawson from northern Oudh, Uttar Pradesh. By M. B. Raizada (p. 796). 19. Dolichos bracteatus Baker: Clarification of nomenclature. By S. I. Ali (p. 797). 20. Ipomoea tropica, new name for a common Bombay plant. By H. Santapau, s.J., and V. Patel (p. 798). 21. A new species of Gleadovia Gamble et Prain from Manipur (With a plate). By D. B. Deb (p. 799). 22. Bougainvillea buttiana Holttum et Standley, and its cultivars in Lalbagh, Bangalore (With a text figure). By M. H. Mari Gowda (p. 801). 23. Some name changes in the Flora of India. By J..K. Maheshwari (p. 804) (GEE G Sie eee eae eee eee ee eee ee eaudedsviesecens 726 732 x CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54 No. 4 PAGE THE BLACKFACED WEAVER BIRD OR DIOCH IN WEST AFRICA: An Ecological Study. By Gérard Morel, Marie-Yvonne Morel and Francois Bourli¢re. (With four plates, one text figure and three Sraphs) (onic e ee 811 BIONOMICS OF FORAGE FISHES: OBSERVATIONS ON THE FECUNDITY OF THREE COMMON SPECIES OF MINOR BARBELS. By K. H. Ibrahim. (With one figure) ...........0..c0cceeeee 826 OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORA OF KODAIKANAL. By J. Pallithanam,s.J. 9 .............. ccc eee eee 835 A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE DIATOM GENUS Pinnularia. By H. P. Gandhi. (With twenty-one JIZUres) O26. ccs CO ee LUD OE CD ae 845 MATING IN ScorPIONS. By A. P. Mathew. (With three text figures) ...ccccccccccecccucsecceees 853 THE GENUS Eremopogon STAPF AND ITS AFFINITIES WITH Schizachyrium NEES. By M. B. Raizadaand S. K. Jain: (With @ plate)... secs ee eee 858 INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF TIDE ON THE ATTACHMENT OF BARNACLE CyPRIDS. By A. Daniel. (Withi three: Srapns) soc ce vuca Gen cu ahs wee Nee Eee Ne EH RE Cola eee ee 866 REPTILIANA~ By Lieut:-Col. As Ee Mosse iin cae. etaenc ns neeetsie slo a cloia een ne eee es 869 BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY OF THE ERSTWHILE TEHRI GARHWAL STATE— II: By Ray Kumar Gupta occco elec eae aaa eee cee ata, eee 878 STUDIES ON NON-INSECT ENEMIES OF LAC, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SQUIRRELS AND BIRDS AS SERIOUS SEASONAL PREDATORS. By S. Krishnaswami, N. S. Chauhan and P. S. Negi: (With @ text figure) ioe es ee EUR E EEE RC EE 887 THE ALGAL FLORA OF THE PONDS AND PUDDLES INSIDE THE BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY Grounps, INDIA. By G. S. Venkataraman. (With seventeen text figures) .............4+ 908 TERNS OF THE SEYCHELLES ISLANDS. By M. W. Ridley. (With two plates) .............c0cceee 920 New PLANT RECORDS FOR SOUTH INDIA—II. By D. Daniel Sundararaj and V. Rama- krishnan: :GWith [WODIGles): 055 doesn. coe esiee oooh Ue es Sasa Se eR ee ee ee 925 OBITUARY :— 1. Norman Boyd Kinnear, 1882-1957. (With @ photo) .......cccccccccccccccecccencenceees 928 2. Philip McDonell Sanderson, 1884-1957. (With @ Photo) ......cscccaccencecncenceecees 930 REVIEWS :— 1.) The ‘Evolution of Man: (RGR) ie jane Occ eeaee ecco sc ieee en ee eee eae tee eee eameanis 933 2. Pharmacognosy of Ayurvedic Drugs (Kerala) Series No. 3 (B.C.M.) ...........0. 936 3. ' Zoological Phetography im’ Practice) (Wi-Wil iene... ess csecedotienee stn ecssesee ose: 937 ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. The Indian Mongoose in Jamaica. By D. E. Reuben (p. 941). 2. Habits of the Serow [Capricornis sumatraensis (Bechstein)]. By Major R. J. Solomon (p. 941). 3. Ceylon’s Wilpattu National Park (With a plate). By J. H. Burnett (p. 942). 4. A Sunbird’s unusual nesting site (With a photo). By Joseph George (p. 943). 5. Edible-nest Swiftlets in Burma. By Salim Ali (p. 944). 6. The Grey Junglefowl in Salsette. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 946). 7. Rednecked Phalarope Lobipes lobatus (Linnaeus) in Southeast Asia. By Tom Harrison (p.947). 8. A double-headed Krait, Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider) (With a photo). By V. R. Jha and P. D. Gupta (p. 947). 9. A jumping Snake. By J. H. H. Peppe (p. 948). 10. Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Chilka Lake (With a text map). By J. C. Roy and N. Sahoo (p. 949). 11. An indigenous fishing Rod and Tackle (With a text figure). By F. R. Goldschmidt (p. 953). 12. On a new caterpillar Pest of Screw- pine: Lycaugesia longipalpis Swinh. (Lepidoptera: Agrotidae) (With a text figure). By M. R. G. K. Nair (p. 954). 13. Egg-laying of the Dragonfly Indophaea cardinalis (Fraser) [Odonata: Insecta]. By (Miss) Evelyn Bowden (p. 957). 14. Note on a Hunting Wasp, Notogonia jaculatrix (Smith). By F. L. Wain (p. 957). 15. Notes on three common Tree- hoppers (Membracidae: Hemiptera) in Orissa. By Upendra Chandra Panda and Basanta Kumar Behura (p. 958). 16. Homeric battles on the dinner table. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 961). 17. Occurrence of Apus (Crustacea: Notostraca) in Pilani, Rajasthan. By S. N. Mathur and Narsingh Sidhu (p. 961). 18. Destruction of timber by Marine Organisms in the Karwar port (With a graph). By V. C. Palekar and D. V. Bal (p. 962). 19. Solanum esuriale Lindl. A new record for Bombay State. By V. D. Vartak (p. 965). 20. Further notes on the Indian species of Curcuma (Zingiberaceae). By H. Santapau (p. 966). 21. Thespecies of Lagenandra of Bombay and Madras. By H. Santapau (p. 967). 22. Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz.—Further-comments. By G. L. Shah and H. Santapau (p. 969). 23. On the occurrence of Fritschiella tuberosa Iyeng. in Pilani (Rajas- than) (With a text figure). By M. C. Joshi (p. 970). 24. A caterpillar-parasitising Fungus. By Editors (p. 973). GIGEINIING Sie ea cys Or athe ca AOU Se us LEER EC occ Leta sole ace Pena ie ee INOIEESVAIND INE WS eos eicae cues cc cisltes oicalee Code Cue LOU CMe cate) TOU Sg GE ni Gh es ee ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st IDECEMBER. LODG6 ¢ hie esos erect ac ateue deus Ue ores Gas Ts L ENE ye lee, ciosa coe oes THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1956 ... oo. cece ccs escccccccccconcscccncsces APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY'S REPORT COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO PRUGUSTs TOSI ee ees ea rine sao aee eau u ta uMN una GEE uO eer ereN yoo aueuwoneeees STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ............eceeeceevcce MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERALE MEETING (22056000. cs x1 PAGE ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS ABDULALI, HUMAYUN, Some notes on the plumages of Ceniropus sinensis (Stephens) oT i ee —_________—__—_—_—.-, Strange accident to a Frog (Rana breviceps Schneid.)... ——___________———-, Reflected glow from the eyes of the Gharial [Gavialus gangeticus (Gmelin)] . Woe, The grey Jungle- fowl in Salsette ABEDI, ZILLE HASAN, see KHAN, “NAWAB H. AKHTAR, S. A., Further notes on the Himalayan Mouse-hare or Pika (Ochotona rufescens) . ALEXANDER, H. G., Bird life of Madhya Pradesh ALI, SALIM, Redlegged Falconet, Er y- thropus amurensis (Radde) near Bom- ay a ua aoe ne Eve , Edible-nest Swiftlets in Burma ... ap ore is as , and AMBEDKAR, VIJAYA- KUMAR C., Further notes on the Baya Weaver Bird, Ploceus philippinus Linn. (With a plate) .. ALTE S. 1.5 Dolichos bracteatus ‘Baker: Clarification of nomenclature AMBEDKAR, VIJAYAKUMAR C., see ALI, SALIM BAL, D. V., and MouMmepb, K. H., A systematic account of the Eels of Bombay. (With fourteen text figures) , see PALEKAR, V. C. BANERJI, ARUNA, Further observations on the family life of the Five-striped Squirrel Funambulus pennanti Wr. ... BANERJEE, B., Some interesting observa- tions on the royal chamber in the mound of the Termite Odontotermes redemanni (Wasmann) : 5 BANERJEE, BARUNDEB, Some common Termites of Calcutta . BASAVANNA, G. P. CHANNA, see Pur- TARUDRIAH, M. BATEs, R. S. P., Fighting among Birds BeaTry, P. V., The changing scene: Paucity of Bird Life in Jabalpur (M.P.) . BEHURA, BASANTA. KUMAR, see “PANDA, UPENDRA CHANDRA BERLIOZ, J., The dimorphic Egrets : BEST, A. E. ‘Ge Further notes and addi- tions to the list of Butterflies from Bombay and Salsette ae PAGE 183 197 769 946 455 768 463 944 491 797 732 335 203 204 191 194 | 188 215 Best, A. E.G., Notes on the Butter- flies of Rangoon i : Betts, F. N., Halcyon pileata inland ~ BHARDWAIA, ap N., see GUPTA, K. M. BINDRA, O. S., and KITTUR, S) U., A note on the Nematode Mermis indica v. Linstow parasitising insects ; BooTtH, A. H., see HILL, W. C. OsMAN BOSWELL, K., ‘Scent’ trails and‘ pooxing’ in Tiger ee ees fi ile , Following up wounded Tiger at night .. ? BOURLIERE, FRANCOIS, GERARD BOWDEN, EVELYN, Egg-laying of the Dragonfly Indophaea cardinalis (Fraser) (Odonata: Insecta) .. Boye, C. L., Wild life preservation in India... BURKILL, I. H. Chapters « on the History of Botany i in ‘India. II. The advances, and in particular the plant collecting of the thirties and forties of the 19th century BuRNETT, J. H., Ceylon’ S Wilpattu Na- tional Park (With a plate) BurTon, R. W., A Dabchick is bom —___—_—__———.,, Homeric battles on the see MOREL, dinner table CANTLIE, KEITH, Hespenidae, ‘of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills CHAUHAN, N. S., see KRISHNASWAMI, Sy CHHAPGAR, B. Bo On the Marine Crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura) of Bombay State. Part I. (With one coloured and eleven line plates, and two text the ures 5 yaaa On Marine Crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura) of Bombay State. Part II. (With one coloured and NG line plates, and one text figure) . CHHAPGAR, B. F., H. G. CHOWHAN, N. S., see KRISHNASWAMI, S. CROWE, PHILIP Ke Ducks Unlimited: and Wild Life Preservation in Ceylon. (With a plate) .. DANIEL, A., influence aff staze G: tide on the attachment of Barnacle Cy- prids. (With three graphs) ... De SitvA, P.H.D.H., On a Zoological collecting tour of the islands off Jaffna. (With a map) .. oer see "KEWALRAMANT, PAGE 7716 462 796 452 454 957 478 42 942 767 961 212 399 503 37 866 322 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Dep, D. B., A new Species of Gleadovia Gamble et Prain from Manipur. (With a plate) .. DHARMAKUMARSINHUI, R. Si; see SHIV- RAJ KUMAR OF JASDAN Drxit, K. K., Differential response to form and pattern in two species of Indian Honeybees. (With two text figures) .. DVORAK, RUDOLF, “Two. new species of Priochirus (Staphylinidae: Coleoptera) from India. (With two text figures) Epirors, Bird Migration in India , Occurrence of the Ruff and Reeve [Philomachus pugnax (Linna- eus)] near Coimbatore uN, , Migration of Insects . : , -A caterpillar- -parasitising Fungus EICHLER, WOLEDIETRICH, “Notes. on the Brielia group of Mallophaga (Feath- er-lice) with descriptions of four new species. (With four text figures) FIELD, HENRY, Ticks from Baluchistan, West Pakistan FLEMING, R. L., The Spiny Babbler in Kathmandu Valley GANDHI, H. P., A contribution to our knowledge of the Diatom genus Pinnularia. (With twenty-one figures) Gee, E. P., The management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and National Parks. Part II , Lion v. Tiger Predator and prey at salt- licks GEORGE, JOSEPH, A Sunbird’ Ss ‘unusual nesting site. (With a photo) : GHILDYAL, B. N., A botanical trip to the valley of flowers. (With a sketch map) ... GIDEON, P. W., MENON, Pp. K. B. , Rao, RS: V., AND JOSE, K. Vie Occurrence of the Echiuroid Worm Ikedella misakiensis (Ikeda) in Indian waters (Gulf of Kutch). (With a text figure) ———__—___—_—_—___——_—., On tthe Marine Fauna of Gulf of Kutch: A preliminary survey. (With a map, one plate and five text figures) ... GOKHALE, S. V., Operation of the Dol net off the Saurashtra Coast. (With seven text figures) , GOLDSCHMIDT, F. R., An indigenous fishing rod ‘and tackle. (With a text figure) . ahs ant GOwDA, M. H. “MARI, " Bougainvillea buttiana Holttum et Standley, and its cultivars in Lalbagh, Bangalore. (With a text figure) ... GupTA, K. M., AND BHARDWAJA, ap. N., Indian Marsileas: their morphology and systematics. 2. On the Examina- PAGE 799 201 690 714 953 801 tion of some Collections of Marsilea in India. (With 48 figures) GuPpTA, P. D., see JHA, V. R. GuPTA, RAJ KuMAR, Botanical explo- rations in the Bhillangna Valley of the erstwhile Tehri Garhwal State-II GURUMANTI, O. N., see NairR N. BALA- KRISHNAN HALL, B. P., Notes on specific identifica- tion in the Tawny Pipit (Anthus cam- pestris), Blyth’s Pipit (A. godlewskii) and Richard’s Pipit (4. novaeseelan- diae) in Asia. (With a text figure) ... HArRRISSON, TOM, Rednecked Phalarope Lobipes lobatus (Linnaeus) in South- east Asia i HILL, W. C. OsMAN, and BootH, A. H., Voice and larynx in African and Asiatic Colobidae. (With 2 text figures) ... ¢ Hu, Hsen-Hsu, China’s “book- like rock formation with 25 million year old plant fossils IBRAHIM, K. H., Bionomics of forage fishes: Observations on the fecundity of three common species of minor barbels. (With one figure) ... JAIN, S. K., see RAIZADA, M. B. Jua, V.R., and Gupta, P. D., A double- headed Krait Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider). (With a photo) ... Jose, K. V., see GIDEON, P. W. Josu1, M. C., On the occurrence of Fritschiella tuberosa lyeng. in Pilani (Rajasthan). (With a text figure) KAPADIA, Z., see SANTAPAU, H. KEWALRAMANI, H. G., and CHHAPGAR, B. F., Occurrence of a rare Sting Ray [Taeniura melanospila (Bleeker)] in Bombay waters. (With one plate and one text figure) | KHAN, NAwWAB H., ad " ABEDI, ZILLE HASAN, Notes on the biology and control of the Lily Moth Brithys crini Fabricius. (With a plate) Kirrur, S. U., see BINDRA, O. S. KRISHNAN, D. Re Partial emergence of the Imagines of Dragonflies (Odonata) due to the absence of a poldne oe (With two figures) KRISHNASWAMI, S., CHAURAN, 'N. S., and NecaI, P. S., Studies on non-insect Enemies of Lac with special reference to Squirrels and Birds as serious seasonal predators i , AND CHOWHAN, N, Si A note on insects consumed as food by Squirrels and Birds at Kundri Forest, Palamau District, Bihar KRISHNASWAMY, S., On the Harpacti- coid Copepod Phyllognathopus te (Maupas). (With one plate) : KULKARNY, H. L., see PATEL, R. Ce xlii PAGE 550 878 726 947 309 225 826 947 970 770 785 210 887 457 793 X1V LAVKUMAR, K. S., Transferring of the Indian Lion to an additional locality —_—_—_——-, The occurrence of the Pinkbreasted Parakeet (Psittacula alexandri) in Dehra Dun He -, Bird notes from Kutch ... LovatTr, J. D., The spawning of Carps MADANSINHJI OF Kutch, Some riddles of Game-bird Migration in Kutch ... MAHESHWARI, J. K., Some name changes in the Flora of India MARSDEN, G. H., Solar eclipse and animal behaviour MATHEW, A. P., Mating in Scorpions. (With 3 text figures) MATHUR, S. N., and SIDHU, NARSINGH, Occurrence of Apus (Crustacea: Notostraca) in Pilani, Rajasthan MepbpD, H. A. N., Jumping Snakes MENON, M. GOVINDANKUTTY, Hairless Lion Cubs in the Trichur Zoo. is a plate) b MENON, P. K. B., “see GIDEON, i WwW. MIRCHANDANI, TOLARAM, K., Wild Life Preservation in India: Dandeli and the Dangs ; MOHAMED, K. H. ,On the occurrence of mummified eels i in the internal organs of Polydactylus indicus (Shaw) and Pomadasys sp. Wa MOHAMED, K. H., see BAL, D. ve MOoHAPATRA, Re The ‘Marala’ —A sink net used in the backwaters of Ganjam, Orissa ... oe: ane Pie Ne MoreL, GERARD, MoreEL, MaArieg- YVONNE, AND BOURLIERE, FRANCOIS, The Blackfaced Weaver Bird of Dioch in West Africa: An ecological study. (With four plates, one text figure, and three graphs) MorEL, MARIE-YVONNE, see More, GERARD MorkrIs, Elephants ie Bh Mosse, A. H., The Lion of the Gir ak Mosse, A. H. E., Reptiliana Murray, M. E. WoLrFe, Notes on the common black garden Beetle Basili- anus neelgherriensis Murtuy, D. V., The unusual resistance to starvation of Saccharicoccus sac- chari (Ckll.) ch Nair, M. R. G. K., A new ‘Pest of Screwpine in Kerala, Agonia fuscipes Baly (Hispinae, Chigsomelds (With four figures) —______—__—__-, On a new " Cater- pillar Pest of Screwpines: Lycaugesia longipalpis Swinh. (Lepidoptera : Agrotidae). (With a text figure) ... Nair, N. BALAKRISHNAN, The Ship- worms of South India with a note on the Breeding Season of Bankia indica R. C., Tusks of Indian PAGE 173 185 190 97, 466 804 194 853 961 195 450 226 199 773 811 460 568 869 206 203 470 954 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Nair. (With a plate, three text figures, and a graph) —, AND GURUMANI, O. N., Timber boring Molluscs of the Indian Coast I. Report on a Collec- tion from Tondi and Adirampatnam, East Coast. (With eight text figures) Nair, N. C., and NATHAWAT, G. S., Vegetation of Pilani and its neighbour- 00 AN os ie ae Vegetation of Harsh Nath, Aravalli Hills. (With a map)... NATHAWAT, G. S., see NAIR, N. GC. NEELAKANTAN, K. K.,, Hypnotic Lo haviour of a Whiteheaded Babbler (Turdoides striatus) : NEGI, P. S., see KRISHNASWAMI, Ss: PALEKAR, V. S., and BAL, D. Vv, Des- truction of Timber by Marine Orga- nisms in the Karwar Port. (With a graph) ... PALLITHANAM, ” “Observations on the Flora of Kodaikanal .. i PANDA, UPENDRA CHANDRA, and BEHURA, BASANTA KUMAR, Further observations on the biology of the common ‘Tree-hopper’ Ofinotus oneratus Walk. ivan Mem- bracidae) in Orissa BAe Notes on three common Tree-hoppers (Membracidae: Hemiptera) in Orissa PANTHAKI, D. P., see SANTAPAU, H. PATEL, R. C., and KuLKARNY, H. L., Bionomics of the Pumpkin Cater- pillar—Margaronia indica Saund. (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera). a a plate and a graph) F PATEL, V., see SANTAPAU, H. PATTNAIK, H., Some useful Weeds in and around Cuttack . ae PepPE, J. H. H., Aj jumping Snake PILLAI, N. G., "Incubation period and ‘mortality rate’ (2?) in a brood of the Magpie-robin WCepey crs saularis (Linh.)] PRANAVANANDA, ‘SWAMI, The Abomin- able Snowman 3 f ‘Footprints of ‘Snowman’... PUTTARUDRIAH, M. A and BASAVANNA, GP: CHANNA, Some beneficial Coc- cinellids of Mysore RaizapA, M. B., A new variety of Gymnosporia falconeri Lawson from Northern Oudh, Uttar Pradesh —____—_——,, and Jain, S. K., The genus Eremopogon Stapf, and _ its affinities with Schizachyrium Nees. (With a plate) ... We a ues RaJ, J. SAMUEL, An_ undescribed luminous Beetle larva from South India. (With one photograph) PAGE 344 663 91 281 460 962 835 160 958 118 140 948 182 358 448 156 796 858 788 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS RAMAKRISHNAN, V., D. DANIEL Rao, B. R. SusHa, The Biology and Bionomics of Lestodryinus pyrillae Keiff. (Dryinidae: Hymenoptera). A nymphal parasite of Pyrilla perpusilla Walk., and a note on its role in the control of Pyrilla. (With a plate) ... Rao, H. SRINIVASA, History of our Knowledge of the Indian Fauna through the ages. (With two plates)... Rao, J. SAKHARAM, A giant form of Celosia argentea L. see SUNDARARAJ, is Grass Flora of Coimbatore District (South India) with special reference to fodder grasses . Rao, R. SESHAGIRI, Parthenium hystero- phorus Linn., a new record for India. (With a plate) .. : Rao, S. R. V., see GIDEON, P. W. REUBEN, D. E., The Abominable Snow- man , The Indian Mongoose in Jamaica ye Rip.ey, M. W., Terns of the Seychelles Islands . ROONWAL, M. I Macaque “Monkey eating mushrooms i Roy, J. C., and SAHoo, N., Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Chilka Lake. (With a text map) oes Hes SAHOO, N., see Roy, J. C. SANTAPAU, H., The poisonous qualities of Calotropis gigantea R. Br. ... sae —____—., Eclipta prostrata, E. erecta, or E. alba which is the correct name ?... ee see te ae —_____—_—_—_——., Alternanthera parony- chioides St. Hil.—A correction —______———_, Further notes on the Indian Species of Curcuma (Zingi- beraceae) we foe os ibe —_—__—_———., The species of Lagenandra of Bombay and Madras ——_—__—_———-, and KaAPapiA, Z., Notes on Aerides maculosum Lindl. (With a text figure) Habenaria panchganiensis—New name for a Bombay Orchid —____—_—_—__,, and PANTHAKI, D. P., Some new Plants for the Dangs Forest, Bombay State. (With two plates) ay ae sie Uae ST anc PANEL, V. The Genus Cuscuta in Bombay. (With a a plate) : a a uh : and ———, Ipomoea tropica new name for a common Bombay Plant SANTAPAU, H., see SHAH, G. L. SEVASTOPULO, D. G., Notes on Heterocera of Calcutta, Part ITI the PAGE 741 251 474 674 218 762 941 920 171 949 218 475 476 966 967 220 478 221 707 798 153 —_____—___——., Notes. on Heterocera of Calcutta, Part IV —_—___________—., Bionomics of the Pumpkin Caterpillar, Margaronia in- dica Saund. SHAH, G. L., and SANTAPAU, H., Neu- racanthus ’ sphaerostachyus Dalz. —_ Further comments SHIVARAJKUMAR OF JASDAN and DHAR- MAKUMARSINHJI, R. S., Rednecked Phalarope (Lobipes lobatus Linn.) in Bhavnagar, Bombay State. (With a plate) SHIVRAJAKUMAR, YY. S:, “An incubating Peacock (Pavo cristatus Linn.) : SIDHU, NARSINGH, see MATHUR, S. N., SOLOMON, R. J., Habits of the Serow [Capricornis sumatraensis (Bechstein)] STRACEY, P. D., On the status of the Great Indian Rhinoceros (R. unicor- nis) in Nepal. (With a map) .. SUBRAMANIAM, SWARNA, Some observa- tions on the Habits of the Slender Loris, Loris tardigradus oe): (With five plates) SUNDARARAJ, D. DANIEL, and “RAMA- KRISHNAN, V., New Plant records for South India—II. (With two plates) ... SZAFRANSKI, S., An episode from the life history of the Moth Suana con- color Walker ... TANDON, R. S., The Liver Fluke of the Frog Rana tigrina—A new record of Mehraorchis ranarum Srivastava, 1934 (Pleurogenitinae) TMM, RICHARD W., Marine Nematodes from the Bay of Bengal: I. Phas- midea. (With a plate) TREHAN, K. N., Brief notes on Crop Pests and their control in the Punjab (India). (With 34 text figures) TURNER, J. E. C., Dhaman or Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus) drinking milk VACHON, Max, The biology of scor- pions. (With a plate and 17 figures)... VAIDYA, VIDYADHAR, G., On the pheno- menon of drumming in egg-laying female butterflies VARTAK, V. D., Solanum ecuriale Lindl. A new record for Bombay State VENKATARAMAN, G. S., The Algal Flora of the ponds and puddles inside the Banaras Hindu University Bonds: India. (With 17 text figures) : VENUGOPAL, S., Tarache nitidula F., a semilooper Pest on Cotton in South India. (With a plate) .. me VIJAYARAGHAVAN, B., Drumming of the Malabar Goldenbacked Woodpecker Brachypternus benghalensis ... ee Accidental death of a Crimsonbreasted Barbet [Mega- laima haemacephala (Miller)} the XV PAGE 302 470 969 465 464 941 763 387 925 784 468 87 581 196 128 216 965 908 207 461 462 XVi VIsHONI, H. S., The swarming Termites of Delhi Wain, F. L., Notes on some Wasps and Bees (Hymenoptera) of Poona and the Western Ghats. (With a plate and 21 figures) oa ie ue Si —______——, Note on a hunting Wasp, Notogonia jaculatrix (Smith)... Wan-THo, LOKE, Experiences with Little Ringed Plover. (With a plate) PAGE 792 22 957 185 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS WriGut, M. D., Notes on the Birds of a selected area of Dehra Dun—June oe to July 1951. (With a sketch ap) Yin, Ten “Wild Elephants i in the Union of Burma ; A large pair of Elephant’ 5 Tusks from Burma. (With a eo , Albino Elephants fs "A Python’s meal PAGE 627 175 178 179 196 LIST OF PLATES The management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and National Parks. Part III. Plate I. 1. Wild Elephant (makhna) Kaziranga, Assam (Coloured) 2. Barasingha or Indian Swamp Deer in Kanha, Madhya Pradesh .. Plate II. Wild Tusker Elephant in Bandipur, Mysore ute Plate Tif. 14. Hog Deer in Kaziranga, Assam - 2. Mother and baby Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros in Kazi- \. ranga, Assam a Plate[V. 1. Typical thorny scrub on the fringe of the Gir Forest a) 2. A young male Lion, with mane starting to grow, comes out to a a ‘kill’ Plate V. 1. A hurriedly constructed ‘hide’ for photographing lions 2. A young adult male Lion photographed from the above ‘hide’ . Plate VI. 1. A portable ‘hide’ of hessian cloth, camouflaged and in position } at a salt-lick 2. A barking Deer buck photographed from the above ‘hide’ ii Notes on some Wasps and Bees (Hymenoptera) of Poona and the Western Ghats Plate Leaf-cutter Bees (Megachile disjuncta) in action Ducks Unlimited: and Wild Life Preservation in Ceylon Plate. Ducks Unlimited: Scenes in the Grey Lodge Wildfowl Refuge, oot fornia Marine Nematodes from the Bay of Bengal: I. Phasmidea Plate. Marine Nematodes from the Bay of Bengal A-B. Rhabditis marina var. bengalensis new var.; C-E. Tylenchus marinus n.sp.; F-I. ee eae lobus limuli n.g., n.sp. Bionomics of the Pumpkin Caterpillar Margaronia indica Saund. (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera) Plate. The Pumpkin Caterpillar Margaronia indica Saund: A-B. Eggs; C.\ Larva; D. Pupa; E. Adult By i The biology of Scorpions Plate. The Rock Scorpion (Buthus sp.) with young on her back Experiences with Little Ringed-Plover Plate. 1. Redwattled Lapwing (Hoplopterus indicus) a 2. Little Ring Plover (Charadrius dubius) ae Tarache nitidula: ¥., A semilooper Pest on Cotton in South India Plate. Life History Stages of Tarache nitidula F. on Cotton Parthenium hysterophorus Lim., a new record for India Plate. Parthenium hysterophorus Linn. Some new Plants for the Dangs Forest, Bombay State Plate I. Indigofera oreophila Santapau and Panthaki Plate If. | Moghania praecox var. robusta Mukherjee History of our Knowledge of the Indian Fauna through the ages Plate I. 1. The mythical Yali with leonine body and elephantine fuce from a Hampi relief 2. Hunting scenes from file throne platform at Hampi in Mysore depicting antelopes, sambar and leopards PAGE 34 38 136 186 208 218 XVill Plate IT. ‘The Shipworms of South India with a note on the Breeding Season of Bankia indica Nair Plate. Some observations on the habits of the Slender Loris, Loris tardigradus (Linnaeus) Plates. 1. 1. 2: LIST OF PLATES Another form of the mythical Yali with leonine body and limbs, mane and tail but with Canine face and bovine horn and ear. From a panel of a ‘mantapam’ at Madurantakam in Chingleput 3 District, Madras A formal ‘Swan with crest and curled plumes and a short. neck From a carving in wood on a doorway in Chingleput District Madras Experimental test planks of Cedrela sp. showing the destruction caused by Shipworms Three entire shipworms (Bankia indica) Loris tardigradus: Ite 2 3. Position in climbing Position at rest Various positions of body and limbs On the Marine Crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura) of Bombay State Part I Plate A. Plate 1. Plate 2. Plate 3. Plate 4. Plate 5. Plate 6. Plate 7. Plate 8. Charybdis (Goniosoma) cruciata Atergatis integerrimus Neptunus (Neptunus) sanguinolentus Matuta planipes Charybdis (Goniosoma) lucifera Neptunus (Neptunus) pelagicus Dromia dormia (Linnaeus) . Pseudodromia integrifrons Henderson Calappa lophos (Herbst) . Matuta lunaris (Forskal) . Matuta planipes (Fabricius) Leucosia pubescens Miers. Leucosia sima Alcock . Philyra globosa (Fabricius) Philyra corallicola Alcock . Arcania septemspinosa (Fabricius) . Dorippe astuta Fabricius Elamena cristatipes Gravely © Menaethius monoceros Latreille __ Hyastenus planasius (Adams & White) . Doclea gracilipes Stimpson . Paramithrax (Chlorinoides) aculeatus (Milne-Edwards) . Schizophrys aspera (Milne-Edwards) i. Lambrus (Platylambrus) prensor Herbst Cryptopodia angulata Milne-Edwards & Lucas . Neptunus (Neptunus) sanguinolentus (Herbst) . Scylla serrata (Forskal) . Charybdis (Goniosoma) cruciata (Herbst) . Neptunus (Neptunus) pelagicus (Linnaeus) . Charybdis (Goniosoma) lucifera (Fabricius) . Charybdis (Goniosoma) annulata (Fabricius) . Charybdis (Goniosoma) callianassa (Herbst) . Charybdis (Goniosoma) orientalis (Dana) . Charybdis (Goniohellenus) hoplites (Wood-mason) Thalamita crenata Milne-Edwards . Thalamita prymna (Herbst) Atergatis integerrimus (Lamarck) Atergatis floridus (Rumph) . Atergatis roseus (Ruppell) Platypodia cristata (Milne-Edwards) Xantho (Lophoxanthus) scaberrimus baccalipes Alcock . Leptodius exaratus (Milne-Edwards) « s . e e ° e e e rc Cae e e ° e e E ° ° e e e ure e ° e ° ° e e ° ° ° e . ° ° ° e ° e e . e e ° e e 3 PAGE 387 92/393 399 404 405 412 413 418 419 424 425 Plate 9. Plate 10. Plate 11. a-c. d-f. g-i. j-l. m-o. -r. a-c. d-f. g-1. j-l. m-o. a-c. d-f. g-i. j-l. m-o. p-r. LIST OF PLATES Leptodius crassimanus Milne-Edwards Leptodius euglyptus quadrispinosus Chhapgar Medaeus granulosus (Haswell) Etisus laevimanus Randall Galene bispinosa (Herbst) Actaea savignyi (Milne-Edwards) Myomenippe hardwickii (Gray) Ozius rugulosus Stimpson Epixanthus frontalis (Milne-Edwards) Pilumnus vespertilio (Fabricius) Pilurmnus longicornis Hilgendorf Heteropanope laevis (Dana) Eurycarcinus orientalis Milne-Edwards Eriphia laevimana smithii Macleay Eucrate crenata dentata (Stimpson) Litocheira angustifrons Alcock Litocheira setosa (Milne-Edwards) Hairless Lion Cubs in the Trichur Zoo Plate. Rednecked Phalarope (Lobipes lobatus Linn.) in Bhavnagar, Bombay State Plate. i. 2 3. 1. Ds Male lion cub, 3 months old, before shedding the sparse coat of hair Lion cubs, hairless male and normal female, six months old Hairless lion cub, male, about twelve months old Rednecked Phalaropes, Bhavnagar Rednecked Phalaropes in flight, Bhavnagar Further notes on the Baya Weaver Bird, Ploceus philippinus Linn. Plate. On the Marine Crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura) of Bombay State Part II. Plate B. Plate 12. Plate 13. Plate 14. Plate 15. 1. 2 Nests in the ‘bell’ or ‘helmet’ stage ready for appropriation by hens. The cock on the right is reinforcing a new attachment . A newly arrived hen perches on the cross-bar or “chin-strap’, while the cock clings and flutters excitedly on the outside Ocypoda ceratophthalma Gelasimus marionis nitidus Varuna litterata Metopograpsus messor Grapsus strigosus Sesarma (Sesarma) oceanica Gelasimus annulipes . Pinnotheres placunae Hornell and Southwell . Pinnotheres quadratus Rathbun . Pinnotheres vicajii Chhapgar Ocypoda ceratophthalma (Pallas) . Ocypoda cordimana Desmarest Ocypoda rotundata Miers Gelasimus annulipes Latreille . Gelasimus marionis (Desmarest) Gelasimus dussumieri Milne-Edwards Dotilla myctiroides (Milne-Edwards) . Macrophthalmus pectinipes Guerin Macrophthalmus sulcatus Milne-Edwards Macrophthalmus latreillet Desmarest Macrophthalmus pacificus Dana Macrophthalmus depressus Ruppell . Macrophthalmus crinitus Rathbun . Grapsus strigosus (Herbst) . Metopograpsus messor (Forskal) Metopograpsus maculatus Milne-Edwards Varuna litterata (Fabricius) . Pseudograpsus intermedius Chhapgar ye Te) Qe t a: | XIX PAGE 432 438 450 465 503 506 507 514 515 XX LIST OF PLATES Plate 16. a-c. Sesarma (Sesarma) quadrata (Fabricius) d-g. Sesarma (Sesarma) oceanica de Man h-j. Sesarma (Sesarma) taeniolata White k-m. Sesarma (Sesarma) minuta de Man n-p. Metaplax indica (Milne-Edwards) q. Metaplax distincta Milne-Edwards r-s. Plagusia depressa tuberculata (Lamarck) On the Marine Fauna of Gulf of Kutch: A preliminary survey Plate. 1. Stoicactis sp. 2. Gemmaria sp. 3. Ikedella misakiensis 4. Balanus amphitrite The Genus Cuscuta in Bombay Plate. a. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. b. Cuscuta australis R. Br. c. Cuscuta chinensis Lamk. d. Cuscuta hyalina Roth The Biology and Bionomics of Lestodryinus pyrillae Kieff. (Dryinidae: Hymenoptera). A nymphal parasite of Pyrilla perpusilla Walk., and a note on its role in the control of Pyrilla Plate. Egg of Lestodryinus pyrillae Kieffer Fully developed Lestodryinus grub 1 2 3. Cocoon of Lestodryinus pyrillae on sugarcane leaf 4. Adult female of Lestodryinus pyrillae Kieffer 5. Adult male of Lestrodryinus pyrillae Kieffer 6. The modified foreleg of the female Dryinid 7. Hyperparasite: Cristatithorax quadricolor Gir 8. Parasitised Pyrilla nymph showing the development of the thy- lacium between the wing pads Occurrence of rare Sting Ray [Taeniura melanospila (Bleeker)} in Bombay Waters Plate. Taeniura melanospila (Bleeker) (Female) Notes on the biology and control of the Lily Moth Brithys crini Fabricius 7 a ’ Plate. Larvae of the Lily Moth Brithys crini Fabricius feeding on the jeavesnt of Crinum latifolium On the Harpacticoid Copepod Phyllognathopus viguieri (Maupas) Plate. Phyllognathopus viguieri (Maupas) A new Species of Gleadovia Gamble et Prain from Manipur Plate. a-f. Glaedovia banerjiana Deb The Blackfaced Weaver Bird or Dioch in West Africa: An ecological study Plate I. a-d. The various stages of nest construction in Quelea q. quelea Plate Hl. 1-2. The connubial display near the still unfinished nest Plate II]. 1. Males “standing guard’’ on their nests. Incubation stage 2. Male feeding the young Plate TV. 1. ‘The traps used for catching immature Queleas 2. The aviaries for breeding experiments, Richard-Toll Ornithological Station The genus Eremopogon Stapf and its affinities with Schizachyrium Nees Plate. 1. Eremopogon strictus Camus 2. E. foveolatus Stapf 3. £E. tuberculatus Camus 4 Schizachyrium paranjpyeanum Raizada et Jain : ) - 4 PAGE 922 704 707 741 772 794 800 816 817 818 819 862 LIST OF PLATES XXi PAGE Terns of the Seychelles Islands Plate I. 1. White Tern, 2. Lesser Noddy, 3. Sooty Tern (adult), 4. Sooty Tern (young), 5 Crested Tern, 6. Little Tern, 7. Common Noddy, 922 8. Blacknaped Tern, 9. Roseate Tern, 10, Brownwinged Tern ... Plate Il. 1-2. An island covered with Sooty Terns is one of the most remarkable ‘973 sights that an Ornithologist can see (Desnoeufs Islands) A New Plant Records for South India—II Plate I. 1. Lippia unica sp. nov. eel 926 2. Cenchrus glaucus sp. nov. is Plate I]. Figs. 1, 2,6 & 8. Cenchrus glaucus spec. nov. ae 927 Figs. 3, 4, 5 & 7. Cenchrus ciliaris Linn. ef Ceylon’s Wilpattu National Park Plate. 1. Wild Buffalo in the Wilpattu Park i53 942 2. Cheetal aE INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS VOLUME 54 Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 PAGE Actaea savignyi 432 | Calappa lophos Aerides maculosum 220 | Cedrela sp. Agonia fuscipes 471, 472, 473 | Celosia argentea Agrotis sp. : 600 | Cenchrus ciliaris Aleurolobus barodensis 585 - glaucus Allobriielia museiberolinensis 579 | Cervus duvauceli —_—_——-- rhinocichlae a 579 | Charadrius dubius a Ammophila laevigata ... ue we 27 | Charybdis (Goniosoma) annulata : Ampulex compressa ... he ae 30 | ———— (——__ calllianassa Amsacta moorei 593 |$ ————— (—_—_) cruciata ... Androctonus australis as ee 129 | ————— (Goniohellenus) hoplites ee hector ... ES IS PSI S)S) (Goniosoma) lucifera Anous stolidus pileatus ee 922 | ————— ) orientalis -- tenuirostris tenuirostris iis 922 | Chilo zonellus ie Anthophora zonata ... hs ee 35 | Chiton ... : Anthus campestris 731 | Chthamalus stellatus stellatus — godlewskii 731 Graph 3 nue i novaeseelandiae : 731 | Colobus polykomos vellerosus. Aplonis panayensis strigatus ... 580 | Crinum latifolium é Arcania septemspinosa 412 | Cristatithorax quadricolor Archaea janata 592 | Crocisa ramosa ae Atergatis floridus oe 425 | Cryptopodia angulata integerrimus .. 399, 425 | Cuscuta australis roseus 425 - chinensis a Athalia proxima 612 | ————- -- var. ciliaris Aulacophora foveicollis: 604 - hyalina Axis axis Le sue ae 942 - reflexa - Axis porcinus ... See Hee a 5 | Cylindrospermum muscicola vat. mac- Bagrada picta ... * 594 rospora re : Balanus amphitrite ... He 704 | Dacus cucurbitae - yariegatus Diaphorina citri Gmph 1 ee 3 866 | Doclea gracilipes - tintinnabulum tintinnabulum: Dorippe astuta Graph 2 . 866/867 | Dotilla myctiroides Rance (Bankiella) edmondsoni Aes 665 | Dromia dormia ) indica. 666 | Ducks Unlimited indica ... 346, 348, 349, 350 Plate Batocera rufomaculata a 618 | Earias insulana Bembex trepanda ‘ 30 | Elamena cristatipes Blackfaced Weaver Bird or Dioch in West Africa, The Fig. 1 812 Botanical Trip to the Valley of Flowers A Sketch map as ae 365 Bougainvillea buttiana 803 Brithys crini 784 Briielia fulmeki 580 muniae 580 Bubalus bubalis 942 Bungarus caeruleus 948 Buthotus alticola 130 Buthus occitanus 137 Buthus sp. 136 Elephant’s Tusks from Burma, A large pair of Photo Elephas maximus Elis thoracica ... a Empoasca devastans ... Epilachna sp. ... Epixanthus frontalis Eremopogon foveolatus - strictus ... - tuberculatus Eriosoma lanigerum Eriphia laevimana smithii Etisus laevimanus INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Eucrate crenata dentata Eumenes petiolata a aie sae 31 Eurycarcinus orientalis 438 Fish Fauna of the Chilka Lake, Addi- _ tions to the “Map bay 950 Fritschiella tuberosa ce 971 Galene bispinosa 432 Gelasimus annulipes ie ... 303/507 - dussumieri ... Bas oe 514 - marionis 507 — -- nitidus 503/507 Gemmaria sp. ... ee 704 Gleadovia banerjiana ... Se 800 Gnorimoschema operculella 609 Grapsus strigosus 503/515 Gygis alba monte 922 Halicephalobus limuli oo ie a 90 Heliothis obsoleta 601 Heterometrus scaber 128, 134, 139, 854, 855, ee 4 Heteropanope laevis 3 Hieroglyphus banian ... 584 Hispa armigera 596 Hoplopterus indicus 186 Hyastenus planasius 412 Hydroprogne tschegrava 922 Icaria ferruginea det et ee 33 Idiocerus sp. ... 618 Ikedella misakiensis _ 202, 704 Indian Fauna through the Ages, His- tory of our a of the plate I , A is 252 plate II } 253 Indian Honeybees, Differential Res- ponse to Form and Pattern in two species of Text fig. 1 109 Text fig. 2... ; 110 Indian Marsileas: Their Morphology and systematics 48 figures 552 & 553 Indigofera oreophila Be 224 Ischnurus ochropus } 138 Lambrus (Platylambrus) prensor 413 Laphygma exigua a 602 Leptocorisa varicornis 597 Leptodius crassimanus ee 432 euglyptus quadri. ispinosus aes 432 exaratus on, 425 Lestodryinus ane 741 —_—__—__—-- pyrillae .. 741 Leucosia pubescens 405 -- Sima ... 405 Lingula anatima 695 Lion Cubs in the Trichur Zoo, Hairless Plate ae : 450 Lippia unica =e A iS 926 Liris aurata ... a2 aah 26 Litocheira angustifrons 438 ——_——-- setosa 438 Lobipes lobatus 465 Loris tardigradus Plate 1 387 Plate 2 me a 392 Plates 3 & 4 ... 392/393 Plate 5 t 393 Lycaugesia longipalpis Macrophthalmus crinitus NaS —_—____-___——- depressus ... ——_____—_—__—-- Jatreillei - pacificus a - pectinipes ... —_—______—- sylcatus ‘*‘Marala’’—A sink net used in the backwaters of Ganjam, Orissa, The Text fig. 1 van us Text fig. 2 Margaronia indica Graph Marine Crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura) of pone State, On the Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Marine Fauna of Gulf of Kutch, On the Map anne organisms in the Karwar Port, Destruction of timber by Graph ose ae Mopie lunaris planipes Medaeus granulosus ... Megachile lanata Menaethius monoceros Metaplax distincta indica ; Metopograpsus maculatus —__—__—_——— messor Mino dumontii kreffti Moghania praecox var. robusta Monophlebus stebbingi Munia maja ae Muntiacus muntjak ; wee Muraena (Gymnothorax) favaginea Be cae ) meleagris .. = ( ) picta : —__—___- ( ) pseudothyr- soidea - (——_____-) undulata un- dulata ... Muraenesox cinereus ... ’ -- talabonoides Muraenichthys gymnopterus ... Mutilla nobilis : Myomenippe hardwickii oe Neptunus (Neptunus) pelagicus —_——_—_——— (————_) sanguinolentus Notes on Birds of a selected area of Dehra Dun—June 1946 to July 1951 Sketch map . Note on the “breeding season of Bankia indica Nair, The shipworms of South India with a Graph , Obituary Photo: Norman Boyd Kinnear ... Photo: Philip McDonnell Sander- son oat a Sse ap Observations on the fecundity of three common species of Minor Barbels, ... 399, 503: ... 399, 399, 627 353 928 9390 XXIV PAGE | Bionomics of Forage Fishes: | Fig. 1 ae sigh 832 | OS pods ceratophthalma ae SOS, c SOT -- cordimana ... A aa 507 | ———-- rotundata ... ae Sea 507 Odynerus ovalis oa oy ms a2 Oedogonium lautumnarium ... ane 913 | - rufescens 913 Operation of the Dol net off the Saurashtra Coast Fig. 1 oe ES: a ie TAS Fig. 2 ee Be e 716 Fig. 3 718 Fig. 4 719 Fig. 5 720 Fig. 6 721 Fig. 7 at Bat sae Zs Ophichthys apicalis Me a vs 739 || -- cephalozona Be! we 739 Orthochirus innesi _... ae ae 132 Ozius rugulosus Sie oe cys 433 | Pandinus imperator... cue as 131 Pantala ae, my) ae ie Pas Panthera leo... ot LO. Paramithrax (Chlorinoides) aculeatus 413 Parthenium hysterophorus ... she 218 Philyra corallicola ae ge 405 globosa a Be kk 405 Phyllognathopus viguieri ak ve 794 | Pieris brassica me gi: 603 Pilumnus longicornis . ee su ore 433 | - vespertilio ... oe Ha 433 | Pinna nigra... au ae i 702 Pinnotheres placunae ... aa fh 506 quadratus 506 - vicajii ; ne, 506 Pinnularia acrosphaeria f. undulata ... 848 | ———- —-—————— v. minor ... 848 | - aestuarii V. interrupta ... 848 | --- VetGla is. a 849 | - angustefasciata ... Ae 848 - prebissonii v. producta ... 849 | - —____- V, ——___—__ | f. biundulata we see 848 | — - conica woe ai ey 848 -@SOX V. Capitata ... oe 849 | -——- V. fasciata ... cea 849 - isostauron ... Ws 849 | ee ee, conifera ae 849 | - karnatica 848 | - legumen Vv. florentina- _ 848, 849 | - microstauron \. ambigua .. 848 | - neglecta V. interrupta ... 849 | ~ stomatophoroides v. ornata f. erlangensis ... 848, 849 | Pisoodonophis boro... wed ae 738 | —_—_—_————— cancrivorus ... wae 738 | Placenta placenta Hey : a 702 | Plagusia depressa tuberculata ee 322) | Platydera gossypiella ae Mee 591 | Platypodia cristata 425 Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii v. crassa . 913 Ploceus philippinus _... Ae a 49] Polistes hebraeus fe se 33 | Priochirus (Plastus) astoliensis INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Priochirus (Plastus) maitrta ... 791 Procolobus Goes) badius wal- droni aor ae Hei sie 318 Prodenia litura _ a a Bi 594 Pseudagenia blanda ... he boy 24 Pseudodromia integrifrons : 404 Pseudograpsus intermedius... onl 31) | Puntius ticto ... ee coe sais 832 | Pyrilla ... Ae Lae Ke 741 Pyrilla perpusilla ee me ae 584 Python’s Meal, A Photo es iy aun 196 | Quadraspidiotus per niciosus ae | Quelea quelea quelea ... | Rhabditis marina v. bengalensis 614 816, Si 818, 819 90 | Rhagophthalmus sp. ... mae a 789 Rhinoceros unicornis ... sk ae 5 Map ... ae un ol nas 763 Rhinocichla mitrata ... a ne 579 Salius flavus... : uh; Si 25 - madr aspatanus ye aad 26 | Sceliphron madraspatanum ... sth 28 Schizachyrium Pay eau ities $62 | Schizophrys aspera... : Bais 413 | Schoenobius bipunctifer a Lo 596 Scirpophaga nivella ... a, Bee 586 | Scolia quadripustulata ee ue 23 Scorpio maurus 5a8 a se 136 Scylla serrata ... Eh si 418 Sesarma (Sesarma) minuta ... SE 522 - oceanica ... 2 D0BLS22 - ) quadrata ... Ay p22 oss - —) taeniolata ta p22 Sirogonium strictum Vv. ee ala 913 | Sphex aurulentus ce ats 29 | Spirogyra nitida v. microspora a 913 --— singularis ne 2s 912 -— spreeiana V. kashiensis ... O12 Sterna albifrons ; ; 922 | anaethetus antarctica— 922 | ——— bergii thalassina ane Med 922 —_——— dougallii arideensis ... 922 fuscata nubilosa 922, 923 sumatrana mathewsi ... Nae 922 Stoicactis sp. ... : 704 Studies on Non-Insect enemies of Lac, with special reference to squirrels and Birds as serious seasonal pre- dators Text fig. aH die 888 Suabids unusual nesting site, A Photo : ae Soh sls 944 Sylepta derogata mat soe : 588 Taeniura melanospila ... gals 772 Tarache nitidula 2 a Bh 208 Telescopium telescopium Bs a 699 Teredo ( Zopoteredo) bengalensis bn 671 (Teredo) indica : 669 cee ) madrasensis ac 668 ed | ) navalis wh why 667 ( ) parksi oan aN; 670 | —_—_—_—— (Psiloteredo) tondiensis a 672 | Thalamita crenata ue We 424 —_—__—_—- prymna 424 | Thrips tabaci 610 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Thyrsoidea macrurus ... ... A 735 Tramea : es se 211 Trypoxylon intrudens . ae oe Pi Tylenchus marinus... a ANE 90 Uroconger lepturus _... oes she 734 Varuna litterata 503, 515 Vegetation of Harsh Nath, “Aravalli Hills Map ... ee hse ie As 281 Virachola isocrates Xantho (Lophoxanthis) seaber rimus baccalipes Xylocopa latipes : Zoological Collection Tour sh the Islands off Jaffna, On a Map .. St Bis Zygnema sphaerica var. -, microspora XXV PAGE 621 425 36 323 912 minh INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Abies pindrow us .. 366, 386 Abisara echerius angulata Gi Ae 781 Abrus precatorius _... 372 142, 209, 1283) 284, 286, 287, 591, 626 Abutilon indicum Acacia ... ou aK 105, 286, 298 arabica OD: oe 289, 299, 962 ——-— catechu Na Ee 643 decurrens ie a us 843 jacquemontii Pe 95, 289, 298 leucophloea 96, 289, "298, 960 melanoxylon Me s 843 modesta 108) 469* planifrons as iN 670 scorploides.. 814 senegal 93, 285, 289, 299, 813, 814 tortilis j : i813! 814 Acalypha ciliata . 295, 299 Acanthochiton ae wee 697 Acanthopneuste occipitalis se 768 Acara morosella a aE has 470 Accipiter badius badius a ne 328 virgatus S3 Bi ries 656 {Accipter =] jAccipiter ACER ae Ly i 226 Achaea janata. De ae ie 592 Acherontia styx bes ee 620 Achras sapota re Hay sie 97 zapota ae Si aya 97 Achyranthes ... SS aa 713 — aspera .. MACRY: 150, 294,883 ——_——__——— bidentata 5 382, 842, 883 ——_—_————- polygonoides .. ah 476, 477 Aconitum balfourii ... tne me 368 - ferox Lua aoe 969 - heterophyllum i chy 878 - violaceum . ie ... 366, 368 Acontia ... 389, 608 graellsi_ : 207 Acorus calamus 937 Acridotheres ginginianus 642 tristis 641, 890, 903 we melanosternus ... 330 Acrocephalus agricola a ee 768 ———————- dumetorum ... 768 Actaea iss h 429, 432527 granulata 432 — savignyi , 432, 5275'535 Actinopteris dichotoma ; ; 286 Actitis hypoleucos ... ~ ... ie 328 Adelura caeruleocephala _... Ag 633 Adhatoda 4 .os 285, 300, 713 —_——_—- vasica 104, 148, 283, 285, 286, 293, 294, 299, 380, 463, 628, 648 Adiantum annulatum 286 Adocia J iy sai at 693 PAGE Adoretus 616 pallens 620 Aeginetia indica 380 Aegithina tiphia 631, 890, 903, 905 Aegle marmelos ue 95, 346, 960 Aeolarchis sphenotoma 470 Aeolesthes holosericea 616 Aerides maculosum as Ws 220 Aeromachus ... on ape ane 783 —__——. ihora 214 —____—_-—-— stigmata ws 214 — Aerua lanata .. 100, 150, 294 ——-- tomentosa 93, 283, 284, 285, 294, 299 Aeschynomene indica aun . 154, 710 Aesculus indica ise ae uy, 371 Aethiopsar fuscus ... ane ane 642 Aethopyga ignicauda oe Su 648 siparaja fe a3 Apis 648 Agathia laetata nee ates wes 153 lycaenaria... a ue 153 Agathodes ostentalis 306 Azeniaspis pyrillae 747 Ageratum conyzoides a i 291 Agestrata orichalcea ... ie! Agonia fuscipes 470, 473, 954 Agrimonia eupatorium “soi eee 373 Agrostis canina as AB ao 885 -micrantha ... ee ee 885 Agrotera basinotata ... a A 305 - scissalis Ae ae i 305 Agrotis ; ‘ih 594, 600, 608 - flamatra nee HES ee 600 - ypsilon 600 Ailanthus excelsa 288, 298 Ailopus ae Wee a 588 Ajuga macrosperma Bee nae Uae 381 ———-- parviflora Me i se 381 Alauda arvensis 647 -— gulgula ‘ ae ane 647 Albizzia a .. 91, 936 ———_=- [lebbeck = ] lebbek -- lebbek 160, 161, 289, 936, 960 --marginata ... 936 -- adoraiissima ae oe , 936, 937 Alcedo atthis ... a sa bs 651 Alcemerops athertoni ate ae 651 Alcides porrectirostris ae Bie 617 Alectoris graeca s ee 752 Aleurocanthus husani ; ane 622 Aleurolobus barodensis Be Be 585 Alhagicamelorum _... aie ... 103, 105 Allamanda cathartica hes 97 Allium cepa 296, 610 stracheyi ... 366, 385 wallichii 367, 385, 884 Slane yy he) Allobrielia *listed as B. Kahur XXVill PAGE | Allobrielia amsel .. 579, 580 | —__—__——- museiberolinensis ae 579 —____—_——- rhinocichlae 579, 580 | Allophylus serrulatus ie ae 838 | Alloteropsis cimicina 675, 679 | Alnus bss Nt i ae 366 | Aloe vera at su ie wa 101 Alphaeus Bo ne 696 Alseonax latirostris ... ae Ae 635 | Alternanthera .. ee Hi vie 477 bicolor a &. 100 | ficoidea : 477 paronychioides _ 476, 477 | polygonoides .. 476, 477 | sessilis 150, 284, 285, 294 | (Althaea=) Althea Althea rosea Alysicarpus tetragonolobus iki Alyssum cochlearioides ... 804, 805 | Amandava amandava sits 643 | Amarantus wo. 294, 298 | -- gangeticus Be 294 | - gracilis 712 - spinosus ... 150, 284, 294 ——- viridis oe 294 Ambassis commersoni ee ee 325 | Amblypodia centaurus 215 ——_—__—-- —-— centaurus 782 Ammodytes _... ae sae whe 199 Ammonites AO sls gitar SP Ammophila ... : ae ae Di | ee laevigata ie Zi Amorphophallus campanulatus - 151 Amphilophis insculpta 677 —_________-- pertusa 674, 675, 676 eS pseudoischaemum ste 677 | Amphitrite 694 | Ampittia dioscorides dioscorides ... 783 | Ampulex ae soe se ten Bs) ——__—— compressa ... a Se PAY ns Ue Amsacta moorel . 393, 597, 599, 601, 796 | Anabaena affinis oH ae ae 918 | - torulosa ss ae 918 | Analyta melanopalis ... 5 ne 307 | sigulalis bee af vn 307 | Anaphalis araneosa 376 -nubigena ... mee au 376 | —____—_- —__———- polycephala ... 881 - royleana aoe ss 376 | - triplinervis 3 .. 376, 881 Anas acuta... os aa beg 193 | ——-- penelope | Me as sa 193 —--— platyrhynchos ... i ae 193 Anax ... si sae we 210 Ancistriodes nigrita 214 Ancylolomia chrysographella- ae 302 Andrachne cordifolia si ale 383 Androctonus australis wie a 129 | (oe ee - hector ob 132 35 Andrographis paniculata... 148 Andropogon ey Be 93, 858, 885 | —_—___—_-—— annulatus uae 105 | delavayi 858, 860, 865 (delavyi=) delavay I foveolatus 858, 859, 860, 861, 862 | 161, 591, 626 | 95 INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Andropogon foveolatus genuinus ... 858 —____—_____— strictus ... 858 — == gryllus .- ‘ La 885 —_———— paranjpyeanum | ... 860, 865 pumilus as ae 678 strictus ... 859, 860, 862 ——__—_—_—— tuberculatus 858, 860, 863 | Androsace lanuginosa .. 366, 378 —_—-_——--- sarmentosa a sie. 378 | Aneilema divergens 385 Anemone vitifolia ate 368 Anemonea ose ie Nae Ry 693 Angelica glauca 880 Angulus ae aN 703 -- sinuata ue se a 703 | Aniseia calycina 799 Anisomeles ovata 149 Anogeissus ; 6 286 aa jatifolia ... 285, 286, 298 - pendula ... 92, 283, 285, 289, 298 Anona squamosa : i 960 Anous stolidus pileatus 922 - tenuirostris tenuirostris 922 Anser ... : : as 662 | Anthophora ... oes ane 34, 35 —____——_——- fallax... Me AE 35 —_—_——-- zonata ... at, one 35 Anthus campestris A 726, 731 -- __—___—_ campestris 728, 730 —______-- —_______-. griseus 728 | ——-- kastschenkoi 728, 730 | ———-- godlewskii sae 726, 731 | —_——-- hodgsoni 647 -- novaeseelandiae 726730 ane centralariae 726, 730 = dauricus 726, 730 woes malayensis 329, 726, Dit 730 ae richardi 329, 726, 730 —_———=- rufulus 726, 727, 730 nee sinensis... 727, 730 ee ussuriensis... 726, 730 ——~=- waitei 726, 727, 728, 729, 730 -- roseatus 647 -- rufulus 647 -- striolatus 726 | ———--- thermophilus 726 -- trivialis 647 Anticharis linearis 98, 293,299 Antigastra catalaunalis ihe 307 | Antigonon leptopus ... ei, a 100 | Antilope cervicapra 270 | Antirrhinum orontium 104 | Antitrygodes ... : 154 Apanteles flaviceps 238 Apatura camiba i lest We 216 Aphalinus mali ee a a 615 | Aphanochaete repens . 909, 910 Aphis gassypil 156, 157, 158, 590 maidis Mee ues 156 malvoides ag ibe GH 158 (medicagenis =) ‘medicaginis medicaginis . 157, 602 neril 156, 157, "158, 159 INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Aphis rumicis . pat Lind 59 Apis we ; 36 —— dorsata 36 —— florea 36, 981 — indica 36, 981 — mellifera .. 981 Aplocheilus ie 388 Aplonis panayensis strigatus 580 Apluda aristata 675, 678 Appias albina . : 215 ___-- darada_ 778 lyncida hippoides 778 Apriona cinerae 615 Apus . 4 961, 962 Acie heliaca 657 nipalensis 657 rapax ... 657, 824 Arachis bypoeaca 593 Arca 254 Arcania soe a 408 septemspinosa 408, 525, 532 Archernis tropicalis hae 307 Architectonica laevigata a 699 Ardeola grayil : . 327, 662 : ibis coromanda 328 Argemone mexicana ... 93, 141, 284, 286, 299 Argya caudata 630 Argyria sticticraspis .. 587 Aristida adscensionis ... 102 depressa 102, 105, 296, 684 —_——~— funiculata 102, 684 histricula 296 hystrix 684 mutabilis ae 684 setacea ... 675, 684 Aristolochia bracteata 286, 295, 299 Arius... i 253 Arnebia hispidissima .. 98, 286, 292, 299 Arnetta atkinsoni : tee 214 Artamus fuscus 329 Artemisia Ae 710 -- parviflora 3 881. -- scoparia Bk 291 -- vulgaris Gs ... 376, 881 -- vy. myriantha 377 Artocarpus gomeziana 963 - integrifolia 161 Arum ovatum Bee 969 Arundinella avenacea 683 —___—___—-- fuscata 684 -- holcoides 684 -- mesophylla 683 -- pumila 684 —__—_—__—--- setosa 683 Arundo donax 684 Asclepias curassavica 97 Asparagus adscendens 385 curillus 885 filicinus 385 ——_——_—— racemosus 296 Asphidosiphon me 695 Asphodelus tenuifolius | 296, 298 (Asphoedelus= ye Senode ls Aspidiotus auranti ae 622 Aspongopus brunneus 605 XXIX PAGE Aspongopus janus 605. Aster asperulus 376 wae diplostephioides — 376 - thomsoni 376 Asteracantha longifolia ie 148 Asteria .. ... 694, 704 Asterolecanium — ve 5 159 ee fosum 159 (Asticopterus = ) Astictopterus Astictopterus jama 214 Sele ae Glivascens: 783 Astrea stellata 698 Astropecten 704 Astur badius .. 656 Atella phalanta si 781 Atergatis y We AD Se 5207; —_—_— floridus ... 426, 427, 534 integerrimus 425, 426, 527, 534 ocyroe ae ANS 426 roseus 426, 527, 534 Athalia proxima ... 603, 612 Athene brama ae 655 Atherigona indica 600 Atriplex crassifolia 100 Atylosia scarabaeoides 372 Aucklandia costus 78) Aulacophora atripennis 604 —______——-- foveicollis 604 Aularches miliaris 595 Aulosira fritschii 912, 918 Avena barbata 885 - sativa 603 Avicennia alba 982 Axis porcinus Ne 271 Axonopus compressus — be 679 Azadirachta indica .. 288, 937 Baccaurea Be 710 _ Badaniia exclamationis 5 PALS hs4 Bagrada picta .. 593, 594, 603, 604, 612 Balanites as 815 aegyptiaca ... P83. 814 roxburghil ... 92, 283, 285, 288, 298 Balanus amphitrite 696, 866, 867, 868 variegatus 866 crenatus ies 866 eburneus 866 ————-— improvisus ... 866 tintinnabulum 696, 866, 867, 868 ——-—-- —__--—— tintinnabulum 866 Bambusa aH 286, 664 arundinacea 102, 664 bambos : 297 Bankia . : 239, 345, 351, 354, 664 (Bankia) bengalensis ie 345 ( ) bipalmulata a 345 (Bankiella) edmondsoni 345, 664, 665 (Nausitora) gabrieli ... 345, 346 —— (Bankiella) indica 345, 665, 666 ——— indica 344, 346, 347, 356 (Neobankia) lineata . wah 345 lineata 346 (Nausitora) madrasensis ges 345 Bankiella : ae BAe ... 345, 664 Baoris farri d 215 - penicillata 215 XXX PAGE Barachus vittatus ae eas 214 Barbus tor khudree ... Se Pe 197 Barleria cristata es 380 prionitis aD ia ie alas Basilianus neelgherriensis ... 206, 207 Batagur eS ae .. 203, 254 Batocera horsfieldi... as oe 617 - rufomaculata 617, 618, 619 Bauhinia a we 286 - purpurea nes 654 - racemosa ... 269, 298 ——_———-- reticulata Bp 814 - rufescens 814 - variegata 160, 161 Begonia laciniata 879 picta ... os dh, a 374 Bembex ou ae By 30 ~ trepanda ae ae 42 30 Bemisia tabaci ... 390, 611, 613 Berberis ee we A, Su 368 chitria 5 oy 1) 368 — lycinum ans ue ue 368 Bergia odorata nak sae et 103 Berta ae be As 154 Beta bengalensis A 609 Betula utilis ... 366, 384 Bibasis amara ... : 213 gomata sena ... 213 harisa .. 213 ——— jaina 218 oedipodea 213 vasutana ee 213 Bidens pilosa ... ; soa) 291 299376 Bischofia javanica... ae uf 843 Biston suppressaria ... a a, 155 Biophytum sensitivum oh 370 Blainvillea rhomboidea ... 286, 291 Blepharis boerhaaviaefolia 286, 294, 299 scindica , oe 99 Blumea amplectens y. arenaria aA 805 - —_______-- y, maritima a 805 a -- y. pubiflora is 805 —_—_——- ——-- y, tenella ek 805 - arenaria aay Bes es 805 - lacera 145, 291, 300 ———- obliqua a ae 805 - obliqua y. arenaria . 805 —— - v. Maritima ae 805 ——_——- ——_---- y, pubiflora Nee 805 ——_—- ——_---- y, tenella... aes 805 - pubiflora eae Mas A 805 Boarmia subflavaria ... Ree ate 155 Bocchoris acamasalis ay ceaiie he BOS - artificialis .. ne AG, 305 - inspersalis ... , he 305 oyna 305 - rotundalis . 305 Boehmeria aa ; 156, 157, 158, 713 ee platyphylla ce 384 Boenninghausenia albiflora .. Mazi. 879 (Boerhavia=) Boerhaavia Boerhaavia diffusa... 93, 105, 150, 282, 283, 284, 286, 294, 381 mt .. 286, 294 —- repens : 94, 370, 963 Bombax malabaricum INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE 346, 663, 665, 667, 668, 672, 673 Borassus flabellifer Borbo bevani ... 214 ———--- cinnara ae a Aw 783 Bos bubalus... nuh a 2 255.270 —-- gaurus... ne Das nat 255 —--indicus ... ... 294, 255 Botia striata v. kolhapurensis - 980 Botrydium ; 970 -- eranulatum 916 —_—___——-- tuberosum 916 Botryllus 705 Botyodes asialis Me 305 flavibasalis ... 305 Bougainvillea .. a Si - 803, 804 - buttiana 801, 802, 803, 804. Brachiaria distachya .. sue . 675, 680 ——_—_—— eruciformis 680 mutica , ah Cole 680 paspaloides 102 ramosa 102, 297, 300, 674, 675, 680 semiundulata : 680 ——_—_——-~ semiverticillata 680 Brachycaudus pruni ... 616 Brachypternus benghalensis 461, 462, 649, 890, 900, 902, 905 Bradina admixtalis a 304. Branchipus 962 Brassica campestris: Vv. “sarson. 626 juncea : 626 napus 603, 626 rapa ... atte 603, 626 Breynia rhamnoides ... AD eh 101 Bridelia stipularis Brithys crini Briielia .. 577, 580 cyclothorax 578 fulmeki 580. muniae 580 nebulosa 578, 580 trithorax 578 Brumus suturalis eh ue 159 Brunella vulgaris ae BF oe 883 Bryonia lacinoisa ae aoe se 96 Bucklandia populnea Bae 838 Bufo fergusonii a 326 —— melanostictus 326, 332, 334, ee Bulbochaete aay 911 Bulla... ais Be ise pa 701 ——- ampula ... ae Ape cs: 701 Bungarus caeruleus ... oa te 947 Bunodactys _... dice ue Bah 693 Burhinus oedicnemus 659 Bursa tuberculata 700 Bursera 346 Butastur teesa ns a Ph 657 Butea (3: as Aas ae 891 monosperma 103, 457, 887 Buteo rufinus ... ae ait 657 Buthotus alticola ay ou om 130 Buthus . : a ba ark 138 occitanus Nee i Bee 137 Butorides javanicus Hs 662 -- striatus javanicus 327 Cacomantis passerinus 653 INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Cadaba farinosa 713 Caesalpinia pulcherrima 95 Caesulia axillaris 376 Cajanus indicus 160, 162, 960 Calaenorrhinus asmara concertus 783 Calappa ant 404 ———-- (Lophos) lophos : 404 -- lophos i 404, 524, 532, 542 Callianche 709 Callicarpa arborea _ 368, 380 Calligonum polygonoides 92, 105, 283, 284, 295, 299 Calliope pectoralis 633 Calophyllum ... 963 — ee inophyllum 160, 161 Calornis payanensis ... 580 Calotes : 496, 869 -- versicolor 327, 332 Calothrix fusca 917 Calotropis ; 156, 157, 159, 218, 285, 294, 308, ane gigantea ... 146, 158, 159, 207, 209, 218, 257, 292, 299, 960 procera... 93,105, 218, 283, 284, 292, 299, 962 Caltoris bromus 215 cahira 215 ——_—-~ ——--- austini 784 cormasa 215 kumara 215 sirius . 215 tulri 215 Calodon oy 705 Camellia scottiana $7 - theifera 57 Campanula canescens bs 378 Camponotus (Tanaemyrmex) com-_ pressus oe 160, 162, 959 a compressus . 459, 959 Cancer (Galene) bispinosus ; 431 (Atergatis) floridus 426 ——_—— (Actaea) granulatus .. 432 (Atergatis) integerrimus ; 425 Cannabis sativa uh ... 383, 654 Canscora diffusa : 147 Capila jayadeva ; 213 - pennicillatum ... 213 ———- phanaeus 213 - pleridoides 213 Eaplleedum filiculmis 676 -- huegelii 676 Gapodacus erythrinus 643 Capparis decidua 92, 283, 284, 286, 287, 299 Capra falconeri 271 Capricornis sumatraensis 941 Caprimulgus asiaticus eidos ... 329 macrurus 652 Caprinia conchylatis ... 305 Caprona agama 214 - ——_-- agama Bs 783 Capsella bursa-pastoris .. 367, 369 Capsicum annum 613 - frutescens . 292 Carapa s 346 Cardiospermum ‘haticacabum 288 XXXi PAGE Cardium asiaticum ... 702, 703 -coronatum ... ae 703 Carduelis caniceps 644 Carex filictna ... 885 nubigena 885 Carissa ee ae a 713 -- carandas 155 -- spinarum | 368, 237. 372, 378, 385 Carniotome versicolor ‘ 381 Carpinus : p oe 226 Carpomyia vesuviana — 620 Carteria cordiformis .. ns nen 908 Carya .. Ae 226 Cassia fistula ... 155, 160, 161, 302, 305, 960 - obovata h sate 95 - occidentalis 144, 289, 299 - slamea i ah 95 - (toara=) tora” - tora . a 95, 105, 289, 711 Cassiope fastigiata 366, 367, 378 Cassytha its nce 707 Castalius rosimon rosimon me 781 Casuarina : ay 963 Catachrysops strabo ... 781 Cataclysta fuscalis ree 304 Catla me . 198, 834 ——--catla. 833 Catopsilia crocale 778 florella gnoma 778 pomona 778 pyranthe ... 778 ——_—_—— -minna ... 778 Cautleya eg is 884 Cedrela 4 . 295, 346 - toona ... 285, 288, 299, 346, 371, 627 Cedrus deodara ius 386 libani ... : ane ass 368 Celaenorrhinus asmara 213 -- aurivittata 213 -- badia.. 213 -- dhanada 213 - leucocera 213 ———-- munda 213 -- nigricans 213 -~ plagifera 213 -- platula 213 -- putra 213 —_—— -- pyrrha 213 -- raina 213 ——_—_____—_--- zea 213 Celastrus paniculata ... 371 Cellana (Patella) 691 Celosia argentea “100, 150, 294, 474 Celtis australis... 383 tetrandra 843 wightii .. 843 Cenchrus j ... 93, 105 ——_—-biflorus ... Bae 93, 284, 296 catharticus ... 282, 283, 296, 299 ciliaris 102, 674, 675, 683, 926, 927 glaucus patti Ged, 920, 927. [prieri=] prurit prurii 102, 296, 300 setigerus ——_—__—— 674, 675, 683 Centotheca lappacea aby 688 INDEX TO SPECIES XXXii PAGE Centropus sinensis 183, 191, 654, 890, 903 pe SL EES - intermedius 183, 185 ar Dakkotl 83) 184, 185, 329 ——E— - sinensis ... 183, 184, 185 Cephalandra indica . 144, 290 Cephrenes chrysozoa 214 Ceratina viridissima ... 34 Cerceris ay oe 31 humbertiana 30 Cerchneis amurensis . 463 Cercocebus oe 314 albigena ... 311 Cercomela fusca 632 Cercopithecus aethiops 314 -—_—______—_-- camp belli 313, 314 —___—___——-- diana ... 314 -- lowel .. wae 310 -- mona Hsb32-34 —_______—--- petaurista 311, 313, 314 Cerianthus aff bee 694 Cerithium 699 Ceropegia tuberosa 97, 292, 298 Certhia himalayana 3 632 Cervus ... ae 254 affinis ... 755 Ceryle rudis 651 ~ ——-- leucomelanura . 329 Cestrum ne 713 -- nocturnum ; 98 Cethosia cyane 781 Chaetophora pisiformis i 910 Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus 633 Chalcophaps indica Ae 214 Chapra mathias 595 Characium ambiguum ce 908 Charadrius alexandrinus seebohmi ... 328 - dubius See 185 - - curonicus — 328 - jerdoni ; 660 Charaxes polyxena hierax 780 Charybdis Me ih (ih 8 eer IOS 26 ———__——— (Goniosoma) annulata ... 420, ee 533 annulata ... pie 421 (Charybdis) callianassa ... 420 (Goniosoma) callianassa 421, 526, 534 ——____——— callianassa 421 (Goniosoma) cruciata 418, ven 3 cruciata is 419 (Goniosoma) cruciatus ... 419 (Goniosoma) crucifera ... 419 (Goniohellenus) hoplites 423, mee 534 hoplites 423 lucifer : 420 (Goniosoma) lucifera 420, 526, 533 (Charybdis) luciferae 420 ) orientalis 422 (Goniosoma) orientalis ...422, ve orientalis .. 422 — (Goniosoma) quadrimacu- lata ag ie 420 Cheiloneurus pyrillae Cheiranthus cherii Chela phulo Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum i. Chelonodon patoca Chenopodium album -- glaucum —____—___-- murale Cheritra freja freja Chibia hottentotta | Chilades laius laius Chilasa clytia onpape v. dissimilis Chilo suppressalis ——- trypetes ... ——- zonellus Chilomenes 6-maculatus Chionachne koenigii -- semiteres Chiton Chitra as Chlamis singaporina . Ae Chlidonias hybrida -- leucoptera Chloeres Chlorella vulgaris Chlorinoides : acubatus. Chloris barbata -- incompleta Chloroclytis Chlorodryinus —--___-—- pallidus Chlorophytum : Chloropsis aurifrons ... Choaspes benjaminii -- hemixanthus -- plateni -- xanthopogon Chomelia asiatica Chorinemus sancti-petri Chromodoris ... ar universitata Chrotogonus ... se Chrozophora obliqua Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus Chrysomma sinensis .. Chrysopa lacciperda ... - madestes Chlorinus aculeatus y. armatus Chrysophrys datnia Chrysopogon hackelii —____——- montanus - orientalis - verticillatus —___—_—_—- zeylanicus Chthamalus stellatus . —————_-- stellatus Cicer arietinum Ciconia ciconia - nigra ... | Cinnamomum camphora - wightii Cinnyris asiaticus 238, 598, 599 691, 696, 697 .. 296, 675 At Ad 385, 675, 677 587 159 675 675 253 702 661 328 154 909 413 413 413 687 155 747 239 631 213 213 213 213 840 951 701 701 587, 597, 598, 600 . 295, 300 649 630 887 887 952 677 677 677 677 "., 867, 868 866 600 191 661 653 842 648 INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Ciona .. ae art ae ads 705 Circaea alpina _ oa bin seg 374 Circus aeruginosus ... Bae 656 Be aeruginosus Bae 328 ———-- macrourus ans ane as 328 Cirphis ee os eh ee 796 —--- unipuncta ane abe ns 599 Cirrhina mrigala sg .-. 833, 950 Cirrhochrista brizoalis aN ets 303 Cissampelos hexandra uae oes 141 pareira ... . 368, 713 Cistanche oe ea ace Be 105 Cisticola juncidis F 25 Citrullus colocynthis ... _ 93, 105, 284, 290, 299 - fistulosus 626 - vulgaris at we age “, 290, 626 Citrus medica ... as st ... 95, 621 —___-- vy. acida ae 5 95 ——-- vy. galgala oe Be 626 —-- vy. limetta ie ie 95 —_—_-- v. medica ee be 95 ——-- sinensis 3 Ge Ae 626 Cladophora glomerata Any Ae 909 Clamator coromandus a3 sb 328 --jacobinus ... Ke a 653 -- ——_—_—— jacobinus Ane 328 Clanculus ek sae se sas 698 —————-depictus .... ae as 698 Clanis pallidula iad re i 158 Clavellina ys ae Gri 705 Cleistogrammica a te a 709 Clematis gouriana ... sh Be 368 -munroana ... Ae 836 Cleome papillosa ra 93, 287, 299 - viscosa 93, 141, 283, 287 Clerodendrum Bae es 285 —___—_- inerme 99, 149, 713 - (phlomidis = ‘phlomoides. phlomoides 93, 283, 285, 294, 298 - reds) eblenieides Clitoria ternatea 144 Closterlum acerosum Bey ase 914 ————————- cornu... wae aay 914 decorum ... Bd ae 914 ehrenbergii Jie i) 914 lineatum ... xa bss 914 —_————— pusillum .. She te 915 Clypeaster Hee A seth 704. Cnaphalocrocis medinalis 305 Cnicus wallichii . 93, ‘oy 291, 298, 300 Coccinella arcuata.... 23 159 septempunctata . Bi ae 602 (septumpunctata=) sep- tempunctata Coccinia indica 118, 119, 124, ee Cocculus cebatha —_— villosus aa es _ 140, 299 Cochlearia alyssoides Be si 804 -cochlearioides ... 804. -- flava nas _ 804, 805 Cocoecia aie ae re Le 616 Cocos nucifera she ae sia 346 Coelioxys decipiens ... aie oe 34 XXXII PAGE Coelophora _... as, ee a 159 Coilia dussumierii _... Wye wee 715 Coix gigantea ae a) see 675 Coladenia agni fe aa ue 213 ————-- dan fatua ... ee aa 213 —_—_———-- dan festa ... of SH 213 —_—_———- fabia Ne sae aie 213 —————- indrani _... ee Hee: 213 Colebrookea oppositifolia ... 380, 883 Coleochaete scutata ... .-- 910, 911 Coleus barbatus -.. 365, 380 Colisa lalius ... oe 952 Collocalia brevirostris ‘unicolor a 329 -francica ... pss iss 945 —__————- innominata 945 Colobus 309, 315, 316, 318, 319, 320, 321 -- polykomos ae cA . 311, 316 ce te dollmani _ ae 311 -- _______-- vellerosus 316, 317 Colquhounia coccinea sh ma 381 Columba livia Gus as ails 658 Comibaena ... cae 153 Commelina benghalensis 151, 284, 296 obliqua ... . 296, 299 Comostola confusa ... vee me 154 -- laesaria ... wok ae 154 Conchrus a ou ue 195 Convolvulus calycinus- a 5 799 —_____—__—. glomeratus v. volubilis. TW Copsychus saularis ... aie ... 182, 634 —_—____—--- - ceylonensis Ne 329 Copitha purreea _... ext Oy, 214 Coptotermes ... oe sak 205 —_—_—_——— heimi 205, 792, 793 Coracias benghalensis ae 650 - —__—___——- indica Lee 329 Coracina novaehollandiae layardi ... 329 Corchorus . 105 acutangulus 93, 142, 283, 284, 287 antichorus . 94, 105 -___—_—tridens ... 283, 284, 287, 299 trilocularis ‘ i 287, 299 —— urticaefolius j 94 Cordia myxa ... ae: Be sa 292.299 Cordiceps ee ia a ef: 973 -sinensis ... ie: es 973 Coriandrum sativum ave Uns 290 Coriaria nepalensis.... as fas 75 Cornus capitata aoe ae ee 375 Coronopus didyma ... aah aoe 93 Corvus macrorhynchos a as 628 Be colminatus: 330 -- splendens .. 271, 628 Be protegatus its 330 Corydalis cachemiriana ae cas 369 ————--longipes ... ues als 369 - --meifolia ... oh a 878 - nana 367, 369 Corylus colurna wee ... 366, 384 Cosmarium depressum see ee 915 nitidulum Mi its 915 Cosmophila indica... ii aoe 207 Cosmos bipinnatus ... ae wi 161 Cotoneaster bacillaris .. 366, 373 XXXIV PAGE Cotoneaster microphylla 373 Cotula alba ees 476 Crambus atkinsoni > 302 Craspedia 154 —_—_———-- cleoraria 154 -emissaria ... 154 —_——____—- fibulata 154 - nictata 154 - opicata 154 remotata 155 Crataegus crenulata ... 373 Crataeva religiosa ie 103 Cremanthodium oblongatum _ 882 Crenidens indicus ae 952 Crinum asiaticum .. 101, 785 - latifolium ... 101, 785 Cristatithorax quadricolor ... 746, 749 Crocidolomia binotalis 8 307 Crocidophora Peeper 307 Crocisa ; 34 ~ emarginata 34 - ramosa BAe ae 35 Crocodilus palustris ... Ss) QDS —_—__———-- porosus ae De Crocopus phoenicopterus 657 Crossoptilon harmani 755 Crotalaria burhia . 93, 105, 282, 289, 299 juncea 95, 144, 591, 626 (Crotolaria=) Crotalaria Croton 3 710° == sparsiflorus .- 100, 143 Crozophora obliqua ... a 100 Cryptocorine ... ... 968, 969 Sse meeboldii ... 968, 969 Cryptolepis buchanani e 649 Cryptopodia ‘ ied ee 415 ee angulata e225 1 4159526, 7533 Cryptostegia grandiflora 97 [Crysopogon=] Chrysopogon montanus Ctenolepis cerassiformis 96, 290, 299, 300 Ctencptilum vasava ; 214 _ Cuculus canorus 652 micropterus oe 653 Cucumis sativus ... 290, 626 - trigonus 96, 286, 290 Cucurbita maxima ate 290 - moschata ... 96 —_—_—_——-- pepo BS 119 Culicicapa ceylonensis 636 Cuon alpinus ... 270 Cupha erymantus lotis | 781 Cupressus torulosa 385 Curcuma a 966, 967 inodora 966 pseudomontana 966 Curetis i, a 44] Cuscuta is 105, 707-713 ———— arabica 711 australis 707, 708, 709 boissieri i 711 capitata 379 = chinensis 707, 708, 709, 710 oo - y. Ciliaris 707, 708, 709, 711 ciliaris ae 711 INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Cuscuta europaea 708 ————~ grandiflora . 712 hyalina 293, 298, 299, 707, 710, 711 —reflexa 98, 147, 293, 298, 707, 708, 212 sulcata 710 Cyamopsis psoralioides " 289, 626 Cyananthus 2 367 -- integer 377 -- linifolius 378 --lobatus ... 377, 882 Cyanosylvia svecica ... 633 Cyanotis 296 - axillaris 296, wee 300 Cyathula tomentosa ... 883 Cybister tripunctatus asiaticus 961 Cycas revoluta ae 103 Cymbopogon .. ahi 679 —__—_____——-- caesius . oe 679 - coloratus .. 675, 678 - confertiflorum ne 678 - flexuosus ... 675, 678 —- gidarba : 679 - martini 678 - parkeri i 102 Cylindrospermum muscicola vy. macrospora . : 918 . [Cynanthus= ] Cyananthus | lobatus- Cynodon barbata oe 688 —_—_—_—— barberi ue 687 bournei _.. 688 dactylon 151, 285, 296, 675, 687 -- v, intermedius 687 montana 688 —_———— polystachya 688 Cynoglossum wallichii 379 Cynopterus ace 498 Cyperus arenarius 195, 296, 299 nubigena 885 rotundus _ 93, 151, 284, 285, 296 Cypraea 5S oe : 254, 700 - arabica : 700 -- ocellata - 700 Cypselus 498 Cyrotococcum longipes Ce 682 - oxyphyllum ... 682 - patens 682 - radicans 682 —________—-- trygonum ... _ 675, 682 Dactyloctenium aegyptium 284, 297, 675, 688 —___—___—_- scindicum 102 Dacus cucurbitae 606 ——-- ferrugineus 619 ——-- zonatus 606, 617, 619, 622 Daimio bhagava bhagava 783 - phisara 214 - sinica ... 214 Dalbergia : 91, 654 —_—_—_——- Jatifolia 963 - SiSSOO 289, 372 Damonia 253 Danais aglea melanoides 779 agleoides as 779 ———chrysippus ... ae 779 ——— limniace mutina a: 777, 779 Danais melanippus indicus ... mellissa septentrionis plexippus : similis vulgaris Danthonia kashmiriana Daphne cannabina papyracea Darpa hanria ... Datura fastuosa ___--— stramonium .. Daucus carota Deba surrectalis Debregeasia hypoleuca - velutina .. Deeringia celosioides Delias eucharis - hyparete ue -- hierte ——-- thysbe pyramus Delphinium vestitum Demiegretta —______—_- sacra Dendrelaphis ... = Dendrobium alpestre Dendrocalamus strictus Sad - Dendrocitta formosae —_—_—______-- vagabunda Dendrophis soe Dendrostoma Dentalium -- octangulatum Desmodium concinnum - floribundum - gangeticum - oxyphyllum - parvifolium - reniforme Desmostachya bipinnata Deudoryx epijarbus amatius Deutzia corymbosa Deyeuxia sylvatica Diadord : Dialeurodes citri Dianthera Diaphorina citri Diasemia ramburialis Diaspis echinocacti Diathetes pandanae ... Dicaeum ignipectus Dichanthium annulatum -- caricosum —_——_————--- nodosum Dichocrocis evaxalis ... ——_—_—---- punctiferalis [Dichoma=] Dicoma Dichrostachys cinerea 285, 286, 289, 298, 300 | Echinochloa [colona= ai colonum 96, 285, QO 299 | aR ee Dicoma tomentosa. Dicrurus longicaudatus - macrocercus - ——_____——- minor Digera arvensis Digitaria : - adscendens . - griffithil 639, 890, 901, 503 INDEX TO SPECIES 697 = astuta 372 | Dosinia - colonum - crus-galli - stagnina 30 | Echinops echinatus OAC | ee es Me 294,298 | 228 = niveus 710 | Echis carinata Eclipta ... XXXV PAGE PAGE ... 779, 780 | Digitaria longiflora 102, 679 ue 779 —- marginata 105, 296, 675, 679 7719 - ——__—_“ y, fimbriata 679 779 - royleana eas 679 886 | Digitaria sanguinalis .. : 102 382 | (Digitatlis=) Digitalis purpurea 842 884 | Dilinia medardaria 155 a 213 | Dinebra retroflexa_... 688 .. 160, 292 | Dinopium Penenalcnse jaffnense 329 a 882 | Diogenes A, A 696 .. 290, 375 | Dioscorea sativa 385 305 | Dipsacus inermis ’ 367, 375, 880 384 | Dipterocarpus alatus ... é 945 844 | Dirades adjutaria 153 382 - theclata 153 778 | Dissoura episcopus 661 778 | Ditylenchus 90 778 | Doclea el 412 778 gracilipes 412, 525; 2° 878 | Docophorulus S77 ee 188 | Dodonaea viscosa 838 ... 188, 189 | Dolichoris 613 oe 327 | Dolichos biflorus é 95 384 - bracteatus ... 797, 798 689 | —___—_- ghaticus 797, 798 629 - lablab 158, 626 629 | Donax es 703 257, scrotum é 703 695 | Doratanthera linearis 98 697 | Dorippe i 409 409, 524, 532, 542 703 372 | Dotilla e 511 289 myctiroides... 511, 529, 537, 543 372 | Dracaena apsustitelia 101 372 | Dromia 401 372 - dormia “401, 402, 525, $32, 542 102 - rumphii - 401 782 | Drosera lunata 374 373 | Dryobates auriceps . 649 S86) | 2 mahrattensis 461, 890, 900, 901, 698 902, 904 622 | Dryocalamus nympha 327 710 | Dryocopus hodgei 461 622 | ———__—_- javensis 461 307 | Dubyaea 377 158 | Duranta 654 470 -- repens 713 649 | (Dychrostachys =) Dichrostachys 7 205 677 | Dysdercus cingulatus ‘ ... 590, 608 . 102,677 | Earias be ve : 608 677 | ——--- fabia ap: 590 305 | ——-- insulana ... 590, 591 305 | Eburna is 254 Echeneis naucratus 952 102, 674, 675, 681 5 681 195, 327, 332, 333, 334 102, 286, 296, 300 | ——- [carinatus=] carinata 679 : Suh - 475 XXXVI INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE PAGE Eclipta alba 145, 291, 475, 476 | Equus hemionus khur 271 erecta 284, 285, 475, 476 | Eragrostis 93, 105 prostrata ‘ be --. 475, 476 - amabilis 385 Ectenascidia thurstoni 705 | ——————- aspera 685 Edgeworthia buxifolia 73 | —_———- bifaria i . 675, 687 Egretta asha : 189 | ———_——_- poebpiyl 687 ——---— dimorpha Sen 189 | —————_- cilianensis .. 686 ———-- garzetta .- 188, 189 - ciliaris 685 -- gularis... .. 189, 190 - cynosuroides 102 -- schistacea 189 | —_____- diarrhena v. koenigii 686 Elaeocarpus oblongus 837 | —————- gangetica ... Sh 102, 686 ——_—_—_—_—-- tuberculatus 837 | —————-- minor 102 Elamena 409 | ———_—_- nigra 686 - cristatipes 409, 5254533 - nutans 686 Elanus caeruleus vociferus ate 656 | —————- pilosa 675, 686 Elasmus : ae 904 | ———_—_- plumosa 102, 686 <= claripennis ue 891 | ———-—_- poaeoides .. 686 Elatostema sessile his 384 | —————- tenella : 385 {[Eleocarpus =] Elaeocarpus —_—_——_- - Vv. plumosa 686 Elephantopus scaber 286, 291, 298, 300 | —————_- viscosa . 385 — Elephas maximus 175, 178, 179, 36: 254, 560 -tenuifolia . 686 Eleusine indica he 688 | —————- unioloides ... SAB 686 --lagopoides ... 688 | —————- viscosa -.. 102, 686 -- scindica 102 | —————- willdenoviana 4 686 -- verticillata ... 102, 688 | Ercta ornatalis aah ie 305 Elis annulata ... Eremopogon ... : ... 858-865 —-- asiatica 24 | ———__-- delavayi. . 860, 865 —-- thoracica . 2 23, 24 | ——————_-- foveolatus 675, 678, 858, 859, Elshottzia strobilifera sie 380 860, 861, 862, 865 ‘ Elymnias hypermnestra tinctoria ae 780 -- paranjpyeanum - 860, 865 aa -undularis ... 779 --[paranjpyenum=] paranjpyeanum Elytraria ; Ae Pes 293 | ——————_-- Strictus 859, 860, 861, 862, 864 -- crenata 286, 299 | ——————_-- tuberculatus 860, 861, 863 Emberiza cia 645 | Eremopteryx grisea na ye 648 -- fucata 6495) =e ceylonensis : 329 | -- melanocephala 190, 645 | Eremotermes paradoxalis eS 793 -- stewarti ... ous ie 645 | Erigeron ie 5 376 Emmalocera cools vou see 587 - linifolius 376 Empoasca oe 592, 598 - multiradiatus 881 : devastans . . 589, 607, 608, 609, 611 - obliquum 805 punjabensis | . 609, 611 | Eriobotrya ae 226 solanifolia Wee Lae 609 -- japonica 626 Endotricha decessalis oy es 303 | Eriocheir sinensis $43 —____—-- ruminalis fee nee 303 | Eriochloa procera 680 Enhydra fluctuans ... ne ee 145 | Erionota acroleucus ... 214 Enneapogon elegans ... cee eee 688 - thrax = 214 Enteropogon monstachyos ... sae 687 - ———-- thrax 783 Entada scandens ae ag Pe 960 - torus ae 214 Entomophthora as 974 | Eriosoma lanigerum ... 615 Ephedra foliata _ 93; 105, 297, 298, 299 | Eriphia ae Sal 437 Epicrocis aegnusalis . ase 303 -- laevimana smithii 437, 527, 536 Epilachna 611 -- smithii ne 437 es dodecastigma 606 | Erolia temminckii .. 328, 661 ——_———- dumerili a 605 | ——-- testacea... at 328 ee vigintictopunctata ae 606 | Ervatamia coronaria’... 97 [Epilachnai=] Epilachna dichotoma 97 Epilobium a on 367 | ——_——— divaricata ... 97 roseum 367, 374, 879 | Erythrina 641 royleanum : 374 -- suberosa 95 Epimys brachma A 755 | Erythrocebus ... 314 Epinephelus tauvina ... 325 | ———— —- patas ... 314 Epixanthus is, oe 434 | Erythropus amurensis 463 - frontalis .. 434, 528, 535 | Esacus recurvirostris ... 659 Equus caballus mh 254 | Esomus danricus 950 INDEX TO SPECIES XXXVil PAGE PAGE Estheria 962 | Eumenes aa 31, 32 Eticlla zinckenella 303 —- affinissima ... 31 Etisus ... ba 431 - conica 31 ———-= laevimanus 431, $27, 535 - esuriens 31 Etroplus maculatus Ae: 326 - flavopicta 32 Eublemma _..... 5 . 899, 904 - petiolata 31 -- amabilis 887, 890, 891, 896, 897 | Eumyias thalassina 636 -- Olivacea . ee 607 | Eupatorium glandulosum 841 Eucalyptus : 161, 836, 838 | Euphorbia ap 105, 298 | acmenoides 838 - -- clarkeana 295, 298 - amygdalina 838 | ————- dracunculoides 100 - calophylla ' 838 | —————-- geniculata 383 - corynocalyx 838 | —————-- hirta 143, 295, 383 - crebra 838 | —————-- hypericifolia 286, 295 ~ diversicolor 838 | —————-- jodhpurensis 105 - eugenioides 838 | —————--- microphylla 295, 299 - ficifolia 838 | —————-- millii He 100 - globulus ... 838 | —————-- neriifolia 104, 105, 285, 286, 293, - gonocalyx 838 f : 295 - gunnil 838 | Euphorbia nivulia Re 105 - haemastoma 838 | —————-- pilosa .. 383, 884 - hemiphloia 838 | —————-- pilulifera .. .. 143, 295 - longifolia 838 | —————-- prolifera ... | 383 - maculata ... A 839 | —————-- rothiana ... 843 - macrorrhynchia .. 839 | —————-- royleana ... 104, 105, 378, 383 - microcorys 839 | ——_———-- splendens ve 100 - obliqua 839 | Euplax bosci . , 515 - paniculata 839 | Euploea 779 - paucifolia 839 crossa 215 - pilularis ... 839 godartii i 779 —- piperita ... 839 mulciber mulciber ... 7719 - punctata 839 | (Euprocitis=) Euproctis - resinifera 839 | Euproctis fraterna : ... 592, 620 - robusta 839 -- lunata A .. 592, 620 - rostrata 839 | Eurrhyparodes bracteolalis ... 305 - rudis 839 | ——_—_——_——— tricoloralis 305 - saligna 839 | Erycarcinus 4 436 - salmoniphloia 939 | ——_-- orientalis 436, 528, 535 - santalifolia 839 | Eurydema a 613 - sieberiana 839 | Eurythoe ae 694 - stricta 839 | Euscorpius .. 138, 853 - stuartiana 839 | Eutermes ee 206 - tereticornis 839 | ————— horni oe 206 - viminalis ... 839 | Eutetranychus banksi 157 Euchelus a 698 | Euthalia garuda garuda 780 - asper 698 -- lepidea sthavara 780 - indicus 698 -- lubentina 216 Euchloris quantula 154 -- __—_——- indica 780 -- Subtiliaria ... 154 | Euxoa ... 600 Euchrysops enejus 781 | Euzophera perticella .. 303, 607 Euclasta defamatalis ... 306 | Evolvulus alsinoides ... 147, 293 Eucrate : 437 | Fagonia be 105 - crenata ue 438 arabica 288, 299 - ——--— dentata 437, 527, 536 bruguieri 95 -——--—- y. dentata .. ee 437 | Fagopyrum esculentum 382 Eudynamis scolopacea scolopacea ... 329, 653 | Falco chicquera 657 - (scolopaceus=) scolopacea peregrinator 656 Eugenia Jambolana ... 154,161,374, 626, 890 tinnunculus tinnunculus : 328 malaccensis ... bis Be 161 | Farsetia hamiltonii 93, 105, 286, 299 Euglena viridis 916 jacquemontii 105, 286, 299 Eugrammica ... 709 - Oaduemontit—) Japquemont Eulalia phaeothrix 676 | Fascioloria & 254 _ Eumelea ludovicata 153 | Favia uae 954: 694. -- rosalia 153 | Feronia elephantum ae “ 95 XXXVI PAGE | Ficula laevigata ve Bist 700 Ficus... oa aoe ee 9] ——- bengalensis 295, 960 ———- (benghalensis =) bengalensis ——- carica ve ; cae 617 ——- hispida 844 ——- glomerata 101, 119, 893 ——- religiosa 295 Filia ve 226 Filodes fulvidorsalis M 305 Fimbriaria i 286 Fimbristylis squarrosa_ ... 296, 300 Firmiana : ; 226 Formenkreis 311 Fringilla montifringilla 578 Fritschiella Fa es 971 a tuberosa 970, 971, 973 Flacourtia indica ue mt as 713 Flemingia vesita 372 Fluggea leucopyrus 100 Foeniculum vulgare ... 375 Fragaria indica h 372 Francolinus francolinus 659 -- pondicerianus ... a 659 ———_—_--- ——_______ cevlonensis 328 Franklinia gracilis : ome 639 Fuchsia corymbiflora 839 Funambulus palmarum brodiei 330 Bere: 335, 434, 457, 889, 894 Funaria Bd 286 Gafrarium 703 Galene .. é as 431 bispinosa 431, 527, 535 Galeodes tae os as se 961 Galerida cristata 648 Galerucella singhara ... 613 Galinsoga parviflora .. 841 Galium aparine a sat 375 ———-aspeifolium . ... 375, 880 - rotundifolium i 880 Galleria mellonella 302 Grallinago 661 ——__—_——-- solitaria 661 (Gallium=) Galium . 800 Gallus gallus ... 659 - sonnerati Sa 946 Gangara thyrsis soe Piles ZAlS) ———_-- ——_-- thyrsis ve 783 Gardneria ovata 841 Garnotia scoparia 684 Garrulax leucolophus 629 Gavialis gangeticus 254, 272, 769 (Gavialus=) Gavialis Gaultheria trichophylla . 367, 378 Gelasma goniaria 1a Gelasimus 507, 508, 528, 696 — acutus Ht 511 ——-— annulipes . Hise 508, 510, 528, 531, 537, 543 dussumieri 510, 511, 529, 537 —————— marionis ... 509, 510, 529, 537 seen -nitidus ... 510, 529, 537 ——_——- - y. nitidus 510 —__——— urtvillei S11 INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica 328 Gemmaria x ie 694 Gennaeus leucomelanus hamiltonii 659 Gentiana argentea 379 decemfida vy. aprica 379 pedicellata v. ee 841 Geokichla citrina 634 Geranium EE 366 —- collinum 370 - nepalense ... 370 — - ocellatum ... 370 Gerardinia heterophylla 383 Gerbera lanuginosa .. 377 Gerres oyena ... 325 Gerydus boisduvali assamensis 781 Geum ... oe as 366 ——--elatum ... S367, 372 Gisekia pharnaceoides 105, 283, 284, 290 Gladitsia ‘ 226 Glaucidium brodiei 655 -- radiatum 655 Gleadovia He yin 799 banerjiana ... 799, 800 kwangtungense : 799 Gleichenia linearis 766 Gleotrichia pisum 918 Glochidion neilgherense 843 Glossocardia linearifolia 291 Glossogobius giuris ... 326 Glyceria tonglensis 886 Glycosmis pentaphylla 371 Glyphodes bicolor 306 —__—_——--- bivitralis ... 306 - caeSalis 306 -- canthusalis 306 -- hilaralis 306 -- indica 306 -- itysalis 306 —-- Jaticostalis 306 -- marginata 306 -- negatalis ... 306 -- psittacalis 306 -- stolalis 306 -- unionalis .. 306 -- vena ls 306 Glyricidia ; 157 Gnaphalium indicum — Ss 146 —____—_—_— luteo-album ... 376, 881 pulvinatum _... ane 376 Gnorimoschema operculella 609 Gomphrena ficoidea ... 477 —___—___—_-- Eobecrous 477 Goniohellenus on 423 Goniosoma ... ... 419, 526 —_—_____—_ annulatum A 420 crucifera ... 419 cruciferum 419 luciferum 420 orientale .. 422 ————___— variegatum v. callianassa 421 Gonodactylus .. oa be 696 Gossypium herbaceum 587 Gracilea royaleana 102 Grammica 709 INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Gangea maderaspatana nee ie 146 Grantia Sat ae ae 56 Graphium agamemnon se ae 216 nomius nomius ... sa 215 Grapsus — Be $15 —-- (Pachysoma) quadratus §20 -- ‘strigosus 515, 529, 531, 537, 543 Graucalus javensis Bee se 638 Grevillea ia 641, 643 Grewia Opposiitalia a: 94, 370 -- populifolia 287, 299 Gryllotalpa africana ... ge ees oe) Gryllus viator .. gas a Sa 588 Guazuma tomentosa . wae ae 94 Gyamopsis psoralioides Das cae 602 Gygis alba monte ... ite ae 924 Gymnarchus niloticus ge ae 229 Gymnorhis xanthocollis Pa ay 644 Gymnosporia falconeri 796, 797 ———__—_——— -- y. kanjilalti 797 montana 92, 93, 284, 285, ae Gynandropsis pentaphylla . 141, 287 Gypaetus barbatus ... Ae Mes 656 Gyps fulvus_... ae ra One 655 ——-himalayensis ... Be eae 655 Gysekia pharnaceoides a hs 299 Habenaria panchganiensis ... an 478 variabilis ... ah Be 478 (Haberaria=) Habenaria marginata 384 Hackelochloa granularis ee we 679 Halcyon pileata eps ane ate, 262 -- smyrnensis ... Ba cas 651 -- —_____-- fusca... wn 329 Halenchus ome ae as oan 89 fucicola... Aes ee 89 ———-—— mediterraneus ... as 89 ——_—-——— Mexicanus aa ie 89 —— zoSsterae ... ae 8 89 Halenia elliptica os of 882 [Haliaetus=] Haliaeetus leucogaster 979 Haliastur indus ue : a 656 —____ —_---- indus is ie 328 Halicephalobus ues a 88 ———_—__—_—__—-- limuli tee ee 88 Halpe arcuata 22.1:733.4736 cosy ee a pseudothyrsoidea ... ues it PSSe 437 = —_________———) undulata v. undulata ... ite Sis see 733 undulata... ae Ae be 737 macrura .... BAG ae 735 meleagris ... as Rae 736 picta at ue aie 736 tesselata .... ae ds 737 Muraenesox ... oe a ene 735 xliv PAGE Muraenesox cinereus 733, 734, 735 - talabonoides Li LO SST SAS TOS Muraenichthys gymnopterus Ee S VAT ISIS) —_—_—_—__—_———- schultzi é 733 vermicularis ... 733 Murex ... : 700 = tribulus - 700 Murraya koenigii 371, 937 Musa sapientum 101 Muscicapa parva 635 -- strophiata 635 Muscicapula rubeculoides 636 — superciliaris 636 —_—_—_—_—— tricolor .. 635 Mutilla argenteomaculata 22 -- emeryi Ap -- nobilis i 22, 23 = pulchiventis Le 22 -- valida .. 22 Mya ... 351 Mycalesis mineus mineus 779 --- perseus blasius 779 Myelois pectinicornella Ais 303 Mylabris BA .. 601, 606 - macilenta 621 - phalerata 608 - tiplensis 608 Myllocerus Ae 598 ——___——-- blandus ... 588 ——- maculosus 588 Myomenippe ... ie hots 432 _—_____.- hardwickii 432, 433, 528, 535 —________-- granulosa ae 432 Myophoneus caeruleus 635 Myosotis sylvatica ee 379 Myrica nagi .-. 305, 384 Myristica ... 669, 670 Myzus brassicae ; ‘ 593 Nacaduba dubiosa sivoka 782 nora nora 782 Nacobia diemenalis 305 (Naia=) Naja Naja bungarus 257 —--— hannah ... 272 —--naja naja a S47) ——-- tripudians S21 S4y, Nanophrys 152 Nardostachys jatamansi 880 Nasalis ; _ 309, 315, 316, 318, 320 -- larvatus 3 . 315, 316 Nassarius : 700 -- olivacea 700 Nasturtium officinale 369 Nausitora 345 Nectarinia asiatica ae 943 ee - asiatica ... 330 ——_———— zeylonica ... 330 Neobankia 345 Neolitsea a 842 zeylanica .. 842, 843 Nemoria indecretata ... 154 Neophron percnopterus 655 Neopithecops zalmora 781 Neotermes gardener ... 238 Nepeta graciliflora 381 INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Nepeta spicata .. 365, 381 Nephelium litchi : 153 Nephila maculata iy we 981 Nephopteryx leucophaeella .. 303 —____—_—_-- paurosema 303 Nephus regularis 157 Neptis .:. TTB: 780 - columella ophiana ws 780 - hordonia hordonia 780 ——_—- hylas adara 780. - jumbah 215 - - jumbah 780 Neptunus 5 A 417, 423, 526, 697 -- (Neptunus) pelagicus 418, 526, 533, 542 -- pelagicus 418 -- sanguinolentus Nerita ... : val - albicilla - oryzarum Neritina : -- crepidularia Nerium si i Nettion crecca Neuracanthus sphaerostac hyus Nezara viridula Nicotiana plumbaginifolia - tabacum Niltava -- macgrigoriae .. -- sundara Ninox scutulata Nomia westwoodii Noorda blitealis - fessalis Nothosaerua brachiata Notocrypta curvifascia feisthethami paralysos Notogonia jaculatrix ... -- subtessellata Nyctibatrachus humayuni Nycticorax nycticorax Nymphaea stellata Nymphula affinialis -- crisonalis ... -- depunctalis -- fluctuosalis -- foedalis —_—_—_——-- responsalis Ochlandra travancorica Ochlodes brahma siva , subhyalina .. Ochotona rufescens - ———_——-. vulturna Ochus subvittatus Ocimum basilicum -- canum (Ocimun=) Ocimum Octopus Ocypoda nycticorax -- (Neptunus) sanguinolentus 417, 418, 419, 526, 533 417 698 698 698 698 698 713 662 969 307 214 214 99, 149, 294, 298, 710 ... 99, 294, 960 703 506, 507, 528, 543 PAGE Ocypoda ceratophthalma 528, 536, 543 ——-—-- cordimana ... $07, 528, 536 - rotundata 508, 528, 536 Ocypode albicans 89 —- ceratophthalma 506 - (Ocypode) cordimana 507 - cordimana ... : $07 - cordimanus 507 Odontoptilum angulata 214 —_________--- —_____-- angulata ... 783 Odontotermes 204, 206, 792, 793 —______———-- dehraduni 3 ie 793 -- heimi ... 205 -- horni ... 205 -- obesus 204, 457 -- obscuriceps 205 —________-- redemanni 203, 204 Odynerus Ave 32 -- miniatus 32 -- ovalis 32 Oedogonium ... 908, 909, 910, 912 —_—________-- hians : 911 -- lautumnarium 910 —______—-- rufescens 911 Oenanthe picata as 632 Oenopopelia tranquebarica ... 658 Oenothera odorata 839 —_—_—_——-— rosea 374, 839 Oldeniandia 105 —_______- brachiata _ 96, 291, 298,300 - corymbosa 96, 145, 286, 291, 300, 375 - gracilis ... a 375 - umbellata 291, 298, 300 Oligodon arnensis albiventer ss 327 esos bilineale 304 -- picale 304 Oliva lepida 701 - nebulosa 701 Omphisa anastomosalis 307 Oncidium ‘ 701 Ooencertus paplionus 747 Ophibolus getuleus 948 Ophicephalus .. oe 826 —______—-- striatus 833 _Ophichthys se 199 apicalis ... 199, 732, 733, 939 cephalozona 732, 733: 738, 739 Ophisurus serpens Poe 199 Opisthophthalmus 854 aie SS Jatimanus typicus 853 Oplismenus compositus 681 Opuntia dillenii 290 Oriens ada ‘ 214 - goloides 214 Origanum vulgare 381, 883 Oriolus kundoo 641 -- oriolus 890,.903 ——-- traillii ... 641 —--- xanthornus 641 Ornithospila 154 Oropetium thomaeum _ 687 Orsonoba clelia 155 Orsotrioena medus medus 7719 Orthaga euadrusalis .. 303 INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Orthetrum 210 Orthochirus innesi 132 Orthotomus sutorius . es 639 —______- -— sutorius 329 Oryctes rhinoceros 5 388 Orygia decumbens 93, 96 Oryza meyeriana 688 -- sativa ... 595, 688 Osbeckia stellata 374 Oscillatoria brevis 917 —____——- granulata 917 lacustris .. ae 917 quadripunctulata 917 ——_—_—— — tereberiformis 917 Osicerda he aide Se 155 Otinotus oneratus . 160, 163, 958, 960, 981 - pallescens aoe te 163 Otocompsa emeria 190 flaviventris 632 Otus sunia : ae 654 Oxalis corniculata 370 -- latifolia 370 -- pubescens 837 Oxya ... : 595 Oxybelus agilis. 31 Oxycaraenus loetus 590, 608 Oxyrhachis tarandus . 959, 960 Oxyria digyna 382 Oxytenanthera monadelpha .. 689 Ozius 433 rugulosus. 433, 528. 535, 542 Ozola microniaria ; 153 Pachidiplosis oryzae ... 238 Pachynoa pectinicornalis 307 -- sabelialis 307 Pachyzancla aegrotalis 307 —_—___——- licarsisalis 307 ——__—_—_—- phoeopieralis 307 Pagyda traducalis 305 Palamnaeus 138 Palmipis 704. Pamphlebia 154 Pandanus ; 101, 470, 664 —-- tectorius . 671, 954 Pandinus ee 130 imperator . 131 Pandorina morum : a 908 Panicum adscendens ... . 102, 296 - antidotale 297, 299, 681 - colonum ie 102 -maximum ... 681 -montanum ... 682 - paludosum 681 - psilopodium see 681 - ramosum ... 102, 297 - repens ... 675, 682 - stagninum 102 - subeglume ... 682 Panicum turgidum 93, 105, 283, 297 - trypheron _ 675, 681 Pantala : oat 210, 211 Panthera leo saetlarle 173, 450, 568, 576 - tigris : ... 171, 452, 454 Pantoporia perius ss 214, 780 Panulirus 696 xlvi INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Paphia ... mak ae ae 703 malabarica ae 505, 522, 703 textile an Be : 703 undulata Site ees 703 Papilio demoleus eis 216, 217, 621 demoleus ... TET memmnon agenor ... ben Vibe polytes es as oe 216 —_— romulus ane oe WUE Parabonellia... ah m3 ny 201 —__—_——— misakiensis at ae 202 Paracanthonchus caecus me i 89 Paraechinus micropus micropus _... 236 Paramithrax ... 413. —e (Chlorinoides) aculeatus 413, 525, 533, 542 Parasa ... se fy Be a ~ 616 -lepida ... ae 238 ‘(Paratetranchus =) Parate tranychus Paratetranychus indicus sch Pill sel) Pareronia valeria hippia ne ae 778 Parevaspis carbonaria ay AS 34 Parkinsonia_ ... Ep ik ae 713 Parnara ganga acs Sekek rueee 214 guttatus Beh ... 214, 783 —naso ... een aoa 214 Parnassia nubicola 367, 373, 879 Parnassius epaphus sikkimensis _... USD Paroaria cucullata ... a aus 578 Parreysia favidens ... ae ae 254 Parthenium hysterophorus Se Alt PAU) Parthenos sylvia gambrisius ... je 780 Parus major ambiguus A ce 979 caschmeriensis ... o 629 monticola see OB ae 629 Paspalidium flavidum jest” 26752680 —_—_-___——- geminatum eee ae 681 Paspalum conjugatum gt oie 680 -- orbiculare ... rae ie, 680 ——-- sanguinale .. é oss 102 + cruciatum ae 886 -- scrobiculatum uae 680 Passer domesticus 644, 890, 901, 903 es —- soror et 2 330 ——-- montanus ie ae a 578 -- rutilans any cy is 644 Passiflora calcarate ... abe os ~ 840 --coerulea..... ae fe 374 -- edulis se es sh 840 -- leschenaultii Bh ne 840 Patella radiata ge Bas A 698 Pavo cristatus nae a ..- 464, 659 Pavonia zeylanica.... ike 28298 Pecten singaporina ... rat eae 702 Pedalium murex 99, 105, 293, 299 Pediastrum tetras see pe can 909 Pedicularis carnosa ... at Ls 380 -- gracilis... it in 882 —_—__-- pectinata a ... 380, 883 —_—_____--- —___——— palans....__... 883 -- siphonanthe aes ay 380 Pelecanus ie ah, 191 Pelecypoda a ee wh 701 Pellorneum ruficeps ... Ricae ce 630 Pelopidas agna aioe ue ae 214 PAGE Pelopidas agna agina 784 -- assamensis 214 ————--- conjuncta . 214 -- sinensis He 214 Penaeus ... 696, 715 (Peneus =) Penaeus Penium libulata 914 Pennisetum é Met 814 hohenackeri Ap 683 typhoides ... 626, 683 typhoideum 293, 297, 599 Peperomia reflexa a2 SOD S02 Perdicula asiatica 659 Periclimnus ib 696 —_______ brevecarpalis 696 Pericrocotus brevirostris 638 - peregrinus 638, 890, 904 —__________- -_______ ceylonensis 329 —_—__—_—_—-- roseus Us bat 638 ——_____- speciosus 638 Periopthalmus 705 Peristrophe . 713 ——EEE bicalyculata 99° 282, 286, 293, 299 Perotis indica ... . 675, 685 Pharoscymnus euimeti 159 —______———- horni 158, 159 Phaseolus aconitifolius 289 - mungo Hee i 156 - roxburghii 626 - radiatus 289, 601, es - pauciflorus — - semierectus = - vulgaris 289 Phenacoccus insolitus 156 Philanthus 30 —___—__—-- basalis 30 Philomachus pugnax ... 464 Philyra : ... 407, 525 -- corallicola 408, 525, 532 -- globosa Phleum alpinum Phlomis bracteosa Phlyctaenodes massalis Phoenicoparrus jamesi Phoenicopterus antiquorum -- chilensis —_________--- ruber Phoenicurus ochrurus Phoenix dactylifera sylvestris Phragmites karka Phryganodes analis Phycita defiguralis -- hemixanthella -- infusella Phyllanthus Bie == emblicd -- madraspatensis ... -- niruri —_____——-- uninaria ... Phyllocnistis citerella Phyllognathopus —... ——_____———- viguierl Phylloscopus ... —______—_-- affinis 407, 525, 532 ae 885 883 307 169 168 ue 168 .. 167, 168 ; 633 10} 296 684 305 303 303 589 i 962 .. 100, 265 Bye 9 35295 93; 143, 295 _ 143 621 795 793 768 768 INDEX TO SPECIES xlvii PAGE PAGE Phylloscopus collybitus _... Ad 768 | Pinnularia legumen y. florentina ... 847 —_—_____—_-- fuscatus Se ie 768. | —————— marginata 848 -- griseolus isd ahs 768 | — microstauron f- biundulata 847 -- inornatus ae a, 640 | ——______- -_________- v. ambigua 847 -- -- humei ose 768 | —— -neglecta v. interrupta... 850 -- occipitalis on a: 641 | —————— nodosa v. pecudoerae lima 848 -- ___——- occipitalis ... 769 | ———— polyonca ... 4 Po 850 ——_—_—_——--trochiloides: ... ... 7168, 769 | —— regina aoe Bel 850 Physalis minima se Aue ... 286, 292 | ——_——-—— stauroptera v. longa ie 849 peruviana ... ne ... 292, 299 | —————- stomatophora v. bergil ... 846 Phytomyza atricornis si ie 601 | ——-— stomatophoroides a 846 Picea morinda be ioe aie 366 | ———_____ —_______—_—_- v. nuda 849 ——- smithiana ay ae nae 386 | ———___- -________ -- v. ornata Picumnus innorminatus See gas 461 f. erlangensis 846 Picus canus_... a Ea se 462 | —_———— westii is ui ve 851 ——- xanthopygeus ... os bea 462 | Pinus excelsa ... Bi oe ae 386 Picorrhiza kurooa__... ue aoe 883 | ———- gerardiana me ee be 74 Pieris brassica ae se ... 603, 611 | ——- longifolia ae ae a 386 ——- ovalifolia es 3 ... 365, 378 | ——-- roxburghil ie se oN 365 Pilea scripta_... Be ss Bae 383 | ——- —— Sargent... a 386 —--— umbrosa es pe eh 383 | —-—- wallichiana ie ie ... 368, 386 Piliocolobus ... ae ie She 309 | Pionea ablactalis ies fo: a 308 Pilumnus a a .. 434, 528, 697 albicostalis ... ty sas 308 -- longicornis Lt 439> 526,53) fous Be a, ce 308 -- vespertilio ... se 4340204999 | SPiper” :.. oe ane e 710 Pimpinella diversifolia a Boe 880 | Piprisoma agile oa Ne ae 649 Pingasa ae Nes Be uae 153 | Pison argentatum 338 oe Dy Pinna Be ae as oes 701 | Pisoodonophis boro ... ae 783. 738 —— nigra... tae Be oie 702 | ———_—__- cancrivorus ... 732. 733, 738 Pinnotheres_... oe 385 oe 503 | Pistia stratiotes ay! ae 151 -- placunae 503, 528, 536, 542 | Pisum sativum... Ae eee he 601 -- quadratus oe ie 506 | Pithauria murdava ... ... ie 214 —————-- similis... oe soe 504 | —————- stiamineipennis ... ie 214 —_—___—--- vicaJil_-... a . 305, 528 | Pithecolobium dulce ... aa ... 161, 960 Pinnularia ss . 845, 852 - - saman ee 267 acrosphaeria f undulata... 845 | Pitta brachyura Se nue 649, 890, 901 —_—____—_——— v, genuina he Placenta placenta... sas 702 undulata... 845 | Placuna placenta aes ah 503, 504, 505 Pinnularia acrosphaeria v. minor... 846 | Plagusia ase 523 aestuarii... he 851 -- depressa v. squamosa eee 523 - -- Vy, interrupta ee Syl Gy) eS -- y. tuberculata ... 523 — --y. lata ... gee Soi -- tuberculata 523, 529, 531, ————— angustefasciata ... ie 850 538 ———_____ —_________-- y. schmidtii 850 -- squamosa ... Sa a2 3, S04 braun... Pecn cers! 848 | Plantago amplexicaulis sen 99 v. amphicephala... 848 | ——_——- major fs - a 381 vy, ———_—_—__—__ ff. Plastingia callineura ... ue ate 214 conica is 848 | ——-——-- naga sh a = 214 vy. ———___—_ ff. . Plastus . : ze ne a 790 subconica ... 848 | Platalea leucorodia ... a oe 193 ——___—— brebissonii vy. producta ... 847 | Platanista gangetica ... ais ae 270 ov, ‘ Platycarya _..... bat say 226 biundulata .. 847 | Platydera gossypiella .. Uh il 591 ———_-——. conica aah ane Bae 847 | Platylambrus ... i sel sits 415 ———_———— divergens ... ae 846 | Platypodia _... ne Bo: ag 427 ———— — y, capitata Ba S508 ee == ChiStatal. 2s. ODS 20 SOA ————— esox : Bale ... 849, 850 | Platytes argentisparsalis as ae 302 ——______- —_- y. capitata Hos Sa 849 | Plaxipora Hee aw ah 697 ——- y. clevei sip oe 850 | Plectranthus gerardianus abe a 380 ——-y.fasciata ... 48 849 | Plectronia ficiformis ... aoe Be 840 interrupta f. braunii fas 848 | Plegadis falcinellus ... i 191 isostauron SAerages Ui. ae 852 | Pleurospermum angelicoides... ae 880 aa v.conifera... 852 | ———_—————- candollii_... fy 880 ———v. genuina <.. 852 | Pleurotaenium ehrenbergil vy. crassa 915 Karnatica (42.1) 7. Gs: hate 846 | Ploceus philippinus 491, 502, 643, 890, 903, 979 xl viii PAGE Ploceus philippinus philippima 330 Plotosus anguillaris 324 Pluchea lanceolata ae seh 105 Plumeria acutifolia... mee i 97 Plumularia Kee, : 693 Plusia nigrisigna 611 -- orichalcia 611 Plutella maculipennis 611 Pluvialis dominica fulva 328 Poa aspera se 102 Podagria 608 Pogonatherum paniceum as 676 Poinciana a a rae bee 9] —_______- regia - ape Sa 95 Poinsettia pulcherrima a ox 101 Polistes we ae sak Ae 33 - hebraeus oe ae AE 33 - stigma av was a 33 Pollinidium binatum . 676 Polyalthia longifolia ... 154 Polycarpaea et a 105, 141, 286, 287, 370 836 Polycarpor tetraphyllum Polydactylus indicus . 199, 200, 201 Polydorus aristolochia oh OP aye un 3 Polygala 240 -- abyssinica 93, 105, 287, 299, 365, 369 -- chinensis a 369 —_—_—-- crotalarioides 369 ———--- erloptera 93, 105, 283, 284, 287, 299, 369 -- persicariaefolia 369 -- ramaswamiana 240 -- tatarinowli ... 369 Polygonum 710 —_—_—_—— affine us 367, 382, 884 —alatum ... es xia 884 amplexicaule .. 382, 884 ——— Son .. 366, 382 chinense . 713 donii ue nee 382 plebejum _ 150, 284, 285, 295, 298, 382 polystachyum 367, 382, 884 vaccinifolium 367, 382, 884 ——__—_—— viviparum xe 382 Polynemus we. W225 Polynoe 694 Polypogon monspeliensis 385 Polytremis discreta 215 -- eltoca 215 —-- lubricans ... ae DAS Pomadasys 2a . 199, 200 Pomaderris lanigera . es 837 Pomatorhinus erythrogenys ... 630 ae -- _____——-_ ferrugilatus 767 a ee schstiecDS 630 Pompilus fenestratus .. ee eee 25 mitis Bee Hs BE 25 Pongamia ai : 158 - glabra 303 Porites . ; ee 694 Portulaca grandiflora — sie 94 -- oleracea 141, 142, 287 -- quadrifida ... . 142, 287 Procolobus oases (Piliocolobus) badius ... INDEX TO SPECIES PAGE Portunus (Oceanus) crucifer 419 woe ) dentatus 420 (Neptunus) pelagicus 418 (Portunus) pelagicus 418 pelagicus ... 418 (Thalamita) prymna a5 424 ——_—— (Neptunus) sanguinolentus 417 (Portunus) sanguinolentus 417 sanguinolentus 43 417 Potamides Bs 699 Potanthus confucius ... 214 - ganda 214 ——_-—-- juno 214 ——_———-- lydia 214 - nesta ate 214 ——__—_- pallida .. 214 - palnia 214 - pseudomaesa 214 - rectifasciata 214 - sita 214 — - trachala 214 trachala tytleri 783 Potentilla : in 366 -- argyrophylla 367, 373, 879 —___—-- ____—_—_—_ y, atrosanguinea 373 -- fruticosa ee Le 373 -- fulgens * ‘ ui j 5 k SY f. = Paes wa i: 5 Ey SS SS STE —— 2 3 Je 5 te — teins > aa = at ts _ = E 4 = way / ] . jOURNAL OF THE | . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Vol. 54, No. 1 Editors | SALIM ALI & H. SANTAPAU,s,J. DECEMBER 1956 Rs, 15 a is... JOURNAL OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA Published bi-annually, containing Original papers and reviews in all branches of Pure and Applied Zoology ee ee ee Annual subscription per volume of two issues: Foreign: Rs. 22; Inland: Rs. 20. A few back numbers are also available, subject to prior sale. A few pages are reserved for advertisements at rates available from the Honorary Treasurer. Reprints of a few papers of the Indian Helminthologist, the (late) Dr. G. D. Bhalerao, Indian Journal of Helminthology and Prof. Thapar Sixtieth Birthday Commemoration Volume, 1953, could also now be had from the Office of the Honorary Treasurer, Dr. B. S. Chauhan, 34, Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta-12, India. All orders, remittances and communications regarding above should be addressed to the Honorary Treasurer. 2 (O10 rose rcanSvcrncice (eS Ee Ste 03090 000 C00 IE ereSereme rele ca tee a0ee e300 C0000 C000 ee econ Ca ercaer cabo Coorcaorcaercancaercao * RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE BomBAy NATURAL History SOCIETY Some Beautiful Indian Trees by Rev. E. Blatter, s.., and W. S. Millard. Second edition. Revised and brought up-to-date. With 31 coloured and 37 monochrome plates, and numerous text- figures. Price Rs. 20. © i (to members Rs. 16). Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs by N. L. Bor and M. B. Raizada. With 31 coloured and 99 half-tone plates, and numerous text-figures. Price Rs. 22. |, (to members Rs. 17-8-0). The Book of Indian Birds by Salim Ali. 5th (New) Edition. With 56 coloured plates depicting 224 species, and 22 in mono- chrome from photographs. Price Rs. 20. | (to members Rs. 16). CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54, NO. 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL Parks, ParT III. By EB. P. Gee, M.A., ¢.M.Z.S. (With one coloured and five black and white plates) ans aes ane vas NotEs ON SOME Wasps AND BEES (HYMENOPTERA) OF POONA AND THE WESTERN GuHats. By F. L. Wain, s.s.5.E. (With a plate and 21 figures) ay sek aa 8 a5 na Ducks UNLIMITED: AND WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN CEYLON. By Philip K. Crowe. (With a plate) CHAPTERS ON THE History OF BoTANY IN INDIA. II. THE ADVANCES, AND IN PARTICULAR THE PLANT COLLECTING, OF THE THIRTIES AND FORTIES OF THE 19TH CENTURY. By I. H. Burkill MaRINE NEMATODES FROM THE Bay oF BENGAL. I. PHASMIDEA. By Richard W. Timm. (With a plate)... ays VEGETATION OF PILANI AND 1TS NEIGHBOURHOOD. By N.C. Nair and G. S. Nathawat — eas sa we Wes DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSE TO FORM ANB PATTERN IN TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES. By K. K. Dixit, M.se. (With two text figures)... BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR—WMargaronia indica Saund. (PYRALIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA). By R.C. Patel, msc.and H. L. Kul- karny, m.se. (With a plate and a graph) THE BiotoGy OF Scorpions. By Max Vachon. (With a plate and 17 figures) wae SomE UseFUL WEEDS IN AND AROUND Cuttack, By H. Pattnaik NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CaLcumtta, Part III. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R-E.S. SOME BENEFICIAL COCCINELLIDs OF Mysore. By M. Puttarudriah and G. P. Chaona Basavanna. ... Son see FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE BroLocGy oF THE ComMMOoN ‘TREE Hoprer’ Otinotus oneratus WaLK. (HOMOPTERA, MREMBRACIDAE) IN Orissa. By Upendra Chandra Panda and Basanta Kumar Behura. REVIEWS :— | ; 1, Powaithe Angling Paradise (F.R.G.) tee The Tigers of Trengganu (B. Basu) ae ei if Pelican in the Wilderness (R. R.) The Flamingos: Their Life History and Survival (S.A.) _ Embryology of Heteromelrus scaber. (M..L. Roonwal) mn nN PR wo .-- The early 2 of Pyrilla perpusilla Walker (Homoptera) -(P.J.D.) a iesh eb a PAGE 37 42° 87 91 107 118: 128 140: 153: ~156 - 160 144. 164 166 eG] 169 170 ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54, NO. 1—(cont¢d.) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— _ 1. Macaque Monkey eating Mushrooms, By M. L. Roonwal (p.171). 2. Lion wv. Tiger. By E.P. Gee (p. 171). 3. Transferring of the Indian Lion to an additional Locality. By K.S. Lavkumar (p. 173). 4. Wild Elephants in the Union of Burma. By Tun Yin (p. 175). 5. Alarge pair of Elephant’s ‘Tusks from Burma (With a photo). By Tun Yin (p. 178). 6. Albino Elephants. By Tun Yin (p.179). 7. Predator and Prey at Salt-licks. By EK. P. Gee (p. 181). 8. Incubation Period and ‘Mortality Rate’ (?) in a Brood of the Magpie-Robin [Copsychus saularis (Linn.)]. By N.G. Pillai (p. 182). 9. Some Notes on the Plumages of Céntyopus sinensis (Stephens). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 183). 10. The Occurrence of the Pinkbreasted Parakeet (Pstttacula alexandri) in Debra Dun. By K. S. Lavkumar (p. 185). 11. Experiences with Little Ringed-Plover (With a plate). By Loke Wan- Tho (p. 185). 12. The Dimorphic Egrets. By J. Berlioz (p. 188). 13. Bird Notes from Kutch. By K. S. Lavkumar (p. 190). 14, Fighting among Birds. By R. S. P. Bates (p. 191). 15. Bird Migration in India. By Editors (p. 193). 16. The Changing Scene: Paucity of Bird Life in Jabalpur (M.P.). By P. V. Beatty (p. 194). 17. Solar Eclipse and Animal Behaviour. By G. H. Marsden (p. 194), 18. Jumping Snakes. By H. A. N. Medd (p. 195). 19. A Python’s Meal (With a photo). By Tuu Yin (p. 196). 20. Dhaman or Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus) drinking Milk. By J. E. C. Turner (p. 196), 21. Strange Accident to a Frog (Rana breviceps Schneid.). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 197). 22. The Spawning of Carps. By J. D. Lovatt (p. 197) 23. On the Occurrence of Mummified Eels in the internal organs of Polydactylus indicus (Shaw) and Pomadasys sp. By K.H. Mohamed. (p. 199); 24. Occurrence of the Echiuroid Worm J/kedella misakiensis (Ikeda) in Indian Waters (Gulf of Kutch) (Witha text figure). By P. W. Gideon, P. K. B. Menon, S. R. V, Rao and K. V. Jose. (p. 201). 25. The unusual resistance to starvation of Saccharicoccus sacchari (Ckll.). By D. V. Murthy (p. 202). 26. Some interesting Observations on the Royal Chamber in the Mound of the Termite Oduntotermes redemanni (Wasmann). By B. Banerjee (p. 203). 27. Some common ‘Termites of Calcutta. By Barundeb Banerjee (p. 204). 28. Notes on the Common Black Garden Beetle Laszlianus neelgherriensis. By (Miss) M. E. Wolfe Murray (p. 206). 29. Zarache nitidula’F.,a Semilooper Peston Cotton in South India (With a plate). By S. Venugopal (p. 207). 30. Partial Emergence of the Imagines of Dragonflies (Odonata) due to the absence of a holding place (Wzth two figures). By D. R. Krishnan (p.210). 31. Hesperiidae of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. By Sir Keith Cantlie (p. 212). 32. Further—Notes and additions to the List of Butterflies from Bombay and Salsette. By A. E.G. Best (p. 215). 33. On the phenomenon of Drumming in Egg-laying Female Butterflies. By Vidyadhar G, Vaidya (p. 216). 34. The Poisonous Qualities of Calotropis gigantea R. Br. By H. Santapau (p. 218). 35. Parthenium hysterophorus Linn., a new record for India (With a plate). By R. Seshagiri Rao (p. 218). 36. Notes on Aerzdes maculosum Lindl. (With a text figure). By H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia (p. 220). 37. Some New Plants for the Dangs Forest, Bombay State (With two plates). By H. Santapau and D. P. Panthaki(p. 221). 38. China’s Book-like Rock Formation with 25-million year old Plant Fossils. By Prof. Hsen Hsu Hu & 225). 36. Wild Life Preservation inIndia. By Tolaram K. Mirchandani (p. 226). ‘(GLEANINGS eee eee eee eos eoe eee NotES AND NEws cee eee @eo eee eae eee ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL FIISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31ST DECEMBER 1955 ie ees THe HonorRARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1955 AppENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO AUGUST 1956 o oe os. MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING CORRECTIONS z STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. PAGE 228 234 235 236 243 245 245 246 JourRN. BomBay NAT. HIsT. Soc. PLAtE 4 es Wild Elephant (makhna), Kaziranga, Assam Barasingha or Indian Swamp Deer in Kanha, Madhya Pradesh (BOOS eee Gee) ee JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ve 1956 VOL 54 No. 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS BY ey CEE. MEA. ./CoMeZsS PART III (With one coloured and 5 black and white plates) CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION vi pad. tee: ae aut an i RECENT WoRK OF THE INDIAN BoaRD FOR WILD LIFE Ba Bie uh 2 PrRopEeR Lanp Use ESSENTIAL FoR WILD LikE PRESERVATION ae bee 3 SoME POTENTIAL NATIONAL Parks 1. Assam se iN 554 ie ee. Ags 5 2. Madras $545 Ean Pa BAe ah, ae 6 3. Mysore Mi oe 7 4. Saurashtra ae : 8 SoME ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE LIONS OF THE GIR FOREST 1. Indian Lion and African Lion 10 2. Different Varieties of Indian Lion a 3. Introduction of African Lions into inden 12 4. Natural Food Supply for the Lion 14 5. Compensation for Livestock killed by Lions fs poo ie 6. Number of Lions to be captured for Introduction into a New Locality goo) tt) SPORT AND WiLp LIFE PRESERVATION 16 ‘HipEsS’ ror Wirtp Lire PHOTOGRAPHERS io By ii Ho Aeon ALE CONCLUSION 20 REFERENCES 21 IGN dR. O- Di Us" 1,0 N This paper forms the third of the series, Part I having appeared in the Society’s Journal, Vol. 51, No. 1 (December 1952), and Part II in Vol. 52, No. 4 (April 1955). With vat slow but gradual evolution of properly organised wild life conservation in India, with successive meetings of the Indian Board for Wild Life and its Executive Committee, and with more travels on my part around India’s wild MAR 4 5 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 life centres, it is inevitable that there should be a succession of these papers at two- or three-year intervals. Since writing the last paper, a few places in Assam, Madras, and Mysore have been re-visited; but’ in particular the famous Gir Forest of Saurashtra was visited for the first time in January 1956, and the present paper naturally deals mainly with this most interesting place and its peculiar problems. ; RECENT WORK OF THE INDIAN BOARD FOR WILD LIFE since Part II of this series was written, the activities of the Indian Board for Wild Life in connection with national parks and sanctuaries may be summarised as follows: The Executive Committee and the Board itself met in Calcutta in January/February 1955 and discussed the need for clarifying the general principles that should govern the creation of national parks, wild life sanctuaries, and protected areas. The Board called attention to the following points: — (@j Neat onal Ea tales: (i) National Parks are areas set apart by an Act of the com- petent Legislature for permanent preservation. Such areas may have for their objective the preservation of one or more of the following features: geological, pre-historical, historical, archaeological, scenic, faunal, and floral. (ii) It is not an essential condition of National Parks that there should be no human intervention. Where it is desired to exclude human intervention altogether, it may be possible to set apart a suitable part within the National Park, a sanctum sanctorum which may receive absolute protection. (iii) Such parks are not to be created lightly. (iv) In framing proposals for the constitution of National Parks, the Board considers it desirable that State Governments should consult it and avail themselves of the technical knowledge and experience at its disposal. (v) The Board recommends further that legislation to be enacted in various States for the creation and management of National Parks should follow a common pattern. In order to facilitate this, the Board will prepare and circulate a model draft bill. (6) Wild Lite Sanetwar ies: Wild Life Sanctuaries are areas ordinarily set apart by an Order of the State Government for the purpose of preserving wild life. The management of such sanctuaries is adequately dealt with under Resolution 6 ‘Protection of Nature and Wild Life’ of the Mysore Session of the Board held in 1952. The Board recommends that sanctuaries conforming to the standard laid down under Resolution 6 (b) of the Mysore Conference may be constituted as such. (c) Protected A meas. In many States there may be areas where it may be considered expedient : ! Lo ae a oe EC (i) to afford special protection to wild life, in order to enable INDIA*S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 3 species of wild life which are on the verge of extinction to re-establish themselves ; (ii) to afford protection to wild life attracted to water impounded in River Valley Projects and to other irrigation works; (iii) to afford protection to wild life in and around large towns and sacred places. Such areas may be constituted by an order of the Government, which may also lay down the degree of protection. The Executive Committee of the Board met at Ootacamund in May 1955, and among other resolutions resolved to advise the State Governments that, pending the constitution of any sanctuaries into national parks, any attempt that might be made to change their existing character or whittle away their resources in any way should be guarded against. It also examined the Draft National Parks Bil clause by clause, and made a number of suggestions to be incorporated. The Executive Committee again met at Sasan Gir in January 1956 and considered a great number of items dealing with wild life conserva- tion in general. As regards -wild life sanctuaries and national parks in particular, it was decided to collect information from all sources regarding the methods of preventing diseases contracted by wild life from domestic animals grazing in or near sanctuaries. The Draft Model Bul for National Parks, as finalised by the Law Ministry, was again considered before being sent to the State Governments. In 1955 national parks were created in the following States: Kanha in Madhya Pradesh, and Shivpuri in Madhya Bharat. Proper LaNnp UsE ESSENTIAL FOR WILD LIFE PRESERVATION In most parts of the world nowadays the rapidly increasing human population, with consequent increasing demand for land for settle- ment, cultivation, and grazing, presents grave problems. When such a demand for jand occurs near reserved torests or wild life sanctuaries, forest officers and wild life conservationists often find it difficult to convince land-hungry people that it is in the public interest to continue maintaining these forests and sanctuaries. Moreover, there is a commonly held idea that wild life is some thing intangible and abstract, something to be appreciated by the select few who are able to comprehend the aesthetic, recreational, and biological value of flora and fauna. Even some educated persons in high positions in India have been known to exclaim ‘We cannot afford to keep Kaziranga/Kanha/Gir Forest. Human _ beings are more important than wild animals. These places must be given up to settlement and cultivation.’ In such matters one must be realistic: the land-hungry people and their political leaders can produce facts and figures to support their case, and so we must be in a position to prove that a good wild life sanctuary has a greater value to the country as such, rather than just as an area of land to be opened up for settlement or grazing. Otherwise, if we cannot show good reason why Kaziranga/Kanha/Gir Forest should continue to be maintained as wild life sanctuaries or national parks, then we will sooner or later lose them. 4, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 54 It is really all a matter of proper and effective land use. Land must, in all places, be put to the best possible use after taking into consideration each particular case; and it must be carefully considered whether a sanctuary or national park is more valuable to the country as a whole if it is maintained as such, or if it is ‘opened up for settlement, cultivation, and grazing. As wild life has dwindled and is still dwindling very rapidly, and as wild life and beautiful unspoilt scenery are a priceless irreplaceable heritage and a most valuable national asset, it is obvious that sanctuaries must be safeguarded, even if it may bring some temporary unpopularity on those who have to enforce such measures. To get down to rock-bottom facts and figures, I will state the general position at one of India’s foremost sanctuaries, Kaziranga in Assam. In recent years several square miles of valuable sanctuary land within the southern boundary, favourite haunt of rhino, wild buffalo, and deer, and accessible to visitors even in the rainy reason, have been opened up to villagers for grazing their tame buffaloes and cows. This pressure on the sanctuary is increasing, as the following figures of domestic buffaloes allowed to graze inside the sanctuary show: Number of domestic animals Year allowed to graze inside the sanctuary 1950 100 1954 500 1956 1000 If this rate of encroachment is allowed to continue and if similar encroachments are allowed in other parts of the sanctuary, with accompanying cattle-borne diseases spread among the wild animals, there will be very little left of Kaziranga and its unique fauna in fifty years’ time. Now the following figures show the tourist or economic value of Kaziranga, with consequent revenue for Assam in particular and for India as a whole: Visztors from Visitors from Year abroad India Total 1950-51 25 21 46 1951-52 78 42 120 1952-53 167 106 273 1953-54 172 134 306 1954--55 188 306 494 1955-56 287 616 903 As revenue from the tourist trade is an indirect one, not confined to one place but spread over the whole country visited, it follows that for every Re. 1 spent by foreign visitors at Kaziranga about Rs. 30 or 4o are spent in the rest of India. Therefore for every Rs. 6,000 (the amount paid by foreign tourists at Kaziranga in 1954-55) spent here, about Rs. 2,10,000 are spent in the rest of India. And if the increase of popularity of Kaziranga continues at the (29 “dF + 004d) ‘aiosAyy ‘indipueg ut jueydely Jeysny, pil od were TAT AN! | JouRN. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc. PLATE III, Mother and baby Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros in Kaziranga, (Photos 2: Gee) INDIA°S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 5 above rate, the revenue to Assam and India will be very great indeed in fifty years’ (ne It is clear, therefore that the economic value of Kaziranga as a wild life sanctuary is so important to Assam and to India that this piece of land (166 square miles) should be preserved inviolate with sacrosanct boundaries as a national park. All possible steps should be taken so that the local surplus village population with their increasing cattle should be given land and grazing facilities elsewhere, or else the numbers of their cattle reduced. So far, then, from not being able to afford to keep Kaziranga/ Kanha/Gir Forest, we cannot afford to lose such places. This very same problem occurs all over India, and the case of Kaziranga is duplicated in most other States. In fact it is found all over the world; and as George Petrides (1955) has pointed out in his admirable ‘Report on Kenya’s Wild Life Resources and the National Parks’, Kenya’s wild life and the tourist trade brought by it are of the utmost value to the country as a source of considerable national income. He has established that improper land use is chiefiy responsible for the diminution of Kenya’s wild life, and that complete wild life habitats should be carefully preserved. It is perhaps not fully realised in India that the potential value of her wild life as_a source of revenue from tourists is very great indeed. Wild life is an important industry, even in the U.S.A. In Kenya wild life ranks as the third most important industry after coffee and sisal. Tourists who go to see, and occasionally shoot, wild life in Kenya spend about four crores of rupees annually there. Each year there are about 1,00,000 visitors to the Nairobi National Park alone to see its wild life. Wild life is an industry as tangible as tea, oil, jute and coal, for which land is required to be set aside in select areas for the benefit of the whole country for all time. SOME POTENTIAL NATIONAL PARKS The following places, all potential national parks of India, were visited by the writer since the previous paper was written, and observa- tions were made as under: tr. Assam. In December 1954 the new ‘Tourist Lodge at Kaziranga was opened to visitors. Specially constructed for visitors to the sanctuary, this five-roomed ten-bedded rest house has modern sanitation and electric light. It is fully equipped in every respect for visitors, who need now bring nothing with them in the way of bedding, food, servants etc. A new tree-top house has recently been constructed north of Hulalpat Camp, but I have not yet had the opportunity of visiting this place. A set of eight picture postcards depicting wild life in Assam has been printed, tooo of each, for sale to visitors. This is an encouraging step in the right direction. A rest house has also been built at the foot of the hills near the Manas River in the North Kamrup (Manas) Sanctuary. When the new access road, aligned to avoid erosion by the river, becomes consolidated and when the rest house is fully equipped, this sanctuary 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 should be a most attractive place for visitors. No more has been heard of the proposal for requesting the Bhutan Government to create a sanctuary on their side of the border, adjacent to the Assam sanc- tuary. It is to be hoped that a move in this direction can be made before it is too late. Unfortunately no progress has been made with the draft Assam National Parks Bill, by which it was hoped that by now these two fine wild life sanctuaries of Assam would have gained the status of national parks. A small one-and-a-half-square-mile wild life sanctuary was created at Garampani in 1952; and since poaching has been reduced at these seven Salt-licks and hot-springs the number of wild animals and birds to be seen there has increased considerably. Considering that this area is famous for butterflies and plant life as well as for wild life, Garampani Wild Life Sanctuary deserves full attention for strict protection and development. 2. Madras. I re-visited Mudumalai Sanctuary on the afternoon of May t1oth and morning of 11th 1955, staying the night at the Kargudi Rest House. I must congratulate the Madras Government on a considerable all-round improvement in the administration of this place since my first visit made in 1950. The Rest House had been improved and was cleanly kept. A separate ‘game staff’ had been provided purely for wild life preservation in the sanctuary, and consists of one game warden, one assistant game warden, two forest guards and two watchers. ‘This staff works within the Forest Depart- ment, with no forestry duties to perform, and thus is able to concentrate on the elimination of poaching and the observation and protection of wild life. This is just the kind of administration required for sanctuaries in India under the present policy of not having a separate wild life department. There was no fee for cameras, and this is a wise policy, especially as the forest and undergrowth are very thick and photography cor- respondingly difficult. I obtained no photographs during my two visits, although my three cameras were held ready all the time. The extensions to the sanctuary, I understand, are still in the proposal stage, and shooting in these blocks has not yet been stopped. As I was unable to visit these parts I am unable to comment on the desirability or otherwise of these extensions; but in general it is considered that a larger wild life sanctuary is preferable to a smaller one, provided it can be effectively administered. — I make the following suggestions, not in a critical sense but as ideas for the further improvement of the sanctuary: 1. As the forest is very thick with an annual average rainfall of 65” compared with 38” at Bandipur, and as the viewing of wild life is difficult with photography still more difficult, I think the possibility might be considered of creating a few grassy areas or maidans of, say, 200 or 300 yards in width, in suitable areas acces- sible to visitors, where wild life could be viewed in the open, as at Kanha in Madhya Pradesh. 2. Salt-licks and water-holes could be made at these open places, so that wild life can be easily located, seen, and photographed, INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 7 3. More motorable link roads would be a great advantage, with Bandipur as the ideal. 4. Exploitation of timber and plantations of young trees might be eliminated in the vicinity of the Rest House and the parts chiefly visited by visitors, so that the conditions of an ‘inner sanctuary’ might be fulfilled. 5. At least 75% of the wild dogs should be destroyed. I saw wild dogs on three occasions in only two visits, and on one of these occasions a chital was being chased. 6. The charge for a night at the bungalow could be increased from Re. o-8-o to about Rs. 2 or Rs. 3, and more amenities provided such as a filter and drinking water. 7- The compound of the bungalow could be improved with flowering trees, shrubs and plants (preferably local indigenous flora, rather thai the ordinary flowers found in gardens in towns). 8. A pamphlet describing the sanctuary and its wild life, with map and illustrations, would be very advantageous. 9g. I noticed new signboards, with ‘Mudumalai Game Sanctuary’ and the title ‘Game Warden’, were being used. The word ‘game’ could in all cases well be replaced by the words ‘wild life’, in accordance with the general policy adopted in India. 3. Mysore. I re-visited Bandipur Sanctuary on the afternoon of 12th and morning of 13th May 1955. Coming here immediately after Mudumalai, I was struck by the difference in vegetation etc. With an annual average rainfall of about 38”, instead of 65” at Mudumalai, the forest was sparse, stunted and without much under- growth at this time of the year, making conditions ideal for viewing and photographing wild life, in most photogenic surroundings. My visit on 12th was unfortunately marred by the continuous breaking down of the Forest Department lorry which was taking me round. A herd of about 30 ‘bison’ was observed, but they may have been frightened by the misfiring of the lorry engine and were very wary. No photographs were obtained. The morning visit on elephant-back was better, and in addition to chital and peafowl I saw and photographed a fine tusker elephant. Some suggestions for the even further improvement of the sanctuary were made by me in December 1952, and to these I would add the following : 1. The right vehicle for visitors to see the sanctuary from, I think, is not a lorry but a Land-Rover with a station-wagon or truck-like body, with a trapdoor in the roof for photography. In East Africa I tried out every kind of vehicle, including a Bedford Hunting Truck and Land-Rovers with truck-like bodies and trapdoor (‘sunshine’) roofs. The latter were the best, and could seat 6 people comfortably, and are cheap on petrol. I used this kind of vehicle in tours in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika, leaving the road and going right across country at times. 2. | saw a ‘tiger block’ with a sandy path being prepared all round it, presumably for tracking down a tiger, adjacent to the sanctuary boundary. I hope that tigers are not being shot in the adjacent forests. ; 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HEST. SOCIEDY. Vol. 54 3. The tiger, which is the most spectacular of beasts in India, and possibly the world, is the very animal most sought after by visitors to see and photograph. If any sanctuary in India can ‘Jay on’ a tiger for visitors to see, this will be the sanctuary or national park par excellence. Possibly some artificial means would have to be employed, viz. keeping a tame or semi-tame tiger in an enclosed area, or feeding wild ones regularly (with ‘doped’ meat?), or even making a natural-looking enclosure with a moat all round as in the Mysore and Travancore Zoos, only larger in extent. There might be an objection that such a tame or semi-tame tiger would appear unnatural, while the ‘purists’ might object simply on principle. But how otherwise can we show our tiger to visitors? The vast majority of the public, who have few chances of visiting sanctuaries, would welcome such a step. And after all, many of the lions of the national parks of Africa have for various reasons (among which man-given meat can sometimes be included) become semi-tame and display themselves openly to the many thousands of visitors who come from all parts of the world to see them, thus bringing in a substantial revenue to the country and giving a fillip to the cause of wild life preservation. In this connection it is interesting to note that Champion (1939) expressed the conviction that the tigers of the Hailey National Park would in due course ‘carry on their daily life regardless of the presence of human beings in the way that lions are now to be seen doing in the national parks of Africa’. As they have not done so, then other means should now be tried so that these fine creatures can be seen and enjoyed by visitors. 4.Saurashtra. A meeting of the Executive Committee of the Indian Board for Wild Life at Sasan Gir from January 18th to 20th 1956 gave me the long awaited opportunity of seeing the famous Gir Forest and its lions. Two extra days were very kindly allowed by the hospitable Government of Saurashtra, making a total of five days altogether. Under the personal and knowledgeable guidance of the Jam Sahib of Nawanagar we were shown lions; and all the available information was given to us. Thus by studying the material that has been written about the Gir and its lions, by listening to all that was told us by our hosts the Rajpramukh, the Minister, the Conservator, and others, and supplemented by personal observation, it was possible even in the short space of five days to come to a few general conclusions about what must be one of the most complex and interesting wild life centres of India. ey It was particularly interesting for me to see the Indian lion in its habitat, after my visit to East Africa where the African lion 1s one of the main attractions. I will confine myself to only a few broad generalisations about the Gir, and will avoid touching on such aspects as description, history, census, forest operations, etc., which have been so ably dealt with by others. In fact most of my observations will purposely be of such a general nature, as rather to be the basis of future and more detailed investigations than attempts at passing final verdicts, which INDIA’?S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 9 can only be arrived at after very much more thorough and prolonged field work. The first thing that struck me was that here was a first-class potential national park, which did not enjoy the status even of a wild life sanctuary! At the time of writing this paper the Gir is a region consisting partly of Reserved Forest and partly of village settlements, cultivation, and grazing areas, through the whole of which runs a railway and some roads. It was explained to me that as there were villages, cultivation, and grazing of domestic livestock in the lon areas, therefore they had not been created a national park. If this is so, then this must surely be the result of a misunder- standing. For while it is true that the generally accepted definition of an ideal faunal national park is an area free from human settle- ments etc., it should not follow that because there happen to be some human settlements in an area therefore that area cannot become a national park! Many of the world's finest faunal national parks have villages and grazing of livestock inside them, such as the Nairobi National Park in Kenya, the Serengeti National Park in Tanganyika, the Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda, and the Kafue National Park in N. Rhodesia. For more detailed examples, there are 198 Somalis living in the 4o-square-mile Nairobi Park, with 200 head of cattle. In the 5,500- square-mile Serengeti Park there are approximately 2,000 Masai and others living in the park, with their 3,00,000 head of cattle, sheep, and goats. In the 756-square-mile Queen Elizabeth Park there are villages containing about 2;000 inhabitants, though their livestock is few in numbers due to tsetse fly. It is obvious that where there is good grazing for wild herbivorous animals, there is also good grazing for domestic animals, with accompanying human settlements. This is the big problem in East and Central Africa: how to reconcile the two diverse objectives of wild life preservation and safeguarding the interests of the indigenous and sometimes nomadic human populations. If such villagers can be moved by rehabilitation, or if their villages can be excised from the proposed national park, then so much the better. But if they must be included, and if for political. and other reasons the grazing by their livestock cannot be prevented, then at least this can be restricted, controlled, and regulated after a careful study of the conditions and in conformity with a wise policy of effective land use. In this respect we can learn an interesting lesson from East Africa. When, for example, the Serengeti National Park of Tanganyika was created, it was laid down that the rights of the indigenous local inhabitants would be safeguarded. But these ‘rights’ were never defined. Consequently these indigenous inhabitants can now at any time hold a meeting and demand something as a right, which it is very difficult for Government to oppose. Moreover, more people may come into a park from outside and cattle may increase enormously in numbers, making subsequent control extremely difficult. Further, the habits of the villagers may change: for example the Masai in East Africa never used to hunt wild animals, but since intermarrying with other tribes has taken place some of them have now taken to 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 hunting, with consequent detriment to the wild life of the national parks. When the Queen Elizabeth Park of Uganda was being created in 1952-54 there was some opposition, and the 2,o00 villagers resident within the boundaries of the proposed park were allowed to remain. But regulations ensure that no cash crops are allowed to be grown by them, and only sufficient cultivation is allowed to be done for the production of their own food. No hunting is allowed. A fishing village area was excised entirely from the park. From all the foregoing facts, then, it follows that the Gir Forest could be created a national park with some, if not all, of the maldharis and others remaining there with their livestock, provided that suitable legislation is enacted clearly defining their rights, demarcating the boundaries of their land for cultivation and grazing, regulating the numbers and types of their livestock, ensuring that precautions are taken against cattle-borne diseases, prohibiting further inroads of men and livestock from outside, and so on. In fact the villages in the Gir, the maldharis, and their beasts can even be regarded as a picturesque attraction of a future national park, providing interesting subjects for sightseeing and photograph- ing by visitors. There is not a shadow of a doubt that the Gir Forest and its lions, as well as its other wild animal and bird life, would rank as one of the best national parks of India. Its close proximity to Bombay, the threshold of India’s tourism, is an additional attraction. It is only one-and-a-half hour’s flying from Bombay to Keshod and one-and-a-half hour’s motoring time from Keshod to Sasan Gir, where a palatial Guest House with numerous well-equipped rooms awaits a regular stream of tourists and visitors. These potential tourists and visitors do not come only because there is no publicity, no provision for their reception, and no open-for-all arrangements to show them the lions. A further attraction to the Gir as a national park should be the new one-and-a-half square mile lake due to be formed by the dam over the Hiran River. In fact a veritable ‘Periyar’ in the heart of the lion country is about to come into existence, with the two-fold advantage of perenniai drinking water for wild life and. scenic beauty for human visitors. SoME ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE LIONS OF THE GIR FOREST tr. Indian Lion and African Lion. A < Lil ae 2 O's oo OD = oo Ya AQ Fy “6, 9 Ao ‘e) a A. Oesophageal region. p. C. Head. D. Oesophageal region. I, Female reproductive system. A—B. Rhabditis marina var. bengalensis new vat. C—E. 7ylenchus marinus n. § tail. F—I. Halicephalobus limuli n.g.,n. sp. F. Head. G. Female tail. tail. region. (For abbreviations see end of text) VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD BY N. C. Narr & G. S. NATHAWAT Department of Botany, Birla College, Pilani, Rajasthan INTRODUCTION Pilani in its present phase is a very promising venue for the study of plant succession as the place is undergoing a process of rapid physical developments and changes. An arid sun-scorched sandy area broken by a dreary succession of shifting sand dunes, spotted with trees and scattered and meagre growth of desert plants, is being rapidly converted into the verdure of a cultivated region. The growing plantations of trees such as the large leafy Ficus, Melia, Dalbergia, Prosopis, Albtzzia, Jaca- vanda, Poinciana, etc. lining the streets flourish well and impart a green and wooded appearance. The magical transformation is due to the endeavour of the Birla Education Trust. The earliest attempts to study the vegetation of the place include those of Mulay and Ratnam (1950), and Ramachatudra (1950). A synecological study of the vegetation around a temporary pond was made by Ratnam and Joshi (1952). Recently Nair and Joshi (1955) studied the sand dune vegetation of Pilani and its neighbourhood. Bakshi (1954) gave a detailed account of the vegetation of the place covering an area of 40 square miles, and has given a long list of 312 plants. It was found that Bakshi’s list requires some correction as it includes a considerable number of piants not found either in the wild or in the cultivated state in the area Bakshi surveyed. He has also omitted a large number of plants and therefore the present paper is called for. Bakshi has described in detail the ecological features of the vegetation of the area. However, a few words must be said about these aspects to give the reader a general idea of the floristic composition with regard to different habitats. The rainfall rarely exceeds 15” and the rainy season is from July to September. The cold season begins towards the close of November and extends up to February. ‘The temperature sometimes falls below freezing point. The spring is of short duration, February and March, and the area blossoms at this period becoming a mass of colour for a short time. From the middle of April to the middle of June the days are very hot and the temperature shoots up to 115° F. Dust storms are also not infrequent in these months. Bakshi writes, ‘as in Jodhpur (Sarup, 1952) there is a constant breeze in Pilani from the south-west to north-east from about February to October with a velocity of nearly 8-10 miles per hour. The velocity increases during May to 20 and the direction changes from west to east’. This is very surprising as there is no anemometer in Pilani or in its close vicinity to determine the speed of the wind. : The nature of the soil varies from locality to locality and based on this three types of localities can be marked out : 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 (a) Localities with more or less stable dunes. Vast stretches of sand dunes occur in Pilani. These dunes, though formed of loose sand, are not shifting ones and support a shrubby stunted vegetation especially of Capparis decidua, Gymnosporia montuna and trees like Prosopis spicig- eva and Balanites roxburghit. These sand dunes are in a definite direc- tion, generally from south-west to north-east. The soil is calcareous and these dunes put on a green appearance even after very slight showers. (6) Localities with sand dunes of the moving type. Like the above area sand is piled up into dunes but they areat the mercy of the winds. The area beyond Vidya Vihar up to the bed of Khantli, a purely rainfed stream, in the west has mostly a rolling topography due to vast stretches of hummocky sand dunes in succession. However, there are indica- tions that the desertic character of the area is fast fading or already lost in some places due to encroaching vegetation. Several spots in this locality, which were full of shifting sand dunes until seven years ago, have been completely colonized by thick growth of Calligonum polygo- noides and Saccharum munja. Sand dunes of the shifting type are also common on either side of Pilani-Loharu and Pilani-Chirawa roads. Some- times rocky projections raise their heads. ‘The direction of sand dunes in these places depends upon the configuration of such rocky ridges and prominences. The soil is calcareous, as in the above case, and the vegetation in this area is very scanty. Moving dunes in associa- tion with rocks are found about two miles north of Pilani town and also near Narh‘along Pilani-Chirawa road. (c) Localities with stable sand. Under this heading come the culti- vated fields, the villages, and the Vidya Vihar colony and its neighbour- ing places. In this area sand has become stable due to prolonged weather- ing and is different from typical desert soil. The top layer is compact and fertile due to accumulation and admixture of organic matter. It is neutral or slightly alkaline and the pH increases with depth. ‘This is Gue to increasing proportions of calcium formed due to leaching. - This type of soil can grow good crops. The general character of the vegetation corresponds with the physi- cal aspect, the nature of the soil and irrigation. The Vidya Vihar and its neighbouring areas support a fairly good vegetation. Pure desert until a few years ago, this area at the present time is an extensively green and cultivated tract. Obviously water plays an important role in the development. Water 1s pumped up from deep wells and is supplied to the various parts of the place. This water supports the luxuriant erowth of plants. The Vidya Vihar area is surrounded by cultivated fields interspersed here and there with dunes mostly of the Barchan type. The dominant indigenous trees of the locality are Prosopis spicigera, Tecoma undulata, Anogeissus pendula, Acacia arabica, and Bala- nites voxburghtt. Wherever sub-soil water is available, agricultural operations are carried on by the villagers. Beyond the cultivated areas come with incongruous suddenness vast stretches of sandy plain with patches of thick growth here and there. The erayness of the area is increased by spiny and thorny plants. The vegetation is a scrub jungle composed mainly of the more dominant species Prosopis spicigera and Capparis decidua, and wherever thick erowth occurs it is mainly a Prosopis-Capparis association. The com-— mon plants of the locality are Tecoma undulata, Anogetssus pendula, Salvadora olecides, Balanites roxburghii, Acacia avabica, Mimosa hamata, VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 93 Zizyphus rugosa, Gymnosporia montana, Calotropis procera, Leptadenia spartium, Ephedra foliata, Clerodendrum phlomidis, Lycium europaeum etc. In summer the ground lies bare except fora few hardy perennials and the area puts on a turf of greenery after the rains. The ground vegetation just after the rains consists mainly of Zephrosia purpurea, Trianthema sp., Zyrtbulus terrestris, Aerua tomentosa, Phyllanthus madraspatensts, Phyllanthus nirurt, Achyranthes aspera, Cleome viscosa, Polygala erio- ptera, Polygala abyssinica, Mollugo sp., Crotalaria burhia, Corchorus acutangulus, Boerhavia diffusa, and grasses mainly Eragrostis sp., Cenchrus sp., Andropogon sp., Cyperus rotundus, etc. In subsequent months the vegetation is rather scanty, as most of the above-mentioned plants dry up. In winter only a few plants, such as Argemone mexicana, Achyran- thes aspera, Heltotropium sp., Trichodesma indicum, Coronopus didyma, Launea sp. etc., are found. In loose rippled sand Calotropis oes Crotalaria burhia, Aerua tomentosa, Panicum turgidum, Cenchrus biflorus, Cztrullus colocynthis, Mollugo sp., Eragrostis sp., etc., are the early colonizers. The stabilized dunes show an interesting elevational zonation, and this aspect was dealt with in some detail by Nair and Joshi (1955). The vegetation in the rocky areas is very sparse. In the crevices and other places where some soil has been formed grow Orygia decumbens, Cnicus wallicht, Clerodendrum phiomidis, Pupalia lappacea, Stachytarpheta indica and zrasses such as Conchrus, Eragrostis, Andropogon, etc. The common tree species in these rocky areas 1s Acacia senegal. ADDITIONS TO Baxksui’s LIstT NyMPHAEACEAE Nymphaea stellata Willd. Cultivated in gardens. MENISPERMACEAE Cocculus cebatha DC. A woody climber. Common ; flowers after rainy season. CRUC LEE RA E Farsetia hamiltonii Royle. Rare; flowers, July—Sept. Sisymbrium irio Linn. A medium-sized hairy annual with pinnately divided leaves, end lobes large, but often arrow-headed, flowers yellow, capsules 14-25” long. Cheiranthus cherii Linn. Cultivated in gardens. CAPPARIDACEAE Cleome papillosa Steud. A strongly scented, hairy, glandular annual; leaves cordate, penninerved, lower long-staiked, upper sessile or nearly so ; flowers very small, pinkish to dirty yellow, in racemes ; seeds reni- form. Common after the rains. POLYGALACEAE Polygala abyssinica Bresch. Common. 94, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 CARYOPHYLLACEAE Spergula rubra Linn. A green annual of moist places. Leaves opposite ; seeds wingless : flowers cold season. PORTULACACEAE Portulaca grandiflora Linn. Cultivated in gardens. Flowers red, opening at noon. TAMARICACEAE Tamarix dioica Roxb. A small tree with drooping branches. Flowers pinkish in peduncled and panicled spikes. Disc of flower 5-lobed, anthers purple. MALVACEAB Bombax malabaricum DC, Cultivated. A few plants in Vidya Peeth garden. Hibiscus micranthus Linn, A small shrub ; flowers axillary, single, pink or white. Seeds cottony. Rare in rocky areas. Thespesia populnea Corr. Three plants have been introduced in the nursery in 1955. Sida grewioides Guill. Common in dry places. Flowers white or yellow. Corolla slightly exceeding the calyx. SANITIN, Oop ON Cia Guazuma tomentosa Kunth. A few plants cultivated. A eles AC Aa Grewia oppositifolia Roxb. A small under-sized tree. Leaves large (2-4 by 1-2°5”) with stout petioles. Peduncles leaf-opposed or few axillary. Fruit one- to 4-lobed, black when ripe. Often cultivated by the villagers for the fruits. Leaves lopped for fodder. ‘The bast fibre is used for ropes. The wood has an unpleasant smeil whea burnt. Flowering from April to August. Triumfetta pilosa Roth. Herbaceous or shrubby; lower leaves ovate, upper lanceolate, all stellately hairy ; flowers yellow in fascicled leaf- opposed cymes. Spines of fruit hooked. Rare; flowers during cold season. Corchorus antichorus Raeusch. A small woody perennial. In dry places ; capsule straight or curved, cylindric, beaked, four-valved. Common. Used as fodder for camels. Flowers Sept.—Oct. Corchorus urticaefolius W.and A. Capsules short, slightly three-angled, “bent downwards, valves with transverse partition. Leaves cordate - or ovate, acuminate. Common ; flowers rainy season. Ibe (S(On® OY O16 IN Cin iN Tribulus alatus Delile. Leaflets five pairs or less. Common during rainy season. VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD OE: Fagonia bruguieri DC. Branches trigonus, grooved ; leaflets ovate, fleshy. Internodes very short. Leaves three-foliate in the lower, one-foliate in the upper parts. RUTACEAE Feronia elephantum Correa. Cultivated in the Botanical garden. Citrus medica Linn. The following varieties are cultivated. var. medica. var. limonium. var. acida, var. limeetta. Aegle marmelos Corr. Cultivated particularly near temples. Flowers April and May. The fruit ripens a year later. LEGUMINOSAE Crotalaria juncea Linn. Cultivated; rare. Indigofera linifolia Retz. Flowers during the rainy and cold seasons. Indigofera subulata Vahl. Common during the rainy season. Indigofera trigonelloides J, & S. Rainy season, frequent. Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn. Common during the rainy season. Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edgew. Rainy season. Vicia hirsuta Koch. Rare. A wiry herb. Flowers cold season and after. Dolichos biflorus Linn. Cultivated. Erythrina suberosa Roxb. Cultivated in gardens. Phaseolus pauciflorus. Cultivated. Phaseolus semierectus Linn. A few plants from the farm area in Sept. 1955. Most probably introduced along with other seeds. Caesalpinia pulcherrima Linn. Cultivated. Cassia siamea Lamk, Planted along roadsides and also in gardens. Intro- duced in 1949. Cassia tora Linn. A small shrub. Rare; flowers during rainy season. Cassia obovata. Rare; flowers during rainy season. Poinciana regia. Planted on roadsides. Frequent. Flowers Feb.—March. Acacia jacquemontii Benth. A thorny bush with sweet-scented yellow flowers in globose heads. Bark used for tanning. Branches lopped for fodder. Flowers Feb.-May. Rare. 96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 Acacia leucophloea Willd. A smali tree. Easily recognised by its ter- minal panicles of flowers and brown velvety pods. Flowers Aug.—Nov. Mimosa rubicaulis Lamk. A shrub with smaller prickles (0-1” long) than Mimosa hamata. Flowers pink turning to white, in globose spikes in axillary fascicles. Fruit flat square. Sutures slightly prickly. Flowers July to Sept. Rare. (Gamble considers the North Indian plant clearly distinct from Lamarck’s species and calls it A/zmosa himalay- ensts Gamble. (Vide Kew. Bull. 1920, p. 6.) (CO iwWipINR S40 AC js Ae Quisqualis indica Linn. Cultivated in gardens. CucuRBITACE AE Momordica balsamina Linn. Bracts variegated. Common during the rainy season. Bryonia laciniosa Linn. A few plants were seen in August 1954 in the farm area. Cucumis trigonus Roxb. A trailing herb. Stems with rigid hairs. Leaves 3-5-lobed, roughly circular in outline, covered with hairs on both surfaces. Male flowers in small clusters. Female flowers standing single. Fruit small, yellow when ripe. Flowers August-November. Cucurbita moschata Dusch. Cultivated. Ctenolepis cerasiformis Naud. A monoecious climber. The stipuliform bract is the characteristic feature of the species. The only other report about this plant from Rajasthan is from Harsh Nath by Nair and Nathawat (1956). FICOIDEAE Mollugo spergula Linn. Very rare. Just after the rains. Trianthema hydaspica Edgew. Very rare. Flowers after the rainy season. Orygia decumbens Forsk. In rocky places. Frequent. Flowers July— October. RUBIACEAE Spermacoce stricta Linn. Erect herb ; both carpels dehiscing ventrally. Seeds polished. Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn. Common after the rainy season. Oldenlandia brachiata Hook. An annual; stem four-angled. Rare. Sept.—Nov. COMPOSITAE Dicoma tomentosa Cass. A densely white tomentose herb. Heads soli- tary, subaxillary and terminal. Rare. VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 97 Pulicaria wightiana Clark. Common. Flowers Oct.—Jan, Launea pinnatifida Cass. Common during the cold season. Cnicus wallichii DC. Robust shrub with spreading branches. Leaves sessile, pinnatifid, tomentose, lobes ending in long slender, rigid spine ; rare ; flowers in cold season. Sonchus asper Hill. Rare, cold season. Echinops echinatus DC, SAPOTACEAE Achras sapota Linn. (4. zapota Linn). An evergreen tree, cultivated in most places, Flowers appear throughout the year, the fruits ripen mainly during March, April, August and September. Mimusops hexandra Roxb. A handsome tree. Flowers Nov.-—Dec. Calyx lobes 6, stamens 6, alternating with 6 staminodes. Ovary 12- celled. Cultivated. APOCYNACEAE Lochnera pusilla K, Schun. A small annual with white flowers; com- mon in the fields as a weed. Ervatamia coronaria Stapf.—£. divaricafa (Linn.) Alston. (Syn. Zader- naemontana coronarta R. Br.) A small shrub of gardens. Flowers white, fragrant at night, inodorous during day. Follicles with 3-6 seeds embedded in a red fleshy aril. Ervatamia dichotoma Blatter. A small shrub. Only two plants in Chandra Bhavan. Wrightia tomentosa Roem. A rare deciduous tree. Young parts tomen- tose; corona of orange-coloured scales. Follicles black, 8-14” long, laterally compressed. Flowers rainy season. Plumeria acutifolia Poiret. Cultivated in gardens. Flowers white. Fra- grant. Allamanda cathartica Linn. A woody climber with large bright yellow flowers. Cultivated. ASCLEPIADACEAE Ceropegia tuberosa Roxb. A perennial herb. Rare. Flowers during rainy season, Cryptostegia grandiflora R, Br. A large evergreen ornamental woody climber with rose flowers. Cultivated. Asclepias curassavica Linn. A Mexican plant, common in gardens. a 98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 BoRACINA CE AE Heliotropium indicum Linn. Leaves up to 4” long. Fruit beaked; common in moist places. Flowers Oct. Heliotropium subulatum Hochst. Spikes not bracteate. Fruit not beaked ; nutlets rounded tuberculated on the back. Flowers cold season. Heliotropium ovalifolium Forsk. Spikes with persistent bracts, fruit not beaked. Nutlets densely silky on the back. Flowers cold season. Heliotropium marifolium Retz. Spikes bracteate, bracts conspicuous, leaf-like, lanceolate. Fruit bristly, subglobose, nutlets brown. Arnebia hispidissima DC. A diffuse hairy herb. Flowers small, white in racemes. Nutlets tuberculated on all sides. Common. Flowers hot Season. Sericostoma pauciflorum Stocks. A straggling undershrub of sandy soil. Flowers Dec.—Feb. ee . CONVOLVULACEAE : Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Parasite on small trees or shrubs. Flowers Sept.-Feb. Rare. , Merremia pentaphylla Hallier, Cultivated. Ipomea quamoclit Linn. Rare, in gardens. SOLANACEAE | Lycium europeum Linn. A thorny shrub. Flowers white, Oct—March. Common in sandy areas. hs Cestrum nocturnum Linn. Cultivated in gardens for the fragrant flowers. OCR O PU AR TA CHE Anticharis linearis Hochst. (Doratanthera linearis Benth). A Small herb with purple flowers. Common, August-December. Russelia juncea Zucc. A Mexican shrub with rush-like green and rib- bed stems, branches slender in whorls. Common in gardens. Flowers most part of the year. Linaria minor Desk. Cultivated in gardens. BIGNONIACEAE Tecoma stans Juss. (Svenolobium stans Seem) A large shrub; leaves pinnate ; flowers yellow, corolla with red lines on the inside. Culti- vated in gardens and also as a hedge plant ; common, Flowers Sept.— April. 7 Tecoma capensis Lindl. (Syn. 7ecomaria capensis Spach). A rambling shrub indigenous to south Africa. A few plants cultivated in gardens. VEGETATION OF PILAN]. AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 99 Millingtonia hortensis Linn. Indian cork tree. A_ tall tree with white fragrant flowers in panicles. Believed to be indigenous to Burma. Common in gardens ; spreads--naturally by root suckers. Flowers March-April. Kigelia pinnata DC. Sausage tree. A medium-sized tree, indigenous to tropical Africa. Commonly cultivated on the sides of roads. Jacaranda mimosaefolia D. Don. (Syn. J. ovalifolia R. Br.).. A. hand- some tree with beautiful blue flowers in terminal pas Flowers April. In gardens. . PEDALIACEAE Pedalium murex Linn. In sandy places ; rare. ACANTHACEAE Blepharis scindica T, Anders. A spinous bristly small shrub with flowers in Strobilate spikes. Flowers Sept.-Oct. Rare, in sandy areas. As tar as we are aware, this is the first report of the plant from _ Rajasthan. Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees. An erect herb. Stem six-angled. Flowers in trichotomous cymose panicles. Flowers pink; Oct.—Jan. uipwelvea te sp. Cultivated in gardens. eps VERBENACEAE Vitex negundo Linn. A hedge plant; rare. Clérodendrum inerme Gaertn. An evergreen unarmed shrub... Grown in gardens. Flowers white. ee : LABIATAE Ocimum basilicum Linn, . Cultivated. Ocimun canum Sim. Rare. Leucas urticaefolia R. Br. Common. PLANTAGINACEAE. antago. amplexicaulis Cav. A sparsely hairy annual .with a short - branching stem ; leaves sheathing, radical, narrowly lanceolate ; many axillary scapes exceeding the leaves and ovate spikes. Sépals four with thick green midrib and membranous margins. - Corolla white, _ lobes concave. Capsule two-seeded. Seeds boat shaped fused with the pericarp. Common in Stabilised soil during cold months. This is the first report of the plant from Rajasthan. AMARANTACEAE Nothosaerua brachiata Wt. An erect slender branching herb; stems sparsely hairy; leaves elliptic-lanceolate, narrowed at: the’ base, Spikes cylindrical. Perianth 3-5-lobed; stamens 2, free; ovule single; flowers October to December. Borders of fields and moist places. - 100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 Aerva lanata Juss. Rare. Flowers rainy season. Alternanthera bicolor In gardens. Rare. Celosia argentea Linn. Cultivated in gardens. Often found as an escape but never wild. CHENOPODIACEAE Chenopodium glaucum Linn. Common, January-April. Atriplex crassifolia C.A. May. Frequent cold season. POLYGONACEAE Rumex dentatus Linn. The enlarged perianth in fruit with a smooth tubercle on the back, and margins irregularly toothed. Common in Winter. Antigonon leptopus Hook. Coral creeper. Cultivated in gardens. Flowers July—November. Muehlenbeckia platyclados Meiss. A glabrous shrub indigenous to Solo- mon Islands. Recently introduced in the Botanical garden. EUPHORBIACEAE Euphorbia dracunculoides Lamk. A dichotomously. branched slender annual, 10-20” high with sessile, linear or linear-lanceolate leaves, lower alternate, upper opposite. Floral leaves shorter ; involucre subsessile, solitary in between the branches, campanulate hairy on the inside, lobes ovate ciliate ; glands crescent-shaped; styles free to the base, bifid; testa of seed brownish white leprous. Carun- cle small. This plant was first noticed in Pilani in Feb. 1954, near the Engineering College. In the years that followed it was noticed at several spots, during the months of January-March. Euphorbia millii Ch. des Moulins (Syn. Z. splendens Bojer) Cyathium is closely subtended by two broadly ovate bright red bracts. Culti- vated as a pot plant, very rare. Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Only very few plants. Cultivated. Fluggea leucopyrus Willd. A rigid bushy shrub, branches terminating in sharp thorns. Frequent. Flowers July-August. Crozophora obliqua A, Juss. A herb; leaves stellately tomentose on both sides. Stamens five, ovary covered with stellate hairs and scales. Rare, Croton sparsiflorus Morung. A low shrub; Leaves ovate to lanceolate, serrate at apex ; leaf stalk has a pair of bracts (?) at the base. Flowers in slender racemes at the ends of branches; male flowers at the upper region, female flowers very few, stamens 10-15, outer perianth green, inner white (absent in female flowers). Capsule hairy, three-angled ; seeds shining, spongy white, cap conspicuous. Flowers most part of the year. A native of S. America. Introduced in VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 101 Bengal in 1898 or so, after which it has spread rayidly through- out India. However, this is the first report of the plant from Rajasthan. In Pilani the plant was first noticed by the authors in 1953. Now colonies of it occur at various places in the area. Poinsettia pulcherrima Grah. A few plants cultivated in gardens. Bridelia stipularis Blume. A scandent shrub with dark grey bark. Flowers monoecious, greenish yellow, in axillary clusters. Male flowers sessile. Female pedicelled. Rare. This appears to be the first record of this plant from Rajasthan. Breynia rhamnoides Muell. An evergreen shrub; leaves distichous, alter- nate; stipules short setaceous. Flowers monoecious in few-flowered, axillary clusters. Male flowers : calyx with six inflexed teeth, sta- mens three, pistillode absent. Female flowers: Calyx campanulate, six-lobed, enlarged in fruit. Rare. URTICACEAE Ficus glomerata Roxb, Cultivated. Rare. Fruit edible. SCITAMINACEAE Musa sapientum Linn. Rare, cultivated. AMARYLLIDACEAE Crinum asiaticum Linn. Cultivated in gardens ; common. Crinum latifolium Linn. Common in gardens. oe A Con AE Aloe vera Tourn. In gardens. Ruscus hypophyllum Linn. A small shrub 12-18” high. Leaves re- placed by phylloclades. Cultivated in gardens. Sanseviera cylindrica. In gardens, not rare. Yucca sp. In gardens, rare. Dracaena angustifolia Roxb. Cultivated in gardens. PALMAE Phoenix dactylifera. Only very few plants. Cultivated. PANDANACEAE Pandanus sp. A few plants cultivated around Shivganga. Introduced in 1953. COMMELINACEAE Tradescantia sp. Very rare. Cultivated. 102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 gaady = GRAMINEAE Cenchrus ciliaris Linn. : Cenchrus prieri (Kunth) Maire Saccharum munja Roxb. A tufted perennial grass spreading rapidly by suckers. A good fibre is obtained from the plant. Common. Saccharim spontaneum Rare, cultivated. Melanocenchris royleana Nees. | (Gracilea voyaleana K K, f). Cymbopogon parkeri Stapf. | Sporobolus orientalis Kunth. Sporobolus glaucifolius Hochst. Sporobolus virginicus Kunth. Poa aspera Jacq. Setaria glauca Beauv. Setaria verticillata Beauv. Tragus biflorus Schut. Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss. (Fleusine scindica Duthie). Dichanthium caricosum A, Camus. Brachiaria ramosa Stapf (Panicum ramosum Linn.). Brachiaria paspaloides Pres]. Digitaria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr. (Panicum adscendens H.B.K.). Digitaria sanguinalis Scop. (Paspalum sanguinale Linn. ). Digitaria longiflora. ‘Aristida funiculata Trin, & Rup. 7 Aristida depressa Retz. (Avistida adscensionis Linn.). Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. (Avagrosiis cynosuroides Beauv.) Eleusine verticillata Roxb. we Echinochloa colonum Link- (Panicum colonum Linn. ). Echinochloa stagnina Beauv. (Panicum stagninum Retz.). Eragrostis viscosa -'Trin. as Eragrostis gangetica Steud. Eragrostis. plumosa Link. Eragrostis minor Host. Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Bambusa arundinacea Willd. Cultivated in Chandra Bhavan. VEGETATION OF -PILAN]J AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 103 CYCADACEAE Cycas revoluta Beddome. Cultivated in gardens. CORRECTIONS, AND LIST OF PLANTS REPORTED BY BAKSHI BUT NOT FOUND IN THE AREA SURVEYED BY HIM CAPPARIDACEAE Crataeva religiosa Forst. V1lOnA CRA Viola cinerea Boiss. CAR YVOPRHY EWA CH ACE Saponaria vaccaria Linn. Bakshi states that it is a frequent weed in the fields. But we have seen it only in the cultivated state in gardens, and it never runs wild in Pilani. epe? HLATINACEAE. Bergia odorata Edeow. ~~ MATEY ACEARE Sida veronicaefolia Lamk. STERCULIACEAE Waltheria indica Linn. GERANIACEAE Monsonia senegalensis Guill. & Perr. LEGUMINOSARBE Alhagi camelorum Fisch. Strangely enough Bakshi mentions it to be a common species. Not only in Pilani but also in the neighbouring places the existence of this plant is doubtful (See Nair, 1955 ; Nair and Nathawat, 1956). It is a plant characteristic of western Raja- sthan. Butea monosperma. Bakshi considers it to be a common tree in Pilani, . There is only a single tree in the whole of the area surveyed by Bakshi and it was introduced into the Botanical garden in 1953. Tamarindus indica Linn. Bakshi states that it is a frequent plant of the locality. ‘There are only half a dozen plants (cultivated) in the area surveyed by him. Acacia modesta Wall, COMBRETACEAE ‘Terminalia arjuna Bedd. Five plants are cultivated around Shiv Gana, but Bakshi reports it to be a frequent species of the locality. 104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 CONVOLVULACEAE Rivea ornata SCROPHULARIACEAE Antirrhinum orontium Linn. PEDALIACRAE Martynia diandra GI], ACANTHACEAR Adhatoda vasica Nees (Justicia adhatoda Linn.). Bakshi mentions that this plant is not infrequent in Pilani, but we have not come across it any- where in the area surveyed by him. Several attempts have been made to grow this plant in the Botanical garden and elsewhere but failed. VERBENACEAE Lantana indica Roxb. Bakshi writes that this plant is frequent in Pilani becoming a.troublesome weed in some places. His statement is erroneous as this plant does not occur at all in the wild state. It was in 1953 that a few plants were introduced in one of the gardens and they too do not grow well. Stachytarpheta indica Vahl. Bakshi mentions about blue flowered plants. We have observed only white flowered plants, and the existence of blue flowered plants is not likely. LABIATAE Salvia aegyptiaca Leonotis nepetaefolia CHENOPODIACEAE Kochia indica Wight. EUPHORBIACEAE Euphorbia royleana Boiss. Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY The aim of the present paper is to correct Bakshi’s account of the vegetation of Pilani and its neighbourhood, and to provide some more information with regard to the vegetation of the locality. 145 new plants have been recorded. A list of plants not found either in the wild or in the cultivated state, but reported by Bakshi, is given. Excluding known cultivated plants, the flora of Pilani and its neighbouring villages consists of 275 species representing 165 genera and 51 families, Gramineae is the only Monocotyledon well represented, VEGETATION OF PILAN] AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 105 There are 60 species of monocotyledonous plants of which Gramineae consists of 49 species. Except Leguminosae and Compositae the Dicoty- ledons are also poorly represented. Of the 215 species of Dicotyledons 34 belong to Leguminosae, 18 belong to Compositae, while the remaining 163 species belong to 44 families. There is only a single Gymnosperm Ephedra toliata. The ratio of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons is 1: 11:5 of families, 1: 4:3 of genera, and 1: 3°8 of species. The ratio of genera to species is 1: 1°64. 23 families have 1 genus each, and of the remaining 28 families 11 have 2 genera, 2 have 3 genera, 4 have 4, 6 have 5, 1 each has 6, 7, 15, 16, and 24 genera respectively. The families having 6 or more genera are Amarantaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae, Compositae, and Gramineae. Of the 165 genera, 101 are represented by a single species, 32 by 2 species, 14 by 3, 3 by 4,6 by 5, and 2 by 6. The families having 6 or more species are Cruciferae (6), Capparidaceae (6), Cucurbitaceae (6), Asclepia- _ daceae (6), Solanaceae (6), Tiliaceae (8), Convolvulaceae (8), Acanthaceae (8), Amarantaceae (8), Boraginaceae (9), Malvaceae (11), Euphorbiaceae (12), Compositae (18), Leguminosae (34), and Gramineae (49). These families make more than three-fifths of the flora. ‘The various genera are poorly represented. The largest genera containing 4 or more species are Mollugo (4), Trianihema (4), Cenchrus (4), Sida (5), Corchorus (5), Indigofera (5), Tephrosia (5), Acacia (5), Euphorbia (5), Eragrostis (6), and Heliotropium (6). Out of 275 species 21 are trees, 49 are shrubs or undershrubs and 205 herbs. Phanerogamic hydrophytes are not represented in the natural vegetation of the area under consideration. Cuscuta, Siviga, and Cistanche ate the parasitic genera of phanerogams. Climbing plants are well re- presented. 32 species of climbers belonging to 12 families are present in the flora of the area. The largest numbers of climbers belong to Convol- vulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Leguminosae. The psamophytes of the locality are Farsetia jaquemontit, F. hamit- tonit, Polygala erioptera, P. abyssinica, Polycarpaea corymbosa, Tribulus terrestris, Fagonia sp., Corchorus antichorus, Zizyphus rugosa, Z, xylo- porus, Crotalaria burhia, Indigotera argentea, I. cordttolia, Tephrosia sp., Cassia toara, Citrullus colocynthis, Mellugo sp., Gisekia pharnaceoides, Spermacoce sp., Oldenlandia sp., Pulicaria wightiana, Echinops echinatus, Launea sp., Pluchea lanccolata, Calotropis procera, Leptadenia spartium, Lycium europeum, Pedalium murex, Boerhavia dittusa, Aerua tomentosa Calligonum polygonotdes, Cyperus arenarius, Cenchrus sp., Saccharum munja, Digitaria marginata, Panicum turgidum. Aristida depressa, Eragrostis sp., Sporobolus sp., Setaria sp., and Andropogon annulatus, ‘The data presented in the previous pages suggest that there is a close similarity between the flora of Pilani and its neighbourhood and that of Chirawa (Nair, 1956). The dominant families and genera of western Rajputana and the area under consideration are practically the same (See Blatter and Hallberg, 1918-1921 ; Sarup, 1951: Sankhala, 1951: Sabnis, 1929). However, the absence of some of the very characteristic plants of western Rajasthan, eg., Alhagt camelorum, Euphorbia royleana, E.. nerittolia, EF. jodhpurensis, E. nivulia etc. is very striking. We are thankful to Dr. B. N. Mulay for facilities and encouragement. We are also thankful to Messrs. M. C. Joshi and B. D. Deshpande for their interest and helpful suggestions, 106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 BIBLIOGRAPHY mvarty T.S. (1954) : Vegetation of Pilani and its neighbourhood, J/BNA'S, ‘52: 484-514. Blatter, E. & Hallberg, F. E. (1918-1921), The flora of the Indian desert. ibid. 26-27 (different pages). Hooker, J. D. (1885) Flora of British India, London. | _. Mulay, B.N. & B. V. Ratnam (1950) : Study of vegetation feund round about ‘Pilani and its neighbourhood. Proc. Indian Sci. Cong. Poona (3): 64-65. - ..Nair, N.C. (1956) : Flora of Chirawa. Proc. Raj. Acad. Sci. 6: 49-64. Nair, N. C. & Joshi, M. C. (1955): Sand dune vegetation of Pilani and its neighbourhood. Symp. Vegetation types India. Baroda. (unpublished). : Nair, N.C. & Nathawat, G.S., Vegetation of Harshnath. /SNAS (in press). Ramachandra, K. R. (1950): Common grasses found round about Pilani. Pvoc. Indian Sci. Cong. Poona. (3) : 65-65. _.. Ratnam, B. V. & Joshi, M, C. (1952): An ecological study of the vegetation near about a temporary pond in Pilani, Pvoc. Raj. Acad. Sct. 3: 1-15. Sabnis, T. S. (1929): A note on the ecology of the flora of Sind. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 8: 263-236. 5 Sankhala, K. S. (1951): Enumeration of the flowering plants of North- wesfern Rajasthan. Uni. Rajputana studies. Biol. Sect. 1: 43-56. Sarup, = (1951) : A list of common plants of Jodhpur and its neighbourhood. ibid. 1: 29-35. . DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSE TO FORM AND PATTERN IN TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN (HONEY GEES BY; oo KK. -Dixii. M.Sc. (Department of Zoology, University of Poona) (With two text figures) CONTENTS. PAGE Sele IntROpUcTION . —\...1 ae oe Cen we Pe N07 2. MarTERuats Re ee ce pean haat ... 109 3: MetHop oF EXPERIMENTS ieee ite a ee sae ae eo? 110 4, OBSERVATIONS _ ... 500 ie oes | | pes ae 112 5. Discussion Spe sjoce Me Be BAE ak Bete tigett ees Fa 6. SUMMARY i Be ee i sEh SG 7, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | uae Te ws Ras aeee 17 REFERENCES Sine ie oe a ian re (ake) 1. INTRODUCTION Honeybees are the most important among the social Hymenoptera as agents for pollination in plants. This is mainly due to their faculty of flower constancy, by which is meant the attachment of honeybees to flowers of a particular species of: plant for obtaining nectar and- pollen for a considerable period of time. In returning to the same type of flower and in being able to distinguish between flowers of different species of plants, the honeybees are supposed to make use of certain clues,. such as the colour, form, scent,.and the position of the flowers. However, it is only in the European honey- bee Apis. mellifera that these factors of sensory physiology and behaviour have been analysed and have been proved to be of impor- tance in the phenomenon of flower constancy. It was with. the object of investigating the possible importance of ‘form’ in- the flower constancy shown oS boretey HIS OES that the present work was undertaken. Considerable work on the Nhat of discrimination of foen arid pattern in A. mellifera based both on spontaneous preference and on preference induced by training has been done in Europe, especially by German workers. _- Won Frisch (1914) trained honeybees to select a punlowershaped pattern from a gentian-shaped one, but neither he nor Hertz (1929a) 1 Dedicated to Prof. K, von Frisch.-on his. seventieth birthday. . 108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 could succeed in training the bees to distinguish between such figures as triangles, squares, and circles. However, the bees couid distinguish these patterns from the subdivided ones, and they could easily be trained to choose only the more subdivided pattern. Hertz (1929b) also performed experiments on the spontaneous, as opposed to induced, form-preference in A. mellifera. She did these by training bees to feed from a uniform white surface and then offering them a choice of two alternative black-on-white patterns on which they had never been fed. They preferred any black figure to the white background and so Hertz came to the conclusion that their spontaneous preference regarding various figures was related to the quantity of outline, irregularity and size of patterns, and the independence of their components. There was no absolute criterion of attractiveness, but the attractiveness of any pattern depended upon its value relative to that of other objects which the bee could see at that time. At any rate, bees preferred the most contrasting patterns. Later, Hertz also performed experiments with three dimensional models. The result was that bees responded to the shadows of these three dimensional models in the same way as they did to the black parts in the blacks on-white patterns. Gertrud Zerrahn (1933), who trained honeybees to one pattern and then presented them with a choice of two patterns which were similar in character but different in their degree of subdivision, also concluded that the bees had a spontaneous tendency to alight upon whatever pattern possessed the greatest length of contour. Wolf and Zerrahn- Wolf (1935) offered untrained honeybees a free choice of pairs of chessboard patterns and they concluded that the reaction of bees to patterns depended only on the rate of change in the stimulation of their eyes. Wolf (1933 a, b) demonstrated the importance of ‘flicker’ in bee vision, and concluded that the quick variation in the stimula- tion of the facets would cause the bee to alight, and discover groups of flowers. This simple hypothesis, however, can not explain all the observed facts. After taking a review of all the work done on this subject, including her own work, Hertz (1935) concluded that the amount of outline possessed by different black-on-white patterns was certainly not the only quality by which they were distinguished; a figure was perceived as a complex thing, which might have several different properties which could be used for alternative training. From the foregoing, it appears that our knowledge of the subject of form discrimination in honeybees is far from complete. The con- clusions reached by Hertz, Wolf, and Zerrahn are partially contradictory. Ribband’s book (1953) contains a wealth of information on the vision of honeybees and yet his section on ‘Perception of Form and Pattern’ leaves the impression that much more data are necessary. There iS, however, a certain measure of agreement on one point, namely that, when the bees are confronted with a pair of figures of similar general character (but differing in the amount of contour or degree of sub- division), they prefer the figure with greater contour to the one with less, as long as they are able optically to resolve both patterns and consequently recognise them as such. TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES 109 In attempting to investigate the response of the Indian honeybees to form and pattern, the following problems were posed: (i) What preferences, if any, do the various species of Indian honeybees show for one of two patterns similar in all respects except in their length of contour (or degree of subdivision, contrast, degree of brokenness, etc.)? (ii) If there is such a preference, is there a point of subdivision of pattern at which this preference is reversed? And if so, when? (111) Does the choice of pattern depend on the distance at which the bee decides on which of the two to alight? 2. MATERIALS Results recorded in this paper have been obtained from experiments on Apis indica and Apis florea. During the training of the bees and the tests, the experimental table was covered with a uniform light grey paper. During the test this background of light grey served to provide a strong contrast to all other patterns provided which were made in jet black. Two series of patterns (or figures) similar to some used by Zerrahn (toga), one later referred to as the star series, and the .other the chequerboard (or chessboard) series, have been used in these experi- ments. In the star series of patterns, photographic black paper was cut and stuck on light grey (same as the background colour) card- board discs. | The radius of each pattern was always the same, namely one inch. The star series consisted of five gradations of patterns of increasing complexity shown in text figure 1 (A-E). Pattern A showed A B TEXT-FIGURE 1. Star series of patterns A to E. the least amount of contour between black and light grey. The amount of contour increases successively through B, C and D tto reach its climax in E. Two specimens of each grade of pattern were prepared. In addition to these patterns, two specimens each of solid black discs and solid medium grey discs of the same diameter as the black rays 110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HISd SOCIETY, Vol. 194 in the star series were prepared. The medium grey chosen (M 15 of the standardized Baumann series) was approximately intermediate in shade between the lght' grey and the black used in these Experiments: 72 4 ae 3 : In. the chessboard series two figures each of five grades of patterns of increasing contour complexity were prepared. Here, however, the black parts of the figure were not stuck on light grey squares but were painted jet black. in Indian ink on it. The five grades in the chessboard series are designated as A’, B’, C’, D’, and B’ (figure 2). The least subdivided pattern A’ presents the least A' i Bi TexT-FIGURE 2. Chequerboard series of patterns A’ to E’ amount of contour of black and light grey, while the degree of sub- division as well as the amount of contour increases successively through B’, C’ and D’ to reach its climax in E’. Two specimens of medium grey squares (M 15) were also prepared for the chequer- board series. 3. MetHop or EXPERIMENTS At the beginning of the experiments with each of the two species of honeybees the bees had first to be lured to the experimental table in order to perform the experiments. The method of luring both A. indica and’ A, florea is essentially the same. The bees are lured either directly from the hive when it is accessible, or else from the flowers on which they feed in nature. During luring a piece of filter paper smeared with honey is held near the bees. When one of the bees happens to crawl on this honey-soaked filter paper it feeds from it:' After feeding, the bee returns to the hive and apparently alerts its companions, for in a short while a group of about ten to fifteen bees is seen feeding from the filter paper. The filter paper together with the bees thereon, is then slowly transferred, by stages, to the experitmental table where concentrated sugarwater drops are uniformly TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES iit scattered over a transparent piece of ‘Perspex’ (I.C.1.) which, in its turn lies above the light grey paper which forms the background colour. The filter paper together with the bees on it is finally kept near one of these sugarwater drops. When the honey on the filter paper is ex- hausted, bees discover the sugarwater drops and commence feeding on them. The filter paper is then discarded. Thereafter, the bees regularly visit the experimental table and feed on sugarwater drops. The sugarwater drops are renewed as soon as they are exhausted. This part of the experiment is called the training. The bees in this case are being trained to associate food with the light grey colour of the uniform background. If the bees have been fed for a suffi- ciently long time on a given spot, they automatically visit the same spot at approximately the same hour on subsequent days. This fact obviates the need of luring the bees to the experimental table every day. The perspex, referred to above, is of the same appearance as glass but differs from it inasmuch as it does not cut away the ultra-violet rays to the same extent. During the training of the bees as well as the tests, a piece of perspex covers the whole arrange- ment, either of the light grey paper alone or with the patterns on it as the case may be. This is to ensure that the bees do not train themselves to the smell of the light grey paper. , During training the perspex, over which sugarwater drops are laid, is cleaned at frequent intervals by means of a moist cloth. This precaution is taken to ensure that the bees do not associate the bee scent with food. This has been shown to occur in A. mellifera and so is suspected to occur also in the Indian species of -honeybees. Care is also taken during training to see that the bees do not form large clusters round a single sugarwater drop; for if this is allowed to happen the bees might get trained to an accumulation of their own shapes and colour, instead of to the light grey colour and this factor may distort the results to be obtained in the test. After training to the light grey background, tests are performed with figures on which the bees had not been fed. In the test, two specimens each of two patterns for which the bees’ inborn preference is to be tested are kept on the light grey paper which is already on the training table, and this whole arrangement is covered over by a new clean sheet of perspex. The patterns are laid out on the table in such a manner that all of them have an equal chance of being visited by the bees. In the tests, no sugarwater drops are offered over the perspex. Ordinary water drops were offered instead on the perspex directly above the patterns, in some of the tests, while in the rest there were no drops. The presence of water drops in the test merely serves to enhance the number of visits on all the patterns offered, but does not materially alter the nature of the results. In the tests where the perspex is raised, the presence of water drops greatly facilitates accurate recording of the number of visits, which is other- wise very difficult. The number of visits that the bees pay to each of the patterns offered is recorded. When a sufficient number of visits have been recorded the test is closed down, and training the bees to light grey paper is resumed in the manner. described above. 112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 54 During each test the experimental table is turned once through an angle of 90°, so as not to give any pattern (also called ‘figure’ in this paper) an advantage over the other only because of its position. The reaction of bees to figures were tested under two main conditions: (a) with the figures covered only with a layer of perspex, and (b) with perspex raised over the figures so that it covered the whole arrangement at a distance of 14”.. For this purpose a frame was designed which could be used to raise the perspex and which, at the same time, prevented the entry of the bees from below it. 4. OBSERVATIONS The results obtained in the experiments with the two species of honeybees are recorded below in the form of tables. The signs in the column at the extreme right in the table show which pattern (the less subdivided or the more subdivided) out of a pair is preferred by the bees, and to what extent? The signs used to indicate the pre- ferences are +,++, and +++. These are explained below Table 1. The preferences shown by the bees in these experiments are entirely spontaneous or inborn, inasmuch as the tests are not pre- ceded by training the bees to any particular pattern. It is significant that the choice between the two patterns by the bees is based on relative and not on absolute characters of the patterns in question. Table 1 and 2 show the results of experiments with A. indica in which the star and the chequerboard series of patterns respectively were used. Tables 3 and 4 record the results of experiments with A. florea in which also the star and the chequerboard series of pattern respectively were used. TABLE 1 Perspex | Percentage of visits | Total Remarks* ae eed raised on each of the No. of or not? patterns VISHS ‘l/eae’ cub iMate come 1 A&B | No A— 33:3, B-—66°7 42 ae oe Z B&C No B—33°3, C—66°7 120 sha 3 C&D No C-—50 , D—S0 32 equal equal 4 C&D Yes C—71:'4, D-28°6 49 + + 5 D&E No D --54°2, E—45°8 35 ap 6 | Black disc & E No Black 13:6, E—86°4 44 +++ 7 B& E No B—33°3, E—66°7 37 ++ 8 B& E Yes B-71°4, E—28°6 63 ++ 9 A&E No A—32°5, E—67°5 40 ++ 10 A&C No A-25, C-—75 32 | Te te Sp 11 A&C Yes A-—67:5, E—32°5 40 ++ 12 |MI5& E No M15—15°3, E—84:7 13 staat icte 13. |M1I5&E Yes M15—-52, E—48 48 at 14 |M15&D 54 ae Yes M15 - 46:2, D—53°8 SP EL IT LS IP LO ELLE TE EES SENSE Ty n TP ES ETS * Slightly preferred +, preferred + +, greatly preferred +++. Expt. hoe NI Dm NF ES ET TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES Patterns offered B’ & EB’ Black sq. & C B’ & D’ Black sq. & E M15 & D’ SVE Apis indica. TABLE 2 Perspex | Percentage of visits raised or not ? No No No Yes No No Yes Apis florea. rs Total Chequerboard series 113 | Expt. No. OON DMF & Hr Patterns offered SOW >>> b> bb >> RRR SHOES HE HOS mE oOyOOtD nr & o Perspex raised or not? | { | | i Remarks on each of the No. of patterns visitS Tess sub.|More sub. | B’—75'5, E’ —24°5 4S Pap ae Black — 20, C’—80 35 +++ B’46°6, D—53°4 30 + B’ — 67, D’ —33 59 + + D’-—81, E’ —19 37 +++ Black -- 29:6, E’—70°4, 27 ++ M15—63°1, D’ —36°9 38 ++ TABLE 3 Star series of patterns | Percentage of visits ee Remarks on each pattern Ursits Less sub./More sub. A —34:7, B—65°3 46 te A-—45°9, B—54°1 49 ap A— 23°8, C—76°2 88 Tap ae A-—38'9, C—61L°1 77 + A-—26°8, D—73:2 97 ++ A—50°5, D—49°5 175 equal equal A — 24°3, E--75°7 111 +++ A-—47°1, E—52°9 89 + B—39.4, E—60°6 152 + C—55°3, D—44°7 94 | + D—-52, E—45 104 | + M15—49°7, D—50°3 108) equal equal Expt. No. COND UP NH Patterns offered TABLE 4 Apis florea. Chequerboard series Perspex | percentage of visits | 2otal SESH AS raised No. of Or not? perch patter visits Less sub.|More sub. No A’ —42°6, B’:57-4 54 + No A’ -- 24°3, C’ —75°7 82 ++ No A’ —27°3, D’7:27 117 ++ Yes A’ —46°4, D’:53°6 114 a No A’ —48°7, E’ —51°3 78 + No D’ —55°5, E’ —44°5 63 | + Yes Dit 55, 045 69 | + Yes 98 i M15—48, D’—52 114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 5. DIscussion One of the most significant and interesting results obtained from the present study was that both the species of honeybees, even when they were trained to feed only from a uniform light grey surface, visited in overwhelmingly large numbers the black-on-light grey patterns offered to them in the test, whereas the grey background to which the bees had been trained attracted only very few. In A. indica it is seen (Table 1) that among pairs of star patterns which differ but little from each other as regards the amount of contour (or the degree of subdivision) they present, the more sub- divided figure is nearly always preferred (though sometimes only slightly) to the less subdivided one, as seen in Experiments 1 and 2, or at least the less subdivided figure is never preferred to the more subdivided one (e.g., Expt. 3). If the difference in the amount of subdivision is greater between the two figures, as in Expt. 10, the more subdivided pattern is markedly preferred to the less subdivided one. If this inference is correct, then it is to be expected that the preference of the subdivided figure will cease (or even be reversed) as soon as the limit of the optical resolution of the pattern in question, by the eyes of the bee is reached. This supposition, in fact, seems to be correct in the case of A. indica. The results of Expt. 5 show clearly that a point is reached when the less subdivided figure (D) (text figure 1) is preferred to a more subdivided one (E). Thus, at the level of subdivision as exemplified by E, the limit of optical resolu- tion for A. indica is reached. Though we find in the abovementioned case that the less sub- divided figure is slightly preferred to the more subdivided one, yet the difference in the percentage of visits between the two is small; that is to say, there is no sudden reversion of preference. This might be explained by, the assumption (confirmed by direct observa- tion) that the distance at which each bee discriminates between the two patterns is not constant, but varies round a certain median value, most probably according to a Gaussian curve. Consequently, for a certain number of bees which decide at a greater distance, the finer pattern will have become already blurred while other bees, flying low, still recognize and therefore prefer it. If this interpretation is correct then the preference for the less subdivided figure should visibly increase if the bee is forced to make her choice between the two at a greater distance. This has been effected by the abovementioned device of raising the perspex so that the distance between it and the plane of the figures becomes 1%”. In this case, 14” is the minimum distance from which each bee can view both the patterns and choose between them. In fact, in Expt. 4 (Table 1) where this has been done the less subdivided figure C is definitely preferred tc the more subdivided one D. This result is substantially different from the result obtained in Expt. 3, where the same patterns were used but without raising the perspex. The same phenomenon is even more strikingly illustrated by Expts. 7 and 8, as also by Expts. 10 and 11. In all these cases, the bees behave as if for all or most of them the more subdivided patterns E, D and TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES 115 even C become blurred when viewed from a distance of 14”. We assume that such blurred star figures of black-on-light grey appear rather like medium grey discs to the bee. The fact that the finely divided star pattern D when confronted with a medium grey disc (M 15) under a raised perspex is almost exactly as attractive to the bees as the latter (Expt. 14) fits in with this assumption. The same holds for the star pattern E (Expt. 13). It is obvious that when the perspex is not raised above the plane of the figures, a greater proportion of bees will always be able to distinguish and prefer the finer pattern, hence even the border line pattern E 1s preferred to B (Esspt. 7) and to, As (xpt. 9). “However, the preference of E is not quite commensurate with its degree of subdivision. The results obtained, when the chequerboard series of patterns are offered to A. indica in pairs (Table 2), are in conformity with the results obtained with the star series and thus substantiate the hypothesis of the form discrimination of A. indica outlined above. The limit of optical resolution is reached for the bees at E’ (text figure 2) of the chequerboard series, as shown by Expt. 5. The only puzzling result is that of Expt. 7. Here the compact figure M 15 not only reaches the attractiveness of the finely subdivided figure D’ but surpasses it when the perspex is raised. This is contrary to the assumption that the visits on this could never more that equal those on D’, even if the chequerboard becomes completely blurred and there- fore similar to a grey square of the same luminosity. Results of a similar nature are obtained with A. florea. Results of Expts. 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9g in Table 3 illustrate the fact that the untrained bees when confronted with pairs of star patterns always prefer the more subdivided patterns to the less subdivided ones. ‘These results are quite comparable to those obtained with A. indica. That, from a certain degree of subdivision of pattern, the preference of the bees is reversed in favour of the less subdivided figure is shown in A. florea by the result of Expt. 10. Here the less subdivided figure C is preferred (though slightly) to the more subdivided figure D. Thus it seems that for a certain amount of bees the limit of optical resolu- tion of patterns is almost reached in A. florea between C and D of the star series of patterns. This is in contradistinction to the case obtained in A. indica where, as shown by Expt. 3 of Table 1, the limit of resolution is not quite reached between C and D. The fact that in A. florea the bees already prefer figure C to figure D' seems to indicate that they have a lower visual acuity as compared with A, indica. The result of Expt. 11 under Table 3 corresponds with the result of Expt. 5 in Table 1, thus showing that for both A. florea and A. indica the finely subdivided pattern E has less attraction than the less subdivided pattern D. Results of Expts. 2, 6 and 8 in Table 3 show that, as in A. indica, the preference is reversed in favour of the less subdivided pattern in A. florea when the perspex is raised 14” above the plane of the figures offered. The only result which does not fit in is that of Expt. 4 in Table 3. For this experiment seems to show that A. florea still prefers pattern C to pattern A, even when the perspex is raised by 14”. This result differs from the result of Expt. 11 in Table 1 where under similar conditions A. indica showed 116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 a definite preference for pattern A over pattern C. Expt. 12 in Table C shows that for A. florea pattern D is very much similar to a medium grey disc when the perspex is raised to a height of 14” above the figures in the test. This result agrees with the result obtained with A. indica. Table 4 contains the results of experiments on A. florea in which the chequerboard series of pattern were used. In experiments 1, 2 and 3 the patterns displaying greater contour are preferred to those showing less. Expt. 5 shows that the most subdivided pattern of the series, I)’, is slightly preferred to the least subdivided one, namely A’. Unfortunately the same experiment was not performed for A. indica but a closely comparable experiment, Expt. 1 in Table 2, shows that the most subdivided pattern E’ is not preferred to one of the less subdivided patterns B’. In fact B’ is nearly thrice as much visited as kj’, This fact seems to indicate that A. florea has a greater visual acuity than A. indica. But this is contradictory to the previous hypo- thesis. Also Expt. 8 shows that, unlike A. indica, the medium grey M 15 is confused with pattern D’ when the perspex is raised in the test to a height of 14”. Other results in Table 4 are similar to those obtained with A. indica. , Thus, as in the case of A. mellifera, a figure or pattern which presents a greater contour is preferred to one with less both by A. indica and A. florea. This preference, however, is shown only as long as the eye of the bee is able to resolve a pattern as such. Beyond that limit the preference of the more subdivided figure is reversed, most probably because such a figure seems blurred to the bees. In my experiments the reversal which occurred when the distance between the contours reached a certain absolute value was not sudden but gradual. | This points to the fact, confirmed by observation, that the distance at which the bees make their choice between alternative patterns is not the same for all of them, but there is a median value around which the other values of distance lie, most probably along a Gaussian curve. It is intended, in future work, to obtain comparative values of visual acuity for the different species of honeybees by introducing an arrange- ment whereby the bees would be compelled to make their choice between different patterns at certain constant distances. The results obtained are likely to lead to a more definite conclusion than is possible on the basis of the present work, purely from the point of view of difference, if any, in the visual acuities of the different species of bees. The results thus far obtained seem to suggest that A. florea might have a slightly greater visual acuity than A. indica. 6. SUMMARY As in the case of the European honeybee, A. mellifera, a pattern which presents a greater contour is spontaneously preferred to one with less, both by A. indica and A. florea. This preference is shown only as long as the bee’s eye is able to resolve a pattern as such. Beyond that limit the preference of the more subdivided figure is reversed, most probably because such figure seems blurred to the bees. This reversal is not sudden, but gradual. This points to the fact that the distance at which the bees make their choice between alternative TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES Jule patterns varies for different species of bees around a. median value, inost probably along a Gaussian curve. The results thus far obtained seem to suggest that A. florea may have a slightly greater visual acuity than A. indica, 7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly indebted to Dr. Dora Ilse for suggesting this problem, helping me with the literature, and for valuable assistance in the interpretation of results. My grateful thanks are due to Prof. M. A. Moghe for extending all the facilities for completing this work and for making very useful suggestions regarding this paper. I also thank Shri J. F. D’Souza of Poona who very kindly permitted me to work with the hive of A. florea situated in his compound. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to the authorities of the Bombay Natural History Society for giving me a research grant and for their sympathetic attitude and constant help. REFERENCES Frisch, K. V. (1914): Der Farbensinn und Formensinn der Bienen. Zool. Jb. Abt. 3, 35; 1-188. Hertz, Mathilde (1929 a): Die Organisation des Optischen Feldes bei der Biene, I. Z. vergl. Physiol, 8: 693-748. — — — (1929 b): Die Organisation der Optischen Feldes bei der Biene, I. Z. vergl. Physiol. 11: 107-45. — — — (1935): Die Untersuchungen tiber der Formensinn der Honigbiene. Naturwissenschaften 23: 618-24. Ribbands, Ronald (1953): The behaviour and social life of honeybees. B. R. A., London. Wolf, E. (1933a): Critical frequency of flicker as a function of intensity of illumination for the eye of the bee. J. gen. Physiol. 17: 7-19. — — — (1933b): Das Verhalten der Bienen gegentiber flimmenden Feldern und bewegten objecten. Z. vergl. Physiol. 20: 151-61. Wolf & Zerrahn-Wolf, Gertrud (1935): The effect of light intensity, area and flicker frequency on the visual reactions of the honeybees. J. gen. Physiol. 18: 853-63. Zerrahn, Gertrud (1933) : Formdressur und Formunterscheidung bei der Honigbiene. Z. vergl. Physiol. 20: 117-50, BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR—MARGARONIA INDICA SAUND. (PYRALIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)? | BY R. C. PATEL, M.Sc. (AGRI.), Institute of Agriculture, Anand AND H. L. KULKARNY, M.Sc., Professor of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Dharwar (With a plate and a graph) INTRODUCTION The pumpkin caterpillar, Margaronia indica Saund., is noted as one of the important insect pests of cucurbitaceous vegetables grown in this part of the world. The caterpillars attack both leaves and fruits and thus cause considerable damage. The damage to fruits is a direct loss and is prominently noted during August and September. Weekly observations taken during the period of investigation showed that the caterpillars occur on the crop from the first fortnight of June to the second fortnight of November, i.e., up to the pruning time of the crop. The peak of infestation was, however, noticed after 3 to 4 weeks of initial infestation. During 1953-54, the attack was initially noted on parwar (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.) which subsequently spread on tondli (Coccinia indica W. & A.) crop. METHODS AND MATERIALS The pest was commonly found on tondli and parwar. To judge the incidence of the pest in the fields, three leaves of different stages of growth were selected at random and the population level was recorded. Every week 10 different vines were selected at random and the average incidence of the pest on a medium-sized leaf was worked out. The incidence of the pest damaging the fruits was noted by observing 100 fruits at random. The larvae were reared on tondli leaves in the laboratory in glass petri dishes or glass bowls. The leaves were maintained green and succulent by keeping wet cotton- wool plugs at their petioles. The pupae, as they formed, were taken out, sexed and kept in separate dishes until emergence of the adults. The sex of the moths as they emerged was confirmed and individual pairs were introduced in glass chimneys with hanging paper strips. The moths were fed on sugar solution. The moths laid eggs on the * Being a part of the thesis for the m.sc. (Agri.) degree submitted to the Gujarat University by the former author under the guidance of the latter. BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR © Vy) paper strips.. Fresh strips were substituted and those with eggs were removed for egg counts. Permanent mounts of the insect material were prepared following the usual method. The material was treated with concentrated chlorine water subsequent to potassium hydroxide treat. ment, in order to decolorise the material satisfactorily. It was then washed, dehydrated in ascending series of alcohol, cleared in clove oil and mounted in balsam. HIsTORICAL REVIEW Hampson (18096) recorded the insect as damaging cotton leaves throughout the Australian and Oriental regions. In India it was first recorded by Lefroy and Howlett (1909) on cucurbits. Fletcher (1914, 1921) has given a general description of the life stages of the insect and has reported that it occurs in the plains of India, Burma, and Ceylon on snake gourd, cucumber, turia (Luffa), Cucurbita pepo, and kaddu. Ramkrishna Ayyar (1923, 1940) observed that it occurs on melon and various other cucurbitaceous crops. He has briefly described some of the life stages without giving the details regarding its bionomics. Other important records are by Pruthi (1936) and Sevastopulo (1948) from India, by Gosh (1925) from Burma, and by the Entomological staff (1923) from Ceylon. Vayssiere and Mimeur (1925) observed that in French Sudan it occurs on egg-plant and cotton. According to them the larval and pupal stages last for 16 and 11 days respectively. In Queensland, May (1946) found it to be most common on watermelon. He observed that the larval and the pupal periods last for 3 weeks and 5 days respectively. GEOGRAPHICAL DiSTRIBUTION The insect has been recorded by various authors from various Indian territories, Burma, Ceylon, Fiji,, Oriental and Australian regions, Netherland Indies, Samoa, Mauritius, Tonga Island, Indo- China, Japan, French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa, West Africa, and French Sudan. HOST-PLANTS Within India the insect has been reported to feed on snake gourd, cucumber, turia (Luffa), Cucurbita pepo, kaddu, melon and cotton. Outside India, it is reported as feeding on Momordica charantia L., Ficus glomerata Roxb., snake gourd, melon, New Guinea bean (a cucurbitaceous plant), pumpkin, cotton, soyabean, cucumber, and egeg-plant. However, at various farms of the Institute of Agriculture, Anand, Bombay State, the insect was found breeding on parwar (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.), tondli (Coccinia indica W. & A.) and bottle gourd (Lagenaria vulgaris Seringe). NATURE OF DAMAGE The larva feeds on the lower surface of the leaves leaving the epidermis of the opposite side in the form of a thin papery translucent membrane. It binds up two adjacent leaves or folds up a single leaf 120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 and continues feeding while remaining inside the fold. The areas attacked by the caterpillars show various irregular patterns of different sizes. Generally the caterpillars remain stationary while feeding and consequently continuous patches of damaged areas result on the host leaves. The damaged patches then dry out, with the result that the leaves get distorted. The larvae attack the tender fruits and often start feeding on the ovary of the flowers and thus the fruit formation is much hampered. Well-developed fruits with hard rina are not damaged, but a good number of developing fruits are attacked. The larva bores a small hole in the fruit for its entry and eats away the inner part, thus rendering it useless. STUDIES ON LIFE-HISTORY he eon (Plater) mie: Xl) The eggs measure on an average 0.7990.037 mm. along the longer axis and 0.488 +0.035 mm. in width. They are thin-walled, normally oval, laid flat, and barium yellow! when viewed against a white back- ground. Generally they are laid singly on the undersurface of the host leaves. To study the distribution of the eggs laid, 112 eggs were examined and it was found that 46 were laid singly, 16 in groups of 2 each, 12 in groups of 3 each, 8 in groups of 4 each, and a single group each of 7, 8 and 15 eggs. The moths did not show any marked preference as to the host material for laying the eggs. to the natural shape of the eggs when laid is cylindrical with bluntly rounded ends, the shape varies according to the pressure on its flexible chorion from the surfaces on which they are laid. The chorion is thin, transparent, and appears with pentagonal reticulations when viewed under high magnification (Plate, fig. B). Appearance of the larval eyes in the form of two dark spots on one end indicates the nearness of the end of the incubation period. The incubation period of eggs varied from 3 to 6 days under different conditions of temperature, whereas at a constant temperature of 87.0-t1.5°F. they took 3.0 days to hatch. The data obtained are given below: (Gable 12) TABLE 1] Incubation period of eggs of Margaronia indica Saund. Incubation period of S . . Period of Temperature in °F . pee : eggs in days Study : observed : Average | (Min.— Max.) Average |(Min.— Max.) 1 August 5 2 January 10 to 19, 1954} 68°18 (60°9 ~ 80°0) 382 5°8 (5—6) 3. |Incubator | 87-07E1°5 395 3°0 (3-3) | | to 13, 1952| 77:0 | (73-0-80°0) 265 4-0 (4-4) | | * The colours have been described following Ridgway (1912). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 2.0 ma. 1. 0 vem: The Pumpkin Caterpillar, Margaronia indica Saund. A.—Eggs. B.—Reticulation on the egg chorion. C.—5th instar larva. D.—Pupa of M. indica Saund. E.—Adult. sits3) a pay i Ashe ries BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR 121 Irom the data presented in the table, it is evident that with the increase in mean temperature, the incubation period of eggs decreases considerably. The Larva: The tiny larvae break the egg-shell near their head region at the time of hatching. They move about for some time and later become semi-Stationary. In the first two instars, they feed very little. The caterpillars show a distinct tendency to move beneath the leaves ir- respective of the leaf surface presented to them. The larvae, prior to moulting, turn pale yellow and suspend feeding. Subsequent to moulting the larvae appear mineral green in colour, are more active, and feed vigorously. They pass through 4 or 5 instars in their larval life of 9 to 14 days. finer Ile Onwvim wih auvias (Pilate, fe .C): The full-grown larva measures on an average 18.5 mm. in length and is greenish with a pair of white streaks, running more or less parallel from the prothoracic region to the last abdominal segment. These streaks are not well marked in the freshly emerged larvae. Head: The head is rectangular with a few setae and well-developed epicranial suture. Ocelli: 6 pairs of which one pair is posterior to the base of the respective antenna and the remaining five pairs are arranged still posteriorly in a semi-circle. Antennae: 3-segmented, situated outside the arms of the epicranial suture. Segment II is about two and half times longer than segment I. Two small conical sensillae and two setae arise from the tip of the segment II. Of these setae one is about twice the length of the whole antenna. Segment III is the smallest of all with 3 apical sensillae. Thorax and abdomen: Mesothoracic and metathoracic terga present a pair of black specks placed at the base of the subdorsal seta. The larva possesses 3° pairs of well-developed thoracic legs each having a single claw at the distal end. Prolegs, 5 pairs in number, are present on 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and roth abdominal segments. The chaetotoxy of the body segments was observed to be similar. Each segment presented 6 setae on the dorsal side and two pairs of setae arising side by side on the lateral sides. All these setae arise from the apices of minute tubercles and form definite longitudinal rows of setae on the body. _ At the time of each moulting the neck-membrane behind the head capsule showed a crosswise split dorsally through which the larva wriggled itself out by alternate expansion and contraction of the body. Prior to moulting, the larva turns pale yellow or yellowish green, but it assumes a mineral green colour subsequent to moulting. Before the prepupal stage, when the larva is full fed, the colour changes to apple green with prominent ‘white streaks. It remains well attached to the leaf surface and shows reduction in length. With the cessation of feeding the larva begins to fold the leaf to prepare its cocoon. At this stage the white streaks disappear and the larva appears lustrous neva green in colour. The cocoon is prepared in two sections. The outer loose cocoon is prepared by binding the leaves together and it provides the bedding for the inner cocoon. The inner 122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 cocoon which covers the larval body is suspended in the hollow of the outer cocoon. The outer loose cocoon prepared by the larva measured on an average 28.4 mm. and the inner cocoon, which is also loosely spun of silken threads, measured on an average 15.7 mm. The prepupal length of the caterpillars measured from 13 to 14.5 mm. Duration of the larval period. Studies on larval duration were conducted during 1952 and 1953. The data collected are presented in Table 2. From the table it is observed that the larval duration is longer in the first and last instars. The larvae passed through four or five instars during different periods of study. The larval duration during’ the second half of September is observed to be 11.6 days and 12.0 days when the temperature in the laboratory varied from 76.0°F. to 87.0°F. with a mean of 81.68°F. During the latter half of December 1953 the larval period is observed to be 13.04 days when temperature in the laboratory ranged between 64.0°F. and 89.0°F. with a mean of 75.73°F. In the incubator maintained at 87.5-+ 1.5°F. the larval period is completed within 9 to 12 days with an average of 10.45 days. The larval period in general varied from 9 to 14 days, during different periods of study. 3 Food consumption and growth of larvae. An elaborate experiment was arranged with a view to finding out the daily food consumption and the rate of increase in the body- weight of the larva during the period of its growth. The food consumption was obtained by recording the area of host leaf consumed by the caterpillar in 24 hours. The weights were recorded daily in the morning at 8 a.m. on a sensitive chemical balance. Fresh food was then supplied to the caterpillar for feeding. Table 3 gives the data collected during the experiment. During the period of experiment, the temperature in the laboratory ranged between 76.0°F. to 87.0°F. with a mean of 81.68°F. The average food consumption and the average body-weight gained by the caterpillars are shown on the graph. From this as well as from Table 3 it will be observed that the caterpillars feed com- paratively little during the first five days and also gain very little in their body weights. During the three days prior to prepupal condition, they feed voraciously and also gain in their kody weight quite considerably. | | The P wp a‘(Plate wig D): The pupa is typically of an obtect type. The freshly formed pupa is mineral green with pale yellow intersegmental region. Subsequently, the body-coloration becomes dark brown. The pupae measured from 12.0 to 14.5 mm. in length and from 3.0 to 3.5 mm. in width. It is bluntly rounded towards the head region and tapers posteriorly to a point with 8 apical cremasters equally situated on lateral sides. With the aid of the cremasters the pupa remains well attached to the cocoon. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Averege daily food consumption in square ems. RELATION BETWEEN GROWTH AND FEEDING CAPACITY OF THE LARVAE OF MARGARONIA INDICA SAUND. KEY:<- ‘ AVERAGE DAILY WEIGHT, +---- = W\\ \ AVERAGE DAILY FOOD ; \ CONSUMPTION, eee n 110 100 $ 8 & 3 8 8 Average daily weight of the caterpillar in mgms. GS o i 10 at Wee Aw Agi lary te, 123 BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN. CATERPILLAR LL a SS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SS SSS | (Zi == 6) Sh-0T el b9-¢ | SPT | $21 | 60-2 | £€ | aS | S-TFS-28. soyeqnouy (tI -21) ¥0-€T cl-b | 6T-2 | S8-T | 00-2 | Sez ELG (0-68 -- 0-69) €1.94 € S61 ‘LE 0} ST Joqmiesac] (ZI—2T) 0-21 Cr Oe 0c. On |= Sie if (Ze) = 9-IT ee 0S | O02 | ZI] FE OL (0-28—0-92) 99-18 ZS61 ‘Og 0} ST requia}dag (*xvyy —"Ulyy) | BSeIOAV A Al | III | II I (*xB —“UTP) BSVIIAY 3 hes ae Pa Apnjs jo powag sXep Ul UOleInp [eAreT shep Ul Siejsul 3 (°4.) Apnjs Jo posed [BAIR] SY} JO UOJEINp osvI0AY 24} SUlINp sinjeIodua T, “PUNLG VIIPUL VIUOADIADJY JO SIE\SUI [VAIL] 94} JO UOTJeINp pu Joquind au, Z FAV, 124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 TABLE 3 Average daily food consumption (sq. cm. of leaf area of Coccinia indica W. & A.) and the weight (in mg.) of the caterpillars of W/. indica Saund. ms mI z > : = Ee = Daily consumption of leaf area in sq. cm. and daily body-weight in mg. of individual caterpillar Age of larva in peeeaiemee Ee! : days ce G, G, Go Average A W A Ww A WwW A W A Ww 1 500 (PZB |) = dca Ooze eas OS doc Ph cco 0-2 2 0:01 0°3.|0°012} 0-3 | 0°62 0°3 | 0:01 0°3 | 0°-13} 0:3 3 0017; 0:41 0:00 03 , 0:036| 0-4 | 0:030) O-4 | 0°021) 0°38 4 0°16 10 | 0:069| 0:4 | 0:19 0-4 | 004 0°6 | 0°115| 06 5 0-25 2°2 | 0°077| 1:0 |-0°038; 12 | 0-14 1:0 | 0°126) 1°35 0°402 4°4| 0-45 | 4:0 | 0-48 5°0 | 0°38 4°38 | 0°428} 4°55 1°83 18-6 | 1279) 14:4 10°85 1032) | $0:95) 81322 9 eZ 25y| eal 6 7 g |3:30 | 43-4] 1-10 | 18:6 | 1-04 | 17-0 | 1°52 | 20-2 | 1:74 | 24:8 9 2°45 | 57-4| 845 | 76:6 | 5:6 | 49:0 | 8:15 | 75-2 | 6:16 | 64°55 10 510 | 61:6 {16°85 j125-6 |11-45 | 98:8 |19°9 120-0 | 13°33 |101-5 11 2°82 | 502 |10°30. | 96:0 {10°35 | 92°8 | 5°85 {1020 | 7°33) 85°25 A = Leaf area in sq cm, consumed by the caterpillar. W = Weight of the caterpillar in mg. Out of 104 pupae observed, it was noticed that a day prior to emergence of the adult, the pupae showed development of black bands along the margins of the wing-pads. Male pupae developed black co- loration on the posterior end, whereas in female pupae no such coloration developed. At the time of emergence of the moth, the pupal covering ventrally showed a longitudinal split from the apex of the head to the second abdominal segment in the region of rostrum. Sex Differentiation in Pupa. In the male pupa, the oth and roth abdominal segments presented black coloration for a day prior to emergence of the adults. This development of black coloration is due to large number of black scales on the ventral side of the anal tuft of the male moth. No such coloration developed in the female pupae. The position of the genital pores also differs in the male and the female pupae. In both sexes the anal aperture is situated on the ventral side of the roth abdominal segment in the form of long dark streak with inwardly bent ridges at the sides. The genital aperture BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR — 125 in the male pupa is situated on the 9th abdominal segment o.2 mm. away from the anal aperture. In the female pupa it is. situated on the 8th abdominal segment 0.54 mm. away from the anal aperture. The genital aperture in male and female pupae measured on an average 0.32 mm. and 0.29 mm. in length respectively. . Duration of the pupal period. The results of various observations made on the duration of the pupal period are summarized below in Table 4. TABLE 4 Duration of the pupal period of MW. indica Saund. = SSeS Temperature in °F. Pupal period in days $ No. of S. No. ae Og) ini ee ta ae pupae SAE SR ue ; observed nf Average |(Min.— Maz.) Average] (Min. —Max.) 1 jAug.1to15,| 77°00 (72°0—62°0) | 19) 6°55 (6-8) 195203 ae | | 2 | Aug. 19to | 79°66 | (76:0—82°0) 14 6:07 (5-7) 27, 1952 : | 3 | Sept. 7to | 80°39 | (75:0—86-0) 10 6:0 (6-6) 15, 1952 } | 3 4 | Sept. 16 to | 81°88 (76°0 —87°0) | 38 5°92 (S—7) 28, 1952 | 5 | Sept.27to | 84:3 | (790-920) | 18 567° G7) Oct. 6, 1952 2 : : 6 |Dec. 26, 1953) 71°58 (60°0 - 86°0) | i9 9°90 (9—13) to Jan. 14, | 1954 7 7 \Incubator—1| 87°041°5 cae 16 3°75 (5--6) 8 |Incubator—2| §9°64 1°54 __ a ; 17 5°24 (5-6). From Table 4 it is evident that the pupal period varies with temperature. During August to October (average temperatures 77.0 F. to 84.3°F.) the period varied from 6.55 to 5.67 days. During December /January (average temperature was 71.58°F.) the period was 9.90 days. The shortest pupal duration observed was 5.24 days in the incubator maintained at 89.0-+ 1.0°F. ive Moth (Plate, fie. EF). - The moth measured on an average 0.962=£0.09 inches across the wings and 0.49 0.04 inches in length. The costal margin of the fore- wing is banded dusky drab in colour. -The band is continuous on the head and first two thoracic segments. It further extends to the humeral margin of the forewing and hindwing and is continuous on 126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 54 the 5th and 6th abdominal terga. The rest of the wing is white with chinese violet lustre when held across the light. A globular tuft of scales is present at the posterior end of the abdomen. In male the scales in the middle are thickly set and present a black triangular patch on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces. In female the scales in the middle of the tuft are light coloured and the whole tuft appears orange in colour. The sex ratio worked out for 105 individuals was 54.29 females to 45.71 males. Longevity and fecundity of M. indica Saund. To study the egg-laying capacity of the female and the longevity of adults the moths were caged in glass chimneys in pairs. The data obtained are given in the table below: TABLE 5 The longevity and fecundity of 7. indica Saund. — : ; 4 : Total life in - Number Pre-ovi- | Ovi-posi- | Number of} Post-ovi- days Be bce Number | position tion eggs laid | position apes of pairs | period in | periodin | by the | period in days days female days Male Reale 1 1 2 | 2, 53 | ea!) 5 4 2 ] i 3) 249 i 4 5 3 1 1 2 OM 0 4 3 4 1 2 2 298 i 4 hs) 5 1 3 J 22 2 5 6 6 1 1 2 205 1 3 4 7 1 Z 1 23 4 4 7 8 1 1 2 366 0 3 3 Average 1°63 1°88 159°1 Sle 4:0 4°63 The total adult life ranged between 3 to 7 days at the mean laboratory temperature of 81.0°F. The average pre-oviposition and post-oviposition periods were 1.63 and 1.13 days respectively. The oviposition period was, on an average, 1.88 days.’ The egg-laying capacity of a single female varied from 23 to 366 (average 159.1) eggs per female. The females survived a little longer than males. SUMMARY Although the Pumpkin Caterpillar has been recorded on wide varieties of host-plants from different countries, no complete record of its bionomies has hitherto been published. The egg, larval, and pupal periods varied from 3 to 6, 9 to 14, and 5 to 13 days respectively BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR 17 during different period of study. The egg-laying capacity of the female varied from 23 to 366 eggs. The pre-oviposition, oviposition, and post-oviposition periods varied from 1 to 3, 1 to 3 and o to q days respectively. In both pupae and adults the sexes differ morphologically. The number of larval instars varied from 4 to 5. The rate of feed- ing is greatly accelerated during the three days prior to the prepupal stage. REFERENCES 1. Entomological staff (1923): A preliminary list of pests of cultivated plants. Ceylon. Dept. of Agric. Bull. 67: 68. 2. Fletcher, T. B. (1914): Some South Indian Insects: 435-436. 3. — — — (1921): Annotated list of Indian crop pests. Agric. Res. Inst. Pusa. Bull. 100: 86. . 4. Gosh, C. C. (1925): Report of the Entomologist and sericulture work for the year ended 30th June 1925. Rangoon. pp. 10+8. 5. Hampson, G. F. (1896): Fauna of British India—Lepidoptera. 4: 360. 6. Lefroy & Howlett (1909): Indian Insect Life: 518. 7. May, A. W. S. (1946): Pests of cucurbit crops. Qd. Agric. J. Brisbane 62 (3): 137-150. 8. Pruthi,-H. S.. (1936): Report of the Imperial. Entomologist. Sci. Rept. Imp. Inst. Agric. Res.- 1934-35. Delhi, pp. 141-152. 9. Ramkrishna Ayyar, T. V. (1923): Some insects noted as pests of fruit trees in South India. Agric. J. India, Calcutta 18 (1): 50-59. 10. — — — (1940): Handbook of Economic Entomology for South India. Madras Government Press, p. 268. 11. Ridgway. (1912): Colour standards and nomenclature. Washington D. C. 12. Sevastopulo, D. G. (1948): Food plants of Indian Geometridae and Pyralidae. JBNHS, 47 (3): 493-498. 13.. Vayssiere, P. & Mimeur J. (1925): Les pyrales de Cotonnier (Sylepta derogat: F. et Glyphodes indica Savnd.) an Afrique occidentale francaise. Agron. Colon. Paris, 90: 225-268, THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS! BY Max VACHON (With a plate and 17 figures) INTRODUCTION Scorpions are arthropods celebrated in both history and legend, and there is no lack of material for those seeking the reasons for their wide reputation for supernatural powers and their significance in painting and sculpture. Biologists, and palaeontologists too, can find much to interest them in scorpions. It is impossible to discuss here all the features which make them so fascinating; the present article is restricted to certain peculiar features of their biology and morphology, and attempts to explain some of the apparent contradic- tions which are found. Scorpions and the related spiders belong to a group of arthropods that has been distinct for several hundred million years. Scorpions differ in many ways from insects, the whole head and thorax forming’ a single unit, the cephalothorax, covered by a shield. Behind the cephalothorax come an abdomen of seven segments and a tail with five, terminating in a further segment, the poison gland. | In front of the head there are two small pincer-like appendages pointing forwards; these are the chelicerae (figures 5, 8). There are Fig. 8. Heterometrus scaber (Thorell) feeding. * Reprinted from ENDEAvouR, Vol. xii, No. 46 (April 1953), with the kind permission of its editor and publishers. We are indebted to Dr. A. P. Mathew for the notes which appear within square brackets in the text. Also for kindly supervising the preparation of some of the figures, and supplying text figure 17—Epbs. THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS. - ; 129 five pairs of legs, the first pair of which, the pedipalpi, are strong and terminate in claws. The bases of these two legs form part of. the mouth (figure 13). The remaining four pairs are alike, and are used for locomotion. | Behind the legs and covering the ventral part of the cephalothorax, i.e., at the start of the abdomen and behind the genital region (figure 13), there are a pair of curious appendages, the pectines or combs. Legs LY > Ley OS Fig. 13. Androctonus australis (L.), female. Ventral surface, showing the parts of the body. Total length 8 cm. These are peculiar to the scorpions, and are found in both young and old of both sexes. With the poison gland, they serve to dis- linguish scorpions from all other arthropods. A rare anomaly, which has attracted much attention, consists in a doubling of the tail. Figure 1 shows an adult female with two identical tails, each perfectly formed. This division of the rear end of the body sometimes also affects a portion of the abdomen; 3t originates during embryonic development, a case of incomplete twinning. The anomaly was known in antiquity, for Pliny, citing Aelian, placed these double-tailed scorpions in a class by themselves. ScORPIONS AS LivING FOSSILS Scorpions are one of the oldest forms of life still to be found on the surface of the earth. Only a few hundred fossilized specimens are known, but it must be remembered that we are dealing with a 3 130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 land animal whose chances of fossilization may well have been slight. Examples recorded from many parts of the world show us that the scorpions have remained essentially unchanged for hundreds of millions Fig. 1. Buthotus alticola (Pocock), adult female from Afghanistan, with two perfect tails. Length of body 9 cm. (After Gaillard). of years. Fossil scorpions resemble the present-day Pandinus (figure 4) in possessing a pair of chelicerae, a pair of pedipalpi, four pairs of legs for locomotion, a poison gland, and ventral pectines. It is THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS 131 Fig. 4. Pandinus imperator (C. L. Koch), adult. female from French Guinea. Length of body 18-20 cm. (After Gaillard). 132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 thus| impossible wrongly to classify a fossil scorpion, and modern scorpions may well be described as ‘living fossils’. It must not be assumed, however, that the scorpions have remained completely unchanged from the earliest times. It is possible to discern differences of detail between fossil ‘and present-day scorpions which have resulted from an evolutionary process; these have been studied by the American arachnologist A. Petrunkevitch (5, 6). THE STABILITY OF THE SCORPIONS During vast epochs of time, scorpions have been subjected, like other forms of life, to great geological and climatic changes. How have they been able to resist these changes, to adapt themselves to them, and to survive? I have recently published a revision of the north African scorpions (9), of which two examples (figures 2 and 3) are shown here, and in the course of this study I have put forward certain hypotheses to explain their sustained success. _ Two characteristic scorpions from north Africa Fig. 2. Androctonus australis (L.) hector C. L. Koch, a lethal species from the northern borders of the Sahara. Length of body 9.5 cm. (After Gaillard). Fig. 3. Orthochirus innesi E. Simon, a species from the Saharan oases. Length of body 3 cm. (After Gaillard). North Africa has not always been a desert as it mainly is today; in the course of time it has undergone a succession of wet and dry periods. After the final rainy period of the Quaternary, a long dry Tt BIOLOGY MOK SCORRTONS 133 period set in which transformed a region of luxuriant growth into a desert. How did the Tertiary fauna withstand this catastrophe? The present distribution of the scorpions of the Sahara is characteristic: they are few in numbers and are split up into small colonies, last relics of a past greatness. There are regions virtually devoid of water where scorpions, like most other animals, have completely disappeared; there remain, however, large or small regions, from mountains to oases, where conditions, though much changed, still permit life to continue. Moreover, scorpions live in the soil, under stones, or in burrows, and they can thus relatively easily find surround- ings which fulfil their requirements and which are to some extent stabilized. Finally, it must not be forgotten that even large changes in the general climate are much diminished in the superficial layers of the soil. Extensive researches into microecology, especially that of insects, indicate that the micro-climate in the layer beneath the surface is largely independent of the external general climate. Scorpions have thus managed to survive in conditions of heat and drought, first because of their subterranean habitat, and secondly because there remain here and there areas where their old conditions of life still obtain. Above all, however, they have survived because of their ecological plasticity. It is generally believed that scorpions are characteristic of dry or desert regions, but I consider this to be wrong. They are but the remains of an ancient fauna, still quite abundant, which lived under quite different conditions of temperature and humidity. If they have survived, it is because of their great adaptability—their capabili- ties are great, their demands few. I cannot sustain this argument here in detail, but I can mention some remarkable experiments on the feeding and respiration of scorpions. They can, for example, remain in an inert condition at freezing point for a period of weeks, and yet return in a few hours to a normal mode of life. They can withstand, without hurt, total immersion in water for days on end, or the blocking of seven out of their eight lungs (4). They have remarkable possibilities of haemopoiesis (i.e., making blood) and a very small respiratory coefficient. Moreover, they are sluggish creatures and thus consume little energy in moving about. More important still, they can gorge themselves with food in a few hours, or survive without feeding for many months, even for more than a year. In my opinion, scorpions are a striking example of creatures whose persistence derives not from the fact that their surroundings have remained unaltered, but from the fact that they are able to neutralize large changes in their surroundings by resorting to their subterranean habitat; in addition, their remarkable physiology enables them greatly to vary the tempo of their existence. Largely unaffected by extremes, they are virtually independent of their surroundings; herein lies the most certain guarantee of the immortality of their race. DETECTION AND CAPTURE OF PREY The food of the scorpion consists of living creatures of many kinds that share its habitat, insects (both adults and larvae), spiders, millepedes, and even small rodents. The mode of capture of prey 134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 has often been observed, and descriptions by early -naturalists are well known. Here I illustrate certain characteristic attitudes. At rest, or ‘sleeping’ (figure 5), the scorpion is motionless, with its ventral Fig. 5. Heterometrus scaber (Thorell) the large black scorpion of the West Coast of India. Length of body 13 cm. Posture at rest. surface against the ground, the tail curved on the flat, and the legs folded. When hungry, or if a victim is detected, the attitude of the animal changes (figure 6); it moves slowly forward, supported on its Fig. 6. Heterometrus scaber (Thorell). Posture when on defensive or in search of prey. hind legs, with claws open and extended and tail raised and pointing forwards. Often the scorpion will then hesitate, and the final act of THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS 135 capture seems almost accidental, an act of defence rather than of attack. If the prey is active, the scorpion may even withdraw for a time, but it waits patiently and finally achieves its aim. Then, especially if the victim struggles, it inserts its sting (figure 7) where Fig. 7. Androctonus australis (L.) hector C. L. Koch, capturing and stinging prey. best it can, often without any delay, and the prey, held in the claws, is carried towards the chelicerae. These seize it and inflict deep wounds, through which the contents of the victim’s body escape and pass into the scorpion’s mouth. The chelicerae play the most important part in this operation. They break down the tissues of the victim, of which there finally remains nothing but a mass of unabsorbable residues ; these are sometimes got rid of by using the claws as tooth- picks. It is not entirely clear how the scorpion first detects its prey. The eyes are too crude to be of much assistance, and in any case the scorpion is a nocturnal animal for which visual impressions can be of no great significance. Other sensitive organs must therefore be concerned, notably the sensory hairs or trichobothria found only on the pedipalpi. These hairs are present at birth, and do not alter in number or position during growth. They are of considerable im- portance in classification (figures 10, 12), and certainly represent very primitive characters. The trichobothria are easily recognizable by the shape of their point of insertion, which resembles the top of a well (figure 11), by their fineness, and by the thinness of the membrane which links them to the integument. They are richly supplied with nerves, and can certainly detect minute air-currents such as those caused by movements of the prey. They are, in fact, like tiny re- ceiving-sets, pointing in all directions and spaced out along the pedipalpi, which when extended act as huge antennae, ; 136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY a NATIOIR AL CHINS Tite SOORE IV an olin 10 If I2 Fig. 10. Claw of Scorpio maurus (L.), a scorpion from north Africa, living in a burrow. External view, showing the sensory hairs. Fig. 11. Sensory hair, much enlarged, between two ordinary hairs. Fig. 12. Same claw as in figure 10 (internal view). EXTERNAL DIGESTION The scorpion has to macerate its prey, because the mouth is able to take in liquids only. There is a powerful pharynx, which sucks the liquid contents of the victim into the large middle intestine, where it can be digested. Scorpions are not peculiar in sucking their prey, but are Aare in that digestion is effected outside the body by means of powerful enzymes ejected periodically during feeding; in this they resemble some other arachnids. As the scorpion feeds, from time to time it ceases to suck and liquid is regurgitated upon the victim. It appears: that this liquid originates in the middie intestine, which is rich in glandular tissue, and that the scorpion actually regurgitates its digestive fluid during its meal. The study of external digestion in other arachnids, particularly spiders and pseudo- scorpions, leads to the belief that the breaking-down of the tissues of the victim is caused not only by this intestinal fluid but by secre- tions form, specialized glands, analogous to salivary glands, which are poured into or over the victim at the moment of regurgitation. The anatomy of the scorpion is not sufficiently well known for this analogy with other arachnids to be perfectly reliable, but it does seem that the regurgitated fluid is activated by other substances secreted from the specialized glands, and sometimes, as in certain spiders, by the poison itself. I have recently pointed out (8) that the poison must not be considered solely in connection with the capture of prey: it is related to the feeding-process as a whole and forms but a part, albeit the best known, of the physiological complex which constitutes the external digestion. In scorpions, too, the poison has its role in this complex; it not only cuts short the victim’s resistance but aids, by catalytic or other chemical action, in the digestive process itself. REPRODUCTION AND Ngaio OF THE EMBRYO In scorpions the sexes are distinct, though they resemble each other in all but small details. Fertilization necessitates the coming SpLonpy *Q °O :0104q “A[IWULY Sso]IOUdJap ay 0} UOTDA}0Ad Jains saaTs Buys uostod sy YIM Ie} S .Joy,ouL 94 L “SdATISUIIY} 1oj yyrys OJ 914k []8 d1oY} UTeUTIT pue yorqg S .1oaq,Oou 94} UO Joquueo Koy uloqg o1e Kau se uoOosS SY *sunod BUIAT| YjIOs suliq suord.09g = "yorq Jay UO SUNOA YIM (ds snying) uotds09¢ yoy 94] Bin | Is is de Trades eae a Ces x se Orie eg NOG THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS 137 together of the two sexes and is accompanied by curious display. Maccary (2) and Fabre (1) have described some of these displays, the promenades a deux in which male and female walk ‘hand-in-hand’ ; and the arbre droit in which the two animals appear to be fighting (figure 9). The conclusion of these nuptial dances I have not observed, os Ak a ‘ : j KF “a ry Fig. 9. Posture known as the ‘arbre droit’ (after Fabre, and from personal observations) preceding copulation in Buthus occitanus (Am.), a scorpion from Languedoc, France. The female is on the left. but anatomical investigation bears out the statements of early writers ; the male fertilizes the female directly in a true copulation, which is rather rare in other arachnids. In the course of this act, the male protrudes certain special organs to form a temporary penis, with which he inserts the sperm and finally places in position a vaginal ‘plug, a kind of post-nuptial hymen (9, pp. 31-6). , - The course of development of the fertilized eggs inside the mother differs according to whether the eggs are rich in yolk (as in_ the 138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 Buthidae) or are completely lacking in yolk (as in the Scorpionidae). In the first case, the eggs pass quickly into the oviduct and develop there, consuming the yolk with which they are filled [e.g., as in Euscorpius, Isometrus, Buthus etc.|; in the second, the fertilized egg remains in place and becomes closely commingled with the maternal tissues. At the end of its development [in the latter type] each embryo lies in a diverticulum which possesses a tubular extension. This extension, almost an umbilical cord, is applied to the wall of the mother’s intestine, from which it draws off nutrients by osmosis. The food is transformed by glandular secretions and then led through the tube to the actual mouth of the embryo. We can almost speak of it as a bottle and teat process, since A. P. Mathew (3) has shown that at this stage the embryo scorpion has a well- developed pharynx and sucks the maternal fluid. Its _ chelicerae (figure 15) end in contractile vesicular organs which actually take Vesicular organ of the chelicerae ~ Bottle -Nutritive fluid Vesicular organ of the Uterus 14 15 16 Figs. 14-16. Embryos of Ischnurus ochropus C. L. Koch, from East Africa. (14) Diverticulum of the uterus containing an embryo, showing the ‘feeding- bottle’. (15 and 16) Diagrammatic representation of horizontal sections of the anterior part of the diverticulum, showing the relationship between the embryo’s chelicerae and the teat; the latter can be carried to the mouth of the embryo by the chelicerae (fig. 16). hold of the teat and carry it to the mouth. I have described this remarkable process of embryonic nutrition |in Ischnurus ochropus | else- where (7). [The embryonic nutrition in the 5. Indian Heterometrus (=Palamnaeus) scaber as described by Mathew (3 & 3a) is similar in THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS 139 principle, but differs in many details (fig. 17).] We see that although so much alike in outward appearance, there exist great internal differences between various scorpions. In some the embryo is left to feed itself on the yolk of the egg, while in others embryonic nourishment is a complex affair resulting from a process of mutual adaptation between the organs of mother and young. Feeding Bottle =-=. Diverticulum CONCLUSIONS The scorpions are members of an ancient race whose fossils go back to “very carly-' times. Their essential morphology has fpemarned unchanged for hundreds of millions of years, and this has gained for them the name of ‘living fossils’. Yet um 4. Tail they are none the less products me) of evolution. The complexity of their digestive processes, carried on in part outside the body, and ES RS the mode of nutrition of the Fig. 17. Embryo of Heterometrus embryo in some species, requiring scaber in the diverticulum showing the a close adaptation between (‘feeding bottle’ and its ‘teat’ which is mother and young, both bear inserted at the mouth opening. In the Pe Ce Polat ann tomicalen ola. diagram the left chelicera and part of the : : pedipalp are removed so that the teat may tion of long duration. Equally, je seen. (A. P. Mathew). the complex system of the sensory hairs and the elaborate nuptial dances must have evolved over im- mensely long periods. Ecological studies show that scorpions possess a plasticity rendering them largely unaffected by external changes. They are an example of a type which early achieved a high degree of perfection; they have subsequently continued without substantially changing, degenerating, or disappearing, but also without giving rise to new forms. Abdomen REFERENCES 1. Fabre, J. H. (1923): ‘Souvenirs Entomologiques.’ J. H. Delagrave, Paris. 2. Maccary, A. (1810): ‘Mémoire sur le Scorpion qui se trouve sur la Montagne de Cette.’ Gabon, Paris. 3. Mathew, A. P. (1948): Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 27 (4): 111. 3a. — — — (1956): Embryology of Heterometrus scaber (Thorell) Univ. of Travancore Res. Inst. Memoir, 1. (September). . Millot, J. and Paulian, R. (1943): Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr. 58: 97. . Petrunkevitch, A. (1952): Syst. Zool. USA, I (i). . — — — (1952): Amer. Scient., 40 (1): 99. . Vachon, M. (1950): Arch. Zool. exp. gén., N. et R., 86 (3): 137. — — — (1951): C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris, 283: 205. — — — (1952): ‘Ktudes sur les Scorpions.’ Institut Pasteur d’Algérie. SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN AND AROUND CUTTACK BY H. PATTNAIK Lecturer in Botany, Ravenshaw College, Cuttack — oe ee There is no systematic account of the Flora of Orissa State; no work of this nature has yet been done since its separation trom Bihar in 1936. Haines (1925), Prain (1903), Bal (1942) and Mooney (1950) have | not laid much stress on the cetailed study of the flora of this State. Recently the Botanical Survey of Crissa has started with a view to dis- covering rare, economic and medicinal plants. This State has rich natural resources and there are many virgin forests with vaiuable plants in the ex-State areas. Some preliminary work has been done on the useful weeds of Cuttack and its neighbourhood. Cuttack city is surrounded by two rivers, i.e., the Mahanadi and its branch the Kathjuri. The general soil of the city and its neighbourhood is sandy loam and also alluvial at some places. A number of weeds grow up in different seasons and these become abundant in the rainy season. Some of them are used locally as medicinal plants, foodstuff, and fodder. ‘These weeds are not totally undesirable; some of them have various important uses. With a view to finding out the local names and the uses of these common weeds the present work has been undertaken. COLLECTION AND OBSERVATION The important and dominant weeds have keen collected during their flowering seasons. ‘lhe plants described in the list are arranged in the same order as in Haines’s Bolany of Bihar and Orissa for convenience. Most of these plants have been collected by the author with the help of Mr. N. K. Chayu Patnaik. They have been pressed and preserved in the Herbarium of the Botany Department of Ravenshaw College, Cuttack. ENUMERATION OF PLANTS MENISPERMACEAE 1. Cocculus villosus DC. Local name .... Dadaya (Or.) Habit ... Aclimber on hedges. Flowers .... November to April Uses _... The juice of the leaves mixed with water has | the property of coagulating into a green jelly. like substance which is taken internally, sweetened with sugar. The roots and leaves are used in rheunnatic pains. SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN CUTTACK 141 2, Cissampelos hexandra Roxb, Local name ... Akanamini (Or. ) Habit : ... A lofty climber. Flowers .. April to August: Uses ... The root is. used in fever, diarrhoea, urinary diseases, dyspepsia, etc. PAPAVERACEAR 3, Argemone mexicana Linn. Local name ... Agara or Kantakusuma (Or) Habit ... A prickly herb. Flowers ... April to June. Uses ... The oil from the seed is purgative, and the oil is also used in various kinds of skin diseases. Coop PEAR Tt Dp Ae EH AcE 4. Cleome viscosa Linn. Local name ... Chota anasorisa (Or. ) Habit ... A pubescent herb. Flowers ... July to September. Uses ... The juice of the leaves is locally poured into ear for ear-ache. 5. Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC, Local name . Amasorisa (Or.) Habit ... A strong smelling weed. Flowers ... July to September. Uses .... Used as a substitute of Cleome viscosa. VIOLACEAE 6. Ionidium suffruticosum Ging. Local name ... Madan masta (Or.) Habit .... Herb with pink flowers. Flowers ... December to March. Uses .... The leaves and tender stalks are domuleck?. CARVOGP AVL L AC EA EB 7, Polycarpaea corymbosa [Lamk. Local name ... an Jatjatia (Or.) Habit ... rect herb. Flowers ... August to November. Uses .... Used locally as a remedy for the bites of veno- mous reptiles. PORTULACA CEA E 8. Portulaca oleracea Linn. Local name ... Bada balbalua (Or. ) Habit ... A prostrate or erect, sub-succulent Berbl Flowers we July to October. Uses .... It is locally used as an article of diet in scurvy and liver diseases. 142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 9. Portulaca quadrifida Linn. Local name ..- Balbalua (Or.) Habit .. A prostrate, creeping and sub-succulent herb. Flowers ... July to October. Uses ... same as in P. oleracea. FICOIDEAE (AIZOCEAE ) 10. Mollugo spergula [Lj in. Local name w= | lita sac. (On.) Habit .«. A herb near ponds. Flowers .«. February to April. Uses .. Lhe juice is applied in itch and other skin diseases.. The leaves are used as an article of diet. 11. Trianthema monogyna Linn. Local name on. Eurunig(@rs) Habit ... A succulent herb. Flowers ... July to October. Uses . The root is used as a medicine, generally in acute anaemic conditions. MALVACEAE 12. Abutilon indicum G,. Don Local name .» bedipedica (Or,) Habit ... Annual shrub Flowers ... september to January. Uses ... Used in various diseases. The roots are useful in leucoderma. 13. Sida cordifolia Linn. Local name ... Bisiripi (Or.) Habit -... An erect undershrub. Flowers ... August to December. Uses ... The leaves and roots are said to have medi- cinal value ; leaves for healing sores. 14. Sida veronicaefolia Lamk. Local name ... Bajramuli (Or.) Habit ... A perennial herb. Flowers ... beptember to April. Uses ... The leaves are used as locai application in cuts and bruises. TLeeA Cor AGE 15. Corchorus acutangulus Lamk. Local name .... Bana-nalita (Or. ) Habit ... An erect herb. Flowers | ... september to November. Uses ... The dried leaves are used in dysentery. SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN CUTTACK 143 EUPHORBIACEAE 16, Croton sparsiflorus Morung Local name ... Gandha tulasi (Or.) Habit ot 1 AneRD, Flowers ... May to September. Uses ... The latex is used in cuts and wounds. 17, Euphorbia hirta Linn. Syn. &. pilulzfera (F.B.1.) Locai name ... Chitakuti (Or.) Habit ... A herbaceous weed. Flowers ... All the year round. Uses ... Lhe latex is applied locally in case of eye coms : plaints. The plant, as a whole, is slightly stimulant and narcotic. 18, Jatropha curcas [.inn. Local name ... Jahaji, Baigaba (Or.) Habit ... A large shrub. Flowers ... May to October. _ Uses ... Used as a hedge plant. The juice of the stem and leaves is applied to wounds, 19, Phyllanthus niruri Linn. Local name ... Badianla (Or.) Habit ... An erect annual herb. Flowers ... August to December. Uses ... Used in dysentery. 20. Phyllanthus urinaria Linn. Local name ... Bhuinania (Or.) Habit ... A suffruticose annual. Flowers ... July to December. Uses ... Used in sleeplessness of children. RHAMNACEAER 21. Zizyphus jujuba Lamk. Local name ... Barakoli (Or.) Habit ... A small tree or shrub. Flowers ... March to October. Uses ... Fruits are eaten when ripe and these make good jams. The bark and seeds are used for diarrhoea and the decoction of root for fever. VITACEAE 22, Vitis quadrangularis Wall. Local name ... Hadavanga (Or. ) Habit .. woalfmentose shrubs. Flowers .. July to October. Uses ... The upper part of the plant is used for bowel complaints and a poultice for broken bones. Lad. 23, two wt 26. Zs); JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 Vitis trifolia Linn. Local name ... Amala-lata (Or.) Habit ... A herbaceous climber. Flowers ... April to September. Uses ... seeds and roots are used for the treatment of yoke sores of buliocks. _ Vitis pedata Vahl. Local name ... Guali lata (Or.) Habit ... A large climber. Flowers .. August to September. Uses ... This plant is used as domestic medicine, because of its astringency. PREP Ec OUIN Ae AGE , Clitoria ternatea L, Locai name ... Aparajita. (Or) Habit ... Twining herb. Flowers ... From October to December. Uses ... lhe roots and flowers have medicinal value. Used in urinay disorde:s. Crotolaria juncea Linn. Local name ... Chanapata (Or.) Habit .. Aestoutishmulbs Flowers ... August to January. Yellow. Uses ... Yields fibre and used as green manure. CARSALPEINA CE Ar , Cassia occidentalis Linn. Local name ... Chakunda (Or.) Habit , an undershrub, Fiowers ... August to October. Uses .... Roots, seeds and leaves are known to be pur- gative, and are also useful in cough and whooping cough. The plant is also used for skin diseases, MIMOSACRERAE . Mimosa pudica Linn. Local name ee Way cult (Or) Habit ee ebricklyasirup: Flowers =. July to Maren: Uses ... The leaves and roots are used for piles and fistula. CUCURBITACEAE Cephalandra indica Nand. Local name ..5 Kainchikakudi (Or. ) Habit ... A climbing herb. SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN CUTTACK 1451 Flowers ... August to December. Uses ... The leaves mixed with butter are applied as a liniment to sores. The roots have also medicinal value. UMBELLIFERAE 30, Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn. Local name ... Thalikud! (Or.) Habit ... A herb with long creeping stems. Flowers ... November to January. Uses ... It is useful as a tonic in diseases of skin, nervous system and blood. RUBIACEAE 31. Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn, Local name ... Ghar-podia (Or.) Habit ... A diffuse annual herb. Flowers ... June to January. Uses ... It is usedin jaundice, liver complaints, and chronic malaria. 32, Spermacoce hispida Linn. Local name ... sana ghar-podia (Or.) Habit ... Procumbent herb. Flowers .-- October to December. Uses ... Lhe roots and seeds have medicinal value. COMPOSITAE 33 Bilumea lacera DC, Local name ... Pokasunga (Or.) Habit ..» A hairy herb. Flowers .-. October to March. Uses ... The expressed juice of the leaves is a useful anthelmintic. It is used in cases of thread- worm. ~ 34, Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk. Local name ... Kesadura (Or.) Habit ... A slender herbaceous weed. Flowers .. August to February. Uses ». The boiled decoction of the root is drunk as a purgative and emetic. It is also used in various skin diseases, speciaily leprosy, chronic skin diseases, and ring-worm. The leaves and flowers are also used in tooth-ache. The juice of the leaves is used as a hair tonic. 35, Enhydra fluctuans Lour. Local name .s» Hidimichi (Or. ) Habit ... A prostrate herb. 10 146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 Flowers .-- December to’ January. ... Uses ... Used as a vegetable and laxative. It is claimed to be useful in diseases of skin and nervous system. 36, Gnaphalium indicum Linn. Local name ... Naka-chunkuni (Or.) Habit .... Hoary or woolly herb. Flowers ... March to July. Uses ... The leaves have medicinal value. 37. Grangea maderaspatana Poit. Local name .. Agnikumart Or.) Habit ... A procumbent weed. Flowers ... December to May.. Uses ... Ihe leaves are regarded as valuable stomachic. 38. Tridax procumbens Linn. Local name ... Bisalyakarani (Or.) Habit .o. Fert: Flowers ... November to June. © Uses ... The stem, leaves, and roots are used in case on wound and cuts. 39. Vernonia cinerea Less. Local name ... Pokasunga (Or.) Habit ... An annual herb. Flowers .. August to April. Uses .. A poultice of leaves is applied to the head for headache. Bruised leaves are apple’ for ring-worm by some people. 40, Xanthium strumarium Linn, Local name ... Bana gokhara (Or. Ine Habit ... -An erect herb. _ Flowers ... November to February. Uses | ... It has proved useful in urinary diseases. APOCYNACEAE 41, Vinca rosea Linn. Local name ... Sada-behari (Or.) Habit ji. 44, Avherb. Flowers - «,.. All the year round. Uses .... The juice of the leaves and flowers is used as CT Be ian application for wasp stings. ASCLEPIADACEAE 4?, Calotropis gigantea R. Br. Local name oe eeutkal( Om). Habit ... A stout-shrub... 4:3. 44, 45, 46. 47. 48. SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN CUTTACK | 147 Flowers ... December to July. Uses ... The latex is locally used for wounds and tooth troubles. The leaves are also used for fomentation for the diseases of the chest. GENTIANACEAE Canscora diffusa Br, Local name ... Banbana (Or.) Habit wee A. herb, Flowers _ ... All the year. Uses .... The plant is used as a laxative. BORAGINACEAE Heliotropium indicum Linn. Local name ... Hatisundha (Or.) Habit ... A small herb. Flowers onc (October to-May.. Uses ... The plant is locally used as application for boils, sores and stings of insects. CONVOLVULACEAE Cuscuta reflexa Roxb, Oe Local name .-- Nirmuli (Or.) Habit .. A leafless twining parasite, Flowers. . __.... October. to December. Uses ee eae Seeds are regarded as cartninative. Evolvulus aismaraes Linn. Local name ... Bichhamalia (Or. ‘ » Habit. ...... -4...~4\ much branched diffused perennial. herb: Flowers ~ .... July to December. | Uses Lae The leaves and roots are used in dysentery. “SOLANACEAE m Datura fastuosa Linn. Local name ..» Dudura (Or.) Habit ... A small shrubby plant. Flowers ... July to November. - a é Uses - 4 .The leaves, seeds, and. roots are used in medicine. The leaves and roots are smoked in asthma. Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. Local name ... Hemaraj (Or.) Habit _... Annual herb. Flowers.) 22202... -February to: March, . Uses ... The leavés have medicinal value. 148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. é4 49, Solanum nigrum Linn. Local name ... Nunununia (Or.) Habit ... Gregarious herb. Flowers ... Most of the year Uses ... Lhe kerries and the juice are said to have laxative and diuretic properties. 50. Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl. Local name ... Ankaranti (Or.) Habit ... A prostrate prickly herb. Flowers ... December to June. Uses ... Fruits and roots are used in medicine. Root is used in cough, asthma, and catarrh. Root is locally used as a preventive against small-pox. SCROPHULARIACEAE 51. Herpestis monniera H. B. & K. Local name ... Brahmi (Or.) Habit ... A creeping sub-succulent herb. Flowers ... August to February. Uses .... Used as brain tonic. ACANTHACEAE 52, Andrographis paniculata Nees. Local name ... Bhuinimba (Or. ) Habit ... A herbaceous weed. Flowers .. March to August. Uses ... It has reputation as a bitter tonic in dysentery. It is also used as substitute and sometimes adulterant of chiretta (Swertza chiveta Buch.- Ham.) | 53, Asteracantha longifolia Nees. Syn. Mygrophila spinosa T. Anders. Local name ... Koilikhia (Or.) ee Habit ... Arobust spiny herb. — Flowers ..- October to December. , Uses ... The leaves and roots have medicinal value. 54. Barleria prionitis Linn. Local name ... Daskeranta (Or.) Habit ... A prickly shrub. Flowers .. April: Uses ... It is used in medicine for various diseases. It is locally used as hair tonic. 55, Adhatoda vasica Nees Local name ... Basanga (Or.) Habit ... of os ... Used as a vegetable and the root is very useful astringent. 70. AL. > SOME USEFUL WEEDS. IN CUTTACK 151 ARACEAR ‘Amorphophallus campanulatus Blume Local name tip Oliai@rm) a 7 Habit ... A stout herb with a single aerial leaf. Flowers f .... November to February. Uses ... The corm is used as a vegetable. It is used in medicine for dysentery. Pistia stratiotes Linn. Locai name ... Borajhanji (Or.) «Habit -. .. A floating weed. Flowers ... February to May. Uses ... The plant is cooling and demulcent. (2s CYPERACEAE Cyperus rotundus Linn. Local name ... Mutha (Or.) elapit ... A weed of gardens and waste grounds having ~ small black tubers. Flowers ... July to December. Uses ... The rhizomes are used in medicine in stomach 73. (lee troubles and dysentery. GRAMINEAE Cynodon dactylon Pers. Local name se Wuba (Or) Habit ... A trailing herb (runner). Flowers ... Most of the year. Uses ... It is goad fodder for cattle. The bruised grass is applied to wounds or cuts to stop bleeding. COMMELINACEAE Commelina benghalensis Linn. Local name ... Kanasiri (Or.) Habit .. A sub-succulent creeping herb. Flowers ie July to November Uses ... Used as a vegetable and a good fodder. It is said to have medicinal value. DISCUSSION This is preliminary work and the investigation of the flora of Orissa is in progress. Weeds are not always undesirables. Though these plants disturb the growth of the cultivated plants, they are of use in some way or other. Plants almost universally considered troublesome become of great value under special circumstances. We have got a vast wealth and variety of plants which grow under natural conditions in waste places, 152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 ditches, ponds, river banks andjforests. Most of these plants are used even to-day as folk-medicine. Vegetable drugs have been known all over the world for centuries. Medicinal plants are mostly used in crude form locally. Families like Malvaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Vitaceae, Compositae, Solanaceae, Acanthaceae, Verbenaceae, Labiatae and Amaranthaceae have a large number of useful weeds in this locality. SUMMARY Preliminary work has been done to find out the useful weeds of Cuttack and its neighbourhood. Most of the weeds are found to be useful in some way or other. Some of these plants have high medicinal value. The detailed investigation is still in progress. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This is a part of the work done in connection with the Botanical Survey of Orissa entrusted to Prof. B. Samantarai by the Board of Scientific and Industrial Research, Orissa. My thanks are due to the said Board for financial help, and to Prof. B. Samantarai for kind supervision and encouragement. I am also grateful to Mr. C. M. Bastia of this Depart- ment for his encouragement. REFERENCES 1. Bal, S. N. (1942): Useful plants of Mayurbhanj State in Orissa. Records Bot. Surv. India, 6 : 1-118. 2. Haines, H. H. (1925): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa, parts 1-6, London. 3. Mooney, H. F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar and Orissa, Ranchi. 4, Prain, D. (1903) : Bengal Plants. Vols.I and II. London. NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA BY D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S. Part III (Continued trom Vol. 53 (4), p. 658) The present part includes the families Uraniidae, Epiplemidae and Geometridae. The first two are both very small groups and the third, in my experience, is very poorly represented in the plains of India. The treatment is on similar lines to previous parts. URANIIDAE Micronia aculeata Guen.—One at light, unfortunately I have no record of the date of capture. EPIPLEMIDAE Dirades theclata Guen.—Fairly common. Records for vi and x. Now D, adjutaria Wik.; D. theclata is the African species. GEOMETRIDAE OENOCHROMINAE (Hampson’s ORTHOSTIXINAE) Eumelea ludovicata Guen.—Uncommon. Records for x and xi, The Fauna treats it as a synonym of vosa/za Guen. Ozola microniaria W]k.—One in x. HEMITHEINAE (Hampson’s GEOMETRINAE) Pseudoterpna ruginaria Guen.—A single specimen bred in iv. Larva on Nephelium litcht. Now Pingasa. Agathia lycaenaria Koll—Imagines not common. Records for i, ii, viii, xX, Xi and xii. Larvae common on Oleander and I have not been able to find any distinguishing character to separate them from the larvae of the next species. A. laetata F.—Imagines common. Recorded in iii, x, xi and xii. Larvae common on Oleander. Uliocnemis cassidara Guen.—Common. Records for i, ii, iii, vii, x, xi and xii. Larvae reared ad ovo fed on Zizyphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), Lagerstroemia indica (Lythraceae) and /xora sp. (Rubiaceae). Now Comtbaena, ce , | 154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL VTST. SOCTE IY, 1Volamo4 Lophomachia picturata Hamps.—Uncommon. Recorded in x and xi, Not in the Fauna. Euchloris quantula Swinh.—One f. g/areosa Swinh. in x. Now. Cv/loeres. Comostola confusa Warr.—Rare. Records for 1 and xii. Not in the Fauna. Euchloris subtiliaria Brem.—Common. Records for i, vi, x and xi. Now Comostola laesarta Wik.; &. subtiliarza not occurring in India. Nemoria indecretata Wik.—Common. Recorded in vi and vii. Now Microlexta. ‘Thalassodes quadraria Guen.—Common. Records for iii, iv, vi, vii, ix, x, xiand xii. Larvae on Polyalthia longifolia (Anonaceae). T. veraria Guen.—Likewise common. Records for i, iii, vi to ix, xi and xii. One larva found on cultivated Chrysanthemum. Gelasma goniaria Feld.—One ini. The Zhalassodes acutissima Wk. of the Fauna, but this is really another species. Thalassodes rubrolimbraria Guen.—One in xii. Now Pamphilebia. T. avicularia Guen.—One in viii. Now Ornithospila. Hemithea costipunctata Moore—Uncommon. Recorded in xi only. Treated in the Fauna as a synonym of Zhalera caudularia Guen, Thalera chrysolineata Wlk.—Uncommon. Records for ii and iii, Now STERRHINAE (Hampson’s ACIDALIINAE) Ptochophyle togata F.—Common. Recorded in i, ii, vi and ix to xii. The Fauna does not distinguish this species from permutans Hamps. Larvae on Lugenza jambolana (Myrtaceae). —- Somatina anthophilata Guen,—One in i. Trigodes cuneilinea Wlk.—One in x. Now Autiirygodes. Craspedia emissaria. Wlk.—Common. Records fori, ii and vii to xii. Larvae on Aeschynomene indica (Leguminosae). This, and all the following Craspedia species, are now included in Scopula. C. cleoraria Wlk.—Very common. Records for i to iii and ix to xii- Larvae on a Cultivated Lantana (Verbenaceae). The Fauna treats this as a synonym of fibulata Guen., from which it is distinct. C. opicata F.—Common. Records for x only. C. nictata Guen—Common, Records for iii, vi, vii and ix to xii, NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA 155 C. remotata Guen.—Common. Records for i, tii and x to xii. My specimens agree with the figure in the Fauna, but Hampson has lumped a number of species together. Sterrha macrospila Prout—Common. Records for i, v to vii, ix, xi and xii, Not in the Fauna. Sterrha sacraria L.—One in vi. Now Ahodometra. The Fauna includes it in the Larentiinae. LARENTIINAE The only example of this sub-family is an unidentified Chloroclystis which I bred fairly commonly. ENNOMINAE (Hampson’s BOARMINAE) Scardamia metallaria Guen.—Rare. Records for vii only. Prionia squalidaria Hbn.—Rare. Records for i, ili, vil, x and xi. Now Osicerda. Macaria fasciata F'.—Fairly common. Recorded in viii, Now Semio- thisa. M. frugaliata Guen.—Fairly common. Records for ii, vi, xi and xii. Now Sentothisa. Tephrina disputaria Guen.—One in Viii. Orsonoba clelia Cr.—One in vii. Hyposidra talaca Wlk.—Fairly common. Recorded iniand ii. Larvae on Castor. Dilinia medardaria Herr. Schaff.—A single specimen bred in xi. Larva on Zizyphus jujuba. Hyperythra lutea Cr.—Not uncommon. Records for ili and x. Biston suppressaria Guen.—Common, also larvae. Records for ali months except vii, ix and xii. Larvae on Cassia fistula, Lagerstroe- mia indica and Carissa carandas (Apocynaceae). Boarmia sublavaria Guen.—Common. Records for iv, vi to x and xii. A disappointing list; a Mercury Vapour lamp would, I feel sure, have produced considerably more, both species and individuals. (To be continued) SOME BENEFICIAL COCCINELLIDS OF MYSORE BY M. PUTTARUDRIAH AND G, P. CHANNA BASAVANNA Division of Entomology, Depariment of Agriculture, Bangalore This list pertains to the further collections made and hosts noted sub- sequent to those reported by us (1953 and 1955), and is prepared on the same basis as the previous ones. It includes 25 species belonging to 8 tribes, the tribe Scymnini being numerically well represented. Most of the species included here were determined by Dr. R. D. Pope of the British Museum, London, as also the synonymy of Menochilus 6-macila- dus (Fabr.). The identification of Scymnus (= Pullus) quadrillum Motsch. and Scymnus nubilus Muls. was confirmed by Dr. A. P. Kapur of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. The mite species mentioned here were determined by Dr. A. Earl Pritchard of the University of California, Weare grateful to them. ScyvyMNINI Pullus nubilus Muls. This species was reported by us (1953) under the name Scymnus nubilus Muls. as feeding on aphids infesting groundnut, cowpea, jowar, Phaseolus mungo and cotton. It has since been found feeding on two more species of aphids, Aphis neriz Fonsc. and Rhopalo- siphum nympaeae (L.), and the brinjal mealybug, Phenaccccus insolitus Green. The predator was found active on the above hosts from January to May. Chatterjee and Bose (1934) have recorded the species from various places in South India as occurring throughout the year but abundant during July and August. Pullus picescens Gorh. The species was found feeding on the aphid Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae infesting Zzapa, an aquatic plant, during January 1954. Both young ones and adults were found together on aphid-infested 7vapa plants. There appears to be no record of the species in India. Pullus victoris Motsch. a cee Seaoermdyesaeg ie DIMES] DISSV)~ 7 te porecee : Debeq odes. b, Be one alayacse sy 5 QO pyvsarinn viurynvg © sas : pms f intnmyeys: : “evoORRIG eo 2Z41ny sngan20u DAE % -(roneeunaty & mduehey i D 50 gene ‘svaouueiood y_ eens DUIYAAD JOLT I 0 Bl pone ch boven im” bani ea] 1) : 162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 however, O. oneratus is most abundant on Inga dulcis and Sesbania aculeata, ; . EGG=-LAYING The eggs are laid in parallel rows under the soft bark of hosi- plants. They are embedded vertically and. in a slightly inclined fashion. The number of eggs found in each row varies from 6 to 15. They are whitish when laid and gradually turn pink and finally biack before hatching. The eggs are laid at all seasons, but in the largest numbers during the rains and autumn. SEASONAL OCCURRENCE O. oneratus is seen all the year round. In Balasore, they are most common during June to October. The development from the egg to the adult of the membracid on the host-plant Cajanus indicus at Balasore during January and February 1954 was found to take about a month and a half, during which five instars were observed. HasiTs O. oneratus is gregarious in nature. The adults and nymphs are found crowded in the nodal and apical parts of the young shoots and on the lower side of the midribs of the bigger leaves. They rest motionless on the host-plants for hours together engaged in sucking the sap. The adults sit with their heads pointed upward downward or towards the base of the branch. Both the adults and nymphs are very active during the hot parts of the day. They take to the wings on the slightest provocation on clear sunny days, while on a rainy or cloudy day they crawl round the twig and fly away only when much disturbed. MATING The mating activity begins from about to o’clock in the day. The male crawls over the female so that their caudal extremities meet. Sometimes two or three males are found to crowd on the back and sides of a single female. -In copulation, the aedeagus of the male is inserted into the female gonopore, the claspers of the former aiding in grasping the latter’s body. Then the head and body of the male are moved through an angle of 180° so that the copulating pair face in opposite directions. Copulation lasts about an hour or less. The hooked nature of the aedeagus prevents quick separation of the pair in copula, and when disturbed the female keeps on dragging the male behind her or the pair falls to the ground without being separated. Finally, the male again moves to his original position and withdraws the aedeagus effecting a separation. ATTENDANCE By ANTS In all the host-plants, O. oneratus is usually attended by the common black ant Camponotus (Tanaemyrmex) compressus Latr. OTINOTUS ONERATUS WALK. IN ORISSA 163 The ants keep on moving constantly on the twigs and leaves infested by the nymphs and adults and guard the ant-cattle against any un- welcome intruder. The honeytubes of the nymphs are often kept raised. The ants lick the drops of honey from the tips of the honey- tubes as they move among the drove. The adults sometimes ward olf the ants by moving their bodies sideways, when the latter coax them for more honey. On transferring some live nymphs and adults of O. oneratus to some isolated pot plants at Balasore, the ants were found to begin their march to the unattended membracids within a few hours. PARASITES Both at Cuttack and at Balasore, the adults of O. oneratus were found to be parasitized by a Strepsipteran, a species of Indoxenos. The number of parasites collected between October and February 1053-54 a) balasone were, on female hosts—r) 1,111, (1, 2; 2; and Om male hosts lal l 2, 3 3. 3. hus /the maximum number OF parasites collected from a single individual was three. The proportion of sexes in the parasites differed, the number of females being greater than males. The present parasite differs in some respects from Indoxenos membraciphaga Sub. bred from O.. pallescens (Syn: O. oneratus) in Mysore (Subramaniam, 1927) and may prove to be a new species. Parasitization by the Strepsipteran appeared to be not fatal to the host, as some live specimens of O. oneratus collected in the fieid showed that the parasites had already escaped from their bodies, although apparently the latter were leading a normal life. The parasitized membracids are characterised by a nodular growth at the side of the abdomen. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sincere thanks are due to Sri C. M. Bastia and Sri H. Patnaik of the Departments of Botany, Ravenshaw College, Cuttack, and to Sri P. C. Sinha, Department of Biology, Gangadhar Meher College, Sambalpur, for their kind help in the determination of the host-plants recorded in the paper. We also record our gratefulness to Prot. P, N. Ganapati, Professor of Zoology, Andhra University, for his kind help in the preparation of the manuscript. REFERENCES Behura, B. K. (1951): Habits of the common membracid (‘Tree-hopper’) Otinolus oneratus Walk. (Homoptera: Rhynchota), JBNHS, 50 (2): 294-304. — — — and Sinha, H. (1951): A record of the common membracid, Otinotus oneratus Walk. (Homoptera: Rhynchota) from the city of Patna (Bihar)—ibid. 50 (1): 183-184. ; Distant, W. L. (1908): The Fauna of British India, Rhynchota. 4: 40-41. — — — (1916): ibid. 6: 160. : Subramaniam, T. V. (1927): A new genus and species of the Strepsiptera from South India, Indoxenos membraciphaga gen, and sp: nov:—Trans; Ent. Soc. Lond. 75 : 131-135. bit | ; | ee clubs OREVIEWS | SVOMI Yoni es esaut Be ee nee m yd aios ot tto a ups | PowAT" CHE “ANGLING oPARADISE: ope Bis 1, ‘Aniore. 80. ‘pages: Hind’ ‘Kitabs Limited, Bombay-r. ORG) dese igiro os 10 ‘A new mook ‘on aneliee is always welcomed ‘by followers. of Izaak Walton in India. In fact this little publication on Bottom” Fishing goes a long way to fill the gap.since Mr. Thomas’s classic was first published some 7o years ago. The author is one of our Powai Lake veterans: ‘andvhas also ‘incorporated, the, views, of a,number. of, ether old: timers. -Toemy knowledge) this»is the first publication. on. Botto: Fishing “with: particular reference to Bombay): waters) and, it. will, be found indispensable for De eied sy and visitors, from. abroad, and. from other parts ‘of the country <: From othe ‘anglers’ point!. ap ‘view, he a that the. pathee: ‘deals witty a -specialised:s subject; Botton ‘Fishing. .at . Powai. Lake, appears to-be a definite acne Pec gire (Lake, which, covers, an afea of 72:6 “square .miles, provides versatile. cand: NACIIDES methods. ‘of angding for’ Bottom feeders such: as Rohu; Mirgil, Galabos, and. ‘Catla, of which the Lake holds very remarkable specimens, particularly. Catla, of }well lover 100 JB. cin tweightss asieici: o.s-A study of>the' Book wills reveal aha ane hake contrary ‘to what we ‘usually call:ao{Tank’;-can be-successfully fished, by, various methods accordmg tosrseasons and: water. level... The author, also, gives. useful information-on ~building ; rafts;,and. beats: suitable, tor. fishing. _ The tackle, as described by the author, time -proyed, by .n many SHieniag at Powai, il no doubt be found most suitable for any type of bottom fishing in other parts ef, the.,country. _ One would have wished that the book contained a number of ood plistographs depicting the! beautiful scenery, at Powaij and; itis hoped that’in turtlés, which are turned on itheir>back and eaten at » Chapter five and six deal with the different cattle lifting tigers the ae has, shot: onl , Chapters seven and: eight deal sith man: rouaae tigers. All the man-eaters> shot by the;:author, were| maless) From) jthe:, accounts; it would appear that the» mdn-éaters of Malaya. are. much. less cunning and formidable than those of India. In Malaya a man- eating, tiger does. not. become-.so, greata. menace as the man-eater,,in, India; for the following, reasons: (a) smaller area, of operation,,.so. easier,, to locate, (b) greater determination. and. skill of the, Malays)!!! (c), exe berienced hunters more readily forthcoming, Pin | Chapter nine! is: a collection of Malay. superstition’ anal ane 166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 During the short time at his disposal the author tried to learn as much about the Malayan tiger as possible, and has turned out a very interesting book indeed, though many of his opinions and cons clusions do not agree with those of people who have studied and hunted tigers in India and elsewhere. The author was in the habit of following up a tiger immediately after wounding it, even at night. What experienced shikaris in India will think of this practice can well be imagined. The author’s attempt to make a census of tigers in Malay may usefully be tried in India. His sincere admiration for a noble animal is apparent all through the book. B. BASU. 2. (PELICAN |) UN. | PERE WNC ID ICING Sin ee NAUUIRVAUE TSS OpyssEy IN NortH America. By F. Fraser Darling. Pp. 380 (82” x 54”). With 2 maps and 15 plates (28 photographs). London 1956, George Allen and Unwin. 25) sir me Dr. Fraser Darling is weil known as an authority on wild life and his writings have done much to bring about an increasing re- cognition in Britain of the importance of Nature Conservation. His most recent book describes his travels in America. Somewhere beyond Wall Street and the Pentagon, Broadway and Manhattan, the high- powered cars, escalators and chromium plating lies the America of the pioneers, the America of wide prairie, virgin forest, desert and swamp. What have they done with it since the first homesteaders established their farms so many years ago? Dr. Darling supplies part of the answer. America is constructed on a vastly larger scale than anywhere else. Here under a magnifying glass are the universal natural principles at work, providing him with abundant confirmation for views based on observations in tiny insular Britain; and drastic illustration of the consequences of disregarding ecological laws. The inter-relation between species in any habitat is so close that interference with one upsets the ecological balance. Man in the course of his phenomenal rise to become the dominant species of the present age has done this over and over again, often with serious and totally unforseen consequences. To give only one example, the author des- cribes how the extermination of the timber-wolf in North America, instead of increasing the number of white-tailed deer, has led to their decrease. No longer kept on the move by wolf packs, the deer stay in one spot and after finishing all available food starve to death. In Scotland. a role similar to that of the wolf is played by the sheep- dog, which drives the sheep from place to place and prevents over- grazing. If we are to control our environment intelligently an understanding of the factors holding natural communities together is essential, and this can only be acquired by a lifetime of patient observation. Most interesting perhaps are Dr. Darling’s remarks on soil usage, especially relevant in the context of India’s plans for expanding her agriculture under the Five Year’ Plan. Are we relying too far on the fertility of our soil to repair damage done by forcing marginal soil to yield arable crops? Such a practice impoverishes the soil, and REVIEWS. —° 167 in satisfying present needs we may well be robbing future generations. Other parallels between Indian and American conditions can be drawn. ‘There is immediate wealth to be picked up from breaking an ecological climax, as in the felling of Wisconsin’s forests.’ Writes Dr. Darling: ‘The biological shock of doing such a thing is very great tea ee ghackine: oo trees round our villages and the large-scale felling of timber by private owners in order to make quick profits are destroying what ought to be valuable natural assets. We are left with land which is practically worthless from the agricultural point of view and which may take centuries to return to the forest that “represents the climax vegetation. In some ways it is a pity that Dr. Darling has adopted the diarist’s | style, noting down events and thoughts as they occurred to him. Thus we find the price of a haircut in San Francisco next to a dis- cussion on land misuse in California, and, immediately after, we are back in San Francisco’s Italian quarter for dinner. Along with some interesting general information and some which is neither interesting nor particularly original there is much of value in the book. We may or may not agree with all Dr. Darling’s conclusions, but he has a definite contribution to make to our thinking on matters of ecciogy, and it is to be hoped that this book will stimulate interest in his more serious scientific publications. R.R. 4. THE FLAMINGOS: Their Life History and Survival. By Robert Porter Allen. Pp. xv+ 285 (104” x8”). 15 plates (6 coloured), and numerous line figures from field sketches etc. New York: National Audubon Society, 1956. Price $3.95. | This is the National Audubon Society’s Research Report No. 5. Though it covers all the famingos of the world, it has special reference to the American or West Indian Flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber, which is threatened with extinction in portions of its range. It is the result of some 3 years’ field study of the species and analysis of the data collected. | To those familiar with Dr. Allen’s previous research reports in the same series, namely on the Roseate Spoonbill and the Whooping Crane, and to any one who, like the reviewer, has had the privilege of seeing this dedicated field ornithologist in action, this magnificent piece of work is only what was to be expected. Indeed the National Audubon Society are to be congratulated on their choice, for here Dr. Allen has done it again! sy ae Properly organized interest in the American Flamingo began to be taken only recently since the realization of its fast declining status by a group of far-sighted naturalists headed by Mr. Arthur Vernay, and more particularly after the founding of The Society for the Protection of the Flamingo in the Bahamas—‘the largest remaining stronghold of the American flamingo’. Owing largely to ceaseless persecution by local inhabitants the bird was being rapidiy pushed to the verge of extinction. 168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NARURABSHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 enS~Phes: Report iso divided mto.sthewfollowing>:main« sections: (4) Distribatiom:& Migration, (2) Numbers;>(3):>Food Habits::and Ecology, (4) The Breeding “Cycle, ‘and (5)>Conservation« ‘sAn Introdue- tion’ at the beginning ‘provides a very fuil: overall background | survey of- the flamingo: through the ages and throughout the’ world: legend and early history; :classification,:comparison of species” including detailed descriptions’ of-allthe’six’ forms belonging to}the three genera currently recognized.’ The large: flamingo. of the Oldcand New Worlds, treated by Some ‘taxonomists jas races,°is given specific: rank as- Phoenicopterus antiquorum “and °P.° ruber respectively, with a third SEES oe ms ue chilensis, confined to Chile int SJsAmmericas : qo" -On~ the- map en “p. 33 of the— Distribution ~ and: Nesting ai P. antiquoruny in- relation to rsothermal ‘lines, reported former nesting is: shown in‘Ceylon=* It niay ‘be well tos point» out,° however,that! a scrutiny of these reportshave ‘proved: theny to’ be ‘groundless. ong based Taam et fdigely” ‘upon “eonjecture* and? speculation. 2 oozionsid as g lose ‘Phe author’ believes’ that’ the enormous: sebdine: aiblenies! of the Gitar Rann“ of Kutchthe: most populous'so faf known anywhere in the’ Sworld—send their flocks to E.- Africa forthe winter ‘months, at least large’ numbers of them: ‘This is’ a reasonable speculation,® but éan only be proved by ‘a large-scale? marking of the birds! 2Ini fact most of the existing distributional problenms ‘connected: cwithothe flamjngo seem capable of solution only through large-scale marking and adequate follow-up. An estimate of the present aggregate of the West Indies Flamingo (P. ruber) at five of its principal known nesting places is given as 21,500 breeding :adults., .dt showsja-slightly, downward: trend since 1952 when the, total, -of; the adult breeding birds was, estimated , api23,450,q 4 hope is expressed that,the continuation. of the.present protection. programme instituted by the Flamingo Protection ‘Society of the, Bahmas, and: other agencies, will, with the help of the vital statistics presented in this Report, hélp to rehabilitate population numbers. It is Concluded from an ‘analysis | of ‘the data available that formerly the ‘total population numbered something: like 95,000 antag dla ee Hae 120 Bion and © 7 “minor population” units. rae ‘Apart ftom human’ persecution, the West Wiaias AainiAbd siiflers drastic loss through the periodic hurricane cycles to which-its distribus tional’ range here is ‘exposed, ‘On'-account of ‘these ‘recurrent’ catas- trophies ° fits believed ’ ‘that ‘the ‘ntimbers’ of - this” Pes were never as great ‘as. those ofits Old World cousench : Perhaps the ‘most illuminating Chapter’ is that ‘dealing ait: ins Habits. and Ecology... “All available’ information has beer skilfully cols lated and - Supplemented ‘by’ the authors Own: extensive’ field vstudy. It, is pointed out that the factor of high salinity, common ‘toocalb Alanving6 ® ‘Rabitats,” ‘is’ perhaps / of? the! most? Gonsistent, vitabosurvival Wali? High? salinity tends’ to° produce the abtndance*and variety of the’ Tinute™ organisms | ‘ipon which’ the 'flarhingo feeds: “Phe large ssize of ‘the? birds tongue | which® fairly’ fills the mouth’ ‘cavity! ‘precludes the swallowing ~ of= large’ food® items. The foéd' is ‘eonfined ‘to ‘vegetable and? ‘animal’ items ‘mostly’ of tiny Or’ evel ‘microscopic - size, largely Swallowed in? thé’ fofir of “otgahic Sand’ 6F ‘mud! ‘But! a’staidy of the bird’s feeding places suggests a great many‘ potential food items TTHIG2 JTeITRARMB MAU VAaMOR AAVADOL 169 besides those taken cfrony stomachs, ~so thats there is still room: for exhaustive: seadies (On theo food cand: feeding. ‘sabits=of the flamingos. 19/'SPhél-@hapter%6n “Ther ‘Breeding: Cycle des¢ribes: in detail: ocne behaviour, opair:cformation, » eel none copulation, «nest obuilding: -and othér “matters © conmected> witho incubation; aso. hatching and, early behaviour, herding, and dispersal of ‘thecyoung. ‘The final: section of the? Report deals: with - Conservation: ol he: main causes of. ve bid vaturdl oshyisient causes’ see as storms), eld: waves ete. One Sach? alone” in’ the «Camargue last year is: known to- have : killed: off over’ 35606°birdso! Natural °predators: do. appreciable: damage: ini-some areas, but this does not appear to be a major limiting factor. Nearer homeé, fi thé’éase? of! our “Kutch colonies, the growth of the-practice, apparently’ within recent’ years, among villagers ’around:-the, borders of” the” Great “Rann: of? organized rounding up and slaughtering: large numbers 6f flightless © young” flamingos has become a serious) menace. Rt “this: stage” ‘the “young arev unbelievably fat and are greatly relished ay £86a? ‘by ‘the meat-€ating / locals. The newly appointed - flamingo wardentef the Government of Kutch will, it 1s es. be- instrumental in curbing this vandalism. A Conditions in all the enon flamingo breeding areas are reviewed aa the measures for protection already adopted or called for are desoribedor suggested. .Dr.-Allen concludes that perhaps except in the.,.case,,of, the . Andean. species Phoenicoparrus ‘jamesi about which not; enough. AS, known, the overall world position of the flamingos, barring. in _certain, specific, areas, eg., in the Carribean “region, “is fairly satisfactory and happily presents no serious s problems of Sues at. _ Present. . : he: Bibliography is impressive. It occupies” 21 pages. and: ites Something © “hike: 700 separate items covering practically all> that. has ever been: written about 'the flamingo. The Report is, tany fact a comprehensive epitome of our knowledge concerning the? bird. ay frontispiecem colour’ by R. T- Peterson illustrates -all tie 5S1X flamingos of the world showing their comparative characteristics of size and coloration. ‘The other five coloured plates’ unfortunately -do not. all ‘do justice in their reproduction to their’ original transparencies; but the monochrome plates are good and the line drawings ex cellent and | well ‘chosen throughout, ee ‘the various maps. DSS: SSI to ge) EMBRYOLOGY. OF HETEROMETRUS SCABER, By A, P. Mathew. ~ Zoological | Memoirs, University, of. ‘Travancore Research Enstitutesoe Vol. d;: EDP Ils Ss ane 14 Plats: Trivandein, oo 1956. : (5 3ton ten Phe: Memoir’ by! ‘Dr. A pe’ MaitKew on ithe arene ‘of . any Indian scorpion, Helerometrus scaber, forms a valuable contribution to the embryological literature on the development of Arthropods... After a historical resumé, the’ author describes briefly the material wwotked with and thé technical methods “followed in’the stwdy:°°He then gives a brief account of the bionomics, the female reproductory systém; the structure of the egg, the details of maturation and fertilization, the 170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 segmentation of the egg, the development of the blastula and the processes of gastriation. This is followed by accounts of the development of the mid-gut, the nervous system and: certain other organs of the body. Toward the end is given a brief account of the birth of the young ones. This scorpion breeds throughout the year in southern India and is viviparous. It is clear that the author has carried out a aseftal and painstaking study of scorpion embryology. He has taken care not only to give his findings in detail but also to discuss them against the background of previous knowledge. In this way the reader is able to judge for himself the value of the findings and the extent to which they are original. The account is well-illustrated with several text-figures, 14 plates and a frontispiece. We should like to congratulate the author on bring- ing out this fine Memoir. Also deserving of congratulations are the University of Travancore which sponsored the publication and the University Grants Commission of the Government of India which pro/ vided financial aid to the publication. We shall look forward to the publication of subsequent Zoological Memoirs which, we hope, will maintain the high standards set in the first Memoir. M. L. ROONWAL 6. THE EARLY EMBRYOLOGY OF PYRILLA PERPUSILLA WALKER (HOMOPTERA) INCLUDING SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE LATER DEVELOPMENT. By Klaus Sander. Aligarh Muslim University Publica- tions (Zoological Series on Indian Insect Types. Edited by Dr. M. B. Mirza). 1956. Price Rs. 5. Embryological work on insect types has not found favour with Indian entomologists. In fact except Dr. Roonwal’s paper there hardly exist any standard papers on the studies of insect embryology in India. Dr. Klaus Sander’s present paper is a good beginning in this direction. The author in this paper has brought in a keen sense of observation as he follows the different stages of early development. Regarding the description one feels that it could have been shortened. Im- mediately after Material and Methods the author could have taken observations, and instead of bringing controversial matter under this heading it would have been better to put it under discussion. Under this heading the different papers on early development could have been discussed and the present observations compared. By doing so a running observation would have made better reading than getting mixed up with comparisons and controversies. Similarly the use of such words as Ental membrane, Mycetom, Vorkeim-Anlage, Symbionts and a number of others are probably not commonly used in the English vocabulary of this nature. A note explaining them would have helped many readers. We feel that im further work of this nature the precision and clarity as seen in the papers of Dr. Heymons, Paterson and Miller would be very helpful to Indian workers. However, Dr. Klaus Sander has certainly opened up in India a new line of work and we hope that many Indian workers will profit by the same. 1D D)- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. MACAQUE MONKEY EATING MUSHROOMS The macaque monkey, Macaca mulatta (Zimmerman), is common in the New Forest estate of the Forest Research Institute near Dehra Dun (Uttar Pradesh), ca. 600 metres above sea-level. It moves about the estate in small troops, doing depredation to gardens and cultivation. During the summer monsoon, mushrooms. spring up profusely from the ground all over the area. They usually acquire a whitish umbrella-shaped body which attains a height of upto 4 cm. One day in August, 1955, I saw a large male macaque pulling out and eating these mushrooms with relish. A few days later another male was observed repeating the same performance. ‘The observation seems to be worth recording. As several species of mushrooms grow in Dehra Dun, I am unable to say which species the monkeys were eating. one ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, CALCUTTA, M. L. ROONWAL September 24, 1956. Ze TIONG. TIGER Col. Kesri Singh’s interesting Miscellaneous Note entitled ‘Experiments in Implanting African Lions into Madhya Bharat’, in Vol. 53, pp. 465-68 of this journal, gives the details of how lions were imported from Africa into Gwalior in 1916. This information is most welcome, especially as we are now concerned with the pro- posal of moving a few lions from the Gir Forest into some other parts of India. {See my paper entitled ‘The Management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries’ and National Parks’ in this issue of the Journal, pp. 1-21.) An interesting point was raised, also, in the details concerning lions versus tigers in combat. Col. Kesri Singh is of the opinion that the lion was ousted from its habitat in India by the tiger, but this is not confirmed by some naturalists. R. I. Pocock, for example, iets Hauna of British India, Mammalia, Vol. I, pp. 220-221 gives emphasis to the slaughter of lions in India by sportsmen and others: particularly by British army officers during the nineteenth century. This shooting out of lions, he maintains, was the real cause of their disappearance in India, while the more wary tiger managed to survive. | In support of this theory, Pocock points out that lions have also disappeared from parts of Europe, SW. Asia and Africa, where there were no tigers to interfere with them. I am indebted to the Jam Sahib of Nawanagar for the information that in many parts of NW. India, where the lion has disappeared, there were never any tigers to contribute to this. 172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 Pocock goes even further by suggesting that the lion entered India from the NW. and was able to spread as far south as the Narbada River in spite of the. previous occupation of many of these parts by the tiger, which (according to him) had probably entered India Pee om tne oe to ue cou to uns sae of the peninsula. | a : — 2 Pocock, also is of ae opinion then evenyational Mien bi tiger did exist in the same‘ region, their difference of habit™and habitat® would not necessarily bring them into actual conflict with each other, and that ‘an encounter would eee as likely-end in mutual ‘avoidance as: in a fight, and in the event of a ‘fight the lion’s “chance?! of ‘success, So: far as anything is known’ to” ZEKE! contrary, would ‘be''as good Jas the tiger’s. Hence there does not’ appear to be’a particle of evidences that the tiger played even a ‘subordinate ne in ne extermination’ “oF the: lion in Inda.’ (8p J Now for the fate of some ofthe: African’ 11da6 awiieA release? into Gwalior forests. Col. Kesri Singh has explained ‘how’ these” three pairs of lions were confined in a‘ 20 ft. stone wall enclosure ‘for about 4 years’ befote being” released?’ Col. Kesri ‘Singh has very kindly informed me in a letter that the size of this enclosure was only “about Too ft. square’. This must surely have been a very severe handicap to, the, lions—to be thus confined for four’ yeats ahd’ then’ released straight into tiger country. Imagine a few tigers confined’ ‘for’ four years in a similar enclosure in the Gir Forest and ‘then released~ £6 fight the Gir lions on their ‘home ground’! Col. Kesri Singh refers..to. three,duels arranged by him between tigers and lions, in which the tigers won on each occasion. In this connection, itis interesting to, note that the Jam Sahib .of Nawanagar has informed me. that he has himself witnessed a ‘fight between. al tion and a tiger on four occasions, on all of which the lion won. ~*~, My own humble opinion is that I do. not. think much: importaneé should be attached to whether the lion or the tiger was victorious in. any particular duel unless the two animals were equally matched in every respect. In other words both tiger and lion.would have to be the same sex, same age, same weight (relatively), _ same ‘condition, same iueaion of captivity, same jee of time since, last feeding ‘and drinking, etc., etc... The combat would also have to be ‘airanged under such boudiions and circumstances that ‘neither animal had’ any, unfair advantage over. the other. , To. organise such a combat ‘would be extremely difficult—in fact almost impossible. , There is also.,another, aspect. to. be considered.. le hacy been the practice of many makers of nature films, especially ol the Holly wood and more recent T.V. Schools, to. present. only the sensational. - Their animal films include staged fights .between captive, animals unnatur: ally! forced to fight each other, and ferocious charges by deliberately provoked animals, simply to pamper audiences which are ignorant, of real. jungle conditions and which have become accustomed to a series of .excitements. and thrills in nature films... This is most unfortunate, since not only. are, such. films an, unreal portrayal of wild life, but’ also ~vhen. a. serious, field, naturalist produces a. genuine wil life fifi, of: what’ he -has actually. seen, it is likely to, appear flat and t uninterést : ing after those made by the ‘animal ight’ school. Sek pista ao ie is OO eG) YM D4 SCELBANEOUSt*NOTES\LOG ALAA IO| 173 Having seen African lions in East Africa and Indian lions in the Gir Forest, I have immense respect for these creatureso* And having seen tigers in various parts of India, I have the highest ‘admiration for these. Both animals in their own different ways and in their-own different habitats are equally worthy of our admiration.» I> would rather think of them as mutually respecting and avoiding each other if they happened to meet in the wild state. Doyane T.E., ae OaTInG P.O., E..,P; GEE ASSAM, eee Sein August 20, 1956. 3. TRANSFERRING OF THE INDIAN LION TO AN ADDITIONAL LOCALITY There has been much thought given recently to the moying of lions from the Gir Forest to other parts of their former range.. The idea no doubt is to insure the future of this noble animal from possible extinction by man or through epidemic diseases or other natural catastrophies, and as such is to be welcomed. Is there however,..any need to do this at all? ; ao; In the Gir Forest the lions live out in the surrounding cultivation and less in the forest itself, except in the eastern part of the reserve. Lions are animals of the open country and do not like forests. That they are found in the Gir is no doubt owing to the broken nature’ /of thé terrain’ which allowed the last of the animals © shelter < fromthe shikaris who wiped them out over the rest of the country; ane possibly. also, due) to the: great numbers _ of. cattle, grazed im) the forest, p1o- vidi ‘them with “a ° “plentitudd® OP foud.2! Ia “former times: the “lions ranging 2 across the north-west of India’ ‘must have fed on milgaitand buck which “were ‘found in plenty in the areas freqtiénted by°the lions. Now where is. there naa ‘place where these antelopes | cat “be found ‘in the concentrated: ‘numbers sufficient to. support: ‘a pride ‘of tions? *Y As in the case of tiger, cattle are a substitute tit place” of ~ “the ‘lion’s natural, food, while other forest game § such | as Cheetal” cani~ ‘néver form atal=Ta, the sole diet | -of the > BBD eae this in amin, ome it, be. fair _to mou dismissed. ae Se an: oniS ee Another eae ie which ; eal to- ie locked ‘into pero trapping ee the lions commences 18< that:-of housing: them. while , ‘che . full family 15! beings ‘caught,sande tilldthey/sare-moved ;to | itheis new,,, home. at 1S obvious that the present ‘econmmnedation: if: the: Junagedh Z00-1 AS; limited 174 JOURNAL, BO MEBAY GNA BATE EUS Tiras) O1G iis sulio) aoe and not desirable, since I have found there a tendency among the keepers and some visitors to annoy the animals. This infuriates the lions, which is only natural, as well as removes the respect they have for man.in their natural state. What the consequences will be when these animals are released in their new home 1s too fearful to imagine —witness the killings by the lions which recently escaped from the Junagadh Zoo. Granted ‘that all the above objections are removed, on what grounds has the need for this sort of transplanting become necessary? Lions have existed in the Gir for centuries and even if in the past epidemics might have reduced the race, they have always managed to multiply again to their former numbers, so it has never been claimed that the present reduction of the once widely spread lion to its limited habitat has resulted from causes other than their destruction by man and by depopulating of the game that comprised their food. Since the killing of lons has been completely banned, the Gir lions have kept on increasing most vigorously, and there is every possibility that if the animals are given continued protection, they will slowly spread out into the country around their present range. This natural increase will create a need to keep their numbers down by judicious shooting. It is therefore apparent that there need be no anxiety about possible extinction of the lion in the Gir and consequently this scheme is quite uncalled for, unless of course it is intended to give another State the pride of being the possessor of Astatic Lions. This privilege, however, is fraught with much danger and ts not worth the effort. | RAJKUMAR COLLEGE, RajJKOT, SAURASHTRA, KS: LAVKUMAR September. 29, 1956. . [Mr:.E. P. Gee, who is particularly interested im this problem, comments on the above as follows: é ‘While it is true that tne Gir Forest and its surroundings may be an ideal habitat for Indian lions, this is not the sole reason for their survival there. Another reason is that they were protected by the former. Nawab of Junagadh, whereas they never received any pro- tection in any other part of India. As to imposing an ‘‘economic loss on people living around the proposed new lion sanctuary’’, the importance of doing publicity about the lion and its habits in the event of a new home fer the Indian lion being proposed, was accepted and emphasised at the last meeting of the Executive Committee of the Indian Board for Wild Life. Only if the State authorities and the people of the neighbour- hood are in favour of having lions brought into their area should such a project be undertaken. The case of (African) lions being introduced into Gwalior State some years ago cannot fairly be cited, as the conditions under which these liond were released into the forest were far from ideal. In addition to chital, it is presumable that sambar, pig and other such animals will also constitute the food of lions re-introduced into MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 175 a new locality within ther former range. It was never intended to re-introduce the lion into an area unless there was an adequate natural food supply to enable it to SULA without necessarily having to prey on domestic cattle. If lions are ill-treated by essen: in the Junagadh Zoo, this should be speedily reported to the appropriate State authorities, possibly with a copy to the Secretary, Indian Board for Wild Lite. It is a fact that the Indian Jion is af present not only safe but actually on the increase in the Gir; but in addition to the danger of diseases, droughts, famines and other natural calamities, there is also the risk of un-natural calamities such as wars, civil commotion, total deforestation, uncontrollable killing etc. which have to be guarded against. Moreover, there appears to be a genuine desire on the part of certain other States in India to re-introduce a valuable, important and interesting animal into their forests.’—Eps. | 45 WILD ELEPHANTS IN THE UNION OF BURMA CENSUS A careful census made in 1935 put Burma’s elephant population at about 10,000 head. Reckoning on 6,000 of these being females, and half of these being of breeding age, and at the rate of one calf in four years, the average annual birth-rate would be 750. From this substract 125 natural deaths each vear, which leaves the average of annual increase of 10,000 animals at 625. WiLtp ELEpHANT CONTROL SCHEME A comprehensive scheme of wild elephant control in which game rangers worked in conjunction with kheddah operators was sanctioned in 1935. A number of permanent blocks were selected and the objective of the scheme was the extermination of elephants living outside these blocks. Very considerable damage to crops was done by wild elephants, which would in future be confined to areas as remote from cultivation as possible. It was estimated that a stock of between 4,000 to 5,000 wild elephants would be retained in the permanent blocks. The game rangers were employed chiefly on ‘crop protection up to 15th January, after which most of them were engaged in extermination operations. PLAN OF KHEDDAH OPERATIONS All licences for capture of elephants were issued under the elephant control scheme. Under this plan certain areas were closed to opera- tions as elephant sanctuaries, others were classified as areas in which the extermination of elephants was desirable in the interest of the country’s development, and the greater part of the forests in which wild elephants occurred was. divided into a number of kheddah blocks to be worked over in rotation by kheddah licensees. 176° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) “SOCIETY, Vol. 54 Destructioa “of ‘ usta -resulling'© from! the ‘elephant. control scheme anid otheragencies. : ee ee fad ylivpeeasss ds Adey old cléms oj yiqque boot 1935- 26 to -1940- a lites oiesmob ac ain > [Burin Sse fii a, “ : eS apes : w lego" a , “spgygp rage oft 02 ac ees | Gate in ‘tieddahs, : s , ine Cae Gn at ish, ee ee _ Federated. Shan States > aa | ae gi I es oe — i pale) nbsiied idan nini-97 419 gibal ni 2oisi@ iedt0 nisteo to Cede in kheddals. elesioihiords ofai Ismias entiesrsiai bas Total... + 443 ae 443 AMAUG AO “OIMU aH IGrand¢lotal Hoa JSD i1w In justification of the large nlimber of eigoltanntls dO killed, the Chief Conservator “of ‘Forests wrotes °° > “The elephant controP measures “adopted in» A936 Have produced good results and should prove of lasting value. Further’ extensive operations should not be “necessary. During’ the - period 1933"36 fo 1939-40, 2,131 elephants have been deeeeby ba by ‘game: rangers, age elephants herr been destroyed “by other agencies, and oii ‘elephants have been captured in kheddahs. During the coming year, operations will be continued onza +educed ;scale...,l-1s,almostyeertain that a small staff of game rangers will have to be maintained eee for crop DROKE HOR work} around - permanent’ elephant -blocks.”. ss-ssconm05 2 LUI £ --The-Annual: Reperto on:'Ferest: Administration in: ae 1939-40. -. ‘Elephant>eontrelschemedin' the-Mongmit !Division: (Federated) Shan States): was cabandoned ‘shortly? after the beginning :of the! year owing too the shortage of ammunition s “Fhe: abandonment: of thee scheme: has aoteseen anybincrease in destruction> by wild elephants “and if is: pro- tbable sthat: ‘thec:villagers «would beyearscin which the2control scheme was under operation.2:59 wAnnual Report on Wild® Life Preservation in’ _the Federated Shan coe for the year ending 31st. Marchsag4ro isixs ai bsgsans In paid Life Protection ie es “publishes during World Simla, H. C. Smith Stig ao Spacer Kheddah Operations:'> (Some) years? ‘agooit> was‘ esti- -mated that. there. were: about:'5;000 wild elephants.) Ascmdéany [as 500 +have been ceapturedsitizacyean but cin: future’ about: 200-will-probably be sthe “number? that-ican: bédeapttured: annually without: detriment bo the eles that?it wills be ‘deemed -advisabledto bmaintaine’so!o.9) et vita oFigurés: of ° elephants dcitled fartdy ‘captured: nm 119412424 are > not aeleele During >otheo'| War>o*period:> kheddah ~ operations were MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 177 suspended. The number of wild elephants shot illicitly must be negligible. Adopting the 1935 formula the. increase during the war period 1942-43 to 1944-45 would be about L250: The number of wild elephants in 1945-46 would be about 5,000 + I,250=6,250. In 1947-48 kheddah operations were conducted in Maritime, Sittang, Hlaing and Northern Circles. From 1949-50 to 1950-51, kheddah operations were confined to Maritime and Northern Circles, In 1951-52 kheddah operations were confined only to the Northern Circle. The number of elephants shot from 1945-46 to 1951-52 is 29. The increase from 1945-46 to 1951-52 would be about 2,7<50. PRESENT PoLtcy OF GOVERNMENT In order to build up the present inadequate elephant power for the timber extraction industry to its pre-war strength, the Govern- ment encourages kheddah operations whenever possible and issues kheddah licenses liberally to those who want to capture wild elephants. Such licenses are issued to cover an area of suificient extent where elephant herds are seen to forage more or less regularly. The area is properly defined, and within such area a few kheddahs, pr to) 4) generally, “are buile im’ places most likely to be used by elephants in their runs during beats. The license fee is just a nominal sum, but on each captured elephant the Forest Department levies royalty at rates depending on the height of the elephant. The only condition upon which the forest Department insists is that the area to which the license applies should be possible for Forest Officers to inspect. In other words licenses are given only for those areas where there is sufficient security. At present such licenses are issued in Maritime Circle and Northern Circle, that is to say in the forests of Arakan, Tenasserim along the coast, and also in the Kachin State. The yearly average of elephants captured is 150. The total number of clephants captured in Burma and the Kachin State from 1945-46 to 1951-52 is as follows: Number died, Number captured released or Balance escaped 909 140 769 Number of elephants killed in Burnmia and the Kachin State from 1945-46 to 1951-52 1S 29. IK AC lie Sane. Large herds including many tuskers cause considerable damage to taungya cultivation in the Suprabum and Putao sub-division. In 1952, a rogue elephant was shot to protect the timber elephants of 12 178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 the State Timber Board. The number of elephants captured during the last three years 1952-53 to 1954-55 is as follows: Number died, Number captured released or Balance escaped 129 28 --101 oN Total number of elephants killed from 1952-53 to 1954-55 IS On 25 InyA Myainc Roan, University P.O., TUN VIN: RANGOON, BCss, -(Retd)) August 23, 1956. A LARGE PAIK OF ELEPHANT’S TUSKS FROM BURMA (With a photo) In the Society’s Journal 37: 468, J. K. Stanford has given a description of a large pair of elephant’s tusks which he saw at Lonkhin, in the house of Kansi Duwa. He did not get the oppor- tunity to weigh the tusks then. Cn . This pair was brought down to Rangoon recently and were found to weigh 180 lb., when weighed at the air strip, Myitkyina. 7 The measurements and weight of these tusks therefore are: Length Pe Ginth Weight Remarks R-67-54 174” eee | L606 75 17” } } 180 Ib. Owner—Kansi Duwa. For comparison, measurements and weights of some other large pairs of Burmese tusks are given below. a MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 179 Extracts from Appendix I—-Burma Game Manual 1929. Length Girth Weight Remarks R-8’- 9” ae ae Government House L-8’-6” eae bs Rangoon (R. W.) J Rel 8h" itil Wie 102 lb. The tusks of the sacred L-7'.-34” Be 97% ib, white elephant. from Mandalay Palace. Owner—The Marquis of Waterloo. (R.W.) R7’-94" 174” 72\b. Shot by J. N. Clough. L-8’-6” 72 74 Ib, Kyaikto District 1896 (I.F.S.B.) R-6'/-8” 184” 84 lb. Owner—H. Shaw Dum. L-6’—-5” 184” 82 lb. (R.W.) R-6/-11” 154 | 106 ib Owner—Gordon Smith L-6’ -6" 154 i ; (R.W.) R-6'7" IL 110 1b Shot by H. E. Flint. 5.9! 7.” : Mogok Forest Division R6’-25" 174 os Shot by A. Haziehood. L-6’-14” 174 is Basein Forest Division. - Extract from The Burmese Ferester. Vol. V, No. 2.—December 1955. (Page 134) Length Gi th Weight Remarks R-7’ -114" 163” } 138°6 Ib A big. tusker — shot L-7' -11” 164” | ; at Hnokeho, Bhamo Division in 1936 by U Su. 25, InvA Myainc Roan, University P.O., TUN YIN, RANGOON, ) | BeC.9.. (etd: ) August 23, 1956. 6. ALBINO ELEPHANTS Early in the present century an albino elephant calf was captured by the Government kheddah department in the Katha Forest Division. The calf was presented to the Trustees of the Shwe Dagon Pagoda, but died shortly after arrival at Rangoon as a result of over-feeding by pilgrims. Later in the century, one was captured in the Toungoo Forest Division. The owner Saw Durmay Po Min, took the . albino elephant along with one black elephant for exhibition in Europe and America. On the return journey, the clephant died at 180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 Calcutta. A photo of this albino elephant is published in ‘Wonders of Animal Lite’ Volume 2. page 1,026. In) 1930," ay ganie tran ser employed on elephant control in the Ngaputaw Township in the Henzada-Bassein Division, was charged in heavy bamboo jungle by an elephant, which he had to shoot in self defence. The animal on examination, turned out to be an albino. In 1940, a game ranger operating in the Mayu Hills of Arakan Division was aiso compelled to shoot an albino elephant. 25, InyA Myainc Roan, University P.O., TUN YIN, RANGOON, BiC.S. (vera) August 23, 1956. [To the above records may be added that of the white calf born to one of the elephants of the Bombay bBurmah Trading Corporation Ltd. In a note published in the Journal at the time (Vol. 26, p. 286-— Decr. 1918), Sir Henry Macnaughten gave this interesting informa- tion: ‘A female calf born on 6th March 1918 aroused a good deal of excitement by its unusually light colour, and in view of the importance attached by the Burmese to the birth of a genuine SINPYUDAW it was thought advisable to submit the claims of the calf to a jury of prominent Burmans on the 7th April. ‘The points of a SINPYUDAW appear to be as follows: 1. Twenty toes, Zo Canleyes, 3. Dail Dah Gal -Raik 4. Red mouth, 5. Light coloured and smooth skin. ‘The calf though possessing a rather light skin at birth and pearl eyes failed to fulfil these conditions, having only eighteen toes and a tail that was not up to the requiremen its. It was therefore at once pronounced to be not a genuine SINPYUDAW. ‘The colour has since grown perceptibly darker and on reaching maturity is not likely to differ in any way trom the ordinary. ‘The fact that the “‘whiteness’’ of an elephant depends as much on the possession of certain points as on its colour may be of interest to your readers, as most people appear toe believe in the existence of a milk white animal. ‘ In a letter to The Field of 16 Decr. 1926, (reprinted in the Journal 32: 214), BD, FE. Mache records the bith or a similany calli are one of the Borneo Company’s timber elephants in N. Siam. Local experts pronounced it to be a true ‘Chang Peuak’ or White Elephant, a verdict which was confirmed by a specially deputed oificial of the Royal White Elephant Department in Bangkok. “The chief ‘‘points”’ looked for in such elephants’ writes Mr. Macfie, ‘appear to be (1) a light red skin, the lighter the better, with still lighter coloured patches on belly and inside of legis 12) white hairs on body and tail; (3) a very light pink palate or roof of mouth; (4) eyes a light Linke oialle colour; (5) white toe nails. The number of toes does not seem ito matter materially, but five on each foot, fore and hind, is considered, I believe, a mark of high caste.’ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 181 [In Vol. 46 (p. 396) is published a note by Mr. E. S. Simon (with photograph) of a cow elephant captured in the Travancore forests Wiech wom the) basis oly aihe, above, points’ was a true White Elephant’. This, apparently, is the first record of such an albino in the Indian peninsula.—EDs. | 7. PREDATOR AND PREY AT SALT-LICKS In forest where there are sait-licks, earth-licks or hot-springss, one finds tracks of wild animals coming from all directions to a single focal point. The same applies, to a certain extent, to an isolated water-hole. Wild elephants, gaur, sambar, chital and barking deer (speaking of NE. India) visit these licks regularly. It would be interesting to know if predators such as tiger and leopard ever take advantage of the existence of these licks, to lie in wait for their prey. And do the big cats themselves ever visit the licks for medicinal purposes? It is possible that deer and other animals, when visiting an open salt-lick along well-worn paths, exercise greater care than usual. I have observed barking deer approaching a lick with the utmost alertness and caution, and I! feel that this may deter the predators from attempting to ambush them. E. H: Peacock (JBNHS. 37: 780) writes: ‘Some natural law appears to protect the game at these licks from ambuscade by the Carnivora; at least I like to think so. I have never seen or heard of a kill at, or very near, a salt-lick’. Theodore Hubback (JBNHS 41: 48 et seq.) mentions having twice seen a tiger at salt-licks in Malaya, but does not refer to their drinking there, or killing their prey, or refraining from killing. F, W. Champion in his book ‘The Jungle in Sunlight and Shadow’ (page 108) explodes the myth that there is any kind of truce- between the jungle animals at times of drought, when water-holes are few and far between. At the main hot-spring in the forest in Garampani Wild Life Sanctuary in Assam tracks of tiger have often been seen, and once a friend of mine actually saw a fine tiger there in broad daylight. Last October when accompanying the Senior Conservator of Forests to this place we found the remains of a half-grown gaur at this hot- spring. As there were no traces of a poacher’s machan nearby, we presumed that it had been killed by a tiger or large leopard. It would be interesting if any members of the Society or their friends can give more information on this interesting aspect of salt- licks. Doyane T.E., (CHATTING! TEA Oe Ie BGs ASSAM, - June 6, 1956. 182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 8. INCUBATION PERIOD AND ‘MORTALITY RATE’ (?) IN A BROOD OF THE MAGPiE-ROBIN [COPSYCHUS SAULARIS (LINN.)] Looking through my notes, I find the following entries in respect of the Magpie-robin which, as throwing some light on the period of incubation and ‘rate of mortality’ (?) of the chicks, may be worthy of record. A nest was discovered cn 28 February 1953 in a hole ca. 9” deep at the tip of a 5-foot bamboe stake in the fence forming the boundary of the Zoological Gardens at Trivandrum. The fence was in bad repair and the stake, loose from its anchorage was leaning forward at such an angle that the nest was hardly more than 3 ft. from the ground. 28-2-1953. Four eggs, greenish and liberally blotched. 14-3-1953. One egg hatched in the afternoon. 15-3-1953- The remaining three hatched. 24-3-1953. Nestlings show a white patch on their bodies; very warm and humid. 29-3-1953. Nestlings looking well. 0-3-1953. At 10.30 a.m., three of the nestlings had disappeared and the 4th was crouched at the bottom of the nest; sometime later, it was found in an erect posture and quite dead. No trace of injury on the nestling ; no sign of the others in the neighbourhood ; the male _ parent was found later, calling from a nearby tree. The dead nestling was weighed (9.6 gms.) and transferred to spirit. It can be seen from the above, that 15 days had elapsed between the discovery of the eggs and their hatching. Assuming that the nest was found the day the clutch was completed, perhaps a coinci- dence, or within a day or.2 of it which is more probable, the incuba- tion period may be taken to be 15 to 18 days. The fate of the nestlings remains a mystery. If they had been destroyed by predators, it is hard to see how the fourth could have escaped without so much as a trace of injury. Death from. excessive heat or disease or starvation can also be ruled out as in such cases the victims should have been found dead or dying, within the nest itself. And besides, they were looking so well only the previous day ! There is a probability that the young birds had flown from the nest. This seems plausible in the light of the observations made by Dr. M. Nice in the course of her study of the Song Sparrow in America, that in Passerine species the majority attain flight pro- ficiency at about 17 days of their hatching. In the present case, ithe chicks, already 15 days in the nest, may have gained sufficient strength to fly from the nest. This they might have done and in the ‘stampede’ that followed, their weakling brother (or sister) might have got choked to the point of death. An examination of the preserved specimen showed that it had iis wing feathers well developed, but the tail was nothing more than a flat knob with no feathers at all, The head and body were bare, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES i - 133 save for a small patch of short, black feathers just behind the bill and a few feathers in a line at the beginning of the spinal ridge. The earliest rudiments of feathers could, however, be made out as a triangular patch on the chin, a thin line along each lower jaw and as a large inverted ‘V’ commencing from the gullet. The white patch on the body referred to earlier, which had the appearance of a fungal growth, has disappeared in spirit. *‘GOKULAM’, NANTENCODE, N. G. PILLAI TRIVANDRUM. [It appears more than probable that the three chicks left the nest in the natural course and that the fourth, being a weakling, was thereafter abandoned to its fate by the parents. This is not uncommon in passerine birds.—Ebs. ] 9. SOME NOTES ON THE PLUMAGES OF CENTROPUS SINENSIS (STEPHENS) Stuart Baker (Fauna Vol. 4, p. 190) describes the young of C, s. sinensis (Stephens)—‘ Distribution: Northern India, roughly from Sind and Kashmir through the North-West Provinces, Punjab and United Provinces; the sub-Himalayas as far east as Eastern Assam and south to the Ganges Valley in Bihar and Bengal’—as having the plumage barred in young birds with a great deal ot variation. He also records his personal observations regarding females, but not males, breeding in such juvenile plumage. He does not refer to the young of the other two races, i.e., C. s. intermedius (Hume)—‘Assam, south of the Brahmaputra; Cachar and Sylhet, Tippera, Chittagong, Comilla, Burma, North Malay State, Siam and the. Indo-Chinese countries, Yunnan and Hainan’—and C. s. parroti Stres.—‘Ceylon and India, south of the range of sinensis’—implying that they are also barred as in the nominate race. Whistler and Kinnear in their report on the Eastern Ghats Ornithological Survey, JBNHS, 37: 528, drew attention to the question of juvenile plumages in the Crow Pheasant (Centreopus sinensis). They found some young similar to the adults, while others wore a barred plumage. They thought that this might be of sub- specific significance, but stated that they did not have sufficient material to settle the point. The Society’s collection contains 7 juvenile skins which are barred oo parts mentioned against them: 3& (Assam). Secondaries and upper tail coverts. o ? (Bihar). Wings and underparts; tail missing. o ? (Bihar). Wings, underparts and entire tail. © (Bihar), Secondaries and central tail feathers. * © (Nepal). Most secondaries, central tail feathers and tail coverts. & (North Shan State). All wing quills and coverts; traces on all tail feathers and underparts. = 9 (Prome Dist., Burma), Most secondaries ; upper wing coverts and central tail feathers. ~- un * Bear traces of duskiness, see infra. 184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 A specimen from Gwalior has slight traces of bars on the tips of a few of the brighter purplish feathers of the hind neck, but otherwise it agrees with parroti. Mrs. Cicely Lushington in a letter to the Society in December 1945 wrote: ‘The fledglings of this bird in Ceylon, contrary to what is said in text books (Waite: Birds of Ceylon, p. 218), are just like the parents, but a little duller. Mr. W.W.A. Phillips has handled a number of fledglings and says that “‘he has never found any barrings in the Ceylon form’’.’ The only unbarred juvenile available in Bombay is one from Khandala, Western Ghats, Bombay State, collected on 4 October 1935. This is a of and shows very slight traces of duskiness in the upper wing coverts. The wing feathers are not yet fully grown. As the above suggested that the young of parroit may diifer from those of the other two races in not being ‘barred, I wrote to the British Museum and Mrs. B. P. Hall of the Bird Room very kindly examined the material available there. She writes that in an ex- tensive series of parvoti from Southern India and Ceylon there are no juvenile ‘or immature specimens with barred wings or tails while there are juveniles, or immature birds, with barred wings and tails from Karnal; Jhang, Bhimbar District, Multan, jagadhri (Ambala Dist.) and Lucknow; also from Bengal and all countries of eastern Asia. Duskiness in Upper Plumage In the course of this examination I was struck by the marked duskiness of the wing coverts in some individuals which contrasted sharply with the chestnut of the rest of the wings. Of 11 males and 20 females of all races, this duskiness was found in 8 specimens, all females of parroti, trom the following localities: Bombay (2), Orissa and Bastar (4), Ambala (1) and Deihi (1)—all collected between 10 November and 15 January. Females of parroli taken in March (1), May, (2) and September (2) showed no trace of this duskiness nor did any males taken in January (1), March (2), June (1), August (1) and October (2). Except for slight traces on two juvenile females from Nepal and Prome, there was no duskiness in any of the other races though we have females taken in November (Meerut), December ({Bhagowni, Bihar and Assam), January (Thayetmyo, Burma), February (Jagadhri, Ambala District, Punjab} and March (Bahawalpur, and Prome, Burma). We have referred to the females from Delhi and Ambala as parrot while one collected by Basil Edwards in Delhi was named sinensis by Whistler (JBNHS, 31: 560). Mrs. Hall has also referred to 8 adults from Delhi in the British Museum as sinensis. From Jagadhri, Ambala District, Punjab, we have in Bombay a female which is definitely sinensis while another dusky individual referred to above from the same district appears to be parroti. It would therefore appear that the distribution of the two races sinensis and parreti around Delhi and northward into the Punjab along the Jumna Valley has to be worked out afresh—there is either a mixed population with overlapping characters or both forms occur (?). MISCELLANEOUS NOTES , 185 Summary From the evidence available, it appears: | (1) that the juveniles of C. s. smensis and C. s. intermedius are barred, while those of C. s. parroti are not. cae (2) that the females of parroti acquire a marked sootiness on their wing coverts between about November and January. (3) that there is either a mixed population or two forms overlap in the Punjab and northwards along the Jumna Valley. | Messrs Faiz & Co., 75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI BoMBAyY-3, September 26, 1956. 10. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE PINKBREASTED VAUD (esi tACyu nA ALEXANDER) IN DEHRA DUN On 14 November 1955, Mr. Gurdial Singh of the Doon School and myself, while sitting under a Toon tree in the school grounds, saw a party of these attractive parakeets fly into the tree, and we were able to watch them through field glasses on and off throughout the afternoon as they moved about in the branches overhead, feeding in clumps of loranthus parasitising on the toon branches. While feeding they were very quiet and their presence in the tree was only felt by the continual rain of leaves and other matter they dropped down while feeding or when. attention was attracted by the whirr of wings as a bird flew from one branch to another. The flock con- sisted of over a dozen birds of both sexes, and when they flew from one tree to another they did so in a compact wheeling mass uttering loud and very distinct trumpeting calls quite unlike those of the Slatyheaded or the Alexandrine parakeet, both of which were around in fair numbers. The pink breast in the males is a very conspicuous feature as is also the rather short tail. Mr. George of the F.R.I. who is a knowledgable bird student of Dehra Dun informs me that this bird has never been mentioned before from the Dun. RAJKUMAR COLLEGE, RAJKOT, Is. LAVKUMAR SAURASHTRA. [The western limit of distribution given in the Fauna is “Kumaon’ without any specific locality.—Eps. | 11. EXPERIENCES WITH LITTLE RINGED-PLOVER (With a plate) The Little Ringed Plover (Charadruis dubius), is not a rare bird in Kashmir. Anyone looking for its nest may with perseverance and -a little luck soon find it. It is not an excessively shy bird and seldom looks with great disfavour upon a photographer’s hide, and yet my 186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 own attempts to photograph it in the summer of 1944 led to a series of adventures which culminated in the most surprising thing that has so far happened to me as an ornithologist. - My first nest was found on an island of mud in the middle of a marsh. The marsh seemed bottomless and shivered with virgin horror at the touch of human feet. It was a perfect barrier protecting the island. Ditches intersected it in many places, and on the surface of the Lethe’d dullness of their waters the flowers of white water-lily floated like little waxen boats. To reach the island one either walks across the marsh in a series of hurried steps during which the weight of the body is never allowed to rest on one foot for longer than is absolutely necessary; or it is possible to use a rough kind of marsh- shoe consisting of a circle of withies attached by ropes to a central oblong of wood. Two lengths of grass rope tied to the central portion form a thong into which the foot is thrust, but the shoe is extremely uncomfortable to use. On this first occasion, the island was soon reached. I crept into my hide which was already in place, trained my camera on to the nest and waited for the bird to return. The nest was a mere hollow scraped in the mud and contained three eggs; it was surrounded on three sides by tufts of straight-growing, sharp-pointed grass. Within a quarter-of-an-hour the bird was back and was photographed as it stood beside the nest. Unfortunately, the noisy shutter of my Graflex camera frightened the bird, and it flew off and made no further attempt to return. The plover, on subsequent occasions when frightened by the sound of the shutter would run a short distance from the nest, and then peck furiously at the ground, making the earth fly. Psychologists would explain this behaviour as a kind of ‘karthas's’, an outlet for pent-up emotions generated by the pull of two opposing emotional forces of equal strength: on the one hand a strong desire to incubate the eggs; and on the other an equally great desire to run away. (Similar behaviour under like circumstances | have_also noticed in the case of another member of the family Charadriidae, the Common Sandpiper.) Fear, in the Ringed Plover, also finds emotional outlet in a raising of the leg which is shivered violently, an action resorted to by the bird when approaching the nest, literally ‘in fear and trembling’. The incubating bird, once frightened by the sound of the camera did not return a second time until driven back by its mate which until now had remained out of sight. The frightened bird had only flown a short distance away, and it was to be seen pecking at the ground for food, occasionally making a short run, and as it came to a stop performing a little hiccup of a bow. Now its mate came Hying over calling, Sweet-vyou, Sweet-you, ordering the other in an urgent voice back to the eggs; together they returned to the nest and stood on opposite sides looking at it, and bowing to each other in their curious jerking fashion. After seeing its mate safely back in the nest, the second bird then flew away. For one reason or another _the incubating bird left the nest on five occasions, but each time returned to it. | (sniqnp snitpo AD YO) AWrcfg Bury oT OUT UDM 240T so10yd (snoipur snsajdojdo7 ) 3 urmndeT] papempoy ‘00S ‘LSIH “LYN AVIWO” “Nun of ba sy euse SAI sien MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - ot Photographing the Little Ringed Plover seemed easy, too easy to be good, and sure enough ill-fortune stepped in and ruined most of my pictures! The films I was using, being of pre-war stock, had suffered a drop in speed of 4oo%, and as I had not made sufficient allowance for this all the negatives were badly underexposed. Another opportunity to return to the marsh came a week later. The shikaris promised me two nests of Ringed Plover and one of Redwattled Lapwing. But Fate still had me in her bad books, and on arrival we found that a pair of Kites had anticipated us by half- an-hour and had eaten every egg. The agitated Lapwings came shouting loudly overhead: Did-he-do-it? Did-he-do-it? Did, did, did-it. ‘Don’t be stupid, of course, he did!’, I muttered under my breath. Larks, flying high above this row nearer earth, sang un- heeding ‘at heaven’s gate’ and their ‘... notes of music fell as sacramental water Sadly sprinkled on a raging world.’ The robber kites came over again, flying low on reconnaissance, and if I had had a gun I would gladly have shot them. We set out, not very hopefully, to look for more nests but of course we found none. Trouble, which had come a single spy at the end of my last trip, now returned a third time to the attack. In a moment of in- attention I' fell into soft, clutching mud. The shikari was a long distance away but when my own efforts to extricate myself only made me sink deeper, I called for his help; the man reached me when the sucking mud had reached to my hips, but a little hard tugging how- ever soon got me out. As I sat unhappily cleaning the mud off my legs Fate suddenly decided to withdraw from further offensive operations and, as though to make up for her previous sour behaviour, now treated me to a sight of the Ringed Plovers’ nuptial display. The female was search- ing for food at the edge of a patch of tall grasses when the male came flying over beating his wings rapidly and calling excitedly, Sweet-you, Sweet-you, Sweet-you.! When he landed nearby, he fluffed out the side feathers of his breast and with bill extended ran towards his mate as if wishing to drive her away. She trotted off a little distance, and awaited her charging knight who, with bill extended like a lance, came after her at a crouching run. A foot or so away from her, he straightened out of his crouch and drawing himself up to his full height walked the intervening distance doing a rapid goose-step, first raising one leg, then the other, in front of him stiffly ; a curious, comical, preposterously cock-of-the-walk performance. The rapidly goose-stepping legs looked, from the side, like two blades of a pair of scissors snipping away at speed. The female, as he came nearer, crouched down slightly, while he advanced waving his legs in the air. Once close he jumped on her back and there, for an appreciable time (perhaps 20 seconds), he stood literally ‘treading’ her, his feet working strenuously. As he did this her tail slowly came * The Handbook of British Birds says of the European race that it ‘has a butterfly-like display-flight with long, slow, sweeping wing-beats, often following a zig-zag course’. 188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAG UteAe yee Sie OCs TV say io} amd up, and lowering his body he met her, and in a trice the deed was done. Immediately, he was off her back and going away at a run, breast feathers again fluffed out and tail twitching. A second later he flew away. I finally succeeded in photographing the Ringed Plover less than a week later; it was a case of ‘third time lucky’. On the rocks and shingle at the edge of the Sind River at Woyil Bridge I took a series of pictures of the bird at its nest, all of which turned out well. After I had photographed the Ringed Plover I moved over to my circular hide which had been set up beside the nest of a Redwattled Lapwing. The lazy shikari had omitted to lace up the top of the hide, and as I had already spent five hours taking pictures, I too felt lazy, and so did nothing about it. I had been waiting only 10 minutes when there was suddenly a noise of flapping and a large bird landed on the top rim of my hide; I looked up at the same time as the bird looked in and it would be difficult to say who was the more surprised, because as the bird scuttled away it dropped something heavy with a thud into my lap. The Osprey flew off to a distant tree and looked back ruefully at my tent while I, rubbing the blood off my thigh, picked up a headless two-pound fish from the ground! After such a gift from the sky I decided to suspend further operations—it is well not to ask too much of good Fortune— and with my headless fish tucked underneath my arm I went back to my houseboat in great glee. CaTHAy CINEMA, SINGAPORE, | LOKE WAN-THO October 2,. 1956. 12, THE DIMORPHIC EGRETS It has become a common practice among modern systematic ornithologists to unite under the generic name Demiegretta Blyth a number of species and subspecies of dimorphic herons, which, apart from their polymorphic appearance (i.e., their individually variable coloration: slate grey, white or pied) and their partiality for a marine - habitat, are rather widely different. They represent at least two different types of birds, and I have already expressed the opinion (L’Oiseau et la Rev. franc. d’Orn., 1949, pp: fo jet, seg.) that the, generic name, Denmresgrceiia tought tombe restricted only to the typical species D. sacra (Gm.), the well-known Reef-Heron. Morphologically this species differs from the others now included in the same genus chiefly in the relative proportions of the tarsus and the bill, and also in the nature of the ornamental feathers. But, besides this unquestionably distinct type of heron, the identity and validity of the other forms of dimorphic egrets erroneously associated with it [in fact much more closely allied to the Little Egret, Egretta garzetta (L.)], are more uncertain and have already been discussed in many papers. It is clear that only a close study of their biological relations comparatively with the Little Egret can afford some definite knowledge on the question, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 18) When only skins or stuffed specimens are compared, it seems extremely difficult to differentiate Egretta garzella from white speci- mens of E. gularis (Bosc), E. asha (Sykes) (=E. schistacea), and still more so from those of E. dimorpha Hart. The colour and the proportions of the legs and toes are the same in all of them, the plumage is identical, with the same seasonal changes of ornamental feathers, etc. As already pointed out by myself (loc. cit.), and more recently by Bannerman for the African birds (Birds of trop. W. Afr., Wieser 22) ce! coloun of the pill Seems’ to remain the only appreciable differentiating character (besides some slight differences in size), being black in the always white FE. garsetta and also in E. dimorpha, both in its slate and white phases, against horny brown or even yellowish in E. gularis and E. asha, in their dark as well as white phases. E. garzetta and the white phase of E. dimorpha look practically one and the same bird. Owing to some uncertainty still prevailing in the respective status OL eh earzewa and, the cdimonmpmic eonets: which. (so close to it morphologically, are said to live in the same countries: E. gularis in West Africa, EH. asha in the Red and Arabian Seas (including the West Coast of India), E. dimorpha in Madagascar and East Africa, it would be particularly desirable to study more closely their ecological relationships in the countries where they occur together. The coloured phases of these egrets seem to be found essentially, at least as breeding birds, along the sea-coasts of tropical and subtropical areas, spreading however to the interior in Madagascar and (? perhaps only as seasonal migrants) in West Africa. In my opinion, these dimorphic egrets represent most probably nothing but local populations of the widely spread E. garzetta, adapted to a marine habitat and it seems hardly necessary to recall that their dimorphic character has long been proved by dark and white birds having been observed paired in the same colonies, and even dark and white chicks. having been found in the same nest. Finally there is another difference of generic value between the Reef-Heron Demiegretta sacra on the one hand, and the Little White Egret Egretta gargetta and its dimorphic allies on the other. In the Reef-Heron the white phase occurs only in the tropical zone of its habitat, the grey phase being the commoner over the rest of its habitat from Japan to New Zealand. The reverse is the case with the Little Egret: its white phase is by far the most widely spread, the grey phase being essentially restricted to the tropical zone. We do hope that in India, where both E. garzetta and E. asha commonly occur in suitable places, probably not side by side, it will be possible to study the problem of their relationship more closely. In India, it seems generally believed that E. garzetia has more gregarious habits and that E. asha is seen more often as a solitary bird. But we must not forget that in the Red Sea? area this latter bird is known to breed in more or less extensive colonies of mixed ED 1 Also on the west coast of India.—IiDs. 190 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 individuals, grey ones and white ones, and the same occurs in the very closely allied E. gularis along the coast of West Africa, colonies which are quite similar to those of the Little Egret. MUSEUM NATIONAL D’HISTOIRE NATURELLE, RUE DE BUFFON, 55, J. BERLIOZ Paris, FRANCE, October 12, 1956. 13. BIRD NOTES FROM KUTCH Maharajkumar Himmatsinhji of Kutch very kindly let me have re- cords from his diary of interesting bird occurrences in Kutch over the last several years, showing how a place like Kutch, situated as it is across a major migration route can always have surprises in store for the regular bird-watcher. With his permission I reproduce some of his interesting observations together with a couple of my own during my visit there in April 1956. | : Indian Skimmer: Ahynchops albicollis August 1947 on the Laija Creek west of Mandvi: two birds observed on two subsequent days by M. K. First record for Kutch. Haircrested Drongo: Chibia hoitentolta Seen by M. K. S. Himmatsinhji in January 1948 in the Vijay Villas gardens at Mandvi. Call note very distinct, and through binoculars, the hair-like crest very clearly noted. ‘Tail forks rounded and a high sheen on the mantle. First record for Kutch and possibly for this part of India. Rednecked Phalarope: Lodbipes lubatus Seen by M. K. on Devisar tank north of Bhuj in May 1948, and subse- quently also in May 1949. Actively swimming around ; and when disturbed, flying a little way to resettie on the water and commence feeding. Chestnut-red on sides of neck and white cheeks very con- spicuous. First record for Kutch. Barn Owl: J7'yio alba A live specimen shown at the exhibition held in Bhuj in April 1956. It had been caught at Talvana near Mandvi. This owl not met with in Kutch by Salim Ali, though it had been noted by Lester. Blackheaded Bunting: Hméeriza melanocephala Noted by M. kK. on 9 September and again on the 29th of the same month in 1950. It therefore is also an autumn passage migrant and, as Mr. Salim Ali mentions, a possible winter visitor. Seen by me in fair numbers on Pachham on 7 April 1956. Redwhiskered Bulbul: Oren psa emeria Saw one bird in the Vijay Villas gardens on 11 April 1956. Fifteen of these birds had been released by M. K. S. Himmatsinhji at Man dvi in 1950, and they seem to be quite happy in the shady groves there. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 191 Crow Pheasant: Cenivopus sinensis This unfortunate but very successful introduction seems to have ex- panded its range considerably since the Salim Ali survey, for we noted a bird on the edge of the Banni many miles north of Bhuj. White Stork: Ciconza ciconia Recorded by Lester in August 1895. Seen by the M. K. on the Raval- pir tank near Mandvi in January 1955. Grey Drongo: Dic: urus longicaudatus A single bird was shot by M. K. 8. Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar in the Vijay Villas gardens at Mandvi in January (?) 1955. Pelican sp.? FPelecanus sp. Eight birds seen by us on the Dhand 11 April 1956. Glossy Ibis *: Plegadis falcinellus Seen by us on the Dhands, 11 April 1956. M. K. S. Himmatsinhji tells me that he has regularly seen these birds in small numbers in winter. Mr. Salim Ali saw one during the Survey and H..H. the 3 MEE record- ed them on 4 April 1945. RAJKUMAR COLLEGE, K. S&S. LAVKUMAR RAJKOT, SAURASHTRA. 14. FIGHTING AMONG BIRDS Last March a Water-Rail was picked up dead on the roadside near a marshy stretch of the River Wey. First thoughts were that it had probably been killed by a passing car. The only discoverable injury, however, proved to be a small hole in the back of the skull. Searching for other possible ways by which it might have met its end, my mind went back to a terrific fight I witnessed between two other members of the Rail family—two Moorhens in fact. A Moorhen is a Moorhen the world over, so although the fight occurred in Southern England it might just as easily have happened in India or anywhere else. Here then is what I wrote down at the time. ‘About noon yesterday I looked out of the passage window in time to watch one of the fiercest territorial fights I have ever witnessed amongst birds. The contestants were two moorhens. The snow was nearly six inches deep on the bank of the stream with a till-then unbroken surface so that the forms of the dark contestants were thrown up to perfection against a spotless background. How long the fight had already been in progress I do not know, but from the lengthening pauses, during which they remained interlocked like a pair of in- fighting boxers, they already seemed pretty tired. Their methods of defence and offence were most interesting. Sitting back on the tail, supporting itself from tumbling backwards by half-opened wings, one bird would box and claw at the other, but I am not at all sure that this was intended to injure the other bird so much as to hold 2 [Mr, Humayun Abdulali saw a flock of some 60 birds on the island in Hamirsar tank, Bhuj, on 21 and 22 April 1955. On the 23rd they were absent.—EUS.] 192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?T. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 it off or alternatively to push it down. For it was obviously with the bill that the main damage was being done. One bird would stretch upwards and with a vicious downward jab attempt to reach the back or top of the other’s skull. Once I thought the fight was going to end abruptly for one bird suddenly weakened; its head sagged to one side and it laid itself open to a series of vicious blows which rained on the back of its head, such cruei stabs that I quite expected its complete collapse and death. Then it rallied for a space and almost turned the tables on its opponent, both birds fluttering into the air until they once more became interlocked. Lying back on extended wings with feet intertwined and bills agape they lay for a few moments in the snow, gasping for breath and obviously tired to death but still unwilling to cease their strife. A third bird appeared from the stream and mildly interested approached to within a couple of feet but, probably being the lady in the case, took no part in the contest and, after watching for a minute or two, encircled the com- batants and then withdrew whence it had come. The fight recom- menced with, if anything, greater ferocity and a fearful pecking bout ensued until one bird—I think it was the one that had previously collapsed—suddenly broke away and turning its back literally staggered with a definite list to starboard to the bank. Its opponent did not follow up its advantage with the energy I expected but lurched after it with lowered head and both disappeared into the stream bed. I thought all was over, but not a bit of it for every now and then a fluttering wing-tip or a vicious down-stabbing bill appeared for a fleeting instant above the bank. My wife suggested I should stop the contest, but I felt that if I did so it would only result in further and fiercer fighting so soon as they had regained their breath. The fight had started over twenty minutes previously when I eventually went to investigate. As I reached the point where the two birds had disappeared I saw nothing; but from twenty yards down stream came a sharp danger note and the noise of floundering wings. The fight had drifted downstream and very probably until my advent was still in progress. So fierce had been the struggle that some ten square yards of the snow’s surface was beaten down and criss-crossed with feetmarks and impressions of their bodies, and everywhere bright red stains speckled the churned-up snow; not merely a drop here and there but as if the blood had splashed from the vicious stabs or smeared from blood-stained talons. There were however no feathers nor bits of down strewn upon the snow so the scrabbling feet with their long claws were probably not responsible for much of the gore but, as I have already suggested, the boxing matches are seemingly to hold off and press down the opponent so that the advantage goes to him who can gain sufficient height to rain those dreadful pick-axe blows on the vulnerable top and rear parts of the skull. One or both of these birds must have sustained heavy injuries. How often, I wonder, are these fights for territorial supremacy fights to the death? HAYBARN, ‘THURSLEY, ) SURREY, ENGLAND, 1 oe) ee IBIS IS. September 5, 1956. Lt-Col. 1.a. (Retd.) £9 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES’ ‘SAO LIGA “OC6L ‘ZL fur ‘LHUHYULG O1T0dY ‘FIL ‘ALHIOOG AUMOLSIE IVANLIVNY AvAWOg if ‘yeheyourg | Welly muts Bod JO FIQYOA | ‘YSUIS peseig ‘OHUT DIEM USS wer jueuy ug Aq| oj pieog -elreqiezy ‘fuer JUS ‘vlleseyy | ueipuy ‘Are} | -OYU9T UMO} 91} ‘S$ "qd ung |-o1oeg ‘lreyner Ieou dAIOSIIG vip BPP ISeT[LA ‘NM HUS | 9S6I-E-T ‘op g1uaanf | iysuoesy—akzhy |-0409N97 v9jv10]7d | ZS61-9-8 Zerit “A .é o6P “POHYSIC "NPL o9F FOATH peqepsuyV ‘UOeSUMUIBII A eS[OA 29} Jo | ‘indyeys ‘10j0ed su] wale oy} ut Aivny| » vjnav Soup ‘Z6S192- ye 9FeT IPN | -GRS 990d | SS6I-2I-62- SZ ‘Op JAPY | -oueg UeYyyeIsSy Treyald €S6I-8-6I MOOSOJ “SOIT YET pure | 'a}eI9 WYSE yy WIZ Weeajeq pue nuurer Moosoy, ‘Surjyun Ey "A 07 LN pvol slew[Ny | satieysty ‘ydaq pue UOl}BAIasay ISB obS ‘(48e[qo | -IeSeuLlsg oy} | ‘roqDeTIG “NeW SS6T jsoloy jo ‘idaq | BkBYSIIQISOAON) | Y Soysudysdyv7¢ © CTZS92-C UO PUNSIIJ ‘AY (4 11uS9 Jaqatssa(7 ‘neaing sSury JUpy | Yysurajoz IWIN | SvUpY plel[VIN SSG [-L-S MOOSOJ[ “JUSS, | 40. yynog | IZdUYJO 91819 Indjeleyq | agojauag soup USS FLA ouy ‘Op GE6T-P-9. | BISAED 480105] wnpy | ‘vaeyxX) oapelosyy TOasTM | 9E6I-2T-92 | ~ SIP *MOOSOTA, | “Gk gi ‘Suljuny pue | oVl N .8P 09S | WONBvArOSay “H,09 049 * °N,0F ‘el8 J, 1v9U ‘sey | Jso1oy jo ‘ydaq uv] o9c °VI ‘Pug & agojauag Svupy "qo vheBysuIG | Nveing sury O€6T-6-66 = -Yoer"oRPN a ‘ayey Teyoueyy MOIST NM (HARES = T6Eé | —- _ — —~ -— - —_ — its Sieh | | (sunod Ls as Aq pajiodey coe JOSUIY JO ouleN | agate) eee pat jo oWeN 3780 Suly JO "ON Se | LL LTE ERENT RSL EEA KS ESE SS EES SER SR RRS TES SE SAS PL SL SIS AE SENSE ET FR SET CDRS RL IS] 6rZ‘d (cs) IS ‘OA “SeA A g's ‘jAodey 4se] eOuUIS splIg posurY JO soleAcoey __‘*VIGNI NI NOILVYOIN GUI “oT 194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 16. THE CHANGING SCENE: Paucity of Brep Lire IN JABALpuR (M.P.) When I first knew Jabalpur in 1904 it was a jungly little station, less than a quarter of its present area; bamboo clumps were every- where, and game abounded. It was cooler then than now, and frosts were to be.expected in the cold season. We do not get them now. Most of the jungle has been cleared for cultivation and building purposes. Rainfall has become uncertain, and subsoil water, and in wells, is lower. All this change has been coming about gradually during the last fifty years, but it is only during the last four or five that I have noticed the absence of well-known birds. I write only of the Jabalpur Corporation and Cantonment areas, and cannot say what the con- ditions are outside, as I now rarely go out. But duck, teal and geese, which used to pass overhead, are now not seen. Rosy Pastors were common when silk cotton trees were in bloom. The trees are still here, but not the visitors. Have not seen a single Redstart this cold weather, and only one Grey Wagtail. It was about pittas calling in my garden that I first got into touch with you. They are not here now, and the following have also become rarities: White-eye, Pipit, Treepie, Pied Wagtail, Tailor Bird, Honey-sucker, and _ various. flycatchers, and I am inclined to think that common resident species are fewer in numbers; for example, it is rare to observe a Pied Myna. GARHA, JABALPUR, POV) BE Asis February 26, 1956. 17. SOLAR ECLIPSE AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR I was interested in the Note at p. 708 of Vol. 53, No. 4, of the Journal. I went to Japan in 1936 to help Dr. Royds, the Government Astronomer at the Solar Physics Observatory, Kodaikanal, South India, in making observations at the time of a total eclipse of the sun. Until the sun was totally obscured, the darkness was no greater than during daylight with heavy cloud, and such birds and domestic animals as came to my notice behaved in no way out of the common. But as soon as the moon’s shadow, dramatically racing across the earth’s surface at several hundred miles an hour, reached the place, (the time was about 1 p.m., local time), the darkness at once became such as we know in India during a clear moonlight night near the time of the full moon, and all anima! noise and movement ceased forthwith. As, some fifty-five seconds later, the moon’s shadow passed away with equally dramatic suddenness, the usual animal noises of early dawn were heard on all sides,—cocks crowing, etc.— and normal movement was resumed. It was very remarkable how, for a period of darkness lasting less than a minute, the animal re- action was the same as for a whole night. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 195. I must therefore controvert the second sentence of your editorial note. It should, I submit, be modified to read that ‘at the peak of any eclipse less than total the darkness is no greater than on some of the heaviest overcast monsoon days.’ If at the place of observation the eclipse is total, the circumstances are wholly different. Your foot note, I may add, even in this modified form, would be relevant to the Note to which it was appended, since that solar eclipse was not total at the place of observation (or, indeed, at any other place). ScoTT CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, NAGERCOIL, TRAVANCORE, G. H. MARSDEN, INDIA, M.A, (Cantab.) October 17, 1956. Principal. 18. JUMPING SNAKES ‘Mr. D. E. Reuben’s note in your issue for April 1956 and his query regarding the ability of snakes to jump reminds me that last year I raised the same question in a letter to Country Life. I was moved to write the letter by an article that appeared in that journal about poisonous snakes in which the author remarked on the agility (not amounting to jumping) of Echis carinata. I may say that the following incident, which I described in my letter, elicited several replies all of which seemed to indicate that such action by a snake was beyond the experience of the writers. On an autumn evening in, I think, 1930, I was dressing for dinner in my quarters at the Delhi Gymkhana Club when my bearer, a most observant and reliable man, suddenly shouted to me from the verandah, “Sahib, jumping snake!’’ On going out to investigate he pointed to a small snake, tightly coiled in the manner of a viper, on a charpoy on the verandah. He said that when he arrived on the verandah the snake, which was lying on the mat outside the door, had suddenly projected itself, “‘in one’’, from the mat on to the charpoy, a hori- zontal distance of some 8 feet, with a rise of 18 inches. There was an electric light over the charpoy and to ensure the despatch of the snake before it could escape into the surrounding darkness I shot it with a 12-bore gun, somewhat to the discomfiture of the newar of the charpoy. On submitting the mangled remains next day to that well-known authority, the late J. C. Roberts, I was informed that they were those of an Echis carinata. | Admittedly I did not witness the incident myself, but I have no reason to doubt my bearer’s testimony, nor does it seem impossible that the muscular power of a coiled snake should enable it to project itself through the air for a short distance, especially as it would have an excellent ‘‘take-off’’ from the rough door-mat.’ 6, ARTILLERY MANSIONS, WESTMINSTER, H. A. N. MEDD Lonpon, S.W.-1, August 28, 1956. 196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 oo. ig.. JA PYTHON’S MEAL- The above photo was taken by U Maung Gale, Divisional Forest Officer, Shwebo, on z2oth August 1955; shortly after the Python had swallowed a small thamin in Kyaikthin Wild Life Sanctuary. 25, INyAmMyAING Roap, UNIVERSITY Pe@: TON (MAING RANGOON, | pa BIGss.. (etd?) April 2 tO 50: : : 20. DHAMAN OR RAT SNAKE CGS MUCOSUS) ~ DRINKING MILK As it is often stated that no snakes drink milk, the following may be worth recording, This happened at Kheri in the Wiser RES the monsoon in 1923: The milk-drinking Dhaman used to come from, the scrub jungle near the bungalow, where we would have waiting for it a saucer “of milk near our chairs in front of the verandah. The scrub’ jungle was quite 20 yards away. Regularly in the evening we would place the MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES V08 oho. 197 saucer of milk in the same place and regularly the Dhaman would emerge from the scrub and come along and drink the milk. While it approached us, my friend and I had to remain motionless and silent, MOL even A empine to turn our heads or. move a hand. But our eyes were free to watch our guest who after emptying the saucer, returned as silently and gracefully as he came. It was a ee entertainment. We had trained the Dhaman to come closer and closer, first. by placing the saucer on the edge of the scrub, then nearer and nearer to the bungalow, eventually close to where our chairs would be put in front of the verandah. Happy VALLEY, MANDERSTON P.O., qT; B.C; ees ee NATAL, S. AFRICA, LF. | (Retd. }; August 20, 1956. ar. STRANGE ACCIDENT TO A FROG (RANA BREVICEPS 7 SCHNEID.) On rsth July 1956 in the cistern cutside Cave 3 at the Kanheri Caves, Salsette, Bombay, I saw a foam-nest of Rhacophorus maculatus stuck in the angle of two vertical rock walls, a few inches above water.