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JOURNAL

(Formerly Proceedings)

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL
SOCIETY of
BRITISH COLUMBIA

Vol. 63. Issued December 1,1966

| GENERAL
_ GRANT—The hosts and distribution of the root weevils Hylobius pinicola
(Couper) and H. warreni Wood in British Columbia. ...... Se Naseer 3
‘SUGDEN—Annotated list of forest insects of British Columbia Part XIII,
_ Brephinae, Geometrinae, Sterrhinae and Larentiinae (Geometridae) .. 4
KIMMICH—Notes on the biology of three Arctiid moths from British
DINAN hh a) a ae ei Se a yo Cn kgs gt ge le ig 10
GREGSON —Records of tick paralysis in livestock in British Columbia .... . 1
SARAI—The peach twig borer, Anarsia lineatella Zell. (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae),
in the Okanagan and Similkameen Valleys of British Columbia. . . . . 19
_ SPENCER—Anoplura from British Columbia and some adjacent areas... . . 23
ROSS—Overwintering of caged Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiffermuller) at Vernon,
EHTS Spe SMI ON IESG SCR Pg I a ee a Os area me ea oe ea 31
TAXONOMIC
SCUDDER—The immature stages of Cenocorixa bifida (Hung.) and C. expleta
(Omer) (Hemiptera: Qorxidae) 262 ow a 33
OBITUARIES—George Johnston Spencer. ... . CUS PEEGR Saat hg se hae ae a ea 42
eotee AUStir ary ne ae ee a a 43
Wamund Teter Venables rie aa ei he es ee 45
BI UR icy os Hunk a Ge yb in eR WR lee nels 18, 22, 40
EDITORIAL NOTES. ...... pe Li ti ee ns 32

-
iy eae
pe
ee

JOURNAL

(Formerly Proceedings)

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL
SOCIETY of
BRITISH COLUMBIA

3 Vol. 63. issued December 11,1966

GENERAL .
GRANT—The hosts and distribution of the root weevils Hylobius pinicola
(Couper) and H. warreni Wood in British Columbia. ............ 3
SUGDEN —Annotated list of forest insects of British Columbia Part XIII,
Brephinae, Geometrinae, Sterrhinae and Larentiinae (Geometridae) .. 4
KIMMICH—Notes on the biology of three Arctiid moths from British
Columbia ........ ee ee ee ee fe ere ee 10
GREGSON—Records of tick paralysis in livestock in British Columbia .... . 13
SARAI—The peach twig borer, Anarsia lineatella Zell. (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae),
in the Okanagan and Similkameen Valleys of British Columbia. . . . . 19
SPENCER—Anoplura from British Columbia and some adjacent areas .... . 23
ROSS—Overwintering of caged Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiffermuller) at Vernon,
BNC MII 965-604 sttee ne es, lk CRY She Sos eM EE Ee es ee 31
TAXONOMIC
SCUDDER—The immature stages of Cenocorixa bifida (Hung.) and C. expleta
(Uhler) (Hemiptera: Corixidae) .................200. 33
OBITUARIES—George Johnston Spencer... ............2.+2224. 42
George Austin Hardy ................02200- 43
Edmund Peter Venables. ..............0..226. 45
oo USING, OPIS (OD She Re ee hgh a eZ nea ee 18, 22, 40

AUTOR ANGINO RSS: 562 oe co te lS nw Pea, dia Ee NO Meg He 32

Journat Entomor. Soc. Brir. Corumrera, Vor. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

DIRECTORS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA FOR 1966-1967

Honorary President

ProFr. G. J. SPENCER
Vancouver

President
G. G. E. SCUDDER
Dept. of Zoology, University of B.C.
Vancouver 8

President-Elect

F. L. BANHAM
Research Station, Canada Agriculture,
Summerland

Vice-President
H, MADSEN
Research Station, Canada Agriculture,
Summerland

Secretary-Treasurer

M. D. ATKINS
Forest Research Laboratory,
506 West Burnside Road,
Victoria

Honorary Auditor

PETER ZUK
Research Station, 6660 N.W. Marine Dr.,
Vancouver 8

Editorial Committee

H. R. MacCartHuy, Chairman R. R. LEJEUNE
C. V. G. MorGAN W. G. MATHERS D. A. Ross

Directors
G. J. SPENCER, Vancouver L. C. Curtis, Kamloops
K. GRAHAM, Vancouver P. R. WILKINSON, Kamloops
J. M. KIncHorN, Victoria

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. Cotumstia, Von. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 3

THE HOSTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE ROOT WEEVILS
Aylobius pinicola (COUPER) AND H. warreni WOOD
IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

J. GRANT!

Larvae of the weevils Hylobius
pinicola (Coup.) and H. warreni Wood
damage coniferous trees by boring in
the bark and cambium of roots and
root collars; injury caused by the
last-named species to western white
pine, Pinus monticola Dougl., lodge-
pole pine, Pinus contorta var. latifolia
Engelm., and Engelmann = spruce,
Picea engelmanni Parry, has been re-
corded in British Columbia.

The adults climb coniferous trees
and feed on the terminal shoots and
needles, but cause negligible damage
(Warren, 1956; Stark, 1959). Although
they are mainly nocturnal (Reid,
1952), they are occasionally obtained
during the day by beating the foliage
of conifers over a Sheet spread on the
ground. As this method of sampling
is commonly used in the Forest Insect
and Disease Survey for assessing
populations of defoliating insects, a
number of incidental captures of Hy-
lobius adults have been made in the
period 1938-1965. This paper summar-
izes information relating to their
hosts and distribution in British Co-
lumbia and Yukon Territory.

Hylobius pinicola and H. warreni
are superficially similar, and until
1957 were considered as a Single spe-
cies, Hypomolyx wpiceus (DeGeer).
Consequently, some of the records ob-
tained in the early years of the Sur-
vey, for which the specimens can not
be located, are not included in this
summary. Data were available for
140 specimens; 12 were reared and
the remainder were perching records.
Material used in this study included
two specimens of dH. pinicola and
eight warreni in the Canadian Na-
tional Collection, Ottawa; two H. pin-
icola and 34 warreni in the collection
of the Forest Entomology and Path-
Ology Laboratory in Victoria, deter-
mined by Mr. D. Evans; and 29 H.

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department

of Forestry of Canada, Vernon, B.C,

pinicola and 55 warreni in the Vernon
Forest Insect Laboratory collection,
determined by the writer.

Survey records of adults collected
from foliage do not necessarily indi-
cate true hosts, but since Hylobius
weevils are flightless and somewhat
Sluggish, they may still be of some
significance. Table 1 lists by host the
specimens for which data are avail-
able.

TABLE 1—Specimens of Hylobius pinicola

(Coup.) and H. warreni Wood Taken in For-

est Insect and Disease Survey Collections

from Coniferous Hosts in British Columbia
and Yukon Territory, 1938-1965.

Host H. pinicola H. warreni
Douglas-fir 1 3
Fir, alpine 4 4
Hemlock, western i 7
Larch, eastern 9 —
Pine, lodgepole 4 9
Pine, western white — 3
Spruce spp. 12 61

Total 31 87

Trees of the cooler and moister
regions have produced most Hylobius
adults. Douglas fir is poorly repre-
sented considering the large number
of collections taken from this species.
No specimens have been found on
ponderosa pine. Adults have been
collected from late May to mid Sep-
tember.

The short-winged species, H. war-
reni, appears to be distributed over a
large part of the Interior south of 57°
latitude, and has been collected along
the Coast from Rivers Inlet north to
Stewart, and at Skagway, Alaska. The
long-winged species, H. pinicola, is
more northerly in distribution; it ov-
erlaps the range of H. warreni in cen-
tral British Columbia, having been
taken as far south as Horsefly and
Blue River, and as far west as Smith-
ers Landing. It has been collected as
far north as Yukon Territory where
Samples have been taken at Dawson
and Mayo. Fig. 1 shows localities
where specimens have been collected.

4 JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CorumsBiA, Vor. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

In view of the intensity of surveys
in southwestern British Columbia, the
absence of records of these weevils in
this region is noteworthy. However,
it would be premature to conclude
that neither species occurs in this
area, until there have been extensive
surveys for root damage; most rec-
ords of H. warreni in the Okanagan -
West Kootenay region are for reared
specimens, and there are no perching
records in some localities where there
is a high incidence of root damage.
An analysis of 11 years’ Survey col-
lections showed that the frequency of
perching records was almost three
times as great in the Prince George

Forest District and Yukon Territory
as in the Kamloops and Nelson Forest
districts of southern British Colum-
bia. While this may merely reflect a
higher population level in the north-
ern areas, the scarcity of adults in
collections from some southern local-
ities where root damage is common
suggests that a difference in the be-
haviour of the insects may be respon-
Sible for the disparity. Climatic fac-
tors in the northern regions, such as
lower daytime temperatures or short
summer nights may be more conduc-
ive to diurnal activity than are con-
ditions prevailing in southern British
Columbia.

References
Reid, R. W. 1952. Hypomolyx piceus (DeG.) on lodgepole pine. Can. Dept. of Agr., For.
Biol. Div. Bi-monthly Progress Rept. 8: (4) 2-3.

Stark, R. W. 1959. Studies of the pine root weevil Hylobius warreni Wood in Alberta
(1957). Interim Report (1959), For. Biol. Lab., Calgary, Alta.

Warren, G. L. 1956. The effect of some site factors on the abundance of Hypomolyx
piceus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Ecology 37: (1) 132-139.

ANNOTATED LIST OF FOREST INSECTS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
PART XIII, BREPHINAE, GEOMETRINAE, STERRHINAE

AND LARENTIINAE (GEOMETRIDAE)
B. A. SUGDEN!

Members of the subfamilies Bre-
phinae, Geometrinae, Sterrhinae and
Laurentiinae are not regarded as eco-
nomically important forest insects in
British Columbia. Only three species
are known to have reached epidemic
proportions: Epirrita autumnata
omissa Harr. in 1954 on apline fir in
the central Interior; Rreumaptera sp.
{in 1962 on western white birch in the
Skeena River Valley; and Operoph-
tera bruceata Hist. in 1958 and 1959
on trembling aspen and willow in
north-eastern British Columbia: all
were of short duration.

Larvae of Brephinae differ from

those of the other three sub-families
in having four pairs of abdominal

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department

of Forestry of Canada, Vernon, B.C.

prolegs regularly graduated in size.
The larvae of Geometrinae, Sterrhi-
nae, and Larentiinae have only one
pair of abdominal prolegs. The body
may be short and stout or twig-like
with lobed sides, prominences and en-
larged tubercles; or slim and tapered
with a sharply bilobed head. The lar-
vae range from green, buff, brown,
erey, or black. They are soiitary de-
foliators of conifers and broadleaved
trees and shrubs. The number of col-
lections per host is shown in brackets
only when fewer than five. Pupation
may occur in the litter on the forest
floor or in silken cocoons in the foli-
age or bark crevices of trees or shrubs.

BREPHINAE
Brephos infans oregonensis Swett—
Alnus spp., Betula papyrifera Marsh
(2 records). Distributed throughout
southern British Columbia including

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brir. CotumstaA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

HYLOBIUS PINICOLA fe)
H. WARRENI

100 Ml.
_—_— SS ==_

Fig. 1—Location of points where Hylobius pinicola and H. warreni have been collected
in British Columbia and the Yukon Territory.

6 JOURNAL ENTomot. Soc. Brit. CotumsBiA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

Vancouver Island; rare on _ forest

trees.

LARVA: 1% inches; head immac-
ulate light green; ocelli black; body
bright green; indistinct, pale yellow-
ish-white dorsal, addorsal and sub-
dorsal lines; spiracles, medium buff
outlined with black; broad yellowish-
white subspiracular stripe; four pairs
of abdominal prolegs, very small on
third abdominal segment, gradually
increasing on fourth and fifth to
reach normal size on sixth; venter
faintly marked with irregular, pale
yellowish-green lines.

Leucobrephos brephoides WI1k. ---
Salix spp. (2 records), Betula sp. (1),
Alnus sp. (1). Interior British Col-
umbia from Wingdam, Peachland,
Larkin, Hupel, and Mile 178 Alaska
Highway; rare. LARVA: 1% inches;
head medium green marked with light
brown on frons and sides; ocelli, dark
brown, area between ocelli, whitish;
body velvety, grass green with bluish-
green venter, dorsum with three pairs
of fine yellowish lines; spiracles, dark
brown outlined with black; broad,
yellow subspiracular stripe; four pairs
of abdominal prolegs, similar to B.
infans,; mid-ventral line, white.

GEOMETRINAE

Nemoria darwiniata Dyar — Salix
spp. (3 records), Arbutus menziesii
Pursh. (1), Symphoricarpos racemosa
Michx. (1). Southern British Colum-
bia, Enderby, Cascade, Vancouver and
Victoria; common on shrubs but rare
on forest trees. LARVA: 7% inch, head
small, square, medium brown; body
yellowish - brown to reddish - brown
with four pairs of lateral lobes on
A2-5; prominent dorsal tubercles on
TI and cervical shield; cone-like tu-
bercles on TII and III and Al, 6 and
7; venter of abdomen suffused with
dark brown.

Nemoria unilinearia Tayl.—Thuja
plicata Donn. (1 record). British Col-
umbia: Sidney: rare. LARVA: similar
to N. darwiniata, but green.

Mesothea viridipennata Hlst. —
Salix spp., Almus sp. (1 record). Van-
derhoof, Mud River, Wasa Lake and

Vancouver Island. LARVA: 1 inch;
head small, granular, sharply bilobed
with angles half as high as height of
head, brown or yellowish-green shad-
ed with brown; body granular, taper-
ing to front, yellowish-green to red-
dish - brown; paler specimens with
brown dorsal line and faintly raised

addorsal lines, indistinct on TI-III;
dorsal and addorsal lines less con-
spicuous on dark specimens; two
prominent addorsal tubercles inclined
toward head on TI; cervical shield
tapering to a point; dark specimens
With subspiracular area and venter
dark reddish-brown; pale pinkish
ventral line; A2-5 on pale larvae
marked with reddish-brown subspira-
cular spots, bases of prolegs reddish-
brown; venter immaculate.

STERRHINAE

Cosymbia pendulinaria Gn.— Betula
spp. Alnus spp. Throughout British
Columbia; common. LARVA: 1 inch;
head small; pale yellowish-buff heav-
ily marked with brown or pale tan,
pale vertexal lines; body (two color
phases with intermediates): (a) pale
green with indistinct white dorsal
and subdorsal lines, usually with
brown spot anterior to spiracle on
Al: subspiracular area of abdomen
marked with pale greyish-brown;
venter immaculate: (b) dorsum ir-
regularly mottled with contrasting
patches of brown, yellow, white and
reddish-orange; Al-6 with oblique
lateral stripes of dark brown and pale
yellowish-buff; dark brown or black
spot anterior to spiracle on Al; venter
mottled with shades of brown; vent-
ral line on Al-5 irregular pale yellow-
ish green: (c) intermediates, pale
green; dorsum lightly marked with
shades of brown; spot anterior to
spiracle on Al usually brown or tan;
venter mottled with brown and tan;
yellowish - green, irregular’ ventral
line.

Cosymbia dataria Hist. — Quercus
garryana Dougl. Southern Vancouver
Island; rare. LARVA: 1 inch; head
small, tan; body similar to dark phase
of C. pendulinaria.

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. Conumsra, Vor. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 7

LARENTIINAE

Nyctobia limitaria Wlk. — Picea
glauca (Moench) Voss., P. engelmanni
Parry, P. sitchensis (Bong.) Carr., ?.
mariana (Mill.) BSP., Tsuga hetero-
phylla (Raf.) Sarg., Pseudotsuga
menziesii (Dougl.), Abies lasiocarpa
(Hook) Nutt., A. amabilis (Dougl.)
Forb., A. grandis (Dougl.) Lindl.,
Thuja plicata Donn., Larix cccident-
alis Nutt., Pinus contorta Dougl., P.
monticola Dougl. (3 records), Taxus
brevifolia Nutt. (1). Throughout
British Columbia; common south of
latitude 56°. LARVA: 1% inches;
head medium green, moderately re-
tractile; body green, subdorsal lines
pale green or yellowish-green; sub-
spiracular stripe, pale yellow or yel-
lowish-white; ventral line whitish or
greenish-white.

Cladara atroliturata W1k. — Alnus
spp., Betula sp. (1 record). Southern
interior of British Columbia; rare.
LARVA: 1 inch; head velvety green;
body slender, immaculate, velvety
green, Small anal tubercles; venter
pale bluish-green.

Lobophora simsata Swett — Salix
spp., Alnus rubra Bong. (2 records),
Populus tremuloides Michx. Vancou-
ver Island, Queen Charlotte Islands,
central and southern coastal regions
of British Columbia; rare. LARVA:
Ye, inch; head small, light green; body
short, smooth, light green, light yel-
low subdorsal lines; small anal tuber-
cles; subspiracular area light yellow-
ish-green; venter green, paler than
dorsum.

Lobophora magnoliatoidata Dyar—-
Salix spp. (3 records), Populus tremu-
loides (1). Chilliwack, Vernon, Nel-
son and Donald Landing; rare.
LARVA: 7% inch, similar to L. simsata.

Operophtera bruceata Hlst.—Pop-
ulus tremuloides, Salix spp., Betula
spp., Alnus sp. (1 record). Through-
out interior British Columbia; com-
mon. LARVA: 34 inch; head small,
pale green, immaculate, or marked
with dark grey; body stout, pale
green; yellow subdorsal lines; dorsum
on some specimens marked with grey;
supra- and subspiracular lines pale
yellow, less distinct than subdorsal

line; some with grey or blackish sub-
spiracular markings; venter immac-
ulate, pale green.

Operophtera occidentalis Hist. ---
Populus tremuloides, P. trichocarna
Horr:-and Gray (1 record), Sauna spp.
Acer spp. (2), Quercus garryana (2),
Alnus rubra (1). Southwestern, cen-
tral coastal regions of British Colum-
bia, occasionally common. LARVAE:
Y44inch; similar to O. bruceata; some
specimens also with blackish mark-
ings.

Epirrita autumnata omissa Harr.-—
Tsuga heterophylla, T. mertensiana
(Bong.) Carr., Abies lasiocarpa, A.
amabilis, A. grandis, Picea engelman-
ni, P. glauca, P. sitchensis, Pseudo-
tsuga menziesii, Thuja plicata, Pinus
contorta (2 records), Larix occident-
alis (1), Betula spp., Alnus spp.
Throughout British Columbia; com-
mon; an infestation of short duration
recorded in 1954 near the Nation Riv-
er Project Road. LARVA: 114 inches;
head small, pale green flecked with
brown on vertex and sides, some im-
maculate; body velvety green, dark
Olive green dorsal and lateral lines,
narrow yellowish-green lines along
inner side of laterals; whitish sub-
spiracular stripe continuing onto anal
plate; some specimens without dark
dorsal and lateral lines; venter pale
whitish or pale bluish-green.

Epirrita pulchraria Tayl. — Tsugu
heterophylla, T. mertensiana (1 rec-
ord), Picea sitchensis, P. glauca, Abies
amabilis, A. lasiocarpa, Pseudotsuga
menziesii, Western British Columbia
south of 56° latitude; common in
coastal regions but rare in the Inte-
rior; two specimens taken in flight at
Blair Lake near Falkland represent
the only records from the south cen-
tral Interior. LARVA: 1% inches;
head small, pale green; body ‘“uni-
form, clear apple green with two wide,
white subdorsal lines which continue
around the anal margin.” (Personal
communication, D. Evans, Dept. of
Forestry, Victoria, B.C.).

Triphosa haesitata Gn.—Rhamnius
purshiana DC., Quercus garryana.
Southwestern British Columbia; com-

8 JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CorumBtA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

mon; one record southern Interior.
LARVA: 1 inch; head tan; “Body
stout, dull lime green with fine, light
addorsal, lateral and wide yellow
spiracular lines; tan spiracles.” (Per-
sonal communication, D. Evans, De-
partment of Forestry, Victoria, B.C.).

Hydria undulata Linn.—Saliz spp.
Populus tremuloides. Central to south-
ern British Columbia; rare. LARVA:
1144 inches; head tan; body smooth,
medium olive green, narrow light ad-
dorsal and subdorsal lines; anal
shield tan marked with brown; supra-
spiracular area dark brown; thoracic
legs dark brown; posterior of anal
prolegs marked with brown; venter
yellowish-green.

Lygris destinata Moesch. — Abies
lasiocarpa, Tsuga heterophylla (2 rec-
ords), Alnus sp. (1), Rhododendron
albiflorum Hook. (1). Central to
southern British Columbia; rare.
LARVA: 114 inches; head small, pale
buff marked with dark brown, pale
buff or whitish-buff line bordering
upper side of ocelli; body slim, ochra-
ceous, marked with dark brown, leaf-
brown and pink; pale setal bases;
fine pale addorsal lines on TI-IIT ex-
tending to apex; TII and III swollen
lateral to TII with dark brown or
blackish oblique stripe; pale inverted
V pattern on Al-8, dark brown band
on dorsum of A6 extending obliquely
to venter; sides of anal prolegs leaf-
brown, with a pale yellowish-white
vertical stripe; irregular ventral line,
dark brown alternating reddish-
brown; venter banded alternately
with leaf-brown and whitish-buff.

Lygris xylina Hist.—Saliz spp., Al-
nus spp., Tsuga heterophylla, Betula
spp., Malus spp., Pinus monticola,
Pseudotsuga menziesii (1 record),
Sorbus sitchensis Roem. (1). Through-
out British Columbia; uncommon.
LARVA: 13% inches; head small, pale
golden-yellow with pale yellowish-
brown markings; body slim, pale yel-
lowish-orange finely maculated with
pink; setal bases pale; TII wider than
TI and III and marked with a leaf-
brown band extending diagonally to

venter; small leaf-brown middorsal
spot located centrally in an elliptical
patch caudad on Al-5, Al-5 banded
with brown extending to venter,
paler on Al and 2, side of anal proleg
with a fine dark brown vertical line;
venter of Al-5 banded with brown;
pale yellowish-white between abdom-
inal and anal prolegs.

Plemyria georgii Hlst—Alnus spp.,
Salix spp., Betula spp., Cornus stolon-
ifera Michx. (3 records), Acer glab-
rum Torr. (1). South of 57° latitude
in British Columbia; uncommon.
LARVA: 1 inch; head small, pale
green; body very slender, smooth,
pale green with yellow subdorsal
lines; two whitish, prominent, point-
ed projections on upper posterior of
anal prolegs; thoracic legs pinkish to
reddish on some specimens; venter,
immaculate.

Dysstroma truncata Hufn. — Larix
laricina (DuRoi) K. Koch (2 records),
Alnus spp. (2),.Picea sp: (1). Miles
69 and 290 Alaska Highway; rare.
LARVA: 1 inch; head small, yellow-
ish-green; body slender, green, indis-
tinct whitish subdorsal lines, reddish
lateral lines; small points on anal

shield; venter immaculate, pale
ereen.
Dysstroma citrata Linn. — Tsuga

heterophylla, Picea sitchensis, Pseudo-
tsuga menziesii, Alnus spp., Salix spp.
A general feeder, found occasionally
On other broadleaved trees and shrubs
south of latitude 56° in British Col-
umbia. LARVA: 1 inch; similar to
D. truncata but rarely with reddish
lateral lines.

Dysstroma ethela Hist. — Ribes sp.
(1 record). Anarchist Mountain.
LARVA: 1 inch; similar to D. truncata
but without reddish lateral lines.
Body minutely spinulose with white
setae.

Dysstroma formosa Hist. — Ribes
spp. Southern Interior; uncommon.
LARVA: 1 inch; head small, yellow-
ish-green; body slender, spinulose,
pale green, minute whitish tubercles,
in rows, form the subdorsal iines; in-
distinct, whitish lateral lines; small,
whitish projections on upper poste-

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumstiaA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 9

rior side of anal proleg; broken yel-
lowish-white ventral line.

Dysstroma sobria Swett — Picea
sitchensis. Coastal British Columbia;
rare. LARVA: unknown.

Thera otisi Dyar—Juniperus com-
munis L. South of latitude 54°, inte-
rior British Columbia; uncommon.
LARVA: 34 inch; head pale greenish-
tan; body pale green, pale bluish-
white addorsal lines, greenish-white
subdorsal stripes extending onto anal
plate, greenish-white subspiracular
stripes bordered above with a pink to
reddish, broken line on TI-III and
Al1-3; thoracic legs pink or marked
with pink; venter unmarked.

Stamnoctenis morrisata Hlst.—Ju-
niperus scopulorum Sarg. Southern
interior of British Columbia and Van-
couver Island; common in small num-
bers. LARVA: 1 inch; head retractile,
pale greenish-tan; body green with
black setal bases; dark green dorsal
line; irregular white subdorsal stripes,
narrower on thorax but accentuated
on posterior of each abdominal seg-
ment; posterior of A2-7 marked with
a short reddish-brown line between
the spiracles; posterior to subspirac-
ular Al-7 marked with yellowish-buff
and white; lower half of abdominal
prolegs pale reddish-brown; subspir-
acular area of thoracic segments
marked with white; diagonal reddish-
brown markings, fading towards
venter, on Al-8, lacking on Al in
some specimens; venter of abdominal

segments indistinctly banded with
yellowish-green.
Rheumaptera hastata Linn. — Al-

nus spp., Betula spp., Salix spp. South
of latitude 55° in British Columbia;
common. LARVA: 1 inch; head small,
medium brown, marked on sides and
front with dark brown; body stout,
skin smooth, black; subdorsal lines
formed by two rows of small, irregu-
larly shaped, creamy-white spots,
subdorsal lines lacking on some speci-
mens; cervical shield dark brown;
anal plate medium brown; broken,
creamy-white to buff, supraspiracular
and subspiracular stripes, coalesced

around the spiracles on TI and Al1-3
on some but indistinct on other speci-
mens; Subventral setal bases outlined
with creamy-white; band of creamy-
white cn lower abdominal prolegs; A9
below anal shield creamy-white, anal
prolegs creamy-white, marked ante-
riorly with black and posteriorly with
greyish-brown bordered with pink.

Rheumaptera albodecorata Blkmre.
—Betula spp., Alnus spp., Menziesia
ferruginea Smith (1 record). South of
latitude 56° in British Columbia; rare.
LARVA: 1 inch; head small, orange-
brown, sides and front marked with
dark brown; body stout, smooth, pale
yellowish-buff; medium brown, irreg-
ular dorsal line, pale brown addorsal
lines and medium brown subdorsal
stripe; medium brown cervical shield
and pale tan anal plate; broad yel-
lowish-buff lateral stripe; venter me-
dium brown indistinctly banded with
pale brown; lower half of abdominal
prolegs pale buff; anal prolegs pale
buff marked anteriorly with brown
and posteriorly with pale tan.

Venusia cambrica Curt. — Alnus
spp., Betula spp., Salix spp. Through-
out British Columbia; common. LAR-
VA: 34 inch; head small, pale green;
body stout, bright green; yellowish
lateral lines extending to anal shield;
some specimens sparsely or profusely
marked with pink or dull red on dor-
sal, lateral and ventral areas.

Venusia pearsalli Dyar—Alnus spp.,
Salix spp., Populus tremuloides, Quer-
cus garryana (2 records). Cornus
nuttali Audubon (2), Betula sp. (1)
Populus trichocarpa (1) Acer circin-
atum Pursh (1), Crataegus “sp. (1).
South of latitude 56° in British Col-
umbia; common, particularly in south
western regions. LARVA: 34 inch;
similar to V. cambrica but without
pink or red markings.

Venusia duodecemlineata Pack. —
Pseudotsuga menziesii. Vancouver
Island, rare. LARVA: 3 inch, pale
green (Personal communication, D.
Evans, Dept. of Forestry, Victoria,
B.¢.);

10 JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA, VOL. 63 (1966), Drc. 1, 1966

ANNOTATED LIST OF FOREST INSECTS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA:
PROC. ENT. SOC. B.C.
Ross, D. A. and D. Evans. 1954. Part I—Lasiocampidae, Saturniidae, Liparidae. 51:40-43.

Ross, D. A. 1954. Part I]—Laspeyresia spp.

(Olethreutidae). 51:44.

Ross, D. A. and D. Evans. 1956. Part [[I—Eupithecia spp. (Geometridae). 52:36-38.
Ross, D. A. and D. Evans. 1956. Part [V—Hydriomena spp. (Geometridae). 52:38-39.

Ross, D. A. and D. Evans. 1957. Part V—Dioryctria spp.

(Pyralidae). 53:10-11.

Ross, D. A. and D. Evans. 1957. Part VI—Plusia (Syngrapha) spp. (Noctuidae). 54:18.
Ross, D. A. and D. Evans. 1957. Part VII—Apatela (Acronicta) spp. (Noctuidae). 54:16-17.

Ross, D. A. and D. Evans. 1958. Part VIII—Semiothisa spp.
Ross, D. A. and D. Evans. 1959. Part [X—Caripeta spp. (Geometridae).
1961. Part X—Notodontidae. 58:30-32.

Ross, D. A. and D. Evans.

(Geometridae). 55:40-41.
56:15.

Sugden, B. A. and D. A. Ross. 1963. Part XI—Papilio spp. (Papilionidae). 60:17-18.
Sugden, B. A. 1964. Part XIJ—Boarmiini and Melanolophiini (Geometridae). 61:36-39.

NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THREE ARCTIID MOTHS FROM

BRITISH COLUMBIA
HELMuT P. KIMMICH

Neoarctia brucei H. Edw.

N. brucei is not listed by Jones
(1951). It inhabits the southern
slopes of alpine meadows in Manning
Park at altitudes of about 6,500 feet,
and is rare in collections. With a
wingspan of 35 mm, this is a moth of
striking beauty having black fore-
wings with broad rose coloured grid
lines and bright red hindwings with
heavy, broad spots, confluent at the
outer margins.

After hibernation the small larvae
appear in June, at first on bare spots
around trees and later mostly along
the edges of still remaining snow
patches. There, with maximum ex-
posure to the warmth of the sun, they
rest in a curled position on the bare
ground or walk swiftly, covering con-
siderable distances in search of their
favorite food plants: the tender
sprouts and shoots of Senecio, moun-
tain grass, phlox, and buds of Vac-
cinium. By the time the last snow
patches have melted, the larvae have
hidden in the thickets of fast-grow-
ing alpine flora. They reach maturity
before the leaves of the dwarf Vac-
cinium turn dark green. The moth
emerges in July after two weeks in
the pupal stage. Flight and copula
take place at dusk.

The female lays between 80 and
120 eggs in batches. The ovum is
spherical and gold coloured. Hatch-
ing follows 10 days after oviposition.
and there are six larval instars. At
maturity the larva measures 30 mm,
the head is small and black, the body
and tubercles are black, dotted with
shiny spots, visible in the reflection
of light, and with soft tufts consisting
of black and white hairs, the white
ones more numerous at the sides. The
dorsum is adorned with tufts of paie
Olive green.

The pupa is 17 x 5 mm, with the
wingcases translucent reddish, the
mobile cremaster dusted with slate
blue, the segments blackish and bor-
dered, and the head furnished with
inconspicuous bristles. It rests in a
light cocoon of plant material.

Caged caterpillars are reluctant to
accept substitutes for their native
food plants. Taking only mature lar-
vae and presenting them a variety of
wild, native plants is critical for suc-
cessful rearing. The picked plants
preserved in tightly closed jars and
kept cool, will prove satisfactory.
However, a new brood emerging in
confinement can be successfully rear-
ed on Taraxacum if they have not

hibernated. Ample space, artificial

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumpataA, Von. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 1i

heat and adequate moisture are es-
sential. A second brood in the same
season may even be partly brought
to pupation. Creating conditions sim-
ilar to those found under a cover of
snow, will give modest success with a
brood in hibernation. The box used
for overwintering should not contain
anything of plant origin because of
the disastrous effects of moulds and
fungi. To induce copulation in cap-
tivity, the breeder must use his field
observations of the impetuous flight
of the male and of the climatic condi-
tions at the time of mating. The pro-
vision of cages with ample space for
flight, cold air at dusk, and a breeze
in the evening will reproduce some
of the factors for mating. The male
is able to enter more than one copula-
tion.

A tiny parasitic wasp of 2 mm
wingspan takes advantage of the con-
spicuous exposure of resting larvae to
reduce the overwintered stock dras-
tically every year.

Apantesis elongata Stretch

This species is listed as No. 1050
by Jones (1951). It was identified in
Ottawa after its discovery several
years ago in Manning Park. A. elon-
gata and N. brucei have similar life
histories and share the same habitat.

The male, with a wingspan of 30
mm, has black forewings with fine

white grid lines which sometimes are
partly missing, and the typical “W”
at the outer margin. The hindwings
are black also with a circular black
spot in the discoidal cell bordered py
a broad white band. Below the cell a
distinct white line extends from the
thorax towards the outer margin, its
widened end sometimes connected
with the aforementioned black spot.
The abdomen is black with an ochra-
ceous stripe on both sides. Some males
exhibit mutations with broad white
grid lines in the discal area. Such
aberrant males have completely black
abdomens. The white pattern on the
hindwings of the male is typical and
dominant, but an ochraceous pattern
occurs rarely.

The female has forewings like
those of the male, but the hindwings
are ochraceous with broad black spots
at the outer margins, sometimes con-
fluent. The line extending from the
thorax into the limbal area is black.
Females showing the typical geomet-
rical pattern on the hindwings are
quite rare. Mutations, showing black
hindwings with only a shade of ochra-
ceous left and forewings with a white
broad blotch in the discal area also
Occur:

In nature the larvae are found
associated with N. brucei and can be
reared in the same way. They are
more agile but less exposed and bet-
ter camouflaged. This may explain
why they were parasitised less than
the larvae of N. brucei. A brood in
confinement, unlike N. brucei, will
not reach maturity without hiberna-
tion.

The ovum is spherical, pale yel-
low and much smaller than that of

N. brucei. The female produces up
to 200 eggs, which are laid loosely
and apparently casually.

The mature larva measures 30
mm. The head and body are black,
the tubercles black and dotted with
tiny white spots reflecting the light;
the tufts are rough and short, black
on the dorsum, maroon at the Sides.
The dorsal line is comprised of lines
and spots in an alternate pattern of
white, brown or ochre. Often the dor-
sal line is missing.

The pupa is dusted with slate
blue, the seams black, the cremaster
mobile, the head with short black
bristles, more accentuated than in
N. brucéi.

Parasemia (Hyphoraia)
Har,

This superb Arctiid is distributed
throughout the Northern Atlantic
States and Canada. Its occurrence in
British Columbia is sporadic and ap-
parently restricted to small localities
in light, damp forests with under-
brush, often hundreds of miles apart.
Wherever sighted, the number of
specimens appears always very lim-
ited. Undoubtedly this moth is rare

parthenos

12 JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brrr. CoLtumpBraA, VoL. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

and probably permanently endan-
gered by civilization. It should be
high on the list of insects to be pro-
tected in nature. The moth survives

only in undisturbed environment with
ideal and balanced conditions.

By the end of June it is on the
wing, but only in even - numbered
years, which indicates a two-year life
cycle. Males will come to a light, but
not females which appear to avoid
any kind of trap. In the course of
obtaining breeding material, I have
sacrificed many night hours in vain
at different places and have never
seen a female landing in the vicinity
of the light. The number of males
appearing never exceeded five, an in-
dication of its scarcity and limited
number. On June 30, 1962, near West-
bank, B.C., a female was found by ac-
cident, resting on a doorstep. On July
1 it laid about 80 eggs in a mass. The
eggs were white, dull, and globular,
slightly flattened.

In ten days the larvae hatched
and were kept in small closed jars
with perforated lids, exposed during
daylight to artificial heat. Since all
known breeding places had abundant
growth of Symphoricarpos, this shrub
was tried as a food plant, and was
very successful.

By August 22 in the VIIIth instar,
about 70 per cent of the larvae had
reached maturity without further
loss. Thus one hibernation was elim-
inated, thanks to artificial heat and
adequate moisture in the jars. The
mature larvae continued to feed until
they refused further food in the very
late fall.

Hibernation took place in a box-
like container outdoors under a root.
Inside was sterilized moss, which was
moistened from time to time. How-
ever, most of the larvae died during
the winter and early spring until
finally only three remained to pupate
in late spring. These also perished.
The failure was probably caused by
uncontrolled moisture which allowed
fungi and mildew to grow. Obvious-
ly conditions were not equivalent to
those in nature.

Extensive search for larvae in the
vicinity of breeding places did not
produce results, since these feed at
night and are well hidden during day-
light. The only remaining chance was
to watch for mature larvae in late fall
when they travel in search cf hiber-
nation sites. Occasionally they cross
roads in full sunlight. In 1965 ten
mature larvae were found in this way,

which were fed with leaves of Sym-
phoricarpos until they rolled up for
the winter. At maturity the larvae
were 40 to 45 mm long, with head and
body black, hairs long and black, the
tubercles greyish white and incon-
spicuous.

Larvae of this family spend a
great part of their lives under a cover
of snow, and they have an exceptional
need for moisture. But direct mois-
ture seemed to be deadly, producing
fungi, particularly on the prolegs.
The container for hibernation, con-
sisted of two parts: the upper part
covered with curtain fabric with a
perforated bottom; the lower part a
reservoir for water. The perforated
bottom was covered with a layer of
cotton fabric and two rocks were
placed on it and covered with a dou-
ble layer of cotton fabric to leave
cavelike spaces beneath. The whole
assembly was sheltered by an A-
frame with an impervious cover and
placed outdoors under spruce trees
and close to a stump covered with
shrubs. The layers of fabric were
moistened every two days except in
the snow season.

At the end of February, 1966 one
larva was found dead, a victim of
fungus. In March several more suc-
cumbed. Temperature changes in
early spring caused frequent inter-
ruptions of the winter sleep. At the
end of March the remaining three
larvae became active and prepared
for pupation by emptying their intes-
tines. On April 1 they began to spin
loose cocoons, and on April 5 one
larva finished its cocoon of mixed silk
and hairs, choosing the curtain fabric
as a Suitable place. Two others spun

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. Cotumnia, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 13

cocoons between the rocks under the
double layer of fabric. On April 16 a
pupa could be seen in the cocoon
under the curtain fabric. It was 27
mm long, black and shiny. A female
emerged on June l, after six weeks
pupation. A male emerged from a

cocoon between the rocks on June 11.
The third pupa was killed by mildew.
The moths emerged 10 days earlier
than those observed in nature, a sign
that the hibernation place was too
warm and the ambient air too dry.
None of the larvae reared was para-
sitised.

Reference

Jones, J. R. J. L. 1951. An annotated check list of the Macrolepidoptera of British
Columbia. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia Occasional Paper No. 1.

RECORDS OF TICK PARALYSIS IN LIVESTOCK IN
BRITISH COLUMBIA
J. D. GREGSON'!

ABSTRACT

Reports of 189 outbreaks of tick
paralysis in livestock in British Col-
umbia are tabulated with regard to
distribution, the kind and number of
animals involved, the annual inci-
dence of paralysis, and the dates and
sizes of the major outbreaks. The
disease is most prevalent in the west-
ern half of the interior dry belt
where there have been apparent peak
years of cases. The recorded totals

are in excess of 2010, 1849, 9, and 13
for cattle, sheep, horses, and dogs, re-
spectively. Most of the loss from the
disease results from the extra man-
power needed to care for affected ani-
mals, reduced animal condition, and
disuse of otherwise valuable pasture.

Almost every year since its incep-
tion in 1928, the entomology labora-
tory at Kamloops, B.C., has received
word of cases of tick paralysis in live-
stock and humans in this province.
Since the published records refer only
to 11 out of some 190 outbreaks of
the disease in livestock, it is felt that
more information should be made
available from data in this labora-
tory’s files.

1 Research Station, Research Branch, Canada
Department of Agriculture, Kamloops, B.C.

Tick paralysis was first recognized
aS a disease in North America when
Todd, in 1912, accumulated case his-
tories of the effects associated with
tick bites in humans and differenti-
ated the symptoms from those of
Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Had-
wen (1913) associated the disease
with a condition observed in the
vicinity of Keremeos, where for three
years a farmer had up to 300 of his
sheep affected by a form of paralysis.
Hadwen proved experimentally that
the disease was caused by the bite of
Dermacentor venustus Banks (=D.
andersoni Stiles). His theory that a
toxin caused the symptoms remains
unchallenged.

Other than Bruce’s (1920) warn-
ing to ranchers of tick paralysis, there
are no further references to outbreaks
until Bruce’s publication in 1922. In
this, he records witnessing an out-
break at Vavenby where Moilliet had
©00 sheep affected out of a band of
400. Subsequent unpublished refer-
ences to this rancher indicate that up
to 1928 as many as 10% of his flock
of 1300 were sometimes paralysed.

In 1928, at the request of the B.C.
ranching industry, a laboratory was
established at Kamloops for the study

14 JoURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumsBiaA, Vor. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

of insects affecting livestock. After
this date all records of tick paralysis
appear in the laboratory’s files and
unpublished monthly reports. These
have been the source of most of the
figures presented here.

Concerning the validity of these
records, it must be noted that only
occasionally have instances of paral-

ysis in livestock been fully and offi-
cially verified. The symptoms are so
well known to the stockman that his
first thought is for his animals, and
only after they have been “de-ticked”’
does he trouble to report the occur-
rence, and not always then. Frequent-

ly the information trickles in sec-
ond-hand a year or more later. Nev-
ertheless, because the symptoms are
not likely to be confused with other
illnesses, there is usually little doubt
of the authenticity of cases witnessed
and reported by ranchers.

The size of an outbreak is often
more questionable; a _ distraught
rancher tends to exaggerate his 1oss-
es. Compensating this in the overall
picture is the fact that many in-
stances of tick paralysis never are re-
corded. Indeed, herders have fre-
quently been reticent in reporting
their troubles even to their employers
for fear of reprisals for negligence.

TABLE 1—Number of livestock and humans paralysed annually in British Columbia by
ticks as reported to the Kamloops laboratory since 1900.

Year Cattle Sheep Horses
to 20 13 385*
20-28 22 31D 2
28 = 130
29 4 26*
30 101 24
31 2 20 1
32 Me 20*
33 hed 22
34. 29 iia
35 200 13
36 15 103 1
37 22 Zn
38 10 211
39 20 Ze
40 32
41 1 1
42 25 16*
43 16 z 1
44 491* 3
45 34
46
47 3 ba
48 70
49 1
50 58* 50
51 103 341
52
53 “4
4 1 100
55 30
36
o7 385*
58 1
59 23
60
61
62 1 3
63 1
64 263* 4
65 30
Totals 2010 1849 9

Humans
+80
+80

6

9
11

Totals
398*

Dogs Reports

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* “Several’’ cases, These are not entered in the totals.

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumBiaA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 15

Human cases are well documented
in the Kamloops files since 1928, but
prior to that date the records are ob-
scure and there are possibilities of
duplication.

In this paper the 189 single and
multiple records of tick paralysis in
livestock are tabulated in three ways.
Fig. 1 illustrates their distribution
and the kind and approximate num-
bers of animals involved. Table 1
lists, Separately and together, the
annual totals of paralysed cattle,
sheep, horses and dogs, and also the
annual incidence of paralysis as re-
corded from separate reports, either
Single or grouped cases. Human cases
have been included to give an overall
picture of tick activity. Table 2 lists
those outbreaks which exceeded 20
paralysed animals.

Reference to these tabulations,
With details in the original reports,
permits some speculation regarding
the frequency and distribution of tick
paralysis as it affects livestock. How-
ever, in dealing with a disease as
enigmatic as this one (Gregson, 1962)
caution must be taken not to be mis-
led by false interpretations for it will
be apparent that to evaluate properly
any one aspect, the whole picture
must be considered. Since the main
purpose of this paper is to list the
incidence in livestock, other aspects
of the disease will not be discussed.

The distribution of tick paralysis
in livestock, with the exception of two

Known outbreaks, appears to be con-
fined to the western half of the inte-
rior dry belt. The largest outbreaks

TABLE 2—Outbreaks of tick paralysis in B.C. since 1911, involving more than 20 head
of livestock.

No. exposed

Date Locality Positions* Cattie Sheep toticks Paralysed Died
1911 Keremeos 49°N 119°W X 900 46+ 46
1912 Keremeos 49 119 x 900 334 90
1920 Vavenby 51 119 x 400 300 =
1927 Similkameen 49 119 X — 40+ 40
1928 Vavenby 51 119 xX 1300 10% yr few
1929 Blackpines 50 120 x 350 20/day few
1930 Douglas L. 50 120 X 900 100 65
1930 Stump Lake 50 120 X — 10-15/day —
1931 Copper Cr. 50 120 X 700 20 20
1932 Falkland 50 119 x 180 35+ 35
1935 Quilchena 50 1206 x 638 200 26
1936 Wolf Cr. 49 120 x 1000 100 —
1938 Pinantan 50 120 ms 1700 90 12
1938 Jaffray 4S 115 X — 100 + 100
1940 Scheidam FI. 50 120 X 2006 26 5
1944 Merritt 5C 120 x — 40 1,
1944 Quilchena 50 120 X 1230 400 50
1944 Douglas L. 50 120 x = 42+ 42
1948 Big Creek 51 122 X 2000 50 several
1959 Merritt 50 120 x = 40 3
1950 Pritchard 50 11S x 300 50 1
1951 Quilchena 50 120 x 800 30 3
1951 Penticton 49 119 x — 20+ —
1951 Barnhartvale 56 120 x 700 270 7
1954 Barnhartvale 50 120 X — 100 —
1955 Douglas L. 50 120 X 400 30 2
1957 Stump Lake 50 120 x 118 32 {i
1957 Douglas L. 50 120 x 700 320 30
1964 Alkali L. 51 122 x 300 22 7
1964 Dog Cr. 51 122 X 650 +90 3
1964 Farwell Can. Di 122 x 250 +60 13
1964 Copper Cr. 50 120 X 400 30 =
1965 Chimney Cr. 52 122 x 250 28 —

* According to 1953 Gazetteer of Canada; B.C. Co-ordinates given at S.E. corners of

the geographical quadrilaterals.

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumBtiA, Vot.. 63 (1966), Drc. 1, 1966

16

yoaiqino fo aps s2jou2p aj2.119 fo 42qU2)

CxORe

0011-IO€ OOE-102% 00¢-I0!

o
OPO V6

OOI-IS OS-I2 O7-II

x

fe)

Ol-9

\ £0q
- aS40H
‘ * dasus

° e 2 02
ere rT

‘pur $-z%S8SDd

2\ BUNS

Fig. 1—Occurrences of tick paralysis in south-central British Columbia
from 1900 to 1965

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CorumsBrisA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 17

occur in the best areas for ranching,
in the vicinity of Keremeos, Prince-
ton, Nicola, Kamloops and Vavenby
(Hearle, 1933; Moilliet, 1937; Gregson,
1958). Smaller, more localized out-
breaks have been recorded at points
along the Fraser River trench from
Lillooet to Macalister and up the
Chilcotin River to Alexis Creek. Oth-
ers have appeared at Mamette Lake,
Upper Bonaparte, Chase, Falkland
and Kelowna.

The paucity of cases in the Koot-
enay district may partly be due to
the fact that only about 15% of the
beef cattle industry is in that area.
Nevertheless, there are enough ani-
mals and ticks for a paralysis poten-
tial. Of interest is the fact that since
1928, 25% of the human cases in B.C.
have occurred in this region. Con-
versely, there is only one human rec-
ord in the vicinity of Nicola Lake
where a total of more than 1000 cattle
have been paralysed. Host density is
obviously a factor in the incidence of
paralysis but presumably not the only
one. Ticks east of the Rocky Moun-
tains produce paralysis rarely, if at
all.

Besides the apparent distribution-
al variation in tick virulence, there is
the possibility of seasonal variation,
resulting either from tick activity or
their feeding habits. Ranchers are
often heard to say that there are “bad
tick years.” One sheepman believed
that extremes in spring temperatures
made the ticks “hungrier and dead-
lier.’ Whether or not there are such
variations in tick virulence, Table 1
shows that some years such as 1935,
1944, 1951, 1957 and 1964 are worse
than others for livestock infestations.
Not only were there major outbreaks
of paralysis during these years, but
also there were more than the aver-
age number of separate outbreaks. A
questionnaire solicited much of this
information in 1951, but question-
naires were sent out also in 1939, 1955
and 1965. It is perhaps significant
that the incidence of human paral-
ysis is not appreciably higher during
years of heavy livestock paralysis.

Human exposure to ticks would be ex-
pected to be less variable than that
of livestock and may thus indicate
that variations in the livestock rec-
ords are more or less determined by

movements of the cattle. During years
of hay shortage special advantage is
taken of warm, tick-infested hillsides
for early spring grazing; this might
further coincide with a year of high
tick activity. When conditions of a
particular year force this practice
upon many ranchers, there may be a
high incidence of paralysis, often in
new areas. Such was the situation in
the Fraser River trench in 1964.
Changing ranching practices such as
the decline in sheep populations, or
avoidance of tick-infested areas fol-
lowing an outbreak of paralysis, are
also responsible for annual fluctua-
tions of this disease.

One often hears that ticks are on
the increase, or that they were orig-
inally brought in on livestock. Dr. L.
Guichon, pioneer rancher in the Nic-
ola valley from before 1890, was of the
latter opinion and did not become
aware of ticks as a pest until after
1920. Parks, of Cache Creek, saw ticks
for the first time in 40 years in 1928;
Lees, at Hanceville since 1913, noticed
ticks there first in 1916, then further
west at Alexis Creek in 1937; Cotton,
of Riske Creek, reported in 1941 that
ticks were the worst in the 43 years
of his ranching experience and that
he had had no ticks at first; Collett,
of Merritt, had his first tick trouble
in 40 years during 1945; Davis, of
Mamette Lake, had his first trouble in
13 years during 1957; Cordonier re-
ported ticks in 1950 for the first time
during his 30 years of ranching at
Barnhartvale. Although the first pub-
lished records of paralysis are those
appearing along the B.C.-U.S. border,
there is no reason to suppose that
D. andersoni was introduced into Can-
ada from the south. Indeed, corre-
spondence from Moilliet of Vavenby
and Johnson of Alkali Lake, report
paralysis in cattle on their relatively
northern ranches in 1907 and 1903
respectively. It is probable that tick

18 JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumBta, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

populations have merely increased
following the introduction of live-
stock into already infested areas.

The incidence of paralysis in live-
stock is greatest between the 10th and
27th of April. Occasional cases occur
two weeks on either side of these
dates. The earliest case recorded was
on February 9, 1962; the latest, June
15, 1965. Since paralysis occurs only
after a tick has been feeding for 5
or more days the dates of the initial
infestations would necessarily pre-
cede the recorded periods.

The ratio of paralysis in the two
groups of livestock most affected has
depended partly on which animals
were being pastured on infested pas-
tures. Until 1930, cases among sheep
were more common; during recent
years cattle have superseded sheep
and have been more affected (Table

2). The recorded cases for the entire
period are in excess of 2010 cattle,
1849 sheep, 9 horses and 13 dogs.

The economic aspect of tick paral-
ysis is difficult to estimate. Definite,
recorded deaths over the past 50 years
are not greatly in excess of 361 cattle,
251 sheep and 6 horses, representing
a value of only about $60,000 even at
present prices. Greatly exceeding this
figure are the combined losses of
manpower required to handle cattle
during week-long outbreaks, of ani-
mal condition during recovery, and
of potential pasturage unused through
fear of ticks. The use of BHC during
the past 18 years has helped to alle-
viate the hazard of paralysis. Apart
from this remedy, whenever untreat-
ed stock are pastured on tick-infested
ranges, there still remains the threat
of large outbreaks of tick paralysis
with heavy animal losses.

References
Bruce, E. A. 1920. Tick paralysis in British Columbia. Dom. of Can. Dept. Agric. Bull.

No. 133:7 pp.

Bruce, E. A. 1922. Fatalities in cattle due to the tick Dermacentor venustus. J. Amer.

Vet. Med. Assoc. 61:537-539.

Gregson, J. D. 1958. Tick paralysis in cattle in British Columbia in 1957. Proc. Entomol.

Soc. Brit. Columbia 55:6-7.

Gregson, J. D. 1962. The enigma of tick paralysis in North America. Proc. 11th Intern.
Congr. Entomol., Vienna, 1960. 3:92-101.
Hadwen, S. 1913. On “tick paralysis” in sheep and man following bites of Dermacentor

venustus. Parasitology 6:283-297,.

Hearle, E. 1933. Notes on a serious outbreak of tick paralysis in cattle. Proc. Entomol.

Soc. Brit. Columbia 30:11-16.

Moilliet, T. K. 1937. A review of tick paralysis in cattle in British Columbia. Proc.
Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 33:35-39.
Todd, J. L. 1912. Does a human tick-borne disease exist in British Columbia? Can. Med.

Assoc, J. n. s. 2:686

A RECORD OF THE BROWN-BANDED ROACH

In 1960 specimens of the brown-
banded roach, Supella supeilectilium

(Serv.) were sent from a New West-
minster home. The furniture in the
newly-built house had been shipped
from California in a moving van with-
in the last year and the infestation
had since developed. Arrangements

were made to spray the house and the
roach was controlled.

The roach has not been recorded
from Canada west of Winnipeg. Mr.
C. G. MacNay, Ottawa, has reported
it from eastern Canadian cities.

G. J. SPENCER,
University of British Columbia.

ee

JoURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. Cotumpta, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 15

THE PEACH TWIG BORER, Anarsia lineatella ZELL. (LEPIDOPTERA:
GELECHIIDAE), IN THE OKANAGAN AND SIMILKAMEEN
VALLEYS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

D. S. Sarat!

INTRODUCTION

The peach twig borer, Anarsia
lineatella Zell., is reported from Eu-
rope, Asia, and North America. It is
present in 35 states of the U.S. (Bail-
ey, 1948), in Ontario and British Co-
lumbia, where it is often a Serious
pest of peach and apricot in the
Okanagan and Similkameen valleys.
Almond, cherry, nectarine, plum and
prune are also listed as host plants
(Bailey, 1948). The larva tunnels the
buds and terminal twigs and infests
the fruit. The present study was in-
tended to provide information on
which to base more effective timing
of insecticide applications. Some
growers have had difficulty in con-
trolling this pest.

METHODS and MATERIALS

The seasonal history was investi-
gated from 15 May to 15 October, 1966
in peach and apricot orchards near
Penticton in the Okanagan Valley
and Cawston in the Similkameen Val-
ley. The presence and activities of
different stages were recorded each
week and the developmental stages
collected for detailed study. In the
laboratory cages small vials of water
plugged with absorbent cotton sup-
plied water to the moths. The larvae
fed satisfactorily on green or ripe
peaches and apricots. Green fruit
lasted for from 10 to 15 days, and the
larvae easily re-established in fresh
fruit. When mature larvae left the
fruit most of them moved to the top
of the cages to pupate in folds of
cheesecloth; others pupated in cor-
mers or in folds of paper. Tender
shoots were not satisfactory food be-
cause they wilted or died within three
days. It is not known whether over-
wintered larvae, which feed normally
on buds and shoots, can also develop
on fruit. They were already pupating
by mid-May.

1 Summer employee, B.C. Dept. of Agriculture,
Vernon, in 1966.

To study adult flight patterns two
U-V light traps were used, one 10
miles south of Penticton, the other
five miles east of Cawston. The light

was on each night from 8:00 p.m. to
6:00 a.m. The bottle under the light
was partly filled with a 70% mixture
of ethyl and methyl alcohols, which
was emptied and replenished every
fourth day. The method was imprac-
tical in that it was extremely time
consuming to locate the small moths
in the great number of trapped in-
sects, but it did give some indication
of the adult population levels and
supported the field observations.
Adults are difficult to observe in the
orchards because they ::re small and
their colouration blends into the
bark. Adult emergence in orchards
was noted by marking pupae and
checking these regularly. The cre-
master is securely attached so that
the empty cases remain after the
adults have emerged.

SEASONAL HISTORY

The seasonal history was the same
in the Okanagan and Similkameen
valleys. Fig. 1 shows the seasonal
history at Penticton in 1966. Over-
wintered larvae which had been feed-
ing on buds and new shoots, started
to pupate by mid-May. A few larvae
were still feeding, but most of them
were moving downwards to the large
limbs and trunks to pupate in cracks,
pruning scars, or under loose bark.
By 24 May almost all had pupated.
The mature larva is about 13 mm
long. It spins a loose, grey-white web
and pupates beneath it. The pupa is
3 to 4 mm long, brown to dark brown,
attached by the cremaster. Moths
were first seen on 7 June and the peak
of adult population was reached
about mid-June.

Oviposition began within a few
days of emergence of the adult and

Soc. Brrr. CoLtumpBraA, Vow. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

JOURNAL HINTOMOL.

20

YIPOLIO

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Figure 1—The seasonal history of the peach twig borer, Anarsia lineatella Zell. in the

Penticton area of the Okanagan Valley, B.C., 1966.

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumMpBiéA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 21

continued for about two weeks. Mostfew in the second instar were in-

of the eggs were laid on the terminal
parts of young shoots but some were

laid on fruits. Larvae from these
eggs were first seen on 22 June feed-
ing on terminal and side shoots and
leaf bases. The newly-hatched larva
is about 5 mm long, light brown with
a black head.

Wilted shoots caused by first-
instar larvae were not noticeable
since they consisted only of one or
two small leaves. But by 6 July they
were noticeable because the longer
larval tunnels included more leaves.
A wilted shoot with a larva Still inside
was clean, but an abandoned shoot
exuded gum. Wilted shoots were few-
er and damage to fruit started earlier
on apricot than on peach, possibly be-
cause apricot has fewer shoots and
softer fruit. Some larvae apparently
fed on apricot fruit at once on hatch-
ing in late-June, whereas damage to
peach fruit did not start until about
mid-July. In the hard unripe fruit
the tunnels were superficial, and
mostly in the stem half.

Pupation began about 20 July, in
cracks in the bark or curled bark,
under loose bark or even on the sur-
face of the fruit. The larvae did not
spin a web. Adults emerging from
these pupae were first seen on 3 Au-
gust, and were in maximum numbers
by 10 August. They were easily seen
in heavily infested orchards resting
on trunks, branches and fruit. They
were seen more often on apricot than
on peach fruits.

The eggs were laid on bark and
on fruits. Most of the apricots were
picked by the end of July so that ob-
servations after that time were made
on peach fruits. Hatching started by
7 August. Larvae hatched from eggs
on fruits made very small entry holes
marked by brown frass on the sur-
face; larvae hatched from eggs on
bark started making overwintering
chimneys in crotches of two-to four-
year-old branches. They fed on the
cambium to hollow out overwintering
Sites (hibernacula). Most of the
larvae were in the first instar but a

volved. These larvae were not seen to
migrate from bark cells to fruit as

reported in California by Bailey
(1948).
Larvae in fruits developed nor-

mally although some made chimneys
before starting to feed. They pupated
from 5 to 12 September, and the
emerged adults were seen from 14 to
28 September. These laid eggs mostly
on bark but also on fruits which were
left on the trees, Hatching occurred
in the last week of September. Most
of these newly-hatched larvae made
hibernacula. Thus overwintering lar-
vae are from eggs laid by third and
second generation moths.

A few larvae were still feeding in
fallen fruit at the end of September
and had developed beyond the sec-
ond instar. None could be found after
mid-October, by which time night
temperatures had dropped to about
4°C for a week (40°F).

DISCUSSION

Weldon (1914, cited from Duruz,
1923) concluded that the peach twig
borer in California had a single, un-
even generation per year, emerging
over a long period. Duruz (1922, 1923),
Bailey (1948) and Price & Summers
(1961) observed three to four genera-
tions. King & Denman (1960) men-
tioned a fourth generation in Texas
The presence of hibernacula in Au-
gust may have led earlier workers
(Treherne, 1923; Venables, 1940; Pro-
verbs, 1954) to assume that the Au-
cust brood was the overwintering
generation in the Okanagan Valley.

It appears that voltinism in this
species js controlled not only by tem-
perature, but also by food; larvae
feeding on fruit in August developed
and completed the third generation,
whereas those feeding on bark built
hibernacula.

The only parasite observed was a
poly-embryonic chalcid, Paralitomas-
tix pyralidis (Ashm.), which laid its
eggs in the twig borer’s eggs. Peach
twig borer larvae from parasitized
eggs died at maturity. At this time

22 JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc.

the larvae were full of parasites
which could be seen under a micro-
scope through the translucent sKin of
the host. The adult chalcids emerge
soon after the peach twig borer

Brit. CoLtumbBiA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

moths; oviposition in host and para-
site is synchronized, and the parasite
also has two or three generations per
year. From 40 to 65 chalcid adults
were seen to emerge from each host.

References

Bailey, S. F. 1948. The peach twig borer. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 708. 56p.
Duruz, W. P. 1922. Peach twig borer experiments in California. J. Econ. Entomol.

15:395-400.

Duruz, W. P. 1923. The peach twig borer (Anarsia lineatella Zell.).

Exp. Sta. Bull. 355. 57p.

California Agr.

King, D. R., and T. E. Denman. 1960. The life history and seasonal occurrence of the
peach twig borer in Texas. J. Econ. Entomol. 53:680-681.

Price, D. W., and F. M. Summers.

1961. Cyclical changes in numbers of moths and

larvae of the peach twig borer in California. J. Econ. Entomol. 54:933-936.

Proverbs, M. D.

1954. Chemical control of the peach twig borer, Anarsia lineatella

Zell. (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia.
Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia. 51:31-36.

Quist, J. A. 1963. Control of peach twig borer.

report 99.

Colorado Agr. Exp. Sta. Progress

Summers, F. M. 1949. Resistance to basic lead arsenate by the peach twig borer with-
in a small area in central California. J. Econ. Entomol. 42:22-24.

Treherne, R. C. 1923. The peach twig borer (Anarsia lineatella) in British Columbia.
Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia. 17 and 19:176-183.

Venables, E. P. 1940. The peach twig borer or peach worm. Canada Dept. of Agr.

Vernon, B.C. Mimeo.

A RECORD OF <Adranes taylori WICKHAM
(COLEOPTERA: PSELAPHIDAE

A wind-thrown western red cedar
of 18 inches diameter was found to
have a 9-inch dead strip on one side.
This was infested with termites and
field ants, Lasius sitkaensis Pergande.
The wood with the ants was Kept in
the laboratory and moistened regu-
larly. After five months two small
and unusual beetles emerged; these
were Adranes taylori Wickham 1901,
of subfamily Clavigerinae, family
Pselaphidae. Adranes is a genus Of
obligate inquilines, restricted to the

nests chiefly of Lasius ants and known
only from North America. Eight spe-
cies are recorded from the Pacific
Northwest (Hatch, M., 1962, Beetles
of the Pacific Northwest, Vol. IIT).
They are eyeless, with 3-segmented
antennae, composed mostly of the
very large 3rd segment, and have
vestigial mouth parts. These are the
only Clavigerinae in the University
collection.

G. J. SPENCER,

University of British Columbia.

JouRNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumsBtA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 23

ANOPLURA FROM BRITISH COLUMBIA AND SOME
ADJACENT AREAS
By G. J. SPENCER

Department of Zoology, University
of British Columbia

INTRODUCTION

In 1951 I reported (Spencer, 1952)
that 25 named and several unidenti-
fied species of Anoplura nad been ob-
tained from the mammals of British
Columbia. Since this time, I have re-
ceived species from adjacent areas
and have managed to recognise five
additional species in British Colum-
bia. It seems appropriate at this time
to publish the list of species obtained,
with their host data. Not many spe-
cies occur that have not already been
taken and recorded, although we may
hope that some unexpected species
still remain to be discovered.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The records in this paper are based
principally on specimens in the col-
lections of the University of British
Columbia but a few are from the
Canadian National Collection [C.N.C.];
some were collected by many biolo-
gists for me over the years, and to
these I am indebted. Besides the col-
lections made in the field, I have
systematically searched the _ dried
skins in the Vertebrate Museum at
the University for lice remaining at-
tached. All the specimens of Ano-
plura were cleared and mounted on
microscope slides, according to the
method described by Spencer (1959).
Determinations were made by myself,
using the Keys of Ferris (1951), and
the list is arranged systematically,
according to Ferris (1951). A host list
is also appended, arranged according
to Cowan & Guiguet (1960) and Walk-
er et al. (1964). It will be apparent
where extra collecting might prove
rewarding.

1 This paper is based on specimens and notes
left by the late Prof. Spencer. The plan of the
Paper was discussed with him and a first draft
was seen by him prior to his death. I have at-
tempted to include all the points that seem rele-
vant.—G. G. E. Scudder.

I have a number of Mallophaga
from the mammals of British Colum-
bia, but it has not been possible to
identify all the specimens. The list
of these must therefore await further
research.

Unless otherwise noted, all the
specimens recorded here were taken
in British Columbia.

SPECIES OF ANOPLURA
Family ECHINOPHTHIRIIDAE

Antarctophthirus microchir (Troues-
sart & Neumann)

ex. Eumetopias jubata (Schreber),
Vancouver, 20.ix.1946 (G. J. Spencer) ;
ex. E. jubata, Triangle Is., 15.vi.1953
(L. Margolis).

Originally recorded from Pho-
carctos hookeri in Auckland Is., and
known also from Zalophus california-
nus and E. jubata from the coast of
California.

A. trichechi (Bohemann)

ex. Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus (L),
N.W.T.: Ellesmere Is., Craig Harbour,
6.vi.1935 (H. Kearney).

ex. Odobenus rosmarus divergens
(Ill.) ALASKA: Barrow, vii.1952 (F.
H. Fay);

ex. O. rosmarus divergens, ALASKA:
St. Lawrence Is., v.1954 (F. H. Fay).

Recorded from O. rosmarus previ-
ously from Greenland, Spitzbergen
and adjacent regions.

In A. trichechi, the dorsal aspect
of the head of the female is very
different from that of the male; it
has many large scales of two sizes,
somewhat like the ventral aspect of
the head of A. microchir.

Echinophthirius horridus (von Olfers)
ex. Pusa hispida (Schreber), N.W.T.:
Baffin Is., Harbour, 14.1.1935 (Cpl. H.
McBeth); ex. P. hispida, N.W.T.: El-
lesmere Is., Craig Harbour, 20.iv.1935
(H. Kearney).

24 JOURNAL EnTomot. Soc. Briv. CotuMBIA, VoL. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

ex. Phoca vitulina richardii (Gray),
SkKeena River, 16.vii.1946 (H. D. Fish-
er); ex. P. v. richardii, Vancouver
Aquarium, in captivity, 26.iii1.1963 (G.
Jd spencer); ex. P: vitulina, Sointula,
20.vii.1966 (H. D. Fisher).

ex. Phoca vitulina concolor DeKay,
NB. ots) ANGrews,.. v1L1951 (H.. D:
Fisher).

Described from P. vitulina. Re-
corded many times from this host on
the coasts of Europe. Also reported
from P. groenlandica and Halichoerus
gryphus in Greenland, P. hispida
from the Beaufort Sea, Alaska, P.
vitulina geronimensis from Pacific
Grove, California and P. baikalensis
from Lake Baikal.

Proechinophthirius fluctus (Ferris)
ex. Callorhinus ursinus cyanocephalus
(Walbaum), ALASKA, St. Paul Is.,
15.vii.1946 (G. C. Carl).

Previously recorded from the Alas-
kan fur seal on St. Paul Is. and on
other of the Pribilof [fslands. The
identity of the host of the type is
doubtful.

Family HAEMATOPINIDAE

Haematopinus asini (Linnaeus)

ex. Horse, Vancouver, 11.1926 (M. A.
Alan); ex. Horse, Kamloops, 10.iii.1938
(W. Godlonton); ex. Horse, Kamloops,
10.x.1943 (H. D. Fisher).

The type host is Equus asinus. Re-
corded also from domestic horses in
various parts of the world and appar-
ently occurring naturally on zebras.

H. eurysternus (Nitzsch)

ex. Bull, Kamloops, 10.11.1938 (W.
Godlonton); ex. Cattle, Douglas Lake,
20.11.1944; ex. Cattle, Kamloops, 22.ii.
1944 (G. J. Spencer).

Originally described from domestic
cattle in Europe and Known from
these hosts from many parts of the
world.

H. suis (Linnaeus)

ex. Hog, Quesnel, 15.vii.1949 (G. J.
Spencer); ex. Hog, Vancouver, Uni-
versity of B.C., 4.xi.1954 (G. Cowan).

Recorded originally from domestic
swine in Europe, and now Known from
this host from many parts of the
world. It is reported from Sus cris-
tatus in Tenasserim and India by

Ferris (1919-1935) and from Wild

Hog in India by Spencer (unpub-
lished).

Family HOPLOPLEURIDAE

Microphthirus uncinatus (Ferris)

ex. Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis
(Bachman), Vancouver, University of
B.C. campus, 1.xi.1954, 15.xi.1954, 11.
Vii.1955, 12.viii.1955 (G. J. Spencer) ;
ALTA., 1947.

Described from G. sabrinus in Yo-
semite National Park, California. The
B.C. and Alberta records have been
published before (Spencer, 1956) and
at that time were apparently only
the second captures of this louse.
Hoplopleura acanthopus (Burmeister)
ex. Ochotona princeps fenisex Osgood,
Fraser River, 24 miles W. of Williams
Lake, 7.xi.1946 (J. Hatter)—ex. Mu-
seum Skin.
ex. Thomomys talpoides fuscus Mer-
riam, Anarchist Mt., 29.v.1941 (I. Mc-
T. Cowan)—ex. Museum skin.
ex. Synaptomys borealis chapmani
Allen, ALTA.: Banff, 6.1x.1930 (I. McT.
Cowan); ALTA.: Jasper Park, Elysium
Pass, 26.vi.1946 (I. McT. Cowan) —ex.
Museum skin: Wells Gray Park, Mur-
tle Lake, 24-26.vii.1950 (P. Martin).
ex. Lemmus trimucronatus trimucro-
natus (Richardson), N.W.T.: Baffin
Is. Clyde, 10.vi.1958 (J. E. H. Martin)
[C.N.C.].
ex. Neotoma cinerea _ occidentalis
(Baird), Chilcotin River Valley, 29.v.
1929 (G.J.S.).
ex, Sorex cinereus cinereus Kerr.
ONT.: Algoma District, Pancake Bay,
4.ix.1935 (C. H. D. Clarke) [C.N.C.].
ex. Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus
(Rhoads), Princeton, 23.viii.1965 (W.
Sheppe).
ex. Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout),
Vancouver, 4.ix.1940 (J. Poole).
ex. Microtus pennsylvanicus drum-
mondi (Audubon & Bachman), Nicola
Range, Minnie Lake, 17.vi.1932 (G. J.
Spencer); Grindrod, 12.ii1.1948, 24.ili.
1948, 1.v.1948 (J. Wynne).
ex. Microtus townsendi (Bachman),
Vancouver, 18.ix.1934 (R.A.C., GJS.) ;
Vancouver, 13.iv.1955 (G. Rolandson) ;
Vancouver, University of B.C., 14.iii.
1959 (J. Lanko).

JourNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CorumBiA, VoL. 63 (1966), DEc. 1, 1966 26

ex. Microtus montanus canescens
Bailey, Kamloops, Lac du Bois, 1.vii.
1936 (G. J. Spencer).

ex. Microtus longicaudus mordax
(Merriam), WASH., American &
Bumping R., 20.vii.1957 (W. Sheppe) ;
WASH.: River Bend Camp, 29.vi.1957
(W. Sheppe) ; WASH.: Crystal Springs
Camp, 7.vii.1957 (W. Sheppe) ; Prince-
ton, 31.vii.1965 (W. Sheppe); 4 miles
S.W. of Princeton, 23.viii.1965 (W.
Sheppe).

ex. Microtus longicaudus vellerosus
Allen, Mount Robson, Berg Lake, 26.
vii.1944.

ex. Microtus oregoni serpens Merriam,
Vancouver, 15.iii.1955 (G. J. Spencer).

Originally described from Microtus
arvalis, from Europe. Recorded also
from M. agrestis and M. nivalis in Eu-
rope; M. californicus, M. intermedius
and M. ochrogaster in the U.S.A.;
Lemmus alaskensis in Alaska; Synap-
tomys borealis in Canada; Pitymys
pinetorum in the eastern U.S.A. and
on Mus in Europe. The occurrences
reported here on Ochotona, Clethrio-
nomys, Rattus and several species of
Microtus therefore appear to be new
host records.

H. arboricola (Kellogg & Ferris)

ex. Eutamias amoenus affinis (Allen),
Savona, Deadman’s Creek, 14.viii.1934
(D. Cameron & G. J. Spencer); Kam-
loops, Lac du Bois, 30.v.1934 (D. Cam-
eron & G. J. Spencer); 17 miles from
Kamloops, on Nicola road, 13.vi.1934
(D. Cameron & G. J. Spencer); Aspen
Grove, 17.vii.1932, 28.viii.1934, 18.viii.
1935 (G. J. Spencer); Rayleigh, 18.viii.
1935 (G. J. Spencer); Tranquille
range, Davis ranch, 19.vii.1934 (D.
Cameron & G. J. Spencer).

ex. Eutamias amoenus luteiventris
(Allen). Kinbasket Lake, 4.viii.1943
(G. P. Holland & G. J. Spencer).

The type host is Eutamias town-
sendii (=Neotumias hindsi) from
California. According to Kellogg &
Ferris (1915), Ferris (1919-1935) and
Ferris (1951) the British Columbia

material listed above, runs to arbori-.

cola and not H. erratica (Osborn), but
other more atypical specimens have

been taken from Eutamias in the
Province.

H. hesperomydis (Osborn)

ex. Peromyscus sitkensis prevostensis
Osgood, Queen Charlotte Islands,
Frederick Is., 25.vi.1946, 11.vii.1947
(C. Guiguet) — ex. Museum skin;
Queen Charlotte Islands, Knight Is.,
11.vii.1947 (C. Guiguet)—ex. Museum
skin; Queen Charlotte Islands,.Hippa
Is., 25.vi - 11.vii.1947 (C. Guiguet) ;
Queen Charlotte Islands, Lina Is., 27.
vi.1960 (P. Joslin).

ex. Peromyscus maniculatus austerus
(Baird), Vancouver, West Point Grey,
17.xi.1946 (J.D.Y., GJ.S.); Cultus
Lake, 27.111.1948 (J. Yarwood); Van-

couver, 28.1.1948, 29.i111.1951, 2.ii1.1959
(G. J. Spencer); Vancouver, Point
Grey, 19.11.1959 (J. Macdonald);
Haney, Loon Lake, 29.viii.1957 (W.
Sheppe).

ex. Peromyscus maniculatus oreas

Bangs, Alta Lake, 28.viii.1941 (I. McT.
Cowan); Vancouver, 14.1.1954 (G. J.
Spencer); Princeton, 31.vii.1965 (W.
Sheppe).

ex. Peromyscus maniculatus artemi-
siae (Rhoads), Kamloops, 9.vi.1929,
21.vii.1934 (G. J. Spencer); Aspen
Grove, 12.vi.1932 (G. J. Spencer):
Kamloops, Lac du Bois, 27.viii.1939
(G. J. Spencer); Armstrong, 4.ii.1941
(I. McT. Cowan); Princeton, 12.viii.
1957 (W. Sheppe).

ex. Peromyscus sp., Vancouver, Uni-
versity of B.C.: 31.v.1940 (G. J. Spen-
cer); Mahood Lake, 9.vii.1950 (P. W.
Martin); Mount Seymour, 22.vii.1965
(W. Sheppe).

Described from Peromyscus leuco-
pus in Iowa. Recorded from P. boylii
and P. maniculatus in California;
Onychomys torridus in California;
O. leucogaster in Colorado; Orysomys
fulvescens in Mexico; Oryzomys
chaparensis in Bolivia; Eligmodontia
collisae in Argentina; Mus musculus
in the U.S.A. and Turkestan; Mus
gansus and M. wagneri in China. The
occurrences reported here on P. sit-
kensis thus appear to be a new host
record.

H. oenomydis Ferris
ex. Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout),
Vancouver, 4.ix.1940 (J. Poole).

26 JOURNAL ENTomot. Soc. Brit. Cotumsra, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

Originally described from Oenomys
hypoxanthus in East Africa. Record-
ed from Dasymys incomtus and
Grammomys surdaster in East Africa;
Rattus exulans and R. mearnsi in the
Philippines; Rattus exulans in Hawaii
and the Marquesas, and on R. norve-
gicus in the south-eastern U.S.A.

H. sciuricola Ferris

ex. Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori
(Allen), Nicola, Coyote Valley, 26.vi.
[9300-(L. Ke M., D.C. G.J-S.);> Aspen
Grove, 21.viii.1934 (D. Cameron) ;
Grindrod, 6.xii.1946 (J. Wynne).

ex. T. hudsonicus, Vancouver, 2.iv.1949
(G. J. Spencer); Grindrod, 19.11.1947
(J. Wynne).

ex. Tamiasciurus douglasi mollipilosus
(Audubon & Bachman), Vancouver,
4.11.1952 (G. J. Spencer); Gambier Is.,
21.11.1943 (I. McT. Cowan).

Originally described from Sciurus
carolinensis from Mississippi. Report-
ed from T. hudsonicus in Alaska, T.
douglasi in California, S. ignitus in
Peru, S. nasaeus in Venezuela and S.
variabilis in Colombia.

H. trispinosa Kellogg & Ferris
ex. Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis

Howell, Princeton, 6.x%.1957 (W.
Sheppe).
ex. Glaucomys sabrinus oregonesis

Bachman, Vancouver, University of
B.C. campus, 26.i1.1944, 12.viii.1955, 11.
Vii.1955, 15.xi.1954 (G. J. Spencer) ;
ALTA.: 1947 (Spencer, 1956).

Originally described from G. sa-
brinus from Oregon. Recorded on this
species also in California, B.C., and
Alberta (Spencer, 1956) and on QG.
volans in Maryland.

Pedicinus eurygaster (Burmeister)
ex. Rhesus monkey, Vancouver, Uni-
versity of B.C., in captivity 1934 (G.
J. spencer).

Recorded from Macaca, Cercopith-
ecus, Pithecus and Rhinopithecus,
both wild and captive.

P. obtusus (Rudow)

ex. Rhesus monkey, Vancouver, Uni-
versity of B.C., in captivity, 5.ii11.1934
(G. J. Spencer); Vancouver, in cap-
tivity, 10.v.1953 (G. J. Spencer).

Originally
maurus, but may occur on almost any
Cercopithecoid monkey, either wild or
captive. It is the species most likely
to be found on captive monkeys.

Fahrenholzia pinnata Kellogg & Ferris
ex. Perognathus parvus lordi (Gray),
Osoyoos, 21.v.1941 (I. McT. Cowan) —
ex. Museum skin; 10 miles S. of Oliv-
er, 7.vii.1963 (W. B. Preston )—ex, Mu-
seum skin.

Apparently this species also from
Perognathus parvus laingi Anderson,
Okanagan Landing, 11.viii.1949 (I.
McT. Cowan)—ex Museum skin.

Originally described from Dipo-
domys californicus in California, and
noted from D. merriami and Perog-
nathus sp. in the same State, D. or-
natus and D. phillipsii in Mexico, and
Perognathus parvus in Nevada.

Haemodipsus ventricosus (Denny)

ex. Laboratory rabbit, Vancouver, Uni-
versity of B.C., 27.1.1942, 14.x.1934 (G.
J. Spencer); ex. rabbit, Vancouver,
24.x.1931 (G. J. Spencer).

Described from the European rab-
bit, Oryctolagus cuniculus in England.
Recorded from this host and from its
domestic descendants in many parts
of the world.

Neohaematopinus inornatus (Kellogg
& Ferris)
ex. Neotoma cinerea occidentalis
Baird, Chilcotin R. Valley, 29.v.1929
(G. J. Spencer); Nicola, 24.viii.1933
(G. J. Spencer); Vavenby, 25.x.1933
(G. J. Spencer); Cariboo, Dempsey
Lake, 12.viii.1934 (D. Cameron & G. J.
Spencer); Kamloops, Lae du Bois, 7.
ix.1938 (G. J. Spencer):
ex. Neotoma cinerea (Ord), WASH.:
American & Bumping R., 22.vii.1957
(W. Sheppe).

Described from Neotoma cinerea
in California, and Known from the
same host also in Colorado.

N. laeviusculus (Grube)

ex. Spermophilus columbianus colum-
bianus (Ord), Birch Is., 6000 feet, 12.
viii.1931 (G. J. Spencer); 30 miles
from Vernon, on Vernon-Kamloops
road, 27.v.1934 (D. C. & G. J. Spencer) ;

from Semnopithecus —

JoURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 Pag

Lower Arrow Lakes, Syringa Creek,
30.vi.1934, 6.vii.1934 (D. Cameron) ;
Grand Forks, 15.v.1939 (J. B. Poole) ;
Bridesville plateau, 25-30.vi.1940 (J.
Poole); Windermere - Golden, 20.vii.
1940 (J. Poole); Yoho Park, 2.viii.1940
(J. Poole); Mt. Tod, 27.vi.1943 (G. J.
Spencer); Kennedy Lake, 3.v.1956
(W. Sheppe).

ex. Spermophilus undulatus parryi
(Richardson), N.W.T.: Thelon R.,
Lookout Point, 7.viii.1963 (J. F. Ben-
dell) —ex. Museum skin;

ex. S. undulatus, N.W.T.: Fort Smith,
25.vili.1965 (E. Kuyt).

~ Described from Citellus eversman-
ni in Siberia. Known from many oth-
er species of Spermophilus in North
America, from Point Barrow in Alas-
ka, south to Mexico. Recorded from
Cynomys leucurus in Colorado. The
use of Spermophilus rather than Ci-
tellus follows Hall and Kelson (1959).

N. marmotae Ferris

ex. Marmota flaviventris avara
(Bangs), Nicola, 14.v.1931 (R. T. Turn-
er); Kamloops, 8.vi. 1934 (D. Cam-
eron); Agassiz, 15.vi.1934 (W. Riley) ;
Rayleigh, 2.viii.1934 (D. Cameron) ;
Tranquille, 21.vii.1934 (D. Cameron) ;
Tranquille range, Davis ranch, 3.Vvi.
1934 (D. Cameron, G. J. Spencer) ;
Kamloops, Lac du Bois range, 2.vi.1935
(G. J. Spencer); Kamloops, Straw-
berry Heights, 23.11.1936 (L. C. Curtis,
G. J. Spencer); Kamloops, 4.viii.1935
(I. Ward, G. J. Spencer); Upper Hat
Creek, 30.vi.1935 (I. Ward); Tran-
quille, 17.xi.1937 (G. P. Holland, G. J.
Spencer); Keremeos, 30.iii.1959 (G.
Gibson).

ex. Marmota monax petrensis Howell,
Oliver (Fairview), 17.iv.1934 (EB. R.
Buckell, G. J. Spencer); Kootenays,
Alder Creek, 12.vi.1932; Kootenays,
Sirdar, 20.viii.1949 (I. McT. Cowan).
ex. Marmota caligata okanagana
(King), Birch Is., 6000 feet, 12.viii.
1931 (G. J. Spencer); Dunn Peak, 9.
viii.1937, 8000 feet (G. P. Holland, G.
J. Spencer).

ex. Marmota caligata nivaria Howell,
MONTANA: Whitefish Range, 19.vii.
1965 (C. JonKel).

ex. Cynomys ludovicianus ludovician-

us (Ord), SASK.: 13 miles S.E. of Val
Marie, 6.vii.1942 (G. P. Holland).

ex. Mustela frenata nevadensis Hall,
Nicola range, Dry Farm, 1.ix.1932 (G.
J. Spencer): apparently this species.

Described originally from Mar-
mota flaviventris in California and
Known from Marmota in Montana,
Idaho and Colorado.

N. sciurinus Mjoberg

ex. Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori
(Allen), Aspen Grove, 21.viii.1934 (D.
Cameron); Kamloops, 4. viii.1935 (G.
J. Spencer); Nicola range, 2.xi.1932
(G. J. Spencer); Grindrod, 28.xii.1947
(J. Wynne).

ex. Tamiasciurus hudsonicus colum-
biensis Howell, Chilcotin, Riske Creek,
29.vi.1930 (G. J. Spencer).

ex. Tamiasciurus hudsonicus lanugi-
nosus (Bachman), Courtenay-Comox,
Miracle Beach, 1.viii.1960 (W. J. Meri-
lees).

ex. Sciurus carolinensis pennsylvani-
cus Ord, Vancouver, Stanley Park.*

Described from Sciurus niger rufi-
venter in Iowa. Recorded from many
species of Sciurus from North, Central
and South America and the Malayan
region.

N. sciuropteri (Osborn)

ex. Glaucomys sabrinus alpinus
(Richardson), Hazelton, Terano Lake,
11.v.1938 (J. F., G. J. Spencer).
ex. Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis
Howell, near Kelowna, Canyon Creek,
Kettle Valley, Res. 2, xii.13 (Gillard) ;
Kamloops, 10.11.1934 (G. J. Spencer) ;
Princeton, 6.x.1957 (W. Sheppe).
ex. Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis
(Bachman), Vancouver, West Point
Grey, 26.1.1944 (G. J. Spencer); Van-
couver, University of B.C. campus, 1.
Xi.1944, 15.xi.1954, 11.vii.1955, 12.viii.
1955 (G. J. Spencer).
ex. Glaucomys sabrinus, ALTA., 1947
(Spencer, 1956).
ex. Eutamias amoenus affinis (Allen),
Aspen Grove, 24.vii.32 (G. J. Spencer).
Described from Glaucomys volans
in Iowa and Known also from G. sa-
brinus in California. Previously re-

* Anoplura specimens not seen by G.G.E.S.

28 JourRNAL ENToMoL. Soc. Brrr. Cotumpeta, Von. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

corded from G. sabrinus in B.C. and
Alberta by Spencer (1956).

Polyplax auricularis Kellogg & Ferris

ex. Peromyscus maniculatus borealis
Mearns, ALTA.: Devona, 18.iv.1943 (I.
McT. Cowan).

ex. Peromyscus maniculatus oreas
Bangs, WASH.: Crystal Springs Camp,
icv AtooT (W, Sheppe)..

The type of this species was taken
from Peromyscus maniculatus in Cal-
ifornia’ it is recorded from-P. sitch-
ensis in Alaska, Onychomys torridus
in California, O. leucogaster in Colo-
rado and Kansas. In Mexico it occurs
on Reithrodontomys mexicanus and
Neotomodon alstoni.

P. spinulosa (Burmeister)

ex. Microtus oregoni serpens Merriam,
Vancouver, 15.iii.1955 (G. J. Spencer).
ex. Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout),
Tofino, -20.vi.1926 (G.. J. Spencer) ;
Burrard Inlet, 15.ix.1938 (J. Poole);
Vancouver, 15.ix.1938, 4.ix.1940 (J. B.
Poole); Vancouver, University of B.C.,
6.xi.1938 (G. J. Spencer); Vancouver,
Gri 1939. 28.V.1958,. d.iv.19599. (G.- J.
Spencer), 6.xii.1957 (H. B. Mitchell).
ex. Rattus rattus rattus (Linnaeus),
Vancouver, 15.x.1946 (J. Y., G. J.
Spencer), 29.ix.1955 (G. J. Spencer),
21.11.1955.

ex. Rattus, Vancouver, 9.i11.1935 (K.
Jacob), 5.x.1939 (G. J. Spencer). ex.
White Rat, Vancouver, University of
Bey sims captivity, 5.x1939 (G.- J.
Spencer).

Described from Rattus norvegicus
in Europe. Known from R. rattus and
R. norvegicus in many parts of the
world. Recorded also from other Rat-
tus species in the Philippines and
Malaya, Bandicota in Burma and
Thallomys in South Africa.

Family LINOGNATHIDAE

Linognathus pedalis (Osborn)

ex. Domestic sheep, Vancouver, Uni-
versity of B.C., v.1925 (G. J. Spencer).
First described from domestic
sheep in the U.S.A. and now known
from South America, New Zealand,
Australia and South Africa.

L. setosus (von Olfers)

ex. Dog, Vancouver, i.1931, 5.v.1943,
ix.1945, 26.xi.1955 (G. J. Spencer), 3.i.
1862 (G. Armstrong) ; Kamloops, 5.vii.
1936 (G. J. Spencer); Victoria xii.1942
(W. Downes).

Originally described from domes-
tic dog in Europe: now known
throughout the world. Also recorded
from Alopex lagopus in Canada and
Alaska, fox in Manchuria, Canis lupus
in Croatia, coyote in the U.S.A., and
the ferret and rabbit.

L. stenopsis (Burmeister)
ex. Angora Goat, ALTA.: Suffield, 27.
Xi1.1945 (student).

Described originally from the do-
mestic goat in Europe. Known from
this host in many parts of the world.
Also recorded from Capra ibex and
Rupicapra rupicapra.

L. vituli (Linnaeus)

ex. Cattle, Cariboo, Canim Lake, 14.
i11.1944; Milner, 26.xii.1944 (G. J.
Spencer).

Described from domestic cattle in
Europe. Since reported from this host
in many parts of the world.

Solenopotes capillatus Enderlein
ex. Cattle, Kamloops, 20.vii.1949 (G.
B. Rich),

First recorded from domestic cat-
tle in Germany. Now known from
cattle in Kurope and North America. -

S. ferrisi (Fahrenholz)

ex. Odocoileus hemionus columbianus
(Richardson), Comox, Vancouver Is.,
9.xi.1930 (G. J. Spencer); Hardy Is.,
3.1v.1943 (G. J. Spencer); Pender Is.,
41.1945 (G. J. Spencer).

ex. Cervus canadensis (Erxleben),
ALTA.: Jasper Park, 20.xii.1944 (1.
McT. Cowan).

ex. Tamiasciurus hudsonicus colum-
biensis Howell, Clinton, (J. & W.
Hooke): adventitive.

Originally described from Odocoi-
leus columbianus in California.

Family PEDICULIDAE

Pediculus humanus capitis DeGeer.

ex. Man, Salmon Arm, 1928 (H.
Leech); ex. North American Indian,
Alexis Creek, iii.1939 (Dr. Hallows).

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. Cotumsra, Vox. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 29

P. humanus corporis DeGeer.
ex. Man, Vancouver, 7.xii.1944 (G. J.
Spencer), 16.iv.1950 (EB. Fridell).

Phthirus pubis (Linnaeus)

ex. Man, Essondale, 25.vii.1936 (W.T.);
Vancouver, ix.1940 (W. McK. McCal-
lum).

Host list of Anoplura recorded in this paper:

Order INSECTIVORA

Family SORICIDAE

Sorex cinereus cinereus
Hoplopleura acanthopus

Order PRIMATES
Family CERCOPITHECIDAE

Macaca mulatta (Rhesus Mon-
key)
Pedicinus eurygaster
P. obtusus
Family HOMINIDAE

Homo sapiens (Man)
Pediculus humanus
Phthirus pubis

Order LAGOMORPHA

Family OCHOTONIDAE

Ochotona princeps fenisexr
Hoplopleura acanthopus

Family LEPORIDAE

Oryctolagus cuniculus (Domes-
tic rabbit)
Haemodipsus ventricosus

Order RODENTIA

Family SCIURIDAE
Marmota monax petrensis
Neohaematopinus marmotae
M. flaviventris avara
N. marmotae
M. caligata nivaria
N. marmotae
M. caligata okanagana
N. marmotae
Cyonomys ludovicianus ludovi-
cianus
N. marmotae
Spermophilus columbianus co-
lumbianus
N, laeviusculus
S. undulatus
N. laeviusculus
Eutamias amoenus affinis
Hoplopleura arboricola
E. amoenus luteiventris
H. arboricola

E. amoenus septentrionalis
H. arboricola
Sciurus carolinensis pennsyl-
vanicus
Neohaematopinus sciurinus
Tamiasciurus hudsonicus co-
lumbiensis
N. sciurinus
fT. hudsonicus lanuginosus
N. sciurinus
T. hudsonicus streatori
N. sciurinus
Hoplopleura sciuricola
T. douglasi mollipilosus
H. sciuricola
Glaucomys sabrinus alpinus
N. sciuropteri
G. sabrinus columbiensis
H. trispinosa
N. sciuropteri
G. sabrinus oregonensis
H. trispinosa
N. sciuropteri
Microphthirus uncinatus

Family GEOMYIDAE
Thomomys talpoides fuscus
H, acanthopus

Family HETEROMYIDAE
Perognathus parvus lordi
Fahrenholzia pinnata

Family CRICETIDAE
Peromyscus maniculatus arte-
misiae
H, hesperomydis
. maniculatus austerus
H, hesperomydis
. maniculatus borealis
Polyplax auricularis
. maniculatus oreas
H, hesperomydis
. sitkensis prevostensis
H. hesperomydis
Neotoma cinerea occidentalis
N. inornatus
Synaptomys borealis chapmani
H. acanthopus
Lemmus trimucronatus trimu-
cronatus

po So a ky

20 JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. ConrumBIA, VOL. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

H. acanthopus
Clethrionomys gapperi
atus
H. acanthopus
Microtus oregoni serpens
H. acanthopus
Polyplax spinulosa
M. pennsylvanicus drummondi
H. acanthopus
M. montanus canescens
H. acanthopus
M. townsendi
H. acanthopus
M. longicaudus mordax
H. acanthopus
M. longicaudus vellerosus
H. acanthopus
Family MURIDAE
Rattus rattus rattus
P. spinulosa
Rattus norvegicus
H. acanthopus
H. oenomydis
P. spinulosa
Order CARNIVORA
Family CANIDAE
Canis (Domestic dog)
Linognathus setosus
Family MUSTELIDAE
Mustela frenata nevadensis
N. marmotae
Order PINNIPEDIA
Family OTARIIDAE
Callorhinus ursinus cyanoceph-
alus
Proechinophthirius fluctus
Eumetopias jubata

satur-

Family ODOBENIDAE

Odobenus rosmarus divergens
Antarctophthirus trichechi
O. rosmarus rosmarus
A. trichechi

Family PHOCIDAE

Phoca vitulina concolor
Echinophthirius horridus
P. vitulina richardi
E. horridus
Pusa hispida
E. horridus

Order PERISSODACTYLA
Family EQUIDAE

Equus caballus (domestic horse)
Haematopinus asini

Order ARTIODACTYLA
Family SUIDAE

Sus scropha (Domestic swine)
HA. suis

Family CERVIDAE

Cervus canadensis
Solenopotes ferrisi
Odocoileus hemionus columbi-
anus
S. ferrisi

Family BOVIDAE

Bos taurus (Domestic cattle)
Haematopinus eurysternus
Linognathus vituli
Solenopotes capillatus

Capra (Domestic goat)
Linognathus stenopsis

Ovis aries (Domestic sheep)

Antarctophthirus microchir L. pedalis
References
Cowan, I. McT. and Guiguet, C. J. 1960. The Mammals of British Columbia. B.C. Prov.

Mus. Handb. 11:1-413.

Ferris, G. F., 1919-1935, Contribution toward a Monograph of the Sucking Lice. Parts
1-8. Stanford University, California.

Ferris, G. F., 1951, The Sucking Lice. Mem. Pacific Coast Ent. Soc. 1:1-320.

Hall, E. R., and Kelson, K. R. 1959. The Mammals of North America. New York.
Ronald Press Co.

Kellogg, V. L., and Ferris, G. F., 1915, The Anoplura and Mallophaga of North American
Mammals. Stanford University, California.

Spencer, G. J., 1952, The 1951 status of our knowledge of the insects of British Colum-
bia. Proc. Ent. Soc. B.C. 48:36-41.

Spencer, G. J., 1956, Some records of ectoparasites from flying squirrels.
Soc.oB.G; 02'32-34: |
Spencer, G. J., 1959, On mounting lice by the Ris Lambers Method for aphids. Proc.

Ent. Soc. B.C. 56:53.
Walker, E. P. et al., 1964. Mammals of the World. John Hopkins Press, Baltimore.

Proc. Ent.

JouRNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brrr. CotumBia, VoL. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 ol
OVERWINTERING OF CAGED Rhyacionia buoliana
(SCHIFFERMULLER) AT VERNON, B.C., IN 1965-66

D. A. Ross!

INTRODUCTION

The European pine shoot moth,
Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiffermuller) ,
is established in exotic pines in south-
ern coastal British Columbia and
since 1961 has occurred in small num-
bers on imported exotic pines in the
Okanagan-Kamloops region. Only one
specimen has been taken from a na-
tive tree, a mature ponderosa pine,
Pinus ponderosa Lawson and Son, on
the Department of Agriculture of
Canada Experimental Station at
Summerland. As it is believed that
the shoot moth may become a pest in
the interior forests of the Pacific
Northwest, surveys have been inten-
sified and in some regions quaran-
tines and control measures have been
implemented. An attempt has also
been made to determine the ability
of the European pine shoot moth to
overwinter successfully in the North
Okanagan Valley, at Vernon, in the
range of lodgepole and ponderosa
pines.

During the summer of 1963 one
pair of moths was caged with a small
ponderosa pine; eggs were laid and
at least two hatched. The larvae
bored into the base of the needles,
but none were found in May 1964.
The ability of the insect to overwin-
ter in British Columbia was further
investigated in 1965 and is reported
here.

METHODS

On 26 May 1965, several hundred
tips of mugho pine infested with Hu-
ropean pine shoot moth were collect-
ed on the campus of the University of
B.C. in Vancouver. Adults from the
collection, reared in the insectary at
Vernon, were introduced to caged

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department
of Forestry and Rural Development, Vernon, B.C.

young ponderosa pine trees, and to
sleeve cages on a mature ponderosa
pine tree. Arthropods in the cages
were destroyed before the moths were
introduced, to eliminate predators of
the shoot moth and to avoid confu-
sion with damage caused by other in-
sects. The cages were removed in Sep-
tember to permit complete exposure
of the twigs to winter conditions and
replaced early in April before larval
activity began.

Large cage. Seven ponderosa pine
trees 4 to 5 feet in height were trans-
planted at Vernon in April 1965, and
late in May the trees were covered
with a portable cage 12’ x 12’x 6’. The
cage was a wooden frame covered
with factory cotton with several
screened panels to improve ventila-
tion. A pitched canvas roof over the
cage shed heavy rainfall and provid-
ed shade. Shortly before the eggs
hatched, the screens were covered
with transparent plastic to prevent
escape of the larvae.

Pairs of moths, the male 1-2 days
older than the female, were main-
tained overnight on June 10 in fifty
separate small cages that were fur-
nished with water and a pine twig.
The next afternoon the females were
introduced to the large cage; June
11-19, twenty males were released in
the cage and on July 9, three females
and two males.

Sleeve cages. The sleeve cages 6
feet long and 21! feet in diameter,
were made of a cylindrical wire frame
covered with nylon screen. These
cages were Slipped over individual
branches of a mature ponderosa pine
with two pairs of moths in each.

RESULTS

Large cage. By 22 July numerous
European pine shoot moth larvae had

39 JouRNAL EntTomot. Soc. Brit. Cotumsta, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

become established, evidence being
holes in the needle bases and frass
and pitch masses on the twig ends.
One larva, believed to be Rhyacionia,
was observed on a silken thread the
same day. Ants were numerous with-
in the large cage and may have de-
stroyed some of the shoot moth eggs
and larvae.

In September 1965, six of the seven
trees tested had evidence of larval
feeding. The number of damaged
twigs per tree was: 16, 6, 6, 3, 3 and
2. Two trees with nine infested twigs,
and the larvae, died. From the 27 in-
fested twigs on the other four trees,
nine pupae were recovered, all from
twigs above the snow line.

Sleeve cages. No larvae established
themselves in the twigs.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The lowest temperatures in the
Vernon area during the overwinter-
ing period in 1965-66 occurred near
the end of December. On December
29 the temperature was —2°F and on
January 5 it was —4°F. Green (1962)
showed that in Ontario a temperature
of —4°F could kill 45% of the larvae
in November but only 7% in mid-Feb-
ruary. He demonstrated that temper-
atures below —22°F completely de-
stroyed larval populations.

The successful overwintering of 9
larvae on twigs above snow level in-
dicates that Rhyacionia buoliana can
survive winter temperatures in the
North Okanagan Valley as low as
—4°F.,

Reference

Green, G. W. 1962. Low winter temperatures and the European pine shoot moth, Rhya-
cionia buoliana (Schiff.) in Ontario. Can. Ent. 94: 314-336.

EDITORIAL NOTES

In its sixty-year life this society
has never been so hard-hit by deaths
as it was in 1966. Three of our most
revered members, two of them Hon-
orary Members, have now gone. Even
though they died full of years and
honour we feel the loss, and the gaps
they leave will be hard to fill.

Several inquiries have been re-
ceived concerning a suitable memor-
ial for the late Prof. Spencer. The
Alumni Annual Giving Society of the
University of British Columbia is
sponsoring an annual lectureship, to
be known as the Spencer Memorial
Lectures. The intention is to invite
world figures in entomology to speak
at the University at some convenient
time during the academic year. A
committee has been struck under she
chairmanship of Dr. G. G. E. Scudder.

In the near future the A.A.G. will ask
for donations from former students
and friends of Prof. Spencer.

At the annual meeting on 18

March, 1966, in Vernon, it was decided

to change the name of this publica-
tion from pies It
has long since ceased to be a true
proceedings in that presidential ad-
dresses and the. proceedings and
transactions at meetings were not re-
ported. Since contributions to the
publication are fully reviewed it is
fitting that this policy be recognized
by the change of name.

The next issue of the Journal will
go to press within four months from
the spring meeting, in accordance
with a motion passed at the meeting
of 18 March, 1966. Contributors are
asked to submit their manuscripts by
or before that time.

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumpBriaA, Vor. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

THE IMMATURE STAGES OF Cenocorixa bifida

33

(HUNG.) AND

C. expleta (UHLER) (HEMIPTERA: CORIXIDAE)

G. G. E. SCUDDER

Department of Zoology, University
of British Columbia, Vancouver

INTRODUCTION

In a study of the ecology and
physiology of Corixidae living ina
series of soda lakes in central British
Columbia, it was essential to identify
the larval instars of two species of
Cenocorixza, which often occur sym-
patrically. This was necessary in or-
der to work out the details of the life
cycle and be able to identify with
certainty, insects used in experi-
ments. This paper describes the im-
mature stages of these two species,
C. bifida (Hungerford) and C. exrpleta
(Uhler). Both species have been pre-
viously recorded from British Colum-
bia by Lansbury (1960).

MATERIALS and METHODS

The immature stages were obtain-
ed in two ways. Firstly, regular sam-
ples of larvae were obtained in field
collections. Secondly, eggs were ob-
tained from adult insects and reared.
Gravid females were taken from
White Lake and Long Lake in the
Cariboo region of central British Co-
lumbia in April 1966 and were trans-
ported to the laboratory in one gallon
Thermos jugs, half filled with water.
Insects were then placed in natural
lake water in plexiglass dishes with
vegetation and nylon netting for
them to cling to. At 20°C and under
natural light conditions, females laid
eggs within 48 hours. These eggs were
separated from the insects at fre-
quent intervals: this was to prevent
them being used as food by the fe-
males. Batches of eggs were placed
in finger bowls with the appropriate
water and kept at 20°C and under
natural light conditions. Larvae on
emergence were fed every other day
on young brine shrimp (Artemia sal-
ina (L.)) which were hatched sepa-

rately in the corresponding lake wat-
er. In this way, C. bifida was reared
to the adult instar and C. expleta
through the first three larval instars.

All drawings have been made with
a squared reticule eye-piece or Cam-
era Lucida, using both compound and
stereo-zoom microscopes. The spines
on the hind femora of larvae were
usually only clearly visibie when legs
were mounted in polyvinyl lactophe-
nol or other similar mountant and
viewed at magnifications over 150x.

The terminology and characters
utilized in the larval descriptions fol-
low Cobben & Pillot (1960). However,
I have interpreted the surfaces of the
legs differently. The surface of the
hind leg seen in dorsal view is mor-
phologically the posterior surface and
is so interpreted. Likewise the surface
seen ventrally is the anterior face,
the morphological ventral surface be-
ing the one towards the insect body
when it is at rest or swimming.

EGGS

To date it has not been possible to
distinguish between the eggs of the
two species. Both have top-shaped
eggs, with a very short stalked disc,
smooth chorion, height 0.78 mm. and
width 0.57 mm. The egg of C. bifida
is shown in Fig. 1, just before hatch-
ing. At eclosion, the apex of the
chorion splits into 6-8 wedges.

In the laboratory, C. expleta usu-
ally laid eggs on the walls of the con-
tainer, while C. bifida laid most eggs
on the vegetation or plastic screen.
In the field, C. expleta has been found
to lay eggs on rock boulders and
bifida on vegetation, often in the leaf
sheath of somewhat decayed sub-
merged grasses. However, this may
not be the only oviposition habit of
the two species.

34 JouRNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumMBrIA, Vou. 68 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

Fig. 1—Photograph of the egg of Cenocorixa bifida just before hatching.

LARVAE

(1) General description of Cenocorixa
larvae:

Rostrum with transverse furrows;
frons not greatly hirsute; eyes red.
Pala spatulate; middle legs with tar-
sus longer than tibia; hind tibia pos-
teriorly with a row of 7 moveable
spines. Metasternal xiphus short and
equilateral. Abdomen laterally mod-
erately convex; dorsal abdominal
scent gland and opening on tergum
III obsolete; scent glands and oStioles
on terga IV and V distinct, the osti-
oles paired; abdomen without distinct
colour pattern.

Latter instars with a dense hair
covering on mesonotum, but without
this reaching anterior margin (Fig.
6); hairs on median area of anterior
mesonotum short;. mesonotum with
hind margin covered with long hairs
only in middle, the lateral areas bare
and relatively broad. Metanotum
without long hair covering, but with
sparse short and slender setae; inner
margin of wing pads with line of

dense long hairs. Most instars with
a distinct comb on hind tibia distally
on posterior side.

(2) Separation of species
The following couplet will sepa-
rate the larvae of C. bifida from those
of C. expleta:
Pala with apical lower palmar
bristle situated on a distinct prom-
inence; terminal claw relatively
slender, hardly thicker than pre-
apical lower palmar bristle (Fig.
9) cg ge Cree OL

Pala with apical lower palmar
bristle situated on an indistinct
prominence; terminal claw dis-
tinctly thicker than preapical low-
er palmar bristle (Fig. 10) ne
C. expleta

With the above characters, it is
possible to separate the species in
each larval instar and in the adult.

(3) Key to larval instars

The following key will separate
the instars in both C. bifida and C.
expleta.

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtumMBIA, VoL. 63 (1966), Dro. 1, 1966 35

1. Meso and metanotum with cover-
ing of long hairs on at least part;
hind femur with tuft of long hairs
antero-ventrally and with 4 short
bristles dorsally; hind tibia with
row of dense swimming hairs pos-
PemOrlhy=s.. 2 -. =. 4

— Meso and metanotum without long
dense hair covering; hind femur
without tuft of long hairs antero-
ventrally, but with 5 long out-
standing setae dorsally; hind tibia
without row of dense swimming
hairs posteriorly, only a few scat-
tered hairs present. ..... 2.

2. Postero-lateral corners of meso-
notum curved distinctly caudad;
hind tibial comb with 2 spines;
hind tibia with 5-7 long hairs pos-
teriorly. second instar

—- Postero-lateral corners of meso-
notum not curved distinctly cau-
dad; hind tibial comb of a Single
spine; hind tibia with 2-3 long
hairs posteriorly. first instar

3. Hind tibial comb with 4 spines;
long hair covering on mid-line of
mesonotum not reaching posterior
margin; fore wing buds overlap-
ping less than half of the hind
wing buds; fore wing buds not
reaching base of abdomen. .. .

third instar

— Hind tibial comb with 6 or 8
spines; long hair covering on mid-
line of mesonotum reaching pos-
terior margin; fore wing buds
overlapping more than half of
hind wing buds; fore wing buds
reaching base of abdomen. . . 4.

4. Hind tibial comb with 6 spines;
wing buds not completely overlap-
ping but reaching second abdom-
inal segment; fore wing buds
reaching but not surpassing base
of abdomen. fourth instar

— Hind tibial comb with 8 spines;
wing buds completely overlapping
and reaching third abdominal seg-
ment; fore wing buds surpassing
base of abdomen. fifth instar

(4) Description of larvae of C. bifida

Table I summarizes the most im-
portant characters of the larvae of

C. bifida. The descriptions below omit
most of the characters of instars
found in the key. In the counts of
spines on the femur, all totais cited
omit the two apical spines found at
the apex on anterior and posterior
surfaces.

First INstTar (Figs. 2, 4, 11-12): pala
with 12 lower palmar bristles; fore
femur anteriorly with 4 spines; hind
femur with 5 long hairs dorsally, 4
short spines posteriorly and 3 short
spines anteriorly; hind tibia with 10
moveable spines dorsally.

SECOND INSTAR: pala with 14 lower
palmar bristles; fore femur anterior-
ly with 4-5 spines; hind femur with
09 long outstanding hairs and a slen-
der apical bristle dorsally, posteriorly
with 4-6 short spines and anteriorly
with 3-4 slender spines; hind tibia
with 10-11 moveable spines dorsally,
these all of Similar size.

THIRD INSTAR (Figs. 13-14): pala with
14-17 lower palmar bristles; fore fe-
mur with 6-8 spines anteriorly; hind
femur with 4 short bristles dorsally,
9-8 Short spines posteriorly and 4-5
short spines anteriorly; hind tibia
dorsally with 12-16 moveable spines,
the basal 1-4 shorter than rest.

FOURTH INSTAR: pala with 18-19 lower
palmar bristles; fore femur with 13-
14 spines anteriorly; hind femur with
4 short bristles dorsally, 7-11 shorvi
spines posteriorly and a row of 4-5
short spines anteriorly; hind femur
antero-ventrally with 4-5 short spines
at base of subapical tuft of hairs;
hind tibia dorsally with 14-16 move-
able spines, the basal 2-4 shorter than
rest and often paired.

FIFTH INSTAR (Figs. 7, 15-16): pala
with 18-20 lower palmar bristles; fore
femur with 16-22 spines anteriorly;
hind femur with 4 short bristles dor-
sally, 12-26 posteriorly and 3-7 ante-
riorly; hind femur antero-ventrally
with 4-7 short spines at base of sub-
apical tuft of hairs; hind tibia dorsal-
ly with 15-19 moveable spines, the
basal 3-5 being shorter than rest and
usually paired.

~
,
d

36 JOURNAL Enromot. Soc. Brir. Cotumria, Vo. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

/ J ie,

7

nt

i

Figs 2-10—2, First instar larva C. bifida; 3, First instar larva C. expleta; 4, Anterior
view of pala of first instar C. bifida; 5, Anterior view of pala of first instar C. expleta;
6, Dorsal view of meso and metanotum of fifth instar C. bifida; 7, Posterior view of
pala of fifth instar C. bifida; 8, Posterior view of pala of fifth instar C. expleta; 9, An-
terior view of apex of pals of fourth instar C. bifida; 10, Anterior view of apex of pala

of fourth instar C. expleta. [Drawings not to same scale.]

JouRNAL Entomot. Soc. Brrr. CoLumMBIA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

17

18

19

20

pa ‘al
i]
AY Ward

yy

15 2|

Figs. 11 -22—Hind femur of larval instars. 11-16, C. bifida; 17-22, C. expleta: odd
numbers posterior view, even numbers anterior view. 11-12, First instar C. bifida;
13-14, Third instar C. bifida; 15-16, Fifth instar C. bifida. 17-18, First instar C.

expleta; 19-20, Third instar C. expleta; 21-22, Third instar C. expleta.
[Drawings not to same scale. ]

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JourNAL Entomot. Soc. Brit. CorumBiA, Vor. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 39

(5) Descriptions of larvae of C. ex-
pleta

The descriptions below follow the
plan used for C. bifida above. Table I
summarizes the main taxonomic
characters.

First INstTar (Figs. 3, 5, 17-18): pala
with 10-11 lower palmar bristles; fore
femur with 4 spines anteriorly; hind
femur with 6 long hairs dorsally, 4
short spines posteriorly and 3 slender
spines anteriorly; hind tibia dorsally
with 10 moveable spines.

SECOND INSTAR: pala with 11 lower
palmar bristles; fore femur with 4
spines anteriorly; hind femur with 5
long outstanding hairs and a pre-
apical bristle dorsally, 5 short spines
posteriorly and 5 short spines ante-
riorly; hind tibia dorsally with 12
moveable spines.

THIRD INSTAR (Figs. 19-20): pala with
11-12 lower palmar bristles; fore fe-
mur with 4-6 spines anteriorly; hind
femur with 4 short bristles dorsally,
4-5 short spines posteriorly, 3-5 short
spines anteriorly; hind tibia with 13-
14 moveable spines dorsally, the basal
3 shorter than rest.

FourtTH INstTarR: pala with 11-12 lower
palmar bristles; fore femur with 9-13
spines anteriorly; hind femur with 4
Short bristles dorsally, 3-6 short
spines posteriorly and 3-4 short spines
anteriorly; hind femur antero-ven-
trally with 3-6 short spines at base
of subapical tuft of hairs; hind tibia
with 14-17 moveable spines dorsally,
the basal 3-5 shorter than rest.
FirTH Instar (Figs. 8, 21-22): pala
with 11-12 lower palmar bristles; fore
femur with 14-27 spines anteriorly;
hind femur with 4 short bristles dor-
sally, 4-6 short spines posteriorly and
2-4 short spines anteriorly; hind fe-
mur antero-ventrally with 3-7 short
Spines at base of subapical tuft of
hairs; hind tibia dorsally with 15-17
moveable spines, the basal 4-5 shorter
than rest and often paired.

(6) Duration of immature stages.
The duration of the embryonic

development of C. bifida from White

Lake has been determined for eggs

Table Il—Duration of larval instars of
Cenocorixa bifida in White Lake water, at
20°C and fed every other day on Artemia
salina.

Duration
days

Instar
First 4-5
Second 4-5
Third 4-5
Fourth 3-7
Fifth 6-9
1

Total Zoe

laid in White Lake water and at tem-
peratures of 10°C and 20°C. The dura-
tion of the larval instars at 20°C has
also been measured (Table II).

At 20°C the eggs took 7-9 days to
hatch, while at 10°C they took 44-46
days to hatch. The larval period at
20°C took 23-31 days.

DISCUSSION

Hungerford (1948) has given a
figure (p.13) of the various shapes of
eggs in the Corixidae. Both the shape
of the egg and the mode of attach-
ment to the substrate is variable.
While in the Micronectinae the eggs
are elongate and attached longitud-
inally to the substrate without a spe-
cial attachment disc, those of the Co-
rixinae are characteristically top -
shaped with a button-like attachment

disc, borne at the end of a Stalk of
varying length. The chorion is also
variable in surface texture, being
smooth or with surface projections.
The eggs of Cenocoriza are thus typ-
ical of the subfamily Corixinae.

Cobben & Pillot (1960) have con-
Sidered the characteristics of impor-
tance in the identification of the fifth
instar larvae of Micronecta, Cymatia,
Corixa, Hesperocorixa, Glaenocoriza,
Sigara, Arctocorixa and Callicorizxa.
I can find no description of the lar-
vae of Cenocorizxa in the present lit-
erature. It is evident that the latter
instars of Cenocorixa are very Similar
to those of the genera Sigara, Arcto-
corixa and Callicorixa in the pubes-
cence on the mesonotum.

40 JouRNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumBiA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

The character of the apical spine
of the pala and the prominence at
the base of the apical lower palmar
bristle serves to separate larvae of
C. bifida from those of C. expleta. The
larval instars are also easy to key out
in each species.

The study of Cenocoriza suggests
that it should be possible to key out
the last three larval instars of most
Corixid species, since the characters
of the fifth instar are usually also
found in the third and fourth instar.
However, the first two instars lack
many of these essential characters,
and may prove extremely difficult to
identify when a mixture of species
occur together.

The great transformation between
the second and third instar larvae in
Cenocorixa, also occurs in other Co-
rixidae, for example Palmocorizxa
buenoi Abbott (Hungerford, 1919).
Not only does this involve the exter-
nal characters cited, but there is also
great changes in the internal anat-
omy at this time.

The duration of the immature—
stages in C. bifida at 20°C and fed on
Artemia salina every other day, is 23-
31 days. Since it is possible to length-
en the egg from 7-9 days at 20°C to
44-46 days at 10°C, it seems likely
that the larval instars would also take
much longer to develop at lower tem-
peratures, and so the life cycle at dif-
ferent times of year would not occupy
the same developmental time period.
Griffith (1944) reports 35 days as the
developmental time for Ramphocoriza
acuminata (Uhler) and 36 days for
Corisella edulis (Champion), but
notes a great variation in rearing ex-
periments. These differences could
have been due to different feeding
rates and/or different temperatures:
no temperature data are given in the

paper.

Acknowledgements
This research was carried out while
in receipt of grants from the National Re-
search Council of Canada and the Univer-
sity of British Columbia.

References

Cobben, R. H., and Pillot, H. M., 1960. The larvae of Corixidae and an attempt to key
the last larval instar of the Dutch species (Hem., Heteroptera). Hydrobiologia

16:323-356.

Griffith, M. E., 1945. The environment, life history and structure of the water boat-
man, Ramphocorixa acuminata (Uhler) (Hemiptera, Corixidae). Univ. Kansas

Sci. Bull. 30:241-365.

Hungerford, H. B., 1919. The biology and ecology of aquatic and semiaquatic Hemip-

tera, Ibid. 11:1-328.

Hungerford, H. B., 1948. The Corixidae of the Western Hemisphere (Hemiptera). Ibid.
32:5-827.

Lansbury, I., 1960. The Corixidae (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) of British Columbia. Proc.

Ent. Soc. B.C. 57:34-43.

A BRITISH COLUMBIA RECORD FOR Xenos peckii KIRBY

A male Polistes fuscatus variatus
Cresson parasitized by Xenos peckii
Kirby was among various wasps col-
lected August 5, 1947 after they had
settled for the night on mullein, Ver-
bascum thapsus L., 2 miles south of
Vernon, B.C. The parasitized wasp
had two male strepsipteran pupae
protruding from its abdomen, one lat-
erally from between the 5th and 6th
terga, the other ventrally from be-

tween the sterna of the same seg-
ments. The wasp and the parasites
were identified in 1958 by Dr. R..M.
Bohart, University of California,
Davis, Calif. One of the parasites is
in the collection of the University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.

HuGH B. LEECH,
Calif. Academy of Sciences,
San Francisco, Calif.

41

JouRNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brir. CotumMBIA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

42 JouRNAL Enromor. Soc. Brrr. Cotumsta, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

tn JVemoriam

GEORGE JOHNSTON SPENCER
Jan. 16, 1888; July 24, 1966

This valiant soldier, this scholar,
this leader and inspirer of men who
became a legend in his own time, ever
ready for a jest, mocked at his own
infirmity even as death beckoned.

Defying the inevitable, he continued
his scholarly work so that posterity
might be richer for his having come
this way. It is with deep regret that
we record his passing.

Professor Spencer was born in
Scuth India January 16, 1888. After
receiving his early education in Ban-
galore, he attended the Regent Street
Polytechnic Institute in London, and
the University of Mancnester. Com-
ing to Canada in 1908 he obtained the
B.S.A. degree from the Ontario Agri-
cultural College in 1914. As an officer
with the Canadian Expeditionary
Force in World War I he was cited for
valour. Returning to studies, he ob-
tained the M.S. degree from the Uni-
versity of Illinois in 1924. The same
year he was appointed to the faculty
of the University of British Columbia
where he taught general zoology, his-
tology and entomology until his re-
tirement in 1956. Reappointed as a
special lecturer in 1957 he gradually
phased out his teaching duties while
devoting more time to research and
professional consulting.

Professor Spencer was renowned
as a teacher who infused his students
with some of his own special kind of
enthusiasm. His lectures were mem-
orable for his vivid word pictures, his
dramatization with pantomime and
his amusing allegories. His. well-
judged humour occasionally burst
forth in startling contrast to his
quiet, though audible, delivery. Testi-
mony of his inspiration to disciples is
to be found in the success achieved
by numerous former students.

As a public lecturer he was always
in popular demand. With an appear-
ance and manner which at once com-

manded attention and respect, he
gradually brought listeners to the
edge of their seats, waiting for the
next revelation of the wonders of na-
ture or the next rib-tickling Spencer-
ism.

As a scientist he directed much of
his energy to assembling a represen-
tative collection of the insect fauna
of British Columbia. In recognition
of this work he was honoured by his
former students who sponsored the
equipping of a room to be Known as
the Spencer Entomological Museum.

On the basis of many years of re-
search among the sun-drenched hills
of Kamloops, Professor Spencer pub-
lished a Significant work on ecology
of grasshoppers. He devoted much
time to the study of external parasites
of birds and mammals of British Co-
lumbia. Publication of his main
works, interrupted by his death, will
be brought to completion for him by
Dr. G. G. E. Scudder. He contributed
many papers on diverse insect pests
of man, of man’s clothing, his dwell-
ings, and his domestic pets. He was
also knowledgeable on “mental insect
attacks,” a condition otherwise known
as entomophobia.

Professor. Spencer was, in the
words of Dr. H. R. MacCarthy, “a
source of strength to the (Entomo-
logical) Society (of B.C.), and one of
its most ardent supporters. His col-
ourful presentation of papers was a
highlight of the annual meeting.”
His eminence was recognized by his
being invited as the keynote speaker
at the Centennial celebrations in Ot-
tawa in 1963. The British Columbia
and Canadian Entomological Societies
awarded him honourary membership,
and the American Society bestowed a
Fellowship on him.

With skill, patience, tact and good
humour, he served the public with
his counselling on insect problems.
Most of his service was gratis, aS he
dealt with all manner of problems,
both real and imaginary, brought to
him by all manner of people from the
most humble to the most haughty,

JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotuMBIA, VoL. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 43

and from the unwashed to the over-
scrubbed.

He was a kindly, generous-hearted
man who liked people, adored chil-
dren and was fond of animals. He
was a devoted husband to his wife
Alice, loving father to his daughter
Ann, and proud grandfather to his
three grandchildren, and all respond-

ed with warm affection. Throughout
his hours of greatest trial, Mrs. Spen-
cer remained steadfastly and reassur-
ingly by his Side.

Professor Spencer will long be re-
membered.

K. GRAHAM
October 11, 1966

GEORGE AUSTIN HARDY
(1888-1966)

The all-round naturalist of a gen-
eration ago was a very special type
of person. He was one who was well-
versed in all phases of the out-of-
doors and at the same time was an
authority in one or two special fields.
He could name almost every tree,
shrub or flower in the area that he
roamed and could identify every bird
and insect that came to notice. At
the same time he could interpret the
patterns of life that flowed by in
terms of rocks, soil and climate that
made up the physical world around
him.

Such a person was George Austin
Hardy. Stimulated by direct contact
with a countryside rich in living
things he developed a Keen interest
in nature as a youth in the Glasgow
area where he was brought up. In
those days, more than 60 years ago,
formal training in natural science
was not easy to come by but this lack
was Offset by living in an area rela-
tively unspoiled by settlement and by
association with naturalists who were
willing to offer help and encourage-
ment.

After receiving some training as a
taxidermist and having taken some
courses in biology at Glasgow Tech-
nical School Hardy emigrated to Can-
ada where he maintained his interest
in natural history while homestead-
ing in Alberta. In time he returned
to Britain and worked for a period
as a taxidermist, first in London and
then at the Essex Museum. But Can-
ada still had an appeal so he returned
to the old homestead in Alberta where
he made extensive collections of
plants, birds and mammals for the

Essex Museum.

Eventually he moved to the Coast
and after trying his hand at several
jobs he joined the staff of the Provin-
cial Museum in 1924 as Assistant Bi-
ologist, a post he occupied for 4 years.
After an interlude spent partly in
Alberta and partly on Vancouver Is-
land he rejoined the Museum staff in
1941 as Botanist. There followed his
most productive period until his re-
tirement in 1953.

No matter where he was located
George was fascinated by the whole
gamut of nature. The plant associa-
tion characteristic of the various bi-
otic areas of the province were a con-
stant source of delight and a topic of
study, and the communities of living
creatures along the sea-shore regu-
larly intrigued him.

He was particularly interested in
insects and a great part of his life
was devoted to their study. For many
years he assiduously collected and
worked over the Cerambycidae of the
province and eventually became an
authority on this particular group of
wood-boring beetles. They remained
his first love and continued to inter-
est him through the years.

While most of his time at the
Museum was taken up with herbar-
ium work he also took care of the
entomological needs of the institution
and devoted most of his spare time to
collecting and studying insects around
his home in Saanich.

Field work in various parts of the
province gave him opportunity to
widen his scope and his lanky frame
clad in short pants and armed with
a butterfly net and a vasculum star-

44 JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumBraA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

tled the natives in many out-of-the-
way places.

As the possibility of making new
discoveries among the wood-borers
lessened he became engrossed with
Studying the life histories of our less
well-known moths and over the years
he produced a Series of papers on
these insects, particularly during his
retirement period.

To further these studies he became
expert in photographing his subjects.
A fine lot of colour pictures and a
most extensive collection of exquisite-
ly mounted insects, now in the Mu-
seum collection, attest his skill and
patience.

Naturally a shy man he tended to
avoid meetings and other social gath-
erings but he became a faithful mem-

ber of the Victoria Natural History
Society and served as President from
1949 to 1950. He was elected an Hon-
orary Life Member in 1961.

During his time he published more
than 80 articles, reports, scientific
papers or popular accounts dealing
with a great variety of topics. Fore-
most among his subjects were insects
and many of his life history accounts
have appeared in the Proceedings of
the Entomological Society of British
Columbia. Much of his popular writ-
ing had to do with fungi and native
plants and his last publication, co-
authored with his wife, Winifred, fea-
tured wild-flowers of the Pacific
Northwest, a part of the world he
Knew So well.

—-G. CLIFFORD CARL.

oe P
o Fes

JoURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. Coi.umpraA, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966 45

EDMUND PETER VENABLES
(1881-1966)

At the age of 85, Peter Venables
died in the Vernon Jubilee Hospital
on 19th October, 1966. He was one of
the founders of this society.

Born in Hampshire, England, in
1881, he moved with his family to
Manitoba at the age of four. Here
they homesteaded but after a few
years moved back to England where
Peter received a sound education at
Hurstpierpoint, near Brighton. At the
age of 13 Peter and his family again
came to Canada, this time to Cold-
stream. An adventurous youth in-
cluded explorations in the Cariboo
and service as a naturalist in Colom-
bia, South America.

He was 33 when World War I
broke out. He joined the London
Yeomanry, was wounded at Gallipoli
and also served in Egypt. In 1918 he

was invalided out of the army, and
he married in 1919. In 1920 he was
hired as an entomologist by the fed-
eral Department of Agriculture, work-
ing out of the Vernon Court House.
For 27 years he served the fruit-grow-
ers of the Okanagan Valley, retiring
in 1946, to continue living in Vernon.

Peter always had wide and varied
interests, the best-known of which
was writing poetry. His verses were
never unkind and were usually witty.
He was made an honorary life mem-
ber of this society in 1960, and retain-
ed an interest in natural history and
things entomological to the last. He
leaves his widow in Vernon, and a
son, Rev. A. P. Venables, in Derby-
shire, England.

—D, A. Ross.

46 JOURNAL ENTOMOL. Soc. Brir. Cotumprtia, Vou. 63 (1966), Dec. 1, 1966

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Since this society no longer has
any support except from subscriptions
it has become necessary to institute
a page charge. This has initially been
set at. cost: $12.00. In other respecis
policies remain parallel with those of
the Canadian Entomological Society.

The page charge includes all extras
except coloured illustrations, provid-
ed that such extras do not comprise
more than 40% of the published
pages. Coloured illustrations will be
charged: directly’to the author, Au-
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Official institutions, who must pay
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Reprints are sold only in even hun-
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though preferable, that authors be
members of the society. The chief
condition for publication is that the
paper have some regional origin, in-
terest, or application.
Contributions should be sent to:
H. R. MacCarthy,
6660 N.W. Marine Drive,
Vancouver 8, B.C.

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The style, abbreviations and cita-
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Stes.

rae

ee

JOURNAL

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL
SOCIETY of

DSEN and WILLIAMS—The performance, phytotoxicity and persistence
of three petroleum oils for control of the pear psylla. ............

NOTT and BERGIS—Note on damage to grasses in the Peace River
region by the spittlebug, Philaronia bileneata Say, (Cercopidae:

RIS oe WOOD—The European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana
Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae), another introduced forest pest ........

NHAM and FINLAYSON—Resistance to organochlorine insecticides in the
tuber ate beetle, Epitrix tuberis Gent. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), in British
RES ON ay REA DS PS a ae aie ee ete neem

Wood- and bark-feeding Coleoptera of felled western larch in British
Pe anbis re a ee i

© The western larch borer, Tetropium velutinum Leconte, in Interior British
edie ET EEG RSS SST as BAIS ISSEY Pee ie il a ie Re es

KINSON and MacCARTHY—The marsh crane fly, Tipula paludosa Mg., a
ne y pest in British Columbia (Diptera:Tipulidae) .............
LLEN and JONG—New records and discussions of predators of
pear psylla, Psylla pyricola Forster, in British Columbia .........
1N—Cone insects of grand fir, Abies grandis (Douglas) Lindley,

ISH and SCUDDER—The Polymorphism in Philaenus spumarius (L.)
on emiptera: Percenmae) moritisn Columbia. 6 2 we ek.

J)LT—Moisture and fat content during the adult life of the Am-
sia beetle, Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.). ...........20.64.

enetic moth, in British Columbia (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) .......
IS—Distribution and hosts of some horntails (Siricidae) in British Co-

Re Oi NOR ies CR e ks wena | aye Oar el Le Dewalt ole Se) eal Tee Caen d Gh en he) el ee ete eR hel ser ue

This copy of the Journal of the Entomological Society
of British Columbia comes to you as a Centennial project of
the Society, and by courtesy of the editor of the Canadian
Entomologist.

The Journal was published for 62 years as the Pro-
ceedings of the Entomological Society of British Columbia. It
has long since ceased to be a true proceedings in that presi-
dential addresses, and the proceedings and transactions of the
Society were not reported. Contributions are reviewed before
publication so that it was fitting that the policy be recog-
“nized by the change of name in 1966.

Memberships and subscriptions are invited. An appli-
cation form will be found on page 69 of the Journal.

JOURNAL

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL
SOCIETY of
BRITISH COLUMBIA

Vol. 64. Issued August 1, 1967

MADSEN and WILLIAMS—The performance, phytotoxicity and persistence
of three petroleum oils for control of the pear psylla. ..........2.. 3

ARNOTT and BERGIS—Note on damage to grasses in the Peace River
region by the spittlebug, Philaronia bileneata Say, (Cercopidae:

lemiptera)!. !<isu 5 4. ee 8 ee eee a ee 8
DOWNING—Petroleum oils in orchard mite control. .......2..2.2.2.. 10
HARRIS and WOOD—The European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana

(Lepidoptera:Olethreutidae), another introduced forest pest ........ 14

BANHAM and FINLAYSON— Resistance to organochlorine insecticides in the
tuber flea beetle, Epitrix tuberis Gent. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), in British

Columblavet ss oe Oe kc, ca Gs es es oi ons oe a. te ee To oe 17
ROSS—Wood- and bark-feeding Coleoptera of felled western larch in British
Colman laa recs ee LST ee als wee bede, ts & BMG an nh Ae oe, Ce 23
ROSS—The western larch borer, Tetropium velutinum Leconte, in Interior British
Wolimbiatian eens woes Pee oe ee Ae Coe A 25
WILKINSON and MacCARTHY—The marsh crane fly, Tipula paludosa Mg., a
new pest in British Columbia (Diptera:Tipulidae) ...........2.. 29
McMULLEN and JONG—New records and discussions of predators of
the pear psylla, Psylla pyricola Forster, in British Columbia. ........ 35
HEDLIN—Cone insects of grand fir, Abies grandis (Douglas) Lindley,
imBritish Columbia’... ts. oe wath, Go we a ee en a ee 40
FARRISH and SCUDDER—The Polymorphism in Philaenus spumarius (L.)
(Hemiptera: Cercopidae) in British Columbia. ............... 45
NIJHOLT—Moisture and fat content during the adult life of the Am-
brosia beetle, Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.). . ee ee 51
LEECH and SUGDEN-—Solenobia triquetrella Hubner, a flightless parthe-
nogenetic moth, in British Columbia (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) ....... 56
MORRIS— Distribution and hosts of some horntails (Siricidae) in British Co-
RUM Ame hye sre eye ey ON eae A Wee Loe heey aeeed regen eee 60
DOIDGE—Note on a spruce bark weevil, Pissodes alascensis Hopkins
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in British Columbia. ..........2... 63
SOMONCEONODE: &. be vd Jae ana ta bes ae ee he Dee Se ts 13
Oe OG UEON UE Wil inc Reet io Boe Ww GS ee RE we ee Re Pe Se we 66
MiasrIvic CONVERSION 2. 2.4.0 265 ee ee Se ee pH ee eee eS 67
MOM O'CONTRIBUTORS. 25 2 «6 6% «2 ee ew Re ee Bee 68

IN

J. Exromon. Soc. Brrr. Conumnpra, 64 (1967), Auc. 1, 1967

DIRECTORS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA FOR 1967-1968

President

F. L. BANHAM

Research Station, Canada Agriculture,
Summerland

President-Elect

H. MADSEN

Research Station, Canada Agriculture,
Summerland

Past-President

G. G. E. SCUDDER

Dept. of Zoology, University of B.C.,
Vancouver 8

Secretary-Treasurer

M. D. ATKINS

Forest Research Laboratory,
506 West Burnside Road,
Victoria

Honorary Auditor

PETER ZUK

Research Station, 6660 N.W. Marine Dr.,
Vancouver 8

Editorial Committee

H. R. MacCartHy, Chairman K. GRAHAM
C. V. G. MORGAN D. A. Ross
Directors
K. GRAHAM, Vancouver C. L. NEILSON, Victoria
W. T. CraAM, Vancouver A. F. HEDLIN, Victoria

G. B. RicH, Kamloops

a
a
;

J. Exromor. Soc. Brir. Cotumnra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967 3

THE PERFORMANCE, PHYTOTOXICITY AND
PERSISTENCE OF THREE PETROLEUM OILS FOR
CONTROL OF THE PEAR PSYLLA‘*

HAROLD F.. MADSEN and K. WILLIAMS

ABSTRACT

Good control of the pear psylla, Psylla pyricola Foerster, was ob-
tained with two of three petroleum oils tested under field conditions. Each
oil was applied three times during the season, once in the delayed dormant
stage and twice in the summer. Oil B (vis. 145 S.S.U.) and oil C (vis. 70
S.S.U.) provided seasonal control. Oil A (vis. 71.7 S.S.U.) did not give satis-
factory control because of poor kill of pear psylla adults.

All three oils caused enlargement and suberization of the bark lenti-
cels on Bartlett pear trees. There was no significant injury’ to foliage. Oil
treated fruit was equal in quality to fruit from a standard treatment.

The three oils persisted upon foliage for more than 35 days after

treatment.

Oils A and B showed no loss from the initial deposit. Oil C

had a higher initial deposit but this deposit declined 36 per cent after

8 days.

INTRODUCTION

The resurgence of interest in the
use of petroleum oil for control of the
pear psylla, Psylla pyricola Foerster,
is partly due to the problem of resist-
ance and partly to the possibility that
Oils may fit into an integrated con-
trol program. Smith (1965) in New
York has shown that oils are promis-
ing for early season control of the
pear psylla. The complexities in
evaluating oils because of phytotoxic-
ity and the wide range of oil specifi-
cations have been indicated by
Howitt and Pshea (1965).

Studies in British Columbia by
Madsen and Williams (1967) showed
that an oil of 145 viscosity gave better
control of the pear psylla with less
phytotoxicity than oils of 60 viscos-
ity. The 60-viscosity oils did not per-
Sist upon foliage—a desirable pro-
perty—but the lack of adequate con-
trol precluded further evaluation of
Oils of this viscosity. In 1966 an oil of
70 viscosity, one of 71.7, and the 145-
viscosity oil mentioned above were
evaluated for pear psylla control,
phytotoxicity and persistence on pear
foliage.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
The properties of the three oils

1 Psylla pyricola Foerster (Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

2 Contribution No. 209, Research Station, Re-
Search Branch, Canada Department of Agricul-
ture, Summerland, British Columbia.

are shown in Table 1. Experimental
plots were located in a mature Bart-
lett pear orchard near Kelowna, B.C.,
Which had a high overwintering
population of pear psylla. Each plot
consisted of 32 trees in a 4x8 block
with two replications per treatment.
The oils were used in a 3-spray pro-
gram, one at the delayed dormant
stage of tree development (21 Mar.)
and two during the summer (6 June
and 13 July). All treatments were
made with a concentrate sprayer set
to deliver 60 gal3 of spray mixture per
acre. The oils were used at a dosage
of 5 gal of formulated oil per acre4.
Perthane, [1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-
ethylphenyl) ethane], at a dosage of
1 gal of 4.5 E.C. in the delayed dor-
mant period and 2 gal of 4.5 E.C. in
each of the two summer sprays was
applied as a standard treatment.
Control was evaluated by counts
of pear psylla adults and nymphs at
approximately biweekly intervals.
Adults were sampled by limb beats
with an 18x18 inch5 tray held be-
neath the branch. Each sample con-
sisted of two limb beats per tree. The
12 center trees in each plot were
sampled. Nymphs were counted on
100 leaf samples, 50 from senescent
leaves and 50 from new growth. An

> 3 Imp. gallon — 4.55 1
4 Acre -— 0.405 ha

s Inch -— 2.54 em

4 J. HWromot..

Soc,

Brir. Co1umrra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

TABLE 1.—Specifications of the petroleum oils evaluated for pear psylla control.

Specifications
eee (S.S.U. at 100°F)

© distillation temperature at 10 mm Hg eee ss

Ba enten to 760 mm Hg |

10-90% distillation range at 10 mm 1 He
Average molecular weight
Unsulfonated residue

1 Orchex 796—Humble Oil Company.

Oil Al Oil B2 Oil C3
71.7 145 10
443 490 425
720 774 699
72 107 95
329 385 320
I ere ae 96.3 94 92

2 Volek Supreme—Chevron Chemical Company.
3 Pennsalt Superior—Pennsalt Chemicals Corporation.

untreated check plot was maintained
until 6 June. At that time it was nec-
essary to spray the untreated trees
with Perthane to prevent excessive
damage to the leaves and fruit.

Oil deposits were analyzed by a
modified gravimetric method first
described by Pearce, Avens and Chap-
man (1941). Leaf samples consisted
of 50 leaves per tree picked at random
from five -trees in each plot.

Phytotoxicity was determined by
field observation of the treated trees.
At harvest four boxes each of oil-
sprayed pears and pears from the
standard treatment of Perthane were
picked and placed in standard cold
storage. The pears were removed after
two months’ storage and evaluated
for quality.

RESULTS
PEAR PSYLLA CONTROL

Adult and nymphal counts (Fig. 1)
show that Perthane gave adequate
control of the pear psylla. It was not
necessary to apply a second summer
spray on 13. July but by 1 Aug. the
infestation had increased--to: a ievel
that required a second summer spray.
Oils B and C gave good control, with
oil C being slightly better than oil B.
Oi] A gave poor control and a Per-
thane spray was applied 13 July to
prevent excessive injury to foliage
and fruit.

The performance of these oils can
be explained by their relative effec-
tiveness against adult pear psylla
since they all gave good control of the
nymphal stages. It has been shown
by several investigators (Smith 1965,
Madsen and Williams 1967) that oil

has no residual effect against pear
psylla adults, nymphs or eggs, but
that residual oil deposits on bark
deter egg laying. In the trials at Kel-
owna oil deposits on leaves did not
deter egg laying and the degree of
reinfestation depended upon _ the
number of surviving adults. The nym-
phal population in the oil A plot in-
creased rapidly and required retreat-
ment 3 to 4 weeks after the summer
oil spray was applied.

The decline in adult populations in
both treated and check plots from 30
Mar. to 18 May was due to natural
mortality of the overwintered adults.
The rapid rise in adults after 18 May
reflected the appearance of the first
generation of summer adults. The
nymph counts on the check trees were
not included in Fig. 1. The counts on
these trees were 1655 nymphs per 100
leaves on 18 May and 2160 per 100
leaves on 6 June.

PHY TOTOXICITY

The oil-sprayed trees were exam-
ined at frequent intervals for injury.
There was little leaf injury although
some spotting occurred on ~suckey
growth in the tree centers. The grow-
er applied a nutrient spray contain-
ing iron, zinc, manganese and mag-
nesium a week after the first summer
spray of oil. This treatment caused a
general leaf spotting throughout the
orchard and the injury was more ap-
parent on the oil-sprayed foliage. By
harvest, bark injury of equal inten-
sity was noticeable on all trees spray-
ed with oil (Fig. 2). Bank Tentieels
were enlarged and suberized on the
current year’s growth and on 1- and
2-year-old wood. The damage is

J. Exromon. Soc. Brrr. Conumera. 64 (1967), Avc. 1, 1967

NYMPHS PER 100 LEAVES

ADULT PSYLLA PER 24 BEATS

16 18 6 | 13 28 1] i 19 1 16 26
vf

APRIL MAY- JUNE JUL AUG
SPRAY SPRAY
600
(6) k |
500 is ; |
| \
fo |
I- \
400 at | » °

300 | \ ape iee
Pek ee Nd Se
a lf : \ i ING, DUG we eeeact ae ANE

a i / \ = = GHECK

100

° -

~—ieose

10 30 16 18 6 28 a ]
gas APRIL MAY vee JULY AUG
SPRAY SPRAY SPRAY

Figure 1.—Pear psylla control with oils—1966.

6 J. Exromor. Soc. Brrr. Conumpra, 64 (1967), Aua. 1, 1967

TABLE 2.—Initial deposit and persistence of oils upon pear leaves
(micrograms per cm?)

Oils 0 day
Oi Bea | ee re ANN Aides Laboee Bee Ue aes 58
Oil C3 84

1 Orchex 796—Humble Oil Company.

8 days 15 days 22 days 35 days
51 50 45 51
61 56 45 66
54 41 41 49

2 Volek Supreme—Chevron Chemical Company.
3 Pennsalt Superior—Pennsalt Chemicals Corporation.

superficially similar to that caused by
ege deposition of the buffalo tree
hopper. It is not known when this in-
jury occurs, but the presence of en-
larged lenticels on the current sea-
son’s growth indicates that summer
sprays are involved. The fruit from
the oil-sprayed and Perthane-treated
trees waS removed from cold storage
on 24 Nov. and examined after being
held for eight days at 21.1°C. There
was no difference in appearance,
ripening, eating quality and condition
between the two lots of fruit. Reyneke
and Pearse (1945) found that pears
dipped in an oil emulsion showed re-
duced respiratory activity. This re-
sulted in better keeping qualities in
storage and an increased juice con-
tent.

PERSISTENCE

The analytical data on oil deposits
and persistence upon pear leaves are
shown in Table 2. Oils A and B show-
ed no dissipation up to 35 days after
treatment. Oil C gave a higher initial
deposit than either of the other oils
and the deposit was reduced by 36%
within eight days. After this early
loss, there was no further dissipation
of oil C. These data are in agreement
with the work of Fiori, Smith and
Chapman (1963). They showed in
laboratory tests that there was no
volatilization of oils with an average
molecular weight of 300 or above. All
three of the test oils fall within this
category. The high initial deposit ob-
tained with oil C may be due to the
type and amount of emulsifier in the
formulation. It has been shown by
Marshall (1958) that surfactants will
often increase the deposit of spray
materials in a concentrate applica-
tion.

It has been mentioned previously
that persistence of oil upon foliage
is not a desirable attribute. The pres-
ence of oils upon leaves has caused
phytotoxic problems when other pes-
ticides are applied after an oil spray
(Madsen 1964).

DISCUSSION

These data indicate that certain
petroleum oils can provide control of
the pear psylla in British Columbia
orchards. One weakness of oils is
their complete lack of residual action.
Unless a high initial adult kill can be
obtained, reinfestation will nullify
good control of the nymphal stages.
The difference in control of adults
obtained from oil A compared to oils
B and C is difficult to explain. Studies
in 1965 by Madsen and Williams
(1967) had indicated that oils of 60
viscosity were poor against adult pear
psylla. Smith (1965) in New York did
not find that oils in the range of 60

viscosity gave poor control. Since oils

A and C have similar properties and
are both paraffinic in origin, there
must be other factors which account
for differences in control. One pos-
sibility is the wetting properties of
the formulated oils. Oil C contained a
higher percentage of emulsifier than
A and the latter oil may not have
wetted the adults sufficiently to ob-
tain control. This point will be inves-
tigated further.

Although there was no adverse
effect of the oils on fruit or foliage,
the enlargement of bark lenticels is
of concern. The long-term effect of
this symptom on growth and fruit
production needs to be determined,
and studies to ascertain if altering
the time of treatment will reduce or
prevent injury are underway.

~]

J. Exromon. Soc. Brrr. Conumnbra, 64 (1967), Ata. 1, 1967

Figure 2.—Oil-treated Bartlett pear twig (upper) compared to a Perthane-treated
twig (lower).

8 J. Entomor. Soc. Brir. Conumpra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

When this study was initiated, it
was hoped that oils could be found
that would control the pest and dis-
sipate rapidly from treated surfaces.
Thus far, all the oils which have
given good pear psylla control have
been persistent upon pear leaves. Al-
though petroleum oils have draw-
backs they do offer promise as a
means of control if resistance devel-

ops to the insecticides currently -

recommended.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank G. A. War-
dle. Technician 2, Entomology Laboratory,
Research Station, Summerland, for assist-
ance in oil deposit determinations. Appre-
ciation is also extended to S. W. Porritt,
Pomology Section of the same Station, for
conducting the quality studies on fruit.

Literature Cited

Fiori, B. J., E. H. Smith, and P. J. Chapman, 1963. Some factors influencing the ovicidal
effectiveness of saturated petroleum oils and synthetic isoparaffins. J. Econ.

Entomol. 56:885-888.

Howitt, Angus J., and A. Pshea. 1965. Use of commercial and experimental naphthenic
and paraffinic petroleum oils in Michigan. Quart. Bull. Mich. Agr. Sta. 47:654-

666.

Madsen, Harold F. 1964. Compatibility problems on apples, emulsifiable concentrate
formulations and oils. Wash. State Hort. Ass. Proc, 60:65-66.

Madsen, Harold F., and K. Williams.
oil-insecticide combinations.
Marshall, James.
Publ. 1020:1-47.

1967. Control of the pear psylla with oils and
J. Econ. Entomol. 60:121-124.
1958. Concentrate spraying in deciduous orchards,

Can. Dep. Agr.

Pearce, G. W., A. W. Avens, and P. J. Chapman. 1941. Determination of amount of oil
deposited on apple bark in dormant spraying. J. Econ. Entomol, 34:202-206.

Reyneke, John, and Harold L. Pearse. 1945. The relationship between respiration and
physical condition of fruit as affected by oil treatments. J. Pomol. Hort. Sci.

21:8-27.

Smith, E. H. 1965. The susceptibility of life history stages of the pear psylla to oil

treatments,

J. Econ. Entomol. 58:456-464.

NOTE ON DAMAGE TO GRASSES IN THE PEACE RIVER
REGION BY THE SPITTLEBUG, PHILARONIA BILINEATA
SAY, (CERCOPIDAE:HEMIPTERA)

D. A. ARNOTT! AND I. BERGIS!

ABSTRACT

Nymphs of the spittle bug, Philaronia bilineata Say, were observed
to feed on seed stalks of Merion bluegrass near Dawson Creek, B.C. When
nymphs fed on a tuft all the seed stalks turned white and died, regardless
of how many nymphs were present. This suggested that the nymphs were
phytotoxic or possibly a vector of a pathogenic organism. The damage dif-
fered from other types observed and studied. Red fescue was much less
affected. Treatment with DDT is recommended.

In 1965 some fields of Merion
bluegrass near Dawson Creek, British
Columbia, were infested with a spit-
tlebug, Philaronia bilineata Say,
which caused damage of a type not
previously noted in the Peace River
region. The damage became evident
in the last week of May when the
earliest developing seed stalks, with
heads partly emerged began to turn

1 Associate Entomologist and Technician respec-
tively, Research Branch, Canada Department of
Agriculture, Kamloops, British Columbia.

white and appear dead (Fig. 1.). The
damage is distinct from the so-called
Silver top, which occurs later in June
when most of the seed heads have
emerged, or from cutworm damage in
which stalks are cut off at the grass
crown.

Spittle masses, hidden by the
erass crown, were present on the low-
er portions of seed stalks. In tufts of
grass with more than one seed stalk,
one or more nymphs might be pres-

ee womMor.. Sov. Brrr. Conuwpra, 64 (1967). Awa 1,

1967 3

Fig. 1. Merion bluegrass.

a. seed stalks killed by P. bilineata;

b. normal, healthy seed stalks.

ent on each stalk, but in some tufts
with several seed stalks only a single
nymph was present. Nevertheless,
whether one or more nymphs infest-
ed a tuft, all the seed stalks in the
tuft turned white and died above the
roots. These observations suggest that
seed stalks may not die from simple
feeding by the nymphs but rather
from phytotoxemia or because P. bDi-
lineata is a vector of some pathogenic
organism. Byers and Wells (1966)
found that damage to Coastal ber-
mudagrass in Georgia and other
southeastern states resulted from
phytotoxemia caused by the _ two-
lined spittlebug, Prosapia_ bicincta
(Say).

In Merion bluegrass adults of P.
bilineata began to appear about June
9 and in one field were very numer-

ous by June 30, up to 50 or more be-
ing taken in one Sweep with a 15-
inch net. In this field the spittlebug
nymphs killed about 10 per cent of
the seed stalks. Infestations also oc-
curred in red fescue but damage was
much less than in Merion bluegrass.

Although spittlebugs may not be
an annual pest of grasses in the
Peace River region heavy -infesta-
tions such as occurred in 1965 could
result in economic loss of seed. Treat-
ment of fields with DDT as .recom-
mended for control of silver top or
cutworms will be effective against
spittlebugs.

Acknowledgements

The authors are indebted to the follow-
ing: L. A. Kelton, Entomology Research In-
stitute, Ottawa for identity of P. bilineata

Say, and L. C. Curtis, of this Research Sta-
tion for the photograph.

References
Byers, R. A., and H. D. Wells. 1966. Phytotoxemia of Coastal bermudagrass caused by

the two-lined spittlebug,

Prosapia bicincta (Homoptera:
Entomol. Soc. America 59:1067-1071.

Cercopidae). Ann.

J. EXToMo.L. Soc.

PETROLEUM OILS IN ORCHARD MITE CONTROL!

R. S. DOWNING

ABSTRACT

Investigations with oil sprays for the control of European red mite,
Panonychus ulmi (Koch), revealed the following: as dormant sprays, Penn-
salt Superior oil was more effective than Shell Neutrol; when either oil was
applied at the half-inch green bud stage, the control was better than with
dormant applications of the same oil; half-inch green bud sprays of Penn-
salt Superior and Imperial 862 were equal in effectiveness. There was no
difference in control with a half-inch green bud spray of Volck Supreme,
Orchex 796, or Shell Neutrol; summer sprays of Pennsalt Superior oil gave
effective control of European red mite.

None of the above applications of oil gave effective control of the
McDaniel spider mite, Tetranychus mcdanieli McG.

Half-inch green bud sprays of Pennsalt Superior, tmiperial 862, Or-
chex 796 and to a lesser extent Volck Supreme, caused bark lenticel injury
to Delicious apple trees but not to McIntosh, Newtown, Rome Beauty,
Jonathan, Winesap and Stayman apple trees. Shell Neutrol oil did not pro-

Brit. CoLtumMBIA, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

duce bark injury.

INTRODUCTION

Marshall (1948) made a study of
spray oils on deciduous fruit trees in
British Columbia. When comparing
oils from California crude he found
that a dormant oil of 200-220 SSU at
100° F was more effective against the
San Jose scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus
Comst., and the European red mite,
Panonychus ulmi (Koch), than an oil
of 100-110 SSU. He also found that the
heavier oil caused less injury to ap-
ple and pear trees than the lighter
oil. Based on Marshall’s findings the
200-220 SSU oil was and still is recom-
mended in British Columbia as a dor-
mant spray to control certain insects
and mites. A combination of this oil
with DNOC or lime sulphur was re-
commended until the mid 1950’s to
control European red mite but this
recommendation was dropped when a
pink bud spray of ovex (chlorfenson)
or fenson was shown to be more ef-
fective (Downing 1958).

During 1960-1963 the European
red mite developed tolerance to ovex
and fenson. Morestan2 subsequently
replaced ovex and fenson (Downing
1966a) but further investigations into
the use of oils for European red mite

1 Contribution No. 215, Research Station, Re-

search Branch, Canada Agriculture, Summerland,

British Columbia,

2 6-methyl1-2,3-quinoxalinedithiol
ate 25% wettable powder.

eyclic carbon-

control seemed advisable because
there is no evidence of mite resist-
ance to oils (Chapman 1959).

Pearce and Chapman (1947) _ is-
sued specifications for a ‘109 second
superior oil” and stated that it could
be used up to the period when leaves
of the fruit buds of apple were ex-
posed about 34 inch. Later, Chapman
and Pearce (1959) issued specifica-
tions for a “70 second superior oil”
that could be used throughout the
verdant period as a “Summer oil’.
This is a report on investigations car-
ried out at Summerland, British Co-
lumbia, with these so called superior
type oils and with a 200-215 SSU dor-
mant oil.

METHODS

Most of the sprays were applied by
a “Turbo-mist” concentrate sprayer
that applied 60 gal. of spray mixture
per acre. In some experiments a high-
volume handgun sprayer was used. It
was operated at 425 psi and the trees
were sprayed until dripping. Where
the concentrate sprayer was _ used,
each plot consisted of 8 to 12 trees
and there were usually 3 replicates
per treatment. Estimates of mite den-
sities were made by taking a 20-leaf
sample from each of 5 trees per plot.
Where the handgun sprayer was used,
each plot consisted of 2 trees and
there were 2 replicate plots per treat-
ment. Samples of 25 leaves from each

J. Exromon. Soc. Brir. Conumeia, 64 (1967),

of the 2 trees per plot were taken in
the latter case. The leaves were pro-
cessed by the method of Henderson
and McBurnie (1943) as modified by
Morgan et al. (1955).

Identification of the phytoseiid
mites was based on the key of Schus-
ter and Pritchard (1963).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Effect On Mites

A preliminary experiment in 1962
compared Pennsalt Superior, a sup-
erior type oil of 70 SSU at 100°F, at
the green tip stage of McIntosh apple
with Morestan at the pink bud Stage.
The sprays were applied by concen-
trate sprayer. Records taken in early
July showed that the Superior oil at
6 gal. per acre and Morestan at 6 or
8 lb. per acre gave good control of the
European red mite but the McDaniel
spider mite, Tetranychus mcdanieli
McG. was not controlled in the oil
plot. The McDaniel mite did not in-
crease appreciably on the Morestan
plots until the end of July.

In 1964 an experiment was design-
ed to compare: dormant applications
of Shell Neutrol, a western dormant
oil with a viscosity at 100°F of 200-
215 SSU and Pennsalt Superior oil;
and half-inch green bud sprays of
Pennsalt Superior and Imperial 862
which is a superior type oil with a
viscosity at 100°F of 90 SSU. All
sprays were applied by concentrate
sprayer. The results of this experi-
ment summarized in Table 1 show
that: Pennsalt Superior was more
effective than Shell Neutrol when
both were applied at the dormant
Stage; the half-inch green bud spray
of Pennsalt Superior oil was more

Aue, 1, 1967 1

effective than the dormant spray of
the same oil; Pennsalt Superior and
Imperial 862 were equal in effective-
ness when applied at the half-inch
green bud stage.

In 1965 applications of Shell Neu-
trol oil were made at the dormant
and half-inch green bud stages of De-
licious apple trees by handgun spray-
er. Samples of leaves taken on May
26 and June 21 indicated that the
half-inch green bud spray was more
effective than the dormant spray
against the European red mite.

In 1966 a number of apple or-
chards were sprayed with the follow-
ing oils: Shell Neutrol, Volek Sup-
reme (140 SSU at 100° F) and Orchex
796 (71 SSU at 100° F). They were ap-
plied by handgun sprayer at 2 gal.
per 100 gal. or by concentrate sprayer
at 6 gal. per acre. All the sprays were
applied during the prebloom period
from the half-inch green bud stage
through to the prepink bud stage.

Table 2 summarizes the results ob-
tained in a 4-acre mature orchard
composed of common Delicious and
Newtown apple trees. These results,
Similar to those obtained in the other
orchards, show that all oils gave good
control of the European red mite and
fair control of the apple rust mite,
Vasates schlechtendali (Nal.).

Effect On Trees

Hikichi and Wagner (1965) noticed
that superior oils of 60, 70, or 100 sec-
onds viscosity caused enlargement
and cracking of bark lenticels when
they were applied in the delayed dor-
mant stage to Delicious apple trees.
The bark of McIntosh and Northern
Spy was not affected.

In Summerland, similar injury to

TABLE 1.—Average numbers of the European red mite per leaf after spraying Delicious
apple trees with 6 gallons per acre of various oils by concentrate sprayer,
Summerland, B.C., 1964.

European red mites per leaf

Oil Stage May 29 July 2 July 22
Shell Neutrol Dormant * 16.7 sprayed
Pennsalt Superior Dormant 2A 10.8 28
Pennsalt Superior Half-inch green ** 0.4 1.4 6.0
Imperial 862 Half-inch green 0.8 4.0 98
Check — no treatment 21.8 sprayed

* Dormant sprays applied March 16, 1964.
** Half-inch sprays applied April 24, 1964.

1? J. ENTOMOL, Soc. Brre. “Cone arnra, 64 “(196g Aneel

el cakosth

TABLE 2.—Average numbers of the European red mite, apple rust mite, and predaceous
phytoseiid mites per 100 leaves after spraying Delicious and Newtown apple trees
at the half-inch green bud stage with 6 gallons per acre of various oils by
concentrate sprayer, Kelowna, B.C., 1966.

Mites per 100 leaves

European red Apple rust Phytoseiid
Oil May 25 July 13 May 25 July 13 May 25 July 13
Shell Neutrol 2 92 305 26350 16 9
Volek Supreme 2 86 545 23310 16 13
Orchex 796 aan 74 700 28040 32 44
Check — no treatment _. 30 ~=sprayed 2247 sprayed 23 sprayed

8 Eee

the bark of Red Delicious apple oc-
curred in 1964, when concentrate ap-
plications of either Pennsalt Superior
or Imperial 862 were applied at the
half-inch green bud stage. The bark
of Newtown, Jonathan or Rome
Beauty was not affected. Where
Pennsalt Superior was applied at the
dormant stage the bark injury was
hardly noticeable and there was no
indication of any injury where Shell
Neutrol was applied at the dormant
stage.

Shell Neutrol at 2 gal. per 100 gal.
was applied in 1964 to one Delicious
and one McIntosh apple tree that
were in the half-inch green bud stage
to determine whether the oil was
phytotoxic when applied at that stage
of bud growth. No damage resulted
then or in the following year when
Shell Neutrol was applied to Delicious
apple trees at the dormant and at
the half-inch green bud stages.

In 1966, Volek Supreme was com-
pared with Shell Neutrol and Orchex
796 because its viscosity is midway be-
tween the other two and therefore
might be safe to apply at the half-
inch green bud stage. These 3 oilS were
applied to Red Delicious, common De-
licious, Newtown, Winesap, Jonathan,
and Stayman apple trees. Shell Neu-
trol did not cause noticeable injury to
the bark or foliage. Applied by con-
centrate sprayer Orchex 796 consis-
tently caused lenticel swelling and
cracking on both common and Red
Delicious trees but not on the other
varieties. Volck Supreme oil caused
Similar lentical swelling and crack-
ing where it was applied to Red De-
licious by concentrate sprayer but no
injury was noted from handgun ap-
plications. Fhe bark -of -the other

varieties including common Delicious
was not injured by concentrate or
handgun applications of Volek Sup-
reme.

Effect On Predaceous
Phytoseiids

An earlier paper (Downing 1966b)
showed that both the heavy dormant
oil, Shell Neutrol, and the light Penn-
salt Superior were low in toxicity to
the predaceous phytoseiid mite, Neo-
seiulus caudiglans (Schuster) wheth-
er applied in the dormant or half-
inch green bud stage of apple. The
light oil was also low in toxicity when
applied in the summer. These results
were confirmed in 1966 when 3 oils
were applied during the prebloom
period without serious injury to the
predaceous phytoseiid mites (Table
Ze

Effect of Summer
Applications 1962-1966

Pennsalt Superior oil has been the
only miticide used since 1962 in a De-
licious and McIntosh apple orchard.
It was applied during the summers by
handgun sprayer at 1 gal. per 100
gal. except on two occasions when the
McDaniel mite was so numerous that
the oil concentration was increased
to 1.5 gal. The oil applications have
virtually maintained the trees free of
European red mite but have not sat-
isfactorily controlled the McDaniel
mite. A total of 10 sprays of oil were
applied to the trees during the sum-
mers of 1962-1966 and most of these
were applied to control McDaniel
mite.

Until 1966 no injury appeared on
fruit or foliage of Delicious or McIn-
tosh trees although very slight injury
to lenticels was evident on Delicious

Mea NTOMOL. SOc.
trees. In 1966, however, after an ap-
plication of oil on July 9, approxi-
mately 15% of the primary leaves of
the Delicious apple trees yellowed and
dropped. Oil sprays will be continued
on these plots to determine if this

BRM COMU NIBLA SOF VC 1967 )%

AG ile 1967 13

symptom was an indication of cumu-
lative oil injury.

Acknowledgements
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the able
assistance of Messrs. W. W. Davis and T. K.
Moilliet of this laboratory.

References

Chapman, P. J. and G. W. Pearce.

1959. Tree spray oils-—their present status.

N.Y.

(Geneva) Agr. Expt. Sta. Farm Res. 25(1):7.
Downing, R. S. 1958. Recent trials with new acaricides in British Columbia orchards.

Can. J. Plant Sci. 38:61-66.
Downing, R. S. 1966a.
Entomol. 98:134-138.

Quinoxalines as orchard acaricides in British Columbia.

Can.

Downing, R. S. 1966b. The effect of certain miticides on the predaceous mite Neoseiuius
caudiglans (Acarina: Phytoselidae). Can. J. Plant Sci. 46:521-524.

Henderson, C. F. and H. Y. McBurnie. 1943. Sampling technique for determining popu-
lations of citrus red mite and its predators. U.S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 671.

Hikichi, A. and H. Wagner. 1965. Bark injury on Red Delicious apple trees snrayved
with oil emulsions in the delayed dormant period. Pesticide Progress 2:59-61.

Marshall, J. 1948. Oil spray investigations in British Columbia. J. Econ. Entomol. 41:

092-595.

Morgan, C. V. G. et al. 1955. Methods :or estimating orchard mite populations, espe-
cially with the mite brushing machine. Can. Entomol. 87:189-200.

Pearce, G. W. and P. J. Chapman. 1947.

Improved spray oils for fruit trees.

INV,

(Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Farm. Res. 13(2):1.

Schuster, R. O. and A. E. Pritchard.
34:191-285.

1963. Phytoseiid mites of California.

Hilgardia

A CERAMBYCID IN A CITY APARTMENT

im April, 1967; I was asked ‘to
identify a beetle which had emerged
from oak flooring on the eighth floor
of a 10-storey apartment building in
Vancouver. The building was of rein-
morced concrete; with a “floating
moor’ on each level. This type of
floor, from top to bottom, consists of
©. 16-inch kiln-dried oak, 5g-inch fir
plywood, °%4-inch air-dried white
spruce and 7 16-inch rigid fibre board
insulation as a base, all resting on the
concrete. The apartment was com-
pleted in May, 1966, and the flooring
was laid at this time. In December,
1966, a larva was seen in a hole in the
floor on the 7th storey. This was no-
ticed by the owners after a tenant
had moved, in an area which had
been covered by a rug. In\ March,
1967, a beetle was found emerging
mom a hole in the floor-on the 8th
storey. The beetle was identified as
the cerambycid Meriellum proteus
(Kirby).

The life history of this boreal spe-
e1es is not well known. Its host plants

include pine, spruce and balsam fir
(Gardiner, 1957) in which the lar-
vae feed in the phloem.

The spruce sub-flooring in this
apartment, originating from _ the
Kamloops area, was known to include
a few boards with bark attached.
This was confirmed when the dam-
aged oak was replaced. These boards
must have harbored the heetles. The
mature larvae left the phloem, gnaw-
ed through the plywood and partially
through the oak to pupate just be-
neath the surface. The adult then
emei ged prematurely im the spring:
the fight period, accordine to; lime
Sley (1964), is June and July.
Gardiner, L.M. 1957. Deterioration of fire-

killed pine in Ontario and the causal

wood-horing beetles. Canad. Ent.
89:241-263.

Linsley, ©. G. 1964. The Cerambycidae of
North America, Univ. Calif. Publ
Entom, 2229-27,

PZ ics
Research. Station, CDA:
Vancouver..5-C.

14 J.

ENTOMOL,

Soc. Brrr. CoLUmMpra,- 64- (1967 ).4 Aue 196a

THE EUROPEAN PINE SHOOT MOTH, RHYACIONIA
BUOLIANA (LEPIDOPTERA: OLETHREUTIDAE),
ANOTHER INTRODUCED FOREST PEST

J. W. E. HARRIS AND R. O. Woop!

ABSTRACT

The European pine shoot moth has been reported from Newfound-
jland to Ontario, the northeastern U.S., Oregon, Washington and British
Columbia, where it was first observed in 1927 near Victoria. Two years of
intensive survey show that it is now present in the southwestern part of
the province on southern Vancouver Island and in the Lower Fraser and
Okanagan valleys. Although the pest has only been recorded on ornamental
trees in urban areas and on nursery stock, there is a serious risk that it
may attack ponderosa and lodgepole pines in natural growing stands. Five

specific recommendations are made.

The European pine shoot moth,
Rhyacionia buoliana Schiffermuller
(Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae), which
attacks the shoots of immature two-
and three - needle pines, was intro-
duced into North America from Eur-
ope. It has been reported from New-
foundland to southern Ontario in
eastern Canada, the northeastern
United States from Lake Michigan to
the, Atlantic coast, and at a few lo-
calities in Washington, Oregon, and
British Columbia. The adult, a small
orange - brown moth with silvery
markings, appears about June and
lays its eggs singly or in Small clus-
ters on twigs, buds and needles. A
week or two later, tiny larvae emerge
and feed on the buds and needles un-
til fall when they overwinter within
buds or under hardened pitch on the
buds. In spring the mature larvae,
light-brown caterpillars about %
inch long with black heads, feed
within shoots until May or early June
when they become pupae then adults.

Attacked trees rarely die, but may
develop spiked, crooked, forked, or
bushy tops. In eastern North America,
this insect has been responsible for
considerable damage to plantations
of red pine, Pinus resinosa Aiton,
Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris Linnaeus,
Austrian pine, Pinus nigra Arnold,
and Mugho pine, Pinus mugo Turra,
in fact most hard pines, including

1 Department of Forestry and Rural Develop-
ment, Forest Insect and Disease Survey, Victoria
and Vernon, B.C,

jack pine, Pinus banksiana Lambert,
anu lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta
_ouglas, have been attacked.

OCCURRENCE IN BRITISH
COLUMBIA

The European pine shoot moth was
fiist observed in British Columbia in
1927, in a nursery near: Victoria; iit
was not recorded again until 1938
When about 25 infested trees, mostly
lodgepole pine, were found in gar-
dens in south Vancouver. The Can-
ada Department of Agriculture un-
dertook an eradication program in
1939, destroying 88 infested trees. In-
fested shoots were clipped on other
trees, and the trees sprayed with ar-
senate of lead or nicotine sulphate.
The area was re-examined in 1941
and infested shoots found at two lo-
cations were destroyed. Little atten-
tion was paid to shoot moth from
then until 1961 and 1962, when it was
detected at Kelowna. In 1963 the
shoct moth was found on 30 trees in
the Okanagan Valley; 28 trees were
imported nursery stock; one was a
Mugho pine grown from seed; and
one was a mature ponderosa pine,
Pinus ponderosa Lawson & Son, at
the Summerland Experimental Farm.
In the same year, the insect was
again reported in the Greater Van-
couver and Victoria areas in nur-
series and gardens. In 1964, it was
found at Yarrow, about 50 miles east
of Vancouver.

In 1965 and 1966, in co-operation

J. Extromorn. Soc.
with the Plant Protection Division of
the Canada Department of Agricul-
ture, a more intensive survey was
undertaken to determine the insect’s
distribution and to appraise the ac-
tual or potential hazard to natural
stands. Areas of probable occurrence,
based on previous surveys, were vis-
ited. The results of the Survey are
summarized in Table 1.

Brit. ConumpBra, 64 (1967),

AveG =i 1967 15
ed nursery stock had been imported
recently from Ontario, Holland, and
the U.S.A. Lodgepole, Mugho, and
Scots pines were the principal species
attacked but small numbers of Swiss
stone pine, Pinus cembra Linnaeus,
western white pine, Pinus monticola
Douglas, Austrian pine, ponderosa
pine, red pine, eastern white pine,
Pinus strobus Linnaeus, and Japan-

TABLE 1. Examinations for European pine shoot moth in British Columbia, 1965-1966.

No. localities No. trees No. trees
Type of examined examined infested
planting 1965 1966 1965 1966 1965 1966
Natural stands ss 71 89 6,050 9,281 0 0
Gardens, parks,
municipal plantings 2,092 9,153 7,986 26 491
Plantations _ 1,038 2 25,209 3,652 0 2
Nurseries 69 100,170 106,684 101 134

In the Interior, the area of great-
est concern, inspections were made
at Kamloops, Nelson, Trail, Creston,
Grand Forks and in the Okanagan
Valley from Vernon south to the U.S.

border (Hamilton et al., 1965; Ross
et al., 1966). The shoot moth was
discovered in one newly established
plantation at Westbank in the OkKan-
agan Valley and at nurseries in Oli-
ver, Kelowna, Vernon and Kamloops
where Mugho, Scots, and Austrian
pines were infested. Infestations
were not found in natural stands of
lodgepole or ponderosa pine.

In the Coastal area, examinations
were made on Vancouver Island from
Campbell River south and on the
south coast mainland from Powell
River up the Fraser River Valley to
Lytton (Harris et al., 1965; Holms
et al., 1966). The shoot moth was
prevalent in parks and gardens
throughout the Greater Vancouver
and Victoria areas and occurred in
the Lower Fraser River Valley at
Sumas, Mission City, Yarrow, Chilli-
wack and Hope. It was in commercial
murseries at Wellington, Victoria,
Burnaby, Richmond, Surrey, Alder-
grove, Ocean Park, Langley, Yarrow,
Sardis, and Pitt Meadows. The infest-

ese black pine, Pinus thunbergii Par-
latore were also attacked. Attacks on
Sheared Christmas tree plantations
and natural-growing lodgepole pine
were not observed.

DISCUSSION

The European pine shoot moth is
currently confined to ornamental
trees in urban areas and to stock in
commercial nurseries in the south-
west part of the Province. Damage to
ornamental trees generally does not
result in serious deformation, and is
seldom visidle on bushy species such
as Mugho pine. However, significant
damage to forest values could occur
if the shoot moth were to spread to
forest stands where loss of increment
and tree deformity are important.
The potential loss may be high in the
Interior, where ponderosa pine is an
important timber tree. On the Coast
the potential loss is relatively low,
since lodgepole pine is economically
unimportant and is sparsely dis-
tributed.

The native hard pines, lodgepole
and ponderosa, are susceptible to at-
tack when planted, but the shoot
moth has evidently not spread into
natural-growing stands. Possibly the
insect fails to become established in

16 ae

hatural stands because the trees have
hot been subjected to unnatural
stresses that result from planting or
because the natural stands are too
distant irem. focal points of infesta-—
tion. The majority of infested orna-
mental plantings are in larger cities,
where natural growing pines are un-
common. Knowledge of the effective
range of the insect is inadequate,
however, and we cannot disregard
the possibility of eventual spread to
natural stands. Green and Pointing
(1962) showed that the moths were
potentially capawvle of flights of sev-
eial miles and that they can be stim-
uwated to fly under wind conditions
fvourlme their dispersal:

Shoot moth survive winter tem-
peratures that occur on the Coast and
probably can persist in some parts of
the Interior. Green (1962) reported
faa wit Cold hardening’ and ade-
quate snow cover, shoot moths sur-
vive winter temperatures down to ap-
proximately -22°F. Although im the
Okanagan Valley occasional lower
winter minimums have been record-
ed, favourable temperatures have ex-
isted near Okanagan Lake over ex-
tended periods. At one station in
Kelowna, the minimum temperature
recorded over a period of 16 years
was, +20° F-and at another in Pentic-
ton the minimum over 958 years was
-16°F (Meteorological Branch, Air
Services Division, Department Trans-
port (Canada), 1966). Ross (1966)
reared nine shoot moth pupae on
several recently transplanted caged
trees at Vernon during the 1965-1966
winter when temperatures dropped
to -4 F.

The European pine shoot moth
Was accidenvally. imtroduced: 11 1:0
British Columbia and, like other in-
troduced forest insects and diseases
in the Province, such as balsam woo!-
ly aphid, Adelges piceae (Ratzburg),
peplar-and-willow borer, Sternoche-
tus lapathi (Linnaeus), lecanium
scale, Eulecanium coryli (Linnaeus),
white pine blister rust, Cronartium

HNTOMOL..

Soc. -Brir. CorumMBia, 64 (1967) > Auer i. 1967

ribicola J. C. Fischer and trellis rust,
Gymnosporangium fuscum Hedwig f.
in DC., it probably entered on nur-
sery stock. Shoot moth in B.C. nur-
series occurred on trees, imported
from- eastern Canada, 7ihnen srs... OF
Kurope, and most of the infested trees
in gardens and parks had been re-
cently purchased from nurseries.
Movement of their living hosts doubt-
tess affords many pests an ideal op-
portunity for transport to distant lo-
calities. In the spring and fall, when
plants are usually moved, detection
oi dormant insects, often hidden
within plant parts, is extremely diffi-
cult. Moreover, inadequate inspection
of and restrictions on movement of
nursery stock enhances the possibil-
ity of spread of damaging organisms.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following safeguards should
be considered to prevent possible in-
fectation of economically important
trees by European pine shoot moth
imported on ornamental pines:

1. Inspections of trees entering
the country should be intensi-
fied. and inspections of trees
moved from one province to
another as nursery stock should
be imposed.

2. Imported stock should be kept
under post-entry quarantine
for at least 1 years sow tha:
symptoms not visible initially
could be detected.

3. Requirements for nurseries to
control..pests “On Yiheins Rees
should be more strictly en-
forced.

4. Pines should be grown locally
from seed:

5. An educational programme
emphasizing the dangers of in-
troducing forest insect pests
should be implemented.

Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to Plant Pro-
tection Officers of the Canada Department
of Agriculture at Vancouver and Penticton
for their part in gathering data.

J. Entromou. Soc. Brir. CotumbBia, 64 (1967). Auc. 1, 1967 oer

References
Green, G. W. 1962. Low winter temperatures and the European pine shoot moth, Rhy-
acionia buoliana (Schiff.) in Ontario. Can. Entomol. 94:314-336.
Green, G. W., and P. J. Pointing. 1962. Flight and dispersal of the European pine

shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiff.) IL.
Can. Entomol. 94:299-314.
Hamilton, J. C., W. E. Molyneux, R. O. Wood and D. A. Ross.

females.

Natural dispersal of egg-laden

1965. Report on the

European pine shoot moth survey interior British Columbia, 1965. Dept. For-

estry Can., Forest Entomol. Lab., Vernon.

Inform. Rep. 4p.

Harris, J. W. E., D. S. Ruth, E. Fridell, and C. A. Gibson. 1965. European pine shoot
moth survey south coastal British Columbia, 1965. Dept. Forestry Can., For-
est Res. Lab., Victoria. Inform. Rep. 8 p.

Holms, J. C., C. A. Gibson, G W. Miller, and J. W. E. Harris. 1966. European pine shoot
moth survey south coastal British Columbia, 1966. Dept. Forestry and Rural
Dev., Forest Res. Lab., Victoria. Inform. Rep. BC-X-8. 4p.

Meteorological Branch, Air Services Division, Department Transport (Canada). 1966.
Climate of British Columbia, 1965. B.C. Dept. Agr. 43 p.

Ross, D. A.

1966. Overwintering of caged Rhyacionia buoliana (Schilfermuller) at

Vernon, B.C., in 1965-66. J. Entomol. Soc. British Columbia: 63:31-32.
Ross, D. A., R. O. Wood, J. C. Hamilton, and W. E. Molyneux. 1966. European pine

shoot moth survey interior British Columbia,

1966. Dept. Forestry Can.,

Forest Res. Lab., Victoria. Inform. Rep. BC-X-6. 4p.

RESISTANCE TO ORGANOCHLORINE INSECTICIDES
IN THE TUBER FLEA BEETLE, EPITRIX TUBERIS
GENT. (COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE),

IN BRITISH COLUMBIA'

F. L. BANHAM and D. G. FINLAYSON

ABSTRACT

Laboratory and field experiments showed that Epitrix tuberis Gent.
had developed strains that were highly resistant to dieldrin and less so to
DDT. Both adults and larvae were resistant to the cyclodiene insecticides.
Strains resistant to cyclodienes were centered in the Salmon Arm and
Vernon areas. Strains resistant to DDT had a wider range and were present
as far north as Pavilion. All tuber flea beetles tested in the province were
highly susceptible to diazinon and presumably to other organophosphorus

compounds.
INTRODUCTION

In the southern interior of British
Columbia the tuber flea _ beetle,
Epitrix tuberis Gent., has been con-
trolled effectively since 1953 by incor-
porating into the soil the cyclodiene
organochlorine insecticides: aldrin,
chlordane, dieldrin and heptachlor
(Banham, 1960). These insecticides
gained a ready acceptance and were
widely used because one low-cost ap-
plication gave broad-spectrum insec-
ticidal effectiveness. In 1963, labora-
tory tests were conducted to deter-
mine the susceptibility of E. tuberis
to dieldrin and DDT. Dieldrin was
included because of the reported fail-
ure in 1960 of soil applications of the

+ Contribution No. 214, Research Stations, Re-
search Branch, Canada Agriculture, Summerland,
and No. 124, Vancouver, British Columbia.

cyclodiene insecticides to control E.
tuberis in ClacKamas County, Oregon,
(Morrison, 1962). DDT was included
because it was used in British Colum-
bia as a foliar treatment against this
pest after 1948 following investiga-
tions by Finlayson and WNeilson
(1954); it remains an alternative to
soil treatments with the cyclodienes.

The first Suspicion that resistant
E. tuberis were present in British
Columbia came at harvest in 1964, in
the Salmon River Valley. Six growers
reported excessive larval tunneling
damage in their potatoes in spite of
the use of aldrin or dieldrin at recom-
mended rates. This paper reports the
initial laboratory experiments in 1963
and further tests in 1965. Data are re-
ported also from a field experiment in
the Salmon River Valley in 1965 to
confirm the occurrence of resistance.

18 J. Exromorn. Soc. Brrr. Corumnta, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Laboratory Experiments

Larvae of this species were not
used for the susceptibility tests be-
cause they are extremely small and
difficult to rear. They are root and
tuber feeders that desiccate rapidly
on exposure. Field-collected second
generation adults were used because
of their hardiness, abundance, and
ease of handling. The sex ratio is 1:1
(Neilson and Finlayson, 1953), but
there are no external sex characteris-
tics, and no attempt was made to
determine differences in male and fe-
male susceptibility. Collections were
made at the peak of emergence from
nine major potato growing areas in
1963 and from eight areas in 1965
(Fig. 1.) The beetles were held at 4
to 10°C in screen-topped glass jars
and provided with fresh, uncontamin-
ated potato foliage. Prior to testing,
beetles from each area were acclima-
tized in screened cages at 22°C. Active
beetles were removed from the cages
with an aspirator, anaesthetized with
COz, and held temporarily in a 150
mm Buchner funnel under a con-
tinuous flow of the gas. Anaesthetized
beetles were transferred with a brush
or forceps to the exposure cages.

In 1963 impregnated papers from
two sources were used: the Macdonald
Test Kit and the W.H.O. Test Kit2.
The Macdonald exposure cage con-
sisted of a cardboard Dixie cup with
a Silk screen lid, a plastic ring, and an
impregnated exposure paper. that
covered the sides and bottom of the
cup. This exposed the beetles to con-
tact with the impregnated paper on
all but the top, screened surface of
the cage. The concentrations of the
impregnated papers used were: 0.0,
0525, 0.5, 1:0; 2:0; and 4.0% DDT in
Risella oil. The W.H.O. papers
(W.H.O., 1960) were impregnated
with: 0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, and
4.0% dieldrin in Risella oil. Each was

2The Macdonald Test Kit was supplied by
Prof. F. O. Morrison, Dept. of Entomology and
Plant Pathology, Macdonald College, Ste. Anne de
Bellevue, P.Q.; the W.H.O. Test Kit by Dr. R. Pal,

Division of Environmental Health, World Health
Organization, Geneva.

fitted to the inside of a 40x100 mm
cardboard tube with screened ends.

In 1965 the only exposure cage
used was the W.H.O. Test Kit, a
transparent plastic cage with screen-
ed ends. The impregnated papers used
included W.H.O,. dieldrin papers as
described above and also W.H.O. DDT
papers with concentrations of 0.0, 0.5,
1.0, 2.0, and 4.0% DDT in Risella oil.
In addition, two series of papers pre-
pared at the Vancouver Research
Station were used: the first included
concentrations of 0.0, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5,
1.0, 2.0, and 4.0% dieldrin in a 1:1
mixture of Risella oil and trichloro-
ethylene; the second included 0.0,
0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0% dia-
zinon in a 1:1 mixture of acetone and
corn oil. The papers were prepared by
applying uniformly 2.0 ml of insecti-
cide solution to a 12x15 cm sheet of
Whatman No. 1 filter paper placed on
a horizontal plane of points. After the
more volatile solvents evaporated,
each paper was attached to a cord by
a paper clip and hung to dry for at
least 24 hours before use.

The toxicities of laboratory - and
W.H.O.-prepared dieldrin papers
were found to be comparable when
Susceptible and resistant strains of
beetles were exposed to each series.

Each replicate consisted of ten
beetles per concentration of insecti-
cide. Depending on the number of
beetles available, the number of repli-
cates per collection area varied from
one to three in 1963 and from one to
five in 1965. When there were not
enough beetles from one location to
complete a replication, those remain-
ing were combined with beetles of
Similar susceptibilities from three or
more areas.

The caged beetles were exposed to
the insecticides in a cabinet at 22°C
and 75°c relative humidity. Exposure
periods ranged from one to four hours.
Knockdown, or inability to walk nor-
mally, was recorded at the end of the
exposure. The beetles were then
transferred to clean holding tubes
containing fresh, uncontaminated

J. Entomo.. Soc. Brit. Corumsia, 64 (1967), Aug. 1, 1967

WeG <
PRINCE GEORGE

BRITISH

COLUMBIA
QUESNEL (1)

Ne re
Alexandria ‘a!
Cen a

©
Seresetere 2
—<—_Z SX
Soda Creek (1) SERS
Ne: OO %
{ (
\ ee

CxO O
SSN S505
\ ~ f ~ we,

a

Pavilion (1,2)

4
Cf
= Cache Creek (1,2) Sr ye XS

L~ Chase (1,2)
f : KAMLOOPS (1,2) Salmon Arm

Salmon River (2)®@ Armstrong (1)

ey fF =~ VERNON -
yw Lavington (2)

Oyama (1)
>, \

rey

i i i iti i flea beetles, Epitrix
Fig. 1—Potato growing areas in British Columbia where tuber
* tuberis Gent. were collected: (1) 1963; (2) 1965; and (1,2) 1963 and 1965.

PENTICTON

Grand Forks (2)

19

20 J. Exromon. Soc. Brrr. Convarpra, 64 (1967), Auc. 1, 1967

potato foliage and returned to the
cabinet. Mortality counts were made
at the end of a 24-hour recovery
period. Beetles unable to walk were
counted as dead.

In these tests, beetles from a given
locality were considered to be resist-
ant if the slope of the dosage-mortal-
ity curve was flat, or if a ten-fold
increase in concentration resulted in
less than a 20% increase in mortality.
Populations showing an increase in
mortality greater than 20% but less
than 90% at this increased concen-
tration, were defined as tolerant;
those with increases greater than
90°C were defined as susceptible. The
data were averaged. Corrections for
natural mortality were made using
Abbott’s formula (Abbott, 1925).

Field Experiments

In 1965 an experiment to compare
aldrin-treated and untreated plots
was set out in the Salmon River Val-
ley (Fig. 1). The plots, approximate-
ly 24 yd2 (22 m2), were replicated
four times in randomized blocks. Al-
drin 20° emulsifiable concentrate,
was sprayed on the soil, at the recom-
mended rate of 4 lb. toxicant, acre
(4.48 kg ha), prior to planting. The
aldrin was incorporated into the soil

to a depth of 3 to 4 inches (7.5 to 10
cm) by discing. Two samples of tub-
ers were taken from the treated and
untreated plots: the first, 84 days
after planting, was to determine the
damage inflicted by first generation
larvae; the second, 147 days after
planting, was to determine the sea-
sonal damage by first and second
generation larvae. To assess damage,
a Subsample of 25 tubers of a mini-
mum diameter of 1.5 inches (4 cm)
was selected from each plot sample.
The tubers were peeled to a uniform
depth and the number of larval tun-
nels recorded.

RESULTS
Laooratory Experiments

Knockdown and mortality counts
of beetles exposed to DDT, with minor
exceptions, were highest at the long-
est periods of exposure. For any given
concentration and exposure, kKnock-
down counts paralleled the mortality
counts but at lower levels.

In 1963 (Table 1) there was little,
if any, resistance to DDT at Chase,
Quesnel, or Soda Creek. However, at
Alexandria, Armstrong, Cache Creek,
Kamloops and Pavilion the results in-
dicated the first stages of resistance.
There was little evidence of resistance
to dieldrin.

TABLE 1.—Susceptibility to DDT and dieldrin of adult E. tuberis in British Columhia,
1963.

Location Exposure (hr.)

Alexandria
Alexandria
Armstrong —
Cache Creek _.
Chase: ©... 22s
Kamloops: 2... 22.22
Kamloops __.

Pavilion
Quesnel
Soda Creek
Composite2

PHONMNMANDY HP Bf bo

| Oo
—)

Alexandpria J... Je 4

Kamloops). .2 Je... ed i
Kamloops
Kamiloops. 2.25 4 2
AWA ON aoe i cen al 1)
Composites... 22 2 30.0

wSos
Sins)

1 Average corrected by Abbott’s formula (1925)

Mortality (%)! at 24 hr.
T (%)

DD

0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0
30.0 10.0 30.0 60.0
50.0 50.0 90.0 100.0
50.0 90.0 80.0 80.0
50.0 0.0 0.0 80.0 100.0
60.0 60.0 70.0 100.0
27.0 37.0 50.0 67.0
50.0 65.0 90.0 100.0
10.0 10.0 15.0 30.0
2202 — 11.1 — 100.0
40.0 30.0 100.0 100.0
66.7 88.9 88.9 100.0

Dieldrin (%)
2 0.4 0.8 1.6 4.0
0 80.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
0 60.0 70.0 90.0 100.0
0 62.5 87.5 100.0 100.0
0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
0 37.6 80.0 97.0 100.0
0.0 70.0 90.0 90.0 100.0

2 Armstrong, Kamloops and Oyama.

J. @Nromor. Soc. Brrr. CoLumpra, 64

By 1965 (Table 2) there was strong
evidence of DDT-resistance at Lav-
ington and Salmon River. Of the
beetles from eight potato - growing
areas, those from Lavington and Sal-
mon River also exhibited a high re-
sistance to dieldrin, probably ap-
proaching a homozygous - resistant
population. Beetles from Cache Creek
and possibly those from Pavilion
showed less resistance, or a heterozy-

gous population. Beetles from Alex-

(OO).

AneGe | lo67 21
aAndnriawiGhase. Gara jad’ Horks and
Kamloops were still Susceptible. The
beetles with high DDT and dieldrin
resistance, from Lavington and Sal-
mon River, were highly susceptible
to diazinon. A composite sample of
beetles from Alexandria, Cache Creek,
Chase, Kamloops and Pavilion were
also equally susceptible.

Field Experiments

At Salmon River, tuber samples

taken 84 and 147 days after planting

TABLE 2.—Susceptibility to DDT, dieldrin, and diazinon of adult E. tuberis
in British Columbia, 1965.

Location Exposure (hr.}
Lavington 1

Lavington 2

Salmon River 1

Salmon River 2

Composite2 if

Composite2 2

0.125

Alexandria il 59.5
Cache Creek if 30.0
Chase 1 90.0
Grand Forks 1 73.9
Kamloops 1 70.0
Lavington 1 0.0
Pavilion il 30.0
Salmon River 1 Bel
Lavington 1

Salmon River bl

Composite2 1

DDT (%)
Mortality (%)! at 24 hr.
0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0
0.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
0.0 0.0 10.0 20.0
0.0 0.0 5.0 15.0
10.0 10.0 0.0 20.0
0.0 235 0.0 58.8
0.0 10.0 0.0 60.0
Dieldrin (%)
0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0
81.1 97.3 86.5 100.0 100.0
50.0 45.0 50.0 70.0 65.0
95.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
80.0 90.0 100.0 100.6 100.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 0.0
40.0 60.0 90.0 90.0 100.0
0.0 Sl 0.0 0.5 6.1
Diazinon (%)

0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1.0
60.0 75.0 90.0 100.0 100.0
65.0 90.0 90.0 95.0 100.0
80.0 - 90.0 90.0 90.0 100.0

1 Average corrected by Abbott’s formula (1925).

2 Alexandria, Cache Creek, Kamloops and Pavilion.

from untreated and aldrin - treated
plots showed little difference in the
amount of larval feeding damage.
This confirmed the laboratory evi-
dence for cyclodiene resistance in E.
tuberis. Average numbers and ranges
of larval tunnels per tuber from al-
drin-treated and untreated plots were
as follows:

84 DAYS Average Range

aldrin-treated 56.6 11-209

untreated Dien 9-139

147 DAYS

aldrin-treated 229.1 27-484

untreated 187.6 7-536
DISCUSSION

It is difficult to determine the

level of resistance in an insect Species
when the range of concentrations of
the test insecticides ‘is restricted by
the availability of field - collected
specimens. The level should be de-
termined by direct comparison of the
LDso of the suspect strain with that
of the normal susceptible straim
(Brown, 1958).

From the results obtained in 1963,
beetles from Pavilion were resistant
to DDT while those from Alexandria,
Armstrong, Cache Creek and Kam-
loops were tolerant. All the beetles
from the nine locations sampled in
1963 were susceptible to dieldrin. Sus-
pected resistance at Salmon River in

22

1964 was confirmed by laboratory
tests in 1965. The same tests confirm-
ed resistance at Lavington. The fail-
ure of a soil-incorporated application
of aldrin in the field experiment
showed that the larvae were resistant
also. Soil treatments of aldrin or
other cyclodiene insecticides normal-
ly prevent damage by killing the
newly emerged 1st, 2nd and on occa-
sion, 3rd instar larvae while they
search in the soil for potato roots or
tubers. It was demonstrated that
these populations had cross-resist-
ance to DDT, but not to diazinon, and
presumably not to other organophos-
phorus compounds. Beetles from
Cache Creek were highly tolerant to
dieldrin, and the DDT - tolerance
shown in 1963 by beetles from Alex-
andria, Cache Creek, Kamloops, and
Pavilion was reflected in the low mor-
tality counts of the composite sample
after exposure to DDT in 1965.

In the interior of British Columbia
the tuber flea beetle has developed
resistance to DDT and _ dieldrin in

J. ENTOMOL.

Soc. Brit. CorumBiaA, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967
areaS where extensive use of soil-
incorporated cyclodiene insecti-
cides commenced in 1953 and 1954
superseding foliar applications of
DDT. Use of cyclodiene insecticides,
known to be persistent (Banham,
1961), resulted in accumulations of
insecticidally active residues in the
soil. Since E. tuberis is virtually host
specific, the whole population at one
location was continually exposed to
broadcast or band applications of the
current year plus the accumulated
residues from previous years. This,
coupled with the tendency of growers
to shorten the sequence of crop ro-
tation under conditions of concen-
trated production, subjected this spe-
cies to increased selection pressure.

It has been shown (Varzandeh
et al., 1954) that development of re-
sistance has no apparent effect on
the biotic potential of Musca domes-
tica L. Results of tuber damage as-
sessments from field plots at Salmon
River in 1965 clearly indicate that
this applies as well to E. tubervis.

References

Abbott, W. S.
Econ. Entomol. 18:265-267.

1925. A method of computing the effectiveness of an insecticide. J.

Banham, F. L. 1960. Soil insecticides for control of the tuber flea beetle, Epitrix tuberis
Gent., in the interior of British Columbia. Can. J. Plant Sci, 40: 165-171.

Banham, F. L. 1961. The persistence of certain soil insecticides for control of the tuber

flea beetle, Epitrix tuberis Gent.,

J. Plant Sci. 41:664-671.
Brown, A. W. A. 1958.
240 p.

in the interior of British Columbia. Can.

Insecticide resistance in arthropods. W.H.O. Monogr. Ser. 38.

Finlayson, D. G., and C. L. Neilson. 1954. Experiments on the insecticidal control of
the tuber flea beetle, Epitrix tuberis Gent., in the interior of British Columbia.

Can. J. Agr. Sci. 34:156-160.
Morrison, H. E.

1962. Personal communication. Assoc. Prof. Dept. of Entomology,

Oregon State University, Corvallis.

Neilson, C. L., and D. G. Finlayson. 1953. Notes on the biology of the tuber flea beetle,
Epitrix tuberis Gentner (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), in the interior of British
Columbia. Can. Entomol. 85:31-32.

Varzandeh, M., W. N. Bruce, and G. C. Decker. 1954. Resistance to insecticides as a
factor influencing the biotic potential of the house fly. J. Econ. Entomol. 47:
129-134.

W.H.O. Expert Committee on Insecticides. 1960. Insecticide resistance and vector con-
trol. Tech. Rep. Ser. W.H.O. No. 191. Rep. 10.

J. Entomou. Soc. Brit. CotumpBia, 64 (1967), Auc. 1, 1967 23

WOOD- AND BARK-FEEDING COLEOPTERA

OF FELLED

WESTERN LARCH IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

D. A. Ross!

ABSTRACT
A list of wood- and bark-feeding Coleoptera reared from western
larch, Larix occidentalis Nuttall, in 1928-29 and 1965-66, and the range of
emergence dates are presented. The only species reared in significant num-
bers were the wood borers, Tetropium velutinum LeConte, Serropalpus

substriatus Haldeman, Melanophila drummondi

(Kirby) and the bark

beetle, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae Hopkins.

In 1928-29 J. R. L. Howell (unpub-
lished data) 2 reared insects that had
infested a felled western larch, Larix
occidentalis Nuttall, at Trinity Val-
ley, B.C., to determine the _ species
complex of the stump, bole and limbs.
The tree, of unrecorded size, was
felled in May 1927 and the trunk,
limbs, and stump were caged separ-
ately on 8 May 1928. Emergence of
adult insects recorded daily during
the emergence periods until the fall
of 1929 are considered here.

Investigations were initiated to
determine the species of wood-in-
festing Coleoptera of economic im-
portance to western larch in British
Columbia. Nine samples of infested
western larch logs from 1964 logging

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department
of Forestry and Rural Development of Canada,
Vernon, B.C.

2In files of Forest Entomology Laboratory,
Vernon, B.C.

operations were caged at Vernon in
April and May 1965. Seven additional
samples from trees felled in the
spring of 1965, were caged in the
spring of 1966. Each sample consisted
of three 2-foot-long bole sections 8
to 12 inches in diameter. Emergents
were collected daily during the 1965-
66 emergence period.

Infested logs were collected at Ar-
row Park, Grand Forks, Mt. Morris-
sey, Wilson Creek, Howser Ridge,
Lumberton, Little Slocan, Sugar Lake,
and Cherryville.

The emergence dates (Tabie 1)
probably are earlier than would be
expected under stand conditions,
since Vernon is at a lower elevation
than the collection sites of the logs.
Also, emergence ranges probably in-
clude the emergence of spring and
late summer broods, at least in the
case of Tetropium velutinum. A neg-

TABLE 1. Emergence at Vernon, B.C., from 16 samples! of western larch logs from
various localities in southern British Columbia.

No. samples Range in No. Emergence
Species infested emergents range
per sample 1965 1966
CERAMBYCIDAE
Anoplodera canadensis Oliv. 1 O- 1 Jul 21
Tetropium velutinum Lec. 14 2 - 100 May 20- May 2-
Aug 6 Aug 30
MELANDRYIDAE
Serropalpus substriatus Hald. 8 1- 55 ie ae ma
ep
Xylita livida Sahlb. 1 O- 1 May 2
BUPRESTIDAE
Melanophila drummondi (Kby.) 13 3- 44 May 17- May 26-
Aug 12 Jul 29
SCOLYTIDAE
Dendroctonus pseudotsugae Hopk. 4 3- 50 Apr 30- Jun 11
May 11
SIRICIDAE (Undet. spp.) 3 1- 7 Jun 19 Jul 13-
Aug 20

1 Each sample a total six lineal feet.

24 J. EXNtroMor..

ligible number of insects emerged in
1966 from the nine Samples caged
in the spring of 1965.

Howell (Table 2) reared 13 wood-
or bark -feeding species from the
stump, 11 from the bole and 8 from
the limbs. T. velutinum, Serropalpus
substriatus, Melanophila drummondi,
and Dendroctonus pseudotsugae
emerged in significant numbers from
the bole. Only the bark beetle D.
pseudotsugae emerged in quantity
from the stump, and T. velutinum
and Pissodes schwarzi Hopkins from
the limbs. Most species emerged the
first year. The major emergence of
T. velutinum and M. drummondi oc-
curred the first year followed by a

Soc. Brrr. Conuarmia, 64 (1967), Aua. 1, 1967

small emergence the second summer.
All specimens of S. substriatus and
three species of Cerambycidae emerg-
ed the second summer.

The only species present in sig-
nificant numbers in the samples of
western larch (Tables 1 and 2) were
the wood borers T. velutinum, S. sub-
triatus, M. drummondi, and the bark
beetle D. pseudotsugae. The first two
species lower the quality of the lum-
ber by boring into the wood; the
others may cause deterioration of the
wood by introducing fungal organ-
isms. The absence of Monochamus is
consistent with the lack of records of
this genus in western larch in the
literature.

TABLE 2. Emergence of wood- and bark-feeding insects in 1928, and 1929 (brackets)
from a western larch tree felled in May 1927 and stump, bole and limbs caged
separately in May 1928, Trinity Valley, B.C.

No. emergents ex. Emergence range

Species Stump Bole Limbs 1928 1929
CERAMBYCIDAE
Anoplodera 1 0 0 Jul 20
crassipes Lec.
Phymatodes 0 0(4) 0 May 28
densipennis Csy. Jun 9
Phymatodes 1 0 0 Jun 4
dimidiatus (Kby.)
Pogonocherus 0 1 1 Aug 21-
pictus Fall 29
Rhagium 0(1) 0 i} Mayll Jun 26
lineatum Oliv.
Spondylis il 0 0 May 20
upiformis Mann.
Tetropium 3° 56071) 149(8) May 16. May 25
velutinum Lec. Aug 27 Sep 13
Xylotrechus 0 0(1) 0 Jul 30
undulatus (Say)
MELANDRYIDAE
Scotochroa 0(1) 2 261) Aug 18- Jul 5
basalis Lec. 29
Serropalpus 0 0(61) 0(2) Jun 4-
substriatus Hald. Aug 4
BUPRESTIDAE
Melanophila 2 97 (4) 0 May 24 Jun 6-
drummondi (Kby.) Aug 31 Jul 30
CURCULIONIDAE
Pissodes 2) 26 Day May 8
schwarzi Hopk. Aug 21
SCOLYTIDAE
Dendroctonus pseu- 124 482 It May 8
dotsugae Hopk. Jul 20
Dryocoetes septen- 2; 0 0 Jun 13
trionis (Mann.)
Hylastes it il il May 24
longicollis Sw. Jun 23
Hylastes 3 0 0 Jun 4-
nigrinus (Mann.) 10
Hylastes 3 I Jun 18-
ruber Sw. 25

J. Extomon. Soc. Brir. ConumpBia. 64 (1967), Aua. 1, 1967 25

THE WESTERN LARCH BORER, TETROPIUM VELUTINUM
LECONTE, IN INTERIOR BRITISH COLUMBIA

D. A. Ross!

: ABSTRACT

In the interior of British Columbia, Tetropium velutinum LeConte
is an important borer in the sapwood of western larch, Larix occidentalis
Nuttall. Other authors have indicated that this borer was important
only as a bark miner and killer of trees. Galleries penetrated to depths
of 25 to 47 mm and ranged in total length from 28 to 69 mm. At Vernon
Oviposition was from early in May until the end of August. Limited
observations showed that the first penetration of the sapwood by the
larvae began about 6 weeks after oviposition.

INTRODUCTION

Webb (1911) briefy described the
stages, damage to the bark, and sta-
tus of Tetropium velutinum LeConte.
Craighead (1923) noted that the spe-
cies “‘...is of considerable economic
importance, causing the death of
Tsuga heterophylla and Larix
throughout the Rocky Mountains and
the Pacific Coast region.” Kinghorn
(1954) observed that it infested and
killed numerous mature hemlock
that had been weakened by an epi-
demic of hemlock loopers. He indi-
cated that it was common in western
Washington and Oregon, southern
Vancouver Island, coastal mainland
near Vancouver, and in the southern
interior of British Columbia.

These authors noted that T. velu-
tinum was important as a bark miner
and killer of trees. Preliminary ob-
servations indicated that it might be
more important as a wood borer than
as a tree killer in the southern In-
terior (Ross 1966). In 1965-66, activity
of the insect on and in logs was in-
vestigated to determine its signifi-
cance as a wood borer, and to gain
information for control procedures.

Sections of infested coniferous
logs from Neilson and Kamloops for-
est districts were caged outdoors at
Vernon. The adult Tetropium reared
were placed, usually in pairs, in small
cages containing a short bolt of
freshly cut larch and some sugar

_1Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department
of Forestry and Rural Development, Vernon, B.C.

solution. Adult activity, egg incuba-

tion and larval feeding were ob-
served.

OBSERVATIONS
HOSTS: In the interior of British

Columbia this borer was most fre-
quent in western larch, Larix occi-
dentalis Nutt. logs or windfalls. In a
few instances it was reared from
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Fran-
co, Picea engelmanni Parry, Tsuga
heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg., Pinus mon-
ticola Dougl. and P. contorta Doug}.
Its occurrence was confirmed as far
north as Shuswap Lake.

ADULT ACTIVITY: The adult emer-
gence period for material caged out-
doors at Vernon was 18 May to 6 Aug-
ust in 1965, and to 2 May to 30 August,
1966. The major emergence period
was between mid-May and mid-June.
The average longevity for 17 pairs of
adults was 11 days for males and 12
days for females. One male lived
13 days and one female 20 days.
Adults mated readily the day of
emergence when the temperature
exceeded 19°C. Usually copulation
was frequent for several days until
the female began egg laying. Mating
recurred the first day after oviposi-
tion. Both sexes occasionally mated
with more than one adult.

Oviposition was observed in June
between 0800 and 2000 hours P.DS.T.
at temperatures above 18°C., gener-
ally 2 to 4 days after emergence. The
soft body of this insect allows it to
squeeze under the loose bark and ob-
tain deep penetration of the oviposi-

26 J. EXroMon. Soc. Brit. Conumabtra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

tor between the bark scales. White
eges (about 12x0.4 mm) were de-
posited in loose clusters in a com-
pressed state under bark scales and
in the crevices of the tree bole.

The number of developed ovarioles
in each ovary ranged from 31 to 36,
indicating a high potential egg pro-
duction during a short period. In the
insectary, the maximum number of
eggs deposited by one beetle was 208.
The average number of eggs deposit-
ed by 10 of the most productive
females was 130. The longest oviposi-
tion period for an individual was 11
days, and its daily egg production
durine. that period was-10, 51; 2 3,
KORO; 3, 10; 3. 3, and 9- respectively.

INCUBATION: Incubation time in
June ranged from 10 to 16 with an
average of 13 days.

LARVAL ACTIVITY: The newly
hatched larvae bored to the inner
bark to feed. The extent of mining
in the bark of a recently felled larch
is shown (Fig. 1) for five Jarvae
hatched on 28 June, 1966, and allow-
ed to* feed undisturbed for 41 days.
Two larvae had begun to score the
wood and the other three fed on the
phloem and cambium. The first re-
corded penetration of the wood oc-
curred just under 6 weeks following
Oviposition on 27 May.

The larval entrance hole into the
wood was elliptical and ranged in
size fron 75.0 x 2.7 “to 6.0 x 3.5 mm
(Fig. 2). The wood was invariably
scored along the entrance side of the
hole for 2 to 5 mm. Penetration of the
gallery into the wood extended to a
depth of 25 to 47 mm. Most galleries
were L-Shaped (Fig. 3) with a gentle,
simple curve: im thiesentranece armor
the gallery. Length of 15 galleries
varied from 28 to 69 mm; the volume
varied: from 0.42 fo 1.28 ce (average
0.86 cc). Most larvae in caged bolts
overwintered near the lower end of
the well-plugged gallery.

PUPATION: Pupation occurred early
in the spring mostly in galleries in
the wood althcugh a few pupated

under the bark. At 21°C. the pupal
stage lasted from 7 to 9 days.

The adults emerged from the en-
trance holes that were frequently
hidden by a flake of bark. The maxi-
mum number of holes recorded was
17/ft2, in a western larch log 200 mm
in diameter.

Generally, this insect completes
only one generation a year. However
in 1965 a female oviposited on caged
logs late in May and the brood pro-
duced five adults on 23 August two
of which mated and produced eggs;
several eggs hatched and the larvae
wintered successfully.

In another instance eggs were de-
posited on 16 June and hatched 13
days later. The larvae fed for 47 days
on the inner bark, then pupated in
the bark on 16 August and an adult
emerged 8 days later.

DISCUSSION

Other authors (Webb 1911; Craig-
head 1923; Kinghern 1954; and Keen
1952) emphasized the importance of
T. velutinum as a bark-mining tree
killer, particularly of weakened west-
ern larch and hemlock. This pheno-
menon has not been observed in the
interior of British Columbia; how-
ever, there are numerous records of
the borer damaging the sapwood of
western larch logs (Ross 1967). The
L-shaped galleries extended into the
wood to a depth of 25 to 47 mm,
ranged in length from 28 to 69 mm,
and had an average volume of 0.86
Ce:

The life cycle usually takes 1
year, although a partial second gen-
eration may occur.

In 1966, at Vernon, oviposition be-
gan the first week in May and con-
tinued until the end of August.
Therefore insecticides, which should
persist througnout the summer,
should be applied early in May.

There is evidence that during
some years and under certain condi-
tions larvae do not penetrate the
sapwood until at least 6 weeks after
oviposition. Although the duration

J. EntomMon. Soc. Brrr. Cotumpta, 64 (1967), Auac. 1, 1967

27

Figs. 1-3 Tetropium velutinum Lec.

1. Galleries in phloem made by five larvae left to feed undisturbed for 41 days.
Stippled area is scored wood.

28 J. EXromMon. Soc. Brit. CotumBiA, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

t

SURO ce eee er MN oem tees ee es NTP ee
Sy ia ee son pao ape ro

ESS

2. Larval entrance holes in wood of Larix occidentalis.
3. Lead castings of galleries in wood (Geistlinger and Taylor 1962).

of this bark - mining stage must be
determined for different conditions,
it may be assumed that damage can
be prevented if infested logs are pro-
cessed or peeled before the end of
June of the year of infestation. In

may not begin until later. As for
many other wood borers, damage can
be avoided by prompt utilization of
felled trees.

Acknowledgments
The writer is indebted to J. M. King-

situations where cool weather delayS porn for suggestions for improving the
development, damage to the wood manuscript.
Literature Cited

Craighead, F. C. 1923. North American ceramycid larvae. Canada Dept. Agric. Bull.

27 N.S. (Technical) p. 34.

Keen, F. P.
280 pp.

Geistlinger, N. J. and D .W. Taylor.

1962.

1952. Insect enemies of western forests. U.S.D.A. Mise. Pub. No. 273.

A method of demonstrating the form of

larval galleries of wood-boring insects. Proc. Entomol. Soc. British Columbia

39: 50.

Kinghorn, J.M. 1954. Tetropium velutinum LeConte a secondary bark-mining ceram-
bycid in western hemlock following the hemlock looper outbreak on Vancouver
Island. Interim. Tech. Rept. Canada Dept. Agric. Victoria, B.C. 33 pp.

Ross, D. A. 1967. Wood-and bark-feeding Coleoptera of western larch in British
Columbia. J. Entomol. Soc. British Columbia 64:23-24.

Webb, J. L. 1911.

Injuries to forests and forest products by round-headed borers.

Jn Yearbook of U.S, Dept. Agric. 1910. 341-358.

J. Entomou. Soc. Brrr. Cotumpia, 64 (1967), Ava. 1,

1967 29

THE MARSH CRANE FLY, TIPULA PALUDOSA
Meg., A NEW PEST IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
(DIPTERA: TIPULIDAE)

A. T. S. WILKINSON AND H. R. MacCartTuy'!

ABSTRACT

Tipula paludosa Meigen was firmly established in the Vancouver
area by 1965, starting in the eastern outskirts of the city, It was taken at
Blaine, Wash., in 1966. By 1967 the pest had spread to the Chilliwack area.
Populations of 110/ft2 were measured in 1966 and local observations were
recorded of damage, oviposition, feeding, growth, and emergence. A
review is included of European literature on populations, life history,
weather relations, and biological, chemical and cultural controls, with

some speculation on the future.

INTRODUCTION

In the past three years the leath-
erjacket or larva of the European
marsh crane fly, Tipula paludosa
Mg., has become a serious problem in
lawns and pastures in the lower Fra-
ser Valley. Identification was by J. R.
Vockeroth, Entomology Research In-
stitute, Ottawa. This is the most com-
mon and damaging crane fly in
northwestern Europe. The leather-
jackets were first found in 1965 caus-
ing severe damage to lawns in the
eastern outskirts of Vancouver. In
1966 they were considerably more
widespread and in pastures on several
small farms in this area there was
virtually no growth until the middle
of May. In the fall adult T. paludosa
were trapped at Blaine, Washington,
25 miles southeast of Vancouver
(U.S.D.A. Cooperative Economic In-
sect Rpt. 16: 946, 949, 956. 1966). In
1967 heavy infestations of leather-
jackets and the resulting damage
occurred on large dairy farms near
Pitt Meadows, 20 miles east of Van-
couver, and in lawns at Yarrow, 30
miles farther east.

The first North American record
of this pest was in 1955 on Cape Bre-
ton Island (Fox, 1957) where lawns
and flowers were attacked. The in-
festation there was thought to have
originated in soil used for ships bal-
last and dumped ashore. In New-
foundland Morris (1960) reported

1 Contribution No. 132

ture, 6660 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver 8, B.C.

Research Station, Re-
search Branch, Canada Department of Agricul-

damage in 1959 to cabbage trans-
plants and turnip seedlings. The or-
igin of the present outbreak is a
matter for speculation; a good guess
would be the balled roots of orna-
mentals imported from Europe.

LOCAL OBSERVATIONS

Most of the damage in British Co-
lumbia has been to lawns and pas-
tures but flowers, strawberries and
vegetable crops in backyard gardens
have also been attacked. These infes-
tations have been easily controlled
with DDT or aldrin, but the rapid
spread of this pest to pasture has
presented a much more serious prob-
lem. The lower Fraser Valley is pri-
marily a dairying region, and there
is great danger of insecticide residues
occurring in meat and milk fats if
these and similar persistent insecti-
cides are applied to forage or fodder.

In 1966 preliminary studies were
carried out in a heavy infestation on
a 10-acre farm. In April and May the
larval population was measured in 84
samples, each of % sq ft, on about 4
acres. Gasoline sprayed on the turf
brought nearly all the larvae to the
surface where they were readily
counted. The top 1l-inch of sod was
examined for the remainder that did
not emerge. The population per sq
ft averaged 109.6 (range 24-232), or
close to 5 million per acre.

Rototilling and disking reduced
the population by about two-thirds
but the reduction was not enough to
allow a new Seeding to survive. When

30 J. Extomor. Soc. Brit. CotumsBia, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

oats and grass were planted on April
26 nothing grew, not even volunteer
grass or weeds. The larvae matured
and stopped feeding about the middle
of May. Oats and grass planted on
May 20 produced a good crop.

On warm, cloudy days in March
and April, the larvae were observed
on the surface feeding on the crowns
and blades of grass. On bright days
they remained in the sod but fed on
the surface at night. The larvae were
generally found in the top 1-inch of
sod, but after about the middle of
May they moved downward and many
were found as deep as 3 inches below
the surface.

Emergence and adult populations
were Studied by placing six 1-sq-ft
cages in a pasture and taking counts
twice weekly. The adults started
emerging during the first week of
August, peaked about September 1,
and the last one was collected on
September 30. The average number
of adults per sq ft was 98 (range
75-112) consisting of 55 males, 43 fe-
males.

The egg capacity was observed by
Coulson’s (1962) method of removing
the head from newly-emerged and
mated females from the field and
floating them on water which induces
them to oviposit. The eggs remaining
in their abdomens were also counted.
The average number of eggs based on
10 females was 281 (range 243-338).
This is lower than the average of 360
reported by ‘Coulson \(1962)- m* the
north of England but close to Barnes’
(1937) figure of 272 in the south.

No parasites have emerged from
many hundreds of larvae reared in
the laboratory, nor have larvae been
observed killed by virus. The only
predators seen were spiders and pos-
Sibly the numerous European star-
lings, Sturnus vulgaris, which appear
to feed on larvae and adults. Average
survival from the late larval stages to
adults was high when 98 adults were
obtained from an average of 110 lar-
vae per sq ft. This suggests that there
are at present low levels of canni-
balism, predation, parasitism and dis-

ease in this infestation.

POPULATIONS

It is clear that numbers of the
pest were in a runaway phase during
1966. Maercks (1939) in northern
Germany, considered that 5 per sq
ft would cause serious injury in ar-
able land, and 10 per sq ft serious
injury in grass land. Cohen & Steer
(1946) considered 20 per sq ft to be
a heavy infestation. The population
level is likely to decline as existing
and imported biological controls as-
sert themselves.

LIFE HISTORY

Several experienced investigators
have studied T. paludosa, and their
accounts are well in agreement with
one another. The species appears to
be mostly univoltine but some
authors state without offering evi-
dence that there may be a partial or
complete 2nd generation.

Egg. The eggs are black and shiny,
11x0.4 mm, are laid at night in
August and September, and have very
high moisture requirements at first.
They will collapse within 2 to 4 min-
utes in less than 100% relative humi-
dity (Laughlin, 1958). The minimum
mortality occurs in upland soil hold-
ing twice its dry weight of water
(Maercks, 1939). They are laid on or
very close to the surface, 68% within
1 cm of it according to. © ouson
(1962). Rennie (1916) considered that
not all the eggs were mature on the
emergence of the female, and that
some were retained to produce a 2nd
batch. Most later workers think that
remaining unlaid eggs are Simply a
residue. The eggs develop without
diapause (SellkKe, 1936).

Larva. The larvae hatch in 11 to
15 days (Rennie, 1917; Barnes, 1937).
They feed from the first day, starting
at approximately 2.7 mm long, with
13 segments, growing to 4 or 5 mm
in 12 to 13 days (Rennie; 1917) ivior-
tality is high for the first 20 to 30
days (Laughlin, 1958).

The first two instars of three are
passed in about 14 days in central
England (Barnes, 1937). In six weeks

J. EntomMou. Soc. Brit. CorumsiA, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967 31.

they are about 6 mm long. The winter
is spent in the 3rd instar (Fig. 1),
which is without diapause and lasts
roughly 25 weeks (SellKe, 1937; Coul-
son, 1962). Growth is rapid in spring
when most of the damage occurs
(Rennie, 1917). Minimum larval mor-
tality occurs in upland soil holding
three times its dry weight of water
(Maercks, 1939). Young larvae appear
to prefer green leaves to roots and
grow most rapidly with least loss on
white clover. They also rear easily on
lettuce, wheat and rye, but may not
complete development on oats
(Maercks, 1939). Normally, but not
invariably, they surface to feed, dur-
ing darkness (Sellke, 1937).

Pupa. The larvae stop feeding in
mid-May for two or three weeks be-
fore pupating (Fig. 2). When the
adult is ready to emerge the pupa
works its way to the surface where
the empty pupal case is left by the
emerging adult, characteristically
protruding 2.5 cm from the ground.
These are easily sexed, and a ratio of
1.72 males to 1 female was establish-
ed by Coulson (1962). Cannibalism
may be a reducing factor in the early
stages of pupation.

Adult. The adults emerge soon
after sunset in August and Septem-
ber, mate immediately (Fig. 3), lay
75% of their eggs before daylight
(Sellke, 1937; Barnes, 1937; Coulson,

TABLE 1—Mean monthly temperatures,
precipitation, and days with rain, based on
30 years of records, Vancouver International

Airport.

Mean mo. Mean mo. Mean days

Month temp.,°F precipitation, with rain
inches

Jan. 37.2 5.02 19
Feb. 39.4 4.74 16
March 43.2 3.76 16
April 48.3 2.30 13
May 55.0 1.92 10
June 60.4 1.84 9
July 63.8 1.04 6
Aug. 63.6 1.37 8
Sept 57.8 2.13 9
Oct. 50.3 4.62 15
Nov. 43.1 5.44 18
Dec. 39.6 6.44 20
Total 41.12 159

1962) and have finished laying within
32 hrs of emerging (Coulson, 1962).
They fly very little before laying, but
may leave 5 or 6 eggs in One spot,
then move a Short distance (Rennie,
1917). Males live about 7 days, fe-
males from 4 to 5 days (Barnes, 1937).
In a 4-year study at Rothamsted,
97% of 3,400 adult crane-flies were
of this species (Robertson, 1939).

WEATHER RELATIONS

Maercks (1941) concludes that
this pest is favored by mild winters,
cool summers, and rainfall averaging
at least 24 inches per year. Mean
monthly values for temperature, pre-
cipitation and numbers of days with
rainfall are shown by months in
Table 1, based on 30-year averages
at the Vancouver International Air-
port. Values for agricultural areas of
the lower Fraser Valley differ only
slightly. It thus appears that the
maritime climate of the wet, coastal
belt of British Columbia is practically
ideal for this pest.

The present outbreak has been
favored by recent weather patterns.
In the 5 years, 1962-1966, mean
monthly temperatures in winter and
summer were above normal as fol-

lows:
Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. May
4/5 2/5 3/5 0/9 0/5
June July Aug.
0/5 0/5 0/5

The conclusion is that the pest has
had five years of ideal conditions in
which to become well established.

Damage may be expected follow-
ing a wet September, especially if the
following winter is mild (Maercks,
1941). A cold spring contributes to
damage, because the danger period in
annual crops is from the time of sow-
ing to the growth of adventitious
roots (Rennie, 1917). Robertson
(1939) noticed that twice as many
adults were taken at light traps on
moonless nights aS on moonlit ones,
and three times as many on cloudy
aS on clear nights. Most of the trap-
ped adults were males.

29 J. ExTowon. Soc. Brrr. CorumMpra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

J. ENtoMou. Soc. Brit. CotumstiA, 64 (1967), Aug. 1, 1967 33

BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS

T. paludosa is not effectively con-
trolled naturally in northwest Eur-
ope. The most effective insect para-
site appears to be Siphona geniculata
De Geer, a small Tachinid that lays
up to 9 eggs on the stigmatic crown
of the leatherjacket. The larvae en-
ter the main tracheal trunks and
bore into the hemocoele but retain a
respiratory connection with a chiti-
nous Sheath-like structure. There are
two generations per year and the
parasite overwinters in the host, but
the level of parasitism is never high.
One record shows 34% to have been
affected but the average is much low-
er, from 6 to 17% (Rennie & Suther-
land, 1920). The Vancouver Station is
attempting to establish S. geniculata
supplied by the Institute for Biologi-
cal Control, Belleville, Ont.

Two virus diseases of leather-
jackets have been recorded and plans
to use these are under way at Van-
couver. However, they do not appear
to be highly contagious, although fa-
tal..Empusa (= Entomophthora) has
been recorded as infesting popula-
tions in Germany (Muller - Kogler,
1957), and a fungal infection of the
tracheae is known (Coulson, 1962).
Two species of saprozoic and parasitic
nematodes have been recorded in
Denmark (Bovien, 1937). Cannibal-
ism is a mortality factor in labora-
tory rearing, but its effect in the field
is difficult to assess and probably
small. George (1966) concludes that
there is little evidence for effective
diseases.

Predation on larvae, especially by
European starlings and native moles,
Scapanus spp., should be_ studied.
Predation on adults is probably not
effective, since any adult taken is
likely already to have expended most
of its quota of eggs.

CHEMICAL CONTROLS
The problem is twofold: how to
treat land without creating a residue

hazard, and how to live with the pest
at the same time Keeping down costs.
Fortunately the larvae are _ easily
killed and will accept baits readily.
They have thin integument, perme-
able enough for gaseous exchange,
lacking an epicuticular layer (Ghil-
arov & Semenova, 1957). Moreover,
lst and 2nd instar larvae remain close
to the surface, and have been killed
even by mineral fertilizer (SellKe,
1937).

CULTURAL CONTROLS

LeatherjacKets may be reduced by
cultivation, since they do not go deep
into the soil, but when the numbers
are very large the reduction may not
be effective. However, T. paludosa is
adaptable enough to Survive and re-
produce without the presence of
growing plants, by eating decaying
rootlets after the manner of wire-
worms (Rennie, 1917). MaerckKs
(1941) advocates good drainage of
land and short grass during egg-lay-
ing in August and September. The
deleterious effect on the eggs and
young larvae of dry weather, may
sometimes be offset by the practice

of irrigating pastures with sprinklers.

FUTURE PROSPECTS

Review of the extensive European
literature indicates that T. paludosa
is likely to become a constant and
possibly a major pest in areas of high
rainfall. There are dozens of records
of damage by this species in north-
western Europe in research papers
and annual reports from Denmark,
U.K., Germany, Sweden and Holland.
It probably will establish itself in
northwestern Washington, but its
southern and eastern spread may be
restricted by cold winters and by its
high moisture requirements. Popula-
tion crashes in northern England in
1955 and 1959 were shown experi-
mentally by Milne et al. (1965) to re-
sult from very dry conditions at criti-
cal periods.

Fig. 1—Mature 3rd-instar larvae of T. paludosa.
Fig. 2—Pupa of T. paludosa.
Fig. 3—Marsh crane flies, Tipula paludosa in copula.

34 lke,

They predicted that increases may
be expected if rainfall in August and
September is normal or greater than
mormal--but when rainfall? at- this
time drops below 50% of normal,
sharp declines will certainly occur.

ENTOMOI..

Soc. Brit. Conumnpta, 64 (1967). Aue. 1, 1967

Nevertheless there is likely always to
be a residue in low-lying land and
in ditch-banks.

It appears unlikely that resistance
to chemical pesticides will develop

within 15 to 20 years.

References

Barnes, H. F. 1937. Methods of investigating the biometrics of the common crane-fly,
Tipula paludosa Meigen, together with some results. Ann. Appl. Biol, 24:356-368.

Bovien, P. 1937. Some types of association between nematodes and insects. Vidensk.
medd. dansk. naturh. For 101. Copenhagen, C. A. Rietzel. 114pp.

Cohen, M and W. Steer. 1946. The control of leatherjackets with DDT. J. Roy. Hort.
Soc. 71:130-133.

Coulson, J. C. 1962. The biology of Tipula subnodicornis Zetterstedt, with compara-
tive observations on Tipula paludosa Meigen. J. Anim. Ecol. 31: 1-21.

Fox, C. J. S. 1957. Note on occurrence in Cape Breton Island of Tipula paludosa Mg.
(Diptera:Tipulidae). Canad. Ent. 89: 288.

George, K. S. 1966. A survey of leatherjacket populations in England and Wales
1961-65. Plant Pathology 15: 1-8.

Ghilarov, M. S. and L. M. Semenova. 1957. Die Kutikelpermeabilitat bodenbewohnen-
der Tipuliden-Larven. In Zum IV. Internationalen Pflanzenschutzkongress Ham-
burg vom 8, bis 15 September. Z. Pflkrank, 64: 385-637.

Laughlin, R. 1958. Desiccation of eggs of the crane fly (Tipula oleraca, L.). Nature,
Lond. 182: 613.

Maercks, H. 1939. Die Wiesenschnaken und ihre Bekampfung. Kranke Pflanze
16: 107-110.
Maercks, H. 1941. Das Schadauftreten der Wiesenschnaken (Tipuliden) in Abhan-

gigkeit von Klima, Witterung und Boden. Arb. physiol.
8: 261-275.

Milne, A., R. Laughlin and R. E. Coggins. 1965. The 1955 and 1959 population crashes
in leatherjacket, Tipula paludosa Meigen, in Northumberland. J. Anim. Ecol.
34: 529-544.

Morris, R. F. 1960. Newfoundland. Vegetable, field crop and other injurious insect
pests predominating during 1959. Canad. Ins. Pest Rev. 38: 104-106.

Miiller-Kogler, E. 1957. Uber eine Mykose der larven von Tipula paludosa Meig. durch
Empusa sp. In Zum IV. Internationalen Pflanzenschutzkongress Hamburg vom
8, bis 15 September. Z. Pflkrankh. 64: 385-637.

Rennie, J. 1917. On the biology and economic significance of Tipula paludosa Meigen.
Part I. Ann. Appl. Biol. 2: 235-240.

Rennie, J. 1916. On the biological and economic significance of Tipula paludosa Meigen.
II. Ann. Appl. Biol. 3: 116-137.

Rennie, J. and C. H. Sutherland. 1920. On the life history of Bucentes (Siphona) geni-
culata (Diptera:Tachinidae), parasite of Tipula paludosa (Diptera) and other
species. Parasitology 12: 199-211.

Robertson, A. G. 1939. The nocturnal activity of crane-flies (Tipulinae) as indicated
by captures in a light trap at Rothamsted. J. Anim. Ecol. 8:300-322.

Sellke, K. 1936. Biologische und morphologische Studien an schadlichen Wiesen-
schnaken (Tipulidae, Dipt.). Z. wiss Zool. 148: 465-555.

Sellke, K. 1937. Beobachtungen tiber die Penne von Wiesenschnakenlarven
(Tipula paludosa Meig, und Tipula czizeki de J.), Z. angew. Ent. 24: 277-284.

angew. Ent. Berl.

J. Entomou. Soc. Brit. Cotumpia, 64 (1967), Auge. 1, 1967 35

NEW RECORDS AND DISCUSSION OF
PREDATORS OF THE PEAR PSYLLA, PSYLLA
PYRICOLA FORSTER, IN BRITISH COLUMBIA!

By R. D. McCMULLEN and C. JONG

ABSTRACT

The following species are presented as new records of insect pred-
ators of the pear psylla, Psylla pyricola Forster, in British Columbia:

Anthocoris nemoralis (F.) Campylomma verbasci (Meyer), Deraeo-
coris brevis piceatus Knight, D. fasciolus Knight, Diaphnocoris provancheri
(Burque), Adalia frigida Schn., Calvia duodecemmaculata Gebl., Coccinella
transversoguttata Fald., Hippodamia quinquesignata Kirby, Platypalpus sp.
near pluto Mel., Hemerobius pacificus Banks. The biologies of some of the
most common predators of the pear psylla are briefly discussed.

INTRODUCTION

The role of predaceous insects in
the natural control of Psylla pyricola
Forster has been documented and
discussed by several workers. Until
Madsen (1961) presented observa-
tions on predation of P. pyricola by
Anthocoris melanocerus Reuter in
British Columbia and speculated on
its importance in the natural control
of this species there were very few
published records of predators of P.
pyricola in North America. Previously,
Slingerland (1896) observed preda-
tion by Chrysopa oculata Say and
Adalia bipunctata (L.) in New York.
More recently Chrysopa carnea Fitch,
C. ploribunda Fitch, Hemerobius an-
gustus (Banks), Anthocoris antevo-
lens White and Orius sp. were record-
ed as predators in studies evaluating
the natural control of P. pyricola in
California by Madsen, Westigard and
Sisson (1963) and Nickel, Shimizu
and Wong (1965). In British Colum-
bia, Wilde (1962) and Wilde and Wat-
son (1963) reported the following
species as predators of P. pyricola; C.
carnea, C. oculata, A. antevolens, A.
melanocerus, Orius tristicolor White,
Hippodamia convergens Guerin-
Meneville, Magilla fuscilabris Mulsant
and the larva of a _ syrphid fly,
Sphaerophoria sp.

Additional records of species pre-
daceous on P. pyricola are presented
below. The biologies of these and some

1 Contribution No. 216, Research Station, Re-

search Branch, Canada Department of Agricul-
ture, Summerland, British Columbia.

of the previously Known predators are
discussed.

METHODS

Most of the records of predation
were obtained from two pear or-
chards. One, located at the Research
Station, Summerland, has a grass
sod cover crop and has received all
the standard horticultural practices
except for the application of pesti-
cides for the past 18 years. The other,
located at Penticton, has a weedy
cover crop and has been maintained
aS a commercial orchard. During the
past three years portions of the or-
chard have been treated with various
insecticides and parts left untreated
for experiments on the integrated
control of pests of pear.

The presence and relative abund-
ance of active stages of predators in
pear trees were determined by the
limb-jarring method (Lord, 1949).
The orchards were sampled in this
manner at weekly or biweekly inter-
vals from early March to mid-October.
Observations on acts of predation
were usually made first in the or-
chard, often with the aid of a hand
lens, and then confirmed in the
laboratory. Nymphs and adults of
suspected predators were caged with
various Stages of P. pyricola and ob-
served through a low-power micro-
scope.

During the growing season the
eges of predators and preferred ovi-
position sites were identified by ob-
serving oviposition in the orchard.

26 J. EnTomon. Soc. Brit. CotumsBia, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

Also eggs suspected of being those of
predators were reared in the labora-
tory to stages that permitted identifi-
cation.

Information on overwintering
habits were obtained by _ several
methods. Corrugated cardboard bands
were placed on trees in the early
autumn to serve as artificial hiberna-
tion sites. These were examined dur-
ing the winter. Cracks and crevices in
the bark on tree trunks and limbs
were also examined. During the win-
ter, orchard trash, sod and top soil
were processed through Berlese type
funnels to aid in the assessment of
preferred overwintering sites. For
species that overwinter in the egg
stage, branches and twigs containing
suspected eggs of predaceous species
were placed in water filled jars in a
greenhouse during the late winter.
The nymphs that hatched from the
eggs were reared to an identifiable
stage.

NEW RECORDS OF PREDATORS OF
PSYLLA PYRICOLA FORSTER IN
BRITISH COLUMBIA

The following species represent
new predator records obtained during
the course of this study:

Anthocoris nemoralis (F.) (Hete-
roptera: Anthocoridae)

Campylomma _ verbasci
(Heteroptera: Miridae)

Deraeocoris brevis piceatus Knight
(Heteroptera: Miridae)

(Meyer )

Deraeocoris fasciolus Knight
(Heteroptera: Miridae)
Diaphnocoris provancheri (Bur-

que) (Heteroptera: Miridae)

Adalia frigida Schn. (Coleoptera:
Coccinellidae)

Calvia duodecemmaculata Gebl.
(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Coccinella transversoguttata Fald.
(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Hippodamia quinquesignata Kirby
(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Platypalpus sp. near pluto Mel.
(Diptera: Empidae)

Hemerobius pacificus Banks (Neu-
roptera: Hemerobiidae )

DISCUSSION

Chrysopidae. Very little informa-
tion has been published on the biolo-
gies of Chrysopa spp. in British
Columbia. Current investigations in-
dicate that one or more species are
important predators of P. pyricola.
Adults of C. carnea and C. oculata are
common in pear orchards. By direct
observation in pear orchards and
laboratory rearing, the larvae of both
species are Known to prey on eggs
and nymphs of P. pyricola. However,
information on the relative abund-
ance of the two species on pear trees
is lacking. In the light of a statement
by Putman (1932) that C. oculata is
restricted almost entirely to low vege-
tation in Ontario peach orchards, the
value of this species in an arboreal
habitat is questionable. In pear or-
chard cover crops, Chrysopa spp.
larvae are abundant on weeds infested
with aphids and other arthropods in
cover crops. But again, the species
concerned and their relative abund-
ance are not known.

Chrysopa spp. larvae are present
in pear orchards and prey on eggs
and nymphs of P. pyricola from early
May through October. They are most
abundant in July and August. Addi-
tional records of prey species on pear
trees include all stages of the Euro-
pean red mite, Panonychus ulmi
(Koch), and the two-spotted spider
mite, Tetranychus telarius (L.), lar-
vae of the fruit-tree leaf roller
Archips argyrospilus (Walker), the
apple aphid Aphis pomi DeGeer and
nymphs of unidentified leafhoppers
(Cicadellidae).

Hemerobiidae. Of the brown lace-
wings, Hemerobius pacificus Banks is
the only species that has been verified
as preying on eggs and nymphs of P.
pyricola in British Columbia, but
other species may also be involved. In
the pear orchards studied, brown
lacewings were only about one-tenth
as abundant as were green lacewings.
In contrast, Nickel, Shimizu and
Wong (1965) stated that H. angustus
was more common than C. carnea in

J. Entomon. Soc. Brir. Conumsta, 64 (1967),

pear orchards near San Jose, Calif-
ornia.

Anthocoridae, The distribution,
life histories and habits of several
species of Anthocoridae in British
Columbia, including Anthocoris ante-
volens, A. melanocerus and Orius
tristicolor have been discussed by An-
derson (1962a). A. melanocerus and
A. antevolens are two of the most
abundant predators of P. pyricola in
unsprayed pear orchards. Both spe-
cies overwinter as adults. Nymphs are
frequently found in hibernation but
they are killed by winter tempera-
tures. In pear orchards, adults are
most commonly found during the
winter beneath bark scales and in
cracks on the lower scaffold limbs
and trunks of trees. Accumulations of
dry orchard trash on the ground are
also favored as overwintering sites.
Adults of both species exhibit aggre-
gational behavior during hibernation
and both species occur in the same
aggregations.

Dispersal from overwintering sites
in early spring is gradual and usually
begins when daily maximum tem-
peratures exceed 50°F. After dispersal
the adults search for sources of prey
and then remain to feed and oviposit
where food sources are adequate. In
pear orchards, eggs laid by over-
wintered P. pyricola and overwintered
eggs of P. ulmi appear to be the main
prey and attraction.

The sex ratio, males to females, of
both A. antevolens and A. melano-
cerus iS approximately 1:10 in over-
wintered populations. The females
are fertilized in the fall and addi-
tional mating in the spring is not
required. The sex ratios of summer
generations is approximately 13:1.
Oviposition starts before pear buds
are opened. At this time, eggs are in-
serted into bud scales. Later in the
season, eggs are laid into any soft
green tissue, most frequently in the
lamina, veins and petioles of leaves.
The eggs are inserted into the tissue,
just beneath and parallel to the sur-
face with only the operculum exposed.

Aue. 1, 1967 37

Anderson (1962a) gave the time
required to complete one generation
under laboratory conditions for A.
antevolens as five to six weeks and
for A. melanocerus as four to five
weeks. Field observations during 1965
and 1966 indicated that at Penticton
and Summerland there were four
generations per year of each species.
Females maturing after the first week
of September do not reproduce but
enter a State of reproductive diapause
in preparation for overwintering.

Anthocoris spp. must be consid-
ered aS among the most important
natural control agents of P. pyricola.
They are abundant and their seasonal
distribution is more closely synchron-
ized with that of P. pyricola than
other predators. They are the only
abundant species which prey on P.
pyricola in the latter half of March
and the first half of April.

Other records of predation by
Anthocoris spp. on pear trees include
all stages of P. ulmi and T. telarius,
eggs of the codling moth, Carpocapsa
pomonella (L.), small larvae of A.
argyrospilus (Walker) and nymphs of
unidentified leafhoppers (Cicadelli-
dae). Both species also feed on a
variety of small arthropods and re-
produce on weeds in pear orchard.
cover Crops.

Anthocoris nemoralis is not a na-
tive of British Columbia but was
introduced at Summerland from
Europe as a predator of P. pyricola by
the Canada Department of Agricul-
ture in co-operation with the Com-
monwealth Institute of Biological
Control. In June, 1963, 50 were re-
leased in an experimental pear
orchard. By August, 1966, the species
was very abundant at the release site
and had dispersed to other orchards
at least 1.5 miles distant.

Psyllids are preferred prey for A.
nemoralis (Anderson, 1962b). In Eng-
land there are only two generations
per year. This species differs from
most other Anthocoris spp. in that
the sex ratio of males to females in
the overwintering generation is ap-

38 J. ENTOMOL.

proximately 1:1 (Anderson, 1962c).
The biology of this species in its new
environment has not yet been studied.
Since A. nemoralis probably occupies
a niche very similar to that of A.
melanocerus and A. antevolens, ob-
servations on competition between
these species will be of interest.

Orius tristicolor is a minor preda-
tor of P. pyricola. In pear orchards it
is more abundant near the ground on
cover crop plants than in the canopy
of pear trees. Adults have been ob-
served feeding on P. pyricola eggs and
small nymphs. Nymphs of O. ftristi-
color are rare on pear foliage.

Miridae. The mullein plant bug,
Campylomma verbasci, is an import-
ant predator of P. pyricola during the
month of May. The species overwin-
ters in the egg stage. The eggs are
inserted into the bark of current sea-
son twig growth during the latter
half of September to mid-October.
The over wintered eggs hatch in early
May just before pears bloom. There
are three or possibly four generations
per year. Most of the adults of the
first generation leave pear orchards
to reproduce on a variety of wild and
cultivated herbaceous plant species.
Some remain in pear orchards but the
later generations are never so num-
erous as the first generation. In the
fall, adults of the last generation re-
turn from herbaceous hosts. to
Oviposit overwintering eggs on pear
and apple trees.

C. verbasci plays an important
role in the natural control of P. pyri-
cola because it occurs in large num-
bers on pears when most other pre-
daceous species are relatively scarce.
Besides feeding on eggs and nymphs
of P. pyricola, prey records for C. ver-
basci on pear include all stages of P.
ulmi and T. telarius.

In addition to being predaceous C.
verbasci is phytophagous. Reports of
injury to apple are well authenticated
(Ross and Caesar, 1920; Pickett, 1939
and Leonard, 1965). During the
course of the present observations no
adverse effects were noted on pear

Soc. Brit. CotumstA, 64 (1967), Auc. 1, 1967

fruits, even when relatively large
numbers (30-35 per cluster) of
nymphs were present and feeding in
clusters of ‘immature fruit during
May. C. verbasci is recorded as a
vector of the fire blight organism,
Bacillus amylovorus (Burr) Trev. by
Stewart and Leonard (1915). This
could negate its value as a predator.

As a predator of P. pyricola, Dera-
eocoris brevis piceatus ranks second
in importance to Anthocoris spp. This
species is most abundant during mid-
summer and early fall. It overwinters
as an adult, most commonly in heavy
dry trash in and around orchards and
also in crevices in the bark of trees.
The sex ratio of overwintered adults
is approximately 1:1 and mating in
the spring is required for the produc-
tion of fertile eggs. Overwintered
adults become active in early April
when they seek out and feed on their
prey. Oviposition habits are similar to
those described for Anthocoris spp.
The earliest hatched nymphs of the
first generation appear during the
first week of May. Oviposition by
overwintered females is extended over
a period of several weeks so that very
young nymphs of the first generation
are present when the earliest hatched
individuals have completed develop-
ment. There are at least four genera-
tions per year. Reproduction ceases in
mid-September and all adults matur-
ing after this time undergo a repro-
ductive diapause. Feeding by adults
continues until cold weather in Octo-
ber or November forces the adults
into protective hibernation sites. In-
frequently, nymphs have been ob-
served in artificial hibernation sites
but none have overwintered success-
fully.

Records of prey of D. brevis picea-
tus on pear include eggs and nymphs
of P. pyricola, all stages of P. ulmi and
T. telarius, small larvae of A. argyros-
pilus, eggs of C. pomonella, nymphs
and adults of the apple grain aphid,
Rhopalosiphum fitchii (Sanderson),
and A. pomi, and nymphs of un-
identified leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) .

J. Enromon. Soc. Brir. CotumBtiA, 64 (1967)

In pear orchards, eggs and nymphs of
P. pyricola appear to be the chief
prey of this species. In laboratory
studies, eggs rather than nymphs of
P. pyricola were preferred as prey.

In the laboratory as well as in
orchards nymphs and adults were oc-
casionally observed feeding on leaves
and immature fruit. No apparent
injury occurred. The significance of
this partial phytophagous habit to
the nutrition and development of this
species, as well as the other species of
Miridae discussed, has not been de-
termined. A _ partial phytophagous
habit may be of importance in sus-
taining populations of predaceous
insects when arthropod prey are
absent or at low densities (Collyer,
1953).

Deraeocoris fasciolus is a common
predator of P. pyricola that is most
abundant in mid-summer to early
fall. Little is Known about the biology
of this species in British Columbia. It
overwinters in the egg stage. The eggs
are inserted deep into the. bark of
rough twigs and fruit spurs of pear
trees. Newly hatched nymphs first
appear about mid-May. There are two
generations per year. Prey records
include eggs and nymphs of P. pyri-
cola and all stages of P. ulmi.

Diaphnocoris provancheri over-
winters in the egg stage. There are
two generations per year. The nymphs
of the first generation first appear in
pear orchards during the third week

, Aug. 1, 1967 39

of May. The adults of the second gen-
eration mature and oviposit over-
wintering eggs in the bark of fruit
spurs and one and two-year old twigs
during the second and third weeks of
September. Records of prey on pear
includes eggs and nymphs of P. pyri-
cola and all stages of P. ulmi and T.
telarius. Both adults and nymphs are
phytophagous as well as predaceous
but plant feeding is restricted to
foliage. No discernable injury to pear
trees has been observed.

Coccinellidae. As individual spe-
cies and as a group the Coccinellidae
rank as minor predators of P. pyri-
cola. At no time during this investiga-
tion have the numbers of Coccinelli-
dae in predator samples exceeded one
per cent of the total predaceous
fauna.

Empidae. Adults of Platypalpus sp.
near pluto, a dance fly, prey on adult
P. pyricola. This species is frequently
numerous in unsprayed pear or-
chards. The flies have been observed
seizing adult P. pyricola resting on
foliage and in flight. No attempt has ©
been made to assess the importance
of predation by this species toward
natural control of P. pyricola. How-
ever, it is the only species that has
been observed to prey consistently on
the adult stage of P. pyricola. Clausen
(1940) mentions that the larvae of
Empidae are either predaceous or
scavengers in moist soil or decaying
wood habitats.

References

Anderson, N. H. 1962a. Anthocoridae of the Pacific Northwest with notes on distribu-
tions, life histories, and habits (Heteroptera). Can. Ent. 94:1325-1334.
Anderson, N. H. 1962b. Growth and fecundity of Anthocoris spp. reared on various

prey (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae). Entomologia exp. appl. 5:40-52.
Anderson, N. H. 1962c. Bionomics of six species of Anthocoris (Heteroptera: Antho-
coridae) in England. Trans. R. ent. Soc. Lond. 114:67-95.

Clausen, C. P.
x + 688 pp.

1940. Entomophagous Insects.

McGraw Hill Book Co. New York.

Collyer, E. 1953. Biology of some predatory insects and mites associated with the fruit
tree red spider mite (Metatetranychus ulmi (Koch)) in south-eastern England.

J. hort. Sci. 28:246-259.

Leonard, D. E. 1965. Atractotomus mali and Campylomma verbasci (Heteroptera: Miri-
dae) on apples in Connecticut. J. econ. Ent. 58:1031.

Lord, F. T. 1949. The influence of spray’ programs on the fauna of apple orchards in
Nova Scotia. III Mites and their predators. Can. Ent. 81:202-214, 217-230.

Madsen, H. F. 1961. Notes on Anthocoris melanocerus Reuter (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae)
as a predator of the pear psylla in British Columbia. Can. Ent. 93:660-662.

40 J.

EntTomMor. Soc. Brir. CotumMsBiaA, 64 (1967), Aug. 1, 1967

Madsen, H. F., P. H. Westigard, and R. L. Sisson. 1963. Observations on the natural
control of the pear psylla, Psylla pyricola Forster, in California. Can. Ent. 95:
837-844.

Nickel, J. L., J. T. Shimizu, and T. Y. Wong. 1965. Studies on natural control of pear

psylla in California. J. Econ. Ent. 58:970-976.
Pickett, A D. 1939. The mullein leaf bug, Campylomma verbasci, Meyer, as a pest of
pple in Nova Scotia. Rept. ent. Soc. Ont., (1938) 69:105- 106.
Putman, Ww. L. 1932. Chrysopids as a factor in the ‘natural control of the oriental fruit
| moth. Can. Ent. 64:121-126.

Ross, W. A., and L. Caesar. 1920. Insects of the Season in Ontario. Rept. ent. Soc. Ont.,
(1919) 50:95-104.

Slingerland, M. V. 1896. The pear psylla. Bull. Cornell Univ. agric. Exp. Stn. 108:69-81.

Stewart, V. B., and M. D. Leonard. 1915. The role of sucking insects in the dissemina-
tion of fire blight bacteria. Phytopathology 5:117-123.

Wilde, W. H. A. 1962.

Bionomics of the pear psylla, Psylla pyricola Foerster, in pear

orchards of the Kootenay Valley of British Columbia, 1960. Can. Ent. 94: 845-849.
Wilde, W. H. A., and T. K. Watson. 1963. Bionomics of the pear psylla, Psylla pyricola
Foerster, in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia. Can. J. Zool. 41:953-961.

CONE INSECTS OF GRAND FIR, ABIES GRANDIS
(DOUGLAS) LINDLEY, IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
A. F. HEDLIN!

ABSTRACT

Insects cause considerable seed loss in cones of grand fir, Abies
grandis (Doug.) Lindl. on Vancouver Island. Three species of midge, a
scale feeder, a gall former, and a seed-feeding midge; two species of seed

chalcid, Megastigmus pinus Parf. and M. rafni Hoff.;

and a cone maggot,

Earomyia abietum McAlpine, were responsible for most of the damage.

Coneworms were not important.

INTRODUCTION

Insects that destroy seed of grand
fir, Abies grandis (Douglas) Lindley,
have received little attention. Keen
(1958) reported that insects, mainly
chalcids and midges, destroyed 10 to
25% of the seed at Ashland, Oregon.

Information on insect species, and
the type and extent of their damage
was gathered on Vancouver Island in
the summer of 1963. Cones collected
weekly from 14 June to 19 August
near Cowichan Bay contained midges,
seed chalcids, cone maggots, and a
few coneworms.

Grand fir flowers in spring and
the cones mature by early September.
Cones are erect, varying in length
from 2.0 to 4.5 inches at maturity. In
autumn they disintegrate.

LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS
Midges

Three species of midges, consist-
ently present in cones, were distin-

1 Forest Research Laboratory,
Forestry and Rural Development,

Department of
Victoria, B.C.

guished by morphological character-
istics and by their location in the
cone (Fig. 1). Larvae of the scale
midge feed on the inner surface of
the cone scales, and have anal hooks
which are absent in the cecidogenous
midge and the seed midge. Morpho-
logical differences of the sternal
spatulas of full-grown third instar
larvae are compared in Fig. 2.

SCALE MIDGE. This is probably
the insect which Keen (1958) refers
to as the cone resin midge. The full-
grown larva is orange and lives free-
ly on the inner surface of the cone
scale, often between the seed wing
and scale, causing darkening of the
scale at the feeding site. Larvae usu-
ally occur singly, but may be in clus-
ters. Larvae are present throughout
the summer; they averaged 28 per
cone in eight cones dissected during
June and July. In autumn the larvae
drop to the ground to overwinter. The
larvae do not affect the seeds direct-
ly so their damage is apparently light

J. Exromor. Soc. Brir. Cortmpra, 64 (1967), Ava. 1 OG? 41

SCALE MIDGE

MEGASTIGMUS RAFNI

GALL MIDGE

MEGASTIGMUS PINUS

SEED MIDGE

Fig. 1. Grand fir cone scale
illustrated to show insects in
their normal feeding posi-
tions.

4 Fig. 2. Sternal spatulas of
IG. grand fir cone midges; (a)

scale midge, (b) cecidogenous

FA
©
EAROMYIA ABIETUM a
RQ

(gall) midge, (c) seed midge.

a b €
Scale midge Gall midge Seed midge

Fig. 2

42 J. ENToMo.. Soc. Brit. CotumbBia, 64 (1967), Aug. 1, 1967

in spite of large numbers.

CECIDOGENOUS MIDGE. The
larva forms a gall in the cone scale,
usually adjacent to the seed (Fig. 3),
but is rarely found inside a_ seed.
There is usually only one larva but
two, separated by a thin wall, may be
present in a single gall. The larva
remains in the gall throughout the
summer and drops with the cone
scale in autumn to overwinter in the
litter; pupation and emergence occur
the following spring.

Seed loss results from fusion of the
seed and cone scale. The eight cones
examined were infested by an aver-
age of 13 larvae.

SEED MIDGE. Keen (1958) com-
bines this species and the cecidoge-
nous midge under the name “‘fir-seed
gall midge’, but the two are distinct
species. The cecidogenous midge al-
ways forms a gall and rarely occurs
inside the seed, whereas the seed
midge does not form a gall and the
larva occurs singly within a seed,
near the micropylar end (Fig. 4).

Larvae occur in seeds throughout
the summer and drop with the seeds
when the cones mature. They over-
winter in seeds on the ground, and
pupate and emerge the following
spring.

Nearly all infested seeds were
aborted. Although the larvae occur
singly in seeds, one was found with a
seed chalcid larva and another with
a cecidogenous midge larva. The
eight cones were infested by an aver-
age of 6.6 seed midge larvae.

SEED CHALCIDS

Two species of Megastigmus are
common in seeds of grand fir. Typi-
cally, the egg, larval, and pupal stages
in this genus all occur within a seed.

Megastigmus pinus Parfitt. Adults
are black with orange and yellow
markings.

They emerged from seeds from 21
May to 11 June in 1958 (Hedlin, un-
published data), and during the last
half of May in 1963. Thirty adult fe-
males and four males lived a maxi-
mum of 12 days and six days respec-

tively, when caged outdoors without
food.

Although adults were observed
Ovipositing, eggs were not isolated.
Larvae were observed first on 10
June, 1963, near the micropylar end
of the seed which indicated that eggs
were deposited in this region. They
moved gradually throughout the
length of the seed (Fig. 5) and when
fully developed, almost filled it. When
two are present in the same seed only
one survives. Full-grown larvae are
very active when disturbed and are
easily distinguished from the sluggish
M. rafni.

Eight cones contained an average
Of Zo larvae:

Megastigmus rafnit Hoffmeyer.
Adults are brownish yellow, with dark
markings, similar in appearance to
M. spermotrophus Wachtl which in-
fests Douglas-fir seed.

Adults emerged from 9 to 19 June
in 1958 (Hedlin, unpublished data)
and during the first half of June in
1963, somewhere later than M. pinus.

The first larvae to be observed, on
2 July, were at the distal end of the
seed feeding towards the micropylar
end. The full grown larva reacts slug-
gishly when disturbed. When larvae
of M. rafni and M. pinus occur within
the same seed, the former is destroy-
ed.

Eight cones contained an average
of 3.4 larvae. The numbers of M.
rafni are reduced by competition
from M. pinus.

FIR CONE MAGGOTS

Earomyia abietum was the only
species observed. Keen (1958) refers
to this and other species of this group
as “fir seed maggot’. The name im-
plies a seed feeder, and although the
larva feeds on seeds it is also highly
predacious, particularly in later in-
stars. Thus I prefer the name “fir
cone maggot” which does not imply
specific feeding habits.

The opaque, white, sausage-shap-
ed eggs are laid, usually singly, on the
inner surface of the cone scale in
May. Hatching occurs in late May and

J. Exromou. Soc. Brir. Cotumsia, 64 (1967), Aua. 1, 1967

Fig. 3. Cecidogenous (gall)
midge. Top of gall removed
to expose larva.

Fig. 4. Seed midge. Seed
opened to expose larva.

Fig. 5. Megastigmus pinus.
Seeds sliced open to expose
larvae in feeding tunnels.
Fig. 6. Entry holes of E.
abietum in grand fir seeds.
Fig. 7. Puparia of Earomyia
abietum.

43

44 J. EntomMou. Soc. Brit. Cotumpia, 64 (1967). Aug. 1, 1967

TABLE I

Numbers of insects and numbers of seeds destroyed in grand fir cones,
Cowichan Bay, B.C., 1963 (Basis eight cones).

No. insects
Insect per cone
Scale; midges 28.0
Gall midge _____ SESS eis ier a) 13.0
Seed smidge ce 60 :
Megastigmus pinus .... Ss.
Earomyia abietum —
TOtalsi:< Sinus So 0c! 7

6.6
5.0
Megastigmus rafni =. 3:4 :
1.3
7.3

early June and young larvae move
down the scale to enter the seeds
(Fig. 6). Early-instar larvae feed on
endosperms, but later become preda-
cious. One larva entered two seeds
not infested by other insects and left
without devouring the endosperm.
Remains of a number of Megastigmus
larvae and five cecidogenous midge
larvae were observed following the
ravages of Earomyia in seeds and
galls.

In autumn, full-grown larvae drop
on the ground, where they overwinter
in puparia in the litter (Fig. 7).

An average of 1.5 Earomyia larvae
occurred in cones examined.

CONEWORMS

Larvae of Laspeyresia laricana
Busck and Dioryctria sp. were en-
countered but not in sufficient num-

Seed loss
direct indirect

7.0

13.0
6.6
25.0
3.4

5.0

35.0 25.0

bers to be considered important seed
destroyers.

DISCUSSION

The average loss to all insects was
60 seeds per cone (Table 1). The di-
rect loss was easily aSsessed by count-
ing the actual seed eaten. Indirect
losses were estimated, and resulted
from (a) feeding which deprived the
seed of nutrients (scale midge), (b)
fusion of seed to the scale preventing
separation (cecidogenous midge),
and (c) damage to seeds by predaci-
ous larvae searching for insect prey
(cone maggot).

Seed chalcids were the most im-
portant pests and were responsible
for almost 50% of the insect-caused
loss.

Acknowledgement

I thank S. F. Condrashoff for criticizing
the manuscript.

References
Hedlin, A. F. 1959. Studies on cone and seed insects in British Columbia. Can. Dept.
Agric. For. Bio. Lab. Victoria, B.C. Interim Rpt. 1958: 12 pp.
Keen, F. P. 1958. Cone and seed insects of western forest trees. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bull.

1169, 168 pp.

J. ENToMoL. Soc. Brit. CoLumBiA, 64 (1967), Ava. 1, 1967 45

THE POLYMORPHISM IN PHILAENUS SPUMARIUS
(L.) (HEMIPTERA: CERCOPIDAE) IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

D. J. FARISH' AND G. G. E. SCUDDER
Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver

ABSTRACT

This paper analyses the distribution and relative frequency of the
morphs of Philaenus spumarius in British Columbia, the populations being
drawn from different biotic areas. It is shown that nine morphs occur in
the province and of these, marginellus occurs only in the south-west corner;
marginellus and lateralis occur only as females. The frequency of the
morphs in the biotic areas of the province is not uniform; populations in
dry areas differ significantly from those in wet areas. Populations taken
from the various forest areas are not identical, nor are those from coastal

areas,

Within a single biotic area, the frequency of morphs appears to be

stable.

No significant difference was determined between two samples

taken sixteen years apart. Further, there appears to be no significant sea-
sonal, daily or hourly change in the morph frequency in an area.

An experiment carried out on mating individuals failed to demon-
strate a tendency for non-random mating and there was no evidence for
the preferential mating of the rarer types.

INTRODUCTION

The Meadow Spittlebug, Philaenus
spumarius (L.) is a common Holarctic
insect which in the adult instar, ex-
ists in a number of distinct colour
forms. The insect is able to utilize al-
most any succulent foliage, and has
been recorded from over 400 species
of plants (Doering, 1930a, 1930b). It
is injurious to many crops and com-
mercially may reduce hay yields by
20 to 50 per cent (Gyrisco, 1958;
Anon, 1962), and stunt or kill in-
dividual legume plants (Weaver &
Whitney, 1958). The biology has been
studied by Weaver & King (1954) and
Levigne (1959), while Wiegert (1964)
has studied the population energetics
and HalkKa (1962a, 1962b), Owen &
Wiegert (1962) and Hutchinson
(1964) the morph frequency.

The polymorphism exhibited by
this species seems to be Stable, al-
though it is little understood at pres-
ent. Boring (1913) studied the various
forms and could find no correspond-
ing variation in the karyotype. Halk-
Ka (1962b) suggested that two or
three colour inhibitor genes may be
involved, some connected wth “sex
determiners”, and Owen & Wiegert

1 Present address:
vard University.

Biological Laboratories, Har-

(1962) suggest that some are sex
linked. Hutchinson (1964) says that
it seems not unlikely that a multiple
allelomorphism is involved. Halkka
et al. (1966) have recently carried out
some crossing experiments and con-
clude that six major genes are in-
volved and that “The six major genes
may be allelomorphic with each oth-
er’. There is a “possibility that the six
major genes constitute a dominance
hierarchy’, and five of the genes “al-
ways manifest their effects in the fe-
male but never in the males” while
the seventh “has a dominant mode of
inheritance in both sexes”. Halkka
et al. (1966) further state that ‘‘The
expressivity of the six major genes is
remarkably independent of external
factors, including food plants of the
P and F; generations”.

Hutchinson (1964) has stated that
“While no clear understanding of the
whole situation, which may prove to
be one of the most dramatic examples
of polymorphism, will be possible
without genetic knowledge, more
geographical and ecological informa-
tion is sorely needed’’. This paper de-
scribes some observations on P. spu-
marius in British Columbia.

MATERIAL AND METHODS
Material in the Spencer Entomo-

46 J. ENToMoL. Soc. Brit. Cotumpia, 64 (1967), Aug. 1, 1967

logical Museum at the University of
British Columbia was studied to de-
termine the distribution and fre-
quency of morphs throughout the
Province and to determine variations
between different biotic areas. Some
large collections made several years
apart enabled a comparison of popu-
lations over a period of 16 years. Fur-
ther, field collecting was done to
study possible variation in morph
frequency with season and over short
periods of time.

An experiment to test the ran-
domness of mating was performed on

adult insects collected in August
1966, from a 15 yard by 60 yard area
of vegetation at the University of
British Columbia: the main plants
on the area were Plantago, Dactylis
and Trifolium. Field collected insects
were placed in a cage containing
cardboard strips for a resting surface.
Mated pairs were removed in the first
30 minutes of the experiment and
were Kept isolated in individual
3” x 1” shell vials stoppered with cot-
ton. All mated pairs were formed in

the first 30 minutes of the experi-
ment, and such pairs were found to
remain in copula from 30 minutes to
two hours. A number of mating pairs
were also obtained in the field, but
there were too few for analysis.

The morphs were determined ac-
cording to the patterns given in
Halkka (1962a) and specimens com-
pared with material taken in Fin-
land and England. We have called the
morph which is brownish with two
pale costal spots on the corium, spu-
marius: this follows Edwards (1896)
and the practice of most North Amer-
ican authors (Weaver & King, 1954;
Owen & Wiegert (1962).

The biotic zones recognized in the
paper follow the scheme of Munro &
Cowan (1947). The main climatic fea-
tures of these various zones are given
in Table 1.

The method of Skory (Steel &
Torrie, 1960, p. 368) was used in most
calculations. Because of the scarcity
of some morphs, lumping, as recom-
mended by Siegel (1956), was neces-
sary to operate the Chi-square test.

TABLE 1—Climatic data for various biotic zones in British Columbia.

ANNUAL
BIOTIC ZONES PRECIPITATION

(inches)
Dry) Forest’ ..2-2. — 10-20
Cariboo Parklands _._ 15-20
Columbia Forest 35-50
Subalpine Forest ns 40-50
Coast Forest Ss
Gulf Island’ 2-2. 2 ee 25-35
Puget Sound Lowlands ___~ 35-60

Queen Charlotte Is. (Massett) 71.11

RESULTS

a. Distribution and frequency

of morphs

Nine different morphs were recog-
nised in the material from British
Columbia (Table 2). Of these, mar-
ginellus has been taken only in the
Gulf Islands area (Victoria) and the
Puget Sound Lowlands (Vancouver).
The other morphs are fairly widely
distributed. While the total number
of males and females studied was
about equal, both lateralis and mar-

TEMPERATURE (°F)

Mean Mean FROST FREE
Minimum Maximum DAYS
10-20 80-90 150-175
5-10 70-75 50-100
15-25 80-85 100-150
—10to5 68-70 50-100
30-35 60-70 200-250
30-35 70-75 230-275
20-30 70-75 200-250
20.5 65.0 168

ginellus were recorded only as fe-
males.

Table 3 gives the number of the
various morphs from each biotic area
studied; the Gulf Islands data are
omitted since the sampling was
known to be non-random. Analysis of
the data in Table 3 show that the
samples cannot be considered to have
come from a single _ population
(X7.45) =10.026:"p zero 00Iye

While statistically it is not accept-
able to reanalyse these data in vari-

J. Entomou. Soc. Brit. CotumBIA, 64 (1967), Auc. 1, 1967 47

TABLE 2—Distribution of morphs of Philaenus spumarius in British Columbia.

ae O
= =
ir) ie)
jo) °
ro} O
= @
BIOTIC ZONE > §
ra ah
BG

mn
ny POrest 22 x x
Gariboo Parklands _________......___.. x
Subalpine Forest x
Woast Forest -..... uo x
Guilt Islands ..____...-_____..-_____=_ pe x
Puget Sound Lowlands _ x x

Queen Charlotte Islands
ous groupings, a case can be made
from the biological point of view for
doing so. We know that the various
biotic zones in the province are cli-
matically quite different and it is
reasonable to ask if the polymor-
phism is different in these areas.
Table 4 presents some comparisons
which have been made. There would
appear to be no difference between
Samples taken from populations
within the wet areas (Queen Char-
lotte Is. + Coast Forest) and those
from populations in dry areas (Cari-
boo Parklands + Dry Forest). How-
ever, populations in coastal areas ap-
pear to be dissimilar as do those in
forest areas: the Dry Forest area is
largely grassland and so was not in-
cluded in the ‘All Forest’ analysis.
b. Stability of morph frequency.

The stability of the morph fre-
quency with time was studied by

MORPH TYPES
ar)

oy 5 9 a a iS
4 a Cc. 3 i 5 =
pet) 7, 5 © fl ra =
= = = = n 99
Mn Oo wm mie >
= = fox
= uA “a
n
».« xX x ».4 ».¢ >.
x x x x x
xX ».¢ x x x
X xX xXx x ».¢ x
xX Xx xX xX x xX x
Xx xX ».¢ ».¢ xX ».¢ xX
x xX xX xX

comparing two collections taken at
Merritt in the Dry Forest area 16
years apart. Table 5 indicates that
the two samples were not significant-
ly different. This probably indicates
a marked stability in the polymor-
phism, at least in this area.

Two samples taken at Burnaby in
the Puget Sound Lowiands were com-
pared to see if there was a Seasonal
change in the morph frequency in
this area. The sample taken on 14
November 1962 was not significantly
different from that taken on 29 July
1962 (Table 5). A Similar compari-
son of catches taken on two consecu-
tive days in September 1962 showed
no significant difference.

Finallv, to see if there was a
change in morph frequency with
temperature, photoperiod or other
Similar daily change, two samples
were compared. The sample taken

TABLE 3—Number of various morphs of Philaenus spumarius in different populations
in British Columbia.

ee
S oO =
=s S ie
BIOTIC ZONE = ay
= =a
3 a
op)
Diy, Forest ..............:...- 3 9 2
Cariboo Parklands 0 3] 0
Subalpine Forest __-——-—*iO 4 0
Coast Forest 2 fi
Puget Sound Lowlands 3 22 3
Queen Charlotte Islands 0 0 0

MORPH TYPES
er]

mn Sr ot Ko)
Sees Bare toe oot ae
ie 2 5 g = =
Se a en
= = c
e ~m wm
se Total
0 W129" 195 47 20 392
0 1 20 35 6 4 69
0 Osi Oe 127; 9 12 08
0 9 95 93 68 if 275
1 31 239 195 70 6 570
0 0 11 2 8 3 24

48 J. ENTOMOL.

Soc. Brit. CoLumBiaA, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

TABLE 4—Difference between populations of Philaenus spumarius from various areas
in British Columbia.

DEGREES OF
GROUP BIOTIC ZONES FREEDOM CHI-SQUARE p
All of B.C. All zones 15 70.026 << 0.001
Low Coastal Area Queen Charlotte Is.
Coast Forest 6 56.485 << 0.001
Puget Sound Lowlands
Wet Coast Queen Charlotte Is.
Coast Forest 3 1.196 0.7-0.5
Dry Interior Cariboo Parklands
Dry Forest 3 0.461 0.95-0.90
Dry Interior Cariboo Parklands
+ Dry Coast Dry Forest 6 17.527 0.01-0.001
Puget Sound Lowlands
All forest Subalpine Forest
Coast Forest 6 75.240 << 0.001

Queen Charlotte Is.

around 14:00 hours did not differ sig-
nificantly from that taken around
18:00 hours (Table 5).

c. Randomness of mating

Table 6 presents the data obtained
from 24 mated pairs in the laboratory
mating experiment. An analysis of
these data suggest that the mating is
Handom Gxlen 4) | —4.94410:30. “p
0.20). Further, a comparison of these
data with the expected pairing based

on the frequency of morphs in the
original population, indicates that
the pairs obtained were randomly
drawn from the population (A? (4) =
7.43; 0.20 >p > 0.10).

DISCUSSION

Hutchinson (1964) says that P.
spumarius may constitute one of the
most dramatic examples of polymor-
phism in animals, but a survey of the
literature shows that it has not so

TABLE 5—Comparison of samples of Philaenus spumarius.

PLACE DATE

(1) Samples taken 16 years apart

Merritt 20.viii.32 3
Merritt 15.vili.48 11
14
(2) Samples taken 3 months apart
Burnaby 29.vii.62 8
Burnaby 14. x. 62 3
11
(3) Samples taken 1 day apart
Burnaby 7. ix. 62 7
Burnaby 8. ix. 62 4
li

(4) Samples taken 4 hours apart

Burnaby 7.1x.62 (14:40 pm) 7

Burnaby 7.1x.62 (18:40 pm) 6

13

MORPH. GROUPING TOTAL DF _ CHI2 p
I ll WW IV

12:29 . 4. 48
3 4.1 0.3-0.2

19 34 11 75

31 63 15 123

8 6 22
2 0.98 0.7-0.5

6 5 14

14 11 36

29 15 3 54
3 4.5 0.3-0.2

16 18 6 44

45 33 9 98

29 15 3 54
3 3.3 0.2-0.1

15 19 6 46

44 334 9 i100

J. Enromo.. Soc. Brir. Couumpria, 64 (1967), Aua. 1, 1967 49

TABLE 6 — Mating pairs of Philaenus spumarius obtained in Laboratory experiment.
Original population: 39 ¢ 51 92 spumarius, 11 ¢ 12 9 trilineatus, 8 ¢ 15 92 populli.

spumarius
spumarius 11
Females _ trilineatus 3
populi 1

far been recognised as such, being
absent from the reviews of Ford
(1965a, 1965b). Halkka et al. (1966)
have shown that the polymorphism
has a genetic basis, but it is clear
that much remains to be _ learned
about the situation. The present in-
formation suggests that the genetic
control is not a very simple one.

A study of the various morphs in
British Columbia and the compari-
son of these with specimens from
eastern North America and western
Europe, shows that there is consider-
able variation in the colour pattern
of the types. The same morphs from
different parts of thé range of this
insect, appear slightly different and
it is not always easy to separate
them.

The present study shows that the
morph frequency is not the same
throughout British Columbia, and
suggests that there is a difference
between populations in dry and in
wet areas. While climate would ap-
pear to have some effect on the poly-
morphism, it is not possible to define
the environmental factors more pre-
cisely at the present time. Since no
change was detected between samples
taken at different times of day, the
situation in P. spumarius would seem
not to be so simple as that in Colias
(Lepidoptera), where Hovanitz (1953)
has shown a correlation with temper-
ature.

We were unable to detect a sea-
sonal change in the morph frequency
in an area. Owen & Wiegert (1962)
working in Minnesota likewise found
no seasonal variation in the fre-
quency of populi (= pallidus) and
spumarius. On the other hand, Dob-
Zhansky (1943, 1948) working on

Males

trilineatus populi
3 1
3 0
1 1

Drosophila and Timofeef-Ressovsky
(1940) working on Adalia have shown
marked seasonal variation in the
polymorphism in these insects.

The fact that two samples taken
in the same area over a 16 year
period showed no significant differ-
ence, can be taken to indicate that
the polymorphism is probably stable,
at least in that area. Owen & Wiegert
(1862) showed a Similar stability over
a four year period in arn abandoned
field in southeastern Michigan. How-
ever, studies on the frequency of
morphs over long periods in other
animals have usually demonstrated
marked changes (see Dobzhansky,
1958; Komai, 1956; Clark & Murray,
1962a, 1962b).

There seems to be little predation
on spumarius populations (Weaver &
King, 1954) and thus the selection
would appear to be rather different
from that described in Biston betu-
laria (Lepidoptera) (Kettlewell, 1961)
and Cepaea (Mollusca) (Cain & Shep-
pard, 1954). Nevertheless, Owen &
Wiegert (1962) state that the relative
frequency of the forms may be deter-
mined through selection by preda-
tors.

In the experiment on randomness
of mating, the results seem to indi-
cate that mating is indeed random.
Thus preferential mating, which is
reported to occur in Panaxia domi-
nula (Lepidoptera) (Sheppard, 1952)
seems not to be present in P. spu-
marius. Further, there is no evidence
that there is any preferential mating
of the rarer types, as recently sug-
gested in Drosophila by Ehrman ef al.
(1965).

Thus our study indicates that fac-
tors cited as the main selection forces

a0 “ll

in other examples of polymorphism,
seem not to apply in P. spumarius. At
the present time, one can only state
that the selective advantage of the
polymorphism in this insect is un-
known. The results obtained so far
on populations in British Columbia
suggest that further studies on the

WNromoL, Sec. Brit. Conunnra, 64 (7967), -AugG 1, 1967

ences and tolerances of the various
morphs may be worthwhile.

Acknowledgements
This research was done while one of us
(G.G.E.S.) was in receipt of grants from the
National Research Council of Canada and
the University of British Columbia. We are
indebted to Mr. M. S. Topping for help with

temperature and humidity prefer- the statistical analyses.
References

Anon, 1962, The meadow spittlebug, U.S. Dept. Agric. 514: 4 pp.

Boring, A. M., 1913, The chromosomes of the Cercopidae. Biol. Bull. 24:133-146.

Clarke, B. & Murray, J., 1962a, Changes in gene-frequency in Cepaea nemoralis (L).
Heredity 17:445-465.

Clarke, B. & Murray, J., 1962b, Changes in gene-frequency in Cepaea nemoralis (L.);
the estimation of selective values. Heredity 17:467-476.

Dobzhansky, Th., 1943, Genetics of natural populations. IX. Temporal changes in the
composition of populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics 28:162-186.

Dobzhansky, Th., 1948, Genetics of natural populations. XVI. Altitudinal and seasonal
changes produced by natural selection in certain populations of Drosophila
pseudoobscura and Drosophila persimilis. Genetics 33:158-176.

Dobzhansky, Th., 1958, Genetics of natural populations. XXVII. The genetic changes
in populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura in the American Southwest.
Evolution 12:385-401.

Doering, K., 1930a, Synopsis of the family Cercopidae (Homoptera) in North America.
Part I. J. Kansas ent. Soc. 3:53-64.

Doering, K., 1930b, Synopsis of the family Cercopidae (Homoptera) in North America.
Part II. J. Kansas ent. Soc. 3:81-108.

Ehrman, L. et al, 1965, Sexual selection, geotaxis, and chromosomal polymorphism in
experimental populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Evolution 19:337-346.

Edwards, J., 1896, The Hemiptera-Homoptera (Cicadina and Psyllina) of the British
Isles. London.

Ford, E. B., 1965a, Ecological Genetics. Methuen & Co. Ltd., London. (2nd edition).
Ford, E. B., 1965b, Genetic Polymorphism. Faber & Faber, London.
Gyrisco, G. G., 1958, Forage insects and their control. Ann. Rev. Ent. 3:435-438.

Halkka, O., 1962a, Polymorphism in populations of Philaenus spumarius close to equi-
librium. Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn. 59 (A,6):5-22.

Halkka, O., 1962b, Equilibrium populations of Philaenus spumarius (L.). Nature, (Lond.)
193:93-94.

l{alkka, O. et al., 1966, Crossing experiments with Philaenus spumarius (Homoptera).
Hereditas 56:306-312.

Hovanitz, W., 1953, Polymorphism and evolution. Symp. Soc. exp. Biol, 7:239-253.

Hutchinson, G. E., 1964, A note on the polymorphism of Philaenus spumarius (L.)
(Homopt., Cercopidae) in Britain. Ent. mon. Mag. 99:175-178.

Kettlewell, H. B. D., 1961, The phenomenon of industrial melanism in the Lepidoptera.
Ann. Rev. Ent. 6:245-262.

Komai, T., 1956, Genetics of Ladybeetles. Adv. Genet. 8:155-188.

Levigne, R., 1959, Biology of Philaenus leucophthalmus (L.) in Massachusetts. J. econ.
Ent. 52:904-907.

Munro, J. A. & Cowan, I. McT., 1947. A review of the bird fauna of British Columbia.
Spec. Publ. B.C. Prov. Mus. 2: 285 pp.

Owen, D. F. & Wiegert, R. G., 1962, Balanced polymorphism in the meadow spittlebug,
Philaenus spumarius. Amer. Nat. 96:353-359.

Sheppard, P. M., 1952, A note on the non-random mating in the moth Panaxia dominula
(L.). Heredity 6:239-241.

Siegel, S., 1956, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioural Sciences. New York.

J. Entomow. Soc. Brit. Corumpta, 64 (1967), Ava. 1, 1967 61

Steel, R. G. D. & Torrie, J. H., 1960, Principles and Procedures of Statistics with special
reference to the biological sciences. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York.

Timofeef-Ressovsky, N. W., 1940, Zur Analyse des Polymorphismus bei Adalia bipunc-
tata L. Biol. Zbl. 60:130-137.

Weaver, C. R. & King, D. R.. 1954, Meadow Spittlebug.
741:1-99.

Weaver, C. R. & Whitney, D. R., 1956, A proportion method for sampling spittlebug
populations. Ohio J. Sci. 56:237-244.

Wiegert, R. G., 1964, Population energetics of meadow spittlebugs (Philaenus spumarius
L.) as affected hy migration and habitat. Ecol. Mon. 34:217-241.

Bull. Ohio Agric. Exp. Stat.

MOISTURE AND FAT CONTENT DURING THE
ADULT LIFE OF THE AMBROSIA BEETLE,
TRYPODENDRON LINEATUM (OLIV.)

By W. W. NIJHOLT!

ABSTRACT

Depletion of fat deposits during the long hibernation period of the
adult ambrosia beetle, Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.), amounts to about
one quarter of the original fat content. The fat loss during flight activ-
ity appears to be also about one quarter of the amount present at the
start of hibernation.

Experiments with beetles stored at different temperatures indicate
that during a long cool spring the rate of fat loss increases, probably af-
fecting the vigor of the population during subsequent flight and brood

establishment.
INTRODUCTION during hibernation and the flight
Many insects derive energy for. period that follows.

metabolic activity from stored lipids
(Fast, 1964), supplies of which are
likely to vary during adult life. To
understand individual behaviour pat-
terns, a Knowledge is required of the
relationship between the fat con-
tent of the insect and its behaviour.
Atkins (1966) demonstrated such a
relationship in a scolytid, and stress-
ed the need for studies that penetrate
to the physiological basis of beha-
vioural variation.

The ambrosia beetle, Tryponden-
dron lineatum (Oliv.), spends a major
part of its adult life in hibernation.
Climatic conditions influence the
length of the hibernation period and
thus affect the utilization of stored
lipids which in turn affects the sub-
sequent flight and attack activities.
This investigation was undertaken to
learn more about the depletion of fat

1 Department of Forestry and Rural Develop-
ment, Forest Research Laboratory, Victoria, B.C.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The data were obtained from
beetles collected from duff or bark in
standing timber around logging areas
near Lake Cowichan, B.C., between
August 1965 and July 1966 (Dyer and
Kinghorn, 1961). The heated pan
method described by Hadorn (1933)
and Kinghorn and Chapman (1959)
was used for recovering the beetles.
Moisture and fat were determined by
drying in an oven and _ extracting
with petroleum ether in a Soxhiet
unit (Nijholt, 1965). In this presenta-
tion, values for fat, or lipids, repre-
sent substances extractable in petro-
leum ether.

To check the speed and effici-
ency of the extraction, groups of 25
beetles were dried, weighed, and ex-
tracted for various lengths of time up
to six hours. The amount of fat loss

52 J. Exromon. Soc. Brrr. ConumpBia, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

100

fee)
{o)

Oo
oO

——O-—— FEMALES
—e— MALES

% FAT EXTRACTED
PN
(eo)

N
oO

1 2
EXTRACTION TIME

3 4 5 6
IN HOURS

Fig. 1. Fat extracted in petroleum ether from male and female adult ambrosia beetles,
Trypodendron lineatum, in groups of 25.

was determined for all the groups,
which were then extracted again for
the time required to bring the total
extraction period to six hours.

Fig. 1 shows that more than half
of the total fat was removed within
the first 10 minutes, and that more
than 99% was extracted in five hours.
Six hours was therefore considered to
be sufficient to extract all the fat.

During the period of hibernation

of the ambrosia beetle, samples were
taken at intervals from the same for-
est margin to determine the reduc-
tion of stored fat deposits. Samples
of beetles in flight or crawling near
attractive logs were taken during the
subsequent flight period. All samples
were Kept at 0°C after collection and
were processed aS soon as possible, so
that the results closely represent the
condition of the beetles at the time
and place of sampling. Unless other-
wise indicated, water and fat deter-
minations were made for individuai
beetles, to provide a measure of the
variability within the samples. The
weights were determined to within
0.01 mg.

Samples of flying beetles were ob-

tained by “live - trapping’, using a
glass-barrier flight trap, with a
trough leading to a slit in a horizon-
tally placed metal cylinder with clear
vinyl plastic ends. The beetles crawl-
ed toward the light at the ends of the
cylinder. Little mortality occurred
when the beetles were collected regu-
larly. The traps were set up in for-
est Stands near sources of attractive
log odour.

The fat content decreased gradu-
ally during hibernation (Fig. 2),
while the fat free extracted weight
remained at the same level indicat-
ing that lipids were utilized. This was
accompanied by an increase in mois-
ture content. The beetles caught dur-
ing the flight period cannot be con-
sidered as members of the above pop-
ulation since they were captured
several miles from the site of over-
wintering. Nothing is known of where
the flying beetles came from or how
long they had flown. The results in-
dicate that the beetles use up about
one quarter of their stored fat during
hibernation and a similar amount
during post hibernation dispersal.
Consequently, the beetles arrive at

J. Enromon. Soc. Brrr. ConumpBra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

HIBERNATION Lin FLIGHT—+|

50 |
40 Om

™—j

(e)

20

——O=—— FEMALES
—e— MALES

FAT ON DRY WEIGHT

%

53

SS ee

e =O

o—___,

MONTH

Fig. 2. Percentage of fat of dry weight of Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.) during
hibernation and flight period.

their new brood site with about one
half of their original fat reserves.

Histograms of the distribution of
individual beetles into classes of dif-
ferent fat content at different times
show that the number of lean beetles
increased during the first part of the
collection period and then declined
(Fig. 3), suggesting that some of the
weaker beetles did not survive the
hibernation period and therefore the
population quality would be altered
to some extent. It is not Known how
many non-survivors were old adults,
going through a Second hibernation.

To determine the fat content of
beetles during their flight period, the
possibility of using “wet-trap” catch-
es, aS described by Chapman and
Kinghorn (1955, 1958) was consid-
ered, but results from these samples
were not considered reliable.

A study was made of changes in
fat content during laboratory storage
of beetles at 4°C for several months.
The beetles do not walk or fly at 4°C,
but some of the stored fat is con-
sumed by metabolic activity. A
Sample of beetles collected in April
1966 was sorted into groups of ap-
proximately 80 individuals and these

were stored in plastic bags of bark
flakes in a darkroom at 4°C. A con-
trol sample was stored similarly at
0°C. At monthly intervals for three
months the dry weight, moisture con-
tent and fat content were deter-
mined. One group was Kept stored for
an additional three months. The re-
sults are presented in Table 1 with
data from samples of beetles collect-
ed in the spring of 1965 and stored
for six months at 0°C.

Table 1 shows that considerably
more fat is utilized at 4°C than at
0°C. At 4°C conditions simulate a
prolonged, cool spring during which
the beetles could conceivably lose
some vigor, while awaiting suffici-
ently warm weather for flight and at-
tack. The relationships between the
amount of fat remaining after over-
wintering, and the flight and brood
production remain to be established.

These studies indicate no more
than quantitative changes in fat. The
qualitative aspects of the lipid met-
abolism of the insect during its long
adult life await further study and
should provide some insight into the
relationship between the various as-
pects of behaviour and stored energy.

54 J. Extromon. Soc. Brrr. CotmumMrra. 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

ot AUG ® 65 afl

_all. SEPT aul

alg OCT _alll

Y)

(72)

x

: i

WY

ud

i

Lu

ud

> fT i- DEC Line i ze

iu

O

‘

WJ

: il

> 3 foal MAR '66 = —_
— =) APR ra]
0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
% FAT ON DRY WEIGHT (o*) % FAT ON DRY WEIGHT (?)

Fig. 3. Histogram of percentage of fat of dry weight of Trypodendron lineatum
(Oliv.) during hibernation.

TABLE 1—Average values in mg of moisture, dry weight and fat, with percentage fat
of groups of 25 ambrosia beetles, Trypodendron lineatum, stored for periods up to six
months at 0° or 4°C.

Time Weight of Fat free Weight of Fat % of
stored, days moisture weight fat dry weight
Females
2.09 1.28 0.52 28.3
30 2.14 AS 0.54 30.7
60 2.06 iealy 0.35 21.8
90 2.14 1.10 0.36 22.7
180 2.28 1.15 0.26 17.5
180: 2.34 1.15 0.45 27.3
1802 2.16 1.10 0.37 22M
Males
0 1.89 1.09 0.33 22.6
30 1.88 1.01 0.31 22.1
60 1.84 0.84 0.15 11.9
90 2.04 1.03 0.18 14.4
180 2.03 1.03 0.08 Mol
180: 2.05 0.98 0.24 18.6
1802 1.95 1.06 0.27 19.7

‘Control sample stored at 0°C.
2Sample collected in the spring of 1965 and stored at 0°C.

J. Entromo.. Soc. Brir. Conumpra, 64 (1967), AuG. 1, 1967 5A

Acknowledgements
Co-operation of the Gordon River Di-
vision of Western Forest Industries Ltd. in
locating insect sampling areas is gratefully
acknowledged. Thanks are extended to Dr.

J. A. Chapman for suggesting the problem
and advice during the study and prepara-
tion of this publication and to M. D. Atkins
and E. D. A. Dyer for reviewing the manu-
script.

References

Atkius, M. D. 1966. Laboratory studies of the behaviour of the Douglas-fir Beetle,
Dendroctonus pseudotsugae Hopkins. Can. Entomol. 98:953-991.

Chapman, J. A., and J. M. Kinghorn. 1955. Window flight traps for insects. Can. Entomol.
87: 46-47.

Chapman, J. A., and J. M. Kinghorn. 1958. Studies of flight and attack activity of the
ambrosia beetle, Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.) and other scolytids. Can.
Entomol. 90:362-372.

Dyer, E. D. A., and J. M. Kinghorn. 1961. Factors influencing the distribution of over-
wintering ambrosia beetles, Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.). Can. Entomol. 93:
746-759.

Fast, P. G. 1964. Insect lipids: A review. Memoirs of the Entomol. Soc. of Canada,
No. 37

Hadorn, C. 1933. Recherches sur la morphologie, les stades evolutifs et Vhivernage du
bostryche lisere (Xyloterus lineatus Oliv.). Suppl. aux. org. de la Soc. forest.
Suisse No. 11. Buchler and Co., Bern.

Kinghorn, J. M., and J. A. Chapman. 1959. The overwintering of the ambrosia beetle
Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.). Forest Sci. 5:81-92.

Nijholt, W. W. 1965. Moisture and fat content in the ambrosia beetle Trypodendron
lineatum (Oliv.). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 62:16-18.

56 J. Entomon. Soc. Brrr. Conumptra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

SOLENOBIA TRIQUETRELLA HUBNER, A FLIGHTLESS
PARTHENOGENETIC MOTH, IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
(LEPIDOPTERA: PSYCHIDAE)

H. B. LEECH! anpD B. A. SUGDEN2

ABSTRACT
The occurrence of Solenobia triquetrella Hiibner at Vernon, B.C.,
with notes on its habits and a brief description of the ultimate instar larva
and adult is contained herein. Evidence indicating that S. triquetrella may

have been introduced is presented.

INTRODUCTION

Small sand -covered, elongate
cases containing insect larvae were
first found by the senior author at
Vernon during 1941, 1945 and 1946.
Adults reared subsequently were des-
ignated as Solenobia triquetrella
Hubner. The following notes are pre-
sented since we do not Know of pub-
lished records of this species in North
America.

OBSERVATIONS

On April 17, 1945, hundreds of
these caSebearers were climbing
walls, maple trees, and along the
underside of fence rails not far from
the site at Vernon where these in-
sects had been discovered in 1941.
Nearly 1000 cases were collected from
tree branches, tall dead grasses and
the underside of boards lying on the
ground. Almost all produced moths,
every one a female; many laid eggs
which hatched. There were no para-
sites from any stage of Solenobia.

By April 18, 1946, at the same
places, mature larvae were again
numerous. On April 25 many cases
were firmly attached to sites similar
to those of the previous year. Pupae,
a few adults, and eggs were present.
Fifteen hundred cases were collected
and caged; again almost all pro-
duced moths which laid numerous
eggs, but no male moths or parasites
emerged. The eggs began to hatch on
May 12.

Attempts to rear the larvae on dry
rotted wood, decaying leaves and on

1 California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco,
California, U.S.A.

2 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Vernon, B.C.

freshly cut pieces of couch grass were
unsuccessful.

The following is a description of
the insect as it occured at Vernon:

Larva: The fully grown larva (Fig.
3) appears early in April; it attaches
the open end of the case firmly with
a mass of silken threads to the sub-
strate so that it usually hangs down-
ward (Fig. 1). The larva then re-
verses its position in the case to face
the distal end which is closed by
three flaps fitting neatly, yet loosely,
together.

Pupa: The mature larva pupates
within the anchored case in mid
April; the stage lasts about a week.
Shortly before the moth emerges the
pupa moves through the flaps of the
case until only the apical abdominal
segment with cremaster hooks re-
mains within (Figs. 2, 4). Most of the
body is filled with eggs which are al-
most as large as those laid by the
adult.

Imago: The moth is 3 to 4 mm
long, wingless and mouse-grey, with
whitish scales along the sides. Upon
emergence there is a dense brush of
long wavy hair across the apparent
Sth and 6th abdominal segments
(Figs. 5, 6).

The moth is parthenogenetic, and
begins egg laying soon after emerg-
ing. As she oviposits, the moth in-
gests air, gradually inflating the an-
terior half of her body so that the
membranous areas between segments
are semi-transparent. The resulting
pressure helps to expel the eggs. If
the distended body is punctured with
a pin, it deflates like a balloon, with-

J. Entomov. Soc. Brit. CoLtumpia, 64 (1967), Ava. 1, 1967 57

Figs. 1 - 6.—Selenobia triquetrella Hiibner at Vernon, B.C.
Figure 1.—Larval-pupal cases on underside of fence rail.

Figure 2.—Larval-pupal cases attached to broken tip of a small living branch of Acer
negundo L. Projecting farthest downward are two empty pupal skins; females at upper
left, lower middle and far right are laying eggs in empty cases.

Figure 3.—Mature larva.
Figure 4.—Empty pupal skin attached to case after female has emerged.

58 J. Exromon. Soc. Brrr. Conumpra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

‘. f

Se
*

¥
eS
Ss

Figure 5.—Lateral view of freshly emerged female showing full pad of ventral
abdominal hairs and retracted ovipositor.

Figure 6.—Freshly emerged female—dorsal view.

out loss of body fluid.

The moth uses the larval - pupal
case aS a receptacle for the eggs, in-
serting the ovipositor past the empty
pupal sKin without dislodging it. The
first eggs are laid at the caudal end,
sometimes even within the old larval
skin which remains in the case. Dur-
ing oviposition hairs from the ab-
dominal brush are plucked out a few
at a time by the prehensile tip of the
telescopic apical abdominal segments
and placed with the eggs. On comple-
tion of oviposition the case is full of
eges and hairs and the abdominal
brush of the moth has disappeared.

DISCUSSION
In 1927 ‘Ronald BuckKell sent Dr.
J. McDunnough of Ottawa, a number
of specimens reared from cases found
on a fence rail at Vernon: Dr. Mc-

Dunnough noted that “...they might
belong to the genus Solenobia as the
simple type of case covered with
earth granules point in this direc-
tion.”

Specimens were sent to Dr. W.
Sauter of Zurich, specialist on the
genus Solenobia. He replied: ‘‘The
Shape of the cases and the female
does not leave a doubt that it must
be Solenobia triquetrella Hbn. This
species is widely spread in Europe
and I also saw specimens of it from
North America: Montreal. Also the
specimens of Montreal belong to the
parthenogentic form. As Prof. Seiler
stated, it was the tetraploid race. It
would be very interesting to know
the chromosome number of your race

I do not Know more about the
distribution of S. (riguvetueliaom

J. Entomo.. Soc. Brrr.
America and wonder if the species
really is introduced. If not, it should
be possible to find also the bisexual
form in parts of the continent which
have not been covered with ice during
the last glacial epoch.”

The species could be widely dis-
tributed in British Columbia but un-
reported. The larval cases are small,
inconspicuous, and unlikely to at-
tract attention unless numerous.
However considering the hundreds
which have been found on house walls
or porch ceilings it is surprising that
they have not been noticed by worried
householders. We found a few cases
at Salmon Arm, but only after per-
sistent searching, and because of our
knowledge of larval habits.

The late E. P. Venables said that
he had found cases presumably of
this species near Kelowna, B.C. on the
underside of bridge railings. If Ven-
ables’ record is S. triquetrella, then
the species is Known from four towns
over a north-south linear distance of
65 miles with Vernon near the mid-
point. Considering how often boards,
packing cases and vehicles, any of
which may have been standing in an
infested area, are moved about, the
distribution seems reasonable for an

CoLtmMeta. 64 (1967), Ata. 1.

1967 BQ

introduced species.

Two facts suggest that S. friquet-
rella is introduced: (a) despite years
of searching and intensive collecting,
larval cases have only been found in
towns; (bd) no parasite was recovered
from nearly 2,000 viable larvae and
pupae from a population Known to
have been present for at least 20
years. Addendum — When the above
manuscript was read at the March,
1966 Annual Meeting of the Entomo-
logical Society of British Columbia,
members in the audience gave addi-
tional records whch are likely to be
of S. triquetrelia. Mr. P. Zuk said he
had seen similar larval cases at Van-
couver; Mr. C. L. Neilson reported
that he had found cases on the walls
of a Naramata cannery. Dr. H. A.
Madsen recalled that a Solenobia
moth was reared from egg to adult at
Berkeley, California, the eggs having
come from a mountain orchard at an
altitude of 3,000 feet.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the persons men-
tioned in the text, and to Messrs. W.
Mathers and S. H. Farris for help in collect-
ing. The photographs were taken by Harry
Andison in 1946; the drawings are by B. A.
Sugden. The writers also thank Dr. L. H.
McMullen for editing the text.

60 J. Exromon. Soc. Brir. CotumBra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

DISTRIBUTION AND HOSTS OF SOME HORNTAILS
(SIRICIDAE) IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

E. V. Morris!

ABSTRACT

Locality records and coniferous hosts of seven species of Siricidae in
the genera Urocerus, Sirex and Xeris are recorded for British Columbia.
Six species were reared from western larch, five from alpine fir and only
one or two from seven other hosts. The life cycle was one or two years and
major emergence was between mid-July and early August.

Horntails are widely distributed in hosts, and distribution in British Co-
the coniferous forests of Canada, in- lumbia. Adults are active during the
festing conifers of low vigour, those Summer and oOvipost in the sapwood.
damaged by fire or other agencies, The larvae feed in the wood and take
and recently felled trees. Little is one or more years to complete their
known of their life history, habits, development to the adult stage.

TABLE 1. Emergence period and length of life cycle of seven species of horntails from
caged log sections of nine coniferous hosts, Vernon, B.C.

1924 - 1930 and 1964 - 1966

Trees Speci- Emer- Life
Host sampled, Insect reared mens, gence cycle,
no. no. period* yr.
Western 24 Sirex juvencus californicus 1 Aug 30 1
larch (Ashm.)
Urocerus albicornis 8 Sunes t= 2
(F.) Jul 15
U. gigas flavicornis (L.) 1 Aug 10 1
U. californicus Nort. 1 Jun 19 it
Xeris morrisoni (Cr.) 1 Jul 25 1
X. spectrum (L). 6 Jul 13— 1
Aug 30
Ponderosa 12 S. j. californicus 4 Jul 13— 2,
pine (Ashm.) Aug 25
Western 11 U. californicus 2, Jul 11— 2
white pine Nort. 20
Lodgepole 19 S. j. californicus 14 Aug 4- 1
pine (Ashm.) Sep 3—
S. j. juvencus 1 Aug 1 1
(L.)
Alpine fir 15 S. cyaneus F. 13 Jul 15— 2
Aug 15
S. j. juvencus 3 Jul 17— 2
(L.) Aug 15
U. californicus 5 Jul 15— 2
Nort. 22
Alpine fir U. albicornis 2 Jul 22— 24
(F.) 25
X. spectrum (L.) 1 Jul 15 2
Douglas- 30 X. spectrum (L.) 1 Sep 7 1
fir
U. albicornis 2 Jul 15 — 2
(F.) 17
Western 8 U. californicus 6 Jul i= 1
hemlock Nort. 28
White 15 S. cyaneus F. 24 Jul 15— 2
spruce Aug 1
Western red 6 U. albicornis 1 — —
cedar (F.)

*In some instances there are only one or two emergence records.

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Vernon, B.C.

J. Exromon. Soc. Brrr. CorumsBra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

UROCERUS ALBICORNIS @
U. GIGAS FLAVICORNIS @
U. CALIFORNICUS O

Fig. 1. Localities where Urocerus spp. have been collected in British Columbia.

61

62

SIREX J. JUVENCUS
SIREX J. CALIFORNICUS
SIREX CYANEUS

XERIS MORRISONI

XERIS SPECTRUM

J. Enromon. Soc. Brrr. CoLumBIA, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

>D Pe @ OO

Fig. 2. Localities where Sirex spp. and Xeris spp. have been collected in

British Columbia.

J. Exromon. Soc. Brrr. ConumpBra, 64 (1967), Aua. 1, 1967 63

Host trees and emergence dates of
horntails were obtained from wood-
borer studies conducted by personnel
of the Forest Entomology Laboratory
at Vernon between 1924 and 1930 and
from 1964 to 1966. In the latter study,
trees of 11 species of conifers were
felled in the spring at a number of
localities in interior British Colum-
bia. In the autumn of the year of
felling, three 2-foot-long sections
ranging from 8 to 16 inches in dia-
meter were cut from the trees and
placed in cages outdoors. Log Ssec-
tions were also taken from logging
Slash when the date of logging was
known. Records were Kept of the
numbers of horntails and their emer-
gence dates. Seven species were rear-
ed from log sections of nine species
of conifers from interior British Co-
lumbia (Table 1). The greatest num-
ber emerged between mid-July and
early August. The earliest was Uro-

cerus californicus emerging June 19
from western larch infested the pre-
vious Summer at Heckman Creek, 40
miles east of Vernon; the latest was
Xeris spectrum emerging September
7 from Douglas-fir infested the pre-
vious summer at Trinity Valley.

Locality records for seven species
and one sub-species of horntails were
obtained from Forest Insect and Dis-
ease Survey data from coastal and
interior British Columbia, and from
the special rearing projects (Figs. 1
and 2). More extensive sampling will
be required to obtain the true range
of most of these horntails.

Acknowledgements

The author is indebted to D. A. Ross for
permission to use the data on siricids ob-
tained from his wood-borer investigations
during 1964 to 1966. The siricids were iden-
tified by H. E. Milliron, Entomology Re-
search Institute, Ottawa and B. A. Suyden,
Forest Entomology Laboratory, Vernon,
BC,

NOTE ON A SPRUCE BARK WEEVIL, PISSODES
ALASCENSIS HOPKINS (COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE),
IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
D. F. DOIDGE!

ABSTRACT

Pissodes alascensis

Hopkins ranges throughout

interior British

Columbia and into Yukon Territory. Spruces are preferred hosts. Weevils
reared at 1,300 ft. elevation had a l-year life cycle, but most of those
reared at 4,000 ft. elevation had a 2-year life cycle. The latter passed the
first winter in the larval stage in the inner bark and the second as callow
adults in pupal chambers in the wood. Emergence ranged from the end of

May into September.

Pissodes alascensis was described
by Hopkins (1911) from a type speci-
men collected near Koyukuk River,
Alaska. He surmised that this species
attacked spruce and: ranged througn
Yukon Territory and interior British
Columbia. This report gives informa-
tion on hosts, emergence periods, life
cycle and distribution in British
Columbia. Sources of data include un-
published rearing records from ex-
periments at Trinity Valley and

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department
of Forestry and Rural Development, Vernon, B.C.

Lorna, B.C., in 1925-30, at- Vernon,
B.C., in 1965-66, and pinned speci-
mens in the reference collection at
the Forest Entomology Laboratory at
Vernon.

In the period 1925-30, data on
Spruce bark weevils were obtained
from experiments in which wood and
bark-boring Coleoptera were reared
in caged logs of Engelmann spruce,
Picea engelmanni Parry. Emergence
of Pissodes alascensis ranged from
the end of May until September 21.
Total emergence at Trinity Valley

64 J. Exromon. Soc. Brrr. Conumnia, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

(2,200 ft elevation) occurred the year
after infestation; at Lorna (4,000 ft
elevation) the major emergence oc-
curred the second summer after in-
festation (Table 1). Most of the
weevils reared at 4,000 ft passed the
first winter in the larval stage and

the second as callow adults in pupal
chambers.

During the summer of 1965 three
2-ft-long sections of various species
of conifers were collected in interior
British Columbia for wood-borer
studies. The trees were felled early in

TABLE 1—Pissodes alascensis reared from three Engelmann spruce logs at Trinity
Valley (2,200 ft elevation) and Lorna (4,000 ft elevation) 1925-30.

Date Date Adult emergence
Locality tree caged

felled No. Year Range
Lorna 1924 Jun 10, 1925 16 1925 Jun 16-
: Sep 13
Jul 16, 1926 98 1926 Jul 17-
Aug 28
Trinity Valley Jun 1927 May 24, 1928 6 1928 May 26-
Aug 13
1929 May 23, 1930 32 1930 Jun 24-
Sep 21

Fig. 1.

Pupal chambers of Pissodes alascensis in black spruce.

{\

J. ENtomo.. Soc. Brir. CoLtumsBtra, 64 (1967), Aua. 1, 1967

v

PISSODES ALASCENSIS @

Fig. 2. Localities where Pissodes alascensis Hopk. has been collected in
British Columbia and Yukon Territory

65

66 J. ENTomot.,

Soc. Brit. Corumpra, 64 (1967), Aua. 1. 1967

TABLE 2—Pissodes alascensis reared at Vernon, B.C. (1,300 ft elevation) 1965-66

Host
Locality (spruce)
Pine Pass white
Bednesti L. black
Donald Engelmann

the summer and caged at Vernon
(1,300 ft. elevation) in August, 1965.
Pissodes alascensis adults were reared
only from Engelmann, white, Picea
glauca (Moench) Voss, and black
spruce, P. mariana (Mill.) BSP.

Emergence ranged from June 17
to July 28 (Table 2) and was com-
pleted 1 year after infestation. The
logs were peeled to expose the larval
galleries and pupal chambers. The
larvae had fed on the inner bark but
had not scored the wood except dur-
ing construction of pupal chambers.
In black spruce, the chambers were
excavated to a depth of 2.5 mm (Fig.
1). There were 57 pupal cells in 1 ft2
of a black spruce bole 127 mm in dia-

Date Date Adult emergence
trees sections

felled caged No. Range
(1965) (1965) (1966)
Jun 22 Aug 23 8 Jun 19-
Jul 17

Jun 25 Aug 24 50 Jun 17-
Jul 28

Jun 23 Aug 27 a2 Jun 19-
Jul 13

meter with bark 4.0 mm thick. No
similar information was available for
Engelmann or white spruce.

Forest Insect and Disease Survey
records show that Pissodes alascensis
ranges throughout interior British
Columbia and north at least as far as
Mile 60 on the Mayo Road, Yukon
Territory. The weevil was also col-
lected at Alta Lake, B.C., (Fig. 2).

Acknowledgements

The author is indebted to D. A. Ross
for permission to use the data on Pissodes
obtained from his wood-borer investigations
during 1965-1966. The Pissodes were identi-
fied by S. G. Smith, Entomology Research
Institute, Sault Ste. "Marie, and B. A. Sud-
gen, Forest Entomology Laboratory, Vernon,
B.C.

Reference

Hopkins, A. D. 1911. 1. Contributions toward a monograph of the bark-weevils of the
genus Pissodes. U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. Ser., 20 (1) p. 61.

BOOK REVIEW

Insect Pests. H. S. Zim and G. S.
Fichter. New York,

Golden Press, 1966. p. 160. $1.35 in
Canada.

Here, at last, is the answer for im-
poverished students and perennial
inquirers who need a book on insect
pests that is reliable, readable, and
cheap. A generalized book is no sub-
stitute for local, explicit recommen-
dations, and this one gives no more
than generalized advice for dealing
with 350 pests over so varied an area
as middle North America. It does con-
tain an immense amount of factual
and biological information and gives
broad principles of control. It pro-
vides the maximum of economic en-
tomology for the minimum money.

The all-important breakdown and
organization are well - thought - out.
The sections with the number of
pages are as follows: Introduction,
numbers, relatives and development
of insects (6); controlling insects by
natural, biological, mechanical,
chemical and new methods (14);
household pests (14); insects that
bite or sting (10); pests of: pets,
poultry and livestock (13); vegetable
crops (25); flowers and shrubs (12);
field and forage crops (22); fruits
and fruit trees (19); forest and shade

trees (7); stored products (8); an
index of scientific names (3); and
common names (4).

Compared with the earlier ‘In-

sects’, this book presents only one-

J. Extowuo.. Soc. Brrr. Cotumera. 64 (1967),

half as much basic entomology, and
this is a pity. No space is wasted.
Nicholas Strekalovsky’s coloured pic-
tures tend to be small and crowded
but they are accurate and adequate.
Crowding accounts for the only real
error noted (p. 94). The writing de-
generates at times into the telegra-
phic, but it is generally hard to fault.
The printing and quality of the pic-
tures are somewhat uneven and not
up to the high standard of earlier is-
Sues in the series. There is a blue-
green cast to the inks used, the let-
terpress fades into grey in places,
and the paper is thinner and shiny.
At the foot of each page the section
is given with the page number. The
annoyance at finding these often
crowded off the page by pictures run-
ning out to the margin, indicates
their usefulness for quick reference.
The captions and text seldom repeat
each other, and there are good cross
references between sections. Mea-
surements are given in decimal frac-
tions of one inch. An inch scale
divided into tenths would be more
useful than the cm and mm scale
given at the margin on p. 158.

In the space available, the cover-
age is maximal, and includes, natur-
ally, a number of non - Canadian
pests. The mites are well covered and
there are illustrations and descrip-
tions of such non-insect pests as
jumping and black widow spiders,
millipedes, centipedes, sowbugs, slugs,

Aue. 1, 1967 67

and snails. Of interest is the threat-
ening cereal leaf beetle, Oulema mela-
nopa.

The treatment of pesticides de-
serve mention. The introductory sec-
tion deals with formulations, stom-
ach poisons, and contact insecticides,
covering inorganics, natural organics
and the synthetics. Under chlorin-
ated hydrocarbons, DDT rates 210
words, and there are short para-
graphs on or mention of methoxy-
chlor, TDE, BHC, iindane, toxaphene
and the cyclodienes as a group. Under
organo-phosphates, there is mention
of parathion, demeton, TEPP, mala-
thion, DDVP, diazinon, ronnel and
dicaptron. Fumigants include CS2,
dichloropropene and dichloropropane,
HCN, CHi3 Br, paradichlorben-
zene and naphthalene. There is a
paragraph on oils, another on repel-
lents, and a final short section on
sterilants, hormones and _ sorptives.
Over and over throughout the text,
the theme is repeated: “Do not use
insecticides after the plant begins to
form edible parts”; “Timing is criti-

cal...”’; “Local agricultural agents
can advise...’; “Consult an agricul-
tural agent...’; “Follow directions

carefully”; and so on.

All Golden Nature Guides contain
160 pages. To distil into this prede-
termined compass a significant part
of the available information, is a tour
de force.

H. R. MacCarTHy

METRIC CONVERSION

Contributors of papers on laboratory studies should use the metric system exclusively.
Use of the metric system in reporting the results of field studies is a desirable ultimate
objective. Since it is difficult to replace immediately such standard concepts as Ib/
acre by the unit kg/hectare, yards by meters, or miles by kilometers, the following

table of conversion factors is presented.

1 in. =2.54 cm

1 yard—0.914 m

1 mile=1.61 km

1 1b.—453.6 g

1 gal (U.S.)=.785 liters
1 gal (Imp) —4.546 liters

1 ft3—=28.3 dm;

1 acre—0.405 hectares

1 lb/acre=1.12 kg/hectare
1 lb/in2(psi)=70.3 g/cmz2

1 lb/gal (U.S.)=120 g/liter
1 lb/gal (Imp)=—100 g/liter

1 cm=—0.394 in

1 m=3.28 ft=—1.094 yards
1 km=0.621 mile

iko——2°2 Ib

1 liter—0.264 gal (U.S.)

1 hter=0.220 Ump)

1 dm3—0.0353 fts

1 hectare—2.47 acres

1 kg/hectare—0.89 lb/acre

1 g/mz—0.0142 psi

1 g/liter=0.83 1b/100 gal (U.S.)

=1000 ppm
1 g/liter=1 1b/100 gal (Imp)

J. Exntomor. Soc. Brrr. Cotumpra, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Since this society no longer has any support except from sub-
scriptions it has become necessary to institute a page charge. This has
initially been set at cost: $12.00. In other respects policies remain parallel
with those of the Canadian Entomological Society. The page charge
includes all extras except coloured illustrations, provided that such extras
do not comprise more than 40% of the published pages. Coloured illustra-
tions will be charged directly to the author. Authors, not attached to
universities or official institutions, who must pay these charges from their
personal funds and are unable to do so, may apply for assistance when

submitting a manuscript.
Reprints are sold only in even hundreds and at the following prices:

68

Number of pages 1-4 5-8 9-12 13-16 17-20 21-24 25-28
First 100 copies $22.* 31 42 55 70 87 106
Each extra 100 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Authors discounts (up to 40%) may be granted to authors who certify
at the time of ordering that they are buying reprints at personal expense.
Authors ordering personal reprints in addition to those ordered by an
institution will be billed at the rate for extra hundreds.

Papers for the Journal need not have been presented at meetings
of the Entomological Society of British Columbia, nor is it mandatory,
although preferable, that authors be members of the society. The chief
condition for publication is that the paper have some regional origin,
interest, or application.

Contributions should be sent to:

H. R. MacCarthy,

6660 N.W. Marine Drive,
Vancouver 8. B.C.

Manuscripts should be typed double-spaced on one side of white, line-
numbered paper if possible, leaving generous margins. The original and
two copies, mailed flat, are required. Tables should be on separate, numbered
sheets, with the caption on the sheet. Captions for illustrations should also
be on separate numbered sheets, but more than one caption may be on a
sheet. Photographs should be glossy prints of good size, clarity and contrast.
Line drawings should be in black ink on good quality white paper.

The style, abbreviations and citations should conform to the Style
Manual for Biological Journals published by the American Institute of
Biological Sciences.

J. Entomon. Soc. Brit. ConumBia, 64 (1967), Aue. 1, 1967

Entomological Society of British Columbia

Applicatio

Sphere of interest

n for membership [_] subscription [_]
$2.00 Canadian per year

Member of Entomological Society of Canada [], and/or other

regional society

Please return to: Dr. M

. D. Atkins, Secretary-Treasurer,

Forest Research Laboratory,
506 West Burnside Road,
Victoria, B.C.

69

.

fe hte anypeae
ako

INTOMOLOGICAL
SOCIETY of
tITISH COLUMBIA

Issued August 1, 1968

ECONOMIC

eres ‘management concepts and control of tick paralysis in

13

id G ISTLINGER—Protecting larch ee from os Sade velutinum
nte) with lindane emulsion ... . ; SOee Say ee |

- Thrips infesting the tips of asparagus spears 2.3... Oe. 16

and DOWNING— Integrated control of the fruit-tree leaf roller,
argyrospilus (Walker), and the eye- bh ie ay bud moth, ee
ak and Schiffermuller) ite ie niet ; 19

GENERAL

a GREGSON—The first discovery of free-living larvae of the ear
, Otobius megnini eens in British Columbia... .. : ; 22

Bae (ceconettides) ee Oa. be

TAXONOMIC

\UER—Aphidius rubifolii n. sp. (Hymenoptera: ppruaudse) a Apne
Masonaphis maxima from British Columbia... . . : eS

RAZ! R and FORBES—Masonaphis maxima (Mason) (homoptera: pentose
ar sd on eayaaaedd with an unusual life history ...... ; 36

ee 42

JOURNAL

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL
SOCIETY of
BRITISH COLUMBIA

Vol. 65. Issued August 1, 1968
ECONOMIC
WILKINSON—Pest management concepts and control of tick paralysis in
Mise OMIA 6. 2s ke le ew Me we ee 3
ROSS—Wood- and bark-feeding Coleoptera of felled spruce in interior British
a NMRA APR eo 5 chats Sw) eee eke wf wi hw we we ee 10
WOOD —First occurrence of balsam woolly aphid in the interior of British
Oe Wel SINAN NLM Ee a SI os Selig th Vee ges wales! Sila ow ea we 13
ROSS and GEISTLINGER—Protecting larch logs from Tetropium velutinum
(LeConte) with lindaneemulsion ................0.2..0. 00084 14
BANHAM—Thrips infesting the tips of asparagus spears ............ 16

MADSEN and DOWNING—Integrated control of the fruit-tree leaf roller,
Archips argyrospilus (Walker), and the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota

ocellana (Denis and Schiffermuller) .........2............4 19
GENERAL
RICH and GREGSON—The first discovery of free-living larvae of the ear
tick, Otobius megnini (Duges), in British Columbia. ............. 22
SUGDEN—Annotated list of forest insects of British Columbia Part XIV,
Fmnominae (Geometridae ..........0..600 0 ee eee ee ee 24
TAXONOMIC
MACKAUER— 4phidius rubifolii n. sp. (Hymenoptera:Aphidiidae), a parasitoid
of Masonaphis maxima from British Columbia. ................ 34

FRAZER and FORBES—Masonaphis maxima (Mason) (homoptera:Aphididae),
an aphid on thimbleberry with an unusual life history ..........2.. 36

SCIENCE NOTES
ee UN UU Cou eis ies te sade OR coy Soca we om AG a el we 40

J. Extomo.. Soc. Brit. Cortumpra. 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

DIRECTORS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA FOR 1968-1969

President

H. MADSEN

Research Station, Canada Agriculture,
Summerland

President-Elect

W. T. CRAM

Research Station, 6660 N.W. Marine Drive,
Vancouver 8

Past-President

F. L. BANHAM

Research Station, Canada Agriculture,
Summerland

Secretary-Treasurer

M. D. ATKINS

Forest Research Laboratory,
506 West Burnside Road,
Victoria

Honorary Auditor

N. V. TONKS
Research Station, Saanichton

Editorial Committee

H. R. MacCartuy, Chairman K. GRAHAM
C. V. G. MorGan D. A. Ross
C. L. NEILSON

Directors

K. GRAHAM, Vancouver C. L. NEILSON, Victoria
W. T. Cram, Vancouver A. F. HEDLIN, Victoria
J. GRANT, Vernon G. B. RicH, Kamloops

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA, 65 (1968), Auc. 1, 1968 3

PEST-MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS AND CONTROL
OF TICK PARALYSIS IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

P. R. WILKINSON!

ABSTRACT

Actual and potential methods for controlling and reducing paralysis
of livestock and humans by the tick Dermacentor andersoni Stiles are
analyzed, and assigned tentative ‘‘Geier ratings” of cost and effectiveness.
Four broad categories of control are discussed: protection from toxins,
prevention of engorgement, avoidance, and reduction in numbers of ticks.

Some control methods are undesirable because of their effects on
the eco-system, including game animals. More information is needed on
immunology of mammals to tick toxins and tick feeding, on variations and
genetics of paralysing ability in ticks, on range management in relation
to paralysis, on the effects of herbicides on rodents and ticks, and on life-

table parameters of ticks and rodents.

Introduction

Recent thinking on pest-manage-
ment considers not only pests which
affect man’s use of some resource but
the entire eco-system in which the
pests occur (Clarke et al, 1967). This
raises questions whether man, or
some Section of society, is utilizing the
resource in the best way, taking into
account economic, aesthetic and other
aspects. Complex problems of desir-
able aims and means have arisen, for
instance, in managing “wilderness”
parks, in the relation of sport fishing
in New Brunswick to DDT spraying of
pulpwood forests, and in the siting of
airfields in or near favourite bird
haunts. This paper reviews present
and potential methods of control of
tick paralysis in British Columbia
from the point of view of effectiveness,
costs, and resource management. Such
broad reviews of narrow fields are
published too rarely, but are neces-
sary to indicate priorities in pest con-
trol, and to enlist the interest of
workers in related fields of enquiry.
The pest-management concept em-
phasizes selectiveness in control, and
fitting control methods to the biology
of the noxious species (Geier, 1966).

The Problem
Classical tick paralysis in British
Columbia is caused by Dermacentor
andersoni Stiles. Rich (1957) describ-
ed cases of toxicosis of cattle caused
by Otobius megnini, but these are dis-

4 1 Canada Department of Agriculture, Reasearch
Station. Entomology Section, P.O. Box 210, Kam-
loops, B.C.

tinct from the ascending paralysis due
to D. andersoni, described by Gregson
(1962) and others.

Tick paralysis of cattle is of major
concern in many parts of the cattle
ranching area, even though large out-
breaks are less common than formerly
(Gregson, 1966), doubtless due to the
widespread adoption of annual back-
line Spraying with BHC. The numbers
of sheep in tick areas are declining,
horses are rarely paralysed, and dogs
usually recover because the owner re-
moves the ticks, so that cattle are the
most important species of livestock at
risk. A few cases of human paralysis
are reported each year to the Kam-
loops laboratory (Jellison & Gregson,
1950), and probably at least an equal
number are not reported. Human
fatalities, usually due to delay in re-
moving the tick, still occur despite
extensive publicity on the need for
protective clothing and prompt re-
moval of the ticks. Jellison and Greg-
son (1950) pointed out that girl chil-
dren are more likely to be paralysed
than boys because long hair tends to
make a tick on the nape of the neck
inconspicuous. Children on Indian re-
serves may tend to come in contact
with tick foci more often than others,
and records are now being Kept to see
whether these children provide a dis-
proportionate number of paralysis
cases,

Control Methods
Barly hopes for control of Derma-
centor ticks by Chalcid wasps were
not fulfilled (Cooley and Kohls, 1934).

4 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMepiA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

Control measures recommended by
entomologists [fe.g. Hearle (1938),
Neilson, Rich and Procter (1966),
Neilson and Gregson (1967) | in Brit-
ish Columbia have been largely con-
fined to reducing rodents, protecting
cattle with acaricides, and protective
clothing and de-ticking for humans.
In contrast, in Australia, investiga-
tions by veterinarian Clunies-Ross
and the Commonwealth serum lab-
oratories, were directed towards cura-
tive measures applied to the paralysed
mammal and in particular to the de-
velopment of hyper-immune = sera
(Seddon, 1951).

The basic problem of D. andersoni
on cattle in British Columbia is pre-
venting paralysis. The main tick sea-
son, from late March to early May, is
quite brief in the cattle areas and
there is little indication that ticks are
ever present in sufficient numbers to
Cause irreversible weight losses or
other damage in the cattle.

Prevention of tick paralysis in cat-
tle can be considered under four
major headings.

A. Protecting susceptible animals
from effects of toxins, needing no re-
duction in numbers of ticks engorging
on the cattle.

B. Preventing ticks feeding to the
stage of engorgement which is neces-
sary to cause paralysis, with no at-
tempt to reduce the numbers of ticks
encountered by the cattle.

C. Reducing the numbers of ticks
encountered by the cattle, but not
reducing the numbers present on cat-
tle ranges in general.

D. Reducing the number of ticks
on cattle range, or in the entire range
of the “paralysis strain” of D. ander-
sont. (Prairie strains rarely if ever
cause cattle paralysis—Wilkinson and
Lawson, 1965.)

Various techniques grouped under
these headings, with selected refer-
ences in the literature and brief re-
marks, are shown in Table 1. The
Geier ratings are for satisfactoriness
of treatment based on the diagram in
Clark et ai (1967), which rates treat-
ments for excellence along scales for

“long-term reliability of protection,”
and “required frequency and intensity
of human intervention.’ The ratings
are provisional because many of these
measures have never been given long
term full-scale trial. The monetary
cost of most of the measures is un-
Known. Insecticide for the BHC spray
of cattle, B(4) (a) costs only about
65c per animal per year.

Only items under sections A(2),
A(3), A(4) and D would be applicable
to reduction of tick paralysis of
humans. Items under Section D would
acquire added importance if tick-
borne diseases in Canada (Gregson,
1964), become more virulent or new
diseases are introduced, or if tick vec-
tors interfere with eradication or
serum-testing of brucellosis of cattle
(VolkKova et al, 1960).

Long term investigations under
B (1) should be started to see whether
an inheritable resistance to ticks or
tick paralysis can be detected in a
variety of breeds of cattle, and de-
veloped by selection. The high Geier
rating compensates for the inherent
difficulties in investigating and apply-
ing this method. The reasons for lack
of paralysis in wild ungulates are ob-
scure (Wilkinson, 1965).

For successful investigation of
control measures under D (1), D (2)
and D(3), much more knowledge is
needed on the host-potential (Milne,
1949), of the several species of wild
animals inhabiting tick foci in the
spring range of cattle. The main
methods proposed at present involve
capture-mark-release studies on ro-
dent and other hosts, to provide data
for life-tables of tick populations on
selected study areas. Preliminary ex-
periments, and theoretical considera-
tions of sampling populations of such
a polyphagous tick and its mobile
hosts, indicate that the compilation of
useful life-tables will be very difficult
even with much more massively sup-
ported efforts than are likely to be
available. Nevertheless, by applying
crude approximations, in the belief
that some data are better than none,
it should be possible to improve our

- ees

Brit. CotumsiaA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

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knowledge of the major hosts that
maintain tick populations on cattle
range. Using this knowledge, it may
be possible to modify the environment
so that it becomes unfavourable to
ticks; this may well be economically
worthwhile, for instance, on Selected
areas of cattle range, around Settle-
ments where children wander, and on
camp grounds. The great majority of
tick paralysis cases in British Colum-
bia are due to tickKs picked up in mon-
tane forest or in tick foci in grass-
lands (Wilkinson, 1967).

Massive and widespread applica-
tions of DDT, such as 5 kKg/hectare,
Table 1 D (4), may be undesirable be-
cause of concentration in wildlife food
chains, storage in soil, and danger to
fish. Such treatments have been con-
sidered justifiable in the U.S.S.R. to
protect humans from. encephalitis
carried mainly by Ixodes ticks. Us-
pensky (1967), mentioned an annual
application of 107 kg of 10% DDT dust
over 200,000 hectares. However, US-
pensky implies that more economical
methods should be found, and that
the incidence of encephalitis has not
been reduced as much as expected.

Much of the spring range of cat-
tle is used by deer and gamebirds.
These are a valuable source of meat
and recreation and of income to Sell-
ers of Supplies and services to hunt-
ers; moreover wild animals have an
aesthetic value to an even wider circle
of people. Widespread destruction of
shrubs D (1) would be inadvisable be-
cause these shrubs (Wilkinson, 1967),
are valuable as the main winter
browse species for deer, and may be
of importance to grouse. Preliminary
experiments have been in progress at
Kamloops since 1965 to discover if
destruction of shrubs is an effective

and economically feasible method of
reducing tickKs in small tick foci with-
in large relatively uninfested areas of
grassland, or around settlements and
campsites.

Discussion

The work of Clark et al (1967) and
Beirne (1967), should encourage ap-
plied biologists to re-examine pest
organisms against the background of
the eco-system and with optimum use
of resources in mind. Often they will
be hampered by a lack of definition
of the objectives in resource utiliza-
tion, because conflicts of interest be-
tween different sections of the com-
munity are likely to continue for some
time.

Detailed analysis of any insect
control problem will probably reveal
important gaps in our Knowledge, as
in Table 1. The study of these basic
problems closely related to potential
control measures seems particularly
appropriate to government labora-
tories, since pursuit of abstract knowl-
edge can best be left to universities,
aided by relatively short term studies
by students. Detailed work on well
Known methods, such as studies of
dosage and methods of application of
pesticides under local conditions, is
appropriate to those close to the ex-
tension field.

This analysis of the problem of
tick paralysis shows the extent of the
specialties involved, ranging from
mammalian immunology, through in-
secticide toxicology and tick ecology,
to range ecology and agronomy. A
balanced effort of wide coverage is
needed, Scaled to the importance of
the problem, to identify and pursue
the most profitable lines of investiga-
tion and control.

References

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control of insect populations. Science 145:1195-1197.

Beirne, B. P. 1967. Pest Management. Leonard Hill, London.

Clark, L. R., P. W. Geier, R. D. Hughes, R. F. Morris. 1967. The ecology of insect popu-

lations in theory and practice.
Cooley, R. A., and G. M. Kohls.
Congr. 1933 pp. 3375-81

Methuen, London.
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Drummond, R. O., and D. H. Graham. 1964. Insecticide tests against the tropical horse
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Gregson, J. D. 1966. Records of tick paralysis in livestock in British Columbia. Proc.
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Jellison, W. L., and J. D. Gregson. 1950. Tick paralysis in Northwestern United States
and British Columbia. Rocky Mt. Med. J. 47:28-32.

Kartman, L. 1958. An insecticide bait box method for the control of sylvatic plague
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Rich, G. B. 1957. The ear tick, Otobius megnini (Duges) (Acarina: Argasidae), and its
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Agric. Res. 9:830-841.

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Seddon, H. R. 1951. Tick and mite infestations. Serv. Publ. No. 7 Div. Vet. Hyg. Pub.
Hlth Dep., Aust.

Shilova, S. A., M. B. Azaryan, Yu. M. Schadilov. 1967. Organization of the control of
forest murine rodents and their ectoparasites in foci of certain natural infec-
tions. Med. Parasit. and Parasit. Bolezni 36:301-307.

Uspensky, I. V. 1967. A method of direct elimination of tick-borne encephalitis vector.
Status and prospects. Med. Parasit. and Parasit. Bolezni 36:296-300.

Volkova et al. 1960. Study of the role of ticks of the genera Dermacentor and Haema-
physalis in transmission of brucellosis. Izv. Akad. Nauk Kirghiz, S.S.R. 2:5-24.
Translation No. 134. U.S. Navy Med. Res. Unit No. 3 Cairo.

Wilkinson, P. R. 1962. Selection of cattle for tick resistance, and the effect of herds of
different susceptibility on Boophilus populations. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 13:974-
983.

Wilkinson, P. R. 1965. A first record of paralysis of a deer by Dermacentor andersoni
Stiles and notes on the “Host-potential’” of deer in British Columbia. Proc.
Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia. 62:28-30.

Wilkinson, P. R., and J. E. Lawson. 1965. Differences of sites of attachment of Derma-
centor andersoni Stiles to cattle in south-eastern Alberta and south central
British Columbia, in relation to possible existence of genetically different
strains of ticks. Can. J. Zool. 43:408-411.

Wilkinson, P. R. 1967. The distribution of Dermacentor ticks in Canada in relation to
bioclimatic zones. Can. J. Zool. 45:517-537.

10 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtumMpBrA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

WOOD- AND BARK-FEEDING COLEOPTERA OF
FELLED SPRUCE IN INTERIOR BRITISH COLUMBIA

D. A. Ross!

ABSTRACT

A list of wood- and bark-feeding Coleoptera of interior British Co-
lumbia reared from Picea glauca (Moench) Voss and P. engelmanni Parry
in 1928-30 and 1965-67, and the range of their emergence dates at Trinity
Valley and Vernon, B.C., respectively, are presented. The species of eco-
nomic importance reared in significant numbers were the wood borers Te-
tropium cinnamopterum Kirby, Serropalpus substriatus Hald., and Mono-
chamus oregonensis LeConte, and the bark beetle Dendroctonus obesus

(Mannerheim).

Wood- and bark-feeding beetles
cause Significant losses in British Co-
lumbia’s forests each year. A Knowl-
edge of the species involved and their
times of emergence and attack are
requisite to the intelligent manage-
ment of our forests.

Two sources of data on wood- and
bark-feeding Coleoptera from felled
spruce in interior British Columbia
are considered here. The first is un-
published information gathered by
J.R. L. Howell and others2 in 1928-30,
and the second by members of the
Forest Insect and Disease Survey dur-
ing 1965-67.

Howell reared insects from two
felled Engelmann spruce trees at
Trinity Valley, B.C., to ascertain the
species complex of the stump, bole
and limbs. One tree, 9 inches d.b.h.
and 85 feet tall, was blown down early
in the summer of 1927. The other tree,
of unrecorded dimensions, was pre-
sumed to have blown down in the
spring of 1929. In each case the ma-
terial was caged early in the spring
within a year of blowdown.

In 1965, the author began investi-
gations to determine the species of
wood-infesting Coleoptera of eco-
nomic importance to spruce in the In-
terior. Engelmann and white spruce
trees windblown or logged in 1964, or
felled in 1965 and 1966 by Survey per-
sonnel in a number of localities were

1Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department
of Forestry and Rural Development of Canada,
Vernon, B.C.

2 In files of Forest Entomology Lakoratory, Ver-
non,

left exposed to attack for the summer.
Samples from a total of 25 infested
logs were taken to Vernon from Ash-
croft, Lumby, Cherryville, Waitabit
Creek, and other localities in the
southern Interior, and from points
northward into Pine Pass to Mile 485
on the Alaska Highway in northern
British Columbia. Each sample con-
sisted of three 2-foot-long bole sec-
tions 8 to 12 inches in diameter. In
the fall the boles were caged outdoors
at Vernon and emergents were col-
lected during 1965-1967. :

Howell reared 11 wood- and bark-
feeding species of Coleoptera from the
stumps, 20 from the boles and five
from the limbs of the two trees (Table
1). Monochamus notatus (Drury),
was the only wood-boring species
reared in Significant numbers from
the bole: all adults of this species
emerged the second year after the at-
tack. Polygraphus rufipennis (Kirby),
a bark feeder, occurred abundantly
in the bole and to a much lesser de-
gree in the limbs and stump. Dryo-
coetes affaber (Mannerheim), was the
only other species of bark beetle pres-
ent in significant numbers; it was
confined to the bole.

The only species of Coleoptera
present in large numbers and reared
from a significant proportion of the
samples of white and Engelmann
spruce (Table 2) were: the wood
borers Tetropium cinnamopterum,
Serropalpus substriatus, and Mono-
chamus oregonensis; the snout beetle,
Pissodes alascensis Hopkins, and the
bark beetle Dendroctonus obesus.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumBstiA, 65 (1968), Auac. 1, 1968

11

TABLE 1—Emergence of wood- and bark-feeding insects the first and second summer
following caging,' of Engelmann spruce wind-felled in 1927 and 1929, Trinity Valley,
B.C.

No. emergents2 ex.
Species Stump Bole

Emergence range

CERAMBYCIDAE
Acmaeops sp. i
Anthophilax
mirificus Bland 2
Leptura
obliterata Hald. 3(1) 1
Megasemum
asperum (LeC.) 1
Monochamus
notatus (Drury) ( 28)
Monochamus
oregonensis (LeC.) 3( 1)
Neacanthocinus
obliquus (LeC.) 2
Phymatodes
densipennis Csy. 1(1) 3( 2)
Pogonocherus
propinquus Fall ( WD
Rhagium
lineatum (Oliv.) a 3
Tetropium
velutinum LeC. 1(1) d( 1)
Xylita
laevigata (Hellw.) 2 10( 1)
Xylotrechus
undulatus (Say) 1
BUPRESTIDAE
Buprestis
adjecta (LeC.) ( 1)
MELANDRYIDAE
Scotochroa
basalis LeC. (1) 1( 1)
Serropalpus
substriatus Hald. 2
CURCULIONIDAE
Pissodes
alascensis Hopk. 6
Pissodes
schwartzi Hopk. 4
SCOLYTIDAE
Dendroctonus
obesus (Mann.) 4 12( 1)
Dryocoetes
septentrionus (Mann.) TD 2
Polygraphus
rufipennis (Kby.) 23(1) 5960(168)
Dryocoetes
affaber (Mann.) 79( 59)

Aug. 8
May 16- May 28
Aug. 12 - Aug. 14
Aug. 10
June 22- Aug. 6
June 16 - Aug. 21
July 25
May 28- July 6
Aug. 7
May 14- June 20
May 26- Aug. 7
May 15- July 30
Aug. 1

July 18

July 13 - Aug. 10
July 14- July 24

May 26 - Sep. 11

June 5

May 12-Aug. 7
June 3- June 24
May 16 - Sep. 25
June 26 - Aug. 16

1 Caged the spring following blowdown.
2 Number of second year emergents in brackets.

Of these only the three species of ing blue staining fungi.

wood borers and the bark beetle D. The

range of emergence dates

obesus are of economic importance. noted in Table 2 serves only as a rough
The wood borers make holes in the’ guide since the logs were infested in
wood reducing the quality of the lum-_ several localities at various times of
ber, and the bark beetles may cause’ the year and then were reared at Ver-

deterioration of the wood by introduc- non.

12 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtumsBtiA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

TABLE 2—Emergence at Vernon in 1965-67 from 25 samples of Engelmann and white
spruce logs from Interior British Columbia.

No. samples

Species infested

CERAMBYCIDAE

Atimia dorsalis LeC.

Meriellum proteus Kby.

Monochamus oregonensis LeC.

Neoclytus muricatulus Kby.

Megasemum asperum (LeC.)

Tetropium cinnamopterum LeC.

Xylotrechus undulatus Say
MELANDRYIDAE

Serropalpus substriatus Hald. 7
BUPRESTIDAE

Melanophila drummondi Kby. 4
CURCULIONIDAE

Pissodes alascensis Hopk. 4
SCOLYTIDAE

Dendroctonus obesus (Mann.)

Dryocoetes septentrionis (Mann.)

Polygraphus rufipennis Kby.
SIRICIDAE!

M10 Ole

COwnnd

Range in no. Range of
emergents emergence dates
1 July 26
2 June 28- July 2
2-23 May 27- July 16
1-14 June 13- Aug. 1
it ?-Aug. 2
6-95 May 5- June 26
1 July 13
2-88 June 13-Aug. 4
2- 9 May 4- July 27
8-43 June 19 - Aug. 10
1-75 May 2- Aug. 13
8-39 July 4- July 25
12-58 May 2- July 24
1-30 July 5-Aug. 14

1 Horntails—recorded to indicate relative importance.

A RECORD OF MEGACHILE ROTUNDATA (F.)
FROM ASHCROFT, BRITISH COLUMBIA

J. C. ARRAND AND J. CORNER

The leaf-cutter bee, Megachile ro-
tundata (F.) is a Eurasian species be-
lieved to have been introduced to
North America on several occasions.
It was recorded in Virginia in 1937,
and since then has been recorded
from Kansas, Missouri, Texas, Cali-
fornia, Utah, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon,
and Washington (Stephen, 1962).

In 1963 specimens of Megachile
rotundata (F.) were noted in a collec-
tion of bees from Ashcroft. Identifica-

tion was confirmed by W. P. Stephen,
Oregon State University, Corvallis,
Oregon. This is believed to be the first
record of M. rotundata occurring na-
turally in Canada. Since 1963 large
numbers of this species have been
brought in from Oregon, to Ashcroft
and Kamloops in the interior of Brit-
ish Columbia, for alfalfa pollination.
Some bees have escaped and nested in
cracks or under shingles in buildings
nearby. Prepupae have survived the
past three winters in these locations.

References
Stephen, W. P. 1962. Propagation of the leaf-cutter for alfalfa seed production. Oregon

State Univ. Stn. Bull. 586.

J. Exntomot. Soc. Brit. Cotumpia, 65 (1968), Auc. 1, 1968 13

FIRST OCCURRENCE OF BALSAM WOOLLY APHID
IN THE INTERIOR OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

R. O. Woop!

ABSTRACT

The balsam woolly aphid, Adelges piceae (Ratzeburg), was discovered
near Vancouver in 1958, and in the interior of British Columbia in 1967.
Infested planted ornamentals were found at two locations in the Okanagan
Valley: three Abies alba Miller near Oliver and two Abies concolor (Gor-
don and Glendenning) in Penticton. These trees were either burned or

sprayed.
(Hooker).

The balsam woolly aphid, Adelges
piceae (Ratz.), is an important pest
of true firs, Abies spp. This native of
Europe, found in North America in
1908, now occurs from the Maritime
Provinces of Canada south to North
Carolina and from southern British
Columbia to California. Since its dis-
covery near Vancouver in 1958, it has
become firmly established in that area
on the mainland and on southern
Vancouver Island.

On 28 April 1967, infested bark
and branch samples from three plant-
ed ornamental silver firs, Abies alba
Mill., near Oliver in the Okanagan
Valley were submitted by the owner.
Additional samples taken on 15 May
contained a maximum of 1,890 eggs
and 45 crawlers per square-inch bark
sample, and 33 crawlers per 24-inch
branch.

The trees appeared vigorous in
spite of the heavy stem attack. They
were imported from Holland and
planted at the Oliver site in 1928. They
were infested either when planted
and the aphids had persisted on them
for 29 years, or infestation occurred
at a later date, possibly from exposure
to infested transplanted stock.

At the request of the B.C. Forest
Service, the trees were sprayed by a
pest control firm on 16 May. Wettable
powder formulations of Tedion, Sevin
and Thiodan were mixed at concen-
trations of 1 lb. each to 90 gal of
water and applied at the rate of 30
gal per tree. Bark and branch sam-
ples from the sprayed trees were

1Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department
of Forestry and Rural Development, Vernon, B.C.

No aphids were found on native alpine fir, Abies lasiocarpa

examined in June; only one living
aphid was found. Although the spray
was almost 100% effective, it was de-
cided to destroy all three trees and
they were subsequently felled and
burned.

The discovery of the balsam woolly
aphid at Oliver resulted in a Special
survey of ornamental firs from the
United States border to Penticton.
The survey was conducted between 23
May and 13 August by B.C. Forest Ser-
vice crews supervised by members of
the Forest Insect and Disease Survey.
About 1,100 ornamental fir trees were
examined, resulting in the discovery
of two infested white firs, Abies con-
color (Gord. and Glend.), in Pentic-
ton. These trees were about 40 ft high
and had a light population of aphids
on the branches. The origin and date
of transplanting of the trees were not
known.

The trees were sprayed with a mix-
ture of Thiodan and Sevin (1 lb. W.P.
of each per 100 gal of water), applied
at the rate of 70 gal per tree. Control
was Satisfactory as later sampling
showed no living aphids.

All infested ornamental fir trees
were less than 15 miles from stands of
highly susceptible native alpine fir,
Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.), a distance
suspected to be within the airborne
dispersal limits of the insect. How-
ever, aerial and ground surveys of
these stands in July and August failed
to produce evidence of the balsam
woolly aphid. The native, non-
destructive adelgid, Pineus abietinus
Underwood and Balch, was common.

The balsam woolly aphid presum-

14 J. ENTomo.. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

ably was introduced into southwestern
British Columbia on nursery stock
imported from infested areas. In the
Interior it apparently had a similar
introduction. Steps taken to prevent
further spread included a voluntary
industry quarantine on the movement
of Abies spp. logs outside of the infest-
ed areas, and federal and provincial
quarantines preventing the sale or
movement of Abies nursery stock into
or within the Province. This action

should reduce the long-range spread
of the aphid, leaving only natural
spread by wind and possibly birds to
contend with. Surveys to detect
spread on ornamentals in other inter-
ior areas prior to the present legisla-
tion are necessary. Spraying or fell-
ing of such trees is recommended; if
spread into natural stands far re-
moved from the existing major in-
festation is detected, similar direct
control measures may be advisable.

Reference

Harris, J. W. E., D. H. Ruppel, S. J. Allen, and D. G. Collis. 1964. The balsam woolly
aphid, Adelges piceae (Ratz.) in British Columbia. Infor. Rept. For. Ent. and

Path. Lab., Victoria, B.C.

PROTECTING LARCH LOGS FROM TETROPIUM
VELUTINUM LECONTE WITH LINDANE EMULSION

D. A. Ross anv N. J. GEISTLINGER!

ABSTRACT
At Trinity Valley, British Columbia, a 1% emulsion of lindane ap-
plied on 12 June 1967, protected freshly felled Larix occidentalis Nuttall
from attack by Tetropium velutinum LeConte. The same concentration,
applied to infested logs on 14 August reduced damage but was too late to
satisfactorily prevent larval penetration of the wood.

Introduction

Ross (1967) noted the importance
of the western larch borer, Tetropium
velutinum LeConte, aS a wood borer
in logs of western larch, Larix occi-
dentalis Nuttall. As with Monocha-
mus, injury by Tetropium may be
prevented by removing recently dead
trees or logs from the forest before
the beetles oviposit, or by utilizing
timber before larvae in the bark en-
ter the wood. Various authors includ-
ing Becker (1959), and Ross and
Downton (1966), have shown that
lindane emulsion protects logs from
wood-borer attack, although its effec-
tiveness had not been tried specifically
against Tetropium. In 1967 the spray
was used A to prevent oviposition by
Tetropium velutinum and B to reduce
damage of the wood by larvae.

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department. of
Forestry and Rural Development, Vernon, B.C.

2 Lindane powder mixed with xylol and an
emulsifier in water.

Methods

Three 14-inch d.b.h. western larch
at Trinity Valley were felled on 12
June 1967, and cut into 30 logs, each
4 feet long. Ten randomly selected
logs for Treatment A were placed in
the forest about 100 feet from the
remaining 20.

Treatment A. On 12 June a 1%
lindane emulsion2 was applied with
a hand sprayer to the point of runoff
on all sides of each log in the group
of 10.

Treatment B. On 14 August every
second remaining log was removed
100 feet and sprayed with 1% lindane.
The remaining 10 logs served as con-
trols. By this time, numerous larvae
had penetrated the wood.

In both treatments and in the con-
trol, individual logs were spaced 10
feet apart parallel to an east-west
line.

Foot-long sections of the treated
and control logs were peeled in mid-
October 1967, and the numbers of

J. ENToMot. Soc. BRIT. CoLuMBIA, 65 (1968), Aua. 1, 1968 15

Tetropium larval entrance holes, and
the living and dead larvae under the
bark were counted.
Results

Table 1 shows the average and
range in numbers of Tetropium velu-
tinum larval entrance holes in treat-
ed and control larch logs in October,
1967.

Woodpeckers had drilled holes in-
to, and scaled bark off most of the
logs given Treatment B or no treat-
ment. Forty-five per cent of the 197
Tetropium larvae that were under the
bark but had not penetrated the wood
of the logs of Treatment B were dead:
20% of the 98 larvae under the
bark of the control logs were dead.

TABLE 1—Influence of Treatment on Western Larch Borers in Larch Logs.

Treatment and Date
1967

A. Lindane 1%—June 12
B. Lindane 1%—Aug. 14
Control

Discussion

The absence of living or dead Tet-
ropium larvae, the absence of galleries
in the wood, and the presence of
larvae in the control logs indicate the
effectiveness of Treatment A in pre-
venting damage to western larch
logs.

Treatment B was applied too late
to prevent damage by some larvae, but
did reduce overall damage.

The presence of a larger number
of larvae under the bark of logs treat-
ed on 14 August than in the control
logs may have been the result of
selectivity by woodpeckers. However,
it was more likely due to the effect of
the poison which probably killed or
weakened some larvae that otherwise
would have penetrated the wood.

There was a greater proportion of

No. Tetropium entrance holes per sq ft

Average Range
0 __
4.5 3.0- 10.9
8.4 5.3 - 12.3
dead Tetropium larvae under the

bark of logs receiving Treatment B
(45% mortality) than in the control
logs (20% mortality), indicating that
the poison had killed some of the
larvae under the bark. Unfortunately
woodpeckers had removed many lar-
vae from the infested logs making
data on living and dead Tetropium
inconclusive.

There were no bark beetles, Scoly-
tidae, in any of the samples receiving
Treatment B, as there were in a simi-
lar trial to control Monochamus in
pine (Ross and Downton, 1966). Bark
beetle galleries in some instances
would presumably have permitted bet-
ter penetration of the poison into the
bark.

Acknowledgements
We thank E. D. A. Dyer and A. C. Molnar
for editing the manuscript.

References

Becker, 'W. B. 1959. Further tests with BHC emulsion sprays to keep boring insects out
of pine logs in Massachusetts. Jour. Econ. Ent. 52(1):173-174.

Ross, D. A., and J. S. Downton. 1966. Protecting logs from long-horned wood borers
with lindane emulsion. Forestry Chron. 42:377-379.

Ross, D. A. 1967. The western larch borer, Tetropium velutinum LeConte, in interior
British Columbia. J. Entomol. Soc, Brit. Columbia. 64:25-28.

16 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMRBIA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

THRIPS INFESTING THE TIPS OF ASPARAGUS SPEARS!

F. L. BANHAM!

ABSTRACT

The onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lind., and the flower thrips, Frank-
liniella tritici (Fitch), mainly from varicornis Bagnall, were found in the
tips of asparagus spears from commercial fields in the southern interior
of British Columbia. Both species occurred in about equal numbers except
in one area, where F. tritici form varicornis was the more abundant species.
Only adults were found. These migrant thrips do not damage the spears
but are a potential source of contamination in the processed product.
Thrips were most abundant in spears with loose or “blown” tips. In all
areas, the highest infestations of thrips in the spears occurred in fields
with a heavy weed cover. The weed cover and bordering forage crops, in-
cluding alfalfa, provided a constant source of infestation. Increased num-
bers of thrips in spears coincided with increased daily temperatures and
cutting of bordering forage crops. Effective weed control reduced the num-

bers of thrips infesting the spears.

Introduction

The presence of thrips in the tips
of harvested asparagus spears has
caused concern among growers and
processors in the southern interior of
British Columbia since 1961. When
thrips are abundant in the tips of
asparagus Spears, processors are
forced to use special washing pro-
cesses prior to canning or freezing to
remove this potential source of con-
tamination from the processed pro-
duct. In some instances, processors
have threatened to cancel the con-
tracts of growers whose asparagus
was heavily infested with thrips. Field
and laboratory investigations were
conducted to determine the extent of
feeding damage, the species, the stage
of insect development, the probable
sources of infestation, and an eco-
nomic control against thrips infesting
growing aSparagus spears.

Materials and Methods

In 1963 and 1964, the occurrence
of thrips in asparagus fields was de-
termined in four widely separated
areas from Kamloops to Kelowna. In
one area, which was heavily infested,
five fields were inspected at weekly
intervals throughout the harvesting
seasons. In three other areas, inspec-
tions were made in fewer fields and
less frequently. Field inspections were
made by dislodging thrips from four

1 Contribution No. 237. Research Station, Canada
Agriculture Summerland, British Columbia.

or more samples each of twenty-five
erowing or freshly harvested spears.
Thrips were dislodged from the spears
by tapping individual spears into the
palm of the hand. Spears were tapped
over a Sheet of white paper when ex-
cessive amounts of soil particles or
other debris made sorting of the
thrips difficult.

In 1964, weekly laboratory examin-
ations were made to determine the
numbers of thrips, stage of develop-
ment, and the extent of feeding dam-
age on the spears and bracts. Four
samples, each of ten randomly select-
ed asparagus spears, were harvested
from fields infested with thrips. One
sample was Stored in a potassium
cyanide killing bottle and the other
three sealed in plastic bags. Aspara-
gus spears from the killing bottles
were dissected with the aid of a bino-
cular microscope to determine the
numbers of thrips, their stage of de-
velopment, the location, and extent
of feeding damage. Bracts were re-
moved from spears stored in the
plastic bags. Immediately, each was
placed in a 10% sodium chloride brine
solution and agitated. Flotation debris
was inspected under the microscope
to determine the presence of thrips
or parts of thrips.

To ascertain the effect of weed
control on infestations of thrips in the
asparagus spears, weekly counts were
continued in 1964 in two fields which,
in 1963, had a dense weed growth and

J. Exromon. Soc. Brit. CotumBIA, 65 (1968), Aua. 1, 1968 17

were heavily infested with thrips. In
one field, a pre-emergence applica-
tion of Monuron herbicide was made
in April, 1964. In the second, a heavy
weed cover was suppressed by disc-
cultivation in the first week of June.
The abundance of thrips on _ the
foliage of weed plants in the aspara-
gus fields and on adjacent crop plants
was determined at the same intervals
by sweeping with a 13-inch diameter
canvas sweep net.

Results

Two species of thrips were iden-
tified by Dr. W. R. Richards, Systema-
tics Unit, Entomology Research Insti-
tute, Canada Agriculture, Ottawa, in
samples collected from asparagus
spears, weed plants and adjacent for-
age and crop plants. Only adults were
found in the tips of the asparagus
spears. The onion thrips, Thrips ta-
baci Lind., and the flower thrips.
Frankliniella tritici (Fitch), mainly
form varicornis Bagnall, were pres-
ent in about equal numbers both mid-
way through and at the end of the
harvesting season in all but one area
where the latter was the more abun-
dant species throughout the season.
In all areas, fields with a heavy weed
cover including: Canada thistle, Cir-
sium arvense (L.) Scop.; common
dandelion, Taraxacum officinale
Weber; shepherd’s purse, Capsella
bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic.; lamb’s
quarters, Chenopodium album L.;
couch grass Agropyron repens (L.)
Beauv.; and storksbill, Erodium cir-
cutarium L.; were infested with sev-
eral forms of F. tritici. Some T. tabaci
were also present. F. tritici form vari-
cornis was taken on wheat and was
also more abundant than T. tabaci on
alfalfa. Nymphs and adult thrips
were collected from most of these
plant species.

Laboratory examinations showed
that thrips were present only on the
bracts of the tips of the asparagus
spears. Most thrips were found in
Spears with loose bracts. These spears
are described as having open or
“blown” tips. Thrips observed feeding
or harbouring on the bracts caused no

detectable damage.

The highest infestations of thrips
occurred in the Armstrong area in
asparagus fields with heavy weed
cover. In 1963, counts averaged 13.3
thrips per spear (range 0-19) in one
weedy field compared to 0.5 thrips per
spear (range 0-3) in a clean cultivat-
ed field. In the other areas, counts
during the same period varied from
0.02 to 1.4 thrips per spear (range 0
to 3). Armstrong was the only area
where populations of thrips in the
weed cover of asparagus fields were
higher than those in the bordering
weed or crop cover.

At Armstrong, when infestations
of thrips in the asparagus Spears were
high, mature alfalfa bordering the
fields had populations averaging 10.9
thrips per sweep and fall wheat 1.9
thrips per sweep. Lamb’s quarters in
or bordering the field averaged 8.5
thrips per sweep and shepherd’s purse
2.1 per sweep. Moderate to heavy
foliage covers of Canada thistle, com-
mon dandelion and _ storksbill had
lighter populations. Couch grass had
the lowest populations.

In 1963 and 1964, populations of
thrips in the asparagus fields and ad-
jacent vegetation increased as the
season progressed. Populations of
thrips increased significantly in the
third and fourth weeks of May and
continued to increase till the third
week of June when harvesting ended.
In all areas, the initial increase in
populations of thrips coincided with
the cutting and drying of forage crops
in nearby fields. This is illustrated by
brine flotation counts which rose to
7.0 thrips per spear two days after
and peaked at 10.3 thrips per Spear
nine days after the adjacent field of
alfalfa was cut. The pre-cut count
averaged only 0.75 thrips per spear.

Suppressing or eradicating the
weed cover within an asparagus field
reduced the numbers of thrips in the
Spears. At Armstrong, in 1964 a pre-
emergence application of Monuron
herbicide effectively suppressed the
growth of weeds in one field which
had a heavy weed growth in 1963. In

18 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 65 (1968), Ava. 1, 1968

the second week of June, the average
number of thrips in the asparagus
spears was 0.3 per spear in 1964 com-
pared with 4.1 per spear in 1963. The
1964 count was lower than the 0.5
thrips per spear average for clean cul-
tivated fields in the Armstrong area
and was similar to that of clean cul-
tivated fields in other areas. During
the harvesting season, disc-cultiva-
tion to suppress a heavy cover of
weeds also reduced infestations of
thrips in the Spears from 10.3 per
spear to 3.8 per spear in one week and
to 1.5 per spear in two weeks.

Discussion

Processors can tolerate the occa-
sional presence of small numbers of
thrips in the tips of a few asparagus
spears. These can be removed from
the bracts by washing prior to pro-
cessing. Although F. tritici and T.
tabaci cause no apparent damage to
the asparagus, heavy infestations of
13 thrips per spear create a risk that
the processed product will be con-
taminated.

In California, Michelbacher and
Bacon (1949), reported that mainly
adult thrips of the Frankliniella com-
plex infested asparagus Spears for
periods of about one week in some
years. Fields with heavy weed cover
had the highest infestations. In Brit-
ish Columbia, only adult thrips were
found, indicating that these were
migrants. F. tritici, mainly form vari-
cornis, and T. tabaci infested aspara-
gus spears for about five weeks. The
maximum number of thrips per spear
was about double that reported from
California.

Laboratory inspections made in
1962, at the processing plant of Cana-

dian Canners Ltd., Vancouver, showed
that the highest incidence of thrips
occurred in asparagus spears from
the Armstrong area. Field and la-
boratory investigations in 1963 and
1964 confirmed this. Field inspections
showed that weed growth was heavier
in the non-irrigated Armstrong area
than it was in the irrigated areas.
Growers in the Armstrong area claim
a heavy weed cover shades the as-
paragus and “slows “tip-blowing.”
Field observations showed this cul-
tural practice increased the amount
of “tip-blowing” by causing over-
maturity; mature spears frequently
were Shielded from view during har-
vesting operations. “Blown” tips per-
mitted F. tritici and T. tabaci to enter
and feed or harbour on the bracts. In
fields with a heavy weed cover, the
chance of migrant thrips entering the
bracts would be reduced by harvesting
the spears at a less mature stage when
the tips are tight.

Weed control in and bordering an
asparagus field reduces infestations
of thrips in the spears. The use of
herbicides and cultivation to control
the weeds lowered infestations of
thrips to tolerable levels. Further re-
ductions might be achieved by stag-
gering the time of cutting forage in
each bordering field. Trap strips of
alfalfa or other forage left on the side
of a field bordering the asparagus
should assist further to reduce the
number of thrips.

Acknowledgments
The author acknowledges with thanks
the co-operation of Messrs. H. J. Hewitt,
Fieldman, Canadian Canners Ltd., Kelowna,
B.C., and E. M. King, Vegetable Specialist,
British Columbia Department of Agricul-
ture, Kelowna, B.C.

References
Michelbacher, A. E. and O. G. Bacon. 1949. Thrips on asparagus. J. Econ. Entomol.

42:849-50.

J. EnToMo.t. Soc. Brit. Cotumptra, 65 (1968), Auc. 1, 1968 19

INTEGRATED CONTROL OF THE FRUIT-TREE LEAF
ROLLER, ARCHIPS ARGYROSPILUS (WALKER), AND THE
EYE-SPOTTED BUD MOTH, SPILONOTA OCELLANA
(DENIS & SCHIFFERMULLER)

HAROLD F'. MADSEN' AND R. S. DOWNING!

ABSTRACT

Pre-bloom sprays to control the fruit-tree leaf roller, Archips argyro-
pilus (Walker), and the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis &
Schiffermuller), were applied in an apple orchard where no insecticides
have been used for 6 years. The phytophagous mites in the orchard are held
under control by predacious phytoselid mites.

Azinphos-methy] at 5 and 24 lb. 25% W.P. per acre gave excellent
control of the two insects when applied at the pre-pink stage. Dormant oil
at 6 gal. per acre applied at the '2-inch green stage was ineffective. Oil at
6 gal. and azinphos-methy]! at 242 lb. did not reduce predacious phytoselid
mites over the untreated control. No phytoseiid mites were found on trees
treated with azinphos-methyl at 5 lb. The timing of the effective sprays
would not interfere with a program of codling moth control by the sterility

method.

Introduction

Interest and research on control
of the fruit-tree leaf roller, Archips
argyrospilus (Walker), and the eye-
spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana
(Denis & Schiffermuller) , has declined
in recent years following the intro-
duction of wide spectrum insecticides
for codling moth control. Materials
such as azinphos-methyl and carbaryl
in regularly applied seasonal spray
programs on apples has reduced the
fruit-tree leaf roller and eye-spotted
bud moth to minor pests.

Developments in autocidal control
of the codling moth (Proverbs, New-
ton and Logan, 1967), have raised the
question whether these insects will
become major pests if codling moth
sprays are no longer required. The
type of fruit damage caused by these
two pests in British Columbia or-
chards has been described by Madsen
and Arrand (1966). An indication
that both the fruit-tree leaf roller
and eye-spotted bud moth can in-
crease to damaging numbers has been
noted in an orchard which has not
received codling moth sprays since
1961. In the above orchard, Downing
and Moilliet (1967), have shown that
both the European red mite, Panony-

Contribution No. 229. Research Station, Canada
Agriculture Summerland, British Columbia.

1 Research Station, Canada Agriculture, Sum-
merland, British Columbia.

chus ulmi (Koch), and the McDaniel
mite, Tetranychus mcdanieli (McGre-
gor), are held below economic levels
in McIntosh and Spartan trees by the
predacious phytoseiid mite, Metaseiu-
lus occidentalis (Nesbitt).

Studies were begun in this experi-
mental orchard in 1967 to develop an
integrated control program for the
fruit-tree leaf roller and the eye-
spotted bud moth. The objective was
to find a chemical control that would
not upset natural control of phyto-
phagous mites nor have an adverse
effect on released codling moths ster-
ilized by gamma radiation. Spray
applications were limited to the pre-
bloom period of tree growth. This tim-
ing was at least two weeks before a
codling moth release program would
begin, and at a time when some pre-
dacious mites were Still in overwin-
tering sites.

Methods

Treatments were applied to three
apple varieties in the test orchard,
Red Delicious, McIntosh, and Spartan.
Plots were not replicated within each
variety and the plot size was 2x3 trees
in the Red Delicious and Spartan
varieties and 4x4 trees in the McIn-
tosh variety.

The sprays were applied with a
one-sided air-blast sprayer Set to de-
liver 60 gallons of spray mixture per

CoLtuMBIA, 65 (1968), Auge. 1, 1968

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J. EnTomo.. Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA, 65 (1968), Auge. 1, 1968 21

acre at 100 psi. Some treatments were
applied on 10 April, when the McIn-
tosh buds were in the % inch green
stage, and the remainder were applied
on 27 April, when the McIntosh buds
were in the pre-pink stage. The early
sprays were dormant oils directed
against the over-wintering eggs of the
fruit-tree leaf roller and overwintered
larvae of the eye-spotted bud moth.
The later applications of azinphos-
methyl at 5 and 214 lb. were designed
to control the newly emerged larvae
of the two insects.

The treatments were evaluated by
post-bloom counts of larvae, and by
harvest counts of injured fruit. The
post-bloom counts were made by ex-
amining a total of 300 fruit clusters
per treatment and recording the
number of fruit-tree leaf roller and
eye-spotted bud moth larvae. At har-
vest, all of the fruit on the two centre
trees in each treatment was examined
and the fruit-tree leaf roller and eye-
spotted bud moth damaged apples
were recorded.

The effect of the various treat-
ments on predacious mites was de-
termined by leaf counts taken at
intervals throughout the _ season.
Samples consisted of 100 leaves picked
at random from each treatment. The
leaves were run through a mite brush-
ing machine (Henderson and Mc-
Burnie, 1943), and the mites counted
with the aid of a stereoscopic micro-
scope.

Results

The data from the plots are sum-
marized in Table 1. Dormant oil at
the dosage used, was_ ineffective
against the fruit-tree leaf roller and
the eye-spotted bud moth. Azinphos-
methyl at either 21% lb. or 5 lb. gave
excellent control of the two insects.

There was no difference in the control
obtained within the three apple va-
rieties, and the check counts showed
the infestation to be fairly uniform.
Mite counts showed no difference
in the number of phytoseiid mites on
the check trees and those treated with
dormant oil or azinphos-methyl at 2%
lb. No phytoseiids were found on trees
treated with azinphos-methyl at 5 lb.
The white apple leafhopper, Typh-
locyba pomaria (McAtee), was pres-
ent in high numbers on all three apple
varieties in the orchard. There was
no indication that any of the pre-
bloom treatments controlled the leaf-
hoppers and their feeding caused
severe leaf damage in all plots.

Discussion

These data indicate that a pre-
bloom application of azinphos-methyl
will adequately control the fruit-tree
leaf roller and eye-spotted bud moth
should these insects become a prob-
lem in orchards under a program of
autocidal control of the codling moth.
Azinphos-methyl at a dosage of 2%
lb. 25% W.P. per acre gives adequate
control, and does not adversely affect
predatory phytoseiid mites. The pre-
pink timing of the application would
not interfere with a Sterile codling
moth release program, since in most
seasons it is not necessary to release
moths until after the trees have
blossomed. One danger in an applica-
tion of azinphos-methyl close to the
bloom period is toxicity to bees and
other pollinating insects. This danger
will be minimized if the sprays are
applied as early as possible during the
pink stage of tree development.

Acknowledgments
The assistance of W. W. Davis and T.
K. Moilliet of this laboratory is gratefully
acknowledged.

References
Downing, R. S., and T. K. Moilliet. 1967. Relative densities of predacious and phyto-
phagous mites on three varieties on apple trees. Can. Entomol. 99:738-741.
Henderson, C. F., and H. Y. McBurnie. 1943. Sampling technique for determining popu-
lations of citrus red mite and its predators. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cire. 671.
Madsen, H. F., and J. C. Arrand. 1966. The recognition and biology of orchard insects
and mites in British Columbia. Brit. Columbia Dept. Agr. Entomol. Branch

66-2.

Proverbs, M. D., J. R. Newton, and D. M. Logan. 1967. Autocidal control of the codling
moth by release of males and females sterilized as adults by gamma radiation.

J. Econ. Entomol. 60:1302-1306.

99 J. ENToMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLUMRIA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

THE FIRST DISCOVERY OF FREE-LIVING LARVAE OF
THE EAR TICK, OTOBIUS MEGNINI (DUGES), IN
BRITISH COLUMBIA

G. B. RicH' and J. D. GREGSON!

ABSTRACT

In the south Okanagan Valley a cave in a rock face was investigated
after a visiting dog became infested with the ear tick, Otobius megnini
(Duges). Larvae of the ear tick were found in abundance, on the floor and
dropping from the ceiling. The cave is a shelter and resting place for a
protected band of bighorn sheep which is known to be heavily infested.
Near the opening of the cave were larvae of the winter tick, Dermacentor
albipictus Packard, and a nymph and an adult female of the wood tick,

D. andersoni Stiles.

The ear tick, Otobius megnini
(Duges), 1884, was described from
specimens collected in Mexico. Sub-
sequent records show it to be para-
sitic on larger wild mammals and do-
mestic animals in most of the United
States, southeastern British Colum-
bia, Mexico, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and
northern Argentina (Rich, 1957). In
addition to this natural distribution,
it has been introduced into, and has
become established in Hawaii, India,
and South Africa. This tick infests
only the ear canals of its host, enter-
ing as a larva and emerging as a fed
nymph. The minute, white, six-legged
larvae are extremely active, and are
readily mistaken for mites by casual
observers. The final moult occurs off
the host, and the adult is free-living
and non-feeding.

A nymph removed from the ear of
a house cat at Ewing’s Landing on
Okanagan Lake in 1941, was the first
ear tick recorded in British Columbia
(Gregson, 1956). Subsequently
nymphs were collected rather gener-
ally from the ears of mountain goats,
mountain sheep, elk, mule and white-
tailed deer, domestic cattle and dogs
in that portion of the province south
of the 52nd parallel and east of the
121st meridian (Rich, 1957, and sub-
sequent records). Since 1955 at least
16 cattle are Known to Nave died as
a direct result of ear tick infestations

1 Research Station, Canada Department of Agri-
culture. Box 210. Kamloops, B.C.

2 Photographer and naturalist, Research Station,
canada Department of Agriculture, Summerland,
B.

(Rich, 1957, and subsequent records).
Despite diligent searching, free-living
adults, and until March 29, 1968, free-
living larvae had not been found.

The life history in British Colum-
bia is not completely known. Despite
extensive searching only a _ single
autumn record of engorged larvae
has been made from a mule deer shot
at Blackpines, October 24, 1951. From
much less extensive spring sampling,
numerous records of engorged larvae
have been made from mule deer shot
during February to early May, in-
clusive, in the Adams Lake, Ewing’s
Landing, Lumby and Short’s Creek
areas. These records may be variously
interpreted as indicating either that
(a) some overlaping of generations
occurs, (b) hatching occurs in the
fall with some infestations occurring,
but the majority of larvae overwin-
tering for host infestation in the
spring, or (c) overwintering occurs
largely as eggs with hatching in very
early spring. Laboratory studies have
shown that the larvae are attracted
to warm-blooded animals.

Free-living larvae were discovered
in the South Okanagan Valley as fol-
lows: Dr. Hauston, of Penticton, im-
formed S. Cannings2 that in early
1968 he had found a cave in the Va-
seux Lake area to be “alive” with
fleas, and a Corgi dog that had been
in the vicinity of the cave had been
subsequently infested with ear ticks.
Cannings, with J. D. Gregson, explor-
ed the cave on March 29, 1968, but
could not find fleas. Upon leaving the

J. Exntomo.. Soc. Brit. CotumMBIA, 65 (1968), Aua. 1, 1968 23

cave, Gregson was annoyed by many
“biting” sensations in his hair. As he
had been bareheaded, but had been
careful not to touch his head against
the cave roof, he suspected that the
cause of the bites had dropped from
the roof on to his head. However,
nothing could be found in his hair.
Later, in early evening, he felt “bit-
ing” sensations on his forehead, and
a minute, white “mite” was found.
Examination under magnification
proved the “mite” to be a larval ear
tick. As it appeared probable that this
larva, and the ear tick infestation of
the Corgi, may have originated at the
cave, the cave was re-examined on
April 4, 1968.

The cave is in a vertical rock-face
with a southwesterly exposure, about
one mile south of Gallagher Lake and
directly east of Inkaneep Provincial
Park. The cave is approached up a
talus slope of the type usual to in-
terior British Columbia, with an al-
most vertical lip of rock between the
talus and cave. This feature makes
the cave almost inaccessible to large
mammals other than mountain sheep
and goats, and agile humans. The
cave is Known locally as a shelter and
resting place for mountain sheep of
the Vaseux Lake band, which is
known to be heavily infested with
ear ticks (Gregson, 1956, and other
records). The cave is approximately
40 feet wide at the opening and about
20 feet deep, with the roof sloping
almost to the floor at the rear.

Larval winter ticks, Dermacentor

albipictus Packard, and a nymphal
and a female wood tick, D. andersoni
Stiles, were collected at the top of the
talus. The approach talus and the
cave provided ample evidence of
mountain sheep. Larval ear ticKs were
abundant on the floor and roof of the
cave. A small cotton sheet spread on
the floor yielded numerous larvae
each time it was turned over. The
party knotted white handKerchiefs on
their heads before entering, and were
careful not to touch the roof. Num-
erous larvae appeared on the hand-
Kerchiefs within a few minutes after
entering. To confirm that these
dropped from the roof, a rubber water
bottle filled with warm water and
covered with black silk cloth was held
about 4 to 6 inches from the roof for
one minute intervals, and up to 10
larvae per interval were recovered
from the cloth. A piece of white nylon
voile was spread on the floor with
small pieces of dry ice beneath it, but
this did not yield any greater num-
ber of larvae than an equal area of
the white cotton sheet. No adult ear
ticks or shed nymphal skins were
found.

This sequence of events indicates
that the ear tick larvae had been ac-
tive in this cave for several months
prior to the April 4 visit. A warm-
blooded animal resting in the cave
during this period would have become
heavily infested. It is of interest that
three of British Columbia’s most im-
portant tick species were collected in
one place, which is also a favoured
locale for mountain sheep.

References
Gregson, J. D., 1956. The Ixodoidea of Canada. Canada Dept. Agric. Pub. No. 930.
Rich, G. B. 1957. The ear tick, Otobius megnini (Duges) (Acarina: Argasidae), and its
record in British Columbia. Can. J, Comp. Med. 21:415-418.

24 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

ANNOTATED LIST OF FOREST INSECTS OF BRITISH
COLUMBIA PART XIV, ENNOMINAE (GEOMETRIDAE)

B. A. SUGDEN!

ABSTRACT
The mature larvae of 57 species of forest geometrids are described
briefly and their distribution and hosts, as determined from samples col-
lected by personnel of the Forest Insect and Disease Survey, are given.

The larvae of Ennominae are often
tuberculate, with colors and patterns
resembling the leaf-stems and twigs
of the host trees. Pupation may occur
in foliage or bark crevices of trees and
shrubs or in the litter on the forest
floor. Ennominae overwinter as eggs
Or pupae and occasionally as partly
grown larvae.

Frequent outbreaks of several
species of Ennominae have caused
damage of economic importance to
mature, polesized and reproduction
forest trees.

Brief larval descriptions of Semio-
thisa and Caripeta spp. with notes on
their hosts and distributions were
published earlier in the Proceedings
of the Entomological Society of Brit-
ish Columbia (Ross and Evans 1958
and 1959).

ENNOMINAE

Bapta semiclarata W1k.—Prunus
spp., Amelanchier spp., Crataegus sp.
(2 records), Alnus sp. (1), Pseudot-
suga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco (2).
Southern to central British Columbia

and Vancouver Island, common.
LARVA: 1 inch; head small, pale
green, reddish-brown markings on

sides extending to vertex; body ro-
bust, smooth; two color phases: (a)
immaculate pale green, anal shield
marked with reddish-brown; (b) pale
green with broken, reddish-brown ad-
dorsal lines extending from TII to
A8; anal shield and anal prolegs
marked with reddish-brown; venter
immaculate.

Deilinia variolaria Gn.—Salix spp.
Central and southern interior British

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department of
Forestry and Rural Development, Vernon, B.C.

2i.e. rare in Forest Insect and Disease Survey
random beating collections which are taken only
from trees and a few species of the larger shrubs.

Columbia, rare.2 LARVA: 11 inches;
head horizontal, pale green marked
with pinkish-violet; body slim, pink-
ish-orange with medium brown mid-
dorsal spots flanked by pale mauve
patches on Al1-8; Subspiracular area
of TI-III suffused with violet extend-
ing into upper part of legs; anterior
of abdominal prolegs violet, anterior
of anal prolegs marked with a violet
line; venter pinkish-orange Al1-6, re-
mainder yellowish-green, pale yellow-
ish-green midventral line bordered by
deep pink adventral lines Al1-6.

Deilinia erythemaria Gn. — Salix
spp. Throughout British Columbia,
common. LARVA: 1 inch; head hori-
zontal, pale green, lower sides with
reddish-brown line; body slim, pale
green, diffused white subdorsal
stripes, dark reddish-brown middorsal
spots flanked by paler reddish-brown
patches on posterior of TIII and Al-
4, less distinct on A5-7; subspiracular
stripe formed by a powdering of red-
dish-brown spots extending onto up-
per legs of TI-III, becoming gradually
fainter posteriorly; sides of ventral
and anal prolegs marked with pur-
plish-brown; venter pale green with
yellowish-white midventral line.

Deilinia exanthemata bryantaria
Tayl.—Salix spp. Throughout interior
British Columbia, extending to the
Coast in the Prince Rupert District,
apparently more numerous in central
and west central portions, uncommon.
LARVA: 14% inches; head pale green,
thin reddish line on lower sides; body
slim, pale green, Al-6 with reddish
middorsal spots, faint on Al and 6;
sides of abdominal prolegs marked
with pale reddish-brown; venter im-
maculate.

Itame anataria Swett—Alnus spp.,

J. Entomo.. Soc. Brit. CotumsrA, 65 (1968), Auc. 1, 1968 25

Betula spp., Salix spp. Central to
southern interior and southern coas-
tal regions of British Columbia.
LARVA: 1 inch; two color phases with
intermediates (a) head buff, profusely
marked with dark brown; body, dark
mauve with small dark brown mid-
dorsal patches, bordered laterally
with pale buff on Al-4; indistinct pale
purple addorsal lines; irregular brown
Subdorsal lines, outer line darkest;
narrow pale buff supraspiracular line
bordered by dark brown; broad pale
cream subspiracular stripe; dark
brown spots caudad of spiracles on
A2-5; dark brown subventral patches
on Al-5; venter similar to dorsum but
paler: (b) head pale cream profusely
marked with dull orange; body pale
yellowish-buff, irregular .middorsal,
addorsal and subdorsal lines pale
reddish-brown; narrow pale yellowish
supraspiracular stripe bordered above
by dark brown and below by light
brown lines; broad pale yellow sub-
spiracular strip; prominent dark
brown subventral patches on A1-5;
thoracic legs marked with dark brown
and prolegs with pale reddish-brown;
venter similar to dorsum, Al-4 with
small oval, pale brown midventral
spots.

Itame exauspicata W1k.— Betula
spp., Alnus spp., Salix spp. (2 records) ,
Prunus pensylvanica L. f. (1), Corylus
cornuta Marsh. var. californica
(A.DC) Sharp (1), interior British
Columbia north to 56° latitude; com-
mon. LARVA: 1 inch; head tan pro-
fusely marked with dark brown; dor-
sum of TI-III medium brown with
indistinct bands of dark brown flecked
with pale reddish-brown; abdomen
medium brown, irregular pale red-
dish-brown dorsal stripe bordered by
dark brown, anal shield pale buff with
dark brown setal bases; lateral area
reddish-brown banded with dark
brown extending to venter, spiracles
pale yellow; venter pale reddish-
brown marked with dark brown, A2-
2 with large pale reddish-brown mid-
ventral spots bordered by dark brown.

Itame plumosata B. & McD.—Acer
glabrum Torr. var. douglasii (Hook. )

Dipp. Southern central British Co-
lumbia, rare. LARVA: 1%¥g inches;
head green; body pale yellowish-
green, spiracles pale yellow.

Itame bitactata W1kK.—Alnus spp.
Southern interior British Columbia,
uncommon. LARVA: 1 inch; three
color phases: (a) head dull orange
with pale tan markings, front mark-
ed with pale yellow inverted V; body
smooth, pale orange with prominent
dark brown setal bases, irregular pale
yellow addorsal lines bisecting in-
distinct pale yellow diamond-shaped
pattern on Al1-5, pale yellow subdorsal
lines; broad yellow subspiracular
stripe banded anteriorly with dark
brown on Tl and Al1-8; venter with
midventral spots on Al-4, TI and Al-
3S banded with pale brown; (b) dark
phase Similar; head blackish with
pale inverted V, greenish-grey body
and dull black markings; (c) head
green with pale yellow inverted V on
front; body green with pale yellow
dorsal lines; pale yellow subspiracular
stripe; pale greyish-green oval mid-
ventral spots on Al-4, greyish-green
crochets on prolegs.

Protitame matilda Dyar—Populus
tremuloides Michx., P. trichocarpa
Torr. & Gray, Salix spp., Alnus sinuata
(Regel) Rydb.(1 record). Throughout
interior British Columbia north to 54°
latitude and on Vancouver Island,
common. LARVA: % inch; head me-
dium green marked with pale reddish-
brown; body smooth, robust, pale
green; dorsum with a reddish tinge
extending to lateral, pale reddish-
brown addorsal and pale greenish-
yellow subdorsal lines; indistinct pale
yellowish-green supraspiracular
stripe; venter pale green with a yel-
lowish tinge, immaculate.

Protitame hulstiaria Tayl—Popu-
lus tremuloides, Salix spp. Interior
British Columbia north to 56° latitude,
uncommon. LARVA: % inch; head
reddish-brown sides extending to ver-
tex, front green; body smooth, robust,
apple - green, broad reddish - brown
dorsal stripe extending to A8; sides
and venter immaculate.

Itame loricaria julia Hlst.—Popu-

26 J. Enromon. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBrIA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

lus tremuloides, P. trichocarpa (2
records), Salix spp. (2). Throughout
British Columbia and on Vancouver
Island, but most common in the cen-
tral and northern Interior. LARVA:
1144 inches; two color phases with in-
termediates: (a) head purplish-brown
with tan markings; body smooth,
purplish-brown, pale tan addorsal
lines, banded with dull black except
on Tiand ail and Ai, 3.-and.9. duit
black lateral bands on TII, III and
A2-6; spiracles pale yellow encom-
passed by irregular dull black
patches; irregular subspiracular stripe
on Al-5; venter pale purplish-brown
banded with dull black A2-5; (b) head
green; body green, pale yellowish-
white middorsal and addorsal lines;
spiracles pale yellowish-green, pale
yellow subdorsal line; small, midven-
tral spots on A1-4, reddish-brown
crochets.

Elpiste lorquinaria Gn.— Alnus
spp., Salix spp., Betula spp. (2 rec-
ords). Southern British Columbia and
Vancouver Island, uncommon.
LARVA: 1% inches; similar to I. l.
julia.

Stenoporpia excelsaria Stkr.—
Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus contorta
Dougl., P. ponderosa Laws. Southern
interior and coastal regions of British
Columbia, uncommon. LARVA: 1%
inches; head slightly bilobed, golden
buff marked with dark grey herring-
bone pattern on vertex; body robust,
medium grey shading to golden buff
on lighter areas, indistinct pale dorsal
line bordered by thin dark grey ad-
dorsal lines, irregular diamond pat-
tern bordered by dark grey on A1-7,
dark grey bands extending to venter
on Al-8, darkest on A2 and narrowed
on TI-III, prominent subspiracular
fringe of white, palmate setae, 2 to 5,
on Al and 3; venter pale yellowish-
buff, indistinct pink ventral line, setal
bases outlined with pink.

Stenoporpia albescens Hlst.—Pseu-
dotsuga menziesii, Abies amabilis
(Dougl.) Forbes, A. grandis (Dougl.)
Lindl., Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.,
Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg., T.
mertensiana (Bong.) Carr., Pinus

contorta, P. monticola Dougl., Thuja
plicata Donn. Western British Colum-
bia, Vancouver and Queen Charlotte
Islands, common on Vancouver Island,
uncommon elsewhere. LARVA: 14%
inches; head slightly bilobed, tan
marked with grey; body smooth, grey-
ish shading to brown in lighter areas,
pale broken addorsal line bordered by
blackish addorsal lines, indistinct
diamond pattern irregularly outlined
in black on TII-III and Al-8, on A2
black markings coalesced to create a
band; lateral with diagonal line pos-
terior of spiracles on TI and A\1-8,
prominent subspiracular fringe of
white, palmate setae, 3 to 5 on Al-3;
venter pale yellowish-buff.
Stenoporpia separataria Grt.—.
Pseudotsuga menziesit. Southern and
central interior British Columbia,
rare. LARVA: 1% inches; Similar to
S. excelsaria. Larval period for S.
satisfacta May-June; larvae of S.
excelsaria occur August-September.

Stenoporpia satisfacta B. & McD.
—Pseudotsuga menziesii, Tsuga hete-
rophylla, Pinus ponderosa, P. monti-
cola, Abies lasiocarpa. Southern and
central interior British Columbia, un-
common. LARVA: 1%% inches; similar
to S. excelsaria. Larval period for S.
satisfacta May-June; larvae of S.
excelsaria occur August-September.

Coniodes plumogeraria Hist.—
Quercus garryana Dougl., Salix sp. (1
record), Acer glabrum var. douglasii
(1). Southern British Columbia and
Vancouver Island; Victoria, Gold-
bridge, Summit Lake and an adult
caught in flight at--Wernon, rare:
LARVA: 1% inches; head moderately
bilobed, pale grey heavily patterned
with black; body slim, sparsely pilose,
pale greyish-buff, pale dorsal line
bordered with black on TI-II and AT-
8, black tuberculate setal bases, ad-
dorsal tubercles on Al-3 and 8, most
prominent on A2 and 3; brownish-
orange patch around spiracle and
tubercle on Al, prominent spiracular
tubercle on Al, prominent spiracular
tubercles on A2-3 and less prominent
on A7-8; venter pale buff, TI-III and
Al suffused with pink, A2-5 broadly

J. ENToMot. Soc. Brit. CoLtumpBriA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968 27

banded with black, tubercular black
setal bases.

Erannis vancouverensis Hlist.—
Betula spp., Salix spp., Alnus spp.,
Acer spp. Central and southern Brit-
ish Columbia, common; occasionally
localized infestations of short dura-
tion. LARVA: 15 inches; head gra-
nulose, pale tan to dull orange; body
minutely spiniferous, pale greenish-
yellow to pale yellowish-orange with
narrow blackish lines extending to
anal plate and coalesced on supra-
spiracular of Al-8, spicules more pro-
nounced on A8 and anal plate; spir-
acles yellow with black margins; ven-
ter immaculate, paler than dorsum.

Lycia ursaria W1k.—Betula spp.,
Alnus spp., Salix spp., Populus tre-
muloides. Interior British Columbia
south of 55° latitude, rare. LARVA:
23g inches; head rounded, pale mauve
spotted with black; body robust, dull
purple with small flattened tubercles
on Al-5, reddish-purple addorsal,
subdorsal, suprespiracular, spiracular,
subventral and adventral stripes fine-
ly edged with black; venter of TI-III
and A7-9 pale yellow, TI-III marked
with large midventral spots.

Lycia rachelae Hist.—Alnus spp.
(3 records), Salix spp. (2), Amelan-
chier alnifolia Nutt. (1). Interior
British Columbia, rare. LARVA: 1%
inches, head whitish mottled with
dark brown; mauve to pinkish-mauve
with fine brown maculation, dorsal
lines obscure; irregular pinkish-
mauve spiracular stripe flecked with
yellowish - white, prominent black
spiracles; venter like dorsum but
paler.

Biston cognataria (Gn.) — Salix
spp., Betula spp., Populus tremuloides,
Alnus spp., Prunus spp., Larix occi-
dentalis, Nutt. (1 record). Throughout
British Columbia and Vancouver Is-
land, common. LARVA: 3 inches;
head granulose, deeply bilobed, buff
or grey marked with darker shades of
grey, brown or orange; body sparsely
granulate, variable grey, brown,
orange or green, prominent tubercles
on addorsal TI and supraspiracular
AS less prominent on addorsal A8; in-

distinct pattern on TI-III and A6-8;
midventral tubercles on A2-4, largest
on A3; subventral fringe of short pale
setae between prolegs extending onto
posterior of ventral prolegs.

Phaeoura mexicanaria Grt.— Pinus
ponderosa. Southern interior British
Columbia, rare. LARVA: 234 inches;
head granulose, deeply bilobed,
brownish with black and buff mark-
ings; body robust, with minute spines,
pale grey marked with black, medium
brown and buff, dorsum of Al-4 with
pale V markings outlined with black,
darker on A5-7, setal bases pale, tu-
berculate, subdorsal tubercles on Al-
3, largest on A2, small addorsal tu-
bercles on A8; lateral flecKed with
minute whitish tubercles; venter paler
than dorsum marked with black, TII-
III broadly banded with black.

Gabriola dyari Tayl.—Tsuga hete-
rophylla, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Abies
amabilis, A. grandis, A. lasiocarpa,
Thuja plicata, Picea sitchensis, P. en-
gelmanni, P. glauca, Pinus monticola,
P. contorta, P. ponderosa, Larix occi-
dentalis. South of 56° latitude in
British Columbia and on Vancouver
and Queen Charlotte Islands, com-
mon. LARVA: 1% inches; two color
phases: (a) head medium brown,
Slightly bilobed, vertex sparsely gra-
nulose; body stout, rugose, creamy-
buff marked with brown and black,
TI-III with indistinct pale middorsal
line, Al, 2, 4, 8 and 9 pale flecked
with brown, A3, 5-7 darker with +
Shaped pale middorsal marks and
black diagonal subdorsal flecks; small
tuberculate setal bases, partly fused
middorsal tubercles on TII and A&8,
small subdorsal tubercles Al-8, prom-
inent bilobed spiracular tubercles TII
and A2-8; broad, irregular creamy-
buff spiracular stripe on TI, Al-5, 7-9
and onto anal plate; venter pale
brown with indistinct midventral
lines; (bd) similar to (a) but lacking
black markings and will dull orange
replacing brown

Euchlaena johnsonaria Fitch —
Alnus sinuata. Interior British Co-
lumbia south of 54° latitude, rare.
LARVA: 1% inches; head somewhat

28 J. EXromon. Soc. Brir. COLUMBIA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

quadrate, horizontal, dull bluish-
grey sparsely marked with creamy-
buff; body twig-like, pale buff mark-
ed with grey, purplish-grey, medium-
brown and black; dark dorsal lines
TI-III and Al indistinct on remainder
of dorsum, A1-3 with pale diamond
pattern, pale chevrons on A6-8,
flattened transverse ridge on Al
bordered with black lines, small tub-
ercles on A5, 6 and 8; lateral with
pale grey or pale buff blotches, paler
than dorsum; venter pale with pale
grey ventral lines outlined by fine
irregular black lines; Al with large
pale spot, small tubercles on Al1-5.

Euchlaena marginata albertanen-
sis Swett—Salix sp. Southern interior
British Columbia, rare. LARVA: 1%
inches; head somewhat quadrate,
horizontal, pale grey with herring-
bone pattern on sides and vertex
composed of tiny purplish dots; body
Slim twig-like, pale grey marked with
medium brown, pink, yellow, white
and black; indistinct black dorsal
lines; small prominent addorsal tub-
ercles on A2-8; black except on Ad2,

yellow bordered with black; setal
bases tuberculate; indistinct black
and dull white lateral lines; venter

with irregular black lines, posterior
of thoracic legs heavily marked with
black.

Euchlaena_ tigrinaria sirenaria
Stkr—Betula spp. Interior British
Columbia south of 54° latitude, rare.
LARVA: 1% inches; head pale grey
with pale pinkish-buff markings and
whitish transverse band on lower
front bordered above with black;
body slim, twig-like, wider anteriorly,
pale whitish-buff mottled with grey,
pinkish-brown and black, middorsal
and addorsal lines on TI-III and A3-
0, indistinct on Al and 2, pale chev-
rons on A6 and 7, pale anal plate,
pale transverse ridge bordered with
black on Al, prominent addorsal tub-
ercles on Ad and 8; broad but indis-
tinct brownish supraspiracular band
on TI-III and Al-5, A6-8 mottled with
dark brown and pinkish-brown, short
black spiracular tubercles on A7-8;
small ventral tubercles on Al-5; tho-

racic legs marked with black.

Epirrhanthis substrictaria danbyi
Hl1st.—Salix spp., Pseudotsuga men-
eiesit (1 record), Larix occidentalis
(1), Populus tremuloides (1). South-
ern British Columbia and Vancouver
Island, uncommon. LARVA: 1%
inches; head whitish to pale buff
marked with brown, herring-bone
pattern on sides; body pale buff,
maculation medium brown, TI-III
with dark brown middorsal line, paler
and indistinct on remainder of dor-
sum, TII, III and Al-7 with indistinct
chevrons, traverse ridge, with small
tubercles, bordered posteriorly with
a narrow dark brown line on A8;
lateral paler than dorsum; venter
pale, marked with irregular, pale
pinkish lines.

Campaea perlata Gn.—Salix spp.,
Betula spp., Populus tremuloides,
Alnus spp., Pseudotsuga menziesii,
Tsuga heterophylla, Thuja _ plicata,
Pinus contorta, Picea spp., common.
Throughout British Columbia and
Vancouver Island. LARVA: 134
inches; head pale mauve with black
spots; body twig-like pale yellow,
occasionally greenish, with medium
grey, brownish-orange and _ black
markings, indistinct pale subdorsal
lines, black dorsal band on A2, brown
cervical shield, pale areas around
Spiracles on Al-3; venter pale, sub-
ventral fringe of hair-like tubercles,
abdominal prolegs on Ad and 6, pos-
terior pair larger.

Anthelia taylorata Hist.— Tsuga
heterophylla. Southwestern British
Columbia and Vancouver Island,
rare. LARVA: 1% inches; similar to
the following species: A. hyperborea
Hist. (Personal communication, D.
Evans, Department of Forestry and
Rural Development, Victoria, B.C.)

Anthelia hyperborea Hist.—Tsuga
heterophylla, T. mertensiana, Pseu-
dotsuga menziesii, Thuja _ plicata,
Abies amabilis, A. lasiocarpa, A. gran-
dis, Picea engelmannti, P. glauca.
sitchensis, Pinus -monticola, sane
spp., Alnus spp. South of 56° latitude
in British Columbia, on Vancouver
and Queen Charlotte Islands, com-

J. Exromo.. Soc. Brrr. Cotumretia, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968 29

mon. LARVA: 13% inches; head yel-
lowish-buff marked with medium
brown, yellowish-buff stripes from
vertex to labrum; body smooth taper-
ing anteriorly, yellowish-buff marked
with medium and light brown, mid-
dorsal, addorsal and subdorsal lines
pale yellowish, irregular subdorsal
stripes extending onto head and anal
shield; narrow pale yellow supra-
spiracular line bordered with medium
brown, setal bases black, spiracles
outlined with black; venter paler
than dorsum, marked with alternate
lines of pale yellow and pale pinkish-
brown, midventral spots of pale
brown.

Plagodis phlogosaria Gn.—Betula
spp., Alnus spp., Salix spp. Through-
out British Columbia and Vancouver
Island, uncommon. LARVA: 1%
inches; head retractile, pale grey lib-
erally marked with black; body pale
grey heavily suffused with purplish
and reddish-brown, transverse black-
ish bands on TI-II, TII with lateral
swellings, prominent blackish trans-
verse ridge on A5 extending to lat-
eral; prominent tubercles on poster-
ior of anal prolegs just below anal
Shield, venter paler than dorsum,
adventral spots, dark grey on A3-5,
fused and velvety black on Al-2; TI-
II and A7-9 pale buff.

Anagoga occiduaria W1k—Alnus
spp., Betula spp., Salix spp. South of
95° latitude in British Columbia and
on Vancouver Island, uncommon.
LARVA: 142 inches; two color phases:
(a) head small, bilobed, pale grey
heavily suffused with purple, indis-
tinct blackish markings; body pale
grey suffused with purple, pale sub-
dorsal stripe on TI-III and Al, one
pair of small subdorsal spots A2-9,
blackish transverse ridge extending
to lateral on A5; small tubercles on
lateral, TI-III pale flecked with pink-
ish mauve; venter with small tuber-
cles, black V markings on Al-2; (b)
Similar but with brown, dull orange
and yellow replacing purple, mauve
and pale grey.

Hyperetis amicaria H.-S.—Alnus
spp., Betula spp., Salix spp. (2 rec-

ords), Populus tremuloides (1). South
56° latitude in British Columbia, on
Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Is-
lands, uncommon. LARVA: 1%
inches; two color phases: (a) head
small, pale yellow, sides marked with
minute brown spots; body smooth,
pale yellow, A1-9 suffused with dull
orange, TII-III wider than other body
segments, TI with medium brown
subdorsal spots, TII with medium
brown transverse band from addorsal
extending to subspiracular, trans-
verse band on TII from subdorsal to
subspiracular, transverse ridge on
Ad medium brown marked anteriorly
with yellow; lateral paler than dor-
sum, spiracular spots on A2-5; venter
paler than dorsum, wide irregular
midventral line on Al-6; (b) head
green, sparse pale pink maculation;
body green, dorsum faintly suffused
with pale pink, medium brown trans-
verse ridge on Ad, brown extending
onto lateral, spiracles outlined with
black, setal bases brown; ventral
setal bases brown.

Nematocampa filamentaria Gn.—
Pseudotsuga menziesii, Tsuga hete-
rophylla, Picea engelmanni, P. glauca,
Thuja plicata, Abies lasiocarpa, A.
grandis, Larix occidentalis, Pinus
monticola, P. contorta, Salix spp.,
Alnus spp., Betula spp. ‘Throughout
British Columbia and on Vancouver
Island, most common in Columbia
Forest Region, rare on coast. LARVA:
1% inches; tone of markings vari-
able; head small pale yellow, dark
brown maculation on sides and front;
body slim, dull white to pale yellow,
middorsal line TI to Al, indistinct on
TI, pale addorsal and subdorsal lines
TI-III extending onto apex, two
prominent, cone-like addorsal tuber-
cles on Al, four long filaments on A2
and 3, two small tubercles fused to
form a transverse ridge on A8, Al
marked with dull orange, A2-3 suf-
fused with pink; pale subspiracular
line TI-III extending onto head TI-
II and Al-5 indistinctly banded, Ad
with oblique marking, A6-9 pale; ven-
ter banded, dark irregular midven-
tral line with pale margins A1-8.

30 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

Metarranthis duaria septentrion-
aria B. & McD.—Betula sp. (1 record),
Populus tremuloides (1), Salix sp.
(1). Southern interior British Colum-
bia and Vancouver Island, rare.
LARVA: 1% inches; head slightly
bilobed, pale yellow sparsely flecked
with pink, front narrowly outlined
with dark brown; body robust, pale
yellow, medium brown markings with
bluish overtone, indistinct, irregular
dorsal lines, pale inverted U-shaped
marking on A2, one pair of small
whitish addorsal spots outlined with
black Al1-8, black addorsal tubercles
on A8, black line extending from
tubercles to spiracles on A8; irregular
yellow lateral lines; pale yellow ven-
tral lines, setal bases velvety black
forming band on AI1-3.

Metanema inatomaria Gn.—Popu-
lus tremuloides, P. _ trichorcarpa.
South of 57° latitude, interior British
Columbia, rare. LARVA: 1% inches;
head small, pale buff marked with
dark brown, herring-bone pattern on
sides; body pale buff marked with
shades of brown and black, pale in-
verted V pattern on Al-3 and 5, pat-
tern coalesced on A3-4 extending
obliquely on A4 to subspiracular line,
pale middorsal line bordered irregu-
larly with black TI-III, pale indistinct
subdorsal lines extending onto ver-
tex; lateral with narrow black line
obliquely through spiracles Al-6, dark
brown subspiracular stripe bordered
irregularly above with a yellow line
extending onto head; venter pale
yellow fiecked with pink.

Metanema determinata WI1k. —
Salix spp. Interior British Columbia:
Summit Lake, Mile 53 Alaska High-
way and also recorded from Creston
(J. R. J. Llewellyn-Jones), rare.
LARVA: 11% inches; head small, flat-
tened, pale buff profusely marked
with brown; body, twig-like, pale
buff mottled with brown, pale diam-
ond markings on Al, 2, 4 and 5 on
A3 extending obliquely to lateral, one
pair of small, flattened dark brown
addorsal tubercles on Al to 5; dark
brown subspiracular line extending
on underside of head, darkest on TI-

III and A5-9; venter pale, fine, pink-
ish maculation.

Selenia alciphearia W1kK.—Populus
tremuloides, Alnus spp., Salix sp. (1
record). Throughout British Colum-
bia, including Vancouver Island, rare.
LARVA: 1% inches; head horizontal
and fiattened, pale yellow, lower front
and sides marked with dark brown;
body slender to A3 remainder thicker,
pale brown, A6-9 greyish, all marked
with darker shades of brown, pale ad-
dorsal lines extending onto head on
TI-III and A6-9; dark brown trans-
verse ridges with one pair of small
addorsal tubercles on A4 and 5, ridges
with fine white markings; lateral of
TI-III suffused with reddish-brown,
wide dark brown oblique bands on A4
and 5 extending to, and bisecting
venter, venter of A2 and 3 with nar-
rower brown bands, pale yellow mid-
ventral stripe Al-3 broadly bordered
with pale brown.

Selenia kentaria G. & R.—Alnus
sp. Interior British Columbia at An-
nis and Mile 53 Alaska Highway, rare.
LARVA: 1% inches; similar to S.
alciphearia but with one pair of ad-
dorsal tubercles on Al1-3, smallest on
A3, dark brown frosted with grey,
transverse ridges rusty dark grey
marked with white, venter dark grey
with small tubercles on Al1-2.

Pero behrensarius Pack.—Pseudot-
suga menziesii, Tsuga heterophylla,
Thuja plicata, Abies grandis, A. lasio-
carpa, A. amabilis, Picea engelmanni,
P. glauca, P. sitchensis, Pinus con-
torta, P. ponderosa, P. monticola,
Larix occidentalis. South of 55° lati-
tude in British Columbia and on Van-
couver Island, common. LARVA: 2
inches; head moderately bilobed,
yellowish-buff marked with brown on
sides and front; body smooth, slen-
der, tapering anteriorly, pale grey;
dorsum greyish-brown V markings
darkest on TI-III and extending ob-
liquely to venter on Al-7; venter with
pale irregular midventral stripe.

Pero morrisonarius Hy. Edw. —
Tsuga heterophylla, Pseudotsuga
menziesii, Thuja plicata, Picea sit-
chensis, P. glauca, Abies grandis, A.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtumMpBiaA, 65 (1968), Aua. 1, 1968 31

lasiocarpa, Salix spp., Alnus spp.
South of 56° latitude in British Co-
lumbia and on Vancouver Island, un-
common. LARVA: 2 inches; similar
to P. behrensarius but head more
strongly bilobed, pale fawn marked
with medium brown, lower half of
front pale; body slimi with transverse
ridge on A8, one pair of prominent
subventral tubercles on A2; body
brownish with paler longitudinal
shades, rarely with broad alternating
bands of pale grey and rich brown.

Pero mizon Rindge—Pseudotsuga
menziesii, Thuja plicata, Tsuga hete-
rophylla. South of 56° latitude in
British Columbia and on Vancouver
Island, rare. LARVA: 2 inches; simi-
lar to P. morrisonarius but lacks
prominent subventral tubercles on
A2; dorsum of Al and 4 marked with
black.

Phengommataea edwardsata Hist.
—Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus con-
torta, P. ponderosa, P. monticola,
Picea sitchensis, Tsuga heterophylla.
Central to southern British Columbia,
including Vancouver Island, uncom-
mon. LARVA: 1%% inches; head pale
green marked on the sides and front
with reddish-brown; body smooth,
robust, medium green, prominent
yellowish-white subdorsal lines ex-
tending onto head; yellowish-white
Spiracular lines wider posteriorly,
spiracles pale yellowish outlined with
reddish-brown; venter paler than
dorsum with yellowish-white subven-
tral lines.

Enypia venata Grt.—Tsuga hete-
rophylla, T. mertensiana, Pseudot-
suga menziesii, Abies amabilis, A.
grandis, A. lasiocarpa, Thuja plicata,
Picea sitchensis, P. engelmanni, P.
glauca, Pinus monticola, P. contorta.
Central to southern British Columbia,
Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Is-
lands, more common in western por-
tions of the province. LARVA: 1%
inches; head small, pale, marked
with dark brown lines, herringbone
pattern on sides; body smooth, ro-
bust, pale yellowish-buff with longi-
tudinal pattern of medium buff,
discontinuous blackish middorsal,

addorsal and subdorsal lines; broken,
irregular, blackish lateral and ventral
lines.

Enypia griseata Grossb.—Pseudot-
suga menziesii, Abies lasiocarpa (2
records), Picea engelmanni (1), P.
glauca (1). Central to southern in-
terior British Columbia, uncommon.
LARVA: 144 inches; head small, pale
ereen, dark brown markings on upper
front bordering cleavage line, sides
of head suffused with pale reddish-
brown; body smooth, pale green, dark
green middorsal line, white addorsal
lines extending onto head; white
spiracular line marked with reddish-
brown on TI-III; venter with white
midventral and subventral lines.

Enypia packardata Tayl.—Tsuga
heterophylla, T. mertensiana, Pseu-
dotsuga menziesii, Abies amabilis, A.
grandis, A. lasiocarpa, Thuja plicata,
Pinus monticola, P. contorta. South
of 56° latitude in western British Co-
lumbia, Vancouver and Queen Char-
lotte Islands, common. LARVA: %
inch; head reddish-brown with pale
vertices; body smooth, light green
with dark dorsal, subdorsal and sup-
raspiracular lines, yellowish spiracu-
lar line. (Personal communication,
D. Evans, Dept. of Forestry and Rural
Development, Victoria, B.C.)

Nepytia umbrosaria nigrovenaria
Pack.—Pseudotsuga menziesii, Tsuga
heterophylla, Abies grandis, Pinus
contorta, P. monticola, Thuja plicata,
Picea sitchensis. Southern British
Columbia including Vancouver Is-
land, uncommon in coastal regions
and rare in the Interior. LARVA:
13g inches; head pale brown; body
distinctively striped; dorsum cream-
colored with broken orange dorsal
and subdorsal lines; dark brown-red
laterally, indistinctly light-lined and
edged black; ventral surface pale
brown-green. (Personal communica-
tion, D. Evans, Dept. of Forestry and
Rural Development, Victoria, B.C.)

Nepytia freemani Munro — Pseu-
dotsuga menziesii, Tsuga heterophyl-
la, Picea engelmanni. Interior British
Columbia south of 54° latitude, com-
mon. Localized outbreaks, of short

39 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. CoLuMRIA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

duration, have occurred in reproduc-
tion and polesized stands of P. men-
ziesti. LARVA: 1% inches; head
square, vertex and Sides tan, front
pale yellow, immaculate except for
dark setal bases and ocelli; body slim,
broad rich tan dorsal stripe with
black margins bordered by narrower
yellow subdorsal stripes; rich tan
supraspiracular stripe marked irregu-
larly with black and finely outlined
with black; broad yellow spiracular
stripe, narrower than Ssubspiracular
stripe, finely outlined in black ex-
tending onto thoracic legs; broad yel-
low ventral stripe, pale tan adventral
stripe finely bordered with black,
pale pinkish subventral stripe.

Nepytia phantasmaria Stkr.—
Tsuga heterophylla, Pseudotsuga
menziesii, Thuja plicata, Picea sit-
chensis, Abies amabilis, A. lasiocarpa,
A. grandis, Pinus monticola, P. con-
torta. South of 54° latitude in western
British Columbia and Vancouver Is-
land, common. Localized but severe
outbreaks have occurred resulting in
mortality of mature T. heterophylla
and P. menziesii located in municipal
and city parks. LARVA: 1% inches;
head green with black dots; body
smooth, lime green with dark edged,
yellowish subdorsal and_ spiracular
lines. (Personal communication, D.
Evans, Dept. of Forestry and Rural
Development, Victoria, B.C.)

Lambdina fiscellaria lugubrosa
Hlst—Tsuga heterophylla, Pseudot-
suga menziesii, Thuja plicata, Abies
lastocarpa, A. amabilis, A. grandis,
Picea engelmanni, P. sitchensis, P.
glauca, Larix occidentalis, Pinus con-
torta, P. monticola, Alnus spp., Salix
spp., Betula spp., Acer spp. South of
97° latitude in British Columbia, Van-
couver and Queen Charlotte Islands,
common; frequent outbreaks have
occurred causing damage of econo-
nomic importance to mature western
hemlock forests. LARVA: 11% inches;
head pale yellowish-buff minutely
spotted with brown and black, sparse-
ly marked with larger black spots;
body smooth, transverse ridge on A&8,
pale yellowish-buff marked longitu-

dinally with fine, irregular, pale grey-
ish and brownish lines; irregular
black, addorsal lines, TI-III with ad-
dorsal spots, Al-7 each with four
addorsal spots, A8 with six addorsal
spots; pale yellow addorsal stripe
marked intermittently with pale
brownish - orange; lateral suffused
with pale grey, darker than dorsum,
marked with fine longitudinal grey
lines; dark grey, broken supraspira-
cular stripe; spiracular stripe brown-
ish grey; venter pale marked longi-
tudinally with fine irregular pale
grey lines.

Lambdina somniaria Hlst.—Quer-
cus garryana, Salix spp., Acer circi-
natum, Alnus rubra. Southern Van-
couver Island where localized out-
breaks occur, common. LARVA: 15%
inches; similar to L. f. lugubrosa but
generally paler.

Besma quercivoraria Gn.—Betula
spp., Salix spp., Alnus rubra. South of
56° latitude in British Columbia and
on Vancouver Island, uncommon.
LARVA: 1% inches; slim and twig-
like, lateral swelling on T2, transverse
ridge, with addorsal tubercles, ex-
tending to lateral on A3, addorsal
tubercles on A6, two color phases with
intermediates: (a) head pale yellow-
ish-green occasionally with reddish
markings on sides; body immaculate
pale green; (b) head reddish-brown
with fine white irregular lines on ver-
tex; body reddish-purple, prominent
parts marked with black, small white
markings around or near setal bases;
lateral with blackish patches around
spiracles; (c) head yellowish-green
with reddish markings darkest on
sides; body green suffused with pale
red darkest on A6-9, prominent parts
dark reddish-brown.

Sicya macularia agyllaria W1k.—
Salix spp., Populus tremuloides, Alnus
spp., Betula spp. South of 55° latitude
in British Columbia including Van-
couver Island, rare. LARVA: 1%
inches; head pale yellow, lower ver-
tex and posterior portion of sides
marked with reddish-brown; body
slim, twig-like, lateral swelling on
TII, one prominent horn-like mid-

PR I ee

J. Entomot.. Soc. Brit. CorumpiaA, 65 (1968), Auc. 1, 1968 33

dorsal tubercle on A3 and 5, trans-
verse rige and small addorsal tuber-
cles on A8, A3 with lateral swelling
and small spiracular tubercles; dor-
sum reddish-purple; lateral reddish-
purple, paler around spiracles; occa-
sional speciments with broad whitish
spiracular stripe continuing onto anal
shield; venter reddish-purple with
whitish midventral stripe.

Deuteronomus magnarius Gn. —
Betula spp., Populus tremuloides,
Salix spp., Alnus spp. South of 55°
latitude in British Columbia, includ-
ing Vancouver Island, uncommon.
LARVA: 1% inches; head rounded,
horizontal, pale greyish-white mark-
ed with brown; body slim, twig-like,
brownish, slightly raised ridges on
A2 and 5, two tubercles on A8, venter
paler than dorsum.

Synaxis jubararia Hist. — Tsuga
heterophylla, Pseudotsuga menziesii,
Abies amabilis, A. lasiocarpa, A. gran-
dis, Thuja plicata, Picea engelmanni,
P. sitchensis, P. glauca, Larix occiden-
talis, Pinus contorta, Salix spp., Alnus
spp., Populus spp., Betula spp. South
of 56° latitude in British Columbia,
including Vancouver Island, common.
LARVA: 152 inches; head small, buff
patterned with minute dark brown
spots coalesced to form lines; body
slim and twig-like, wider from A6-9,
TII with lateral swelling; pale buff
marked with shades of grey and
brown; pale indistinct middorsal line
margined with black TII and III,
diamond markings on A1-2, chevrons
on A3-8, smallest on A6-9, TI and II
of lateral pale, TIII and A1-9 greyish
brown, darker posteriorly, lateral of
abdominal prolegs with white vertical
stripe; venter paler than dorsum.

Tetracis cachexiata Gn. — Acer
glabrum, Salix spp., Betula spp. Cen-

tral to southern interior British Co-
lumbia, uncommon. LARVA: 1%
inches; head small, horizontal, dull
yellowish-white marked with medium
brown on vertex, two short black
lines extending from vertex to mid-
front; body slim wider from A6-9, TII
with lateral swelling and small ad-
dorsal tubercles, subspiracular tuber-
cles on Al and 2; subdorsal tubercles
on A4 and 5, brown transverse ridge
extending to venter on A8; prominent
parts blackish, black middorsal line
on A5-8; pale lateral patches on TI
and II extending onto head, subspira-
cular tubercles on Al-2 dark brown
surrounded by brown outlined with
black creating short oblique mark-
ings; venter paler posteriorly, setal
bases dark.

Prochoerodes forficaria combinata
McD.—Acer glabrum. Southern in-
terior of British Columbia, rare.
LARVA: 14g inches; head rounded,
small, pale grey or buff marked with
dark brown, narrow brown band be-
low vertex extending onto and partly
bisecting front, two prominent whit-
ish spots on front; body slim, pale
grey, marked medium brown densely
spotted with black, indistinct mid and
subdorsal lines, indistinct diamond
pattern Al-7, setal bases whitish and
Slightly tuberculate, prominent ad-
dorsal tubercles inclined anteriorly
on A8, ‘broKen pale spiracular line,
setal bases pale and slightly tuber-
culate, venter pale whitish-grey with
pale medium brown longitudinal
lines, dark grey middorsal spots and
setal bases.

Acknowledgment

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the as-
sistance derived through correspondence
with Mr. D. Evans, Forest Research Labora-
tory, Victoria, B.C.

References
Forbes, William T. M. 1948. Lepidoptera of New York and Neighbouring States. Cor-
nell U. Agric. Exp. Sta. Mem. 274. 263 p.
Llewellyn-Jones, J. R. J. 1951. An Annotated List of the Macrolepidoptera of British
Columbia. Occasional Paper No. 1 Ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia. 148 p.
Ross, D. A., and D. Evans. 1958. Annotated list of forest insects of British Columbia
Part VIlI—Semiothisa spp. (Geometridae). Proc. Ent. Soc. British Columbia

50:40-41.

Ross, D. A., and D. Evans. 1959. Annotated list of forest insects of British Columbia
Part [X—Caripeta spp. (Geometridae). Proc. Ent. Soc. British Columbia 56:15.

34 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

APHIDIUS RUBIFOLIT N.SP. (HYMENOPTERA:
APHIDITDAE), A PARASITOID OF MASONAPHIS

MAXIMA FROM BRITISH COLUMBIA

MANFRED MACKAUER!

ABSTRACT

Aphidius rubifolii n. sp. is described from coastal British Columbia.
The parasitoid appears to be specific to Masonaphis species that feed on

thimbleberry, Rubus parviflorus Nutt.

A large material of aphid parasi-
toids collected in British Columbia in
recent years contained representa-
tives of an undescribed species of
genus Aphidius Nees. In Smith’s
(1944) key to the Nearctic Aphidius
the new species runs to rosae Haliday.
It differs from that species, in the fe-
male, mainly by its more slender
petiole and the lighter colour which,
in fact, is more similar to that of the
Kuropean lonicerae Marshall. Small
specimens of rubifolii resemble poly-
gonaphis (Fitch) in some respects,
but may be distinguished by the
shape of the valvula 3 which in poly-
gonaphis is almost three times as long
as the maximum width as compared
to less than twice as long as wide in
rubifolit.

Descriptions

Female — Length, 1.8 - 2.7 mm;
length of antenna, 1.3-2.1 mm; length
of forewing, 1.7-2.6 mm.

Head: smooth, highly polished,
sparsely hairy, contracted towards
occiput; temples approximately twice
as wide as transverse eye diameter.
Eyes ovate, shortly pubescent. Face
aS wide as high (index 0.93-0.96).
Malar space about twice as wide as
length of second antennal segment.
Antennae: with 18 or, rarely, with 17
or 19 segments (sgts. 3/17, 25/18,
2/19), distinctly shorter than body.
Segment 3 slender, three times to
three and one-half times as long as
Wide, one-sixth shorter than seg-
ment 4. All flagellar segments uni-
formly hairy; the last segment up to
two times longer than _ preceding,

1 Professor, Department of Biological Sciences,
Pestology Centre, Simon Fraser University, Bur-
naby 2, British Columbia.

tapering distally. Thorax: smooth,
shiny, very sparsely hairy. Notauli
indicated at cephalic end only. Pres-
cutellar groove sharply impressed,
smooth. Scutellum more or less flat,
broadly triangular. Propodeum with
distinct longitudinal and transverse
carinae; area centralis narrowly pen-
tagonal, almost closed; areae postero-
externae concave, smooth. Wings:
hyaline. Pterostigma of forewing nar-
row, elongate, approximately four
times as long as broad, one and one-
half times as long as metacarp (index
1: 0.26 : 0.60); first abscissa of radius
one-sixth longer than second; disco-
cubital vein completely pigmented.
Hind wings moderately broad, bluntly
rounded apically. Abdomen: smooth,
shiny, terminal segments sparsely
hairy. Petiole slender, about four
times as long as wide across spiracles;
spiracular tubercles small but dis-
tinct; anterior third of tergite finely
sculptured, more or less smooth apic-
ally; central carina distinct separat-
ing the two well-defined lateral de-
pressions. Genitalia of typical form;
valvula 3 stout, with a distinct basal
hook. Legs: slender, moderately
hairy. Colour: yellowish-testaceous.
Head above antennae, second and
following antennal segments (except
anellus and base of third), mesoscu-
tum, scutellum, postnotum, ovipositor
sheaths, and last tarsal segments fus-
cous to black; abdominal segments 3
and following yellowish-beige, band-
ed, the darker bands separated by
more or less wide yellowish rings.

Male—Length, 2.0-2.8mm; length
of antenna, 2.0-3.0mm; length of
forewing, 2.1-2.6 mm.

Morphologically similar to female,
except for sexual differences. Anten-

J. Entomo.. Soc. Brit. CoLtuMbiaA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968 35

nae with 19-21 segments, rarely with
one or two segments more or less
(sgts. 2/18, 4/19, 7/20, 4/21, 1/23),
approximately as long as body. Peti-
ole slender, more parallel-sided than
in female, three to three and one-half
times as long as wide across spiracles;
tergite weakly sculptured, central
carina more or less distinct. Colour:
fuscous. Malar region, cheeks, first
antennal segment and anellus, pro-
thorax, parts of meso- and metas-
terna, lower half of propodeum, peti-
ole, a variable-sized central area of
the third abdominal tergite, and legs
(except upper side of hind femora
and tarsi which are obfuscated), tes-
taceous to fusco-testaceous.
Cocoon—Inside the indurated skin
of the dead host aphid. Colour of
mummy beige to yellowish-brown;
emergence hole generally between

cornicles, roundish to ovate, with
smooth edges.
Types—Holotype: ¢, Vancouver,

B.C., 29.vii.1965, B. D. Frazer (C.N.C.,
No. 10,005). Allotype: ¢ (same locality
and date), (C.N.C. No. 10,005). Para-
typoids: 2 6 (see material examined).
Type locality: Vancouver, U.B.C.
Campus, British Columbia, Canada.
Type host: Masonaphis (Oestlundia)
maxima (Mason, 1925); (Homoptera:

Aphididae, Aphidinae) on Rubus par-
viflorus Nutt. (Rosaceae).

Material examined — Described
from a large series of material which
was reared from Masonaphis maxima
on Rubus parviflorus in coastal Brit-
ish Columbia: Vancouver, U.B.C.
Campus, 3.-29.vi.1965, B. D. Frazer;
Vancouver, Point Grey district, 25.v.
1965, M. MacKauer.

COMMENTS

The host range of Aphidius rubi-
folit appears to be restricted to species
of Masonaphis Hille Ris Lambers that
feed on thimbleberry, Rubus parvi-
florus Nutt. It is relatively common
as a parasitoid of M. (Oestlundia)
maxima (Mason) which evidently is
the main host. In addition to maxima
the parasitoid possibly may also at-
tack M. (O.) davidsoni (Mason), since
it was collected on occasion from mix-
ed colonies containing both species of
aphids on thimbleberry.

The only other record of a para-
sitoid that attacks genus Masonaphis
is that of Aphidius rosae which was
reared from M. (O.) rubicola (Oest-
lund) on Rubus by MacGillivray and
Spicer (1953) in New Brunswick. This
record may or may not pertain to the
new species, A. rubifolii.

References
MacGillivray, M.E., and P. B. Spicer. 1953. Aphid parasites collected in New Bruns-

wick in 1950. Can. Ent. 85:423-431.

Smith, C. F. 1944. The Aphidiinae of North America (Braconidae: Hymenoptera). Ohio
State Univ. Contr. Zool. Ent. 6:xii+154 p.

36 J. ENTomMo.. Soc. Brit. CoLumMBrA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

MASONAPHIS MAXIMA (MASON) (HOMOPTERA:

APHIDIDAE), AN APHID ON THIMBLEBERRY WITH

AN

UNUSUAL LIFE HISTORY!

B. D. FRAZER AND A. R. FORBES

ABSTRACT

A two-year study of Masonaphis maxima (Masqn) on thimbleberry,
Rubus parviflorus Nutt., revealed an unusual life history. The eggs hatched
in late March or early April, and the fundatrices matured and reproduced
a month later. Males and females were produced in late May or in June
and egg-laying had started by July. This early egg-laying coincided with
the cessation of production of new growth by the host plant. Additional
description of the fundatrix is included.

Introduction

Three species of aphids occur com-
monly on thimbleberry, Rubus parvi-
florus Nutt., around Vancouver, B.C.
These are Amphorophora parviflori
Hill, Masonaphis (Oestlundia) mazx-
tma (Mason), and Masonaphis (Oest-
lundia) davidsoni (Mason). They are
easily separable by the following Key:

1. Clavate cornicles with a few slight
striations just below the flange but
not reticulated........ A. parvifiori Hill
Clavate cornicles distinctly

reticulated 2. 423.2 2

2. Apterous viviparous female.......... 3

Alate viviparous female................ 4
3. 6-14 sensoria on third antennal

segment............ M. maxima (Mason)

20-23 sensoria on third antennal

segment..:..... M. davidsoni (Mason)
4. Fore wings each with conspicu-

ous dark spot at the

MO eee ee ee. M. maxima (Mason)

Fore wings without dark

SDOUs 2s M. davidsoni (Mason)

M. maxima is by far the common-

1 Contribution No. 135, Research Station, Re-
search Branch, Canada Department of Agricul-
ture, Vancouver, B.C.

est and most numerous of the three.
All are vectors of thimbleberry ring
spot virus (Stace-Smith, 1958). Mac-
Gillivray (1958) has added to the
published descriptions of M. maxima
and M. davidsoni. Hill (1958) describ-
ed A. parvifiori. The present paper
presents additional description of the
fundatrix of M. maxima and biological
data on this species.

Description of the Fundatrix

Since MacGillivray’s (1958) de-
scription is based on a single speci-
men, we add the following descrip-
tion:

Similar to apterous’ viviparous
female but with shorter antennae.
Body 2.69-4.70 mm long. Antennae
0.6-0.8 of the length of body; third
segment with 1-4 secondary sensoria;
unguis considerably shorter than
third segment and 2.7-3.3 times as
long as the base of sixth segment.
Cornicles only slightly swollen, maxi-
mum diameter 1.1-1.2 times the
smallest, and reticulated on distal
0.06-0.11 of their length.

Lengths in mm and number of secondary sensoria:

No. Body Ant. Corn. Cauda
1 4.33 2.88 0.99 .20
y) 4.67 3.11 1.07 ?

3 4.70 2.94 1.00 29
4 4.70 3.13 1.14 30
5 2.69 2.36 1.05 34
6 3.88 2.49 0.98 30

(1-6, from Rubus parviflorus, Vancouver, B.C.;

1967.)

Antennal segments Sensoria
III IV V VI on LI
61 43 46 18 =—.52 Zl
69 46 49 .20-+ .59 3,4
65 43 47 .20+ .54 2,1
76 48 50 19+ .53 3,0
63 48 42 14+ .46 3,4
65 49 46 18+ .50 3, 4

1-2, April 12, 1966; 3-6, April 26,

J. Entomou. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 65 (1968), Auc. 1, 1968 a

Biology

M. maxima is a large non-eco-
nomic aphid living on the undersides
of young leaves and growing terminal
shoots of thimbleberry, Rubus parvi-
florus Nutt. Thimbleberry is a na-
tive shrub of the forest understory,
particularly common along partially
shaded edges of clearings.

The following life history data
were gathered from extensive, natur-
ally occurring plots of thimbleberry
on the campus of the University of
British Columbia. Frequent observa-
tions were made until first instar
fundatrices were found on the plants.
Plots were sampled at least weekly
thereafter. A number of colonies were
reared on thimbleberry in pots in a
screenhouse and greenhouse.

The entire life cycle occurs on
thimbleberry. The eggs hatched dur-
ing the period March 22-31 in 1966
and April 1-10 in 1967 and funda-
trices were mature and reproducing a
month later. Progeny of the funda-
trices were mostly apterous; only 10-
15 per cent were alate. Some male
nymphs were produced in the third
generation starting as early as May
17. Male nymphs were easily distin-
guished by their bright red color. The
first mature males were noted on May
31 in 1966 and on June 13 in 1967.
Mature oviparae were found at about
the same time. Egg laying had com-
menced by early July. The last aphids
were found on August 9 in 1966 and
on July 18 in 1967. Thus there are only
3 or 4 parthenogenetic generations
each year. Maximum density of 525
aphids per cane was reached by July
12 in 1966 and the numbers decreased
very rapidly thereafter. Maximum
density of 252 aphids per cane was
reached by June 20 in 1967.

Eggs were found on buds, leaves,
and stipules of stems 2-3 inches long
arising from the crown. These parts
remain green throughout the winter.
Few eggs were found on stems and
leaves well above the ground. Some
eggs were found on dead leaf litter
Close to thimbleberry crowns. In the
screenhouse, large numbers of eggs

were laid on the clay pots containing
the thimbleberry plants; very few
were laid on the plants themselves.
The eggs are dark green when laid
and turn black and shiny in 3-7 days
depending on the temperature. They
are ellipsoid, 1.55-1.69 mm in length
and 0.78-0.85 mm in width.

The aphids were heavily preyed
upon by syrphid larvae, primarily
Metasyrphus fumipennis Thomson,
Scaeva pyrastri (L.), Syrphus ribesii
(L.), S. opinator O.S., and S. torvus
O.S. (det. J. R. Vockeroth), starting
with the fundatrices. During April
and early May each year, adult can-
tharids (Podabrus sp.), preyed upon
the aphids. At least two species of pre-
dacious cecidomyiids were prominent
in the colonies from late June on-
wards. No coccinellid eggs, larvae, or
adults were found in the two years of
sampling. Parasitism reached 15 per
cent. The primary parasites were:
Aphidius rubifolii Mackauer and a
Praon sp. (det. M. J. P. Mackauer).

In the greenhouse or screenhouse
where predators and parasites were
excluded and where the more catas-
trophic meteorological agents were
eliminated, M. maxima attained den-
sities sufficient to defoliate and kill
thimbleberry plants. In the field, on
the other hand, no infestation observ-
ed in three seasons of observations
was severe enough to cause visible
damage to the host.

Dispersal of alates was mainly to
new growth on plants within the im-
mediate area. Yellow pan water traps
and yellow sticky boards near the
observation plots caught only two
alate M. maxima. Isolated plots of
thimbleberry which did not have fun-
datrices in the Spring received few
immigrant alates from other plots
and populations on them remained
low. Apterae dispersed themselves by
falling to new growth of new plants
arising from the stolons beneath the
old plants and from the crown.

Body size of both apterous and
alate viviparae varied with the time
of collection. Measurement of the
lengths of the body, antennal seg-

38 J. ENToMotL. Soc. Brrr. CotumpBtia, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

ments, cornicles, and cauda generally
showed the shortest lengths in aphids
collected during April, the greatest in
those collected during May, and inter-
mediate values in those collected dur-
ing June.

Field, greenhouse, and screenhouse
observations showed that the aphids
would not settle or feed on fully ma-
ture leaves or stems; they fell from
the plants and died whenever there
was no succulent growing tissue avail-
able.

Discussion

The reduction in the number of
parthenogenetic summer generations
with very early production of sexuales
and eggs on the primary overwinter-
ing host is unusual in aphids. In a
temperate climate such as at Van-
couver, aphids typically migrate in
the spring from primary woody over-
wintering hosts to secondary herba-
ceous Summer hosts (heteroecy), or
sometimes spend their entire life cycle
on a single host. In either case 10 or
more parthenogenetic generations
may be produced between April and
November , and sexuales, if present,
occur in September, October, and No-
vember.

Abbreviated life cycles such as that
of M. maxima have been reported for
only a few other aphids. For Dysaphis
devecta (Walker), on apple, Hille Ris
Lambers (1945) and Stroyan (1963)
report a short life cycle of three par-
thenogenetic generations with pro-
duction of sexuales in June or July.
For Brachycaudus rociadae (Cocker-
ell), on larkspur, Hottes and Frison
(1931), report oviparae in Illinois on
May 13 and state that as a result, this
aphid passes the larger part of the
year in the egg stage. Other authors,
however, report sexuales of this
species on the same host in Colorado
on October 3 (Gillette and Palmer,
1932). For Kakimia essigi (Gillette
and Palmer), on columbine, Hottes
and Frison (1931) mention early pro-
duction of sexuales and eggs (p. 133),
but also describe sexual forms collect-
ed at Urbana on October 15 (p. 337).
Similarly Palmer (1952) reports sexu-

ales of this species from October 3 to
November 29. For Aphis farinosa
Gmelin, Hille Ris Lambers (1945) re-
ports overwintering eggs in June and
July. Robinson (1968) has just re-
ported the presence of oviparae of
Kakimia canadensis Robinson in early
summer in British Columbia and
Idaho.

Hottes and Frison (1931) suggest
that early production of sexuales and
early oviposition is a response to pro-
gressive unsuitability of the host and
is a Substitute for heteroecy and that
in the case of B. rociadade it is an
adaptation to the short period of
growth of the host. In a recent re-
view Kennedy and Stroyan (1959)
point out that the period of maximum
favourability of the sap of any plant
is short and that the production of
both alate viviparae and sexuales in
aphids is a result of this. Alates are
able to exploit a fresh host and sexu-
ales produce resistant overwintering
eggs. In the case of M. maxima, the
production of sexuales and eggs cer-
tainly coincides with the cessation of
production of new growth by the host
plant and there is ample evidence
that the aphid cannot live on fully
mature leaves. Other aphids react to
unfavourable host plant condition in
other ways. The sycamore aphid, Dre-
panosiphum platanoides (Schr.),
shows a density dependent reduction
in its reproductive rate (Dixon, 1963
and 1966), and several Periphyllus
spp. on maple aestivate as peculiar
first instar sexuparae called dimorphs
(Essig and Abernathy, 1952).

The habit noted with this aphid
of laying appreciable numbers of eggs
on debris on the ground near its host
plant would also seem to be unusual.
Aphid eggs are usually laid on or near
dormant buds, or on the bark on
limbs or canes,

Other instances have been docu-
mented of seasonal variation in the
body size of aphids. In Israel, Boden-
heimer and Swirski (1957), report
three species of aphids as being at
their largest about March and small-
est between August and October.

J. EnTomo.. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 65 (1968), Auc. 1, 1968 39

Bodenheimer and Swirski regard body
size aS an expression of growth con-
ditions for the aphids and tend to
attribute the variation they noted to
the nutritive status or physiological
condition of the host plant. Other
evidence would support this view
(Kennedy and Stroyan, 1959; Dixon,
1963 and 1966). For M. maxima a
combined effect of host plant condi-
tion and temperature is indicated. In
April the thimbleberry is succulent
and favourable for maximum growth,
but the temperature is less than op-

timum; in May both the host plant
condition and temperature are
favourable; in June the host plant is
less succulent and higher tempera-
tures are somewhat less favourable.

Because of its short life-cycle, its
complement of predators and para-
Sites, its relationships with the host
plant, and its relatively easily de-
termined age-distribution, M. maxima
has been chosen for further studies
of the biotic and abiotic factors in-
fluencing aphid population dynamics.

References

Bodenheimer, F. S., and E. Swirski. 1957. The Aphidoidea of the middle east. The
Weizmann Science Press of Israel, Jerusalem. 378p.

Dixon, A. F. G. 1963. Reproductive activity of the sycamore aphid, Drepanosiphum
platanoides (Schr.) (Hemiptera, Aphididae). J. Anim. Ecol. 32:33-48.

Dixon, A. F. G. 1966. The effect of population density and nutritive status of the host
on the summer reproductive activity of the sycamore aphid, Drepanosiphum
platanoides (Schr.). J. Anim. Ecol. 35:105-112.

Essig, E. O., and F. Abernathy. 1952. The aphid genus Periphyllus. University of Cali-

fornia Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles.

166p.

Gillette, C. P., and M. A. Palmer. 1932. The Aphidae of Colorado. Part II. Ann. Entomol.

Soc. Amer. 25:369-496.

Hill, A. R. 1958. A new species of aphid from Rubus parviflorus Nutt. Can. Entomol.

90:672-674.

Hille Ris Lambers, D. 1945. De Bloedvlekkenluis van Appel, Sappaphis devecta (WIk.).
Tijdschr. over Plantenziekten 51:57-72.

Hottes, F. C., and T. H. Frison. 1931. The plant lice, or Aphiidae, of Illinois. Illinois
Natural History Survey Bull. 19:121-447.

a and H. L. G. Stroyan, 1959. Biology of aphids. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 4:139-

MacLaggan, M. E. (Mrs. M. E. MacGillivray). 1958. A study of the genus Masonaphis
Hille Ris Lambers, 1939 (Homoptera, Aphididae). E. J. Brill, Leiden. 131p.
Palmer, M. A. 1952. Aphids of the Rocky Mountain region. The Thomas Say Founda-

tion, Vol. 5. 452p.

Robinson, A. G. 1968. Two new species of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from Canada.

Can. Entomol. 100:275-279.

Stace-Smith, R. 1958. Studies on Rubus virus diseases in British Columbia, V. Thimble-
berry ring spot. Can. J. Bot. 36:385-388.

Stroyan, H. L. G. 1963. A revision of the British species of Dysaphis Borner (Sappaphis
Auct. Nec Mats.), Part II: The subgenus Dysaphis sensu stricto. H.M. Station-

ery Office, London. 119p.

40 J. Exromorn. Soc. Brrr. Cotumptra, 65 (1968), Aua. 1, 1968

A RECORD OF RHAGOLETIS INDIFFERENS CURRAN
FROM CRESTON, BRITISH COLUMBIA

J. C. ARRAND AND W. S. PETERS

In 1962 Rhagoletis indifferens Cur-
ran was identified from collections in
cherry orchards at Creston. Identi-
fication was confirmed by J. F. Mc-
Alpine, Canada Department of Agri-
culture, Research Branch, Ottawa.
Previously only Rhagoletis fausta
(Osten Sacken), had been recorded
from the Kootenay area of British
Columbia. The presence of R. indiff-
erens has greatly increased the prob-
lem of fruit fly control in that area.

Although this is the first record of
R. indifferens in Canada, the R. cin-
gulata that have been reported from

the Fraser Valley and Vancouver Is-
land were undoubtedly R. indifferens.
Specimens from both locations which
have been examined fit the descrip-
tion of R. indifferens.

According to G. L. Bush (1966), R.
cingulata is not found west of Iowa in
North America. Although the range of
Rk. indifferens is largely within the
range of the main wild host, bitter
cherry, Prunus emarginata, it is pres-
ent in the commercial cherry area of
Western Montana beyond the range
of bitter cherry.

References
Bush, G. L. 1966. “The Taxonomy, Cytology and Evolution of the Genus Rhagoletis in
North America (Diptera Tephritidae), Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Vol. 134, No. 11—Harvard University Press.

THE WORLD OF AN INSECT

By REMY CHAUVIN

World University Library, McGraw-Hill Book
Co. New York and Toronto. 1967. Pp.
254. $2.45.

But $2.75 at the UBC Bookstore,
a high price for a paperback that is
not really a teaching or reference
text. Without question Prof. Chauvin
is a first rate entomologist and cer-
tainly a great teacher. The flyleaf
says the book was written for univer-
sity students, the title suggests for
laymen. But numerous unexplained
scientific names and jargon terms
would discourage laymen. The book
needs a glossary and list of insects
and plants mentioned. The lack of a
proper bibliography is a very serious
Omission. True, there are 122 refer-
ences chosen for their general ap-
plication and for further reading,
but these may or may not be referred
to. For most of the citations in the
text, often without dates, the reader
is invited to go to the Zoological
Record, Review of Applied Entomol-

ogy, Biological Abstracts, etc. In a
book of this size it seems shortsight-
ed to begrudge four or five pages for
references. In the first that interest-
ed me which I tried to trace, the
senior author’s name turned out to
be not just misspelled but wrong, and
it took a professional librarian some
time to verify this. Perhaps the inten-
tion is to give students practice in
searching literature. In general, the
book is not explicit enough for an un-
dergraduate text and contains simply
too many errors. Thus on. -p.203-
Sheals (1955) used DDT “at 75-80%
of the gamma isomer... the only
active part in the commercial pro-
duct.” The date was 1956 and the
isomer was p,p’. In a Short reference
to Balachowsky (p. 241) on biological
control, six misstatements or outright
errors occur within nine lines. In
quotation from Balachowsky (p. 226)
we read of the fruit-growing valley
of Yatima, Washington. There afe
others.

The author has been ill-served by

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. Cotumpta, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968 41

his translator and proof readers.
Harold Oldroyd is a competent trans-
lator but a neglectful rewriter subject
to unforgivable lapses into literal
translation such as: “ .. . for the
beetles the most abundant and most
mequent ,...” (p.138); or“... have
been equally detected by ... ” (p.
108); alfalfa is nearly always referred
to as the field of alfalfa, e.g. “ ... the
field of alfalfa is a perennial crop.”
The proofreading is inexact, leaving
too many misspellings even of names,
and a pair of transposed captions for
full-page pictures.

Physically the book is attractive
despite an infuriating tendency to
close itself. The paper and type are
good, the numerous photographs are
well chosen and the line drawings are
simple, very clear, and improved by
judicious use of green ink. The same
applies to the graphs, which are
mostly re-drawn and re-lettered, sim-
plified, and occasionally over-simpli-
fied. The 15 tables are well worKked-
over, but at least one is reduced
beyond the point of clarity, by the
omission of units (p. 147).

Canadian entomologists come off
well. The work of Morris, Wellington,
Watt, Turnbull, and Stanley is dis-
cussed at some length and with ap-
proval amounting to enthusiasm.

Wellington, Watt, and Beirne appear
in the bibliography. French entomol-
ogists fare even better, almost to the
point of chauvinism (no pun intend-
ed). They are said to be distinct from
Americans, who are preoccupied with
Overpopulation, tending to rear large
populations of grain insects then
applying Statistics without asking
whether the biology of two Tribolium
differs from that of a singleton (p.
85). French workers reject ‘“‘... the
soft pillow of simple, mechanical fac-
tors upon which certain research
workers take it easy.” (p. 86). In the
bibliography only 14 of 122 titles are
in French, 16 are in German, and 40
appeared in U.S. publications. Chap-
ter 4, Populations in Nature, is largely
based on German studies in cultivat-
ed field crops.

Chauvin is loquacious but not un-
duly so and the book moves, albeit
slowly. It adds up to a usable and,
in spite of my complaints, a curiously
enjoyable book. For all its shortcom-
ings I should recommend it strongly
for graduate students, who could not
help but be stimulated. But as a
teaching and reference text it cannot
compete with Southwood’s Ecological
Methods.

—H. R. MacCarthy

METRIC CONVERSION

Contributors of Papers on laboratory studies should use the metric system exclusively.
Use of the metric system in reporting the results of field studies is a desirable ultimate
objective. Since it is difficult to replace immediately such standard concepts as lb/
acre by the unit kg/hectare, yards by meters, or miles by kilometers, the following

table of conversion factors is presented.

1 in.=2.54 cm

1 yard=0.914 m

1 mile=1.61 km

1 Ib.=453.6 g

1 gal (U.S.)=83.785 liters
1 gal (Imp) =4.546 liters

1 ft3s—=28.3 dm3

1 acre—0.405 hectares

1 lb/acre=1.12 kg/hectare
1 lb/in2(psi)=70.3 g/em2

1 lb/gal (U.S.)\=120 g/liter
1 Ib/gal (Imp)—100 g/liter

1 cm—0.394 in

1 m=3.28 ft—1.094 yards
1 km=0.621 mile

1 kg=2.2 lb

1 liter—0.264 gal (U.S.)

1 liter—0.220 (Imp)

1 dms=0.0353 fts

1 hectare=2.47 acres

1 kg/hectare—0.89 lb/acre

1 g/mz—0.0142 psi

1 g/liter—0.83 1b/100 gal (U:S.)

=1000 p

1 g/liter=1 1b/100 gal (Imp)

42

J. ENtomon. Soc. Brit. CoLtumMsraA, 65 (1968), Aue. 1, 1968

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Since this society no longer has any support except from sub-
scriptions it has become necessary to institute a page charge. This has
initially been set at cost: $12.00. In other respects policies remain parallel
with those of the Canadian Entomological Society. The page charge
includes all extras except coloured illustrations, provided that such extras
do not comprise more than 40% of the published pages. Coloured illustra-
tions will be charged directly to the author. Authors, not attached to
universities or official institutions, who must pay these charges from their
personal funds and are unable to do so, may apply for assistance when

submitting a manuscript.
Reprints are sold only in even hundreds and at the following prices:

Number of pages 1-4 5-8 9-12 13-16 17-20 21-24 25-28
First 100 copies $22 3963 42 9) 70 87 106
Each extra 100 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Authors discounts (up to 40%) may be granted to authors who certify
at the time of ordering that they are buying reprints at personal expense.
Authors ordering personal reprints in addition to those ordered by an
institution will be billed at the rate for extra hundreds.

Papers for the Journal need not have been presented at meetings
of the Entomological Society of British Columbia, nor is it mandatory,
although preferable, that authors be members of the society. The chief
condition for publication is that the paper have some regional origin,
interest, or application.

Contributions should be sent to:

H. R. MacCarthy,

6660 N.W. Marine Drive,
Vancouver 8. B.C.

Manuscripts should be typed double-spaced on one side of white, line-
numbered paper if possible, leaving generous margins. The original and
two copies, mailed flat, are required. Tables should be on separate, numbered
sheets, with the caption on the sheet. Captions for illustrations should also
be on separate numbered sheets, but more than one caption may be on a
sheet. Photographs should be glossy prints of good size, clarity and contrast.
Line drawings should be in black ink on good quality white paper.

The style, abbreviations and citations should conform to the Style
Manual for Biological Journals published by the American Institute of
Biological Sciences.

Gack WYumbers

Back numbers of this journal are available from the Secretary-treasurer,
from volume 45 (1949) to the present, at $2.00 per volume. Certain earlier
back numbers are also available, but only on special request to the Secre-
tary-treasurer.

Address inquiries to: DR. M. D. ATKINS, Secretary-treasurer,
Forest Research Laboratory, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, B.C.

JOURNAL

of the

TOMOLOGICAL
VSOCIETY of

| - ECONOMIC

eal beahod for determining the dosage-mortality curve of malathion
Pea Lge: wo Rl a aoe pisum (Harris) ee ean

ae e ° * . . e . . . ° . . . ° ° .

. . ° . ” .

er clubroot and wire stem. ......

ne teal lineatum (Oliv. ) 5

The distribution of two species of Cenocorixa in inland
lakes “ ieee ee ie ak ee ARE te ea

ee shoe Maderheien) Be A ewe Ma Sn 8) ice

S -Some observations on satis in a acer cece (Hemipters:

* . ° . ° * . * ° ° . ° . 2 ° . . . * .

TAXONOMIC

g Co Tetropium velutinum LeConte (Coleoptera: mae

SNCENOTES . er ee pe bo &
ite ee es
Pe OETORG he ee

| ENT HSON; Py
awe

SEP 22 1969

LiapavicsS

Issued August 1, 1969

10

41

45

50

51

JOURNAL

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL
SOCIETY of
BRITISH COLUMBIA

Vol. 66. Issued August 1, 1969

ECONOMIC

PEARSON—A method for determining the dosage-mortality curve of malathion
against the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) (Homoptera:

CLCTG ICG 21) ) Wes a ee ge ea eo a 3
ROSS & VANDERWAL-—A spruce borer, Tetropium cinnamopterum Kirby,
im interior British Columbia ./. .-3 os 1 oe ee ts 10
FINLAYSON & CAMPBELL—Insecticides, fungicides and lime combined for
control of cabbage maggots, clubroot and wirestem. ............ 14
GENERAL
ALLAN—Syrphidae collected mostly in southern areas of the Okanagan
Valley, British Columbia... ...........0202 02 ee eevee 19
RUTH & HEDLIN—Rearing the Douglas-fir cone moth, Barbara colfaxiana
(Kearfott), on an artificial diet inthelaboratory .............. 22
DARLING—Observations on the relation of light to the dropping of the tick,
Ixodes texanus Banks .. 0. <i ww bw tt ee ee 26
NIJHOLT—Fat content during attack and brood production of the ambrosia
beetle Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.) ........0.....++28-4 29
SCUDDER—The distribution of two species of Cenocorixa in inland
saline lakes of British Columbia ................2.2.004. 32
DYER—Influence of temperature inversion on development of spruce beetle,
Dendroctonus obesus (Mannerheim) ..............4.2.ee8-4 41
HEWSON—Some observations on flight in Oncopeltus fasciatus (Hemiptera:
LES ACICAC) Mew ake eat cs oe ere ee eel oe en ashan ee ee aoe 45
ANDREWS & GEISTLINGER—Parasites of the larch casebearer, Coleophora
laricella (Hbn.) in British Columbia (Lepidoptera:Coleophoridae) .... . 50
ELLIS & BORDEN—Laboratory rearing of Notonecta undulata Say
(Hemiptera:Notonectidae) ............02. 2.00 ee eee eee 51
TAXONOMIC
TORGERSEN—Hymenopterous parasites of the hemlock sawfly, Neodiprion
tsugae Middleton, in southeast Alaska, with a key tolarvalremains .... 53
FINLA YSON—Final-instar larvae of two hymenopterous parasites of a wood-
boring beetle, Tetropium velutinum LeConte (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) 62
BeMINGH NOTES (...8 64 60544 4 66 bow ee ew we es 25 & 28
BOOTY MSW chee Blk ce ee lee wk we ew ee ee ew ew 66

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

DIRECTORS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA FOR 1969-70

President

W. T. CRAM

Research Station,
6660 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver 8

President-Elect

D. G. FINLAYSON

Research Station
6660 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver 8

Past President

H. MADSEN

Research Station
Summerland

Secretary-Treasurer

A. F. HEDLIN

Forest Research Laboratory
506 West Burnside Road,
Victoria

Honorary Auditor

N. V. TONKS
Research Station, Saanichton

Editorial Committee

H. R. MacCartHy, Chairman D. A. Ross,
Vancouver Vernon

C. V. MORGAN
Summerland

Directors

R. A. Rinc, University of Victoria J. H. BorDEN, Simon Fraser University
R. D. MCMULLEN, Summerland A. T. S. WILKINSON, Vancouver
J. GRANT, Vernon

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969 3

A METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE DOSAGE-
MORTALITY CURVE OF MALATHION AGAINST THE
PEA APHID, ACYRTHOSIPHON PISUM (HARRIS)
(HOMOPTERA:APHIDIDAE)'

W. D. PEARSON2

ABSTRACT

The procedures of a reliable method for establishing the dosage-
mortality curve for malathion and the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum
(Harris), are described and evaluated. They include the choice of insec-
ticide formulation, the conditions for rearing and collecting, the hold-
ing of treated aphids, and the analysis of mortality data. The LDso
of actual malathion in acetone solution to the pea aphid is 23.5 nano-
grams per aphid. The 95% fiducial limits about this estimate are 22.9
and 24.1 nanograms per aphid. The slope, + S.E. (n=7), of the log-
dosage: probit-mortality line is 5.5 + 0.4.

Introduction

The success of the Aphididae as a
group is partly due to the evolution
of a specialized cycle which is closely
adapted to the annual cycle of the
host plant. The main features of the
aphid cycle are: a thelytokous, or
female-producing, spring and sum-
mer phase during which one or many
generations occur, living usually on
herbaceous plants; and a sexual fall
generation, usually on a woody plant,
which permits gene segregation and
recombination, and retains evolution-
ary potentiality. The viviparous phase
allows rapid increase of numbers and
ensures that the population at the
end of the phase will consist almost
entirely of individuals which were
adapted to conditions during the
summer phase. These characteristics
are advantageous in exploiting new
ecological niches.

Some species living in mild clim-
ates have secondarily lost the sexual
fall generation and reproduce entirely
by thelytoky. In these species the
genetic constitution is presumed to

1 Taken from a thesis submitted in tial ful-
filment of the requirements for the Paeuree of
Master of Science in the Division of Plant Science,
University of British Columbia.

2 Present address: Department of Agricultural
pology, Lincoln College, Canterbury, Now Zea-

be extremely stable (Suomalainen,
1962; White, 1945). Nevertheless, in-
stances of resistance to insecticides
in the Aphididae during the past de-
cade have given reason to doubt this
stability. Stern (1962) reported an
organophosphate - resistant popula-
tion of Therioaphis maculata (Buck-
ton) in California, an area where the
few oOviparae present produce only
non-viable eggs (Dickson, Laird and
Johnson, 1958). Two populations of
organophosphate-resistant Myzus
persicae (Sulzer) have been found in
greenhouses, where sexual reproduc-
tion is unlikely to have occurred
(Dunn and Kempton, 1966; Baerecke,
1962). The mechanisms whereby re-
sistance evolved are unknown, and
there is thus interest in them from
the academic and applied points of
view.

Methods used in the past for toxi-
cological studies on aphids have not
been adequate. Dunn and Kempton
(1966), in their attempt to trace the
decline of organophosphate resist-
ance in a clone of M. persicae, were
not able to make valid comparisons
between generations since different
concentrations were used to deter-
mine median lethal times. When the
same concentrations were used the

WR THR eas a ay

4 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

susceptible clone appeared to develop
four- and five-fold resistance. The

only conclusion they could draw was

that resistance declined when selec-
tion pressure was removed. The pres-
ent study was prompted by the in-
creasingly clear need for a precise
method for establishing dosage-
mortality curves for aphids.

A log-dosage: probit-mortality line
(ld-p line), the transformed equiva-
lent of a dosage - mortality curve,
provides estimates of the toxicity of
the insecticides to individual aphids
and by extension to the population.
Since these estimates are reference
points they must be repeatable, for
repeatability is the best indication
of reliability. Only with repeatable
estimates can investigation begin on
the mechanisms whereby resistance
evolves.

Procedures of the Method

Rearing Aphids

Colonies of the pea aphid, Acyr-
thosiphon pisum (Harris), used
throughout this investigation, were
reared on broad bean, Vicia faba L.,
variety Exhibition Long Pod. These
were grown in a potting mixture of
equal parts of sphagnum moss and
fine sand. No additional nutrients
were added.

Aphids were reared in insect-proof
cages 30.5 cm wide, 45.7 cm high, and
44.5 cm deep. Ventilation was pro-
vided by a forced air system deliver-
ing filtered air at the rate of 0.17 cum
per minute. The temperature inside
the cages was maintained at 21.7 +
2 C, and the vapor pressure deficit
at 12.5 + 3.5 millibars. Sixteen hours
illumination per day was provided by
six 2.4 m cool white fluorescent tubes
placed 35 cm above the soil surface
in the pots. The light intensity ranged

3 A polyterafluoroethylene dispersion manufac-
tured by Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd

4A transparent plastic sheeting obtained from
Burnaby Orchids, Burnaby, B.C.

from 2100 to 5000 lux, from the soil
surface to the ceiling of the cage.
Aphids were reared under these con-
ditions for three generations before
being treated.

A simple method was used to pro-
vide uniformly large, healthy, apter-
ous aphids by hundreds, which had
not been subjected to any adverse
condition. Colonies were started by
placing 20 nine-day-old aphids in
each of two pots containing 12 plants,
2 to 8cm high. These aphids produced
about 440 nymphs during 24 hours,
after which the adults were removed.

Collecting Aphids

Aphids were collected when they
were 9+0.5 days old. Those not on
the plants in the cage were removed
and destroyed. Single plants were
cut off at the soil line and held over
a large glass dish, the inner sides of
which were coated with Fluon;. Ap-
terous adults were gently brushed
from the plant into the dish with a
squirrel hair brush. Casts and nymphs
were removed from the dish and from
the adults. The aphids collected from
one or two plants were evenly distri-
buted among the eight petri dishes
used to hold them prior to treatment.
Sub-samples were taken until 50
aphids for each of seven treatments
and a control had been collected.
Aphids used in control treatments
were weighed before being treated as
a check on uniformity and to gauge
the effects of handling.

The aphids were then transferred
singly from the holding dish with a
vacuum pencil to 10-cm arenas, the
floors of which were of 12-strand per
cm saran screen. Each arena was sub-
divided into three compartments by
Fluon-coated Kodapak cylinders, 4
cm diameter by 1.3 cm high. Fifteen
aphids were placed in each arena, 4
in one compartment, 5 in the second
and 6 in the third.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. CoLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969 5

Choice of Insecticide Formulation

Secondary standard malathions of
96% purity was chosen as the test in-
secticide because it is an organophos-
phate, the class of insecticide involved
in most cases of aphid resistance to
insecticides, and because it has low
mammalian toxicity. Test solutions
were made by diluting a 1% (w/v)
solution of the malathion in acetone.
Acetone was found by trial to be best
for topical application because it
spread quickly and evenly, evapor-
ated rapidly, and was non-toxic in the
quantity used.

Application of Insecticide

To apply the insecticide to indi-
vidual aphids, a Yale B-D Luer 0.25
ml glass hypodermic syringe, fitted
with a No. 26 square-end, right-angl-
ed needle was clamped into the holder
of a modified Micro-Metric SB-2¢
syringe micro-buret. The drive spindle
of this applicator was fitted with a
plywood disc in which 20 equally
spaced cogs had been cut. A pawl
mounted on the base of the applica-
tor permitted the operator to devote
his entire attention to the tip of the
needle and the aphids during opera-
tion. Turning the disc from one cog
to the next advanced the plunger
0.051 mm and delivered a 0.514 ul
droplet of insecticide solution. This
droplet was transferred by touching
the tip of the needle to the dorsum of
an aphids abdomen. The insecticide
spread at once to cover the entire
abdomen. A different random se-
quence of treatments was used for
each replicate.

Rep icittionte: obtained treme Grocacaiy ot ee
ada Limited, 1 City View Drive, Rexdale, Ontario.

6 Manufactured by Micro-Metric Instru :
Cleveland, Ohio. J rument Co.,

7 Adapted by P. M. Morse and E. A. Reimer
Statistical Research Service, Canada Department
of Agriculture, from the original program by M.
J. Garber, U.S.D.A. Users Library No. 1620-06.0.093.

e Taken from the program by R. J. Daum and
C. Givens, U.S.D.A. Users Likrary No. 1620-06.0.085.

Holding of Treated Aphids

The aphids were brushed gently
into a holding cage containing a
young bean plant growing in a 10.3
cm square pot. A base of unpainted
fir plywood, with a slot cut to accom-
modate the plant stem was fitted in-
side the rim of the pot, on the soil.
The slot was sealed with a strip of
masking tape and a collar of model-
ling clay around the base of the
plant. The body of the cage, a Koda-
pak cylinder 9.5 cm diameter by 18 cm
high, was fixed into a circular groove
cut in the plywood base, using strips
of masking tape from the wall of the
cage to the sides of the pot. The top
of the cage was nylon organdy.

Analysis of Data

At the end of the 48 hour post-
treatment holding period the aphids
were counted and classified. Any
aphid not capable of coordinated
movement was classified as dead. The
data were analysed by computer,
using two probit analysis programs
(Finney, 1962). The first, a single line
program’, computed an l1d-p line for
each replicate. The seconds also com-
puted an ld-p line for each replicate,
then tested the lines for parallelism,
computed the common slope of the
regression from the pooled results,
and the relative potency of each rep-
licate.

Evaluation of the Method

The method was judged by the re-
peatability of the median lethal dos-
age (LD5°) and the slope estimates.
Homogeneity of slope estimates is the
more critical, since these indicate the
variance of response to the insecti-
cide in the treated population. The
standard deviation of the slopes of
the ld-p lines, being a measure of
variation attributable to the method
alone (Hoskins and Craig, 1962), was
also used aS an indication of relia-
bility.

6
Discussion
The most important factors in
establishing the dosage-mortality

curve were: formulation of the in-
secticide, and the procedures of rear-
ing, collecting, treating, and holding
the aphids after treatment. Repeat-
able results obtained with this me-
thod are shown by the homogeneity
of the LDs° and slope estimates from
replicate to replicate (Table 1). Fig-
ure 1 gives an ld-p line, with 95%
fiducial limits, calculated from the
pooled data by Bliss’ (1952) method
and demonstrates the homogeneity
of the data.

Various methods of exposing A.
pisum to malathion were investigated
before a Suitable one was developed.
During the investigation the insecti-
cide formulation was changed and
the component procedures were pro-
gressively refined.

Exposing the aphids on glass sur-
faces which had been sprayed with
acetone solutions of malathion did
not give satisfactory results. Mortality
is affected by the length of time the
aphid is withheld from its normal
environment; and the relationships
between dosage and the length of ex-

TABLE 1.

J. EnromMou. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBriA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

posure, and the concentration of the

deposit, are not linear (Hoskins and

Craig, 1962). The estimates obtained -

in these tests varied widely, and the
standard deviations of the slopes were
too large.

Solutions and emulsions were
sprayed directly on the aphids in a
Potter tower (Potter, 1952). Estimates
of the LD5° were homogeneous once
the procedures of rearing, collecting
and post-treatment holding had been
refined. Neverthless the slopes of the
ld-p lines varied widely, and their
standard deviations were still too
large.

Hoskins and Craig (1962) set out
10 criteria which should be satisfied
if a treatment procedure is to have
general and ~specific applicability.
These were used as guiding principles.
The criteria, in descending order of
importance, are: 1. constant relation
of dose to dosage; 2. precise measure-
ment of dosage; 3. quantitative evalu-
ation of effect; 4. normality of en-

vironment; 5. constancy of environ- |

ment; 6. sensitivity to variation; 7.
reproducibility of results; 8. wide
applicability; 9. representativity of
population; 10. simplicity and rapidity.

Mortality of 9-day-old A. pisum to which 0.5 microliter drops of actual

malathion in acetone solution were applied on the abdominal dorsum. Aphids kept on
live plants for 48 hours before mortality assessment. Statistics obtained by probit

analysis.
Malathion Percent mortality in replicate
ng /Aphid 1 3 5 6 7
0 74 2 7 4 0 0 2
15 4 6 3 18 6 4 6
20 36 44 20 42 38 52 36
25 . 60 66 76 78 54 75 78
30 72 82 70 70 80 66 74
35 84 82 76 92 90 86 86
40 86 88 92 74 90 84 88
50 96 100 82 96 04. 87 96
Statistics:
LD 50 (ng /Aphid) 24.54 23.01 25.69 22.08 23.58 22.91 23.16
95% Fiducial Limits
Upper 6.21 24.50 27.75 24.01 25.07 24.77 24.71
Lower 22.88 21.39 23.40 19.85 22.02 20.86 21.49
Slope 5.86 6.24 5.13 4.51 6.13 4.59 5.97
+S.E, 0.58 0.62 0.64 0.53 0.58 0.50 0.60

J. Enromot. Soc. Brit. CotumsiA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

PROBIT MORTALITY

10 15

PERCENTAGE MORTALITY

20 30 40 50
DOSAGE nanograms /aphid

Fig. 1. Relationship between malathion dosage and mortality of Acyrthosiphon pisum
(Harris). Bliss’ (1952) method of partially weighted means was used to compute the
the single 1d-p line and the 95% fiducial limits. Points represent the individual obser-
vations, adjusted for control mortality, given in Table 1.

There are no means as yet to satis-
fy the first criterion in which dose is
defined as the amount of toxicant
which reaches the site of action, and
dosage as the amount of toxicant ap-
plied. Neither the mode nor the site of
action of the organophosphate in-
secticides is known. Nevertheless, the
relation is measured indirectly by the
standard deviation of the slope; since
these values are small (Table 1), it
can be assumed that the criterion is
satisfied.

The eighth criterion can be Satis-
fied only by further development.
With minor modifications to suit the
requirements of different species, the
method developed here should be
widely applicable.

The last two criteria are difficult
to satisfy fully. A laboratory clone
cannot represent the population be-
cause of restrictions imposed by a
controlled environment and by the
size of the clone; it is impossible that
the total gene pool of the species be

8 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

represented. Although the method is
simple, requiring little more than pa-
tience and a steady hand, it is not
rapid.

The six remaining criteria are
fully satisfied. Numbers 4 and 5 are
of great importance because aphids
are particularly sensitive to environ-
ment. Photoperiod, temperature, and
population density have been shown
to be instrumental in morph deter-
mination in Megoura viciae Buckton
(Lees, 1959), Aphis craccivora Koch
(Johnson, 1965, 1966b), and Brevi-
coryne brassicae (Linnaeus), (Lamb
and White, 1966). The condition of
the host plant certainly affects morph
determination in A. craccivora (John-
son, 1966a) and probably does so in
other species. Cytological studies by
UVichanco (1924) on Dactynotus
(=Macrosiphum) tanaceti (Linna-
eus) have shown that ovulation be-
gins while the mother is still an
embryo. Lees (1961) states that the
sex ratio can be modified by the tem-
perature in the grandmother’s envir-
onment. The morph is determined by
the maternal physiology while the
aphid is an embryo in its mother’s
Ovariole (Lees, 1961) and the mother’s
physiology is influenced by environ-
mental conditions to which she is
subjected. The mother’s or grand-
mother’s physiological state may well
influence susceptibility to an insec-
ticide in a daughter or granddaugh-
ter.

Conditions of light, temperature,
vapor pressure deficit, host plant con-
dition, and population density were
held constant from replicate to re-
plicate and from generation to gen-
eration. The order of treatments was
randomized in each replicate to avoid
the possibility of an interaction of
treatment time with a daily rhythm

of susceptibility, as shown for An-
thonomus grandis Boheman by Cole
and Adkisson (1964), and Tetrany-
chus urticae (Koch), by Fisher (1967).

Significance of the
Dosage-Mortality Curve

The average weight of the aphids
used for determination of the seven
ld-p lines of Table I was 4.1+ 0.11
mg, based on seven samples of 50
aphids each. The average LD5° com-
puted was 23.5 ng per aphid, or 5.8
ug per g of body weight. This value
indicates high toxicity, but compari-
sons with other insecticides against
A. pisum, or with malathion against
other insects, have not been possible
because no reference has been found
which gives the necessary informa-
tion.

The slope of the ld-p line (Fig. 1)
is relatively steep, indicating that
there is little variation of response of
the aphids to the insecticide. The
probability of the aphids being able
to discriminate between dosages de-
creases as the range of dosage is
narrowed. Even though there are
deviations from the computed ld-p
lines, these are not truly aberrant
since the dosages used to establish
the lines varied within very narrow
limits. The steep slope, and lack of
consistent or major deviation from
the ld-p lines give no indication of the
presence of a pre-adapted resistance
mechanism in the clone; there ap-
pears to be little chance of a resis-
tant population developing, even after
repeated selection with the insecticide.

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank Dr. H. R. MacCarthy for
criticism of the manuscript, Mrs. P. M.
Morse and Dr. G. W. Eaton for assistance
with probit analysis, and Dr. W. T. Cram for
hours of helpful discussion and encourage-
ment during the course of the work.

References

Baerecke, M. L. (1962). Resistenz von Myzus persicae (Sulz.) gegen E605 und Metasystox.
Z. Pflanzenkrankh. u Pflanzenschutz. 69:453-461.

|

J. ENtomot.. Soc. BRIT. CoLtumnriA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

Bliss, C. I. (1952). The Statistics of Bioassay. New York: Academic Press Inc.

Cole, C. L. and Adkisson, P. L. (1964). Daily rhythm in the susceptibility of an insect
to a toxic agent. Science 144:1148-1149.

Dickson, R. C., Laird, E. F. and Johnson, M. McD. (1958). Sexuales and eggs of the
spotted alfalfa aphid. Ann. Ent. Soc. Am. 51:346-350.

Dunn, J. A. and Kempton, D. P. (1966). Non-stable resistance to demetonmethyl in a
strain of Myzus persicae. Entomol. Exptl. Appl. 9:67-73.

Finney, D. J. (1962). Probit Analysis. 2nd Ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge,
England. 318 p.

Fisher, R. W. (1967). Diel periodicity in sensitivity of Tetranychus urticae (Acarina:
Tetranychidae) to dicofol. Can. Entomologist 99: 281-284.

Hoskins, W. M. and Craig, R. (1962). Uses of bioassay in entomology. Ann. Rev. Entomol.
7:437-464.

Johnson, B. (1966a). Wing polymorphism in aphids III. The influence of the host plant.
Entomol. Exptl. Appl. 9: 213-222.

Johnson, B. (1966b). Wing polymorphism in aphids IV. The effect of temperature and
photoperiod. Entomol. Exptl. Appl. 9:301-313.

Johnson, B. (1965). Wing polymorphism in aphids II. Interaction between aphids.
Entomol. Exptl. Appl. 8:49-64.

Lamb, K. P. and White, D. (1966). Effect of temperature, starvation and crowding on
production of alate young by the cabbage aphid, (Brevicoryne brassicae).
Entomol. Exptl. Appl. 9:179-184.

Lees, A. D. (1961). Clonal polymorphism in aphids. p. 68-79, in J. S. Kennedy, (Ed.) Insect
Polymorphism. Symposium No. 1, Roy. Entomol. Soc. Lond.

Lees, A. D. (1959). The role of photoperiod and temperature in the determination of
parthenogenetic and sexual forms in the aphid Megoura viciae Buckton - I
The influence of these factors on apterous virginoparae and their progeny.
J. Ins. Physiol. 3:92-117.

Potter, C. (1952). An improved laboratory apparatus for applying direct sprays and
surface films, with data on the electrostatic charge on atomized spray fluids.
Ann. Appl. Biol. 39:1-28.

Stern, W. M. (1962) Increased resistance to organophosphorus insecticides in the
parthenogenetic spotted alfalfa aphid, Therioaphis maculata, in California.
J. Econ. Entomol. 55:900-904.

Suomalainen, E. (1962). Significance of parthenogenesis in the evolution of insects.
Ann. Rev. Entomol. 7:349-366.

Uichanco, L. B. (1924). Studies on the embryogeny and postnatal development of the
Aphididae with special reference to the history of the “symbiotic organ” or
“mycetom’’. Phillippine J. Sci. 24:143-247.

White, M. J. D. (1945). Animal Cytology and Evolution. Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge, England. 375 p.

10 J. Entomot, Soc. Brit. ConumBta, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

A SPRUCE BORER, TETROPIUM CINNAMOPTERUM
KIRBY, IN INTERIOR BRITISH COLUMBIA

D. A. Ross AND H. VANDERWAL!

ABSTRACT

A spruce borer, Tetropium cinnamopterum Kirby, is an impor-
tant borer in logs of spruce, Picea spp., in British Columbia. The
L-shaped larval galleries penetrated to depths of 52 mm in the sapwood,
and ranged from 26 to 90 mm in length; their average volume was
0.81 cc, Captive adults lived for about 2 weeks and deposited up to
155 eggs per female. Eggs hatched in about 12 days; the larvae fed
under the bark for about 8 weeks before boring into the xylem of
spring-felled logs. Possible control measures based on this investiga-
tion of the borer’s life history and larval development are considered

briefly.

Introduction

Kirby described the adult Tetro-
pium cinnamopterum in 1837; Blatch-
ley (1910) and Craighead (1923) des-
cribed the larva and pupa. Craighead
noted that the larvae feed only in
dead trees of Abies, Pinus and Picea
throughout eastern and northwestern
North America. In studies of fire-
killed white spruce, Richmond and
Lejeune (1945) observed that the lar-
vae “‘ - - - enter the wood much as
Monochamus do, but are shallow bor-
ers - - - average depth of penetration
34 inch - - - .”

Marketing problems arising from
borer damage (Fig. 3) and presence
of living borers in the wood with sub-
sequent degrading of lumber ship-
ments have led to further investiga-
tions of this species at the Vernon
Laboratory.

Sections of infested coniferous logs
from Prince George Forest District
provided numerous adult Tetropium
cinnamopterum (Fig. 1) for these in-
vestigations. The adults were placed,
usually in pairs, in small cages con-
taining a short bolt of freshly cut
spruce and some sugar solution. Adult

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department of
Fisheries and Forestry, Vernon, British Columbia.

activity, egg incubation, larval feed-
ing, construction of gallery and pupa-
tion were observed.

Observations

HOSTS: In the interior of British Co-
lumbia, this borer was most fre-
quently reared from Picea glauca
(Moench) Voss. It was also reared
from several samples of P. engel-
manni Parry and P. mariana (Mill.)
BSP. D. Evans (pers. comm.) reared
the species from Abies amabilis
(Dougl.). Forb. in coastal British Co-
lumbia.

DISTRIBUTION: In western Canada,
this transcontinental species extends
northward to Mile 24 Dawson Road,
Yukon Territory, south to Lumby in
the northeast Okanagan Valley, and
to Fernie in southeastern British Co-
lumbia (Fig. 5). Southern records are
from high elevations.

ADULT ACTIVITY: Collections of
perched adults from Yukon Territory
and northern British Columbia were
made between 27 June and 11 July.
Flight traps, set up near Prince
George in 1967, caught 11 adults be-
tween 16 June and 4 August, and in
1968 caught two adults, 6 June and 1
July. The emergence period of adults
from caged logs collected at northerly

11

J. Entomou. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

ME

NS

SSA

SOREN

SG WW ||) 005 . Fy a

Ys
6

GCJ_[EBEG

SS

in wood.

1€S

1, adult male; 2, two eggs under lifted

4, lead castings of larval galler

by

°
?

terum Kir
board

5
a.
oF
Es
=
£5
og
£°5
2 v&
|

3°)
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Oo
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wd
wg
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,
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oe
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12

J. ENtomMo.. Soc. Brit. CotumsiA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

007 A ZC ‘
TETROPIUM VELUTINUM @ ;

T, CINNAMopTeRUM & ? \

Fig. 5. Localities where Tetropium spp. have been collected in
British Columbia and Yukon Territory.

J. Byromot. Soc. Bair. CoLuMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969 13

points, and reared outdoors at Ver-
non, ranged from 13 May to 13 June
in 1967. Average longevity of 14 pairs
of caged adults was 12 days for males
and 13 days for females. One male
lived for 16 days and two females for
17. Copulation occurred on the day of
emergence and continued sporadic-
ally for 7 or 8 days. Oviposition began
4 to 8 days after emergence.

The capsule-shaped white eggs
(1.2x0.4mm) were inserted deeply be-
tween and under bark scales (Fig. 2)
on the bole. One female deposited 155
eges from 28 June to 8 July; her daily
ege production was: 17, 5, 17, 17, 27,
19, 13, 0, 30, 5 and 5, respectively.
INCUBATION: Eggs laid on 24 May,
1966 and kept at 70% humidity and
72°F hatched in 12 days. Two hundred
eggs laid during June 1967 and placed
in petri dishes in an unheated insec-
tary incubated in 8 to 16 days, with an
average period of 12 days.

LARVAL ACTIVITY: Newly hatched
larvae, placed in the bark of freshly
cut spruce bolts, bored into and fed
under the bark for about 8 weeks be-
fore burrowing into the xylem. At
that stage of development body
length ranged from 15 to 23 mm; head
capsule widths ranged from 3.33 to
3.83 mm.

The elliptical larval entrance holes
in the sapwood ranged from 5.0 x 2.5
to 7.0 x 3.0 mm. Galleries generally
were L-shaped (Fig. 4). Volumes of
the completed galleries in the xylem
of white spruce logs at Finlay River,
B.C., ranged from 0.23 to 1.46 cc, with
an average of 0.81 cc. Total lengths
of galleries in the wood ranged from
26 to 90 mm, with an average of 60.2
mm. Depth of penetration varied from
12 to 52 mm, with an average of 26
mm. Galleries were densely packed
behind the larvae with shreds of
wood and frass, finer than that of
Monochamus spp.

PUPATION: Duration of the pupal
stage at Vernon in June 1968 ranged
from 10 to 14 days.

GENERAL: The life cycle in most in-
stances took 1 year to complete al-
though a small proportion of some
broods spent two winters in the larval
Stage.

The maximum recorded number
of adult emergence holes in the bark
was 16/ ft?, in a white spruce log 68
cm in diameter at the large end, from
Finlay River.

Discussion
Tetropium cinnamopterum may
cause damage to at least the outer 52
mm of sapwood of spruce logs since
its galleries may penetrate to that
depth. Its habits are somewhat simi-
lar to those of the western larch borer,
T. velutinum LeConte (Ross, 1967),
except for the host, the spruce borer’s
more northerly and higher altitude
distribution (Fig. 5) and the resultant

phenological differences.

Since the adult emergence period
begins about the first or second week
of June in central British Columbia,
the insecticide lindane, when used on
logs (Ross and Geistlinger, 1968) to
kill adults or newly hatched larvae,
should be applied before the egg-lay-
ing period which would begin about
mid-June.

If this is not feasible, and since
eggs took a week or more to hatch and
larvae did not enter the wood until
they were at least 8 weeks old, peeling
of infested spring-felled logs before
the third week of August in central
British Columbia should prevent ma-
jor damage to them by Tetropium.

It is possible that Tetropium lar-
vae may enter the wood of winter-
felled spruce earlier than 8 weeks.

Acknowledgment
The authors are indebted to Dr. J. J.
Fettes and Mr. A. C. Molnar for suggested
improvements in the manuscript.

14 J. EXNTomMot. Soc. Brit. Corumre~ta, 66 (1969), Aue. 1, 1969

Literature Cited

Blatchley, W. S. 1910. An illustrated descriptive catalogue of the Coleoptera or beetles
known to occur in Indiana. The Nature Publishing Co., Indianapolis, Indiana.

1386 p.

Craighead, F. C. 1923. North American cerambycid larvae. Canada Dept. Agric. Bull.

27 N. S. (Technical), 226 p.

Richmond, H. A. and R. R. Lejeune. 1945. The deterioration of fire-killed white spruce
by wood-boring insects in Northern Saskatchewan. For. Chron. 21:168-192.

Ross, D. A. 1967. The western larch borer, Tetropium velutinum LeConte, in Interior
British Columbia. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia. 64:25-28.

Ross, D. A. and N. J. Geistlinger. 1968. Protecting larch logs from Tetropium velutinum
LeConte with lindane emulsion. J, Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia. 65:14-15.

INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES AND LIME COMBINED FOR
CONTROL OF CABBAGE MAGGOTS, CLUBROOT AND

WIRE STEM!

D. G. FINLAYSON and C. J. CAMPBELL

ABSTRACT

Insecticides alone or in combinations with lime, mercurous
chloride and quintozene were applied to peat and loam soils for control
of clubroot, Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor., and cabbage maggot,
Hylemya brassicae (Bouché), in cauliflower. The effects were assessed
by counting the emergent seedlings, by weighing the mature cauli-
flowers, and by uprooting plants at harvest and grading the maggot
damage and incidence of clubroot. Split applications, one at seeding
and one 30 days later with Birlane, Dasanit or carbofuran protected
cauliflower from maggot damage until harvest. Carbofuran allowed the
least maggot damage in both soils. Zinophos was comparatively effec-
tive in peat soil but not in sandy loam. The insecticides had no signifi-
cant effect on germination or clubroot. Quintozene gave satisfactory
protection from clubroot and wire stem in sandy loam and had the
lowest incidence of clubroot in peat soil. The fungicides had no effect
on maggot damage, nor did they appear to influence the insecticides,
No significant interactions were observed. The effect of the insecti-
cides and fungicides on yield was somewhat masked by over-seeding.

Introduction

Previous experiments (Finlayson
and Noble, 1966; Finlayson et al.,
1967; Freeman and Finlayson, 1968;
and Finlayson, 1969) have shown that
direct-seeded and transplanted cruci-
ferous crops can be protected from
maggot damage. However, fungicides
and insecticides applied together have
damaged crops (Finlayson, 1969 and
Ranney, 1964) and when herbicides

1 Contritution No. 161, Research Station, Re-
search Branch, Canada Agriculture, 6660 N.W.
Marine Drive, Vancouver 8, British Columbia.

and insecticides were applied to the
same area Significant reductions in
yields of cabbage were recorded
(Freeman and Finlayson, 1968). With
the increasing cost of labor, a method
for direct-seeding of stem crucifers is
needed but this practice requires me-
thods for controlling cabbage maggot
(Hylemya brassicae (Bouche)) and
wire stem (Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn.)
in the young seedlings and clubroot
(Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor.)
throughout the growing season. Fur-
thermore, methods and rates for

|

a
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J. Extomo.. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969 15

applying herbicides must be develop-
ed to eliminate the need for hand-
weeding.

Experiments were designed to de-
termine if fungicides could be applied
to reduce the amount of wire stem
and clubroot infection but not inter-
fere with the action of insecticides on
the cabbage maggot. This paper re-
ports investigations with insecticides
and fungicides with and without lime,
on sandy loam and peat soil in Bri-
tish Columbia.

Materials and Methods

The insecticides, Birlane, Dasanit,
diazinon, Furadan (carbofuran) and
Zinophos were Selected because of
their effectivness and current or
pending registration for use against
cabbage maggot. Lime was used he-
cause there was a long-standing re-
commendation to produce a basic soil
condition and thus reduce clubroot
infection. The fungicides, mercurous
chloride (calomel) and quintozene
were selected because they are recom-
mended, among other places, in Great
Britain (United Kingdom Ministry of
Agriculture, 1965), British Columbia
(British Columbia Department of
Agriculture, 1968), and Ontario (On-
tario Department of Agriculture and
Food, 1968) respectively. Quintozene
has the added characteristic of reduc-
ing wire stem. Cauliflower, var. Snow-
ball, was used because it is very sus-
ceptible to attack by maggots and to
infection with clubroot and wire stem.
Common names for pesticides are
used in the text, but where these have
not been assigned, registered names
are used.

The experiment was replicated
four times in sandy loam at Abbots-
ford and another four times in peat
soil at Victoria. Each replicate was
divided into six blocks representing
the fungicide-lime treatments, and
each of these blocks was further div-

ided into six sub-plots representing
the insecticide treatments. The blocks
were treated as follows: untreated;
lime; calomel; calomel with lime;
quintozene; and quintozene with lime.
The lime, at 1500 lb/acre (1680 kg,
hectare), was broadcast and disked
into the soil approximately four weeks
before seeding. At Abbotsford the
lime was applied to the 12 blocks and
randomized with three in each repli-
cate. At Victoria high winds were such
that the lime was applied to one half
of the site, or 12 blocks. Calomel at 4
lb (4.5 Kg/hectare) and quintozene at
60 lb (67.2 kg /hectare) per acre were
broadcast and disked into the soil sev-
eral days before seeding. Each of the
insecticide sub-plots was a 25-foot
row (7.6 m). The insecticides were ap-
plied as granules with a shaker at 2
oz (56.7 g) toxicant per 1000 ft
(305 m) in a4 inch band (10 cm) over
the seeded row, and raked gently into
the top inch (2.5 cm) of soil. The in-
secticides were reapplied as drenches
of 2 oz (56.7 g) toxicant per 1000 ft
(305 m) of row in 7 gal (31.8 liters),
30 days later to wet the plants and 3
inches (7.6 cm) on each side of the
row.

The effects of the treatments were
assessed by counting the emergent
seedlings 20 days after seeding, by
weighing the mature cauliflowers,
and by uprooting 10 plants at harvest
in each sub-plot and grading the inci-
dence of both maggot damage and
clubroot. The roots were graded as
follows: no damage or clubroot, 0:
light, 1; moderate, 2; severe, 3; very
severe, 4.

The grades of maggot damage or
clubroot for each plant were added to
determine the sub-plot totals. These
figures were then expressed as per-
centages of the maximum that could
occur.

The data were coded and key-

16 J. Enromo.. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

punched, the analyses of variance
calculated on a computer, and the re-
sults compared by Duncan’s multiple
range test (Duncan, 1955).
Results and Discussions

Germination

The average number of emergent
seedlings in 25 feet of row for the in-
secticides ranged from 110 to 116 in
peat and 107 to 116 in loam. There
were no significant differences. How-
ever, when the number of seedlings
was averaged within blocks for the
fungicide-lime treatments the differ-
ences were Significant at both loca-
tions. In peat they ranged from 103
seedlings with calomel to 121 with
lime. The treatments with lime plus
quintozene and lime alone had signi-
ficantly more seedlings than the 110
in the untreated block. In loam the
range was 106 seedlings with calomel

plus lime to 125 where only quinto-
zene was applied. The untreated block
averaged 112 seedlings. The calomel
plus lime block had significantly less
seedlings than the quintozene-treated
block, which had significantly more
seedlings than the block receiving no
treatments for diseases.
Clubroot

In the sandy clay loam the per-
centage incidence of clubroot ranged
from 8.8 to 10.0 for the insecticide
treatments, and 25.8 in the plots
where no lime, fungicides or insecti-
cides were applied. When averaged
across the blocKs where insecticides
were applied, but no lime or fungi-
cides, the amount of clubroot was
20.5% (Table 1). The insecticides had
no effect on the incidence of clubroot
infection. Although the incidence of
clubroot was considerably higher in

TABLE 1—Average percentage of clubroot in cauliflower after various treatments in
two types of soil, 1968.

Percentage of clubroot*

Treatment Peat Soil Sandy Clay Loam
Untreated 74.5 ab 20.5 ¢
Lime 72.3 ab 7.3 ab
Calomel 74.5 ab 7.8 ab
Calomel and Lime 76.8 ab 13.8 be
Quintozene 63.5 a 25a
Quintozene and Lime 89.0 c 48a

* Values followed by same letter are not significantly different at 5% level (Duncan, 1955).

the peat soil the insecticides did not
affect the action of the fungicides nor
did they lessen the amount of club-
root. Table 1 shows the effects of lime
and fungicides on clubroot. Quinto-
zene was the most effective fungicide.

Maggot Damage

In both soils carbofuran had the
least maggot damage regardless of
the addition of lime or fungicides
(Table 2), but in the clay loam it was
not significantly better than Birlane
or Dasanit. In the peat soil carbo-
furan was closely followed by Zino-
phos, Dasanit and Birlane. Diazinon
was only slightly better than no treat-
ment at all. It is interesting to note

that Zinophos gave consistently bet-
ter protection from maggot damage
in the peat soil than in the sandy
loam, regardless of the addition of the
other chemicals.
Yield

In the sandy loam the effects of
maggot and clubroot control are re-
flected by increased yields (Table 3).
Blocks treated to reduce clubroot pro-
duced significantly higher yields than
those untreated. For the insecticides
the pattern was less definite. How-
ever, the two most effective insecti-
cides gave yields which were signific-
antly better than those with no
insecticides.

J. ENToMOL. Soc. Brit. Corwmsta, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

17

TABLE 2—Average percentage maggot damage after various treatments to control club-
root infection and maggot damage to cauliflower in two types of soil, 1968*.

Treatment o
su wn 5
Insecticides @ S * S 2 + ©,
S (o) qc =| 2, rab) (3s)
aoe & = 3 eS i) = fn
Fungicides = = 2 Ss EI = S
af) oO a A N =) <x
Peat Soil
Untreated 21.3 3.8 11.3 58.3 10.0 53.3 26.3 a
Lime 10.8 7.0 10.8 37.0 (Es) 43.8 19.5 a
Calomel 15.0 3.0 13.3 48.8 15.0 65.0 27.0 a
Calomel and Lime 12.0 8.8 12.9 30.8 12.5 43.3 20.0 a
Quintozene 8.3 6.3 15.0 49.5 9.5 61.3 25.0 a
Quintozene and Lime 10.8 6.3 8.3 37.0 11.3 52.0 20.8 a
Average 13.0c 638d 118cd 43.5b 11.0cd 53.0a
Sandy Clay Loam
Untreated 5.8 15.8 7.0 42.0 35.8 53.8 26.5 a
Lime 3.8 5.0 15.0 50.0 34.5 43.8 25.3 a
Calomel 6.3 3.3 8.3 38.8 20.0 42.5 198 a
Calomel and Lime 15.0 9.5 10.0 47.0 34.5 55.8 28.5 a
Quintozene 10.0 20 3.8 35.8 29.5 56.3 23.0 a
Quintozene and Lime 5.0 5. 15.8 52.9 43.8 55.8 29.5 a
Average 79c 68c 100c 443a 330b 513a

* Values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level
(Duncan, 1955).

In the peat soil the results were
not so clear. Quintozene had the
highest yield but not significantly

TABLE 3—Average yield of cauliflower, kg/7.6m (25 feet), after various treatments for

Treatment

Fungicides

Peat Soil

Untreated
Lime
Calomel

Calomel and Lime

Quintozene

Quintozene and Lime

Average

greater than no treatment. The effect
of treating one half of the site with
lime because of the wind and leaving

clubroot and maggot damage in two types of soil, 1968*.

Insecticides

Birlane
Carbofuran

—_
—

Dasanit

Diazinon

—_

MP) IO DONO
we © Ory ip iB OO
Mi ASAHOIWO
D en iP to 700 0

Sandy Clay Loam

Untreated
Lime
Calomel

Calomel and Lime

Quintozene

Quintozene and Lime

Average

10.

00S 09 09 ~ID
CWwWNOP OUI

sa Slat Cc
BIONNDOU

be)

OxIIIOT
o> o> E>) 0?) Bau

CO} r+ SIO 1
CO] ® PB O1F CO

COO OOD
awoeod

8.

Zinophos

Untreated

="

| oe SiG
CO) C1 > G> GH OO

OO 2
© iP O16 00

7.

eS Cet
Plwwoeuhs

COD
© C1 © 6 bo

9.

83a 88a

7.4ab 8.0 ab

7.8 ab_

6.7b

Average

DS 60 60
© ots 100 O
paoavM oH
= mon

Soon
D DW ONS

SPHaepH po

* Values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level

(Duncan, 1955).

18 J. ExtomMon. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

the other half untreated showed up
in the clubroot appraisal and is re-
flected in the yield. Although club-
root was serious on both halves of the
site, the side treated with lime aver-
aged 10% more clubroot than the side
without lime. This difference was one
of two contributing factors which re-
sulted in the untreated sub-plot yield
averaging 9.2 kg. It is even more ap-
parent when the average yield for the
limed and unlimed sides are compar-
ed. The average yield for the un-
limed side, where the soil appeared
less infective, was 9.7 Kg, whereas the
limed side averaged only 6.7. Differ-
ences between yields for the insecti-
cides were not significant.

The second factor was over-seed-
ing. The insecticides had little effect
on yield because over-seeding in both
soils produced on the average 113
emergent seedlings in peat soil and
114 in the sandy loam. When these
were thinned to approximately 30

plants per sub-plot, the healthy, best
jooking plants were left and the
weaker ones were pulled; thus at 4
weeks untreated plots still had ap-
proximately the same number of
plants as treated plots. A count of
seedlings pulled at thinning in sandy
loam, revealed the relationship of
maggoty-plants and plants with wire
stem as follows:
Maggoty-Plants

Birlane.. 3 Diazinon: = 7
Carbofuran.... 4 Zinophos........ 9
Dasanil <2 23 13. Untreated...... 128
Wire Stem

Untreated...... 74 Calomel
Calomel.......... 57 and lime.... 32
Quintozene.... 24 Quintozene

LMC 2s. ee 52 and lime.... 18

By leaving healthy plants it ap-
pears that when the second genera-
tion of maggots attacked the cauli-
flower, the plants were big enough to
produce a head in spite of the mag-
gots.

References
British Columbia Department of Agriculture. 1968. Vegetable and field crop pests and
diseases control recommendations. Victoria, British Columbia. 25 pp.
Duncan, D. B. 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics 11:1-42.

Finlayson, D. G. 1969. Effectiveness and compatibility of fungicides, insecticides, and
starter solutions applied jointly to caulifliwer. Can. J. Plant Sci. 49:39-47.

Finlayson, D. G., and M. D. Noble.

1966. Cyclodiene-resistant cabbage maggots and

rutabaga production in sandy loam and peat soils, Can. J. Plant Sci. 46:459-467.

Finlayson, D. G., M. D. Noble and H. G. Fulton. 1967. Protection of stem crucifers from
cyclodiene-resistant maggots in sandy loam and peat soils. J. Econ. Entomol.

60: 132-137.

Freeman, J. A., and D. G. Finlayson. 1968. Evidence of incompatibility between a herbi-
cide and insecticides in direct-seeded cabbage. Can. J. Plant Sci. 48:415-416.

Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food. 1968. Vegetable production recommen-
dations. Publ. 363, Toronto, Ontario. 47 pp.

Ranney, C. D. 1964. A deleterious interaction between a fungicide and systemic insecti-
cides. Information Sheet 842, Mississippi State University, Delta Branch Exp.

Station, Stoneville, Mississippi.

United Kingdom Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. 1965. Chemicals for the
gardener for control of plant pests, diseases and weeds. Her Majesty’s Stationery

Office, London. 35 pp.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969 19

SYRPHIDAE COLLECTED MOSTLY IN SOUTHERN AREAS
OF THE OKANAGAN VALLEY, BRITISH COLUMBIA

D. A. ALLAN!

ABSTRACT

A list of 39 species of adult Syrphidae in 18 genera is presented
with their hosts and month of capture. The specimens were collected
in 1967 and 1968, mostly in the vicinity of Oliver, Osoyoos, and Mt.
Kobau in the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia.

Increased interest in the biological
control of orchard insects and mites
in recent years has focused attention
on the potential value of the Syrphi-
dae as predators. Most of the species
frequent flowers and feed on nectar
and pollen so that many have a dual
role as pollinators. Most of our Know-
ledge of the Syrphidae of British
Columbia is due to the efforts of R.C.
Osburn. His first list (1904) contained
about 80 species and his second (1907)
more than 125. Subsequently, Ander-
son (1915) listed 7 species from the
Atlin district, Venables (1929) 3 spe-
cies from the OKanagan Valley, Foster
(1943) 4 species from Vancouver, and
Foxlee (1957) 65 species from Robson.

A survey of the Syrphidae in the

1 British Columbia Department of Agriculture,
Oliver, British Columbia.

Okanagan Valley was begun in 1967
and continued in 1968 to determine
the species that, in future work, might
prove promising as predators and
pollinators. Most of the collections
were made in southern areas of the
Valley near the International Boun-
dary in the vicinity of Oliver, Osoyoos,
and Mt. Kobau. Oliver and Osoyoos
are Situated in the Valley at about
1,000 feet (305m) above sea level; Mt.
Kobau lies just to the northwest of
Osoyoos at an altitude of about 6150
feet (1,876m).

Dr. J. R. Vockeroth, Entomology
Research Institute, Canada Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ontario,
identified the specimens. Thirty-nine
species in 18 genera have been collec-
ted so far. These are listed alphabet-
ically below.

References

Anderson, E. M. 1915. Insects recorded in the Atlin District (Northern British Columbia)
during the summer of 1914. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 6: 122-132.

Foster, R. E. 1943. Insects active throughout the winter at Vancouver, B.C. Part II:
Lists of the Orthoptera, Dermaptera, Homoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, and
Hymenoptera. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 40: 32-34.

Foxlee, H. R. 1957. Diptera taken at Robson, B.C. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia

53:34-39.

Osburn, R. C. 1904. The Diptera of British Columbia. Second part — The Syrphidae.

Can. Entomol. 36:23-220.

Osburn, R. C. 1907. The Syrphidae of British Columbia. Bull. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Col-

bia 8:1-3.

Venables, E. P. 1929. Observations on the woolly aphis of the apple Eriosoma lanigerum
Hausm). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 26:28-33.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

20

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21

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J. En'romon. Soc,

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22 J. Enromon, Soc. Brrr. Conumara, 66 (1969), Ava. 1, 1969

REARING THE DOUGLAS-FIR CONE MOTH, BARBARA
COLFAXIANA (KEARFOTT), ON AN ARTIFICIAL DIET
IN THE LABORATORY

D. S. RutH and A. F. HEDLIN!

ABSTRACT
The Douglas-fir cone moth, Barbara colfaxiana (Kearfott), can
be reared satisfactorily in the laboratory. Methods for handling all
stages and rearing larvae on a wheat germ diet are described.

Introduction

Under natural field conditions
adults of the Douglas-fir cone moth,
Barbara colfaxiana (Kearfott) (Le-
pidoptera: Olethreutidae) emerge in
the spring when Douglas fir is flower-
ing. The female deposits her eggs on
the exposed portion of the cone bract.
The eggs hatch in 2 to 3 weeks, and
the larvae commence tunneling into
the cone. Upon reaching the center
they feed on the cone scales and
seeds. By mid-July the insect has
finished feeding and pupates adjacent
to the cone axis.

In years when there are few cones
many pupae remain in prolonged dia-
pause for a year or more. In an at-
tempt to obtain more information on
conditions initiating diapause, B.
colfaxiana larvae were reared in the
laboratory. An artificial diet was ne-
cessary since the insects’ natural
food, immature Douglas-fir cones,
cannot be maintained at rearing tem-
peratures in condition suitable for
the larvae, particularly in first and
second instar. Use of an artificial me-
dium allows rearing of several gen-
erations per year. .

Little information is available
concerning the rearing of cone in-
sects in the laboratory. Ebel (1959)
developed a technique for rearing
Dioryctria abietella Denis and Schif-
fermuller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
in the laboratory with host cones.
Artificial nutrient medium was used
by Barras and Norris (1965) for rear-
ing another olethreutrid, Eucosma

1 Forest Research, Dept. Fisheries and Forestry,
Victoria, B.C.

sp., from cones of Pinus resinosa
Aiton, and Hedlin (1964) reared three
species of cone insects, B. colfaxiana,
Laspeyresia youngana (Kft.) and L.
piperana (Kft.) on an artificial diet.
This paper discusses in further detail
the technique for B. colfaxiana.

Rearing Methods

Adult moths are obtained from
infested Douglas-fir cones collected
the previous year. Cones are stored
outside until March, and then moved
to a refrigerator and held at 32° F
until moths are required. The cones
are placed in screen cages at room
temperature and emergence com-
mences in 4 to 5 days. Twenty males
and 20 females are placed in oviposi-
tion cages in an outdoor shade house
to obtain field conditions for mating
and oviposition. Under natural condi-
tions mating takes place at dusk when
temperature is between 50 and 65° F.

Other designs of oviposition cages
were tried, but the drum-shaped cage
(Fig. 1) was superior (Knott et al.,
1966). When cages were placed on
their sides moths laid eggs at random
across the upper inner surface (Fig.
2). When the eggs are nearing eclo-
sion, determined by their orange color
and visible black larval head cap-
sules, the wax paper is removed.
Small sections of wax paper with eggs
are placed in a one-gallon jar with a
wax paper lid. Development is ob-
served and larvae transferred to me-
dium soon after hatching, thus re-
ducing mortality. Moistened cloth
placed in the jar prevents egg shells

J. Bxromor. Soc. Brrr. CorumstA, 66 (1969), Aue. 1, 1969 23

Figs. 1-6. Barbara colfaxiana (Kft.) (1) Oviposition cage. (2) Eggs on inner surface of
cage. (3) Fourth instar larva feeding on medium. (4) Pupa. (5) Cocoon in cotton plug.
(6) Cocoon against base of vial.

24 J. ENTOMOL, Soc. Brrr. CoLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Auae. 1, 1969

from becoming hard and hindering
larval emergence.

The artificial diet is the same as
that used by McMorran (1965) for
spruce budworm. When the wheat
germ medium has been mixed and is
still liquid, it is poured into 344-inch
square plastic trays which may be
refrigerated until ready for use.
These are stored upside down to pre-
vent moisture collecting on the sur-
face of the medium. When cooled and
solidified, some of the medium is cut
into squares, which are placed in-
dividually in the bottom of Sterile
one-dram vials. The vials are plugged
with non-absorbent cotton and re-
frigerated.

In establishing larvae on the Mc-
Morran medium, a hole is punched
into the block of medium and the
larva placed inside to facilitate feed-
ing. Extreme care must be exercised
when establishing larvae to ensure
that they are able to move freely. If
stuck to the medium, they are unable
to feed and soon die. The vial is stored
with the plug down until the second
instar, since larvae have a tendency
to move upward and become en-
tangled in the cotton plug. If first
instar larvae are reared individually,
the tendency to move upward is con-
siderably reduced and vials may be
stored upright. During the first in-
star two larvae may be placed in one
vial but, because of cannibalistic
tendencies which become more pro-
nounced as the insect develops, larvae
must be reared individually after the
second instar.

Early larval growth is rapid. Ob-
servations made daily ensure that the
medium does not become dry and
trap the larva feeding in the block.
Rearing at temperatures of 80° F and
higher, the medium must be replaced
every second or third day, particu-

1 Proverbs, M.D. Personal communication, Ento-
mology Laboratory, Summerland, B.C.

larly when insects are small. The
second-instar larva is in less danger
of becoming trapped in or on the me-
dium. Prior to each moult the larva
spins a delicate protective case in or
beside the block of medium and
should not be disturbed at this stage
unless there is danger of the larva
becoming trapped within the medium
as it hardens.

When the larva has reached the
fourth and final instar, the vial is
placed on its side and the block of
medium moved to the center (Fig. 3).
If vials are stored upright the larva
has insufficient space between the vial
and the block of medium in which to
pupate. Some larvae will pupate with-
out spinning cocoons, others spin
against the side of the vial or on the
cotton plug (Fig. 4-6).

Naked pupae are stored individu-
ally in gelatin capsules to give pro-
tection against mites and drying. The
pupa is placed on absorbent cotton to
prevent adherence to the side of the
capsule should the capsule become
damp.

At the Summerland Entomological
Laboratory, a medium which consists
mainly of sawdust and whole wheat
flour is being used for the mass
rearing of codling moth larvae.!
The Douglas-fir cone moth belongs
to the same family (Olethreutidae)
and has similar feeding habits so it
was thought that larvae might adapt
to similar rearing techniques. How-
ever, at the temperatures in which
some of cur rearing was done, many
first-instar larvae became trapped in
the excess moisture which collected
on the sides of the container and sur-
face of the medium. Even when the
larvae reached second instar, losses
due to cannibalism were high.

Discussion

Difficulties associated with rearing
the Douglas-fir cone moth in the

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumBrA, 66 (1969), Aue. 1, 1969 26

laboratory are numerous. Since some
female moths do not oviposit well in
cages, a large number of moths must
be reared to obtain a good population
of larvae. Mortality is high in the
larval stage, particularly in the first
instar. The small larvae are unable
to free themselves from the moist
surface of the medium. At higher
temperatures the medium dries and
shrinks rapidly; young larvae are un-
able to feed and those tunneling in-
side the medium become entrapped
and die. Insects will not survive if
allowed to pupate beside or inside a
block due to its shrinkage. Because

of these problems, considerable time
and labor are required to rear an ap-
preciable number of insects from egg
to pupa. An optimum rearing tem-
perature is about 75° F., but even un-
der good rearing conditions only
about 30% of the larvae obtained
from eggs can be reared through to
the pupal stage. However, our tech-
nique does allow the rearing of an
insect of specialized feeding habits,
under completely artificial conditions.

Acknowledgments

We thank D. Evans and L. H. McMullen,
Forest Research Laboratory, for helpful
criticism of the manuscript.

References

Barras, S. J. and D. M. Norris, Jr. 1965. In Vitro Establishment and Development of
Eucosma sp. Larvae from Cones of Pinus resinosa on an Artificial Nutrient
Medium. J. Econ. Ent. 58(5):1033-1034.

Ebel, B. H. 1959. Laboratory rearing of a pine cone insect, Dioryctria abietella (D. and S.)

J. Econ. Ent. 52:261-264.

Hedlin, A. F. 1960. On the Life History of the Douglas-fir Cone Moth, Barbara colfaxiana
(Kft.) (Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae), and one of its Parasites, Glypta evetriae
Cush. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) Can. Ent. 92:826-834.

Hedlin, A. F. 1965. Rearing Cone Insects in the Laboratory on an Artificial Diet. Can.
Dept. of Forestry, Bi-mon. Prog. Rpt. 21(3):4.

Knott, Crawford M., F. R. Lawson, James M. Hobgood, Jr., 1966. Oviposition Cage for
the Tobacco Budworm and the Corn Earworm. Jour. Econ. Ent. 59:1290.
McMorran, A. 1965. A Synthetic Diet for the Spruce Budworm Choristoneura fumifer-

ana (Clem.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Can. Ent. 97:58-62.

BRACHYCORYNA HARDYI CROTCH AND MICRORHOPALA
CYANEA (SAY), TWO HISPINAE RARE IN BRITISH
COLUMBIA (COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE)

JAMES GRANT!

On 12 July, 1958, I collected two
chrysomelid pupae in small blotch
mines in leaves of Ceanothus sangu-
ineus Pursh near Wynndel, B.C. An
adult which emerged 24 July, 1958, was
identified as Brachycoryna hardyi
Crotch by W. J. Brown of the Entomo-
logy Research Institute, Ottawa, who
noted that there were no Canadian
specimens in the Canadian National
Collection.

An adult of the dark blue chryso-
melid Microrhopala cyanea (Say) was
collected 20 July 1958, on the open
slopes north of St. Mary River at St.

Eugene Mission near Cranbrook, B.C.,
by sweeping miscellaneous ground
cover. Two more adults were collected
at the same locality 22 July 1959, on
golden aster, Chrysopsis villosa
(Pursh) Nutt. W. J. Brown supplied
the determination. Chrysopsis is prob-
ably the host for this species, as an
empty, inflated mine found on a leaf
in this vicinity closely resembled those
formed by larvae of other members of
the genus in leaves of Aster and Soli-
dago.

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, Department of
Fisheries and Forestry, Vernon, British Columbia.

26 J. Entomorn, Soc. BRit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATION OF LIGHT TO
THE DROPPING OF THE TICK
IXODES TEXANUS BANKS

P. G. E. DARLING!

ABSTRACT

Six ferrets were infested with large numbers of nymphs or
larvae of the tick Ixodes texanus Banks. The animals were caged
separately and subjected to various regimes of continuous light and
darkness, from 9 days to 5, 4, and 2 days, and normal photoperiods.
Nearly all the engorged ticks dropped from the hosts in the dark.

Introduction

When lights were unavoidably left
on continuously for six days in a room
where adult ticks, Ixodes texranus
Banks, were feeding on a ferret, none
detached itself. Previously four fe-
males had done so. In the 24 hrs. fol-
lowing a return to the normal photo-
period the remaining nine females
dropped from their host. To supple-
ment this observation tests were set
up using larvae and nymphs of I.
texranus.

Materials and Methods

Two ferrets (A & B) were infested
with large numbers of larvae of I. tex-
anus and placed in cloth covered cages
(Kohls, 1937) under continuous arti-
ficial light. Three days later first one
and later the other of these cages
was enveloped in a black plastic cover
(Table 1). At the end of each day
when the ferrets were fed and the
cloth bags were changed, the ticks
that had dropped from their respec-
tive hosts were counted.

Next, two ferrets (C & D) were in-
fested with 100 nymphs each and
caged so as to eliminate differences re-
sulting from different humidity. Both
cages were covered with plastic, one
clear and the other black, having
light-tight baffles in the ventilation
tubes. Both cages were left under con-
tinuous light, and the covers on the

1 Research Station, Canada Agriculture, Box

210, Kamloops, B.C.

cages were interchanged four times
at daily then at two-daily intervals
(Table 1).

Finally, to minimize the possibility
of leakage or sudden intrusion of light
during feeding and changing the
bags, a third experiment was set up.
Two ferrets (E & F) were infested
with larvae, caged uniformly as be-
fore, and one of them was kept in a
photographic dark room. Each even-
ing for 10 days its infesting bag was
changed in total darkness, then
examined in the light.

Results

Table 1 shows the changes that
were made from darkness to light,
and to normal photoperiod, with the
numbers of ticks collected.

Ferrets A & B showed a clear pat-
tern of a heavy drop of ticks in con-
tinuous darkness and in alternating
light and darkness, but few dropped
in continuous light.

Nearly all the ticks dropped from
ferrets C & D in darkness rather than
in the light.

From ferret E, 95% of the ticks
dropped in darkness and from ferret
F 80%, even following 14 days of con-
tinuous light.

Discussion
The effects of light on the engor-
gement and dropping of ticks have
been observed by others, and also the

J. Entomor. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969 27

TABLE 1. Numbers of nymphs and larvae of the tick Ixedes texanus dropping from
ferrets caged separately and subjected to light (no underline), darkness (black under-
line), and normal photoperiod (dotted underline).

Days after infestation

Ferret no. 3 4 5 6 7 #8 9 10 11 12 13 14 + Total
A 1 7 8B 8 159 191 90 88 77 3 421 65 1113
B 244 309 121 37 183 2 1 0 6 6 306 36 1081
c 0 4 #413 O 15 8 0 0 38 83
D Sue Oh a0) 1 0 11 sh 0 0 0 89
E 3 92 193 71 45 28 12 22* 8** 15 0 0 419
F 0 0 0 0 1 #1 4 16* 17** 1388 6 2 185

*Days 10 to 12
**Days 13 to 14

effect of the host’s movement. Hooker
(1908) noted that whereas fowl ticks
drop during the night, rabbit ticks
drop during the day, when the respec-
tive hosts are resting. Balashov
(1954) found that the daily rhythm of
dropping of engorged female Ixodes
persulcatus from cattle appeared to
be related to the host’s activity. While
the host was at rest in the barn, the
ticks fed; while moving in the pas-
ture, they dropped. Kheisin and Lav-
renenko (1956) also observed many
engorged I. ricinus on cattle in the
morning, but few in the evening.
Those noted in the evening did not
drop at night if the cows remained
in the cattle-yard, but fell off during
the day in the pastures. If the routine
was reversed so that the cattle rested
during the day, the ticks would drop
in the pasture at night, again sug-
gesting that the host’s activity was
the cause of release.

Kitaoka (1962) found that Haema-
physalis bispinosa infesting cattle fed
actively around midnight and drop-
ped in the morning, regardless of the
host’s activity. In this case, dropping
was caused by the stimulus of light,
hence it was supposed that the prim-

ary factor controlling feeding and
dropping was the rhythmic 24-hour
change between darkness and light.
George (1963) demonstrated in the
rabbit tick the existence of a circa-
dian rhythm which could be entrain-
ed by a 24-hour light cycle. In the ab-
sence of a light cycle this rhythm
could be altered by changing the
feeding time of the host.

From the foregoing, it seems evi-
dent that different factors govern re-
lease from the host, according to the
species of tick. It appears that ticks
are adapted to survive by dropping in
places where they will best be able to
attach later to fresh hosts. Rabbit
ticks drop chiefly in the daytime
when the rabbits are lying in much
frequented forms (George, 1963),
whereas adults of Ixodes cattle ticks
are scattered in the pasture where
their progeny may encounter rodent
hosts. The observations recorded here
suggest that, since the feeding and
dropping of J. teranus may be con-
trolled by the presence or absence of
light, this tick is probably adapted to
drop in the confined space of the dark
holes where its hosts, the weasels,
spend their resting hours.

28 J. En romon, Soc. Brit. CoLumstA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

References

Balashov, Y. S. 1954. Peculiarities of the daily rhythm of dropping of engorged female
Ixodes persulcatus from cattle. Dokl. Akad. Nauk. USSR (N.S.) 98(2):317-319

George, J. E. 1963. The circadian rhythm of “drop-off” of engorged Haemaphysalis
leporispalustris from rabbits. Acarologia, fasc. h.s. 1964, pp. 343-349 (C. R.
1st Congr. Int. d’Acarologie, Fort Collins, Col., U.S.A. 1963).

Hooker, W. A. 1908. Life history, habits and methods of study of the Ixodoidea.

J. Econ. Entomol. 1:34-51.

Kheisin, E. M. and L. E. Lavrenenko. 1956. Duration of blood-sucking and diurnal
rhythm of nutrition and dropping of females of Ixodes ricinus L. Zool. Zh
35(3):379-383. (Translated from Russian).

Kitaoka, S. 1962. Physiological and ecological studies on some ticks. VIII. Diurnal and
nocturnal changes in feeding activity during the blood-sucking process of
Haemaphysalis bispinosa. Nat. Inst. Anim. Hlth. Quart. 2(2):106-111

Kohls, G. M. 1937. Tick rearing methods with special reference to the Rocky Mountain
wood tick, Dermacentor andersoni Stiles. Culture methods for invertebrate
animals. Cornell Univ. Press (Comstock) Ithaca, N.Y.

SCIENTIFIC NOTE
THE IDENTITY OF THE BLACK-WIDOW SPIDER
IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

For many years the black-widow
spider throughout North America was
thought to be Latrodectus mactans
(Fabr.). Spiders of this worldwide
genus are extremely variable, and
both characters and ranges overlap
in many cases. It has, therefore, been
difficult to establish the correct iden-
tity of its members in many localities,
including our own. In 1961, Spencer
reported on a study by Levi which
placed our northwestern specimens

under L. curacaviensis (Muller).

This note is to report that Kaston
(1968) after rearing cultures from all
over North America, including British
Columbia, has concluded that the
black-widow of Western Canada and
the Pacific States must be called
L. hesperus Chamberlain & Ivie
(1935), an opinion in which Dr. W. J.
Gertsch of the American Museum of
Natural History concurs.

References
Kaston, B. J. Remarks on black-widow spiders, with an account of some anomalies.

Ent. News 79(5):113-124, 1968.

Levi, H. W. The spider genus Latrodectus (Araneae, Theridiidae). Trans. Ameri. Micros.

Soc. 78:7-42, 1959.

Spencer, G. J. The identity of the black-widow spider in British Columbia. Proc. Entomol.

Soc. Brit. Columbia 58:36-37, 1961.

L. C. CURTIS
Research Station,

Kamloops, B.C.

J. Enromo.n. Soc. Brir. ConumeBra, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969 29

FAT CONTENT OF THE AMBROSIA BEETLE,
TRYPODENDRON LINEATUM (OLIV.) DURING ATTACK
AND BROOD PRODUCTION
W. W. NIJHOLT'!

ABSTRACT

After emergence from hibernation the ambrosia beetle, Trypo-
dendron lineatum (Oliv.), flies to attractive host material where it
arrives with about one-half the fat it had at the start of hibernation.
Analyses of beetles during attack and brood production showed a
steady increase in the fat content of males, starting 5 days after the
attack. The fat content of the females declined in the first 5 days, then
maintained this level for about 1 week after which it rapidly increased.

Introduction

An important phase in the life
cycle of the ambrosia beetle, Trypo-
dendron lineatum (Oliv.), is the
period after emergence from hiberna-
tion when the beetles fly and search
for attractive host material in which
new brood can be established (Prebble
and Graham, 1957). The beetles use
about one quarter of their fat in over-
wintering and a similar amount in the
spring flight (Nijholt, 1967). This
leaves about one-half of their original
fat deposits when they start excavat-
ing galleries. This report deals with
the fat content of beetles during at-
tack and brood production and com-
pletes our understanding of changes
during a 1-year cycle of adult activity.

Methods and Materials

The studies were carried out near
Cowichan Lake, B.C. where, in April
1967, several ‘“‘greenhouse” cages con-
taining Douglas-fir logs which had
been felled in Dec. 1966, provided at-
tractant sources for Trypodendron
(Chapman, 1966). Window flight
traps (Nijholt and Chapman, 1968)
were mounted on the cages to catch
beetles alive during flight periods.
Unattacked, equally attractive logs
were exposed for 1 day during heavy
flights, and samples were taken of
beetles crawling on them and in flight
at that time. Beetles were dug from

1 Forest Research, Dept. Fisheries and Forestry,
Victoria, B.C.

the logs at intervals during the fol-
lowing 3 weeks. All were oven dried
and the fat content of groups of about
50 individuals was determined by Sox-
hlet extraction with petroleum ether
(Nijholt, 1965).

Results and Discussion

When beetles arrive on an attrac-
tive log they crawl for a short time,
presumably in search of a suitable
spot to start excavating a gallery.
After mating, the females dig the
brood gallery and lay eggs while the
males clear the boring dust from the
gallery. In a few individuals the fat
supply appeared to be completely de-
pleted in the first few days after the
attack. It is possible that non-ether-
soluble components such as carbohy-
drates are then used as an energy
source. However, the averaged re-
sults do not indicate a significant
drop in the fat free dry weight during
this period, because of the small num-
ber of beetles involved.

The proportion of fat in beetles
caught during flight corresponds to
that measured in the previous year
(Nijholt, 1967). The percentage fat of
total dry weight clearly indicates a
sex difference in fat changes (Fig. 1).
Student’s t values showed significant
differences in the first sample, and in
those at 12, 13 and 21 days (1%
level).

30 J. ENromMon. Soc. Brit. CoLumnta, 66 (1969), Aue. 1, 1969

emOem FEMALES
es@eam MALES

TRAPPED 2 JUN: 67
CRAWLING ON LOGS
ENTERED BARK
ENTERED SAPWOOD

% FAT ON DRY WEIGHT

ENTERED SAPWOOD 20mm.

0 4 8 12 16 20 24
TIME IN DAYS

Fig. 1. Average percentage fat of dry weight in samples of 50 Trypodendron lineatum
(Oliv.) during flight period and excavating activities.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumBtiA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969 31

Under the conditions of this ex-
periment, the males steadily increas-
ed their fat content after about 5
days from attack to a three-fold level
after 3 weeks. The females, needing
more energy than the males for ex-
cavating and ovipositing, depleted
their fat reserves by one-half during
the first 5 days and then maintained
this level during the next week, when
they probably balanced the need for
energy by feeding on fungus. Their
fat content then rapidly increased,
perhaps due to cessation of oviposit-
ing, to a level slightly less than that
of males at 3 weeks but equivalent to
their own level at the end of hiberna-
tion. The time when feeding on fun-
gus Starts was not Known and ex-
planations for the changes in fat
content are speculative.

Both sexes attain a high fat con-

tent by the time they leave the brood
logs, enabling them to go through an-
other attack and brood establishing
phase or into hibernation. Previous
data indicated that on a dry weight
basis the females can reach a level
of about 40% fat content compared
with 30% for males.

The data from this and earlier
studies give a general understanding
of fat changes during the adult life
of this beetle and provide a basis for
comparison of fat values in beetles
sampled in the natural environment.
They also form a basis for a study of
the qualitative aspects of fat meta-
bolism in these insects.

Acknowledgments

I thank Dr. J. A. Chapman for advice
during the study and preparation of this
publication and E. D. A. Dyer for criticizing
the manuscript.

References
Chapman, J. A. 1966. The effect of attack by the ambrosia beetle, Trypodendron linea-
tum (Olivier) on log attractiveness. Can. Entomol. 98:50-59.

Nijholt, W. W. 1965. Moisture and fat content in the ambrosia beetle Trypodendron
lineatum (Oliv.). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 62:16-18.

Nijholt, W. W. 1967. Moisture and fat content during the adult life of the ambrosia
beetle Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.). J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 64:51-55.

Nijholt, W. W. and J. A. Chapman. 1968. A flight trap for collecting living insects.

Can. Entomol. 100:1151-1153.

Prebble, M L. and K. Graham. 1957. Studies of attack by ambrosia beetles in softwood
logs on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Forest Science 3:90-112.

ERRATUM
In Vol. 65, page 4, column 2, paragraph 1, on the 10th line from the
top of the page “: ...65c per animal per year.” should read “. . . 6.5¢e per

animal per year.”

39 J. Enromou. Soc. Brrr. Cotumpeta, 66 (1969), Auge. 1, 1969

THE DISTRIBUTION OF TWO SPECIES OF CENOCORIXA
IN INLAND SALINE LAKES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

|

By G. G. E. SCUDDER!

ABSTRACT

The distribution of Cenocorixa bifida (Hung.) and C. expleta
(Uhler) in British Columbia is summarized. The distribution pattern in
a series of inland saline lakes in the central interior of the Province is
described. All water bodies are in the flight range of the two species,
and seem to be colonized by them at random. However, C. expleta
occurs and breeds only in saline waters, whereas C. bifida lives and
breeds in fresh and moderately saline environments. C. expleta has
been found only in waters with a conductivity between 3,900 and 29,000
micromhos /cm. (at 25°C): C. bifida occurs only in waters with a
conductivity between 20 and 20,000 micromhos/cm. The distribution
appears to be correlated with salinity and not with other features of
the environment such as area of water body, mean depth, maximum

depth, ete.

Seven species of Cenocorixa are
recorded from British Columbia
(Lansbury, 1960), but little is known
about their distribution, abundance
and biology. A comparative study has
been started on two of the species C.
bifida (Hung.) and C. expleta (Uhler).
This paper describes the distribution
of the two forms in the province of
British Columbia, and further con-
siders their occurrence in a series of
saline water bodies in the Southern
Interior Plateau region.

Materials and Methods

The general distribution of the
species in the Province was determin-
ed from published records, from spe-
cimens in the Spencer Entomological
Museum at the University of British
Columbia and from personal collect-
ing. Climatic data were taken from
the B.C. Resources Atlas Hauer
et al., 1956).

In the study of the lakes in the
Southern Interior Plateau, a general
survey was carried out in the period
1958-1960, and in 1961 a series of
water bodies was selected for inten-
sive study. The lakes were chosen so
as to obtain as wide a range of salin-

1 Department of Zoology, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver.

ity as possible, after the initial survey
indicated that this was desirable.
Those selected were chosen so that
many other parameters of the en-
vironment were alike. Thus all water
bodies were situated in the same gen-
eral geographic area, on approxi-
mately the same latitude and longi-
tude, were around 1000 m elevation,
were situated in open grassland, were
without fish as predators, but had
cattle access and so were subject to
disturbance and pollution.

The water bodies selected for spe-
cial study are located in the Chilcotin
and Cariboo Parklands biotic areas,
but one lies within the Dry Forest
area Of Munro and Cowan (1947).
Those named as lakes, e.g. White Lake,
are to be found on maps. The others
have local names or names used only
in this project. Most are on Beecher’s
Prairie, just north of Riske Creek
(Fig. 1). Others are distributed as
follows: Westwick Lake, Boitano Lake
and Rush are between Williams Lake
and Springhouse, with the locality
Sp. 6 a little way beyond Springhouse
on the Alkali Lake road. White Lake
and Long Lake are on the road be-
tween Clinton and Gang Ranch, the
locality GR2 being about 10 miles west

33

J. Entromot. Soc. Brit. CorumstA, 66 (1969), Aue. 1, 1969

Williams Lake

eG
7

_. / / 6SPRINGHOUSE
ee Qo‘. x
RISKE if
CREEK H

S ALKALI
LAKE

i)
U
(GANG RANCH

e
--

Q Clinton

~ al

Kamloops

Fig. 1. Map of the Southern Interior Plateau region of British Columbia, showing
localities mentioned in text.

34 J. Ex'romon. Soc. Buir. CoLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

of the Highway. Finally, the water
body called LB2 is adjacent to Lac
du Bois, near Kamloops, (Fig. 1).

In all 20 lakes were included in the
detailed study, the physical and
chemical limnology of which will be
described elsewhere (Topping and
Scudder, in prep.). Faunal samples
were obtained from each habitat at
approximately monthly intervals dur-
ing the ice-free period from April to
November, in the years 1958-1968 in-
clusive. At the same time, water tem-
perature and surface conductivity
were measured using a Yellowsprings
Portable Solubridge: pH and conduc-
tivity were also measured in the lab-
oratory using Radiometer apparatus.

Information on dispersal was ob-
tained by the use of light traps and
horizontal reflection traps of the type
described by Fernando (1958). These
were set up adjacent to Westwick
Lake and the Corixidae captured were
noted.

The behaviour of insects in waters
of varying salinity and temperature
was observed in the laboratory. In-
sects were placed in 250 ml beakers
containing 150 ml of water of known
salinity. Experiments were carried out
in constant temperature cabinets at
5°C, 15°C and 25°C. Each beaker was
contained in a covered plastic box.
The number of insects leaving the
beaker and found in the box was re-
corded.

Results
1) General distribution

Fig. 2 summarizes in a general
manner, the Known distribution of
the two species in British Columbia.
Records available are as follows: new
locality records are in italics.

Cenocorixa bifida (Hung.): Peach-
land, Vernon, Oliver, Nulki L.,
Kamloops, (Hungerford, 1948).
Chilcotin, Nicola, Malahat, Ver-

non, 6 mi. S. Clinton, 149 mile L.,
Soda Cr., Milner, Westwick L.,
Riske Cr., Boitano L., Peachland,
Nulki L., Westbank, Summerland,
Oliver, Hope Mts., Jesmond, Minnie
L., Nicola (Lansbury, 1960). Mc-
Intyre L. (Scudder, 1961). Horse-
shoe L. (Sparrow, 1966). Lyons
L. (G. Halsey); White L. (G. G. E.
Scudder); Long L. (G. G. E. Scud-
der); Doctor’s L. (G. G. E. Scud-
der); Pavilion L. (G. G. E. Scud-
der); Beaverdam L. (G. G. E. Scud-
der); Bower’s L. (G. G. E. Scudder).
Cenocorixa expleta (Uhler): Kam-
loops, 6 mile S. Clinton, Riske Cr.
(Lansbury, 1960). White L. (G. G. E.
Scudder); Long L. (G. G. E. Scud-
der); Bower’s L. (G. G. E. Scudder) ;
Lyons L. (G. Halsey).
Superimposed on this map is the
area of the province that has a mean
annual precipitation of around 43.5
cm, (15 in.), and in which the known
saline lakes in the province are situ-
ated. It is seen that in general the
records of both species lie within this
climatological boundary.

ii) Detailed distribution

Table 1 lists the water bodies se-
lected for special study and summar-
izes the most important environmen-
tal data required for the present dis-
cussion. It also shows in a general
manner, the occurrence of the two
species of Cenocorixa. C. bifida is
found in waters with a mean surface
conductivity between 38.6 and 14,848
micromhos/cm (at 25°C), while C.
expleta has a narrower range. In Bri-
tish Columbia the two species have
been found sympatric in ten water
bodies, six of which are listed in Table
1. Allopatric populations of C. bifida
occur in the fresh waters, while to
date no allopatric population of C.
expleta has been discovered. The data
show no obvious correlation of distri-
bution of the species with water body

36

J. Exromon. Soc. Brir. CoLUMBIA, 66 (1969), AuG. 1, 1969

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36 J. Enromon. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

Fig. 2. Map of the southern half of British Columbia showing the known distribution

of Cenocorixa bifida (closed circles) and C. expleta (open circles).

Solid line shows

area with a mean annual precipitation of 43.5 cm. or less, and stippled region represents
area covered in Fig. 1.

area, mean depth, maximum depth,
pH, main cation or main anion; there
is a correlation with conductivity.

iii) Temporal changes in the
distribution.

Comparisons have been made of
the detailed distribution of the two
species in the above lakes, compari-
sons being made of the patterns of
distribution for spring, summer and
fall for each of the ten years 1958-
1968. While there has been no sub-
stantial change in the occurrence of
the species in the lakes at the lower
end of the salinity range, this is not
the case at higher salinities. Here the
distribution of C. expleta and C. bifida
varies with seasonal and annual
changes in surface conductivity of the
water. There may be a three-to four-
fold change in surface conductivity
during any one year, and a two-to
three-fold change from year to year.
At times of substantial change, there

occur changes in the distribution of
the breeding populations of Cenocor-
ixa.

Seasonal changes in distribution
can be illustrated by considering the
occurrence of the two species in the
two localities Long Lake and LB2.
Each year overwintered adults of both
species occur in Long Lake and LB2.
LB2 on 23 May 1966 had a surface con-
ductivity of 9080 micromhos/cm. at
15.5°C and on 5 May 1968 the conduc-
tivity was 4680 micromhos/cm and the
temperature 11°C. A first generation
of larvae was produced in both species
in the spring of the years 1966 to 1968,
but while C. expleta was able to pro-
duce a second or summer generation
in this habitat, this apparently did
not occur in C. bifida. Larvae of the
latter were not found in the LB2 lo-
cality in mid summer in any of the
three years, a time when the conduc-
tivity had risen considerably. Thus
both species are present in the spring,

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969 37

but only C. expleta occurs in this
water body in middle and late sum-
mer: the habitat is evidently recolon-
ized each fall by C. bifida from neigh-
bouring less saline habitats.

Similarily, in 1963, Long Lake like
most of the other water bodies in the
area at this time, had a conductivity
well above the average. In May 1963
a first generation of C. bifida and C.
expleta was produced with the con-
ductivity at 13,200 micromhos/cm at
8°C. In the summer of 1963, there was
a second generation of C. ezxpleta
reared, but not of C. bifida. The con-
ductivity at this time had risen to
27,260 micromhos/cm at 22°C. Thus
in 1963, and indeed in the previous
two years, C. bifida appeared to die
out in the Long Lake habitat in the
summer and recolonize the lake in the
fall, similar to LB2 above.

However, in the past few years
there has been a marked change in
the salinity of the most concentrated
waters. This has evidently been due to

50

NUMBER
) oF) IN
O O O

O

UWIEY,

AUG.

the relatively colder and wetter years
since 1963 and in the Long Lake lo-
cality also, attempts by a local ran-
cher to divert a neighbouring creek
into the lake and use the water for
irrigation purposes. Thus in Long
Lake in 1966, the water level was
higher and the conductivities lower
than in the period 1961-1963. These
salinity changes have been accom-
panied by changes in the distribution
pattern of the Corixidae. Instead of
C. bifida in this habitat producing
only a spring generation and then dy-
ing out as in 1963, in 1966, 1967 and
1968 this species produced both a
spring and a Summer generation sim-
ilar to C. expleta. At no time in these
three years did the surface conduc-
tivity in Long Lake go above 12,000
micromhos/cm at 25°C. Thus in these
years there was a distribution pattern
that differed from previous years.

We have not found any Corixidae
breeding in the water body GR2 and
so assume that they cannot do so.

SIE Pale

Fig. 3. Diagram showing flight period of Cenocorixa bifida in Westwick Lake area in
1964 (Data from Simpson, 1968). Solid columns represent light trap captures; open,
horizontal reflection trap captures.

38 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Ava. 1, 1969

However, on 3 May 1964 a single fe-
male C. expleta was captured swim-
ming in the water, and so the lake is
not outside the flight range of the
species.

iv) Dispersal of Corixidae

In an attempt to obtain some in-
formation on the dispersal of these
Corixidae, light traps and horizontal
reflection traps were run through the
season at Westwick Lake. The results
of this trapping are shown in Fig. 3.
Flying C. bifida were taken between
July 28 and September 25. A single
female C. expleta was also taken on
12-13 September 1964. These results
show that C. bifida has a pronounced
tendency to disperse in late summer
and fall: this is the time that
adult insects are found to reappear in
such saline waters as LB2 and fur-
ther, at this time the water tempera-
ture also is beginning to drop.

v) Flight behaviour of C. bifida in
waters of various salinity and tem-
perature.

Experiments were carried out witn
natural lake water of varying salini-
ties: the experimental temperatures
were 5°C, 15°C and 25°C, the lower
temperature approximating the nor-
mal environmental temperature in
early spring, 25°C being around the
highest temperature recorded in the
study area in the summers.

A standard one hour period was
used for each experiment, 20 insects
being used in each test. The results
(Table II) show that C. bifida has
a pronounced tendency to leave water
at a temperature of 25°C. Such be-
haviour was less evident at 15°C and
was not seen at 5°C. There was little
difference with waters of different
Salinity.

Discussion

The records in the literature and
the detailed study of the two species
of Cenocoriza in British Columbia in-
dicate that they both generally occur
in areas with a mean annual precipi-
tation of under 43.5 cm (15 inches).
In the area studied C. expleta occurs
only in saline waters, whereas C. bifida
lives and breeds only in fresh and
moderately saline water. C. exrpleta
has been found only in waters with a
conductivity between 3,900 and 29,000
micromhos/ecm (at 25°C). C. bifida
was taken only from waters with a
conductivity between 20 and 20,000
micromhos/cm.

Elsewhere within the range of
these species, they appear to occur in
similar relatively dry areas. C. bifida
has a wider range than does C. ez-
pleta, the latter being confined to
western North America (Hungerford,
1948). C. expleta seems to occur in
saline water also elsewhere (Brooks

TABLE II. Proportion of €. bifida (flying form) leaving waters of different salinity
and temperature in one hour

Source of 5°C 15°C 25°C

Water Conduct % leaving Conduct % leaving Conduct %leaving
Sp.6 16.2 0 21.6 0 27 35
Boitano L. 438 0 584 0 730 35
White L. 2,850 0 3,800 10 4,750 40
Long L. 7,320 0 9,760 5 12,200 at)
GR2 19,800 0 26,400 0* 33,000 30**

* 15% died in water
** 20% in addition died in water

J. Entomot. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 66 (1969), Ava. 1, 1969 39

& Kelton, 1967). Edmondson (1966)
reports C. erpleta from Soap Lake in
the Grand Coulee area of Washington,
and this has a surface TDS of be-
tween 21,200 and 37,112 ppm. He notes
that in the years since the salinity has
started to go down due to irrigation
projects, C. expleta has become much
more abundant than formerly when
the salinity was high. I have also
taken C. expleta together with C. bi-
fida from the adjacent Lenore Lake
on 23 March 1968 when the conducti-
vity was 2899 micromhos/cm (at
25°C). Similarly, Hungerford (1948)
records C. expleta from Redberry
Lake in Saskatchewan. This lake is
saline and according to Rawson &
Moore (1944) has a TDS of 13,000-
14,000 ppm.

The field results suggest that the
two species differ in their salinity
tolerance. The fact that C. bifida was
eliminated from Long Lake in the
years 1961 to 1963 and from LB2 over
the years this water body has been
studied, indicates that there is a cer-
tain upper lethal combination of tem-
perature and salinity for C. bifida.
There must be a similar upper lethal
level for C. expleta, but no lake among
those studied, attained this level. The
upper level for C. expleta would ap-
pear to be higher than that for C. bi-
fida, but must be below the levels that
exist in GR2.

The fact that both species have
been obtained in terrestrial trapping
research and the fact that C. expleta
has been taken in GR2 alive, shows
that the species have an innate ten-
dency to disperse, something that has
been noted for other Corixidae (Ma-
can, 1939, 1962; Fernando, 1959;
Johnson, 1966). Since the water
bodies are in the same general area,
one can assume that they are all po-
tential environments for these two
insects. On the Beecher’s Prairie area
with the many lakes close together, it

would be difficult to deny that all of
the water bodies are potential habi-
tats for C. expleta, yet it has been
found only in four of the twenty or
more larger habitats located there.
Further, since the species are attract-
ed to the shiny surface of the hori-
zontal traps, they must be attracted
at random to any shiny surface. Pre-
sumably they are thus attracted to all
bodies of water, randomly, irrespec-
tive of their other characteristics.

Laboratory experiments have
shown that C. bifida (and presumably
also C. expleta) tend to fly from water
when it is at 15°C or above: the higher
the temperature, the greater the
flight response. The species cannot
survive more than one-half hour at
30°C and above, and live for a few
days only at 25°C. These lethal tem-
peratures evidently are related among
other things to the transition point
of the cuticular waxes, which for C.
expleta is 29.5°C (Oloffs and Scudder,
1964). While the insects tend to leave
waters at a temperature above 15°C,
they rarely take flight at lower tein-
peratures. Even when they are piaced
in water salinities that are lethal,
they do not atempt to leave.

This suggests that once an insect
lands in a body of water, provided the
temperature is below 15°C, the insect
will remain and not leave; presum-
ably since most water bodies have
areas that are cool even when surface
waters may be warm, the insect will
tend to remain once it enters them.
Thus all waters would seem to have
an equal chance of colonization at the
time of random dispersal.

Studies on two other Ccrixids Cal-
licorixa audeni (Hung.) and Hesper-
ocorixa laevigata (Uhler) have shown
that these have a flight period that
coincides in time with that in C. bi-
fida (Simpson, 1968). Further, these
two species are Known to colonize
most water bodies each fall, but rare-

40 J. Entomo.. Soc. Brrr. CotumsiA, 66 (1969), AuG. 1, 1969

ee
[| cctxeuera

re ee

lO lOO |\OOO

CONDUCT Ry 1 Ty

lIOO00O0

lIO0O000

micromhos

Fig. 4. Diagram showing field distribution of Cenocorixa bifida and C. expleta in
British Columbia, with respect to the conductivity of the environment.

ly do they breed in them in the suc-
ceeding year (Scudder, 1969). All of
the water bodies in the area have an
equal chance of colonization by Corix-
idae.

Thus the distribution of the two
species of Cenocoriza in the inland
saline lakes in central British Colum-
bia seems to depend on the species
tolerance to the salinity, and is not
clearly correlated with other charac-
teristics of the habitats; the species’
food appears to be the same. The two
species occur in the same area, but

have different salinity ranges, al-
though they do overlap.

Fig. 4 summarizes the findings with
respect to this correlation of distribu-
tion and the conductivity of the en-
vironment. The species appear to dif-
fer quite markedly. Only experimental
studies will reveal the basis for these
differences in tolerance, survival and
distribution.

Acknowledgments
This research was carried out whilst in
receipt of a grant from the National Re-
search Council of Canada.

References
Brooks, A. R. & Kelton L. A., 1967, Aquatic and semiaquatic Heteroptera of Alberta,
Saskatchewan, and Manitoba (Hemiptera) Mem. ent. Soc. Canad. 51:1-92.

Chapman, J. D. et al., (ed.) 1956, British Columbia Atlas of Recources, Vancouver.

Edmondson, W. T., 1966, Pacific Coast and Great Basin, (in) Frey, D. G. (ed.) Limnology
in North America, Univ. Wiscon. Press: 371-392

Fernando, C. H., 1959, The Colonization of small freshwater habitats by aquatic insects.
1. General discussion, methods and colonization in the aquatic Coleoptera,
Ceylon J.Sci. (Biol. Sci.) 1:117-154.

Fernando, C. H., 1959, The Colonization of small freshwater habitats by aquatic insects.
2. Hemiptera (The water-bugs) Ceylon J.Sci. (Biol. Sci.) 2:5-32.

Hungerford, H. B., 1948, The Corixidae of the western hemisphere (Hemiptera).
Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull. 32:1-827.

Johnson, C. G., 1966, A functional system of adaptive dispersal by flight, Ann Rev. Ent.
1:233-260.

Lansbury, I., 1960, The Corixidae (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) of British Columbia, Proc.
Ent. Soc. B.C. 57:34-43.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBiA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

Macan, T.T., 1939 Notes on the migration of some aquatic insects, J. Soc. Brit. Ent. 2:1-6.
Macan, T.T., 1962, Ecology of aquatic insects, Ann. Rev. Ent. 7:261-288.

Munro, J. A. & Cowan, I.McT., 1947, A review of the bird fauna of British Columbia,
B. C. Prov. Mus. Spec. Publ. 2:1-285.

Oloffs, P. C. & Scudder, G.G.E., 1966, The transition phenomenon in relation to the
penetration of water through the cuticle of an insect, Cenocorixa expleta
(Uhler), Can. J. Zool. 44:621-630.

Rawson, D. S. & Moore, J. E., 1944, The saline lakes of Saskatchewan, Can. J. Res. (D)
22:141-201.

Scudder, G. G. E., 1961, Some Heteroptera new to British Columbia, Proc. ent. Soc. B.C.
58:26-29.

Scudder, G. G. E., 1969, The fauna of saline lakes on the Fraser Plateau in British
Columbia, Proc. XVII Int. Congr. Limn. (in press).

Simpson, J. E., 1968, The flight muscle polymorphism in Cenocorixa bifida. M.Sc.
diss. University of B.C. (unpubl.).

Sparrow, R. A. H., 1966, Comparative limnology of lakes in the Southern Rocky Moun-
tain Trench, British Columbia, J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 23:1875-1895.

INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION ON
DEVELOPMENT OF SPRUCE BEETLE, DENDROCTONUS
OBESUS (MANNERHEIM) (COLEOPTERA: SCOLYTIDAE)

By E. D. A. DYER!

ABSTRACT

In the East Kootenay region of British Columbia, spruce logs
infested by Dendroctonus obesus (Mannerheim) were placed beside
thermographs at three sites. Throughout the summer, the mean and
minimum air temperatures were higher on a mountain slope than in
two valley bottoms at similar or lower elevations. Beetle development
was faster on the mountain slope, where it continued until frost
occurred in October, at which time 96% of the progeny were mature.
In the lower valley bottom the minimum temperature fell 3.9 and 2.8°C
(7 and 5°F.) below freezing on successive nights in August and larval
development stopped. In the valley bottoms only 13 and 9% of the
broods matured before winter. Temperature conditions that allow most
broods of D. obesus to mature in one season may result in a critical
addition to the normal number of beetles that mature after 2 years’

41

development.
Introduction In spruce forests growing at north-
Dendroctonus obesus (Manner- ern latitudes and high elevations

heim) is the most destructive bark
beetle of mature spruce _ forests
(Swaine, 1924; Woods, 1963). Endemic
populations breed in wind-thrown
trees and logging slash, but when the
population is large the beetles fre-
quently attack and kill the largest
trees over extensive areas (Swaine,
1924; Massey and Wygant, 1954).

1 Forest Research, Dept. Fisheries and Forestry,
Victoria, B.C.

most spruce beetles require 2 years to
reach maturity, but during hot sum-
mers and in warm locations many of
the young mature in a single season
(Watson, 1928; Massey and Wygant,
1954; Knight, 1961). In western
North America, only the beetles that
have passed the winter as adults re-
produce the next summer (Massey

42 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtumMBiIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

and Wygant, 1954; Knight, 1961). The
developmental rate therefore, has a
direct effect on the number of adults
capable of invading new hosts the
following year.

Methods

The Agroclimatology Sector of
A.R.D.A. (Agricultural and Rural De-
velopment Act Administration of
Canada) has recently taken thermo-
graph records at several locations in
the Rocky Mountain trench in south-
eastern British Columbia.

Three locations were near spruce
forests and accessible when the D.
obesus flight began in early June 1967.
Site A (4,700 a.s.l.) was on a moun-
tain slope, about 2,000 feet above the
valley. Site B (3,500 a.s.l.) was ap-
proximately 50 miles to the north in
a valley bottom. Both sites were ad-
jacent to the Rocky Mountain trench
near the source of the Columbia
River. Site C (4,600 a.s.l.), another
valley bottom, was in the Flathead
River drainage near the Alberta bor-
der.

Six recently - cut 30-inch - long
spruce logs were placed on the ground
in the Shade of scattered small trees
near the thermograph at each site.
The instruments were in Stevenson
screens in cleared areas.

On 5 June, beetles had entered the
bark of logs moved on that date from
a nearby valley to site A. One of these
logs was placed as a control with un-
infested logs at site B, where natural
beetle attack was observed the same
day. Uninfested logs were placed at
site C on 6 June. |

Samples of bark were removed
from the logs at sites A and B on 23
and 24 August, respectively. Larvae,
pupae and young adults were count-
ed, and the larvae individually meas-
ured to determine their stage of de-
velopment. Site C could not be
reached at that time. On 18 October,
the broods in logs from all three sites

were examined to determine the de-
gree of development for the season.
An index of development was calculat-
ed from these samples, in which 100%
eggs equalled 100, and 100% young
adults equalled 700.

Results and Discussion

The minimum temperature for
spruce beetle brood development has
been determined in laboratory studies
to be approximately 43° F. The accum-
ulated degree-hours air temperature
above this threshold, plotted each 2
weeks for sites A and B, are shown in
Fig. 1 along with the index of develop-
ment.

The mean and minimum tempera-
ture was consistently warmer at site
A on the mountain slope, than at site
B in the valley bottom (Figs. 1-2).
Such summer temperature inversions
in this mountainous region are com-
mon; Hayes (1941) has shown that
inversion occurred on 90 to 99% of
nights from May to September dur-
ing 4 years in Idaho. The median
magnitude of night temperature dif-
ference between the colder valley
bottom (2300 a.s.l.) and the warmer
mountainside (3800 a.s.l.) was 9° to
18°F in May and June, respectively,
and 15° to 18° from July to September.

Brood development at sites A and
B, aS shown by the index (Fig. 1),
proceeded at a rate parallel to that
of the respective accumulated degree-
hours at each site until late August.
After this the temperature accumula-
tion rate declined at both sites. At
site A the brood continued to develop
at a reduced rate until nearly all
reached maturity, whereas at B, de-
velopment almost stopped at the end
of August and most of the brood over-
wintered as larvae.

A possible explanation for the dif-
ference in development during the
latter part of the season is illustrated
in Fig. 2. The maximum temperatures
throughout August and September

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969 43

Boo DEVELOPMENT INDEX
— DEGREE-HOURS

(HUNDREDS) OVER 43°F

DEGREE-HOURS

200

DEVELOPMENT INDEX OF DENDROCTONUS OBESUS (MANN)

1 15 30 15 31
JUNE JULY

eoccct

15 31 15
AUGUST SEPTEMBER

3% 15

OCTOBER

Fig. 1. Index of brood development and accumulated degree-hours above 43°F. (6.1°C)
from 1 June to 18 October, 1967, at site A, on a mountain slope and at B, in a valley
bottom.

were about the same at sites A and B,
but the minimum temperatures were
much higher at A. At B they dropped
.° and 7°F below freezing on succes-
sive nights in late August. At site A
no frost occurred until mid-October.

The percentages of fourth-instar
larvae, pupae and adults in samples
collected in August and October from
the logs at sites A and B are shown in
Table 1. At site A both larvae and
pupae continued to mature and 96%
became adults by October. At site
B, the percentage of larvae remained
almost the same from August to Oc-

tober, although the pupae completed
development.

At site C, the mean temperature
was consistently lower (1-4°F) than
at site B for every 2-week period from
June to October. However, the mini-
mum temperature in August was 3°F
higher than at site B. By October, the
brood development at site C was near-
ly the same as at site B (Table 1).
Larval development at site C, al-
though slower, was possibly not ter-
minated so early as at site B where
lower minimum temperatures occur-
red in late August.

44

TEMPERATURE OF

J. ENTomon. Soc. Brit. Counumprra, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

10

1S
SEPTEMBER

30 5 10
OCTOBER

Fig. 2. Maximum and minimum daily temperatures from 28 July to 15 October 1967,
at site A, on a mountain slope and at B, in a valley bottom.

Conclusions

Accumulated degree-hours above
the development threshold and the
date and severity of the first late-
summer frost are important factors
that affect the seasonal rate of
D. obesus brood development. A very
slight increase in accumulated heat
during the season can make the dif-
ference between mature and imma-
ture broods.

In summer the valley bottoms are
frequently aS warm during the day as
the higher areas on adjacent slopes.
At night, they are often colder. The
night temperature inversion creates a
zone on the slopes with more degree-
hours of heat and higher minimum

temperatures than in the valleys, par-
ticularly during late summer. Within
this higher zone a larger percentage
of D. obesus broods can mature in one
season.

When the location of abundant
breeding material, such as windfall,
coincides with zones of rapid beetle
development, the population of ma-
ture beetles greatly increases in one
season. These beetles, combined with
beetles maturing after 2 years in
cooler sites, result in greater popula-
tions flying and attacking new hosts
the following spring. The sudden in-
crease in the pressure for suitable
breeding sites may result in the inva-
sion and death of standing timber.

TABLE 1

Percentage of larvae, pupae, and young adults in spruce logs on a mountain
slope (site A) and in two valley bottoms (sites B and C) in 1967.

Site 23-24 August 18 October

Larvael Pupae Adults Larvael Pupae Adults
A 38.6 38.6 22.8 4.0 0.0 96.0
B 8+.7 13.8 1.5 86.6 0.0 13.4
C - : ° 89.7 1.0 9.3

JLarvae in last instar.

J. Entomon. Soc. Brrr. CoLumsBiA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969 45

Acknowledgment
I thank L. H. McMullen and M. D. At-
kins for critically reviewing the manuscript
and D. W. Taylor and W. Kusy for assis-

tance in the field. The temperature data
were obtained through the courtesy of J. R.
Marshall, Agroclimatology Sector of A.R.
D.A. in British Columbia.

References

Hayes, C. L. 1941. Influence of altitude and aspect on daily variations in factors of
forest-fire danger. U.S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 591:38 pp.

Knight, F. B. 1961. Variations in the life history of the Engelmann spruce beetle.

Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 54:209-214.

Massey, C. L. and N. D. Wygant. 1954. Biology and control of the Engelmann spruce
beetle in Colorado. U.S. Dept. Agric. Circ. 944:35 pp.

Swaine, J. M. 1924. The control of the destructive spruce bark beetle in eastern Canada.
Can. Dept. Agric. Pam. 48 (n.s.) 31 pp

Watson, E. B. 1928. The bionomics of the spruce beetle Dendroctonus piceaperda Hopk.

Scientific Agr. 3:613-635.

Woods, S. L. 1963. A revision of the bark beetle genus Dendroctonus Erichson (Coleop-
tera: Scolytidae). Great Basin Naturalist 23: 1-117.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON FLIGHT IN ONCOPELTUS

FASCIATUS (HEMIPTERA: LYGAEIDAE)!
R. J. HEWSON

ABSTRACT

Oncopeltus fasciatus (Dallas) is a typical Hemipteran with fore-
wings modified to form hemielytra and membraneous hind-wings. Dur-
ing flight, these two pairs of wings are linked together by a wing
coupling apparatus. Observations were made on normal insects and
insects with either fore- or hind-wings removed. The experiments
demonstrated that the mesothorax with the fore-wings is the most im-
portant segment of the pterothorax in this insect. It was shown that the
fore-wings provide the main propulsive force for flight and also
provide much of the lift: the hind-wings provide extra surface for
lift, but this is effective only if the wings are coupled together. As in
the Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, where the two pairs of wings are
also linked together by a wing coupling apparatus, it appears that
the musculature of the mesothorax may be the “driving force” for both

pairs of wings.

Introduction

The Hemiptera (Heteroptera) pos-
sess two pairs of dissimilar wings; the
fore-wings or hemielytra are modified
and partially sclerotized, the hind-
wings are thin and membranous. The
two pairs of wings are normally hook-
ed together during flight by a coup-
ling apparatus (Weber, 1930). Com-
paring the Heteroptera with the Cole-
optera, it might seem that the hem-
ielyt: a would play little part in flight,
most of the propulsion being provided
1 Part of a thesis for the M.Sc. degree in the

Department of Zoology, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver 8, Canada.

by the hind-wings. However, com-
parison with the Lepidoptera suggests
that the fore-wings might be the
more important, with the hind-wings
of the Heteroptera receiving their
power through the wing-coupling
mechanism. The studies of Scudder
(1967) on flight muscle polymorphism
in Notonectidae show that the meso-
thoracic flight muscles may be reduc-
ed in flightless members of this group,
with little or no change in the meta-
thoracic musculature. Scudder there-
fore suggested that the mesothoracic
segment with its hemielytra is the

46 J. ENToMoL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

more important segment in the flight
of the Heteroptera. In the present
study, experiments were carried out to
test the functions and the relative im-
portance of the two pairs of wings in
the Heteroptera.

Materials and Methods

Milkweed bugs, Oncopeltus fascia-
tus (Dallas), were chosen for study
because they are typical terrestrial
bugs, and are easy to rear. They were
fed on milkweed seeds and Kept be-
tween 73°F in the dark and 78°F in the
light (av. 76°F), at absolute humidity
of 28%, with a photoperiod of 14 hours
light and 10 dark. Under these condi-
tions, the adults lived about two
months.

Experiments were carried out to
determine the relative importance of
the thoracic segment in flight. Tests
were made to determine the age when
the adult is first able to fly, and the
best age for further trials. Speed and
duration tests were performed on in-
tact insects of Known age on a flight
mill having a circumference of 69.10
cm. To compare the separate contri-
butions to flight of the mesothoracic
and metathoracic wings, experiments
were performed in which the wings
were cut off at the base and the abi-
lity to fly, and the speed and duration
of free flight were tested. Only speci-
mens which had previously flown
were used in wing removal experi-
ments. Some observations were made
using a Xenon stroboscope.

Flight was initiated in untethered
adults by a toss into the air, and in
tethered insects, by blowing from the
anterior and simultaneously removing
tarsal contact (Pringle, 1957). Un-
tethered adults were considered to
exhibit true flight when they flapped
their wings and moved in a more or
less horizontal direction from take-
off; flight in a diagonally downward
direction was also considered to be

true flight but a vertical drop was not,
even if the wings were flapping. For
tethered adults flight was judged to
occur on forward motion of the mill.

Results
Flight Period
Tests showed that the adults would
not fly until three days after the last
moult (Table 1).

TABLE 1. Initiation of flight in 10 O. fas-

ciatus at 5 age levels.

Ageindays No.flying Action observed
Teneral 0 none
1 0 wings extended
2 1 fluttering
3 5 flapping
4 6 flapping

It was concluded that insects used
in succeeding experiments could not
be less than three days old. The num-
ber of insects flying never exceeded
60% of the number tested, regardless
of age. It could not be determined why
apparently healthy adults resisted all
efforts to initiate flight. Dingle (1965)
found that eight-day-old Oncopeltus
flew faster and longer than adults of
any other age. This was confirmed in
these experiments, and consequently,
eight-day-old adults were used for
succeeding experiments.

Normal flying insects, once flown
on the flight mill, were reluctant to
fly again on the mill. The reason is
unknown, but was apparently not due
to exhaustion. Previously tethered
fliers would fly again untethered, and
insects often showed mating beha-
viour minutes after being removed
from the flight mill. Flight periods
were usually from 2 to 30 minutes
and rest periods between attempts
ranged from 10 minutes to 24 hours.
Removal of Wings

Since not all adult insects would
fly, it was necessary to test each in-
sect untethered for a positive flight
response before removing the wings.
The experiments showed that the in-
sects could fly with only the fore-

J. Ex romor. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Auc. 1, 1969 47

wings present, but were unable to fly
with the hind-wings alone. When the
fore-wings were removed the hind-
wings were extended but no flapping
occurred. There was no difference ob-
served in the results between males
and females (Table 2).

TABLE 2. Flight response after wing re-
moval in 8-day-old O. fasciatus

Males Females
No. No. No. No.
oper’don flying oper’don flying
fore-wings
removed 8 0) 12 0
hind-wings
removed 20 16 20 17

The observation that Oncopeltus
can fly lacking hind-wings raised the
question of the necessity of these
wings.

Flight duration and speed could be
measured accurately only on a flight
mill, and since the insects refused to
fly a second time on this instrument,
good values, especially for insects

nn
O

SPEED [cm/sec]

O | 2 S

lacking hind-wings were difficult to
obtain. Speed was measured on the
flight mill in 10-sec intervals for the
first 2 minutes and in 30-sec intervals
after 2 minutes. It was impossible to
obtain instantaneous readings for
speed without sophisticated equip-
ment, so the recorded speeds were
averaged over the 10-sec or 30-sec
intervals.

Both normal males and females
showed an initial burst of speed, then
slowed to a steady speed after 2 min-
utes for males and 3 minutes for fe-
males. Over the first minute, the aver-
age speeds were 63 + 3 cm/sec for
males and 54 + 3 cm/sec for females.
The steady speed was 57 + 2.5 cm /
sec for males, and 42 + 5 cm /sec for
females (Fig. 1).

From Fig 1, it appears that the
best time to test flight speed is after
the initial burst, while the steady
speed is being maintained. This is
possible for normal insects, which are

ca 5 6 y 8

TIME [mins]

Fig. 1. Graph showing flight speed of 8-day-old Oncopeltus fasciatus on a flight mill:

xX = normal males (n — 10), 0 = normal females (n =

16) [mean + standard error

shown for each point].

48 J. Entomor. Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

able to fly for several hours if neces-
sary (Dingle, 1965). However, the
longest duration recorded on the
flight mill for insects lacking hind-
wings was 9 sec. Several operated in-
sects flew in 2- to 5-sec bursts, but no
sustained flight was recorded (Table
3).

TABLE 3. Duration of flight on the flight
mill after removing the hind-wings in 10
male and 10 female O. fasciatus, 8 days old

Duration in sec.

No. flying Av. (range)
0

male

female 4 3. (1-9)

The average speed for the few in-
sects which flew on the flight mill
following the removal of the hind-
wings was computed to be 18 to 20
cm/sec, a value well below those for
the normal insect (Fig. 1).

Lift was difficult to measure ac-
curately, and so a subjective judge-
ment was used. Four index values
were asSigned: 3 for insects flying
diagonally upward, with lift greater
than the insect’s weight; 2 for in-
sects flying directly horizontally, with
lift equal to the insect’s weight; 1 for
insects flying diagonally downwards,
with lift less than the insect’s weight;
and 0 for a vertical drop, with no lift
present. With such numerical values,
the lift could be averaged over a num-
ber of insects. The lift value was as-
signed after watching the insect take
off and fly from the finger 2 or 3
times.

All normal insects showed lift
equal to or greater than the insect’s
weight; those lacking hind-wings had
Significantly lower lift values, aver-
aging less than the insect’s weight;
those lacking fore-wings showed no

lift at all. Only with both pairs of
wings could adequate lift be main-
tained (Table 4).

Wing Coupling

Experiments were performed on
insects with the wing-coupling appa-
ratus removed from the fore-wings.
The results were similar to those with
the insects lacking hind-wings; lift
and flight speed were reduced.

In order to determine whether or
not the hind-wings were moving, the
insects were observed while flying
illuminated solely by a stroboscope,
adjusted so that the actual wing
movements could be seen. Most of the
insects with the wing-coupling ap-
paratus removed refused to fly long
enough for adequate observations.
However, in one intact insect, flying
in front of the stroboscope, the wing-
coupling mechanism became disen-
gaged about 5 minutes after flying be-
gan. After several unsuccessful at-
tempts to reconnect the wings, the in-
sect continued to fly, using only the
fore-wings. The hind-wings did not
flap on their own, but were merely
held, vibrating, at an upward angle.
After several minutes in this position,
the hind-wings folded over the back
of the insect, assuming the resting
position. The fore-wings continued
to flap on their own for a further 10
minutes. It is not Known whether the
speed was reduced during flight with
the wings uncoupled, because this in-
sect was held on a stationery tether
and not on the flight mill.

Discussion
Flight requires propulsion, lift, and
stability. Propulsion and lift are func-
tions mainly of the wings and their

TABLE 4. Index values of lift for normal and operated 8-day-old O.fasciatus

Normal Lacking hind-wings
Number Average Number Average
tested value tested value
male 47 2.1 14 1.3
female 46 2.4 12 1.2

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969 49

musculature; Stability is a function
of the shape of the wings and the
body.

The experiments described show
that with the hind-wings removed,
O. fasciatus can still provide the pro-
pulsion for flight; with the fore-wings
removed, propulsion is not possible. It
would seem therefore that for pro-
pulsion, the mesothorax and fore-
wings are more important than the
metathorax and hind-wings.

It is clear that the hind-wings
are necessary for adequate flight and
that they provide much of the lift.
Insects lacking hind-wings were un-
able to maintain horizontal flight and
would probably not be able to take off
from the ground, since the lift force
provided by the fore-wings alone is
less than the weight of the insect. The
hind-wings are therefore important
in providing the extra surface neces-
sary to increase the lift to a value
greater than that of the insect’s
weight. For this extra surface area to
be effective, the two pairs of wings
must be coupled together to present
a Single surface area.

It was observed, in the insect
whose coupling mechanism failed,
that the hind-wings did not flap
unless they were coupled to the fore-
wings. One is therefore led to believe
that the power for movement must
come from the mesothorax, trans-

mitted to the hind wings through the
fore-wings and the coupling mechan-
ism. The hind-wings were observed to
vibrate when uncoupled, indicating
that the metathoracic musculature is
capable of bringing about hind-wing
movement. In the intact flying insect,
however, the actual operation of the
wings is evidently controlled from the
mesothorax.

A similar situation is seen in the
Lepidoptera and the Hymenoptera in
which the two pairs of wings are also
joined by coupling mechanisms, and
the power for flight comes from the
mesothorax. For adequate lift and
propulsion, both pairs of wings are
necessary, but both are controlled by
the mesothoracic musculature, acting
through the hook mechanism and
through the metathoracic muscles in
some cases (Chadwick, 1953; Pringle,
1968).

In the Heteroptera it would thus
seem that the mesothoracic segment
is the most important part of the
pterothorax for flight. The modifica-
tion of the fore-wings to form hemie-
lytra has not progressed so far that it
has reduced the functional siginifi-
cance of the mesothorax to the stage
seen in the Coleoptera.

Acknowledgments

The research for this paper was sup-
ported by a grant from the National Re-
search Council of Canada to Dr. G. G. E.
Scudder.

References
Chadwick, L. E., 1953, The motion of wings. In: Roeder, K. D. (ed) Insect Physiology,

Wiley, New York: 577-615.

Dingle, H., 1965, The relationship between age and flight activity in the milkweed bug,

J. Exp. Biol. 42:269-283.

Pringle, J. W. S., 1957, Insect Flight, Cambridge University Press, London
Pringle, J. W. S., 1968, Comparative physiology of the flight motor, Adv. Ins. Physiol.

9:163-227.

Scudder, G. G. E., 1967, Notonecta borealis (Bueno & Hussey): a flightless species?

Ent. mon. Mag. 102:258-259.

Weber, H., 1930, Biologie der Hemipteren, Julius Springer, Berlin.

50 J. ENTomon. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Au@. 1, 1969

PARASITES OF THE LARCH CASEBEARER, COLEOPHORA
LARICELLA (HBN.), IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
(LEPIDOPTERA: COLEOPHORIDAE)

R. J. ANDREWS and N. J. GEISTLINGER!

ABSTRACT

The following nine species of parasites and hyperparasites were
recovered from rearings of the larch casebearer, Coleophora laricella

(Hbn.), in Interior British Columbia, 1966-1968:

Bracon sp., Scambus

decorus Wly., Scambus transgressus (Holmg.), Gelis tenellus (Say),

Dicladocerus westwoodii

(Westw.),

Tetrastichus xanthops (Ratz.),

Amblymerus prob. new sp., Sceptrothelys deione (W1k.) and Spilochal-

cis albifrons Walsh.

The larch casebearer, Coleophora
laricella (Huebner), was introduced
from Europe to the eastern United
States in the 1880’s and spread to
the Lake States and Ontario and Que-
bec. The insect was found infesting
western larch near St. Maries, Idaho,
in 1957, and subsequently spread into
northeastern Washington and north-
western Montana. It was first discov-
ered in British Columbia in 1966 near
Rossland and in the valleys of the
Yahk and Salmo rivers. It has spread
aS far north as Lardeau at the north
end of Kootenay Lake, west to Anar-
chist Mountain near Osoyoos and east
to the Kootenay River. Populations in
British Columbia have increased rap-
idly and caused light damage. Re-
peated defoliation by the casebearer
causes Significant reduction in ter-
minal and radial growth and occa-
sionally kills branchlets, and may kill
trees.

Over 50 species of native parasites
have been reared from larch case-
bearer in eastern Canada and the
United States, but none in significant
numbers. Two introduced parasites,
Agathis pumila (Ratzburg) and Chry-
socaris laricinellae (Ratzburg), have
become well established in eastern in-
festations. Realeases of A. pumila in
Idaho in 1960 resulted in the success-

1 Forest Entomology Laboratory, operant
of Fisheries and Forestry, Vernon, B

ful establishment of this parasite in
Western larch infestations in the
United States, but it has not been re-
leased or recovered in British Colum-
bia, although releases are planned.

The parasites associated with the
larch casebearer in British Columbia
were investigated in 1966, 1967 and
1968 to determine their significance,
and to find out if A. pumila had
spread into the Province from the
United States. Casebearer larvae were
collected from several localities each
year between 16 May and 14 June and
reared on larch branches in cloth-
covered cages at the Forest Entomo-
logy Laboratory in Vernon. In all, nine
species of hymenopterous parasites
and hyperparasites have been recov-
ered from these rearings. Following
is a list of those reared at Vernon and
identified by Dr. W. R. M. Mason, Dr.
O. Peck and Mr. G. S. Walley of the
Systematics Unit, Entomology Re-
search Institute, Ottawa.
BRACONIDAE

Bracon sp. - 1 specimen from Osoyoos,
B.C. emerged 18-VI-68.

ICHNEUMONIDAE
Scambus decorus Walley - 2 specimens
from Creston, B.C. emerged 5-VI-67 and
6-VI-67.
Scambus transgressus (Holmgren) - 13
specimens from Creston, B.C. emerged
10-VI-68 and 12-VI-68.
Gelis tenellus (Say) - 1 specimen from
Salmo, B.C. emerged 27-VI-68; 1 speci-
men from Creston, B.C. emerged 18-VI-
68.

J. Exromot. Soc. Brit. CoLmuMBIA, 66 (1969), Auc. 1, 1969 51

EULOPHIDAE
Dicladorcerus westwoodii (Westwood) -
6 specimens from Creston, B.C. emerged
18-VI-68.
Tetrastichus xanthops (Ratzburg) - 2 spe-
cimens from Creston, B.C. emerged 18-
VI-68.

PTEROMALIDAE
Amblymerus probably new sp. - 4 speci-
mens from Salmo, B.C. emerged 18-VI-68;
6 specimens from Creston, B.C. emerged
14-VI-68 and 18-VI-68.
Sceptrothelys deione (Walker) - 2 speci-
mens from Creston, B.C. emerged 14-
VI-68.

CHALCIDIDAE
Spilochalcis albifrons Walsh - 12 speci-
mens from Creston, B.C. emerged 27-VI-
68; 7 specimens from Salmo, B.C. emerg-
ed 27-VI-68; 5 specimens from Salmo,

B.C. emerged 5-VII-66, 6-VII-66, 7-VII-66,
18-VII-66.

All parasites were recovered from
ultimate instar larvae or pupae of C.
laricella.

G. tenellus is a common hyperpara-
site and S. albifrons is often hyper-
parasitic.

In 1966, 0.69% of 1,004 casebearers
reared at Vernon were parasitized; in
1967, 0.22% of 881 casebearers were
parasitized and in 1968, 4% of 1,360
casebearers reared were parasitized,
with the greatest percentage (14% of
208) occurring near Creston.

LABORATORY REARING OF NOTONECTA UNDULATA SAY
(HEMIPTERA : NOTONECTIDAE)

R. A. ELLIS AND J. H. BORDEN!

ABSTRACT

Four generations of Notonecta undulata Say were reared in the
laboratory within a year. Adults were kept in 15 gallon oviposition
aquaria maintained at a temperature of 25 + 1°C and a pH of 6.5 - 7.5.
Eggs were transferred to an incubation aquarium kept under identical
conditions. Nymphs were reared individually in 100 ml glass beakers.
Live prey were supplied regularly for food.

Notonecta undulata Say, one of
the most common species of back-
swimmer in North America, is a pre-
daceous water bug found in many
fresh - water habitats throughout
Canada and the United States. Vari-
ous aspects of its life-history, ecology
and behavior are Known (Bueno 1905;
Essenburg 1915; Hungerford 1917,
1919; Clark 1928; Clark and Hersh
1939; Ellis and Borden 1969). Adults
can be collected throughout the year
in southwestern British Columbia, al-
though with considerable difficulty
during the winter. Because N. undu-
lata is suitable for biological studies,
we have, therefore, developed a tech-
nique by which this species may be
reared in the laboratory.

1 Graduate student and Assistant Professor, re-
spectively, Pestology Centre, Department of Bio-
logical Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Bur-
naby 2, B.C

In southwestern British Columbia
there are generally two generations
per year. Our colony was started in
April, 1967, from field-collected adults
and has continued for 23 months.

The rearing conditions were as
follows: backswimmers were Kept in
covered 15-gallon aquaria, filled with
tap water that had been aerated for
at least 24 hours to remove chlorine.
Aquaria were equipped with a filter-
aerator, pH was 6.5-7.5 and tempera-
ture was maintained at 25 + 1°C by
a Standard aquarium heater. The
backswimmers were Kept under na-
tural daylight. The aquaria were cov-
ered with canopies to prevent the
escape of adults, two 25-watt light
bulbs being used to facilitate periodic
inspection. The bottoms of the aqu-
aria were covered with sand, and
several pieces of green rubber-mesh

52 J. EnroMoL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969 |

iA AAA AGA AAA MAN

Fig. 1. Oviposition aquarium for N. undulata.
Fig. 2. Newly laid egg on rubber-mesh sink matting
Fig. 3. Adult backswimmer using mesh for anchorage.

were provided for cover, anchorage
and oviposition (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).
Food supplied daily, consisted of
small- to medium-sized insects drop-
ped onto the surface. When daily
feeding was not possible other aquatic
insects, such as mosquito and midge
larvae, left in the aquaria, provided a
convenient source of food. Under
these conditions, up to 15 adults were
Kept in an aquarium without signific-
ant cannibalism and eggs were ob-
tained.

Plants, such as Anacharis cana-
densis Michx. (McPherson 1966, Ellis
and Borden 1969), or even sodden

leaves (Clark and Hersh 1939) can be
used with some success, but due to
water temperature and necessary
handling they soon deteriorate. This
may occur before all the eggs have
hatched. The sink matting, however,
lasts indefinitely.

Matting on which eggs were laid
was transferred to aquaria away from
the adults. At 25°C the eggs hatched
in 1-2 weeks. On hatching, first in-
star nymphs were placed individually
in 100 ml glass beakers half filled
with water and kept at 25°C. Nymphs
were fed on a Similar diet to that of
the adults.

J
i

|

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969 53

Under these conditions we have

Acknowledgments
We thank Mr. R. G. Long for the photo-

ee ee SC MeT aus) 2H 22” Graphy andi Dis. PC. Olotid and AL Ly
months. Turnbull for reviewing the manuscript.
Literature Cited

Bueno, J. R. de la Torre. 1905. The genus Notonecta in America north of Mexico.
J.N.Y. Entomol. Soc. 13:143-167.

Clark, L. B. 1928. Seasonal distribution and life history of Notonecta undulata in the
Winnipeg region, Canada. Ecology 9:383-403.

Clark, L. B. and A. H. Hersh. 1939. A study of relative growth in Notonecta undulata.
Growth 33:347-372.

Ellis, R. A. and J. H. Borden. 1969. Effect of temperature and other environmental

factors on Notonecta undulata Say (Hemiptera: Notonectidae). Pan-Pacific

Entomol. 45:20-25.

Essenburg, C. 1915. Habits and natural history of the backswimmers. J. An. Behav.

(Cambridge) 5:397-402.

Hungerford, H. B. 1917. The life history of the backswimmer, Notonecta undulata.

Entoinol. News 28:267-278.

Hungerford, H.B. 1919. The biology and ecology of aquatic and semi-aquatic Hemiptera.

Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull. 11:1-341.

McPherson, J. E. 1966. Notes on the laboratory’ rearing of Notonecta hoffmanni
(Hemiptera : Notonectidae), Pan-Pacific Entomol. 42:54-56.

HYMENOPTEROUS PARASITES OF THE HEMLOCK
SAWFLY, NEODIPRION TSUGAE MIDDLETON, IN
SOUTHEAST ALASKA, WITH A KEY TO LARVAL REMAINS

TOROLF R. TORGERSEN'!

ABSTRACT
A key is supplied to identify parasitic Hymenoptera reared from
hemlock sawfly cocoons in southeast Alaska. The key is based on the
size of the exit hole in the host cocoon, and characters visible on the
final-instar larval skin. Brief biological and descriptive notes are given
for each species appearing in the key.

Introduction

The hemlock sawfly, Neodiprion
tsugae Middleton, is an important
defoliator of western hemlock, Tsuga
heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg., in south-
east Alaska. Heavy defoliation oc-
curred during the early 1950’s (Down-
ing, 1957) and 1960’s (Crosby, 1965).
Usually epidemics are severe for only
a year or two, but noticeable defolia-
tion may continue for several years.
Although outbreaks may subside with
little immediate effect, top-killing
and whole-tree mortality sometimes
occur. This is especially true when the

1 Entomologist, Institute of Northern Forestry,
Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, Juneau, Alaska.

sawfly is found in association with or
following infestations of the black-
headed budworm, Acleris variana
(Fernald) (Downing, 1959).

The parasite species reared from
hemlock sawfly cocoons in Alaska
were listed by Torgersen (1968). The
paper includes a Key to the parasite
adults and notes on the abundance of
each species. No dipterous parasites
have been reared from the sawfly.

The following key, based on the
appearance of mature larval remains
and host cocoon, includes all but
three of the parasite species reared
from the sawfly in Alaska to date.
The species were omitted because
final-instar larval remains were not

54 J. ExntoMon. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

available for study. The parasites in-
cluded in the following Key are: Am-
blymerus verditer (Norton) (Ptero-
malidae) ; and Itoplectis quadricingu-
latus (Provancher), Delomerista ja-
ponica diprionis Cushman, Rhorus
sp., Lamachus spp., Mastrus spp., and
Opidnus tsugae tsugae (Cushman)
(Ichneumonidae).

KEY TO PARASITES OF THE
HEMLOCK SAWFLY
BASED ON COCOON AND FINAL.
INSTAR LARVAL REMAINS

1. Parasite exit hole in host cocoon less
than 0.92 mm in diameter; final-instar
cephalic structure apparently limited
to mandibles (Fig. 1)
ec eee eee Amblymerus verditer

Parasite exit hole greater than 0.94
mm in diameter; final-instar cephalic
structure complete or nearly so
CHGS 5221) vee rere, eee ae se eee 2

2(1). Final-instar cephalic structure with
epistoma, pleurostomae, hypostomal
spurs, and venter of labial sclerite ap-
proximating a ring; hypostomae ab-
sent (Fig. 7); spiracles as in Fig. 13
eee eee Itoplectis quadricingulatus
Final-instar cephalic structure not as
above; hypostomae present Cee
DG)! ee to AED 1 gids onl mae wa

3(2). Vertex of final-instar head capsule
with four heavily sclerotized areas;
blade of mandible with a large tooth
basally (Fig. 3); atrium of spiracle
funnel-shaped (Fig. 10)
eee _. Delomerista japonica diprionis

Vertex of final-instar head capsule
without noticeable heavily sclerotized

areas; blade of mandible without a
large tooth basally (Figs. 2, 4-6);
atrium not as above _....... 4
4(3). Blades of mandibles very short (Fig. 4)
eee see eee ers Luu... Rhorus sp.
Blades of mandibles well developed
(IIgs, < 2-10.70) 2 at ee ee 5

5(4). Labial sclerite incomplete ventrally;
medial face of dorsal arms expanded
and serrated; antennal socket only
present (Fig. 5) __.... Lamachus spp.
Labial sclerite complete ventrally;
dorsal arms not markedly expanded
or serrated; antennae present (Figs.
2, 6)

Stalk of spiracle longer than diameter
of atrium (Fig. 9); cephalic structures
aSvIn Big a ee Mastrus spp.
Stalk of spiracle shorter than diameter
of atrium (Fig. 12); cephalic structures
as in Fig. 6 ____. Opidnus tsugae tsugae

6(5).

Methods

Collections of sawfly eggs, larvae,
and cocoons were made at several lo-
cations in southeast Alaska from
1964 through 1967. Branches with
sawfly eggs were collected in May, and
larval collections were made at inter-
vals during the larval development
period from about mid-June to mid-
August. Cocoons were collected
throughout the year to obtain all life
stages of parasites.

In the laboratory, egg-bearing
branches were placed in plastic rear-
ing cages at room temperature. Lar-
vae were placed in rearing cages con-
taining fresh hemlock foliage which
was replaced as needed. Cages were
examined daily and dead or moribund
larvae removed along with newly
formed cocoons. Mortality was re-
corded, and moribund larvae and the
cocoons were placed in individually
coded gelatine capsules. Capsules were
kept in controlled temperature cab-
inets at 16 or 21°C. Field-collected co-
coons also were put in capsules and
placed in cabinets. Fall-collected co-
coons were Kept at 7°C for 30 to 60
days before transferring them to the
warmer cabinets. Emerging parasites
were removed daily, identified, and
the emergence data recorded by spe-
cies. Parasites were Kept with the co-
coons from which they emerged.

Information on host and parasite
remains was obtained from dissec-
tions of cocoons from which known
species of parasites emerged. Data
such as size and Shape of exit hole,
color and shape of parasite cocoon,
disposition of meconium and parasite
larval and host remains, and other
pertinent observations were noted.

Mature parasite larval remains
were mounted on microscope slides
for study. Parasite larval skins were
first thoroughly wetted by dipping in
95% ethanol, then soaked in a 10%
potassium hydroxide solution for 15

55

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Figs. 1-3. Final-instar cephalic structures
sp

56

J. MnromMou. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA,

0.25mm

66 (1969), Aue. 1, 1969

Figs. 4-5. Final-instar cephalic structures: 4, Rhorus sp.; 5, Lamachus sp.

Entromon. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Ava. 1, 1969

Figs. 6-7. Final-instar cephalic structures: 6, Opidnus tsugae tsugae
7, Itoplectis quadricingulatus (Provancher).

57

(Cushman);

J. ENTOMOTL..

0.1mm

Figs. 8-13. Spiracles of final-instar larvae: 8, Amblymerus verditer (Norton); 9, Mastrus
sp.; 10, Delomerista japonica diprionis Cushman; 11, Lamachus sp.; 12, Opidnus tsugae
tsugae (Cushman); 13, Itoplectis quadricingulatus (Provancher).

J. Entomor. Soc. Brit. Corumata, 66 (1969), Aue. 1, 1969 59

Figs. 14-15. Parasite exit holes in cocoons of Neodiprion tsugae Middleton: 14, exit
hole of Amblymerus verditer (Norton); 15, exit hole of Opidnus tsugae tsugae (Cushman).

to 30 minutes, or until the sKin was
soft enough to manipulate. No stain-
ing was done; the softened skin was
washed in water and mounted on a
microscope slide in a nonresinous
mounting medium (Turtox CMC-10).
Photographs of the cephalic struc-
tures and spiracles were taken using
a trinocular compound microscope
fitted with a 35mm camera.

Biological and Descriptive Notes

Amblymerus verditer (Norton)

A. verditer (Figs. 1, 8, and 14) usu-
ally occurred as a secondary parasite
of the sawfly. This species was a pri-
mary parasite in 10 cases out of 94
studied. The primary parasites on
Which A. verditer developed were
Opidnus tsugae tsugae, Itoplectis
quadricingulatus, and Lamachus spp.
Furniss and Dowden (1941) listed A.
verditer as a parasite whose role as a
primary or secondary was uncertain.

Laboratory emergence of A. ver-
diter occurred from mid-August

through early September, from co-
coons collected in the field from early
May through mid-August. This spe-
cies was usually a solitary parasite,
but multiple emergences of up to 11
individuals from the same cocoon
were recorded.

A single exit hole (Fig. 14), rarely
two, is cut in the sawfly cocoon even
when multiple emergence is involved.
The nearly round hole is ca. 0.8 mm
(0.7-0.9 mm) in diameter; subapical,
sometimes apical or on the side. No
parasite cocoon is constructed. The
white final-instar larval skin is usu-
ally closely associated with the frac-
tured, honey-colored pupal skin. A.
verditer remains are found in the
sawfly cocoon with the primary para-
site larval or pupal remains.

Final-instar cephalic structure
with only mandibles clearly visible
(Fig. 1); antennae prominent. The
final-instar larval remains of A. ver-
diter were described and illustrated
by Finlayson (1960b).

60 J. ENromor. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

Itoplectis quadricingulatus
(Provancher)

I. quadricingulatus (Figs. 7, 13)
Oviposits on sawfly larvae in cocoons;
rarely, the host is a pupa. Cocoons col-
lected in the field produced parasites
by the first week in June, and adults
were collected in the field by the third
week in June. Field-collected cocoons
obtained as late as mid-August pro-
duced parasites in the laboratory
within 2 or 3 weeks. Considering the
long period over which I. quadricin-
gulatus emerges during the summer,
it is possible that this species is mul-
tivoltine in Alaska. This possibility
was suggested by Furniss and Dowden
(1941) who collected this species in
Oregon. J. quadricingulatus is also a
parasite of the black-headed bud-
worm, Acleris variana, in Alaska.

Exit hole roughly round, ca. 1.6
mm (1.1-2.2 mm) in diameter. Margin
jagged, with slivers of cocoon attach-
ed to the edge or loose inside the
cocoon. Parasite cocoon thin, semi-
transparent, light brown or white;
laid down inside of and closely ap-
pressed to host cocoon, or may be
limited to a silken disc covering the
host remains. Host remains are at end
of cocoon opposite exit hole or adja-
cent to it. Final-instar larval remains
loosely associated with meconium at
end of cocoon opposite exit hole;
sometimes absent.

Final-instar cephalic structure
characterized by lack of hypostomal
arms; general aspect suggests a scler-
otized ring Surrounding the man-
dibles (Fig. 7). Atrium of spiracle
flattened above and below, with a
scattering of projections on the inner
wall. A Short stalk leads to a well-
developed closing apparatus (Fig. 13).

Delomerista japonica diprionis
Cushman
D. japonica diprionis (Figs. 3, 10)
parasitizes the hemlock sawfly larva

within the cocoon. According to Fur-
niss and Dowden (1941), this parasite
is univoltine; the egg is laid extern-
ally on the larva and the winter is
passed as a mature larva. In Alaska,
adults in flight have been collected on
23 June, and the latest adult emer-
gence from field - collected cocoons
was early August.

Mean diameter of emergence hole
is ca. 1.6 mm (1.0-2.2 mm). Exit hole
round or oval; situated with at least
its margin reaching the apex, some-
times subapical; margin jagged with
crescent - Shaped pieces of cocoon
loosely attached. Host remains are
near exit hole or at opposite end of
cocoon. Parasite cocoon apparently
absent, represented only by a dark
brown silken cap walling off the host
remains. Parasite remains consist of
a dark final-instar exuvium and a
lighter yellow or cream pupal skin,
one or both of which may be missing.

Final-instar head capsule typified
by having four heavily sclerotized
areas on the vertex. Cephalic struc-
tures heavily sclerotized; hypostomae
well developed; blade of mandible
with a heavy tooth basally (Fig. 3).
Atrium funnel-shaped, opening into
a well-defined closing apparatus (Fig.
10). Skin with conspicuous setae. The
final-instar cephalic structure and
spiracles were described and illustra-
ted by Finlayson (1960a).

Rhorus sp.
A single specimen of Rhorus (Fig.
4) was reared from a sawfly cocoon
collected 30 July 1963.

Exit hole round with a jagged
margin; 1.5 mm in diameter; subapi-
cal. Parasite cocoon thin, silky white,
laid down on wall of host cocoon.
Sawfly larval remains walled off out-
side of parasite cocoon. Parasite re-
mains associated with the meconium
at opposite end from exit hole.

Final-instar cephalic structure

J. EnToMO.L. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 66 (1969), Ava. 1, 1969 61

characterized by mandibles with
poorly developed blades, incomplete
epistoma, and lightly sclerotized la-
bial sclerite with dorsal arms bearing
serrations medially (Fig. 4). Larval
skin with pebbled surface; no spir-
acles were found.

Lamachus spp.

Lamachus spp. (Figs. 5, 11) reared
from the hemlock sawfly were iden-
tified by taxonomists as Lamachus
sp., or Lamachus tsugae or a new
species near it. According to Furniss
and Dowden (1941), L. tsugae Cush-
man and L. oregon Cushman (= L.
angularis (Davis)) are parasites of
Neodiprion tsugae in Oregon. Their
studies indicated that L. oregon and L.
tsugae parasitized late-instar larvae
and emerged from the cocoon the
following spring.

In Alaska, no sawflies collected as
larvae yielded parasites in this genus.
However, dissections of late-instar
larvae revealed the presence of Lama-
chus larvae within them. Field-col-
lected cocoons had parasites emerging
from early June through early July.
Cocoons containing sawfly larvae
parasitized by Lamachus spp. were
collected by late July.

Exit hole very jagged with some
Slivers hanging from the margin; ca.
16mm in diameter (1.4-1.9 mm);
margin reaching apex of cocoon. Host
a larva; remains closely appressed to
inside of its cocoon. A thin white
parasite cocoon is laid down inside of
host cocoon. Final-instar larval and
pupal remains are associated with the
meconium at opposite end of cocoon
from exit hole. Final-instar cephalic
structure with labial sclerite incom-
plete ventrally, and with expanded
and serrated dorsal arms (Fig. 5).
Atrium of spiracle small, little larger
than stalk (Fig. 11).

Mastrus spp.
All specimens of Mastrus_ spp.

(Figs. 2, 9) collected were solitary
parasites of larvae, and sometimes
pupae. The earliest collection date
for sawfly cocoons from which Mas-
trus emerged was 2 September. The
specimens of Mastrus spp. collected
in this study were classified by tax-
onomists as Mastrus sp., Mastrus sp.
nr. argeae (Vier.), and Mastrus sp.
on.

Exit hole regular or slightly irre-
gular in outline; diameter ca. 1.2 mm
(1.2-14mm); margin reaching to
apex or slightly below. Parasite co-
coon the same size and shape as
host cocoon; dark brown to buff;
sometimes two-layered with inside
layer lighter in color.

Final-instar cephalic structure
(Fig. 2) resembles Opidnus tsugae
tsugae (Fig. 6), but smaller; width of
labial sclerite ca. 0.15mm (0.14-0.17
mm). Stalk of spiracle longer than
diameter of atrium Fig. 9).

Opidnus tsugae tsugae (Cushman)

O. tsugae tsugae (Figs. 6, 12, and
15) is the most common parasite
reared from sawfly cocoons in Alaska
(Torgersen, 1968). The host within
the cocoon is usually a larva, but in
about 5 percent of the dissections,
pupal host remains were found. Fur-
niss and Dowden (1941) recorded this
species under the name Aptesis (Pez-
oporus) tsugae Cush., aS a parasite
of the sawfly in Oregon. They indi-
cated that it was apparently multivol-
tine and attacked cocoons containing
the prepupa.

In Alaska, O. tsugae tsugae adults
are in flight by early June. Laboratory
emergence from cocoons collected
during June was complete by the first
week in July. The following year’s
brood are present in cocoons collected
in mid-August.

Exit hole roughly round or larger
in one dimension; mean diameter ca.
1.4mm (1.1-1.9mm). Margin of exit

62 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtuMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

hole jagged, usually with pieces of co-
coon adhering to it (Fig. 15). Hole
situated apically or subapically. Para-
site cocoon thin, laid down as a layer
on inside of host cocoon; host remains
are walled off outside parasite cocoon.
Parasite final-instar remains are
closely associated with the meconium.

Final - instar cephalic structure
(Fig. 6) similar to Mastrus spp. (Fig.
2), but larger; width of labial sclerite

in O. tsugae tsugae ca. 0.20 mm (0.17-
0.22 mm). Stalk of spiracle shorter
than diameter of atrium (Fig. 12).

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges the
assistance of Miss L. M. Walkley of the
Insect Identification and Parasite Intro-
duction Branch, Agricultural Research Ser-
vice, U.S.D.A., Washington, D.C., for iden-
tifying many of the parasites collected in
connection with this study; and (Mrs.)
Christine Andrew for assisting with slide
preparations and photomicrographic work.

References
Crosby, D. 1965. Forest insect conditions in the various regions, Alaska, p. 37. In Forest
_ insect conditions in the United States 1964. Forest Service, U.S. Dep. Agr. 41 pp.
Downing, G. L. 1957. The recent history of destructive forest insect activity in Alaska,
pp. 111-116. In Science in Alaska 1957, Albert W. Johnson, ed. 8th Alaska

Sci. Conf. Proc., Anchorage.

Downing, G. L. 1959. Hemlock sawfly. U.S. Dep. Agr., Forest Serv., Forest Pest Leaflet

Finlayson, T. 1960a. Taxonomy of cocoons and puparia, and their contents, of Canadian
parasites of Neodiprion sertifer (Geoff.) (Hymenoptera: Diprionidae). Can.

Entomol. 92:20-47,

Finlayson, T. 1960b. Taxonomy of cocoons and puparia, and their contents, of Canadian

parasites of Diprion hercyniae (Htg.) (Hymenoptera:

Entomol. 92: 922-941.

Diprionidae). Can.

Furniss, R. L. and P. B. Dowden, 1941. Western hemlock sawfly, Neodiprion tsugae
Middleton, and its parasites in Oregon. J. Econ. Entomol 34: 46-52.

Torgersen, T. R. 1968. Parasites of the hemlock sawfly, Neodiprion tsugae, in coastal
Alaska. Ann, Entomol. Soc. Amer. 61:1155-1158.

FINAL-INSTAR LARVAE OF TWO HYMENOPTEROUS
PARASITES OF A WOOD-BORING BEETLE, TETROPIUM
VELUTINUM LeCONTE (COLEOPTERA: CERAMBYCIDAE)

THELMA FINLAYSON!

ABSTRACT

Characteristics of the cephalic structures, spiracles and skin
of final-instar larvae of two hymenopterous parasites, Helconidea
occidentalis (Cress.) and Rhimphoctona atrocoxalis (Ashm.), whose
cocoons were found in galleries of the wood-boring beetle, Tetropium
velutinum LeConte, are described and illustrated.

The species of wood-infesting
Coleoptera of economic importance
to western larch, Larix occidentalis
Nuttall in British Columbia were in-
vestigated by Dr. D. A. Ross, Forest
Entomology Laboratory, Canada De-
partment of Forestry, Vernon, B.C.

1 Pestology Centre, Department of Biological
Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby 2, B.C.

(Ross 1967 a, b). During the course of
that investigation two species of
parasites were reared, and subse-
quently a section of log from which
they emerged was made available to
the author for study. As specific in-
formation on wood-boring beetles and
their parasites is scarce this log from
which both beetles and parasites had

J. Entromot. Soc. Brit. CotumsriA, 66 (1969), Aue. 1, 1969 63

emerged provided an opportunity to
establish positive host-parasite rela-
tionships.

The 2.5-foot section examined was
part of a log felled on June 16th, 1965,
at Houser Ridge, near Lardeau, north
of Kootenay Lake, B.C. Adults of
Tetropium velutinum LeConte (Cole-
optera: Cerambycidae) emerged be-
tween May 9th and June 8th, 1966,
and September 3rd, 1966, and of Ser-
ropalpus sp. (Coleoptera: Melandryi-
dae) between June 29th and Septem-
ber 3rd, 1966, and between June
13th and 16th, 1967 (D. A. Ross,
in litt.). The parasite species Helcon-
idea occidentalis (Cress.) (Hymenop-
tera: Braconidae) emerged from May
29th to June 10th, 1966, and Rhim-
phoctona atrocoxalis (Ashm.) (Hy-

menoptera: Ichneumonidae) from
May 19th to 30th, 1966 (D. A. Ross, in
litt.).

The log was cut into three-inch

sections, and each section was then
quartered. The sections and quarters
were labelled so that each beetle gal-
lery could be followed throughout its
entire course. Each section of log was
chipped apart and 3-dimensional
drawings were made so that the
length and type of burrows could be
determined. The larval entrance holes
of T. velutinum are elliptical (Ross
1967 b) and the galleries examined in
this work extended horizontally from
one-eighth to one inch inward, then
usually turned at almost a right-angle
and extended vertically for three-
quarters to one inch. Serropalpus sp.
has round larval entrance holes (D.
A. Ross, in litt.) and the galleries ex-
amined extended horizontally into
the wood, curving gently, if at all, and
extended for a distance of up to three
inches, with occasional branching.

The cocoons from which parasites
had emerged were found only at the

Figs. 1-2. Final-instar larva of Helconidea occidentalis (Cress.): 1, cephalic structure;
2, spiracle.

64 J. ENTomMoL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBtA, 66 (1969), Aue. 1, 1969

0.1 mm

0.1 mm

Figs. 3-4. Final-instar larva of Rhimphoctona atrocoxalis (Ashm.): 3, cephalic structure;
4, spiracle.

ends of the Tetropium galleries and in
every case were filled with fine wood
chips or wood powder. None was
found in the Serropalpus galleries.
The cocoons of both parasite species
contained meconium and final-instar
larval skins. The methods of prepar-
ing slides of the final-instar cast
sKins and the terminology used are
similar to those described by Finlay-
son (1960).

Braconidae
Helconinae: Helconini

Helconidea occidentalis (Cress.)
(Figs. 1, 2) |

The cocoon of this species is about
10 mm long by 3 mm wide, buff-
coloured and fairly transparent, and
thin, but mica-like in texture. The
large exit hole on the end of the co-
coon is ragged in outline.

Only one specimen was suitable for
study of the cephalic structure and
some of the relationships of the scle-

rites in this single preparation were
difficult to determine. Cephalic struc-
ture of final-instar larva (Fig. 1)
lacKs epistoma; superior mandibular
processes are present; inferior mandi-
bular processes, pleurostoma and hy-
postoma are _ indistinct although
showing traces; hypostomal spur en-
tirely lacking. Stipital sclerite long
and curved with bulbous appendage
on lateral end; medial end touches
labial sclerite on dorsal third. Labial
sclerite U-shaped with dorsal part of
lateral arms enlarged and slightly
twisted. Mandibles with long, slightly-
curved blade with what appears to be
two rows of teeth. Maxillary palpi are
not visible but the labial palpi are
well defined, each with one large and
two or three small sensoria. Antennal
socket characterized by slightly scle-
rotized band with one _ sensorium.
Spiracle (Fig. 2) has large atrium
with more or less circular reticula-
tions and opens into stalk with about

J. ExToMo.L. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969 65

eight narrow annulations and strong
closing apparatus. Skin densely cov-
ered with fine spines and occasional
short setae. Of those final-instar
cephalic structures of Braconidae il-
lustrated in the literature, the cepha-
lic structure of Helconidea most
closely resembles those of the Chelon-
inae (see e.g. Finlayson 1967, Short
1952).

Ichneumonidae: Porizontinae
Rhimphoctona atrocoxalis (Ashm.)
(Figs. 3, 4)

Cocoon of Rhimphoctona atrocoxr-
alis (Ashm.) about 10.5 mm long by
3.2 mm wide; light beige in colour;
thin and weak but mica-like in tex-
ture. Remains of final-instar larva
are in meconium at end of cocoon op-
posite exit hole. Exit hole is on tip of
cocoon, jagged in outline, and about
3.2 mm in diameter.

Cephalic structure of final-instar
larva (Fig. 3) with incomplete epis-
toma; superior mandibular process
sclerotized, inferior mandibular pro-
cess with two struts, the posterior one
slightly longer than the anterior;
pleurostoma unsclerotized. Hypos-
toma long and strongly curved ven-

trally. Heavy-based hypostomal spur
meets Stipital sclerite at about mid-
point. Stipital sclerite meets labial
sclerite at dorsal end of lateral arm.
Labial sclerite with dorsal arms well
sclerotized, each widened medially
and with lateral projection; ventral
part visible but unsclerotized. Prela-
bial sclerite Y-shaped. Silk press vis-
ible but unsclerotized. Mandibles each
heavy-based with very short blade
without teeth meeting base at almost
a right-angle. Labial and maxillary
palpi each with one larger and one
smaller sensorium. Antennal socket
visible. Spiracle (Fig. 4) small with
cup-shaped atrium about 0.012 mm
deep by 0.008 mm wide opening into
closing apparatus about 0.014 mm
long and 0.006 mm wide. Skin densely
covered with very small rounded pro-
tuberances and a few small spines.

Acknowledgments

The writer wishes to thank Dr. D. A.
Ross for providing the log from which
known parasites had emerged and for para-
site and beetle emergence data; Mr. Jim
Munro, student assistant, who dissected the
log; and Mr. Derek Parkin who assisted with
the illustrations. Mr. G. S. Walley, Entomo-
logy Research Institute, Ottawa, identified
the parasites reared from the logs by Dr.
Ross.

References

Finlayson, T. 1960. Taxonomy of cocoons and puparia, and their contents, of Canadian
parasites of Neodiprion sertifer (Geoff.) (Hymenoptera: Diprionidae). Can.

Entomol. 92:20-47.

Finlayson, T. 1967. Taxonomy of final-instar larvae of the hymenopterous and dipterous
parasites of Acrobasis spp. (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae) in the Ottawa region.

Can. Entomol. 99:1233-1271.

Ross, D. A. 1967 a. Wood- and bark-feeding Coleoptera of felled western larch in
British Columbia. J. Entomol. Soc. British Columbia 64:23-24.

Ross, D. A. 1967 b. The western larch borer, Tetropium velutinum LeConte in interior
British Columbia. J. Entomol. Soc. British Columbia 64:25-28.

Short, J. R. T. 1952. The morphology of the head of larval Hymenoptera with special
reference to the head of Ichneumonoidea, including a classification of the

final instar larvae of the Braconidae. Trans. Roy. Entomol. Soc. London 103:

66 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 66 (1969), Aug. 1, 1969

BOOK REVIEW

The Life of Insects, by V. B. WIGGLES-
WoRTH. A Mentor book, World Pub-
lishing Company, New York and
Toronto. Pp. 383. $1.50.

There are few indeed who are qua-
lified to review the content of a book
in his own field by Prof. Sir V. B.
Wigglesworth. But with the appear-
ance of his new and _ generalised
paperback it is fair to appraise the
format, and to speculate on where it
may take its place amongst books of
comparable price and scope.

The audience envisaged is said to
be the customary interested reader or
knowledgable layman, but in point of
fact the book would make nearly an
ideal modern text for teaching in-
troductory entomology. The arrange-
ment demonstrates this to some ex-
tent. Twelve pages of preliminaries
and acknowledgments are followed by
298 pages of text; then 32 pages of
appendix which are really chapter 18,
a very bare outline of taxonomy en-
titled A Catalogue of Insects; next
265 references by chapters to classic
books and papers dated to 1962; a
glossary of 176 terms; and 101% pages
of index. All this for a price tag about
one-tenth that of the usual texts.

The illustrations deserve special
mention. There are 36 half-tone
plates, plus 16 in color which consist
of 29 photographs of protective and
warning coloration, mimicry, pigmen-
tation, etc. All these are excellent.
The 164 text figures, almost always
on the appropriate pages of text, are
judiciously chosen from basic works.
All the old friends are represented:

Snodgrass, Imms, Weber, Berlese, von
Frisch, Pesson, Metcalfe and Flint,
Grasse, Knight, Wigglesworth him-
self of course, even Albrecht Durer
and Shell Chemical! Their reproduc-
tion is never inadequate even if it is
sometimes less than perfect, but this
is a small penalty for the low price.
The effect was to make my mouth
water for the hardback edition, pre-
sumably on better paper.

Those who heard Sir Vincent lec-
ture or who met him when he attend-
ed our annual dinner in March, 1967,
will recall with pleasure how lightly
he wore his immense learning and
how completely un-stuffy he was.
These qualities come through in the
non-pedantic writing. It is limpid
and economical, avoiding jargon and
lightened by deft near colloquialisms.
He writes of evolutionary changes in
the feeding habits of insects accom-
panied by changes in the cutlery used
for feeding; the lower lip in Hemip-
tera is deeply grooved to sheath the
business part; Homoptera have a
beak; some organs are sausage shap-
ed; a freshly molted cockroach if
trodden on may pop like a burst bal-
loon; Dytiscus beetles consume their
pre-digested prey as a uniform soup;
and so on.

This is the best general text I have
seen since Imms’, “Insect Natural His-
tory” of 1947. It is superior in its ap-
proach through physiology and it
covers more ground geographically
and scientifically.

—H.R. MacCarthy

J. Entromot. Soc. Brir. Corumpra, 66 (1969), Ava. 1, 1969 67

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Since this society no longer has any support except from sub-
scriptions it has become necessary to institute a page charge. This has
initially been set at cost: $12.00. In other respects policies remain parallel
with those of the Canadian Entomological Society. The page charge
includes all extras except coloured illustrations, provided that such extras
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submitting a manuscript.
Reprints are sold only in even hundreds and at the following prices:

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Authors ordering personal reprints in addition to those ordered by an
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Papers for the Journal need not have been presented at meetings
of the Entomological Society of British Columbia, nor is it mandatory,
although preferable, that authors be members of the society. The chief
condition for publication is that the paper have some regional origin,
interest, or application.

Contributions should be sent to:

H. R. MacCarthy,

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Manuscripts should be typed double-spaced on one side of white, line-
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BACK NUMBERS
Back numbers of this journal are available from the Secretary-
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Certain earlier back numbers are also available, but only on special request
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Address inquiries to:
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68 J. Entomon. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 66 (1969), Aua. 1, 1969

METRIC CONVERSION

Contributors of papers on laboratory studies should use the metric system exclusively.
Use of the metric system in reporting the results of field studies is a desirable ultimate
objective. Since it is difficult to replace immediately such standard concepts as lb/
acre by the unit kg/hectare, yards by meters, or miles by kilometers, the following

table of conversion factors is presented.

1 in.=2.54 cm 1 fts—=28.3 dm3

1 yard—0.914 m 1 acre—0.405 hectares

1 mile=1.61 km 1 lb/acre=1.12 kg/hectare
1 lb.—453.6 g 1 lb/in2(psi)=70.3 g/cmz2

1 gal (U.S.)=8.785 liters 1 lb/gal (U.S.)=120 g/liter
1 gal (Imp) —4.546 liters 1 lb/gal (Imp)—100 g/liter

1 dm3—0.0353 fts

1 hectare—2.47 acres

1 kg/hectare—0.89 lb/acre

1 g/mz—0.0142 psi

1 g/liter—0.83 1b/100 gal (U.S.)
=1000 ppm

1 g/liter=1 1b/100 gal (Imp)

1 cm—0.394 in

1 m=3.28 ft—1.094 yards
1 km=0.621 mile

1 ke—2.2 15

1 liter—0.264 gal (U.S.)

1 liter—0.220 (mp)

SP a

iy

be i
Hf? }

re 8

JOURNAL

ENTOMO LOGICAL
i SOCIETY of

ECONOMIC
Echt of cultivars of highbush blueberry by adult black vine weevils
ee eG an eT er CE. 5 3
tability of cultivars of highbush blueberry at varying temperatures by
k vine weevils ate Cuirenlinibacy ee 6
1 BEIRNE—Effect of sprinkler irrigation on McDaniel and European
sca a Me Ci Ete ae cdc W NR es tee yl eS 8

Ss between larvae and adults in the acceptability. of highbush
y cultivars Dy tie bitek vinie weevil bio ee 17

GENERAL
Larval diapause in inDendroctonus obesus (Mann.) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) 18

Ul NOCK_A ¢ chronic infestation of mountain pine beetles in lodgepole pine in
lacier National Re IN ea Nias ts Sgn ais ws Bem ee we. 23

ee we we ew ae

a i i ee ce i i ee
eee ee
OSA e NSS Pier ep Sep e wm Rllé, 0) je) af e! © epee.

ge Ke Eee de ee bel ehe

Cray Le oP ae Lie) Mee aS Te led we eee ae, Ole ig hen a) UM ley aye he bite et whee ae el, Bhi 8! Tee he ow eI py wre) we,

me Phe ese el eh oy mie dle, Ob OS eee elisha we Ge 8: ew 1a wpe fe wee we

JOURNAL

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL
SOCIETY of
BRITISH COLUMBIA

Vol. 67. issued October 1, 1970

ECONOMIC
CRAM—Unacceptability of cultivars of highbush blueberry by adult black vine weevils
Gal CarcaliOnidde) 5 i ewig. eee eau ae sad dew bb cosa uassusdavebeereds 3
CRAM—Acceptability of cultivars of highbush blueberry at varying temperatures by
adult black vine weevils (Col: Curculionidae) ....................0 00. cece 6
HUDSON and BEIRNE—Effect of sprinkler irrigation on McDaniel and European
red mites in apple orchards ...............000. ccc cee cee cece ee eneeeenees 8
MADSEN—Observations: on Rhagoletis indifferens and related species in the
Okanagan Valley of British Columbia ...................00.0.0000 000 cece eeee, 13
BANHAM—Notes on diapause in the tomato hornworm (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)
in British Columbia .. 2... 5.0 ea ec ccc cess e eect e eee snceneenes 16
CRAM-—Incongruity between larvae and adults in the acceptability of highbush
blueberry cultivars by the black vine weevil ................0000 00 cece eee eee 17
GENERAL

DYER—Larval diapause inDendroctonus obesus (Mann.) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) 18
TRAYNIER and BURTON—Male response to females in the marsh crane fly, Tipula

paludosa Mg. (Diptera: Tipulidae) .............0000.00.00.0000000 ccc cece. 21
TUNNOCK—A chronic infestation of mountain pine beetles in lodgepole pine in
Glacier National Park, Montana ................00 0000 cece cece ees 23
WILKINSON—Dermacentor ticks on wildlife and new records of paralysis ........ 24
SUGDEN—Annotated list of forest insects of British Columbia, Part XIV, Polygonia,
Nymphalis and Limenitis (Nymphalidae) ..........................0.0 000. 30
DEAN—An aberration in the digestive system of Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk) ..... 39
RICHERSON—A world list of parasites of Coccinellidae ......................0.. 33
BRUSVEN—Drift periodicity and upstream dispersion of stream insects ............ 48
OW see oa No oon eeceda «8s 'di we deh sie a wa adn cad ode ras « 31

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtumpBta, 67 (1970), Ava. 1, 1970 |

Directors Of The Entomological Society Of
British Columbia For 1970-71

President

D.G. FINLAYSON
Research Station,
6660 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver 8

President-Elect
R. RING

University of Victoria

Past President
W. T. CRAM

Research Station,
6660 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver 8

Secretary-Treasurer

N. V. TONKS
2819 Graham Street, Victoria

Honorary Auditor
P. ZUK

Vancouver

Editorial Committee

H. R. MacCARTHY, Chairman C. V.G. MORGAN

Vancouver Summerland

Directors

J. H. BORDEN, Simon Fraser University
A. T.S. WILKINSON, Vancouver J. CHAPMAN, Victoria
R. D. McMULLEN, Summerland R. S. DOWNING, Summerland

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumpBtiaA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970 3

UNACCEPTABILITY OF CULTIVARS OF HIGHBUSH
BLUEBERRY BY ADULT BLACK VINE WEEVILS
(COL.:CURCULIONIDAE):

W. T. CRAM
ABSTRACT

When isolated adults of the black vine weevil,

Otiorhynchus

(Brachyrhinus) sulcatus (F.), were fed highbush blueberry foliage at
constant 20°C and 16 hours photoperiod, the related cultivars Cabot and
Weymouth were unacceptable, whereas Jersey, Rancocas, June, Pemberton,
Bluecrop, Rubel, Dixi and Stanley were acceptable, judged mainly on weight
gains, feeding rates, fecundity, and survival. The presence of a feeding
deterrent is indicated in the two unacceptable cultivars but other possibilities
are a lack of some necessary nutrient(s) or an imbalance or unavailability of
nutrients which may invoke the response of inadequate feeding. Adults appear

to die from starvation.

INTRODUCTION

The black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus
(Brachyrhinus) sulcatus (F.), (Zimmerman, 1968),
a parthenogenetic European species, occurs on many
species of plants and is a major pest on several
economic crops, and many ornamentals such as
strawberry, cranberry, blueberry, yew, cyclamen,
and azalea. These plants are obviously different in
many respects and represent a broad range of ac-
ceptability by the pest. In earlier studies on the
acceptability of plants found in peat bogs where
highbush blueberry is grown, Cram and Pearson
(1965) found that excised leaves from certain weeds
were more efficient sources of food for the adults
than blueberry itself. ‘These results led to a study of
the acceptability of leaves from several highbush
blueberry cultivars grown in peat bogs near Van-
couver, British Columbia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The general methods were the same as those
described earlier (Cram and Pearson, 1965). Besides
collecting newly emerged adults in the field, mature
larvae were collected from soil under blueberry
bushes in late May, and placed singly in holes made
with a planting board in a standard greenhouse flat
containing peat soil from the collection site. The
holes were covered lightly, the soil was watered as
required, and the larvae were allowed to pupate and
the adults to emerge in the laboratory. In this way
adults were obtained which had never fed on foliage.
Adults were prevented from escaping from the open
flats by stapling a strip of polyethylene film around
the outside of the flat. This strip extended about 2 cm
above the top of the flat and the inside surface was

' Contribution No. 183, Research Station, Canada Agriculture,

6660 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver 8, British Columbia.

coated with fluon’ applied with a swab of plastic
foam.

Recently an improved method was devised for
measuring the relative area of leaf consumed. After
feeding a leaf was placed on a glass plate over graph
paper with dots marked at alternate millimeter
intersects. The area of leaf consumed was determined
by counting the dots that were visible within the
feeding notches. Each dot was equivalent to 4 sq.
mm of leaf area. Excretion was rated by examining
the relative amount of frass in the vials. All ex-
periments were conducted in commercial bench-top
rearing cabinets’ at a constant 20°C and 16-hour
photoperiod.

Studies in 1966
Newly emerged adults and all blueberry foliage
were collected from the same farm. The cultivars
tested, the mean weight gain in 3 weeks, mortality,
and the mean of viable eggs from 10 weevils each for
13 weeks appear in Table 1. The adults lost weight

Table 1. Response of adults of the black vine

weevil fed excised leaves from highbush blueberry
cultivars at constant 20°C and 16-hour photoperiod
for 13 weeks.

Mean wt Mean
gain (mg) No. surviving viable
Cultivar in 3 weeks tooviposit/13 eggs
Weymouth -0.4 0 0.0
Jersey 14.8 12 308.7
Rancocas 14.4 2 0 Fa
June UB Es) 12 347.6
Pemberton 18.0 13 S39 205
Bluecrop 6 13 449.0

> Fluon is a polytetrafluoroethylene dispersion manufactured
by Imperial Chemical Industries, Welwyn Garden City, Herts.
U.K.

* Manufactured by Sherer-Gillett, Marshall, Michigan, U.S.A.

4 J. ENToMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumBIA, 67 (1970), Aug. 1, 1970

and died even before eggs could be laid when they
were fed on Weymouth, but the other cultivars were
all acceptable and there were no significant dif-
ferences in the weight gains or eggs laid.

Table 2. Response of adults of the black vine
weevil fed excised leaves from highbush blueberry
cultivars at constant 20°C and 16-hour photoperiod
for 10 weeks. Leaves from 4 farms to offset any local
effects.

Mean wt Mean
gain (mg) No. surviving viable

Cultivar Farm' in 3 weeks. to oviposit/13 eggs?
Weymouth A -4.6 0 0.0 a
Weymouth B -4.5 0 0.0 a
Weymouth C -2.4 1 29.4 ab
Weymouth D i 3 2 (Ga
Cabot A -6.4 0 0.0 a
Cabot D -7.6 0 0.0 a
Rubel A 9.6 10 229.9 d
Rubel B 14.2 11 101.4 be
Rubel C 15.4 12 171.1 ed
June C 11.4 12 239.5 d
June D 13.6 12 176.9 cd
Dixi C 15.3 13 230.4 d
Stanley D 15.0 12 247.0d

' A — Erickson; B — Illis; C — Blue Boy; D — Makara.
* Mean of 10 randomly selected survivors. Means sharing the
same letter are not significantly different (p — .05).

Studies in 1967
The preliminary results of 1966 stimulated in-
terest in other cultivars, especially any that were
genetically related to Weymouth. The cultivar Cabot
is one parent of Weymouth, June is the other and

Rubel is a grandparent (Moore, 1966). In 1967
newly emerged adults from the fields and leaves from
the different cultivars were collected from more than
one farm to offset any local climatic or soil effects.
The mean weight gain in 3 weeks, the number of
laying eggs, and the mean of viable eggs for 10
randomly selected weevils for 10 weeks appear in
Table 2. The unacceptable nature of Weymouth was
again evident and its parent Cabot also produced a
similar response. Leaves from different farms did not
alter this response significantly. The cultivars Rubel,
June, Dixi and Stanley were all acceptable on the
basis of the parameters measured.

Another series was observed to show the response
to Cabot and Stanley using adults that had fed on
strawberry foliage since emergence. These were all
ovipositing at a high rate. Ten individuals were then
fed on Cabot, on Stanley or continued on strawberry
(Northwest). Those on strawberry and Stanley
continued to oviposit at normal, comparable levels,
whereas there was a sharp reduction in oviposition in

those on Cabot (Table 3).

Studies in 1969

To clarify and substantiate the earlier findings,
studies were concentrated on one acceptable cultivar,
Stanley, and one unacceptable cultivar, Cabot.
Leaves from both were collected at the Makara farm.
All adults were from larvae collected in the field and
allowed to pupate and emerge in the laboratory.
Emphasis was on the weight change, amount of
feeding and fat content of individual adults fed for 2,
3, 4 and 5 weeks at a constant 20°C and at a 16-hour
photoperiod. When the adults emerged from the soil
they were weighed, and assigned to a cultivar and a
time period. In this way 34 unfed adults from every
date within the 10-day emergence period were in-
cluded in each time period. Adults were fed at weekly

Table 3. Response of 13 actively ovipositing

adults of the black vine weevil fed at first on
strawberry then changed to the blueberry cultivars
Cabot or Stanley or continued on strawberry at
constant 20 C and 16-hour photoperiod.

Mean viable eggs/week

Weeks after change Mean eggs
Host ie 3 A ned Gil /week
Blueberry
Cabot 69 148 5.0 2.6 03 2.6 13.5 6.5
Stanley 40.2 13.2 28.5 32:3 26.2 31.8 38.4 30.2
Strawberry
Northwest 13.2 30.3 40.9 34.1 52.8 37.5 28.7 33.9

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brir. COLUMBIA, 67 (1970), Aua. 1, 1970 5

intervals as before. When their assigned time period
had elapsed they were weighed, killed in ethyl acetate
vapour, weighed again, dried at 90°C for at least 48
hours, weighed, extracted, dried, and _ finally
weighed. The extraction was similar to the method of
Nijholt (1967) and was accomplished by placing a
single dried adult with its numbered label in a small
extraction thimble which was stoppered with a loose
plug of glass wool. Nine thimbles were placed in a
large soxhlet extractor and extracted with petroleum
ether for at least 7 hours. Tests revealed that longer
periods did not result in further extraction of
petroleum ether solubles.

Significant differences (p=.05) between the
cultivars were recorded for weight changes, feeding,
excreting, moisture and fat contents (Table 4). After
5 weeks 31.4% of the weevils were dead on Cabot but
only 5.7% on Stanley. The effect of Cabot was
evident within the first 2 weeks of feeding when all
parameters but fat content were significantly dif-
ferent. The fat contents after 2, 3, 4 and 5 weeks on
Cabot were significantly lower than after only 3
weeks on Stanley. The effect of Cabot appears to be
related to the presence of an unknown feeding
deterrent, since feeding, although normal at first,
soon changes to an atypical small notching or tasting

of the leaf edge rather than the normal, deep and
large notching observed on acceptable cultivars.
Under the conditions of these experiments even the
Cabot foliage that was consumed was: not sufficient
to sustain the normal growth of the fat body and the
immature reproductive system (Cram, 1958); or all
the necessary nutrients were not present; or they
were present in a form that was not readily available
to the weevil; or they were present in unbalanced
concentrations. Gordon (1961) says that in general,
nutritionally adequate foods induce feeding and
inadequate foods do not. Therefore, in this instance,
there may not be a chemical deterrent but rather the
negative response might be due to nutritional
inadequacy. The exact cause of the unacceptability
of Weymouth and Cabot has not been found despite
many attempts to establish a qualitative or quan-
titative difference in the chemical composition of the
leaves. The effect of varying the temperature regimes
sheds some light on these observations (Cram,

1970).

Acknowledgements
The help of Mr. W. D. Pearson, Mr. R.
Hlatky and Mrs. Susan Burt, while serving as
student assistants, is gratefully acknowledged.

Table 4. Response of adults of the black vine weevil fed excised leaves from the blueberry
cultivars Cabot or Stanley for 2, 3, 4 or 5 weeks at constant 20°C and 16-hour photoperiod.

Mean feeding
No. Weeks of Mean wt /week Mean frass Mean% Mean % %
Cultivar adults feeding gain(mg)' (Sqmmofleaf) /week? moisture fat? = Mortality
Cabot 34 Z -0.3 a 182.0 a loa 76.8 a 8.4 ab 5.6
31 3 -6.6a 158.2 a 1.6 b 76.6 a 6.8 a 13.9
31 4 -6.3 a 144.0 a 1.4 ab 74.8 ab 8.1 ab 8.6
24 5 -6.7 a 138.8 a 1.6b 73.5 b 8.5 ab 31.4
Stanley 34 y 6.4 b 346.6 b 2.4. ¢ 68.6c 13.0 be 5.6
35 3 8.8 be 324.1 b 2.7d 64.2d 15.8¢ 0.0
31 4 11.2¢ 335.2 b AE o7.7e 17.6¢ 2.8
33 5 11.9 ¢ 318.7 b 2.5 € 90.8e 183¢ ser

' Means sharing the same letter are not significantly different (p — .05).

2 Rated as amount of frass in vial.

3 Petroleum ether solubles. Mean of 34 freshly transformed adults was 5.3%.

References

Cram, W. T. 1958. Gross anatomy and growth of the reproductive system of the black vine
weevil, Brachyrhinus sulcatus (F.) (Coleoptera:Curculionidae). Can. Entomol. 90:569-

579.

Cram, W. T. and W. D. Pearson. 1965. Fecundity of the black vine weevil, Brachyrhinus
sulcatus (F.), fed on foliage of blueberry, cranberry and weeds from peat bogs. Proc.

Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 62:25-27.

Cram, W. T. 1970. Acceptability of cultivars of highbush blueberry at varying temperatures by
adult black vine weevils (Col.:Curculionidae). J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 67:6.7.

6 J. ENTomoL. Soc. Brit. Cotumpbia, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

Gordon, H. T. 1961. Nutritional factors in insect resistance to chemicals. Ann. Rev. Entomol.

6:27-54.

Moore, J. N. 1966. Breeding in Blueberry Culture ed. P. Eck and N. F. Childers. Rutgers

University Press, New Brunswick. 45-74.

Nijholt, W. W. 1967. Moisture and fat content during the adult life of the ambrosia beetle,
Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.). J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 64:51-55.

Zimmerman, EK. C. 1968. Otiorhynchus versus Brachyrhinus (Insects, Coleoptera, Family
Curculionidae). Bull. Zool. Nomencl. 25:29-35.

ACCEPTABILITY OF CULTIVARS OF HIGHBUSH
BLUEBERRY AT VARYING TEMPERATURES BY ADULT
BLACK VINE WEEVILS (COL. :CURCULIONIDAE)!

W. T. CRAM

ABSTRACT

Adults of the black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus (Brachyrhinus)
sulcatus (F.), fed and oviposited at normal, expected rates when fed excised
foliage of the acceptable highbush blueberry cultivars, June and Stanley, in
variable temperature regimes of 7 to 15, mean 10; 12 to 19, mean 15; and 16
to 29, mean 22°C. However, on the unacceptable cultivars, Cabot and
Weymouth, they laid some eggs at the high and very few eggs at the medium
regimes, whereas in earlier work they laid no eggs at a constant 20°C. These
results indicate that Cabot and Weymouth provide barely adequate nutrition
to the weevils and that environmental stresses such as a constant 20°C demand
more nutrients than the unacceptable cultivars can provide. Variable condi-
tions, probably due to a lower turn-over rate during the cool periods, allow
the insect to obtain the nutrients necessary for fat body development and some

oviposition.

INTRODUCTION

A clear pattern of unacceptability of the highbush
blueberry cultivars Cabot and Weymouth to adults
of the black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus (Bra-
chyrhinus) sulcatus (F.), was shown at the constant
laboratory conditions of 20°C and 16 hours
photoperiod (Cram, 1970). Further tests at three
variable temperature regimes were conducted to see
if this response also occurred in somewhat more
natural environmental conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The general methods were the same as those
described earlier (Cram and Pearson, 1965). One
half of the adults in each series was collected in the
field, the rest were collected as mature larvae and
allowed to transform to adults in the laboratory. Ten
adults per treatment were observed for 13 weeks.
The cultivars tested were the unacceptable Cabot
and Weymouth, and the acceptable June and Stanley
(Cram, 1970). All foliage was collected from the

' Contribution No. 184, Research Station, Canada Agriculture,
6660 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver 8, British Columbia.

Makara farm.

The temperature regimes were selected to ap-
proximate a cold, a cool or a hot summer. The
regimes were attained by setting the electronic
programmer on three bench-top growth cabinets
(Sherer-Gillett, Marshall, Mich., U.S.A.) to hourly
settings which produced acceptable temperature
curves with daily temperatures of 7 to 15, mean 10;
12 to 19, mean 15; and 16 to 29, mean 22°C. The
photoperiod was kept at 16 hours. From six ran-
domly selected survivors per cultivar per regime,
data were collected on weight change in three weeks,
preoviposition period, number ovipositing and
numbers of total and viable eggs after eight weeks
from the first egg.

These data were analyzed by computer and the
egg data were found to be highly heterogeneous often
with significant interaction between regimes and
cultivars, thereby invalidating the very highly
significant differences between the three regimes and
between the two sets of cultivars. For this reason,
significant differences are not given in Table 1, but
examination of the means indicates the trends.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BriT. COLUMBIA, 67 (1970), Auc. 1, 1970 7

TABLE 1. Response of adults of the black vine weevil fed excised leaves of highbush blueberry

cultivars at 3 variable temperature regimes.

Mean wt Mean pre-_ No. of 6 Mean Mean

Temperature change (mg) oviposition actually total viable

Cultivar regime ! in 3 weeks? period-days? laying eggs eggs? eggs?
Cabot Low = a - 0 0.0 0.0
Med. -2.4 58.0 2 4.0 3.0

High 4,2 41.2 6 147.2 24.5

Weymouth Low -4,1 - 0 0.0 0.0
Med. 1.9 938. 4 2 9.7 2:2

High 6.0 39.5 6 188.2 40.0

June Low 3.7 00.9 4 25.0 10.0
Med. 7.5 34.7 6 76.8 47.7

High 9.2 30.8 6 lied 149.8

Stanley Low 6.0 94.5 6 gone 7.8
Med. 4.9 40.7 6 101.8 67.8

High 12.9 29. 2 6 487.8 233.3

‘Low 7 to 15, mean 10; Med. 12 to 19, mean 15; High 16 to 29, mean 22°C.
2No interaction effects; data from both temperature regimes and cultivars gave significant F values at p — .01

3High interaction effects.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The responses of the adults to the four cultivars at
variable temperature regimes (Table 1) were dif-
ferent from those recorded earlier at a constant
temperature of 20°C (Cram, 1970). Weight changes
were significantly different between regimes and
between cultivars. Adults lost weight on the unac-
ceptable cultivars at low and medium regimes, but
there was some weight gain at the high regime.
Adults gained weight normally at all regimes on the
acceptable cultivars. Preoviposition periods were also
significantly different between regimes and between
cultivars. On the unacceptable cultivars all six adults
laid a few eggs at the high regime; two laid a few
eggs at the medium regime; and no eggs were laid at
the low regime. On the acceptable cultivars all six
adults laid many eggs at the high regime, several eggs

.at the medium regime and some eggs at the low

regime. These results indicate that the unacceptable
cultivars are nutritionally adequate for oviposition
but barely so and that the nutrients are not present in
ratios or amounts suitable to class the cultivars as
acceptable. One explanation for the response to a

constant temperature of 20°C may be that this
unnatural regime forces the adults to such a high
turnover rate that the levels of nutrients in Cabot or
Weymouth do not provide the reserves necessary for
growth of the fat body and ovaries prior to
oviposition; thus the adults actually lose weight.
This inadequate diet might also cause a reduction in
feeding rate as suggested by Gordon (1961). At
variable regimes the cooler nights may result in a
slower turn-over rate allowing the normally noc-
turnal adult to accumulate reserves.

The low temperature regime approaches the 8 to
15°C range which was tested earlier for strawberry
(Cram, 1965) and was found to result in a low
oviposition rate similar to the results with acceptable
blueberry cultivars. The effect here is undoubtedly
related to temperature alone.

The wide difference between total and viable eggs
recorded for all regimes and cultivars is not un-
derstood. Usually viability is well above 80 per cent.

Acknowledgement

The help of Mr. R. Hlatky, while serving

as a student assistant, is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Cram, W. T. 1965. Fecundity of the root weevils Brachyrhinus sulcatus and Sciopithes obscurus
on strawberry in the laboratory and outdoors. Can. J. Plant Sci. 45:169-176.

Cram, W. T., and W. D. Pearson. 1965. Fecundity of the black vine weevil, Brachyrhinus
sulcatus (F.), fed on foliage of blueberry, cranberry, and weeds from peat bogs. Proc.

Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 62:25-27.

Cram, W. T. 1970. Unacceptability of cultivars of highbush blueberry by adult black vine weevils
(Col.:Curculionidae). J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 67:3-6.
Gordon, H. T. 1961. Nutritional factors in insect resistance to chemicals. Ann. Rev. Entomol.

6:27-54.

8 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA, 67 (1970), AugG. 1, 1970

EFFECTS OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION ON McDANIEL
AND EUROPEAN RED MITES IN APPLE ORCHARDS!
WILLIAM B. HUDSON and B. P. BEIRNE?

ABSTRACT

Overtree sprinkler irrigation of apple trees was effective in keeping
populations of McDaniel spider mites, Tetranychus mcdanieli, below the
economic level. Sprinkling had less effect on European red mites, Panonychus
ulmi, because the females moved to the undersides of the leaves and continued
egglaying during the sprinkling and because the eggs, unlike those of T.
mcdanieli, were not dislodged by the sprinkling. The effectiveness may be
increased by timing the sprinkling to coincide with the first appearance of the
immature stages and by increasing the size of the droplets.

INTRODUCTION

Major innovations in orchard management
rapidly being adopted in the apple-growing areas of
British Columbia and Eastern Washington are
integrated programmes for pest damage control and
permanent overtree sprinkler systems for irrigation.
These two are interrelated because the sprinkling
must be a part of any integrated control programme
and may be appropriately modified if it affects pests.

This paper summarizes some results of surveys
and experiments aimed at answering two questions in
relation to the chief pest mites: has overtree
sprinkling a significant effect on their populations;
and, if it has, how might the effect be modified? The
species discussed here are the most important pest
mites: the McDaniel spider mite, Tetranychus
mcdanieli McGregor, and the European red mite,
Panonychus ulmi Koch. The work was done in
orchards in the Yakima district of Washington State
in 1968 and in the South Okanagan district of British
Columbia in 1969.

Various published records indicate the likelihood
that orchard mite populations are affected by
irrigation sprinklers. Recent popular reports claim
that overtree irrigation has a control effect (Ross,
1968; Stark, 1969; earlier records indicated that
the mechanical effects of orchard sprays could reduce
mite populations substantially (Frost, 1924,
Newcomer and Yothers, 1927; Spuler, 1930; Moore
et al., 1939, Chaboussou, 1961); and there are
references to rain washing mites from leaves
(McGregor, 1914; Ross and Robinson, 1922;
Garman, 1923; Frost, 1924; Hamilton, 1924;
Garman and Townsend, 1938; Kuenen, 1945;
Linke, 1953). The work described here shows that
overtree sprinkling has a significant control effect on

' Part of a thesis submitted by W. B. Hudson for the degree of
M.S. of Simon Fraser University. Details of methods and data
may be obtained from him at: Yakima County Cooperative Ex-
tension Service, 233 Courthouse, Yakima, Washington, U.S.A.

* Pestology Centre, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon
Fraser University, Burnaby 2, British Columbia.

the populations of both species but normally exerts
economic control only on the McDaniel mite

(Hudson, 1970).

EFFECTS OF COMMERCIAL SPRINKLER
SYSTEMS

The effects of overtree and undertree sprinling on
populations of the McDaniel mite were investigated
in an orchard at Yakima, Washington. Half the
orchard was irrigated by one system and half by the
other. Changes in the mite populations were
determined by counting the number of mites per leaf
on each of ten leaves from the same marked limbs on
each of five trees every two weeks during June and
every week thereafter until early September.

Results are shown in Fig. 1. It was evident that
populations of the McDaniel mite were kept below
injurious levels when the trees were irrigated by
overtree sprinklers on a normal schedule. In the
overtree-sprinkled block the average number of mites
per leaf (of 14 samples) was 0.4 and the highest
number 1.6 whereas in the undertree sprinkled block
the average was 7.3 and the highest 35. There was
visible leaf injury to many trees in the undertree
sprinkled block but not in the overtree sprinkled one.
In an experimental orchard at Summerland, B.C.,
the mite populations increased by 1.04 and 0.4 times
over the pre-treatment counts on two sprinkled trees
in six weeks but 17.2 and 11.3 times on two control
trees.

Surveys using the same procedures in the Net-
tleton orchard at Naramata, B.C., showed the effects
of sprinkling on populations of the European red
mite. Again it was evident that overtree sprinkling
was much more effective than undertree sprinkling in
reducing populations. The results are shown in Figs.
3 and 4. However, the mites reached injurious
population levels in both blocks and chemicals had to
be applied to prevent economic damage. Despite this,
foliage injury was moderate to severe on all trees of
the undertree-sprinkled block.

PS ee SE

J. ENToMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtumnria, 67 (1970), Auc. 1, 1970

50+ FIG. 1

40 ; FIG. 3

30} McDaniel Spider Mites |; te 21

Overtree ————— ZN 200
20 Undertree-—-—-—-— , \
i \
10 ed
/ i u

NETTLETON ORCHARD
150 Small Del. Trees
European Red Mites

Overtree
100

Undertree

Active mites per leaf

50

20
p passeti=
June July Aug Sept.
FIG. 4
FIG. 2 NETTLETON ORCHARD P
U
Sea ohana 60 /\ NETTLETON ORCHARD
n Apple Rust Mite es
Ls U
c \
miele i ‘ / . Overtree 50
"4 ‘ Ws oi Undertree- ---=2
‘\

i Large Del. Trees
U ry

European Red Mites

Mites per leaf

Overtree

Undertree

\
\
‘
‘
\
‘
4
‘
‘
\
‘
‘

Active mites per leaf
w
ro)

LY
\
\
4
‘
\
‘
4
iy
‘

June

July Aug. Sept. :

July Aug. Sept.
Figs. 1-4. Effects of overtree versus undertree sprinkling on populations of: (1) McDaniel mite
at Yakima, Wash.; (2) apple rust mite at Naramata, B.C.; (3 and 4) European red mite at Naramata.

10 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. Cotumsta, 67 (1970), Auge. 1, 1970

Surveys using the same procedures in a third
commercial orchard, at Summerland, gave results for
both species that agreed in general with those at
Yakima and Naramata. The conclusion is that an
overtree sprinkling system operated on a normal
irrigation schedule can by itself prevent economic
harm from the McDaniel mite but not from the
European red mite. The greatest reductions of both
species were from the upper surfaces of the leaves;
mites on the lower surfaces were less affected.

REASONS FOR DIFFERENT EFFECTS

Experiments with detached leaves indicated why
the European red mite is less affected than the
McDaniel mite by overtree sprinkling. The numbers,
stages and distributions of mites on the same leaves
were determined before and after exposure to field
sprinkling. Three main differences between the two
species were revealed:

Egg removal. Sprinkling washed the eggs of the
McDaniel mite from the upper surfaces of leaves but
not the eggs of the European red mite. Two h of
sprinkling removed 90 %of the eggs of the McDaniel
mite and 24 h 99% but eggs of the European red mite
were not washed off irrespective of the duration or
intensity of the sprinkling.

Female migration. Many females of the
European red mite escaped by migrating from the
upper to the lower surface of the leaf when sprinkling
began. They were affected similarly by rain and dew.
In one experiment the number of females decreased
from 203 to one on the upper surfaces of five leaves
but increased from 82 to 128 on the lower surfaces.
In another experiment the corresponding figures
were from 205 to 174 and from 112 to 164. No such
changes were observed for the McDaniel mite; there
was no evidence that females migrated to the un-
dersurfaces of the leaves when sprinkling started. In
one instance the numbers of active mites increased by
about 20” on the lower surfaces but this was at-
tributed to eggs hatching and not to migration
because the increase on control leaves was 37%.

Egg-laying. Sprinkling did not prevent egg-laying
by the European red mite. The decreases in egg
numbers following sprinkling were insignificant in
most tests and could have been accounted for by
hatching. In other tests the numbers increased,
which indicated that egg-laying may increase during
sprinkling. During one 12-h sprinkling period the
eggs increased 26” on the sprinkled leaves but 6” on
the control leaves. In another instance the average
number of eggs per leaf on 20 leaves was 246 before
10-h of intermittent sprinkling and 436 after. No
evidence indicated that egg-laying by the McDaniel
mite increased during sprinkling. In one test the
number of eggs on the lower surfaces of five leaves
was 221 before sprinkling, 228 after 2 h and 192
after 24 h.

POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENTS

Commercial overtree sprinkler irrigation reduced
populations of both species of mites. Counts showed
that the usual reduction caused by a single sprinkling
was 40 to 60” for both species. A reduction of 60% or
less is not sufficient to prevent economic damage by
the European red mite because of the high rate of
survival of its eggs and females and its ability to
oviposit during the sprinkling. Moreover, there are
local variations in the habits of mites that vary their
susceptibility. ‘Thus, the strain of McDaniel mite in
the Yakima district occurs more often on the upper
surfaces of the leaves and spins more webbing than
does the strain in the Summerland district, where the
species tends to be less susceptible to harm by
sprinkling that it does around Yakima. Any
modification of the sprinkling system that would
increase the mortality above the present normal
maxima of about 60% for both species would be
advantageous.

To explore the possibilities, tests were made in an
experimental orchard at Summerland, using a
portable overtree sprinkling system. Here the
duration, timing, and concentration of the sprinkling
and other controls were determined by the ex-
perimenter instead of by the grower. Some of the
tests used the same procedures as in commercial
orchards; others used single leaves. This series also
showed that the effects on the apple rust mite, Aculus
schlechtendali (Napela), were in general similar to
the effects on the McDaniel mite. Fig. 2 is given as
an example.

Rates of application. Results of conventional (0.3
inches’h) and of high (0.7) rates of application of
water by overtree sprinkling were not significantly
different for active stages of the McDaniel mite
(Figs. 5 and 6) or for the eggs (Figs. 7 and 8). But
there were slight differences with the European red
mite in that 12’h of overtree sprinkling at 0.3 in-
ches h reduced populations by about one-third
whereas 12h at 0.7 inches h reduced them one-half.

Coverage. Mites on the undersides of leaves were
little affected by overtree sprinkling. Control would
be increased if the undersides could be wetted. This
happened when a test was conducted in a windstorm
that carried the sprinkler water nearly horizontally.
The percent control was greater than from any other
single sprinkling. This indicates the possible ef-
fectiveness as a pest control agent of a power water
spray.

Overtree sprinkling reduced the mite populations
on leaves of the upper limbs more than it did on the
lower. The average number of females on 20 upper
leaves on each of two trees was reduced from 4.3 per
leaf to 2.1, but on the lower leaves from 9.8 to 7.4.

SO

ed

——

———

——————_—

SS eee

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BriT. CoLUMBIA, 67 (1970), AuG. 1, 1970 11

FIG. 5 100
Sprinkled ee
200 Check Paes te
Avg. of 4 Replicates eee 50
100
50 x
3 8 20
= g
3B 20 €
o 3
3 2 10
3 n
8 10 3
2 =
7 é
5 = 5 Sprinkled

Check eecee

Avg. of 4 Replicates

8/5 8/15 9/1 9/12
1
8/5 8/15 9/1 9/12
FIG. 8 Pe
50 Sprinkled Soe i iss
FIG. 6 ; Check bane ae aed Sed As °
Sprinkled eee :
200 prinkle 2 Avg. of 4 Replicates /
Check w=--- - sa
aS Avg. of 4 Replicates z
©
nS]
50 &
2
c
5
a)
1S)
20 =

mcvaniel spiaer mites
o

8/5 8/15 9/1 9/12 8/5 8/15 9/1 9/12

Figs. 5-8. Effects of conventional rates of sprinkling (Figs. 5, 7) and of high rates (6, 8) on
active stages and eggs of the McDaniel mite at Summerland, B.C.

12 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRiT. CoLumsta, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

Tree types. Surveys in the commercial orchard at
Naramata showed that the average number of mites
per leaf on 50 leaves was lower on small trees with
overtree sprinklers than on large ones: 4.9 as
compared with 7.3 with peaks of 14 and 31.4,
respectively; but it was higher on small trees with
undertree sprinklers than on large ones: 35.3 as
compared with 20.3 with peaks of 178 and 64.

In the commercial orchard at Summerland
overtree sprinkling was apparently more effective in
reducing mites on Spartan than on Delicious apples,
but this may have been because of varietal
preference: mites are generally more of a problem on
Delicious than on Spartan. The average number per
leaf was 1.5 on Spartan and 4.5 on Delicious, with
the highest numbers 3.0 and 16.2, respectively. The
corresponding figurs for undertree-sprinkled trees
were 2.3 and 5.7 and 11.3 and 20.

Timing. Overtree sprinkling washes off a greater
proportion of the immature stages of the European
red mite than of the adults. Four h of sprinkling
reduced adult populations by 54.9% (differences
significant at the 5% level) but the immatures by 58%
(differences significant at the 1% level). After 12-h of
sprinkling the corresponding figures were 47” and
87% . The relative susceptibility of the immatures of
this species to sprinkling and the immunity of the
eggs suggests that for maximum control overtree
sprinkling should be timed to affect the larval and
protonymph stages of the first summer generation,
after the overwintered eggs have hatched but before

the adults have developed. Results of experiments
suggested that sprinkling to control the McDaniel
mite should begin when the mite population is still
low; it will then be kept low. There were indications
that at high population densities control by
sprinkling may be nearly offset by the rapid rate of
increase of the mites.

CONCLUSION

It is clear that overtree sprinkler irrigation
contributes to the suppression of populations of
phytophagous mites. It does so without added cost to
the grower, without harming the environment, and,
so far as existing information indicates, without
favouring other orchard pests or diseases. The ef-
fectiveness of an overtree sprinkler system in con-
trolling mite populations may be increased, if
sprinklings are timed to coincide with the first ap-
pearance of the immature stages, if the water
droplets are as large as possible, and if the sprinklers
are so arranged that every part of the tree is dren-
ched.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the staff of the
Canada Department of Agriculture’s Research
Station, Summerland, B.C., and in particular
C. V. G. Morgan, for continuing cooperation and
assistance during the work in the Okanagan
Valley. The work was made possible by an
operating research grant to B. P. Beirne from
the National Research Council of Canada.

References

Chaboussou, F. 1961. The efficacity of various products used for the treatment of vines against
Panonychus ulmi Koch. Repercussions on the populations of winter eggs. (in French).

Rev. Zool. Agr. 60(10-12):121-138 (Abstr.).

Frost, S. W. 1924. Four years experiments on the control of the red spider. J. Econ. Entomol.

17(1):101-104.

Garman, P. 1923. The European red mite in 1922. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 252:101-125.
Garman, P. and J. F. Townsend. 1938. The European red mite and its control. Conn. Agr.

Exp. Sta. Bull. 418, 1-34.

Hamilton, C. C. 1926. The European red mite. N.J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 187:1-8.
Hudson, W. B. 1970. Mite control with overtree sprinklers. Wash. State Hort. Assoc. Proc.

65:134-135.

Kuenen, D. J. 1943. Spint op vruchboomen. (Mites on fruit trees). Rev. Appl. Entomol. 34:91.

(Abstr.).

Linke, W. 1953. Investigations of the biology and epidemiology of the common spider mite,
Tetranychus althaea v. Hanst. with particular reference to the hop as the host. Hofchen-

Briefe. Bayer. Pflanz. Nachr. 6:181-1232.

McGregor, E. A. 1914. Red spider control. J. Econ. Entomol. 7(4):324-336.
Moore, F. B. et al., 1939. Investigations on codling moth and mite control. Wash. State Hort.

Assoc. Proc. 35:95-105.

Newcomer, E. J. and M. A. Yothers. 1927. Experiments for the control of the European red mite
and other fruit tree mites. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 25:1-33.

Ross, Otto. 1968. Overtree sprinkling. Wash. State Hort. Assoc. Proc. 64:55.

SG a NI I I

a

ee

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumBtia, 67 (1970), Ava. 1, 1970 13

Ross, W. A. and Robinson, W. 1922. Notes on the plum spider mite or European red mite. Rev.

Appl. Entomol. 10:420. (Abstr.).

Spuler, Anthony. 1930. Effect of overhead sprinklers on insects and their control. Wash. State

Hort. Assoc. Proc. 26:54-56.

Stark, Paul, Jr. 1969. Sprinklers are bustin’ out all over and under in Northwest orchards.

Western Fruit Grower 23(5):12-13.

OBSERVATIONS ON RHAGOLETIS INDIFFERENS AND
RELATED SPECIES IN THE OKANAGAN VALLEY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA

HAROLD F. MADSEN

Research Station, Canada Agriculture
Summerland, British Columbia

ABSTRACT

The western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran was first
recorded in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia in 1968, and trapping
during 1969 established the presence of this species in most of the cherry
growing district in the region. R. indifferens emerges as an adult in early
June, and flies continue to appear until mid-July. The principal host of this
species, Prunus emarginata, Dough. was not found in the Okanagan, and
no flies were found on Prunus virginiana demissa (Nutt.) which has been
reported as a host.

A comparison of lures to trap the flies showed that ammonium car-
bonate traps were more efficient than yellow sticky boards or glycine-lye bait
pans. The sticky boards, however, seem to be adequate for determining the
presence of cherry fruit flies.

In addition to R. indifferens, 5 other Rhagoletis were trapped in
commercial cherry orchards. The common species were R. zephyria Snow, R.
ribicola Doane, and R. berberis Curran. R. fausta (Osten Sacken) and R.
tabellaria (Fitch) were trapped in very low numbers in a relatively few

locations.

INTRODUCTION

The western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis in-
differens Curran was recorded for the first time in the
Okanagan Valley of British Columbia during the
summer of 1968. This species has been present for
several years on Vancouver Island and in the
Kootenay district (Madsen and Arrand 1966). The
black cherry fruit fly Rhagoletis fausta (Osten
Sacken) is present in the Shuswap Lake area near
Salmon Arm and was recorded in the Okanagan
Valley during 1951 and 1965. These two infestations
did not spread from the original source and only an
occasional fly was found in subsequent seasons. A
survey in 1969 established that R. indifferens was
present in the Okanagan Valley from Vernon to
Okanagan Falls, but no flies were found in the
Oliver-Osoyoos district or in the Similkameen Valley.

Contribution No. 278. Research Station, Canada Agriculture
Summerland, British Columbia.

The native host of the western cherry fruit fly is
bitter cherry, Prunus emarginata Dough. and flies
have also been reared from choke cherry, Prunus
virginiana demissa (Nutt.) (Frick 1954). The
presence of native hosts complicates the problem of
controlling cherry fruit flies in commercial orchards
because they provide a source of flies for reinfestation
(Peters and Arrand 1968). Consequently,

a research program was initiated in 1969 to deter-
mine if wild hosts supported cherry fruit flies in the
Okanagan. In addition, data were obtained on the
emergence of the western cherry fruit fly in infested
orchards and a comparison of various lures for
trapping the flies was made.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wild hosts were surveyed for the presence of fruit
fly larvae and collections from all suspect hosts were

' Report on the cherry fruit fly survey in the Okanagan Valley
1969. Canada Department of Agriculture, Plant Protection Divi-
sion, September 4, 1969. Mimeograph.

14

brought into the laboratory for rearing. Fruit from
these hosts was placed on sandy soil, and the sand
sifted for fruit fly pupae at a later date. Pupae were
placed in containers with moist soil and held in cold
storage (1.1°C) for 150 days. The containers were
then brought into the laboratory and held at room
temperature until the fruit flies emerged.

Fruit flies were trapped in the field with yellow
sticky boards of a similar design to that described by
Wilde (1962). These boards were compared with two
other traps, an ammonium carbonate trap described
by Frick (1954) and glycine-lye bait pans which have
been used to trap the walnut husk fly, Rhagoletis
completa Cresson (Barnes and Madsen 1963). The
traps were observed at weekly intervals to determine
when flies first emerged and the peaks of activity
during the season. Traps were installed in two areas,
one at Westbank and the other at Okanagan Mission
where the original infestations were found in 1968. A
number of Rhagoletis species were captured on the
traps, and they were identified by wing patterns
illustrated in the comprehensive paper on the Genus
Rhagoletis by Bush (1966). All identifications were
confirmed by the Insect Taxonomy Section, En-
tomology Research Institute, Ottawa.

GOURLAY

MC CARTNEY

28h. waa he

JUNE

22

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. CoLUMBIA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

RESULTS
Native Hosts: An extensive survey was made, but
P. emarginata, the principal host of the western

Cherry fruit fly was not found in the Okanagan

Valley. No fruit fly larvae were found in collections
of berries from R. virgiana demissa and none were
reared in the laboratory from the host. No adult fruit
flies were trapped on yellow sticky boards hung in
locations where this shrub was abundant. Indications
are that the western cherry fruit fly does not occur on
native hosts in the Okanagan Valley.

Fruit Fly Emergence: The first R. indifferens
was trapped on June 4, and the peak of emergence
was between June 13 and June 24. The last fly was
taken on July 28. A comparison of R. indifferens
emergence at two localities is illustrated in Figure 1.

There was little difference in emergence time at
the two orchards, and the long emergence period
indicates that commercial cherry orchards will need
chemical protection for a minimum of 6 weeks. A
total of 74 properties were trapped in the two areas,
and R. indifferens was taken in 16 properties. Of
these, 9 were commercial orchards and the others
neglected or backyard trees.

Trap Comparisons: A trap consisting of a

VS 24

AUG

We 1 Ah ee G

JULY

Fig. 1. The emergence of R. indifferens at two localities, Okanagan Mission (Gourlay) and
Westbank (McCartney)

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtumBtiA, 67 (1970), Aua. 1, 1970 15

standard yellow sticky board with a wide mouth pint
jar containing ammonium carbonate suspended
underneath caught the most fruit flies. There was no
difference in the catch between yellow sticky boards
alone and the _ glycine-lye bait pans. These
preliminary evaluations indicate that the ammonium
carbonate traps might be useful in detecting very low
fruit fly populations. The yellow sticky boards seem
adequate for survey purposes and are easier to install
and maintain than ammonium carbonate traps or
glycine-lye bait pans.

Other Rhagoletis Species: In addition to R.
indiffrens, 5 other Rhagoletis species were trapped
during the season. The black cherry fruit fly, R.
fausta was trapped in one locality, and only 4

R. INDIFFERENS

R. FAUSTA

R. ZEPHYRIA

— ~
oF, WO PPO WD OO HR C RY

R. RIBICOLA
R. BERBERIS
R. TABELLARIA

specimens were taken. This species does not seem to
compete withR. indifferens and this may explain the
low population. R. zephyria Snow was common
throughout the study area, and this species attacks
snowberry, Symphoricarpus albus Blake, which is a
common shrub in the Okanagan. Larvae were found
in the berries and this species was reared from
snowberry in the laboratory. R. ribicola Doane was
trapped in most areas, with the majority of the flies
from traps in backyard trees. The hosts of this
species are currant and gooseberry, but no larvae
were found in collections from these hosts. R.
tabellaria (Fitch) was taken in a few localities and
was the least common of the 6 species of fruit flies.
The species is reported to attack the fruits of Vac-

My

Fig. 2. Emergence of six species of Rhagoletis trapped on yellow sticky boards in the
Okanagan Valley.

16 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 67 (1970), AuG. 1, 1970

cinium, but no larvae were collected on this host in
the Okanagan. R. berberis Curran was commonly
encountered on traps and was recorded from nearly
all the areas under study. R.berberis attacks the fruit
of Oregon grape. Mahonia nervosa pursh, and larvae
were found in large numbers in the berries. Although
pupae were readily obtained in the laboratory, adults
did not emerge under laboratory conditions.

The emergence period of the six species of
Rhagoletis trapped on yellow sticky boards is shown
in Figure 2. R. ribicola, R. berberis, and R.
tabellaria emerge at about the same period as R.
indifferens, but the peak of emergence is about two
weeks later. R. zephyria emerges later than the other
species with peak emergence in mid-July. This adult
activity coincides with the development of fruit on
the snowberry plants. There were too few R. fausta
taken to draw conclusions on adult emergence. In
other areas, it appears earlier than R. indifferens and

the emergence period is shorter.
DISCUSSION
The lack of wild hosts for the western cherry fruit
fly in the Okanagan Valley may mean that control of
this major pest of cherries will be easier than in other
areas. Trapping has shown that most of the flies
occur in neglected trees, and the spraying or removal
of these trees should significantly reduce fruit fly
populations. Indications are that R. indifferens has
been in the Okanagan for some time, since it is
distributed over most of the cherry growing area.
Yellow sticky boards seem to be reliable traps for
determining whether chemical treatment is
necessary. The presence of 6 species of Rhagoletis in
the Okanagan indicates that the area is favorable for
fruit fly development. Whether R. indifferens can
become a serious pest in the Okanagan may depend
on its ability to survive on cultivated cherries in the
absence of a native host.

References
Barnes, M. M. and H. F. Madsen. 1963. Analyzing the threat of the husk fly. Diamond Walnut

News 45(3): 5-7.

Bush, Guy L. 1966. The taxonomy, cytology and evolution of the Genus Rhagoletis in North
America (Diptera, Tephritidae). Bull. Mus. comp. Zool. Harv. 134: 433-521.

Frick, Kenneth E., Harold G. Simkover and H. S. Telford. 1954. Bionomics of the cherry fruit
flies in eastern Washington. Wash. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. 13: 1-66.

Midsen, H. F. and J. C. Arrand. 1966. The recognition and biology of orchard insects and
mites in British Columbia. Brit. Columbia Dept. Agr. Bull. 66-2: 1-41.

Peters, W. S. and J. C. Arrand. 1968. The control of cherry fruit flies in the Kootenay area
of British Columbia. Brit. Columbia Dept. Agr. Bull. 68-6: 1-6.

Wilde, W. H. A. 1962. A note on colour preference of some Homoptera and Thysanoptera in

British Columbia. Can. Entomol. 94: 107.

NOTES ON DIAPAUSE IN THE TOMATO HORNWORM
(LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE), IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
F. L. BANHAM!

INTRODUCTION

The tomato hornworm, Manduca
quinquemaculata (Haworth), is a sporadic economic
pest in commercial and home garden plantings of
tomatoes in the southern dry-belt regions of British
Columbia, particularly, in the Thompson, Okanagan
and Similkameen Valleys (Banham and Arrand
1970). It also occurs on related Solanaceous plants,
including egg plant, pepper and potato.

At Summerland, B.C., in 1968 and 1969, there
were up to 2 generations of hornworms each year.
First generation moths emerged about mid-June and
second-generation moths about mid-August. As in

' Contribution No. 288. Research Station, Canada Department
of Agriculture, Summerland, British Columbia.

southern Ontario (McClanahan 1955), some moths
did not emerge from first generation pupae until the
following year. In the laboratory, 1 of 12 pupae and
2 of 17, respectively, diapaused from larvae collected
in the field in late June or July in 1968 and 1969.
Both years, moths emerged from the remainder of
the non-diapausing pupae after about 3 weeks.
Insufficient numbers of tomato hornworm larvae
were collected and reared to indicate the actual
incidence of faculative diapause in the pupal stage.
In North Carolina, Rabb (1966), reported a
faculative diapause in the pupal stage of the closely
related tobacco hornworm, Manduca _ sexta
(Johannson), with the incidence of diapause in-
creasing from less than 5” in June to more than 95%

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970 17

in late fall. Diapause was initiated in the larval stage
of the tobacco hornworm by photoperiodic day
length cycles of 5 to 13 hours. In contrast, tem-
perature rather than photoperiod was the major

factor influencing diapause induction in the tomato
hornworm in southern Ontario (Svec, 1964).
Diapause was induced by exposing prepupal and
pupal stages to temperatures of 22°C or lower.

References

Banham, F. L. and J. C. Arrand. 1970. Recognition and life history of the major insect and
allied pests of vegetables in British Columbia. Brit. Columbia Dep. Agr. Entomol. Br.

(In press).

McClanahan, R. J. 1955. Control of hornworms on tobacco. Can. Dep. Agr. Publ. 951.
Rabb, R. L. 1966. Diapause in Protoparce sexta (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae). Ann. Entomol.

Soc. Amer. 59: 160-165.

Svec, H. J. 1964. Induction of diapause in the tomato hornworm, Protoparce quinqemaculata
(Haw.). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Ontario 94: 68-70.

INCONGRUITY BETWEEN LARVAE AND ADULTS IN THE
ACCEPTABILITY OF HIGHBUSH BLUEBERRY
CULTIVARS BY THE BLACK VINE WEEVIL
W. T. CRAM

Laboratory observations have shown that adults
of the black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus
(Brachyrhinus) sulcatus (F.), do not oviposit or
survive when fed exclusively on excised leaves of the
blueberry cultivars Cabot and Weymouth (Cram,
1970). To test the acceptability of 4 cultivars by

Cultivar

Rancocas
Pemberton
June
Weymouth

OmiG
Solas 20: eo

larvae, rooted cuttings were potted in peat soil and
grown in the greenhouse. Twenty 8-day-old viable
eggs were placed on the soil of each of 5 replicates.
Fifteen weeks later the pots were dumped and the
soil was searched for larvae with the following
results:

Replicates
1 2 3 4 5 Total

Oe Ae e202 and
0 2° 3* 1 0 6
OO Ura 3

*Plant dead-stem girdled below soil.

Although there was very low recovery of larvae
the evidence of severe damage was present in all the
cultivars. The largest number of late instar larvae
were recovered from Weymouth which indicates that
there is no congruity between the acceptability of this
cultivar by larvae feeding on roots and adults feeding
on leaves. Hence, from an economic standpoint,

Weymouth cannot be considered to be an immune
cultivar. In practice, a heavy infestation of larvae
severely damaged and even killed many young
Weymouth plants in an 8-acre nursery row planting.
Reproductively mature adults probably walked into
the area and deposited their eggs around these
plants.

Reference
Cram, W. T. 1970. Unacceptability of cultivars of highbush blueberry by adult black vine weevils
(Col.:Curculionidae). J. Entomol. Soc. B.C. 67:3-6.

18 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. CoLumMBIA, 67 (1970), Auge. 1, 1970

LARVAL DIAPAUSE IN DENDROCTONUS OBESUS
(MANNERHEIM) (COLEOPTERA: SCOLYTIDAE)
E. D. A. DYER

ABSTRACT

Dendroctonus obesus (Mannerheim)' larvae diapaused in the last
instar during laboratory rearing with warm thermoperiods reduced to 12 hours
or less, mean temperatures of 50°-56°F. (10°-13.3°C) and at least one minimum
subcortical temperature near or below the larval development threshold during
the third and fourth instars. Larvae reared at constant temperature of 70°F
(21.1°C) did not diapause. Prediction of beetle populations and forest damage
is dependent on a knowledge of the seasonal meteorological conditions that
affect larval dispause and subsequently the numbers of mature beetles capable
of initiating attacks. Further investigation is required to determine the
separate effects of brood age, temperatures and thermoperiods on diapause.

INTRODUCTION

The spruce beetle, Dendroctonus obesus
(Mannerheim)' , kills large volumes of white (Picea
glauca (Moench) Voss) and Engelmann spruce (P.
engelmannit Parry) in western North America
(Massey and Wygant, 1954; Wood, 1963). In this
region, only those beetles that have passed the winter
as adults reproduce the next summer (Massey and
Wygant, 1954; Knight, 1961). The development
rate therefore has a direct effect on the number of
adults capable of invading new hosts at any time
during the following year. Warm seasons, in which
subcortical temperatures are maintained above the
threshold for larval development, provide an op-
portunity for most larvae to develop quickly, pupate
and mature before winter. However, meteorological
conditions with minimums below this threshold may
prevent a high percentage of the larvae from
pupating until the next spring (Dyer, 1969). A
preliminary experiment was conducted to determine
whether larval or prepupal diapause could be
demonstrated in the laboratory by rearing D. obesus
from eggs in logs, under various temperature con-
ditions. The maximum and minimum range was
chosen to simulate a late-summer climate in the

field.

METHODS

One hundred and sixty pairs of reproductive
adults were released on six freshly cut spruce logs.
These produced about 5.3 attacks per square foot of
bark. After 19 days at constant 70°F and 12 hours’
light, the logs were separated at random into 3 pairs:
A, B and C. C logs were held at constant temperature
and daylength of 70°F and 12 hours until day 83. A
and B were placed in an incubator where ther-
moperiods of 17 hours warm and 7 hours cool were
commenced with maximum, minimum and mean
temperatures as shown (Fig. 1). A daylength of 17
"| According to Wood, S. L., the name D. rufipennis (Kirby)

now has precedence. Great Basin Naturalist 29 (3): 116, 121,
1969.

hours coincided with the warm thermoperiod. On
day 27, the warm thermoperiod (and photoperiod)
for A and B logs was reduced to 16 hours, on day 41,
to 12 hours and on day 55, to 10 hours. On day 47, A
and B logs were cooled to 30° F for 4 hours, resulting
in a minimum subcortical temperature of 45° F, just
above the larval development threshold of about
43° F (Dyer, et al., 1968). On days 49 and 50, B logs
were cooled to 19° F for 4 and 7 hours, respectively,
with resulting subcortical temperatures of 29° F and
25° F. On day 83, A, B and C logs were held at 33° F
for 5 days and then at 70°F until day. 138, the end of
the experiment.

Two half-square-foot samples of brood under the
bark of A, B and C logs were examined on days 20,
28, 41, 55, 69, 83, 110 and 138. The total progeny
per square foot and the per cent in each of seven
stages of development were recorded at each date.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 shows seven stages of brood as they oc-
curred at each sampling date. By day 55, the
majority of larvae in all logs had reached the last
instar or had become pupae or adults. Ninety-nine
per cent of the brood in C logs had become adults by
day 69 without any pause in development. After this
date the larvae in the B logs stopped development
beyond the fourth instar; no more pupation occurred
during the next 41 days even though, for most of this
period, the temperature was much above the
development threshold (Fig. 1, Table 1).

Some pupation commenced again during the last
28 days at constant 70° F, although about 40 per
cent of the progeny in the B logs still remained larvae
after 138 days (Table 1). The suppression of
development just before pupation is characteristic of
larval or pre-pupal diapause (Beck, 1968). In the B
logs, the intense diapause commitment of the
remaining larvae had continued after 50 days of
exposure to constant temperature suitable for
development.

J. ENToMOL. Soc. Brit. Cotumbia, 67 (1970), Aua. 1, 1970 19

80
70
Le
° 60 .
a AB MAX-MIN
= 90
=
a
Frias
ay =650
=
20
700 ADULTS
x<
LW
= 600
=
Zz
LJ
=
5 500 + IZ LARVAE
=)
Lu
>
WW
=)

400

IT LARVAE

20 40 60
DAYS

80 eye) 120 140

Fig. 1. Temperature regimes and corresponding development of D. obesus brood in logs C at
constant temperature and logs A and B exposed to cooler diurnal thermoperiods with maximum
and minimum range shaded.

Diapause in D. obesus larvae is likely to be
determined by environmental conditions preceding
the actual manifestation (Beck, 1968). It appears to
be dependent on some combination of thermoperiod
length, mean and minimum subcortical temperature,
and stage of development when the critical diapause-
inducing conditions occur. No diapause resulted
when larvae were reared at a constant warm tem-
perature (70°F). The mean and the minimum
temperatures appeared to be related to the more
intense diapause induction in broods of B logs than
of A logs. The stage of development when the

minimum subcortical temperatures occurred might
also have had some relation to the percentage of
brood entering diapause, because larvae in A logs
were slightly more advanced than those in B logs.

Daylength or photoperiod seems unlikely to affect
larval development under bark. However, in natural
environments, thermoperiod is closely synchronized
with photoperiod and may replace the latter in its
effect on diapause induction. Beck (1968) reports
that diapause in mature larvae of the European corn
borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner), is induced by
short-day photoperiods during larval growth, but its

20 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumstiA, 67 (1970), Aua. 1, 1970

Table 1. Development of Dendroctonus obesus brood occurring in two half-square-foot samples of bark from
logs C at constant temperature and from A and B logs at cooler diurnal thermoperiods. Each stage is ex-

pressed as a percentage of the total progeny sampled.

TOTAL
PROGENY DAY EGGS
LOGS SAMPLED SAMPLED
G 170 20 35
179 28 hy)
166 4]
124. 59
160 69
151 83
127 110
54+ 138
A 312 20 29
185 28 16
205 4] bY
167 55
174 69
141 83
159 110
181* 138
B 312 20 56
201 28 8
222 4] 7
138 55
119 69
154 83
154. 110
120* 138

Samples taken on 0.5 to 0.75 sq. ft.

incidence is influenced by low temperature during
the dark phase. He also points out that thermoperiod
may, under some circumstances, substitute for
photoperiod in determination of diapause. The
Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella Hubner,
requires an intermediate temperature (68°F) during
the last two instars for 100 per cent induction of
larval diapause. Higher temperature of 86°F is
effective in averting diapause (Tsuji, 1963).
Mansingh and Smallman (1966) show that complete
induction of pupal diapause in Hyalophora cecropia
Linnaeus and Antheraea polyphemus Cramer occurs
following short-day (12-hour) photoperiod during
the second last larval instar. Further experiments are
required to determine the separate effects of mean
and minimum temperature, thermoperiod length and
brood age when diapause is initiated in D. obesus.

PER CENT BROOD

LARVAE PUPAE ADULTS
I Il Il IV
7 #86358
2 19 66 8
2 94, 4
4 21 19
0.5 0.5 99
100
100
100
302s 41
18 ~=66
14 +~=80 1
4 70 26
26 37 af
39 8 o7
41 1 38
2 2 96
18 26
2 4! 49
7 30 856
2 3 93 Z
61 30 9
79 21
82 18
40 18 42

Larval diapause probably has survival value to
bark beetle populations in very cold climates where
severe cold might cause pupal mortality. Larvae
which diapause in the autumn will pupate and
become adults the following summer, but these
adults will not attack new hosts until they have
passed another winter. Thus, seasonal temperatures
that induce a high percentage of larval diapause will
delay for one year the potential of that population to
damage trees.

Acknowledgements

The assistance of Mr. D. W. Taylor and Mr.
A. Ackerman during the experiment is appre-
ciated. Review of the manuscript by A. F.
Hedlin, T. S. Sahota, J. W. E. Harris and A.
Mansingh is gratefully acknowledged.

|
|
|
{

}
q
i

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumstiA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970 21

References

Beck, S. D. 1968. Insect Photoperiodism. Academic press, New York and London.

Dyer, E. D. A. 1969. Influence of temperature inversion on development of spruce beetle,
Dendroctonus obesus (Mannerheim) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). J. Entomol. Soc. Brit.
Columbia. 66:41-45.

Dyer, E. D. A., J. P. Skovsgaard and L. H. McMullen. 1968. Temperature in relation to develop-
ment rates of two bark beetles. Canada Dept. For. Bi-M. Res. Notes. 24(2):15-16.

Knight, F. B. 1961. Variations in the life history of the Engelmann spruce beetle. Annals Ent.
Soc. Amer. 54:209-214.

Mansingh, A. and B. N. Smallman. 1966. Photoperiod control of an obligatory pupal dispause.
Can. Ent. 98:613-616.

Massey, C. L. and N. D. Wygant. 1954. Biology and control of the Engelmann spruce beetle
in Colorado. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 944:1-35.

Tsuji, H. 1963. Experimental studies on the larval diapause of the Indian meal moth, Plodia

interpunctella Hubner (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae). Thesis (Kyushu Univ., Fukuoka) Kokodo

Ltd., Tokyo, Japan. 88p.

Wood, S. L. 1963. A revision of the bark beetle genus Dendroctonus Erichson (Coleoptera:
Scolytidae). Great Basin Naturalist 23: 1-117.

MALE RESPONSE TO FEMALES IN THE MARSH CRANE
FLY, TIPULA PALUDOSA MG. (DIPTERA: TIPULIDAE)

R. M. M. TRAYNIER AND D. J. BURTON!

ABSTRACT

Laboratory and field experiments suggest that male T. paludosa
receive a specific mating stimulus only in close proximity of a female. The
anterior part of the female rather than the isolated abdomen is the source
of the sex pheromone. Attempts to extract the material were unsuccessful.

INTRODUCTION

The biology and control of Tipula paludosa Mg.
and its occurrence in North America have been
reviewed by Wilkinson and MacCarthy (1967). In
the field mating takes place immediately following
the female’s emergence which peaks about 11:00
p.m. and the eggs are mostly laid before morning
(Coulson, 1962). Thus control by adult ex-
termination is ineffective. The following preliminary
experiments were intended to define the role of sex

pheromone with a view to control by means of a
metarchon (Wright, 1964).

METHODS AND RESULTS
Larvae collected in June and July 1969 were held
in soil seeded with lawn grass. The pupae were sexed
' B.C. Research, 3650 Wesbrook Crescent, Vancouver 8,

B.C. Present Address of R.M.M.T.: Division of Entomology
C.S.1.R.0., Canberra, A.C.T. Australia.

and held separately in 30 x 30 x 30 cm cages in
separate rooms under natural illumination but with
supplementary light during the day from fluorescent
lamps. An intact female pupa placed in a cage
with ten unmated males was ignored until the first
stage of emergence. Then mating attempts began and
the males helped to dislodge the pupal integument.
The pheromone was effective over a very short
distance only as shown by the following experiments.

On five occasions, at different stages of the diel
cycle of illumination, 1 to 3 unmated females (1-2
days old) were placed in a cylindrical cell (5 cm x 5
cm) with bronze mesh at each end. The cells were
introduced into cages containing males and were
ignored by them until the females were released when
mating took place immediately.

A cylinder containing three females placed
upwind of ten males in a wind tunnel (Kellogg and

92 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumsBtiaA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

Wright, 1962) in an air stream of 25 cm-sec, elicited
no male response. A female held by forceps, and
brought progressively closer to an unmated male,
produced a mating response only when the distance
was reduced to about 1 cm.

The source of the pheromone was examined as
follows: single males were confined overnight in 1-
liter glass jars in darkness at 25 degrees C and 70 per
cent R.H. and experiments were made in the mor-
ning by the light of a red photographic safelight.
Using forceps, an isolated abdomen, the remaining
head and thorax held by the wings, and an intact
female were brought to within | cm of each male at 5
minute intervals. The results shown below, suggest
that the source of the pheromone is in the forepart of
the body.

Attempts were made to extract the active material
from 10 unmated females with ether, alcohol,
benzene or water containing a wetting agent. The
extracts applied to 2 cm squares of filter paper or to
female models failed to elicit mating response.
Extracts from paper towels on which 20 females had
been held for a week were likewise inactive.

Field experiments were made during August and
September when wild T. paludosa adults were
abundant. Traps made from half-gallon milk car-
tons, three baited with five males and three baited
with five females were set three meters apart in a row
in randomized order. In three days the traps baited
with males caught seven males and one female while
those baited with females caught six males. A second
experiment used traps consisting of four 30 x 30 cm
adhesive-coated vanes set at right angels and joined
at the centre where a bronze mesh cell contained five
males or five females. The total catch during a four-
day exposure was 1,3!1 adult T. paludosa but the

ratio of 1 female to 4.6 males was the same in the
traps baited with males as with females.

DISCUSSION
These experiments suggest that although a
volatile emanation released by the female acts as a
mating stimulant it is effective over a very short

range and offers little hope of serving as an attractant

to lure males into traps or onto a poisoned surface.
However, in the absence or masking of this
emanation it is probable that mating would not take
place. Any substance which would pre-adapt the
males by some kind of masking or fatiguing might be
a useful means of control. Methods of achieving such
interfering substances are under active development

and have been reviewed by Wright (1970).

Mating attempts by virgin male T. paludosa caged
for 30 sec. near intact females or their constituent
parts, at 5-min intervals, on 2 days, were as follows:

Mating attempts
Number of
males Head and Intact
Abdomen thorax female
4 0 4. 4,
6 0 4. 6
Acknowledgements

This study was supported by U.S. Public
Health Service research grant #CC 00266 from
the National Communicable Disease Centre,
Atlanta, Ga. We thank Mr. A. T. S. Wilkinson
of the Canada Agriculture Research Station, Van-
couver, B.C., for his advice on obtaining and
rearing the insects.

References

Coulson, J. C.

1962. The biology of Tipula subnodicornis Zetterstedt. with comparative

observations on Tipula paludosa Meigen. J. Anim. Ecol. 31: 1-21.
Kellogg, F. E. and R. H. Wright. 1962. The olfactory guidance of flying insects. IV. Drosophila.

Can. Ent. 94: 884-888f

Wilkinson, A. T. S. and H. R. MacCarthy. 1967. The marsh crane fly, Tipula paludosa Mg.,
a new pest in British Columbia (Diptera: Tipulidae). J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia

64: 29-34.

Wright, R. H. 1970. Alternatives to Insecticides. Pesticide Science. 1;24-27.
Wright, R. H. ‘“‘Metarchon’”’ a New Term for Class of Non-toxic Pest Control Agents. Nature,

204: 603-4, 1964.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtuMBIA, 67 (1970), Auc. 1, 1970 23

A CHRONIC INFESTATION OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLES
IN LODGEPOLE PINE IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK,
MONTANA

SCOTT TUNNOCK!

ABSTRACT

An infestation of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae
Hopk.) in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelm.) has been
active since about 1950 in an area of 162 ha within Glacier National Park,
Montana. Tree mortality is reported for 14 years. It fluctuated yearly, ranging
from 0 to 4.7 trees per 0.405 ha (1 acre). Most trees above 25.4 cm in

diameter had been killed by 1963.

INTRODUCTION

Mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae
Hopk,) is a major pest of lodgepole pine trees (Pinus
contorta var. latifolia Engelm,) in the western states.
Its potential destructiveness was documented by
Evenden and Gibson (1940). From 1927 to 1936,
97.75 million lodgepole pine trees above 7.62 cm in
diameter were killed in an area of 543,453 ha in the
Beaverhead National Forest, Montana. Outbreaks
are usually of long duration and do not subside until
most trees above a certain diameter (generally 15.2
cm) are killed.

An example of a tenacious mountain pine beetle
infestation is discussed in this paper. It has been
active since about 1950, but has not spread beyond
162 ha. This infested lodgepole pine stand is on the
south-facing slope of Starvation Ridge north of
Kintla Lake, Glacier National Park, Montana. The
trees are about 60 years old and vary from 10.2 to
20.8 cm in diameter at breast height; the average
d.b.h. is 22.9 cm.

Since 1954, surveys have been made annually to
determine the number of trees killed within the
infestation. Data were collected along 15 sample
strips 20.1 m wide and up to 1,307.2 m long. The
strips ran north and south, were 100.5 m apart, and
sampled 31.9 ha of the infested stand. Table 1 shows
the trees killed per 0.405 ha yearly from 1954 to
1967.

' Entomologist, USDA - For. Serv., Div. State and Private
Forestry, Missoula, Montana.

Table I. — Lodgepole pine trees per 0.405 ha
killed annually since 1954 by the mountain pine
beetle on Starvation Ridge, Glacier National Park,
Montana

Year Year

1954 2.2 1961 = 0.4

1955 4.4 1962 0.9

1956 2.1 1963 0.4

1957 4.7 1964 0.5

1958 2.2 1965 ~— 0.0
1959 0.8 1966 ~— 0.2

1960 0.2 1967 ~— 0.9

'Only one infested tree was found on the sample
strips.

It is interesting to note the even fluctuations in
numbers of trees killed each year from 1954 to 1958.
Woodpeckers fed heavily on 1957 and 1958 broods
and probably caused the infestation to decline. A
drought occurred in 1961 and the number of trees
killed increased during 1962. By 1963, most trees
over 25.4 cm d.b.h. had been killed. Droughts oc-
curred again in 1966 and 1967, and an upward trend
in the infestation followed. Approximately 7,960
lodgepole pine trees were killed by the mountain pine
beetle in this area of only 162 ha between 1954 and
1967. No control action has been considered because
the stand is in a remote area of the Park which does
not receive or make much public impact.

Reference

Evenden, J. C. and A. L. Gibson. 1940. A destructive infestation in lodgepole pine stands by
the mountain pine beetle. J. Forestry, 38: 271-275.

24

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumpBriaA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

DERMACENTOR TICKS ON WILDLIFE AND
NEW RECORDS OF PARALYSIS
P. R. WILKINSON!

ABSTRACT

The second record of paralysis of a mule deer (Odocoileus
hemionus) by Dermacentor andersoni Stiles resulted from infesting a
yearling buck with 50 pairs of ticks. A yearling doe previously infested with
D. albipictus was not paralyzed by the same infestation. Spontaneous
infestations of wild and captive mule deer include an engorged nymph of
D. andersoni. A female of D. andersoni weighing 746 mg was removed from
a captive moose (Alces alces). Infesting a porcupine (Erethizon
dorsatum) with about 14,800 larvae of D. andersoni produced more than
600 pairs of adults in the following year. Fifty pairs of D. andersoni
applied to the same porcupine yielded a high proportion of engorged females,
but the porcupine was not paralyzed.

A coyote (Canis latrans) and a skunk (Mephitis mephitis) were
paralyzed by 50 and 30 pairs of D. andersoni respectively. Few or no larvae
or nymphs engorged on the skunk or on two laboratory fitches, whereas many
engorged on rabbits used as controls. This suggests that Mustelidae may be
resistant or unattractive to immature D. andersoni. Unconfirmed cases of
tick paralysis in foxes have been reported. A new record is included of D.

andersoni on a marmot (Marmota monax).

INTRODUCTION

In British Columbia, some success has attended
efforts to estimate populations and infestations of
Dermacentor andersoni Stiles on small rodents,
particularly chipmunks (Eutamias spp.) and white
footed mice (Peromyscus spp.), but methods have not
yet been developed of making repeated estimates of
infestations on deer, coyotes and _porcupines.
Practicable methods might involve telemetry, game
fences and immobilising drugs. This paper deals
with experimental and unintentional infestations of
these hosts, and also of moose (Alces alces) and
skunk (Mephitis mephitis) which are less common
visitors. Unusual records are included of D. an-
dersoni on Marmota monax and M. caligata.

When engorged ticks: are referred to, weights are
sometimes given, to provide information on the
degree of engorgement and potential egg production
(Wilkinson, 1968, Table VII). Weights are not given
when the ticks could not be detached for weighing, or
when they were obviously not fully engorged. In-
creasing degrees of engorgement of the female ticks
are described by the colours red, tan, and gray, which
are familiar to those working with D. andersoni.

Mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus hemionus

In the first record of paralysis of a mule deer by

D. andersoni (Wilkinson, 1965), the ticks engorged
on a fawn which showed classical paralysis and
recovery. Since then there have been other records of
D. andersoni engorging on wild deer and on a zoo
animal, and one trial with laboratory-reared deer.
Records from wild deer in the spring tick season are
scarce because the hunting season is closed.

' Research Station, Canada Department of Agriculture, Box
210, Kamloops, British Columbia.

Deer snared by Game Department officials, or
shot in springtime in the Kamloops area, have yielded
many D. albipictus but fewD. andersoni. There were

no engorged female D. andersoni on these deer even

in areas known to be infested with hungry adults.
This may still be due to inadequate sampling, as
indicated by two documented samples of ticks sent in
by Mr. B. Gates, Game Biologist, B.C. Dept. of
Recreation and Conservation, taken from deer found
near Carpenter Lake in the Lillooet District. Lot
5546 contained 4 male and 13 female D. andersoni.
The largest females weighed 442,500 and 436 mg.
There was one engorged female and one male D.
albipictus. The deer, a buck about 10 months old,
was unable to stand when it was killed about 4 April
1968. A superficial autopsy of the slightly decom-
posed body a week later showed no injuries to ac-
count for the original disability, suggesting that it
may have been paralyzed by D. andersoni.

Lot 5584, was from an aged female deer in very
poor condition, shot near Cedarvale Creek and
Carpenter Lake on 11 April 1968. The ticks were
distributed as follows:

D. anderson D. albipictus
male female nymph male female
ears 285 116
rest of
head 4 l engorged 1
2 large tan

brisket 1 15 16
perianal area 16 11

2““Tick” in this paper refers to D. andersoni, except where
another specific name is given. The foci of interest in this work
are areas associated with cattle-paralysis, mainly in the Pinus
ponderosa Agropyron spicatum zone. (Wilkinson, 1967).

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA, 67 (1970), Aug. 1, 1970 25

There was no paralysis. D. albipictus contributed
most of the tick burden and the large number of
males indicated that the burden of female D.
albipictus had been greater. Not every tick on the
deer was collected. This appears to be the first
published record of an engorged nymph of D. an-
dersoni from a mule deer.

A semi-tame mule deer buck and a doe in a zoo
near Kamloops were examined for ticks in April
1967. The deer pen occupied 0.8 ha in sagebrush-
ponderosa pine vegetation naturally infested with D.
andersoni. ‘Two female D. andersoni in the large tan
stage (178,144 mg) and 3 in the medium tan were
removed from the buck on 7 April, and 2 medium
and | small tan females on 9 April (Lot 5480). One
male was found on the doe. It appeared that most of
the female ticks on the buck would have engorged
normally; no marked skin reactions were seen.

The results of experimental infestations of captive
deer are given here in detail because no similar work
appears to have been published. A mule deer doe
born in 1967 was infested with about 1100 larvae of
D. albipictus on 19 October 1967, by distributing the
larvae over the head, ears, back and legs. The larvae
had hatched at room temperatures and were placed
in an outdoor enclosure on 3 October. The larvae
used for infesting had ascended to the grass tips,
indicating that their summer diapause was ended
(Wilkinson, 1967). A mule deer buck, also born in
1967, was left uninfested, separated from the doe by
a fence from the day of infestation. During the course
of the experiment the buck was accidentally together
with the doe for a few hours, but the only D.
albipictus seen on it was one nymph 1.5 mm long.
Both animals were examined at about weekly in-
tervals. Progress of the infestation on the doe was as
follows; 23 October. Larvae attached but un-
distended; on the back, but not the ears. 1
November. Larvae distended, creamy white. One
nymph on anus. 8 November. Light brown nymphs
1.5-2 mm long, undistended, mainly on neck, withers
and rump.

8 November-17 January. Nymphs remained un-
distended. Weather cold, snow melted slowly in hair
on 21 December. On 17 January, estimate of 30+
nymphs on withers, 6+ 0n neck, 2+-on rump, 0 on
perianal region.

23 January. One nymph 5 mm long on edge of white
hair near tail. One 2 mm long; remainder 1.5 mm
long. Coat starting to shed.

6 February. Rump, near white patch, 1 male.
Elsewhere 5 nymphs 3-5 mm long; remainder 2 mm
or less.

20 February. Rump | male, withers and neck 2
females; | flat female, many nymphs 1.5 to 5 mm

long on rump, withers, neck. Left ear, 2 nymphs, 2
mm long.

18 March. Ears, 2 females, 2 nymphs; withers |
female, 3 nymphs; anus 2 females, | male.

21 March. One 3-fed female near anus.

25 March. Three half-engorged females on brisket,
one removed.

27 March. Final removal-2 red females, 1 male.
Probably about 10 engorged females dropped off
previously. The doe, estimated to weigh 36 kg, was
immobilised with 2.6 mg succinyl chloride given
intramuscularly in 1.3 cc distilled water, for this
check.

To infest the deer with D. andersoni, the ticks
were shaken on to the back. They walked on the
outside of the guard hairs for several minutes, before
burrowing towards the skin. The deer were examined
at least once daily from three days after infestation,
while they were being fed and petted and they were
fully immobilised for the final close examination.
Records were kept of the susceptibility of the deer to
paralysis by ticks, the percentage of female ticks
engorging within a time limit, and the places of
attachment on the deer (Table I).

It was concluded that a light infestation with D.
albipictus starting with 1000 larvae, which produced
about 100 nymphs and finally some tens of adults,
did not prevent engorgement of D. andersoni females
on the doe. Whether D. albipictus provides
protection against paralysis from D. andersoni is
unknown; an answer would necessitate repetitions of
the trial, distributed appropriately between sexes and
age groups of deer. The paralysis of the buck was the
first record of paralysis of a yearling mule deer.

In an attempt to paralyze both animals, the deer
were reinfested with 100 pairs of D. andersoni each
on 13 May 1968, by shaking the ticks into loose cloth
collars round their necks. A check four days later
revealed only one unattached male on the buck and
observations ceased. The deer were together, and
such factors as mutual grooming, summer pelage, or
the mode of infestation, may have contributed to the
failure of the ticks to engorge. It is possible that
immune reactions were involved.

Moose

In Canada, the moose, Alces alces andersoni, was
very rare in areas infested with D. andersoni before
1920 (Cowan and Guiguet, 1965), and the race A. a.
shirasi penetrated into the range of D. andersoni only
in the extreme south of the Canadian Rockies. The
winter range of A. a. andersoni has now expanded
southwards to include numerous tick foci in southern
British Columbia. Moose must pick up many ticks
even though they are less exposed to ticks than mule
deer, because moose tend to leave the tick foci for
higher altitudes earlier in the year than mule deer,

26

J. ENToMo.. Soc. Brit. CotumBta, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

TABLE I

Development of female D. andersoni on a buck and
doe mule deer, and symptoms of paralysis of the
buck. Each was infested with 50 male and 50 female

Buck

ticks (collected 6-8.iii.68 and stored at 5 C) on
18.iii.68. The doe had a concurrent infestation with
D. albipictus (see text).

Location of ticks. Doe
Date No. & (Symptoms in } ?
March 1968 Stage of ticks brackets) No. & Stage of ticks Location of ticks
21 10 red and small tan Back of head and 2 red Head
between eyes 1 smal] tan Neck
22 9 medium tan Head 4 Between ears
5 medium tan Neck 1 Neck
l Withers
93 13 medium tan Face and back of 8 small to large Back of head
head tan
2mediumtan Neck 3 Back of neck
24 14 medium-large — Head 7 medium large tan _ Back of head
tan
4mediumtan Neck 3+ small to large Withers and
tan (2 large tans neck
removed)
25 2 grey ticks removed Not recorded 2 grey ticks removed Head
(480,650 mg) (Rear legs unsteady) (722,512 mg)
3 grey removed (474, Withers
500,575)
26 10 grey ticks removed | Head and neck 2 grey of which 1 Neck
(Fell easily, difficulty removed
in getting up) 3 tan Head
27 7 grey ticks removed Head All ticks removed Not recorded
4-5tans Face 7 medium tan
(Slight paralysis) 1 large tan
28 Remaining ticks Not recorded
removed 4 grey (Recovered from
6tan paralysis)
Total female ticks Total female ticks

removed from buck
23 grey (engorged) and
6 tan

often before the season of adult tick activity. We see
fresh moose droppings and occasionally moose while
collecting ticks, but we are reluctant to shoot them in
spring to obtain host records. Moose are not recorded
as hosts of D. andersoni by Bishopp and Trembley
(1945) or Cooley (1938). An opportunity occurred
to examine two moose confined with the mule deer in
the zoo mentioned above. On 7 April 1967 three
female D. andersoni, one engorged weighing 746 mg,
one partly fed, and one unfed, were removed from

removed from doe
6 grey and 10 tan

the head and neck of one of the moose.

Coyote, Canis latrans
Coyote faeces and coyotes are commonly seen on
tick foci in the Kamloops area; the coyotes are
probably attracted by the presence of rodents. No
case of tick paralysis of a coyote has been recorded in
nature and there were no records at Kamloops of D.
andersoni on coyotes, but there were two records of
D. albipictus, one of Ixodes rugosus and one of
Ixodes sculptus. Bishopp and Trembley (1945) list

J. EnTomo.. Soc. Brit. CoLumBiaA, 67 (1970), AuG. 1, 1970 27

one lot of 15 male and 16 female ticks from a coyote,
the females ranging from unfed to partly fed. This
may have been the same coyote listed by Henshaw
and Birdseye (1911).

A female coyote pup of the year was obtained on
25 May 1968 and infested with 50 male and 50
female D. andersoni on 26 August 1968. The coyote
was caged over a water tray and 25 pairs of ticks
‘were placed on top of the head, the remainder on the
neck and withers. By 30 August, 13 or more females
with males, were attached on the head, and other
females were attached as follows: base of left ear, 1;
base of right ear, 2; withers, 1; neck, 1. A slight
disability was noted in the coyote on the evening of
the 30th. On 1 September, the rear legs collapsed
when the coyote was taken out of the cage, and its
movements were unco-ordinated. On 2 September,

the inco-ordination was greater and the front legs
were weak, with lack of tone in the paws (Fig. 1). All
the ticks seen were removed, mostly from the head
near the point of release. They consisted of 1 fully
engorged female (527 mg), 4 large, 10 medium and
14 small tans plus 20 males, mostly fed. Two large
tan females and one male were removed on 4 Sep-
tember. Three males and 5 females, all unfed, were
taken from the water tray. The coyote had partly
recovered by the 3rd, and was completely recovered
on the 4th, when it weighed 4.4 kg. It was thus
demonstrated that D. andersoni could engorge on
and paralyze a coyote. Probably 30 out of the 50
would have engorged had the animal not become
paralyzed. This is the first record of tick paralysis in
a coyote.

Fig. 1. Coyote paralyzed by D. andersoni on 2 September 1968.
Animal recovered after the ticks were removed.

Porcupine, Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens and
E. d. epixanthium
Little has been published on the host-potential of
this interesting rodent. Jellison (1933) reported that
it is an important host of all parasitic stages of D.
andersoni. Bishopp and Trembley (1945) record
only adult ticks. ‘The Erethizontidae evolved in South
America and travelled north in the late Pliocene
(Dawson, 1967) whereas the ancestors of many of
the present hosts of North American ticks crossed
from Eurasia, via Beringia. The porcupine’s ability
to sustain heavy infestations of all stages indicates a
long adaptation to D. andersoni.
A porcupine captured alive near Stump Lake on

> May 1967 was caged over a water tray. It yielded
ticks as follows until it died on 9 May: 5 May;
females weighing 948 and 710 mg. 7 May; females
weighing 900, 870, 768, 615, and 503 mg. 9 May
(after death); females weighing 628, 617, 550 and
842 mg, 2 engorging nymphs and 23 males. 10 May;
1 engorged nymph and | Ixodes larva. Most of the
females were on the underside (cf. Wilkinson &
Lawson, 1965). Two porcupines, probably of sub-
species epixanthium, were obtained at Onefour,
Alberta on 29 April 1964. One, which was shot,
carried 7 male and 4 female ticks, the other, which
was found dead, carried 10 males and 5 females.
Figures for porcupines abundance on tick foci

28 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtumsiA, 67 (1970), AuG. 1, 1970

cannot yet be given, but faeces and lairs, and signs of
feeding by porcupines on pines, occur regularly in
tick foci, especially in the ponderosa pine-wheatgrass
zone. The porcupines themselves are not often seen,
and their numbers may be limited by the availability
of suitable refuges or some unknown factor. An
indication of the potential yield of ticks from a
porcupine was obtained by infesting a caged por-
cupine outdoors on 26 June 1967 with larvae from
933 mg of eggs. The eggs and larvae had been kept at
room temperatures. Assuming 16.6 eggs/mg and 90%
hatch, this represents about 14,800 larvae. The
following year 740 male and 622 female ticks were
collected from the cage between 26 February and
29 May, when activity ceasd. A white mouse en-
closed in metal mesh attracted one nymph on 23
April 1968 and another flat nymph was seen. The
porcupine was returned to the cage from its winter
quarters on 3 May and remained until 2 July 1968 so
that any nymphs present could feed. Only two male
ticks appeared in 1969.

On 2 July 1968, 50 male and 50 female ticks
from the spring collection mentioned above were
placed on the porcupine, which was caged over
water. Forty-five fed and partly fed females were
recovered, averaging about 502 mg. These should
yield an average of 317 mg of eggs each (Wilkinson,
1968, Table VII). If all 622 females had fed on the
porcupine, the multiplication factor in one year
calculated from egg weights, would have been about
199. This figure would not be reached in nature
because many of the hungry ticks would die before
engorging and ovipositing, but it illustrates the
importance of porcupines in maintaining tick
populations without the necessity for other hosts.
The porcupine weighed 8.6 kg on 16 October 1967
and 14.2 kg on 3 May 1968.

Mustelidae

Weasels probably occur regularly on tick foci. At
Stump Lake two weasels were caught in Sherman
traps. The weasel caught on 20 July 1967 was
identified provisionally as Mustela erminea and that
on 7 August 1968 as Mustela frenata nevadensis.
Two nymphs of Ixodes kingi were found on the first
and | female and 30 nymphs of [. kingi on the
second, with an unattached nymph of D. andersoni.
Considering the extensive travels of weasels in rodent
haunts, a heavier infestation with D. andersoni
would have been expected.

Striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) are
probably infrequent visitors to foci of D. andersoni. I
have not seen them during many hours of flagging for
ticks and trapping on tick foci. Cowan and Guiguet
(1965) state that ‘‘open fields, marshes and
streamside thickets mixed with dense cover are the
favoured haunts of this animal in British Columbia’,

and this does not describe tick foci. The following
records of skunks killed on roads show that they
carried only Ixodes ticks, even though they were
within the general distribution of and season for D.
andersoni: — Herbert, Saskatchewan 10.v.66-1
nymph of I. kingi; Kamloops, B.C., 17.vii.68, 1
nymph of I. marmotae.

In trials with a tame, obese, castrated male
skunk, surgically deprived of stink glands, we found
that adult ticks fed on the animal more slowly than
on favoured hosts, and larvae did not attach. Thirty
male and 30 female D. andersoni were liberated on
the back of the animal on 23 May 1968. The cage
was suspended over water. The female ticks
engorged slowly and were only half or less engorged
by 1 June. They weighed 228, 144, 128, 135, 110,
21, 28, 20 mg. The ticks were removed because the
skunk was showing lack of co-ordination and
weakness of the rear legs. Next day the skunk had
recovered. This is the first record we know of tick
paralysis in a skunk. The skunk was placed in an
outdoor cage, in a site known to be suitable for
development of D. andersoni, and was infested with
about 6000 larvae on 10 September 1968. No fed
larvae were seen on the skunk or in the water tray
during the next three days.

To check the apparent unsuitability of
Mustelidae for immature stages of D. andersoni, a
trial was set up comparing the same skunk and two
laboratory fitches (Mustela putorius?) with
laboratory rabbits. About 5000 larvae each were
applied to the skunk, both of the fitches and two
rabbits, caged individually. All the cages were kept in
bags. On 27 September the rabbits’ bags yielded 205
and 34 larvae, the skunk and fitches’ bags nothing.
Next day the rabbits’ bags yielded 195 and 260
larvae, the skunk’s bag one well-fed larva and the
fitches’ nothing. No further feeding larvae were seen
on the fitches or the skunk on 30 September, so
observations stopped. The rabbits were kept in the
bagged cages until 4 October when six and no fed
larvae were recovered.

The only other member of the Mustelidae that is
common near tick foci in this province is the badger,
Taxidea taxus taxus. Marten, fisher, mink, wolverine
and spotted skunk would rarely encounter D. an-
dersoni. In the Kamloops records, one of the two
records of ticks from badgers is D. andersoni. This is
an unfed nymph, still in the collection in damaged
condition, taken on 12 July 1934, on range land
northeast of Kamloops. Bishopp and Trembley
(1945) record only one tick, a male, from badger.
This is quite probably the same dead male tick
collected by Henshaw and Birdseye (1911). Thus
there is no evidence as yet that D. andersoni feeds
successfully on badgers.

J. ENToMo.. Soc. Brir. Cotumsta, 67 (1970), Aua. 1, 1970 29

Marmota monax and caligata

It seems appropriate to present here a hitherto
unpublished host record for D. andersoni. Marmota
monax petrensis occurs in part of the range of D.
andersoni in British Columbia (Cowan and Guiguet,
1965) but is comparatively rare. It is doubtful
whether it has been checked for infestation in the
U.S.A. where it is rare in the range of D. andersoni.

One M. monax collected on 21 May 1939 yielded a.

nymph and another two engorged female ticks of D.
andersoni. Both marmots came from a collection of
four made by the late E. R. Buckell at Wigwam
Mine (Lat. 50°50’, Long. 118°00’), at about 2500
ft. altitude. The same site yielded another unusual
record on 10 June 1939, when one engorged and four
or more flat nymphs of D. andersoni were secured
from Marmota caligata by J. D. Gregson. M.
caligata is usually associated with high altitudes
above timberline. The ticks from M. caligata are
preserved on a slide; those from the M. monax are
evidently lost.

Fox, Vulpes fulva
Tick-infested paralyzed foxes were reported from
Dog Creek in April 1966, by a Mrs. M. Elgood who
sent unfed D. andersoni adults emerging from soil
washed down in the spring. A picture of a fox which

had been kept captive after recovery from this
“paralysis”, was sent in by Mr. Lesowski, Con-
servation Officer, Department of Recreation and
Conservation at Williams Lake, but a definite
diagnosis of tick paralysis was not made. Marsh
(1929) reported tick paralysis of a blue fox by a
wood tick in Montana.

DISCUSSION

The present evidence on susceptibility of deer
shows that D. andersoni will engorge on mule deer in
nature, but there is also a suggestion that the in-
festation on many deer is not so heavy as would be
expected from the number of ticks encountered (cf.
low infestations of deer with D. variabilis in Nova
Scotia (Dodds, Martell, & Yescott, 1968).

Further experiments will be necessary to test
whether does can be paralyzed, and whether prior
infestation with D. albipictus protects deer from
paralysis by D. andersoni.

This paper thus adds captive mule deer, coyote
and skunk to the list of animals susceptible to
paralysis (Gregson 1958). Reports on mule deer and
foxes suggest that they may have been suffering from
tick paralysis in nature. The apparent repellence or
resistance of Mustelidae to the immature stages of D.
andersoni should be tested by further experiments.

References
Bishopp, F. C. and H. L. Trembley. 1945. Distribution and hosts of certain North American

ticks. J. Parasitol. 31:1-54.

Cooley, R. A. 1938. The genera Dermacentor and Otocentor (Ixodidae) in the United States.

Natl. Inst. Health Bull. No. 171.

Cowan, I. McT. and C. J. Guiguet. 1965. The mammals of British Columbia. Handbook No. 11.
Brit. Columbia Prov. Museum, Victoria, B.C.

Dawson, M. D. 1967. In: Anderson and Jones, Recent Mammals of the World. Ronald Press

Company, New York.

Dodds, D. G., A. M. Martell, and R. E. Yescott. 1968. Ecology of the American dog tick,
Dermacentor variabilis (Say), in Nova Scotia. Can. J. Zool. 47:171-181.

Gregson, J. D. 1958. Host susceptibility to paralysis by the tick Dermacentor andersoni Stiles
(Acarina: Ixodidae). Can. Entomol. 90:421-424.

Henshaw, H. W. and C. Birdseye. 1911. The mammals of Bitterroot Valley, Montana, in their
relation to spotted fever. U.S.D.A. Bur. Biol. Survey Circ. No. 82.

Jellison, W. L. 1933. Parasites of porcupines of the genus Erethizon (Rodentia). Trans. Am.

Microscop. Soc. 52:42-47.

Marsh, H. 1929. Some obscure diseases of sheep. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass. 27:724-734.

Wilkinson, P. R. 1965. A first record of paralysis of a deer by Dermacentor andersoni Stiles
and notes on the “‘host-potential’’ of deer in British Columbia. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit.

Columbia 62: 28-30.

Wilkinson, P. R. 1967. The distribution of Dermacentor ticks in Canada in relation to bio-
climatic zones. Can. J. Zool. 45:517-537.

Wilkinson, P. R. 1968. Phenology, behavior, and host-relations of Dermacentor andersoni Stiles
in outdoor ‘‘rodentaria’’, and in nature. Can. J. Zool. 46:677-689.

Wilkinson, P. R. and J. E. Lawson. 1965. Difference of sites of attachment of Dermacentor
andersoni Stiles to cattle in Southeastern Alberta and in South Central British Columbia,

in relation to possible existence of genetically different strains of ticks. Can. J. Zool.
43:408-411.

30 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. CoLuMBIA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

ANNOTATED LIST OF FOREST INSECTS OF BRITISH
COLUMBIA, PART XIV, POLYGONIA, NYMPHALIS
AND LIMENITIS (NYMPHALIDAE)

B. A. SUGDEN!

Many members of the family Nymphalidae are
found in British Columbia but only a few species,
regarded as economically unimportant, feed on the
foliage of forest trees. Small localized outbreaks of
some species have been recorded in British Columbia
but all were of short duration. The caterpillars are
usually spiny, pale to dark and obscurely or
strikingly marked. The chrysalids are angularly
tuberculate, naked, dull or marked with gold or
silver, and are suspended by the cremaster in
sheltered sites. The number of collections per host is
shown only when fewer than five.

Polygonia faunus Edw. - Betula spp. (4 records),
Salis spp. (3). Throughout British Columbia, in-
cluding Vancouver Island, uncommon on forest
trees. LARVA: 13% inches; head bilobed, dull black
marked with white, pale chalazae and _ setae,
prominent black scoli armed with spines on vertex of
each lobe; body pale brown with irregular markings
of yellow, dull white and medium brown, dull white
dorsal stripes; TI with a band of small tubercles
extending to sides; pale addorsal and spiracular
scoli with black-tipped spines on TII-III; middorsal,
addorsal, supraspiracular and subspiracular scoli on
Al-7 are pale yellowish white, except lower half of
supraspiracular scoli which are pale brown, all with
pale black-tipped spines; A8 similar but with two
supraspiracular scoli, A9 with one pair of
supraspiraculat scoli, black-tipped spines and dark
brown anal shield; venter paler than dorsum with
sparse but prominent setae ; thoracic legs and prolegs
marked dark brown.

Polygonia zephyrus Edw. - Salix sp. (1 record),
Alnus sp. (2) and the shrubs Menziesia ferruginea
Smith, Ribes spp. Throughout British Columbia,
including Vancouver Island, uncommon on forest
trees. LARVA: 1%% inches; head moderately
bilobed, shiny black with white markings and white
chalazae and setae, black scoli with black spines on
vertex of each lobe; body with dorsum of 'TI-IHI and
AI and 2 dull yellowish orange; A3-9 dull white
lightly marked brown, dark brown and black; pale
yellow addorsal scoli TI-III, pale middorsal scoli A1-
8; all scoli with pale black-tipped spines, anal shield
black; lateral dull white, heavily marked pale and
dark brown, irregular dull yellow supra-and sub-
spiracular lines, supraspiracular scoli on TII-III and
A9, supra-and subspiracular scoli A1l-A8, all with

' Forest Research Laboratory, Department of Fisheries and
Forestry, Vernon, B.C.

pale setae; thoracic legs and anal prolegs marked
black; venter dull orange finely marked pale brown,
darker then dorsum.

Polygonia gracillis C. & R. -Salix sp. (2 records).
Clemina, B.C. LARVA: similar to P. zephyrus
except that in the dark phase, pale portions are
washed with pale buff and brown.

Nymphalis j-album Bdv. & LeC. - Betula sp.,
Salix spp. Southern interior and lower Fraser Valley
of British Columbia; uncommon on forest trees.
LARVA: 1% inches; head dull black, moderately
bilobed with prominent black spined scoli on vertex
of each lobe and setae arising from white chelazae;
body pale yellow profusely marked medium and dark
brown; yellow middorsal line on TI, irregular pale
yellow addorsal lines TII-A8; addorsal and sub-
dorsal pale yellow chalazae with dark brown or black
setae on TI, middorsal and subdorsal black spined
scoli TII-A8, subdorsal black spined scoli on A9;
black spined spiracular scoli TII-ITI, black supra-
and pale yellow subspiracular scoli A1-8, pale yellow
subspiracular line; venter pale, sparsely marked pale
brown with white setae arising from pale chalazae;
thoracic legs and prolegs dull yellow marked pale
brown.

Nymphalis antiopa Linn.-Salix spp. Populus spp.
Throughout British Columbia, including Vancouver
Island. Common, occasionally causing severe
defoliation of individual trees. LARVA: 1% inches;
head dull black with white setae on black chalazae;
body black banded with rows of small white spots;
Al-7 with one large yellowish-orange to red mid-
dorsal spot on each segment, broken middorsal line
TII-A8, black setaceous middorsal scoli A4-8 and
black setaceous addorsal scoli TII-A9; black
setaceous spiracular scoli TII-III, black setaceous
supra-and subspiracular scoli Al-8; venter flecked
with small white spots, black midventral line;
thoracic legs and anal prolegs black, abdominal
prolegs yellowish-orange to dull red.

Limenitis arthemis Dru. - Populus tremuloides
Michx. Salix spp. Central and northern British
Columbia; uncommon on forest trees. LARVA: 13
inches; head pale brown, bilobed with one pair
modified scoli on vertex of each lobe and short pale
satae on prominent chalazae; body dark yellowish
brown or olive-green; dorsum of TI-II and A4-6 pale
mauve or white extending ventrad of A5, oc-
casionally suffused with pale pink; remainder
sparsely marked dark brown and black; two

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BriT. CoLuMBIA, 67 (1970), Auc. 1, 1970 agi

prominent subdorsal scoli on TII, small short
subdorsal scoli on TI and III, Al-3 and 7-9, scoli
much reduced or lacking A4-6; pale buff sub-
spiracular line Al-9 extending down sides of anal
prolegs; venter with numerous pale setae on dull
white chalazae, thoracic legs black, dull white
chalazae and pale setae on prolegs.

Limenitis lorquini burrisonii Mayn. - Populus
trichocarpa Torr. and Gray, Populus tremuloides
Michx. Salix spp.Southern British Columbia; may
hybridize with L. arthemis at about 51 latitude;
uncommon on forest trees. LARVA: 13% inches,
similar to L. arthemis, head pale lilac to pale mauve-

tan, bilobed with one pair modified scoli on vertex of
each lobe, short pale setae on prominent chalazae;
body dark brown-purple to gray-mauve; dorsum of
TI-II and A4-6 white, washed with pale mauve
extending ventrad on A5; remainder of dorsum
sparsely marked brown and black with two
prominent subdorsal scoli on TII, small subdorsal
scoli and TI and III, Al-3 and 7-9; scoli much
reduced or lacking A4-6; mauve-white subspiracular
line Al-9 extending down sides of anal prolegs;
venter with numerous pale setae on dull white
chalazae; thoracic legs black; dull white chalazae
and pale setae on prolegs.

INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES

ByR. C. Reay
Oliver & Boyd Ltd., Edinburgh
1969. Pp. 152. $1.50

A sharp little controversy boiled up recently in
Science about books on scientific writing and on
scientific writing itself. This is all to the good; we
need to be reminded of our shortcomings. Most of us
are guilty of writing that is inflated, or wordy, or
complicated, or just dull, or all four. Part of the
trouble is that we tend to think in special scientific
terms and since we are fearful of being misin-
terpreted we write in the same way, playing it safe by
using cliches. In papers which will be read only by
people on the same wavelength as ourselves, there is
little harm done, but in a book before the general
public which is expected to sell, some sparkle and
color are needed.

Insects and Insecticides is a case in point. The
subject is topical but the book will never be a best
seller. The format, the printing, the type, the price,
the paper, and most of the illustrations are good. I
saw only two small typesetting errors, the
arrangement and coverage are excellent and the
scientific content is hard to fault. Many people will
buy it but fewer will read it, because the writing has
too high a content of pedaguese. Or perhaps it is over-
scholarly. On. p. 7 is an example: “From the
foregoing account it will be apparent that insects are
well provided with the means to seek out and
recognize a source of nourishment.” In other words,
insects are evidently well equipped to find and
recognize food? On p. 5 the “odours of putrefaction”
and the “‘smell of sweat’’ somehow got into the same

sentence. The author is never obscure but he clearly
is capable of much sprightlier prose than the text
indicates. The introduction, written in the first
person, is proof. It ends with a graceful tribute for
her help to his wife, who “. . . suffered the whole
process willingly, kept the children at bay, and who
helped with the typing. . .”

This is carping criticism because it is such a cool
and well-conceived book; students in entomology
and especially those in allied disciplines will find it an
excellent and comprehensive summary. Surely
students rather than laymen are the audience in mind
when, without apology or explanation, the author
speaks of exopterygote nymphs (p. 2), cuticular
sensillae, monovalent salts (p. 4), plants containing
isothiocyanates, oviposition loci, the glycosides
phaseolunatin and lotaustrin, beta-gamma-hexanol
and alpha-beta-hexanal all within the first five pages.
There is a fairly technical section (p. 27-33) on the
role of inorganic ions in digestion and nutrition. The
author means to sort the men from the boys early.

There are three major sections: What is an insect
pest? (33p.); Which insects are pests? (33 p.); How
are insect pest controlled? (79 p.). The index of 514
pages includes 225 proper names of species or
genera, and the names of the chemicals discussed. He
shows 73 structural formulae in the text including
some chemosterilants, botanicals, synergists, at-
tractants, repellents, and two anti-feeding agents. A
few references are made in the text to author and
year only but these are not listed elsewhere.

Some of the more volatile ecologists would do
very well to invest in this unemotional and factual
little paperback.

39 J. ENToMoL. Soc. Brit. CotumMsiA, 67 (1970), Aua. 1, 1970

AN ABERRATION IN THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
OF SCHISTOCERCA GERGARIA (FORSK.)
WILLIAM F. DEAN:

In a_ stock colony of the desert locust,
Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk.) one newly-moulted
fifth-instar nymph was seen to have an orifice on the
middle of the vertex of the head. The insect seemed
unable to hop and had difficulty in walking and
eating. Its mandibles moved slowly and inefficiently
and unconsumed food often remained between them.

Soon after its first meal the locust started to pass
feces through the oriface in its head (Fig. 1) but no
feces passed through the anus. Occasionally the
hindlegs moved, apparently spontaneously, but the
grasping ability of the hind tari was temporarily lost.
After three days, no more feces passed through the
opening in the head but very thin, elongated feces
began to pass through the anus. Between the fourth
and fifth day the leg tremors disappeared, the insect
regained the ability to hop, and eating became

' Insect Rearing Technician, Pestology Centre, Department

of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby 2, B.C.,
Canada.

normal. By the tenth day normal feces were passed
through the anus. On the eleventh day the locust
moulted to an adult, normal in all respects apart
from a light spot on the head where the opening had
been in the 5th instar.

The feces eliminated through the opening in the
head appeared to have been at least partially digested
(Fig. 1). This suggests a temporary dual aberration
consisting of an anal obstruction and a diverticulum
of the digestive tract from the midgut or hindgut to
the opening in the head. The adult locust lived for
approximately two weeks, but unfortunately died
and was eaten by other locusts in the colony before
dissections could be made.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. J. H. Borden for his advice and
assistance and Mr. R. G. Long for the photog-
raphy.

Fig. 1 Fifth instar nymph of S. gregaria passing feces
through dorsal opening in the head.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumntia, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970 33

A WORLD LIST OF PARASITES OF COCCINELLIDAE!
J. V. RICHERSON ®

ABSTRACT

The parasitic organisms attacking Coccinellidae of the world are pre-
sented in two lists: parasites of a given host, and hosts of a known parasite.
Parasites listed include: 9 fungi, 1 bacterium, 8 protozoans, 9 nematodes, 2
mites, and 83 insects. Forty-three genera and 125 species of coccinellid hosts
are included. Two hundred and three references are cited.

INTRODUCTION

The current interest in biological control or in-
tegrated control programs against insect pests
requires a full understanding of the organisms being
used. Coccinellids, a widely used group of predators,
are attacked by various parasitic or pathogenic
organisms. These organisms may reduce the ef-
fectiveness of predators or even prevent their

establishment. The following lists are compiled from.

published reports of parasitic organisms on all stages
of coccinellids of the world.

The first list contains coccinellid species listed
alphabetically with their parasites. The numbers
refer to literature citations. The second list contains
the parasites found attacking coccinellids. The
parasites are listed phylogenetically and the genera
alphabetically. An asterisk against names of
parasites in second list indicates synonomy. A list of
synonyms is given. The parasites are coded as
follows: F-Fungi, B-Bacteria, G-Gregarinidae, M-
Microsporidia, N-Nematoda, A-Acarina, DP-
Diptera Phoridae, DT-Diptera Tachinidae, HB-
Hymenoptera Braconidae, HC-Hymenoptera
Ceraphronidae, HCH-Hymenoptera Chalcididae,
HEN-Hymenoptera Encyrtidae, HEU-Hymenoptera
Eulophidae, HEP-Hymenoptera Eupelmidae, HI-
Hymenoptera Ichneumonidae, HP-Hymenoptera
Proctotrupidae, HPT-Hymenoptera Pteromalidae.

HOST LIST

COCCINELLIDAE

Anisotylus sp. (HEN) 70
A. similis texanus (HEN) 143, 185
Clistomorpha triangulifera (DT) 70
Degeeria collaris (DT) 66, 70
Doryphorophaga doryphorae (DT) 70
Exoristoides slossanae (DT) 70
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 8, 140
H. albitarsus (HEN) 135,143,185
H. flaminius (HEN) 3, 151, 152, 187

1 Part of this work was completed at the University of
Missouri, supported by the USDA, and the National Research
Council of Canada.

? Graduate Student. Pestology Centre, Biological Sciences De-
partment, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby 2, B.C., Canada.

H. terminalis terminalis (HEN) 76, 143, 170, 200
Lydinolydella brucki (DT) 70
L. metallica (DT) 70
Ooencyrtus johnsoni (HEN) 73, 135, 143
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 14, 27, 55, 70, 142, 187
Phalacrotophora berolinensis (DP) 70
Ph, fasciata (DP) 117
Ph. nedae (DP) 70
Nemorilla maculosa (DT) 70
Sarcophaga latisternus (DT) 70
S. rapax (DT) 70
S. reinhardi(DT) 70
Stomatomyia edwarsi (DT) 70
Tetrastichus coccinellae (HEU) 117
T. minutus (HEU) 143, 196
Adalia sp.
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8, 70
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 7
A. bipunctata L.
Beauveria bassiana (F) 68, 136
Homalotylus terminalis californicus (HEN) 48, 135,
143, 185
Parasitylenchus coccinellae (N) 88
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 7, 20, 30, 171, 187, 189
P. stuardoi (HB) 29
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8, 74, 125, 129, 154,
187
Tetrastichus coccinellae (HEU) 74, 87
T. epilachnae (HEU) 50, 187
T. minutus (HEU) 95, 143, 186
Unidentified Diptera (D) 154
Unidentified Tachinidae (D) 74
A. decempunctata L.
Degeeria luctosa (DT) 190
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 189
A. deficiens Muls.
Perilitus stuardoi (HB) 29
A. flavomaculata DeGeer
Homalotylus sp. (HE) 4, 187
Perilitus sp. (HB) 133, 187
A. frigida Schneider
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 48, 171
A. undecimpunctata L.
Clistomorpha triangulifera (DT) 9
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 189

s

34 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CorumbBIA, 67 (1970), AvG. 1, 1970

Adonia sp.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 8
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 141
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8, 70
A. undecimnotata Schneider
Beauveria bassiana (F) 74, 87
Mermis sp. (N) 74, 87, 88
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 74, 87
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8, 74
Unidentified Tachinidae (DT) 74
A. variegata (Goeze)
Gregarina sp. (G) 87
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 72, 87, 187, 199
Mermis sp. (N) 74, 87, 88
Pachyneuron sp. (HPT) 199
Parasitylenchus coccinellae (N) 88
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 74, 87, 118, 141, 171,
187, 189
Phalacrotophora sp. (DP) 87
Ph. fasciata (DP) 3, 74, 187
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 187, 199
Unidentified Tachinidae (DT) 74
Anatis ocellata L.
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 125, 187
A. quinquedecimpunctata DeGeer
Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (HEN) 143, 185,
187
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 30, 187
A. rathvoni LeConte
Nosema hippodamiae (M) 115
Aphidecta obliterata L.
Hexamermis sp. (N) 36
Phalacrotophora berolinensis (DP) 36
Azya luteipes Mulsant — A. orbigera
Metastenus townsendi (HPT) 63, 187
Calvia quatuordecimpunctata L.
Phalcrotophora fasciata (DPj 117, 125, 187
Tetrastichus coccinellae (HEU) 117
Chilocorus sp.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 8, 70
Hi. flaminius (HEN) 53
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8, 70
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 7

C. bijugus Mulsant
Tetrastichus neglectus (HEU) 40, 41

C. bipustulatus L.

Achrysopophagus aegyptiacus (HEN) 158
Anastatus disparis (HEP) 179,187
Aphanogmus sp. (HC) 187

Eupelmus sp. (HEP) 187

Hesperomyces virescens (F) 98, 203
Homalotyloides latiscapus (HEN) 187
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 140

H flaminius (HEN) 13, 72, 121, 158, 160, 167,
169, 177, 187, 198, 202

Lygocerus sp. (HP) 179

Pachyneuron chilocori (HPT) 39, 202
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 129, 187
Pseudocatalaccus sp. (HPT) 175
Tetrastichus coccinellae (HEU) 15, 41, 160
T. epilachnae (HEU) 17, 101, 121, 169, 187, 195
T. neglectus (HEU) 39, 41, 126, 179
T. sempronius (HEU) 40, 41
Unidentified Laboulbeniaceae (F) 72
Unidentified Acarina (A) 169
Zeteticontus sp. (HEN) 187
Chilocorus kuwanae Silv.
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 89, 91, 92, 93, 187
C. renipustulatus Scriba
Tetrastichus coccinellae (HEU) 15, 41, 139
C. similis (Rossi)
Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (HEN) 123, 135,
143
Isodromus niger (HEN) 137
Tetrastichus minutus (HEU) 123, 143, 180, 200
C. stigma Say
Tetrastichus thanasimi (HEU) 62, 135, 143
Chilomenes sp.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 8
C. lunata F.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 133, 187
H. flaminius (HEN) 187, 199
Pachyneuron sp. (HPT) 187, 199
Perilitus sp. (HB) 133, 187
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 187, 199
C. sexmaculata F.
Homalotylus terminalis californicus (HEN) 61, 62,
187
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 173
Tetrastichus coccinellae (HEU) 153
Unidentified parasites 96

Coccinella sp.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 34, 140, 151, 152, 185
Pediobius mediopunctata (HEU) 193
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8, 44, 70, 125, 187
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 7
T. melanis (HEU) 21, 143
T. minutus (HEU) 196

C. arcuata F.
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 173

C. bruki Mulsant
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 89, 187
C. divaricata Olivier

Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 117

C. novemnotata Herbst
Homalotylus terminalis californicus (HEN) 5, 37,
48, 135, 143, 185, 187
H. terminalis terminalis (HEN) 24, 32, 135, 143
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 7, 19, 30, 48, 52, 85, 156,
171
Tetrastichus tibialis (HEU) 37, 143

J. EnTomo.. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBrIA, 67 (1970), Aua. 1, 1970 oD

C. perplexa var.juliana Mulsant
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 170

C. quinquedecimnotata Kirby
Tetrastichus melanis (HEU) 138, 143

C. quinquepunctata L.

Beauveria bassiana (F) 117
Gregarina coccinellae (G) 117
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 117
H. terminalis californicus (HEN) 48, 135, 143, 185,
187
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 117, 120, 156, 171, 176,
187, 189
Tetrastichus coccinellae (HEU) 117
T. melanis (HEU) 21, 135, 137

C. repanda Thudberg
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 187
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 104, 173

C. septempunctata L.
Beauveria bassiana (F) 74, 117, 136, 178
Gregarina sp. (G) 87
G. coccinellae (G) 117
Homalotylus sp. (HEU) 7
H. flaminius (HEU) 74, 87, 92, 93, 117, 139, 141,
187
Lygocerus sp. (HP) 87
Mermis sp (N) 74, 87, 88
M. coccinellae (N) 88
M. nigrescens (N) 88, 112
Nosema coccinellae (M) 114, 117
N. tracheophila (M) 23
Pachyneuron syrphi (HPT) 139
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 20, 67, 74, 87, 117, 118,
120, 141, 155, 171, 173, 176, 187, 188, 189, 195
Phalacrotophora sp. (DP) 87
Ph. fasciata (DP) 3, 44, 45, 74, 129, 145, 187
Tetrastichus coccinellae (HEU) 41, 74, 87, 107,
117, 141, 187
T. epilachnae (HEU) 101, 122
T. neglectus (HEU) 40, 41
Unidentified Ichneumonidae (HI) 7, 99

C. transversoguttata Faldermann = C.
californica

Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 48, 134, 187

C. trifasciata L.=C. trifasciata juliana
Beauveria bassiana (F) 43
Clistomorpha triangulifera (DT) 168
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 48, 168, 171
Unidentified Nematoda (N) 168
C. undecimpunctata L. = C. decimpunctata
Laboulbenia sp. (F) 136
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 20, 69, 86, 97, 176, 187,
189
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 130
Tetrastichus coccinellae (HEU) 41, 86, 97
Unidentified Gregarinidae (G) 116

Coelophora biplagiata Swartz
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 173
C. inaequalis F.
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 48, 184, 187
Coleomegilla sp.
Clistomorpha triangulifera (DT) 82
Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (HEN) 135, 185,
187

C. innotata (Mulsant) — Megilla innotata
Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (HEN) 94

C. maculata DeGeer = C. m. lengi =

Ceratomegilla maculata= Megilla maculata

Agamermis decaudata (N) 25

Clistomorpha triangulifera (DT) 168

Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (HEU) 137, 143,
161, 187

Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 7, 18, 19, 28, 30, 48, 49,
02, 60, 65, 82, 83, 85, 141, 156, 157, 168, 184,
187, 194

Unidentified Nematoda (N) 168

Cryptognatha nodiceps Mshl.
Tripolycystus cryptognathae (HPT) 64

Cryptolaemus montrouziere Mulsant
Perilitus stuardoi (HB) 29

Cycloneda sp.
Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (HEN) 137, 185,
187
C. munda Weise
Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (HEN) 197
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 30, 48, 171

C. sanguinea L. = C. s. immaculata

Cladosporium sp. (F) 132
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 172, 187
H. terminalis terminalis (HEN) 4, 32, 57, 94, 109,

132, 135, 143, 187, 197, 203
Lepidaphycus bosqui (HEN) 12, 51, 187
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 7, 30, 171, 187
Tetrastichus minutus (HEU) 21, 56, 57, 131, 132,

135, 143, 186.
Unidentified Bacteria (B) 132

Cydonia sp.
Homaloytylus sp. (HEN) 8
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8
Egleis kingi (Macleay)
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 187
Epilachna sp.

Clistomorpha triangulifera (DT) 82
Lydinolydella metallica (DT) 11
Pediobius epilachnae (HEU) 148, 149, 150, 151,

159, 187
P. foveolatus (HEU) 148, 149, 150, 151, 187
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 7
T. coccinellae (HEU) 70
T. epilachnae (HEU) 59, 70

36 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brir. CotumBia, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

E. admirablis Crotch
Unidentified Proctotrupidae (HP) 119

E. argus Fourcoy
Tetrastichus epilachnae (HEU) 41, 59, 122, 140,
187
E. chrysomelina F.
Brachymeria sp. (HCH) 53
Pediobius epilachnae (HEU) 16, 201
Tetrastichus epilachnae (HEU) 41, 113
T. ovulorum (HEU) 51, 187

E. defecta Mulsant
Brachymeria carinatifrons (HCH) 58
Paradexodes epilachnae (DT) 187

E. eusema (Weise)
Lydinolydella metallica (DT) 11

E. indica Mulsant
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 29, 187

E. marginella F.
Lydinolydella metallica (DT) 11
E. philipinnensis (Dke)
Paradexodes epilachnae (DT) 144
Pediobius epilachnae (HEU) 144, 191
E. quaduordecimnotata Mulsant
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 118
E. varivestis F. — E. corrupta
Beauveria bassiana (F) 43, 136
Brachymeria carinatifrons (HCH) 58
Clistomorpha triangulifera (DT) 82, 187
Exoristoides slossanae (DT) 2, 187
Megaselia sp. (DP) 82, 187
Myrothecium roridum (F) 102
Nemorilla maculosa (DT) 42, 82
Paradexodes epilachnae (DT) 1, 10, 77, 78, 79, 80,
81, 82, 108, 124, 144
Pediobius epilachnae (HEU) 16, 143, 159, 187
Phorcera doryphorae (DT) 82, 187
Ph. claripennis (DT) 79, 81, 82
Sarcophaga latisternus (DT) 82, 187
S. rapax (DT) 81, 82, 187
S. reinhardi (DT) 82, 187
Synaldis sp. (HB) 82, 187
Unidentified Tachinidae (DT) 82, 187
E. vigintioctopunctata F.
Beauveria tenella (F) 105, 136
Mestocharis lividus (HEN) 73
Metarrhizium anisopliae (F) 103, 136
Pediobius epilachnae (HEU) 162
Stomatoceras colliscutellum (HEN) 182, 187
Tetrastichus ovulorum (HEU) 106, 187
Unidentified Chalcididae (HCH) 106

Eriopis connexa Germ.
Lepidaphycus bosqui (HEN) 12, 51, 187
Perilitus stuardoi (HB) 29

Exochomus sp.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 70
H. flaminius (HEN) 158

Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 7
E. flavipes Thunhg.
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 198
Tetrastichus epilachnae (HEU) 101, 198
E. nigrimaculata Goeze
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 4, 187
Perilitus sp. (HB) 133, 187
E. quadripustulatus L.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 140
Hi, flaminius (HEN) 40
Tetrastichus epilachnae (HEU) 101, 122, 198
T. neglectus (HEU) 41, 126
Halyzia duodecimguttata Pod.
Phyllactinia suffulta (F) 110
H. quaduordecimguttata Balduf
(=sedecimguttata L.)
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 141, 187, 189
Phyllactinia suffulta (F) 110
H. quaduordecimpunctata L.
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 171
H. vigintiduopunctata L.
Phyllactinia suffulta (F) 110
Harmonia conglobata (L.)
Gregarina sp. (G) 87, 88
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 74
Parasitylenchoides sp. (N) 74, 87
Parasitylenchus coccinellae (N) 88
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 74, 87
Unidentified Tachinidae (DT) 74
H. quadripunctata Pontoppidan
Beauveria bassiana (F) 84
Parasitylenchus coccinellae (N) 88
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 87

H. quaduordecimpunctata L.
Gregarina sp. (G) 87
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 74, 87
Mermis sp. (N) 74
Parasitylenchoides sp. (N) 74, 87, 88
Parasitylenchus coccinellae (N) 88
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 74, 87
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 74
Tetrastichus coccinellae (DEU) 87
Unidentified Tachinidae (DT) 74, 87
Hippodamia sp.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 8, 70
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8
H. convergens Guerin-Memeville
Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (HEN) 135, 143,
156
H. terminalis californicus (HEN) 5, 32, 48, 84, 143,
187
Nosema hippodamiae (M) 115, 117, 166
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 7, 18, 30, 33, 34, 36, 48,
83, 138, 166, 171, 183, 187
Tetrapolipus hippodamiae (A) 127
Unidentified Bacteria (B) 132

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BriT. CoLuMBIA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970 37

Unidentified Gregarinidae (G) 116
Unidentified Microsporidia (M) 166
H. glacialis F.
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 30, 187
H. parenthesis (Say)
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 7, 48, 49, 171, 187
H. quinquesignata Kirby
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 41, 171
H. sinuata Mulsant
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 48, 171
H. tibialis Say
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 143, 187
Pachyneuron siphonophorae (HPT) 131, 143
H. transersoguttata Faldermann
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 171
H. tredecimpunctata (L.)
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 31, 82, 187
Nosema coccinellae (M) 114, 117
Pachyneuron sp. (HPT) 31
P. siphonophorae (HPT) 31
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 7, 31, 117, 141, 171, 187
Hyperaspis sp.
Anisotylus sp. (HEN) 8
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 8, 70
Metastenus townsendi (HPT) 22
H. bigeminata (Randall)
Anisotylus similis texanus (HEN) 135, 143, 185,
187
H. camperstris Herbst
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 165, 187
H. guttulata Fairm.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 140
H. lateralis Mulsant
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 47, 128, 169, 187
Metastenus townsendi (HPT) 22, 143
Unidentified Pteromalidae (HPT) 128
H.. osculans LeConte
Homalotylus affinis (HEN) 48, 135, 143, 185, 187
H. senegalensis Mulsant
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 187, 199
Metastenus townsendi (HPT) 106
Pachyneuron sp. (HPT) 199
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 117, 187, 199
H. trimaculata (L.)
Homalotylus cockerelli (HEN) 143, 185, 187
H. undulata (Say)
Homalotylus hyperaspidius (HEN) 48, 135, 143,
185, 187
Metastenus townsendi (HPT) 143
H. vittigera (LeConte)
Homalotylus cockerelli (HEN) 135, 143, 185
Leis conformis L.
Unidentified Braconidae (HB) 191
L. dimidiata F.
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 173
Macronaemia hauseri Weise
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 118, 171

Myrrha octodecimguttata L.
Gregarina coccinellae (G) 117
Nosema coccinellae (M) 114, 117
Neomysia sp.
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8, 70, 154, 187
N. oblongoguttata L.
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 117, 125
N. pullata (Say)
Homalotylus termalis terminalis (HEN) 135, 143
Nephus sp.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 8
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 7
Olla abdominalis (Say)
Nosema hippodamiae (M) 115
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 7, 48, 104, 171, 184, 187
Unidentified Fungi (F) 132
Unidentified Parasite 54
Orcus chalybaeus Boisd.
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 187
O. janthinus Mulsant
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 187
O. laferti Mulsant
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 187
O. nummularis Boisd.
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 187
Propylea quadridecimpunctata L.
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 20
Psyllobora vigintiduopunctata L.
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 20
P. vigintimaculata (Say)
Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (HEN) 5, 24, 32,
135, 143
Pullus impexus Mulsant
Centistes scymni (HB) 34, 36
Gregarina sp. (G) 36
Scymnophagus mesnili (HPT) 36
Unidentified Mermithidae (N) 36
Rodalia cardinalis (Mulsant)
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 177
Scymnus sp.
Anisotylus sp. (HEN) 8, 187
A. albifrons (HEN) 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 187
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 8, 35, 100, 187
H. brevicauda (HEN) 185
H. flaminius (HEN) 158
H. quaylei (HEN) 140
H. terminalis terminalis (HEN) 5, 32, 135, 143,
163, 185, 187
Metastenus townsendi (HPT) 22, 36, 143
Syntomosphyrum taprobanes (HEU) 149, 187, 192
S. americanus Mulsant
Anisotylus similis utahensis (HEN) 48, 135, 143,
185, 187
S. bipunctatus Kug.
Homalotylus oculatus (HEN) 187
S. cervicolis Mulsant
Anisotylus similis similis (HEN) 4, 32, 135, 143

38 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumsBiA, 67 (1970), Ave. 1, 1970

S. collaris Melsh.
Anisotylus similis utahensis (HEN) 131
S. fenestratus Sahlbg.
Homalotylus quaylei (HEN) 158
S. glacialis F.
Nematodeum scymni glacialis (N) 88
S. guttulatus LeConte
Metastenus townsendi (HPT) 22, 135, 143, 169
S. includens Kirsch
Homalotylus quaylei (HEN) 158
S. kiesenwetteri Mulsant
Pachyneuron sp. (HPT) 6, 187
S. lacustris LeConte
Anisotylus similis utahensis (HEN) 135, 143
Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (HEN) 143
Metastenus townsendi (HPT) 143

S. melsheimeri Ws.
Anisotylus similis utahensis (HEN) 187

S. ornatus LeConte
Homalotylus. flaminius (HEN) 187, 199
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 187, 199
Pachyneuron sp. (HPT) 199

S. soudanensis Sicard
Homalotylus flaminius (HEU) 187, 199
Pachyneuron sp. (HPT) 199
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 187, 199

S. quadrimaculata Herbst
Homalotylus quaylei (HEN) 158
S. subvillosus Goeze
Tetrastichus neglectus (HEU) 41, 46
S. suturalis Thunbg.
Homalotylus quaylei (HEN) 158
Semiadalia sp.
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8, 70
S. undecimnotata Schneider
Degeeria luctosa (DT) 66, 70
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 171
S. undecimnotata novempunctata Fourcoy
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 187
Sidis sp.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 8
Tetrastichus sp. (HEU) 7
Subcoccinella vigintiquaturopunctata L.
Tetrastichus epilachnae (HEU) 38, 41, 59, 181
Synharmonia conglobata L.
Tetrastichus coccinellae (HEU) 41
Stethorus sp.
Rickettsia stethorae (M) 71
S. gilvifrons Mulsant
Rickettsia stethorae (M) 71
S. punctum LeConte
Rickettsia stethorae (M) 71
Typhlodromus fallacis (A) 146
Unidentified Bacteria or Virus (B) 146
Thea sp.
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8

T. vigintiduopunctata L.
Homalatylus flaminius (HEN) 3, 187
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 3, 111, 187

Verania discolor F.
Perilitus coccinellae (HB) 173
V. frenata Erdoes
Homalotylus flaminius (HEN) 187
Vibidia sp.
Homalotylus sp. (HEN) 8
Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 8

V. duodecimguttata Poda

Phalacrotophora fasciata (DP) 11, 187

PARASITES ATTACKING
COCCINELLIDS

FUNGI
Beauveria bassiana Vuillman — Adalia bipunctata,
Adonia undecimnotata, Coccinella quinquepunc-
tata, C. septempunctata, C. trifasciata, Epilachna
varivestis, Harmonia quadripunctata.
B. tenella (Del.) Siemasko — Epilachna vigin-
tioctopunctata
Cladosporium sp. — Cycloneda sanguinea
Hesperomyces virescens Thaxter — Chilocorus
bipustulatus
Laboulbenia sp. — Coccinella undecimpunctata
Laboulbeniaceae — Chilocorus bipustulatus
Metarrhizium anisopliae (Metchnikoff) —
Epilachna vigintioctopunctata
Myrothecium roridum Tode — Epilachna
varivestis
Phyllactinia suffulta (Reb.} Sacc. — Halyzia
duodecimguttata, H. sedecimguttata, H. vigin-
tiduopunctata

Unidentified Fungi — Olla abdominalis

BACTERIA
Bacterial or Viral — Stethorus punctillum
Unidentified Bacteria — Cycloneda sanguinea,
Hippodamia convergens

Protozoa

Gregarinidae
Gregarina sp. — Adonia variegata, Coccinella
septempunctata, Harmonia conglobata, H.
quaduordecimpunctata, Pullus impexus
G. coccinellae Lipa — Coccinella quinquepunctata,
C. septempunctata, Myrrha octodecimguttata
Unidentified Gregarinidae — Hippodamia
convergens, Coccinella undecimpunctata
Microsporidia
Nosema coccinellae Lipa — Coccinella sep-
tempunctata, Hippodamia tredecimpunctata,
Myrrha octodecimguttata
N. hippodamiae Lipa — Anatis rathvoni, Hip-
podamia convergens, Olla abdominalis

J. ENTomMOoL. Soc. Brit. CotumstiA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970 39

N. tracheophila Cole and Briggs — Coccinella
septempunctata

Rickettsia stethorae Hall — Stethorus sp., S.
gilvifrons, S. punctum, S. punctillum
Unidentified Microsporidia — Hippodamia
convergens

NEMATODA

Agamermis decaudata Christie — Coleomegilla
maculata

Hexamermis sp. — Aphidecta obliterata

Mermis sp. —Adonia undecimnotata, A. vareigata,
Coccinella septempunctata, Harmonia
quaduordecimpunctata

M. coccinellae Dies. — Coccinella septempunctata

M. nigrescens Duj. — Coccinella septempunctata

Nematodeum scymni glacialis Dies. — Scymnus
glacialis

Parasitylenchoides sp. — Harmonia conglobata,
H. quaduordecimpunctata

Parasitylenchus coccinellae Iperti and Waerebeke
—Adalia bipunctata, Adonia variegata, Harmonia
conglobata, H. quadripunctata,

H. quaduordecimpunctata.

Unidentified Mermithidae — Pullus impexus

Unidentified Nematode — Coccinella trifasciata,
Coleomegilla maculata

ACARINA
Tetrapolipus hippodamiae McDaniel and Morril
— Hippodamia convergens
Typhlodromus fallacis (Garman) — Stethorus
punctillum
Unidentified Acarina — Chilocorus bipustulatus

INSECTA

Diptera — Phoridae

Megaselia sp. — Epilachna varivestis

Phalacrotophora sp. — Adonia variegata, Coc-
cinella septempunctata

P. berolinensis Schmitz — Aphidecta obliterata,
Coccinellidae

P. fasciata Fall. — Adalia sp., A. bipunctata,
Adonia sp., A. undecimnotata, A. variegata, Anatis
ocellata, Calvia quatuordecimguttata, Chilocorus
sp., C. bipustulatus,
tempunctata, C. undecimpunctata, Coccinellidae,
Cydonia sp., Harmonia quaduordecimpunctata,
Hippodamia sp., Neomysia sp.,N. oblongoguttata,
Semiadalia sp.,.S. undecimnotata novempunctata,
Thea sp., T. vigintiduopunctata, Vibidia sp., V.
duodecimguttata

P. nedae Schmitz — Coccinellidae

Tachinidae

Clistomorpha triangulifera (Loew) — Adalia

undecimpunctata, Coccinella trifasciata, Coc-

S. rapax Walk. —

Coccinella sp., C. sep-

cinellidae, Coleomegilla sp., Coleomegilla
maculata, Epilachna sp., E. varivestis

Degeeria collaris Fall. — Coccinellidae

D. luctosa Meigan — Adalia decimpunctata,
Semiadalia undecimnotata

Exoristoides slossonae Cog. — Coccinellidae,

Epilachna varivestis

Doryphorophaga doryphorae Ril. — Coccinellidae

Lydinolydella brucki Blanch. — Coccinellidae

L. metallica Townsend — Coccinellidae, Epilachna
sp., E. euserna, E. marginella

Nemorilla maculosa Mg. — Coccinellidae,

Epilachna varivestis

Paradexodes epilachnae Aldrich — Epilachna
varivestis, E. defecta, E. philipinnensis

Phorocera doryphorae Riley — Epilachna
varivestis

P. claripennis Macquart — Epilachna varivestis

Sarcophaga latisternus Park. — Coccinellidae,

Epilachna varivestis
Coccinellidae, Epilachna
varivestis

S. reinhardi Hul. — Coccinellidae, Epilachna

varivestis

Stomatoyia edwarsi Will. — Coccinellidae
Unidentified Tachinidae —

Adalia_ un-
decipunctata, Adonia undecimnotata, A. variegata,
Epilachna varivestis, Harmonia conglobata, H.
quaduordecimpunctata

Unidentified Diptera — Adalia bipunctata
Hymenoptera — Braconidae

Centistes scymni Ferriere — Pullus impexus

Perilitus sp. — Adalia flavomaculata, Chilomenes
lunata, Exochomus nigrimaculata

P. coccinellae (Schrank) — Adalia bipunctata, A.
decimpunctata, A. undecimpunctata, A. frigida,
Adonia sp.,A. undecimnotata, A. variegata, Anatis
quinquedecimpunctata, Coccinella arcuata, C.
divaricata, C. novemnotata, C. quinquepunctata,
C. repanda, C. septempunctata, CC. tran-
sversoguttata, C. trifasciata, C. undecimpunctata,
Coccinellidae, Coelophora_ biplagiata, C.
inaequalis, Coleomegilla
maculata, Cycloneda munda, C. sanguinea,
Epilachna quaduordecimnotata, Halyzia
quaduordecimguttata, ( — sedecimguttata), H.
quaduordecimpunctata, Harmonia conglobata, H.
quadripunctata, H. quaduordecimpunctata,
Hippodamia convergens, H. glacialis, H. paren-
thesis, H. quinquesignata, H. sinuata, H. tran-
sversoguttata, H. tredecimpunctata, Leis
dimidiata, Macronaemia hauseri, Olla__ab-
dominalis, Propylea quadridecimpunctata,
Psyllobora vigintiduopunctata, Semiadalia un-
decimnotata, Verania discolor

P. stuardoi Porter — Adalia bipunctata, A.

40 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

deficiens, Eriopsis connexa, Cryptolaemus mon-
trouziere

Synaldis sp. — Epilachna varivestis

Unidentified Braconidae — Leis conformis

Ceraphronidae

Aphanogmus sp. — Chilocorus bipustulatus

Chalcididae

Brachymeria sp. — Epilachna chrysomelina

B. carinatifrons Gahan — Epilachna defecta, E.
varivestis

Unidentified Chalcididae — Epilachna vigin-
tioctopunctata

Encyrtidae

Achrysopophagus aegypticus
Chilocorus bipustulatus
Anisotylus sp. — Coccinellidae, Hyperaspis sp.,
Scymnus sp.

A. albifrons Ishii — Scymnus sp.

A. similis similis (Ashmead) —Scymnus cervicolis
A. similis texanus Timberlake — Coccinellidae,
Hyperaspis bigeminata

A. similis utahensis Timberlake — Scymnus
americanus, S. collaris, S. lacustris, S. melshiemeri
Homalotyloides latiscapes Mali — Chilocorus
bipustulatus

Homalotylus sp. — Adalia flavomaculata, Adonia

Mercet —

sp., Chilocorus sp., C. bipustulatus, Chilomenes sp.,
septempunctata,

C. lunata, Coccinella sp., C.
Coccinellidae, Cycloneda sanguinea, Cydonia sp.,
Exochomus sp.,_ E.
quadripustulatus, Hippodamia sp., Hyperaspis sp.,

H. guttulata, H. lateralis, Nephus sp.,Scymnus sp.,

Sidis sp., Vibidia sp.

H. affinis Timberlake — Hyperaspis osculans

H. albitarsus Gahan — Coccinellidae

H. brevicauda Timberlake — Scymnus sp.

H. cockerelli Timberlake — Hyperaspis
trimaculata, H. vittigera

H. flaminius Dalman+ — Adonia variegata,
Chilocorus sp., C. bipustulatus, C. kuwanae,
Chilomenes lunata, Coccinella brucki, C.
quinquepunctata, C. repanda, C. septempunctata,

Coccinellidae, Egleis kingi, Exochomus sp., E.

flavipes, E. quadripustulatus, Harmonia
conglobata, H. quaduordecimpunctata, Hip-
podamia tibialis, H. tredecimpunctata, Hyperaspis
campestris, H. senegalensis, Orcus chalybaeus, O.
janthinus, O. laferti, O. nummularis, Rodalia
cardinalis, Scymnus sp.,S. ornatus, S. soudanensis,
Thea vigintiduopunctata, Verania frenata

H. hyperaspidius Timberlake — Hyperaspis
undulata

H. oculatus Girault — Scymnus bipunctatus

H. quaylei Timberlake — Scymnus sp., S.
fenestratus, S. includens, S. quadrimaculata, S.
suturalis

H. terminalis

nigrimaculata, E.

H. terminalis californicus Girault *— Adalia

bipunctata, Chilomenes sexmaculata, Coccinella

novemnotata, C. quinquepunctata, Hippodamia

convergens

terminalis (Say)* — Anatis
quinquedecimpunctata, Chilocorus similis, Coc-
cinella novernnotata, Coccinellidae, Coleomegilla
sp., C. innotata, C. maculata, Cycloneda sp., C.
munda, C. sanguinea, Hippodamia convergens,
Neomysia pullata, Psyllobora vigintimaculata,
Scymnus sp., S. lacustris

H. vicinus Say — Nephus vetustus

Isodromus niger Ashmead — Chilocorus similis

Lepidaphycus bosqui Blanch—Cycloneda
sanguinea, Eriopsis connexa

Mestocharis lividus Girault — Epilachna vigin-
tioctopunctata

Ooencyrtus johnsoni (Howard) — Coccinellidae

Stomatoceras colliscutellum Girault — Epilachna
vigintioctopunctata

Zeteticontus sp. — Chilocorus bipustulatus
Eulophidae

Pediobius epilachnae Rohwer —Epilachna sp., E.
chrysomelina, E. philipinnensis, E. varivestis, E.
vigintioctopunctata

P. mediopunctata Wtstn. — Coccinella sp. _

P. foveolatus Crawford — Epilachna sp.

Syntomosphyrum taprobanes Wtstn. —
Scymnus sp.

Tetrastichus sp. — Adalia sp., Adonia variegata,
Chilocorus sp., Chilomenes lunata, Coccinella sp.,
Epilachna sp.,E. indica, Exochomus sp., Hyperaspis
senegalensis, Nephus sp., Scymnus ornatus, S.
soudanensis, Sidis sp.

T. coccinellae Kurdjumov — Adalia bipunctata,
Calvia quaduordecimpunctata (= sedecimguttata),
Chilocorus bipustulatus, C. renipustulatus,
Chilomenes sexmaculata, Coccinella
quinquepunctata, C. septempunctata, C. un-
decimpunctata, Coccinellidae, Harmonia
quaduordecimpunctata, Synharmonia conglobata
T. epilachnae Giard* — Adalia bipunctata,
Chilocorus bipustulatus, Coccinella sep-
tempunctata, Epilachna sp., E. argus, E.
chrysomelina, Exochomus flavipes, E.
quadripustulatus, Subcoccinella vigin-
tiquatropunctata
T. melanis Burks — Coccinella sp., C.
quinquedecimnotata, C. quinquepunctata
T. minutus (Howard)* — Adalia bipunctata,
Chilocorus similis, Coccinella sp., Coccinellidae,
Cycloneda sanguinea
T. neglectus Domenichini —Chilocorus bijugus, C.
bipustulatus, Coccinella septempunctata,
Exochomus quadripustulatus, Scymnus subvillosus
T. sempronius Erdoes — Chilocorus bipustulatus

nn

J. ENToMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLtumBIA, 67 (1970), AuG. 1, 1970 41

T. thanasimi Ashmead *— Chilocorus stigma
T. tibialis (Ashmead) *— Coccinella novemnotata

T. ovulorum Laboulbene — Epilachna
chrysomelina, E. vigintioctopunctata

Eupelmidae

Anastatus disparis Ruschka — Chilocorus
bipustulatus

Eupelmus sp. — Chilocorus bipustulatus
Ichneumonidae

Unidentified Ichneumonidae — Coccinella
septempunctata

Prototrupidae

Lygocerus sp. — Chilocorus bipustulatus, Coc-

cinella septempunctata

Unidentified Proctotrupidae — Epilachna ad-
muirablis

Pteromalidae

Metastenus townsendi (Ashmead) *— Azya lutipes,
Hyperaspis sp., H. lateralis, H. senegalensis, H.
undulata, Scymnus sp., S. guttulatus, S. lacustris

Pachyneuron sp. — Adonia variegata, Chilomenes
lunata, Hippodamia tredecimpunctata, Hyperaspis
senegalensis, Scymnus kiesenwetteri, S. ornatus, S.
soudanensis

P. chilocori
bipustulatus

P. siphonophorae (Ashmead)+ — Hippodamia
tibialis, H. tredecimpunctata

P. syrphi (Ashmead) — Coccinella septempunctata

Domenichini — Chilocorus

Pseudocatalaccus sp. — Chilocorus bipustulatus
Scymnophagus (—Metastenus) mesnili Farriere —
Pullus impexus

Tripolycystus cryptognathae Girault — Cryp-
tognatha nodiceps

Unidentified Pteromalid — Hyperaspis lateralis
Unidentified Parasite — Chilomenes sexmaculata,

Olla abdominalis

SYNONOMY
PARASITES
Anisotylus similis similis (Ashmead) (HEN) —
Homalotylus similis
Homalotylus flaminius Dalman (HEN) —
Homalatylus flaminius, Homalotylus flaminus
Homalotylus_ terminalis californicus Girault
(HEN)— Homalotylus obscurus var. californicus,
Homalotylus terminalis
Homalotylus terminalis terminalis (Say) (HEN)
— Eutelus scymnae Shimer, Homalatylus ter-
minalis, Homalotylus obscurus, H. scymni, H.
terminalis
Metastenus townsendi (Ashmead) (HPT) —
Scymnophagus secundus, S. townsendi, Xenocrepis
mexicana
Pachyneuron siphonophorae (Ashmead) (HPT)
— Pachyneuron aphidiorum
Pediobius epilachnae _ Rohwer
Pleurotropis epilachnae
Tetrastichus epilachnae Giard (HEU)— Lygellus
epilachnae, Tetrastichus jablonowski
Tetrastichus minutus (Howard) (HEU) —
Epomphaloides minutus, Syntomosphyrum esurus,
Tetrastichus blephyri, T. blephyria. Tetrastichodes
detrimentosus
T. thanasimi Ashmead (HEU) — Tetrastichodes
thanasimi
T. tibialis (Ashmead) (HEU) — Tetrastichodes

tibialis

(HEU) —

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U.S.D.A. Circ. 106.

DRIFT PERIODICITY AND
UPSTREAM DISPERSION OF STREAM INSECTS!
MERLYN A. BRUSVEN?

ABSTRACT

Drift periodicity and upstream dispersion by larval and nymphal
insects from two north Idaho streams were investigated. Drift was determined
with drift nets sampling at 2-hour intervals over 24-hour periods. Upstream
dispersion was evaluated using a marking-release-recapture technique. May-
flies demonstrated nocturnal drift as did the corixid Sigara (Vermicorixa)
grossolineata Hungerford and dipteran Simulium sp.; chironomids showed
continuous drift as opposed to behavioral drift for most of the other insects
studied. Both nocturnal and diurnal drift occurred with species in the order
Trichoptera. Stonefies showed little tendency to drift. Mid-summer upstream
dispersion by mature nymphs and larvae of selected species was found to be in-
significant as a means of recolonizing insect-decimated riffle habitats and
offsetting downstream displacement by drift.

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge of recolonization processes of insect-
decimated streams is a matter of increasing im-
portance in understanding stream ecology. The
presence or absence of certain species of insects
often reflects the quality of a stream. Insects also
constitute an important trophic link in food chains
and play an important role in secondary production.
Maintenance of unpolluted, high-quality streams and
rehabilitation of those that have been rendered
unproductive are vital considerations in stream
management.

Population dynamics of stream insects, par-
ticularly dispersion by drift, has been investigated by
Anderson (1967), Elliot (1967), Miiller (1954),
Pearson (1968), Waters (1962, 1968) and others.

' Published with the approval of the Director of the Idaho
Agricultural Experiment Station as Research Paper No. 833.

* Department of Entomology, University of Idaho, Moscow,
Idaho 83843.

Upstream dispersion of benthic invertebrates has
been studied to a much lesser extent. Neave (1930)
reported nymphs of the mayfly Blasturus cupidus
Say to annually move up newly formed tributaries.
Studying energy flow in a stream, Ballet al. (1963)
detected upstream dispersion of radiophosphorus
and suggested it was possibly transported by in-
vertebrates. Bishop and Bishop (1968) reported no
upstream movement of nymphs labeled with P’*’.
Studying dispersal patterns of the mayfly nymph,
Baetis sp. and a crustacean, Gammarus sp., Waters
(1965) concluded that major movements in an
experimental enclosure occurred in a downstream
direction and at night, but did not exclude the
possibility of some upstream movement. Roos
(1967) reported the flight of egg-bearing, adult
insects was principally upstream.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Downstream dispersion by drift was studied

J. ENTomo.t. Soc. Brir. CotumnBta, 67 (1970), Auc. 1, 1970 49

during 1966 and 1967 in Merry Creek and Gold
Center Creek respectively. Both creeks are principal
tributaries of the St. Maries River in northern Idaho
and are physically similar, having bottom types of
cobble. They course through mountains of moderate
relief and carry a light to moderate sediment load
during spring run-off as a result of logging and road
construction. The flow for Merry Creek was 14.32
and 10.35 ft*’sec during June and July respectively
and 27.82 and 15.33 ft * sec during the same months
for Gold Center Creek. A single riffle from each
creek was selected for study. ‘The Merry Creek riffle,
more appropriately classified a_ riffle-run, en-
compasses approximately 7.5 yards by 43 yards. The
larger Gold Center Creek riffle has dimensions of 11
by 86 yards.

Drift insects were collected in two, square-foot
drift nets, placed approximately | foot apart, in mid-
channel. The collecting bags were 3-feet long and
made of fine nylon (32 x 32threads/inch). Samples
were taken at 2-hour intervals over 24-hour periods
during June 27 and July 29, 1966 from Merry Creek
and June 29 and July 26, 1967 from Gold Center
Creek. August samples were taken from each stream,
but data were not summarized because of extremely
low numbers of insects during that period.

The standing crop was measured with a 1-square-
foot, cylindrical-bottom sampler similar to that
described by Waters and Knapp (1961). The
collecting bag was made of nylon, similar to that of
the drift nets. Samples were taken along each side
and through the middle of the riffle in order to reflect
spatial distribution. Samples were taken above the
position of the drift nets and subsequent to drift
collections. Drift and bottom samples were stored in
70“alcohol. Insects were sorted by hand, identified
and counted. Quantitative enumerations for drift and
standing crop are given as numbers per unit time and
per unit area respectively.

Determination of upstream dispersion by insects
in water was made through use of a marking-release-
recapture technique. Fluorescent pigments described
by Brusven (1970) were used for markir. insects.
Two channelettes (Streams I and II) off the St.
Maries River and Gold Center Creek were used for
the study. They ranged from 4-7 feet wide and
supported a 3-6 inch water column during most of
the summer; bottom types were pebble and cobble.
Insects were collected 20 feet above and 40 feet
below the release zone by turning and scraping the
bottom materials to simulate a relatively insect-free
area that might occur as a result of extreme scouring.
Insects used for marking were captured with a
standard 3-foot aquatic screen from the channelettes
and augmented with insects from the larger adjoining
streams. To facilitate handling and recovery, only

larger specimens of immature Ephemeroptera,
Trichoptera and Plecoptera were used for marking.
The latter was emphasized because the large size of
several species of stoneflies made them excellent
subjects for release and recapture. Marked releases
were made on the basis of availability, so no attempt
was made to unify release numbers during each of
the release periods of June, July and August.
Insects collected for marking were segregated,
counted and placed in partially submerged 3 x 3 x 5
inch screened cages. The cages were momentarily
lifted from the water; insects were uniformly fogged
with fluorescent powder, then submerged several
times to remove excess powder. Marked insects were
introduced into a 3-foot release zone in each stream.
A screen was placed immediately below the release
zone to catch insects that did not become established
with the bottom; the screen was not removed until all
insects had become established. Recaptures were
again made with a standard aquatic collecting screen
by turning and scraping the bottom sediments after a
48-hour period, thus encompassing two dark-light
periods. A complete sampling of an area 18 feet
above and 42 feet below the release zone was made.

RESULTS

Drift Periodicity

Drift was determined for the principal riffle insects
occurring in Merry and Gold Center Creeks (Fig. 1-
4). Standing crop and daily drift are given in Tables
1 and 2 for the principal species in the orders
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Hemiptera, Trichoptera
and Diptera. With the exception of riffle beetles
(Elmidae), coleopterans were poorly represented in
the study.

Ephemeroptera

Mayflies were the most abundant insects from the
two streams studied. Nine genera and 18 species
were collected in drift and/or bottom samples during
the study with Baetis and Ephemerella the principal
genera. As a group, mayflies demonstrated noc-
turnal drift (Fig. la,c). June drift was appreciably
higher than July drift and is consistent with a
decrease in standing crop between the two months.
Baetis bicaudatus Dodds, Ephemerella edmundsi
Allen, E. inermis Eaton, E. tibialis McDunnough
and E. flavilinea McDunnough each demonstrated a
single drift peak between 10 p.m. to 2 a.m. (Fig.
lb,d; 2c-f). Baetis tricaudatus Dodds, reflected a
bimodal drift pattern with two peaks occurring
during the dark hours (Fig. 2a,b). It is significant to
note that the pattern exhibited by this species oc-
curred during July from two different streams,
during two different years.

Plecoptera
Stoneflies, although abundant benthic in-

50 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CorumBiA, 67 (1970), Ava. 1, 1970

NUMBER OF INSECTS

ool

Odi

Ov!
0@
ool
Od!
Ov
o9l
oe

fo > @
(eo) (o) (o)

Wel
3WIdL

= n ~ Py (e,) @ ro) .)

(e} (eo) (oe) ° (eo) (eo) (oe) (e)
r=) ~
z z
~ fo
} }
@ o
@ @
5 5
re)
=
fo
£
on
@
ro)

Fig. 1. Drift rate/2 nets/2-hour intervals for: a. Ephemeroptera (total drift), Merry Creek,
1966; b. Ephemerella tibialis McDunnough, Merry Creek, June 27, 1966; c. Ephemeroptera
(total drift), Gold Center Creek, 1967; d. E. flavilinea McDunnough, June 29, 1967.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 67 (1970), Aua. 1, 1970 51

NUMBER OF INSECTS

awd
& Wl

Ol
02
| Ol
02
o€

b Qa
a)
@
ro)
S)
=
nN
an
eS ee See ec Ace a ee Ef
@ o
o @
re) 3

Fig. 2. Drift rate/2 nets/2-hour intervals for: a. Baetis tricaudatus Dodds, Gold Center Creek,

July 26, 1967; b. B. tricaudatus Dodds, Merry Creek, July 29, 1966; c. B. bicaudatus Dodds,

Merry Creek, June 27, 1966; d. B. bicaudatus Dodds, Gold Center Creek, June 29, 1967; e.

Ephemerella edmundsi Allen, Gold Center Creek, June 29, 1967; f. E. inermis Eaton, Gold
Center Creek, June 29, 1967.

52 J. ENToMOL. Soc. BriT. CoLuMBIA, 67 (1970), Ava. 1, 1970

vertebrates, were poorly represented in drift (Tables
1 and 2). With the exception of Alloperla sp. which
showed a slight increase in drift at night, no drift
trends were evident. Anderson and Lehmkuhl
(1968) reported small stoneflies Capnia sp. and
Nemoura sp. as important drift components after the
first freshet in November. With the exception of
Alloperla sp. which is relatively small, the stoneflies
Isogenus, Acroneuria and Pteronarcys occurring in
this study are medium to large size as mature
nymphs and exhibit extreme mobility. It is believed
their physical strength and swimming abilities better
enable them to counteract the effects of current and
are not easily displaced.
Hemiptera

The corixid bug, Sigara (Vermicorixa)
grossolineata Hungerford, was an unexpected drift
invertebrate. It occurred from both Merry Creek and
Gold Center Creek and reflected a precipitous in-
crease in drift after dark (Fig. 3a-c). No specimens
were taken in drift during the daylight hours from
Merry Creek and only an occasional specimen from
Gold Center Creek. Waters (1962) reported
essentially similar results for the corixid
Hesperocorixa sp.

All corixids recovered in drift were adults. It is
probable their occurrence in drift was the result of an
evening flight originating from some other point
along the stream since they were not recovered in
bottom samples from the two riffles investigated.

Diptera

Diptera larvae were well represented in bottom
samples, but with the exception of chironomids and
simuliids, showed little tendency to drift (Tables 1
and 2). Collectively, chironomids showed continuous
drift during the day (Fig. 3e). Although there were
detectable differences among 2-hour sampling
periods, there was no indication of a day- or night-
active period. The standing crop decreased by a
factor of 2 between June and July while there was a
17-fold increase in drift. This increase occurred
commensurate with a decrease in stream discharge.
Anderson and Lehmkuhl (1968), however, reported
an increase in chironomid drift as stream discharge
increased.

Simulium sp. drift from Merry Creek during July
indicated a night-active period (Fig. 3d), reaching
highest proportions at midnight. A_ direct
relationship appears to exist between standing crop
and drift (Table 1). No larvae were collected in
bottom samples in June and only four individuals
were collected in drift. During July, there was a
noticeable increase in bottom density to 6.41 larvae
per sq. yd. and a daily drift of 86 individuals.

Trichoptera
As a group, caddisflies demonstrated highly

variable drift patterns (Fig. 4). The brachycentrid
genera of Micrasema and Brachycentrus reflected a
precipitous increase in drift after sunset, reaching
highest levels at midnight; a much smaller,
secondary drift period occurred during early morning
(Fig. 4a,d). Because of the diminutive nature of the
secondary peak, particularly by Brachycentrus, it
might be questioned whether this was indeed a
““bigeminus’”’ drift pattern, i.e. the major peak occurs
first and shortly after sunset, followed by a secondary
peak, as discussed by Miiller (1965).

Drift by the limnephilid Dicosmoecus gilvipes (?)
(Hagen) reflected a day active or more appropriately
an afternoon-active period, occurring between 10
a.m. to 8 p.m. (Fig. 4b). Drift decreased after sunset
and remained low until 10 a.m. the following
morning. Continued low drift during the daylight
hours of the subsequent morning suggests this species
was both light and temperature sensitive. The daily
temperature range for June 29, 1967 was seven
degrees F., being highest at 4 p.m. and lowest at 4
a.m. Most of the larvae taken in drift were caseless,
indicating they were perhaps in the process of
reconstructing new cases. It is interesting to note that
the Dicosmoecus sp. population from Merry Creek
did not show similar drift tendencies, although the
bottom density was higher than Gold Center Creek..
The bottom density of Dicosmoecus gilvipes (?) in”
Gold Center Creek was not appreciably different
between June and July, however, considerable
differences in daily drift were recorded (Table 2).
This is probably the result of age-behavioral changes
or age-distributional changes as suggested by An-
derson (1967).

The lepidostomatid trichopteran, Lepidostoma
sp., demonstrated a relatively high tendency to drift
as reflected by the relationship of bottom density to
daily drift during June from Gold Center Creek
(Table 2). Slightly higher drift occurred during the
daylight hours, decreasing to lowest levels at 2 a.m.
(Fig. 4c). Anderson (1967) reported L. unicolor
(Banks) having no discernible daily drift periodicity.

Arctopsyche grandis (Banks), a_net-spinning
trichopteran, drifted most actively at night from
Gold Center Creek. Hydropsyche sp. from Merry
Creek, another member of the hydropsychid family,
showed little tendency to drift, although its density
was approximately twice that of Arctopsyche from
Gold Center Creek (Tables 1 and 2). Few members
of either genus were taken by drift or bottom samples
from either creek during July and is probably the
result of pupation and emergence as indicated by
adult collection records.

Upstream Dispersion
Upstream dispersion by larval and nymphal
insects was investigated to determine if it occurred in

J. Entomot. Soc. Brir. Cotumntia, 67 (1970), Auc. 1, 1970 53

NUMBER OF INSECTS

fo)

ol
02
o€

Fig. 3. Drift rate/2 nets/2-hour intervals for: a. Sigara grossolineata Hungerford, Merry Creek,

June 27, 1966; b. S. grossolineata Hungerford, Merry Creek, July 29, 1966; c. S. grossolineata

Hungerford, Gold Center Creek, June 29, 1967; d. Simulium sp., Merry Creek, July 29, 1966;
e. Chironomidae, Merry Creek, July 29, 1966.

54 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumnBria, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

streams and what role it played in offsetting
downstream displacement by drift. The number and
kinds of insects marked and released are given in
Table 2. Marked releases were made in June, July
and August in Stream II, but only during June and
July in Stream I because of low flow during August.
Streams were sampled 48 hours after the insects were
released in order to determine distribution of marked
insects in relation to their point of release (Tables 4
and 5).

No marked insects were recovered above the
release area in Stream I; only two_ insects,
representing 4.9% of the total recovered insects in
Stream II, were collected above the release zone. The
latter were taken in the first 3-foot region above the
point of release. Highest recovery of marked insects

was from the release zone, although the area was

small in relation to the collective upstream and
downstream areas sampled (Tables 4 and_ 5).
Recovery of marked insects from Stream I during
June and July was 13.3 and 7.2” respectively;
recovery from Stream II was 6.7, 8.6 and 33.7% for
the months of June, July and August respectively.
The current volocities for these same periods were
0.8 and 0.5 ft sec in Stream I and 1.1, 0.9 and 0.5
ft/sec for Stream II.

DISCUSSION
Drift

Insect drift, manifesting distinct periodicities,
was a common phenomenon in both streams studied.
These periodicities suggested a circadian rhythm
entrained by exogenous factors as light and to a lesser
degree temperature. The periodicity of drift varied
considerably both between and within insects orders
(Fig. 1-4). Most insects showed behavioral drift, a
notable exception was chironomids which demon-
strated relatively constant drift (Fig. 3e). Mayflies as
a group reflected nocturnal drift, as did the
hemipteran Sigara (Vermicorixa) grossolineata
Hungerford, dipteran Simulium sp., and _trichop-
terans Micrasema bactro Ross, Brachycentrus sp.
and Arctopsyche grandis (Banks) (Fig. 1-4). The
limnephilid trichopteran Dicosmoecus gilvipes (?)
(Hagen) differed from other insects studied in that
an afternoon-active drift period (Fig. 4b) was in-
dicated, which was probably the result of sensitivity
to both light and temperature. The trichopteran,
Lepidostoma sp. reflected a weak day-active drift
period (Fig. 4a). Stoneflies were not a significant
component of drift although their density was
comparable to several other drift insects.

Because of the open-ended nature of lotic habitats
and the possibility of long-distance displacement of
stream insects, it is difficult to unequivocally relate
benthic density to drift. Temporal and interstream

comparisons are further complicated by differing
physical and biotic parameters. The physical con-
ditions of riffle or stream size, substrate type and
current velocity are undoubtedly important factors
influencing the magnitude of drift. Drift in this study
is expressed as a rate, i.e. number of organisms
drifting per unit stream width per unit time. Elliott
(1967) partially overcame the difficulty of expressing
drift under different flow regimes by expressing it as
density units, i.e. number of organisms per unit
volume of water.

Age-distribution and age-behavioral differences
are important biotic factors influencing drift (An-
derson, 1967). The latter was indicated by the
trichopteran Dicosmoecus gilvipes (?) in this study
(Table 2). Density may also be a factor in changing
the propensity of drift as indicated by Pearson and
Franklin (1968). The generally low population
densities from Merry Creek and Gold Center Creek,
however, did not permit a critical evaluation of this
factor.

That drift indeed exists for many stream insects,
often in a large an spectacular way, was borne out in
this study (Fig. 1-4; Tables 1-2). However, neither
distances of displacement nor the physical hazards
experienced by drifting insects are well establi.aed. A
complete understanding of the implications of drift
on the stream community cannot be fully assessed
until such information becomes available.

Upstream Dispersion

Upstream dispersion, as a means of offsetting
displacement by drift, was determined to be in-
significant for late-instar nymphs and larvae of
species studied (‘Tables 4 and 5). Although a nearly
insect-free region was created above the release zone
by removing insects prior to releasing marked in-
sects, there was no indication of significant upstream
movement into available niches. Use of blocking
devices in the test channelettes were avoided in order
to refrain from interference with normal flow
characteristics of the stream, thus, marked and
unmarked insects were free to enter and depart from
test areas. Recovery data are reflective on a relative
basis since complete recovery of marked insects was
not obtained nor expected (Table 3-5). A significant
part of the marked population undoubtedly became a
product of drift and was displaced to lower reaches of
the stream.

The stoneflies, Pteronarcys californica Newport
and Acroneuria sp., being large in size and mobile,
were emphasized in this study and proved to be
effective test insects. Larger mayflies Ephemerella
hecuba (Eaton), E. grandis Eaton and E. doddsi
Needham were nearly as effective but occurred in
low numbers in the study area. The caddisflies,
Arctopsyche grandis (Banks) and Hydropsyche sp.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA, 67 (1970), Aua. 1, 1970 ays)

NUMBER OF INSECTS

2 ~
°o °o

038
o¢
Ov

3WiL

Os

ia) a >
fo) (eo) fo)

° ———————
et
> Lom
@
@
. ro)

8
sna

»

NAWO

Ol

7 iy:

Fig. 4. Drift rate/2 nets/2-hour intervals for: a. Micrasema bactro Ross, Merry Creek, June

27, 1966; b. Dicosmoecus gilvipes (?) (Hagen), Gold Center Creek, June 29, 1967; c. Lepido-

stoma sp., Gold Center Creek, June 29, 1967; d. Brachycentrus sp., Merry Creek, July 29, 1966;
e. Arctopsyche grandis (Banks), Gold Center Creek, June 29, 1967.

56 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CotumBIA, 67 (1970), Ava. 1, 1970

Table 1. Standing crop and daily drift of principal insects from Merry Creek during June and

July, 1966.

Noe
Sails

INSECTS

Diptera
Chironomidae 506.50
Rhagionidae (Atherix sp.) 454
Tipulidae 454
Simuliidae (Simulium sp.) O
kphemeroptera
Baetis bicaudatus Dodds 9.09
Baetis tricaudatus Dodds 18616
Epeorus longimanus (Eaton) 51.52
kphemerella flavilinea
McDunnough 4O.91
Ephemerella inermis Eaton 5.05
iohemerella tibialis
McDunnough 2.08
Rhithrogena sp. 87207
Plecoptera
Hiloperla spis 7250
Isogenus sp. 7e50
Pteronarcys californica
Newport Te
Truchopvere
Brachycentrus sp. 13.64
Dicosmoecus Sp. hs Pe)
Hydropsyche sp. 6.06
Micrasema bactro Ross DAs
Rhyacophila sp. BeOS

per

Daa ly! Drart
per ec nets

No.
Sde

per
de

Daily Dri it
per 2 nets

7 15.30 118
4 15.38 Wh
2 25.64 O
4 6.41 86
102 11.54 1
14 39.74 125
8 126 O
28 O O
2 O O
285 141.02 Bp)
dan O O
aba 2256 6
5 O a
O O 6
177 T9329 363
1 5el3 O
3 O O
111 Al) 3
O 3.85 O

occurred abundantly but were difficult to sample.
Highest recovery of marked insects was obtained for
stoneflies as would be expected on the basis of
numbers released (Tables 3-5). A reasonably high
recovery of Ephemerella grandis was obtained in the
release zone or slightly below, although the number
marked and released was small in comparison with
the stoneflies P. californica and Acroneuria sp. An
interesting recovery trend was observed in Stream
II; the percentage recovery of marked insects in-
creased progressively from 6.7% to 33.7% between
June and August commensurate with a decrease in
stream volocity from 1.1 to 0.5 ft/sec during the
same period. The lower volocity of 0.5 ft sec
probably better enabled the insects to maintain
contact with the cobble substrate. Similar recovery
trends in Stream I were not evident although there
was a decrease in flow between June and July; the

channel was nearly dry in August. ‘The bottom was
pebble in Stream I as opposed to cobble in Stream II
and was generally a less favorable habitat for
stoneflies and caddisflies. Stoneflies generally
reflected reasonably high fidelity for the site or
slightly below the site in which they were released.
This was dramatically in evidence during August in
Stream IT when 34% of the stoneflies marked and
released were recovered in the 3-foot release zone
(Table 5). Caddisfly recovery, particularly
hydropsychid caddisflies, was generally low during
all test periods from both streams. This was probably
the result of their net-spinning habits, making them
less vulnerable to recapture or they were rapidly
displaced as drift. In general, the incidence of
recovery of marked insects per unit area became less
as the distance from the release zone increased.
Insect recolonization is a matter of considerable

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA, 67 (1970), Auc. 1, 1970 57

Table 2. Standing crop and daily drift of principal insects from Gold Center Creek during
June and July, 1967.

June 29

Dauly Deirt
per 2 nets

Daily Drift

INSECTS per 2 nets
Diptera
Rhagionidae (Atherix sp.) Bee 3 18.00 5
Tipulidae Cel di: 2690 2
Simuliidae (Simulium sp.) O 28 O
Kphemeroptera
Baetis bicaudatus Dodds Vaoe 27 de 50 28
Baetis tricaudatus Dodds 75 20 2.50 48
Cinygmula sp. 12376 al 6.50 4
Epeorus longimanus (Eaton) 4200 OS) 650 La
Ephemerella flavilinea
McDunnough e772 a7. S50 2
Ephemerella inermis Eaton OSD 50 O O
Ephemerella tibialis
McDunnough O 16 Ora ©) 1.9
Rhithrogena hageni Eaton 4551 ney) O O
Plecoptera
Acroneuria sp. Sero 1 2.50 a
Alloperla sp. DAS 8 29.00 18
Isogenus sp. 526 mn 100 3
Pteronarcys cada forni.ca
Newport 1.50 O 00 O
Trichoptera
Dicosmoecus gilvipes (?) (Hagen) Ge7o 331 4.50 8
Hydropsyche sp. Betis 6 3.00 7
Lepidostoma sp. oO. ine O 5
Micrasema bactro Ross O i) 0.50 O
Arctopsyche grandis (Banks) S200 oak O250 9

Table 3. Number of insects marked and released in Streams I and II in northern Idaho, 1957.

JUNE JULY AUGUST
Insect Species Stream I Stream II Stream I Stream II Stream I Stream II

Plecoptera
Pteronarcys californica 2 i 28 14

Newport
Acroneuria Sp. 10 14 20 LO 53

Trichoptera

Arctopsyche grandis (Banks) 51 20 14

13
Hydropsyche sp. it 6 iz,
Limnephilidae (spp. unid.) 8

Ephemeroptera

Ephemerella hecuba (Eaton) 6

Ephemerella grandis Eaton 10 2 8
Ephemerella doddsi Needham 2

Ephemerella flavilinea 6 Li
McDunnough

Rhithrogena sp. z

TOTAL 320 LS 97 9% O 89

58 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brir. CotumBtia, 67 (1970), Ava. 1, 1970

importance in studying the ecology of streams.
Downstream displacement by drift is perhaps the
most prolific and viable means of colonization.
Upstream dispersion by adults is largely conjectural
and untested for most stream insects, although Roos
(1957) reported this phenomenon for caddisflies.
Upstream dispersion by nymphs and larvae was
proven insignificant for the species investigated in
this study. It is probable, barring catastrophic
events, that most reaches of a stream support a
residual population of sufficient size to assure
perpetuation, irrespective of drift or upstream
movements. However, the previously mentioned
means of dispersion can function independently or
collectively to hasten recolonization of an insect-

decimated area or to mitigate extreme population
fluctuations of any given stream habitat such as a
riffle or poal.

Acknowledgements

Appreciation is expressed to Kenneth V.
Prather, George G. Wilson, and Bobby R. Gilpin,
University of Idaho, for field assistance and dili-
gent sorting of insects. Appreciation is also ex-
tended to Drs. Stamford D. Smith, Central
Washington State College, Norman H. Anderson,
Oregon State University, and G. B. Wiggins,
University of Toronto, for identification of Tri-
choptera, and S. L. Jensen, University of Utah,
for confirmation of mayflies referred to in this
paper.

Table 4. Numbers and species of insects recaptured after 48-hour period from Stream I.

B. Hydropsyche sp.

C. Limnephilidae (spp. unid.)

Distance (Feet) June 29 July 26
oo
ner penal: O O
Oe ote l2 O O
SO 0-86 O O
Oa. 3 O O
4-Foot Release Zone 1F VAS 1B, aD
O- 3 O 1D
3-6 1G; 1C
6 - 12 O O
= a J2 = 18 O O
ni os 18 - 2h 1F O
nm OM 2h - 30 O O
oa 30 - 36 O O
36 - 42 O 1B, 1A
Trichoptera Plecoptera Ephemeroptera
A. Arctopsyche sp. Acroneuria BE. Ephemerella flavilinea

Sp. McDunnough
ithe Ephemerella grandis Eaton

J. ENToMOL. Soc. Brir. CoLUMBIA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970 - 69

References

Anderson, N. H. 1967. Biology and downstream drift of some Oregon Trichoptera. Can. Entomol.
99:507-521.

Anderson, N. H. and D. M. Lehmkuhl. 1968. Catastrophic drift of insects in a woodland stream.
Ecology 49:198-206.

Ball, R. C., T. A. Wojtalik and F. F. Hooper. 1963. Upstream dispersion of radiophosphorus in
a Michigan trout stream. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 48:57-64.

Bishop, J. E. and J. B. Bishop. 1968. A technique for selectively marking aquatic insects with
P*, Limnol. and Oceanog. 13:722-724.

Brusven, M. A. 1970. Fluorescent pigments as marking agents for aquatic insects. Northwest
Sci. 44:202-237.

Miiller, Karl. 1954. Investigations on the organic drift in North Swedish streams. Rep. Inst.
Freshwater Res. Drottningholm 33:133-148.

Miller, Karl. 1965. Field experiments on periodicity of freshwater invertebrates. In Circadian
Clocks, ed. Jurgen Aschoff. North Holland Publ. Co., Amsterdam.

Neave, Ferris. 1930. Migratory habits of the mayfly Blasturus cupidus Say. Ecology 11:568-576.

Pearson, William D. and Donald R. Franklin. 1968. Some factors affecting drift rates of Baetis
and Simuliidae in a large river. Ecology 49:75-81.

Roos, Tage. 1957. Studies on upstream migration in adult stream dwelling insects. I. Rep. Inst.
Freshwater Res. Drottningholm 38:167-193.

Waters, Thomas F. 1962. Diurnal periodicity in the drift of stream invertebrates. Ecology 43:
316-320.

Waters, Thomas F. 1965. Interpretation of invertebrate drift in streams. Ecology 46:327-334.

Waters, Thomas F. 1968. Diurnal periodicity in the drift of a day-active stream invertebrate.
Ecology 49:152-153.

Waters, T. F. and R. J. Knapp. 1961. An improved stream bottom sampler. Trans. Amer. Fisheries
Soc. 90:225-226.

Table 5. Numbers and species of insects recaptured after 48-hour period from Stream II.

Distance (Feet) June 29 July 26 August 25
p 12 -18 ) O O
oe 6 - 12 O O O
RT ere aes O 0 0
aon O= 3 O 1C 1D
aa]
3-Foot Release Zone Paw 1G hc ‘A OG siz De le
O- 3 O 1C 1C, 1A
me 3 - 6 0 O 1D
= 6 = 12 O O O
Oo ® o
Chose pa 2 18 O 1D O
Orc Oo
Peers: de = 2h O 1C 1C
24 - 30 o) 0 o)
30 - 36 O O O
26 - 42 O O O
Ephemeroptera Plecoptera Trichoptera
A. Ephemerella hecuba (Eaton) C. Pteronarcys californica K. Arctopsyche
B. Ephemerella grandis Eaton Newport Sp.

D. Acroneuria sp.

60 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLumpBtiaA, 67 (1970), Aue. 1, 1970

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