FOR THE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from IMLS LG-70-15-0138-15 https://archive.org/details/journalofalabama2629alab I 1421 a THE JOURNAL OF THE Alabama Academy of Science (Affiliated With A.A.A.S.) Office of the Editor Alabama College Montevallo, Alabama < VOLUME 26 DECEMBER, 1954 ? THE JOURNAL OF THE Alabama Academy (Affiliated With A.A.A.S.) VOLUME 26 DECEMBER, 1954 EDITOR Paul C. Bailey EDITORIAL BOARD Roland M. Harper Clarence Klapper A. T. Hansen Office of the Editor Alabama College Montevallo, Alabama S,ot, (''f U, 0 Cc. Om£G 1 4 Foreword The 1954 annual meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science, preceded by a meeting of the Executive Committee at the Jefferson Davis Hotel in Montgomery on October 31, 1953, was held at Huntingdon College in Mont¬ gomery on April 2-3. The Executive Committee met at the Montgomery Coun¬ try Club Thursday evening, April 1 ; whereas, the general sessions and meet¬ ings of the several sections on Eriday and Saturday were held on the Hunting¬ don College campus. The annual banquet held at the Montgomery Country Club on Eriday evening was featured by the presidential address given by Dr. Joseph E. Volker, Dean of the University of Alabama School of Dentistry. The Alabama Junior Academy of Science held its annual meeting on the Huntingdon College campus at the same time as the Senior Academy meetings, that is, April 2-3. Their banquet was held at the First Methodist Church in Montgomery. The papers presented to the various sections, and selected for publication in this volume, are grouped by sections. The abstracts of papers presented to section meetings are grouped likewise. Aside from papers and abstracts, this Journal Includes the proceedings of both the Junior and Senior Academies. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Officers of Alabama Academy of Science, 1934 . 5 Committees . 6 Dedication of Journal . 7-8 Presidential Address . 9-11 Complete papers presented at section meetings . 12-80 Section I, BiOLOG'i’ and Miuiicinh . 12-19 Bailey, Paul (i., Trillium chromosomes . 12-14 Carmichael, Emmett B., Activities and habits of rattlesnake . 15-17 Hollis, C. George, Amanita in Alabama . 18-19 Section II, Chemisthii- . 20-27 Barksdale, jelks. Postwar japan . 20-23 Dachille, Frank, Origin ot petroleum and coal . 24-27 Section III, Geology and Anthropoloc.y . 28-46 Lloyd, Stewart |., Artificial diamonds . 28-32 Pallister, Hugh D., Brown iron ore in Alabama . 33-34 Pallister, Hugh D., Gold in Alabama . 35-36 Shotts, Reynold Q., Persistent coal zones, etc . 37-46 Section IV, Geographs’ and Conservation . 47-56 McCullough, Herbert A., Conservation vs. exploitation . 47-50 Richardson, Jesse M., Warrior and Tombigbee rivers . 50-56 Section V, Phssics and Mathematics . 56-58 Hammond, Joseph L., Jr., Measuring Viscosity . 56-58 Section VI, iNDiiSTR'i' and Economics . 59-60 Sulzby, James F., Jr., City planning . 59-60 Section VIII, Social Sctences . 61-73 Gold, Raymond L., Building tradesman and housewife . 61-64 Harper, Roland M., Analysis of 1950 population of Alabama . 65-73 Steele, Myles, McIntyre, Personnel practices in Alabama plants . 73-80 Abstracts of papers presented at section meetings . 81-100 1. Biology and Medicine . 81-87 2. Chemistry . 87-91 3. Geology and Anthropology . 91-92 4. Geography and Conservation . 93-94 s. Physics and Mathematics . 95-96 6. Industry and Economics . 96-97 7. Science Education . 97 8. Social Sciences . 97-100 Executive Committee meeting, Oct. 31, 1953 . 101-102 Executive Committee meeting, April 1, 1954 . 102-104 Report of Special Committee on Journal . 104 Annual business meeting . 105 Resolutions . 106 Report of Treasurer . 106 Science talent search for Gorgas Scholarships . 107-109 Alabama Academy Award . 109-110 Report of Junior Academy counselors . 110 Junior Academy proceedings . 111-119 Membership list . 120-128 Index . 129-133 Advertising . 134-139 ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICERS 19^4 5 President . Dean Joseph F. Volker, Univ. of Ala. School of Dentistry, Birmingham President-Elect . Dr. William T. Wilks, State Teachers College, Troy VICE-PRESIDENTS, SECTION CHAIRMEN AND VICE-CHAIRMEN Section I Biology and Medicine . Vice President and Section Chairman, Dr. Paul C. Bailey . Department of Biology, Alabama College, Montevallo Vice Chairman, Dr. Ward Pigman . University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham Section II Chemistry . Vice President and Section Chairman, Dr. Locke White, Jr . Southern Research Institute, Birmingham Vice Chairman, Dr. R. D. Brown . University ot Alabama, Tuscaloosa Section III Geology and Anthropology. ...Miss Winnie McGlamery . Alabama Geological Survey, University ot Alabama, Tuscaloosa Vice Chairman, Dr. A. T. Hansen . University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Section IV Geography and CoNSERVATiON....Mrs. Hazel Stickney . State Teachers College, Livingston Vice Chairman, Miss Ethel Marshall . Alabama College, Montevallo Section V Physics and Mathematics . Chairman, Dr. E. Scott Barr, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Vice Chairman, Father Louis S. Eisele, S. j . Spring Hill College, Mobile Section VI Industry and Economics . Chairman, Mr. John L. Baswell . 7928 South 4th Avenue, Birmingham Vice Chairman, Mr. j. O. Goetz . 2021 6th Avenue North, Birmingliam Section VII Science Education . Chairman, Dr. H. C. Sipe . State Teachers College, Florence Vice Chairman, Sister Mary Charles . Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman Section VIII Social Science . Chairman, Dr. A. T. Hansen, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Vice Chairman, to be appointed by Executive Committee. Secretary, Dr. Herbert A. McCullough . Dept, of Biology, Howard College, Birmingham Treasurer, Dr. Ralph L. Chermock . Uni\ersity ot Alabama, University Editor of Journal, Dr. John Xan . Howard College, Biiinmgh.im Councilor of AAAS, Father P. H. Yancey . Spring Hill ( ollege, Nlobile Representative of Junior Academy, Dr. James L. Kassner . Lhiiversity ot Al.ib.im.i, I’usc.doosa BOARD Ok' TRUS'l'EES Mr. Henry L. Jennings, Chairman Mr. James F. Sulzby, Jr . Mr. Vance Miles, Manager . Dr. Ralph Draughon, President .... Mr. Herbert D. Warner . Mr. John S. Coleman . . 703 1 itle Ciuarantee Bldg., Biiniingh.un . 1212 Overlook Road, Birmmgh.im . Gull St.ites I’.iper ( orp.. rusc.doc's.i . Alab.ima Polytechnic Institute, .Viburn . Gull States Piper (orp.. I'usc.iloos.i Birmingham Trust N.ition.il B.mk. Birmmgh.im 6 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science CHAIRMEN OF STANDING COMMITTEES Membership — Dr. William T. Wilks . State Teachers College, Troy Long Range Planning — Mr. James E. Sulzby, Jr . 4212 Overlook Road, Birmingham Co-Chairman — Dr. Howard Carr . Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn Research — Dr. E. Carl Sensenig . Medical College of the University of Alabama, Birmingham Finance — Mr. Henry L. Jennings . 703 Title Guarantee Bldg., Birmingham Editorial Board — Dr. Roland M. Harper . Geological Survey, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Local Arrangements — Mr. James Eads . Huntingdon College, Montgomery Admission to Membership — Dr. Herbert A. McCullough . Howard College, Birmingham Local Arrangements for Junior Academy — Mr. James Eads . Huntingdon College, Montgomery STANDING COMMITTEES Long Rcinge: Mr. James F. Sulzby, Jr., Chairman Dr. Howard E. Carr, Co-Chairman Dr. Milton H. Fies Dr. John Hall Jones Dr. Harold E. Wilcox The Rev. Patrick H. Yancey Mr. Hugh D. Pallister A\e»/hersh}p: Dr. William T. Wilks, Chairman Research : Dr. E. Carl Sensenig Dr. Ward Pigman Admission to Aienibership-. Dr. Herbert A. McCullough, Chairman Father Patrick Yancey Dr. William T. Wilks Finance: Mr. Henry L. Jennings, Chairman Dr. J. L. Kassner Mr. T. M. Francis Editorial Board : Dr. Roland Harper, Chairman Dr. A. T. Hansen Dr. Clarence Klapper Local Arrangements: Mr. James Eads, Chairman SPECIAL COMMITTEES FOR 1954 MEETING 1. Auditing, Senior Academy FAther Louis Eisele, Chairman . Dr. Ward Pigman . 2. Auditing, junior Academy Dr. Henry Walker, Chairman . Dr. Ralph Chermock . 3. Resolutions Committee Mr. Vance Miles, Chairman . Dr. A. T. Hansen . 4. Nominating Committee Dr. John Fincher, Chairman . Dr. Henry Walker . Father Patrick Yancey . 5. Place and Date of 1955 and 1956 AAeetings Mr. Henry M. Jennings, Chairman . Dr. Paul C. Bailey . . Spring Hill College, Mobile University Medical Center, Birmingham . University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa . University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa . Gulf States Paper Corp., Tuscaloosa . University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa . Howard College, Birmingham . University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa . Spring Hill College, Mobile .703 Title Guarantee Bldg., Birmingham . Alabama College, Montevallo 7 DEDICATION DR. JOHN XAN (!S9.vl9Vi) Howard Collette, Birmin>;liain, Alabama 8 Journal of Alabama Acadlmy of Science DEDICATION In grateful appreciation for twenty-four years of capable and vigorous activity in the Alabama Academy of Science this 1954 issue, Volume 26, of ^he Journal is dedicated to Dr. John Xan (1893-1954), late Professor of Chemistry and head of the department at Howard (College. In his teaching and in his research. Dr. Xan was consistently a compe¬ tent scientist. At the same time he encouratted his students to enter science careers. As the second recipient of the James Flack Norris award (National) for excellence in the teaching of chemistry he brought recognition to this state and to his college. Believing that scientists were greatly inspired and encouraged by group activity and by the presentation of research papers. Dr. Xan labored dili¬ gently in the interest of an active and influential Academy of Science. Con¬ sequently, he was elected to every office and standing committee of the Academy. He retired on April 2, 1954, after five years as Editor of the Journal. He was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of the American Institute of Chemists. At its 1954 meeting the Academy unanimously elected Dr. Xan to Hon¬ orary Membership and requested that this volume be respectfully dedicated to him. Since the death of Dr. Xan on August 1, 1954, occurred after this action was taken, Volume 26 in a sense also becomes a memorial to him. THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS Montgomery, Alabama, April 2, 1954 9 OLIR MOST PRECIOUS NATURAL RESOURCE by J. F. VOLKER Dea// of University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham, Alabama It is doubtful that any retiring president of the Alabama Academy of Science, faced with the necessity of delivering a presiden¬ tial address has had so many competing at¬ tractions. It is my understanding that on this evening there is free attendance to an ex¬ hibition ball game here in Montgomery and that very shortly the Kid Gallivan-Bobo Ol¬ son championship fight will be featured on TV. Needless to say, I appreciate your for¬ saking the grandstand and divan to be with us tonight. As part of my official duties I have had the opportunity of traveling extensively within the boundaries of this state. In these journies I have come to expect that my va¬ rious hosts will impress upon me the im¬ portance of the natural resources of their area. Repeatedly I have been told of the hydroelectric power of the Tennessee Val¬ ley, the coal, iron and lime of the Birming¬ ham area, the phenomenal growth of the Mobile harbor tonnage and the tremendous cattle expansion centered about Montgom¬ ery. I would not argue that this is unim¬ portant but in my considered opinion it has tended to obscure the importance of our most precious natural resource, gifted peo¬ ple, or might I say, the gifted person. The latter qualification is important because all too often when we think of manpower re¬ sources we emphasize quantity to the ex¬ clusion of quality. It should be remembered that some of the most prosperous countries in the world, including Switzerland, Nor¬ way, Sweden, Belgium and the Netherlands, are comparatively poor in terms of the more obvious natural resources. Their preeminent position can be traced almost directly to their recognition of the importance of providing maximal developmental opportunities to gifted people, particularly those in science. There is a commonly held but mistaken opinion that the United States is outstanding as a scientific nation. Actually, in this land of plenty our greatest deficiency is the dearth of creative scientists. The latter is not to be confused with the technologist. He bears the same relationship to the tech¬ nician that the composer of music has to the skilled performer. Support for these opinions is readily available from a study of numbers of Nobel prize science winners per population in the various countries. For those of you who are not concerned with this deficiency, I would remind you that our continued existence as a free and prosperous people depends on how quickly we attain true scientific leadership. With your indulgence, 1 would like to re¬ count my opinion of the three factors that permitted us to survive Vi'orld War 11. The first of these was courage. There is little doubt that the magnificent courage of the small but rc.solute British Air Force gave us the desperately needed preparation time. The second was technology. This permitted us to achiexe a degree ot mastery ot the 10 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science implements of war comparable to our foes. The development of radar, synthetic rubber, high octane gasoline, and jet powered planes bear mute testimony to this achievement. But courage and technology alone did not and could not have won the war, for courage and technology are not a sole possession of any people and it must be admitted that in these respects our enemies were our equal. Our superiority in war was the result of our achieving scientific leadership. The A bomb, a creation of the gifted scientists, gave us an undisputed advantage over our foes. All too often we forget that this mastery was to a large extent the contribution of non- Americans. Einstein, Fermi, Bohr and Hahn, to mention but a few, were largely re¬ sponsible for the basic research that opened wide the field of atomic energy. One shud¬ ders to think what would have happened had they thrown their lot with our enemies. We cannot always expect such good fortune. If history should repeat itself, it is impera¬ tive that we be able to turn to our own scientists for salvation. If we are to achieve this objective, we must make some radical changes in our edu¬ cational system. Somehow or other we must devise means of recognizing at the earliest possible occasion unusual scientific abilities. To do this it is mandatory that we make a concerted effort to improve the teaching of science in high school. It is my understand¬ ing that the number of collegiate graduates in chemistry that will consider a teaching position in high schools is negligible, yet this discipline is almost prerequisite for sci¬ entific development. In my humble opinion, this is directly attributable to two circum¬ stances, poor compensation and the lack of dignity accorded to members of the teach¬ ing profession. I would propose that theie be established with state subsidy at strategic centers scientific preparatory schools. En¬ trance would be on a purely competitive ba¬ sis and the academic rank and salary of the faculties would be comparable to those of other units of the state University system. Graduates of these preparatory programs would be permitted the maximum opportu¬ nity for development during their collegiate schooling. In order to do so it would be advantageous to group students in classes according to their ability. This could prob¬ ably best be accomplished by an entrance placement examination. Students with su¬ perior performances would be permitted and expected to proceed at a rate considerably in excess of that of the average student. Every effort should be made to expedite the superior science student’s progress even if this necessitates a reorientation of our views of the classical collegiate curriculum. In the past, the science major has been lim¬ ited to approximately one course per semes¬ ter in his field of concentration for the first two years. Subsequently, his load of spe¬ cialized work is increased. This is in keep¬ ing with the tradition that he should receive a broad general education prior to being educated in his specialty. For the sake of analogy it has been likened to a tree, the first two years being the trunk and the last two years the leafy branches. Recently, Hil- lenbrand has taken issue with this concept and has advocated that the science major be given a heavy initial innoculum of his spe¬ cialty and that the cultural courses be de¬ layed until his Junior and Senior years. This he likens to a pyramid, arguing that a broad base serves to motivate the scientific neo¬ phyte at a crucial stage of his development. The acquaintance with the cultural subjects is delayed until the Junior and Senior years when, according to Hillenbrand, they are more readily appreciated. Regardless of the merits of this proposal, it must be conceded that our present system of training scientists is ineffective and that educational experi¬ ments are highly desirable. Finally, I would urge the creation of more public-supported "ivory towers." Although we in the United States spend a consider¬ able sum of money on research, most of President's Address 11 these monies arc allocated on a contractual basis for specific undertakings. The Institute of Advanced Study, the National Institutes of Health, and the Rockefeller Institute should have numerous counterparts. Vaca¬ tion research centers, such as Wood’s Hole and Cold Springs Harbor should not be limited to any one section of the coun- trv but rather be common to all. The spirit of scientific inquiry should live in fact as veil as in speech. In conclusion, to security minded people, might I say that the best protection we can buy is not diversified industrial stocks or carefully planned annuity schemes, but the time and energy and monies that are spent in seeking out, isieveloping and nuuntaining our most precious natural resource, the gifted youth of today v/ho is the creative scientist of tomorrow, for it may be his genius that will permit our way of life to long endure. 12 Journal of Alabama Acadfmv of Science Complete Papers Presented At Sectional Meeting SECTION I c;hromosome morphology in two western SPECIES OE TRILLIUM by Paul C. Bailey AlcihcV)id College. Moutevallo Several studies have been made during the last few years on the various species of 'frilln/}]/ in an attempt to determine whether species can be separated from each other or whether groupings of species can be made on the basis of chromosome morphology. Bailey (1949, 41, 43, 44), after studying the chromosome morphology of sixteen spe¬ cies of Trill iiiui has concluded that certain species may be separated from each other on the basis of the total length of the chromo¬ some complements, and that the length of individual chromosomes as well as arm- length ratios may also offer help in the separation of certain species of 74v7////w. The present paper includes a study of the chro¬ mosome morphology of two western species of TrilliiiDi. that is, TrilHn])t ovutinii Pursh, and TrilTni))/ petioLitum Pursh, as well as a summary of the chromosome morphology of a total of 18 species of Trill in in as de¬ termined in this and previous studies. Materials for the study of chromosome morphology in T. ovatiini Pursh and T. petiolatiiDi Pursh were furnished by Dr. Ar¬ thur L. Croonquist of the New York Bo¬ tanical Gardens, formerly of the State Col¬ lege of Washington, Pullman, Washington. Fresh growing root tips were used as a source of material, and all materials for study were prepared using the Feulgen tech¬ nique together with a squash method. All measurements were made on meta phase chromosomes using an ocular micrometer. The total length of the normal diploid chromosome complement in T. ovatuni Pursh was found to be 217.2 microns, and in T. petiolatinn Pursh the total length was found to be 214. microns. These total lengths are very close to each other and are also very close to the total lengths found in T . ludo- vicianiiDi Harbison and T. cerniiiiin L. in previous studies, their total lengths being 212.2 and 223.0 microns respectively. The next closest species with respect to total length of the chromosome complement has been found to be 73 Cciteslniei Ell. with a to¬ tal length of 2()6.6 microns. Other species follow with successively shorter total lengths. Table 1 shows the total length of the nor¬ mal diploid chromosome sets of the 18 spe¬ cies of Trillium that have now been studied. T . cerunum L. shows the longest total length with 223.0 microns. This species is followed by T . oviitum Pursh and 73 petiolatum Pursh and as one progresses down the list the total lengths get progressively shorter until fin¬ ally T. clecumbeiis Harbison has a total length of only 166.4 microns. The average difference in total lengths between species is something in the neighborhood of 3.3 microns. In one or two instances the dif¬ ference is greater. On the basis of total lengths as shown in Table 1, it seems reasonable to assume that certain species of Trillium may be separated from each other on the basis of the total length of their chromosome complements. Certainly many species could not be sep¬ arated on this basis, but those which fall at opposite ends of the range of total lengths could be separated. Chromosome Morphology 13 Total length of individual chromosomes as well as arm-length ratios have also been used in attempts to distinguish between spe¬ cies. Figures 1 and 2 represent a diagramatic drawing of the chromosome complements of T. ovdtiim Pursh and T. petiolatinn Pm'sh. To the right of each chromosome, that is Chromosome A, B, C, D, and E, is shown the length of the short arm and the length of the long arm, as well as the total length of each chromosome. A comparison between the two sets of chromosomes shows the to¬ tal length of individual chromosomes to be \ery close in the two species; chromosome A measuring! 17.8 and 14.5 microns, chromo- some B 22.6 and 20.4 microns, chromosome C 16.3 and 17.1 microns, chromosome D 23.3 microns in both species, and chromo¬ some E measuring 28.6 and 31.7 microns. Certainly there are no significant differences between the total length of individual chro¬ mosomes in these two species. However, previous studies have shown that there are differences in the total length of individual chromosomes between certain species and these differences are sufficiently great enough to have significance in the separa¬ tion or grouping of species. Arm-length ratios, that is, the ratio of the length of the short arm to the length of the long arm has revealed significant differences between the chromosome morphology of certain species of Tvillhtni in previous stud¬ ies; at least groupings of species have been made possible on this basis. It is evident in Eigures 1 and 2 that T. ovatuni Pursh and T. petinlatuDi Pursh are very close with respect to arm-length ratios in chromosomes A, C, D, and E. Chromo¬ some B, however, shows a difference in the two species. Chromosome B in T. ovatuni Pursh has an arm-length ratio of 30.7:100, whereas, in T. petinlatinn Pursh the arm- length ratio is 32.5:100. This may not be a significant difference but is the only noticeable one between the chromosome morphology of these two species. Of the 18 species that have now been studied, 8 of them have an arm-length ratio for chromo¬ some B that approaches more closely that of T. pet'wlatinn Pursh, whereas, the other 10 species have arm-length ratios close to that given for T. ovatuni Pursh. T, ovatuni Pursh and T. petiolatinn Pursh show an arm-length ratio for chromosome A of approximately 10:100, chromosome C 75:100, chromosome D 75:100, and for chromosome E 90:100. On the basis of the 18 species that have now been studied it can be stated that chromosome A and E show the least variation in their arm-length ratios with chromosome B and D showing the greatest variations. In conclusion it can be pointed out that T. ovatuni Pursh and T. petiolatinn Pursh do not differ significantly with respect to total length of normal diploid chromosome sets and total length of individual chromo¬ somes. Arm-length ratios, howexer, indicate a difference bet'' een chromosome B in the two species. This study further shows that T. ovatuni Pursh and T. petiolatinn Pursh should be placed near the upper range w ith respect to total lengths of the normal dip¬ loid chromosome sets in the IS species of Tyilliunis that have been studied. TABLE I Total Length of Normal Diploid Chromosome Sets for .'T T. petiolatum Pursli 'Jli.p 1. T. ludovioianuni Ilarhisoii . -12 - f). T. Calesbaoi Kll . ‘jini p, B. T. Vaseyi Harhison ‘JOB I 7. T. Krandiflorum (MiiTix.i S;ili,sh imhv s. T. eroctiini L. . ].is \ B. T. I lexipes Ka f. . . i«*,i \ 10. T. Inloni (Muhl.i Utirhisdn 11. T. hiiu'ifoliiini Ktif. 12. T. IIug:eri Sni;ill l.'L T. recurvtitnni Hook TL T. sttmiiiu'um lEarbison IT). T. sessile L. IH. T. nivale liiddell 17. T. undiilatum Wild Is. 'V. dei'unibens lltubisdn 14 Journal of Alabama Academy of SciENCF Bailey. Paul Trillium e of some 7s:324-33() erectum I LITERATURE CITED C. 1949. Ilifferential chromosome segments in rectum L. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 76-319-336. , 1951. A study of the chromosome morphology species of Trillium. Bull. Torrey Bot. Cluo. 1953. Cliromosome morphology in Trillium >. and Trillium grandiflorum (Michx. Salisbi Jour. Ala. Acad. Sci. 25:2123. . . 1954. A further study of the chromosome morphology of some species of Trillium. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. ,Sl:6s-75. FIG. 1. Diagramatic analysis of chromosome morphology of T. ovalum Pursh. FIG. 2. Diagramatic analysis of chromosome morpliology of T. petiolatum Pursh. 15 OBSERVATIONS ON ACTIVITIES AND HABITS OF A RATTLESNAKE {CROTALUS HORRIDUS) by Emmett B. Carmichael Depaytf)ie}2t of Biochemistry, Medical College and School of Dentistry University of Alabama, Birmingham Early in March 1935, a local laborer caught a small rattlesnake [Crotalus horri- timber rattler) near the Tuscaloosa water works and brought it to my laboratory in a one and one-half pound axel grease can. We transferred it to a ten gallon lard can and used a pane of glass as a cover. This permitted us to observe the series of events that followed the introduction of live food into the can. The snake was about twenty inches long when it arrived. It could just swallow an adult, common house mouse (Ah/s musculus). Since it had been hiber¬ nating, the mice seemed quite accepable if they were alive. The next few years were uneventful ex¬ cept that the snake ate well and thus pre¬ sented us with a problem of obtaining enough live mice. However, young rats at about weaning age were accepted in 1938. In 1941, the snake was transferred to a cage, divided into two compartments and made of hardware cloth (2x2 mesh) which made it easier for us to observe the activi¬ ties of the animal and gave it space in which to exercise. The floor of each compartment was a pan which was kept filled with wood shavings. Water was kept in a large sauce pan in one compartment. The hardware cloth made it possible for the snake to have clear vision from any angle. The cage was kept in the biochemistry laboratory and near the en¬ trance where the snake could see anyone en¬ tering the room. During the daytime, any stranger entering the laboratory usually dis¬ turbed the snake sufficiently to cause it to rattle. The snake had become accustomed to me by this time and seldom resorted to its characteristic "rattle” when I came near the cage or when I placed food and water in the empty compartment. It was at this time that it began to accept animals that had died following the administration of lethal doses of certain anesthetics (barbiturates). By this time, it was able to swallow a 125- 150 gram rat and would often eat three such animals at a single feeding. It was interesting to find the snake under the water pan on a cold morning. It had moved the shavings and coiled up under the pan. This was its way of hibernating since my laboratory at Tuscaloosa was not heated either at night or the week ends du¬ ring the winter months. Then a heavy paper box was placed in the other compartment for the snake to coil up in but it never used it for that purpose. The snake preferred to coil up under the box after moving the shav¬ ings to one side. When the Medical College was moved to Birmingham in 1945, we had heated quarters so the snake did not get under the box. Because of the economics involved and because of the humane aspect, we alwavs attempted to get the snake to eat animals that had failed to survive some acute experi¬ ments. In addition to the experiments with barbiturates, we did a series of studies with the anesthetic, paraldehyde, which has a garlic-like odor. The scries was well under way when the snake stopped hibernating so that we had a fresh supply of dead animals available two or three times each week. The snake accepted these rats and usually ate either two or three at a meal .ibmit e\erv twelve to fourteen days fi’ir sexeral months without any noticeable ill effects. Howexer. after a single feeding in e.irly July, TM2. 16 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Hie snake refused to eat any more of the paraldehyde- rats and any other food for the remainder of that summer. This refusal of solid food may have been due to the snake’s detection of the odor of the paraldehyde since it always seemed to inspect all animals before swallowing them. It would move its head in a survey of the dead animals in such a way that its nose would move up and down both sides of the animal. The garlic- like odor of the paraldehyde may have been present since it is noticeable on the breath of a man following its use as a drug. Blood analyses were made on both hiber¬ nating and normal samples of blood from the snake in 1945. Before we drew the first sample of blood, we weighed and measured the length of the snake. It weighed 1700 grams (hibernating weight) and was 44 inches long. The first sample of blood (27.7 cc.) was drawn on April 7th. The first food accepted was on April 1 3th and by June 18th, it had eaten 1464 grams of animals. The second sample of blood (34.2 cc.) was drawn on July 1st. The snake took food again on July 13th and continued to eat up to and including September 8th, when it had consumed an additional 1,045 grams of animals. This made a total of 2,509 grams of food consumed during the spring and summer of 1945. Following some of the large feedings during the above period, the soft tissue between the scales was so dis¬ tended that it covered about forty to fifty per cent of the middle third of the body. At such times, the diameter of that portion of the body was about three to three and one half inches. On at least two occasions, the snake gave evidence of having a memory. First, when we were making plans to draw the initial sample of blood, we opened the cage door and the snake held its head up and I slipped a wide soft leather noose over its head with¬ out the slightest movement by the snake to avoid the noose. Three months later, when the second sample of blood was to be drawn. we opened the cage door and the snake held its head up as before but when the noose was brought near, the snake ducked its head to avoid being caught. The second bit of evidence was exhibited in early 1944 when it was sharing the wire cage with a small rattlesnake. A young rat was placed in the cage and the large snake killed it but was not ready to eat it. He returned to the other compartment and coiled himself for a rest. The small snake had been coiled and had observed the actions of the large snake. As soon as the large snake coiled, the small snake moved over and ate the rat. In about thirty minutes, the large snake returned to the compartment where the rat had been and really searched for the rat. The large snake had apparently not observed the small snake while it was swallowing the rat even though it was possible since the partition was made of hardware cloth (2x2 mesh) and the door between the compartments re¬ mained open. Also, the small snake had looked through the wire partition while the large snake killed the rat and knew exactly what to do as soon as the large snake coiled. At least twice during the summer months, the snake was seen to be lying flatter than the normal position. It was flattened out so that its body touched about 1/3 to 1 '2 more of the bottiMn of the cage than normally. The snake seemed to be so relaxed that it did not assume its usual posture until I either came quite near the cage or made a loud noise. This observation has also been noted with another rattlesnake in my labora¬ tory. The first time that we observed the snake drinking water was after we had taken the first sample of blood. After we had taken the blood, we were so busy for the next few days with the analyses that we forgot ta open the sliding door in the cage to permit the snake to enter the compartment with the water. When I became aware of our oversight, I opened the connecting door and the snake immediately entered the compart- Habits and Activities of Rattlesnake 17 meat and began to drink. The water was in a flat sauce pan and the snake moved over the water so that its head was some 6 to 8 inches from the edge of the pan. The head was lowered in the water to only a fraction of an inch and the snake seemed to suck the water into its mouth very easily but the con¬ comitant swallowing caused the head to move up and down sli<:htlv. This observa¬ tion was noted several more times with this snake and has been noted twice with an¬ other rattlesnake in my laboratory this past year. The snake took no solid food during the cool months and usually had its last meal of the year late in August. Water was kept in the cage ecen during the winter months. Since it hibernated until late in March or early April, it normally fasted about seven months of the year. However, the year that it quit eating the paraldehyde-rats in early July, it had a fast of almost nine months that proved to be almost too long since it became quite thin and undernourished. The snake failed completely to shed its skin that spring; several large areas of the old skin remained and gave the snake a ragged or shabbily unkept appearance until the next shedding which was four and one-half months later. A record of the dates of shed¬ ding was kept beginning with 19 H and these data are listed: 1941 — March 23, June 17, September 10. 1942— May 1, July 22. 1943 — April 13, August 29. 1944 — March 28, July 31. 1945 — March 30, June 14, September 1. 1946— March 3. A few days before the snake shed its skin, it was noted that the covering over the eyes became slightly opaque. The opacity seemed to clear up slightly a day or so before the skin was shed. The covering over the eyes is shed with the skin, and then the eyes are clear and bright. During the fall and winter months of 1943-46, several shipments of rattlesnakes from Ocala, Florida and Brownsville, Texas were brought to my laboratory and housed in the same room with the snake that I had had for years. All of the snakes from Florida and Texas refused food and died before the end of May 1946. In the spring of 1946, my old snake shed its skin on March 3 and ac¬ cepted food a few times but it was noted in early July that the snake had difficulty in swallowing. Late in July and during August, the snake attempted to swallow food but 4 failed in every attempt. The snake died on August 31, 1946 after sur\ i\ing in capti\itv for eleven years and five months. At death it was fifty-two inches long and the diameter of the body at the middle was about 3 inches. It was assumed that death was due to something that was brought to the lab- oratory by the rattlesnakes from either Flori¬ da or Texas. We also assumed that the snakes from Florida and I'cxas diecl of the agent which killed our snake. !8 Journal of Alabama Acaulmv of Sciench A KEY TO THE SPECIES OE AMANITA IN AEABAMA By C. CiEORGF Hollis U diversity of ALihci))ht, University The genus Anoniitci is characterized by its (l) smooth, white s{'n)res; (2) the presence of a volva which may he in the form of a distinct cup (the death cup) or as fragments in the form of bands, belts or irregularly arranged patches on the base of the stipe, or only in the form of patches r)r mealy particles on the pileus; (3) gills or lamellae which arc free from the stipe or merely at¬ tached by a faint line permitting the stipe and pileus to be readily separable. As the genus is recognized here an annulus may or may not he present. 'Fhc gill trama is diver¬ gent. The spores may be amyloid or non¬ amyloid. The genus is terrestrial and gen¬ erally forms fruiting bodies during the wet summer and early fall months. Most cases of mushroom poisoning are caused by mem¬ bers of this genus. The reaction of the spores in Meltzer's re.igent, an iodine solution, is a very im¬ portant taxonomic character. This solution is prepared by adding 1.5 grams of potas¬ sium iodide; 0.5 grams of iodine and 20 grams of chloral hydrate to 20 mis. of dis¬ tilled water. The solution should be stored in the dark. A dispensing bottle with a tight fitting glass stopper and dropper is conven¬ ient when usintr the solution. To determine the reaction of the spores add a drop of the iodine solution to a slide, scrape a few spores from a spore print of the mushroom into the solution and mix. Add a cover glass, let set for several minutes and examine under the microscope. If the spores are gray to pale blue they are said to be amyloid. If they arc hyaline they are non-amyloid. Often the amyloid reaction is evident without micro¬ scopic examination since in some species the mass of spores turns a decided blue when added to the iodine. If the reaction is not at once positively amyloid let the slide set for about 15 minutes and recheck before pro¬ nouncing the reaction as non-amyloid. To determine the divergent gill trama it is necessary to prepare a section of the pi- leus and gills. This is best done with a straight razor or razor blade. With the blade remove a triangular portion of the pileus w'ith portions of several gills. Roll this into a compact bundle wdth the gills inw'ard. Place the bundle between two strips of balsa w'ood or corn pith. With an easy sliding mo¬ tion pull the blade across the tip of the wood and mushroom section. This will give thin sections of the gills and pileus. Mount the sections on a slide in 15 per cent potassium hydroxide, remove the extraneous particles of wood, add a cover and examine under the microscope. The divergent hyphae as seen in this genus is a type in which there is a central strand of hyphae running toward the edge of the gill, with branching or bend¬ ing hyphae spreading toward the sides. These hyphae are composed of rather broad cells. The earliest collection of a member of this genus in Alabama was that of Thomas Minot Peters of Moulton in Eawrence Coun¬ ty. Mohr (1901) lists Anumitopsis vaginata as collected by Peters in September and Oc¬ tober, 1864. It is unfortunate that this collec¬ tion has been lost. In recent times this spe¬ cies has been split into two species and the genus placed with the Amanitas. It is not known whether these collections were A. fulva, a tawny colored species, or A. vagi- natj, a lead gray plant. In 1890 G. F. At¬ kinson collected mushrooms in Alabama while connected with the Alabama Polytech¬ nic Institute. Atkinson (1897) published a list of 8 species of Amanita. In 1895-96 Amanita in Alabama 19 Underwood and Earle collected many fungi in Alabama while at the Alabama Polytech¬ nic Institute. They summarized the fungi known from Alabama, which included the collection of Peters, of Atkinson and their own. (Underwood and Earle, 1897.) This list contained 14 species of Av.iauita. Dr. R. P. Burke of Montgomery has collected fungi in Alabama periodically for many years. He has sent to the Herbarium of the Unicersitv of Michigan “s species of this Tenus which have been examined by the author. There has been no concentrated col¬ lecting of fungi in Alabama since those col¬ lections listed. The following key contains 26 species of Amanita which are known from the state. The author has in his collection 21 species which are deposited in the Herbarium of the University of Alabama. Four of these species are new to the state flora. These are A. bisporigera. A. cothiirnata. A. voanoken- sh and A. nitida. The last named species is rare in American literature and Coker (1917) lists it as rare in North Carolina. In addition to the state records, an interest¬ ing species, A. abrupt a. has been found in Tuscaloosa County. This species was de¬ scribed from Alabama material collected near Auburn in Lee County in 1897 by Un¬ derwood. Since this time it has been report¬ ed from North Carolina by Coker (1917) and from Tennessee by Hesler (1937). This work has been aided by a grant from the Research Committee o^ the Alabama Academy of Science through A A AS. KEY TO THE SPECIES 1. Scores non-amyloid . 2 1. Spores amyloid . . . 12 2. Annulus present, at least in young plants . 3 2. Annulus absent <1 3. Volva well developed, cup shaped . 4 3. Volva more or less broken up into bands or belts on the base of the stipe or into membraneous fragments or warts on the pileus . 5 4. Pileus orange or red; stipe and lamellae yellowish . A. caesarea Fr. 4. Pileus lead color or gray; stipe and lamellae white or whitish . A. spreta Pk. 5. Pileus predominantly white, often yellowish on the disc . A. cothurnata Atk. 5. Pileus bright red. yellow or yellowish brown . 6 6. Pileus red to yellowish red; flesh beneath the cuticle yellow . 7 6. Pileus not red: flesh beneath the cuticle white.... ^ 7. Volval patches on the pileus orange or orange yellow . A. frostiana (Pk. i Sacc. 7. Volval patches on the pileus ashy gray or pale yellow . A. muscaria Fr. 5. Pileus pale yellow, unchanging in age . A. gemmata i Fr. i Gill. S. Pileus yellowish brown to grayish when young. sordid brown in age . A. pantherina (Fr. i Quel. 9 Spores ovoid to ellipsoid; pileus mealy, gray . A. farinosa Schw. 9. Spores globose to subglobose; pileus not mealy .... 10 10. Pileus smooth . ,11 10. Pileus with small warts in young plants. pale to dark gray . A. inaurata Seer. 11. Pileus tawny or fulvous . A. fulva (Schaef.) Pers. 11. Pileus gray or lead color . A. vaginata (Bull.) Quel. 12 Spores globose to subglobose . 13 12. Spores ellipsoid to cylindrical . . 15 13. Volva forming a sharp edge on a marginate bulb: volva material on the pileus lilac, yellowish or brown: pileus lemon-straw or sulfur color . A. mappa Fr. 13. Volva enveloping the base of the stipe. usually with a free limb . 14 14. Pileus pure white or almost so; stipe floccose . A. virosa Fr. 14. Pileus greenish or blackish to smoky brown on the disc, lighter toward the margin; stipe finely floc¬ cose or glabrous . A. phalloides Fr. 15. Volval fragments on the pileus soft, floccose patches.. 16 15. Volval fragments on the pileus mealy, or conspicuously pyramidal warts, or absent. (Rarely as large flat patchesi . 17 16. Volval fragments whitish or grayish . A. rubescens (Fr. » S. F. Gray 16. Volval fragments deep yellow. A. flavorubescens Atk. 17. Volval fragments absent on the pileus. or if present large and flat . . . 1^ 17. Volval fragments present, mealy or high diamond-like or pyramidal warts . 20 is. Annulus absent; pileus innately squamulose-fibril- lose or rarely smooth A. agglutinata (Bt*ii Singer 15. Annulus present: pileus smooth . 19 19. Basidia 2-spored: pileus pure white or with a pale tan disc . A. bisporigera Atk. 19. Basidia 4-spored; pileus pure white . A. verna Fr. 2(1. Volv’al fragments predominantly mealy on the pileus . ... 21 2(1. Volval fragments of coarse warts on the pileus . . 22 21. Spores 5.5-7.2xS.5-ll micra . A. chlorinosma Pk. 21. Spores 4.5.5x10.5-14 micra . A. roanokensis Coker 22. Lower surface of the annulus merely flooculent. not strongly attached to stipe by fibers: odor of chlorine is usually strong . 23 22. Lower surface of the annulus attached to the stipe by strong fibers: odor of chlorine absent or very faint . 2." 23. Spores 11-14 micra long; pileus less than 7 cm broad A. nitida Fr. 23. Spores shorter; pileus more than 7 cm broad 21 24. Pileus and warts ashy brown A. atkinsonia Coker 24. Pileus straw colored or pale brownish: warts some¬ what darker A. strobiloformis Vitt. 25. Bulb at the base of the stipe abrupt, smooth and lar,sre: spores subglobose or short-elliptic .\. abrupta IT 25. Bulb at the base of the stipe tapering ami with warts or flaring scales: sports ellipsoid .\. solitaria Bull. LITERATURE CITED Atkinson. George F. ispy. Some Fungi front .\labama. Bull. rerneP Univ. Ill Mu 21. Coker, W. C. 1!'17. Tlte .\manitas of the eastent Unitctl Stales. Jour. F>lisha Mitch. Sci. Soc. 33 (1.2'. Hesler, L. K. 1937. Ndct ott southern .\ppalachian fiutgi. II. Jour. Tenn. .\cad. Sci, 12 (3); 212. Mohr, (hiarles. 1!'01. '‘Plant Life of .\labam.i. ' (,'ontr. I'. S. NaUl Herb. VI lU s. IT A. Underwood. L. M. and F, S, Farle. 1''''7 \ prehmut.arv list of .\labama fungi. .\la, .\gr. K\i*, Sta. Bull. sO : 'JoJ 20 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science SECTION II POST WAR JAPAN: OBSERVATIONS OF A CHEMIST By Jelks Barksdale AlahciDhi Polytechnic Institute, Anbnoi In the summer of 19S3, I was asked to go to Japan to do research for a Japanese com¬ pany engaged in the manufacture of titan¬ ium dioxide pigments, with the purpose of iiAproving the quality of the current prod¬ ucts and developing other types of pigments. In this connection I was associated directly with Japanese people and was on my own. 'Phis association offered an unusual oppor¬ tunity to observe the customs and way of life of the people at first hand. I was in Japan for 100 days. After obtaining the necessary vaccinations and inoculations, a passport and a visa to enter Japan I made a trip across the Pacific by air followin,^ the northern route by way of Anchorage, Alaska, and Shemya, a small barren island in the Aleutians Group, to Tokyo. From the air there was not much to see except clouds but at times the blue wat¬ ers of the ocean and the white caps of the waves were visible through the clouds. The return trip on a steamship by way of Hono¬ lulu to San Francisco added an interesting variety. Representatives of the company met me at Haneda aiport in Tokyo and we proceeded by train to Okayama City, a distance of about “iOO miles, where the factory and laboratories are located but with stop overs for confer¬ ences and sightseeing at Kyoto and Osaka. Actually the factory is about 12 miles from Okayama City on a bay of the Inland Sea in a very beautiful setting of farms, bays and mountains. It was built originally and operated for the production of cryolite for use as the electrolyte in the manufacture of aluminum metal. After the war production of these products was curtailed but the de¬ sign of the buildings and much of the equip¬ ment were such that they were readily adapt¬ ed to the manufacture of titanium pigments. Some of the buildings showed damage. Probably the factory had been bombed du¬ ring the war but there was no evidence of oleander bushes, wisteria vines and flower beds which were typical of the country as a whole. The siding and roof of the building were of corrugated asbestos-cement composition but the frame was constructed of wood tim¬ bers. Even the roof trusses were built up from timbers and considering the large size of the building this seemed quite an accomp¬ lishment. This type of construction no doubt resulted from wartime shortages. The fac¬ tory equipment was of conventional design and included such units as lead-lined tanks, pumps, Oliver filters, rotary calciner, Ray¬ mond mill, ball mill, refrigerating unit and electric motors. Safety measures and protec¬ tive equipment were conspicuous by their ab¬ sence. On my first day ore was being unloaded from the ship at the dock and stored inside. Each worker carried ore in two bamboo bas¬ kets which were suspended one at each end of a pole about five feet long balanced over his shoulder. This method of transportation was widely used. In addition to the main laboratory there were several special laboratories all housed in separate buildings. The equipment was adequate and of conventional design, al¬ though for the most part it was simple. How¬ ever, there were a number of pieces of spe¬ cialized equipment including an electron microscope. About 25 chemists and laboratory techni¬ cians worked in the laboratories but they did the control work as well as research. AE Post War Japan 21 were young; there were two girls and the others were men. About half of these were college graduates, mostly from Kyoto Uni¬ versity. This was the result of a dose tieup between the company and the University. They were all good workers and quite in¬ genious. I was impressed by how well they could adapt the equipment on hand to the particular job. Each turned out a creditable amount of work. Most of the people I knew did not have too much originality but they could carry out the tasks assigned well and efficiently. Recovery from the war is practically com¬ plete and there is almost no evidence of war damage even in the atom bombed city of Hiroshima. Destroyed buildings have been rebuilt; agriculture is back on a normal ba¬ sis; and the factories or industries are op¬ erating at a high level of capacity. Stores are filled with almost every kind of goods and there is no scarcity of anything. The people are well fed and well clothed, and look- healthy and happy. Yet salaries are quite low and the price of manufactured goods are almost as high as in this country. An average factory worker gets almost $50 a month and other salaries are in line, conse¬ quently the standard of living is relatively low. Not a single employee of the titanium company at Okayama owned an automobile. The answer to the question why manu¬ factured goods were so high although wages were low was always the same, lack of raw materials and too many people for the land. Even with intensive farming and active fish¬ ing the country cannot produce enough food to feed all the people and almost 20 percent must be imported. Japan has few raw ma¬ terials so that most of these must be im¬ ported to feed the industries. So the plan is to buy raw materials from abroad, use these to produce manufactured goods and sell the manufactured products in the world markets to obtain the necessary foreign exchange to pay for the raw ma¬ terials and buy the needed focxlstuffs. About the only problem here is to sell the goods and sell them at a profit. At the present time there is a deficit which is made up by United States spending in Japan. To keep Japan on the side of the West it may be necessary for the LInited States to assume this deficit for many years to come. On the city streets and along the country roads each morning there were long lines of children on their way to school dressed in clean, neat blue uniforms. They looked strong and healthy, and happy. The uniforms are not a matter of regimentation but rather an application of democracy, for this elimi¬ nates the usual difference in dress between the rich and the poor since all wear the same kind of clothes. These large numbers of children illustrate the over-population of the country. In the cities the school buildings are con¬ structed of stone and concrete but in the smaller towns and villages many are wooden structures. Some of these were constructed hastily since the war as replacements of the three thousand school houses destroyed by bombs. All had playgrounds and playground equipment for physical education is an im¬ portant part in the training of the youth. Just after the war the school system was changed to correspond to that in the United States. However, the Japanese student must study harder or cover less subject niatter in these years for they must learn to spell their words in Roman letters and in two alpha¬ bets of their own as well as learn the pic¬ ture writing or ideographs dcri\ed from Chinese characters. College prep.uaitorv .ind vocational schools arc offered, and bins and girls go to the same schools. I here arc iiiany colleges .uul uimersities. Tokyo Llni\crsity and Kyoto Uni\ersit\- for example h.i\e large modern stone .md i.on Crete buildings similar in design to tluvse m the United St.ites aiul .iri'.ingeil m the s.uiu' manner. I hese couhl be t.iken for one of the large Americ.m uni\ ersit ies. (hie dilterence the stiulents do not ha\e .lutomobiles .uul 79 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science there IS no parking problem. 1 visited the Kyoto University on several occasions and went through the chemistry building. It had the usual type of equipment and the charac¬ teristic smells. Equipment included two elec¬ tron microscopes. There were many research projects in progress. The physical plant and i acuity I consider very good and a credit to any university. College professors get from $600 to $7‘s() a year. I'okyo and Osaka with their large stone and concrete buildings, wide boulevards, sub¬ ways and industries represent the modern in¬ dustrial Japan. Those modern buildings have simple rectangular lines with almost no curves. Even the columns are rectangular. The Marunouchi building in Tokyo devoted to offices and stores covers an entire city block, is eight stories high and has a floor space of U acres. The largest department store also eight stories has a total floor space of 12.2 acres. The Diet building with its rectangular lines, rectangular shaped dome and rectangular columns has a total floor space of 12.3 acres. Buildings are relatively low because of the danger of earth¬ quakes. Kyoto and Nara with their old palaces, temples, shrines, pagodas and art treasures represent the old classical Japan. Both were former capitals and contributed much to the development of Japanese culture, art, litera¬ ture, government and crafts. They are still centers for the fine handiwork — lacquer- ware, wood block prints china, cloisonne, damascene, and silk textiles. These old palaces, temples, shrines and pagodas are large wooden structures with similar architectural line. The roofs have a gentle and graceful curve upwards. Roofing material is built of layers of cedar bark about eight inches thick. The buildings are usually unpainted. At one temple there is a rope made from human hair which was used in raising the heavy timbers into place du¬ ring construction. Hair for making the rope was supplied by women too poor to con¬ tribute money toward the construction. It seems remarkable that these old wooden buildings have withstood fires, storms, earth¬ quakes and natural weathering for so many years, some for centuries. Temples and shrines are often located in the same area. The entrance to a shrine is always through a torii gate which is an ex¬ cellent example of artistic simplicity. It con¬ sists of two upright columns with two hori¬ zontal members on top. The Shintoists are more concerned with the present life while the Buddhists place emphasis on the life to come. Consequently marriages are usually held in a Shinto shrine and funerals are con¬ ducted from a Buddhist temple. Okayama is representative of the real Ja¬ pan for here is presented the customs, hab¬ its and way of life of the ordinary and av¬ erage people. It IS a smaller city located in a rich agricultural section. With the excep¬ tion of one modern department store all the shops are in small wooden buildings. The main shopping street has a metal framework over it to support an avv'iiing which is drawn across on rainy days. Automobiles and ani¬ mal drawn vehicles are excluded to make room for the pedestrians since the street is too narrow to accommodate all. Dwelling houses are also small wooden buildings crowded along narrow streets. The buildings are unpainted but have acquired the rich brown color of weathered wood. Inside, the floor is covered with rush mat pads known as tatami and everyone pulls off his shoes at the door. This custom pre¬ vents tracking mud and dirt into the house and is about the only labor saving device. Partitions between the rooms are sliding pan¬ els which can be removed to throw all the rooms together. Any room may and usually does serve as a living room, dining room and bedroom. At night one or two thin mattresses are placed directly on the floor, and sheets and cover are spread over to form a bed. There are no springs or bedstead. The next morn- Post War Japan 23 ing the bedding is taken up, stored in a closet for the day, a table about one foot hit;h is pushed out in the middle of the room and meals are served on the table. After the meal is finished the dishes are removed but the table is retained and the room be¬ comes a living room. There is no chair in the house and the people sit on cushions placed on the floor or directly on the floor. The kitchen has the natural ground floor and the stove is a kind of brick furnace built on the floor with one or two round open¬ ings for the boilers. Japan is very mountainous and only about 15 percent of the area is suitable for farm¬ ing. Without seeing the country it is diffi¬ cult to realize what a small part of the land can be used for growing crops. Even the large plains along the coast are divided up into small garden-size farms. In most of the country two crops are produced each year — rice in the summer and wheat in the winter, or rice in the summer and rush grass in the winter. The farmers cultivate every inch of land meticulously by hand. An ox is the principal source of power but some farmers plow with horses and a smaller proportion use garden tractors. About the first of June the wheat is cut by hand with a knife, and the fields are plowed and flooded with water in prep¬ aration for the rice crop. The rice plants are grown very thick in small areas or beds and set out in the muddy fields by hand. Often large groups of people work together at rice planting. The rainy season reappears with remark¬ able regularity each year early in June and it rains almost every day for about a month. Farmers welcome this rainy season as an almost perfect time for rice planting. Water is pumped in as needed to keep the rice fields flooded at all times during the grow¬ ing season. Some farmers have gasoline driven pumps but others employ a reverse water wheel. The farmer steps from blade to blade to rotate the wheel and lift the water into the field. A kind of lawn-mower implement is pushed along the rows by hand to cut the grass. Men and women, husband and wife, work together in the fields. Hu¬ man manure is used for fertilizing the crops but this is supplemented with chemical fer¬ tilizer. Rush plants are also set out in the fields but in the winter when the weather is cold. Before the war, the women set out the rush plants for there was a tradition that they were fatter than the men and could with¬ stand the cold better. Since the war the women are not so fat and the men have to help with the rush planting. These seemingly crude methods of farm¬ ing do not by any means mean poor farm¬ ing for the yields per acre are two or three times as high as in the rest of Asia, and higher than in the United States. Fruits and vegetables are exceptionally fine due largely to the careful hand care. The principal items of food are rice and fish with vegetables and fruits, although they have wheat bread and noodles, and meat. A popular native food is sukiyaki, a mixture of vegetables with slices of meat cooked in a saucepan at the table. Shrimp, battered and fried in deep fat, known as tempura, is another favorite. The people arc fond of raw fish, called sashimi, which is usually served as slices. Octopus is consid¬ ered a delicacy. A dear fish or \egetable soup known as sui mono is often scr\ed. Green tea without sugar, saki and beer are the most common drinks. 24 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science THE ORIGINS OF PETROLEUM AND COAL By Frank Dacuille Pensacola, Ploricla The Elnited States is using at present sume 2 billion barrels of oil and 600 million tons of toal each year. These figures represent 65*/^ and ,^0^r respectively of the world’s production. Where does this "Wealth of Nations’’ come from? It is generally agreed that both petroleum and coal are of organic origin; that is, they arc formed in some manner by the decay of all sorts of vegetable and animal matter. The most popular theory with regard to pe¬ troleum has in effect a twt) step process — first, the organic matter that is washed into or that grows in the oceans, sinks to the still ocean bottoms where it will be subject to the putrefying action of anaerobic bacteria, d’his action produces a material known as sapropel, or faulschlam, which is not a pe¬ troleum crude, but may have the makings of the crude. The second step calls for se¬ vere geologic activity to cast up the ocean bottoms and to fold them and otherwise macerate the deep marine sediments, sub¬ jecting them to varying degrees of heating and burial. This second stage, in effect, is one of metamorphism in which the sapropel or faulschlam is converted to petroleum crudes. The theory of coal making follows essen¬ tially the same procedure but it is restricted to land. Vigorous forest growths in areas of gradual submergence contribute to the formation of peat bogs in which bacterial action is not too all-consuming. The lignin and cellulose unit structures are left intact. Then again geologic activity buries and folds the peat bogs, stopping bacterial action but setting in motion many processes of meta¬ morphosis by virtue of the temperatures and pressures available. To the differences in these conditions are attributed the differ¬ ences in ranks of coal. The purpose of this paper is not to argue details of the accepted theories of formation, but to present for consideration a new mech¬ anism of formation. btudy of the geology of the world with Allan O. Kelly of Carlsbad, California, has brought the realization that the earth has been subjected to erratic but geologically frec]uent bombardment by large meteors. The atmosphere of the earth even now is blistered by a million meteors an hour, some of which are big enough to make noticeable trails in the skies. On occasion massive me¬ teors break through to the surface of the earth to cause awesome destruction. The Si¬ berian fall of 1908 is a case in point; and museums all over the world have dozens of massive meteorites on display weighing many tons each. The visible surface of the moon shows plainly thirty thousand scars that appear to have been caused by large meteors. Astron¬ omers slowly are beginning to accept this view over the older, more sedate, volcanic theory. These craters ranging from one half mile to one hundred and fifty miles in di¬ ameter for the more obvious ones, and up to about six hundred miles for the great maria, bespeak much and serious collision activity at a frequency of one for each fifty thousand years of planetary existence. The evidence of meteor scars is not so plain on the surface of the earth because of the severe actions of raging floods and wind storms with each lartte collision. How- ever, evidence can be read in many large and small features of the earth’s surface — gravel Origins of Petroleum and Coal 25 hills, submarine canyons, growing and re¬ treating glaciers, erratic boulders, the shape of the ocean bottoms, curved shapes of mountain ranges and coast lines, and in the refrigerated remains of extinct animals. Not the least important is the evidence that the poles of the earth have been in widely sepa¬ rated points at different times as shown by the anomalous presence of fossil tropical vegetation in arctic zones, and glacial evi¬ dence in the tropics. To chemists, the following discussion may provide strong evidence also. Consider a large meteor of 200 miles di¬ ameter blasting through the atmosphere of the earth at 20 miles per second. The fric¬ tion would cause the meteor face to glow with a temperature of 7500° to 30,000°C and thereby cause it to slough off a volumi¬ nous trail of highly oxidized minerals that would sear the earth. But more important would be the radiant energy of the meteor face. The sun, with a 5500°C surface tem¬ perature and removed some 92 million miles, provides a mild climate for the earth. But the meteor, a mere 100 miles above the sur¬ face would sear to a crisp everything within range. With a fairly flat trajectory for the meteor, any area in the line of flight would be subject to intense radiation for about one minute. When directly overhead of an area the meteor would blot out the sky down to‘ 45° of the horizon, and would subject the area to 10 seconds of a most intense heat¬ ing process. The second phase of collision is the col¬ lision proper. Calculations will show that at dead center temperatures in excess of 200,- 000°C v/ill prevail with pressures close to 200 million atmospheres. The conditions duplicate a portion in the interior of the sun proper. Only 2^ of the energy released would be sufficient to boil away the entire meteor and an equal mass of the earth’s sur¬ face, to tower for some time as a huge col¬ umn of all kinds of mineral, organic, and water vapors. The radiative effects of such a column also would be of geologic scope. Not to deviate from the topic it is pointed out in passing that the zero point conditions must be capable of the actual synthesis of elements — radioactive, noble, and others — from the crude, simple planetary materials. The third phase of collision would be the mechanical reactions of the earth to the severe jolt. The speed and axis of rotation of the earth can be changed; mountain-high and world-encompassing floods would take place; widespread diastrophic activity would prevail. The earth would be wrenched to its very core, and its surface layers would be buckled and upset in a most erratic manner. The friction of all these slippage surfaces would produce heat reservoirs for chemical and physical activity of long duration. In effect, we have described the Crucible — now for a look at the Charge. Consider a rich forest cover with 100 tons of living plants and trees to the acre, plus another 100 tons of humus and a teeming population of animal life. For discussion, the total charge may be considered to be the contents of an 800 mile diameter area which encloses 320 million acres. The organic con¬ tent of 64 billion tons would be in place, waiting for something to happen. It is well to note here that an ocean area of the same acreage has even more organic matter, main¬ ly in the form of plankton, than does land. The Process of "Collision Genesis ’’ mav be apparent at this time. Scorching heat from the meteor, in flight or on collision, would boil aw’ay in a blast of increasing fury the superficial water of the organic matter, amounting to about '/j the total weight in volved. Then the very structures of the ceb lulose, lignin, and protein components would start to decompose, accompanied by .i cer¬ tain amount of oxidation. To this point the process would be fairly close to lh.it of the destructiye distillation of wood or organic matter in general, producing owgen.ited compounds such as phenol, ketones, .icids. etc. Howexer, due to the high r.ite ot re 26 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science actions, almost explosive in fact, the prod¬ ucts of decomposition would blanket the area, keeping away oxygen and forcing the reactions to take place in a non-oxidizing atmosphere. In fact, superheated steam in contact with glowing carbonaceous matter would form some equivalent of water-gas, rich in hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The presence of these gases in large concentra¬ tions would provide a reducing atmosphere analogous to the forming processes used in the petroleum industry under reducing con¬ ditions. I'he type of compounds found in petroleum would be formed rather than those obtained in straight destructive distil¬ lation of organic matter. This especially would be so since the vapors will be mixed intimately with mineral vapors and dusts produced shortly afterwards by the collision proper. In the excessive and variable tem¬ perature and pressure conditions in the ex¬ posed zones the most erratic type of reac¬ tions would take place, calling on all kinetic mechanisms in a searcli for patterns that would absorb the energy available — that is, endothermic reactions would be most fa¬ vored. A coal forming process would be going on at the same time. That coal is of vege¬ table origin cannot be doubted, for imprints of leaves, twigs, bits of resin, spores and numerous other shapes are readily discern¬ ible in it. It may be argued that the intense pyrolysis proposed here would destroy all traces of plant life in the coal, producing a substance more like soot or petroleum coke. However, it is in the very nature of carbon to preserve these traces in all but the most intense conditions in and close to the zero point. Carbon having the highest melting point of all known elements and compounds would better resist the fusion that would destroy delicate structures. Further, under conditions that would boil away the very rocks and sand on the forest floor, carbon having the third highest boiling point (51()0°C) giving way only to tungsten and tungsten carbide, again would work in favor of preserving structural features. Also, since carbon has a specific heat of vaporization almost ten times that of most materials, it is conceivable that the inorganic matter of the forest floor itself can boil away while vegetation was merely being carbonized. The plastic residues, slumping and fusing togeth¬ er, would be thrown about by the violent ac¬ tivity of the collision, to be covered and folded into coal scams. The variations in heat treatment and burial would determine in great part the rank of the final coal from the lightly "toasted” lignites to the graphitic anthracites. The chemical results of this collision gene¬ sis may be found in the composition of pe¬ troleum. One approach, used by the author, is to correlate the specific compounds iso¬ lated in a petroleum crude with compounds identified in the destructive distillation of woods. The work of F. D. Rossini and B. J. Mail', "Composition of Petroleum” (l) may be used in conjunction with a tabulation in L. E. Wise, \\"ooc] CheDiistry (2). A study of these two listings will show that while the compounds in the petroleum have more hydrogen than the wood distilla¬ tion compounds, the basic chemicals are the same. This difference arises from the forma¬ tion of the petroleum crudes in a reducing type of atmosphere, rich in hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, ethane and similar com¬ pounds. Furthermore, the competition for oxygen by the evaporated metals and other minerals in the collision cloud also would tend to strip the volatiles of their oxygen. In order to develop the comparison the various compounds of the wood distillates may be subjected to a generalized hydrogena¬ tion or substitution of methyl groups at double bonds or at oxygen or hydroxyl groups. If one or the other, but not both, reactions are applied, 50 of the 122 specific hydrocarbons of the list of Rossini and Mair are accounted for. To this 50 may be added at least three of the hydrocarbons found Origins of Petroleum and Coal 27 directly in the wood distillates — (n-hepta- decane, 1,2, 4, 5 Tetramethylbenzene, isopro¬ pylbenzene) . The results of these generalized reactions have been summarized in table form (3) to give some idea of the probable frequency of formation of the petroleum hydrocarbons. The comparison does not permit a direct accounting for all the petroleum hydrocar¬ bons, but this is due to the strict limitation of the illustrative reactions to straight hy¬ drogenation or straight methylation. If other fragments such as ethyl, propyl and even fragments with ring forming tendencies were traced out in reactions, and further, if more than one type of fragment were added, many more of the compounds in the list of Rossini and Mair can be accounted for. Then, also, the isomerization reactions would do a great deal to spread out the coverage; along with isomerization would be cyclation, and disproportionation, and just plain crack¬ ing and reforming. Now added to these straight hydrocarbon reactions w'ould be those with nitrogen and sulfur. The "Charge” presumed nitrogen in animal, and of course, plant proteins; and for that mat¬ ter, also sulfur. However it is probable that atmospheric nitrogen is "fixed” by glowing carbon in the presence of alkali vapors, and is taken up in one form or other by the oily distillates or the plastic carbon residues. Sul¬ fur is available naturally in some areas, but the probable source of sulfur in "collision genesis” is the very reaction between min¬ eral sulfates and organic matter to produce sulfur. The high energies of the reaction area would bring sulfur into many of the gaping, incomplete, molecular fragments in the oils or in the residues. The distribution over the surface of the earth of the distillates would be most erratic. Since the oceans cover over 70^ of the earth, and since the world floods would be sure to sweep over most if not all the land, the crudes would be most certainly associated with marine deposits. In fact, a good por¬ tion of the mineral matter vaporized by the collision should tend to absorb the crudes and hold onto them in the process of de¬ position. Is this difficult to envision in \ iew of the marine oil sands, and the vast fields of oil shale? The residues going to coal might be less tossed about, and most likely to be trapped on mountain terrain which would act much in the nature of riffle tables. Over all this, after the oceans of the world resumed their beds, would be deposited a blanket of fine sands and clays to cover the horror of the activity and to prepare a new' soil to accept the seeds of a new life. Before closing it will be of interest to point out that a broad estimate of the coal and oil production potential of the type col¬ lision described based on figures of the dis¬ tillation industry show s that about 6* g bil¬ lion tons of each might be scattered oxer the earth. In view of the estimated reserxes of coal and oil in the w'orld a high frequency of collision is indicated. It should give pause to think that everv- day chemistry is so closely connected to pro¬ cesses of planetary scope, which in turn de¬ rive from the cosmos. LITERATURE CITED 1. Rossini. F. D. and Mair. B. J. lOTil. Composition of Pelro- leiim. Advances in Chemistry Series. No. 3dl. ■J. Wise. L. K. 1911. Wood Chemistry. Reinhold rnbl. Coro. PI>. fiSif). 3. Kelly. A. O. and Dachille, F. Targ:^!: Karth- The Ivole of Large Meteors in Karth Science; 19B-'_'oi. 28 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science SECTION III ARTIFICIAL DIAMONDS By Stewart J. Lloyd University of Alabama, University, Alabania Last year at Sheffield Mrs. Gladys Han- iiaford gave a fascinating talk on natural diamonds, and showed us some very hand¬ some and valuable specimens. This year 1 am going to spend my fifteen minutes in talking about artificial or synthetic diamonds, but unfortunately I have no samples to show you. Many of the other gem stones, ruby, sapphire, pearl, etc., have finally succumbed to the efforts of intensive research, so that we do have artificial specimens of these, but the natural diamond still reigns alone. I hardly need to remind this audience that the diamond is pure carbon, like graphite, and charcoal. All three of them are found in nature, all three of them will burn to carbon dioxide. It is not hard to convert charcoal or coal to graphite, indeed Acheson did this commercially at Niagara Falls to¬ wards the end of the last century. Whether or not graphite has been converted into char¬ coal (amorphous carbon), which after all is really finely divided graphite, I do not know, (I have seen no record of it), but diamond has unquestionably been converted into graphite. The interesting and useful trans¬ formation would be that of charcoal or graphite into diamond, and a discussion of the efforts to accomplish this change makes un the present paper. I am going to describe some of these ef¬ forts in approximate chronological order, and then add a little theory, and perhaps some hints about future attempts. It is not likely that in this era of atomic energy a little transformation of this kind will perma¬ nently elude the experimenter. Hannay The first serious claim to diamond pro¬ duction is not Moissan's as most textbooks say, but that of J. B. Hannay, in 1880. A detailed description of his procedure can be found in the Proc. of the Royal Society (Lon¬ don) for 1880. The following is a condensed account. A mixture of light paraffin oils, and bone oil (mostly pyridine, which contains nitro¬ gen) was heated with a small amount of metallic lithium in a thick, wrought iron, gun barrel type tube, having an internal di¬ ameter of hall an inch. After closing the O end by welding, the tube was put, in an in¬ clined position, into a reverberatory furnace, heated to a dull red for 14 hours, and then cooled slowly. In most of these runs the gases evidently diffused out through the red hot iron tube as it was practically empty when opened, but four out of many experi¬ ments were successful and produced minute crystals which passed all of Hannay’s tests for diamonds. His idea was, of course, that the lithium would take away the hydrogen from the hydrocarbons or pyridine and leave the residual carbon in the form of diamond. Little attention seems to have been at¬ tracted by this discovery, and for many years no one tried to duplicate his results. Early in this century, however. Sir Charles Parsons of turbine engine fame turned his attention to diamond synthesis, but was unable to verify Hannay’s findings, and indeed was quite skeptical of them, believing that Han¬ nay had mistaken some other crystal, spinel, or carborundum perhaps for a diamond. But in 1943, Lonsdale and Bannister, X-ray spe¬ cialists at the British Museum, came upon Hannay’s twelve little crystals which had fortunately been preserved and carefully la¬ belled, so that there was little doubt of their being genuine, and applied the new tech¬ nique of X-ray analysis to them. Out of the twelve one was definitely not a diamond, a Artificial Diamonds 29 few were evidently contaminated with some impurity, but several were undoubtedly dia¬ monds. And one of them was the rare type of diamond that occurs only to the extent of about one per cent among natural dia¬ monds. No refutal of this finding has ap¬ peared in the literature since 19-43, at least not to my knowledge, so Mr. Hannay has, up to date, had the last word. Alois san In 1893 when Henri Moissan was work¬ ing with the early electric furnace, he made the experiment described in so many text books of inorganic chemistry, that of heating up iron containing carbon to a very high temperature and suddenly cooling the molten mass, hoping to produce in this way extreme¬ ly high pressures within it, which theory pre¬ dicts would aid in making diamonds. He ob¬ tained some microscopic crystals which he pronounced diamonds, no doubt after test¬ ing them carefully, and the world has more or less accepted his discovery. Unfortunately these crystals have been lost, and the X-ray test cannot be applied to them, as it was to Hannay’s. It has always seemed to me that if diamonds could be obtained thus, some¬ one in carrying out the almost infinite num¬ ber of heatings and quenchings of carbon¬ bearing iron and steel that have occurred in the course of practical ferrous metallurgy, someone else would have noticed them. However, Moissan gets generally the credit of making the first diamonds, whether he deserves it or not. Parsons In 1920, Sir Charles Parsons, a very emi¬ nent engineer and general scientist, the in¬ ventor of the steam turbine, published a pa¬ per (his Bakerian lecture) in the Royal So¬ ciety Transactions giving an account of his own experiments on diamond production and of his efforts to duplicate Hannay’s and Moissan’s work. A tremendous number of experiments of diverse kinds were carried out by Parsons over a long series of years. so his Bakerian lecture should be read by all who interest themselves in this subject. He was unable to obtain any results using Hannay’s method, but believed that he had obtained diamonds by a procedure similar to Moissan’s. In his opinion the real cause of diamond formation in Moissan’s experiment was not the high bulk pressure but occluded gases in the metal, especially carbon monox¬ ide. He believed the temperature of diamond formation to be about 690°C., one of the points of recalescence of iron. Parson’s crystals, which he believed to be diamonds, have not apparently been pre¬ served, and could not be found by Lonsdale and Bannister despite the efforts of his sur¬ viving family, so that the X-ray technique has not been applied to them either. Following Parson’s work, attention was di¬ rected on both sides of the Atlantic to the thermodynamic data involved in the trans¬ formation of diamond into graphite, and of course graphite into diamond. Accurate fig¬ ures on the heats of combustion of both graphite and diamond, on their specific heats, and on other thermal data led to a study of the conditions under which graphite ought to turn into diamond. This brings us to the work of the following trio. Gunther, Geselle and RebentisL'h The first experimental work based on this theoretical approach was that of Clunther, Geselle, and Rebentisch, in 19-i3. Theory had shown apparentlv that high pressure and perhaps high temperatures were essential to the desireel transformation. These investigators therefme in follow inr; Moissan’s piarcedure with iron and carbon built an apparatus more complicated th.m his, but one that pro\ ided both these condi tions. ’I'hcy obtained in four rnit of 89 e\ periments minute crystals that acted like di.i monds but they were unable to duplic.ite their results at will, and do lurt Jaim to ha\e obtaincal iliamoiuls. 1 he\' .ilso express a polite doubt that Moissan obtaiiuxl .in\ eithei". Hanna\’ the\' do lu't e\ en mention. 30 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Every kind of variation in time of heat¬ ing, in temperature, rate of cooling, etc., was employed by them, also possible cata¬ lyzers like manganese and other metals were added, but all in vain. Diamond splinters in¬ serted in the mass did no good as "seeds” and turned into graphite above 2()0()°C. One extraordinary misstatement occurs in their paper, namely that natural diamonds are always found in "secondary” deposits, hence that no information is available about the way they are formed in nature. As a matter of fact, Kimberlite, the blue rock of the dia¬ mond fields is, of course, weathered near the surface, but it is a basic igneous rock, not a secondary material. These investigators point out that the rate of transformation plays an important role. Nature has plenty of time, compared to the laboratory, but it is a fact that the opposite transformation, diamond into graphite, ac¬ tually took place fairly rapidly in these ex¬ periments. A few years before this work was done a brief flare-up took place in Kansas, where J. W. Hershey reported the abundant pro¬ duction of synthetic diamonds. Investigation finally showed that the so-called diamonds were far from being such. His method of production was roughly similar to Moissan’s. Occasional "discoveries” like Hershey’s have been attached in recent years to several names in this country, but none have been authenticated. Dr. McKee of Columbia Uni¬ versity was one of those mentioned as hav¬ ing produced diamonds. By'ulgviau About 1935 P. W. Bridgman of Harvard University began to take an interest in the diamond question through his studies of combined hydrostatic pressure and shearing stress. This resulted in the publication in 1947 of an exhaustive paper, in which are described experiments much like those of the three German scientists, experiments using hydrostatic pressure instead of Mois- san's sudden cooling of liquid iron, but very high temperatures produced either by inter¬ nal or external heating. Seeding by diamond fragments was also used. The results were completely negative, though no trouble was encountered in turning diamond into graph¬ ite. His discussion of the theory involved is very clear however. Slawso)! The latest attempt to produce diamonds in the laboratory was described by Slawson (University of Michigan) in 1953. Follow¬ ing accepted theory elemental carbon was produced between 125°C. and the tempera¬ ture of dry ice, but under a pressure of 35,000 atmospheres (500,000 lbs. per square inch). It came from the decomposition of mercuric carbide. Dr. Slawson hoped, of course, to get diamond, but graphite was the result. This reaction, mercuric carbide to carbon and mercury, is erratic and altogether unpre¬ dictable, but the product was always graph¬ ite, not diamond. However this is a some¬ what new approach, more like Hannay’s than Moissan’s. I’o sum up, although several experiment¬ ers claim to have made diamonds, their methods have not held up in the hands of others who have repeated the experiment. This of course is the acid test. A similar sit¬ uation existed years ago in the alleged pro¬ duction of gold from mercury in the Cooper Hewitt lamp. Dr. Miethe in Berlin, whom I knew quite well, was unquestionably honest, and believed he had effected this conver¬ sion, but no one else was ever able to do it, and the excitement gradually died down. Gold of course has since been converted into mercury in the cyclotron, but there is no great public interest in that. Theory Some of us work like the prospector who searches for gold in the most unlikely places, we are fond of trying everything Artificial Diamonds 31 whether supported by theory or not, but the good research man will be guided by theory as far as it will take him. What is the theory of diamond formation, from ordinary carbon or graphite? In the first place, diamond is denser than carbon, that is, a pound of diamond takes up less space than a pound of graphite or charcoal. So if you want to make diamond from graphite, common sense would say, squeeze it, apply heavy pressure, try to make the graphite shrink into diamond. All of the experimenters, including Hannay, have done this in one way or another. Also in turning graphite into diamond, heat is ab sorbed (this has been determined indirect¬ ly), so you w^OLild apparently need a high temperature. Moreover the rate of transfor¬ mation probably increases rapidly wdth tem¬ perature, as in most other reactions, so this would also call for a high temperature. On the other hand, the thermal expansion and specific heat data of the two, diamond and graphite, indicate a low temperature as fa¬ vorable so that we have to strike a balance, and the net result is that moderately low temperatures, below 1000°C., are believed to be more suitable. One point on which all agree is that high pressures, at least 20,000 atmospheres are needed. Phase diagrams for diamond-graphite are given by Rossini, and others, but they say nothing of course about speed of reaction. To paraphrase Winston Churchill’s fa¬ mous sentence, "rarely have so many people spent so much time and so much work with so little result.’’ All of these experiments using high pressure have been difficult, dan¬ gerous, and time consuming, and not too much has been learned from them except that a very hard job has been tackled. It seems likely that a totally new approach will be needed. Elemental carbon is made in millions of tons yearly, as coke, charcoal, and carbon black from natural gas. Acheson found that coal with some ash in it could be turned into graphite in the electric furnace, prob¬ ably through the intermediate formation of carbides. He was investigating silicon car¬ bide (carborundum) when he made this graphite discovery. His graphite is amor¬ phous, like the Mexican natural mineral, not like the Alabama flake graphite. I have never heard of flake graphite being made artificially. Producing synthetic diamonds would not be just an interesting stunt. Apart from their use as gem stones, diamonds are enormously important in industry. Their unique hard¬ ness makes them invaluable as abrasives, and the metallic carbides like tungsten carbide, though very useful, cannot begin to displace them in some fields. Future What are the prospects for the future? What line of attack should be followed? One thing is certain, if anything more than a mere tour de force is wanted the technique of very high pressure and high temperature may as well be abandoned, hla- terials that will stand these two conditions simultaneously simply do not exist, and the duration of each experiment using them must be very short. Ostwald the famous chemist laid down the principle that when a material passed from an unstable to a stable condition it must pass through the iii- termediate stages if any exist, that is, carbon vapor in solidifying into the stable graphite must first pass through the unstable form of diamond. So if we can catch the carbon on the fly so to speak and stop it fiaan chang¬ ing further we might get it in the form of diamond. But these diamonds will be \erv very small if we do get them, so small .is to be of little use to us, and indeed tin validity of Ostwald’s rule h.is been ch.il lenged. There seems to be agreement on .ill sides how’cwer, that high pressures, o\er atmospheres will be needed in .in\ process, and in the writer's opinion the follow inc 32 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science procedure still using this or higher pressures offers the most hope. It is known that carbon dissolves appre¬ ciably in metallic mercury, especially at high¬ er temperatures, and there is nothing impos¬ sible about its being soluble in other liquids. One of the extraordinary developments in chemistry these last thirty years has been the incredible increase in the number of new organic solvents produced. No issue of a chemical magazine these days appears with¬ out the notice or advertisement of one or two new solvents, some with very compli¬ cated formulas. If I were going to try to produce artificial diamonds, I would start by making a collection of these organic sol¬ vents, there are thousands of them, then build an apparatus capable of withstanding at temperatures under 100°C., pressures of 20, ()()() atmospheres and up, and determine the solubility of carbon in them under this pressure. If one of these liquids is found, and I think it likely, which does dissolve carbon, then let the solvent evaporate very very slowly, still under this high pressure. I'his would afford the possibility at least of growing fairly large crystals, rather than the microscopic ones claimed to be diamonds by Moisson and Hannay, since as much time could then be taken for the evaporation as necessary. The finding of a low temperature solvent for carbon would be very useful regardless of a possible diamond synthesis. The auto¬ mobile industry would find an immediate use for it in cleaning out carbon deposits from cylinders. Patents The preceding discussion has been based entirely on what the scientist with his love for long words calls the "literature.” There is another source of information, however, often very useful, the patent office files. A casual, very casual, search of the patent rec¬ ords did not turn up any patents on synthetic diamonds, but I am inclined to believe some have been issued, though I have not as yet located them. Bibliography A reference list of articles used in the preparation of this paper is appended. It is far from being a complete bibliography of diamond synthesis, but with it, and es¬ pecially with the reference given to the Mel lor treatise all important publications on the subject may be reached. LITERATURE CITED Anonymous 1946. Chem. Prod. 10: lo. . 192S. Nature 121: 709. Bannister, F. A. and Lonsdale K. 1943. Mineralog. Mag. 26: 315. Bassett. J. 1941. Chim. et Indust. 46:87. Bridgman P. W. 1935. Phys. Rev. 4S: 832. . 1940. Phys. Rev. 57: 342. . 1941. J. App. Phys. 12: 461. . 1947. J. Chem. Phys. 15: 92. Goranson. R. W. 1940. Sci. Mon. 51 : 528. Gunther, Geselle und Rebentisch. 1943. Zeit. Anorg. und Allgem. Chem. 250: 357. . 1880. Proc .Roy. Soc. A 30: 188. and 450. Hannay, J. B. 1880. Nature 22: 255. . 1882. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 32: 407. 1880. Chem. News 41 : 106. . 1902. Chem. News 86: 173. Hershey, J. W. 1929. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 32: 52. . 1937. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 40: 109. 1940. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 43: 213. Leipunskii O. I. 1939. Uspekhi Khimit 8: 1519. Lonsdale K. and Smith H. 1941. Nature 148: 112, 257. Lonsdale K. 1942. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 179: 315. Lonsdale K. and Bannister F. A. 1943. Nature 151: 334. Mellor D. P. 1947. J. Chem. Phys. 15: 525. 1949. Research (London) 2: 314. Mellor D. P. 1924. A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry. 5: 737. Moissan Henri 1896. Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 8: 446. Parsons C. A. 1918. Engineering (England) 105: 485. . 1920. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A 220: 67. Robertson R.. Fox J. J., and Martin A. E. 1934. Phil. Trans. Roy Soc. A 232: 463. Rossini F. D. and Jessup R. S. 1938. J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards 21: 491. Rossini F. D. 1949. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 30: 267. Ruff O. 1917. Zeit. Anorg. Chem. 99: 73. Ruff O. and Bergdal B. 1919. Zeit. Anorg. Chem. 106: 76. Slawson C. B. 1953. Amer. Mineral. 38:50. Story-Maskelyne N. 1880. The Times (London) Feb. 20. Chem News 41: 97. BROW'N IRON ORE IN SOUTH ALABAMA by Hugh D. Ballister Geological Survey of Alabama, University, Alaba)iia Limonite of good quality was recorded bv Dr. Eugene A. Smith ( 1 ) many years ago. Brown iron ore was mined and shipped from Butler, Crenshaw and Pike Counties, Alabama, to Birmingham whenever the price was favorable during World War I and in the early part of World War II. From then until 1953, very little brown iron ore has been shipped out of this territory due, no doubt, to the long rail haul and the low buying price. Exploratory work sponsored by the Geo¬ logical Survey of Alabama and supervised by David Dejarnette and Charles Morgan, was carried on in Butler, Crenshaw and Pike Counties during 1942 and 1943. Areas where surface indications were favorable were carefully test pitted and samples taken. The samples were chemically analyzed and if the results were good, the tonnages for each property test pitted were figured. As the area of the scattered deposits varied, the corresponding tonnages ranged from a few hundred tons to tens of thousands of tons. The analyses of iron ore from many of these deposits showed metallic iron from 50 to 57 percent, manganese usually under one percent, phosphorous as low as .20 per¬ cent, and insoluble matter down to 2 to 4 percent. There has always been a demand for high grade brown iron ore for use in the blast furnaces in Alabama. A high grade brown iron ore should have a metallic iron content of above 50 percent, a phosnhorous analysis below .20 percent, and insoluble matter be¬ low 10 percent. Few brown iron ore de¬ posits in Alabama today meet these specifi¬ cations; therefore, when the demand for pig iron falls off only hieh rrrade brc)wn iron ore is in demand and other operations close down. In view of the good quality of most of the ore in south Alabama, it is difficult to understand why no one has been working these deposits. Mr. Frank Spurlock of Troy, Alabama, talked of it many times but did nothing until recently. Operators with big equipment looked over the area and decided the deposits were too small for them (the ore beds were seldom over 3 to 5 feet thick) and that the distance from the market was too great. Real interest in south Alabama brown iron ores began to develop in 1953 when several small operators came into the district. As a result of a favorable market for a high qual ity product, seven or eight log washing plants have been erected. Manv carloads of high grade brown iron ore have been shipped from Butler, Crenshaw and Pike Counties and from another area farther to the south¬ east in southern Henry and northern Hous¬ ton Counties. The brown iron ores of south Alabama are made up of occasional large dornicks and many small nodules of limonite. hicdi grade nodules of hard fibrous giiethite (some very fine specimens) and occasion.d lumps of gray iron carbonate (siderite). Idle ore is associated with lumps of sott limestone in which there are frequenth toe sils of the Clayton formation intermixed with a large amount ot saiul and U.iw 'I'he ratio ('»f cmicentration in washing the ore often reaches as much as ten tons ot mined material to one ton shipping ore. Idle brown iron ore in Butler, ('renshaw and Pike Counties tends to bear a distinct kinship to the ( layton limestone form.ition Journal of Alabama Academy of Science i)f the Midway group of Eocene age and to follow closely the Clayton outcrops across the three counties. See map. It is possible that the iron solutions com¬ ing in contact with the underlying limestone caused the deposition of the iron as iron carbonate, siderite. This iron carbonate prob¬ ably altered on giving up carbon dioxide to hydrous iron oxide, limonite and goethite. The presence of siderite and fossils of Clay¬ ton age intermingled with the brown iron ore tends to confirm this. It is evident that these iron ore beds are of late or post- Clayton age. d’he brown iron ores in southern Henry and northern Houston Counties seem to overlie the Cdendon limestone formation in the Vicksburg group of Oligocene age. See map. These ore deposits appear to be thinner and more scattered than those on the Clay¬ ton formation. Although these south Alabama brown iron ore deposits do not represent a large tonnage when compared with other deposits in the state, the high quality of the ship¬ ping ores are of value when required and the total tonnage from the area will probably exceed the estimates of the Geological Sur- vey of Alabama. LITER.\TURE CITED 1. Smith. Eugene A.. 18JM. “Report of the Geology of the Coastal Plain of Alabama.” Bulletin 6. Geological Survey of Alabama. 35 GOLD IN ALABAMA By Hugh D. Ballister Geological Survey of Alabaiuu, University, Alabama There is something intriguing about gold and the search for it. Men have wandered to the four corners of the earth seeking the yellow metal. They have frozen in the Arctic or gone mad of thirst in the desert. They have starved, they have fought and died in efforts to get and keep gold. Even today people in all walks of life inquire of the Geological Survey of Alabama as to where gold has been mined in Alabama. There is no record that the Indians mined gold in Alabama, nor that the Spaniards found it. Although no date is accurately known for the discovery of gold in Alabama, it is generally considered to have been about 1830. Professor Michael Tourney (1) tells of the excitement in the gold fields in 1855 de¬ scribing briefly Silver Hill, Goldville, Pine- tucky, Chulafinnee, Arbacoochee and Stew¬ art’s. Of these towns, Goldville and Arba¬ coochee were the most prosperous. Arbacoo¬ chee, reported to be the largest town in Ala¬ bama during the early days, had 600 people working in gold mining. Gold mining in Alabama and the south¬ east must have been a profitable business du¬ ring the early days. From 1838 to I860, there was a United States mint at Dahlonega, Georgia, making gold coins. Though the gold rush to California in 1849 took a great many of the miners, mining went on. Most of the early gold mining was con¬ fined to washing the sands and gravel in and along the streams by pan, cradle, sluice and many other devices. 'We know they also used quicksilver to catch some of the gold as I have seen some gold grains coated with arnalgum from the old workings. At Arba¬ coochee in Cleburne County, a small (.Iredge was used to recover the gold. Some of the operations followed the gold sands up stream to the vein deposits and those were mined. Stamp mills were used to separate the gold from the quartz vein ma¬ terial. Some of the operators turned to cya¬ nide to recover the gold but as sulphides were encountered the cyanide losses became so great that this was abandoned. Roughly triangular in shape with one side of the triangle against the Georgia line, the gold area of Alabama comprises the follow¬ ing counties: Cleburne, Randolph, Cham¬ bers, Clay, Coosa and Tallapoosa and parts of Talladega, Chilton and Elmore Counties. See map. The following streams and their branches that have yielded placer gold are: Talledega, Weogufka, Hatchet, Hillabee, Yellowleaf, Chestnut Creeks and many other tributaries of the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers. A partial list of the gold districts in Ala¬ bama is given below with locations as sho\\ n on the map. For further details refer to the reports of Phillips (2), Brewer (3) and Adams (4). No. 1. The Arbacoocliee district in Clebnrne ("oinuy. one of the oldest gold mining areas in Alabama, con¬ sists of secondary placer deposits and (luart/. veins in the Ashland schist close to chlorite schist intrusives. No. 12. The Pinetucky poid mine located in the north, western part of Randolph County, consists of «iuart.’. veins in the Ashland mica schist not lar from intrusives. Tlie early mining here was i*lacer work followed by deep shaft mining. No. 3. The Chulafinnee gold mining area in the south¬ west corner of ('‘leburne Ciuinty is also one of the early gold mining areas. No. 1. The Ividdle's mill gold mining ibstncl m the oaslein [larl of 'Palladega t’ountv consists of placer deposits and vein depi>sits in the Talladega schists. No. B, 'Phe Idaho district in western Clay County con¬ sists of weathered outcrops and veins m the .Xshlaml mica schist not far from the Hillabee chlorite sill. No. B. The Cragford mining district on the bne of Cl.n and Ivainlolph Counties consists of quart.* \eins con taining galena, pyrite and arseno pynte which carry a small amount of gold and siUer The ruiKnewillo 36 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science grano-diorite is not far away and probably has some relation to the ore deposit. No. 7. The Devil’s Backbone gold district consists of weathered quartz veins in graphitic schist of the \Ve- dowee formation associated with quartzite, slates, phyl- lites and mica schists. No. S. The Eagle Creek district consists of placer and quartz veins in the Ashland mica schist. No. it. The Goldville district consists of placer and quartz veins in the Wedowee formation with graphitic slate, mica and garnetiferous schist. No. 10. The Hog Mountain gold mining district consists of (piartz veins in a large pipe of Pinkneyville grano- diorite intruded into the Wedowee formation. No. 11. The Chilton County deposits consist of placer and quartz veins in altered paleozoic rocks as well as in schists, chlorites and igneous intrusives. No. 12. The Coosa County deposits occur in placers and veins in the Ashland mica schist probably affected by Hillabee chlorite schist. T lie placer deposits in many of the above districts are due to the setting free of the gold which was probably originally contain¬ ed in the sulphide in the vein deposits. We do not wish to encourage anyone to engage in gold mining in Alabama on a com¬ mercial scale with the idea of large returns on their investments but individuals can heartily enjoy recreation by panning the sands in many of the little creeks in the crystalline area in Alabama, however, they should bear in mind that permission must be obtained from the property owners. Prac¬ tically all the land is privately owned except some of the national forest land where per¬ mission should be obtained from the Forest Service. LITERATURE CITED 1. Tuomey, Michael. 185H. The Second Biennial Keport of the Geology of Alabama. 2. Phillips, W’illiam B. 1892. Bulletin No. 3 of the Geological Survey of Alabama. 3. Brewer, William M. 1896. Bulletin No. 5 of the Geological Survey of Alabama. 4. Adams. George I. 1930. Bulletin No. 40 of the Geological Survey of Alabama. 37 THE IDENTITY AND EQUIVALENCY OF PERSISTENT COAL ZONES, SAND¬ STONE BEDS AND CONGLOMERATES OF SOUTHERN TENNESSEE AND THE PLATEAU REGION OF ALABAMA, BASED UPON A STUDY OF THE LITERA¬ TURE. by Reynold Q. Shotts Umvevsity of Alabama, University, Alabama 1. General Geology of the Region A. Stratigraphy According to Butts, "The Pottsville forma¬ tion is a rather monotonous succession of shale and sandstone, and derives its chief in¬ terest from its coal beds and beds that carry marine fossils” (17). Butts mentions no ma¬ rine zones except in the Warrior coal field where some of the beds are marine lime¬ stones. The Coal measures rocks of the Pla¬ teau region appear to be wholly of terrestrial or near-shore origin. The stratigraphy of the Plateau region has been discussed by Hayes (6, 23, 24), McCalley (l), Gibson (5), McCallie (7), Stevenson (28), Butts (17,21,22), Nelson (8), Vestal and Mellen (lO) and Wanless (13). All the writers used different terms and formation names. When this handicap is added to the natural difficulties occa¬ sioned by ( 1 ) the great thickening of many beds toward the land mass (east) (2) the rapid vertical changes in sedimentary se¬ quences in any given small area and (3) the rapid change in facies within short distances in the same horizon, the result is quite con¬ fusing. Much of the literature, too, deals with a specific state or quadrangle with lit¬ tle, if any, tie in with other areas. Thus the actual geological problems are augmented by semantic and geographical unconformities of formidable proportions. At least two studies of regional correla¬ tion have been made. Stevenson (28) in 1904, studied the Appalachian basin, ap¬ parently relying largely upon the published literature. Wanless (13), in 19-l6, studied Journal of Alabama Academy of Science 38 Georgia, Tennessee, southeastern Kentucky and southwestern Virginia. In addition to a study of the literature he spent the most of a year in the field. The modern, and appar¬ ently adequate, treatment of Wanless was quite helpful. Unfortunately for the writer, Wanless stopped at the Alabama state line. He has many sections in adjacent portions of Tennessee and Georgia but only one in Alabama, near the Tennessee line. It is help¬ ful, however, to have some of the conflicts and inconsistencies correlated, even up to the state line. Wanless adopts the nomen¬ clature of Nelson (8) for stratigraphic units, large and small. Figure 2, modified from Wanless, is a generalized correlation chart for four specific areas, three of which con¬ tinue into Alabama. In these areas, the Se- wanee conglomerate appears to be the prin¬ cipal cliff-forming rock of Sand and Look¬ out Mountains. The Whitwell shale, and possibly the Eastland, are represented in Ala¬ bama above the 'Tipper Conglomerate” but the approximate equivalents of these rocks are shales, siltstones, sandstones, and coals which are quite similar to, but probably more regular, persistant and some finer than the underlying rocks (23,24). Figure 2 will be of great assistance when reading McCalley, McCallie, Hayes and Gib¬ son. The following generalizations are based on a study of the reports of these men and of the summaries of Stevenson and Wanless. ( 1 ) The Sewanee and Gizzard formations make up the Lookout Sandstone of Hayes, and the Gizzard alone, the Lower Coal Meas¬ ures of McCalley and the Sub-conglomerate Measures of Gibson. (2) The Sewanee is the Second or Upper Conglomerate of McCalley and Gibson. This identification is specifically made by Wan¬ less ( 1 3, p. 132) . (3) The Lower Conglomerate of McCal¬ ley and Gibson is the Warren Point sand¬ stone of Nelson and Wanless. Apparently it is (a) a conglomerate only in Lookout Mountain and Walden Ridge of Tennessee (b) thins rapidly westward or becomes shaly (c) disappears southward in some places or merges with the Sewanee (d) is missing in lower Sand Mountain, the War¬ rior basin and probably much of the Cum¬ berland Plateau* (e) is possibly the equiva¬ lent of the lower or Shades sandstone of Butts in the Coosa coal field. (4) Butts (22) calls the coarse basal sand¬ stone of the Warrior Field (Coalburg syn¬ cline), Sand Mountain (east side), and Blount Mountain, the Boyles sandstone and considers it the equivalent of the second or Pine sandstone of the Cahaba and Coosa coal fields. Evidently, in Blount Mountain, Butts maps all of Gibson’s Sub-conglomer- Curnber/and F/oMeu. Jco. Tenn. rva/c/en Fierce P/r^C7n C '6 § f^cr^an C C A/e r*' ion Our horn 1 p<-'0/ 1 C To/cfm(/fC)C. HerherL Ferberf Ferher/ Jcr/orfeC Servance C tu 4 1 Coo/ J/oio C. ke//y C 1 1 Jc/vanee Jervonce Servonce Upper Cong/ Upper C/iff Coo/ An^e/ C Ang<^/ C tyarren Pi JJ yyarren Pi - SJ C/FL rock Loner Cong/. SaiFe Ck C- Pe/jon C. einct C C/Ff Coat 3/u^/‘C < (joct/rich c ■p of tho loo that loo Group" .nui '‘l.owor l’o(ts\illo" .aro praolioaUy tho s.anu' 42 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science and great areal extent, in the Southern Ap¬ palachians it is more appropriate to con¬ sider a coal zone since many coals divide into three to eight or more beds or benches . . . it is not always apparent whether a thin coal should be considered a split sev¬ eral feet from the main bench or a thin, separate coal zone . . (13, p. 127). He gives the ad\ice (13, p. 18) that it is "un¬ wise to correlate particular beds of one dis¬ trict with those of another widely separated district.” The value of this advice is apparent to anyone who has observed the coals of the region because the Plateau field runs to small coal basins or lenses, which vary in thickness over short distances and then dis¬ appear to come back in, if at all, at a slightly higher or lower horizon. Correla¬ tion, if it can be made, would have to be of coal zones, as mentioned above, because it is likely tliat there were times during w'hich the small accumulation basins were numerous while at other times they prob¬ ably were rare. Vestal and Mellen (10, p. 61-2), give a graphic description of the irregularity and unstability of depositional conditions prevailing in Lee time. Minor structures such as wavy bedding, ripple marks, sun cracks, cross bedding, and contemporaneous erosion surfaces, as well as great irregulari¬ ties in thickness, interwedging beds and lateral gradation all point in this direction. They state that "The evidence seems to be conclusive that the Pottsville of the North ern Alabama area examined is non-marine, deposited on a gently sloping surface of low relief by run-off from higher terrain.” B. 7 'he '’Sewauee Bed"' Question McCallie, in his work on Georgia Coal (7), says that McCalley (l) is in error when he calls a rather extensive coal bed lying between the conglomerates of Sand and Lookout Mountains, the "Sewanee”. McCallie (7, p. 106-7) says "McCalley, in following out the nomenclature of Col¬ ton, in his Aetna Section, calls one of these beds (between the conglomerates) the 'Se¬ wanee Seam’ a name applied by Safford to the main seam in the Sewanee district, over- lying the conglomerate and which, there¬ fore, belongs in the Upper Coal Measures. The seam here erroneously designated by McCalley as 'the Sewanee Seam’ seems to be a coal of considerable extent ... It has been suggested that this seam might be designated as the Upper Cliff seam . . .” 'Wanless (13, p. 138) follows McCallie in designating the bed under the Sewanee conglomerate as the Upper Cliff. McCalley may have been in error, or he may have considered the Sewanee as the equivalent of his "Lower Conglomerate;” and the Rockcastle of Tennessee the same as his "Llpper Conglomerate”. A close reading of one of Smith’s summaries of the Alabama Coal fields (15, p. 298) suggests that he may have held similar views. The Rock¬ castle, however, is much higher strati- graphically than either of McCalley’s con¬ glomerates (13). C. Previous Correlations A study of the fossil plants associated with the various coal beds of Alabama has been made by the noted paleontologist, David White. Butts says (27): "An in¬ complete study of the considerate collec¬ tion of fossil plants has enabled David White to correlate, tentatively, the Rosa Coal in Berry Mountain, the Swansea or Inland Coal of the Blount Mountain field, and the Black Creek, Mary Lee, and Pratt Coal beds of the Warrior field with the Gould, Harkness, Wadsworth, and Clark (Little Pittsburgh?) beds, respectively, of the Cahaba field . . . According to White, the Mary Lee bed of the Warrior field lies at nearly the same horizon as the Soddy coal, a bed that is close above the Look¬ out Sandstone of Hayes in Northern Ala¬ bama, which is about 700 feet below the top of the Pottsville. The same horizon is. Identity of Persistent Coal Zones, etc. 43 therefore, approximately represented by the Soddy coal of Tennessee, the Mary Lee and Newcastle coals of the Warrior field and the Wadsworth bed of the Cahaba field, which are thus several hundred feet below the top of the Lower Pottsville.” Figure 4 is a reproduction of a dia- iVorrior Sa^h. uses 3uU. ^oo 3u/h. Sf'rmin^ham Fo/io P/a^^au Pi€lcJ ^in^o/d Fo/io Fo/io Ac^^na Set^nec _ c/,Y/ - - peesc _ - Poj<3 (Serri^ /n/ond) Srookrvood j Mi //da/e WrocAtvccc/ (jroup Oar/^er f Orfinn \(jiylnn Crroup Ttiompson Mi/I ) Upper Cobh Lorfer Cobb Pra^/ d/cAe/ P/a/e Arnerica Curry (^e//esp/c FerrcasA/e (Jayycr Pearr> L/ck Creek /c7il%« fU«t af 1, MARSHALL NEW LOCKIOAM 13 | f (Initial studies pfisde) , C&n^fe*Sionsl ALflhefizilioji required Will v-tplsee Leek: Dem$ I3,I4-. 15 Alb I PICKENS WARSlOe LOCK i DAM PlAns d^aoin Reedy for constrocticn ' Osmesvi er 4pp>oa" Coip* of Infinrt'i (tnnol Ool> ImiI >a WARRIOR-TOMBIGBEE WATERWAY locl5 and Dams on Wfitcruidi/ locks and Dams undfr construction or planned as replacements for obsolete or oiorn out fecilities Control Pcservoira rcccmmeni-ied to stiibilixe floLU of a'dter “52 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science clown-stream shipping, the flatboat was the largest of the early crafts. Frequently a flat- boat was more than 100 feet in length and from 10 to 18 feet in breadth. Upon reach¬ ing its destination, it was usually knocked down and sold for lumber. The keelboat was much smaller than the flatboat and tapered to a point at bow and stern. It was usually constructed of heavy oak timber and could withstand snags. Its deck was well roofed. Keel boats could be "poled" upstream. On trips downstream where the water was swift, the crew went ashore and "warped" the craft against the current with strong ropes hitched around trees.' The problem of getting needed goods into interior Alabama was much greater than that of sending the farm surplus to market, because the latter could be floated downstream. Ordinarily the early settlers of Alabama brought their goods overland. In 1816 a merchant, James O. Crump, was the first to take goods from Mobile to Hunts¬ ville. His account of this trip indicates the difficulties of the undertaking. His boat was 35 feet long; its cargo consisted of brown and Havana white sugar, coffee, rum, wine, oranges, and a few drygoods; it required twenty days to travel upstream from Mobile to the falls on the Warrior River (Tusca¬ loosa), including five or six days of delay for various reasons. The distance from the falls on the Warrior River (Tuscaloosa) to Huntsville was estimated to be 120 miles overland. To move the cargo required two v/agons and eight days of travel. An in¬ teresting comment made by Crump was that, of 1000 oranges in the cargo, less than one- half dozen were spoiled upon delivery in Huntsville." Idle first constitution of Alabama, 1819, provided that proper steps be taken to im¬ prove the streams of the state to facilitate transportation. Governor Bibb in his mes- 1. ‘Alabama: A Guide to the Deep South” (compiled by W. P. A. workers) (New York: Hastings House, p. 2. “Washington Republican.” January 1, 1817. sage of October 26, 1819, recommended the appointment of an engineer to survey cer¬ tain streams of the state and to propose feasible plans to improve them, and to ascer¬ tain the most "eligible approach” which could be made to connect the Tennessee and Mobile Rivers. The legislature in December 1819 complied with the Governor’s recom¬ mendation and authorized the expenditure of $4,000 from the money appropriated by Congress for internal improvements to be used to employ a chief engineer and the necessary assistants to survey certain water¬ ways. Included in the waterways to be ex¬ amined was the Tombigbee from McGrew’s Shoals to Demopolis and the Warrior from Demopolis to the Shoals (Tuscaloosa).^ A study of the early laws enacted by Ala¬ bama's legislative body, bears witness that many and varied efforts were made to de¬ velop the transportation potential of the va¬ rious streams of the state. Certain acts auth¬ orized individuals or companies to improve smaller rivers with the right to establish toll gates, others to raise money for improve¬ ments by subscriptions, while others provid¬ ed for a lottery.' Another indication of early interest in water transportation was the or¬ ganization of a number of steamboat com¬ panies. Among the first to be authorized by the legislature of the state were; St. Ste¬ phens Steam-Boat Company, 1818; Steam- Boat Company of Alabama, 1820, capital stock not to exceed $182,000; Mobile Steam- Boat Company, 1821, capital stock to exceed $200,000.^ The date w'hen the steamboat wais first used on the streams of Alabama cannot be fixed with exactness, but there is evidence that it was in use on the Tombigbee by 1819- Morse, in his Uu/vevsal Geography in 1819, stated that steamboats were plying betw^een Mobile and St. Stephens.® According to 3. “Acts of Alabama.’’ 181B. 4. Harry Toulmin. “A Digest of the Laws of the State of Alabama. ’■ 1823, pp. 7-7-714. 5. Ibid. pp. 72-74. 6. Jeddidiah Morse. “Universal Geography” (Charleston: 1819). I. 558. Transportation on Warrior and Tombigbee Rivers 53 Hamilton, the first steamboat trip from Mo¬ bile to Demopolis was made in 1819, by either the "Tensa” or the "Mobile”/ The "Mobile” was advertised to ascend the Tom¬ bigbee and Warrior to Tuscaloosa during the same year.® The early river steamboats were subject to many accidents. The chief sources of danger were explosion of the boiler, burn¬ ing, colliding with other crafts, hitting snags and rocks, or capsizing from overload¬ ing.® The records of the state are replete with accounts of great losses of life and property due to various types of accidents.^® The value of steamboats used on Alabama’s rivers in the years from 1822 to 1900 varied in value from $15,000 to $75,000.^^ Because of the cost and danger of the steamboat, flat and keel boats continued to be exten¬ sively used on the streams of Alabama un¬ til the 1860’s. Some indication of the importance of ship¬ ping on the Warrior-Tombigbee Rivers in 1878 can be gained from noting the num¬ ber of boat-landinps on the two streams. O There were 189 landings on the Tombigbee and 118 on the Warrior from Demopolis to Tuscaloosa.^" For the year ending June 30, 1878, the exports through the Port of Mobile was valued at $9,126,000, yearly, largely in cotton and timber while imports amounted to $1,148,000.^® Beyond a doubt, a major factor influencing both exports and imports was the river traffic. One phase of the development of water transportation envisioned since the Alabama Territorial and early statehood period is the connection of the two largest rivers of the state, the Tennessee and the Tombigbee. In 1946 Congress authorized the project and appropriated money for its planning; how¬ ever, further work on this waterway has been suspended. The project would provide a 260- 7. Peter J. Hamilton. “Colonial Mobile,” ( Nmv York: Ilouphton Mifflin Company, IPKii, lIT-lls. 171- 472. 8. “Washington Republican.” April 3. ISIP. 9. “Alabama: A Guide to the Deep South.” p. 90. 10. “P.irmingham News.” April 20. 1943. 11. Peter Brannon, “Montsomerv Advertiser.” January 2. 1949. mile channel from Demopolis to the Pick¬ wick Pool on the Tennessee River, near luka, Mississippi. The tremendous construction job would involve dredging and eliminating winding portions of 180 miles of the Tom¬ bigbee River above Demopolis, building a 4l mile canal, constructing about ten locks, and cutting through the divide for a dis¬ tance of about 27 miles. The completion of this waterway would make water transporta¬ tion available to local trade areas in Ala¬ bama and Mississippi and would provide a more direct, slack-water barge route for through traffic between the Gulf Coast ports and points on the Ohio, Upper Mississippi, and Missouri River systems. An estimate of the cost of this project made in 1950, was 180 million dollars.’^ Physical Features The Warrior-Tombigbee Waterways in¬ volves three (or four, depending upon termi¬ nology used), rivers. The Mobile River is formed by the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee about 50 miles above the city of Mobile; the Tombigbee River applies to the portion of the waterway between the Mo¬ bile River and the point, aH)ut one mile above Demopolis, where the water from the Upper Tombigbee and the Warrior con¬ verge, a distance of approximately 2-13 miles. The Black Warrior is formed bv the con fluence of two forks — Locust and Mulberrw which have their sources far up in the north¬ ern part of Alabama, extending o\ er .i w ide area. Flowing southwcstw arcll\-, these two forks unite on the di\ idmg hue betw een Walker and Jefferscai ccumties. The ri\er continues its course in the s.ime gener.il di rection until it re.iches Tusc.diuvs.i. whence its course is more southerlv until it unites with the Little Tombigbee UU miles below T uscaloosa to form the 4 I'mbigbee. 12. Stiffold Bvrm'y. ' ' 1 Itindhook of .Mabani.i “ l^Ts u*. 213. :n 1. 13, !hi,l, p. l’s2. II. ”Tlu' GroaU'r Gulf Statv.” Sunuiu'r. 19.32. p 11 W la- tor, l',‘.3.3. p 22. 54 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science A c|uotation from an Alabama geologist explains why Tuscaloosa and environs suf¬ fer property damage each year from the overflowing Warrior River: "The fall of the Warrior between its source and 'I'uscaloosa is nearly 1,000 feet, or S feet to the mile, and between the latter place and Mobile, the rivers have a fail of l6l feet, or s inches to the mile. It is for this reason that the Warrior River rises, during the Hoods, to the height of SO feet at Tuscaloosa; the water being suddenly checked and unable to escape with the rapidity of the rest of the course, ac¬ cumulates as it reaches 1 uscaloosa.^^ (But the principal business and residential areas of Tuscaloosa are well above all Hoods).” Of Alabama's 67 counties, fourteen are adjacent to the Warrior-Tombigbee-Mobile Waterway. I'hese fourteen counties contain 11 per cent of the land area of the state which directly supports 40 per cent of the state’s population. Of the manufacturing fa¬ cilities friLind in Alabama, approximately .55 per cent are located along this waterway. They employ 42 per cent of the industrial workers of the state. The Warrior-Tombigbee River system is one of the oldest commercially navigable streams in the United States. The first proj¬ ect for its improvement was authorized by Congress on March .5, 1875, and the first three locks and dams on the Warrior River were built between Eutaw and Tuscaloosa in 1895. The initial phase of the channeli¬ zation program continued through 1915 when the United States Corps of Engineers completed the last of 17 locks and dams on the waterway at a total cost of $9.1 million. Five of the installations were of concrete construction, the other twelve were timber. The following statements are excerpts from the records of a "Hearing” before a subcommittee of the Appropriations Com¬ mittee of the House of Representatives on February 19, 1954.^® 15. Saffold Berney, Op. Cit. p. 97. 16. “Hearings,” Op. Cit. p. 7S6 17. “Hearings,” Op. Cit. p. 7S;7 IS. Ibid, pp 7S7-7S9. In order to modernize the water systems trom Mobile to Tuscaloosa, the Corps of En¬ gineers have made a number of recommenda¬ tions. 1 . rhe completion of Demopolis lock and dam. 2. Construction of the Warrior lock and dam in the vicinity of present Lock 7, to replace locks and dams 8 and 9. 3. Conscruction of the Jackson lock and dam in the vicinity of lock and dam 1, to replace locks and dams 1, 2, and 3 on the Tombigbee River. Now what has been done to date on these recommendations 1. The Demopolis lock and dam has been under construction for a number of years. The first session of the 83rd Con¬ gress appropriated $41/2 million to con¬ tinue this construction. Barring any unforeseen difficulties, this dam will be closed in August of this year on schedule. When this is done, the job will be about 80 percent complete. The budget you gentlemen now have under consideration in¬ cludes an item for $3^2 million which will virtually complete the Demopolis installation. The new Demopolis lock and dam will eliminate 4 obsolete locks and dams. This will reduce from I0V2 hours to about 15 minutes the amount of lockage time over the same distance traveled. 2. The remaining lock and dam to be built between Demopolis and Tuscaloosa is the Warrior lock and clam. This struc¬ ture will replace locks to be called and dams 8 and 9- According to the Corps of Engineers, it will be necessary to either build the Warrior lock and dam or to replace lock and dam 9 with a new structure and rehabilitate lock and dam 8 with a 4-month closure of the waterway. To replace lock and dam 9 and to repair lock and dam 8, would cost about $61/7 million. According to the Corps of Engineers, esti mated cost of building the new lock and dam (Warrior) to replace the two dilapidated locks and dams will be about $19 million. The new lock and dam is designed as a mod¬ ern structure 110 feet by 6OO feet with a maximum lift of 22 feet. From a long-range point of view, it would appear to be much more economical to begin immediate construction on the proposed War¬ rior lock and dam, rather than to incur the expense of repairing and rebuilding the two anticjuated locks and dams. Transportation on Warrior and Tombigbee Rivers 55 The same conclusion was evidently reached by the Bureau of the Budget. After sending an engineer to Alabama last fail to examine locks and dams 8 and 9, the Budget Bureau has included in the 1935 budget $2 million so that construction can begin during the next fiscal year.” The Corps of Engineers has a long range plan for complete modernization of the War- rior-Tombigbee Waterway that calls for the expenditure of approximately $210 million over a period of from 20 to 30 years. (The additional steps are indicated on the map.) The 1951 tonnage on Warrior-Tombigbee Waterway was 2,712,891 tons. For a break¬ down of tonnage, see table and map at¬ tached. "The prospect for an increase in commerce on the Warrior-Tombigbee Rivers is very good. Contracts have been let within the last four months that will put a minimum of 600,- 000 tons of new cargo in the waterway within 12 months. This new commerce will be prin¬ cipally coal and petroleum products.” In addition, the movement of Venezuelan, ore will start into the port of Mobile during 1954. It is not known how much will go up the river, but it is estimated that three million tons will come into Mobile. It is believed that there are five million tons of commerce for the Warrior-Tombigbee in the making with¬ in a very short time if the necessary physical improvements are made.”^® W^arrior-T ombigbee W'dterway CoDiparative Statement of Traffic YEAR TOTAL TONS 1915 — 407,245 1916— '466,812 1917— =>80,778 1918— 671,405 1919— 601,068 1920— 599,522 1921— 784.967 1922— 073,415 1923— 954,181 1924— 1,105,260 1925— 1,383,712 1926— 1.292,098 1927— 1.467, 51S 1928 — 1 , 713,358 1029—1,0.38,773 1930— 1,181,947 1931— 1,692,647 1932— 958,337 1933— 1,122,823 YEAR TOTAL TONS 1934— 1,067,442 1935— 1,131,366 1936— 1,432,293 1937— 1,825,568 1938— 1,851,972 1939— 1,928,221 1940— 1,890,399 1941 — 2,296,562 1942 — 2,181,277 1943 — 1,65 3,157 1944— 1,440,432 1945— 1,492,496 1946— 1,371,841 1947— 1,848,917 1948 — 2,05H,5{)..i 1949 — 2,189,594 1950 — 2,602,022 195 1—2,71 2,891 1952 — 2,553.757 The Port of Mobile, at the mouth of the Warrior-Tombigbee waterway, is closely tied to the river system both physically and economically. Mobile ranks as one of the first ten Gulf ports in tonnage handled. The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce rates the port of Mobile sixth in importance in the United States. The Alabama Docks offer facilities and services second to none. Private and commercial dock-side facilities have also grown rapidly and are still grow¬ ing."'' Unless the harbor channel is deepened, one of Mobile’s opportunities to additional growth will disappear. At the present time the Corps of Engineers maintains a 32-foot channel in Mobile Bay, with a 36-foot chan¬ nel over Mobile Bar. The Engineers have recommended deepening the channel to 40 feet with 42 feet over the bar. Also, the re¬ port recommends dredging a larger turning basin. According to the report, the deepen¬ ing may be accomplished in three stages if necessary. To deepen the channel to 36 feet will cost approximately $3,588,000; the 38- foot channel will cost approximately $4,857,- 000; and the 40-foot channel approximately $5,971,000."^ Expenditure for the harbor of Mobile is justified because of the great benefits to he derived from its improvement. I’he rich Venezuelan iron ore required by steel and pig iron producers in the Birmingham dis¬ trict will move through the Port of Mobile. The 24,000 to 40,000 ton ships that will move ore into American ports will require 38 to 40 feet of clear channel. The large tankers used by the petroleum industry can not enter or leave the Port of Mobile under present conditions fully loaded."" Justification for the dcxelopment of the Warrior-l’ombigbce- Mobile Waterw av .uid Mobile Harbor lies in industrial building and growth, agricultural growth, .md i.ommeive Ui. Thi(i. 20. " Alah; Ilia's (H'oaU'st Natural .\ssof t Hirniin>:hani : W'a rrior-Ti)iiihi;;lHH' iMopnu'iit .Xssootat ion ^ . pu 20- '21 LM. IhiO. 22. Ihid Journal of Alabama Academy of Science % which they will stimulate. Just how much is in the realm of speculation, but is believed to be the greatest in the entire Southeast. 'J'he growth would provide new job opportu¬ nities requiring higher skills and therefore giving a higher rate of pay. This would help meet one of the great needs of the South¬ east, to raise the per capita income. The per capita income in Alabama in 1951 was $950 as compared with the national average per capita income of $1,584."^ L!3. "Statistical Abstract of the United States,’’ 1953, p, 276, SECTION V AN ELECTRO-MECHANICAL DEVICE FOR MEASURING VISCOSITY Joseph L. Hammond, Jr. Southern Keseurch Institute, Birininghant The problem of measuring viscosity is by no means a new one. Many types of vis¬ cosimeters can be obtained commercially, and a sizable number of practical instru¬ ments are reported in the literature. In gen¬ eral, these instruments can be broken into two classes, namely: 1) those instruments which give an instantaneous indication and are suited to continuous measurement, and 2) those which are neither instantaneous nor suited to continuous measurement. Instruments in the latter category are well developed and are commercially available. It was not until recent years, however, that instruments in the first category appeared on the market. Possibly the best known com¬ mercial instrument in this category depends for its operation on the relationship between viscosity and the damping of ultra-sonic waves in a fluid. This instrument, manufac¬ tured by the Rich-Roth Laboratories of Hart¬ ford, Connecticut, is capable of precise meas¬ urement, but is both expensive and bulky. Other instruments in this category suffer from the same short-comings. It IS the purpose of this paper to present an analysis of a simple and inexpensive de¬ vice suitable for both instantaneous and con¬ tinuous measurements of viscosity. The instrument to be described depends for its operation on the fact that the motion of a vibrating rod is dependent on the damp¬ ing force upon it. If a portion of the rod is immerged in a fluid, this damping force is related to the viscosity of the fluid. Figure 1 gives a schematic diagram of the apparatus employed. The vibrating rod is a part of a magnetic structure which can he caused to vibrate by the application of a suitable sinusoidal current to a driving coil located at 1. The permanent polarizing mag¬ net insures the fact that the rod vibrates at the fundamental of the driving frequency. The magnetic flux path of the device links an output coil located at 2 in addition to the driving coil. The restoring force on the rod is provided by a leaf spring located at 3 in the figure. The rod is provided with a spherical tip which is completely immerged in the fluid of unknown viscosity. The operation of the device will now be established from the equations of its mo¬ tion. It can be shown^ that the mechanical motion of the rod can be expressed by equa- 1. See for instance “Electric Circuits.” chap. 12. E.E. Staff Technology Press, 194.3. Device for Measuring Viscosity 57 tion 1 in Tabic 1, with the following nota¬ tion: J — moment of inertia of the vibrating rod B — damping with no liquid present By — damping due to the liquid Sm — mechanical elastance T — electro-mechanical torque w — operating frequency 0 — Anugular movement of the rod An all electrical equivalent circuit can be established from this differential equation of motion. To do this, it is necessary to re¬ call the relationships between voltage and angular velocity and between current and torque which exist for a moving coil in a magnetic field. These relations are given in equations 2, Table 1, with the following no¬ tation: B — magnetic field strength 1 — length of conductor in the field 0 — angular velocity e and i — voltage and current j ^ +(Si-8v) ^+S^Q = (1 e = ^en. r T (3 TABLE 1 These two equations establish the fact that voltage and current in an electrical circuit are analogous to angular velocity and torque respectively in a mechanical device. Repre¬ senting the product Bi by K, these equa¬ tions can be rewritten and the analogy ex¬ tended to include the electrical analotrs for moment of inertia, mechanical elastance, and damping as shown in equations 3, Table 1. On the basis of these relations, a differen¬ tial equation for the motion of the rod in terms of the analogous electrical quantities can be established. This expression is given as equation 4 in Table 1. An electrical network which satisfies equa¬ tion 4 can readily be established. When this network is combined with the equivalent cir¬ cuit for the driving and output coils of the device, the resulting all electrical equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 2. In this figure Rh(| V denotes the electrical equivalent re¬ sistance of the torque due to damping caused by the liquid. This equivalent resistance is related to the viscosity of the liquid by the equation Rpq V = Constant/ where -q is the viscosity in centipoise and the constant multiplier arises from the ex¬ pression for the viscose force on a sphere and the electro-mechanical coupling coeffi¬ cient, K. FIG. 2 From the equivalent circuit it is clear that both the input current and the output \olt- age of the device are influenced bv Iv,, v and therefore by the \ iscositv of the fluiyl. In the particular case arising when the rod and spring assembly is excited at its nat¬ ural frequency (as it was in all experiments with the de\ice) the effects ol 1.,,, and ( . cancel and the center branch el the equi\a lent circuit can be simplified bv omitting these two parameters. To a Inst appioxim.i tion, the cxjuivalent circuit can be tuither simplitied bv neglecting the ellects of the three iiuluctances. At the exyiting t requen cies usetl, this approximation causes an er 58 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science ror of from 5 to lO^r . In order to calculate the input current and output voltage as a function of viscosity, it is necessary to determine the two quantities, K and Ri,,. These factors were determined in the following way. First, the device was excited at its natural frequency with no liquid present. The ec|uivalent circuit in this case reduces to Rai in series with Lai (which can he neglected) and Rei,. From the ex¬ citing voltage applied and the resulting cur¬ rent, the sum of Rai and R,.q can be de¬ termined. Further, if the rod is held sta¬ tionary, the equivalent circuit reduces to simply Rai which can be determined from the current and voltage under these condi¬ tions. I’he value of Rai thus determined can now be employed to give R,.q from the first condition above. One further measurement is necessary to determine the electro-mechanical coupling coefficient. This measurement involves plot¬ ting the amplitude of vibration of the rod vs the frequency of the exciting current in the vicinity of resonance. The width of this curve (in cycles) between the points where the amplitude of vibration is 0.707 of its peak can be shown“ to equal the mechanical damping divided by the moment of inertia of the rod. Since the moment of inertia can easily be established from the dimensions of the rod, the mechanical damping can now be determined. From the value of the mechani¬ cal damping, B, thus obtained, K can be es¬ tablished by making use of the defining equation for Re,| (1 R-q = B K^). Knowledge of these constants permits cal¬ culation of the input current and output voltage of the device for liquids of differ¬ ing viscosities. In Figure 3, measured and calculated values of input current are plotted vs. the viscosity of several liquids. The up¬ per dotted curve was taken with the input voltage held constant while the lower solid curve was taken holding the amplitude of 2. See for instance “Transients in Lin Linear Systems,” Gardner and Barnes, Wiley 1952. vibration constant. Both curves show a def¬ inite relation between input current and vis¬ cosity. The fact that both curves have the same shape (although one is displaced from the other) indicates that the instrument is operated within its linear range. This being the case, a constant exciting voltage would normally be used in a practical instrument since it is easier to achieve than constant amplitude of vibration. Similar curves were obtained when output voltage rather than input current was plot¬ ted vs. viscosity. These curves were also shown to be consistant with the theoretical treatment. As a final point, it should be stated that the liquids used in obtaining the curves above had a constant mass. If this had not been the case, it would have been necessary to take into account the effect of mass load¬ ing. Knowing the mass of the liquid, how¬ ever, this could be done in a straight forward manner and would result in a family of cali¬ bration curves of similar shape to those in Figure 3 with the mass of the fluid as the parameter. "9 SECTION VI CITY PLANNING AS A SCIENCE IN THE ECONOMY OF A CITY By James F. Sulzby, Jr. Chaiyniau. Binuinghcvn Plamiiug Boat'd, Birmingham Citv planning is a science that is taking its rightful place in the economy of American cities. Planning cannot be ignored by indus¬ trial corporation presidents nor can it be ig¬ nored by those who are managing our cities. Corporations are interested in expanding their operations and making more money for the stockholders as they serve the public with their products. These objects are also used in city planning. In fact, every¬ body has a stake in it. Cities both large and small have obligations to the citizens of the community to study the present and chart the future with no selfish interests in mind. When effective planning is done, a city can look forward to dividends for the entire community. In the last few years, city planning has come down from the ivory tower to practical thinking. It used to be thought of as the minute details of the grandiose designs that never amounted to much after the plans left the drawing board. That day has passed. The city planner is no longer considered a vision¬ ary. He has won a place as a realistic prac¬ titioner of sound thinking, widening the horizons of possibilities in making cities bet¬ ter places in which to live, work, and invest. At the local level, the planning board members are always every-day citizens like you and I. Professional city planners may be called in as technical advisors, but it requires citizens to see the plans, through. If it were not for citizens, perhaps the professionals would again seem like dreamers. Citizens who serve on planning boards can usually be counted on to fulfill their responsibilities to the community by offering leadership apart from political influence. City planning in Birmingham has been in the making since 1945. In 1944 an ordinance was passed providing for a Planning Board. This Board was instructed to prepare a Mas¬ ter Plan or segments thereto, to be submitted to the City Commission for consideration and approval. After seven years of study, sur¬ veys, inspections, public hearings, and con¬ ferences, a segment of a Master Plan was presented to our City Commission. The plans were called a Preliminary Report. The Preliminary Report covered such, items as major streets and highways, drain¬ age and storm sewers, a civic center, natural parks, the industrial water supplv, future needs of the school system, library needs, and many other projects. The plans were adopted and are ever before us as a ch.d- lenge. The plans will change the eramoinv of Birmingham. If the downtown area of our citv is neg¬ lected much longer, with respect to off- street parking of automobiles, the problem will have a direct bearing as to whether de¬ centralization will be further cncour.iged or not. If decentralization continues, bec.iuse ot traffic and parking conditiiuis, the economv of Birmingham’s downtown will be directh' affected. Propertv \alues will not hold stable if trading-power is not hehl st.ible. ('ert.unlw people arc going to dc^ business where they can park their cars. The economv ot .i citv is N'itally damaged if propertv x.ilues diiran ish. Tax revenue declines .uul other untor tunate consequences folKnv. ('itv pl.inners must be sensitixe to such developments .md do proper planning behxre it is too kite 60 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science The reclamation of blighted areas is an essential aim in city planning. Obviously, no city wishes to have districts where living conditions are sub-standard. However, such conditions creep up on cities before the cities are aware of them. By repairing, remodel¬ ing, and rehabilitating under standard laws, blighted areas can be brought up to stan¬ dards for decent living. This needed work can be carried through by a concerted effort of rhe community. Municipal enforcement of an ordinance on minimum housing standards is the main answer. The economy of a city is certainly influenced by the living habits (T the people. If people live under good conditions, their incentive to earn a better living is prompted. Through private initiative, the rehabilita¬ tion trend is already under way in many cities in America. Improved living condi¬ tions through conservation and rehibilitation revitalizes the community. Property values are automatically enhanced to the benefit of the whole economy. This has been especially true in Norfolk, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Washington, and Pittsburgh. Perhaps the re¬ habilitation prc')gram in New Orleans this year has attracted almost as much interest as the Mardi Gras. City planning touches every phase of com¬ munity life. This review could not hope to be inclusive. Another phase that merits spe¬ cial mention, however, is zoning. It is just as important to see that residential construc¬ tion and development does not encroach on industrial areas as it is for a shopping cen¬ ter not to be located in an A-1 residential section. Zoning can be of great importance in the economy of a city. If a large industrial plant is established in a certain area which is zoned for industry and, soon after the es¬ tablishment of this plant, residences are built on the industrial -zoned property, then the expansion program of the plant is throttled unless the plant is removed. The question may be raised as to why the company did not purchase sufficient land to start with. The ansv/er is not difficult. No company can really know just what its future needs will be. In most instances, industries must place their hope in the zoning lav/s. There¬ fore, zoning should make and keep clear the intentions of the city planners with respect to future industrial land developments. Any time planning can save individuals a penny here or a few minutes there, the econ¬ omy of a city is benefitted. A city means many individuals and, hence, many pennies and many minutes. A viaduct or underpass at a railroad crossing which is ordinarily blocked for as much as twenty minutes sev¬ eral times a day, would speed the transit of people and goods and add up to enormous savings over a few years. The elimination of grade crossings can boost property values in a whole section of a city. Again, I repeat, planning has grown to be a practical program in most cities. It func¬ tions as a stabilizing factor. As long as city planning can help to maintain or increase property values, to ease the life of people through added convenience, and to make a O community a safer and healthier place to live, then planning can be considered a sci¬ ence in the economy of a city. 61 SECTION VIII THE BUILDING TRADESMAN AND THE HOUSEWIFE by Raymond L. Gold University of Alabama, University, Alabama This report is based upon a study of plumbers, painters, and bricklayers in Chi¬ cago. We interviewed them during the lat¬ ter part of 1951, selecting them so that we managed to talk to apprentices, journeymen, and masters (or contractors) in each of the three building trades. The study was designed to add to knowl¬ edge of the social science of work. Toward this end, we asked building tradesmen many questions about themselves, their work- colleagues, and their customers; about the problems of working; alone or in groups; about the features of working for rich cus¬ tomers and poor; about the recurring experi¬ ences of men who do new construction work, as distinguished from those who customarily do remodeling or repair work — and so on. In all, we interviewed forty plumbers, brick¬ layers, and painters before other research commitments made it necessary to discon¬ tinue the study. And, as a matter of fact, this is the first attempt to analyze and re¬ port any aspect of our findings. Obviously, only a small portion of the data can be incorporated into a report of this kind but, even so, it will be necessary to preface our remarks with statements about customer- worker relations in general, and the nature of these relations in the building trades in particular. Because most of our interviews were with plumbers, let us consider the kinds of work experiences which might bring them into contact v/ith customers. First of all, plumb¬ ers, who work in shops which specialize in new construction work, have relatively little interaction with customers. Therefore, we will not talk about such plumbers. A second group of plumbers are those who specialize in remodeling work. While they have more contact with customers than the first group, there is yet another group of plumbers who have the most frequent and intimate rela¬ tions with customers. This third group com¬ prises plumbers whose main type of work is called "jobbing,” that is, repair work. Ac¬ cordingly, we will restrict our comments to the relationship between plumbers who spe¬ cialize in jobbing and their customers. Now, it is certain that this relationship must be narrowed down still tnore in order to use the magical, analytical words, "other things being equal.” By this we mean that such complications as differential social class and ethnic groups, and urban-rural dif¬ ferences must be taken into account in some fashion. Keeping in mind such possibilities, we will limit our discussion to the relatitai- ship between plumbers who think of them¬ selves as middle class, or at least middle class-oriented, and customers who are "solid,” middle class residents of their own single-family homes in the metropolitan area of a large, northern, industrial city. The only literature which, in some mean¬ ingful sense, relates at all to customer-wc'irk- er relationships in our society has been sub sumed under such rubrics as "occup.itions and professions,”’ industri.il rel.itic'ms,”" "in dustrial sociology,”^ and "hum.m rel.itions in industry.”' In the m.iin, these .q''pro.Khcs attempt to discuss just the worker .ispect ot the customer-worker rekitionship. (hily b\ implication aiul inference, not to mention 1. See. l(ir oxtunpliu tho tMitiro Issiio of tho “Anu'rtotiit Jour¬ nal of Sociology.’’ I,\'ir (March. U>ri'Ju 1!. SCO. for oxaniplo. \V. K. ^^^u>ro. "lutiustrlal Uolations and the Socttil Drdor” (Now \ ork : MaonuUaiv IP.M' B. See. for ox.anipli*, 1>. (’. MilU'r and 11 l-'orin. ' li\- dnstrial S(UMoloj;y” (New York: Harper. UJ.Mu 1. See. for oxtinipU', IV IV Gardner .and P G Movne Hn- in.an Kelations in Industry'’ G'hiett^o; K P Irwnv 62 Journal or- Alabama Academy of Science imaginative insight, has any social scientist suggested what it is like to be the one on the very end of the production line or the service line. To our knowledge, no one has systematically studied either the consumer per se, in the same sense that the worker per se has been studied, or, much more im¬ portant, the social interaction between con¬ sumer and worker. Particularly in occupa¬ tions, which bring the practitioner into face- to-face contact with the consumer, do social scientists need to know more about the con¬ sumer’s view of their interaction. Althomth we, too, have had to rely upon inference and imaginative insight, we hope that by calling attention to the need for a social science of consumption we can do more than use the plumber and his customers to sug¬ gest the kind of knowledge needed for a realistic social science of work. To study workers without studying customers is to preclude the nossibility o^' actually under¬ standing the nature of an industrial society. In the large city, more vividly than in any other kind of community in our society, the problems of establishing customer-worker relationships can be observed in their proper perspective. Here, the problems and pro¬ cesses, of selecting, keeping, and perhaps changing partners in these relatic'inships, are dramatized by the extreme degree of ur¬ baneness with which they view each other, not to mention themselves. They typically are strangers before engaging in their rela¬ tionship, if not during and after. And to complicate matters still further, the customer is likely to be a woman, the worker a man. In our society, the housewife is the chief consumer of goods and services. Being the leading customer in the family, she most frequently faces the problems which arise when choosing competent sellers. Simply stated, these problems of choice are in¬ herent in our highly urbanized society, in which symbiotic relations between practi¬ tioner and consumer are initiated with the consumer rather at the mercy of the practi¬ tioner. The practitioner, who dispenses goods, services, or both, attempts to gain social recognition as an expert. He claims to have the only true public mandate to possess and utilize a body of esoteric trade skills. These may be skills of service, of manipu¬ lation, or of both. Out of all the sellers of goods and services who might possibly be selected, the customer must somehow de¬ limit each conceivable occupation group to a possible few, then try out these few strangers to determine which of them proves himself to be most competent and trust¬ worthy. To illustrate the nature of such choice, let us turn to our plumber’s cus¬ tomer, the middle class, urban housewife who lives in a single-family house. Before becoming his customer, the house¬ wife may find that some plumbing appara¬ tus in her house needs repair, but she has no idea of whom to call. (Her husband certainly knows nothing about plumbing.) Immedi¬ ately she consults her friends, neighbors, and perhaps other acquaintances about her prob¬ lem, and soine of them make recommenda¬ tions. All of the recommended plumbers are members of a group of dirty-looking fellows; all are strangers. But at least some¬ body she knows has said something favor¬ able about one or more of this group, greatly reducing the universe of possibilities. After some deliberation, which has to do with weighing the reliability of each recommend- er’s opinion, she calls one of the suggested names. To shorten this story, let us assume that the plumber first selected gives a satis¬ factory demonstration of competence — what¬ ever that means to the housewife. Then, after one or two more such demonstrations, she becomes convinced that this plumber is a very happy choice. To her, he is assuredly different from and better than other strang¬ ers in his occupation. She now glibly refers to him as ///y plumber. Her relationship with him thereafter is somewhere between the primary and second¬ ary level, and may be termed one of infer- Building Tradesman and the Housewife 63 mal symbiosis. What, then, if not intimacy, relieves the housewife of her anxiety and fear and leads her to view the plumber as somewhat of a proud possession that serves a definite need and becomes a singular ne¬ cessity? Although she does not tolerate mis¬ takes which are made by one of her plumb¬ er’s colleagues, she easily overlooks his mis¬ takes, for he is different and better. She feels more at ease when he alone does the plumbin-g, because she has jaith in him as an outstanding member of his occupation. Through such faith she charizmatizes® him; that is, she ascribes him almost super-human characteristics of competence. Carried to its logical extreme, one can imagine her view of him to be something like this: "He is my plumber. I need him and trust him above all others, for he alone deserves such faith.’’ Yes, faith! When the customer becomes faithful and possessive toward the worker, she then con¬ ceives of him as decidedly different from and better than his colleagues. This concep¬ tion marks the beginning of the process of charizmatization, the process by which the customer entrusts the worker to utilize his esoteric skills. Indeed, it seems to be a very necessary step for the customer to take in our society, where social distance between customer and worker is such that they tend to be strangers to each other. In their rela¬ tionship, faith has supplanted intimacy; sym¬ biosis has sunerceded neighborliness. Thus, a realistic social science of consumption should account for this setting of depend¬ ency upon the occupational skills of strang¬ ers. In the same sense, the worker must de¬ pend to some extent upon the consumption skills of his customers. Primarily, of course, the worker uses much the same weed in g- out process that the customer employs, since 5. This is a variation of Max Weber’s analysis of chariz- matic leaders — those whose followers believe are endowed witii virtually super-human abilities. See 11. II. (lerth and C. W. Mills (translators!, “From Max Weber: Ks- says in Sociology’’ (New York: Oxford University T*ress. 1946) the customer, after all, is as much a stranger to him as he is to the customer. When asked about his relationships with customers, a plumbing contractor made the following comments: {hiterviewer-. What is your (.onception of the ideal customer?) Basically, the ideal customer is one who trusts in our experience and in our integ¬ rity, and in our honesty. We do have some customers who know nothing about the plumbing business, but they try to tell us what has to be done, how it is to be done, and try to chisel the bill down. To the con¬ trary, the ideal one says, "Here is a piece of property. Fix it as you would in your own home.’’ Such a customer shows implicit confidence in us. In my mind, they get the best break. It is analagous to Marshall Field’s, who are known to have high integ¬ rity. Although their merchandise is slightly higher priced, they are always ready to ad¬ just and they are fine people to do business with. As a result their customers h.ive confi¬ dence in anything they buy at Field’s. In our business, too, in order lor a customer to be a good customer, he must have im¬ plicit faith in us. {Intervieu'ey. How do you go about se¬ curing new customers?) Personal contacts are more responsible for that than anytln'ng else. 'V('e do only a limited amount of advertising. W'c have never had the idea of wanting to be the big¬ gest plumbing shop in the uty. Personal solicitation means a great deal in tins re¬ gard. This invoices, on our part, a studieil selection ot steady (.ustomers oxer manv years. We want to trust them .is \cell as wanting them to trusi us, and wc' will not do business with them otherwises I'or ex¬ ample, it’s extremely hard to trust a strange customer who pieks us trom the phone book. \X'e tr)- to do the pieking. to puk them rather tli.in h.i\e tliem piA us, Tli.u makes lor less ot .i crexlit risk on our p.irt. Because ot tliis [soIkv oI puking our busi¬ ness, we !ia\c' one' ot tlie sm.illest peixent ages ot b.ul elebts in the plumbing business. The foregDing interc iew extr.ict inelie.ites th.it the process ol selecting e uste'iiiers eleNc ly p.ir.tllels th.it of selceting weukeis. In either c.tse, the selectiir .itteinpts te> i.itie'n.il ize his ehoice in .1 \\.i\ th.it niiniini.’es tlic 64 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science uncertainty of engaging in a relationship with a stranger. There can be no doubt that plumbers who specialize in jobbing work are decidedly customer-oriented. Face-to-face contact with the customer over a period of time necessi¬ tates this orientation, for the plumber in jobbing work remains almost entirely apart from occupational, and other building trade, colleagues, while coming to understand the customer as a person. It is not surprising, therefore, for a plumber to make the fol¬ lowing observation: ( hiteri'/eit'er : How do you secure new customers ? ) I would say that a very higli percentage, about 99-^%, are recommendations from other customers, and I get i few emergency calls from people looking in the phone hook. In other words, our satisfieil custom¬ ers send us the business. I only advertise when I buy space in an ad book for some customer's pet project. I then consider it a donation to that project, because I never get any returns from that advertising. If I spend ten dollars satisfying a customer, it's worth five "C-Notes" of printed advertis¬ ing — that's my idea. Keeping in mind the customer-orientation of plumbers who do jobbing work, note in the next interview extract how this same plumber explains some of the stereotyped, public views of "the plumber.” In particu¬ lar, note the plumber’s problem of attaining meaningful interaction with the customer, who easily finds "circumstantial evidence” to support her stereotyped view of him: (luterv/eu'ey. 'What things are plumbers sensitive about?) OI course, everybody makes mistakes. The public don't realize why we have to go back to the shop for something so often. In our field, jobbing, we’re the cause of those jokes about forgetting tools. They don’t realize the tremendous number of items we have to have in order to do the great va¬ riety of jobs we handle. Say we're at your house and have to put a faucet in. We may find that we have to replace some of the piping or break a nut out to remove it and can’t anticipate those things. And even if we were able to take the whole shop with us, we may still have to go to the whole¬ sale house for some items. Then, too, we may run into obsolete stuff that needs re¬ vamping. Now, on new construction, you can iigure out almost to a foot what kind of pipe and fittings will be needed, and you can put them on the job without run¬ ning back to the shop. Then, on new con¬ struction, carpenters and bricklayers work around your piping. In jobbing, we have to go back to the shop tor materials and work around the wood and brick that is already there. I have one customer who thinks she’s saving money by talking to me for fifteen minutes on the phone to tell me everything I’ll be sure to need (laughs). It’s just lack of understanding by people of conditions to be met and how they are to be met. After breaking down the communication barriers of social distance and strangeness, the customer and practitioner often come to know one another as human beings with in¬ teresting and somewhat congenial personal and social characteristics. A young plumber makes this point: (hilervieii'ey. What do you think are the crucial things about your business?) Personal relationships are the most im¬ portant thing. The people get to depend upon you so, especially home owners. As soon as people find out that the plumber isn’t the tramp he’s supposed to be, they acquire a certain amount of interest in him, even in his personal life. The personal re¬ lationships and the oddities that go to make up the plumbing business are the most in¬ teresting things about the business. 'We have shown the relationship between the plumber and his customer as a typifica- tion of the worker-customer relationship in a metropolitan city of our society. Our pur¬ pose, in this regard, has been to call atten¬ tion to some features, not only of a relation¬ ship between strangers who wish to serve and be served but of the social science of consumption. ^Ve hope that we have made it clear that studies of workers cannot long proceed without comparable studies of con¬ sumers, any more than studies of husbands can long proceed without interrelated studies of wives. Toward the long-range objective of a social science of worker-customer rela¬ tionships, we have attempted to make this report at least a suggestive beginning. 65 ANALYSIS OF THE 1950 POPULATION OF ALABAMA by Roland M. Harper U juversity, Alabama At the 19-42 meeting of the Academy I gave a talk on "A graphic summary of Ala¬ bama history,” illustrated by three graphs, based on census figures from 1820 (or as far back as certain data went) to 1940. But only a half-page abstract of it, without graphs, was published in the Journal for that year. At the 1951 meeting, I discussed racial differences in Alabama, and exhibited a few historical graphs, but did not offer them for publication because some of the desired 1950 statistics were not then avail¬ able. (That paper, without the historical graphs, was published in the Journal for 1951-52, in the summer of 1953..) My 1953 paper, on recent trends in vital statistics, had several graphs, one of which was based on certain United States and Alabama fig¬ ures from the earliest available to 1950. The detailed returns of the 1950 census have been rather slow in coming out, in spite of improvements in tabulating machin¬ ery and extensive use of sampling methods; and only within a year have all the desired figures for single states been available. There are now thousands of different fig¬ ures for every state, to say nothing of those for counties and other subdivisions. In the present study I have selected what seem to be the most important population data (dis¬ regarding agriculture, manufacturing, etc.) for the state as a whole (sometimes sep¬ arating urban and rural, but disregarding all the various geographical subdivisions), calculated various kinds of percentages and other ratios from them, and presented the results in tables and graphs. The white and colored and urban and ru¬ ral population are distinguished wherever possible. In many census tables, especially those for 1950, the population is di\ided into white and non-white, without distingu¬ ishing between negroes, Indians, Chinese, etc.; but that makes very little difference in Alabama and neighboring states, where the red and yellow races are very sparsely represented.* In most of the tables here presented the Alabama 1950 ratios are compared with those for Alabama in 1940 and the whole Llnited States in 1950. And some of the significant contrasts between those, and also between urban and rural, white and colored, will be pointed out. The urban population of the United States began to be separated in a small way in the census of 1880, and from 1920 on we have had fairly detailed analyses of it. Be¬ ginning with 19.30 the population of e\'ery state and county has been divided into ur¬ ban, rural non-farm, and farm. But the ru¬ ral non-farm category is omitted from most of my tables, to save space, and also be¬ cause it is usually intermediate in character between city and country, but is too hetero¬ geneous to mean much, including as it does mining and logging camps, penitentiaries, small towns, and manufacturing and resi¬ dential suburbs. In order to understand present conditions, and get some idea of what to expect in the near future, it is useful to know wh.it con ditions were a few dcwules b.uk. So some *ln in.'iiiy U. S. t'otisiis ropurts. I'spooially the lator I'nos. a Kieal (leal of tiine aiul spaei' has hoi'n wastial l>y puhhsh- iiij; statistics for all races coiuhinch. especially in such niatlers as a^c. sex. marital condition ;iml eilucalum, e\'r some of the northern ;ind westein stales such tvU.als are almost ns m>od as those for whiles tmlN . hut those for the South are of very little use except to those wlu' hUe to K:ive the South a low rating hy lumi>m^ the races to- Kether. If separtile fimires ftir white and cidoreil. and not ajJKrcKale populatltm. were ^iven in such cases, then tlu'se who for any reason w.inted to comhme them lanild e.>s;l\ add them toKcthcr. In smne ('f the U'oh census tahles tires are f;iven for tidal and non-white, .and then one has to suhtraet the latter from the tormer to »;et the desired data for whiles. 66 Journal of Alabama Academy of Scifncf historical graphs are presented, with a few curves for the whole United States added, to show how Alabama has been comparing with the rest of the country through the years. There is also one pair of marital con¬ dition graphs (white and colored) for Ala¬ bama only. Both tables and graphs show that Ala¬ bama, instead of being near the bottom among the states in most measures of civili¬ zation, as some hostile critics would have us believe, makes a better showing than the national average in some respects. It would take too long to discuss all the particulars, but a few special features will be noted in passing. No comparisons with other south¬ eastern states will be made here, but in gen¬ eral they do not differ much from Alabama. Table 1 shows for Alabama in 1940 and 1930, and the whole United States in 1930, for white and colored separately, the per¬ cent that each racial group makes of the total, the percent born in other states (Ala¬ bama 1930 only), the percent over 21 and under 10 years of age in the total, urban and farm population, the ratio of men to women (over 21) and boys to girls (under 10). Figure 1 shows, from 1820 to 1930, the number of inhabitants per square mile, the percent urban, the percent of negroes, and the percent of whites over 21 and under 10. cate inhabitants per square mile for two of the curves, and percentages for the others. The U. S. density of population curve goes back only to 1S50. because before that most of the western half of the country was unorganized, and we do not know how many people were living there. The two urban curves fork at 1940, on account of the old and new definitions of urban used in 1950. Three U. S. curves are added, for density of population, percent urban, and percentage of negroes; but any more than that might crowd the graph too much.* Both the U. S. and Alabama urban per¬ centage curves fork at 1940, to show the per¬ centages based on the old and new defini¬ tions of urban in 1930. Heretofore "urban” has meant the population living in incorpor¬ ated places with over 2300 inhabitants; but the 1930 definition counts as urban all close¬ ly built-up suburbs, whether incorporated or not. The 1930 urban figures are also inflated a little in another way, by counting college students in college towns, where they live most of the year, but have little or no in¬ come, instead of at their homes, where they vote and pay taxes, if old enough.* Our total population increased at about the usual rate between 1940 and 1930, but the urban population increased faster, as has usually been the case throughout the civilized world ever since the Industrial Revolution. But the graph, which indicates the dates of some wars and depressions, shows how depressions usually slow up ur¬ ban population (and sometimes total popu¬ lation) and wars accelerate it. Up to about 1910 (in Alabama, not in the whole United States) the percent urban was about the same for whites and negroes; but since then the negroes have moved into our cities a little faster than the whites, perhaps mostly on account of the boll weevil, which en¬ tered the state after 1910, and proved too much of a problem for some of them. (The Ht .should be noted that tlie figures at the sides represent inhabitants per square mile for two of the curves, and per¬ centages for the others. ^The boosters in the college towns were doubtless pleased to have their population figures padded in this way. but it brought some results that they probably did not anticipate. One table in the census report gives the median per capita incomes of all "urban” places, without separation of race. The state average is S158B, urban S2196. rural non-farm S1471. rural farm SS17. For Marion, a small town with two colleges, the median is $703. Auburn, a larger but very typical college town, has $S73. Tuscaloosa, which has some diversified industries, besides the University, rates .$1378. still considerably below the state average. Phenix City, which has factories whose workers need very little education, but no colleges, rates $2013. The richest com¬ munities are two residential suburbs of Birmingham, with no factories and few negroes; Homewood and Mountain Brook. Their medians are S4687 and $6990. far above the national average. 19‘)0 Population of Alabama 67 TABLE 1— Selected Population Statistics of Alabama and the United States. WHITE COLORED Alabama u. s. Alaba ma U. S. 1940 1950 1950 1940 1950 1950 Percent of total . 65.2 67.9 S9.5 34.8 32.1 10.5 Percent born in other states ........ . ? 14.2 ? 5.0 Percent urban . 29.2 42.8 64.3 32.1 46.3 60.6 Percent rural non-farm . 24.3 26.6 21.1 19.2 21.3 37.2 Percent rural farm .... 46.5 30.8 14.6 48.7 32.5 21.2 Median age . . 24.4 26.7 30.8 22.7 22. 7 26.1 Percent over 21 . 56. (1 59.5 65.5 52.0 52.5 58. 5 Urban . . 64. S 64.5 6S.5 61.2 58.5 64.4 Farm . . 50.7 53.5 58.2 46.0 44.0 45.6 Percent under 10 . . . 20.6 22.0 19.1 23.0 25.6 22.8 Urban ........... . 15.3 19.8 17.8 17.2 23.0 20.0 Farm . . . 23.0 22.8 21.4 26.8 28.8 28.9 Ratio of bovs to girls . . 1.034 1.041 1.042 .988 3.001 1.000 Urban . . . 1.021 1.029 1.037 .972 1.000 .995 Farm . . 1.037 1.053 1.062 .987 1.002 1.010 Ratio of men to women . .988 .960 .968 .910 .866 .940 Urban ....... . .909 .907 .930 .800 .810 .896 Farm . . . . 1.058 1.052 1.124 .951 .945 1.025 number of white farmers m Alabama de¬ creased from 158,383 in 1940 to 154,218 in 1950, and of negro farmers at the same time from 73,338 to 57,205; the latter figure be¬ ing about 45% less than what it was in 1910.) A favorite slogan of some southern boost¬ ers in recent years has been "Balance agri¬ culture with industry.” If that is an ideal condition, Alabama is now over-balanced, with more people in cities than on farms; and most of the northern states have been so for a long time. It might as well be observed here that urban growth, which is always pointed to with pride by the boosters, could equally well be viewed with alarm. For moral stan¬ dards seem to be always lower in cities than in rural districts, as is suggested by some of the statistics presented here, and could be shown by many others. The ratios of boys to girls and of men to women (shown also in Figs. 2 and 3) are believed to be rough indexes of self-reli ance, as I have pointed out elsewhere* And both are usually higher among whites than among negroes, and apparently always in the country than in the city. Before the Civil War Alabama had a larger proportion of men in its white population than the rest (T the country, but the war reduced it sharply. It recovered rapidly in the next few decades, but has not yet quite caught up with the na¬ tional average. It seems rather singular that the Civil War should have reduced the pro¬ portion of negro men in Alabama. Not many of them could have been killed in the v/ar, but many may have moved north after emancipation. (We could tell more about this by examining the figures for each state.) In the ratio of boys to girls, in the white population, Alabama was abo\'e the United States average continuously until about 1939, but is now a little below. Several of the highly urbanized northern states, such .is Massachusetts and New 4’ork, ha\c long lu’croi's. Noll' III!' m.'irUod I'lli'i-I ol Uio I'iiil \\:ir I'sin- I'ii'lly oil Muh.'iiii.'i wliili's. •.See Jour Ala. .Acaci. Sci., 17:12. l'M5. 68 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science der ten years old. Alabama and United States, separating whites and negroes. This approximates the ratio at birth, and shows the marked racial contrasts, and also the up¬ turn after the Civil War for both races in Alabama. been below the average. The District of Columbia, which is all city, is usually at or near the bottom; and that may be one rea¬ son, that all the politicians have r)verlooked, why it is not fit for self-government. The sex ratio for negroes, both children and adults, has long been below that for whites. In IS'iO and I860, Vv'hen eve had separate fig¬ ures for free colored and slaves, the former rated a little higher than the latter in this respect. The boy-girl ratio for negroes jump¬ ed up between I860 and 1870, like that for whites, but the trend since then has been mostly downward. That upturn between I860 and 1870, w'hich also characterized the white popula¬ tion of Alabama and several other southern states, but was hardly noticeable in the na¬ tion as a whole, is consistent with a wide¬ spread belief (never fully proved) that more boys tend to be born during and soon after a war than at other times. However, the up¬ turn in recent years may be due to the reduc¬ tion of infant mortality, which enables more boys to survive the ills of infancy. Around 1910 there seems to have been a great demand in the United States for men in the "heavy” industries, such as mining, logging, and steel mills; and foreigners, mostly men, were coming in at a rapid rate. But the first World War and subsequent immigration restrictions checked the influx of fo reigners, and opportunities for employ¬ ment of women in offices, etc., were rapidly increasing, and the sex ratio curves took a downward trend. Women outnumbered men in the white population of Alabama, for the first time in several decades, about 19.35, and in the whole Ihiited States, for the first time in history, about 19^2. Table 2 shows the percentage of homes owned, and the number of persons per fam¬ ily, white and colored, urban and rural, in Alabama and the United States. And Fig. 4 shows the number of children per family since 1890, when statistics of negro families were first given by the census. We have sta¬ tistics of free families (white and free col¬ ored) in every state and county for 1850 TABLE 2— Family Statistics. Percent of homes owned Urban . . Rural farm . Persons per family . . Men . . . ... Women ....... Children ... . Children per woman . . Urban families . Men Women . Children . Children per woman . . . Farm families ....... Men Women . . Children . Children per woman . . . WH ITE Alabama U. S. 1940 1950 1950 40.7 55.2 57.0 37.0 51.8 52.2 45.9 64.0 69.9 4.20 3.66 3.45 1.17 1.06 1.11 I.IS 1.11 1 .15 1.85 1.50 1.19 1.57 1.35 1.05 3.83 3.64 3.33 I.IR 1.12 1.09 1.30 1.23 1.18 1.35 1.29 1.06 1.03 1.05 0.89 4.55 4.25 3. 89 1.19 1.17 1.19 1.12 1.12 1.07 2.24 1.97 1.63 1.99 1.78 1.53 COLORED Alabama u. s. 1940 1950 1950 20.3 35.6 34.9 20.8 38.3 32.5 17.4 31.1 33.2 4.27 4.16 4.16 1.06 1.04 1.18 1.16 1.20 1.25 2,05 2.02 1.75 1.77 1.69 1.39 3.68 3.83 3.90 1.01 1.00 1.18 1.26 1.24 1.32 1.42 1.59 1.40 1.13 1.28 1.06 4.77 5.20 5.05 1.07 1.11 1.16 1.12 1.18 1.13 2.57 2.90 2.77 2.29 2.47 2.44 1950 Population of Alabama 69 and 1860, but the 1870 and 1880 family statistics do not separate the races (or give statistics for counties). Men and women here include all persons over 21, whether married or not, and children all under 21, mostly single of course, but not all. As I have pointed out elsewhere, the num¬ ber of men and women per family is a pretty good index of the average age at marriage. For if every one married at 21, there would be just about one man and one woman per family. But if a young man or woman re¬ mains single for awhile after passing 21, then he (or she) becomes an extra adult in some family, either that of the parents, or in a boarding house or something of the kind elsewhere. (Of course it is easy to imagine exceptions, but this should serve very well for a rough index.) tion in the family statistics then. From 1930 to 1950 two extra curves are added to show extremes; Alabama farm colored and U. S. urban white. The number of men and women per fam¬ ily in Alabama, as in most other parts of the country, and in most elements of the population, was a little less in 1950 than in 1940, indicating earlier marriage. This seems to be due partly to the increase of spoiled children, who do not like to have to wait for anything they crave, and partly to the paternalistic policies of the "New Deal" government, which aimed to relieve citizens of responsibility, and the speeding up ol marriages during the recent war period. Home ownership, which is often a fairly good index of self-reliance, took a decided upturn practically throughout the country be¬ tween 1940 and 1950, after a long down¬ ward trend (among the whites). This how¬ ever does not necessarily indicate increasing self-reliance, but is more likely due to the rent control measures of the second World War period, which made it unprofitable to build houses for rent, and forced many peo¬ ple who would have preferred to rent (on account of uncertainty of employment, or some other reason) to buy or build their homes. The previous downward trend should soon be resumed, however, for our cities are growing all the time, and an apartment or tenement dweller cannot very well own his home, unless he happens to own the whole building. Home ownership, among the whites at least, is practically always more prevalent on farms than in cities, as the table shows, and that gives Alabama and other southern states an advantage over the more urbanized states. Among the negroes, however, there seems to be more home own¬ ership in the cities than on farms; perhaps because many city negroes have goiul jobs and most country negroes are tenant farmers. The ratio of children to women is a sort of index of fecundity. A country with more women than children would be pretty sure to have more deaths than births in the long run. But just now we ha\e a rather high ratio of births to deaths with a low r.itio of children to women, on acciumt (4 the marriage boom of the war period, .ind re¬ cent medical progress in reducing de.ith rates. 44ic apparent ratio of children to women is exaggerated a little, it is h.ird to s.i\- how much, by the widespre.id propensity of young women to underestim.ite their .in.es, so th.it .some who .ire 21 or more, .ind should be cl.issed .is women, c.ill themsebes 20 or less, and thus r.ite .is i.hildren in the lensus t.ibles. 4 his (..in be seen in .mv census l.ibh' 70 Journal of Alabama Acadf:my of Scifncf tliat gives ages by single years; and it was noted and commented on by some of our statisticians over 100 years ago* Evidences of It can be seen in other countries; but it is less noticeable in Europe, where the peo¬ ple have been accustomed to regimentation so long that they are afraid to misrepresent their ages. There might be differences of opinion as to whether large or small families are most desirable. Small families are conducive to high per capita wealth, which most people seem to desire, but also to spoiled children and low moral standards. Cities practically always have smaller families and more wealth and crime than rural districts; and our richest states, which are mostly in the West, are characterized by small families and much intemperance, etc. Alabama has always had larger families than the national average, and has enjoyed the moral advan¬ tages that go with them. It should be borne in mind that the num¬ ber of children per family in any community at the time of the census — or any other time — is only about half the ultimate number, for there are always many young couples whose children are all in the future, and old couples whose children have all grown up and left them. So we may assume that the average Alabama white family of today will ultimately have 3 children (urban 2.38, farm 3.28), and the average LInited States white family 2.38 (urban 2.12, farm 3.26). In 1830 the average white mother in Ala¬ bama must have had ultimately about seven children, and in the rest of the country about six. It will probably be agreed by thoughtful In 1S43 Prof. George Tucker of the University of Virginia published an interesting little book. “Progress of the United States in Population and Wealth in Fifty Years.” Noting some discrepancies in the statistics of age and sex, he said: “Can it be that many of this class of females, wiio work (away) from home, are counted twice? Or must we suppose that many, who have passed twenty, have reduced their age within more desirable limitsV’ In 1854 J. D. B. DeBow, Superintendent of the U. S. Census, in his Com¬ pendium of the Seventh Census, under the head of white population, said: “Between fifteen and twenty there is a large and growing excess of females, attributable in some slight degree, as Prof. Tucker intimates, to the anxiety of the sex to retain this interesting age. This can be proved in another way.” persons that a child to have a satisfactory home life should have at least one brother and one sister; which means a minimum of four in the family. And five would be bet¬ ter, for with only four there would often be three or four of one sex and one or none of the other. Now let us look at Eig. 4 again, and imagine all figures multiplied by two. It would seem that the average United States white family has been below the desirable minimum for about fifty years, and Alabama whites for fifteen or twenty years. (It is very significant that fifty years ago little was heard of juvenile delincjuency, or of the al¬ leged need for sex education.) It might be objected here that if the size of families was purely a voluntary matter, as some would have us believe, and every couple determined to have four or more children, the population would increase so fast that it would soon press dangerously on our natural resources, as in China. So we are between the devil and the deep sea, so to speak. A few years ago I suggested that every state, county and city with less than 1.4 chil¬ dren per family seems to allow the legal sale of liquor. Of course 1.4 is not a sharp dead¬ line, and a few exceptions one way or the other can doubtless be found. But taking this as a working hypothesis, the total white population of Alabama and the farm popu¬ lation of the LInited States seem to be still safely on the "dry” side, while the total population of the United States and the ur¬ ban population of Alabama are "wet.” And is that not just what we have? Table 3 shows the percent of persons over 43 who are still single, and the percent of married persons, of any age, who are sep¬ arated, temporarily or permanently, from their spouses, but not divorced. Age 43 is se¬ lected because there are few first marriages above that age, and all our statistics of mari¬ tal condition have a break at that point. Sta¬ tistics of separated married couples were collected for the first time in 1950, and are 1950 Population of Alabama TABLE 3. Selected Statistics of Marital Condition. 71 WHITE COLORED ALABAMA u. s. ALABAMA U. S. 1940 1950 1950 1940 1950 1950 F M F M F M F M F M F Percent over 45 single . 5.55 6.80 4.75 7.00 8.51 8.51 5.27 3.84 3.80 3.96 6.75 4.40 Urban . 6.46 8.70 5.04 7.70 8.25 9.50 6.15 3.58 3.57 2.89 7.00 4.62 Rural . 5.10 5.4.S 4.79 5.23 8.25 5.12 3.80 3.SS 3.11 3.96 4.80 3.29 Percent of married persons with spouses absent . 1.82 2.07 2.54 2.04 3. 68 3.60 5.50 4.13 Urban . 2.16 2.18 2.51 2.05 2.74 3.48 5.40 4.25 Farm . 0.95 1.45 1.33 1.16 1.62 2.64 2.09 2.38 Percent of married persons separated . 1.31 1.79 1.60 2.06 7.91 13.80 9.25 13.90 Urban . 1.37 2.06 1.73 2.07 9.90 17.60 10.83 16.71 Farm . 1.19 1.38 1.09 0.S3 4. 87 7.65 4.75 6.47 very significant, as will be shown presently. This table has separate columns for men and women, making twelve in all. Fig. 5 shows the percentage of bachelors and spinsters, white and colored, in the United States and Alabama, from 1890 (which is as far back as such records go) to 1950. broken. I have suggested elsewhere* that the per¬ centage of spinsters in a population is one of several indexes of culture. They are cer¬ tainly scarcer among negroes than among whites, and in Asia than in Europe, especial¬ ly northwestern Europe, and there were very few in our "Wild West.” But other factors are sometimes involved. For the large pro¬ portion of spinsters (white) in Alabama and other southern states around 1900 is doubt¬ less correlated with the shortage of men fol¬ lowing the Civil War. Bachelors, on the oth¬ er hand, are often an index of depravity, es¬ pecially in our western states, which have long had an excess of men. But Alabama is fortunate in this respect, having just about the lowest ratio of bachelors in the United States. The upturn of colored bachelors, both in Alabama and the whole United States, in 1940, is a puzzle at present, but probablv capable of some explanation. Alabama makes a better showing in sep¬ arations, in the white population at least, than the national average. More negroes than whites are absent temporarily from their spouses, but that might be explained on the ground that negroes are more likelv than whites to be away from home for weeks or months on construction jobs re¬ quiring a great deal of unskilled labor. The racial contrasts in separation (which might be regarded as half-way dicorce) are much greater, and doubtless siynificant. For broken homes have long been c(')nceded to be one of the main factors in delinquencv and crime. Both absenteeism and separation (as well ,is divorce) are usuallv more prexalent in cities than in rural districts, and crime likewise. Figs. 6 and 7, one for white aiul one tor colored, with one side tor m.iles and one for females, show the percentage of the pop Illation of Alabama in lOsO, .it e.uh .ii;e. that is single, m.irried, di\orced .md widow eel, and within the m.irried group those whose spouses are tempor.irilv .ibsent .md those more or less perm.mentlv se[\ii.ited I'here are no equi\.ilent ligures tor e.irliei censuses, .md eur\es tor the whole I'mted ♦See Jour. Ala. Acad. Sci. 11:13-11. June. 1B39, 72 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science ItARITAL COliDmOR - AIAEAKA V/HITE, 1950 and widowed, reading from edges toward center, represent spouse absent, spouse separated, and divorced. FIG. 7. Same data as in Fig. H, for colored population of Alabama. 1950. Note the great contrast in separations between this and the white graph, and the smaller propor¬ tion of bachelors and spinsters. (The same conditions are found in all other states where there are enough negroes to be statistically significant. ) States could not have been added without too much confusion. There are some 1950 statistics of the pop¬ ulation of asylums, prisons, and other insti¬ tutions, but they are rather complicated, and will not be discussed here. It may suffice to say that Alabama has a smaller propor¬ tion of its population in such places than the national average. The censuses of 1940 and 1950, instead of dividing the population into literate and illiterate, as had been done since 1840, graded those over 25 according to the years of schooling they had had. At the 1947 meeting of the Academy I gave for each state in 1940, and also the United States ur¬ ban and rural, the percentage of those who had had no schooling, and those who had been through college; separating whites and negroes as usual. In Table 4 I am supple¬ menting that by giving statistics for both 1940 and 1950 for Alabama and the United States, and separating the urban and farm population, and giving the median years of schooling (which in such cases is a little less than the average). This table shows the usual progress of education during the decade, and also that the urban white population of Alabama is a little better educated than the correspond¬ ing national average, as indeed it has been as far back as we have such records. This is probably because factories are more prev¬ alent in northern than in southern cities, and it does not require much education to work in a factory, except for the higher super¬ visory jobs. But "industrialization” is now increasing rapidly in Alabama, as in other southern states, and that may be why the percentage of urban white college graduates in Alabama fell a little below the national TABLE 4. Selected Education Statistics for Alabama and the United States. All over 25 No schooling . College graduates . Median years of schooling Urban population No schooling . College graduates . Median years of schooling Farm population No schooling . College graduates ... Median years of schooling WHITE ALABAMA U. S. 1940 1950 1940 1950 3.21 2.13 3.12 2.13 4.09 4.71 4.95 6.62 8.2 ,8.8 8.5 9.7 1.91 1.34 3.39 2.13 7.70 7.70 6.29 7.94 10.1 10.8 9.0 10.5 4.36 2.94 3.09 2.16 0.98 1.19 1.50 2.42 7.2 7.5 7.9 S.6 COLORED ALABAMA U. S. 1940 1950 1940 1950 14.10 10.40 10.12 6.80 0.57 1.37 1.27 2.24 4.5 5.4 5.7 6.9 9.85 7.90 6.72 4.74 1.05 1.89 1.86 2.83 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.8 17.90 12.70 15.20 10.90 0.14 0.39 0.27 0.60 3.7 4.4 4.1 4.8 Personnel Practices in Alabama Plants 73 average in 1950. College graduates are always rather scarce on farms, not because of any deficiencies in rural schools, or lack of ambition on the part of rural youths, but because country youths who go through college hardly ever return to the farm, especially in the South, where farms are small, and cotton is a lead¬ ing crop. For cotton can be raised pretty well by people who have never been to school. W^e have some statistics of income for 1940 and 1950, but the data for the two years are not closely comparable, and at best they have many limitations, as I pointed out at the 1951 meeting. The results for Alabama in 1950, as far as available and significant, are presented in Table 5. The principal thing that this shows is that white incomes are about double those of negroes, as we have known for fifty years or so in the case of farm production. But the differences are less in cities than on farms, and also less in the North than in the South, for the great majority of northern negroes live in cities. Whole state . . . . White . Negro . Other races . Urban total . . . . White . Non-white . . Rural farm total White . Negro . TABLE 5. Alabama Income Statistics, 1950, INDIVIDUALS Families and Unrelated individuals Both sexes Male Female .51102 •51465 $533 $0000 1455 1S09 S43 $2056 616 957 3S0 } ,882 604 773 ■51539 52106 •5765 ? ? $2.'i;70 S68 13S9 461 1267 $1044 .$1431 •5356 794 904 422 $1040 378 440 291 446 PERSONNEL PRACTICES IN ALABAMA PLANTS by H. Ellsworth Steele, William R. Myles, and Sherwood C. McIntyre Alahavia Polytechnic Institute, Auburn Alabama is making a tremendous effort to attract new industry and to expand exist¬ ing industry. Public utilities, citizens’ com¬ mittees, and governmental officials are en¬ gaged in the drive. Even gubernatorial can¬ didates are campaigning on their ability to bring new plants into the state. These efforts are succeeding and Alabama industry is growing. If these new plants and the hundreds of older ones already located "in the heart of the South” are to prosper, they must be pro¬ ductive. Their employees not only need to be skillful, but also ready to work. Further¬ more, if the American enterprise system is to hold the enthusiastic suppcrrt of workers, it must offer fair treatment and human satis- 1. This study has been made possible by an Altibama Poly¬ technic Institute research grant-in-aid. factions on the jobs to which men dec'ote nearly one-half of their waking hours. Employer personnel practices have a great influence upon production, worker morale, and employee attitudes toward mir economv. Good employer-employee relationships can and are beinsr achieved without elabor.ite personnel programs. And personnel pro¬ grams excellent on paper mav m practice fail to attain the desired results. Neverthe¬ less. the various tcchm(.]ues of personnel .ul ministration are tools which emplovers m.u find valuable in soKinc; luim.m-rel.itions is sues which constitute possible the most im portant problems in production tod.iv . (aiARACri'RlSTU'S HI- Fl .VNTS StUlMlD I his p.iper ex.imines the airrent person nel pr.ictices of l(i I .M.ib.im.i industn.il 74 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science plants, some of which are branches of na¬ tional firms. Data on their personnel pro¬ grams were secured by sending a cjuestion- naire to 904 plants, of which “31 percent re¬ sponded. The plants selected were those listed in l)idiistrhil AIabc;}>ur as employing 70 or more workers, and those Alabama plants represented at the 1971 Southern In¬ dustrial Relations Conference in Blue Ridge. North Carolina. The response from the plants surveyed was excellent. In many cases the question¬ naires were returned accompanied by en¬ couraging comments or additional materials. In a half dozen instances, however, re¬ sponses indicated suspicion, a feeling of be¬ ing harassed, or even hostility toward gov¬ ernmental agencies including colleges.^ The plants'' in\'estigated reported from 2 to 29,000 employees. The median number of workers is 129, but the average number is 475, reflecting the influence of the larger plants. The total number of employees cov¬ ered by the responses is 220,270 nearly a quarter of a million workers. This study, as all studies based on ques¬ tionnaires, is subject to important limitations. 4'he questions may have been interpreted dif- 2. Publislied in l‘t52 by the Alabama State Chamber of Commerce. 3. Tiespite the tact that the study had been undertaken with the encouragement of officials of the Alabama State Chamber of Commerce and the Associated Industries of Alabama, one reply stated that, . . the questions sound more like a union questionnaire from some labor organization, and no doubt the department of labor is having you to conduct this survey for their convenience.” Another declared. “This questionnaire smells a little of U. S. Govt. 'Dealism' and I consider it of little or no value to a college course. The people, generally speaking, are ‘fed-up’ on this type stuff. Why don't we get down to good American policies and practices — and of all places In our Educational Institutions. Everything, such as this questionnaire carries a definite trend toward Socialistic, or Communistic type government.” A third stated, “In¬ dustrial employers have suffered harassment and em¬ barrassment at the hands of. so called, well intentioned Bureaus and Government organizations. In our national life we were unable to name a governmental organiza¬ tion or bureau which was not antagonistic to employers and on the other hand sympathetic to the extreme to labor and information given out by employers is fre¬ quently used adversely and with harmful intention. For this reason, along with others, we have established a policy not to answer questionnaires unless they were man¬ datory. ... It is regretable that such circumstances have arisen in our country whereby one section of our economy has become so suspicious of our administrative and executive branch due to past unpleasant experiences.” 4. Some responses covered more than one plant. In these instances all plants were grouped and treated as one plant. ferently by different respondents. Some offi¬ cials may have noted their answers too hur¬ riedly. It IS also probable that more returns were received from plants following many of the practices covered by the survey, than from plants follow'ing few of them. Further¬ more, analyses show that a greater propor¬ tion of the large than of the small plants responded. The present study is an explora¬ tory one, primarily aimed at discovering the extent to which given practices are used. It needs to be followed by detailed studies of individual practices on a personal inter¬ view basis. The survey included questions dealing with 29 practices and a number of sub-prac¬ tices.® The exact wording used is included in the accompanying charts. The practices examined fall into four broad categories, employment, wage and salary, communica¬ tions, and employee benefits. How Widely Are Selected Personnel Practices Used? Prevailing practice is not always a sound standard for personnel men to follow, but it is a standard they alwnrys want to consider. Therefore, the following charts which pre¬ sent data on the use of practices in each of the four broad areas mentioned, should be of interest. Employment prcictices. Of the employment practices presented in Chart 1, interviewing of job applicants, which is carried on by 95 percent of the plants, is the most widely fol¬ lowed. Eighty percent of the plants request references from job applicants and 64 per¬ cent use application blanks and also mini¬ mum and'Ar maximum hiring age limits. Although many plants give no maximum hir¬ ing age for manual and other workers, a substantial number of plants report that they do not hire men 50 years old or older, and some even turn away men who have passed 5. Several are omitted from this paper because the answers cannot be summarized easily or they do not add to the discussion. Personnel Practices in Alabama Plants 75 Chart 1 Use of Selected Euiployniejit Practices by Alabama Plants 1952 Do you use an application blank in hiring new employees ? Do you request that applicants give references? Do you as a general practice interview appli¬ cants when hiring? Do you use tests in hiring employees? Do you use hiring ages, either minimum or maximum ? Percent 30. Least used of the hiring practices sur¬ veyed is testing, which is utilized by only 25 percent of the plants. Wage and salary practices. Even though seniority is subjected to a great deal of em¬ ployer criticism, 77 percent of the Alabama plants studied state that they use this prin¬ ciple as an element in promotion, layoff, and rehire, as Chart 2 reveals. Piece rate or other types of incentive system are used by 56 percent of the plants. Fifty-two percent say that they normally work more than one shift. The newer personnel techniques of job evaluation and employee rating have been less widely adopted. Forty percent of the plants use job evaluation, and 23 per¬ cent have an employee rating system. An even smaller proportion (11 percent) carry on profit sharing programs. It should be noted, however, that profit sharing is not widely used in any part of the nation. CoDiniimicatioti ami reLited practices. Chart 2 U se of Selected W'age and Salary a)id Related Practices by Alabama Plants, 1952 How do you pay your employees? By; piece rate or other incentive plan relating pay to production, sales, etc. Do you have a profit sharing program approved for tax purposes? Do you have a job evaluation program to set equitable wage rates? Do you use seniority as a factor in promotion, layoff, or rehire? Do you use a systematic employee (merit) rat¬ ing system ? Does your firm usually work more than one shift ? Percent 0 20 40 60 80 100 76 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Full-time personnel workers arc reported by 34 percent of Alabama plants, while organ¬ ized personnel departments are claimed by 33 percent, as can be seen in Chart 3. Those plants with either one or both of these forms of "personnel specialization” constitute 40 percent of the total. Of the plants with per¬ sonnel departments, 83 percent have full¬ time personnel workers. Alabama plants appear to place greater emphasis on safety than on training, inas¬ much as 82 percent have safety programs, but only 36 percent have training programs. Exit interviews are also well-favored. Eighty- two percent have exit interview programs, and of these plants, 42 percent attempt to interview all workers who are separated from the company, and 39 percent keep records of exit interviews. A large propor¬ tion of the plants (62 percent) state that they have formalized grievance procedures. Finally, 33 percent have suggestion plans. The returns make clear the close inter¬ relationship between personnel staff and per¬ sonnel research. Only 30 percent of all the plants carry on personnel research, but of those plants with personnel specialists avail¬ able, 59 percent perform research. And of Chart 3 Use of Selected CoiiiDU/iiicatioin dud Related Pract/ces hy Alabama Plants, 193 2 Percent; Do you employ a full-time person to handle personnel matters surh as employment, rec¬ ords, safety, employee benelits? Do you have an organized personnel depart¬ ment ? Do you carry on a safety program (conferences, inspection, displays, etc.)? Do you have a training program for workers or supervisors (on-the-job, apprenticeship, vesti¬ bule, foremanship, etc. ) ? Do you post vacancies and recpiest employees to bid for them? Do you sponsor a suggestion plan? Do you use an exit interview? a — Do you interview all persons leaving your employ ? b — Do you keep records of your exit interviews? Do you have a procedure with established steps to permit your employees to air their griev¬ ances ? Does your firm actively carry on personnel re¬ search (analysis of turnover, etc.)? Do you call on outside consultants for assist¬ ance in your personnel program? Is your establishment unionized in part or in whole ? 0 _ 20 40 60 80 _ 100 |43 Personnel Practices in Alabama Plants 77 the plants engaged in personnel research, 78 percent have full-time personnel workers and or personnel departments to help. The practice of posting job vacancies so that employees who feel qualified may bid for them is followed by 21 percent of the plants. Even fewer, 13 percent, report the use of outside consultants in meetinq per¬ sonnel problems. Forty-three percent of the plants note that they are unionized in part or in whole. The labor organizations apparently concen¬ trate on the larger plants inasmuch as the average number of workers in unionized plants is 754 compared to 200 in non-union plants. The union plants employ 146,212 workers, 67 percent of the workers covered by the study.® Employee benefits. Ninety-one percent of the plants furnish some form of first aid, health or medical treatment to their em¬ ployees. Nearly as many. 81 percent, have group insurance plans. Only 33 percent, how¬ ever, report pension plans other than Old Age and Survivors Insurance. On the bread- and-butter level, 28 percent rent housing to some of their employees and 26 percent pro¬ vide some type of food service. Company housing, however, is apparently on the way out whereas company food programs are ex¬ panding. Least widely used of the benefit programs, is the credit union, found in only 1 5 percent of the plants. What Influence Does Size Variation Have on Personnel Practices? Once the extent to which selected prac¬ tices are used is determined, it becomes sig¬ nificant to ask, "Why do some plants use a given practice while others do not?” The data collected permit analysis of some of the factors which govern the use of specific prac¬ tices. The influence of personnel specializa¬ tion, unionization, and size can be at least partially isolated and weighed. Due to space 6. Four plants employiriR l/Jf).'! \vork(*rs failod lo Jinswor the question on unionization. limitations, only the impact of size can be discussed in this paper. Variation in number of employees should greatly influence the use of at least certain personnel practices. A priori only large plants might be expected to make much use of testing, job evaluation, personnel research and pension programs. On the other hand, both large and small plants might be ex¬ pected to use application blanks, seniority, safety and other programs. To test these hypotheses the pair comparisons in Tables 1 and 2 were developed. The influence of greater size on both unionization and personnel specialization is revealed in Table 1. Among the plants with personnel specialists, a substantially greater proportion of the large than of the small ones are unionized, but there is little differ¬ ence among the plants without specialists. Among both the union and non-union plants a much greater proportion of the large than of the small plants have personnel special¬ ists. In other words, there is a tendency for large plants to be unionized and a strone tendency for them to have personnel spe¬ cialization. Table 2 shows the impact of size on spe¬ cific personnel practices through four com¬ parisons of plant groups with common char¬ acteristics as indicated. Ejnploynient practices. In all four comp.iri sons a higher percentage of large th.in of small plants use application blanks .uul hir¬ ing age limits. In the use of age limits, how ever, the differences .ire sm.ill in three c.ises. Large plants with personnel pt ci,/li.\: ^ "lead” substantial I v in the use of tests, but among the pl.mts without pec/./l/s/\ the small est.iblishments m.ike ne.ul\- .is cre.it or even greater use of tests th.in huge [''hints. A higher percent.ige of sm.ill union th.in of l.irge union pl.mts request refereiues ot. and interxiew, job .ipplii..itions. (hi the other h.ind, l.irge non union pl.mts le.id sm.ill non union pl.mts in use of retereiues 78 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Chart 4 V se of Selected E))iployee Benefit Pyogyan/s hy Alabania Plants, 1932 Do you provide any type of food service for your employees? Do you furnish, wliolly or in part, first aid, liealth or medical treatment to your employees (on or off the premises)? Do you have a group insurance plan (health, ac- udent, life, etc.)? Do you have a pension plan (other than social security) ? Do you have a credit union? Do you rent company houses to your employees? U dige cttid salary and related practices. A substantial ly greater proportion of large than of small plants in all four comparisons use piece rate or other incentive systems, job evaluation, and multiple shifts. A higher percentage of large than of small plants use seniority in three cases. In the fourth com¬ parison, all plants large and small use senior ity. Among the plants uotb personnel spe¬ cialization. a higher proportion of the large than of the small have profit sharing plans. Among the plants without personnel spe¬ cialization. however, the small plants tie or lead large plants in the use of such pro¬ grams. In three comparisons a greater pro¬ portion of the small plants than of the large use employee rating systems. Connnunication and related practices. In all four comparisons large plants lead small plants in use of training programs, the post¬ ing of job vacancies for bidding, and in keeping records of exdt interviews. In the use of safety programs and personnel research, the large plants lead in three instances, but lag slightly in the fourth. In two instances each, the large plants lead the small plants in the use of exit in- Percent 0 20 40 60 80 100 terview programs, in attempting to interview all employees who leave, in the use of for¬ malized grievance procedures, and in calling on outside consultants. Among the union plants, the sniall units lead in the use of exit interviews and in trying to interview all who leave. A higher percentage of small than of large plants use suggestion plans, according to three of the comparisons. Employee benefit programs. Large plants lead the small ones in all four comparisons in the use of group insurance, pension pro¬ grams and company housing. In one com¬ parison of the use of pension plans, how¬ ever, the difference between large and small plants is negligible. In three instances each, the large plants lead the small ones in pro¬ viding food programs, first aid, health or medical treatment, and credit unions. Conclusions From this brief survey of personnel prac¬ tices in Alabama, several facts stand out. A majority of the plants investigated use 13 of the 30 practices and sub-practices covered in Charts 1 through 4. Eighty percent or more of the plants request references, inter- Personnel Practices in Alabama Plants 79 \ iew applicants, have safety programs, carry on exit interviews, furnish some type of first aid, health or medical service, and provide group insurance. A majority of plants use four of the five employment practices stud¬ ied, but only four of the thirteen communi¬ cation and related practices. Only a minority of the plants use techni¬ cal programs such as job evaluation, testing and employee rating. A majority use piece rate or other incentive plans, however, and these are frequently complex. A third only of the plants have personnel departments or employ full-time personnel workers to cope with human-relations prob¬ lems. Less than one-fifth of Alabama plants practice profit sharing, employ outside per¬ sonnel consultants, or have credit unions. On the other hand, more than two-fifths of the plants responding are unionized in part or in whole. A higher percentage of large than of small plants use the practices studied in 80 of the 108 comparisons shown in Table 2. In 24 cases, the small plants lead. Larger size ap¬ pears to have the greatest impact on the practices of non-union plants with personnel specialization and the least impact on the union plants with specialists, judging by the number of practices in which the larger plants lead the small. In all comparisons the large plants lead or tie the small plants in the use of appli¬ cation blanks, hiring age limits, piece rate and other incentive systems, job evaluation, seniority, multiple shifts, training programs, posting of job vacancies, recording of exit interviews, group insurance, pensions and company housing. Only in the use of em¬ ployee rating systems and suggestion plans do the small plants lead the large plants m as many as three of the four comparisons shown. Many personnel techniques are regarded as most useful, or feasible, only in plants employing a substantial number of workers. This study supports that assumption. It shows that in the judgment of many small Alabama employers, conditions in their plants do not yet require the use of many of the personnel techniques analyzed. TABLE 1 — Comparisons Showing the Effect of Differences in Size on Unionization and Personnel Specialization PLANTS UNION PLANTS With personnel specialization 1 to 499 employees . . 53 500 and more employees . . . 70 Without personnel specialization 1 to 499 employees . . 31 500 and more employees . 33 PLANTS PLANTS \^TTII PERSONNEL SPECIALIZATION Union 1 to 499 employees . . 3!>' , 500 and more employees . Non-union 1 to 4-5 9 emi)lovees . . 19 590 and more employees ' •* ;() Journal of Alabama Academy of Science TABLE 2~Percentage of Alabama Plants Classified by Personnel Specialization, Unionization, and Size, Which Used Selected Personnel Practices, 1952. Plants without Personnel Specialization Plants with Personnel Specialization Union” Non-Union II- Union“ Non-Union Small*^ Large'* Smal|3 Large* Small'^ Large** Small’'^ Large® EMPLOYMENT PKACTICES Use application blanks . 59 77 34 38 80 96 56 10(» Request references . . S6 H5 66 69 95 84 88 92 Usually interview applicnnts . . . . 95 S5 90 1 00 loO 96 100 100 Use tests in hiring . . . 14 15 15 13 45 64 19 33 (>4 56 80 S3 44 67 WAGE AND SALARY AND RELATED PRACTICES Pay by piece rate or incentive system . 38 64 54 79 41 57 47 73 Have a profit sharing program 9 0 13 13 10 16 25 27 Use job evaluation 27 54 13 44 60 76 38 67 Use seniority in promotion, layoff, rehire . 82 100 49 69 100 100 63 83 Use employee rating system . . 18 0 10 27 52 40 44 33 Usually work more than one shift . . . 40 77 25 67 60 96 44 75 COMMUNICATION AND RKLATED PRACTICES Carry on a safety program . . 73 92 67 75 95 100 94 92 Have a training program . . 24 62 42 63 71 76 50 75 Post job vacancies for bidding . 23 33 1 6 38 40 7 25 Sponsor a suggestion plan . . . 18 23 21 19 55 52 50 25 Use exit interviews . . S2 77 6.S 69 90 88 94 100 Interview all employees leaving .... 28 10 39 45 53 45 60 67 Keep records of exit interviews . 18 22 18 55 67 79 29 91 Have a formalized grievance procedure . 77 100 30 25 95 88 56 83 Carry on personnel research . 5 23 10 6 48 71 38 67 Employ outside consultants . 2^ 17 6 6 15 29 13 42 EMPLOYEE BENEFIT PROGRAMS Provide food service for employees . . . . . . 9 23 13 25 71 60 13 42 Furnish some first aid. health or medical treatment 82 92 90 80 90 100 94 100 Have a group insurance plan . 59 S5 75 88 95 100 75 100 Have a pension plan (other than OASI) . 14 31 12 13 62 77 19 58 Have a credit union . 5 15 7 6 14 52 13 17 Rent company houses to employees . 5 23 38 44 19 24 13 25 Number of plants each group . . 22 13 69 16 21 25 16 12 1. 3. 4. 5. 6. Plants reporting personnel departments personnel workers. Plants unionized in part or in whole. 50 to 99 workers. 250 to 499 w’orkers. 100 to 249 workers. 500 to 999 workers. and /or full. time 81 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE EOURTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 1954 SECTION I BIOLOGY AND MEDICAL SCIENCES A Comparison of ."Methods for Determination of Succinoxidase Activity S. B. Barker and H. S. Schwartz, Univevsi- ty of Alabama Medical Center. Birmingham . There is widespread interest in the use of tet- razolium compounds as hydrogen acceptors in dehydrogenase systems, especially the succinic de¬ hydrogenase. The optimal conditions for the use of triphenyl tetrazolium chloride have been work¬ ed out for many tissues of the rat. These are essentially the same as reported to the Academy last year for liver, with the optimal pH being 9.5 for some. Manometric measurement in the Warburg ap¬ paratus or oxygen consumed in the oxidation of hydrogen removed from succinate was employed as a comparison method. When the results were compared in terms of hydrogen removed, the tetrazolium method was found to yield approxi¬ mately 2 to 4 per cent as much activity as the manometric procedure with all tissues. This dif¬ ference was not the result of toxicity of the tet¬ razolium salt, since the same quantities had little or no influence when present during the mano¬ metric determinations. A triple comparison including in addition the classical Thunberg methylene blue decolorization was run on liver, heart and kidney samples. Methylene blue gave results close to those with tetrazolium. Both of the indicator techniques in¬ volved "one-way” hydrogen acceptors, whereas the manometric used cytochrome c -cytoclirome oxidase, a reversible oxidation — reduction sys¬ tem in the presence of oxygen. Apparently the ability of this system to cycle increases its over¬ all activity even though the noii-reversible sys¬ tems were actually functioning at a steady rate. Studies on Myelokentric and Lyniphokentric Acids Virginia Whiteside-Carlson, John W. Stanford and Warner W. Carlson, De¬ partment of Biochemistry. Medical College and School of Dentistry, University of Alabama Medical Center, Birmingham . It has been reported that individuals witli chronic myelogenous or lymphatic leukemia ex¬ crete substances which are capable of causing the corresponding type of luekemic response in ex¬ perimental animals. These compounds appear to be lipoidal keto or hydroxy acids, and have been named myelokentric and lyniphokentric acids, respectively. In the present investigation the ex¬ cretion of these substances has been confirmed, and new pirocedurcs for their extraction trom hu¬ man leukemic urine developed. Since bioassay of these extracts in terms of leukemic response in guinea pigs is a slow' process, attempts have been made to develop a microbioassai' procedure. It has been found that Lactobacillus .ir.tbinosiis re¬ sponds to substances present in tiiese cxtr.Kls. This microbioassay is being used in coniuiution with paper chromotography in .iltempts to i^ol.lte the active compounds involved. Siippor/id in p.:rt by Cirant C 1901 from the Division of Rcsc.irch Crant\ and I'cllouships of the S.ilior’.:: I ns.'.s a.'i of Health. United Slate\ Pahlic Ih.tlth S^ri.w. iMonthanfsulCdiiyl Hsters a.s Anli-limuir Vuout> V'ARNIR W. ( ARISON .uul t 1I\KI Is ( , .MOR¬ GAN, Dep.irtmcnt of Bii>chcn:/ar\ . Mi.lic.il College and School of /ke.'.u.'ii. I'lnwo') Alabain.i .Medic. il Ciitter. Birn.’/i.’gt'.nn . ( ompounds w liii. h ,irc t.ip.ible ol ,ilk\ kituu; or acylating luiutional groups (Nil., SM. (hi. et^A ol cell constituents under pin su'K'gu .d cv'iuli- 82 Journal of Alabama Academy oe Science tions ol temperature and pH have been found to possess cytotoxic properties and hence to be of value in inhibiting tumor development. Repre¬ sentative compounds of this type include the nitrogen and sulfur mustards, triethylene mela¬ mine (TEM) and triethylene phosphoramide (TEPA). 'Ehis report is concerned with the syn¬ thesis and testing of the anti-tumor activities of a scries of methanesullonyl esters of aliphatic diols, triols and polyglycols. In general the de¬ rivatives were synthesized by reaction of the hy¬ droxy compounds with methanesulfonyl chloride in the presence ot pyridine. The compounds were tested against sarcoma 180 transplants in white mice. Of the twenty-five compounds stud¬ ied, four were found to [lossess significant tum¬ or-inhibitory properties. S/ipliorleJ in purl by Civaut C 1902 Iroiii I he Division of Research C, twits and VLdlniv\hip\ of the National In\t/- tnte\ of Health. U n/ted States Pi/hlic Health Serv¬ ice . Res'eneralive Studies Willi 'radpoles After Cut¬ ting in V’arious Planes Emmitt B. (.ARMicnAiJ, and A. Wadf Ae- FORD, Medical College and School of Denln- try. Univer\i/y of Alabama Medical Center. Binnintyhani . While studying the effects ol ultraviolet rays on young tadpoles, one of us ( E. B. C. ) acci¬ dentally cut one of the tadpoles into two parts with a transfer pipette on March .T 1928. Both the anterior and the posterior parts were alive the next day. This finding led us to a series of studies on the length of survival of the two parts after sectioning tadpoles with a scalpel. The tadpoles were used the first few days of the lar¬ val period. We used pond water, tap water (Tuscaloosa and Wood Hole, Mass.), modified Ringer’s solution for frogs heart and modified Tryode’s solution. We made no effort to select a specific species and used both frog and toad tadpoles. The longest survival times were ob¬ served when the parts were kept in fresh tap water. I’he pond v/ater was next best and the shortest survival time was noted with the modi¬ fied Tryrode solution. There did not appear to be much difference in the survival time for either the anterior or posterior parts. In cold weather and if the tap water was changed at least daily, about 3^ per cent survival for two weeks to 16 days was noted. There were some few survivals noted for as much as 23 days. Pigmentation decreased markedly by ten days to two weeks. Both parts continued to grow and since the pigmentation was negligible, one could observe the heart beat with the naked eye. Pul¬ sations showed up in the posterior halves after a few days and they were assumed to be lymph hearts. This preliminary work is being reported since the authors have been unable to continue the study and it may suggest a useful technicpie lor some specific study for someone else. A New Micrci Method for Analysis of Hippuric Acid in Lfrine Howard C. Elliott, )r., Emmktt B. Car- MiCHAEi, and Hsifn Wd, Medical College and School of Dentntry, University of Alabama Medical Cente'S Birmingham . Previous methods for the accurate determina¬ tion of hippuric acid in small samples of urine- have involved differential ether extraction and Kjeldahl determination ot hippuric acid nitro¬ gen. A method is presented which utilizes ion exchange chromatography for separation of the hippuric acid from urine and ultraviolet spec¬ trophotometry for the cjuantitation estimation of the hippuric acid. Hippuric acid absorbs strongly in the ultraviolet with a maxima at 228 millimi¬ crons. A linear relationship within the limits of the Bouger-Beer law has been established be¬ tween the limits of ().()()2 and .020 mg. of hip¬ puric aciclAc using water or 0.1 N HCl as sol¬ vent. The molar extinction coefficient for hip¬ puric acid is 10,300. Passage of the urine sample through Dowex ?0 in the sodium form removes animo acids, creatine and creatinine which have some absorp¬ tion in ultraviolet. The solution from the Dowex 50 column is then absorbed on a weakly basic anion exchange resin in the chloride form and the hippuric acid eluted with 0.1 N HCE and determined spectrophotometrically. Since Icc. samples ot urine may be analyzed, studies of the rate of hippuric acid formation after ingestion of benzoate, or the formation from endogenous metabolites may be studied at intervals of sev¬ eral minutes. An E|)iclemioloij>ical Study of Denial Caries Hates in an Alabama Community Consuminu: Natural Flouritle 'Waters Dr. Sidney B. Ionn, University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham . It has been shown in many epidemiological studies that there is a direct relationship be¬ tween the fluoride content of a communal water supply and the prevalence of dental caries. When the domestic water supply contains one part per million fluorine or over, there is a 6() per cent reduction in dental caries prevalence as compared to fluoride free communities. It has been known for a number of years that there are communi- Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 83 ties in Alabama having sufficient natural fluo¬ rides in the water supply to produce a maximum reduction in dental caries. The population of Demopolis, Alabama, has been consuming water containing 1.2 parts per million fluorine tor over 30 years. It would be of value, therefore, to observe the status of the teeth of the children in that community. A dental examination with mouth mirror and explorer, of children from 6 to 18 years of age, reveals a 66 per cent reduc¬ tion in dental caries as compared to non-fluo- ride communities in southeastern United States. Among all permanent teeth there were 0.8 de¬ cayed, missing, and filled teeth per child and an average of 4 decayed, missing, and filled teeth per 100 teeth erupted. Among 30 high school children beOw'een 13 and 18 years of age, there was only one extracted tooth because of caries. Fifty per cent of these children had never ex¬ perienced dental decay. When one compares these findings with studies previously conducted in non fluoride areas, the significance of this element to dental health becomes obvious. Sensory Responses Following Electronic Stimu¬ lation of Oral Tissues: Part II — The Medulla Joseph A. Gibilisco and Raymond Berlin, U>2n'eysity of Alabama School of Deiillstry, Birmingham . An understanding of the function of the tri¬ geminal nerve is of importance to all aspects of dental practice. Unfortunately, our present knowledge of the detailed neurophysiology ot the nerve is most incomplete. For these reasons a series of studies concerned with the function of its nerve fibers is being carried out. Fifteen cats have been used for this investigation. In our first researches the oral tissues were stimu¬ lated and the responses conducted through the Gasserian ganglion were recorded. The present investigation traces the pathway one step fur¬ ther. Similar methods have been employed for electronically stimulating the teeth, the gingiva, and other areas innervated by the fifth nerve but the responses have been taken from the de¬ scending root of the trigeminal nerve within the medulla. These studies have been limited to the right descending root. In each instance pho¬ tographic records have been obtained witli a cathode ray oscillo.scope. Histological prepara¬ tions of the medulla have verified tlie position of the electrode. Type A pain fibers liave been found to predominate. Although there is evi¬ dence that proprioceptive impulses are tarried in this tract, thc.se observations arc incomplete. We arc currently attempting to verify neuro- physiologically what has been establishetl mor- prologitally. Nitrogen Requirement.s of a Colorles.s l‘r()tf)Z()an Flagellate Roger W. Hanson, University of Alabama Medical Center, Birmingham Of 32 organic nitrogen compounds tested, in¬ cluding most amino acids and their amides, pur¬ ines, pyrimidines and other related compounds, none was capable of satisfying the nitrogen de¬ mands of Astasia chattoni. a colorless Euglenoid flagellate, unless free ammonia was liberated. It was found that concentrations of ammonia above 2 mg.N% were toxic, whereas media containing .3 mg.N^c ammonia was sufficient to allow optimal growth in acetate concentra¬ tions of 100 mg.% (acetate being employed as the sole source of carbon ) . Further, of the amino acids tested, none was capable of being utilized as a source of carbon. The hydrogen ion concentration did not affect the inability of Astasia to utilize these com¬ pounds as sources of either nitrogen or carbon. The growth response elicited, by those nitrogen compounds which liberate ammonia, was pro¬ portional to the nesslerizable nitrogen present. Since glutmate is known to satisfy the nitro¬ gen demands of both the green and colorless strains of Englena gracillis var. hacillari\. a closely related form, it appeared that glutamic dehydrogenase determinations would possibly clarify the inability of Astasia to utilize gluta¬ mate as a substrate. These determinations indi¬ cated a cell impermiability since only homogen¬ ates reacted with glutmate as tested with methy¬ lene blue. A Simple Method of Screening for Antibiosis Ann Harvey and Marc.aret Green, Uni¬ versity of Alabama. Un/versily. The ideas presented in this paper grew out of an undergraduate project done m the UciMit- ment of Bacteriology and Medical I'cihnology at the University last spring and summer. Tlie problem was to find .in .intibiotic I rom .i sprues of soil microorganism in soil s.imples th.it h.id not been tested for .inlil''iosis be lore that time’, namely, soil samples I rom this gener.il \Kinit\’. Since the most [Metmismg mie re'org.iniMns m the' production ot antibieitie s ,ire tlie .le t iiuinn e ete ' ( proekicers ol streptonnein, te rr.innein. .iiul .lureomye in ) , their e h.ir.u te list u s weie '-tuehe.l in oreler to isol.ite the in t rom seiil. 1 he nietluid ot isolation is simple': |■'enlreel pl.ites e'l i.isem.ite' ag.tr .ire m.iele' with ihlutums of the' 'e'll s.un pies. Wlien the' eolomes ol mu reie'rg.ini>ms h.i\e' .ippeareel, tlu' .lelineinn'eetes m.i\ be e.isih feeeig- nizc'il by their pigments, elusi\ di\ and eip,K]Ue eoKinies, ,iiul their e h.ir.ie te i ist u e.irtln evK'i . 84 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Once the actinomycetes are isolated, a simple screening against several type organisms may be carried out using a modified anaxogramic meth¬ od (Waksman). On a poured agar plate a cen¬ tral streak ol the actinomycete culture was made with a bacteriological loop. When it grew up, live streaks of the type organisms {Bdc/lh/s s//h- J/hts. Escbeyicb/a col:. Sa! n/onelLi typbosa. Mr cvococcns pyogenes var aureus. Corynehacteri- um t//}i/esteiis ) were made on both side of the central streak at ri Dmina \ar\iim Slagccs of Kluniinaloicl Vrlhrilis D.vviti Pi att, K. Lemoni d'li iniNc., How .cro L. IIOLI.EV and W'aro I'u.man, McJic.d Col¬ lege anil School of Pcnli.Ur). l'nivcr. ktHH' e.il mede 88 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science was observed below 24°C. The change of the Michaclis constant witli (.hanging temperature was investigated. The con¬ stant was found to vary from 0.0011 molar at 21°C. to 0.00023 molar at 60°C. The kinetics of heat inactivation of the en¬ zyme were studied and the thermodynamic quan¬ tities involved were evaluated. I’he free energy of activation for the process was found to be near 23,000 cal per mole, the entropy of activa¬ tion 30 cal per mole and the heat of activation 26,000 cal per mole. These values are relatively low for protein denaturation. 'I'he Reactions of Isocyanates With LTeas and I’relhans W. B. Bennett, J. H. Saunders, and Edgar E. Hardy, i\{o)iuuUo Chemical Company, An¬ niston, Alahama. The reactions of isocyanates with substituted urea and urethan groups is of primary import¬ ance in the curing of "Vukollan" rubber, the highly abrasion-resistant polyester-isocyanate rub¬ ber. Eor this reason, both a qualitative and a quantitative understanding of the reaction is de¬ sirable. Lakra and Dams [J. Am. Chem. Soc. 51, 2220 (1929)] studied qualitatively the reactions of phenyl isocyanate with several ureas. The ecjuations below indicate the principal products obtained. 4 hr PhNCO + PhNHCONH, - > PhNHCONHPh, PhNHCONHCONHPh . PhNHCONHCONH, PhNCO + PhNHCCNHPh _ _ > PhNHCON(Ph)CONHPh 150’ PhNCO + PhNHCOOCjHj - PhNHCONHPh 17C3' PhNCO + C2H5NHCOOC2H5 - ! - > PhNHCONHPh The reactions with urethans were also inves¬ tigated with the typical results indicated in the following equations. In order to obtain quantitative information the rate of reaction between two aromatic iso¬ cyanates and typical substituted ureas and ure¬ thans in dilute dichlorobenzene solution was studied at 60-l40°C. The reaction between phe¬ nyl or o-tolyl isocyanate with phenylurea or car- banilide appeared to be second order. The data obtained at different temperatures did not agree with the Arrhenius rate equation, probably in¬ dicating a change in the course of the reactions taking place as the temperature was raised. The reactions between the isocyanates and simple urethans did not follow a simple order kinetically. In the dilute solutions used the ure¬ thans reacted at a rate about 1/200 as fast as the ureas. Tertiary amines, which catalyse the reactions of isocyanates with alcohols, acids and water, had no significant catalytic effect on the reac¬ tions with ureas and urethans. Conductivity of Uranyl SuTate and Uranyl Flu¬ oride in Aqueous Solution Robert D. Brown, University of Alahama and Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The conductance of uranyl sulfate in aqueous solution has been studied at 0°, 25°, 50°, and 90° C in concentrations ranging from 10“"^ to 7.25 N; uranyl fluoride has been studitd at 0°, 25°, 50°, and 90° in similar concentration. Both substances prove to be weak electrolytes. The ec|uivalent conductance at infinite dilu¬ tion of uranyl sulfate at several temperatures has been calculated assuming incomplete dis¬ sociation even in dilute solution. A value of Ao25° ecjual 210 ohms“"^ cm- has been obtained when no correction is made for the conductivity of H'-ion present from hydrolysis. Correction for H + -ion leads to a value of 132 ohms^ ^ cm- for Ao25°, which appears to give a more reasonable value for A,iUOi^ The degree of dissociation of uranyl sulfate into simple ions has been calculated from conductivity data and a tentative value for fzb, the mean activity co¬ efficient, has been calculated. These values have been used to determine K, the dissociation con¬ stant for the process. Finally, the heat of dis¬ sociation, the free energy and entropy of dis¬ sociation have been calculated. No fruitful evaluation of the data on uranyl fluoride has been made other than to show that the increase in equivalent conductance with tem¬ perature is due to the decrease in viscosity of the solvent. Characteristics of a Fractional Distillation Col¬ umn With a Partial Condensation Still Head Dean Calloway, E. L. Grove, and James L. Kassner, University of Alabama, Univer- Mty. A fractional distillation column with a par¬ tial condensation still head was designed, con¬ structed, and tested. The column was 99 cm. long and 13 mm. in diameter and was packed with six-turn Nichrome-wire helices manufac¬ tured by Podbielniak, Inc. The column was tested for theoretical plates with mixtures of n-heptane and methylcyclohex- ane and was found to have about 60 theoretical plates under the best operating conditions at total reflux. The operating holdup for the col¬ umn was about I6 ml. and the pressure drop was less than 2 mm. of mercury. Abstracts — Che m istry 89 N-Acyl Amino Acids: A New Class of Resolv¬ ing Agents H. D. DeWitt, The CheiintranJ Corpora¬ tion, Decatur. Alabama. The development of the art of resolution has been accompanied at all stages by the search for effective resolving agents. For the resolution of racemic bases several of the optically active N-acyl amino acids have proved to be valuable additions to the list of readily available acidic- resolving agents. The resolution of various nat¬ urally occurring and synthetic bases has been accomplished in good yields by the use of such compounds at N-acetyl-L-leucine, N-acetyl-3,5' dibromo-L-tyrosine and similarly substituted amino acids. The most promising of the N-acyl derivatives at the present time are the N-acetyl and the N-benzenesulfonyl. Among the bases which has been successfully resolved are dl- cc - phenylethylamine,, dl- oc -phenyl n. propylamine and dl- oc -fenchylamine. The preparation and general characteristics of the N-acyl amino acids are briefly discussed. The Effects of Certain Alkali Compounds in the Burning of Powdered Graphite Samples E. L. Grove and J. A. Norris, University of Alabama and the Oak Ridge National Labo¬ ratory. Effects of fluoride, chloride, and sulfate com¬ pounds of Li, Na, and K were studied in the burning of powdered graphite standards con¬ taining oxides of Si, Al, Fe, and carbonates of Ba and Ca. The procedure consisted of burning a one milligram graphite-oxide standard mixed with nine milligrams of various ratios of the compound and graphite powder. Center drilled 3/l6-inch diameter lower electrodes with very thin walls were used and the samples burned to completion in a 3 ampere, 2400 volt a.c. arc. Moving plate studies of the various standard elements in the mixtures gave intormation on the smoothness of burning, time rccjuired, and completeness of burning. Fluorides of Li, Na, and K produced spccto- grams with less background than the other salts. Also, the LiF and NaF enhanced the arc lines more and suppressed the spark lines more than the other compounds. Ratios of one part salt to seven parts graphite did not produce effective CN band suppression; however, a ratio of about two to five yiehled good results. LiF appears to be the most effec¬ tive. The use of ecjuivalent weights of Li for the different salts did not produce ecjual suppression effects. The Chemistry of Polymerization of the Acrylics GeorCiE E. FIam, 7 he Chem strand Corpora¬ tion. Di catur, Alabama. The significant fiber properties of the acrylics such as high tenacity, solvent resistance and spinnability from solution ai-e correlated with chemical structure. Observations on second or¬ der transition temperature, theoretical melting point, heat of fusion, entropy of fusion and co¬ hesive energy density are made. The effect of molecular weight on general fiber properties is considered. The copolymerization of acrylonitrile with other monomers is treated in some detail with emphasis on reactivity ratios in copolymerization and relationship to monomer structure. I'he ef¬ fect of copolymerization on fiber properties is also discussed. Free, radical, carbonium, and carbanionic cata¬ lysis in acrylonitrile polymerization are compared with regard to polymerization method and co¬ polymer formation. The role of azo and persul¬ fate catalysts in aqueous polymerization is dis¬ cussed. Aqueous, nonaqueous, mass, solution, and solvent-non-solvent polymerization of acry¬ lonitrile is treated. Dyeability of acrylonitrile compositions with acid dyes is correlated with basic comonomer structure. The copolymerization characteristics of acrylonitrile with certain basic monomers are discussed with respect to influence of basicity, catalysis, and structure. Alternative means of producing basic acrylic compositions are treated. Aminated methyl Gnyl ketone copolymers, allyl glycidal ether copoly¬ mers and methallyl chloroacetate copolymers are discussed. Some observations on future trends in the study of acrylonitrile polymerization are made. Hydrophilic acrylic compositions (ijnd plasticiza¬ tion for spinning purposes are considered. High-Frequency IVIeasurenienls As Applied to Titrimetry * H. W. Hammi;, L. L. GroxI' ,uuI |. 1.. K.vss- ni-:r, U n/rersity of Alabama. Un/urnt). I he H-h conductance and susccpt.iiue w ere measured tor certain coil-type cont.iiiurs used m high-t rcc|uc'iu )' tec hnic|ues ' cw c r .i r.uige cU t requeue ies. At a ccrt.nn n.iridw Irccjuencv b.iiul, or bands depending on the coil, there appcaiw a sharyi maximum, or maxim.i. cit coiuliKtaiue acconqsanied b\' a sudden dic'p then rise- c't the susceptaiue values. It pure water is added tci tiu container (which represents an increase in the over-all c.ip.u it.uu e ol the ccnl't the ccMidiutance 'Tlu.s nssi'.-ui'li snpi'orloil l>v viopilr l';iu'ri;v 90 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science and capacitante maxima shift to a lower fre- cjLiency. If the distilled water is replaced with a dilute electrolyte the peak, or peaks, is shifted to a still lower frequency. This narrow band represents a region of high sensitivity and ap¬ pears to be a function of the type and size of the coil, the solvent and its concentration, and the distributive capacity between the coil and its case. Different electrolytes cause the H-F conduct¬ ance maxima to shift different amounts. Thus, the shape of various titration curves can be pre¬ dicted depen^ling on whether the H P conduct¬ ance drops or rises to the salt value and then rises and drops as an increasing amount of the titrant is added. A Volumetric Determination of Sulfate James L. Kassner, Estelle O. Jackson and Ms'kon E. Calkins, Universily of Alahannu U niveys/ty. A rapid and accurate volumetric method for the determination of moderate quantities of sul¬ fate has been developed. The method involves only three steps: the removal of metallic ions by passing the sample through a bed ot a strong acid cation exchange resin; the precipitation of the sulfate ions by the .iddition ot an excess of a standard lead nitrate solution; the titration of the excess lead ions with a standard trisodium phosphate solution. A special mixed indicator prepared from i. hlorophenol red and alphazurene dye is used to adjust the pH of the solution before the lead nitrate is added and to indicate the end point. The method has been applied successfully to synthetic samples containing ao to 200 mg. .of sulfate. The Amadori Rearrangement Applied To Dark ening of Glycosylamines Lawrence Rosen and Ward Pigman, Bio- chennstry Departuient. Medical College and School of Dentistry. University of Alabama Aledical Center. Birmingham . The extension of our results ( }ACS 75, 3460 (1953) in which the darkening of N-phenyl-D- glucosylamine was reported has been extended to other glycosylamines. In general, the darken¬ ing characteristics of N-alkyl and N-aryl deriva¬ tives of glucosylamines show marked differ¬ ences in acid and basic solutions. Representative of the alkyl derivatives is N-butyl-D-glucosyla- mine (glucosylbutyD amine) which exhibits no darkening under acid conditions, but does darken under basic conditions. I’he darkening of 1-deoxy-l-p-toluidino-D-fruc- tose, the Amadori rearrangement product of glucosyl-p-toluidine has also been studied. It has been found to be stable to acids and labile un¬ der basic conditions. This is opposed to the darkening characteristics of glucosyl-p-toluidine which IS labile to acids but stable to bases. The significance of these and other findings will be discussed. Synthetic F'iber Developments Frank J. Sodav and Patrick H. Hobson, The Chem strand Corporation, Decatur. A general discussion is given of the develop¬ ment of synthetic fibers, with emphasis on the acrylics. The need for synthetic fibers, and the outlook for these fibers is pointed out. The im¬ portance of the South as a location for the syn¬ thetic fiber industry is outlined. The Low Temperature Polymerization of Vinyl Monomers J. S. Tapp, 1 he Chemstrand Corporation, De¬ catur. This is a review paper. The monomers dis¬ cussed are divinyl (butadiene) and vinyl benzene (styrene). The properties of the copolymer arc related to the conditions of polymerization. The two conditions are polymerization at 5()oC and at 5<^C in a water emulsion. Some probable explanations are proposed for the superior elastomer quality secured at the lower polymerization temperature. The mechan¬ ism of reaction is reviewed briefly to illustrate how a lower temperature may give a structur¬ ally different copolymer. Determination of Water in Fuming Nitric Acid By Infrared Absorption Locke White, Jr. and William J. Barrett, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham . Water in fuming nitric acid can be deter mined by absorption at a wavelength of 1.42 microns in ‘S-mm glass cells. Within an uncer¬ tainty of about +0.25% in water contents up to at least 5%, the absorption is independen*^ of the concentration of nitrogen dioxide (up t at least 8%)) and dissolved salts of iron, nickel chromium, or aluminum (up to at least 2%)) If allowance is made for the self-dissociation of the nitric acid and ionization of the nitrogen dioxide, the uncertainty can be reduced by about half. Most of the experimental work was done with a Beckman DU spectrophotometer modi¬ fied to use a lead-sulfide photoconductive cell. Recent work has shown, however, that equiva¬ lent results can be obtained with two conven¬ tional interference filters in series as the wave- length-selective element. The filters used are Abstracts — Chemistry, Geology and Anthropology ncininallv supplied for use at 720 millimicrons, their second-order transmission peak, but the first-order transmissions are good enough for this analysis. A Proposed 3Iechanism for the Base-Catalyzed Decomposition of Benzenesulfonyl Hydroxyla- mine |ames W. Woods, AiedicJ College and the School of Dentistry, University of Alabanui Aiedlcdl Center. Birnihighani . The reaction between benzenesulfonyl chlo¬ ride and hydroxylamine to yield benzenesul¬ fonyl hydroxylamine ( I ) was discovered inde¬ pendently by Pilot)' and Divers, although the trivial name "Piloty’s Acid" has been given to this compound. In addition to benzenesulfonyl hydroxylamine, Piloty characterized a diacetyl derivative of this compound, as well as sodium and potassium salts. The latter could not be obtained in a pure condition because of their ready decomposition into a gas and benzenesulphinic acid. This de¬ composition was studied by Angeli, who found that aromatic amines formed diazo compounds when added to (I), while both aldehydes and ketones yielded hydromaxic acids. Hantzsch reacted O-methyl and O-benzylhy- droxylamine with benzenesulfonyl chloride, and found that the resulting compounds were stable to base. We have prepared Hantzsch’s O-methyl compound by reacting ( I ) with diazomethane and found it bast stable. It has also been found that when ( I ) is re¬ acted with acetic anhydride in cold aqueous so¬ dium acetate a mono-acetyl derivative is formed, which is itself an excellent acetylating agent, yielding as one of the products benzenesulfanic acid. The structure of this mono-acetyl com¬ pound will be discussed. On the basis of the available information, the following mechanism for the base catalyzed de¬ composition is proposed: C,H,SO.-NH-OH + B -> C,;H,SOo-NH-OI + HB QjHjSOo^NH-OI ^ C, H,SO., • HN-O This mechanism can be extended to several similar reactions, including the McFadden-Ste- vens synthesis of aldehydes. SECTION III GEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY Effect of Type of Climate in Evolution Frank Dachille, Chemical Eng/neer. Pen¬ sacola, Florida. Factors determining the overall climate of the earth are discussed to develop the relative ef¬ fects of oceans, atmosphere, daily rotation, or¬ bital motion and inclination of the axis to the ecliptic. Types of climate are then described to dil ferentiate between local or superficial forms ami the types of planetary nature. The majoi types of climate, based on the inclination of the axi:i .’.re described, tracing the seasons for eacli hemi¬ sphere (North and South). The effect of speed of daily rotation is superimposed to demonstrate the varieties of climates possible. A correlation is made of the main features ot the dominant forms of life on tire e\'olutionary scale with the optimum type of Himate. The reality of axis change for the earth is considered usiny a background ol astronomie.il and geological evidence. Geologic Aspects of Rotational Properties of the Earth Frank Dachille, Chemical Eng/neer. P^nci- cola, Florida. A brief discussion is given ot the important geological processes that determine the surLuc features of the earth — erosion, scelimentation, volcanic activity, iseastatic taulting. The eurrent views on the internal structure ot the earth are presented, followed b)' a stud\- ol the es]uih brium figure ot the spheroid. Displ.kement ot the ec|uihbrium figure is considered to show tlu- wide range of acti\it\' possible oxer tlie surt.ue and through the boilv ot die e.uth. Prominent teatures siu h ,is the Grand ( anxon. I .iki Iku - k.il Mississip|si Rixer .iiul N’alkx. Hudson Wil¬ ley, Aral Sea ,11 j discussed .ig.iinst the b.uk- ground ol displ,K(.nu nt ot tlu- cqudibrnim tic ure. ’File long-r.uige c rosion-isost.u \' pro..i.sM.N .uc lompared witli the meih.inisnis inherent witli disru|stion ot niinlibrnim ligure ot tlu e.irtli b\ xirtue ot nutioru .utixitx. .\ d(. nionsiration ol this aHixitx' IS gixcn bv di.igr.uns. 92 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Alabama Archaeology: A Summary David L. DeJarnette, Mound Stale Aionn- nient. iWoinidviHe. The details of the stratigraphic archaeologic picture in Alabama have not as yet been inter¬ preted. Present studies indicate certain trends only. The most perceptible trend is a general¬ ized chronology in which the tollowing secjuence is indicated: Archaic (pre-pottery); Transitional Archaic. Early Woodland (introduction of pot¬ tery); Hopewellian and Middle Mississippian. I'hese horizons as they appear in Alabama are described briefly in this talk. The Archaic hori¬ zon is represented m shell heaps along the Ten¬ nessee River. I'he Transitional Archaic and Early Woodland period marked the introduction of pottery into the region of Alabama and the first widespread occupation of the state and later stages of this period marked the first con¬ struction of burial mounds. The Middle Wood¬ land and Hopewellian period in Alabama marks the introduction of new pottery types and the appearance ot a specialized burial-ceremonial complex called Copcna. The I’ransitional Wood¬ land period marks the introduction of more new pottery types into Alabama. The Middle Mis¬ sissippi period in Alabama marks the most ex¬ tensive aboriginal occupation of the state; the highest aboriginal cultural stage attained, charac¬ terized by agriculture, temple mounds, highly developed arts and industries; and a decline du¬ ring which the custom ol burying in pottery urns came into use in south-central Alabama. I"ort Mims, Near Stockton. Baldwin County, Alabama Walter B. Jones, State Geologist, Univer- .1//), Alabama. Although the massacre at Eort Mims on Au¬ gust 30, 1813, was the worst in our history, the actual site was unknown until the Conser¬ vation Department uncovered most of the pali¬ sade late m 193 3. The site is near Boatyard (Tensas) lake, just where old accounts indicate. Both old wells are visible, in the form of slight depressions of the wooded area inside the fort. The block house on the south side was un¬ covered. The eastern extension some 60 feet wide, for quartering the troops, is mostly in planted fields and was not excavated. Thus the details of the eastern gate, where the Indian h.orde entered, are still hidden. Of the some 363 people, settlers, militia and slaves, in the fort, only 20 to 50 escaped death. Many Indians were killed, but the final outcome was never in doubt. Earl M. McGowin, Director of Conserva¬ tion, is considering complete reconstruction of the fort. It can be done with great accuracy. Turk’s Cave, Near Brooklyn, Conecuh County, Alabama Walter B. Jones, State Geologist, Univev- sity, Alabama. The longest ( 1093 ) and largest of 8 Ala¬ bama coastal plain caves known to the writer, Turk’s Cave is widely known as a hideout for highwayman Joseph Thompson Hare, who op¬ erated in the area about 1800. The cave is lo¬ cated in a low ridge of Marianna Limestone of Eocene age, and is surrounded on three sides by swamps. Roof near the front is 20 feet high, in a rounded room some 40 feet in diameter. At the end of the room a narrow, winding pas¬ sage extends to the farthest point explored where the cave roof was only 1 1/2 feet high. Fauna in the cave consisted of a few bats, beetles, spiders, and as.sorted insects. Of the beetles a nice series of Rhadine is probably new and an interesting Tachys may be new. A good series of Pselaph/ds is likely not new. Geology Speaks to Anthropology Frederick K. Morris, Re.searcb Studies In- stitnte. Alaxwell Air force Base. Alabama. These two sciences have always worked well together, and I offer some thoughts for servants of both disciplines to weigh. Geology has helped her sister-science to read records of changes in climates, landforms, and water-bodies. But these are not within my purpose today. Our studies of the time-scale since, say, Joseph Barrell’s classic paper in 1917 have steadily enlarged the lapses of time tliat we must assign to the earth’s history. When the available time was short, we had to accept rapid changes as the causes of evolution, and we rejected as illogical any theory that proposed slowly operating changes — exactly because they were slow. When new studies in geology put twenty years for each single year that in I91O we dared assign to Tertiary time, the very logic of our reasoning felt the impact of the change and we must abandon theories that we had accepted when the available time- scale was short. The history of mankind has shared the stretch of the time-scale; and the first inference that we are forced to draw is that evolution takes place slowly — so slowly that many of our studies, not only in anthropology but even in dated history must re-examine their inferences as to cause and effect. Abstracts — Geography and Conservation 93 SECTION IV GEOGRAPHY AND CONSERVATION Climate and Irrigation in Alabama Arthur R. Long, U. S. W'eather Binean. A[o>itgome)y. Alabama has an average annual rainfall of 53.44 inches — more than in most large areas of the world, but its distribution leaves much to be desired. From 1884 through 1952, the annu¬ al amount of precipitation ranged from 75.77 inches in 1929 to 39-48 inches in 1904. Local droughts may occur in the wettest years and dur¬ ing any season of the year. The purpose of this paper is to emphasize the erratic distribution of rainfall, as w'ell as the normally unfavorable seasonal distribution, and to show some of the advantages of irrigation as demonstrated by ex¬ perimental w’ork done by officials of Alabama Polytechnic Institute and others. In recent years, irrigation systems have been installed by some Alabama farmers to counteract droughts. Irriga¬ tion, and perhaps the planting of some drought- resistant crops, appear to be the only practicable way of counteracting droughts. Progress in Soil and Water Conservation in Ala¬ bama O. C. Medlock, State Conservationrit , Soil Conservation Service. Auburn. Soil and water conservation work by the Federal government was begun in Alabama in 193-i — just twenty years ago this spring. The Alabama Legislature passed the soil con¬ servation district act in 1939 — just fifteen years ago. This act enabled the farm land owners of this state to organize soil conservation districts through which they could take the leadership in conserving and using wisely their soil and w'ater resources. Districts began to be organized immediately and by 1941 — thirteen years ago — the entire state was organized into twelve dis¬ tricts. Alabama was the first state to be com¬ pletely organized into districts. In order that we all understand each other, I will give you a definition of soil conservation as a noted Statesman and Jurist of tlic early part of this century would have defined it. "Soil conservation is the economic use of our soil and water resources for the greatest benefit to tlie largest number over the longest time." The Soil Conservation Service that I repre¬ sent is a Federal agent) of the U. S. Depart¬ ment of Agriculture. Congress gave this agent y the responsibility for giving farmers letlmit.il assistance in using each acre of agricultural land within its capability and treating each acre in accordance with its needs for protection and improvement. Since districts were organized the Service has rendered its assistance to farmers through dis¬ tricts. The Service helps farmers with their soil and water problems in three ways; (1) It helps the farmer take stock of his soil resources by mak¬ ing a soil survey of his farm. This survey shows the use each field or area of the farm is best suited for — whether it is suited to row crops, pasture, hay, woodland or wildlife. (2) The Service helps the farmer plan the use of each part of his farm so it will contribute most to his income and remain productive. ( 3 ) The Ser¬ vice helps the farmer apply those soil-conserv¬ ing practices he needs technical help in apply¬ ing. The Service, during the last fifteen years, has helped farmers make conservation plans on 9,- 080,530 acres of land. This is 43 percent of all land farms in Alabama. Farmers on these farms, with help of the Ser¬ vice, have terraced 859,819 acres. They have developed and seeded 1,116,754 acres of pas¬ ture. They have planted 380,153 acres of sericea and 88,609 acres of kudzu for soil protection hay, and grazing. They have planted 171,933 acres of perennial grasses and alfalfa. Tliey have planted 49,520.000 pine seedlings. They have built and stocked with fish 5,076 ponds. I'liev have drained 245,582 acres of wet land. Farmers throughout their districts ha\e made great progress and are now in position to speed up this important job. The soil and water re¬ sources of our nation must be conserved if we are to properly feed and clothe our rapidh’ in¬ creasing population and if we make the contri¬ bution to world peace all of us want this nation to make to that all-important rause. Schdol and Coinniimily I’rojoi’ts — Uosulls of Conservation Teaehini; in Alabama Emi'i. M.-\rsh.\i,i , Al.ib.in.'.! CoHlii^. vallo. Seieiue, Our ('baiiRin,!* Feonoms and (Dnseiwa- I ion R. V. Mills, |r., Ciulj 1 P.!jur ( ' t 'I r-,; !//>)/. Tu \i .iloo\.i. Al.ih.un.:. For some time, .is espeualh' obseiwid in the past dca.ule, the pattern ot the caononn of the 94 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science South has been experiencing gradually accelerat¬ ed. beneficial change, d'his paper briefly dis¬ cusses the effect of our changing economy and its import on potential forest conservation en¬ deavor, with special emphasis directed to Ala¬ bama. The movement does not, however, limit itself to any particular political, social, or geo¬ graphic segment of the South, but amply rami¬ fies throughout the regional Southland. The ele¬ ment of change has essentially been created by the industrial expansion within the area, and its ccnsec|uent import on the income level of the laboring population, with emphasis upon the farm and rural laborers ot the economy. This segment of the national economy has in the past been noted for its low per capita income and its generally low level of economics. Authoritative literature reports that funda¬ mentally this problem of low per capita income can be overcome by increasing productivity and \'alue of output by industry and agriculture. The industrialization of the South is therefore creat¬ ing a circumstance whereby the value of output per worker is higher. It also means an agricul¬ tural economy of fewer marginal and sub-mar¬ ginal farm units, since the industrialization ex¬ pansion tends to alleviate the problem of farm labor surplus to permit larger output per capita and with greater diversification in crops. Statistics reveal that 5^ per cent, or 7 million of Alabama’s 20 million acres of commercial forest land is owned by the farmers of the state. Thus farmers, especially the small woodlot cate¬ gory, impose influences upon the state’s forest industries. A further import to the forest indus¬ try is the fact that small farmers (farmer wood- lot owners) have in the past failed to recognize acceptable management of his forest land. This failure on the part of the woodland owner’s recognition of good forest practice is not neces¬ sarily a reflection of his managerial ability; rather it is principally the failure of his accom¬ panying economic environment to attain and sus¬ tain a level to which current personal income and assets satisfy current personal wants. Fortunately the industrial expansion is im¬ proving the economic environment of the rural and urban (including the woodlot farmer) labor population. This improvement has permitted the woodlot farmer to increase output to a de¬ gree that will sustain income commensurate with his current wants. It is this circumstance caused by the changing economy that will permit the farmer to look upon his woodland acreage from the investment and "savings” aspect. It then becomes possible for the farmer to grasp, accept and, most important, practice sound forest con¬ servation. As a matter of observance, this change has already created economic conditions that permit acceptance and practices of good forest conser¬ vation. However, if this trend is expected to be maintained and move forward to its potential level of acceptance, the need for scientific and technical facilities is intensified. To meet this need commands a supply of technically and sci¬ entifically trained manpower commensurate with potential development and advancement in in¬ dustry and agriculture. The supply of trained manpower would permit the establishment and expansion of research facilities and programs needed for guiding and advancing the forward movement of our changing economy. French Morocco’s Mining Industry J. Allen Tower, BirDinighaDi-Sonthern Col¬ lege, Birmnigbaiii . I’rench Morocco is trying to expand produc¬ tion in the various sectors of its economy, es¬ pecially in irrigated agriculture and in manu¬ facturing, in order to support on a rising stand¬ ard of living its rapidly growing population which now numbers 9 million. To help pay the equipment cost, and to provide additional em¬ ployment, there has been rapid expansion of the mining industry since the war. Mineral exports increased 50 percent in tonnage and 100 per¬ cent in value from 1948 to 1951; in 1951 they constituted 82.7 percent of all export tonnage and 36.8 percent of all export value. The chief export minerals are phosphates, lead, zinc, and manganese, plus small amounts of iron and cobalt ore. In phosphates product¬ ive capacity is over 20 percent of world capac¬ ity, in lead about 8, zinc 6, and manganese 10. The Bou Bekr lead-zinc mine is now the third largest such mine in the world, and is perhaps the most modern mine-and-mill combination in the lead-zinc industry. Developments in coal and petroleum production have replaced part of the fuels formerly imported. As a result of this rapid post-War expansion, employment in mining doubled in 1945-1951, and now directly supports about 3 percent of the population. In addition to being a major earner of foreign exchange, the industry also contributes to the Government in taxes and profits about 16 percent of its ordinary revenue. Abstracts — Physics and Mathematics 95 SECTION V PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS Secondary Emission From Negative Ion Bombardment Howard S. Barringer and William H. Bancroft, Alaba^ia Polytechiiic Institute, Au¬ burn. A nier-type 60 degree sector spectrometer, using a newly designed ion collector, has been used to investigate the secondary emissions ejected from a nickel target under negative ion bombardmenr Retardation analysis of the secondary electrons from Br“, Cl'“ and Br+ ions on Ni indicates that the secondary emission possess very low energies. Comparative measurements of the sec¬ ondary emission coefficients from Br ^ and Cl ^ show that the coefficients are greater for Cl ^ over all energy intervals between 300 and 2000 electron volts. Comparisons of the secondary emissions of Br+ and B~ ions show a larger coefficient for the negative ion between 300 and 860 eV incident energies, while between 860 and 2000 eV incident energies, the positive ion exhibits a higher coefficient. Negative Ion Formation by Electron Impact Clarence D. Bond, Alabama Polytechnic In¬ stitute, Auburn. The dissociative ionization processes, involved in the formation of negative ions of chlorine and bromide under electron bombardment, have been investigated using a Nier-type 60'^ mass spectrometer. The analysis consisted primarily of a determination of the onset potentials and energetics of the various modes of formation of Cl~ and Br~ from CCl,, CL, and Br,. Kinetic energy measurements were facilitated by the use of a retarding potential applied to tlic ion collector plate. The relative energy distribu¬ tions of the capture and non-capture processe.^ have been studied, and an attempt has been made to correlate ionization efficiency curves with retarding potential curves. An Attempt To Determine the Geometry of Visual Space by Experiment Henry Gerhardt, University Center, Mobile. Binocular vision will create a visual space and it is possible to investigate its geometric iharac- ter. A very interesting investigation was under¬ taken at Dartmouth Eye Institute by K. K. l.uiie- burg. His Alalhen/atical Analysis of Ivnocul.i: Vision is the subject of this paper. The first problem is to find a coordination of the sensed points of a visual sensation to the points of a geometrical manifold. A coordina¬ tion of this type is called a psychometric ' co¬ ordination. If instead of sensed form and locali¬ zation we measure physical form and physical localization: we will have the physical space. Experiments carried out at the Dartmouth Eye Institute shows, that it would be futile to express the relation of visual and physical space in the form of an one-to-one correspondence, but for the differential or primitive size sensa¬ tions we can assume a functional dependence upon the corresponding differentials of the stim¬ uli. Luneburg uses Gauss and Riemans theory about the metric of geometric manifolds with constant curvature and establishes a metric for the visual space. With suitable chosen observations he comes to the conclusion, that the geometry ot the visual space is Non-Euclidean, and especially the type called hyperbolic geometry. It is interesting, that in his formulas two in¬ dividual constants enter, which would indicate: there exist significant personal differences in the relation of physical and visual perception. Visual space is a space of constant curvature, but in principle it is possible to find observers with Euclidean, elliptic or hyperbolic \isual space. For us there is still the big cjucstion: can experiment determine, which of the consistent geometrical system is true: According to Poincare, even if astronomical observations would prove, that the sum of the angles ol a triangle is not exactly ec]ual to two right angles, this phenomenon would be more easily explained by assuming, that light doc- not travel m a straight line, chat b)- gi\ inu up Euc lidcan geometry. \ Study <»f llu> I'aramotors of a ('outiiiuoiisl.N Operalinj*' DilTusioii Cloud Cliamboi' John E. Kix’i's, .■[l.ibama Pol):cchn,\ Inst.-.:.... An bun/. A study ol the opca'.iting cciiulituins c't .i dillusion cloud c h.imber h.is been in\ estic.itccl ♦or the purpose ol determining the \arious ef lei Is upon the lorm.ilion of ion tr.uks b\ \ar\ ing the lemper.iture gradient, xapeu. peonuire ol the ch.imbcr ,uul the cc'ciline sc'uice. Most ol the wcuk h.i' bec'n spent c'n K'Wci ing the temperature of lhc‘ coKI portion c'l (he ihamber witli suitable coolants. Solid c.irbon di oxide w.is lirsi used with succcsc and then i 96 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science mixture of solid water and sodium chloride was introduced to the lower plate of the chamber. d'his paper will discuss the results obtained by carrying out this work, the optimum condi¬ tions found, and a few of the advantages and disadvantages of the changes made. Oscillographic Display of Transitor Character¬ istic Curves Carl David I’ddd, Alabama Polytechnic hi- \liliile. Anh/ioi. An automatic means whereby the characteris¬ tic curves of any type transistor may be plotted on the screen of a standard laboratory oscillo¬ scope is described. By use of this method, tran¬ sistors may be cpiickly and easily tested lor any defea ts or the method may be used merely for use in demonstrating the different characteris¬ tics of transistors. The device described contains basically a sweep voltage supply, a bias current supply, and a resistor network in order that a voltage might be obtained which is proportional to the current drawn by the transistor under test. The output of the curve tracer is composed of two voltages, one proportional to the indepen¬ dent variable and the ther proportional to the dependent variable One voltage is fed to the horizontal input of an oscilloscope and the other voltage is fed to the vertical input. Several dif¬ ferent possible variations of the curve tracer are mentioned in addition to a detailed description of its use for plotting collector current as a function of the collector voltage. Finally, a simple and inexpensive method whereby the curves may be recorded is described. SECTION VI INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS ('alhoun County Glass Making Sand Pi-TER A. Brannon, Departmoit of Archives a}hl H/'.lory. Montgomery. Tire writer sets out a history of investigations made by him relative to a glass factory which existed in d’allapoosa, Georgia, about the Ala¬ bama line from a period of the early 8()’s until the shutdown of the turnace in 1917. A com¬ pany imported glass blowers from several fac¬ tories in the East and opened a furnace west of Tallapoosa, Ga., which subsequently became the Pioneer Glass Company, later the Mountain City Glass Company, subsequently the Dixie Glass Company, and finally a plant of the Chattanooga Bottle and Glass Company. It was brought out that they used sands from the eastern part of Colhoun County and from Lumber City, Geor¬ gia. They started out as a manufacturer of lamp chimneys and subsequently made soft drink bot¬ tles as well as beer bottles. As a hobby of the glass blowers, they produced paper weights, walking slicks, and various forms of ornamental glass. At one time there were 27 glass blowers working there. The Savings and Loan Association in the Com¬ munity George R. Byrgm, First Federal Savings and Loan Association. Birmingham . The Development of the Alabama Power Com¬ pany on the Coosa River A. S. Coleman, Alabama Power Company, i\{o)itgomery. 'I’he Effect of the Medical Center at Birming¬ ham on the Economy of Alabama Samuel R. Gibbons, Hon.wng Conn/ltant, Birmingham . Alabama has long been a leader in improving health standards and in the elimination of health hazards through the enforcement of minimum community standards for water and food supply. Alabama is unique in that it was the first state in the Union to have a County health depart¬ ment. However, Alabama is placed not far from the bottom in a list of 48 states with regard to most health criteria. Today, Alabama has one doctor for 1,36“) persons against the national average of one to each 748. Alabama has one dentist for each 4,683 persons, while the nation has one for each 1,000. The national average for registered nurses is one for each 33 5, where¬ as Alabama has one for each 847. Alabama has one hospital bed for each 412 inhabitants, whereas the national average is one for each 283. A recent report by the Research Council for Economic Security places Alabama among the 48 states as follows: 44th in mortality rates 46th in sanitation 42nd in draft rejectees 45th in medical facilities 45th in economic resources. Today, at the end of eight years of operation, the University Medical Center at Birmingham is playing a tremendous role m the state's wel¬ fare. To measure the effects that the Medical Center has upon the state’s welfare is difficult, but when all of the services rendered by the Abstracts — Industry and Economics, Science Education, Social Sciences 97 Medical Center can be measured or evaluated, there will be many dramatic stories of a life spared or health potential extended through modern medical science. Great progress is being made in Alabama towards the control of infec¬ tious diseases. Too, handicapped persons are being rehabilitated and trained to be useful workers through occupational therapy at the Medical Center. The eye clinic is saving count¬ less working hours and years in its effort to con¬ serve the sight of our people. Great strides are being made toward the control of TB, polio¬ myelitis, heart disease, cancer, lukemia, Addi¬ son’s disease, rheumatic fever and many other diseases. The Research Center, developed along with the Medical and Dental Colleges, has con¬ tributed and can be expected to continue to con¬ tribute a great deal toward the further control of the many diseases which have a crippling effect upon the economy of Alabama. Evaluation of Business Trends Carl Phillip Heartbhrg, E/n/ Nalinna! Bank. B/nn/Jighan/ . Arriving at Real Estate Values by Appraising George C. Starke, Starke Bros. Realty Co., Montgomery. SECTION VII SCIENCE EDUCATION Science Experiences for Elementary Teachers Ernest E. Snyder, State Teacher. \ College, Florence, Alabama. The purpose of this paper is to report an ef¬ fort to provide prospective elementary school teachers with adequate training in the physical sciences as a part of the general education pro¬ gram at the Florence State Teachers College. As is the case in many other colleges, it is econ¬ omically impractical to provide separate classes in physical science for elementary education ma¬ jors. 'The physical science course population here is made up of about 30 per cent elementary ma¬ jors and 70 per cent majors from every depart¬ mental field in the college. At Florence the two-semester general physical science course is organized as two class periods and a two-hour laboratory period each week. No attempt is made during the lecture periods to provide special instruction slant'=-d toward ele¬ mentary science education. During the labora¬ tory periods, however, the elementary majors meet apart from the other students in a com¬ bination classroom-laboratory especially designed for their use. Here the prospective elementary school teacher is given instruction in experi¬ ences selected for their value in the elementary school science program. Considerable use is made of the Bruce series of experiment booklets pub¬ lished by the National Science Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Until the students become familiar with the laboratory and its equipment they simul¬ taneously perform a series of simple experi¬ ments. After this short familiarization period the students perform selected experiments and indi¬ vidually demonstrate and discuss these before the group. In as far as is possible, the elementary labo¬ ratory is equipped with materials, apparatus, and facilities that are found in most elementary schools or which may be purchased loyally. SECTION VIII SOCIAL SCIENCES Human Relations in a Small Book Rubli.shing Firm Evei.x'N Barton, U nl versity oj Alabama, 1ns- caloosa. Role of Economic Change in an Aleutian Vil¬ lage Gerald D. Berreman, Ojjicer Fdncalio)i Re¬ search Laboratory, MaxiveU ABB, Alabai//a. This paper describes, on the basis ol empiri¬ cal research, how a specific change in one pliase of the economy of a small and isolated \illagc has had ramifications throughout the culture of that village. The community referred to is Nikol ski, in the Aleutian Islands. The Ui.uige is th.it from the trulitional one-man skin bo.it jbi- darky) to the large, wooden dor)-, adopted ( rom the Americans. The r.imit ii .itions iiulude loss ot loial self -sut I iiieiuy, p.irtial depuidsiu^ u[Ain .ilien money eionomv, deireas(.d >. oops r.Uu’in within the village, alter.ition m nu-.iiis .uul con¬ tent ol sultural tr.insmission, Ji.ingss m sosi.il organiz.ition .uul v.iUie s\slems. Tluss slutts .irs attested to by the rein.irks si| xill.igois tlu-m- selves, by lonsistsiit ds-v i.ituins I rom ulc.il lu'- ha\ ior patterns, .uul by dis.igrcement .unong \il lagers .is to s.uutionesi beli.ix ior. \'ill.ige sonlluts .uul. iiltim.iti lx . dipxxpul.i 98 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science lion have resulted. A combined historical and functional approach has brought to light the significant — although not necessarily causal — role of the bidarky-to-dory shift in these changes. Thus even an apparently restricted cultural change has ramifications throughout the culture. The Disintegration of the Clan Village in Had- wan, A Pathan F''arniing Village in Southwest \fghanistan Lot'ls Duprmh, Research St/uiies hist/l/ite. jWiixuell Air force Base, Aloiilgomery. Badwan {31°3'i'N, 6^°30'E) is one of the many small farming vdlages which he on both banks of the Helmand-Arghandab Rivers in southwest Afghanistan. The Pathan inhabitants C are Pushtu-speaking, Sunni Muslims. Five dif¬ ferent Pathan clan representatives, as well as some Sayyids ( "Descendants of the Phophet" ) and a Bakhtiari (from Iran) family live in Badwan. This was not always the case, however. Prior to the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880) the sedentary Pathans of south- central Afghanistan (Kandahar and Farah Pro- cinces) lived in clan villages; i.e.. all members of each village were members of the same clan. After 1880 the clan village system rapidly deteriorated. What happened is outlined below; ( 1 ) Afghanistan as we know it today did not exist until after 1880. Before that time it was divided into a number of independent, feuding tribal kingdoms. Both the British and Czarist Russian governments wanted a stable buffer zone to separate and delimit their respective penetrations into Central Asia. So modern Af¬ ghanistan was created, with Abdur Rahman as Amir. (2) Amir Abdur Rahman gave provincial and sub-provincial governorships to loyal underlings, who acejuired a semi-independent status as long as the reejuired taxes and conscripts were col¬ lected and forwarded to the Central Govern¬ ment in Kabul. (3) Governors began to contuse, consciously or unconsciously the right to collect taxes with legal ownership of land. The army "legalized" such transactions as the sale of village lands or the shifting of farmers to new villages. (4) This indiscriminate shifting led to a breakdown of tribal loyalties and a break-up of the clan village system. Scale .Analysis of Roll Call Voting in the U. S. House of Representatives Charles D. Farris, University of Alabama, 'fnscaloosa. A general "interest theory of political be¬ havior" can regard political parties (in multi¬ party areas) or factions within parties (in two- party areas) as institutionalized expressions of "interests." Apolication of Guttman’s scale analy¬ sis technicjue to 80 bi-partisan, non-unanimous roll calls in the House of Representatives of the 78th Congress yields 10 scales with coefficients of reproducibility of .937 or more.' The defini¬ tion ot further scales and a factor analysis of the matrix of all inter-scale correlations will yield the minimum dimensionality of political attitudes expressed in all non-unanimous roll call voting at this Congress. Factions are then de¬ fined in terms of the extremeness of members’ positions on each attitude dimension. Factions are also related to characteristics of consti¬ tuencies and to biographies of members. ' The research was aided by grants from Uni¬ versity of Alabama Research Committee and from the U niversity' s Bi/rea/i of Public Admin¬ istration. The Impact of Rapid Industrial Development on A Southern Community Harold E. Klontz, Alabama Polytechnic Inshtute, Anbtirn. In 1932 a pilot study, interdisciplinary in na¬ ture, was made of the impact of rapid industrial¬ ization upon the Childersburg, Alabama, com¬ munity. This study was neither definitive nor conclu¬ sive but was exploratory in nature — attempting to discover the major areas in which serious problems occur and experimenting with the use of certain methods in measuring the impact of rapid industrialization upon the people of a com¬ munity. It was designed to provide informa¬ tion which would be useful in planning the scope and methodological approach of a broader regional study, which would be conclusive and perhaps definitive. The purpose of this broader study would be to discover not only specific serious problems but also, insofar as possible, their solutions From an analysis of these problems and solu¬ tions, rules and practices would be sought which could be recommended for the guidance ot the people, the industries, and the governments that all might derive the optimum benefit and none might suffer unduly. Educational Attainment in Alabama Charles B. Nam, Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center, Maxwell Aii Force Base. Alabama. This paper attempts to evaluate educational levels attained in Alabama in terms of the needs of a rapidly industrializing economy. In relation to a combined standard of five years of school- Abstracts — Social Sciences 99 ing as a minimum educational level and enough high school and college graduates to staff the social and economic positions of an industrial society as a desirable attainment, Alabama's edu¬ cational levels were compared with those in the United States as a whole, time changes noted, and prospects for the future considered. Compared with other states, Alabama ranked low in the extent of educational attainment. Nine per cent of all white persons and 32 per cent of all nonwhite persons in the country had less than five years of schooling as compared with 14 and 46 per cent, respectively, for Ala¬ bama. It was shown that this low attainment bore a close relationship to the state's rejection rates for educational reasons in the Armed Forces. While 19 per cent of all selective serv¬ ice registrants in the country were rejected for educational reasons, 43 per cent were rejected in Alabama. For each educational level meas- ' ured, very significant differences existed between I urban and rural areas, and for white and non¬ white persons. That educational progress is being made was I demonstrated by citing historical changes and j age variations in educational levels. Despite these improvements, indices of the state’s current efforts to advance schooling portend little rela¬ tive change in the future. In large part, the educational philosophy in Alabama has been geared to an agricultural economy. In order to I approach the level of educational attainment needed in an industrial economy, we must con¬ centrate on still further improving educational benefits to all of our people, i ! .4 Dorset Eskimo House Site Deric O’Bryan, Research Studies Institute, Aiaxwell Air Force Base, Montgomery. In 1927, while a member of the Putnam Baf¬ fin Island Expedition, I had the good fortune to locate a ruined, tw'o-room Eskimo wdnter dwelling on Mill Island (latitude 64°00'N. longitude 77°50'E.), West Hudson Strait. Arti¬ facts found during a few hours exploratory dig¬ ging identified the ruin as belonging to the lit¬ tle known earliest Eskimo occupation of Can¬ ada’s eastern Arctic, the Dorset Eskimo culture. The Arctic Institute of North America, under contractual agreement with the United States Of¬ fice of Naval Research, supported a foUow-up expedition to Mill Island in the summer of UUl. The United States and Royal Canadian Air Forces provided free transportation for person¬ nel and equipment as far as Coral Harbour, Southampton Island. The Office of the Com¬ missioner, Northwest Territories, Canada, sup¬ plied necessary permits for exploratory and ar¬ chaeological research. The expedition was in the field from 2 |uly to 26 September; ten weeks w'ere spent on Mill Island. Activities included a survey of the small 7 by 11 mile island, collecting plant and mol- lusk specimens, and — primarily — the excavation of the Dorset Eskimo ruin. The collection of almost 500 specimens substantially added to the list of artifacts identified by Jenness in 192"i as characteristic of Dorset Eskimo. The house con¬ struction was of even greater interest as it de¬ viated from later Eskimo types of dwellings in not having a definite hearth and lamp area, in not utilizing whale bones in wall construction, in having low walls of stones on end rather than of horizontal masonry. Other unique fea¬ tures of the B-shaped site include: peripheral lobate storage chambers with stone pillar roof supports, sub-floor entrance passages with a sump air lock, arched whale rib rafters which supported a skin roof. The site was occupied about 1,000 years ago. Evidently a two-family band of Dorset Eskimo were attracted by the many seal, walrus, white w'hale, and narwhal in the Mill Island vicinity. They found a small herd of caribou on the island (bones of 59 animals were uncovered in the refuse, and a deer drive and blind were found near the island’s center). They settled for two — perhaps three — years, until the local caribou were exterminated. Basic and Action Research in a Study of an Alabama Community Marion Pearsall, Fred T. Adams, .md Jane A. Bliss, University of .-Uaha/n.v ’/’/o- c.ilnosa. Natural Resources, Technoloa'\. and Political Crisis in Sicily "Vincenzo Pemrullo, Univemi/) of .-{/.than/.!. 1 /ncaloosa. The Occurrirnce of Beach Rock in the Eutaw Formation in the Montgomery .Vrea. .Vlabama Harold 1.. Reade. Jr., U. .V. (.icolog/c.;! .V/.r- VC). 100 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science An Apprnach to the Analysis of Kesource De¬ velopment Paul H. Rigby, Atlj)ila Division, Universily of Georgia, Atla>ila, Georgia. The word "resources” as used in this paper r('ters only to the means, supply, or support currently available to a society to satisfy its needs, wants, ami desires. Resources arc defined in terms ot a function performed for society and, according to this approach, resources come into being only as 1 unctions are developed. The existence of a resource, therefore, depends upon the development by society of a function or tunctions which will bring the resource into being. Elements of the natural environment such as coal, lumber, copper, or clay are not in them¬ selves a resource but become a resource as a function is developed through which society can depend upon them lor aid and support m satis¬ fying its needs, wants, and desires. For an element to become a resource, that is to have a function, technology must be de¬ veloped through which the element can be pro¬ duced and used; society must be interested in using it, able to purchase it, and, where neces¬ sary, able to organize to produce and use it, and the cost must be ec]ual to or less than the price that society is willing to pay for the re¬ source. If these conditions are not met, an ele¬ ment is not a resource but is neutral material. I’he function which will determine the exist¬ ence of an element as a resource will depend upon the relationship between the natural en¬ vironment, the nonmaterial culture, and the ma¬ terial culture. For purposes of analysis, the non¬ material culture is broken down into ethos, mani¬ festation of the ethos, social organizations, and knowledge. The elements making up the material culture are referred to as artifacts. Resources, therefore, are a function of elements making up the natural environment, the ethos, manifestation of the ethos, social organizations, knowledge, and artifacts. No one of these six elements or determinant.-^ can be considered as being principally respons¬ ible for resource availability with the possible exception of the ethos and knowledge. Whatever effect any one determinant has will depend upon its relationship> with the other five. The determi¬ nants are interdependent and inter-related. The six determinants may be thought of as affecting re.sources in three different ways. They determine the atmosphere for resource develop¬ ment which prevails in a society, they determine the development of functions in a society which bring resources into existence, and they deter¬ mine the resource system which supplies re¬ sources to the functions that a society has created The author’s research has emphasized the analysis of resource systems with the over-all ob¬ jective of securing policies which will promote an adequate and dependable flow of materials at the lowest cost, consistent with the values of society, to supply the functions which society has created. Ground-Water Investigations of the Birmingham Red Iron Ore District Thomas A. Simpson, G . S. Geological Survey. Early Man in the Tennessee Valley Frank J. Sodav, The Chenistrand Corporu- lion. Decat nr. The Tennessee Valley probably contains more evidence of Early Man occupation than any other comparable area east of the Great Plains. The Quad site, discovered and reported by the writer in 1931, was the first site in Alabama to yield a complete assemblage of Early Man artifacts, indicating continuous occupation over a substantial period caf time. Since then, a num¬ ber of other sites in northern Alabama have given evidence of some occupation by Early Man. Tire Clovis Folsom culture is well repre¬ sented, with some indications of Plainview, Yuma, and even Sandia Cultures. Early Man in the Lhiited States Frank J. Sodav, The Chenntrand Corpora¬ tion, Decatnr. Recent evidence indicates that Man migrated from Asia to North America during the latter stages of the Pleistocene, probably by way of the Behring Strait. The Paleo Indian was es¬ sentially a nomadic hunter living off the vast herds of elephants, bison, and other Pleistocene mammals roaming the Great Plains area. The earliest known culture in this country is that of Sandia man, followed by the Folsom (Clovis and Classic), Plainview, and Yuma Cultures. The exact position in time occupied by these Cul¬ tures is not too well known, although exact radio-carbon dates are known for certain type sites. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Room 221, Jefferson Davis Hotel Montgomery, Alabama October 31, 1933 The meeting of the Executive Committee was called to order by the President, Dr. Joseph F. Volker, at 2 p. m. The Secretary introduced the following mem¬ bers and guests: Dr. Bailey, Dr. Chermock, Mr. Eads, Dr. Fincher, Dr. Hansen, Dr. Harper, Mr. Jennings, Dr. Kassner, Miss McGlamery, Dr. Pigman, Dr. Sensenig, Mr. Turner, Dr. Volker, Dr. Walker, Dr. White, Dr. Wilks, and I Father Yancey. j The Secretary distributed mimeographed copies , of the minutes of the Executive Committe meet- j ing of March 12, 1933. Father Yancey moved, li seconded by Dr. Bailey, the acceptance of the !' minutes. Motion carried. \ Dr. Chermock presented the Treasurer's Re- I port (copy attached). In his report he suggested: 1 — at least three (3) bids be received for each issue of the Journal; 2 — that a budget be set j' up for publishing the Journal, and 3 — that the I Journal be published within the limits of the : budget. I The Report of Editor Xan was read by Dr. |i Fincher (report attached). Mr. Jennings reported I; that he believed contributions would take care j of the $300 deficit. Dr. Volker submitted a I letter requesting contributions from members I which he planned to mail at his own expense. I Some discussion of the function of the lournal followed. Dr. Volker appointed the following Conmiit- I tee T 0 Make Recommendations Concerning 'The J Journal: Dr. Fincher, Chairman, Dr. Pigman, I Dr. Bailey, Dr. Volker. Dr. Pigman moved, seconded by Mr. |cn- nings, the members of the Alabama Academy of Science express their high appreciation of the work of Dr. Xan and regret his decision to resign as Editor. We authorize the Committee on the Journal (see above) to recognize liis contributions to the Academy in suitable fasliion. Motion carried. ; Dr. Wilks gave a combined report tor tlie j Secretary, the Membership Committee, and the Admission-to-Memhership Committee ( report at¬ tached). He requested that the Academy send $4.23 to the Academy Conference to help de¬ fray expenses and asked that President Volker appoint two (2) representatives to the Academy Conference. Father Yancey moved, seconded by Dr. Fincher, the acceptance of the report. Mo¬ tion carried. President Volker appointed Father Yancey and Dr. Sidney B. Finn as representa¬ tives to the Academy Conference. There was no report from the Long Range Planning Committee. Mr. Sulzby sent word that he was unable to attend due to an out-of-state meeting. Dr. Harper reported for the Editorial Board (report attached). Dr. Bailey, seconded by Dr. Kassner, moved the report be accepted. Motion carried. Mr. Jennings stated that he had no formal report to give for the Finance Connnittee . Father Yancey reported as Councilor to the AAAS. He outlined certain controversies which had risen with respect to the AAAS policies and requested advice from the Executive Committee. Dr. Kassner moved that Father Yancey be re- cjuested to use his own discretion in tlie matter. Motion carried. Dr. Kassner reported for tlie Junior AcadLiin and the Science I'alent Search. He reported a very succcsstul year for the |unior Acadeinv and stated that tlie Alabama High Scliool Sueuie Search would be continued. Due to his work witli the Gorgas Scholarship Committee, he asked to be relieved as Junior Academy repre¬ sentative after the current year. Dr. ( iicrmock moved, seconded by lather 'N'ancey, the repoia be accepted. Motion c.trried. Mr. Eads reported for the L' c.;! Arr.im^^m’.s n. ^ Committee. Dr. Kassner mo\ed, seconded In Dr. Bailey, that the report be accepted. .\l • c.irried. Dr. Sensenig reported for the Kk n.;), ( »),■ mittee. Four ( i) grants totaling Sf'tl h.ne been aw.uded. No new grants are under c cinMcler.it ic'ii 102 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science The Acting Secretary requested that a perma¬ nent Secretary be elected by the Executive Com¬ mittee. Dr. Ihncher nominated Dr. Herbert A. .McCullough ot Howard College. The motion was seconded by Father Yancey and Dr. Mc¬ Cullough was unanimously elected Secretary. President Volker reported that Dr. I'inn would publish two (2) issues of the AiaJen/y Seinlelttr before the next annual meeting. It was agreed that February 1, iP'id, be desig¬ nated as deadline tor submitting papers for the 19"^-! meeting. Dr. Badey moved, Dr. Pigman seconded, that we approve the dates ot April 29-.^D for the 19 ‘’3 meeting at the University of Alabama. Motion c.ny'ied. Dr. Walker moved, Dr. Chermock seconded, that the Executive Committee recommend to the Admission-to-Membership Committee the nomination of Dr. Xan as an honorary member of the Academy. Motion carried. Dr. Hansen resigned as Vice-Chairman of Section III since he had been elected as Chair¬ man of Section VIII. Meeting adjourned at 5:13 p. rn. Respectfully submitted, Wm, T. Wilks Acting Secretary EXECUI IVF COMMITTEE MEETING Oak Room, Montgomery Country Club Montgomery, Alabama April 1, 1954 The President, Dr. Joseph E. Volker, called the meeting to order at 7:30 p.m., in advance of the announced time, in order to hear the re¬ ports ol Father Patrick Yancey as Councilor to the A. A. A. S.. and as delegate to the Academy Conference (Reports attached). Dr. Chermock moved that the report be accepted. Dr. Sipe seconi.ied and the report was approved. Dr. Henry Walker requested permission to read the report of Dr. Kassner as Counselor of ll.ie junior Academy of Science and ol the Ala¬ bama Slate Science 1 alent Search. Dr. Walker, President Volker, and others commented upon the outstanding work whith Dr. Kassner has done with the Junior Academy and with the Science Talent Search. Dr. Chermock moved the .acceptance of the report. Dr. Bailey seconded and the report was accepted. President Volker recessed the meeting at 8:10. The meeting was reconvened at 8:20 p.m. Dr. William Wilks, President-Elect was asked to introduce the following members who were present: Mr. James Eads, Mr. Henry Jennings, Dr. Ralph Chermock, Miss Winnie McGlamery, Dr. Paul Bailey, Dr. H. Craig Sipe, Father Louis Eisele, Dr. Roland Harper, Dr. A. T. Hansen, Dr. Henry Walker, Mr. Vance Miles, Dr. Ward Pigman, Dr. joseph Volker, Dr. Herbert Mc¬ Cullough. Father Patrick Yancey had returned to the judging of the applicants in the Science Tal¬ ent Search. President Volker called for the reading of the minutes of the Executive Committee on October 31, 1953. Mr. Jennings moved, Dr. Sipe second¬ ed and the members present voted the approval of the minutes. The Report of the Secretary was read ( report attarhed). In addition to the report as submit¬ ted, the Secretary recommended study of an idea suggested by Father Yancey regarding a pamph¬ let describing the activities of the Academy. Mr. Eads moved, Mr. Jennings seconded, and the committee approved the report. Motion-. By Dr. Chermock, seconded by Dr. Pigman. The Secretary is requested to or¬ ganize and submit at the next Executive Com¬ mittee Meeting a pamphlet describing the ac¬ tivities of the Academy along with at least rwo quotations of the cost of printing this material. Motion passed. Motion-. By Dr. Chermock, seconded by Mr. Jennings. The Secretary is authorized to award printing matter originating from the Secre¬ tary's office to De’ Arman Printing Service with a time limit of one year subject to re¬ newal. Motion passed. The Ti easiirer' \ Report was presented by Dr. Chermock (report attached). The Treasurer fur¬ ther summarized the financial situation regard- in," the current issue of the journal. It was his s isgestion that $1000 be paid on the cost of the Journal with the remaining amount to be paid as soon as additional dues have been received. Dr Pigman moved acceptance of the report with a commendation for the Treasurer and for Mr. Sulzhy and Mr. Jennings for their financial as¬ sistance to the Journal. Mr. Miles seconded and the report was accepted. Minutes of Executive Committee 103 Mot 10)1 By Mr. Jennings, seconded by Dr. Wilks. The Treasurer is authorized to negoti¬ ate payment for Volume 25 of the Journal in keeping with the suggestion made with his report. Motion passed. The Report of the Membership Committee v/as given by Dr. Wilks (report attached). In the report Dr. Wilks suggested the issuance of mem¬ bership cards for new members and as a receipt for dues to regular members. Motion: By Father Eisele, seconded by Dr. Sine. The Secretary and Treasurer are author¬ ized to work out an advantageous system em¬ ploying the issuance of membership cards in keeping with Dr. Wilks' report. Motion pars¬ ed. Dr. Wilks moved the report be accepted. Dr. Harper seconded and the report was approved. The Secretary reported for the Admission to Membership Committee (report attached). Motion: By Dr. Chermock, seconded by Mr. Jennings. Upon recommendation of the Admission to Membership Committee, the Executive Committee honors Dr. John Xan by electing him to Honorary Membership in the Alabama Academy of Science. Motion passed. Father Eisele moved the acceptance of the re¬ port. Dr. Bailey seconded and the report was ap¬ proved. The Report of the Research Committee was given by Dr. Pigman for Dr. Sensenig, the chairman. The recommendation without formal action was discussed that a limit of $150.00 for each research grant be maintained as far as pos¬ sible. The Secretary was instructed informally to write for funds of $100.00 as yet unclaimed from the A.A.A.S. (Report attached.) The report of the Research Committee was accepted upon a motion by Dr. Chermock which was seconded by Father Eisele. Motion: By Dr. Bailey, seconded by Mr. Jennings. The Research Committee is reejuest- ed by the Executive Committee to organize regulations and procedures for the functioning of the Research Committee and the awarding of research grants to be submitted to tiic Ex¬ ecutive Committee at the next regular meet¬ ing. Motion pa.\sed. There was no report of tlic Lo)ii> Range Plan¬ ning Committee. Mr. Jennings reported as Cliairman of the Finance Committee that most of the items rel¬ ative to his committee had been brouglit out in the discussion on the report of the Treasurer. No formal action was taken on the report. The report of Mr. Eads, Chairman of the Committee on Local Arrangements consisted of announcements relative to the program for the next day. On a motion by Father Eisele, second¬ ed by Di. Sipe, the report was accepted. Dr. Volker gave an informal report on the Newsletter. The Report of the Editor, who was address¬ ing a chemical meeting in Kansas City, was read by the Secretary (Report attached). Dr. Cher¬ mock moved and Dr. Pigman seconded the ac¬ ceptance of the report. The report was approved. Dr. Harper reported as Chairman of the Edi¬ torial Board that the Journal was printed and in the hands of Dr. Cantrell at the Alabama Poly¬ technic Institute, who is supervising the mailing of the publication. It was pointed out that the actual cost of the Journal was within the range of the bid and that the bid was reasonable. Dr. Harper’s report was approved upon a motion by Mr. Jennings and a second by Mr. Miles. Dr. Volker thanked Dr. Harper on behalf of tlie Executive Committee for the work which he has done witli this issue of the Journal. Copies of the Report of the Special Committee on the foiirnal (report attached) were distribut¬ ed to members present. Dr. Volker read the re¬ port in the absence of Dr. Fincher, Chairman of the Committee, who was judging applications in the Science Talent Search. Dr. Wilks commented relative to item 4 of the Report that A.P.l. lias indicated a willingness to contribute to the ex¬ pense of the Journal. After some discussion. Dr. Chermock moved the adoption of th.e report. Mr. Jennings seconded. The report was adopted bv the Executive Committee. President Volker announced the api'iointmeiit ol the following committees: Nominating Committee: Dr. |ohn FinJier. Chairman; Dr. Henry NXkilker; h'ather Patrick Yancey. Resolutions (Committee: Mr. \'ani.e Mihs. Chairman; Dr. A. T. Hansen, Auditing Committee: limior .\i.ademv Dr. Henry W'alker, ( hairman: Dr. Ralph ( hermoi.k: Senior Ai.uiemy Father I.ouis Fisele. C h.ur- m.ui; Dr. W'.ird I’lgm.in, Date and Pl.ui ol Meeting: Mr, Ihniv len nings, (hairman; Dr. P.iul Baile\. 1 he president i.illeil tor iither new Fusuun' Motion: By Dr. Pigm.in, sixoiulid b\ Mi. Ji.nnmgs. 1 he l:ilit(,ir ol the lourn.il is mstriKt rd b)' the l:\eaili\i’ Committee to dedu.Ue 104 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Volume 26 of the Journal to Dr. John Xan. iWolioii Inissed. iWotion-. By Dr. Wilks, seconded by Dr. Bailey, d’he Executive Committee authorized the establishment of a committee to recognize outstanding members of the Academy. Amotion passed . Dr. Volker appointed Dr. Henry Walker as diairman with power to name the other mem¬ bers of this committee. Dr. Wilks requested suggestions as to the time and place of the next Executive Committee meeting. Without formal action it was recom¬ mended that the meeting should be a morning meeting on a Saturday and at the University of Alabama. Upon a motion by Dr. Bailey which was un¬ animously seconded, Dr. Volker adjourned the meeting at 10:35 p.m. Respectfully submitted Herbert A. McCiiLLOut,H, Secretary REPOirr OE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON THE JOURNAL 1. In consideration of the cost of printing the \olume of the fournal now in press and the estimate of another reliable printer (that is about S6.50 per page) the committee recom¬ mends that the Academy allot nine hundred dollars ($900.00) in the budget each year for publication of the Journal in its present format and type. It the Editor finds extreme financial difficulty in any year, after bids are received he may request additional funds. 2. With the coming of graduate study to Ala¬ bama there will be increasing demands for a medium for publication. The committee rec¬ ommends that the A' ademy increase the pres¬ tige of the Journal and encourage its u.se for publication of the results of research in this state. 3. The new Editor and the Finance Committee are encouraged to solicit special funds for the Journal through advertising and through pri¬ vate solicitation from individuals or from col¬ leges and universities. 4. Since another college has indicated a desire to make a substantial contribution to the publi¬ cation of the Journal in return for the privi¬ lege of keeping the Archives of the Academy and in having the advantage of the exchange volumes, we recommend that the Academy inquire of the possible desire of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute to do likewise. The pres¬ ent archives are in the library at Auburn. 5. Because of the difficulty and delay in screen¬ ing articles in all fields of science for publi¬ cation we recommend that the incoming Ed¬ itor of the Journal include in his editorial plans a Referee System, using competent ref¬ erees in each field. 6. I’he committee further recommends that the Editorial Board concern itself with broad edi¬ torial policies and with problems of finance. 7. We further recommend that the Editor shall have the authority to determine the priority of the papers that will be given full publica¬ tion. To implement a policy of operating within a budget we recommend also: a — That the Editor be instructed to give pub¬ lication priority to papers and abstracts reporting original research, the number of full papers depending upon the quality and the available space in the (ournal. b — That the next priority be given to papers presented at organized symposia and to general papers presented to the entire academy by distinguished scientists or by presidents of the Academy. c — That the next priority be given to the publication of the transactions of the Academy and of the Junior Academy. d — That the final compilation consist of the list of members, addresses, etc. e — That any unusual expense incurred in the printing of photographs, graphs, etc., be borne by the author. Respectfully, )ohn A. Fincher, Chairman Ward Pigman Paul Bailey Joseph F. Volker, ex-officio Business Meeting 105 ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING Chapel, Huntingdon College Montgomery, Alabama April 2, 1954 The President, Dr. Joseph F. Volker, called the annual business meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science to order at 5:12 p.m. The minutes of the 145 3 meeting in the Muscle Shoals Area were read by the Secretary. The minutes were approved as read upon a mo¬ tion by Dr. Pigman, a second by Dr. Fincher and a vote of the members. A brief report w'as given by the Secretary. It was moved by Mr. Jennings and seconded by Dr. Sipe that the report be accepted. The motion was passed. A summary of the Treasnrer's report was giv¬ en by Dr. Ralph Chermock. Dr. Chermock moved the acceptance of the report. Dr. Pigman seconded and the report was approved. The Report of the Editor was read by the Secretary. Dr. Pigman moved its acceptance. Up¬ on a second by Mr. Jennings the report was ap¬ proved. Dr. John Fincher presented the report of the Nominating Committee with the following nom¬ inations for offices to be filled: President, Dr. William T. Wilks President-Elect, Dr. Ralph L. Chermock Treasurer, Dr. Locke White, Jr. Editor of the Journal, Dr. Paul Bailey T rustees — Replacing J. S. Coleman, Mr. John Baswcll Replacing H. D. Warner, Dr. Walter B. Jones. Vice-Presidents and Section Chairmen — Section L Chairman, Dr. Ward Pigman Vice-Chairman, Dr. Everett Bishop Section IT. Chairman, Dr. R. D. Brown Vice-Chairman, Dr. Frank J. Soday Section III: Chairman, Mr. Melvin Williams Vice-Chairman, Mr. ). Y. Brame Section IV: Chairman, Miss Ethel Marshall Vice-Chairman, Mr. A. R. Long Section V : Chairman, Father Louis J. Eiselc Vice-Chairman, Mr. J. L. Hammond Section VI: Chairman, Mr. ). R. Goetz Vice-Chairman, Mr. George R. Byrum Sectio)! VIT. Chairman, Dr. H. Craig Sipe Vice-Chairman, Mr. Ted C. Coburn Section VI IT. Chairman, Dr. A. T. Hansen Vice-Chairman, Dr. H. Ellsworth Steele Dr. Fincher moved the acceptance of the re¬ port and the election of the slate of officers. Father Yancey seconded and the report was ac¬ cepted and the officei.\ declared elected. Mr. Henry Jennings reported for the Commit¬ tee on the Place and Date of Meeting. A copy of the complete report is attached. The dates and places of the next two meetings as recommended in the report are : : 1955 Meeting, University of Alabama, Tusca¬ loosa, April 29-30. 1956 Meeting, Alabama College, Montevallo. date to be determined. Acceptance of the report was moved by Mr. Jennings, seconded by Father Eisele, and approv¬ ed by the members. The Report of the Resolutions Committee was read by Dr. A. T. Hansen ( report attached ) . The first portion of the report was passed by vote upon motion by Dr. Hansen seconded bv Mr. Jennings. The second portion of the report was also approved upon motion by Dr. Hansen and seconded by Dr. Pigman. President Volker announced the following ap¬ pointments and terms for the reorganized Edi¬ torial Board:: Dr. Roland Harper, Chairman, to ser\e one year. Dr. Clarence Klappcr, to seiwe two years. Dr. A. T. Hansen, to seise three \c.irs. Alotion: By Dr. Finiher, seconded b\’ Ml. Jennings. I'he Secretary in cooperation with the Steering Committee is instructed to write the National Science Eouiul.ition recc'iiinieiul- ing the re-appointment of Father P.itrick 5‘an cey as a member of the Naticuial Science I'oundalion Bo.ird. .11. s','. >/,’ g./iu,/. Upon a motion by Dr. White, scccuulcd bv Mr. Jennings and passed by tin members. D'-, Volker declared the meeting .ulicrurnecl. Respectlulh' submitted. 1 li Kiu K 1 .1. Me ( I 1 I m e II, ,''e , I < ' 106 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science REPORT OF RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE Your Resolutions Committee submits herewith the following resolutions: W'heyeas. the Alabama Academy of Science is successfully completing its thirty-first meeting, Now, therefore, be it resolved that the Acad¬ emy expresses its appreciation to Eluntingdon College, to Sidney Lanier High School, to the Montgomery Country Club, to Mr. Tom Reid and the Coliseum, to the Mostgomery Chamber ot Commerce and to the Montgomery Hotel As¬ sociation. 'Ehat special recognition is given to Mr. )ames Eads, Chairman of the Local Arrangements Committee and his associates, Mr. Charles C. Turner, |r., Mr. C. M. Reaves, Mr. Charles Owens and the many others who served with them. That the Academy extends its sincere thanks to the members of the Beta Beta Beta Honorary Biological Society who relinquished their spring holidays to serve with the Local Arrangements Committee. That the gratitude of the Academy is ex¬ pressed to McKesson and Robbins, Inc., of Bir¬ mingham for their hospitality in providing the Annual Academy Dinner and the E)inner for the Judges and Finalists of the Alabama State Sci¬ ence Talent Search. Wloeredi. the James W. Clary Company of Birmingham has graciously presented to the Academy five thousand printed Registration Blanks for use at the annual meetings. Now. there fore, he it resolved, that the Acad¬ emy expresses its appreciation to Mr. James W. Clary for his considerate gesture and his inter¬ est in the activities of the Academy. \Y’ tiereds. Huntingdon College is celebrating its lOUth Anniversary of service to the youth of Alabama, and W'heteas, Dean Paul T. Stone honored the Academy by opening the thirty-first annual meeting. Now. therfore. be it resolved, that the Acad¬ emy expresses its recognition of this outstanding service and extends best wishes for the future. Whereas, our beloved fellow member, Mr. Eugene D. Emigh, passed away since our last annual meeting, and II 'hereas, Mr. Emigh devoted many years of laithful service to the Academy, and Whereas, his passing was a heavy blow to our group and to our state. Now, therefore, be it resolved, that this ex¬ pression of love and affection be spread upon the minutes of the Academy and that a copy of this resolution be sent to his bereaved family. W'hereas, our distinguished member, Dr. John Xan, who has served the Academy in various capacities for over 20 years, has retired as Edi¬ tor of the Journal of the Academy, and WNjereas, he has given untiringly of his time and talents to further the advancement of Sci¬ ence in Alabama and the Nation, and W" hereas, the Executive Committee has recom¬ mended that Volume 26 of the Journal be dedi¬ cated to him. Now, therefore, be it resolved, that the Editor of the Journal be instructed to publish this vol¬ ume in proper dedication to Dr. John Xan, and the Secretary be directed to send him a copy of this resolution. Mo.st respectfully submitted, A. T. Hansen R. V. Miles, Jr. April 2, 1954 Resolutiom Conmuttee REPORT OF THE TREASURER FOR THE PERIOD BE¬ GINNING MARCH 9, 1953, AND ENDING MARCH 22, 1954 GENERAL AND JOURNAL FUNDS Balance on hand. March 9. 1953 . $1,964.54 Receipts . , . . . 1. 842. 00 Total Receipts . . $3,806.54 DISBURSEMENTS No. 118 S. C. Tool Printing Co., cards for meeting . $ 8.53 No. 119 Wm. T. Wilks, secretary’s expenses . 14.94 No. 120 Troy State Teachers College, materials.... 12.20 No. 121 Alabama Polytechnic Institute, printing programs . 49.44 No. 122 Frank Gracey. Engrossing . 27.00 No. 123 Frank Gracey. Engrossing . 10.00 No. 126 Birmingham Printing Co., printing Journal (part) . 2,000.00 No. 127 Wm. T. Wilks. Secretary's expenses . 10.40 No. 128 H. McCullough. Secretary’s fund . 50.00 No. 129 H. McCullough. Secretary’s fund . 10.00 No. 130 Birmingham Printing Co., printing Journal (balance) . 316.29 No. 131 R. R. Chermock. Treasurer’s expenses .... 6.76 No. 132 H. McCullough. Secretary’s fund . 10.00 No. 133 Wm. T. Wilks. Secretary’s expenses . 4.42 No. 134 DeArman Printing Co., printing letterheads, etc . 61.29 No. 135 H. McCullough. Secretary’s fund . 2.02 Total Disbursements . $2,593.29 TOTAL BALANCE . $1,213.25 RESEARCH FUND Balance on hand, March 9. 1953 . $ 32S.37 Receipts 290.00 Total Receipts . . $ 618.37 DISBURSEMENTS No. 124 Jewel Box, Engraving Jr. Acad. Pin . $ 2.20 No. 125 R. M. Strickland, Engrossing Jr. Acad. Award . 3.50 No. 136 University Supply Store, Jr. Acad. Cups... 100.00 Total Disbursements . . . $ 105.70 Total Balance . $ 512.67 TOTAL ASSETS Balance on hand, March 9, 1953 . $2,292.91 Receipts . . 2.132.00 Total Receipts . $4,424.91 Disbursements . 2,698.99 TOTAL ASSETS. March 22. 1954 . $1,725.92 Respectfully submitted. RALPH L. CHERMOCK. Treasurer March 22. 1954 ALABAMA STATE SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH FOR GENERAL GORGAS SCHOLARSHIPS 107 The Fourth Alabama State Science Talent Search* was held in 1953-54. This year fifty-three high schools re¬ quested entry material for 371 seniors, 6l of whom completed the science aptitude ex¬ aminations, submitted recommendations and scholastic records and wrote reports on "My Science Project.” After Science Clubs of America picked the national winners, all Alabama entry material *Kassner. James L., “Alabama State Science Talent Search.” Jour. Ala. Acad. Sci., 20. p. 96. 194S. was forwarded to us for selection of winners of the General Gorgas Scholarships. Our Scholarship Committee then selected ten white entries and five Negro entries. The ten white finalists were invited, as guests of The Gorgas Scholarship Founda¬ tion, to Montgomery, Alabama, on April 1-3, 1954. They were entertained at a ban¬ quet along with the judges and other repre¬ sentatives from the Senior Academy. Each finalist was then interviewed and scored by each of the judges. \\TNNKRS IN TIIIC ANNUAL ALABAMA State Science 'Palcnl Scati'h for General G.orgas Schola rsl\ips Lhami left to right, front row, Thomas W. Martin, cltairman of the Hoard of direiMors, Alahania Lower Goinpan> who announ.rd. the winners: Nancy N. Davis, Talladega High Sehooi. winner of the loiirth sidiolarship aw.ird H.aeK row left to t ,j;ht Carl R. Stringfellow', West Lnd High School, Birmingham, fust seholarslup winm'r: Latriek N VNp\ Jaekson Ho,’' School, second scholarship winner; Hoyt A. Ihntder, Jr.. Uussellville High Sehooi. w innet of the third sehol.nxlup James .X. Hendrix. Fayette Co. High School. Fayette, alternate u'vi 108 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science The judges for the Alabama contest are: Dr. Emmett B. Carmichael, Chairman Dr. Howard H. Carr Dr. )ohn A. Fincher Dr. James 1. MacKenzie Dr. Eric Rodgers Dr. Wdliam R. Smithey, Jr. Dr. Frank |. Soday Dr. |. A, Southern Dr. E. }. Stevens Dr. Locke White, Ir. Father Patrick H. Yancey. S. J. These finalists then participated in the ac¬ tivities of the Junior Academy of Science April 2 and 3. The winners of the 1953-54 scholarships for white students, announced by Dr. Thomas W. Martin at the annual banc]uet of the Junior Academy on April 2, 1954, are: /vn/ Au'ard C,arl R. Stringfellow, Jr., from West End High Scliool, Birmingham, Ala¬ bama. Miss Mary E. Hafling, teaclier. Thi.r award is $1200 ($300 per year) plus col¬ lege tuition tor lour years. Second Aiiard Patrick N. Espy, from Jack- son High SiJiool, lackson, Alabama; Mi.ss Mary Roach, teacher. $900 ($225 per year) pin;; college tuition for four years. I'h/rd Award -- Floyt A. Ponder, Ir., from Russellville High School, Russellville, Ala¬ bama; Mrs. Edgar Underwood, teacher. $600 ($150 per year) plus college tuition for four years. Fourth Award — Nancy N. Davis, Talladega High School, Talladega, Alabama; Mr. James H. Ingle, teacher. $500 ($125 per year) plus college tuition for four years. The first white award winner has his choice of the educational institution he wishes to attend, chosen from and limited to the institutions named below: Alabama College Alabama Polytechnic Institute B i rm i ngham - Southern Col 1 ege Howard College Huntingdon College Spring Hill College University of Al.ibama Likewise, in numerical order of award, the other white scholarship winners indicate their choice from the remaining institutions. The remaining six white finalists received Honorable Mention and a $25 Government Savings Bond, and one of them was desig¬ nated as Alternate to substitute for any scholarship wanner who, for unforeseen rea¬ sons, may not be able to pursue his college course. These six finalists are listed alpha¬ betically: M. EHece Burns, from Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman, Alabama; Sister Mary Charles, teacher. Robert W. Fulton, from McGill Institute, Mo¬ bile, Alabama ;Brother Gordon, teacher. James A. Hendrix, from Fayette County High School, Fayette, Alabama; Miss Nellie Grey Brock, teacher. Designated as alternate. F. Carden Johnston, Jr., from Ensley High School, Birmingham, Alabama; Miss Agnes Hunt, teacher. Larry H. Warren, from Ensley High School, Birmingham, Alabama; Miss Agnes Hunt, teacher. Phillip N. Williams, from Greenville High School, Greenville, Alabama; Mrs. Peggy M. Brahmer, teacher. The Negro finalists w'ere invited to Bir¬ mingham on May 22, 1954 as guests of The Gorgas Scholarship Foundation. They were entertained at a noon dinner and were in¬ vited to the Southern Research Institute. Af¬ ter each student was interviewed and scored by each judge they were taken on a tour of the Institute. From among the five Negro final con¬ testants, one was selected by the judges to receive the four-year Gorgas Scholarship valued at $1200 ($300 per year) plus col¬ lege tuition for four years. She had her choice of the following institutions: Alabama Agriculturel and Mechanical College The Alabama State College for Negroes Tuskegee Institute The W’lnner — Gertha Lee Houston, from the Choctaw County Training School, Lisman. Alabama; Mr. A. S. Butler, teacher. The other four finalists received Honor¬ able Mention and a $25 Government Savings Bond, and one was designated Alternate Academy Award 109 They are listed alphabetically; Hloise Duvon Eaton, from Fairfield Indus¬ trial High School, Fairfield, Alabama; Mr. E. J. Oliver, teacher. lohn Emanuel Ensley, from the Parker High School, Birmingham, Alabama; Mr. R. C. Johnson, teacher. Laurence Ogletree, from Parker High School. Birmingham, Alabama; Mr. R. C. Johnson, teacher. Bettye Louise Warren, from Fairfield Indus¬ trial High School, Fairfield, Alabama; Mr. E. J. Oliver, teacher. A copy of the booklet on the Alabama State Science Talent Search is attached to this report. James L. Kassner, ChaivDian The Gorgas Scholarship Foundation , Inc. ALABAMA ACADEMY AWARD 1954 The Alabama Academy Award, highest honor given a high school science teacher in Alabama, was conferred upon Miss Lillian Leonard at the twentieth annual convention of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science. Three hundred high school students and their sponsors representing 32 science dubs from Alabama high schools were present at the Friday evening banquet to see Miss Leonard receive the top award. The award Miss Lillian I,eunar>• .■ii iia'n from Dr. James L. Kassner. University of Al.-iliam.a inol'essor. .and la'iin.inent eiMinselor to the M.ab.mia Jiiiw.m Wad emy of Science. To her left is Dr. Knimett B. (’.annicli.ael. .M.ab.ani.a .Medic.al I'ollCftc .and Scliool oi Dent-. was instrumental in organizlnn the Junior .Cc.adeniy, no Journal of Alabama Academy of Science consists of a citation and a yellow gold pin. The Academy Award is given each year by the Alabama Academy of Science to a science teacher for meritorious teaching of science. The purpose of the award is to rec¬ ognize those teachers who go beyond class¬ room to stimulate scientific endeavor among their students. Miss Leonard was born in Lumberton, Mississippi. She graduated from high school in Santa Rosa, Texas, and received an A.B. degree in Education in 1930 and M.S. de¬ gree in biology in 1932 at the University of Alabama. She has been teaching biology at Baldwin County High School, Bay Minette, Alabama, since the fall of 1931. The Alabama Junior Academy of Science was organized in 19.32 at the suggestion of Dr. Emmett B. Carmichael. Miss Leonard organized a science club at Baldwin County High School in the fall of 1935 and they attended the annual convention of the Junior Academy in 1936. Miss Leonard has been sponsor of the Baldwin Science Club for the past nineteen years. She served as counselor to the Junior Academy for three years (1947- 50), and as Cooperator for Science Clubs of America and the Alabama Junior Acad¬ emy of Science for three years (1950-53). The Baldwin Science Club has entered 14 exhibits and nine papers before the con¬ vention, and has won three Junior Academy awards. What a science club does depends largely on the enthusiasm as well as the ability of the sponsor to direct projects. A successful sponsor learns the thrill of directing youth, willing to work for the joy of working. REPORT OE COUNSELORS Alabama Junior Academy of Science For the Year 1953-54 Plans lor the 1954 annual convention of the junior Academy were made at the fall executive meetins,^ which was held at the Medical Center November 14, 1953. All of the officers and counselors were present at the meeting. Live additional high school science clubs have applied for membership in the |unior Academy this year. This brings the total number of active chapters to 38 for the 1953-54 academic year. The executive committee voted to limit to ten the number of delegates that a chapter can send to the annual convention; to ask each chapter to nominate officers for a specific office; to con¬ tinue to use loving cups as awards for papers and exhibits. Mr. Elerman Cranberry, West Point Manufac¬ turing Company, Shawmut, Alabama, has prepared a roster of sixty speakers from which the high school science clubs can select speakers in pre¬ paring their programs. Last year at the Florence-TVA meeting, five- first place, lO-inch award cups and five second place 8-inch award cups were presented to the winners for exhibits in chemistry, physics, science in industry, and in biology, and also for the best presentation of papers. Ten additional award cups will be presented again this year to winners in these five fields of science. The awards this year have been made possible by the generosity of Mr. James F. Sulzby, Jr., the Birmingham oi^fic- es of W. H. Curtin and Company, Fisher Scien¬ tific Company, McKesson and Robbins, and the Birmingham Section of the American Chemical Society. These friends have donated funds to de¬ fray the entire cost of these award cups this year. A committee with Father Patrick H. Yancey, S. J., as chairman, is revising the pamphlet on the Alabama Junior Academy of Science. James L. Kassner, Peruninent Counselor J. Henry Walker, Counselor in Charge of Pagers and Exhibits ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PROGRAM OF TWENTIETH ANNUAL MEETING HUNTINGDON COLLEGE MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA APRIL 2-3 1954 112 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Officers, 1933-54 President . Gene Savage, Tuscaloosa Senior High School Vice President . Gloria Glasgow, Ensley High School Secretary . Joe James, John Carroll High School 1 reasurer . Ellece Burns, Sacred Heart Academy CouNSFLcaRS, 1953-34 Counselor to President . Robert M. Sims, Tuscaloosa Senior High School Counselor to Vice President . Miss Agnes Hunt, Ensley High School Counselor to Secretary . Sister M. Elizabeth, O.S.B., John Carroll High School Counselor to Treasurer . Sister Mary Charles, O.S.B., Sacred Heart Academy Counselor at Place of Meeting . Prof. James H. Eads, Jr., Huntingdon College Coordinator for Science Clubs of America . Dr. fames L. Kassner, University of Alabama Counselor in charge of Exhibits and Papers . Dr. J. Henry Walker, University of Alabama Permanent Coun,selor . Dr. James L. Kassner, University of Alabama CHAPTER MEMBERS School Baldwin County High School.. Chilton County High School .... Choctaw County High School .. Coffee High School . Convent ot Mercy Academy . Cullman Hiyh School . Curry High School . Decatur High School* . Deshler High School . Dora High School* . Douglas High School* . Ensley High School . I’airhope High School* . Fairview High School . Hueytown High School . |ohn Carroll High School . Lanett High School . d'. W. Martin High School . McAdory High School . McGill institute . Minor High School . Morgan County High School . Murphy High School . Phillips High School . Red Bay High School . Russellville High School . Sacred Heart Academy . St. Bernard High School . Shades Valley High School . Sheffield High School . Sidney Lanier High School . Talladega High School* . Troy High School . Tuscaloosa County High School Tuscaloosa Senior High School . C. F. Vigor High School . West End High School . Woodlawn High School . Sponsor Address . Miss Lillian Leonard, Bay Minette . Miss Marguerite Perry, Clanton . Mrs. Vivian P. Gilmore, Butler . Miss Eleanor Ford, Florence . Sister Mary Robert, R.S.M., Mobile . Miss Opal Cooper, Cullman . Mrs. Sarah Ann Salmon, Jasper . Mr. Gilbert W. Fowler, Decatur . Mr. John Tuggle, Tuscumbia . Mrs. Dorothy Ellison, Dora . Mr. J. A. McGee, Douglas . Miss Agnes Hunt, Birmingham . Mr. Barney L. Shull, Fairhope . Miss Ruth Kirby, Cullman . Miss Edith Geisler, Bessemer . Sister M. Elizabeth, O.S.B., Birmingham . Miss Helen Waid, Lanett . Mrs. C. M. Tyndall, Gorgas . Mrs. Ruby L. Hodge, McCalla . Brother Gordon, S.C., Mobile ....Mrs. Margaret McCluskey, Miss Claudia Smith, Birmingham . Mr. Raymond Screws, Mr. Kermit Hudson, Hartselle . Miss Mary Bragg, Mobile . Mr. M. Baranelli, Birmingham . Mrs. Gordon Gober, Red Bay Mrs. Edgar Underwood, Mr. John D. Blackwell, Russellville . Sister Mary Charles,, O.S.B., Cullman . Rev. Gerald Bray, O.S.B., St. Bernard . Mrs. Dorothy Jordan, Birmingham . Miss Mary Ella Hammond,, Sheffield . Mrs. Frances D. Jones, Montgomery . Mr. James H. Ingle, Talladega . Mr. S. W. Griffin, Troy . Mrs. Geraldine Hargrove, Northport . Mr. Robert M. Sims, Tuscaloosa . Mrs. Lucille N. Lloyd, Mr. J. S. Attebery, Jr., Prichard . Miss Mary E. Hafling, Birmingham . Mrs. Estelle Jackson, Birmingham ’Voted in at annual meeting. 113 PAPER PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WINNING FIRST PRIZE CYCLE OF INFECTION OF AMOEBIASIS Lida Inge Swafford Murphy High School The cycle of infection of Amoebiasis is my theme. The cause of Amoebiasis, or Amebic Dysentery, was discovered by Losch in 1875 to be Endamoeba histolytica, the only patho¬ genic amoeba living in the tissue. Conservative estimations as to the people infected in the United States are at least five to ten percent. The three stages of the amoeba are: tro¬ phozoite — the stage of invading the tissue, cyst — the infective stage because the cyst resists digestion to pass through the stomach unharmed, excystation — when the cysts have passed through the stomach, they excyst in the large intestine, producing young tropho¬ zoites which multiply by binary fission once every twelve hours. The process of encystation (going from the trophozoite to the cystic stage) is a com¬ plicated one. Elowever, the main reaction is the forming of a strong cyst wall which resists chemicals. The trophozoites gather along the tissue, secreting a proteolytic enzyme which dis¬ solves the tissue, after which they move in¬ ward. As the invasion continues, they es¬ tablish a colony and feed on the nutrient cell fluid. Gradually, they may attack the muscular layers or veins, resulting in the transportation of the amoebas to other or¬ gans. Because the trophozoites reproduce more quickly where the colonic flow is slow, sev¬ enty-one percent are found in the appendicu¬ lar region, although they may be found throughout the colon. The trophozoites may be carried by the veins to other organs. There, they may pro¬ duce abscesses which can be fatal. Cysts and trophozoites are passed in the feces, depending on the speed of colonic flow. Technicians need this information in diagnosing the disease. The amoebas reach their new host chiefly through food contaminated by houseflies, contaminated water supply, cross connected plumbing, recovered people, and human ex¬ crement used as tertilizer, particularly m the Orient. Therefore, protection rests on properly guarded water supply, proper disposal of sewage, protection of food from flies and suitable examination of food handlers in public eating places. Amoebiasis can be prevented, or diag¬ nosed and cured. It is up to us, the people concerned, as to which one. BIBLIOGRAPHY "Medical l*arasitolog:y" William G. Sawit/. M.IT "Clinical E*arasitolog:y" — Craig: and Faust "Textbook of Clinical Pathology" KracKc aiul Parker "Clinical Diagnosis by Uaboratory Method" Todd and Sanford "Manual of ('linical I,aborati>rv Methods" I’^pal K. llepler. M.D.. Ph.n. "Clinical Pathologv. Application and ItiterprelatiotU* Hen H. Wells. M.D.. Ph.D. ■ ‘Clinii'a 1 1 .a bora lory 1 >ia gnosis’ ’ l.e\inst»n and MacFate 114 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science PAPER PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WINNING SECOND PRIZE PETROLEUM IN ALABAMA Don Duke High School Hueytowu Picture if you can a huge neon sign with the word BEWARE on it hanging high in boundless space over the state of Alabama. This challenge rings out to Oklahoma, Texas, and other oil producing states, be¬ cause the old "Cotton State” is fast becom¬ ing a major oil producing state. Although the first test for oil in Alabama was drilled in 1863 it was along the north¬ ern land of the Hatchetigbee Anticline in Choctaw County that the Hunt Oil Com¬ pany discovered Alabama’s first commercial oil field on February 17, 1944 — the 331st well to be drilled in the state. This Gilber- town Field now' has 68 producers from the I’ombigbee River to the Mississippi line. Most of the w'ells are producing from Eu- taw sands which have at least four different horizons. Other underlying sands are con¬ tinuously being tested. The Gilbertown oil is 19 gravity with black asphaltic base. Be¬ ing a water drive field only a few wells have enough gas to operate the separators. Hunt and Carter Oil Companies have about •; f t)f the producing wells while the others are divided among eight companies and in¬ dependent operators. Production from all wells is gathered into a pipe line, taken to St. Stephens on the Tombigbee River, and hence by barge to Hunt’s refinery at Tusca¬ loosa. This oil brings $1.81 per barrel. Du¬ ring the exploration program of the Gilber¬ town field the prospectors drilled forty-four dry holes; nevertheless the field should be capable of 100 producers. Although a few wells have been drilled unsuccessfully there appears to be no reason why the Clarke County side should not produce once its sub-surface arrangement is accurately inter¬ preted. Discovery of the South Carlton Oil Field in Clarke and Baldwin Counties was an¬ nounced by the Humble Oil Company May 6, 1930. Some 90 shows of oil and gas were reported from 4,273 to 7,342 feet. In 1952 the Humble Oil Company had nine pro¬ ducers and permits for additional tests. Thus far four dry holes have resulted, but recent indications are that oil is there. Because of danger from floods in these lowlands each well must be located on a 15 feet high ramp. Producing from 30 to 80 barrels of l4 grav¬ ity oil per day, the South Carlton production is shipped out by barge and brings $1.50 per barrel. The extent of this field is be¬ lieved to be comparatively small, perhaps 25 to 30 wells. Like Gilbertown all of the W'ells produce some salt water having little gas. When the structure is better known, it is possible that attempts will be made to produce oil from some of the deeper hori¬ zons. Two years later, January 19, 1952, Hum¬ ble Oil Company struck oil near Pollard in Escambia County; thus ushering in Ala¬ bama’s third oil field. Appearing to be five or six miles long, the Pollard Field now has 33 active wells producing a crude oil of high quality. Other wells are being drilled and tests are being made. The oil will be piped to the railroad at Pollard and shipped in tank cars. It should bring $2.00 or more per barrel. This is Alabama’s first "gusher” with a good grade of oil and a larger flow than any previous well. Many consider this the most important event in the state in Petroleum in Alabama in three decades. Other geophysical anomalies are known in the area, especially in Escam¬ bia and Monroe Counties. Briefly Alabama’s oil status stands thusly. Three producing fields — Gilbertown in Choctaw County, Carlton in Clarke Coun¬ ty, and Pollard in Escambia County. The newest play is in the hardrock section in northwest Alabama. The insporation for this play was brought on by discovery of oil recently at Amory, Mississippi, in Paleo¬ zoic rocks which also underlie this section of Alabama. During the past ten years 522 wells have been drilled. These have resulted in the finding of only three separate reservoirs. There are now 111 producing oil wells in Alabama. Production from these during 1953 exceeded the previous year’s output by more than half a million barrels. Our average daily production of oil now is around 4,500 barrels. The state of Alabama benefits greatly from the influx of the petroleum industry not only in increased business activity but also in state severance taxes on oil produc¬ tion which amounts to 6^ of the gross production. At the present rate this amounts to about $200,000 annually. The discovery of oil in these three south Alabama fields has increased the value of mineral rights in this area enormously. Since V2 of Alabama shows indications of oil deposits, we now look forward to in¬ creasing prosperity. No, we are not con¬ ceding anything to anybody; so BE''^^ARE Oklahoma and Texas — Alabama is on its way. 116 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science MINUTES OE THE ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OE SCIENCE TWENTIETH ANNUAL MEETING April 2-3, 1934 The official delegates and candidates for of- ticc met in the Chapel, E'lowers Hall, Hunting- (.lon Ciollege, Montgomery, Alabama for caucus. President Gene Savage called the caucus to or- rier. He then explained that the purpose of the caiRus was to formulate a slate for the coming Saturday's election. President Savage also stated that because no more than three were nominated lor the office, there was no need for a nomi¬ nating committee. The nominated candidates then withdrew from the caucus. Eorms stating the cjualifications of the candidates were then passed out. After discussing these qualifications, the candidates were then recalled. Each candi¬ date then spoke in his own behalf. A vote of otticial delegates made the following slate: Pre\/Je)/I : jaccjueline Posey . Convent of Mercy Kibbee Streetman . West End High V/ce Preuih'nl: Betty Evans . Russellville High Eddie Huffman . Coffee Hit’ll Se ere! ary. Martha Earle . Baldwin County High Don Salter . Minor High 'Predu/rer: Sybil Ross . Minor High Charlie Pritchard . Russellville High Motion was then made, seconded and passed that the vote on Saturday would be secret. Being no further business, meeting was ad- journecl until 1:15. After lunch, the officers, delegates, sponsors and permanent counselor met in Chapel, Idowers Hall at 1 : 1 ‘i. President Savage called the meeting to order. He then introduced Mr. Owens, in charge of committee on local arrangements, who made some announcements. He said that the field trips would begin at 1:30. They included: Maxwell Eield, the Capitol and tours of industrial points of interest. Being no further business, meeting was ad¬ journed until 3:45, The business meeting of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science was held at 3:45 in the Chapel, Flowers Hall. Officers, sponsors, dele¬ gates and other members of the Academy at¬ tended. President Savage then called the meeting to order. Secretary Joe James read a few of the more interesting reports of chapter activities dur¬ ing the preceding year. Highlights of other re¬ ports were also given. Secretary Joe James then called the roll. The chapters answering roll call were: Ojf/c/al Delegate School Bobby Panome . Baldwin County High Kay Lindsey . Choctaw County High Grady Patrick . Coffee County High Virginia Strong . Convent of Mercy Academy Betty Sapp . Cullman High Carolyn Steele . Curry High John Hurst . Decatur High Warren Crouth . Deshler High Dale Johnson . Douglas High Helen Eraunces . Ensley High Billy Shults . Fairview High Gerald Nelson . Eairhope High Charles Hayes . Hueytown High Patrick McGeever . John Carroll High Terry McDonald . McAdory High Robert Fulton . McGill Institute Jimmy Stracer . Minor High Dorothy Moses . Morgan County High Gene Morriss . Murphy High Jimmy Ballentine . Russellville High Jeanette Wolf . Sacred Heart Academy Taylor Murray . Shades Valley High Helen Cooper . Sheffield High Coley Mills . Sidney Lanier High Nancy Davis . Talladega High Richard Thornton . Troy High Jo Frances Caldwell, Tuscaloosa Senior High Pat Jones . C. F, Vigor High Earl Ray . West End High William Gray . Woodlawn High The results of the caucus was then announced by President Savage. Campaign procedures were also explained. Any pamphlets or campaign literature was to be given only to the official delegates. Next on the agenda, candidates spoke to the entire assembly on their behalf. Dr. James L. Kassner, permanent counselor to the Junior Academy, and Profes.sor of Chem¬ istry at the University of Alabama, then spoke to the group. He especially urged attendance at the banquet and the party planned for the eve¬ ning. Junior Academy Meeting was then adjourned until Saturday morning. The banquet of the Junior Academy was held in the First Methodist Church. The convocation was given by Dr. Glenn Massengale. Mr Charles Turner, Jr., Master of Ceremonies, welcomed the officers, delegates, sponsors and members to the banquet. The officers, counselors, new clubs and special guests were introduced by Mr. Charles Owens. Mr. Turner then introduced President Gene- Savage who delivered the presidential address. Mr. Turner then introduced Dr. James L. Kassner, permanent counselor to the Academy. Dr. Kassner then announced the winner of the Academy Award for meritorious teaching of sci¬ ence. It was presented to Miss Lillian Leonard, sponsor at Baldwin County High. Mr. T. W. Martin then announced the win¬ ners of the Gorgas Scholarships. They are: First Place: Carl R. Stringfellow, Jr., West End High Second Place: Patrick N. Espy, Jackson High T bird Place : Hoyt A. Ponder, Jr., Russellville High Fo?irth Place : Nancy N. Davis, Talladega High Alternate: James A. Hendrix, Fayette County High At the termination of the banquet, all pro¬ ceeded to downtown Montgomery for the gala party. The following are the exhibits entered at the annual convention of the Junior Academy of Science: Biology 1. Mycology — "Collection of Mushrooms’" Baldwin County — Miss Lillian Leonard, Sponsor 2. A Phase of Bacteria Culture Convent of Mercy — Sister Mary Robert, R.S.M., Sponsor 3. Self-portrait Camera Curry — Mrs. Sarah Ann Salmon, Sponsor 4. Spider Collection Hueytown — Miss Edith Geisicr, Sponsor 3. Comparative Study ol Vertebrate Skull Minor — Mrs. Margaret McCluskcy, Miss Claudia Smith, Sponsors 6. Dissection of a Cat Russellville— Mrs. Edgar Underwood, Mr. John Blackwell, Sponsors Collecting and Growing of Onhids Shades Valley — Mrs. Dorothy Iordan, Scion- sor 117 8. Rocks Tell A Story Sacred Heart Academy~Sister Mary Charles, O.S.B., Sponsor 9. Forest Fire Fighting West End^Miss Mary E. Hafling, Sponsor Chemistry 1. Manufacture of Rayon by Viscose Process Baldwin County^Miss Lillian Leonard, Spon¬ sor 2. Fluorescence and Phosphorescence Ensley — Miss Agnes Hunt, Sponsor 3. Atom Model Sheffield — Miss Mary Ella Hammond, Spon¬ sor Physics 1. Refrigeration Coffee — Miss Eleanor Ann Ford, Sponsor 2. Experiments with Stereo-photography McGill Institute — Brother Gordon, S.C., Sponsor 3. Variable Frequency Oscillators Woodlawn — Mrs. Estelle Jackson, Sponsor Science in Industry 1. TV A at Muscle Shoals Coffee — Miss Eleanor Ann Ford, Sponsor 2. Electric Glass Cutter Ensley — Miss Agnes Hunt, Sponsor 3. Electroplating Ensley — Miss Agnes Hunt, Sponsor 4. Coal Tar Distillation Minor — Mrs. Margaret McCluskcy, Mi>s Claudia Smith, Sponsors “s. Industry in Alabama Morgan County — Mr. Raymond Screws, Mr. Kermit Hudson, Sponsors 6. Anodizer Shades Valley Mrs. Dorothy jordan. Spon¬ sor 7. Wind I'unnel, Construction and Experimen¬ tation Tuscaloosa Senior - Mr, Robert M Sims. Sponsor 8. Oldest Industry m the World Tod.iy .ind Vesterd ,iy C. F. Vigor Mrs. LikiIL l.lo\d, Mr. |. S. Attebc'ry, Ir., S|''onsors 0. X-Ray Diffraction M.ignifici W'oodl.iwn M rs E.stelle l.uksctn. SpcMiscir I he S.iturd.iy meeting ol .■Vl.d-'.im.i lunuM' Academy ol Science w ,is c.illed to c'rder b\ I’residenI Savage .it 0 :()(). .-Vpril v Papers wcix then re.id. I he\ included: I. Manul.utmv ol Ravon by Vis,crsc I’lcVcss ( h.irles Ixirle, Baldw m ( cnintc 7. 118 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science 2. TV A at Muscle Shoals — Ronald Fuller, Coffee 3. Facts Fight Fears — Patricia Reilly, Convent of Mercy 4. Fluoridation— Nekla Freeman, Curry 3. I'he Van de Graff Generator - - Annette Hare, h'airview 6. Petroleum in Alabama — Don Duke, Huey- town 7. Simplified Coal 'Far Distillation — James Smith, Minor 8. Industry in Alabama Don j. Mikell, Mor¬ gan County 9. Cycle of Infection of Amoebiasis — Lida Inge Swafford, Murphy 10. Atomic Energy — Betty Evans, Russellville 11. Rocks Tell A Story — Judy Buchmann, Sac¬ red Heart 12. A Comparison of Two Solid Rocket Fuels; Nozzles — Charles Matthews, Shades Valley 13. Wind Tunnel, Construction and Experimen¬ tation — Ferd Mitchell, 'Fuscaloosa Senior 1-1. Oldest Industry in the World, Yesterday and I’oday — Bobby Jones, C. F. Vigor 13. Telsa Coil; Principles, Construction, Experi¬ mentation- Kibbee Streetman, West End 16. Amplitude Modulation of a Radio Trans¬ mitter — Jim Allan, Woodlawn When the papers had been read, a short re¬ cess followed. After recess, the business meeting then followed. Secretary Joe James called the roll. Minutes of previous convention were not read due to the fact that each chapter received a copy of them. Secretary Joe James, however, corrected them to include Robert Potter, dele¬ gate from John Carroll as having answered roll call in the previous convention. Charters were awarded to the following schools: Dora, Douglas, Fairhope, Talladega and Decatur. Election of officers for the future year was then held. The following officers were elected: President : Kibbee Streetman . West End High Miss Mary E. Hafling, Sponsor Vice Preside?!! ■. Eddie Huffman . Coffee High Miss Eleanor Ann Ford, Sponsor Secretary. Martha Earle . Baldwin County High Miss Lillian Leonard, Sponsor T reasitrer-. Charles Pritchard . Russellville High Mrs. Edgar Underwood, Sponsor The resolutions committee consisting of Miss Kay Lindsey, Mrs. Frances D. Jones, Mrs. Estelle Jackson, Sister Mary Andrea, made the following report ■ Be it resolved that the Alabama Junior Acad¬ emy of Science go on record as extending thanks to the following: Professor James H. Eads, Jr., Mr. Charles Turner, Mr. Charles Owens, Miss Eva G. Bern- hart, Mrs. Flora Hudson and the Tri Beta Group of Huntingdon College; Dr. James L. Kassner, Dr. .J Henry Walker and the judges of exhibits and papers from the Alabama Academy of Science; the Chamber of Com¬ merce, the City Recreation Department, Mr. Gene Reeder, Miss Ethel Johnston and art students of Lanier High School, the Lanier Science Club, the ladies of the First Methodist Church, Mr. T. C. Reid, and all others of Montgomery who helped to make the twentieth annual meeting a success. Be it further resolved that a copy of this resolution be mailed to each of the above men¬ tioned. Dr. Walker then made the following awards; Exhibits Biolcjgy Fdrst Award: Spider Collection Paul Hayes, Jack Morgan and Tommy Brown, Hueytown High Second Award: Rocks Tell A Story Judy Buchmann, Sacred Heart Academy Honorable Mention: Collecting and Growing of Orchids Tom Miller, Shades Valley High Chemistry First Award: Fluorescence and Phosphorescence Evelyn Wheeler, Ensley High Second Award: Manufacture of Rayon by Viscose Process Martha Earle and Charles Earle Baldwin County High Honorable Mention: Atom Model John Ennis and Bobby Ford, Sheffield High Physics First Award: Refrigeration Bobby Simmons, Coffee High Junior Academy 119 Second Award: Variable Frequency Oscillators ]im Allan, Woodlawn High Honorable Mention: Experiments With Stereo-photography Bob Fulton, McGill Institute Science in Industry First Award: Wind Tunnel, Construction and Experimenta¬ tion, Ferd Mitchell, Tommy Dickson and others Tuscaloosa Senior High Second Award: X-Ray Diffraction Magnifier Bobby Shaw and Frank Bankson Woodlawn High Honorable Mention: Electric Glass Cutter Julian Street and James Cooper, Ensley High Papers First Award: Cycle of Infection of Amoebiasis Lida Inge Swafford, Murphy High Miss Mary Bragg, Sponsor Second Award: Petroleum in Alabama Don Duke, Hueytown High Miss Edith Geisler, Sponsor Honorable Mention: Manufacture of Rayon by Viscose Process Martha Earle and Charles Earle Baldwin County High Miss Lillian Leonard, Sponsor The awards of the American Association for the Advancement of Science were made to: Miss Patricia Reilly, Convent of Mercy, Mobile Mr. William Flynt Allen, C. F. Vigor High, Prichard President Savage then introduced Dr. Kassner, permanent counselor. Dr. Kassner expressed his appreciation to the officers and judges for their fine cooperation and to the dubs for the part they had in making the annual convention a suc¬ cess. He also encouraged more dubs to enter par¬ ticipants for the Gorgas Scholarships. President Savage made acknowledgment to Dr. Kassner for his leadership, to Mr. Sims, Mr. Turn¬ er, Mr. Owens, Sidney Lanier High, Montgomery Chamber of Commerce, Huntingdon College and to all the members of the Junior Academy for making the 1954 convention such a success. Being no further business, the meeting was ad¬ journed until 1955. Respectfully submitted, Joe James, Secretary Alabama Junior Ac.vdemy of Science Balance Sheet for 1953-54 RECEIPTS: Balance on hand from 1953 . $199. S9 Club dues (39 at $2.uo each) . 7S.00 Membership cards (289 at 5 cents) . 11.45 DISBURSEMENTS: Gene Savage (president’s expenses) . $ IS. 84 Ellece Burns (treasurer’s expenses) . 5.79 Don Duke (1953 secretary's expenses*.... 5.95 Stamps . 7.09 Kart Advertising Co. (for A.J.A.S. emblem 13.00 Weatherford Printing Co. (programs) . 21.01 (for stationery and cards for exhibits and papers at annual meeting) . 72.2s (for plates for Journal) . 9.36 George Walker (photographs for publicity* 2.95 .Sino.ls 5292.31 CASH TO BALANCE . $133.16 $292.31 $292,31 Audited by: J. Henry Walker. 7-6.51 Ralph L. Chermock. 7-6-51 120 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science MEMBERSHIP LIST Industrial Members American Cast Iron Pipe Co. Alabama Power Company . Birmingham Slag Company . Gulf States Paper Corporation I. Lewis Cigar Company . McKesson and Robbins, Inc.... . (James T. MacKenzie) Birmingham . (Thomas W. Martin) Birmingham ..(C. W. Ireland, Pres.) 2019 Sixth Ave. North, Birmingham . Tuscaloosa . Selma ( J. K. Lunsford, Mgr.) Laboratory Supply Dept., Birmingham Su^ta/n/ng Members Alabama State Chamber of Commerce . Birmingham Southern College . First Farmers and Merchants Nat. Bank . Florence State I’eachers College . Jacksonville State Teachers College . Judson College . Livingston State Teachers College . Spring Hill College . Southern Natural Gas Corp . (Pratt Rather, University of Alabama . Dr. j. D. Bush . Mr. [ohn S. Coleman, Pres . Dr. Louis L. Friedman . John Franklin Hendon . lames T. MacKenzie . . (John M. Ward, Exec. V. Pres.) Montgomery . (George R. Stuart) Birmingham . (E. L. Boatner, Pres.) Troy . (E. B. Norton) Florence . (Houston Cole) Jacksonville . Marion . ( W. W. Hill, President) Livingston . Spring Hill Pres.) Watts Building, P.O. Box 2563, Birmingham . University . P. O. Box 877, Gadsden . Birmingham Trust National Bank, Birmingham . 1906 9th Ave. South, Birmingham . 1631 3rd Ave. North, Birmingham . 4300 9th Court South, Birmingham REGULAR MEMBERS (As of December 1, 1954) Lhe following symbols are used to designate BM — Biology and Medicine C — Chemistry GA — Geology and Anthropology GC — Geography and Conservation PM- -Physics and Mathematics IE — Industry and Economics SE — Science Education section references; SS — Social Sciences The following symbols are used to indicate classes of membership other than individual members: * — Collegiate members t — Honorary members Sect! 0)1 SS IE C PM BM BM C BM SS BM BM SE BM BM GA Nan/e Title Address Mr. Fred T. Adams . Box 3584, University Mr. Rucker Agee . 305 First Nat. Bank Bldg., Birmingham Dr. Rodger W. Allen . Dean, School of Science and Lit., A. P. L, Auburn Dr. Fred Allison . Dept, of Physics, Emory and Henry College, Emory, Va. Mr. Ray Allison . Zoology Dept., Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn Mr. Joseph Cephus Almond, Jr . Chief Pharmacist, Riverside Hospital, Newport News, Va. Mr. Dan C. Anderson . 642 Third Avenue North, Birmingham Dr. Frank Selman Arant . Head, Zoology-Entomology Dept., A. P. L, Auburn Mr. Paul J. Arnold . Professor of Science, State Teachers College, Jacksonville Mr. B. Wayne Arthur . Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, A. P. L, Auburn Mr. A. J. Atkins . Assoc. Professor of Science, State Teachers College, Troy Mr. |. S. Attebery . . C. F. Vigor High School, Prichard Mrs. Bonnie Austin . Teacher, Public Schools, Lillian Dr. Paul C. Bailey . Dept, of Biology, Alabama College, Montevallo Dr. L. Rush Bailey . University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham Mr. Jack Baker . U. S. Geological Survey, Box 2033, University Membership 121 Section C PM* IE C BM 5S* C IE C C— SS c BM GA BM SS PM BM GC BM SS* SE BM BM* BM* GC IE GA SS PM C SE C BM C C GA BM BM IE BM SS PM C BM BM BM PM IE Same Title Addvt Dr. lames Ballentine . Research Chemist, Chemstrand Corp., Decatur Mr. William H. Bancroft . 802 Wright’s Mill Road, Auburn Mr. Lee A. Barclay . Business Manager, Alabama College, Montevallo Dr. Samuel B. Barker . Dept, of Pharmacology, Medical College, Birmingham Dr. E. Scott Barr . Department of Physics, Box 714, University Dr. William J. Barrett . . Southern Research Institute, Birmingham Dr. James H. Barrow . Dept, of Biology, Huntingdon College, Montgomery Miss Evelyn Barton . Box 2635, University Dr. C. A. Basore . Chemical Eng. Dept., A. P. I., Auburn Mr. John L. Baswell . Birmingham Real Est. Bd., 5613 S. lOth Ave., Birmingham Dr. Willis J. Baughman . . Box 2552, University Dr. Croom Beatty . Dept, of Chemistry, Howard College, Birmingham Dr. A. B. Beindorf . Chemstrand Corp., Decatur Mr. j. Claude Bennett . 724 McMillan Ave., Birmingham Mr. John Bensko . 1223 Graymont Ave. N., Birmingham Mrs. Eva G. Bernhardt . Dept, of Biology, Huntingdon College, Montgomery Mr. Gerald D. Berreman . 3819 Ware’s Perry Road, Montgomery Sister M. Bertha, O.S.B . Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman Dr. Everett L. Bishop . P. O. Box 2047, University Mr. William B. Black . Forest Analyst, Gull States Paper Corp., Tuscaloosa Dr. Charles B. Blair . Dept, of Biology, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham Jane Alice Bliss . 3101 Cliff Road, Birmingham Miss Kathryn H. Boehmer . 3928 Ave. K. Fairview Sta., Birmingham Mr. Herbert H. Boeschung . Mobile Center, University of Alabama, Box 1475, Mobile Dr. Edward E. H. Boyer . Providence Hospital, Mobile Mr. James McGregor Boyles . Box 2047, University Mr. William H. Brakefield . 198 12th Street, S. W., Birmingham Mr. J. Y. Brame . 1368 College Court, Montgomery Mr. William W. Branch . W. W. Branch and Co., Farley Bldg., Birmingham Mr. Peter A. Brannon . Dept, of Archives and History, Montgomery Mr. James J. Brantley . 934 Canal St. (CA), New Orleans, La. Professor Mamie Braswell . Dept, of Mathematics, Alabama College, Montevallo Rev. Gerald Bray, O.S.B . Professor of Chemistry and Physics, St. Bernard College, St. Bernard Mr. P. P. Brooks . Head, Science Dept., Sidney Lanier High School, Montgomery Dr. Earl H. Brown . Fundamental Research Section, TVA., Wilson Dam Mr. Jack S. Brown . Dept. Zoology-Entomology, A. P. 1., Auburn Dr. Robert D. Brown . Dean, School of Chemistry, University N. R, Brundrett . Box 111. Birmingham Dr. William B. Bunger . School of Chemistry, A. P. I,. Auburn Mr. Paul B. Bunton . 2900 Connecticut A\c., Washington. D. ( . Miss Louise S. Burke . 1130 South 10th A\c., Birmingh.un Dr. J. D. Bush . P. O. Box 87“^, Gadsden Mr. George R. By rum . . First Federal Savings & Loan Assoc., 110 N. 21st ,St., Birmingham Dr. Woodrow R. Byrum . Division of Pharmacy, Howard ('ollege, Birmingham Mrs. Gabriel L. Caffee . ( edar L.me. I'.iirlu'ipc Mr. Elmer Dean Calloway . Box Ihiixcrsitv Dr. Julius D. Capps . Alabama Polytechnic Institute, P. D, Box B"-'. .■\nburn Dr. 'Virginia W. Carlson. ...Dept, of Bio-Chem., Alabama Medical College, Birmingham Dr. Warner W. Carlson . Dept, of Bio-Chem., Alabama Medical ( ollege. Birmingham Dr. Emmett B. Carmichael, Dept, of Bio-Chem., Alabama Medical College. Birmingham Dr. Howard E. Carr . Dept, of Physics, .V P. 1., .\ubnrn Mr. Hugh Carter . 1 itle Gu.ir.intee Bldt;,, Birmincham Journal of Alabama Academy of Science 122 Section Nan/e Title Address SE Mrs. Marie B. Carver . Public School System, Bon Secour BM Dr. Albert E. Casey . 2236 Highland Avenue, Birmingham ( Dr. David W. Chaney . Chemstrand Corp., Decatur BM Dr. Ralph Chermock . Dept, of Biology, Box 2047, University Mr. Ballard H. Clemmons . Box L, University BM Dr. |. K. Cline . Alabama Medical College, Birmingham SE Mr. Ted C. Cobun . Indian Springs School, Helena CjC Mr. E'rank T. Cole . ( . 362 Tuttle Avenue, Mobile IE Mr. |ohn S. Coleman . Birmingham Trust Nat'l Bank, Birmingham BM* Mr. Mack W. Coleman . 311 W. Green Street, Athens (. Mr. Francis N. Collier . . 6 East 17th Ave., Apt. A, Columbus, Ohio IE Dr. H. McKinley Conway . Southern Assoc, of Science and Industry, 3009 Peachtree Road, Atlanta C Dr. Kenneth W. Coons . Dept, of Chemical Eng., Drawer H, University BM* Mr. Bancroft Cooper . Alabama Medical College, Birmingham PM Mr. Arthur G. Crafts . Dept, of Physics, A. P. I., Auburn C Mr. Alfred B. Craig . Chemstrand Corp., Decatur PM Prof. Orpha Ann Culmer . State Teachers College, Florence C — GA Mr. Erank Dachille . 1781 E. Baars Street, Pensacola, Ela. BM Sister Mary Charles Daly . Dept, of Bio., Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman BM Dr. Bessie L. Davey . School of Home Economics, Box 2634, University SE Mr. Arlie B. Davidson . Huntingdon College, Montgomery GA Mr. Glenn Arthur Davis . U. S. Geological Survey, P. O. Box 2033, University SE Mr. Wilson Davis . Brantley High School, Brantley BM Dr. Harold Douglas . Biology Dept., Ahiline Christian College, Abiline, Texas C Miss Mary G. Decker . Dept, of Physical Sc., Alabama College,, Montevallo Mr. David L. Dejarnette . Box 66, Mound State Monument, Moundville BM Dr. |. S. T)endy . Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, A. P. I., Auburn Prof. Wilbur D. DeVall . Dept, of Forestry, A. P. I., Auburn BM Dr. Robert A. Dietz . . State Teachers College, Troy BM Mr. William E. Dorrill . 409 South 3 Notch Street, Troy BM Dr. lames A Doubles, )r....Dept. of Biology, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham BM Miss Sara E. Douglas . 212 Mecca Avenue, Birmingham GA Mr. Harvey T. Downing . U. S. Geological Survey, Room 206, P. O. Bldg., Huntsville C Mr. j. C. Driskell . Research Chemist, TVA, Wilson Dam SS Mr. Louis Dupree . 8-D Lockett Drive, Montgomery BM Mr. James H. Eads . Biology Dept., Box 2047, University PM Rev. Louis John Eisele, S.J . Dept, ot Physics, Spring Hill College,, Mobile ( Mr. R. H. Elder . Chief Chemist, American Cast Iron Pipe Co., Birmingham IE Mr. Howard C. Elliott . 40“^ l6th Place South, Birmingham PM Dr. Kelly L. Elmore . Chief of Research Branch, TVA, Wilson Dam SE Miss Ollie Elmore . Kate Duncan Smith DAR School, Grant BM Dr. lack D. Emerson . Dept, of Physiology, Alabama Medical College, Birmingham GC Miss Ellen I. Emigh . 1724 Flagler Ave., N. E., Atlanta, Ga. I^M Dr. Mildred A. Englebrecht . . Dept, of Bacteriology and Med. Tech., University SE Mrs. Lena English . Conecuh County High School, Castleberry C Mr. Glenn E. Estes . 313 Brown-Marx Bldg., Birmingham BM Miss Para Lee Evans . 2030 Highland Ave., Apt. C-3, Birmingham BM* Mr. Louis V. Farine . Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Alabama Medical College, Birmingham BM* Mr. Preston T. Parish . Box 4l, Route 3, Opelika BMt Dr. C. M. Farmer . 809 S. Brundidge St., Troy SS Dr. Charles D. Farris . Box 4277, University F. W. Faxon . 83-19 Frances St., Back Bay, Boston, Mass. Mr. William Frank Ferro . 711 Alabama Power Bldg. Annex, P. O. Box 2641, Birmingham Membership 123 Section IE EM BM BM C BM BM SS ss SS GC BM* SS c BM IE GC c: BM SE IE BM BM PM SE-BM-C BM IE SS c BM C BM BM C BM SE C PM SS c; BM GA P PM BM BM SE IE IE IE PM Nn/ne Title Ad dr Dr. Milton H. Pies . Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Alabama Medical College, Birmingham Dr. J. A. Fincher . Dept, of Biology, Howard College, Birmingham Dr. Sidney B. Finn . University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham Mr. Richard W. Fitzgerald . 1805 Holly Street, Montgomery Dr. H. H. Floyd . Professor of Science, State Teachers College, Florence Dr. James O. Foley . Dept, of Anatomy, Alabama Medical College, Birmingham Mrs. James C. Foley . 409 Sunset Drive, Vestavia Hills, Birmingham Dr. Thomas R. Ford . 3557 Wilmington Road, Montgomery Dr. Paul B. Foreman . Dept, of Sociology, Box 2982, University Mr. James C. Foshee . Clover-Bottom Home, Donelson, Term. Mr. Franklin J. Foster . Box 2242, University Mr. William Houston Fox . 432 E. Elm Street, Troy Mr. T. M. Francis . 334 Brown-Marx Bldg., Birmingham Dr. James A. Fraser . Prof, of Science, State Teachers College, Troy Dr. Louis L. Freidman.. .Friedman Diagnostic Clinic, 1124 South 20th St., Birmingham Rev. W. L. Furman, S.J . Dept, of Physics, Spring Hill College, Mobile Mr. B. W. Gandrud . U. S. Bureau of Mines, University Mr. George I. Garin . Forestry Dept., A. P. I., Auburn Mr. C M. Gary . Dept, of Science, State Teachers College, Jacksonville Rev. Lambert C. Gattman, O.S.B.. . St. Bernard College,, St. Bernard Miss Edith Geisler . Star Route, Box 24, Bessemer Dr. Henry Gerhardt . 1215 Elmira Street, Mobile Mr. Samuel R. Gibbons . 326 Overbrook Road, Birmingham Dr. Joseph A. Gibilisco . University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham Mrs. Vivian P. Gilmore . P. O. Box 132, Butler Mr. William E. Glenn . Registrar, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham Mrs. Gordon Gober . Red Bay School, Red Bay Dr. Charles M. Goethe . 720 Capital Natl. Bank Bldg., Sacramento, Calif. Mr. James R. Goetz . 2021 Sixth Ave. North, Birmingham Prof. Raymond L. Gold . 916-D Parkview Circle, University of Alabama, University Dr. Walter S. Gordon . 226 N. Main Street, McKenzie, Tenn. Miss Rachel H. Gorrie . 315‘S Montezuma Road, Montgomery Dr. John Edward Gran . 707 11th Street, Tuscaloosa Dr. Margaret Green . Dept, of Bacteriology, Ehiiversity Mr. Stanley W. Griffin . Troy High School. Froy Dr. E. L. Grove . oI Chemistry, Lhiicersity Mr. Faye S. Guyton . . Zoology-Entomology Dept., A. P. I., Auburn Miss Mary E. Hafling . . West End High School, Birmingh.im Mr. J. J. Hammack . State Teachers College,, Livingston Mr. Joseph L. Hammond . Southern Research Institute, Birmingh.im Dr. Asacl T. Hansen . Prol. of Sociology and Anthropology, Box 2482, L'm\ersit\ Dr. Edgar E. Hardy . Monsanto Chemical ( o., .Vnmston Dr. T. E. Hargis . Hargis Clinic and Hospital, 11.31 N. 2Sth St., Birmingh.im Dr. Roland Harper . . Geoiogical Sursey of Al.ib.ima, Box 0, Lhii\crsit\ Mr. Thomas D. Harper . . 1104 Eighth .Axenue. Birmingh.im Miss Gertrude C. Harrison . S.u red Heart Ac.uleiin'. ( ullm.ui Mr. Paul Arthur llartman . . 1107 West Secoiul St,, West l .it.ucttc, liul. Miss Anna Chapman Harvey . . (liuoiita Miss Kitty Sue Hayles . A'igor School, I’ric h.ii d Dr. Herbert D. Hays . Dept, of GcuKigx, Uni\ersit\ Mr. Carl Phillip Heartburg . First Nat l B.ink, P. D. Box 2^1 D, Birmingham Mr. S. S. Heide . 220 i 2Sth Street West. Birmingh.im Mr. John L. Hendon . Heiulon .md ( omp.mv, liu., KBs N hd .Axc-. Birmincliam Mr. Jefferson D. Henry . Stale ( h.imber ot ( ommeice, P.(L Box "o, Mon|vcsmei\ Dr. George H. I less . StH'o idi .Axi. Scnitli, Birmingham Journal of Alabama Academy of Science 124 Set tin)! EM 11 SE SE BM BM BM SE BM GA BM C C BM C ss GA BM G SS GA IE GG SS G SE G GA ( PM PM PM SE* BM BM SS IM* BM GA c: BM PM BM C BM BM PM BM C Name Title Address Prof. Alan Hisey . Dept, of Chemistry, University Mr. J. G. Elitchcock . Manager Land Dept., Alabama Power Co., Birmingham Miss Nellie E. Hitt . Board of Education, St. Clair County, Ashville Mrs. Ruby L. Hodge . Route 3, Box 292, Bessemer Jvlr. Bruce E. Holding, Jr . . Alabama Medical College, Birmingham Mr. lohn W. Holland . 109 Hiwasse Ave., Sheffield Dr. Howard L Holley . Alabama Medical College, Birmingham Mr. E. S. Holliman . DAR School, Grant Mr. Gecd G. Hollis . Box 36, Arkansas College, Batesville, Ark. Mr. Edgar C. Horton . 4413 Fifth Ave. South, Birmingham Mr. B. C.. House . Lloyd Noland Foundation. Box 337, Fairfield M. Hutt, Jr . State Teachers College, Florence Mr. Ernest O. Huffman . Research Chemist, TVA, 909 N. Pine St., Florence Sister Maureen Hughes, O.S.B . 2313 Highland Ave., Birmingham Dr. T. E. blunt . Dept, of Anatomy, Alabama Medical College, Birmingham Mr. Oscar Lee Hurtt, Jr . Connors Steel Co., 3000 Powell Ave., Birmingham Dr. Paul Irvme . Dept, of Education, A. P. L, Auburn Mr. John B. Ivey . Geologist, Box 2033, University Mr. Wdliam D. Ivey . Zoology-Entomology Dept., A. P. L, Auburn Mrs. Estelle O. Jackson . 1413 46th St., Bellview Heights, Birmingham Dr. Perry B. James . President, Athens College, Athens Mr. Dawson M. Jennings . 572 Morningview Drive, Montgomery Mr. Henry L. Jennings . 303 4’itle Guarantee Bldg., Birmingham Mr. Everett W. John.son . Dept, of Forestry, A. P. L, , Auburn Dr. ). Herman |ohnson . Dept, of Economics, A. P. L, Auburn Mr. Robert B. John.son . Moore-Handley Hardware Co., Birmingham Mr. Searcy H. (ohnson, Jr . . 1318 South 13th St., Birmingham Mr. Warren E. Johnson . Sanotone Corp., 819-820 Bell Bldg., Montgomery Dr. E. V. Jones .Consultant Carbon Chem. Co., 213 E. Vanderbilt Rd. Oak Ridge, Tenn. Dr. Walter B. Jones . State Geologist, P. O. Drawer 0, University Dr. (. L. Kassner . Dept, of Chemistry, University Mr. Hoyt M. Kayler . Dept, of Physics, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham Dr. E'ranccs (. Kc-arley . Chemistry Dept., Spring Hill College, Mobile Mr. Warren G. Keith . Civil Engineering Dept., University Prof. Roscoe D. Kelley . Math. Dept., State Teachers College, Troy Miss Ann Kemp . 83 Hueytown Road, Bessemer Dr. Clarence E. Klapper . Dept, of Anatomy, Alabama Medical College, Birmingham Dr. Margaret S. Klapper . Alabama Medical College, Birmingham Dr. Harold E. Klontz . ...Dept, of Economics and Business Adm., A. P. 1.,, Auburn Miss ]une Carolyn Laird . 2209 18th Street, Tuscaloosa Mr. E. E. Lamb . American Optical Co., Box 4280, Atlanta, Ga. Mr. Phillip E. LeMoreaux . Box 2033, University Dr. fames E. Land . Dept, of Chemistry, A. P. L, Auburn Dr. Leroy L. Langley . Dept, of Physiology, Alabama Medical College, Birmingham Rev. Everett Larguier, S.J . Spring Hill College, Mobile Dr. Joseph Lazansky . ...University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham Mr. Franklin A. Lenfesty . Research Chemist, TVA, Wilson Dam Miss Lillian Leonard . Box 239, Bay Minette Mr. Francis X. Leuth . Box 413, Centreville Dr. F. A. Lewis . Dept, of Mathematics, University Dr. Helen Linkswiler . Research Lab., Human Nutrition, Box 1843, University Knox W. Livingston . Dept, of Forestry, A. P. L, Auburn Mrs. Lucille M. Floyd . C. F. Vigor High School, Prichard Membership 125 Section Name Title Addre C Dr. S. J. Lloyd . Dept, of Chemistry, University C* Mr. Randall O. Loffre . 1364 Government St., Mobile C Mr. A. R. Long . 103 Buford St., Montgomery C Prof. Justin Long . Chemical Engineering Dept., A. .P L, Auburn BM Mr. Thomas Lumpkin . Box 2047, University GC Mr. J. E. McCaffrey . Woodland Dept., International Paper Co., Georgetown, S. C. BM Mrs. V. C. McCluskey . Route 3, Box 132, Birmingham BM Dr. William L. McCracken . University of Alabama School of Dentistry,, Birmingham BM Dr. Herbert A. McCullough . Dept, of Biology, Howard College, Birmingham SE Mr. G. Lofton McCurdy . Lincoln Elementary School, Lincoln GA Miss Minnie McGlamery . Ala. Geological Survey, Box D, University SE Mr. William D. Mcllvaine . Director Engineering and Replacement, University C Dr. James T. McKenzie . Amer. Cast Iron Pipe Co., 4300 Glenwood Ave., Birmingham SE Miss Clustie McTyeire . 1804 Arlington Ave., Bessemer C Dr. Thomas M. McVay . Ceramic Technology Dept., University IF Mr. Arthur T. McWane . McWane Cast Iron Pipe Co., Box 2601, Birmingham BM* Mr. David Holmes McWilliams . State Teachers College, Troy C Dr. Fred C. Mabee . Dept, of Chemistry, Howard College, Birmingham BM* Mr. Jack C. Mallory . Box 3003, University GA Mr. Glenn T. Malmberg . U.S. Geological Survey, Room 206, P.O. Bldg., Tuscaloosa PM Dr. John H. Malone . Prof, of Education, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham GC Miss Ethel Marshall . Geography and History Dept., Alabama College, Montevallo C Dr. Madison L. Marshall . Research Chemist, Chemstrand Corp., Decatur C Mr. William C. Mayer . 1107 Crest Avenue, Birmingham SE Dr. A. R. Mead . Dean of Instruction, Athens College, Athens BM Mrs. Rachel K. Merrill . 2509 Park Lane Ct., S., Apt. H, Birmingham PM Dr. E. P. Miles . Mathematics Dept., A. P. L, Auburn GC Mr. Vance Miles . Mgh., Forest Div., Gulf States Paper Corp., Tuscaloosa PM Dr. F. H. Mitchell . Physics and Astronomy Dept., Universit)' IE Mr. Willare M. Mobley . Ala. By-Products Corp., Box 6257, Tarrant BM Dr. Benjamin C. Moffatt . Dept, of Anatomy Ala. Medical College, Birmingham C Mr. O. C. Moore . Chem. Eng. Dept., A. P. L, Auburn GA Dr. Frederick K. Morris . Arctic Desert Tropic Information Service, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base BM* Mr. Robert H. Mount . . 267 S. College St., Auburn Mr. W. M. Munro . 1288 Woodlc) Road, Montgomer\ SS Mr. Charles B. Nam . 33 D, The Prado, Montgonurv BM Miss Virginia Nancarrow . 617 St. Charles Ave., Birmingham BM Mr. Gid E. Nelson . Dept, of Biology, Alabama College, Montexallo GA Dr. Paul H. Nesbitt. ..Research Center, Research Studies Institute, Maxwell Air force Base BM Mr. Thomas A. Nevin . University of Alabama, School of Dentistrv, Birmingham. C Dr. Samuel H. Nichols, Jr . Dept, ot ( hemistry, A. P. L, .■Vuburn C* Mr Lochran C. Nixon . St.ite Te.khers College, Trov BM* Mr. foe R. Norman . S06 S. 20th Street. Birmmch.un GA Mr. Holger J. Nyholm . 1201 Unixersitv A\e., Tuscaloosa SE Miss Sadie Oakes . Public School Svstem, B.iv Mmette GA Mr. Doric O'Bryan . 689 I’oncc de Leon, Montgonurv BM Dr. Joseph C. O'Kelley . Dept, of HiologV, Box 2i' i", Unoersitc BM Dr. Kenneth Ottis . Zoology-Entomology De[it., .'3. P. 1.. .\uburn BM Dr. Eleazer C. Overton . 210'i W'arrior Rd. (s Points West 1 .Birmingham BM Prof. Charles H. Owens . Huntingdon ( ollege. Montconurc GA Dr. Hugh D. Pallister . Ala. Geological Surxev, Box Isoi, l'ni\crsit\ C Dr. George D. Palmer . Dept, of ( hemistrv, l'ni\ersil\ IE Mr. S. Laws Parks . H i If Brum St . Athens Journal of Alabama Academy of Science 126 Section SS IE BM SE SS GA C BM BM* PM SS GA GA SE BM* BM GA BM C* GA GC PM* C BM C* BM PM C BM* GC PM IE IE BM* GA BM SS PM BM PM GA GA-GC SS PM GA BM BM C GA SE SE GC Name 1 itle Address Mr. John W. Parrish . Box 309, Montevallo Mr. Haygood Patterson . Agricultural Ind. Div., Dept, of Agr. and Ind., Montgomery Mr. Ernest Gibbes Patton . Box 2047, University Miss Edna Paul . Public School System, Bay Minette Dr. E. C. Paustian . Athens College, Athens Dr. Marion Pearsall . Sociology and Anthropology Dept., University Miss Florence E. Petzel . Home Economics School, Box 1303, University Dr. Ward Pigman . Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Ala. Medical College, Birmingham Mr. David Platt . Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Ala. Medical College, Birmingham Mr. Lester O. Pollock . Eng. Dept., Howard College, Birmingham Prof. Finis W. Poole . P,sychology Dept., Alabama College, Montevallo Dr. Edwin O. Price . 1806 Broad St., Tuscaloosa Mrs. Elizabeth S. Porter . Dept, of Chemistry, A. P. E, Auburn Mr. j. L. Price . Sidney Lanier High School, Montgomery Mr. Doyle Wmford Ramey . Box 1487, University Dr. Hugh C. Rawls . Westminster College, New Wilmington, Pa. Mr. Harold L. Reade . U.S. Geological Survey, P.O. Box 36, Montgomery Mr. D. C. Reams . Drawer H, University Mr. Eugene T. Regal . Dept, of Biology, Spring Hill College, Mobile Miss Anne (. Reid . ...Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Ala. Medical College, Birmingham Rev. Charles Reiner . St. Bernard College, St. Bernard Dr. Jesse M. Richardson . Dept, of Economics, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn Mr. John E. Rives . 214 W. Magnolia Ave., Auburn Dr. Bruce R. Roberts . P. O. Box 1303, Decatur Mr. Robert L. Robertson . Zoology-Entomology Dept., A.P.I., Auburn Mr. Edward L. Robinson . Box 551, Howard College, Birmingham Dr. Leonard Robinson . School of Dentistry, Birmingham Dr. Earle Rodgers . Physics & Astronomy Dept., University Mr. E. H. Rose . P. O. Box 399, Sheffield Mr. Lawrence Rosen . Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Ala. Medical College, Birmingham Mr. Dan C. Royal . Box 352, Selma Dr. Arthur E. Ruark . Dept, of Physics, Box 2041, University Mr. Allen Rushton . . 3293 Pirie Ridge Road, Birmingham Dr. H. B. Rust . 1307 Ridge Road, Birmingham Mr. Fred H. Sahhar . Dept, of Chemistry, Tulane University, New Orleans, La. Mr. 'Ehomas H. Santord . Box 4343, University Dr. Carl C. Sartain . Dept, of Physics, University Dr. Leon H. Schneyer . University of Ala. School of Dentistry, Birmingham Miss Margaret Z. Searcy . 1715 4th St., Tuscaloosa Dr. Charles L. Seebeck . Mathematics Department, University Dr. E. Carl Sensenig . Dept, of Anatomy, Ala. Medical College, Birmingham Sister Mary S. Sevier, O.S.B . Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman Mr. C. G Sharp . Dept, of Biology, Alabama College, Montevallo William P. Shaw . Shaw & Renneker, Architects, 2021 6th Ave. N., Birmingham Rev. William H. Shelton . P. O. Box 2082, University Mr. Emmett B. Shotts . Snead Junior College, Boaz Mr. Reynolds Q. Shotts . Assoc. Professor, Field Technology, Box -526, University Mrs. Will L. B. Shotts . Dept, of Biology, Snead Junior College, Boaz Mr. Barney L. Shull . P. O. Box 609, Fairhope Dr. George A. Simmons . 3335 Montgomery Highway, Apt. E, Birmingham Mr. Thomas A. Simpson . U. S. Geological Survey, Box 2033, University Mr. Robert M Sims . Tuscaloosa Sr. High School, Tuscaloosa Dr. H. Craig Sipe . Indian Springs School, Route 1, Helena Mr. W. R. Sizemore . Box 244, Tallassee Membership 127 Seel ion Name Title Address C Mr. Archie V. Slack . Tennessee Valley Authority, Wilson Dam GC Mr. Frank F. Smith . Fayette Experimental Forest, Rt. 3, Fayette BM Dr. Septime Smith . Dept, of Biology, Box 1446, University C Dr. William R. Smithey .Dept, of Chemistry, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham C Mr. Andrew J. Snyder . Dept, of Chemistry, P. O. Drawer H, University SE Mr. Ernest E. Snyder . Dept, of Science, State Teachers College, Florence GA Dr. Frank J. Soday . . Research Director, Chemstrand Corp., Decatur C Dr. John A. Southern . . Dept, of Chemistry, Howard College, Birmingham PM Dr. Frank M. Sparks . . Dept- of Physics, A.P.I., Auburn BM Dr. Thomas D. Spies . .Prof, of Medicine, Ala. Medical College, Birmingham BM Dr. Alda Mae Spieth . . Dept, of Biology, Livingston Mr. Zenas A. Stanfield . Office of Chemical Eng., TV A, Wilson Dam GC Mr. Jacob M. Stauffer . . State Forester, Dept, of Conservation, Montgomery SS Dr. H. Ellsworth Steele . . Route 2, Box 273-A, Auburn C Dr. Frank J. Stevens . Dept, of Chemistry, A.P.I., Auburn C Dr. James Stewart . Mining Engineering Dept., Box 1326, University GC Mrs. Hazel L. Stickney . Dept, of Geography, State Teachers College, Livingston C Mr. R. B. Stitzer . . Tennessee Valley Authority, Wilson Dam C Dean Paul T. Stone . . Huntingdon College, Montgomery C Mr. Roy W. Sudhoff . 1807 Stratford Road, S.E., Decatur IE Mr. John L. Sullivan . Great A&P Tea Co., Box 276, Birmingham IE Mr. James F. Sulzby . 4212 Overlook Road, Birmingham GA Mr. Horace Sutcliffe . U. S. Geological Survey, Box 2033, University GA Mr. George W. Swindel . U. S. Geological Survey, University C Dr. James S. Tapp . 903 8th Avenue, S.E., Decatur C Dr. Grady Tarbutton . Applied Research Section, I’VA, Wilson Dam BM* Miss Geralidne Taylor . Alabama College, Montevallo BM Dr. Adeeb E. Thomas . University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham C Mr. Davis H. Thompson . 917 Valley Road Place, Birmingham Georgia J. Thompson . P. O. Box 664, Tuscaloosa C Mrs. Wynelle D. Thompson . 917 Valley Road Place, Birmingham BM Dr. Michael I. Timonin . Pearson & Co., Dogwood Lane, Spring Hill Sta., ^Ioblle PM Mr. Carl David Todd . Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn C Dr. Neige E. Todhunter . School of Home Economics, Lhii\ersit\’ GC Dr. James A. Tower . Dept, of Gcog., Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingh.im IE Mr. M. Halsey Townes . 4423 C liff Road. Birmingham C Mr. E. Kyle Tucker . P. (). Box 97. C.imp Hill C Rev. George O. Twellmeyer . Dept, of Chemistry, S[''ring Hill COllege, Mobile Dr. Emory C. Unnewehr . Athens College, Athens SE Rev. Claude E. Valentine, S.J . Dej-it. of Biology, Spring Hill ( ollegc. Mobile SE Dr. Katherine Vickery . Dept, of Psychology, Alabam.i College, Montes .dlo BM Dr. joseph Volker . University of Alabama School ot Dentistrs’, Birmingh.im BM Dr. j. Henry Walker . Dept, ol Biology, P.D. Box 2(' D, Uniscrsiiv SS Mr. loseph C. Walker . 2UH' Biemille St.. ,''Um.i BM Miss Katherine Walker . 4'. M. Rogers SHiool, Rt. 1, EKu'cme C Mr. Raymond F. Walters . Monsanto Chemii..il ( o., .\nniston GC Mr. Hilton J. Watson . . I’orest Products Assoc,, D P. Box i22, Mc’intgonurs SE Mrs. Ida R. Wattors . 'lall.ulega (o. School, Rt. i. Box 1010, Ssl.u.uig.i C Mr. Clarence E. Weiserman . ( hemstr.uul Ccup.. D.,,itur Dr. Frederick L. Westover . .Dept, of liduc.itional Psvchologv. I'.CV Box 1 x > s, Unneisits BM Mr. Jesse S. White . 118 \\' Sunllowcr St., ( lescl.uul. Miss C Dr. Locke White . Southein Rcse.iich Institute, Birmmgh.im Dr. Fred Whitehead . Dept, ol (hemistrs, 1 hint mgdcui C cdlege, Montgc'mci\ C Mr. Carlton D. Whitt . Rcnite I. .\thcn' BM Mr. Will iam K. Wiggins . I 1 sS-il, horest .\\c , Mcintccuiu r\ 128 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Section Name Title Address C Dr. Harold E. Wikox Dept, of Chemistry, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham BM Dr. lames C. Wilkes . Dept, of Biology, State Teachers College, Jacksonville SE-PM Dr. William T. Wilks . Prof, of Science, State Teachers College, Troy C* Mr. Herman L. Willoughby . Route 1, Tennile GC Mr. William W. Wills . Dept, of Forestry, A. P. I., Auburn GA Mr. Melvin R. Williams . 615 Hubbard St., Montgomery PM Dr. Hazel S. Wilson . State Teachers College, Jacksonville PM Dr. L. T. Wdson . Dept, of Physics, State Teachers College, Jacksonville C Mr. Wdfred Kelso Wilson . 1301 Eleventh St., S.E., Decatur BM Rev. Patrick H. Yancey, S.J . Dept, of Biology, Spring Hill College, Mobile GC Mr. Herbert A. Yocum . 315 l6th Street, S.W., Birmingham BM Dr. Paul Yokeley, Jr . Dept, of Biology, State Teachers College, Florence 129 INDEX This index includes the topics discussed within the Journal, however, it does not attempt to include minute details. The membership of the Academy is not indexed since the list is arranged alphabetically on pages 120-128. The names of officers of the Academy, as well as contributors to the program, and other persons whose work is referred to within the journal are indexed. The colleges and scientific organizations within the state are indexed wherever their names are mentioned. A Achievements, scientific . 9, 10 Acrylics, polymerization of . 89 Adams, Fred T . 99 Adams, George I., writings of . 33, 36 Alabama Archeology . 92 Alabama College . 5, 6, 12, 85, 93, 107 Alabama Polytechnic Institute . . 5, 6, 20, 50, 73, 95, 96, 98, 103, 107 Alabama Power Company . 96, 120 Alabama Power Company, dev. on Coosa River 96 Alabama State Chamber of Commerce . 120 Aleutian village . 97 Alford, A. Wade . 82 Amadori rearrangement . 90 Amanita, species in Alabama . 18, 19 American Cast Iron Pipe Company . 120 American Chemical Society . 110 Amino acids, N-Acyl . 89 Amoebiasis, cycle of infection . 113 Antibiosis, screening of . 83 Anti-tumor agents . 81 Arthritis, rheumatoid . 85 Atcheson, writings of . 28 Atkinson, G. F., writings of . 19 Avian family Fringillidae . 85 Award, Alabama Academy . 109-110 B Bailey, Paul C . 5, 6, 12, 101-105 Bancroft, William H . 95 Bannister, F. A., writings of . 28, 32 Barker, S. B . 81 Barksdale, Jelks . 20, 45, 46 Barton, Evelyn . 97 Barr, E. Scott . 5 Barrett, William J . 90 Barringer, Howard S . O'* Bassett, ]., writings of . 32 Baswell, John L . 5, 105 Beach Rock, occurrence of . 99 Beimfor, O. W., writings of . 46 Beindorff, Arthur B . 87 Benefits, employee in Ala. plants . 77, 78 Bennett, W. B . 88 Benzenesulfonyl hydroxylamine . 91 Bentall, Ray, writings of . 44, 46 Berlin, Raymond . 83 Berney, Sat fold, writings of . 5 3, “S i Berreman, Gerald G . 97 Birmingham area, resources . 9 Birmingham Slag Company . 120 Birmingham-Southern College . 94, 107, 120 Bishop, Everett . 10^ Bliss, Jane A . 99 Blood, analysis of rattlesnake . 16 Bohr . 10 Bond, Clarence D . 95 Brahmer, Peggy M . 108 Brain centers, localization of . 86 Brame, J. Y . 105 Brannon, Peter A . 53, 96 Brewer, William M., writings of . 35, 36 Bridgman, P. M., writings of . 30, 32 Brock, Nellie Grey . 108 Brown, Robert D . 5, 88, 10^ Building tradesman and housewife . 61-64 Burke, R. P . 19 Burnes, M. Ellece . 108, 112 Bush, J. D . 120 Business meeting, annual . lO^i Business trends . 97 Butler, A. S . 108 Butts, Charles, writings of . . 37, 38, 39, 41, 43, 4-i, 16 Byrum, George R . 96, 10^ C Calkins, Myron E . 00 Calloway, Dean . 88 Carbohydrate, diet effects upon tootli dec.iy . 8> Carlson, W. W. and Virginia . 81 Carlton oil fields . 11'^ Carmichael, E. B . is, 82, 8t, 108. 10'^' Carr, Howard . 6, 108 Chapter members of Jr. Acad . 112 Charles, Sister Mary . s, iti8. 112 Chemist, observations of a . 20-2 3 Chemstrand Corp . 87. SO, lOO Chermock, Ralpli I . s, 0. 101 -lOn Cliic,igo, study ol customer-worker relations ol-o i Cliromosomes, Trillium . 12-11 City planning in Birmingli.im . so-co City planning in economy of cities . so.(,o C Ian callage in Badwan . o,c^ Climate and irrigation in Ala . o; Climate, ettects on ecoliition . o] Coal lields o( S. Ecnn. and I’lateau Reg. ol Ala . , , S”. n. 130 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Coal, depositional conditions . 41-43 Coal, origin of . 24-27 Coal zones, identity and ecjuivalence of . 37-46 Coburn, Ted C . 103 Coker, W. C . 19 Coleman, A. S . 96 Coleman, John S . 5, 105, 120 Collection, Amanita . 18 Collision genesis . 23-26 Commerce on Warrior-Tombigbee rivers . 53 Committees, standing of Sr. Acad . 6 Committees, special of Sr. Acad . 6 Communications, employer-employee in Ala. plants . 76 Conglomerates, identity and ecpiivalence of 37-46 Conservation, soil and water . 93 Conservation, teaching in Alabama . 90 Conservation vs. exploitation . 47-30 Coulter, D. M., writings of . 43, 46 Counselors of |r. Acad., report of . 110 Craig and h'aust, writings of . 113 Croonc|uist, Arthur L . 12 Crotalus horridus . 15-17 Crump, lames 0 . 52 Customer-worker relations . 61-64 D Dachille, Frank . 24, 91 Davis, j, D., writings of . 46 Davis, Nancy N . lOS Dedication of ]our . 7, 8 Dehydrogenase enzyme systems . 84 Dejarnette, David . 33, 92 Delegates to |r. Acad . 116 Dental caries, community studies . 82 Dental caries in desalivated hamsters . 85 Department of Archives and History . 96 D’Ewart Act . 48 DeWitt, H. D . 89 Diamonds, artificial . 28-32 Dil fusion cloud chamber . 95 Distillation column, fractional . 88 Draughon, Ralph . 5, 6 Duke, Don . 114 Dupree, Louis . 98 E Eads, James H . 6, 101-104, 106-112 Earle, E. S., writings of . 19 Earle, Martha . 116 Eaton, Eloise Duvon . 109 Economy and conservation . 93 Educational attainments in Alabama . 98 Einstein . 10 Eisele, Er. Louise J . 5, 6, 102-105 Electro-mechanical device for measuring viscosity . 56-38 Elliott, Howard C . 82 Emigh, Eugene D . 106 Endamoeba histolytica . 113 Engineers, Corps of . 54, 55 Ensley, John E . 109 Eskimo house site . 99 Espy, Patrick H . 108 Evans, Betty . 116 Executive committee minutes, Sr. Acad . 101-104 Exhibits, Jr. Acad . 117-119 F Family size in Alabama . 70 Farris, Charles D . 98 Fermi . 10 Lies, Howard E . 6 Fincher, John . 6, 101-105, 108 Finn, Sidney B . 82, 101, 102 First Farmers and Merchants Nat. Bank . 120 Fisher Scientific Company . 110 Florence State Teachers College . 5, 97, 120 Fluoride water, natural . 82 Forests, National . 47-50 [ Fort Mims . 92 Francis, T. M . 6 I’reedman, Lewis L . 1^0 F'rench Morocco, mining industry . 94 Fulton, Robert W . 108 Fungi . 18-19 G Gardner, B. B. and Moore, D. G., writings of 6l Geological Survey of Ala . 6, 33, 35, 92, 100 Geology, relation to anthropology . 92 Geology, of St. Tenn. and plateau region of Ala . 37-41 Gerhardt, Henry . 95 Gibbons, Samuel R . 96 Gibilisco, Joseph A . 83, 86 Gibson, A. M., writings of. ...37, 38, 39, 43, 44, 46 Gifted people . 9-11 Gilbertown oil fields . 115 Glasgow . 112 Glucose in saliva . 84 Goetz, J. 0 . 5, 103 Gold, early mining . 35 Gold, location in Alabama . 35 Gold, Raymond L . 6l Goranson, R. W., writiings of . 32 Gordon, Brother . 108 Granberry, Herman . 110 Graphite samples, burning of . 89 Green, Margaret . 83 Ground water investigations . 100 Grove, E. L . 88, 89 Gulf States Paper Corp . 5, 6, 93, 120 Gunther, Geselle and Rebentisch, writings of . 29, 32 Index 131 H Hafling, Mary E . 108 Hahn . 10 Ham, George E . -89 Hamilton, Peter J., writings of . 53 Hamme, H. W . 89 Hammond, Joseph L . 56, 105 Hanford, Gladys . 28 Hannay, J. B., writings of . 28, 32 Hansen, A. T . 5, 6, 100-106 Hanson, Roger W . 83 Hardy, Edgar E . 88 Harper, Roland M . 6, 47, 65, 101-105 Harvey, Ann . 83 Haw’kins, William . 84 Hayes, C. W., writings of . 37, 38, 39, 46 Heartburg, Carl P . 97 Hendon, John F . 120 Hendrix, James A . 108 Hepler, Opal E., writings of . 113 Hershey, J. W. , waitings of . 30, 32 Hesler, L. R., writings of . 19 Hillenbrand . 10 Hippuric acid in urine . 82 Hobson, Patrick H. . . 90 Hollis, C. George . . . ..18 Holley, Howard L . 85 Home ownership in Ala., 1940 and 1950. ...68, 69 Housewives, as consumers of services . 61-64 Houston, Gertha Lee . ..108 Howard College . 5, 6, 7, 47, 107 Huffman, Eddie . ..116 Human relations . . 97 Hunt, Agnes . . . . . 108, 112 Hunt, Thomas E . 84, 86 Huntingdon College.. ..3, 6, 106, 107, 111, 112, 116, 118, 119 I I. Lewis Cigar Company . 120 Income, per capita for Alabama . 56 Industrial development, impact on southern community . ....98 Ingle, James H . 108 Ion bombardment . 95 Iron ore, analysis of . 33 Iron ore, brown in S. Alabama . 33-34 Isocynates, reaction of . 88 J lackson, Estelle 0 . 90 Jacksonville State Teachers College . 120 James, joe . , . 112 James W. Clary Company . 106 Japan, post war . 20-2,3 Jennings, Henry L . 5, 6, 101-10^ Johnson, F. Carden . 108 Johnson, R. C . 109 Johnson, Robert B . 84 Jones, John Hall . 6 Jones, Walter B . 92, 105 Judges, science talent search . 108 Judson College . 120 Junior Academy . 111-119 Kassner, James L . 5, 6, 88, 89, 90, 101-104, 109, 110, 112, 116-119 Kelley, Allan 0 . 24, 27 King, P. B., writings of . 39, 44 Klapper, Clarence E . 6, 85, 105 Klontz, Harold E . 98 Kracke and Parker, writings of . 113 L Labor organizations in Alabama plants . 77-80 Leadership, scientific . 9, 10 Lee strata . 38 Leipunskii, O. I., writings of . 32 Leonard, Lillian . 109-110 Levinson and MacFate, writings of . 113 Livingston State Teachers College . 5, 120 Lloyd, S. J., . 28 Long, Arthur R . 93, 105 Lonsdale, K., writings of . 28, 32 Losdi, writings of . 113 M MacKenzie, James T . 108, 120 Mair, B. J., writings of . 26-27 Man, early in Tenn. Valley . 100 Man, early in U. S . 100 Marshall, Ethel . ‘i, 93, lO"^ Martin, Thomas W . 107, 108 Massengale, Glenn . 117 McCalley, S. W., writings of . . 37, 38, 39, 42, -n^, 16 McCallie, Henry, writings of . 37, 38, 12, 16 McCullough, Herbert A . 5, 6, 47, 102-1 0"' McGlamery, Winnie . 5. 101-10-r McIntyre, Sherwood C . "’3 McKesson and Robbins . 106, 110. 120 Measurements, high frcc]ucncy . 80 Medical Center, effects on economy . Medlock, O. C . Mcllor, D. P., writings of . .^2 Meltzer’s solution . 18 Membership, Sr. Ac.id . 1 2('>- 1 28 Meteors . 2 i-2~ Metli.incsullonyl esters . 81 Miethc, writings ot . 41 Miles, R. V.ince . ‘l, 03, l(i2-lti|, 10e« Miller, D. C. .md I'orm, W. H.. writings ot ('1 Minutes ot |r. Ae.ul . llci-ll'i Mitotic .utixity in r.its stixm.uh . 8 1 Mobile, port ol' . Mohr, ( h.irles, wntiims ot . 1 '' 132 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Moissan, Henri, writings of . 29, 32 Monsanto Chemical Co . 88, 89, 90 Moore, W. E., writings of . 61 Morgan, Charles C . 81 Morris, Frederick . 92 Morse, Geddidiah, writings of . 32 Myelokentric acid . 81 Myles, William R . 73 N Nam, Charles B . 98 Negative ion formation . 93 Nelson, Gid. E . 83 Nelson, W. A., writings of . 38, 43, 44, 46 Neurophysiological phenomena, dental . 86 Nitric acid, fuming . 90 Nitrogen recp of Protozoan flagellates . 83 Norris, J. A . 89 O O'Bryan, Deric . 99 Officers, Sr. Acad . 3 Ogletree, Lawrence . 109 Oil fields of Ala . 114 Oliver, E. S . 109 Opportunify, scienfific . 10 Orange juice, effects on teeth . 87 Oscillographic display . 96 Osteology, avian . 83 Ostwald, writings of . 31 Owens, Charles . 106, 116, 117 P Palhster, Hugh D . 6, 33, 33 Park Service, National . 49 Parsons, Sir Chas., writings of . 28, 29, 32 Pearsall, Marion . 99 Peoples of Japan . 20-23 Personnel practices in Ala. plants . 73-80 Peters, Thomas M . 18 Petroleum in Alabama . 114 Petroleum, origin of . 24-27 Petrullo, Vincenzo . 99 Phillips, William B., writings of . 33, 36 Pigman, Ward . 5, 6, 84, 85, 90, 101-103 Platt, David . 83 Plumbers, relation with customers . 61-64 Pollard oil fields . 113 Ponder, Hoyt A., Jr . 108 Population analysis, 1950 in Ala . 65-73 Population density, 1820 to 1950 . 66 Population ratios, male to female . 67, 68 Population., urban in Alabama . 66 Posey, Jaccjueline . 116 Pottsville formation . 37-41 Powell, Charles S . 86 Presidential Address . 9 Pritchard, Charlie . 116 Public lands . 47-50 R Rattlesnake, habits and activities . 15-17 Reade, Harold L . 99 Real estate values . 97 Reaves, C. M . 1O6 Reid, Jane . 84 Reid, Tom . 106 Research, basic and action in Ala. community. ...99 Research, scientific . 11 Research Studies Institute, Maxwell A.F.B . 92, 97, 98, 100 Resolutions committee, report of . 106 Resource development, analysis of . 99 Resources, precious natural . 9-11 Rice, C. V., writings of . 45, 46 Richardson, Jesse M . 30 Rigby, Paul H . 100 River transportation in Ala . 50-56 Rives, John E . 93 Roach, Mary . 108 Robertson, C. A., writings of . 32 Rodgers, Eric . 108 Rosen, Lawrence . 90 Ross, Leonard . 86 Ross, Sybil . II6 Rossini, F. D., writings of . 26-27, 31, 32 Rotational properties of earth . 91 Ruff, O., writings of . 32 S Sacred Heart Academy . 5, 12 Salary practices in Ala. plants . 75, 78 Salivary secretions, collection of . 86 Salter, Don . II6 Sand, glass making . 96 Sandstone beds, identity and equivalence of 37-46 Saunders, J. H . 88 Savage, Gene . 112 Savings and loan association . 96 Sawitz, W. G., writings of . 113 Schneyer, Leon H . 86 Scholarships, Gen. Gorgas . 107-109 Schwartz, H. S . 81 Science Clubs of America . 107 Science experiences . 97 Science talent search . 107-109 Semmes, D. D., writings of . 46 Sensenig, E. Carl . 6, 101 Sensory responses of oral tissue . 83 Shotts, Reynold Q . 37 Sicily, Nat. res., tech., and pol. crisis . 99 Simpson, Thomas A . 100 Sims, Robert M . 112 Sipe, H. Craig . 5, 102-105 Slawson, C. B., writings of . 30, 32 Index Smith, Eugene A., writings of . 33, 34 Smithey, Wm. R . 1U8 Snyder, Ernest E . 97 Soday, Frank J . 90, 100, 105, 108 Soil Conservation Service . 93 Southern, J. A . 108 Southern Nat. Gas Corp . 120 Southern Research Institute . 5, 56, 90 Spring Hill College . 5, 6, 107, 120 Spurlock, Frank . 33 Stanford, John W . 81 Starke, George C . 97 Statistics, education for Ala . 72 Statistics, income for Ala . 73 Statistics, marital for Ala . 71, 72 Steamboats, use in Ala . 53 Steele, H. Ellsworth . 73, 105 Stegner, Wallace, writings of . 50 Stevens, F. J . 108 Stevenson, J. ]., writings of . 37, 40, 46 Stickney, Hazel . 5 Stone, Paul T . 106 Story-Maskelyne, writings of . 32 Streetman, Kibber . 116 Stringfellow, Carl R., Jr . 108 Succinoxidase activity, determination of . 81 Sulfate, vol. determination . 90 Sulzby, James F . 5, 6, 59, 101, 110 Swafford, Lida Inge . 113 Synthetic fiber development . 90 T Tadpoles, regenerative studies . 82 Tapp, J. S . 90 Teaching, science . 10 Technology . 9 Tenn. Geological Survey . 40 Tenn. Valley Authority . 45 Tenn. Valley resources . 9 Thermophile aldolase . 87 Thomas, Adeele E . 87 Titanium dioxide . 20 Titrimetry, high-freq. measurement of . 89 Todd and Stanford, writings of . 113 Todd, Carl David . 96 Tombigbee river . 50-‘S6 Toulmin, H. A., writings of . 52 Tourney, Michael, writings of . 35, 36 Tower, J. Allen . 9 i Treasurer, report of Jr. Acad . 119 Treasurer, report of Sr. Acad . 106 Trill ium, chromosome morphology . 12-14 Trillium ovatum . 12-14 Trill ium petiolatum . 12-1 i Troy State Teachers College . 5, 6 1 -V -t 122 Troxell, J. R., writings of . 46 Trustees of A. A. S . 5 Turk’s cave . 92 Turner, Chas. C . 101, 106, 116-119 U Underwood, Mrs. Edgar . 108 Underwood, L. M . 19 University of Ala. Med. Center....5, 6, 9, 15, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 109 University of Ala. (Tuscaloosa) ....5, 6, 18, 28, 37, 61, 65, 83, 88, 89, 90, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 107, 109, 112, 116, 120 Uranyl sulfate and fluoride . 88 U. S. Weather Bureau . 93 V Vestal, F. E. and Mellen, F. I’., writings of . 37, 42, 44, 45, 46 Vinyl monomers . ...90 Viscosity, device for measuring ... ...56 Visual space . ...95 Volker, Jo.seph F . • A, 9, 101 -105 Voting, U. S. House of Rep . ...98 W W. H. Curtin and Co . .110 Walker, J. Henry . 6, 101 -104, 110, 112 Wanless, H. R., writings of . 37, 38, 39, ■ 40, 41, 42 J Warner, Herbert D . 102 Warren, Bettye Louise . . 1 09 Warren, Larry H . .108 Warrior river . . SI 0-26 Waterways, Warrior-Tombigbee ... . ^1 0-26 Weber, Max, writings of . ..,6s Wells, Ben B., writings of . .11s White, Locke, |r., . 5, 90, 101. 10s. 10^ Wilcox Harold E . . 6 Wilderness, virgin . . t "-so Wilks, William T . 6. 101 -h'2 Williams, Meh in . .U's Williams, Phillip N . . 1 08 Wise, L. E., writings of . 1 6-2" Woods, lames W . ...01 'X'li, Hsien . . 82 . 8 t X Xan, |ohn . "-8 . 101- 10 1. 10(' 4'ielding, K, I.cmone . ^'.UKey, Er. P.itiTk . (\ UM-IO"'. 108. lio 7. Zoning, ul\ . (,o ■ , tif f !l I Advertisements I I r I; i“ It f !. ( James W. 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Sargent & Co. in accordance with the recommendations of the Upjohn & Co. research labora¬ tories, these paddles have a wide field of application in the laboratory. They are especially designed for use where two phase mixing is desired. The paddles are made of DuPont's Teflon, a tetraf luoroethy lene resin which exhibits the highest degree of chemical inertness of any of the com¬ mon plastics. The Teflon paddle also exhibits a certain degree of resiliency or elasticity which lessens the chance of breakage in the event the paddle should strike the wall of the reaction flask. The semicircular type construction permits a large bladed paddle capable of moving precipitates to be inserted into the neck of a small flask without sacrificing the size of the blade. The blade is shaped to fit the bottom of a round bottom flask thus assuring that any solid will be kept in agitation and not allowed to settle. These paddles are available in three sizes and designed to fit 300, 500, and 1000 ml round bottom flasks. SARGENT The paddle can be instantly con¬ nected to, or removed from, the stirring rod while the rod is in the chuck and the connection is so designed that the blade cannot disengage from the shaft during the stirring operation. The rods are made of 6 mm Pyrex glass and are available in two lengths, 12 inch and 18 inch. The paddles and stirring rods are listed separately so the user may select the proper paddles and rods which will suit his applica¬ tions. The S-767 1 1 stirring rods should be used with the Teflon paddles. S-76710 STIRRING PADDLES — Teflon, Sargent. For use with S-767 11 stirring rods. For round bottom flask, size, ml . To fit minimum diameter neck . 300 500 1000 opening, mm . 21 23 29 Each . $1.00 $1.25 $1.85 5-76711 STIRRING ROD — Glass, Sargent. For use with S-76710 stirring paddles. Length, inches . 12 18 Each . $0.75 $0.85 *Registered Trademark, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.« Inc. SCIiNTIfK LABORATORY INSTRUMENTS • APPARATUS • SUPRLIES • CHEMICALS - E. H. SARGENT & COMPANY, 4647 W. FOSTER AVE., CHICAGO 30, ILLINOIS Catalog No. 100 MICHIGAN DIVISION, 1959 EAST JEFFERSON STREET, DETROIT 7, MICHIGAN Now Available SOUTH\A/ESTERN DIVISION, 5915 PEELER STREET, DALLAS 19, TEXAS _ SOUTHEASTERN DIVISION, 3125 SEVENTH AVE., N., BIRMINGHAM 4, ALA. KIMBLE GLASSWARE AN (D rRODUCT Owens-Illinois CENKIAL OrriCES* TOLEDO I, OHIO Baker American Optical &na4idi 0^ lalfo^icd^n^ ZquifimeHi BAUSCH 6- LOME McKesson & robbins, inc. Birmingham Scientific Division 1706 First Ave. North Birmingham 3, Ala. THE JOURNAL OF THE Alabama Academy of Science (Affiliated With A.A.A.S.) Office of the Editor Alabama College Montevallo, Alabama VOLUME 27 DECEMBER, 1955 YflAtH'!.-! SKI HO-. K 1'iAOrflYl .NJatV/" THE JOURNAL OF THE Alabama Academy (Affiliated With A.A.A.S.) VOLUME 27 DECEMBER, 1955 EDITOR Paul C. Bailey EDITORIAL BOARD Roland M. Harper A. T. Hansen Clarence Klapper Office of the Editor Alabama CoLiJiGi-: Montevallo, Alabama FOREWORD The 1955 annual meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science was held on the University of Alabama campus in Tuscaloosa, April 29-30, 1955. The annual meeting was preceded by a meeting on Thursday evening, April 28, of the Executive Committee. The annual banquet was held on Friday evening, April 29, in Julia Tutwiler Hall and was featured by the presidential report given by Dr. William T. Wilks and an address given by Dr. O. C. Carmichael, President of the University of Alabama. The Fall meeting of the Executive Committee was held on December 4, 1954, in the Ingalls Laboratory, South¬ ern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama. The Alabama Junior Academy of Science held its annual meeting on the University of Alabama campus at the same time as the Senior Academy meet¬ ing, that is, April 29-30, 1955. The Junior Academy banquet was held on Friday evening, April 29. Abstracts of all papers presented to the various section meetings of the Academy are printed within this Journal and are grouped by sections. Full- length papers presented to the various sections and selected for publication in this volume are grouped likewise. Aside from papers and abstracts, this Journal includes the presidential report along with the proceedings of both the Alabama Academy of Science and the Alabama Junior Academy of Science. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Officers of Alabama Academy of Science, 1955 . 5 Committees ot Alabama Academy of Science, 1955 . 6 Dedication of Journal, Roland McMillan Harper . 7-8 President's Report . 9-10 Complete papers presented at section meetings . 11-86 SeLtion II, Chemistri’ . 11-14 Wingard, R. S. and Durant, W. S., Vapor-liquid equilibrium . 11-14 Section III, Geology and Anthropoloc.y . 15-37 Harper, Rolanti M., Some menaces to study of geology . 15-20 LaMoreaux, Philip E., Outline of geology of Thailand . 20-21 Lloyd, Stewart ]., Recent work in geochemistry . 22-2 5 Pallister, Hugh D., Some Alabama minerals . 25-28 Shotts, R. Q., Composition of Alabama coals . 28-37 Section IV, Geoc.raphy and Conservation . 38-39 Long, Arthur R., Dormancy of peaches . 38-39 Section V, Physics and Mathematics . 40-48 Engel, Niels, The relativistic phenomena . 40-48 Section VI, Industry and Economics . 49-56 Heartburg, Carl P., Evaluation of business trends . 49-50 Hendon, John E., Economics of parking industry . 51-56 Section VIII, Social Sciences . 57-86 Andrews, Henry E., Population changes within Alabama . 57-62 Doster, )ames E., Star gazing at University of Alabama . 63-66 Harper, Roland M., Model clan in southern hill country . 67-76 Steele, Myles, Mt Intyre, Inlluences on personnel practices . 77-86 Abstracts of papers presented at section meetings . 87-107 1. Biology and Medicine . 87-97 2. Chemistry . 97-98 3. Geology and Anthropology . 99-101 4. Geography and Conservation . 101 5. Physics and Mathematics . 102-103 6. Industry and Economics . 104 7. Science Education . 104-106 8. Social Sciences . 106-107 Executive Committee meeting, December 4, 1954 . 108-111 Executive Committee meeting, April 28, 1955 . 111-113 Annual business meeting . 113-114 Resolutions . 114 Citation, Dr. James L. Kassner . 115 Treasurer’s report . 115 Talent search for Gorgas Scholarships . 116-118 Alabama Academy Award . 118-119 Report of Counselors, Alabama Junior Academy of Science . 120 Alabama Junior Academy of Science proceedings . 121-132 Membership list . 133-142 Index . 143-148 Advertising . l49-l‘'l ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICERS 1955 5 President . Dr. William T. Wilks, State Teachers College, Troy President-Elect . Dr. Ralph L. Chermock, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa VICE-PRESIDENTS, SECTION CHAIRMEN AND VICE-CHAIRMEN Section I Biology and Medicine . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. Ward Pigman . Medical College, Birmingham Vice-Chairman, Dr. Everett Bishop . University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Section II Chemistry Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. R. D. Brown . University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Vice-Chairman, Dr. Prank J. Soday . Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur Section III Geology and Anthropology . Chairman, Mr. Melvin Williams, 615 Hubbard St., Montgomery Vice-Chairman, Mr. J. Y. Brame . 1 368 College Court, Montgomery Section IV Geography and Conservation. ...Chairman, Mr. A. R. Long . 103 Buford St., Montgomery Section V Physics and Mathematics . Chairman, Father Louis J. Eisele, Spring Hill College, Mobile Vice-Chairman, Mr. J. L. Hammond . Southern Research Institute, Birmingham Section VI Industry and Economics . Chairman, Mr. J. R. Goetz, 2021 6th Avenue N., Birmingham Vice-Chairman, Mr. George R. Byrum . First Federal Savings and Loan Association, Birmingliam Section VII Science Education . Chairman, Dr. H. Craig Sipe, Indian Springs School, Helena Vice-Chairman, Mr. Ted Cobun, Indian Springs School, Helena Section VIII Social Science . Chairman, A. T. Hansen, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Vice-Chairman, Dr. H. Ellsworth Steele . A. P. L, Auburn Secretary, Dr. Herbert A. McCullough . Dept, of Biology, Howard College, Birmingham Treasurer, Dr. Locke White . Southern Research Institute, Birmingham Editor of Journal, Dr. Paul C. Bailey . Alabama College. Montesallo Councilor of AAAS, Father P. H. Yancey . Spring Hill College. Mobile Counselor of Junior Academy, Dr. James L. Kassncr . University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Associate Counselor of Junior Academy, Dr. Henry Walker . LIniversity of Alabama. I'usi. aloosa Mr. Henry L. Jennings, Chairman Mr. James F. Sulzby, Jr . Mr. Vance Miles . Dr. Ralph Draughon . Mr. Herbert D. Warner . Mr. John S. Coleman . BOARD OF TRUST EES . 703 l itle Gu.ir.uitee Bldg., Birmingh.im . 1212 Overlook Ro.ul, Birmingh.im . Man.iger, Gull St.ites P,i|''er C orp., Tusi.ilocis.i . President, Alab.mi.i Polvtei. hnu Institute, .\uburn . Gull States P.iper C orpor.ition. Fuscaloosa . Birmingh.im 1 rust National B.uik. Birmingham 6 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science STANDING COMMITTEES Long Range Plannoig: Dr. H oward E. Cdrr, Chairman Dr. E. K. Morris Dr. Harold E. Wilcox Dr. R. Q. Shotts Dr. E. }. Stevens Menihership: Dr. Ralph L. Chermock, Chairman Research: E)r. E. Carl Sensenig. Chairman Dr. James Doubles Dr. H. Craig Sipe Father Louis |. Eisele Adm/ssion to iWen/bersbip: Dr. Herbert A. McCullough, Chairman Father Patrick Ykmcey Dr. Ralph Chermock F/nance: Mr. Henry L. Jennings, Chairman Dr. J. L. Kassner Mr. T. M. Francis Fil/torial Board: Dr. Roland Harper, Chairman Dr. A. T. Hansen Dr. Clarence Klapper Local Arrangements: Dr. Henry Walker, Chairman SPECIAL COMMITTEES FOR 1955 MEETING 1. Auditing. Senior Academy 4. Nominating Committee Mr. James E. Sulzby, Jr. Mr. ). R. Goetz 2. Auditing, Junior Academy Dr. Henry Walker Dr. Ralph Chermock Dr. C. M. Farmer, Chairman Dr. Harold E. Wilcox Mr. Vance Miles 5. Place and Date of 19S6 and 1957 Meetings Dr. jack Brown, Chairman 3. Resolutions Committee Dr. [. Allen Tower, Chairman Dr. lames A. Fraser Dr. H. A. McCullough 7 DEDICATION ROLAND McMillan harper Alabama Geological Survey, University, Alabama Our fellow scientist and friend has as many facets as a brilliant-cut dia¬ mond. He was born at Farmington, Maine, August 11, 1878, with a very strongly developed "itching foot”. In 1897 he earned a B.E. degree from the Llniversity of Georgia, worked in the U. S. Herbarium for a time; also two years as a forestry collector for the Georgia Geological Survey; and thence to Columbia University where he received the Ph.D. deyree in 1905. On No¬ vember 15, 1905, he started out by train from New York for Alabama and the Geological Survey of Alabama, to continue botanical work started by Dr. Charles Mohr who died in 1901. On the way he stopped in Philadelphia and Washington to see botanists; getting off again at 8:45 a.m. at Hamlet, North Carolina, where he made a side trip to Pembroke, 32 miles away. He walked about half way back, then took the train again. After two nights on stream¬ liners of 1905 and 16 miles’ walk, most of us would have been ready for something quite different than more of the same. An active and strong man should ponder carefully even a "short” stroll with Dr. Harper, notwithstand¬ ing the fact that a lot of years have gone by since 1905. He reached Atlanta on the morning of the 18th, spent the day there, and entrained for Birming¬ ham and Tuscaloosa, where he arrived on the same train with the football team, a few minutes after midnight (that was the 19th and Sunday). He walked from the A.G.S. station to the McLester Hotel, not knowiny where the waiting dummy (how many remember it?) would take him. He knew he could rely on his feet. Thus his arrival in Tuscaloosa, where he is rounding iiut "!() years of dis tinguished service (including short tours of duty with the Georgia and Florida Geological Surveys, and in other states). He set up office in Garland Hall, v/here the Survey was located in those days and started out on his first .Via bama field trip on November 23, arriving at Fort Payne at D:18 on the 2 ith. 8 Journal of Alabama Acadfmy of Science He set out for Sand Mountain at once, passed Chavies shortly after 1:00 pan. and then went down the right bank of Town Creek for about V2 mile. There he found many interesting plants including one described later as Hinperella fluviiitilis by Dr. J. N. Rose of the U. S. National Herbarium. On June 23, 1943, he w'ent back to Sand Mountain to marry Mary Susan Wigley, herself a talented and wonderful lady. The itching foot has taken Dr. Harper into 4l states and over 1,000 counties, where he made copious notes about plants and many other subjects. And the notes are with meticulous care and in minute detail, with species of plants, accurate location, date and time of day, etc. And make no mistake about it, he could recognize species from the train windows. Recently he went back to Georgia to check on a plant he saw from a car window 40 years ago. It was no longer where he saw it but he found it a short distance away. But the most remarkable thing about it all is his amazing memory. Usually he can give full details about trips he has made, what he saw and when, including the time of day. That great store of knowledge is not confined to his head or his notebooks. His publications, starting in 1899, aggregate more than 470 titles and 5,200 pages. Dr. Harper likes to be known as a geographer, and he covers the entire field, and a lot of adjacent fields as well. He is also a most talented botanist. And one just could have no finer friend. Although he is not a charter member of the Alabama Academy of Sci¬ ence, he has given many years of faithful service to the organization. He has attended every meeting of the Academy since 1930 and has had a part on all programs during this period. Dr. Harper served the Academy as statistician for 12 years and as chairman of the Editorial Board for several years, retiring from this position in 1955. How fortunate it is that he chose Alabama for half a century’s signal accomplishments in the enrichment of our State and in our way of life. It is in recognition of these accomplish¬ ments that Volume 27 of the Alabama Academy of Science Journal is dedi¬ cated to Dr. Harper. Walter B. Jones THE PRESIDENT’S REPORT Tuscaloosa, Alabama, April 29, 1955 9 THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OE SCIENCE IN 1955 by William T. Wilks State Teachers College, Troy, Alabai)ia At this time we near the completion of thirty-one years of Alabama Academy of Science activities. I would like to take a few minutes to outline some of the ac¬ complishments of the Academy during this thirty-first year, and to recognize certain individuals who have made important con¬ tributions to the Academy during this period. One of the highlights of our meetings is the annual banquet. This year our host is the E. H. Sargent and Co. It gives me real pleasure to present Mr. James K. Lunsford, Manager of the Southeastern Division of Sargent and Co. He has with him two dis¬ tinguished associates. I will ask that he in¬ troduce them to this group. (Mr. Lunsford introduced Mr. Harold R. Standefer and Mr. Robert Chalfont.) Many persons have spent a great deal of time in preparing for our meeting here at the University. I wish to express our appre¬ ciation to the University of Alabama for their fine hospitality. I would especially like to mention Dr. Henry Walker and Mr. James Eads, who have served as chairmen of the Local Arrangements Committees, and who have worked with and coordinated the ef¬ forts of many individual members of these committees. As I look over the past year of Academy activities it seems to me that two of our ma¬ jor objectives have been the promotion of better science teaching in the schools of Ala¬ bama and the encouragement of scientific research in this state. We have all seen the Junior Academy at work during the past twenty-four hours. The Academy has been extremely fortunate in having Dr. James Kassner and Dr. Henry Walker as representatives of the Senior Academy in promoting Junior Academy ac¬ tivities. LInless one has been closely asso¬ ciated with these two individuals, it would be hard for him to realize the enormous amount of time, effort, and good-will put forth by these two men. In connection with efforts to stimulate in¬ terest in science in the secondary schools, the Academy takes pride in its association with the Gorgas Scholarship Foundation. This Foundation, under the chairmanship of Dr. James Kassner, conducts the Alabama State Science Talent Search for General Gorgas Scholarships. The 1954-55 examina¬ tions were completed by 80 students in 25 secondary schools. The four winners of the Gorgas Scholarships will be announced at the Junior Academy banquet tonight. The Academy has also been active in pro¬ moting and sponsoring Science Fairs for high school students in this state. Dr. Madi¬ son L. Marshall, Coordinator of Science Lairs for the Academy, reports that three regional fairs have been conducted in Ala bama during the past year. These fairs, held in the north, central, and southern areas of Alabama, have inxoKed hundreds of high school students and ha\e done much to pro¬ mote interest in science at the secondarv school lc\cl. I'his year the Long Range Planning Com mittee, under the chairmanship of Dr. How aid Carr, has laii.i a touiulation for cooper.i five efforts of the Academv and the St.ite 10 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Department of Education in improving high school instruction in Alabama. The Alabama Academy of Science has al¬ ways been research minded, and has main¬ tained a separate research fund from which research grants are av/arded each year. XKdienever possible, these funds are awarded to individuals in colleges and other institu¬ tions where research funds are limited. Dr. Carl Sensenig, chairman of the Research Committee, states that during the past year, grants totaling $5‘^0 have been made for research in the fields of biology, physics, and chemistry. All members know the Academy publishes a Journal. Some of you may not be aware of the many financial problems associated with its publication since the war. I am very happy to report tonight that all indications are that these problems are near solution and that we can look forward to a Journal which will go to press soon after our annual meetings. Two men have done a remarkable piece of work in making this possible: Dr. Paul Bailey, Editor, and Dr. Joseph Volker, Past President of the Academy and chairman of a special committee on the Journal. I wish to express our thanks and apprecia¬ tion to the Alabama Polytechnic Institute for a generous contribution of $250 annually towards the printing costs of the Journal, this in addition to clerical and mailing costs involved in sending out the publication. Mr. Clyde Cantrell, the custodian of our Jour¬ nals, reports that we have 114 institutions on our exchange list, and that the Journal now reaches approximately 140 individuals who are not regular members. If the Academy has closed a successful year it has been through the efforts of such a number of individuals that it would be difficult to name them all. I must call at¬ tention to a few individuals not previously mentioned. We know that the two men who really carry on the Academy year by year are our Secretary, Dr. Herbert McCullough; and DLir 'Preasurer, Dr. Locke White. The Section meetings have involved a great deal of work on the part of our section chairmen and vice-chairmen. To them we say thank you for a job well done. In our associations with the AAAS we have been ably repre¬ sented by Father Patrick H. Yancey, who vj'ds signally honored at the Berkely meet¬ ing by selection as president-elect of the Academy Conference. Dr. Sidney B. Finn has devoted much time and effort in keep¬ ing us informed of current happenings through the Academy Newsletter. Some committees of the Academy have already been recognized. I would like to add our appreciation to members of these additional committees; iWeDibership, under the chair¬ manship of Dr. Ralph Chermock; Fhia)?ce, under the chairmanship of Mr. Henry Jen¬ nings; the Eclitoiicil Boavd, Dr. Roland Harp¬ er, chairman; the Special Committee on the History of the Academy, Mr. Clyde Cantrell, chairman; and Admission-to-Memhership. Dr. Herbert McCullough, chairman. To all of you I express my heartfelt thanks and deep appreciation. Complete Papers Presented at Sectional Meeting 11 SECTION II VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM AT SUB-ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE SYSTEM EURFURAL-EURFURYL ALCOHOL by R. E. WiNGARD and W. S. Durant Engineering Experiment Station, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama Furfuryl alcohol is produced commercially from furfural by the catalytic hydrogenation of the latter (l). Separation of the unre¬ acted furfural from the reaction mixture might be accomplished by fractional distilla¬ tion. The accurate calculation of the theoreti¬ cal number of plates for dose separation re¬ quires the use of a vapor-liquid equilibrium diagram for the system. Dunlop and Trimble (3) have prepared such a diagram at 25 mm of Hg. pressure. They did not report tem¬ perature-composition data. Therefore, from their data, one is not able to calculate activ¬ ity coefficients for the system. Lacking tem¬ perature data, one is not able to analyze their data for thermodynamic consistency using the Gibbs-Duhem type equations which re¬ quire vapor pressure data which, in turn, are dependent upon temperature and composi¬ tion. The purpose of this investigation was, therefore, to determine temperature-compos¬ ition data, vapor-liquid composition data, and to seek verification of the results by the application of certain thermodynamic cri¬ teria. Technical grade furfural was purified ac¬ cording to the method described by Win- gard, Durant et al (10). The purified fur¬ fural had a refractive index of 1.5261 0.0002. Highest purity furfuryl alcohol (Fisher) was triple distilled under 15 mm of Hg. pressure using a % inch Vigreaux fractionating column. A stream of oil- pumped dry nitrogen was introduced be¬ neath the liquid surface in the stii! pot to provide agitation and reduce bumping as well as to provide a non-oxidizing atmos¬ phere. The initial 10% and final 10% of the 600 ml batch charged were discarded. The final water-white product obtained had a refractive index, 0^” = 1.4870±0.0002 and a boiling point, under 15 mm of Hg., of 75.5° C.. Dunlop and Peters (l) report the refractive index as 1.4868 to 1.4870. Vapor and liquid samples were analyzed by means of refractive index. A Spencer model Abbe refractometer was employed with a monochromatic sodium D line light source. Compositions were read from a cali¬ bration curve of composition versus index of refraction experimentally determined from samples of known composition. Dunlop and Trimble (3) reported refractive index-com¬ position data for fiirfural-furfuryl alcohol solution. However, their refractive index value for furfural was given as 1.5255 against the more recent value of 1.5261=*^ 0.0002 (6) (10). This made it desirable to construct the new curve. The technique of preparing samples for refractive index-com¬ position curves was that described by Tubbs (9). It has been pointed out (2) (3) that furfural-furfuryl alcohol solutions darken and change in refractive index on heating to above 100° C. over one to two hour periods. Aliquot samples of those used to determine the refractive index-composition cur\e em¬ ployed in the present imestigation were boiled for one hour under a pressure of 25 mm of Hg. and the refractixe indices determined. No change in refract i\e index between the floated and unheated s.unples 12 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science was detected. The refractive index-composi¬ tion curve (Fig. l) was then constructed from the data shown in Table 1. 14900 15000 15100 1 5200 REFRACTIVE INDEX TABLE 1 REFRACTIVE INDEX-COMPOSITION FURFURAL-FURFURYL ALCOHOL 20 Mole % Furfural 20 Mole T Furfural 1-4S70 0.00 1.5100 55.19 1.4925 11,11 1.5151 68.97 1.496.S 21.30 1.5191 80.96 1.5011 31.17 1.5197 90.15 1.5093 53.07 1.5261 100.00 A Colburn (4) vapor-liquid equilibrium still having a capacity of 30 ml. was em¬ ployed. Equilibrium temperatures were de¬ termined by means of a copper-constantan thermocouple junction and a Leeds and Northrup potentiometer-indicator using a melting ice reference junction. The pressure on the still vent was maintained constant at 25 mm. of Hg. by means of a barostat (Car¬ tesian manostat). Flash boiler, vapor line and residue chamber temperature were con¬ trolled through the resistance heaters by means of variable transformers. Only freshly prepared furfural and fur- furyl alcohol kept under dry nitrogen were employed. No sample remained in the still over one hour and no sample was re-used. The still was taken down, thoroughly clean¬ ed and dried between runs; and the distilla¬ tion was carried out as described by Jones and associates (4). The time to reach equili¬ brium, as evidenced by uniform flow rates and constancy of equilibrium temperature. was noted and the still then operated in equilibrium for 45 minutes. The total heat¬ ing time was never over one hour. Vapor and liquid samples were then withdrawn, cooled to 20° C., and the refractive indices determined. TABLE 2 VAPOR- LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM DATA FURFURAL- FURFURYL ALCOHOL EOUIL TEMP MOL FR FURFURAL IN VAPOR MOL FR FURFURAL IN LIQUID 9 c 68 5 1 000 1 000 1 000 68 8 973 953 1 000 1 520 69 5 -912 -858 1 001 1475 709 82 i 714 1 001 1 362 72 3 ,727 590 1 010 1 340 732 664 521 1 002 I 250 75 0 560 405 1,000 1260 76 5 477 322 1 003 1165 78 4 330 201 1 010 1115 81 1 147 079 1 034 1 060 85,0 000 000 1 000 Vapor-liquid equilibrium compositions de¬ termined in this investigation are reported in Table II along with the equilibrium tem¬ peratures and the activity coefficients, yi, 72, calculated from the experimental results. Fig. 2 is the y-x diagram while Fig. 3 is the t-x diagram for the system. MOLE % FURFURAL IN LIQUID VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM FURFURAL-FURFURYL ALCOHOL FIGURE 2. Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium at Sub-Atmospheric Pressure 13 TEMPERATURE- COMPOSITION DIAGRAM FURFURAL- FURFURYL ALCOHOL FIGURE 3. The activity coefficients for the two com¬ ponents were calculated from yPt 7 = - xP where; y = activity coefficient y = mole fraction of component vapor x = mole fraction of component liquid = total pressure P = vapor pressure of component at equilibrium temperature Previous work (10) with furfural systems indicated the vapor pressure data of Pearce and Gerster (5) to be not as satisfactory as that of Spence (7). The furfuryl alcohol vapor pressure data used w'ere that of Stull The activity coefficients were determined for the two components employing the ex¬ perimentally determined vapor-liquid equili¬ brium composition data. No attempt was made to smooth the data. The resulting y-x plot is shown in Fig. 4. The dotted line of Fig. 1 represents the refractive index curve of Dunlop and Trim¬ ble (3). The discrepancy between their curve and ours is believed to be due to the dif¬ ference between the refractive index value for the pure components. The dotted line of Fig. 2 represents the vapor-liquid equili¬ brium data of Dunlop and Trimble (3). Using their composition data and the tem¬ perature and pressure data of the present work, one may calculate activity coefficient values and make a plot of y versus x. The resulting plot is not consistent with the cri¬ teria that all activity coefficients must have values either greater or less than unity. It is to be noted that an error of 1 mm of Hg. pressure creates an error of at least 1° C. in equilibrium temperature. Since Dunlop and Trimble did not report equilibrium tem¬ perature measurements, one may not direct¬ ly analyze their data for thermodynamic con¬ sistency. The maximum error in the present in\'es- tigation amounts to 0.6 mole per cent based upon the ±().0()()2 limit of accuracy in re¬ fractive index readings. MOLE % FURFURAL IN LIQUID ACTIVITY COEFFICIENT - COMPOSITION FURFURAL - FURFURYL ALCOHOL FIGURE 4 Examination of Fig. l, a semi-log plot of y vs x, rexeals that the experimental activity coeflicients for each component are \alues greater than unity. 4 he cur\ es are smooth and orderly. 14 Journal of Alabama Acadfmy of Science Conclusions Plots of refractive index vs composition, temperature vs composition, vapor-liquid ec|uilibrium composition, and activitiy coeffi¬ cient-composition at 25 mm of Hg. pressure are presented for the system furfural-fur- furyl alcohol. Analysis of the data by means of the activity coefficient plot indicate rea¬ sonable consistency. A ckno u 7 edgenie>it The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to Mr. Michael A. Piazza for his able assistance in this work. LITERATURE CITED 1. Dunlop and Peters. The Furans. Reinhold (1953). 3. r>unIop and Peters, Ind. Eng. Chem., 34, 814 (1952). 3. Dunlop and Trimble. Ind. Eng. Chem., 32. 1000 (1940). 4. Jones. Schoenborn, and Colburn. Ind. Eng. Chem.. 35. 606 (1943). 5. Pearce and Gerster, Ind. Eng. Chem.. 42, 1418 (1950). 6. Quaker Oats Co., Bulletin No. 203. Chicago, Ill. 7. Spence, D. J., private communication. 8. Stull. Ind. Eng. Chem., 39. 517 (1947). 9. Tubbs. Vapor-Diquid Equilibrium for the System Carbon- tetrachloride-Furfural, unpublished thesis. Alabama Poly¬ technic Institute. Auburn. Alabama (1952). 10. V’ingard. Durant. Tubbs, and Brown. Ino. Eng. Chem., 47, 1757 <1955). 15 SECTION III SOME MENACES TO THE STUDY OF GEOEOGY by Roland M. Harper Geological Suwe's of Alabcuiia, U niversity, Alabama Some of the best places to study geolog¬ ical sections, especially in the coastal plain, where outcrops of hard rock are uncommon, are on river bluffs and in cuts of railroads and highways. But the opportunities for such study are now being curtailed in va¬ rious ways. The lower parts of many river bluffs, es¬ pecially on the Tombigbee and Warrior Rivers in Alabama, have been inundated by dams for power or navigation, or both. Some of these were built more than fifty years ago, and several more such projects are now under way or proposed. About forty years ago the beautiful Dells (or Dalles) of the Wisconsin River, a wind¬ ing sandstone canyon, had several feet of water backed up into it by a power dam a little below. And a geographer who wrote a bulletin on the physical geography of Wis¬ consin soon afterward* undertook to de¬ fend the project. For several years past a controversy has been going on about a plan to build a high dam in the Rocky Mountains, for which there seems to be no pressing need, and which would hide some very interesting geology, including some dinosaur remains which are now a "national monument.” We have a somewhat similar problem now here in Alabama, where it is proposed to build a high dam on the Tombigbee River on the west side of Clarke County, which would flood several square miles of bottom land, with valuable timber and wild life re¬ sources, to say nothing of some interesting geological strata, which the wild life people, who are the chief objectors, do not seem to have considered. There is an alternative plan for two smaller dams, which would serve the interests of navigation just about as well, and flood much less territory; but the dam builders, here as at the Dinosaur site, seem to yearn to build the biggest dams possible, just to show what they can do. The Miami River in Ohio, after a disas- t!:ous flood in 1913, was "tamed” by build¬ ing several flood-control dams across it.t the basins of which are left empty most of the time, unlike those built for navigation or power. And the banks upstream from them have been smoothed and planted with grass, or in some places protected by con¬ crete dikes. And I understand that many rivers in Europe have been tieated similarly, so that there is little along them to interest a geologist or botanist. Some railroad cuts have been covered with grass, primarily for beautification, especially in and near northern cities, where the object seems to be to make them look as park-like as possible. But erosion control may be a factor in some cases, as it apparently is on some of our highways. The Illinois Gentral R.R. built into Ala¬ bama about 1907 (its first passenger train into Birmingham ha\ing arrixed in May, 1908), and in order to ha\e a graxle as level as possible, for hea\ v traflic, m and Sm are stable and exist in sufficient percentages to be useful for this purpose. In general, sulfates are en¬ riched and sulfides depleted in the heavy isotopes of sulfur. Pyrites extend over the middle range of isotope concentration, while sulfur of organic origin tends to be low in the heavy isotopes. Meteorite sulfur is in the middle range, and it has been suggested that initially terrestrial sulfur was identical in isotope composition with meteoritic sulfur. but that isotope fractionation had occurred through biological and geological processes. The authors of a recent article have con¬ firmed this idea and have set an approximate date for the beginning of the fractionation. They indicate that the sulfur cycle in the sea is responsible for the fractionation, a cycle wherein sulfate is reduced to sulfide and sulfide is again oxidized to sulfur and sulfate. The question arises — how long has this been going on — and this the paper pro¬ ceeds to answer, through numerous isotopic analyses and comparisons with a fairly well established geological time scale, that of F. E. Zeuner (1943). It appears that little or no fractionation occurred before 7-8 hun¬ dred million years ago and that biological processes in the sea have been effective in it. This fact, that little fractionation occurred prior to 800 million years ago, suggests that living organisms which get their life energy from oxidizing H-S and S did not exist much before that time. It is believed from the work of Oparin in Russia and Urey in the United States that the complex process of photosynthesis in¬ volving green plants came somewhat later. What is actually shown by this paper in question on the sulfur isotopes is a date in the biological time scale when autotrophic organisms utilizing H^S and S became sig¬ nificant, this being about 750 million years ago. Exploration for Copper. The preceding material had to do largely with matters of theory, with age determina¬ tion, which seems to be an obsession with most geologists, like the origin of ore de¬ posits. I am going to cite now a different sort of problem, the exploration by geo¬ chemical means for copper in the old Walla¬ roo mining district of South Australia. This piece of work turned out to be technically a success though economically a failure, but is interesting and instructive nevertheless. The surface over known commercial cop- Some Recent Work in Geochemistry 25 per lodes at Wallaroo, long since worked out, was studied carefully, and higher cop¬ per concentrations, high in the geochemical sense, were found in the lower "terra rossa” section 15 feet thick of the soil profile. The flat-lying area away from the known lodes was then examined in exactly the same man¬ ner, and most of it found to run much lower in copper throughout the "terra rossa” than in the old mineralized area. However, three anomalies were located in which relatively high copper values were found through this terra rossa. These three anomalies were then drilled to a depth of several hundred feet, and copper mineralization found in all three, but the percentage of Cu was below that re¬ quired for profitable extraction, though the day may come when we shall be glad to fall back upon such ores, if the price of copper keeps on going up, and it becomes scarcer and scarcer. In all, eight miles of geochemical tra¬ verses were made, and 326 soil profiles studied. The total number of tests was ap¬ proximately 2,000. Bedrock structures concealed by soil and alluvium are not normally accessible to pros¬ pecting geologists. It costs too much to strip the overburden and the chances of finding anything are too slight to justify extensive trenching. Prospecting for concealed ore de¬ posits is a standing challenge to the mining profession, and flat soil-covered and possibly mineralized terrains similar to the Wallaroo are common in all parts of the world, in¬ cluding continental U. S. A. L 0 cal Appl icatio n . This geochemical technique should be ap¬ plied to the Pyriton area in Clay County, Alabama. Here pyrites veins carrying copper were mined during World War I, and much drilling and prospecting has gone on since. But there is still a chance of finding a "blind" lead by examining the soil for cop¬ per over the old mineralized veins, and then searching for similar anomalies in the gen¬ eral neighborhood. This would make an ex¬ cellent Ph.D. thesis in Geochemistry. SOME ALABAMA MINERALS By Hugh D. Pallister Geological Survey of Alabama, U ni versify, Many minerals not known elsewhere have been found in Alabama. One that has recently come to light for the first time in this country, is the mineral, gorceixite, which belongs to the rare earth group and was first brought to the attention of the public at the 1955 meeting of the Southeastern Section of the Geological Society of Ameri¬ ca on April 7th at Durham, North Carolina. This mineral, as well as a few others, will be discussed in this paper. Gorceixite Found in Dale CouNT^■, Alabama Through the combined efforts of |. M. Axelrod, M. K. Carron, Stearns MacNeil, Alabama and Charles Milton of the U. S. Geological Survey, a mineral, gorcexite (Ba, Sr, Ca, Ce, La) (Al, Ti, Fe)''.(PO-i).(F, OH. H O), not previously reported from Alabama or North America has been discoxered, identi¬ fied, and analyzed. It occurs in sexeral lo¬ cations in Dale Countv, Alabama, where it is found in the Bashi marl of the \\ ilcox group (lower Eocene). White to vellowish in color, gorceixite occurs in gramil.ir m.tss- es, as well as nodular torms. Consider.ible field warrk will be required to determine the extent and quantity o( this rare mineral which may ha\e a number ot ingredients ol importance to industry, such .is yitruim. which is also present. 26 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science LIranilim, Thorium, and Atomic Explosion When handling a geiger counter or a scin¬ tillator in testing for radioactive minerals,, the operator feels as if he were handling something alive for when the geiger counter starts to click, and the needle begins to move, the sensation is quite different from that occasioned by the testing for other minerals. Of course, regardless of whether any uran¬ ium or thorium is present there is the back¬ ground count to show that the instrument is in operation. Outside of mine detectors and electro¬ magnetic, or other geophysics testing ma¬ chines, there is no instrument on the market which detects minerals. The intensity of reaction of the mineral deposit on the instrument is the measure¬ ment or analysis, as it were, of the strength of the radioactive material. Of course this is influenced by the thickness of the deposit or its size, and to get a more nearly accu¬ rate determination a weighed amount should be used as a standard in testing. The various tales which come out of cer¬ tain districts in the West and in other parts of the world are intriguing to the laymen with the results that many of them get "uranium fever." They are induced either by the hope of striking it rich as many of them have or of getting the $10,000 bonus for a new discovery. There are many people in Alabama who have bought geiger counters or scintillators from the cheapest price up to a cost of $780.00 or more. They go up and down the state trying to find high grade deposits. As is well known, uranium is present in the Chattanooga shales which are widely spread over a great deal of northeast Ala¬ bama and are found as a black shale in the Devonian formations overlying the red iron ore beds. A certain amount of radioactivity can also be detected in the phosphate no¬ dules in the chalk and marl beds in south and southwest Alabama. Both thorium and uranium have been found in mica pegma¬ tites and other deposits in the Crystalline Area but they likewise consist of low grade material. "Hope springs eternal” in the breast of the uranium prospector. May the day come when he realizes his wish and finds the de¬ posit that will make Alabama famous for her uranium. Geologists of the Geological Survey of Alabama have tested thousands of samples from various parts of the state, and have examined many deposits for radioactive min¬ erals without finding any of high grade com¬ mercial importance. The geiger counter and scintillator are excellent in detecting uranium lost or mis¬ placed compounds. The above instruments as well as many others can be used in emergency after an atomic explosion. The Gold Fever There are a few prospectors in Alabama searching some of the old gold mining areas for gold, especially placer gold. When "the fever" strikes a person he is much like the old western desert prospector who lived on bacon and beans as long as they lasted and then on beans until he could get a new stake. The fascination of seeing the gold color in his pan as he washes the sand in the creeks fills the prospector with such enthusi¬ asm that he looks forward to finding big¬ ger and bigger nuggets and to tracing the deposit up the creek to the mother lode. When a man gets bit with "gold fever” it is difficult, if ever, for him to free himself from it. Mica From time to time over a period of 40 years representatives of the state and of the federal government have tried to interest some company in building a mica processing plant in Alabama. At last success has come. Some Alabama Minerals 27 An Alabama Mica Company is building a scrap mica processing plant near Micaville in Randolph County. The company is at present mining, hand sorting, and shipping scrap mica in carload lots. As soon as the plant is finished the processed mica will also be shipped. The lack of such a plant in Ala¬ bama was a great handicap to strategic mica miners in World War I, as well as in World War II. In order to get some returns from their scrap mica, they were compelled to sell it to processors in Tennessee, in North Carolina, or in Illinois. Because the price they received barely covered the cost of haul¬ ing to the railroad and the freight charges, the sale of the scrap mica was practically profitless. With this new plant, it is possible to mine for scrap by open cut, deposits which previously could not be mined at all and likewise to save the small amounts of stra¬ tegic mica dug up in clear books with the large amount of scrap mica. The govern¬ ment stock pile plant at Spruce Pine, North Carolina, desires high grade ruby mica but will take some of the green and clouded mica at a very much reduced price. Biotite or black mica would not be accepted. Kyanite, Sillimanite, and Andalusite Kyanite, sillimanite, and andalusite, three minerals with the same chemical composi¬ tion, Ah'SiOo, Si02, are used in the ceramic industry. These minerals differ in crystal structure and physical properties. The kyan¬ ite usually has a bluish sheen or color run¬ ning the length of the crystal and also a hardness of 3V2 along the length of the crystal and 7V2 across the body of the cry¬ stal. The andalusite and sillimanite have about the same hardness in both directions. The sillimanite has a hardness of about 7lC in all directions; while the andalusite is slightly softer. By the process of heating, all of these minerals are converted into mullite and are then used in the manufacture of high grade porcelain, such as that used in spark plugs. However, most of the mullite used in this country is made from Indian kyanite, be¬ cause of its purity. There is a considerable amount of kyan¬ ite in Cleburne, Randolph, Clay, Coosa, and Chilton Counties. A small occurrence of sil¬ limanite has been noted in south Coosa County. Andalusite is only found occasion¬ ally as rock forming minerals in andalusite mica schist in the Crystalline Area. When and if kyanite is used commercially in Ala¬ bama, it will be necessary to remove the quartz inclusions. Graphite Graphite is one of the many other min¬ erals in Alabama which is, or should be, of economic importance. In the Crystalline Area of Alabama, there are two kinds of graphite (amorphous and flake). Both oc¬ cur as widely separated beds in the Ashland mica schist. These beds are parallel to the schistosity of the other Ashland schist beds. The amorphous graphite has never been considered of sufficient importance in Ala¬ bama to be explored in detail. It extends southwestward from Hightower in eastern Cleburne County across Randolph, I'alla- poosa on into eastern Clay County. Some gold quartz veins occur in this amorphous graphite schist. The flake graphite, the most sought after, occurs in a mica, quartz, feldspar schist. This flake graphite mica schist belt extends south¬ west from above Lineville across Clav and Coosa Counties to disappear under the I'us- caloosa formation of Cretaceous Age near Mountadn Creek in Chilton Countv. The presence of the graphite and small amounts of \-anadium indicate organic ori¬ gin. From the nature I'l the graphite mica schist, it seems tliat these beds .ire met.i morplioscd F.ileozoic rocks. 'Ilic Hake gr.iphite schist consists ot trom 2 to -Ci Hake grajdiite, from Ui to Jti' 7' muscovite mica, and the b.il.ince is qu.irt/ 28 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science and kaolin above the weathered ^one; while below the weathered zone the kaolin is un¬ weathered and therefore feldspar. The mus¬ covite mica, in most cases, carries a small percentage of vanadium oxide. At the present time there are no graphite processing plants in operation in eastern Alabama. During World War I some 4() plants attempted to recover graphite but most of them were stock promotion fiascos. During World War II, the War Production Board only allowed .s plants, which pro¬ duced more graphite than all 40 did in World War I. One of these was able to pro¬ duce flake graphite at a cost below that of the selling price of the cheapest product which they made and therefore the opera¬ tion was profitable. In view of this successful operation on flake graphite alone, it would seem that with the use of the Lloyd-Kennedy refining process, producing high carbon graphite plus the recovery of mica and vanadium oxide, that a plant modernly equipped and effi¬ ciently manned should make money. A STUDY OF THE RANK AND COMPOSITION OF ALABAMA COALS ANALYZED BY THE U. S. BUREAU OF MINES SINCE 1925 By Reynold Q. Shotts University of Alahania, U uiversity, Alahania hitrodiictiou In connection with a report on available information concerning Alabama coals from areas contiguous to the Tennessee Valley, which the author recently submitted to the Tennessee Valley Authority, a compilation was made of the analyses of Alabama coals which have been published since 1925. In 1925 the United States Bureau of Mines published all the analyses of coals of the state which it had made since it began that type of work (1). The Alabama State Geo¬ logical Survey published the same manu¬ script in 1926 (2). Since that date, many analyses have been made but the results are scattered through the literature in at least 32 other publications (3-34). It was part of these scattered analyses that were collected. The collection was taken wholly from U. S. Bureau of Mines sources and so far as the author knows, represents all the analyses published* in the interval, 1925-1954, with the following two restrictions: (a) Only co))iplete analyses were includ- ‘^Tv/0 analyses from the Clements bed have not yet been published. ed. By a complete analysis is meant that for which both proxiu/ate and ultiuiate analyses were made. Many other proximate analyses only are contained in USBM publications (16-34) and in those of the Alabama State Mine Experiment Station (3-15) but these were not included in the collection. (b) The collection was restricted to the Warrior and Plateau coal fields as only these two of the state’s four coal fields appeared to be potential suppliers of coal to the TVA. The collection of analyses has not been published and is not appended to this paper because of its length. Table 1 of the com¬ pilation contains analyses of 168 samples with the following information: County, name of mine, name of bed, type of prepara¬ tion, values for moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash, sulfur, hydrogen, total carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, gross Btu per pound, on the "as-received” or "air-dry” ba¬ sis and fixed carbon, total carbon, total hy¬ drogen, oxygen, net hydrogen, gross Btu per pound and per cent of unit coal in the sam¬ ple, all on the Parr unit coal or dry, mineral matter-free basis. Appended are two columns showing the ash-softening temperatures A Study of the Rank of Alabama Coals ^1-1 g e i lip im ir-ii fii Is §§2 O SI ss 28 fO •-• III g82 -♦ ® O HE £» L gss s g§ ii gs Hi Hi 5 i i e?s2 i s? ii ii Hi iii 2SS Sii I SI §1 is 5§l ill Hi S& 223 W «H ^ 22 22 222 lO CM 223 i 3 l§i 1 §3 11 II S§l Sis IH ^1 if I2S2 3 5S - o ^ o t* * it> .4 ^ o !S S5S SS5 o ^ o o o « «4 N ,4 *4 f4 4 °i|iS I mill ii ! i I I *4 0 0 t» Hi e ii ii is sis Hi Hi i ii si Hi s s Ei s i i i s s 2 ^ ~ 3 «• ^ »• wj 2 »• r-- ® »• u; ; ^ % sf, II Ii lii III I Ii gi K ii H g|! £ ill I 1 ° nl I ilil £S® .8 S g x3 S IS >.45 iil!i I ii ii ;!iii ml iii Ifil'ilhHi g g- "2 i ■- 1 g ; ^ S n 3 • ^ • «535 g i Si lyiii E 3 S P 1 3 - 2 t 3 sHiliSud 29 8 30 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science (when available) and the particular LJSBM publication carrying the analyses. In general, the values on the as-received or air-dry bases were copied directly from the original source. In cases where air-drying loss was given, and either base was there¬ fore available, the air-dry condition was used. If moisture was given, with other values in the dry condition, as in some re¬ cent compilations (18-20), the entire analy¬ sis was made consistent by including the moisture. Thus all analyses are on the air- dry basis except those for which no air-dry¬ ing loss w'as given and some surface mois¬ ture may, therefore, have been included. I'he calculated unit coal values are more suitable for scientific study and comparison of coals and it is with certain possible geo¬ logical implications of some of these values that the present paper is lap'^^ely concerned. S/gu/fk'ciin'e of Analyses from bidividiial Beds The compilation was arranged by beds so that the averaging of bed values was con¬ venient. Many of these averages are shown in Table 1 of this report. It should be point¬ ed out, however, that bed averages may of¬ ten mean little for scientific purposes if the bed covers a wide area as does the Black Creek bed or if a portion of the area has been subjected to greater diastrophic disturb¬ ance than has another part. As an example, the Pratt bed at Edgewater and Docena con¬ trasts strongly with the Pratt at Gorgas, or the possibly equivalent Corona, at Coal Val¬ ley. It will be noted that the last item of Table 1, of this paper, contains average values for seven Tertiary lignites. These analyses were also made by USBM and pub¬ lished in a mimeographed report of the Ala¬ bama Geological Survey (47). They were not included in the original compilation. Table 1 is arranged geographically by areas, beginning on the east with Lookout Mountain and stratigraphically, in each field or area, with the older bed at the top. Not enough analyses are available to give signifi¬ cant average values for individual beds ex¬ cept for the Mary Lee, Pratt, Black Creek and Upper Cliff No. 1. The America, Jef¬ ferson and Underwood are fairly well rep¬ resented. Analyses from the areas that have produced coals for metallurgical coke are more numerous than are those from the other area. Ash is the lowest for Black Creek coals of any of the major beds of the state. Sulfur is also quite low in the Black Creek bed but is higher in the Jefferson bed of the Black Creek group. Samples of coals from the upper Warrior basin, which are most likely to be used as domestic or steam coals, average only 2.6% ash. The Mary Lee bed has a wide geographi¬ cal distribution and consequently varies con¬ siderably in rank but surprisingly little in quality. Its ash content is uniformly high and Its sulfur content, particularly in the northern or low-rank part of the field, is unusually low for a "dirty” coal. Partly as a result of its extraordinarily low pyritic sulfur content, ash softening temperatures almost always exceed 2700° L. All Pratt coal analyses, except one, were from coking coal areas. Because of the high rank of these samples, Pratt coal appears to be unusually "hot”. Items 7-10, Table 2, show the usual difference between bright and splint coals. In Items 11-15, Table 2, differences between "benches” in the bed were not great, the most noticeable being the high ash of the top bench at both Mulga and Dolomite mines; the high sulfur of the top bench at Mulga; and the relatively high unit coal oxygen of the bottom bench at Mulga and the top bench at Dolomite. Py¬ ritic sulfur is uniformly much higher in the Pratt than in the other major beds and so is organic sulfur. Even sulfate sulfur showed some elevation. These facts lead one to sus¬ pect that the Pratt bed was deposited in a high-sulfur environment, a more logical as- A Study of the Rank of Alabama Coals 31 sumption than the alternate possibility that secondary sulfur was selectively deposited in the Pratt bed. Geograpbiccd d)id Strati graphic Chajiges iu Rank A glance at the unit coal values for fixed carbon. Table 1, shows that rank generally drops from east to w'est. There is little or no evidence that the low'er beds in a given field have any higher average rank than the higher ones. As mentioned before, this com¬ pilation is heavily loaded, particularly in the Warrior field, w'ith the higher rank coking coals from the Coalburg Basin so that if any such trend in conformity with Hitt’s law does exist, it is pretty effectively hidden. The low' and medium volatile coals of Lookout Mountain (Table 1) show about 400 Btu difference between the gross and net heating values while coals of the War¬ rior field run about MtO Btu difference. On the as-received basis, the difference would be greater and the low difference shown by the lignites would be greatly increased. The two beds from Blount Mountain are definitely of high volatile A rank although the mines are located only a few miles east of Lookout Mountain. The Lfnderw'ood bed is high in the measures and the Rosa bed low, yet the former is slightly higher in rank.* Certainly here there is no evidence of the operation of Hilt’s law. The Castle Rock, Upper Cliff No. 2, Up¬ per Cliff No. 1 (mine samples), and the Sewariee beds all average low volatile bi- ♦Gibson’s section. Ala. Geol. Survey Special Report No. 5. shows 2000 ft. difference. 32 Journal of Alabama Acadfmy of Scifncf tuminous in rank while the Underwood and Upper Cliff No. 1 diamond drill samples average medium-volatile bituminous coal. The one Underwood bed sample, w'hile far lower than the other Lookout Mountain beds in fixed carbon, had only a slightly lower total carbon and a high hydrogen con¬ tent. d’he unit heating value of this coal consequently was quite high. It would be in¬ teresting to know its petrographic compo¬ sition. The Blue Creek, Pratt, and Clements beds contain largely medium volatile coals and the others in the Warrior field are high volatile A coals. Actually, mdi\idual values show that medium volatile coals are present in all the beds in certain areas except the Jefferson, Jagger, Corona, Milldale and Brookwood. Average unit coal heating values show a wide range of almost 1000 Btu from maximum to minimum. Black Creek bed coals are an anomaly in the Warrior field. They are generally lov.er in rank than are the coals from the beds above them. They outcrop on the periphery of the field and it is possible that their rank, immediately under the higher rank beds, and at considerable depth, is higher. Fig. 1 is a map of the Warrior and Blount Mountain coal fields on which are shown the locations and dry mineral matter-free fixed carbon values of many of the samples studied. Neither State nor Federal agencies, in their reports, give the exact location of mines so that unless a report is accompanied by a map it is practically impossible to de¬ termine the place of origin of a sample, without going into the field and finding some local man who know's the particular mine. Not enough values were available from which to trace out, in detail, all unit coal "isocarbs”*. Enough points were given for Mary Lee mines to trace portions of the 65% and 70% lines. These differ from those ‘Isocarbs are defined here as lines connecting points of equal dry, mineral matter-free (unit) fixed carbon content. shov/n on the more generalized map of Semmes (35, p. 62) only in one detail and that is the manner in which the 70% line appears to outline the axis of the Sequatchie anticline. Two mines located almost exactly on the axis have values greater than 70% while those farther down the dip on either side have values of 70%^ or less. The 65% line parallels the axis, on the west side. It will be noticed that the rather large number of Pratt bed analyses in the Coal- burg basin do not quite fit the Mary Lee isocarb lines. Isocarb lines are drawn and used on the assumption that they are pri¬ marily the result of the magnitude and type of diastrophic forces (in the absence of igneous activity) to which the coal had been subjected. It is true, however, that the petro¬ graphic composition of the coal is a factor in its overall rank. Items 7-10 in Table 2 indicate that the splint and semi-splint bands present in Pratt bed coal increase the per cent of fixed carbon in the whole bed analy¬ sis so that Pratt co il subjected to exactly the same diastrophic forces should show a slight¬ ly higher rank than the predominantly bright coal of the Mary Lee bed. The Mary Lee group is 300-600 feet below the Pratt group and this will also make a difference in the rank of coal if one accepts Hilt’s law. Blair, in an excellent paper which was read before this Academy over 20 years ago (36), rejects David White’s theory of rank increase from metamorphism through lateral pressure, in favor of Hilt’s law, for Alabama coals. Regarding the Sequatchie anticline, he says, "In the Warrior Field, the increased erosion of the Warrior River system which follows the trend of the Sequatchie anticline has undoubtedly had some effect in the rather abrupt increase in the volatile content along this axis, which also marks the ap¬ proximate limit of the low volatile (*) coking coals.’’ ^By ASTM rank classification, all Coalburg Basin coals ar4 high volatile A bituminous or medium volatile bituminous, but Blair undoubtedly meant “low” in contrast with other coals within the state Sane Sp«ei«X soAljrist vtiieh ahow Dlffar»ao«a Sliaa, PatrograipbLo Coaposanta, "Banehaa” of Tha Saaa Bad aod Sobo Effaeta of &ztra«a Okldatloo. A Study of the Rank of Alabama Coals 33 SSgSSgS|SS§SgSS •otoioiov^ioiotoioioiotoioua lO^U>«st(09«)IO(OCO«^N( iolOMtO«<^N®®®®r't'rM®CMNO^>H gsgsggggsssssss ec^eoio®o®®«ot^ro®® N-tONU»0» K»»®®l0®0>®®0»®t>' •>4<-iOOOOOOOONOOOO ®o®a'«o®o®»><-4®®0»®o •ICSiNCMtOl^lOIOCMtONfMCMNN »ao»o>AOio<-4a>NO»®>Ho» Ik;, ^ ^ ant. « Saa** * ■g||| ^ ^ ^ of 1 a.p0!^wi a as ^0o4Oj;a!fi^«o4j3a^ae >» J,V * “ i-* S-*-* 'i s'* “ :a vf -i 835 1 i a 9 S ^ a ^ u.' a o.£ o £ e £ I 8.^ 85^51 ^ a 4* V « 3^ i 0.4>0.‘0« s f. ...... . a k The writer considers Blair’s case for Hilt’s law to be a very good one but not exclusive. There is no reason why long-continued pressure due to depth and long-continued, unrelieved lateral stress, could not both be factors in rank increase. If the Sequatchie uplift, which is the fartherest northwest of any of the Appalachian Valley - type "wrinkles”, is as old as the others, it formed a kind of bulwark against undue compres¬ sion of the strata in the deeper 'Warrior Ba¬ sin. Both the much higher rank of the coals of the Coalburg Basin, to the southeast, and the small increase at the crest of the anti¬ cline, may thus be explained. The great difficulty with the application of the lateral thrust theory to Alabama coals is the fact that the coals of the Cahaba and Coosa fields and the Blount Mountain field, all of which are east or southeast of the Coalburg Basin of the Warrior field, are lower in rank than are those of that basin. The opposite condition should exist, if the thrust came from the southeast. The most ready explanation of this phe¬ nomenon is that thrust faulting on the south¬ east side of these fields early and continu¬ ously adsorbed the thrust energy and left the strata of the present basins relatively undisturbed. A difficulty with this explana¬ tion is that there was thrust faulting alonv c' 'T' the southeast margin of the Coalburg Basin, too, but it does not appear to have been present everywhere and may have been of lesser intensity and shorter duration than that of the others. Another possible explanation of the com¬ paratively low rank of the coals southeast of the Coalburg Basin lies in the possibilitv of the occurrence of Cumberland lault block, or Pine Mountain overthrust, tvpe of f.iult- ing. I’he great Cumberland fault block ot Kentuckv and Tennessee, \\hit.h is IJ^ miles long and up to I’s miles wide, .qqxirenth has been thrust bodily luu thw estw.ii d bv as much as 10 miles (i7- i0). An ex.imm.ition of published analyses (11. K-') going the Journal of Alabama Academy of Science 34 rank of the coals of Bell County, Ky., and Claiborne County, Tenn., will show no coals of higher than high volatile A bituminous rank and those coals from the Middlesboro basin, within the fault block, are hardly dis¬ tinguishable in rank from those of the main part of the Appalachian plateau. Conceiv¬ ably, the small Alabama fields could also have been actually moved northwestward and the movement so relieved the stresses within the block that little effect upon coal rank was produced. The opinion has been growing for years among some structural geologists that Wal¬ den’s Ridge, Sand Mountain and Sequatchie 'Valley may represent a much longer, hut less spectacular, example of the same type of "skin-deep” thrust faulting as the Cumber¬ land block (42, 43). Stearns (43) makes a very strong detailed case for this type of structure so far as the northern end of the Sequatchie anticline in Cumberland County, Tennessee, is concerned. The Emory river fault zone and those west and southwest of it are pretty conclusively shown to be similar to the Jacksboro cross fault that marks the southv/estern end of the Cumberland fault block. Regarding the southwest end of the Sequatchie anticline in Jefferson and Walker Counties in Alabama, Stearns says (43, p. 46), "This thrust sheet may extend south- westward to the vicinity of Birmingham, Alabama, at the southern end of the Sequat¬ chie Valley anticline, a distance of over 200 miles. Pennsylvanian, and perhaps some Mis- sissippian beds, underlying all the Cumber¬ land Plateau south of Van Buren Co., Tennessee, may have been thrust northwest- Avard along the basal low angle fault. It is also possible that upper beds in the Black Warrior Coal Field of Alabama have ex¬ perienced similar, but less, movement.” Be¬ fore this, Rodgers (42, p. 676) had ob¬ served: "If the Emory River line at the northeast end of the Sequatchie anticline was formed in the same manner as the Jacks¬ boro fault at the southwest end of the Pine Mountain fault, tear faidts like the Russell Fork fault might be expected at the south- w'est end of the anticline. In the coal basin north northwest of Birmingham, Ala., Butts (44, 43) found north-northwest-trending and north-trending faults which he described (44, p. 4) as 'short normal faults — . They vary in throw from 70 to 100 feet. The fault planes are generally inclined 70° or more, but a single one is reported with an inclina¬ tion of 45°’. It is clear from the structure contours on Butts’ maps that these faults are downthrown here on one side, there on another, and it therefore is possible that they are not normal but strike-slip or tear faults. In position and trend, they accord well with what would he expected by analogy with the Russell Fork fault.” The general or av¬ erage trend of the faults is shown by the arrow in Fig. 1. The angle was estimated, not from Butts, but from a later map of Blair in the work of Semmes, mentioned above (35). The rank of the coals of the Coalburg Basin and near the crest of the Sequatchie anticline, do not accord fully with the situa¬ tion existing in the classical Cumberland overthrust block. It is evident that all beds increase sharply in rank as one passes from the main Warrior Basin to the anticline and then into the Coalburg Basin. As a matter of fact, the same situation exists at the north end of the Sequatchie anticline. Bureau of Mines analyses (46) of the coals of Cum- berland County, Tennessee, show only high volatile A bituminous coals in that and ad¬ joining counties, except in the Ozone area at the head of Sequatchie Valley and near Rockwood, which is just south of the eastern terminus of the Emory river fault zone, where the coals are medium volatile bitu¬ minous in rank. It is evident, then, that if the rank of coal is increased by lateral thrust forces, such forces have acted at both ends of the Sequatchie anticline and were not fully re¬ lieved by faulting, as in the case of the Cum- A Study of the Rank of Alabama Coals 35 berland thrust block. What the actual struc¬ ture situation is at the southern end of the Sequatchie anticline, should make an inter¬ esting study and a careful determination of the rank of all the coals, both outcropping and at depth, in the general area, should throw much light on the causes of rank va¬ riation among bituminous coals. Upper Cliff Beds and the Oxidation of High Rank Coals Upper Cliff No. 1 has never been, and probably will never be, a commercial bed. The 6l analyses available are quite interest¬ ing, however, because they yield some in¬ formation regarding what may actually hap¬ pen, physically and chemically, to high rank bituminous coals when they weather or oxi¬ dize. Thirty-nine samples were from drill cores, and presumably, of unweathered coal. Twenty-two were from old mines, many of which probably have been deserted for years. Item 16, Table 2, a sample from the Upper Cliff No. 2 bed, is of particular interest in this connection because it appears to have been in an extremely weathered condition. Inferences regarding changes on weather¬ ing would be more easily drawn if the origi¬ nal rank of the weathered coals could be determined. The core samples average 76.9% dmmf FC and the mine samples, 78.4% (Table l). If oxidation reduces rank (and item 2, Table 2, indicates that it probably does), then the mine samples were origin¬ ally still higher in rank. If dmmf FC be calculated to an "oxygen-free” basis (dmmf FC X 100 divided by 100-dmmf oxygen), Table 3, core samples are 78.2% FC and mine samples are 81.5%, which may give approximately the proper difference in av¬ erage rank of the two groups of samples, when both were completely unweathered. In general, with increase in rank of coal there is an increase in total carbon, an in¬ crease in gross heating value (through low volatile bituminous) and a decrease in mois¬ ture and oxygen content. Total hydrogen would not have to increase in order to in¬ crease heating value, because an increase in total carbon might take care of this or an increase in )iet hydrogen might accompany the decrease in oxygen. \X^eathering is usu¬ ally considered to be a process resulting in rank reduction. Contrary to the first generalization of the preceding paragraph, average unit coal total carbon of the core samples was higher than that of the higher rank mine samples (90.6%’ to 90.2%, not shown in Table l). If the mine samples originally had the higher total carbon then a loss of total car¬ bon, during weathering, is indicated. If fixed carbon does not change with weathering, however, the lost carbon must have all been in the form of volatile matter. The badly weathered sample (item 16, Table 2) shows losses of both fixed carbon and total carbon, as compared to the other ITpper Cliff No. 2 coals shown in item 3, Table 1. The 4.3 per cent a\'erage moisture of the mine samples (not shown, I'able l) con¬ trasted with the 1.6 per cent fm' the ccmc TABLE 3. SOME UNIT COAL COMPOSITIONS, UPPER CLIFF NO. 1 BED Percent. Oxygen-free b.Tsis Unit Coals Coal O 1. Average, all Upper Cliff No. 1 cores . 2.7 2. Average, all Upper Cliff No. 1 mine samples . 3.7 3. Average, Seven U. C. No. 1 samples under 2% O^ (All cores) . 1.6 4. Average, Three U. C. No. 1 samples over 5% O^ (All mine samples) . 5.6 5. Badly oxidized sample Upper Cliff No. 2 . . 17.7 FC c Total H Net Btu C.irbon Div. by H ^NetV 79.1 93.1 •1 . 55 16.1 to 20.59 SI. 5 93.7 4.8 16.060 T9 19 7S.2 92.5 4.2 16.2 to 22 10 S2.1 93.3 1.7 15,100 50 IS SO.S 95. f> \ . 0>-4 10.150 20.00 36 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science samples, would represent a definite change in composition if all samples were truly air- dried before analysis. There is no way for determining this, but they probably were, d’he increased moisture for the weathered coals w'ould not necessarily come from the conversion of hydrogen and oxygen to wa¬ ter within the coal but would, and probably did, result from physical changes which in¬ creased the capacity of the coal to hold equi- librium moisture within the pores, the mois¬ ture itself possibly coming from ground water. I'he average total hydrogen content was almost the same for the core and the mine samples (not in tables), but the net hydro¬ gen is necessarily lower for the mine samples because it is calculated by subtracting, from the total hydrogen, the hydrogen equivalent of the oxygen (1/8 of the oxygen). Table 3 shows certain groups of analyses calcu¬ lated to a theoretical "oxygen-free” basis. From the table it is seen that; (a) oxygen- free FC is larger for the higher oxygen coal of the two sets of values and the selected extreme-valued samples. The fixed carbon of the highly oxidized sample, item 5, is the highest of any analysis on the oxygen- free basis. As this sample was from a dif¬ ferent bed, direct comparisons are not pos¬ sible. (b) Total carbon shows the same trend, with the extremely oxidized sample having the highest unit, oxygen-free carbon of all samples, (c) Net hydrogen is higher for the low-oxygen samples (it is unusually low for the severely oxidized sample), (d) In spite of the higher net hydrogen content of the higher-oxygen mine samples, on an oxygen-free basis, their heating values are not higher. The three highest oxygen sam¬ ples (item 4) have a higher oxygen-free heating value than do the seven lower oxy¬ gen samples, (item 3) in spite of the lower net hydrogen content. The 0.8% higher car¬ bon content cannot possibly off-set the 0.6% lower hydrogen content, thus yield¬ ing an inconsistent result, (e) The ratio of total carbon to net hydrogen, on the oxygen- free, unit coal basis, shows a continuous in¬ crease with increasing oxygen. This means a progressive relative increase in total car¬ bon or a decrease in net hydrogen. No doubt, it is the latter. In the case of the extremely oxidized sample, hydrogen has been reduced to a very low figure. FIG. 2 — A plot showing tlie relation between unit coal oxy¬ gen content and the total Carbon-Net Hydrogen Ratio (unit coal, oxygen-free basis). Fig. 2 shows the per cent of oxygen in each of the selected groups of samples (Table 3) plotted against the carbon-net hydrogen ratio. The relationship is good. If these values from item 5 are plotted on the same scale, the point will fit the other data nicely. The comparative values from Table 3 and Fig. 2, indicate that not only is oxygen add¬ ed during the weathering or oxidation of coal, but there is also a reduction in net hydrogen content, greater than that due to oxygen dilution. Evidently, some "free" hy¬ drogen is actually lost or converted to water. LITERATURE CITED 1. Analyses of Alabama Coals. U. S. Bureau of Mines, Technical Paper 347, 1925, 111 pages. 2. Charles Butts. Analyses of Alabama Coals. Geological Survey of Alabama. Bull. 31, 1926. 113 pages. 3. Reynold Q. Shotts, G. T. Bator, and James R. Cud- worth, A Study of the Performance of Eleven Alabama Coals as Domestic Stoker Fuel. Alabama State Mine Ex¬ periment Station, Bull. No. 3. 1948, 134 pages, 4. Reynold Q. Shotts, A Study of Stoker Coal Hold-Fire Performance: The incluence of certain operating factors, preparation of feed, and method of hold-fire control, Alabama State Mine Experiment Station, Bull, No. 4, 1950, 34 pages. A Study of the Rank of Alabama Coals 37 5. Reynold Q. Shotts, G. T. Bator and James R. Cudworth. A Performance Study of Coal From the Cahaba B'ield for Domestic Stoker Fuels. Alabama State Mine Experi¬ ment Station, Tech. Rept. 1, 1945. 36 pages. 6. G. T. Bator. Reynold Q. Shotts and J. R. Cudworth, A Performance Study of Coals from the Black Creek Bed for Domestic Stoker Fuel. .4.1a. State Mine Exp. Sta¬ tion, Tech. Rept. 2. 1945. 37 pages. 7. Reynold Q. Shotts. The Relation of Free Swelling Index to Other Characteristics of Some Alabama Domestic Stoker Coals. Coal Technology. Feb. 1948. p. 1-20. S. G. T. Bator, O. S. Trigg. Jr., and James R. Cudworth, Heavy Media Separation of Some Alabama Coals. Ala. State Mine Experiment Station, Tech. Rept. 4. 1948, 40 pages. 9. G. T. Bator, Preparation of Two .Alabama Coals for Hydrogenation. Aia. State Mine Experiment Station. Tech. Rept. 5. Feb. 1950, 11 pages. 10. Reynold Q. Shotts, The Performance of Certain Ala¬ bama Coals When Burned in a Domestic Stoker of Low Capacity. Ala. State Mine Experiment Station, Tech. Rept. S, Dec. 1950. 23 pages. 11 . . An oxidation method for investigating the petrographic composition of some coals. Transactions, .Vmer. Inst, of Min. and Met. Engrs. (Aug. 19501 187. pp. 889-897. 12 . . The Distribution of fusian in the various size fractions of three Alabama coals. The Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science (1948), 20, pp. 45-52. 13. . . . Influence of certain inorganic matter, fu- sain and “dull" coal on the free swelling index of coal. Fuel, (Oct. 1952), pp. 448-461, XXI. 14 . Quantitative petrographic composition of three Alabama coals. Mining and Engineering, (May 19531. 5. pp. 522-6. 15 . Free swelling index of certain Alabama coals and the Relation free swelling index to some other properties. The Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science. 19 (1947), pp. 3-9. 16. Don M. Coulter, Coking Coal Deposits on Lookout Moun¬ tain. DeKalb and Cherokee Counties, Alabama. United States Bureau of Mines, Report of Investigations 4030, Feb. 1947, 89 pages. 17. E. S. Hertzog, J. R. Cudworth, W. .4. Solving and W. H, Ode. Friability, Grindability, Chemical Analyses and High-and-Low Temperature Assays of Alabama Coals. USBM Tech. Paper 611, 1940, 59 pages. IS. N. H. Snyder and S. J. Aresco, Analyses of Tipple and Delivered Samples of Coal (Collected during the Fiscal years 1948 to 1950 inclusive). U. S. Bureau of Mines Buil. 516, 1953, pp. 6-8. 19. S. J. Aresco and C. P. Haller, Analyses of Tipple and Delivered Samples of Coal (Collected during the fiscal year 1951). USBM Rept. of Invest. 4934, Reb. 1953, pp. 6-8. 20 . . . Analyses of Tipple and Delivered Samples of Coal (Collected during the Fiscal Year 1952 1, USBM R. I. 4972, Oct., 1953, pp. 6-7. 21. A. C. Fieldner, J. D. Davis. R. Thiessen, E. B. Kester, W. A. Solving, D. A. Reynolds, F. W. Jung and G. C. Sprunk, Carbonizing Properties and Constitution of Washed and Unwashed Coal from the Mary Lee Bed, Flat Top, Jefferson County, Alabama. USBM Tech. Pa¬ per 519, 1932, 78 pages. 32 . , Carbonizing Properties and Constitution of Black Creek Bed Coal from the Empire Mine, Walker County, Alabama. USBM T. P. 531, 1932. 44 pages, 23. J. D. Davis, D. A. Reynolds. W. H. Ode, R. E. Brewer, D. E. Wolfson. and G. W. Birge, Carbonizing Properties of Hill Bed Coal from Hickey No. 1 Mines on Lookout Mountain, Cherokee County, Alabama. USBM T. P. 7ll3, 1947, 40 pages. 24. J. D. Davis, D. A. Reynolds, B. W. Naugle, D. E. Wolfson, G. W. Birge, C. H. Flickinger, and J. P. Gra¬ ham. Carbonizing Properties of Thick Freeport and Pitts¬ burgh Coals from Pennsylvania. Elkhorn Coal from Ken¬ tucky and America and Mary Lee Coals from Alabama. USBM T. P. 726. 1949, 58 pages. 25. Reinhardt Thiessen and G. C. Sprunk, Microscopic and Petrographic Studies of Certain American Coals. USBM T. P. 564. 1935, 71 pages. 26. B. M. Bird. B. W. Gandrud and E. B. Nelson. Wash- ability Studies of the Mary Lee Seam at Lewisburg, .Alabama. USBM R. I. 3012, 1930. 32 pages. 27. B. M. Bird. A. C, Richardson and G .D. Coe. Wash- ability Studies of the Mary LLee Bed at Hull Mines, Dora. .-Mabama. USBM R. I. 3067, 1931. 24 pages. 28. B. M. Bird, B. W. Candrud and C. B. Barmore, Wash- ability Studies of the Black Creek Bed at Bradford Mine, Dixiana, Alabama. USBM R. I. 3082, 1931, 12 pages. 29. .4. C. Richardson. G. D. Coe and H. L. Anthony, Wash- ability Studies of the Brookwood Bed at the Warrior View Mine. Tuscaloosa, Alabama. USBM R. I. 3170, 1932. 14 pages. 30. A. C. Richardson and W. H. Carrington, Washability Studies of Mary Lee Bed at Powhattan Mine. Powhatan, Alabama. USBM R. I. 3204, 1933, 15 pages. 33. A, C. Richardson and B. W. Gandrud. Washability Studies of Coal from the Mary Lee Bed at Bankhead Mines, Bankhead. Alabama. USBM R. I. 3206, 1933. 9 pages. 32. B. W. Gandrud, G. D. Coe and J. C. Mead, A Wash- ability Study of the Black Creek Coai Bed at Yolande No. 6, Rockcastle, Alabama. USBM R. I. 3450, 12 pages. 33. B. W. Gandrud and G. D. Coe, Washability Studies of the America and Pratt Coal Beds at Gorgas, Alabama. USBM R. I. 3458, 1939, 12 pages. 34. B. W. Gandrud. G. D. Coe and M. F. Thomas. Wash- ability Data on Certain Coal Beds of Alabama, with Special Reference to Sulfur Elimination. USBM R. I. 3157, 1932, 28 pages. 35. D. R. Semmes, Oil and Gas in Alabama. Alabama Geo¬ logical Survey. Special Report 15, 1929. 36. C. S. Blair, Regional Metamorphism of Alabama Coals. Unpublished. Abstract in the Journal of The .Mabama Academy of Science. V, 1933, p. 35. The author has a typewritten copy of this paper (Figures Missing) under a slightly different title. 37. C. K. Wentworth, Russell Fork Fault of Southwest Vir¬ ginia. Journal of Geology, 29, 1921, 351-369. 38. Charles Butts, Fensters in the Cumberland Overthrust of Southwest Virginia. Virginia Geological Survey. Bull. 28. 1927. 39. J. L. Rich. Mechanics of Low-Angle Overthrust Fault¬ ing as illustrated by Cumberland Thrust Block Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. Bull. Am. .4ssn. Petrol. Ge¬ ologists 18. pp. 1584-96. 1934. 40. John Rodgers. Evolution of Thought on Structure of Middle and Southern Appalachians. Bull. .4mer. Assn. Petrol. Geologists, 33. pp, 1643-54. 1949. 41. Analyses of Kentucky Coals, U. S. Bur. Mines, Techni¬ cal Paper 652, 1944. 42. John Rodgers, Mechanics of Appalachian Folding as illustrated by Sequatchie .Vnticline. Tennessee and Ala¬ bama, Bull. Am. Assn. Petrol. Geologists. 34, pp. 672-6S1. 43. R. G. Stearns. The Cumberland Plateau Overthrust tfnd Geology of tile Crab Orchard Mountaisn .4rea of Ten¬ nessee. Bull. 60, Tenn. Div. of Geology. 1954. 44. Charles Butts. Birmingham. Alabama. U. S. Geol. Sur¬ vey, Geol. Atlas. Folio 175, 1910, 45. Charles Butts. Besscmer-Vandiver, .Mabama, V. S. Geol. Survey, Geol. .Mias, Folio 221. 1927. 46. -Vnalyses of Tennessee Coals. U. S. Bur. Mines. Tech¬ nical Paper 671, 1915. 47. Hugli D. Pallister and Charles Morgan. Preliminary In¬ vestigation of The Lignite Deposiits of South .Mabama. Mimeographed Bulletin, Geological Survey of .Mabama, 1950, 22 pages. 38 Journal of Alabama Academy of Scii^nce SECTION IV DORMANCY OF PEACHES By Arthur W" eat her Bureau Office, Peach trees enter a period of dormancy, called a "rest period,’’ as they lose their leaves in the fall. Even though tempera¬ ture and moisture conditions are favorable, the buds will not grow during this period. The rest period is necessary; otherwise, the buds would grow during warm periods in fall or winter. The buds normally need a certain amount of chilling weather to break the rest period, extending over a certain period of time. Observations and experi¬ ments, made at the U. S. Eield Laboratory at Fort Valley, Ga., have shown that tem¬ peratures at 45° F., or lower, provide the chilling necessary to break the rest period, If development of leaves and flowers is to be normal, the necessary chilling must oc¬ cur before February 15th. Peach varieties differ widely in the amount of chilling they need, ranging from to 1500 hours. If the trees are not exposed to sufficient cold, the buds do not open in the spring. "With most fruits the blossom buds require slightly less cold than the leaf buds, and frequently in southern latitudes blossom buds will open before the leaf buds begin to grow. Llnless the leaf system develops with or shortly after blossom opening, fruit fails to set owing to lack of a food supply from leaves. If the amount of chilling by February is only 100 hours less than a peach variety needs, that variety generally will blossom and leaf out slowly and will prob¬ ably set a crop of fruit. If the amount of chilling is 200 hours short of that needed, blossoming and leafing will be very irregu¬ lar and delayed, and a crop of fruit may or may not be set. If the amount of chilling is 300 hours, or more, short of that needed. R. Long Mojitgouiery, Alabujj/a many of the flower buds will die and the chances of a crop of fruit would be slight. Leafing out would be very much delayed; in fact, the trees might remain dormant un¬ til late April or May. CHILLING REQUIREMENTS OF PEACHES DETERMINED BY U. S. HORTICULTURAL FIELD LABORATORY AT FORT VALLEY. GEORGIA Peach Variety Number Hours Temperature 45® or Lower Flower Buds Leaf Buds Hiley 750 750 Early Hiley . 750 750 Southland . . . . . , , 750 750 Elberta . . . 850 850 Sullivan Elberta . . 850 050 Halehaven . . 850 950 Early Rose , . . 1150 1150 Mayflower . . 1150 1150 Several years ago a commercial spray was developed and used to overcome the lack of chilling. This spray stimulated leaf and flower development, but it was not success- ful, in the majority of cases, in increasing the set of fruit. There are many factors affecting the yield of peaches, but the normal amount of chill¬ ing is considered a vital factor. Some county agents estimate that the lack of proper chill¬ ing may affect the yields of peach trees as much as 30 to 75 per cent, depending upon the amount of chilling deficiency. One or- chardist in the Montgomery area states that he was unable to produce a good crop of Mayflower peaches over a period of 10 years. Blount and Chilton Counties are the main peach-growing areas in Alabama, with Chil¬ ton County ranking as the greatest peach- producing area in the State. In 1950, as a result of the experimental work at Fort Val¬ ley and the Weather Bureau temperature Dormancy of Peaches 39 records and studies, the Chilton County growers switched to peach varieties requir¬ ing from 750 to 800 hours of chilling from \arieties requiring 900, or more, hours of chilling. Total peach production in Alabama, du- ing the period 1943-1934, varied from a low of 220,000 bushels in 1950, to a peak of 1,600,000 bushels in 1945. The 1954 pro¬ duction has been estimated at 1,130,000 bushels. APPROXIMATE PEACH YIELD AND CHILLING HOURS IN CHILTON COUNTY. ALABAMA Year Total Yield ( bushels) Average Per Acre Yield (bushels) Number of Hours Temperature 45® or Lower 194S 950.000 146 1332 1949 275.000 61 748 1950 137,000 28 515 1951 200,000 50 1302 1952 600,000 150 S21 1953 941 1954 900,000 225 967 Chilling hours shown above were based on hourly temperature readings at Mont¬ gomery, Ala., the nearest available to the Chilton County area. The figures are from October of the previous year through Feb¬ ruary 15 of the year shown. The unusually warm winter of 1949-1950 stands out with only 515 chilling hours and average peach production of only 28 bushels per acre. The, low production of only 50 bushels per acre in 1951, with 1302 chilling hours, is be¬ lieved to be due partly to the harmful ef¬ fects of the extremely warm winter of 1949- 1950 and to subfreezing temperatures du¬ ring the first 10 days in February, 1951, with a low temperature of 10° on the 3rd, and frost as late as April 4th. AVERAGE NUMBER OF HOURS WITH TEMPERATURES 450 OR LOWER IN ALABAMA AREA Number of NJumber of Station Hours Station Hours Anniston, Ala. 1290 Montgomery, Ala. 791 Birmingham, Ala. 1253 (City) Columbus. Ga. 868 Montgomery. Ala. (Airport) 892 Dothan. Ala. 716 1038 Montgomery, Ala. 979 Evergreen, Ala. (Gunter Field) Meridian, Miss. 1046 Muscle Shoals. Ala . 1389 Mobile, Ala. 656 Tuscaloosa, Ala. 1167 (Airport) The above table should be very profitable to peach growers and prospective peach growers in Alabama. Data contained there¬ in should assist the grower in selecting the variety of peach to grow in a specific local¬ ity. Further studies would also give him the probability of producing a good crop, from the standpoint of chilling requirements, in a given area. 40 Journal of Alabama Acaolmv of Scif.ncf SECTION V 'I'HE RELATIVISTIC PHENOMENA VIEWED EROM A NEW ANGLE AND A SUG¬ GESTION OE HOW TO MEASURE THE ABSOLUTE VELOCITY OF THE EARTH By Niels Engel U mveysity of Alahconct, U iiiversity, Alabcin/a The thoLiglits here presented emerge from a theory on metallic bonding proprised by the author in 1949d According to this theory, it is assumed that electrons remain in the same c|uantum states (energy levels) as unchangeable electron-oscillators when atoms form molecules or crystals. This con¬ cept enabled the author to account for most of the properties of elements and alloys. This assumption, however, rest on the idea that electrons in cjuantum states create fields which may cancel within the atom when electron pairs are formed and which may cancel wdthin molecules or crystals when in¬ teratomic bonds are formed. In forming bonds electrostatic fields and magnetic fields normally cancel at the same time that the spin and mechanical momenta are balanced in such a way that their ef¬ fects vanish. When spin and mechanical mo¬ menta can be measured and are able to can¬ cel, they must be represented by fields, which the author calls mass-v/ave fields. The concept of mass-waves and mass-wave fields containing energy and creating physical forces due to cancellation is tenable only when our universe is considered as absolute rather than relativistic. The electron-oscillator concept accounts very well for metallic properties and ex¬ plains many phenomena within the fields of chemistry and physics. But it disagrees with the concept of relativity and, therefore, with several other principles of modern physics. This disagreement led the author to under¬ take a careful check of all of the basic con¬ cepts. The purpose of this was to find out which bonding theory is more nearly cor¬ rect: (l) The electron-gas and energy-band theory, which agrees with the principles of modern physics but is of less use in the field of metallurgy; or (2) the proposed electron-oscillator theory, w'hich is applicable in several fields of the natural sciences al¬ though at variance with certain current con¬ cepts of physics. The investigation resulted in the develop¬ ment of a new conception of our universe, capable of encompassing relativistic phe¬ nomena as well as the electron-oscillator con¬ cept. The principles of modern physics, the author concludes, have limited utility, being applicable to some phenomena but not to others. Modern physics rests on postulates, called principles, of which the following three are the most important: 1. The Principle of Special Relativity which denies existence of a fixed frame of reference or of an "ether.” Thus the laws of nature are postulated to be the same on all non-accelerated frames. 2. The Principle of Ecjuivalence which holds that acceleration and gravitational fields are equivalent. 3. The Particle-W ave Principle which states that elementary particles exhibit part¬ icle as well as wave properties. Of these postulates the principle of rela¬ tivity is the most fundamental because the other principles are formulated in accord¬ ance with it. Late in the nineteenth century Michelson and Moreley" measured the velocity of light and showed it to be constant, independent of the velocity of the observer. This experi¬ ment was designed to prove the "ether the¬ ory” and determine the absolute velocity of the earth or to prove the existence of "an ether-wind.” The unexpected failure of this The Relativistic Phenomena 41 particular experiment to do so led to the natural deduction that an "ether” is non¬ existent. The result of the Michelson-Moreley ex¬ periment, which has been repeated several times since, posed a problem to basic cog¬ nition of that time and up to the present. Several physicists have worked on this prob¬ lem. One of these, FitzGerald, suggested that matter contracts when in motion, and finally Lorentz^ developed the Lorentz trans¬ formations, a mathematical formalism, which accounts for the measurements show¬ ing light velocity to be constant. The Lo¬ rentz transformations present mathematical formulas which account for the measured lengths, clock readings, and mass-defects of other bodies, depending on velocity relative to a particular observer. The formulas are valid only for nonaccelerated movements. This is a fascinating set of formulas for several reasons. For example, they account for how a measuring rod, a clock, and there¬ fore also a velocity, are measured by an ob¬ server either at rest or in motion. However, they account for how these rods and clocks appear to the observers and do not reveal their true absolute values. It results that light velocity is measured to be the same number of length units per time unit by all observ¬ ers, independent of relative velocities, and that the relatively moving objects appear to be heavier. The velocity formulas work in such a way that a fixed frame of reference cancels out no matter how such a frame is introduced in the formulas. Still, in consid¬ ering clock readings, length measurements, or mass defects, one preferred frame with velocity zero does remain. Einstein overlook¬ ed this latter point when he proposed his theory of relativity, postulating no fixed frame of reference, or "ether”, and that ev¬ erything is relative. Thus he postulated all frames to be equivalent, which means that each observer considers his own frame as the preferred frame with velocity zero. Fin- stein expressed this by saying that space shortens and that time and mass change ac¬ cording to relative velocities as accounted for by the Lorentz transformations, where the preferred frame with velocity zero is always the frame of the observer. The correctness of the Lorentz transforma¬ tions has been verified by thousands of ex¬ periments, and some predictions based on further development of the relativity theory also have been verified. Therefore, many scientists have great confidence in this theory. However, the conditions chosen hap¬ pen to be such as to result in verification of the Einstein postulates. Repeated under the proper conditions, the experiments may prove the opposite as well. As the formula in the proposed experiment shows (see p. 44), when the velocity of the observer is small compared to the velocity of light, the influence of the velocity of the observer is negligible and mostly beyond a detectable magnitude. Two basic requirements of scientific think¬ ing are violated by accepting the relatic istic interpretation of the Michelson-Moreley ex¬ periment and the Lorentz transformations, or the postulate that space is shortened and that time is slowed down on moving frames. First, accepting the postulate that space is shortened when in relative motion is the same as accepting that simultaneously two rods can be shc^rter than each other. This violates formal iocric for, if rod A is shorter than rod B, then rod B must be longer th,m rod A. Rod B cannot be shorter th.m rod A at the same time that rod A is shorter than rod B. Likewise, clock B cannot go slower than clock A at the same time that clock goes slower than clock B. It is not necessarw how'ever, to abandon birm.il logic it it is postulated that the Lorentz tr.insformations account for the iipparoil me.isurements tor non-accelerated mo\ ements. Second, accepting the postulate th.it space shortens and time slows dow n when in mo tion, and denying that .my pin sit. .il ftnw t'r mechanism c.iuses these twti pitnesses is pure 42 Journal of Alabama Acaufmy of’ SoiiiNCi- scholasticism. If space shortens and time slows down without physical reason, these must he considered to be miracles. When space shortens and time slows down any¬ where and at any time, it must automatically occur everywhere and all the time. If space shortens and time slows down in just such a proportion that the velocity of light is meas¬ ured to be a constant number of length units per time unit, then this must be said to be a wonderful and very precise miracle and the miracle works just as well as does one of the laws of nature. The process of a miracle does not occur through a visual happening. Therefore, a theory based on such a belief has difficul¬ ties of visualization, as have current rela- ti\istic theories. Miracles are not casual; hence, prevelant relativistic theories reject casual ity. I’he FitzClerald contraction, the slowing down of the clock, and the mass-defect may be measured, as accounted for by the Lo- rentz transformations, and full agreement found between experiment and mathemati¬ cal formula, as in any good mathematical formalism But an explanation or theory postulating processes as occurring without physical forces controlling them cannot be our deepest cognition. The happenings may be correctly registered and the developed mathematics may account perfectly for the measured magnitudes. But if the happenings are not accounted for by physical forces or physical mechanisms, then they must be ac¬ counted for by accepting miracles and really are not understood. To give a scientific ex¬ planation or develop a scientific theory, we have to go a step further, or dig deeper in cognition, and find physical forces which account for the processes. Nothing less than that is cognitive and contributary to true scientific progress. If an explanation by means of physical forces can be given which accounts for the measured FitzGerald contraction and the measured clock slow down due to relative motion, then our cognition has been ad¬ vanced. The relativistic miracle has been given physical explanation and, in fact, is no longer a miracle. I’he author has tried to take this step. Because the relativistic pro¬ cesses occur everywhere, at any time, and very precisely, a physical mechanism must act everywhere and at any time in the uni¬ verse. We must a pr/ori accept the cosmo¬ logical principle that the physical laws must be the same at any spot in the universe. If so space and time cannot be different at different places. Tfie simplest set of assumptions which leads to an explanation of the relativistic phenomena are: 1. Fuclidian space. 2. Newtonian time. 3. Space filled with a wave-carrier or "ether.” These three assumptions are old and have led to previously insurmountable difficulties, which are overcome by two new added as¬ sumptions; 4. Energy is assumed to be waves, propa¬ gating with the velocity of light in the wave- carrier. Particles are assumed to be interlocked (quantized) energy- waves. From these five basic assumptions, a part¬ icle model has been constructed which rep¬ resents the physical mechanism according to which the Lorentz transformations and the relativistic behavior of matter should be expected. Details of this model and the mathematical development of the Lorentz transformations, the de Broglie’s mass-wave, etc., will require much more space than can be utilized in an introductory article such as this. These are being prepared to be pub¬ lished somewhere else. Through a couple of simple analogies it may be emphasized that relativistic behavior The Relativistic Phenomena 43 and absolutes do not necessarily exclude each other. In most cases they complement each other and only together are able to account for all phenomena. A bank account has at any moment an ab¬ solute value expressed in a well-defined number of dollars and cents. Deposits and withdrawals represent relative movements in the account. These are the relative changes of the absolute with time. These relative changes are of such a nature that no deductions about their absolute value of the account can be made from them alone. If we only know the deposits and withdraw¬ als over a limited period, we can make no deductions about the absolute value. If we, for example, happen to get the complete file of deposits and withdrawals made du¬ ring the third year the account exists, but nothing else, we have no means of determin¬ ing the absolute value. The absolute value of the account will cancel out however we try to introduce it into any calculation. In spite of this, the account does have an ab¬ solute value. If we postulate that the in¬ ability to deduce the absolute value from the relative movements is proof that the account has no absolute value at all, we make an ob¬ vious and severe mistake. The denial of a fixed frame of reference from the relativis¬ tic nature of a series of phenomena is a di¬ rect analogy. We may study tide and ebb phenomena at the seashore. The water level may be called high or low, depending on the choice of our zero point. We may find out how the relative water level changes, depending on sun, moon, and weather conditions. From the best information of this kind, we cannot make any deduction about the absolute depth of the ocean. The depth of the ocean will cancel out in all mathematical formulas accounting for tide and ebb. If we empha¬ size this fact and deduce from it that the ocean does not have a bottom, we will make a similar mistake. A constant difference be¬ tween the water levels at tide and ebb may, however, allow the opposite deduction, namely, that the ocean must have a bottom without holes in it, because otherwise the water would flow out and the difference would not remain constant.* The appear¬ ance of tide and ebb or of surface waves on the ocean may be relativistic. This is evident if we move with or against the direction of the same wave train. But the relativistic ap¬ pearance does not exclude the fact of an absolute depth or of an absolute amount of water in the ocean. These absolute values must and can be measured by means of ab¬ solute phenomena but not by means of the relativistic ones, such as tide or surface waves. The constant velocity of light is like¬ wise only possible if an absolute space or a fixed frame of reference exists. Under uniform rectilinear movements, light velocity phenomena, contraction of matter (not space), and clock slow-down (not time) are relativistic phenomena ac¬ counted for by the Lorentz transformations. This group of phenomena appears relativis¬ tic, and nothing about absolutes can be de¬ duced from them. This, however, does not exclude other phenomena which are absolute and from which an absolute wave-carrier and absolute time may be deduced. We examine this possibility of workinc with absolutes bv considering how we might measure the ab¬ solute velocity of an observer on the earth. As long as study is restricted to light phenomena on uniform and rectilinear mo\ - ing bodies, no difference between absolute and relativistic behavior of the uni\erse can be observed and stated. An accef/rated or non-uniform movement, howe\er, exhibits a difference and the examination of such movements discloses that an absolute frame of reference must exist. Fxperiments v ith clocks under such conditions will bring out the point clearly, bet us study the example given in the figure; *\\’e disropard a fluid idanet with floatlnj: islaiuls vw othor special cases. 44 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science A sun, A, a planet, B, and a satellite, C, move as indicated in the figure. The velocity of B relative to A is , and the velocity of C relative to B is . For simplicity we assume that is almost equal to Then, the velocity of the satellite relative to A will be almost zero at the spot indicated in the figure. Three clocks and three observers are placed on A, B, and C, respectively. Their clocks are synchronized by means of a light flash emitted from a distant observer placed m the axis of B’s path around A. According to the theory of relativity, postulating equiv¬ alent frames, we should expect clock B to go slower than clock A according to ob¬ server A and to the distant observer. Also, clock C would go slower than clock B ac¬ cording to Observer B. Since the distances between observers and observed clocks does not chan.ve in the two cases mentioned, the clock readings should indicate real differ¬ ences of "time” or clock reading. Because the observations are real and not just apparent, observer C must note B’s clock to go faster than his own clock and observer B must see A’s clock as going faster than B’s. These ob¬ servations are real observations and not ob¬ servations of apparent phenomena. Hence, everyday logic must be applied to this case. Thus, according to the theory of relativity clock C or C’s "time” should be expected to go appreciably slower than clock A or A’s time. At the indicated point in Fig. 1, the observer A, however, must observe clock C to go almost with the same speed as his own clock because the relative velocity of C is almost zero. According to the theory of relativity clock C is supposed to go appreciably slower than clock A at the same time as it goes with the same speed as clock A. This requirement seems impossible. A theory requiring such things must be in error somewhere. Assuming an absolute frame of reference and interpreting the "x” in the Lorentz time transformations as the absolute distance the clock has travelled since it was synchronized, we are able to measure the absolute velocity of an observer. Under the specific conditions of uniform and rectilinear movements re¬ quired for the validity of the special theory of relativity, the ’x” value has the same meaning as heretofore, namely, the distance from the observer to the clock measured in The Relativistic Phenomena 45 the observer’s length units. The author’s interpretation therefore is simply another generalization of the Lorentz transforma¬ tions, differing from the principle of equiva¬ lence, the latter being the sole postulate admitted by the general theory of relativity. Besides accelerated systems, there exists another great and important group of abso¬ lute phenomena, that of quantized phenom¬ ena. Trying to squeeze absolute phenomena into a relativistic scheme produces difficul¬ ties such as lack of visualization, doubt about casuality, and departure from formal logic. Details are forthcoming in future publica¬ tions. They will emphasize that the phase velocity of the de Broglie wave, which cur¬ rent theories postulate as being greater than light velocity but which does not carry sig¬ nals, is one of the results of this unhappy squeeze. The concept of a probability wave is another confusing result. According to an energy-wave hypothesis proposed % this author, the phase velocity of the de Broglie wave is less than light velocity, and the prob¬ ability wave concept gives way to a concept of real waves containing energy. Also, the interpretation of the Schroedinger equation and bonding phenomena will be quite dif¬ ferent if we consider absolute phenomena to exist alongside others having relativistic appearance. The assumption of a fixed frame of ref- 8ody Absolute Clock Reading as seen crcnce relative to which all clock speeds are conaolled enables us to account for clock readings under all conditions and prevents ir. from holding to the requirement that a particular clock must run with different spec ’s at the same time. According to this assumption, clock speeds will obey the formula where A» is the reading of an absolute rest¬ ing synchronized clock (absolute time) and vi is the absolute velocity of the clock. This formula can be written where x is the absolute distance the moving clock has travelled since the clocks were syn¬ chronized. Then K/t and Applied on the bodies in the above figure, we find the following absolute clock read¬ ings. Relalive Clock Speed from A ^ 46 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science In these formulas vi, V2, and Va are the absolute velocities of A, B, and C, respec¬ tively. Vj and Vs varies with time. 'I'he differences in clock speed in a rela¬ tivistic and an absolute universe can be brought out by a compaiison of clock B as seen by observer A: Relativistic Universe A Absolute Universe Within very short time intervals V2 and Vs may be considered as approximately con¬ stant especially around the point indicated in Fig. 1. Within short time intervals the relative velocities will be: Bodij Absolute Velocity Relalrve Velocity seen from A seen from B seen from C /I K VBfl~ v,-v^ t-^ / VVs B / _ ilii ^BB ~ 0 1/ / c* c / V, Vs ! Va\ f ! C ^BC^ - V3-V2 -z Now, if observer A measures the relative velocity of B, which is and the speed of Clock B relative to his own clock speed, which is The Relativistic Phenomena 47 then he is able to calculate his absolute ve¬ locity from the two equations where and are measured values. The relative velocity and the proportion between the speeds of the clocks can be ex¬ pressed in terms of the absolute velocities vi and V2. The two equations contain the two unknown absolute velocities, the two meas¬ ured constants, and the velocity of light. They can be solved with respect to vi, yield¬ ing the fourth power equation: The equation has four roots: /. v,^^c 2. V ^-C Only the root (4) with the minus sign Is possible. Assumptions of absolute space, absolute time, and absolute energy, exhibited only in an absolute wave carrier together constitute a comprehensive theory with which to ac¬ count for absolute phenomena as well as for the relativistic appearance of these phenom¬ ena under certain conditions. Matter and particles are taken to be interlocked, quan¬ tized wave patterns. A definite wave pattern, which can be shown to shorten when set in motion, ac¬ counts for the slowing down of processes, including clock readings. The same wave- pattern model demonstrates that any wave pattern, considered as an object, appears shortened and appears to exliibit slower pro¬ cesses when in relative motion, exactly as required by the Lorentz transformations. The apparent shortening of rods and the apparent slov.'ing down of clocks, due to relative mo¬ tion, is independent of the absolute velocity of the observer and the object. Relativistic phenomena derive only from differences in absolute velocities. These assumptions lead to almost the same mathematical formulas as those cur¬ rently accepted, but the meaning of the formulas is different. For example the part¬ icle-wave principle can be expressed in a visual model accounting for the particle and for the wave properties by means of the same wave-pattern model. The mass-wa\e concept of a probability war e becomes a con¬ cept of a real wa\e containing energy. 'Fhe field concept changes from the C('ncept ot bent space to that of a wa^■e pattern, 'I'he physical force produced by t'vo o\ cTl.q''pim' fields, or v,'a\'e patterns, is accounted tor b\ wave cancellation. 'I'liis \isual picture .ic counts for electric, magnetii'. .uul er.n it.i tional fields and forces. I'lie \\a\e p.itterns may ox erl.ip and mm e rel.iti\e to e.u ii other, act on each other, or inter. ut with e.u h other thus at.iounting lor absolutes, rel.iti \istic .ippt .ir.mce, ph\'si>..d forces, .uul other kinds ol reactions. One to their .ibsolute \e loc'h'. they .ire shortened .iiul processes are 48 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science slowed down to such an extent that light velocity is always measured as constant. It is the hope of the author that this new interpretation of the Michelson-Moreley ex¬ periment and of the Lorentz transformations will help scientists to look at several phe¬ nomena from a new point of view and thus may be of aid in further progress. The con- sec|uences of the new interpretation concern almost any physical theory. A few' final words will sketch what w'e have sought to do. The study of a w'ide range of phenomena discloses that nonrela- tivistic phenomena exist. This fact forces us to investigate the concepts of the theory of relativity carefully and forces us to as¬ sume absolutes on w'hich a mechanical model can be developed, accounting for the non- relativistic as well as for the relativistic phe¬ nomena. This constitutes a renaissance of the mechanical view'point, permitting visual models which have many advantages. Analysis of the theory of relativity reveals that the heart of this theory is scholastic. This means that physical processes are pos¬ tulated to occur without any physical force causing them or controlling them. Being causeless, these physical effects must be con¬ strued as miracles. It is further pointed out that the concepts proposed by the theory of relativity do not hold considering clock read¬ ings on rotating and accelerated systems. Even for translatoric movements, the con¬ cepts do not hold in all cases. The efforts to measure the velocity of light — the Michelson-Moreley and the Mi- chelson-Gale experiments — are reviewed and the basic concepts called attention to by these attempts are reexamined. The FitzGerald contraction, relativistic and nonrelativistic clock readings, mass-defects, and other rela¬ tivistic as well as nonrelativistic phenomena can be accounted for by means of physical forces and everyday logic provided we as¬ sume absolute space, absolute time, and ab¬ solute energy and further assume that en¬ ergy exhibits itself only as waves propagat¬ ing with light velocity. Some examples of absolute phenomena and the relativistic ap¬ pearance of other phenomena are pointed out. It is concluded that the basic nature of our universe is not relativistic, though a prominent group of phenomena appear to be so. This result is of concern in most phys¬ ical theories and is truly fundamental for theories of bonding and for understanding bonding phenomena and solid state prop¬ erties. REFERENCES 1. N. Engel: Kemisk Maanedsbiad 30 (1949), 53 and 97. 2. A. A. Michelson: Amer. Journ. of Science (3), 22 (1881), 20. A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley: Amer. Journ. of .Science 34 (1887), 333. 3. 11. A. Lorentz: Amst. Verb., Akad. v. Wet. 1 (1892), 74. 49 SECTION VI EVALUATION OF BUSINESS TRENDS By Carl P. Heartburg First National Bank, Birmingham, Alabama It is a pleasure and a distinct honor to talk to you about the Outlook For Business Trends For the Balance of 1955. Last year I spoke to you about consumer installment credit. I pointed out at that time that, since the removal of the strict wartime credit con¬ trols of the Korean Period in May of 1952, consumer installment credit extended had outrun the amount repaid to such an extent that buyers’ incomes w’ould be burdened for some months with repayments before there could be any major resumption of the in¬ creasing of installment debt. This reasoning turned out to be true during most of 1954 and it was only in the last month of the year that installment credit extended again exceeded the amount repaid by any large amount. We are starting 1955 with the buy¬ ing public in an expansive mood and in such a state of optimism that they will undoubt¬ edly continue to buy more than they pay for, for some time. This condition will be bol¬ stered by a higher rate of employment than existed in 1954, slightly higher pay scales, and in many cases, better values in the goods offered for sale. Automobiles of the 1955 model year, for example, offer many attrac¬ tions both as to increased power and new automatic equipment to whet the consumer demand. This year I would like to turn our attention to the outlook for some of our more important industries. Automobile officials along with their economists, who were predicting production of the order of 6.5 million cars and trucks, are now raising their estimates to 7.5 mil¬ lion for this year. The question has been raised as to whether the automobile com¬ panies are pricing themselves out of the mar¬ ket. One interesting answer to this question was brought out at a meeting of Financial Analysts several years ago by an official of Borg-Warner Company who proposed this test. As long as the buying public would allow the dealers to load the cars wdth ex¬ tras there seems to be no limit to what the American public will pay for something it wants. This year’s models is a case in point, with the public avidly taking up multi-col¬ ored bodies, power steering, power brakes, automatic drive on most of the so-called lower priced cars, as well as the standby ac¬ cessories such as radios and heaters. Should this revised estimate of an addi¬ tional one million cars and trucks prove to be correct, it is axiomatic that the auto¬ mobile parts manufacturers will have a bet¬ ter year than last year. This improvement will be emphasized by the fact that Chrysler, less fully integrated than General Motors or Ford, and a larger buyer of parts, had a very poor 1954 but is meeting excellent sales reception with its highly styled models this year. Turning to the Building Industry we find both public and private expenditures run¬ ning at high le\els and with a terrific back¬ log in the field of necessary public expendi¬ tures for such things as schools, hospitals, and highways. Some doubts ha\c been ex¬ pressed recently as to the near term outlook for residential building in \ iewr)f new house- starts running at a higher r.ite than that tor family formation. The hitter tigure is at a low ebb in that we are now in th.it period at which the low birth r.ite ot the e.irly 9Vs is reflecting itself in a low number ot peo pie becoming of m.irri.ige.ible .ige. More than offsetting this one unt .i\ or.ible condi tion is the y.istlv incre.ised number ot tarn 50 Journal or Alabama Academy of Science ilies who for the first time are economically able to buy a home. The ever increasing easing of mortgage credit, no down pay¬ ments with 25 to 30 years in which to pay, has made it possible for the most poorly paid industrial worker to own his own home on conditions which are at least apparently cheaper than renting any habitable dwelling. 1 say "apparently” because the average pur¬ chaser of this type home takes into account only the monthly mortgage payments and gives no consideration to the high mainten¬ ance entailed in keeping up homes which are cheaply constructed. From these two mainsprings of our econ¬ omy, the automobile industry and the build¬ ing industry, flow forces that reach into nearly every other phase of American busi¬ ness. I’he prime beneficiary is the steel busi¬ ness. It is currently running at full capacity with new orders booked far enough ahead to assure a high rate of operation well through the year. The tire and rubber in¬ dustry which adjusted to last year's reduc¬ tion with a minimum of distress, is operat¬ ing at full strength with prospects for sales of from 10 to 15 per cent above last year. Similar 1954 trends in the oil industry have reversed themselves and it appears that de¬ mand for the full year 1955 will be several percentage points above that for last year, accompanied by a stronger price situation. The non-ferrous metals industry is also ob¬ viously a beneficiary of both high automo¬ bile production and a high rate of building. /Another direct beneficiary of both these in- dust''ier is the air conditioning field, with an ever growing number of people looking on both home air conditioning and auto¬ mobile air conditioning as a necessity rather than a luxury. The Chemical Industry is made up of a rather heterogeneous group of companies practically all of which have been in strong growth trends for a number of years. The tremendous growth of productive facilities finally brought about a conditicRi of mild over-capacity last year but already a reversal of the minor downtrend has taken place and bids fair to go through 1955. Similarly the Drug Industry, after several years in which research was relatively unproductive, is ap¬ parently on the verge of several potential major new product developments. Occasion¬ al unfortunate experiences such as that suf¬ fered by Parke Davis with its chloreomycin and yesterday’s unfortunate announcement with respect to the effects of one company’s anti-polio vaccine on the West Coast, gives both individual companies and the industry as a whole minor setbacks, but the dynamic research programs referred to above can be counted on to maintain a major trend for some time. The Electric Utility companies need little comment. The problems of managements in this industry have been that of building enough generating power to take care of ex¬ panding industrial and domestic demand. In southern parts of the country increased use of air conditioning in the summertime has leveled the seasonal load peaks and made for more profitable operation. Lastly, the Railroads. Whereas the rails after many years of loss of traffic to auto¬ mobiles, trucks, buses, and airplanes had come to be looked on a.s a most marginal industry, they have, in recent years, been able to effect efficiencies and economies of op¬ eration which allowed them to carry through the adjustment year of 1954 in good shape. Improvement in business in all phases of our economy is being reflected in higher traffic ancl earnings. 1 have not covered each and every branch in industry and commerce but have attempt¬ ed to at least mention those which exert the greater forces on our overall economic pic¬ ture. All in all, I can remember no time since I entered the investment business in I the late 192()’s when so many things looked so good for so many people. 51 THE ECONOMICS OF THE PARKING INDUSTRY By John F. Hendon Heudou and Company, Inc., B/nn/n^bam, Alabama Although I have lived quite close to park¬ ing problems for the past twenty-five years, I was struck with a few simple announce¬ ments m a recent issue of the National Park¬ ing Association Newsletter-. Thomas French, president of the Plymouth Insurance Com¬ pany, announces plans for huge $1,750,000 garage in Austin, Texas . . . Construction of five-story $400,000 parking garage in Huntington, West Virginia . . . Two more stories added to the Goldsmith Department Store garage in Memphis . . . Hotel Garage Company opens 1,000-car garage in Nev/ York City . . . Five-level garage for ZCMI Store in Salt Lake City ready for occupancy . . . New 250-car garage opened in Wash¬ ington . . . This is just mentioning a few listed in one issue, and these Newsletters come to us each month. Most people don’t comprehend the mag¬ nitude of this industry. We in the parking business have been quoting for the past couple of years the figure of $3 billion in land and improvements which men and women in this country have invested in park¬ ing. All of a sudden we found ourselves out of date by the fact that during these months we’ve been talking about it, that business has grown to a $3V2 billion one. Parking automobiles has become a 2()th Century challenge — for parking operators, for real estate men, for investors, for the inventive genius and for engineers. Today it bears no more resemblance to that group of fender benders who started out in the late twenties with more courage than cash, than the gasoline industry bears resemblance to those early days of our century when the service station proprietor dispensed his (A- octane from a barrel or from a steel tank- on wheels, transferring it to our automobiles by means of a smaller can and funnel. I must admit that the service station in¬ dustry is about 10 or 15 years ahead of us, because of its earlier start, but we are com¬ ing up rapidly and with quickening strides, having been propelled and stimulated by the prodigious development of the Ameri¬ can automobile industry. Certainly the time is here to talk about the parking business as a business and as a current economic factor. Some of us have no trouble remembering when automobile drivers usually found an open parking space within a half block of their destination. Extra large Saturday after¬ noon crowds occasionally forced a shopper to go on foot for a block or e\en perhaps a block and a half, but never more. All parking,, whether on the street or in a weedv lot next to Jones Mercantile Store, was free and easy to coine by. Suddenly America’s automobile industrv started flexing its muscles. Before long, com- petition for the free space in the main dis¬ trict became a real factor. Final Iv, one bright day, some enterprising young fellow rented the lot next door to Jones Mercantile Store, cut the weeds, and stuck out a sign: "Pa ik¬ ing; 10 Cents.” WMien his place filhxl up, he did the same thing on a piece ot \.icant property in the next block. I'hus, the p. irk¬ ing industrv \\as born. 1 (..in't recall the exact town that ga\e birth t(i it. but 1 c.m pinpoint the vear as about IDJO, All business enterprises .md industrKS go through vears ot exolutuinarv development. First, a topsv-turw growth, then .liter .i l^eriod ot experiment.it ion, m.iinlv ot tri.il .md error, there emei'ges .i well detined p.it 52 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science tern of planned development that adequately serves its market. The department store idea, for example, had its beginning nearly 100 years ago. The idea of off-street parking actually was an off-shoot of some other automotive service. The parking garage began to de¬ velop about 1921, and there was substan¬ tial growth of the multiple floor garage program in larger cities up to 1930, but they seemed destined to failure even before the crash of 1929 because of one big problem; a problem tied closely to what was known as the "ground hog" motorist . . . the man who would use the steam-heated garage only during cold weather — from Thanksgiving to St. Patrick’s Day. Garage management of that time just couldn’t surmount the problem of operat¬ ing on three months per year at full capa¬ city and the rest of the year on a 40 per cent capacity. As a result, the years of 1930- 39 saw little construction of multiple floor parking garages. However, this period did produce an important construction change in garage building — the introduction of the open-sided, ramp-type parking decks. It was also during this same period that the parking lots achieved a new and perma¬ nent status in the American scene. They provided "breathing spaces” between build¬ ings and helped break up the dense com¬ pact mass of building development. They paid good returns on the property invest¬ ment and successfully competed on the free market with other land use. Many parking lots started as tax-relief measures. Buildings were demolished during the thirties to reduce ad valorem tax assess¬ ments. Parking provided some measure of income on the vacant premises. Time and demand have made permanent and solid the original temporary service. It is another of those thousands of in¬ stances in the history of the national econ¬ omy in which an entrepreneur has stepped forward to measure the income from and cost of providing a service, saw possibilities of profit and was willing to take a chance. There are more than 5,000 men and women operators of parking facilities in the nation. The ranks are swelling rapidly each year. Since that time parking has developed just like any other business. Where there is a profit motive, some operator will usually take the jump. Beginning about 1936 department stores recognized that there was a relationship be¬ tween convenient customer parking and the jingle of the cash register. It was not long thereafter that banks, restaurants, super stores and other businesses began to refine their services by adding a parking facility for customers. Today, there is hardly a build¬ ing under construction that does not provide or locate for adequate parking for customers and/or employees. It has become such a necessary part of our economy that some cities require provision for parking in their building codes. Sooner or later, off-street parking will take care of all automobiles coming into downtown areas. Law will prohibit parking on streets which will eventually be used ex¬ clusively for the passage of vehicles and not for the storage of them. It has been estimated by real estate men that parking today occupies as much as 25 per cent of the most valuable real estate in American cities and more than 5 per cent of the total real estate values found in the cities of the nation. Moreover, commercial parking operators are doing 96 per cent of the off-street parking in cities of 250,000 and over and 88 per cent of the parking in cities of 25,000 and up. Cities today devote from 20 per cent tc 50 ner cent of the downtown land area to park in V. Birmingham, for example, strikes a mediuP'' of about 30 per cent, whereas De- troiL Michi.gan, devotes a full 50 per cent. To give a clearer idea just how fast off- str^pf t-)a’'ki'''rr has developed in the past few let •'H'" noint out some of the outstand- Economics of the Parking Industry 53 mg jobs done in various cities. In the past seven years, Washington has doubled its parking capacity. Today, nearly 50,000 auto¬ mobiles can be parked in or close to the congested heart of what is considered the most important city in the world. Birming¬ ham’s off-street spaces have been increased by 71 per cent in the last five years. Other cities throughout the country range from 50 per cent up. At the same time, few, if any of the cities have experienced anything above a 50% increase in automobile regis¬ tration. Let us consider some of the construction angles which have made such growth pos¬ sible. It has been said that parking is "tak¬ ing to the air.’’ Certainly, in high property value areas, operators cannot realize a profit on surface areas alone. Very definitely, the vertical parking device or multi-floor ga¬ rage is the answer to many parking situa¬ tions. There are in existence today a dozen or more devices, which have incorporated en¬ gineering know-how of a wide group of in¬ terested parties, to enable parking to com¬ pete with any type of business in America for high value surface areas. One of the simplest of these mechanical devices is a portable machine built on the order of a garage man’s hydraulic lift. It is called "Sky Park,’’ and consists of a central hydraulic column with a steel platform at¬ tached to each side. Two cars can be ac¬ commodated on the platforms and while these two are raised, two additional cars are parked immediately beneath. The lon.y- term parker can be placed on the too level, while the stort-term parker uses the soace beneath. Each Skv T^ark is pt-ireh if ;l'>''iMt $3,000 or $1,500 per car soac^ -- t go. lieve is too much c.a’^ital '"ir space at present ancl fo*' o.u mass production wiO Tindonhfp ’’v ' cost to a practir-h One of the '""ost sopr'-'P”'-. • — n , . — .i contrivances in 0-Mat,’’ one of which is being operated in Washington in a space 25 feet wide and 6l feet deep. This is a push button affair manned by one attendant. An elevator shoots the automobile to one of a number of stor¬ age spaces on different levels and retrieves in the same way. The Park-O-Mat in Wash¬ ington is the second tallest structure in the city, being exceeded in height only by the Washington Monument itself. Still another well-known engineering achievement in the industry is the "Pigeon Hole,” a crane ele¬ vator type device now being used experi¬ mentally in various cities of the nation. Multi-storied ramp and mechanical ga¬ rages, now in operation or on the drafting boards, also indicate that parking can com¬ pete with the higher productive improve¬ ments of the most expensive downtown property and will justify paying a full price for it. It doesn’t really matter for what value the land is assessed, because usually the existence of these values means the ex¬ istence of customers, of one kind or another, who are willing to pay for parking. It may interest you to know the value merchants themselves place on each parking stall. To arrive at this figure, I quote an article in Nation's Business: The writer, an experienced merchant, put it this wav; "... I placed a fixed value of $20,000 per year in sales volume on each parking stall prox ided for m.y customers. I set up a capital inx'cst- ment and amortize it ox'er a reasonable length of time, charging this to ox'crhead. T fi.gure that the 75c per car space per day h rosts me is the equivalent on to one per of the sales that car space generates.” estimates run as high as S^O.tHH). h is been adxanced bv an engineering hiO in mv definite opinion it is xery '' ' n.ition.il axerage. The S'^O.OOO is reached by the following equation: Mul¬ shopping days per year bv six car 1.6 passengers per c.ir bv 1.6 ■'(' oassenger bv $11. axerage sale. 54 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Sears, Roebuck N (a^impany has used an¬ nual sales of SlOOOO per car stall as a cri¬ terion tor planning their parking needs. Su¬ per markets often use $15,000 per car space, according to S. T. Hitchcock of the U. S. bureau of Public Roads. Naturally such evaluations have led to the development of some of the outstanding parking facilities in the nation. In our files are numerous photos of parking stations fur¬ nished by leading merchants. I’o mention a few, there arc Lazarus, of Columbus, Ohio; Woodward - 211; Samuel A. Stouffer, "Interveninp Opportunities : .\ Theory Relatlnp to Mobility and Distance. “ .\nu'rican Sociolopical Review, (lltiou Rupert B. Vance. Research Memorandum on Population Redistnbuiuu\ With¬ in the United Slates. New York: Social Science Research Council. Bulletin 12. Ht3S; National Resources ('ommittee. The Problems of a Chanpinp Population, ^\■ashlnp(ot^ : United States Government Prlnttnp Office. IPBT: Darter Goodrich et al.. Mipration aiul Kconomic U‘pportumty. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, U'dB. ('. Warren Thorntlnvaite. Internal Mipration in the United States. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyh.ama Pre-ll years of ace. Ratios for the eonntles of Alahania are haseil upon eensns data for tOli' with¬ out eorreetlons for iimlerenumerat Ion and are not .-i.l- Justed to a standard ace distnhution of women 62 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science an area, such equilibrium may not be reach¬ ed because of the relation between net mi¬ gration and natural increase for the area. Almost three-fourths of the counties of Ala¬ bama with a fertility ratio of 550 or more were areas of depopulation, while more than four-fifths of those with a fertility ratio un¬ der 4()() were areas of absorption. The co¬ efficient of association between level of fer¬ tility and pattern of net migration is 0.66, indicating a substantial positive association between relatively high level of fertility and depopulation. The percentage of counties having high level of fertility and depopu¬ lation is 37.8 per cent greater than, or 2.16 times as great as, the percentage of counties having low fertility and. depopulation. Summary and Conclusions As a result of net migration, Alabama lost people to other states during the period 1930 to 1950. Nevertheless, there was a significant growth in the total population of the state attributable largely to the relatively high natural increase in the population. The extent to which some areas of Ala¬ bama are gaining population at the expense of others appears to be a highly significant aspect of the process of the redistribution of population within the state. From 1930 to 1950 there was significant population growth due to net migration in six counties which, in 1950, represented almost two- fifths of the state's population as compared with less than one-third of the state total in the same counties in 1930. Twenty-nine counties remained essentially stable and thirty-two experienced a rather significant decline in population as a result of net mi¬ gration. Patterns of net migration within the state reflect a pronounced drift away from the predominantly agricultural coun¬ ties of central and south Alabama to the in¬ creasingly industrialized and commercialized counties in the central and northern part of the state and to Mobile and Baldwin counties on the Gulf coast. The social and economic forces associated with this drift are varied and complex and reflect, to a con¬ siderable degree, the success of the state’s people in making a living and otherwise ad¬ justing to their social and cultural environ¬ ment. It appears that in the future this trend will itself become a significant factor af¬ fecting differential aspects of population change in Alabama. Within Alabama, there is a substantial con elation between relatively high level of fertility in the population and loss of people through net migration. As the fertility of an area increases, economic opportunity is like¬ ly to decrease making it more difficult for the area to retain its natural increase, thus predisposing the area toward heavy loss of population through out-migration. However, as fertility increases, the volume of out-mi¬ gration necessary to offset the natural in¬ crease rises. Consequently, a large number of Alabama counties has been characterized by relative population stability rather than bv depopulation. 63 ANTE BELLUM STAR GAZING AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA FREDERICK A. P. BARNARD'S OBSERVATORY by James F. Doster Uiiii'evsity of Alaba)}ia, U niversity, AlabciDui Before the Civil War the University of Alabama had one of the best-equipped celes¬ tial observatories in the United States, with instruments of great precision, made in Eu¬ rope and installed by Professor Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard, under whose skilled guidance in later years New York’s Columbia University was to rise. The Ob¬ servatory building, although ransacked by the Yankees in 1865, stands to this day be¬ hind Gorgas Hall on the University campus, capped by an eighteen-foot red dome, a strik¬ ing relic of science on the American frontier The story goes back to 1837, when finan¬ cial difficulties and student disorders had caused the resignation of the entire Univer¬ sity faculty. Newly-chosen President Basil Manly, before assuming his duties, made a trip to the East, where on a boat between New Haven and New York he met Bar¬ nard, a versatile young man of rare talents, born in Massachusetts and educated at Yale College. Barnard, although still in his twen¬ ties, had held several teaching positions and was currently a teacher in a Nev/ YorE school for the deaf, whose affliction he shared. Manly, pleased with his new ac¬ quaintance, returned home and soon wrote to offer Barnard the professorship of mathe¬ matics and natural philosophy at the Uni¬ versity of Alabama. Accepting, Barnard made a three-week voyage to Mobile and arrived at Tuscaloosa about March 1, 1838, to begin work. Economic conditions were bad and student enrollment was in the pro¬ cess of dropping from 101 in 1837 to 38 in 1838. F. A. P. Barnard, know among the students as "Old Fap,” became one of a faculty of five. His coming heralded a great enrichment of the curriculum by a growing emphasis upon mathematics and the natural sciences. Barnard lost no time in urging the need for a celestial observatory upon the Univer¬ sity’s trustees, who in December, 1838, re¬ ferred his recommendations to the state legis¬ lature, which met on the other side of tow'n, but without immediate result. In 1840, how¬ ever, we find astronomical instruments to the value of $2800 being purchased for the University by Barnard and $2000 being ap¬ propriated for the construction of a suitable building to house them. The LJniversity catalog of 1842 announced that an astronomical observatory was to be immediately erected, "furnished with instru¬ ments superior in power and accuracy to any hitherto introduced into the LInited States” and that the building would probably be completed before the beginning of the au¬ tumn session. The same statement was re¬ peated in the 1843 catalog. Ginstruction of the building actually took place in 1844 un¬ der the direction of Barnard, who had planned it with great care. The cost was $1740. "We have no record of Barnard’s uncrat¬ ing, installing, and adjusting the fine new instruments, but the task obviously required a high order of skill, for some of them were of ultra-fine precision. 1’hcre w.is a tr.insit instrument, constructed by Simms of l.on- d(Mi, having a telescope of fi\e-foot foc.d length and an object lens ot tour inches clear aperture. The limb, three feet in dt ametcr, was divided into ti\e minutes, re.ul ing by four microscopes to single seconds. Accompanying the tr.insit was .i \er\' pee cise clock with mercuri.d compensation, bv Molyneux' i)f London. (This s.imo fine clock 64 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science IS today keeping accurate sidereal time be¬ neath the dome of the new observatory on the Physics Building of the University of Alabama.) In that day before the availability of accurate time by radio from the United States Naval Observatory at Washington, the transit instrument and the clock were needed to provide accurate time to permit the precise determination of star positions, d’he fine equality of the two instruments and the precision of the position adjustments on the eight-inch refracting telescope which was installed in 1848 under the dome of the Observatory indicate that Barnard’s concep¬ tion of astronomy was that of the mathema¬ tician interested in precise measurements and the application of the formulae of pure science. The eight-inch telescope was an equatorial instrument of an eight-foot focal length, by Simms of London, mounted according to the manner of Frauenhofer’s celebrated Dorpat instrument. According to the University cata¬ log of 1849, it was provided with a parallel¬ line position micrometer, a double-image micrometer, and a very complete battery of eye-pieces. The hour and declination circles were "divided on silver, the former to one second of time, and the latter to 5” of space, by opposite verniers,” the hour circle being moved by clock-work. The Observatory’s lo¬ cation was precisely determined to be Longi¬ tude ^h. 59m. 52s., Latitude 12’ 35”. Gradually acquired were two portable acromatic telescopes, one by Dollond of seven-foot focal length and four-inch-aper¬ ture and another by Simms of five-foot fo¬ cal length and three-inch aperture, a re¬ flecting circle by Troughton of ten-inch aper¬ ture and precise adjustments, and portable instruments of smaller size. The original Observatory was built of stuccoed brick, according to Barnard’s plan. There was a central chamber topped by the eighteen-foot revolving dome, a wing with long windows through walls and roof for observation with the transit instrument, and another wing for the study of terrestrial magnetism. This last was equipped with a declination instrument and a dipping needle, constructed by Gambey of Paris. Barnard, observing that "brick has always more or less magnetic polarity,” required the use of stone for this wing. We are informed that while Barnard was director of the Observatory he contributed to observations pursued else¬ where for detecting the small irregularities of the moon’s motion, and to observations of Jupiter’s satellites, the tables of which were at that time still imperfect, and in determin¬ ing the times and circumstances of eclipses and occultations out of the meridian, and, with the aid of the equatorial instrument, in the study of double stars, comets, and nebulae. Such activities presumably delighted the soul of a versatile man of science, but the system¬ atic and organized study which could have rolled back the frontiers of knowledge was lacking. The institution was not set up for research but for the education of the youth, and the Observatory served mainly as a teaching tool, an adjunct to the mathematics curriculum. Under the dome of the abandoned state capitol at Tuscaloosa Barnard repeated the famed experiment of Foucault, demonstrat¬ ing the rotation of the earth by means of a pendulum, an eight-inch lead ball, turned on a lathe by Barnard, suspended ninety- feet from the dome by a piano wire. Barnard, perhaps a bit bored with what he was doing, now that the fine instruments v/ere set up and in operation and the course in astronomy firmly fixed in the mathe¬ matics curriculum, had himself transferred in 1849 to the chair of chemistry and natural history. Fascinated by photography, he con¬ ducted experiments that resulted in the im¬ provement of the daguerreotype process and entertained himself and the local pub¬ lic by the practice of the new art. Apparent¬ ly Barnard could teach anything. At least twice he gave courses in English Literature. Ante Bellum Star Gazing 65 He published several books, made varied contributions to periodical literature, and even tried his hand at poetry. Barnard left the University in 1854, and continued else¬ where to an advanced age in a notable ca¬ reer. In 1849 Landon C. Garland, another dis¬ tinguished educator, took over the professor¬ ship of mathematics, natural philosophy, and astronomy and with it the directorship of the Observatory, and in 1855 the position fell to George Benagh, who had formerly assisted Garland as a tutor. A description of the curriculum of Benagh’s department in the University catalog of 1859-1860 shows clearly that it continued to follow in the path set by Barnard; The First Class in Natural Philosophy is occupied throughout the year with the laws of Equilibrium and Motion, as applied to Solids, Liquids, and Airs. The topics intro¬ duced in this connection vary from year to year, and embrace such as the Centre of Gravity, Friction, Strength and Stress of Ma¬ terials, Theory of Machines, the Pendulum, the Barometer, the Laws of Gravitation, Hy¬ draulic and Pneumatic Engines, &c., &c. The Second Class in Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, to which the studies of the preceding class are preliminary, commences with the Theory of Undulation, and after having completed the subjects of Acoustics and light both common and polarized, spends the remainder of the year in the study of Astronomy. To those two classes instruction is con¬ veyed, for the most part, through lectures, references being constantly had to good man¬ uals supposed to be in the hands of students, and the principles of the different subjects being established by such methods as require on the part of the student only a familiar ac¬ quaintance with the principles of Algebra, Geometry and Plane Trigonometry. The general Philosophical apparatus of the University is good; its apparatus for determi¬ nation and illustration of the laws of Optics is extensive; and its Astronomical Observa¬ tory is fitted up with instruments amply sul- ficient for all purposes of instnution. The Third Class in Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, in addition to tiie ordinary loursc in Mathematics, is supposed to be .ilso ac¬ quainted with the doctrines of the Higher Algebra and the calculus. It is wholly en¬ gaged in the study of the Mathematical prin¬ ciples of Mechanical Philosophy and Astron¬ omy. The students of the class have free ac¬ cess to the Observatory, and will devote a large share of their attention to the subjects of Nautical and Spherical Astronomy. The value the University officials placed upon the Observatory is shown by their soli¬ citude in rushing a tinsmith up from Mobile by boat at great expense in January, 1850, to repair the roof when both the dome and the flat portions began to leak. They added a classroom to the building in 1858. On the other hand, vandals, lacking an appreciation for science, ransacked the building in Feb¬ ruary, 1849, setting the clock ahead, spilling mercury on the floor, and stealing the ter¬ restrial eye-piece of a small telescope. Preservation of the Observatory log book covering the years 1851-1865 enables us to see something of what went on at the Ob¬ servatory during those years. In ob¬ servations with the transit instrument were regularly made for the purpose of regulat¬ ing the clock. These observations as the years passed became less frequent and less systematic. There were few in 1856 and 1857, none in 1858. They were resumed in 1859 and continued through Februarv 25, 1865. In other sections of the book are a few entries under such titles as "Moon (Cul¬ minations'’ and "Occultations of Fixed Stars by the Moon." The log book gives no evi¬ dence of any systematic observations or re¬ search at any time. President Landon Garland, who had succeeded Manly in the jvresivlcncv in IS55, entered in the log book the follow in;.: note: (5n the 3ril of April ISOS the Uni\eisit\ Buildings witli the exception of tlie Gbsi. tv .i- tory were burned by tiu' 57inkee r.iid. But tlte Observ .itoi')' w ,is foived open .dl ot its in¬ struments were mirre oi' kss injmvd. .uul m.iny ixiulered entireh' useless. (Ine or two ol thi' e\'e [ueces ol the I'r.uisit were v.uried .iw.iy, togetlier with the ..olhm.itinc k\epiei,e. 66 Journal of Alabama Academy of Scienci-, The other lenses including the object lens were saved and sent for safe keeping to the L.unatic Asylum. Tuiclition has it that the wife of Ex-Governor Reuben Chapman stood at tire Observatory doorway and pleaded with the commander of the troops to spare the building. I’he ob¬ jective lens of the eight-inch ecjuatorial tele¬ scope was missing for several years after the war but is said to have been found by one of the professors under a pile of trash about 1873. The telescope was used in later years. All the University’s buildings having been destroyed except two residential buildings, the officer-of-the-day's round office, and the Observatory, the faculty resigned, President Garland being retained in office to rebuild the institution. Having had little to do for over a year. Garland, formerly professor of mathematics, natural philosophy, and astron¬ omy, entered the Observatory on April 28, 1866, and went to w'ork. He repaired the transit, putting in new spiders’ lines, and cleaned the clocks, but, having no Ephe- ))ieris, had to rely on "rough conjecture” when on May 2 he started the clocks. Then he began a series of observations to rate the clocks approximately, observations w'hich continued through January 27, 1867. The log ends there, for Garland, discouraged, had resigned, thus ending the first era of mathematical and astronomical science at the Ehiiversity of Alabama. The value of the Observatory was not in the discovery of new^ knowledge, except for a few tidbits that may have been picked up by the busy Barnard, for it was not used in such a way. However, in a day of the de¬ velopment of scientific and mathematical theories of which practical uses seemed re¬ mote (but of which the subsequent appli¬ cation has been tremendous) the Observa¬ tory undoubtedly brought rarefied mathe¬ matical theory as close to reality as the stars were to the students, an accomplishment which marked a great step forward in edu¬ cation. While the use of the Observatory by college students may have been hard on the fine equipment, it certainly served to ac¬ quaint plantation boys, in reluctant search of the mysteries of learning, with fine instru¬ ments, fine measurements, fine distinctions, and the mathematical discipline of science. How many future scientists received inspira¬ tion at the Observatory has not been re¬ vealed, but the author, suspecting there were many, recalls the case of Dr. Eugene A. Smith, President Garland’s son-in-law, who w'as somehow inspired to go to Germany to study and whose mechanical skill and scien¬ tific achievements have been applied with lasting benefit to the state. LITERATURE CITED 1. Clark, Willis G. History of Education in Alabama, 1702- ISSO, Washington, 1889, 2. Fulton, John, Memoirs of Frederick A. P, Barnard. New York, 1896. 3. I.oomis. Elias. The Recent Progress of Astronomy. New York, 1856 1. Sellers. James B. History of the University of Alabama. Vol. I. University. Ala., 1953. 5. Log Book of the University of Alabama Observatory (no title), MS in the University of Alabama Library. 6. University of Alabama Catalogs, 1837-1859, University of Alabama Library. 7. Manuscripts relating to the Observatory, including con¬ tracts, letters, and ordinances of the trustees, in the University of Alabama archives. The author is indebted to his colleague, Professor James B. Sellers of the Uni¬ versity of Alabama, for the loan of copies of several of these documents. 67 A MODEL CLAN IN THE SOUTHERN HILL COUNTRY by Roland M. Harper U mversity, Ala. Lrom Prof. William Z. Ripley’s Racial Geography of Europe, published serially in 1897-8, and in book form in 1900, we learn that in Holland and neighboring parts of Germany most of the farmers live in iso¬ lated houses, like most of those in the Unit¬ ed States and Canada, but unlike most of those in the rest of the world, who live in villages and walk out to their fields, which may be a mile or more away.* This seems to indicate a considerable degree of self- reliance, as I have pointed out elsewhere. Something over 200 years ago an enter¬ prising citizen of that region, perhaps ac¬ companied by relatives or friends, migrated to America. We do not know where and when he landed, whether he brought a fam¬ ily with him or married after reaching Amer¬ ica, or anything else much about him, ex¬ cept that his name was Kennamer (or some¬ thing that sounded like that), and tradition says that he brought half a bushel of silver dollars (thalers?) v/ith him. Toward the end of the 18th century one or more of his descendants settled in west¬ ern North Carolina or adjacent South Caro¬ lina. Another, Hans Kennamer, with eight sons and four daughters, settled in what is now known as Kennamer Cove. That is a beautiful and fertile valley, about four miles long and a mile wide, in what is now the northern edge of Marshall County, AUi- bama. A genealogy of the Kennamer family, by John R. Kennamer of Woodville, Ala., and his oldest son, Lorrin, published in 1924, tells everything that was known at that time about the descendants of Hans Kennamer, about 3,000 in number, and those of his Carolina cousins. Only about one-tenth as many (T *See Pop. Sci. Monthly. 52:66"t37, with map between. “Nov.'* 1897. the latter are recorded, largely because the authors of the book were remote from them and had no opportunity to xisit them. At that time the relationship of the eastern and western branches of the Kennamer clan had not been completely proved, but I under¬ stand that it has been established since. A revised edition, adding another generation, was published in 1954 by W. C. Kennamer of Yonkers, N. Y., but I have not seen that. The present study is based on the 1924 book, and gives only the most salient fea¬ tures. A more detailed study, bringing out many additional statistics that may be typi¬ cal of a larger population, can be under¬ taken better if and when I have access to the new edition, which will give larger num¬ bers to deal with. The Carolina Kennamers (with the name spelled in various ways), or many of them, have migrated westward across northern Georgia, south of the mountains, and then northwestward into the Appalachian Valley region. A few moved into the Sand Moun¬ tain section of Jackson County, Alabama, and there had limited contact with the Ala¬ bama Kennamers, many of whom li\'e in the same county; but there seems to ha\'C been no intermarriage between the two groups. The greatest concentration of Kenn.imers in Alabama (also spelling their name in dif¬ ferent ways) and their relati\es, is still in Jackson and Marshall Counties, not far from where Hans Kennamer settled. But m.inv ha\e migrated to approximately the s.ime latitude in Texas, .uul others to Missouri. Arkansas, Oklahom.i or bevond. but few or none to Mississippi or l.ouisi.in.i, Lhe great m.ijority td the Kenn.imers m the C.irolinas, Georgi.i .uul .\l.ib.im.i live ne.ir the mount.iins, or in wide willevs be tween them, but not in them. .\ trip b\ r.iil 68 Journal of Alahama Academy of Science or highway from Huntsville to Scottsboro takes one through the heart of Kennamer country, and some of the finest scenery in Alabama; fertile valleys bordered by forest- clad mountain slopes, characterized by a belt of cedar on limestone irear their bases. The valley floors are cultivated, and rather mud¬ dy in winter; so the houses are generally at their edges, often near springs coming out from the mountains, and with the adjacent slopes furnishing all the wood they need. And the roads skirt the slopes and serve the houses. In Georgia one can travel from Atlanta east-northeast or north-northwest to the bor¬ ders of the state, and be in sight of moun¬ tains most of the way, and near many of the Kennamers. How much influence the scen¬ ery has had in inspiring them we can only conjecture. Since automobiles have become common they have been having a family reunion in the edge of Kennamer Cove every summer, and some of the Georgia Kennamers some¬ times attend. PIG, 1 — Dalton, Georgia, where some of the Carolina-Georgia Kennamers (spelling it Kenemer) live (and where the writer lived from 18S7 to 1892). Looking northwest from a hill in southeast part of town. July 18, 1900, The mountain at the right of the gap. about four miles away, is Rocky Face, and Rocky Face Village, w'here some of the Dalton Kenemers were born, is just beyond it. FIG. 2 — Woodville. Alabama, home of John R. Kennamer and several of his relatives. March 15. 1913. Shows especially cedar posts awaiting shipment, a business in which some of the Kennamers have made their living. Most of the town is a little to the left of the picture. A Modkl Clan in the Southern Hill Country 69 The Kennamers may be regarded as typi¬ cal of the people of the southern hill coun¬ try, intermediate between the mountaineers, who live in narrow valleys, with climate too cold for cotton, and the planter aristocracy of the lowlands. This can be illustrated very nicely by some statistics from the census of 1850, taking Gilmer, Rabun and Union Counties as typical of the Georgia moun¬ tains, Jackson and Marshall Counties, Ala¬ bama, as typical of the Kennamer country, and Dallas, Greene, Lowndes and Mont¬ gomery Counties, Alabama, as typical of the black belt or planter country. If time and space permitted some of the foot-hill and valley counties in Georgia could have been taken to illustrate the Georgia Kennamers, but it might be hard to make a proper se¬ lection of counties for them. The comparison could be brought down to later censuses, but 1850 has been selected because it is the first census that gives ade¬ quate agricultural statistics, and also because that was in the "palmy days” of the planter aristocracy. Table 1 gives the most impor¬ tant statistics of population and agriculture for the three groups of counties mentioned, and also for Georgia, Alabama and the whole United States for comparison. The population statistics given are for whites only, and the farms of course were also op¬ erated by whites, except that there might have been rare instances of free colored farm operators, not enough to affect the averages perceptibly. The ratio of families to farms gives a rough index of the propor¬ tion of the population that lived on farms. TABLE 1 — Some comparisons between the Georgia mountains, the Kennamer country, and the Alabama black belt, from the census of 1850. With corresponding figures for Georgia, Alabama, and the whole United States for comparison. Georgia mountains Kennamer country Black belt Georgia Alabama u. s. Per cent of population white 96.7 .86,0 23.2 57.6 55.2 84.. ■> Persons per white family 6.00 5.92 5.36 5.74 5.81 5.56 Men . . .... 1.11 1.09 1.29 I.IS 1.22 1.34 Women . . 1.07 1.17 1.04 1.11 1.10 1.2,T Boys . . . . 1.96 1.S9 1.51 1.76 1.77 1.5(> Girls . 1.86 1.77 1.52 1.70 1.72 1.18 Per cent under 10 years . . 36.7 33.8 29.6 33.0 32.6 28.6 Per cent over 21 , , . . . 36.4 38.3 43.5 39.7 39.8 16.1 Per cent of whites over 20 illiterate Men . . . 33.0 38. 2 6.7 14.8 14.6 7.9 Women . 55.1 41.0 12.4 23.4 25.5 13.0 Families per farm . . 1.86 2.31 1.64 1.77 1.77 2.4.8 Acres per farm . . 258 204 511 4 11 290 20.3 Improved, do. . 38 70 206 123 106 7S Values per farm Land and buildings . ... S635 $1137 .$3150 $1,850 $1 538 $22.58 Implements and machinery . 31 75 260 111 122 105 Livestock . . 218 400 860 198 517 376 Slaves per farm . .03 2.18 29.0 7.1 S 2 •> Horses per farm . 1.9 3.9 3.96 2 0 3.1 3.0 Mules per farm . 0.2 0.55 3.59 1.1 1.1 0. i Milch cows per farm . 2.8 4.73 6.15 6.5 1 t Work oxen per farm . 0.7 1.58 1.6H 1.1 1.6 1.2 Other cattle per farm . 5.4 S.9 lo.s 13.3 10.3 6.6 As in probably all other genealogies. the names would not be so easilv traced. and immigrant ancestors who founded the fam¬ ily in America had more sons than daugh¬ ters. (Twice as many in this case, and prob¬ ably in many others.) So it is natural that Kennamer (spelled in various ways) should outnumber all other family names in the more of them might ha\e been o\eiiooked. Considering married men onlv, we iiiul among the (.arol in.i-Georgi.i group (•>! nam ed Kennamer (etc., mostlv Kenimer m Cieor gia), ^ Reed, 3 Gillespie, 2 Kimsey, 2 Gan trell, 2 Ciiiffin, aiul one each ot ll others. book. But of course we should not overlook In the Alabama group there .ue I 28 Ken the possibility that descendants with other namer, I I Kennemer. 3 Kennamore, ^ Ken- 70 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science nemur, 24 Page, 20 Hodges, 17 Thomas, 16 Idkins, 16 Woodall, 12 each of Bishop, Butler, Hill and Manning, 11 Wright, 10 (iampbell, etc. The given names are also of considerable interest. In the Carohna-Georgia group the favorites for boys are John 22, William 11, Charles (including Charlie) 10, James 7, Joseph (and Joe) 6, Robert 3, Michael (and Mike) 3. For girls, Annie (and Ann) 6, Mary 3, Willie 3, Fannie 4, Martha 3, Min¬ nie 3, Addie 3. With such small numbers it is hardly worth while to separate different periods. FIG. 3 — Looking north over Kennamer Cove. Marshall County, from Gunter’s Mountain. June 22, 1935. (Woodville is about seven miles away, in the same direction, but liiddtn by intervening ridges. i PIG. 4 — vSorne valley farms east of Woodville. Jackson County, with mountains in background. April 1, 1941. In the much larger Alabama group the favorite names for boys born before 1865 are John 19, William 18, David 11, George 11, James 10, Stephen 10. For girls, Mary (etc.) 21, Sarah (including Sallie, etc.) 20, Martha (and Mattie) 19, Nancy 14, Susan 11. For those born after 1900, boys, William 35, Robert (and Bob) 28, John 27, James 26, Charles (and Charlie) 19. For girls. Mary 50, Annie 12, Martha 11, Sarah (etc.) 10, and many others fewer. If space permitted, much more could be said about this, comparing changes in name fashions in different generations, and list¬ ing some of the less common names that are more or less peculiar to this clan, and others that are common elsewhere and rare here. It may be noted in passing that four girls and apparently one boy in the Ala- A Model Clan in the Southern Hill Country 71 bama division had the curious middle name "Evergreen.” In a few cases one cannot be sure from the first name whether the person was male or female; but the sex of most such persons is revealed farther on by in¬ formation about their marriage. At the present time, when a man has a son he is quite likely to name him "Junior,” for fear he may never have another chance; but the Kennamers were not much addicted to that. Some used "Junior” only toward the end of their list, as i-f they had run out of other suitable names. In the Alabama group I have found only 36 boys, out of a total of several hundred, v/ho were named after their fathers. But there are 58 cases of "semi-Juniors,” with their father’s first name but a different middle name. FIG. 5 — Birthplace of the two judges (1874 and 1879). on west side of Ken- namer Cove. June 22. 1935. FIG. 6 — Pisgah Church, on east side of Kennamer Cove, with Kennamer rela¬ tives and friends beginning to gather for the annual reunion. 10 : U) a.m.. Aug. 28. 1937. (An hour later there several times as many.) Among the Alabama Kennamers, 96 were specifically recorded as having been born in Kennamer Cove, and many others must have been, because their parents lived there. There were 20 from other parts of Marshall County, 76 from Jackson County, and 42, from elsewhere in Alabama. Outside of Ala¬ bama there were 25 from Missouri, 22 from Arkansas, 16 from Texas, and sewr.d trom other states. But these records arc far from complete, for in many or most cases birth¬ places are not given. With so many members ot the same clan living near together there w.is bound to be some intermarriage ol rel.iti\es; but appar¬ ently none as close as first cousins. 72 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science By occupation, over nine-tenths of the men born before the Civil War were farm¬ ers, and some of them owned slaves. There were a few merchants, millers, bankers, preachers and doctors, one teacher, but no lawyers. Two men born before 1840 were distillers, which was a perfectly legitimate occupation then. In later years there was of course more diversity of occupation, and especially more merchants and teachers, but farmers were still in the majority at the time the hook was written. The Kennamers and their relatives may be said to be pri¬ marily a rural people, and that helps ex¬ plain their high moral standards. Many now live in small towns, but few m large cities. Probably none of those born before 1900, and very few' up to 1924, w'ere born in hos¬ pital s, or in homes lighted by electricity. J. R. Kennamer states in his book that he had never known a divorce to originate in Wood- ville, his home tow'n. And a man I was talk¬ ing w'ith recently, w'ho did some surveying work around there several years ago, said his party never felt it necessary to lock up anything while w'orking around Woodville. Most of the men who were of the right age at the time fought in the Civil War, some on one side and some on the other. In this they were intermediate between the mountaineers, who w'ere nearly all Union men, because very few of them had slaves, and the planters, who as a rule supported the Confederacy. Before the Civil War, December seems to have been the favorite month for marriage, throughout the United States, probably be¬ cause a large proportion of the people lived on farms, and had more money after their crops W'ere harvested and sold than at any other season. And the Kennamers followed the rule. But since then, with the growth of cities, there have been more people with steady incomes throughout the year and less seasonal variation in marriage. And we may venture the guess that teachers set the fash¬ ion for June w'eddings, so that they could have the rest of the summer for their honey¬ moons. Anyway, June is now commonly re¬ garded as the traditional wedding month, though the tradition seems to go back only to the 7()’s in the United States, and some other months are preferred in other coun¬ tries. This trend can be illustrated by a graph showing the monthly distribution of Ken¬ namer marriages in the 19th and 20th cen¬ turies. In the "horse and buggy days,” be- 15 10 5 KEi.'NAKER MARRlAOtS BY MONTHS / ' Vi ' • s I I I* Vi i , / • I + - - «- I \ IS 10 5 PEC, JAJI. FZB. MaR. may JUIJ . JUL. AUC. SEP. OCT. KOV. DEC. jAN. PIQ. 7 — Graph showing percentage of Kennamer marriages by months. One curve for 19th century, one tor 1901 to 1924. Adjusted for varying lengths of months (especially February), so that each point on either curve represents the per cent of the year’s marriages occurring within 15.2 days of the correspond¬ ing date. A Model Clan in the Southern Hill Country 73 fore 1900, 15.49^ of their marriages were in December, and 3.0% in June. After 1900 more or them had town jobs, and they got rurai free deiivery, more schoois, and more opportunity to read in the daiiy papers about society doings in the cities; and December marriages feii to 13.6% and June rose to 7.8%. About nine per cent of the marriages re¬ corded in the book were second or third mar¬ riages for one or both parties. The age at first marriage has fiuctuated a littie from decade to decade, but has been around 25 years for men and 21 for women; which must be near the national average. (If data since 1924 were available they might show earlier marriages in recent years, which seems to have been a nation-v/ide tendency, largely on account of the increasing number of spoiled children, who do not like to have to wait for anything they want.) Of those who married twice, the men averaged 22.8 years at their first marriage and 32.6 at their second, and the v/omen 21.8 and 31.2. One Kennamer who did not marry until he was 39, a few years after the Civil War, had ten children by the time he was 60. He had six sisters who grew up but never mar¬ ried, a daughter who was an educator, and some distinguished sons who will be referred to later. The number of children per family in dif¬ ferent generations or decades could be shown very nicely by a graph, which would be smoother if we had larger numbers to deal with. But it may suffice to say here that marriages before 1850 produced about 7 chil¬ dren on the average, and those from 18^1 to 1900 about 5.5. Since then families have been still smaller, as everywhere else, but that cannot be proved conclusively now, for some families that started as early as 1901 might have been still incomplete in 1924. However, this is a good place to illustrate an important point. A child who does not have at least one brother and one sister can hardly have a normal and satisfying home life (as I pointed out in last year’s Journal, page 70), though of course it is easy to find successful individuals who do not seem to have been noticeably handicapped by such a deficiency. Let us then call a family with two or more children of each sex an ade¬ quate family, and see how the Alabama Ken- namers rate. The following table, based on families in v.'hich there were no half-brothers or sisters, shows the results of such an in¬ vestigation, for different decades. The sum of the numbers in the last four lines does not equal the total in the first line, because families with one child of one sex and one or more of the other (which might be called semi-adequate) are omitted, and the numbers in the third line include those in the fourth. If we had larger num¬ bers to deal with, and another rreneration to add since 1924, the numbers could be re¬ duced to percentages, which would he more significant. Anyway, it is interesting to note that most Kennamer marriages in the 19th centurv re- suited in "adequate" families, except that those of 1861-70 fell a little short, perhaps on account of the Civil Whir. W'e ha\e no census statistics that bear directiv on this, but from what we know about the size of families, it is safe tc) conclude that lor the past 6() years or more the a\erage American TABLE 2 — Classification of Kennamer families (Alabama branch) by number and sex of children. by decades of marriage. Dates of Marriage Befnre 18’ to 1 S 1 1 - 1 sriu 1S51- isBn i.sm- 1 S7n 1S71- 1 sso issl- 1 s'Hi ISOl - HMlll 1901 - 1010 D'll- 1020 Total TOTAL COUPLES •T) Ll 2.4 :i7 6 1 I 10 101 Adequate families . One-sex families (including 12 1 1 IP ;;7 47 AB 1 ) 1 2 next groupi . :i 4 1 1 7 s 1 2 :io q,. 1 1 1 One-child families . 2 •> 4 q q 1 1 1 : Childless couples . 1 \ 2 1 1) 1 IB 74 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science family has been 'inadequate.” And that may be one of the main reasons why crime and delinquency have increased so alarmingly in recent years. It has long been known that the first child of a family is more likely to be a boy than later ones are. But among the Kenna- mers there seem to be just about as many families beginning with girls as with boys. With larger numbers to deal with, we might find some differences between boy-first and girl-first families; but that hardly seems worth while at this time. But it is worth noting that 48 marriages in which the wife was older than the hus¬ band produced an average of 2.4 sons and 2.7 daughters. Whether or not this is a gen¬ eral principle cannot be asserted until more studies of this kind have been made. A comparison of farming and non-farm¬ ing families, based on comparatively small numbers, showed that in the former group the men married first at 23.8 years and the women at 22.2, and they averaged 7.73 chil¬ dren. In non-farming families the men mar¬ ried at 26.8 years and the women at 22.2, and they had 4.99 children. Part of the dif¬ ference is doubtless due to the fact that the non-farming couples spent more time in ac¬ quiring education, and most of them lived in towns and cities, where families are al¬ ways smaller on the average than on farms, for various reason,'?. In calculating longevity from a genealogy like this, we cannot be sure of the average age at death in the early decades, for the reports of deaths of children must have been incomplete. And even for adults the records of dates of birth and death are not as com¬ plete as we might wish, especially before I860. But "on the face of the returns,” the average married man among the Kennamers who died between 1861 and 1870 lived 52.2 years and the average married woman 46.3. Both sexes, especially men, rated low^er in 1911-20, probably on account of the World War and the great "flu” epidemic; but in 1921-24 the average for married men was 65.0 and for married w'omen 52.6. Unmar¬ ried adults, as usual, did not live as long as married ones, but that may be attributed mostly to the fact that some who died in their 20's might have been married if they had lived a little longer. However, it is worth noting that only one man and five women in the Alabama group, and none in the Carol ina-Georgia group, died unmarried above the age of 45. But four old bachelors and ten spinsters (over 45) were living in 1924. The Kennamers are and have been a pretty religious people, like rural Americans gen¬ erally. In many or most cases no informa¬ tion was given about religious preference (and a few were said to have none). But in the following summary the leading re¬ ligious denominations among them, as far as indicated, are listed in order of preference, with separate figures for men and women. Church of Christ 42 men and 23 women, Methodist 4l and 18, ("Missionary”) Bap¬ tist 29 and 19, Primitive Baptist 19 and 19, Cumberland Presbyterian 10 and 11, and a few others one or two each. No (regular) Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Catholics, Mor¬ mons or Christian Scientists. In this the Ken¬ namers seem to be pretty typical of the peo¬ ple of the southern hill country. Politically, 93 of the men and 22 of the women called themselves Democrats, 65 men and 11 women Republicans, and 7 men and 3 women were independent politically. Six men born before 1840 called themselves Whigs. Since 1924 we have had the "New Deal” and considerable political realign¬ ment, and later data might differ somewhat from these. Evidently the majority of these people have been good plain law-abiding citizens, the so-called "salt of the earth.” The geneal¬ ogy records a few "back-sliders” (mostly husbands of Kennamers, rather than descen¬ dants), but they are probably fewer than in the aggregate population among whom they A Model Clan in the Southern Hill Country 75 lived, as suggested previously. At their 1937 reunion, which I attended, I noticed few smokers. They must have been above the average in intelligence, to keep such good records of their ancestry, and to take pride in it. I \ enture the guess that not one American in 100 at the present time (outside of New England at least) is represented in such a book. A farmer has very little opportunity to distinvuish himself; but two men born in a farmer's log cabin in Kennemer Cove in the 70’s became lawyers, and later federal judges, and are listed in "Who’s Who in America.” They also had a brother who was a United States marshal, and a sister wTo was a successful educator. Two "Who’s Who” people out of about 3,000 may seem a small number, but it is better than the national white average, which is about one in 5,000. The father of the judges, as men¬ tioned previously, married late, and had six sisters who never married ; which may have some significance. The senior author of the book was another nephew of the same la¬ dies, and his son, who collaborated with him, is the only Ph.D. mentioned in the book. Postscript The new edition of the Kennamer geneal¬ ogy, by W. C. Kennamer, did not reach the University of Alabama library until June, 1955. Some statistics extracted from it are now presented as briefly as possible, to bring the story more nearly up to date. The new book adds one more generation, and also adds some families overlooked in the 1924 book, especially in the Carolina- Georgia branches. But its scope is more lim¬ ited, as it includes only Kennamers (various¬ ly spelled) and their spouses and children, but not grandchildren and later descendants of those with other names. As is inevitable in any genealogy, some families are brought more nearly up to date than others; for to get reports of all births, marriages and deaths within a few months of publication would require an impossible amount of correspondence, and even then it might be difficult to get satisfactory re¬ plies froiTi some families too far away to be seen in person. Some families seem not to have been heard from since about 1940 (which was not long after work on the new book was started). But most of the signifi¬ cant ratios should not be materially affected by omissions, typographical errors, etc. The trend toward increasing popularity of June marriages, already observable in 1924, has continued, but has not yet brought June up to the December level. Of 498 mar¬ riages (including second marriages) record¬ ed between 1924 and 1954, with months given, 11.0% were in June and 13.5% in December, The average age at first marriage con¬ tinued to be about 25 years for men and 21 for women, though it is possible that the figure for men is exaggerated a little be¬ cause some of the husbands of Kennamer women may have been married before and the fact not indicated. (We often have the same trouble in reports of marriages in the daily papers, unless the man is \erv promi¬ nent.) The averages rose a little between 19.31 and 1945, w'hen some marriages were postponed, first on account of the depres¬ sion, and then the war immediately after¬ ward (though the war seems to ha\ e speed¬ ed up marriage for some people less con¬ scientious than the Kennamers), and then declined a little in the last few years. But the most frequent age of first m.ini.ige. from 1901 to 1054, was 21 for men and 1,'^ for women. And the medi.ins .ire between these "modes” and the axer.ives. In .ibout of the first marri.iges since luilil the wife was older than the husb.uul. I rom .i few' days to a few ye.irs. The number of children per m.irri.ive. counting only families in which the [\uents married only once, or h.ul children by only 76 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science one marriage, was 5.07 for marriages in 1901-1910, 3.53 for 1911-1920, 2.68 for 1921-1930, 2.22 for 1931-1940, and 1.73 for 1941-1950. But of course many of the 1941- 50 families, and probably some of those started in 1931-40, were still incomplete when the author last heard from them. So perhaps 2.50 would be nearer right for the last two decades. But that is a decided drop since the 19th century. In my original study I presented a table classifying the Kennamer families of dif¬ ferent decades by number and sex of chil¬ dren, calling those with two or more of each sex "adequate.” A continuation of that table, repeating two decades for which the returns must have been incomplete in 1924, is presented here. 4'he total number of families for 1901-10 and 1911-20 are not the same as before, because the Georgia-Carolina branches are now covered more thoroughly, but people with other names than Kennamer (etc.) are left out. And some of the marriages in those decades, especially the second, have of course produced more children since 1924. Childless families are probably represented less completely in the 1954 book, though, for in many cases there is no definite state¬ ment as to whether a couple had any chil¬ dren or not. Even if some of these figures are a little uncertain, it is evident that most Kennamer families were adequate up to 1910, but not since. The causes of this state of affairs are nation-wide if not world-wide, and need not be discussed here. If time and space permitted, a very in¬ teresting study could be made of the influ¬ ence of age at marriage on number and sex of children, the ages of mothers (fathers too, for that matter) at the birth of first and subsequent children, etc. Data for some of these inquiries are available in United States vital statistics reports, but some as far as I know only in a few foreign countries. Incidentally, very few divorces were re¬ corded in the 1924 book, probably not one to 100 marriages (as compared with about one to 12 in the whole United States around 1900). They are much more numerous in the 1954 book, but I have not attempted to count them, as it is pretty evident that not all of them have been reported. TABLE 3— CLASSIFICATION OF KENNAMER FAMILIES, 1901-1950. Dates of Marriage 1901-10 1911-20 1921-30 1931-40 1941-50 Total . . .... S5 127 144 153 120 . 52 16 21 14 0 . 15 25 56 77 70 16 31 44 43 o 5 11 8 4 77 STRUCTURAL AND REGIONAL INFLUENCES ON PERSONNEL PRACTICES* by H. Ellsworth Steele, William R. Myles and Sherwood C. McIntyre Alabafna Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama Introduction The personnel practices used in any plant are the product of many forces. Among these forces are two which will be examined in this study. The first is the company’s or¬ ganizational structure, and the second, the location of the company’s headquarters. Specifically, this study attempts to answer these questions concerning southern indus¬ trial plants: First, do personnel practices in single-plant firms differ from those in head¬ quarter-, or home-, plants of multiple-plant firms? Second, do personnel practices in single-plant firms differ from those in branch-plants of multiple-plant firms? Third, do personnel practices in southern branches of firms with headquarters in the South dif¬ fer from the practices in southern branches of firms with headquarters outside the South? The study also explores some of the causes for the differences discovered. Approach to the Study This investigation of personnel practices is based on a questionnaire survey of 1,086 industrial plants throughout the Southeast. Included in the survey were all of the plants listed in Industrial Alabama^ as employing 50 or more employees, and all of the south¬ ern firms represented at the 1951 Southern Industrial Relations Conference held at Blue Ridge, North Carolina. Management offi¬ cials in the plants surveyed returned 600 usable questionnaires — a response of 5 5 per cent. The cooperating plants are located in eleven states stretching from Maryland to Louisiana. Altogether, they employ “100,000 *A Study made possible by an Alabama Polytecluiic Institute grant-in-aid. 1. Published in 1952 by the Alabama State Chamber of Commerce. workers.^ Three-fifths of the plants are en¬ gaged in spinning and weaving, food pro¬ cessing, wood processing or the production or fabrication of steel. The remaining plants are in the mining, stone, clay or glass, knit¬ ting, garment, public utility, printing, nurs¬ ery and other industries. The questionnaires returned by these plants deal v/ith a cross-section of impor¬ tant personnel practices. These may be grouped into four categories: employment, wage and salary, communication and em¬ ployee benefit practices. The information ob¬ tained from the questionnaires has been sup¬ plemented by interviews with management officials in representative plants. Method of Analysis In order to isolate as far as possible the influence of structural and regional differ¬ ences, the returns were divided into four groups on the basis of unionization and "per¬ sonnel specialization," as is shown in Table 1.^ Each of these groups in turn was di¬ vided into single-plants firms, home-plants, branch-plants of southern firms, and branch- plants of non-southern firms.'* From all of the plants assigned to the four sub¬ divisions of each basic group, the final sample was drawn so as to obtain sub-groups of plants which were comparable in size. The Rre.'it majiirity of llio plants .'iro in Alabama, i^eor- Kia, North Carolin.a. South Cttrolina, Ti-nm-.s.soe amt Vir- Kinia. A few .are found in Florld.a, I.ouisiaita. M.ir\land, Miaal.s.sippi and West Virginia. .\s will bo .soon lalor. Maryland is oonsiderod as outsldo of tho .'totith for thi.s •stiiriv. IS. The term "with |ior.sonnol stiooialization" is usod to in- oludo those firms with olthor or both .an orKani.'od lu-r- -sonnel doiaarlment and full-timo porsonnol worKors. ■I. Kor Ihls division and t hroiiftiunil tho rom.alndoi of tit's artlolo tho followitm stalos ,aro oonsidoro.I soiithorn: Ala- tiam.a. .Xrlsansas. Piorid.a. (toorpi.i. KonluoUv I otiistan a Mlsslssliitti. North Carolin.a. CUlahom.a, .south t-arolin.a. Tennossoo. Toxas. Virginia .ami Wost C'irKinla. M.irvl.an.i and Washinsion. P. (’,. aro oonsidorod In tho non-.south or "North." 78 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science TABLE 1 — CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS SURVEYED WHEN CLASSIFIED BY ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND LOCATION OF COMPANY HEADQUARTERS Number of Plants E Number of mployees Median Number of Employees Range in Number of Employees Non* Union W'lthout personnel si>ecialization Single . . P2 10.S33 90 50- 376 Home .... .... H) 3.367 125 60- 450 Branch — South . . . 10 1,585 145 50- 349 Branch — Non South . .. .... . 12 1.713 90 50- 360 With personnel specialization Single .... ... . 17 12.115 600 250-1800 Home . 15 16.412 1050 400-2200 Branch — South . . 10 7.420 688 270-1350 Branch Nun South . . . . . 35 31.130 650 250-2300 Union Without personnel specialization Single ........... . . 18 3,446 160 100- 375 Home . . . 6 1 . 200 200 125- 250 Branch- -South . . . 11 1.941 150 100- 360 Branch- Non South . . 3,332 215 100- 350 With personnel specialization Single ........... 7,804 650 250-1800 Home . 19 17,047 900 275-1800 Branch — South . 9.010 653 250-1800 Branch -Non South . 57 46.681 628 250-2359 The result of this classification process was the four sets of plant groups presented in Table 1. The number of plants in each group and their size characteristics are also given in this table. d’he information from the returns thus classified has been tabulated and is shown in Tables 2 through 5. The differences in practice between the categories of plants have been tested for significance by the use of Chi Square. Those differences which are statistically significant, that is, those differ¬ ences which are so large that they cannot reasonably be attributed to chance, are in¬ dicated.® Several limitations of this study should be presented. First, respondents may have mis¬ understood the questions — indeed, an item on job evaluation has been eliminated be¬ cause interviews suggest that the answers to that question are not reliable. Second, ans¬ wers may have been given hurriedly and inaccurately. Third, answers "favoring the company,” rather than the correct ones, may have been presented. Fourth, although an effort has been made to contrast only com- 5. The differences in these cases would occur by chance fewer than five times if a hundred pairs of samples of constant sizes were drawn from the same populations. parable groups of plants, the industrial com¬ position of each group has not been stan¬ dardized. This limitation may be significant because other studies based on the same data show that industrial differences have an important impact on many personnel practices. Finally, it is obvious that some of the personnel practices examined play a larger role than do other practices in a fully developed personnel program. What Influence Does Company Struc¬ ture Have on Personnel Practices.^ Do personnel practices differ in single¬ plants, home-plants and branch-plants which are comparable in unionization, personnel specialization, size and in being located in the South? Differences are to be expected. Home-plants and branch-plants are parts of larger organizations than are single-plants of similar size. Multiple-plant firms have greater need for the mechanisms of central¬ ized control than do single-plant firms. Fur¬ thermore, home-plants are ordinarily older than branch-plants. The influence which factors such as these may have on personnel practices may be checked against the data found in Tables 2 through 4. Influences on Personnel Practices 79 TABLE 2 _ EXTENT OF UNIONIZATION AND OF PERSONNEL SPECIALIZATION IN GROUPS OF COMPARABLE SOUTHERN PLANTS EXTENT OF UNIONIZATION Plants Without Personnel Specialization (50-499 employees) Non-Union Union Total Percent Union Single 92 33 125 26 Home 19 6 25 24 Branch — South 10 12 22 55 Branch — Non South 13 20 33 61 Plants With Personnel Specialization Non-Union (250-2499 employees) Union Total Percent Union Single 17 9 26 35 Home 15 19 34 56 Branch — South 10 12 22 55 Branch — Non South 35 57 92 62 EXTENT OF PERSONNEL SPECIALIZATION Non-Union Plants (50-499 employees) Without Personnel Specialization With Personnel Specialization Total Percent with Personnel Specialization Single 92 21 113 19 Home 19 5 24 21 Branch — South 10 7 17 41 Branch — Non South 13 26 39 67 Union Plants (100-999 employees) Without Personnel Specialization With Personnel Specialization Total Percent with Personnel Specialization Single 18 11 29 38 Home 6 14 20 70 Branch — South 11 14 25 56 Branch — Non South 18 48 66 73 Differences between single-plants and home-plants Table 2 shows that single-plants and home-plants differ both in extent of unioni¬ zation and in use of personnel specializa¬ tion. Among the plants without personnel specialization, the difference in unionization is slight. Among the plants with personnel specialization, however, a much higher per¬ centage of the home-plants than of the single-plants are unionized.® This association of personnel specialization with unionization in home-plants would be explained if it could be assumed that home-plants, once unionized, are more likely than single-plants to establish a personnel department to cope with the new problems which collective bar¬ gaining brings. Personnel specialization is greater in the home-plants than in single-plants, whether non-union or union. The wider use of per¬ sonnel specialization in home-plants prob- 6. In order to contrast groups of plants of comparable size, the plants included in Table 2 are different from those in other tables in some Instances. They were drawn from the same population of returns, however, and were classi¬ fied in the same manner. ably reflects the greater need for centralized control in the multiple-plant organizations than m the single-plant firms. Table 3 shows the extent to which each of 25 personnel practices is used by classi¬ fied groups of single- and home-plants. In these 100 comparisons, the higher percent¬ ages are reported in 36 instances bv the single-plants, and in 5 3 instances, by the home-plants. There are 11 ties. Differences of 20 per cent or more are found in 26 in¬ stances, in 17 of which the percentages for the home-plants are higher. In six instances, evenly divided between the two types of plants, the differences are statisticalh- sig¬ nificant. In tivec other instances, the di- fercnces "favoring'' the home-plants are .d- most at the lc\'el of significance. Personnel men inter\ie\\ed feel tint these general results are to be anti). ipated. Single plants, they say, are likelv to Ix' domin.ited by older, more conser\ .iti\ e manaiters re¬ luctant to try out new personnel techni).]ues ALso, single-plants are more closelv knit. Their managers have more "empathy and more sympathy" toward the workers. The 80 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science TABLE 3 — PERCENTAGE OF “SINGLE” PLANTS AND OF HOME PLANTS WHICH USE SELECTED PERSONNEL PRACTICES, 1952 Non-Union Plants Union Plants Without With Without With Personnel Practice Personnel Personnel Personnel Personnel Specialization Specialization Specialization Specialization Single Home Single Home Single Home Single Home Employment practices Use application blanks . 41 37 94 93 56 60 100 109 Request references . 64 63 94 87 71 100 89 89 Usually interview applicants . 93 95 199 199 S3 83 100 95 Use tests in hiring 2(.) 11 41 49 6 0 33 37 Use hiring age limits.. . . Wage and salary and related 49 53 59 93 ‘ 56 33 78 78 practices Pay by piece rate or incentive system 64 ' 21 73 67 64 40 67 47 Have a profit sharing program . . Use seniority in promotion. 13 11 29 29 11 16 0 11 layoff, re-hire . 57 58 82 87 94 190 100 109 Use employee rating system 11 6 41 29 13 9 67' 11 Usually work more than one shift Communication and related practices 25 47-^ 82 87 50 83 89 78 Carry on a safety program . 66 79 199 199 72 100 100 109 Have a training program 37 47 71 89 59 S3 100 95 Post job vacancies for bidding u n 6 29 IS 16 11 47t Sponsor a suggestion plan 14 17 47 53 39 9 33 39 Use exit interviews 69 74 94 199 83 109 89 79 Keep records of exit interviews... Have a formalized grievance 17 25 56 86 3.8 20 109 67 procedure . 26 37 6.5 66 78 199 100 95 Carry on personnel research. . . . 5 0 6.5 67 17 0 78* 37 Employ outside consultants Employee benefit programs 7 5 41 36 0 33 25 33 Provide food service to employees... Furnish some first aid. health or 13 26 47 86t 11 0 33 53 medical treatment S3 94 190 199 94 S3 100 100 Have a group insurance plan Have a pension plan 74 79 82 199 67 83 89 100 (other than OASI) . . 0 9 47 53 6 33 22 68* Have a credit union . 5 9 6 20 11 16 22 47 Rent company houses to employees.. 3-1 58t 44 47 17 33 11 37 ^Significant at the 5 per cent level. fChi Square value of 3.40U or greater. Requirement for lu per cent, level is 2.706, for 5 percent is 3.841. home-plants on the other hand need more specialization and formalization. They must have more rules and policies, and "more manuals to pass around.” Personnel tech¬ niques in the home-plants are substitutes for the closer relationships m the single-plants. Examination of the comparative use of specific practices, as shown in Table 3, re¬ veals some patterns. Single-plants make wider use of piece rates and other incentive plans than do home-plants, in all four com¬ parisons. One personnel director who ex¬ amined the data suggests that the explana¬ tion may he in the greater use of mass pro¬ duction methods involving machine-paced jobs by home-plants than by single-plants. The more varied and skilled jobs in the single-plants are more suitable to incentive methods of payment. The single-plants report higher percent¬ ages than home-plants in four comparisons of the use of employee rating and in three comparisons of the use of testing and per¬ sonnel research. In two instances, the differ¬ ences are statistically significant. Several personnel men contacted question the ac¬ curacy of the resposnes to these three items. They argue that home-plant men were more familiar than single-plant men with all three programs; therefore, probably answered more accurately, claiming less extensive us- age. In all four comparisons a higher propor¬ tion of home-plants than of single-plants re¬ cord the use of group insurance and com¬ pany housing. Personnel men declare that both programs are more feasible in home- plants, which are part of a large organiza¬ tion, than in single-plants. In three of the comparisons, the home- Influences on Personnel Practices 81 plants report higher percentages using se¬ niority, multiple shifts, training, suggestion plans, exit interviews, formal grievance pro¬ cedures, food services, pensions and credit unions. Some personnel men interviewed be¬ lieve that home-plants stress seniority more than single-plants because their turnover is higher due to their more distant relation¬ ships with their workers. Therefore, because their turnover is higher they are more in need of a general principle such as seniority to govern job changes. Credit unions, man¬ agement officials say, are more workable in the larger organizations of which home- plants are part, than in single-plants. Then too, in the single-plant, the "boss” is more likely to loan workers the money they need than to encourage them to meet their own needs through a credit union. Differeuces between single-plants and hranch-pLnits of southern firms Inasmuch as branch-plants of southern firms are part of larger organizations with more employees and greater requirements for centralized control than single-plants, it is to be anticipated that they make greater use than single-plants of the personnel prac¬ tices covered by this study. Tables 2 and 4 confirm this expectation. Table 2 shows that unionization is more widespread in branch-plants than in single¬ plants, whether they have personnel speciali¬ zation or not. These differences support the view of personnel men that multiple-plant firms are more vulnerable to union organi¬ zation than single-plant firms. The same table indicates that branch-plants make wid- TABLE 4 — PERCENTAGE OF “SINGLE” PLANTS AND OF BRANCH PLANTS WITH HEADQUARTERS IN THE SOUTH WHICH USE SELECTED PERSONNEL PRACTICES, 1952 Non-Union Plants Union Plants Personnel Practice Without Personnel Specialization With Personnel Specialization Without Personnel Specialization With Personnel Specialization Sing e Branch Single Branch Single Branch Single Branch Employment practices Use application blanks . 41 70 94 190 56 55 100 100 Request references . 64 SO 94 100 71 S2 so 92 . Usually interview applicants . 93 100 199 109 S3 199 100 100 Use tests in hiring . 20 30 41 4(.) 6 9 33 17 Use hiring age limits . 49 69 59 90 56 S2 7S 75 Wage and salary and related practices Pay by piece rate or incentive system . 64 79 73 79 64 40 67 sO Have a profit sharing program . 13 20 29 30 11 9 is Use seniority in promotion, iayoff, rehire . 57 60 S2 S9 94 91 199 100 Use empioyee rating system . 11 30 41 40 13 9 67 ' 17 Usuaiiy work more than one shift... 25 3S S2 99 50 S2 S9 199 Communication and related practices Carry on a safety program . 66 SO 199 199 -o 91 199 109 Have a training program . 37 79 '' 71 99 09 ■19 199 s3 Post job vacancies for bidding 9 30* 6 33 1,S 55’^ 1 1 12 Sponsor a suggestion plan 14 69’^- 47 59 39 36 33 17 Use exit interviews . 69 SO 94 199 S3 S2 S9 100 Keep records of exit interviews 17 3S 56 ino" 3S 56 199 61 Have a formalized grievance procedure 26 79 ’ 65 ion- 7S 91 ion Carry on personnel research. . . . 5 33* 65 SO IT 27 7S 67 Employ outside consultants . 7 9 41 49 0 n 25 17 Employee benefit programs Provide food service for employees 13 59" 17 99 ^ 11 19 59 Furnish some first aid, health or medical treatment . . S3 199 190 100 94 S-' too 100 Have a group insurance plan 74 199f s2 too 67 99 s9 too Have a pension plan (other than OASI) 9 no* 47 79 6 ;>6 .v> .-.s Have a credit union . . 5 19 6 39 1 19 22 i:» Rent company houses to employees,. 31 29 1 1 3ll 17 11 12 *Significant at the 5 per cent level. tChi Square value of or greater. Ke ► V, Have a credit union 10 s 30* 6 10 19 15 35 Rent company houses to employees* 20 IT 30 3-1 .*>5* 13 4 2 32 *SIgnificant at the 5 per cent level. 84 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science "favoring" the southern firms and two, the non-southern firms. Personnel officials \'iewing these data point out that the northern influence in many southern companies is great. Many sriuthern firms have employed as personnel men, indixiduals who are either native- northerners, or southerners who have had their training in the Nt)rth. These men, find¬ ing themselves in new plants and in an area in which union-supported restrictions are not nearly so strong as in the North — even in organized plants — may adopt policies which they would have liked to use in the North hut could not. Furthermore, it is con¬ tended that personnel men in the South at¬ tend more personnel conferences and are freer in exchanging experiences than their northern counterparts. On the other hand, some "Yankee practices," such as job post¬ ing, have proved "no damn good" and the southerners are avoiding them. According to Table in all four com¬ parisons a greater proportion of the branches of southern firms than of northern firms use profit sharing. In the use of employment interviews, the southern firms lead in three instances and are tied in the fourth, though in no instance is the difference large. The southern firms also report higher percent¬ ages in three comparisons for the use of piece rates and other incentive systems, se¬ niority, multiple shifts, training, suggestion plans, exit interviews, outside consultants, credit unions and company housing. Personnel directors find many reasons for these differences. Behind the southern em¬ phasis on profit sharing, a number of per¬ sonnel officials see the traditional southern paternalism. The extensive use of piece rates and other incentive systems may reflect prac¬ tices in the spinning and weaving industry, According to some personnel men, it may also reveal an attempt by branches of south¬ ern firms to offset their low base rates by permitting workers to earn more by produc¬ ing more. O The personnel director of a northern firm argues that branches of southern firms stress seniority more than northern firms because southern firms have drawn on the construc¬ tion crews which built their plants in order to secure skilled men for their operating crews. Northern firms have recognized more fully than southern firms that construction crewmen are strongly organized and carry union attitudes on such matters as seniority and work jurisdiction into any plant in which they are employed. Several factors are suggested to explain the wider use of multiple shifts by branches of southern firms. The importance of spin¬ ning and weaving plants (all of which work around-the-clock) among the southern firms is an important force. Also non-southern firms needing skilled workers may be lim¬ ited to one shift by a lack of such workers. Then too, northern firms may have develop¬ ed a tradition of working only one shift be¬ cause of the legal restraints on night work in the North. Thus, bound by tradition, they may not be taking advantage of the less re¬ strictive legislation in the South. Southern training programs may reflect another phase of paternalism. One southern plant manager describes his now completed program of training illiterate workers to read and write this way; The state paid for the time of an ex-school teacher who was re¬ leased by the company for two hours each day to teach the workers who attended on their own time. The workers were allowed six months after the program began to learn to read and write, but if necessary, would be given a three-months’ extension. The company feels that its expense for this pro¬ gram was justified on the grounds of safety alone. This concern over the general edu¬ cation of workers is not confined to south¬ ern firms, however. The personnel director of a non-southern firm speaks proudly of his company’s policy of hiring only high school graduates. That policy was enforced briefly when his branch-plant was opened. Influences on Personnel Practices 85 but had to he abandoned. The county in which the plant was located had not award¬ ed any high school diplomas until 1947! After a few years, however, enough persons had mo\'ed into the area or completed school so that the policy could be reinstituted. Wdien this was done, the president of the local union objected because he wanted his son, who had quit school, to be able to work for the company. The company stood firm, however, and the boy went back to school. He is now working as a foreman for the company. One personnel director suggests that branches of northern firms may stress local training programs less than branches of southern firms because they can more easily im_port trained workers from their northern plants. Both southern and northern managers realize that workers need protection from "loan sharks,” but credit unions are used more extensively in the branches of southern firms. One explanation advanced is that many northern firms had unpleasant experi¬ ences with credit unions during the depres¬ sion. "Once burnt, twice shy,” is the way one personnel manager sums it up. His firm "dropped” $500,000 in rescuing a credit union in a northern plant during the thirties. The greater use of company housing by southern firms fits neatly into the concep¬ tion of southern paternalism. Northern firms coming South have no tradition of company housing to bring with them. In contrast, many southern textile firms long have had such housing. This tradition is passing in the South, however. One southern textile man¬ ager interviewed declares that "One of the best things ever to happen to a company is to sell its housing.” His firm has sold its houses, but still supplies paint and repair materials at cost to its employees to en¬ courage them to keep up their new homes. In the use of hiring tests, employee rat¬ ing and job posting the northern firms re¬ port higher percentages than southern firms, in three comparisons. Tests and employee ratings are refinements of personnel admin¬ istration which personnel men believe would naturally be found in branch plants of north¬ ern firms which have had longer experience with organized personnel programs. Further¬ more, they say, hiring tests introduce an im¬ personal and competitive element which most southern firms are reluctant to inject into hiring procedures, especially in small towns. In addition, they argue, northern firms may require more skilled workers than southern firms and would find tests very useful in selecting them. Systematic em¬ ployee rating does not fit into the pattern of southern paternalism v/ith its emphasis on employers’ benevolent discretion. Finally, job posting is a practice vigorously cham¬ pioned in the North by unions and carried South by northern firms into both union and non-union plants. Conclusions The conclusions suggested by this study may be summarized as follows: First, unioni¬ zation is more prevalent in multiple-plant firms than in single-plant firms. Further¬ more, unions have been more successful in winning recognition in branches of northern firms than in branches of southern firms. Unions apparently find it easier to move from northern plants to southern plants of northern firms already partially organized than to secure a foothold in southern branch¬ es of southern firms. Second, multiple-plant firms make greater use of personnel specialization than do single-plant firms. Branches of northern firms also lead branches of siHithern firms in this respect. I’hc greater need for cen¬ tralized control in multiple-plant firms and the longer history of industrialization in the North than in the South are important t.ic- h)rs in explaining these relationships. I’hird, both home-plants and branch plants of multiple-pkint organizations make greater use than do single-plant lirms of H6 Journal of Alabama Acadlmy of SaiiNCF most of the personnel practices examined. 'Flic managers of large organizations are denied the close personal relationships which can exist in single-plants even when the in¬ dividual plants are of similar size. Instead, they must rely on techniques of centralized control which are often formal, standardized and impersonal, hut, nonetheless, necessary to protect the individual personality of work¬ ers in large organizations. As has been seen, multiple-plant firms stress hiring age limits, formal grievance systems, exit interviews (complete with records), job posting, se¬ niority training, suggestion systems and per¬ sonnel research. Managers in larger organi¬ zations also find it easier than their counter¬ parts in single-plant firms to finance group insurance, pension plans, and company hous¬ ing, and to encourage credit unions. laiurth, the branches of southern firms make greater use of a majority of the prac¬ tices studied than do the branches of non¬ southern firms. Some of the practices em¬ phasized in southern firms, such as profit sliaring and company housing, reflect south¬ ern paternalism. The wide use of seniority, piece rates, and other incentive systems may be simply the continuation of traditions strong in such dominant industries as spin¬ ning and weaving. The strength of the tra¬ ditional approach is clearly shown in the following comment on seniority made by a textile manager who had risen from the ranks with a minimum of formal education. "You ha\c to watch foremen,’’ he declares, "or they will promote junior men they feel are a little better qualified than the man who has been on the job longer. If the older man is good enough to keep on the job, he is good enough to have first chance at the promotion.” The stress placed by southern plants on training, suggestion plans, exit in¬ terviews and outside consultants, however, does not fit into the concepts of either pa¬ ternalism or traditionalism. It IS worth noting that the more technical programs of testing and employee rating are used more widely by the branches of north¬ ern firms than by the branches of southern firms. Finally, fhe greater prevalence of unionization in the North than in the South may be seen in the wider use of job posting by the branches of northern firms fhan by the branches of southern firms. 87 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE EIFTEENTH ANNUAE MEETING OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE SECTION I BIOLOGY AND MEDICAL SCIENCES Differential Chromosome Segments as an Indi¬ cator of a Hybrid Condition in Trillium undu- latum Willd. Paul C. Bailey, Alabama College. Montevallo. Cold treatment for a sufficient period of time will produce differential segments long the length of metaphase and anaphase chromosomes in the various species of TrilVtum. Bailey (1952, ’53, ’54) has demonstrated that the pattern of dif¬ ferential segments differs not only from species to species but that there are also differences in the same species made from different localities. Darlington and LaCour (1940) and Wilson and Boothroyd (1941) have reported similar varia¬ tions. Kurabayashi (1952), however, reports that the pattern of differential segments will remain uniform if both external and internal conditions are kept constant. Internal conditions include the velocity of cell division and genetically con¬ trolled conditions, whereas external conditions in¬ clude temperature and staining and fixation methods. With the above conditions as nearly constant as possible, the pattern of differential segments has been studied in several species of Tr/llinm. as well as in collections of the same species made from different parts of the country. Several col¬ lections of T. iindulatum Willd. were available for these studies. All collections seemed to show a fairly uniform pattern with the exception ot one collection made near Syracuse, New York. Chromosomes B, C, D, and E in this collection show the pattern characteristic for the species, however, chromosome A show’s a somewhat dif¬ ferent pattern. One member of the homologous pair, that is chromosome A, shows a pattern of three differential segments — one being the re¬ gion of the primary constriction with tlie other two being located on the long arm near the pri¬ mary constriction. The other member of the homologous pair shows the same three regions. and in addition has a very evident differential segment located medially on the long arm. It seems reasonable to assume that the condition w'here homologous chromosomes differ consistent¬ ly in their pattern of differential regions indi¬ cates a hybrid condition w'ithin the particular plant — a plant w’hich resulted from a cross be¬ tween two plants, each wdth their owm particular pattern of differential segments. Effect of Thyroxine on the Response of Smooth Muscle to Epinephrine and Nor-Epinephrine. S. B. Barker, Robert T. Fitzgerald, and Charles O. Parkel, Jr., Dept, of Pharma¬ cology. Uni versify of Alabama Medical Center, Birniingham . It has long been known that adrenalin effects on oxygen consumption, carbohydrate metabolism and cardiovascular functioning were diminished by thyroidectomy and exacerbated by hyperthy¬ roidism. I’hibault has reported that epinephrine inhibition of the activity of intestine removed from thyroidectomized rabbits was enhanced by incubation of the tissue with thyroxine. Over the course of several years, Thibauit and co-workers have expanded the study, claiming that tliyroxa- mine produced during the incub.ition with th\- roxine was the active material. Tlie present study does not constitute an exact repetition, but rep¬ resents an attempt to obtain similar phenomen.i in the rat. Rat uterus has been show n bv Gaddum c.' to be extremely sensitive to epinephrine inhibition and rat udon to arlerenol. Using these tissues, we have lound no marked differeiuts in sus¬ ceptibility to sympathominietK inhibition of uter¬ ine or intestinal smooth muscle contraHions be¬ tween iHirmal .iiul thyroKleitomized amm.ils. No lonsistent alteration in respiinse ol either uterus or colon to epinephrine or arterenol was priv duced by the .uidition ot tlnroxine or tiurox.i mine to the tim'd bathing the tissue. 88 Journal of Alabama Acadlmy of Scifnce A Record of the Lancelel, Branchiostoma Cari- baeum. From the Gulf Goast of Alabama Hkrbfht T. Boschunc and Jack C. Mal- i.OFtY, ihi/versily oj Alabama, U ii/veruly. Records of lancelets from tlie northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico are not frequent; there¬ fore, new geographical records are worthy of note. According to Bigelow and I’arfante (1948), the lancelet of the western and northern coasts of Florida to Pensacola is referable to Brainh/os- lo/i/a cayibaeiDii Sundevall. Hubbs ( 1922) re- stritted B. cayibaeum to the West Indies, and sub¬ sequently named the Gult Coast population B. jlaiiclae. Gunter and Knapp (1951) identified specimens taken from Lydia Ann Channel, Aran¬ sas Bay, Texas, as B. caribaeinu . tlefley and Shoe¬ maker ( 1952) list new state records for the genus from Mississippi and Louisiana, having collected Braiichiostonui sp. from Petit Bois Island, Horn Island, Ship Island, and Chandeleur Island in the Mi ssissippi Sound, do the above Gulf Coast rec¬ ords, we are able to add Byaiich/osloii/a cay/bae/nn from Dauphine Island, Alabama. 'Phis new state record has additional interest in that these lancelets were found in the stomach of a sturgeon, captured in a shrimp trawl and identified in the field as the common sturgeon, Ac/fu'iisey ilny'io. A review of the literature dis¬ closes no records ot lancelets in the diet of stur¬ geons. Considering the sturgeon’s method of feed¬ ing, this record is not unexpected. A total of nine lancelets were collected. Their total length varied from 28 to 45 millimeters. Although they were slightly digested, identifying counts were made possible after clearing them in glycerin. The myotome counts ot the Alabama specimens ranged from 55 to 60. The dorsal ray chambers averaged 301 in number. These counts fall within the limits of B. jloyidae (57 to 6l myotomes; 247 to 310 dorsal ray chambers), v/y- ginae (60-64; 259-309), and cay/haeiim (48-61; 227-330). Hubbs ( 1922) split B. cayibaenm into B. flny/clae (Floridian), v/ygiuiae (Carolianan), bey in ltd ae (Bermuda), and platae (Patagonian). He then set the range of cayibaenm as Antillean. B. heymudae and platae have stood unchallenged as distinct species, but B. floy/dae and viyginiae have been placed by Bigelow and Farfante (1948) in synonomy with B. cayihaeum. We choose, there¬ fore, to follow the opinion of Bigelow and Far¬ fante, and refer our specimens to B. cayibaenm. The Lise of Chronic Electrodes in Neurophysio¬ logical Investigation John M. Bri hn and J. D. Emerson, Medi¬ cal College and School oj Dentistyy, U niveysity oj Alabama, B/ymingham. Numerous investigations of the activity of the higher centers of the central nervous system re¬ quire stimulation of, or recording from, nervous structures in the absence of surgical trauma or anaesthesia. Numerous types of chronically im¬ planted electrodes have been developed for this purpose. An easily prepared stainless steel concentric electrode developed in this laboratory will be de¬ scribed. These electrodes otter the advantage of freedom from detectable tissue toxicity, insula¬ tion which has withstood the action of tissue fluid for as long as 18 months without loss of dielec¬ tric strength, and mechanical strength sufficient to prevent any movement of the electrodes with respect to the surrounding tissue. With the use of a suitable stimulator and iso¬ lation unit it is possible to restrict approximately 70% of the ionic movement during stimulation to a hemispherical mass of tissue with a radius of 0.5 mm. These electrodes are currently being used in an investigation of the autonomic effects of cerebel¬ lar stimulation. Proposed future projects in¬ clude an investigation of learning by simul¬ taneous excitation ot multiple points in the cere¬ bral cortex and an investigation of possible supressor strip activity by simultaneous excitation of multiple points in the motor regions of the cerebral cortex. A description will be given of the electrodes, their construction and the projects in which they have been and will be used. Animals with the implanted electrodes in place will be demon¬ strated. Moisture Conditions and Control by Heat of the Mushroom-Spawn Nematode, Ditylenchus sp. Eldon j. Cairns, Alabama Polytechnic Insti- tnte, Anhnyn. Experiments were performed to determine the effects of environmental moisture on the thermal- death responses of the nematodes. A Sibling cul¬ ture provided nematodes in the state of anabiosis. Equal samples of nematodes were exposed to 3 mosture levels and allowed to reach equilibrium as evidenced by constant weight. One lot was held in water, restoring the nematodes to activity. A second lot was held in a moist-chamber. A third lot was held in a desiccating chamber. The heat treatment involved a gradual approach to and de- Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 89 dine from temperatures selected to simulate con¬ ditions of heat application in mushroom produc¬ tion. The results prescribe limits in terms of times and temperature necessary for killing under prac¬ tical extremes of environmental moisture. The amount of moisture determines the mode of lethal action and the degree of resistance to heat. Death of nematodes kept active in water is possibly caused by the melting of a body constituent. A narrow temperature range (40-45°) causes death regardless of exposure time. Death of nematodes in anabiotic state show temperature-time gradients. These gradients vary with moisture level and are at temperatures higher than the critical tem¬ perature for active forms. The lower the moisture level, the wider the gradient and the higher the resistance. Studies on the Inhibition of Cell-Division in Escherichia Coli Virginia Whiteside-Carlson, Benga F. Feaster and Warner W. Carlson, Uuiver- sity of Alabama Medical Center, Birmiiigham . Compounds which can inhibit cell division, without a corresponding effect on cell growth, possibly can be used to separate cellular metabo¬ lic activities essential to the division process as contrasted with those involved in the increase in cell mass. Ricinoleic acid has been found to in¬ hibit cell division in E. coli, with the result that the organisms develop as elongated filaments. We have established the conditions of culture, such as pH, temperature, type of medium employed, etc., necessary for the development of filamen¬ tous forms. By incubating such filaments in so¬ lutions containing various metabolic intermediates, compounds which can initiate the division process in the filaments are being identified, as con¬ trasted with those which maintain the cells in the elongated form. Anti-Tumor Activity of Azlactones Warner W. Carlson, Miriam Rose Mac- Askill, Patrick H. Smith, Charles Clev¬ enger, and Virginia Whiteside-Carlson, University of Alabama Medical Center, Bir¬ mingham. The azlactone, 2-phenyl-4-ben2al-oxa2olone, has been used to introduce a haptenic grouping into proteins, by reaction of the compound and an ap¬ propriate protein in a bicarbonate buffer. Since it thus seemed likely that a2lactones might react with functional groups within cells under physio¬ logical conditions, and hence exert a cytotoxic ef¬ fect, representative compounds were synthesi2ed and tested against Sarcoma 180 in white mice. Various hippuric acids were prepared by the re¬ action of the corresponding acid chloride with glycine, and these intermediates reacted with aro¬ matic or heterocyclic aldehydes in the presence of potassium carbonate as a condensing agent. Mod¬ erate anti-tumor activity has been demonstrated in several of the derivatives. Substituents in the 2-phenyl or 4-phenyl groups modify the activity of the compounds. Anti-Tumor Activity of S- and 0-Acyl Esters Warner W. Carlson, Wayne H. Finley, Patrick H. Smith, Charles Clevenger and Virginia Whiteside-Carlson, University of Alabama Medical Center, Birmingham . It has been reported that S-acyl compounds will transfer the acyl grouping to the amino group of amino acids in aqueous solution and under es¬ sentially physiological conditions of pH and tem¬ perature. The possibility thus exists that such com¬ pounds might react with amino groups in cell constituents, with resulting interference with nor¬ mal cellular metabolism. Various mercaptoalkyl phthalimides were synthesi2ed, and S-acyl or aroyl derivatives prepared from them. For comparison, O-acyl derivatives were also prepared. The com¬ pounds were evaluated against Sarcoma 180 in white mice. Several of the derivatives showed moderate activity against this tumor. Anti-Tumor Activity of Cyclic Sulfites and Sulfates Warner W. Carlson, John W. Stanford, Patrick H. Smith, Charles Clevenc.er and Virginia Whiteside-Carlson, U nicer sit] of Alabama Medical Center, Birmingham . A number of methanesulfonyl esters of glycols have been reported to inhibit the development of Sarcoma 180 in white mice. The investigation has now been extended to include the cyclic sulfite and sulfate esters of a variety of 1:2 and 1 :3 gly¬ cols. The sulfites were synthesi2ed by reaction of the appropriate glycol with thionyl chloride, usu¬ ally in the absence of a solvent or condensini: agent. The sulfites were oxidi2ed with calcium permanganate to yield the corresponding cvdic sulfate esters. Anti-tumor .ictivity against S.uvoma 180 was found in both scries. I'he chemic.dly more reactice sultates appear to possess .i higher order of activity. Ring substituents .dso modifv the cptotoxic effect. The lL«e of Paper ('hromaf oRrapliy in Taxonomic Studies «if Certain Species of Formalin Pre¬ served Salamanders Haroi.d Doih.las Dean, Abilene ( 'f' ivc/, College, .ib/lene, I'ex.te Recently paper chromatographic methods h.i\ ^ been used in t.ixonomic studies cd’ ccrt.iin .inimaN 90 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science such as fish; work reported has been done on fresh materials, lire purpose of this research was to determine if paper chromatographic methods might be useful also in taxonomic work where only lormahn preserved specimens were available. Eight sub-species of the Genus: Desniognathm were used in this work. The tails of the formalin preserved specimens were refluxed for twenty hours in 10 mis. ot 6 N hydrochloric acid. The hydrolysate was then evaporated to dryness in a water bath, 10 mis. of distilled water was added to the residue and the filtrate was again evapo¬ rated to dryness. One ml. of ten per cent iso- propanol was then added to the residue to obtain an extract which can be kept indefinitely in the frozen state. Chromatograms were then prepared using n-butanol-acetic acid as the solvent and ninhydrin as the color reagent. This method dem¬ onstrated the presence of several different amino- acids which have not yet been identified. Present progress indicates that there are differences in the amino-acid content which may prove useful in the distinguishing of sub-species and showing phylo-genetic relationships of various animals. Field Control of the Stem Rot Disease of Sweet- potato Urban L. Diener, Alabama Polylechtiic h?- sl/t/ite. Auburn. Stem rot or fusarial wilt, caused by Fusarium o.\y\[)oru>n f. batatas, is the most important di¬ sease of sweetpotato in Alabama. Research in di¬ sease control has consisted primarily of fungicidal treatments for sprouts and the introduction of disease- resistant varieties. Chemical treatments for sweetpotato sprouts have been evaluated for the control of stem rot for the past 4 years. Sprouts were partially im¬ mersed in solutions of fungicidal chemicals and then planted in the field. The results were highly variable in relation to disease control and yield of sweetpotato roots. Comparable results have been reported in other states. The Allgold and Goldrush sweetpotato varie¬ ties were observed to be highly resistant to stem- rot in 1952 and 1953. Research results in 1954 showed that Goldrush and Allgold averaged 100 per cent more healthy plants at harvest time than the Porto Rico variety, when grown in infested soil. Histological Studies of the Gray Leaf Spot Di¬ sease of Tomato Urban L. Diener, Alaban/a Polyteclmic In- st'/tute. Auburn. Host parasite relationships of the gray leaf spot disease of tomato, Lycopersicon esculentuni , were studied isistolcgically. It was found that the patho¬ gen, Slen/phyl//nn solan/, invaded the tomato leaf primarily through the stomates although direct penetration was also observed. The fungus en¬ tered stomates by infection pegs or by germ tube tips. Direct penetration was by infection pegs en¬ tering between adjacent epidermal cells. Alter penetration, development of the fungus in the leaf tissues followed a similar pattern re¬ gardless of the mode of penetration or the leaf surface invaded. Bulbous primary hyphae develop¬ ed from infection hyphae in substomatal cavities or other intercellular spaces within 24 hours af¬ ter the inoculation. Secondary hyphae originated Irom primary hyphae and ramified incercellularly through the host tissue. Extensive development of secondary hyphae was found 48 hours after in¬ oculation. About 60 hours after inoculation, host cell pro¬ toplasm in the area of fungus invasion showed alteration. Chloroplasts appeared disorganized and a dense granular material ws evident within the cells. Disintegration of the cells occurred in the immediate area of the invading hyphae. Cell walls were visibly altered in advance of the hyphae. Peripheral growth of the fungus appeared to cease m larer intecnon .stages. Failure of Adrenalectomized Rats on Constant Steroid Replacement to Show Continued Growth in Response to a Constant Dosage of a Growth Hormone containing Extract of Bovine An¬ terior Pituitaries J. D. Emerson and G. M. Emerson, Medical College and School of Dentistry. University of Alaban/a, B/mz/nghan/ . The data presented m the previous paper show that the rat does not maintain constant growth in response to injection of a constant dose of pituitary growth hormone. It has been well established that certain of the adrenal steroids are powerful inhibitors of nitro¬ gen retention (glucocorticoids) while others (mineralocorticoids) are powerful potentiators of nitrogen retention. A compensatory shift in the ratio of endogenous production of glucocorticoids to mineralocorticoids, could explain the above findings with respect to chronic growth hormone treatment. The following experiment was performed to test tFp Hypothesis presented above. Fifteen adren- aleUomized female rats, 8 months of age, in which absence of accessory adrenal tissue was confirmed by near fatal weight loss prior to replacement therapy, were given a single daily injection of 300 ugm. cortisone plus 300 ugm. of desoxycor- ticosterone in the form of a microcrystal suspen- Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 91 sion. After these rats had regained the weight lost after adrenalectomy and had again reached a growth plateau, 7 of them were given daily in¬ jections of a growth hormone containg pituitary extract in addition to the steroid replacement. Daily dosage of all 3 hormones was maintained absolutely constant for a 40 day period. The response of these rats was essentially iden¬ tical to that of normal rats reported in the pre¬ ceding paper. The growth hormone treated rats had a gain of 45.6±2.6 gm., over the controls, during the first l6 days of treatment. From the 24th to the 40th day of treatment the gain of the treated rats over the controls was 2.8±3.4 gm. The T ratio betw'een the two 16 day periods is 9.9 with p<— 10'^°. Failure of the Norway Rat to Maintain Continu¬ ous Growth in Response to Prolonged Treat¬ ment with Pituitary Growth Hormone Pre¬ pared from Bovine or Rat Pituitary Glands J. D. Emerson and Geraldine M. Emerson, Aled/cal College and School of Dentistry. Uni¬ versity of Alabama. Birmingham . In a series of It experiments involving more than 100 rats, growth hormone preparations have been given in constant daily dosage. ( In some of the experiments dose/rat May has been main¬ tained constant; in others, dose. Kg body wt . day has been maintained constant. ) The preparations used have ranged in purity from extremely crude alkaline extracts to highly purified crystalline preparations. In each experiment there has been a period of marked growth, followed by a period of reduced growth, followed in turn by a growth plateau in which there w'as either no additional weight increment or gains of less than 5% of that observed initially. The period of rapid growth lasts for 10 days to as long as 50 days and the duration is a direct positive function of dose level. In each experiment the growth during the ini¬ tial period of rapid growth has been compared to that occurring, during a period of equal dura¬ tion, on the terminal plateau. The paired compari¬ son T ratios, so obtained, range from 6.9 to 9.9 with corresponding p values (Student) of p«— 0.00002 to p^ lO'^". The response to crude ex¬ tracts of rat pituitary glands has been found to be identical to that obtained with comparable extracts from bovine glands. If after the plateau is well established, the dosage is doubled, there is again a period of marked growth followed by a second plateau. The second period of rapid growth may be less than, equal to or greater than the initial period, de¬ pending upon dosage. The Teaching of a One-Term Introductory Course in Plant Physiology to Students Majoring in Agriculture James F. Ferry, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. Observation by the author of over six hundred students at two institutions during the past eight years has led to certain conclusions. First, very few of these students desire to become plant physiologists, yet most of them upon graduation enter fields in which a knowledge of plant be¬ havior is highly desirable if not essential for effective work. Second, less than five per cent have had organic chemistry, physical chemistry, or biochemistry. Third, they have but a meager understanding of physics. Fourth, their training in botany, as in chemistry and physics, has been general, much ground having been covered wdth little knowledge of a specific nature being re¬ tained. Fitth, competence in mathematics is poor, and this is indicative of the general inability to reason logically, to make critical analyses, and to draw sound inferences. This appraisal of the stu¬ dents’ preparation raises several serious questions. Whether the cause is poor integration of the general background training, insufficient carry¬ over from the beginning courses, or student in¬ ability, there appears to be no other logical al¬ ternative for undergraduate agricultural majors than to review essential fundamentals and then build upon these insofar as possible. What ap¬ pears to be paramount in a course in introductory plant physiology for students is an understanding of the plant and the conditions which influence its growth and development rather than a com¬ prehensive knowledge of the biochemistry and physical chemistry of the more advanced text¬ books. Consideration of such things as enzymes, auxin, and vitamins must be worked into the development of the over-all picture, of course, but these need not be belabored in a beginning course. Even an elementary knowledge of the principles ot plant physiolcrgy, if properly utilized, can be most helpful to students who do not ,ul\ ance be¬ yond the B.,S. degree in .igriculture. Notes on the Hydroids of the Mississippi Sound |()1IN A. I'lNC HI'K, lloiv.ird Collci^L. B.'r>>/in8.5^3. 5 per cent salivary bacteria produce peroxide and the average salivary O-R potential is fac’orable. Peroxidases or similar substances are demon¬ strable in salica and probably form compounds with peroxvde. These enzyme-substrate caimpounds may serve as hydrogen acceptors to tlie micro¬ organisms producing peroxide and devoid of cyto¬ chromes. Catalase may form similar compcninds as otlier peroxidases or may split the peroxide molecule. The liberated oxygen may be one rea¬ son why saliva reportedly cemtains more dissolved oxygen than blood. The addition of peroxidase and ..atalase to ar;ar media containing a hydrogen donor prevents the growth-inhibitory effect of peroxide producing bacteria upon other bacteria. The fuiution of peroxide in saliva is, therefore, postulated to be one of respiratory substrate. Its ecoloitii' import¬ ance in the oral microbiota would lie in assurinc the survival of a large part of the resident flora. 94 Journal of Alabama Acaufmv of Scif.ncf The IJole of the Flypophysis in the Reaction to Stress L. L. LAN(,LE^■ and W. G. KiHiOrh, U iiirersily of Alahauia School of De)il/\lyy. B/yii/inghaoi. Wlien rats are fasted for 24 hours the liver glycogen is practically depleted. A subsec|uent 24 hour fast provokes a small elevation in the liver glycogen in the order of about O.^ per cent. On the other hand when rats are fasted the second 24 hours under the stress of a stimulated altitude of 20,(>0t) feet the lic'er glycogen is found to he about 2.0 per cent. This liver glycogen accumu¬ lation does not occur in adrenalectomized animals. However, if the adrenalectomized animal is main¬ tained on a dose of adrenocortical extract, in it¬ self ineffective in accumulating liver glycogen, glycogen is laid dowm in the liver under the same conditions of stress. These results suggest that the well know'n adrenocortical activation in re¬ sponse to stress is necessary for the liver glycogen re-sponse, but is not solely responsible for it. The role of the hypophysis in this response is being investigated. Thus far it has been found that the adrenalectomized-hypophysectomized animal main¬ tained on minimal whole liypophyseal extract and the same dosage of adrenocortical extract as used in the previous experiments do not accumulate liver glycogen. It therefore seems likely that a combination of the two hormones in augmented amounts is necessary for the liver glycogen re¬ sponse under these stress conditions. Data sup¬ porting this conclusion will be presented. (This w'ork was supported by a grant from the Smith, Kline and French Foundation. ) The Effect of Environmental Stress on the De¬ velopment of Vision Eleazer C. Overton, Optoniety'nt . Biyuihig- hani. The purpose of this paper is to re-evaluate the current literature wdth the hope of establishing a molar or holistic approach to vision. The field of vision from a clinical standpoint has been plag¬ ued with an unprecedented number of confusing problems, probably because vision embraces the attention of several different scientific disciplines, each v.'ith its own unique academic "model" with¬ in which accumulated data is catalogued. Many of these models serve their own masters well, but present stumbling blocks when interdisciplinary action is needed to solve problems of a general nature. Vision problems indeed fall within the province of interdisciplinary action. The scope of this paper is as follows: Within certain limits or latitudes the human .organism is an organic mechanism fitted to sur¬ vive by its capacity to adjust itself or its rela¬ tionships to the environment in wdiich it finds itself; to go into action to establish balances with the forces and restraints which surround it. The organism accomplishes these adaptations by shift¬ ing its internal equilibrium between various bod¬ ily systems and parts, and by modifying many of its structures, through repeated functions, to fit the specific environmental factions which it en¬ counters in its day to day existence. Adaptation to certain portions of the stimulat¬ ing forces surrounding the organism is a large share of w'hat is termed "learning." Persistence through time of any of the close-centered socially significant tasks in w'hich the organism is en¬ gaged is certain to provoke changes in the very biological processes of the body itself. F. C. Bartlett contends that all biological func¬ tions operate within a system of ranges with up¬ per and lower limits of tolerance. Dr. Hans Selye of the University of Montreal has recently ad¬ vanced the "stress theory of disease.” If stress enters the organismic system to upset biochemical and biophysical equilibrium, adaptation is used to restore balance. In time compensations in basic structures wn'II occur to bring about the best bio¬ physical and biochemical balance possible under the influence of foreshortened ranges. Total ef¬ ficiency is thus impaired through the decrease of degrees of freedom in ranges. The writer suggests a molar approach to vision w'ith the concept that the function of vision is the "mobilizing of experience.” The urge to stress the significance of "experience mobilization” probably stems from the swing away from the previous preoccupation with the purely structural emphasis on long or short eyeballs creating near- or far-sightedness, etc. These anatomical factors are well documented; but are they problems in themselves or only the end results of adaptations made by the organism to maintain the best per¬ ceptual rapport possible under the environmental circumstances? There is a crying need for revis¬ ing objectives when defining the problem of vision. The clinical approach in recent years should have been not to wait for anatomical adaptations to show themselves but to investigate and program visual care beforehand. Due to recent developments in clinical practice, a dearer understanding is being established be¬ tween the field of eye care as an isolated spe¬ cialty and the ay! and science of vision cave which embraces the whole child in terms of develop¬ mental vision and provides the technology for ttf fullest expression of his intelligence. It is hoped by the writer that out of the pre¬ sentation of this paper will come a greater aware- Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 95 ness that environmental stress can be one of man’s most formidable enemies and until we learn to control it in better ways than we are now doing, we will continue to struggle in vain with man's rising number of non-specific diseases and dis¬ orders. The vision complex provides a fruitful medium for the direct study of the effect of stress on human behavior, and also a possible medium for its control. (The complete paper contains 4000 words and 38 references. ) The Artificial Mouth, an Apparatus for the Study of Dental Caries In Vitro Ralph W. Powell, M. L. Muntz, Ward PiGMAN and Edward N. Gilman, University of Alabama Dental School, Birmingham . Dental caries is one of the most widespread di¬ seases of mankind. Yet general agreement on its cause has not been reached, and effective pre¬ ventive measures are lacking. In recent years, ex¬ perimental approaches have been developed. One of these is the in vitro development of carious lesions. For the last five years at the University of Alabama School of Dentistry, an apparatus called the Artificial Mouth has been under development. It is designed to produce tooth decay artificially in extracted human teeth. Experiments of this sort were attempted as far back as 1870, but the current work was undertaken with the idea of producing the decay under conditions more like those existing in the human mouth. In the operation of the Artificial Mouth, bac¬ teriological media is dripped over the surface of teeth which have been previously inoculated with human saliva. The oral bacteria then grow on the tooth surface. In one study it was found that by cleaning the teeth regularly the attack could be confined to the pits and fissures, in positions similar to those in which natural caries is found. In another study with this apparatus, it was found that the concentration of glucose in the media is a factor in the type of results obtained. High glucose concentrations favor a dec alci tying action and low glucose concentrations fa\'or a m.atrix destruction. Combined attack occurs at a concentration of about 0.3% glucose. Microscopic studies of the lesions produced with the artificial mouth resemble very closely the microscopic picture of natural caries. Effect of Temperature on the Surface Tension of Protein Solutions Doyle W. Ramey and Alan Hisey, Univer¬ sity of Alabama. Uttiversity. The fact that the integrated form of Gibbs' surface tension equation, E = aRT In C + K, can be applied successfully to protein solutions has been previously reported ( A Hisey and R. F. Stewart, J. Ala. Acad. Sci., 24, l63 (1933)). Surface tension measurements by the stalagmo- metric method at temperatures of 10°, 23°, 30° and 40° C. on egg albumin and blood albumin of varying concentrations shows that not only F (the lowering of the surface tension) and K (the integration constant) are changed but also the surface concentration a. The relation of the sur¬ face tension lowering to the temperature is there¬ fore expressed by a partial differential equation which cannot be integrated directly. The finding that a and K are constant for a single tempera¬ ture permits a solution in the form d(F-K) 'a = R In C dT which can be integrated for any known concentration. Electrophoretic Studies of Salivary Secretions Jane Reid and Ward Pigman, Biochemistry Department, Medical College and School of Dentistry, University of Alabama. Birmisigham . For the first time, the secretions of the major human salivary glands have been studied electro- phoretically. The secretions of the submaxillary and parotid glands were analyzed with the aid of the Tiselius apparatus. Paper electrophoresis was also used to study these secretions, as well as whole unstimulated saliva. The behavior of the secretions under both acidic and basic conditions was studied. A number ot staining procedures were ex¬ amined to determine the best conditions for staining salivary proteins. Suitable separations were not achieved with the paper electrophoresis apparatus. The secretions of both tire submaxillarv and the parotid gl.inds camtain sevei.d components electrophoretically separable by the Tiselius ap¬ paratus. In ccnitrast with tire maten.d prepared tiom cattle salixary gl.inds, the proteins in the human gl.ind secretions h.i\e‘ \ery Krw mc'bilities. SpoctroplKiUinu'tric Analysis of l)\cs I scful as .3lo(lialnrs in Oxidalion-Ucdiiclion Potential iMoasurcnu'nts. I RIM' W. Roiunson .ind Gw I N K. Titn\ I'l 1 , Univcisit) oj .il.dmr.-.: Medic. d ('enter. Bi'- iihngl.i.im . in the me.isu renient ol c'xid.ition-re'duc'tu'n pci- tenti.iis ol bioiogic.d cou|''les it is sc’>metime's tcHind 96 Journal of Alabama Academy of Scifncl that these couples react sluggishly with the elec¬ trode. Certain dyes and other substances will mediate or transfer electrons betw'een the bio¬ logical couple and the electrode and thus improve the attainment of ec|uilibrium and the stability and reproducibility of the potential measurements. Spectrophotometric measurements of the oxidized and reduced forms of the biological couples, of the dyes and of mixtures of the couple and dye show how useful the dye may be as a mediator. Most of the reduced forms of the dyes under study are very rapidly oxidized by atmaspheric oxygen so an apparatus and technic|ue were de¬ vised which allow spectrophotometric measure¬ ments to be made under aerobic and anaerobic conditions both in the visible and ultraviolet spec¬ trum. By this method substances have been studied as to their spectral transmittance curves in the oxidized and reduced states. Data obtained by this technicjue will be presented for diphosphopy- ridine nucleotide, pyocyanine, cresylecht violet, myethlene blue, phenosafranine and other simi¬ lar dyes. The usefulness of the dyes as mediators will be indicated and the possible correlation of the structure of the dye and its usefulness as a mediator will be discussed. The Use o.f the Anthrone Reagent in Determin¬ ing I'otal Carbohydrate and Glycogen in Micro- ciiiantities of Liver FI, S. Sr.HWARTz, R. W. Hanson and S. B. Barkfr, Deparhneu! oj Phani/acolo^y. Lhiiver- s'/ly of Alahduia Medical Center, Birin/ngbain. A differential technique for carbohydrate analy¬ sis has been worked out with the anthrone re¬ agent for use with small quantities of animal tissue. Homogenized rat liver is heated for 5 min¬ utes with 2 per cent trichloracetic acid. This con¬ centration consistently extracts 97-99 per cent of the tissue glycogen {i.e.. alkali-resistant carbohy¬ drate) vcith minimal destruction of the glycosidic linkages. The measurements agree within 5 per cent with results obtained after hydrolysis with 30 per cent potassium hydroxide. Aliquots are taken from the supernatant for di¬ rect anthrone colorimetric measurement and for further treatment with 3 per cent potassium hy¬ droxide. This latter procedure quantitatively de¬ stroys free monosaccharides and alkali-labile poly¬ saccharides. The anthrone measurement is applied directly to this sample for estimation of glycogen and other extracted glycosidic carbohydrate. The new procedure may be used satisfactorily with fOO mgm. of tissue (compared to 1 gm. or more reejuired by the alcohol precipitation). Un¬ der these conditions, both total and glycosidic carbohydrate may be estimated from the same ex¬ tract of tissue sample. The anthrone reaction is dependent upon furfural-forming materials where¬ as the copper reagents require free reducing ke¬ tone or aldehyde groups. The above procedure, utilizing the anthrone reaction under closely con¬ trolled conditions, obviates the time-consuming glycogen precipitation followed by acid hydroly¬ sis. The Relation of the Blood Glutathione to the Pro¬ tein Bound Iodine and the Basal Metabolic Rate Marina G. Vrltkas and Alan Hisey, Uni¬ versity oj Alabama and Dritid City Hoifiital, I'lncaloosa. It has been previously reported from these lab¬ oratories ( M. W. Ratcliff, J. Ala. Acad. Sci., 23, 80 ( 1933) ) that a good correlation exists between the basal metabolic rate and the blood glutathione. 1 lie protein bound iodine in addition of the blood glutathione and the basal metabolic rate has now been measured on a number of patients. Applying the criteria previously established for glutathione it is found that three fourths of the protein bound iodine values fall within the lim¬ its of 7h3''/c BMR compared with two thirds for the glutathione. In the present study the values for glutathione are less well correlated with the BMR but the same trend is evident. The protein bound iodine must be regarded as the better in¬ dicator of metabolic activity but the glutathione studies are being continued in the hope that they may be useful in those cases in which the iodine values are known to be erroneous. The Effect of Moisture and Temperature During Storage on the Germination, Respiration, and Free Fatty Acids of Dixie Runner Peanuts H. S. Ward, Jr., Alabama Polytechnic Insti- ti/te. Auburn. Dixie runner peanuts with kernel moisture con¬ tents of 17.2, 11.1, 10.0, 8.9, 7.0, and 6.0 per cent were stored at 20°, 30°, and 35° C. Germi¬ nation, respiration, and free fatty acids were de¬ termined at intervals of 5 weeks, 4 months, and 7 months. At 20° C. germinations could be maintained above 80 per cent at moistures of less than 11.1 per cent. At temperatures above 20° C. moisture must be 7 per cent or less to hold germinability above 80 per cent. After 5 weeks of storage, if kernel moistures were below 11.1 per cent, rates of respiration were not increased by temperature, but at moistures above 11.1 per cent respiration increased with temperature. At the 4-and 7-month storage inter- Abstracts — Biology and Medicine, Chemistry 97 vals, increasing temperature accelerated respira¬ tion of kernels with moistures above 7.0 per cent. During storage at 20°, 30°, and 33° C., rates of respiration were increased with time, when kernel moistures were above 7.0 per cent. After 3 weeks of storage, the per cent free fatty acids did not exceed 1.0 per cent except in kernels with moisture contents of 10.0 per cent or more. After storage for 4 months the per cent free fatty acids was above 1.0 per cent for kernels with moistures of more than 7.0 per cent. The per cent of free fatty acids increased in proportion to ker¬ nel moisture. At the various moisture levels, an increase in temperature from 20° to 30° C. ac¬ celerated free fatty acid hydrolysis, while the percent of tree fatty acids decrease at tempera¬ tures above 30° C. These results when considered collectively show that losses in germination, increases in free fatty acids, and rates of respiration are a function of kernel moisture, storage temperature, and time. Increase of respiration rates with time at kernel moistures of 8.9 per cent or more suggests that this increase was the result of a rise in microbial population. Minim.um deterioration occurred in peanuts in which moistures were maintained at 7.0 per cent or less; Effect of Thiamine Upon Growth, Survival, Sene¬ scence, and Morphology of Tetrahymena Pyri- formis Y W. J. WiNGO and L. S. Lockingen, Medical College and School of Dentistry. University of Alahania. Birmingham, Alabama, and Genetics Foundation. Department of Zoology, The Uni¬ versity of Texas, Austin, Texas. Bacteria-free cultures of T. pyriform/s Y were grown in 1% Proteose-Peptone salts medium (0.03M, pH 7.3 phosphate buffer). The medium had been automaticlaved, centrifuged free of the amorphous precipitate that formed on autoclav¬ ing, and reautoclaved. These cultures exhibited a pronounced early death phase followed by marked secondary growth. The secondary growth phase was in turn followed by a phase of rapid death. During the death phases the cells of the culture became small and more nearly round than is usual in cultures of this organism, and signs of incipient or actual lysis were evident in a large proportion of the cells. Cultures grown under identical conditions ex¬ cept for the aseptic addition of thiamine at the time of inoculation did not undergo the changes just described, and attained much higher, stable, maximum populations. These findings are best explained as being due to the exhaustion of the limited thiamine supply in the unfortified cultures. This renders cells un¬ able to carry out necessary metablic processes, and brings about the lysis of most of the cells. The reutilization by the survivors of the small quantities of thiamine liberated from the lysed cells causes the phase of secondary growth. An alternate mechanism could be an adapta¬ tion of the surviving cells to produce thiamine from precursors present in limited supply. (This work was done at the University of Texas M. D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor In¬ stitute. ) SECTION II CHEMISTRY A Flow Method for the Investigation of Rapid Thermal Decomposition at High Temperatures W. R. Dickson and W. S. Wilcox, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham . An apparatus is described whereby the rate of decomposition of a compound is determined by introducing the compound, in a vaporized form, into a heated stream of nitrogen. The reaction time is calculated from the flow rates. The method of operating the unit is discussed, along with decomposition obtained witli t-C,fhiEr, dimethyl hydrogen phosphate and one other compound. Since the decomposition curves are observed using constant contact times over a range of tem¬ peratures, a modification of the Arrhenius equa¬ tion, k--Ae— E RT is developed for determining the reaction rate constant k; the frequency factor A; and the activation energy E. Tlie derived working equation is log log 1 P : - log tA 2.3 — E/2.3 RT where P is tlie traction ot material remaining after time. Bv [dotting log log 1/P against 1 /'E a straight line is c'b- tained with the slope equal to E 2.3 R and the intercept equal to log tA 2.3. 1 he \alues of E and A are then substituted into the .•\.rrhenius equation lor the calculation of the reaction rate constant. 'Pile Use of Permsoleolive IMembraiies in lire Dis¬ posal of Spent Pickle Uitpior W’li I I.XM M. Not AN, Si'utlnn: R.s,.,i.i- /e.-. lute. B/rmin<'h.im. o Permselective menibr.ines .ire sheets which .iic' cast I rom synthetic ion e xc h.ingc resms, Elu s^ 98 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science lective permeability of this type of membrane is due to the fact that the fixed ionizable groups in tire resin are unable to participate in the flow of electricity across the membrane. Any current which flows is carried only by the counter ions of the fixed groups, and by other electrolyte that may be present in the interstices of the mem¬ brane. In the electrolysis ot spent pickle licpior an anion-permeable membrane separates the spent- pickle-licjuor catholyte fro mthe anolyte, a dilute solution of sulfuric acid. Upon passage of an electric current, the cations in the catholyte mi¬ grate to the cathode where hydrogen and or iron is deposited. Ideally, the sulfate ion w'ould trans¬ port all of the current across the membrane and for every equivalent of sulfate iron w'hich passes into the anode compartment an equivalent of hy¬ drogen ion is produced by the electrochemical oxidation of water. By this scheme spent pickle liquor is "disposed of" by recovering sulfuric acid and water. The advantages and limitations of this potential application are presented. Density, pH, and Electrical Conductance of Solu¬ tions in the System CaO-P ()--H ,0 at 25° C. ANTHr)N^■ J. Smith and E. O. Huffman, Te)?- tiessee Valle]’ Authority. Whlsou Da)n. Ala- han/a. Density, pH, and conductance at 25° C. were measured in the portion of the system CaO-P^O-- H .O that is bounded by the phosphoric acid axis and the .solubility isotherms for monocalcium and dicalcium phosphates. Densities were measured with Gay-Lus,sac pycnometers, pH's with a hydro¬ gen-saturated calomel cell, and conductances with a Jones Bridge at a frequency of 1000 cycles per second. I'hroLigh extensive graphical treatment of the results, "handbook" tables were derived for the three properties of the solutions. The tables are useful in laboratory and plant work involving solutions of calcium phosphates. Reaction of Maleic Anhydride with Substituted Phenylhydrazines F. J. Stevens and E. M. Bl:rgess, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. Adipimide: Synthesis and Properties Dr. Cilton W. Tate, The Chemstrand Cor¬ poration. Decatur. A synthesis ot this cyclic imide, containing a seven-membered ring, is presented. Essentially the synthesis consists of a thermal cyclization of adipa- mic acid. The closure of a seven-membered ring offers some difficulties, and a number of ap¬ proaches based on known syntheses of succini- mide or glutarimide were unsuccessful. The yields obtained are not high (2.0 -3.5%) but are re¬ producible. The imide show's some evidence of a greater degree of reactivity than succinimide or glutari¬ mide. While it is fairly stable to hot water alone, alkaline solutions hydrolize it easily to salts of adipamic acid and aqueous ammonia converts it to adipamide. The imide can be alkylated by procedures anal¬ ogous to those used w'ith succinimide, and can also be converted to an N-bromo derivative. Aromatic Electniphillie Substitution; Some Fur¬ ther Anomalous Results in Nitration and Bro- mination James W. Woods, Medical College and School of Denti.stry. University of Alabama Medical Center. Birmingham . It has been pointed out that nitration of cinna¬ mic acid, B-nitrostyrene, and B-chlorosulfonyls- tyrene leads, within limits of error of the meth¬ ods of measurement, to exclusively o, p-orienta- tion of the incoming group. On the other hand sultonation, bromination and iodination yields considerable amounts of meta substitution. Recently it has been reported that bromination of nitrosobenzene and azoxybenzene proceeds via an addition mechanism, rather than an electro- phillic substitution. We have now found that neither azobenzene or azo.xybenzene will brominate under conditions known to produce the bromonium ion. These same conditions, however, lead to nitration of azoben¬ zene, and azoxybenzene with the formation of p-nitroazoxybenzene in both cases. This phenom¬ ena cannot be explained on the basis of a dif¬ ference in energy of the two substituting en¬ tities. A possible mechani,sm to cover the experi¬ mental facts will be offered. 99 SECTION III GEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY Views on the Races of Man Frank Dachille, Pens.tcola. Florida. A brief summary is given of the factors recog¬ nized in the formation and classification of races. The similarity of these factors and those of gen¬ eral evolutionary scope is considered. Authorities are cited to show agreement or de¬ parture on principles which in turn show' the wide range of factors bearing on race formations. The speaker is a proponent of recurrent catas¬ trophic earth history by collision with large me¬ teoric bodies. The problem of races is reviewed against a background of catastrophic collision and a discussion is developed following recognized principles of race formation. The potential in post collision conditions for differentiation of physical and mental characteris¬ tics is explored as are the persistence, origin, or extinction of cultural values such as language, religion, social and economic customs. The dis¬ cussion is restricted to the subject of man al¬ though a more comprehensive treatment could apply to the organic world. Draw’ings on large charts will be used to illus¬ trate features in the discussion. The Pollard Oil Field (Abstract) Dr. Walter B. Jones, Alabama Geological Survey, University. After more than two years of production and supplemental exploration, it is fairly obvious that faults, both north and south of the Pollard tault, may not be productive. More than a dozen wells have been drilled on adjacent faults, none of which had shows of oil in the Tuscaloosa sands, the main producing sands in the Pollard field. It could well be that the oil being produced at Pollard did not originate in the Tuscaloosa sands but escaped upward into those sands from reser¬ voirs in some deeper formation, such as Lower Cretaceous Jurassic. Migration into the Pollard fault area w'as not repeated in the other fault zones tested. The author is convinced that the original reservoirs will be w'ell worth finding, and that the main production in the area is yet to come. The Ice Age in Sahara and Alabama Frederick K. Morris, Research Su/dies Insti¬ tute. Aiaxwell Air Force Base. Alabama. Both regions lies in the subtropical zone, and during the Ice Age both were far south of the continetal glaciers. Small mountain glaciers were formed in the high Atlas mountains, but were lacking in the southern states that include Ala¬ bama. Both regions had notably heavier rainfall than at present; and therefore both have been losing rainfall during the past 25,000 years. Northern Africa contained huge lakes now re¬ corded by shorelines, sw'amps, mud-flats, salt- fields and remnant lakes. Africa had mighty riv¬ ers, now marked by gorges, deltas and alluvial plains where the winds of post-Pleistocene time are raising vast fields of sand dunes. Alabama had no lakes, but all her chief rivers were giants, whose broad flat-topbed terraces and fringe of coastal deltas tell of a climate richer in rainfall than the present. Fossil Man Frank J. Soday, Chenistrand Corporation. De¬ catur. More than 20 million years ago, our tree-living ancestors took their first step in a human direc¬ tion. Somew’here in the tropical regions of the earth, probably in Africa, a band of large pri¬ mates lived in a forest. Dessication caused the forest to dwindle and finally disappear, lorcing them to obtain their living on the ground. XX'hen the climate again changed and trees invaded the plains, some of the primates went back to the forest, where they became the ancestors of apes. The upright ones that stayed in the open event¬ ually became men. All this took place during the Miocene and Pliocene divisions ot (ienozoic time, which began approximately 30 million and 10 million years ago, respectively. One such erect primate was Proconsul, who lived in East Africa. Another was Six apithecus ot Northern India. Some 7()(),oo() years ago, the earth entered a period of climatic pulsations known .is the Pleis¬ tocene or Ice Age. Four major adxances and re¬ treats of the great ice sheets which coxered nu'St of the northern hemisphere h.txe been mapped, d'hese successions of glacial and intergl.K lal per¬ iods gixe us a conx'cnient tiinet.ible tex measure' the history of man, xxhich extends oxer ,i peric'd ot ne.irly a million \'ears. 1 his c.ilciul.ir is gixdi in Table 1, the Furc'pe,in n.ime Ixcing used to design. ite eadi gl.ici.il epoch. The cOricsjMnding [xeriods ot Americ.in gl.ici.ition .ire listed in pa¬ rentheses. 100 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Table I The Pleistocene Age GliU/ation Years Gunz (Nebraskan) 700,000 Pirst Interglacial Mindel (Kansan) 300,000 Second Interglacial Riss (Illinoian) Third Interglacial Warm (Wisconsin) 40,000 Fourth Interglacial At the beginning of the Pleistocene, many dif¬ ferent genera and species of erect man-like pri¬ mates were in existence. At the end ot the Pleisto¬ cene, namely, the fourth interglacial period in wliich we live today, only one genus. Homo, and of til is one species, Sapiens, is known to have survived. Of the early forms, the least human and the most ape-like were the Australopithecines (South¬ ern apelike creatures) discovered in South Africa by Raymond Dart and Robert Broom from 1924 onward. They were small, stood erect, and the skulls sat on top of their spines in human fashion. Six different types have been found, the most important of which are Australopithecus Afri- canus, Australopithecus Transvaalensis, Paranthro- pus Crassidens, and Paranthropus Robustus. They lived just prior to the beginning of the Pleisto¬ cene, and probably did not survive the first ice advance. The next step in human evolution was an in¬ crease in the overall size of the entire animal. Man-sized creatures with half-sized brains have been found in Java and in China. The first was discovered by the Dutch army physician Dubois on the banks of the Trinil river in Java in 1890, and called by him Pithecanthropus erectus (erect ape-man). He was the size of modern man, stood erect, and had a brain half as large as that of modern man. In 1927, Davidson Black and Franz Weiden- rach found the remains of D individuals of the same type in the Cave of Choukoutien near Pe¬ kin, China (Sinanthropus Pekinensis). And in the 1930’s, Von Koenigswald found additional specimens of Pithecanthropus in Java, together with remains of two related species, namely, Pithecanthropus robustus (robust ape-man) and Meganthropus palaeojavanicus (big old man of Java). These half-brained men lived from the first interglacial to the second interglacial periods (600, 000-300, 000 years ago). Another step in the upward progression of man was the development of full-brained men with ape-like faces. The first. Homo Heidelber- gensis, was found in 1907 in the first interglacial (600,000 years) gravels ot a gravel pit near Heidelberg, Cermany. In Java, remains of eleven individuals were recovered from a deposit over- lying that which contained the remains of Pithe¬ canthropus. They have been called Homo Soloen- sis ( Solo man ) . Another representative of this species. Homo rhodesiensis ( Rhodesian man ) was found in mining operations at Broken Hill, Rho¬ desia, in 1921. These men had a fully human body, a full-sized human brain, and a massive ape-like face. On the northern periphery of the ice-free zone lived another species of ape-faced man. Homo Ncanderthalensis, or Neanderthal man. They were a short, stocky people with long bodies and short arms and legs. They have been found in con¬ siderable numbers and all lived during the latter part of the third interglacial. Until a few short years ago, it was generally believed that modern man, Homo sapiens, came into being only during the last glaciation. A se¬ ries of brilliant discoveries has established the remarkable fact that modern man lived during the entire period of the Pleistocene, and was the only species to survive the fourth glaciation. The oldest speciment of Homo sapiens known is also the oldest of all the fossil men of any kind. This is the Kanam mandible discovered by Lewis Leakey at the northeast corner of Lake Victoria Nyanza in Kenya Colony, East Africa, in 1932. Associated with it were pebble tools known to earlier archaeologists as eoliths. Kansan man lived at the very beginning of the Pleisto¬ cene, some 700,000 years ago. At a neighboring site, Kanjera, he found the remains of four individuals in deposits assigned to the first interglacial. Kanjera man had skulls which although longer and narrower than the skulls of most living men, were fully human in size and form. In 1935, Marston found a skull in second in¬ terglacial gravels (300,000 years) at Swanscombe on the Thames river near London. The brain was of modern size and form. Then, in 1947, Mine. Henri-Martin found a female skullcap of the same type in a cave at Fontechevade, Charente, France, in a third inter¬ glacial deposit. The deposit was covered by a thin unbroken limestone crust, and above this crust was a deposit of the typical remains of Neanderthal man. Abstracts — Geology-Anthropology, Geography-Conservation 101 The known occurrence in time of the different species of fossil men is shown in the following table. Table II Glac'ul Hdlf-Bra'/ned Full-Brained Homo Epoch A[en Ape-Faced Men Sapiens Gunz ^ G-M + Mindel M-R - + Riss R-W Wurm W- " + Meteorite Fall at Sylacauga, Ala. Geor(.;e W. Swindel, Jr., Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, Sylacauga. Two meteorites fell recently at Sylacauga, Ala. The fall occurred on November 30, 1954, at about 1 :00 p.m. CST in the vicinity of Sylacauga, Talladega County, Ala. The larger of the two meteorites, weighing 8.5 pounds, pierced the roof of a dwelling and injured a sleeping occupant; the smaller, weighing 3.75 pounds, was recovered from an open area. The specimens are irregular and angular in shape and covered with a satiny black fusion coating. Most of the surfaces are plane, some perpendicular to others with distinct but well-rounded edges. Some surfaces are cov¬ ered with elliptical depressions resembling thumb marks. SECTION IV GEOGRAPHY" AND CONSERVATION The South’s Migrating Negro J. Allen Tower, Birniingham-Soutbern Col¬ lege. Birmingham . The recent Supreme Court decision and current action to end racial segregation in schools has led to near mob action in some locations and to action in at least three Southern States prepara¬ tory to possible termination of the public school system. This situation vitally interests us as citi¬ zens. As geographers, we are particularly interest¬ ed in the location of the Negro, and the trends in change in that location. While the Negro is typically an important element in the Southern population, in the w'estern and northern portions he normally comprises un¬ der a tenth of the total, and six counties have none at all: one each in Georgia, Kentucky, Ar¬ kansas and Oklahoma, two in Texas. The area with over a quarter of the population Negro ex¬ tends in a solid bloc in the coastal plain from near San Antonio to southern Maryland. Only seven counties have a three-fourths Negro popu¬ lation: five are in Alabama, with Macon County highest of all (84.4%), one in Mississippi, and one in Virginia. The number of Negroes decreased from 1940 to 1950 m three-fifths of Southern counties, and another fifth had an increase below the national average increase. Emigration from the South dom¬ inates the Negro pattern; this is the reason why most Southern States had an increase below the national norm, and why Mississippi and Arkan¬ sas Iiad a loss in total population. By contrast, with the white population only half of Southern counties had a decreasing population, and a quarter increased above the national norm (14.5%). Oklahoma was the only state witli a decline in total white population. Revision of raw census data for Alabama to allow for the effect of Negro births and deaths during the decade changes the state from an out-migration of 0.1 per cent to one of 14.2 per cent exodus. Only three Alabama counties gained by in-migration, those containing the commercial and industrial cities of Mobile, Gadsden and Birmingham. In the South cities offer less attraction for mi¬ grating Negroes than they do for the white. The Negro exodus is straight north trom the area e.ist of the Mississippi River, west to California from Texas and Oklahoma, while from Arkansas and Oklahoma they go both ways. 102 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science SECTION V PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS Consideration of the Dynamics of Rotation of the Earth Frank Dachilll, Peuuicola, Flor'/da. Planetary bodies have stable properties of ro¬ tation which are the result of the sliapc, structure, magnitude of angular velocity and isolation in space. These bodies are subject to forces, however, which do introduce variations in rotation. Eor e.xample, atmospheric, oceanic, and crustal dis¬ turbances cause a slight wandering of the poles, and the attraction of the moon and sun on the ec|u.itorial bulge of the earth induces a precession of the axis with a period of 26000 years. These variations from completely stable rotation are very small and are of interest mainly to the astron¬ omer and geophysicist. The dynamics of planetary bodies nevertheless permit of very serious changes in the various con¬ ditions of rotation. Principles ot angular mo¬ mentum, impulsive torcjue, axis change, and pre¬ cession arc discussed as background lor these changes. The principles are then applied to the earth under conditions of simple collision with a me¬ teoric body of large size. Sample calculations are given lor scries of conditions, and results are given cjuantitatively. The reactions of the earth as a rigid sphere, and as a sphere composed of concentric shells are considered. The paper will be illustrated with large draw¬ ings on charts or with lantern slides. Suggestion to an Experiment Designed to Meas¬ ure the Absolute Velocity of the Earth Dr, Niels Enc;el, Univeruly of Alaban/a, Uni¬ versity Most families of phenomena contain a relativis¬ tic group from which no deduction to the abso¬ lute can be made. Temperature changes with day and night, summer and winter; tide phenomena on the ocean; deposits and withdrawals from a bank account are such relativistic phenomena from tion about the absolute zero point can be drawn. From temperature measurements alone no deduc- tionabout the absolute zero point can be drawn. E'rom tide and ebb phenomena nothing can be known about the absolute depth of the ocean; and from deposits and withdrawals alone, noth¬ ing can be said about the absolute value of the bank account in dollars and cents. If temperature changes or deposits and with¬ drawals are compared with some results of them and the absolute, as thermal expansion, electrical conductivity, or interest added to the bank ac¬ count, then the absolutes can be determined. Com¬ paring velocities of matter and light is only work¬ ing with the relativistic group of phenomena taken from the movement family. This can not yield any information about the absolute. If relative velocities, however, are studied together with the clock slow down, caused by the movements, then the absolute velocity of the bodies can be cal¬ culated from these measurements. Wilson Cloud Chambers at the University of Alabama H. C. Fitz, Paul HAutAtruN, J. L. Kassner, Jr., and A. E. Ruark, University of Alabama, University. d’here are presently two Wilson cloud cham¬ bers at the University of Alabama. One of them is of aluminum with a sensitive volume of 24x10.5x6 inches. The chamber is designed for counter controlled operation and is expanded by the release of air pressure on a rubber diaphragm which moves between hole-plates. This chamber will be utilized in a search for free magnetic poles and unstable particles in cosmic rays. The second chamber, kindly loaned by Prof. |. A. Bearden, is cylindrical, with a diameter of 8lA inches. The chamber is expanded by the release of air pressure on a sylphon bellows, thus causing the sylphon to drop; this drops the level of a pool of licjLiid in the chamber. As Bearden showed, this techniejue provides a long sensitive time. He obtained a sensitive time of two sec¬ onds. Similar performance has been obtained here. Th.e chamber is presently being used in looking for particles which ionize less copiously than an electron. Functional Design or Colorful Mathematics E. P. Miles, Jr., Alabama Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. Auburn. Let us consider any plane area divided into a grid of equal squares by two perpendicular fami¬ lies of parallel lines. We associate with some cen¬ trally located square the coordinates (0, 0). The square a squares to the right of the origin and b squares above it is given coordinates (a, b). Squares to the left of the origin have a negative first coordinate; those below the origin have a negative second coordinate. Suppose we wish to create a block design using a certain number of colors or individual block designs; say, for in¬ stance, a five color design. We associate with each of the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 a different color. By using various integer valued functions Abstracts — Physics and Mathematics 103 f(x, y) reduced modulo 5 we associate one of these numbers and its color with each square m the grid. In case the function used is a poly- nomral in x and y, this produces a design formed by repetition of basic 5 by S groups of 2S squares. By taking [f(x,y)], the greater integer in f(x,y), patterns can be formed for functions of integers which may take on non integral values. Using [f(x, y)] modulo n we may also form color patterns in ordinary rectangular Cartesian coordinates. In this instance the color at any point (x, y) on the design would be that correspond¬ ing to the greatest integer not exceeding the value of f(x, y) reduced modulo n. This technique may be used with polar coordinates also. A table¬ cloth sold at the International Congress of Mathe¬ matics 195t uses the distribution of the Gaussian primes to develop a 2 color block design. This tablecloth and color graphs of certain polynomial functions with prime and composite moduli were used to illustrate this paper. Two Simple Demonstrations in Light John F. Porter, Jr., and E. Scott Barr, University of Alabama. U niversity. The astigmatic beam which results when light from a point source passes obliquely through a lens is difficult to describe, and the relative posi¬ tions of the two focal lines and the circle of least confusion are not too clear to students. A simple method for making the situation dear by making the beam visible is presented here. A glass tube (length, 56cm; diameter .45cm) is closed on one end by a thin, plane, glass disk. The tube is then filled with a fluorescent liquid (a solution of merthiolate and water) and the open end sealed with a stopper. When the tube is aligned with a point source on an optical bench and a lens placed, at an angle, between the source and the tube, the refracted beam from the lens is made visible in a darkened room by the fluores¬ cing liquid. The astigmatic nature of the beam is clearly evident. The second experiment concerns a classroom substitute for the conventional pinhole camera. A front-surface mirror is covered by a mask which exposes only an area of a few square milli¬ meters, and the mirror suitably mounted on a uni¬ versal support. The small reflecting region can be used to form an image in a manner analogous to that using a pinhole, with reflection repkuing transmission. For example, a beautiful image of the sun can be formed, with the size and the lo¬ cation of the image easily controlled. A wall op¬ posite a sun-lit window serves well as a screen. When a large image of the sun is formed its angular size can be determined with precision. ZnS — Plastic Scintillators for Counting Fast Neu¬ trons W. J. Rhein, Spring Hill College, Mobile. Hornyak has developed a scintillator for fast neutrons which is insensitive to gamma rays. It was fabricated by molding Lucite and ZnS (ten parts to one) under heat and pressure. A similar scintillator may be easily prepared by molding ZnS in cold-setting, liquid plastic. This type of plastic is widely used for mounting small biologi¬ cal specimens, and is marketed under several trade names (e.g. Castolite, Kelon ) . These scintillators may be fabricated in a lathe, and fit to a photo¬ multiplier. For a quickly prepared neutron moni¬ tor, the ZnS may be mixed with Q-dope and painted on the sensitive end of a photomultiplier. The advantages of these scintillators: they have small size, are insensitive to gamma rays, can be cut to desired shapes, and can be used for dis¬ criminating against neutrons of lower energy. The disadvantages: their efficiency is low, they are semi-opaque to theii own radiation, their output shows poor structure in a pulse height analysis. The efficiencies of neutron counters made from these scintillators increases with the energy of the neutrons. Typical efficiencies for countiing 4 Mev neutrons are: O.OOs with poor discrimination, ().()()()3 with good discrimination. Graphs of effi¬ ciencies and of pulse height analyses of the scin¬ tillators will be shown. A Variable Scaling Unit Using a Ulo« Transfer Counting Tube [OHN E. Rin’E.s, Alabama Polylecl.inic Initituic. Auburn. Using a GSIOC rransfer Tube. .i wiriable Stal¬ ing unit has been designed .it Alabama Pol\ti.\h- nit Institute employing a methotl of autom.itit reset to obt.iln a \ariable st.iling base. The paper contains .i brief ilestription of the operation ot the tube itsell. .uul .i tlet.uletl tk- scription of the operation of the autom.itit reset. A method ol exteiitling tla unit to .m\' tksiretl range will also be tlist ussetl. 104 Journal oi- Alabama Academy of Science SECTION VI I'JDUSTRY^ AND ECONOMICS Wood Requirements Twenty Years Hence W. B. DeVall, Alabama Polytechnic lintitiite, Auburn. The next 20 years will challenge southern for¬ esters and industrialists. To meet the predicted needs for wood and wood products, more and better quality wood must be grown by the for¬ esters. Wood processors must increase production, meet competition and expand the use of products. Out of the 11 end products derived from wood in log and bolt form, all but "i minor products will have to be produced in greater quantity to meet ly?'! consumption goals. Only shingles, cooperage, piling, fuelwood, and hewn railroad ties are expected to reflect reduced consumer de¬ mand. Increases in production will be required to meet pulpwood demands tor conversion to pulp, paper, and paperboard products. Alabama is now using 2.^ billion board feet of wood products each year, with a manufactured value ranging from S3^t) million to $430 million. 4’his volume of wood would be worth $800 mil¬ lion if manufactured into finished products with¬ in the State. The production potential needed to meet pre¬ dicted consumer demands 20 years hence is in sight. The production of 5.6 billion board feet worth $900 million dollars under present manu¬ facturing and marketing practices is feasible and possible. To maintain price levels, markets would have to be expanded and diversified. Development of Modern Personnel Administration Ray Mullins, Personnel Board of Jeffeiwon County, Birmingham. The following points will be discussed in this paper : 1 . A brief history of the development of mod¬ ern personnel administration in government. 2. Some of the pros and cons concerning the organization, jurisdiction, and functions of a pub¬ lic personnel agency. y. Some advantages and disadvantages of a formalized civil service program. 4. The administration of civil service in Jef¬ ferson County. Lecture and Demonstration of Ultrasonic Ma¬ chine Tools The Sheffield Corporation, Dayton, Ohio. SECTION VII SCIENCE EDUCATION The Mechanics of a Regional Science Fair Arthur B. Beindorff, The Chemstrand Cor¬ poration. Decatur. The success of a science fair can be considered as analogous to a mathematical probability. For purposes of illustration, such probability state¬ ment may be divided into its component terms. Those terms of prime importance are P, the peo¬ ple who undertake to hold a fair, O, the organi¬ zation of these people and of the fair itself, and F, which represents the funds solicited and dis¬ persed. The factors which affect these terms, and the ways in which the probability of success may be increased are discussed, with special attention be¬ ing given to the actual cost breakdown of the North Alabama Regional Science Fair in its first year. Student Criticism of Laboratory Work in Physics Howard Carr, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. Students in a last quarter sophomore physics course were requested to present written criticism anonomously on the entire laboratory work for all three c|uarters. Out of 89 students registered in the course 76 complied. A digest of the re¬ plies will be given covering the most significant and frequent comments made. Graphics in General Biology Ted C. Cobun, Indian Springs School, Helena. Biology is a subject which lends itself well to the techniques of audio-visual education. By use of graphic art, some advantage is being taken at Indian Springs School of illustration to increase learnings in biology by making them more at¬ tractive, and by attempting to make them more palatable. As a starting point, the vital life activities were chosen as the subjects to be illustrated. By use of the illustrations, a core of learnings is laid out from which to develop and enrich a full pro¬ gram. It is considered that the vital life activi¬ ties are important in their own right, but are also excellent to stimulate learnings in anatomy, physi¬ ology, ecology, genetics and sex education. In making the illustrations, strong emphasis was placed on the use of principles of advertise- Abstracts — Science Education 105 ment and layout. Words were held to a minimum. Pictures were made as attractive and unusual as possible so that they would draw the eye and the interest of the learner and, perhaps, stimulate him to ask questions. All detail is eliminated from the pictures except the case in point. This is done so that the learner will be able to con¬ centrate on the desired matter with a minimum of effort and confusion. Recognizing that, perhaps, these illustrations might be valuable to other teachers in other schools, an attempt was made to make them as flexibly useful as possible so that any teacher in any school could apply them m whole, or in part, to almost any biology class situation. Reactions of Mature Students in Beginning Bi¬ ology Classes Henry Harvey, State Teachers College, Flor¬ ence. For the summers 1951 through 1954 an av¬ erage of 62 per cent of the students in the writer's biology classes have been men and women between ages 25 and 60, many of whom have not been in college for 15 to 25 years. It is interest¬ ing to contrast and compare the reactions of this group with those of the eighteen-year-old college students enrolled in the same classes. It had been anticipated that the older group would learn slower than the younger group and might have a very difficult time while learning to use the com¬ pound microscope. The following differences were actually found: ( 1) The older group learned to use the high power microscope about as well as the younger group despite the handicap for many of bifocal glasses. (2) The older group did not earn as high a percentage of A’s as the younger, but they did have a higher grade point average. ( 3 ) Students in the older group request¬ ed more interviews for personal help. (4) Older students appeared to be able to compare, evaluate, and understand general biological principles bet¬ ter than the younger group. ( 5 ) Older students were much more articulate as a group in that they not only sought knowledge but undertook to inspire and challenge a teacher with their out¬ spoken and sincere expressions of joy and en¬ thusiasm in learning. (6) Many older students appeared to be extremely nerv'ous, evidenced by weeping and by experiencing faint feelings. Discussion: Science Fairs in Alabama Madison L. Marshall, The Chem strand Cor- l^oration, Decatnr. Research in the Undergraduate Curriculum Georc.e a. Simmons, Jr., Btrmtngham-South- ern College, Birniingbani. Work directed toward the solution of a re¬ search problem offers several rather unique ad¬ vantages to the student in his personal, as well as technical, development. Direction of such work is also of definite value to the teacher, not only because of the opportunity for professional de¬ velopment, but also because of the unusual teach- ing opportunities involved. However, the particu¬ lar research problem to be investigated must be chosen with strict attention both to the physical requirements of time, money, and equipment and to the needs and abilities of both the student and the teacher. Although obstacles to the inclusion of research in the undergraduate curriculum are common, these are less serious than they were a few years ago. Frequently, all that is needed is sufficient interest and initiative on the part of the teacher and a sympathetic attitude from the college ad¬ ministration. Action Research in Science Education H. Craig Sipe, Itidian Springs School. Helena. Action research in science education represents a type of critical analysis applied by teachers to the creative and dynamic solution of instructional problems in the classroom and the laboratory. As used by a member of a science faculty, the process called actioti research should embody — ( 1 ) the identification of a functional problem growing out of a teaching situation one would like to im¬ prove; (2) the thoughtful listing of assumptions pertinent to the problem and its proposed solu¬ tion; (3) tlie formulation of a iiypothesis, lunc- tional or tlieoretical, and the design ot a procedure for checking its validity; (i) tlie systematic re¬ cording of c[ualitati\'c obserxation, l.ut, .uul in¬ formed opiinion likely to ha\’e a bearing on the acceptance or rejection ot the hvpothesis; ( ) .i critical analysis ot the study, not c'inh ol its i,on- clusions but also ot its assum|''tions and its meth¬ od, by its designer lirst .uul later b\ other Ccnii- petent individuals; (6) the iiH orpor.it ion ot the tindings ol the study intci one s i,oiuept ol method and organization ol materials; .uii! •* [dan Uw the continuing an.iU'sis ol Ihe \.ilidil\ c'l lurthcr innovatic'iis in te.uhing. .A method nik h .is th.it characterized here promises to be ol tiirther loe as the lindings ol .in indicidii.il. x.ilid in his [\ir- liciil.ir siliialion. ,ire bicnighl to the attentu'n c'l other slriicli'is. When tested .iiul x.ilul.ited b\ other teachers in ditlerent situ.itions. the partuu- l.ir t.ikes I'll the' .ispeds ol .i geiur.il principle tor 106 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science the teaching of seienee. It was thus that the re¬ stricted experience of early scientists was diffused and systematized knowledge emerged from care¬ ful, but random observation. Microprojection Demonstrations in General Chem¬ istry Ernest E. Snyder, State Teachers College, Tlore)!ce. One of the principal difficulties encountered by first term students in general chemistry is that of visualizing what occurs during a chemical re¬ action. The ability to relate written equations with actual reactions in the the laboratory is largely an imaginative "mind’s eye" process and is apparently not easy to achieve. The use of microprojection demonstration techniques is an effort to bridge the gap between the seen and the unseen and to stimulate the necessary use ot imagination. Any microprojector with a horizontal stage will serve to demonstrate the dynamics of a suitable reaction. The common reaction of zinc with di¬ lute hydrochloric acid will do to illustrate some ot the possibilities. Half a dozen fine particles (filings) of zinc are placed in a small watch glass (50 mm or less) beneath the objective lens. The image of the zinc particles is projected onto the wall or a screen and one or two drops of HCl are placed on the zinc. Bubbles of hydrogen gas can be observed as they grow in the solution, reach maximum size, and burst through the sur¬ face. The zinc particles are jostled about as a result of the formation of the gas. As the concentration of zinc chloride increases and some of the water exaporates under the heat of tlie projector lamp, the actual growth of crys¬ tals of the salt is observed around the edge of the solution. When a large gas bubble raises the level of the liquid, some of the newly formed crystals will be dissolved and immediately re¬ formed when the bubble bursts and the liquid level falls. This is but one of many reactions that can be shown to help students see what occurs as a re¬ sult of chemical and physical changes. SECTION VIII SOCIAL SCIENCES I’he Impact of a New Industry on the Life-Ways of Workers in the Industrial Piedmont Neil J. Applegate, Hayes Aircraft Corpora¬ tion. Biruunghatu . An E]xi)eriment in Non-Verbal Communication Phoebe B. Barr The Establishment of the Southern Boundary of Alabama |. Perry Cochran, University of Alabama. U niverC/ty. Organizational Climate in Industry Raymond L. Gold, University of Alabama. U ni versify . Child Guidance Attitudes of Home Economies Stu¬ dents in Relation to Their Personality Adjust¬ ment Sally Rainer Lamar, University of Alabama. U niversity. The purposes of the study were: (a) to obtain measures of the child guidance attitudes of Ala¬ bama home economics majors and to compare them with attitudes of students at Oklahoma A & M College and Elorida State University, groups of "problem" and "non-problem” mothers, and 8 clinical psychologists; (b) to compare measures of personality adjustment of the home economics students to those of Minnesota, South Carolina, and Oklahoma students; (c) to note the signifi¬ cance of correlations between measures of child guidance attitudes and measures of personality ad¬ justment; and (d) to ascertain the significance of the differences obtained between ten Alabama students scoring highest on the USC Parent Atti¬ tude Survey and ten Alabama students scoring lowest on the Survey with reference to their per¬ sonality adjustment. The median personality adjustment score of the Alabama home economics students was slightly higher than the median score of Minnesota, South Carolina and Oklahoma students with regard to Morale; slightly lower with regard to Social Ad¬ justment; and similar with legard to Emotionality and Eamily Relations with the exception that the Oklahoma students were markedly poorer with regard to Emotionality. None of the correlations between the scores of the Alabama students obtained on the USC Par¬ ent Attitude Survey and the scores obtained on the Minnesota Personality Scale were found to be statistically significant. The comparison of the mean adjustment scores of the ten high and the ten low ranking Alabama students on the attitude scale revealed that the means of the ten low ranking students were con¬ sistently higher than the mean scores of the ten high ranking students. Only one difference, Abstracts — Social Sciences 107 however, was found to be statistically significant, the students with the superior child guidance at¬ titudes evidencing superior social adjustment. Some Effects of the Poll Tax on Voting Frederic D. Oc.den, University of Alabama, University. The paper reports a study of the effects of the poll tax on voting behavior. Four methods were used: before-and-after poll tax adoption analyses, before-and-after poll tax repeal analyses, compari¬ son of voting participation in poll tax states and non-pioll tax states, and comparison of the county- by-county rates of poll tax payment within a single state. Before-and-After Adoption Analyses. This method was used for Arkansas, Florida, Ten¬ nessee, and Texas. Voting trends in general elec¬ tions for governor and president were studied for a period beginning well before and continuing a number of years after adoption of the poll tax. Before-and-After Repeal Analyses. This method was applied to Louisiana, Florida, and Georgia. Voting trends in Democratic primary elections for governor and United States Senator were studied from 1920 to 1950. Interstate Comparisons. The method was used by comparing voting behavior in Kentucky and Tennessee and in North Carolina and Virginia in presidential elections from 1872 to 1948. How¬ ever, since no two states are alike in every re¬ spect except that one requires poll tax payment and the other does not, the results of this method were not significant. Intercounty Comparisons. By comparing county- by-county poll tax payment rates within a single state, it is possible to learn what social groups are most affected by the tax requirement. Rates of payment of counties with different characteris¬ tics were contrasted. This method was limited to Arkansas and Texas because usable data were not available in the other states. The effects of the following factors were examined: urbanism, den¬ sity of population, proportion of Negroes, pro¬ portion of foreign-born whites, persons per motor vehicle, and proportion of votes for the Repub¬ lican party. Conclusions; 1. The poll tax is not the sole, nor even the chief, cause for low voter participation in south¬ ern poll tax states. 2. The tax is of some importance as a restric¬ tion upon voting, especially where it is cumu¬ lative. 3. Because so many factors influence voting participation, it is impossible to state just how many persons are kept from voting because of the tax. 4. Rates of electoral participation tended to de¬ cline before the tax was adopted and to increase prior to its repeal. 5. No great upsurge in voting followed repeal of the tax in Louisiana, Florida, and Georgia. Only a part of the increase that occurred can be attributed to removal of the tax. 6. The extent of poll tax payment is affected by urbanism, density of population, number of Negroes or some other unassimilated group in the population, and the economic conditions of the area. The Relation of the Hunting System and the E^amily System in the Tuscaloosa Area Margaret Searcy, University of Alabama, U niversity. The Administration of University Lands, 1902- 19.33 J. B. Sellers, University of Alabama. Univer¬ sity. The Socio-Medical Approach to Patient Care Diane D. Stephenson, Coney N Coney. A Study of the Visible Aspects of Speech in In¬ terpersonal Relations Elizabeth Webster, University of Alabama. University. The .lefferson County Survey of Health. Welfare and Recreation Charles F. Zukoski, Jr., Jefferson County Coordinating Council. Birmingb.im. 108 Journal of Alabama Academy of Scifnc.i' ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING Conference Room, Ingalls Laboratory, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama, December 4, 1934 Dr. William T. Wilks, President, called the meeting to order at 1;30 p.m. Dr. Wilks sug¬ gested that the visitors and members who were m attendance with special interest in the Science Pairs project might prefer to meet separately while the Executive Committee conducted routine Academy business and then rejoin the meeting later. This was agreed upon and the Science Fair group retired to the Library. 'Lhe President called upon the Secretary to in¬ troduce members and guests. Those introduced at this time were Dr. Ward Pigman, Mr. j. R. Goetz, Dr. H. Craig Sipe, Dr. A. T. Hansen, Dr. Locke White, Dr. Paul Bailey, L)r. Roland Llarper, Mr. Henry Jennings, Dr. E. Carl Sensenig, Dr. Sidney Finn, Dr. Clyde LL Cantrell, Dr. Wil¬ liam T. Wilks and Dr. Herbert McCullough. Others in the Science Fair Meeting or arriving later included Dr. R. D. Brown, Father Louis J. Eisele, Dr. James L. Kassner, Dr. Henry Walker, Mr. James Sulzby, Jr., Mr. John Baswell, Dr. 1 loward Carr, Mr, Gid Nelson, Dr, M, L, Mar¬ shall, Father Gerald Bray, Dr, Paul T, Stone, Dr, H. H, Floyd, Mr, Reynold Q, Shotts, Mr, |. |, Hammond, Dr, Paul J, Arnold, Mr, Ray¬ mond C. Watson, Mr, G, B, Snoody, Dr, William R. Smithey, Jr. The Secretary distributed copies of the min¬ utes of the Executive Committee Meeting of April 1, 1954. Dr. White moved and Dr. Bailey sec¬ onded the approval of the minutes. Upon vote of the members the minutes were approved. President Wilks called for the Report of the Secretary. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: Present membership of the Academy is 403. The deaths of Dr. John Xan and Dr. Bert Williams were noted. The Secretary recommended that; ( 1 ) the Editor and Secretary should have a com¬ plete file of the Journal if obtainable; (2) The Secretary receive carbon copies of all important general correspondence of the Academy; (3) an historian or historical committee be appointed to prepare a history of the Academy; (4) sufficient copies of the program of the Annual Meeting be printed to allow for reasonable distribution; (5) the deadline for titles of papers to reach Section Chairmen be set at March 1, 1955, and the dead¬ line for section programs to reach the Secretary be set at March 19; (6) the publicity pamphlet be printed provided, or when the treasury can withstand the expense. ) The Secretary moved the acceptance of the report. Dr. Sipe seconded and the report was accepted. Dr. Wilks called for a consideration of each of the recommendations of the Secretary sepa¬ rately. iWol'ion: By Dr. Pigman with suggestion of wording by Dr. White, seconded by Mr. Sulzby. lire Secretary is instructed to proceed with the printing of the publicity pamphlets immediately, the number of copies ordered to be at the dis¬ cretion of the secretary. Motion passed. Motion: By Dr. Pigman, seconded by Mr. Jen¬ nings. The Presitlent is authorized to appoint a committee to compile a history of the Academy. The committee is to serve until the history has been compiled. After considerable discussion as to the length of term of the committee members, the motion was passed. President Wilks appointed the following to serve on the committee to prepare a history of the Academy: Dr. Clyde H. Cantrell, Chairman; Mr. Peter Brannon, Dr. C. M. Farmer, Mr. Henry Jennings, Dr. Steward J. Lloyd. Relative to the matter of complete files of the Journal, Dr. Cantrell offered to work with the Editor to see if these could be accumulated. Action on the deadline for papers of the Sec¬ retary’s report was delayed to be considered under new business. The Treasurer' s Report was presented by Dr. White. After payment of the balance due on the 1953 Journal the net assets in the General Fund are $658.60 and in the Research Fund are $372.67. Dr. Bailey moved and Dr. Hansen sec¬ onded the approval of the report. I'he report was approved. Motion: By Dr. White, seconded by Dr. Pig¬ man. The treasurer is authorized to pay the amount due on Volume 25 of the Journal. Motion passed. The Report of the Special Committee on the Journal which met prior to the Executive Com¬ mittee was read by Dr. Pigman substituting for Dr. Volker, the chairman. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: It is recommended that (1) Executive Committee Meeting 109 an agreement be negotiated with President Draughon of Alabama Polytechnic Institute where¬ in the Academy might receive assistance to the extent of $400.00 to $500.00 per year; (2) the Editorial Board and the Editor seek assistance from national and local foundations and institu¬ tions of higher learning within the State.) Dr. Pigman moved the report and its recommenda¬ tion be accepted and approved by the Executive Committee. Dr. White seconded and the report uvis approi'ed. The Report of the Editor of the fonrnal was given by Dr. Bailey. The Editor stated that he anticipates additional revenue from an increased advertising rate and additional advertisers. He also mentioned that the next issue of the Journal was about ready to go to the printer, and that the cost of printing should be considerably less than th.e last Journal. Dr. White moved acceptance of the report. Dr. Sipe seconded and the report was approved. Motion: By Dr. Pigman, seconded by Dr. Han¬ sen. The Editor is authorized to print Volume 26 of the Journal with a maximum cost of $900.00 to the Academy with the Editor to provide for obtaining additional funds required. Motion passed. Dr. Harper gave a brief Report of the Edi¬ torial Board. The report was accepted without formal action. The Report of the Research Committee was presented by Dr. Sensenig. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report; (1) Research grants made by this committee should not exceed $150. (2) Research funds should, wherever possible, be used to encourage research in smaller schools, particu¬ larly in those where no funds are available for research. (3) Available funds of the Research Committee should be used to assist graduate and advanced undergraduate students and younger members of the staffs of Alabama colleges and Universities. (4) Research grants should be made only to members of the Academy in full stand¬ ing, except in cases of graduate and advanced undergraduate students. (5) Permanent equip¬ ment purchased with research grant funds shall become the property of the department of the institution to which the grant was made. (6) Up¬ on completion of the project a progress report should be submitted to the Research Committee and a paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy.) Dr. White moved the report and its recommendations be accepted and approved by the Executive Committee. Dr. Hansen seconded and the report was approved. Mr. Jennings stated that no additional Report of the Finance Committee was necessary. The re¬ port was accepted without formal action. Tdse Report of the Admission to Membership Committee was read by the Secretary. (Copy at¬ tached.) (Summary of report: Forty-eight appli¬ cants have been awarded membership in the Academy since the Annual Meeting. Dr. Fred Allison and Dr. Roland Harper were recommend¬ ed for election to Honorary Membership.) The Secretary moved the acceptance of the report and the election of Dr. Fred Allison and Dr. Roland Harper to Honorary Membership. Mr. Jennings seconded. The report and the election were ap¬ proved. The President declared a five minute recess while the Science Fair Committee was asked to join the Executive Committee Meeting. The meeting was reconvened at 2:55 p.m. The Report of the Long Range Planning Com¬ mittee was presented by Dr. Carr. (Copy at¬ tached.) (Summary of report: The follow'ing problems were listed as those unanimously decided up for consideration by the committee; (1) The implimentation of getting able young scientists into our colleges and universities; (2) the rais¬ ing of the standards in our high schools to pro¬ vide more adequate training for promising stu¬ dents. The proper training of our high school science teachers is a part of this problem also; (3) the investigation ot gaining more active sup¬ port from colleges, universities, high schools, and industry; (4) the establishment of a summer re¬ search facility in the biological sciences.) Since this was a preliminary report no formal action was taken on it. A statement from Father Patrick Yancey, Councilor of the A.A.A.S.. to the effect that he would attend the meeting of the A.A.A.S. in Berkeley, California, during Cliristmas Week, 1954, was read. Dr. Kassner read the Report of the Counselors of the Junior Academr. (Copy att.ulicd.) (Sum¬ mary of report: Plans for 19^s meeting were announced. The Executive Committee of the |u- nior Academy voted to limit to ten the number of delegates from any cliapter and to continue to award loving cups tor papers and exhibits sub¬ ject to approval of their puivhase by the lixecu- tivc Ciommittec of the Senior Academy.) Dr. Carr moved the acceptance of the report and the approval ot the purchasing ot the cups fc'r awards, hatlier liisele seconded. Dr. Pigman amended the motion to include' an expressicm cit thanks tis Dr. Kassner tor the fine work he and his cO-workers are doing as Counselors. The report u.:.\ .wcepted. Journal of Alabama Academy of Science 1 10 Dr. Kassner read the Report 0)i the State Sci¬ ence latent Search. (Copy attaclied. ) The report is a report of progress for the current Science Talent Search. Dr. White moved and Dr. Bailey seconded the acceptance of the report. Report ac¬ cept tJ. Dr. Kassner read a Report of the Regional Sci- e)ice I\nr \\' ork Conference. It was suggested that this matter be considered under new business and it was held until that time for further discussion. Dr. Finn gave a Report of the Ed /tor of the Newsletter . He announced that an issue would be prepared immediately and asked that news items be forwarded to him as soon as possible. No formal action was taken on Dr. Ihnn's report. President Wilks made a few remarks for the Local Arrangements Committee on behalf of Dr. Walker who was still in conference relative to the Science Fairs. Arrangements are well under¬ way and a tentative general program l;as already been prepared. Dr. Wilks called for (.onsideration as new business the deadlines for titles and abstracts of papers for the next meeting. A\otio)i: By Dr. White, seconded by Dr. Han¬ sen. Titles and abstracts ol papers to be pre¬ sented at the annual meeting in Tuscaloosa should reach the Section Chairmen by March 1, 1955, and tne Section Chairmen should have the Sec¬ tion program in the hands of the Secretary by March 19, 19'' “i. Motion passed. Considerable discussion occurred concerning the matter of a Saturday morning session for the pre¬ sentation of papers. Motion: By Dr. Pigman, seconded by Mr. Goetz. The Secretary is instructed to adjust the program of the sections to insure a full session of papers on Saturday morning. Motion passed by a vote of twelve "yes" and one "no". The Secretary presented the matter of adopt¬ ing a resolution authorizing the Exchange Bank of Birmingham to open a deposit account in the name of the Academy. Motion: By the Secretary, seconded by Father Eisele. A resolution worded according to the standard form supplied by the Exchange Bank is adopted to authorize the Exchange Bank of Bir¬ mingham to open a deposit account in the name of the Alabama Academy of Science with checks to be signed by Locke White, Treasurer. Motion passed and resolution approved. The Secretary presented a request from the A.A.A.S. that the term of office for the Coun¬ cilor of the A.A.A.S. be from January 1 to De¬ cember 31 of each year. The Secretary read a note by Father Yancey stating the desirability of this. Mr. Jennings, as parliamentarian, commented that changes in the term of office for any officer had to be approved by the Academy as a whole in business session at the annual meeting. Motion: By Dr. White, seconded by Mr. Jen¬ nings. The Executive Committee authorizes the Secretary to draw up the necessary resolution mak¬ ing the term of office of the Councilor of the A.A.A.S. on a calendar year basis and recommend¬ ing any transitional adjustments necessary to ac¬ complish this. Motion passed. A discussion was held as to the status of per¬ sons who had been individual members but who had moved out of state. It w'as recommended by Mr. Jennings and approved by the members pres¬ ent without formal action that associate member¬ ship should be limited to persons w'ho apply for membership from outside the state and that in¬ dividual members who move out of the state re¬ tain their individual membership and not revert to associate status. Dr. Kassner was then called upon to bring the complete report on Regional Science Fairs. After giving a brief history of the Science Fair move¬ ment, he announced that at the meeting which had just been held, the committee had recom¬ mended the election of Dr. Madison L. Marshall of the Chemstrand Corporation to be Chairman of the Science Fairs in Alabama. He asked Dr. Marshall to give the report of the meeting. Dr. Marshall gave a brief summary of the dis¬ cussion in the meeting and presented the follow¬ ing recommendations to the Executive Committee: ( 1 ) That relative to Science Fairs the State be divided into regions with at least one college in each region. (2) That each region be permitted to send 2 exhibits to the National Science Fair and that each high school in the State be per¬ mitted to send two exhibits to the Alabama Acad¬ emy of Science Annual Meeting. (3) That a State Science Fair Chairman be appointed to di¬ vide the State into regions and to work with a representative or representatives to promote sci¬ ence fairs within the State of Alabama this year. (4) That Dr. Madison L. Marshall be recom¬ mended for the State Chairmanship. Motion: By Dr. Kassner, seconded by Mr. Sulz- by. The Executive Committee should approve the organization and promotion of State Science Fairs and that’ the recommendations presented by the Science Fairs Committee be approved and ac¬ cepted. Motion passed. Motion: By Dr. Kassner, seconded by Mr. Jen¬ nings. The Executive Committee appoints Dr. Executive Committee Meeting 111 Madison L. Marshall as State Chairman of the Science Fair Movement. Motion passed. Some discussion followed as to the wording that should be used in publicity on the Science Fairs at the regional level. The opinion of the members present was that publicity should be worded to include "sponsored by the Alabama Academy of Science." No formal action was taken on this matter. Motion: By Dr. Pigman, seconded by Dr. Bailey. The regional fairs sponsored by the Acad¬ emy must be associated in all cases with respons¬ ible persons. Motion passed. Motion: By Mr. Sulzby, seconded by Father Eisele. Although the regional science fairs are sponsored by the Academy, each fair shall be fi¬ nanced on a regional basis at no expense to the Academy. Motion passed. Motion: By Dr. Kassner, seconded by Mr. Sulz¬ by. The Alabama Academy of Science is request¬ ed to thoroughly investigate the deplorable con¬ ditions existing with regard to mathematics and science teachers m the state and that the Acad¬ emy submit its findings to the State Board of Education and bring the same before the State Legislature. O Aniendnient : By Dr. Brown, seconded by Dr. Finn. This matter is referred to the Long Range Planning Committee for consideration. Amend¬ ment approved and original motion passed. With no 'other business being presented Dr. Wilks declared the meeting adjourned at 4:40 p.m. Respectfully submitted, FIerbert a. McCullough, Secretary ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING Room 201, Biology Building, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, April 28, 1955 Dr. William T. Wilks, President, called the meeting to order at 8:10 p.m. The Secretary, upon request of the President, introduced the following members and guests; Dr. William T. Wilks, Dr. Ralph L. Chermock, Dr. Ward Pigman, Mr. Melvin Williams, Mr. J. R. Goetz, Dr. and Mrs. H. Craig Sipe, Dr. Locke White, Dr. Paul Bailey, Father Patrick Yancey, Dr. Roland Harper, Dr. Henry Walker, Mr. Flenry Jennings, Dr. E. Carl Sensenig, Dr. Clyde Cantrell, Dr. F. J. Stevens, Dr. Arthur G. Crafts, Dr. James A. Fraser. The minutes of the Executive Committee Meet¬ ing of December 4, 1954, were distributed in mimeographed form. Dr. Pigman moved and Mr. Goetz seconded the approval of the minutes. The minutes were approved. Dr. Henry Walker gave the Report of the Lo¬ cal Arrangements Committee . He made various announcements relative to the meeting including the cancellation of the field trip to the Good¬ rich Rubber Company. No formal action was taken on the report. Dr. Walker also read the Report of the Coun¬ selors of the Junior Academy and tlie Report on the Alabama State Science Talent Search. (Copies of both reports are attached.) Father Yancey moved the acceptance of these two reports. Upon a second by Dr. Bailey and a vote of the mem¬ bers the reports were accepted. The Report of the Councilor of the A.A.A.S. was read by Father Yancey. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: In the council meeting cer¬ tain routine changes in the By-Laws were ap¬ proved. In the Academy Conference it was voted to leave to the discretion of the Academies the use of research grants awarded by the A.A.A.S. Father Yancey was elected President-Elect of the Conference.) The report was accepted without formal action. The Report of the Coordinator of Science Tairs was given by Dr. M. L. Marshall. He reported that four fairs were held in Alabama this vear. three of which were affiliated with the National Science Fair. 'I'he report ua\ accepted without lormal action. The Report of the Secretar) w.i\ is. id. (Copv attaclied.) (Summary of report: The number of members of the Academy as of April 2~. loss was 4S9. The The (.leaths I't Dr, 1. ti. .Andrtw s. Dr. John Xan, and Dr. Bert Willi.ims were noted. The publicity pamphlet h.is hem printed. .\n amendment to the i,onstitution Ji.uiginr; the term ol oftiie ot the ( ouiuilor ol the .'VA .\.S. has been prepared for consideration at the .\nnual Business Meeting. A recommendation that a pub¬ lic rcT.it ions ollicer or ccimmittee be established was included.) Dr. ( antrell noted the death of Dr. J. 11 erm.in Johnstcin. Some discussHin cit the m.itter ol the public relations cilticcr c'ccurred 112 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science In tlic absence of any objection the repor/ ivas accep/eJ . 'File Re pay I of I he I'yeits/zrey was read by Dr. Wliite. (Copy attadied.) (Summary of report; Balance in general land was $1,227.2 5 and in Research I’und $795.92. A note in the report stateil that all classes of dues of $10.00 or more was credited to the research fund. 'I'his amounted to $270.00.) /Wnl/on: By Dr. Chernock, seconded by Dr. Pigman. All cIucj of private sustaining member¬ ships go into the research fund. Aiolioii pusseJ. It \.'as pointed out that the motion assumed that other dues would be credited to the general lund. The Treasurer's repor/ was accepted. Dr. Chermock commented that no Report of Al eDihevsbip Co)ii})iitlee was needed since informa¬ tion on membership had already been given. dhe Report of the Research Coo/o/ittee was given by Dr. Sensenig. (Copy attached.) (Sum¬ mary ot report: Awarding of grants, all of which had previously been announced, were mentioned, d'he problem ot knowing in advance the amount ot t Linds available to award was mentioned. A suggestion that a more thorough check be made at the end ot each year on the progress ot each project was given.) In the absence of any objec¬ tion the report ica\ accepted. The Report of the Long Range Planning Com¬ mittee was distributed in mimeographed form by Dr. Stevens in the absence of Dr. Carr. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: 'the report was chictly concerned with a study of the problems encountered in providing competent science in¬ struction tor our high school students.) Dr. White moved that the report be accepted with the de¬ letion of first .sentence. Mr. Jennings seconded and the report was accepted by the membership. d'he Report of the Finance Committee was re- cjuested. Mr. Jennings announced that there was no turther linance report. The Report of the Admission to Membership Committee was given by the Secretary. (Copy at¬ tached.) Summary of report: 110 new members have been admitted since the 195-1- annual meet¬ ing. ) In the absence of any objection the report was accepted. The Report of the Editor of the Newsletter v/as given. The Editor of the Newsletter called tor more news and suggested that one person from each institution might be designated to gather news. The report was accepted . Dr. Bailey gave the Report of the Editor of the Journal. He announced that $250.00 had been received Irom advertising in the current issue. He also indicated that the next issue of the Journal might be published by September and requested authorization to publish it. Mr. Jennings com¬ mended the Editor on the fine job he had done with the current issue. The report was accepted. Motion: By Dr. White, seconded by Mr. Jen¬ nings. The Editor is authorized to publish Vol¬ ume 27 of the Journal. Motion passed. Motion: By h’ather Yancey, seconded by Dr. Walker. The Editor of the Journal is to dedi¬ cate Volume 27 to Dr. Roland Harper in recog¬ nition of his long service on the Editorial Board and his faithfulness to the Academy. Motion passed. Dr. Harper gave a brief Report of the Edi¬ torial Board. The report was accepted. The President called upon Dr. Cantrell to give a Report of the Custodian and of the Historical Committee. Comments were made upon some as¬ pects of the early history of the Academy. Dr. Cantrell suggested the possibility of preparing an index for Volumes 1-25 of the Journal. The re¬ port was accepted without formal action. President Wilks then called for new business and presented the fact that several letters have been received from members and non-members incjuiring as to the attitude of the Academy rela¬ tive to admitting Negro members. Dr. White was called upon to read a reply which he made to a letter addressed to h.im by a member of the Academy. (Copy of letter attached.) (The fol¬ lowing quotations from the letter summarize the content ; ”... I have since consulted the President and tlie Secretary of the Academy. Neither of them knows of any ruling excluding Negroes or ot any case in which a Negro has been denied membership. I assume — and it is only an assumption until the specific situation arises — that a qualified Negro, with the endorsement of a member of the Academy, would be accepted for membership. I think that before accept¬ ing fiim, the Acaelemy would have to tell him in all sincerity and sympathy that he v/ould not be able to participate fully in all the activities of the Academy, on account of local ordinances beyond the control of the Academy. But, I think, the Academy could assure him of his complete acceptance in the purely scientific aspects of Academy mem¬ bership. If he understood and accepted that limitation on his membership, I think the Academy would almost certainly welcome him.” Executive Committee Meeting 113 ’ Because of these necessary limitations, the Academy has never thought it quite right to solicit Negro membership, but I believe it would accept, and probably welcome, un¬ sought applications from Negroes.") It was pointed out by Dr. White that the let¬ ter explicitly stated that he was speaking as an indi\idual and not for the Academy. Motion: By Mr. Williams, seconded by Dr. Pigman. The Executive Committee of the Ala¬ bama Academy of Science supports the concepts of the letter written by Dr. White and read by him to the Executive Committee. Motion to table: By Dr. Chermock, seconded by Mr. Jennings. On a vote by the show of hands of six (6) yes and ten (10) no (Secretary and President not voting) the motion to table was defeated. Dr. Walker rose to a point of order to ask whether this matter should be considered by the Executive Committee or the membership of the Academy at the Annual Business Meeting. Mr. lennings, as parliamentarian, ruled that the Ex¬ ecutive Committee had the power to act on this matter. On a vote by the show of hands of (10) yes and five (S) no (Secretary and President not \oting) the motion 3)' Ah'. Williams to accept the concepts of Dr. White' s letter was passed. Dr. Marshall read a letter from Dewey Large suggesting that a Science Fair Workshop be held in Alabama. Dr. Marshall recommended that we do not have a workshop since the Science Fair program is progressing well in the State. The matter was left to Dr. Marshall's discretion. Upon a motion by Mr. Jennings which was unanimously seconded. Dr. Wilks declared the meeting adjourned at 10;28 p.m. Respectfully submitted, Herbert A. McCullough, Secretary ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING Room 102, Biology Building, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, April 29, 1955 Dr. William T. Wilks, President, called the meeting to order at 5:05 p.m. The Secretary w'as called upon to read the minutes but upon a motion and second the mem¬ bers voted to dispense with the reading of min¬ utes. A brief Report of the Secretary was read fol¬ lowed by the reading of the Treasurer' s Report by the Secretary. In the absence of any objection the reports were declared accepted. Dr. Bailey gave a brief Report of the Editor of the Journal. No formal action was taken on this report. No reports being yet available for the Audit¬ ing Committee for the Junior Academy and Audit¬ ing Committee for the Senior Academy, the Presi¬ dent called for the report of the Nominating Com¬ mittee. Dr. Farmer gave the following nominations presented by the committee: President, Dr. Ralph L. Chermock President-Elect. Dr. J. Allen Tower Councilor of A.A.A.S.. Father Patrick H. Yancey Coordinator of Science Pairs, Dr. Madi.son L. Marshall Trustees. Mr. Vance Miles, Mr. James F. Sulz- by, Jr. I'ice President and Section Chairmen: Section I: Chairman, Dr. Everett Bishop Vice-Chairman, Dr. Margaret Green Section 11: Chairman, Dr. Frank |. Soday Vice-Chairman, Dr, Harold E. Wihox Section 111: Chairman, Mr. George W. Swindel Vice-Chairman, Dr. Frank ). Soday Section 1\': Chairman, Mr. |. M. Stauffer Vice-C:hairman,'Dr. \\h B. DcA'.dl Section \': Chairman, Mr. ). L. Hammond Vice-Chairman, Dr. F. P. Miles Section I T: ( h.iirman, Mr. George R. B\ rum Vice-Chairman, Mr. h>hn I., Sullican Section I Tl: ( hairman, Mr. Ted C. Cobun Vic e-Ciiairman, Mr. Ernest E, Sinder Section Vlll: ( h.iirman. Dr. 11. Ellsworth Stech Vice-( hairman. Dr. M.iric'ii Pc.irs.ill Journal of Alabama Academy of Science 1 14 Dr. Carmichael moved the acceptance ot the report and the election ot the slate of officers. Dr. Sipc seconded and upon a vote the report was accepted and the officers ivere declared elected. Mr. Jack Brown reported for the ConiDutlee on the Place and Ditte of Meeting. The dates and locations for the next two meetings as recomend- ed m the report are; 19^6 Meeting — Alabama College, Montevallo, March 30-.11. 1937 Meeting — State Teachers College, Jack- sonvdle, date to be announced. In the absence ot any objection the report was accepted . The Report of iLw Resolnl/oin Con/mittee was given by Dr. Tower. Dr. Sipe moved. Dr. Pigman seconded and the members voted approval of the report. President VChlks called tor new business. jWot/on: By the Secretary, seconded by Mr. Brown. Article VIII, Section 2 of the Articles ot Corporation of the Alabama Academy of Science shall be amended to read as follows: "At the close of each annual meeting, the President-elect elected at the previous annual meeting shall be¬ come President of the Academy. A new President¬ elect and officers to succeed all officers whose terms of office terminate at the current annual meeting ot the Academy shall be elected by a plurality ot the votes of the members present at said annual meeting. The term ot office for all officers shall begin at the close of the annual meeting except the Councilor of the American Association for the Advancement of Science whose term of office shall begin on January first follow¬ ing his election." Asnend meni passed. jWot/onMy the Secretary, seconded by Dr. Pig- man. The term of office for the present Councilor ot the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Father Yancey, shall be extended from the present termination date of April 30, 1933, to December 31, 193 3. Motion passed. Dr. Wilks called upon the Secretary to report on the Executive Committee Meetings of De¬ cember 4, 1934, and of April 28, 1933. The Sec¬ retary reported on the various actions of the Executive Committee including those relative to authorization to publish Volume 27 of the Jour¬ nal, the dedication of the next issue of the Journal to Dr. Roland Harper, the election of Dr. Fred Emerson and Dr. Roland Harper to Honorary Membership, and the matter of Negro member¬ ship. The President called for any comments or objections. None were heard. After a second call for objections and in the absence of any dissen- tion the President declared the report accepted. The meeting was adjourned at 3:33 p.m. Respectfully submitted, Herbert A. McCullou(,h, Secretary REPORT OF THE RESOLUTIONS COMMFFTEE Your Resolutions Committee submits herewith the following three resolutions: 1. Whereas the Alabama Academy of Science is successt Lilly completing its thirty-second an¬ nual meeting now, therefore, be it resolved: 1 hat the Academy expresses its appreciation to the University of Alabama and to its President, Dr. Oliver C. Carmichael, to the Tuscaloosa Chamber of Commerce, and to the Tuscaloosa News; That special appreciation is expressed for the work ot Mr. Henry Walker, Chairman ot the Local Arrangements Committee for the Senior Academy, Mr. James H. Eads, Jr., Chairman of the Local Arrangements Ciommittee, to the mem¬ bers of the A. E. D. and to the graduate students of the Biology Department; That the gratitude of the Academy is expressed to Mr. J. K. Lunsford and the Birmingham Di¬ vision ot E. H. Sargent and Co. for their hospi¬ tality in providing the Annual Academy Dinner; to McKesson and Robbins, Inc., of Birmingham tor their hospitality in providing the dinner for the finalists and the Scholarship Committee, Ala¬ bama State Science Talent Search; and to Gulf States for their provision of the field trip. 2. Whereas Roland M. Harper is retiring from his position as Chairman of the Editorial Board, now therefore, be it resolved that the Academy express its appreciation tor the many years of diligent and devoted service he has contributed in that and in other capacities. 3. Whereas, during the past year death has de¬ prived the Academy of the valued services of four ot its members, now therefore, be it resolved that the Academy express its sympathy to the families of Dr. T. G. Andrews, Dr. J. Herman Johnson, Dr. Bert C. Williams, and Dr. John Xan, and its appreciation of the loyal and valuable service they gave to the Academy. Respectfully submitted, James A. Fraser H. A. McCullough J. Allen Tower, Chairman Dr. Kassner Receives Citation 115 DR. JAMES L. KASSNER RECEIVES CITATION EROM ALABAMA ACADEMY OE SCIENCE The Alabama Academy of Science hon¬ ored Dr. James L. Kassner, professor and head of the division of analytical chemistry at the LAiversity of Alabama, by presenting him with a special citation in the form of a plaque at the annual banquet of the Ala¬ bama Junior Academy of Science, April 29, 1955. The Alabama Senior Academy in execu¬ tive session unanimously voted Dr. Kassner the citation in appreciation of his tireless efforts during his many years of service to Alabama students and his "meritorious DR. JAMKS L. KASSNER (rig:lil) is sliovvn recoiving the citation from Dr. Emmett B. Carmichael. achievements” with the Alabama Junior Academy of Science. Dr. Emmett B. Carmichael, in presenting the plaque, praised Dr. Kassner for his ac¬ complishments as a teacher and for his con¬ tinued efforts in science youth movements — the Junior Academy, the Alabama State Science Talent Search, the Gorgas Scholar¬ ship Foundation, Inc., and the newly-or¬ ganized science fair program. The citation reads: The Alabama Acad¬ emy of Science, Junior Academy Award, is hereby conferred upon James Lyle Kassner for meritorious achievement in The Alabama Junior Academy of Science under the spon¬ sorship of The Alabama Academy of Sci¬ ence. In Testimony whereof, the Alabama Academy of Science has caused this award to be signed by its officers and its seal to be hereto affixed this 29th day of April in the year 1955 at Tuscaloosa, Alabama. AMENDED FINANCIAL STATEMENT ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE April 21, 1955 Assets, 3/22/54 Receipts . . $1,725.92 . 2,478.60 Disbursements ... $4,20-1. S2 . 2,181.35 Balance . . $2,023.17 Assets, 3/22/5-4 Receipts . Geiiei'dl KL'iv.irib . S1,213.2S 8S12.67 . 1,84 3.60 63S,(H) Disbursements ... $3.0^6.8S 1,1 . 1.610.00 ^61. ■’S $l.l3'’.2S S^8S.o2 I.(HKi W'lmr. |k.. / I'l ecr Nolo; D .^itribution o f tUios bot woou fosoarob aiui gonoral funds lias now boon ohangod. in aooordanoo with rul¬ ing of Kxooutivo C'oniinit too on ,\pnl 'Jn, Tho onl,v dous oroilitod to tho losoarob fuuil avo llioso tia>ni indi vidua 1 susta iuing niombors. 116 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science ALABAMA STATE TALENT SEARCH FOR GENERAE GORGAS SCHOEARSHIPS Tlie Fifth Alabama State Science Talent^ Search was held in 1954-35. This year sixty-one high schools requested entry material for 398 seniors, 80 of whom completed the science aptitude examinations, submitted recommenclatitins and scholarship records and wrote reports on "My Science Project.’’ After Science Clubs of America picked the national winners, all Alabama entry ma¬ terial was forwarded to us for selection of winners of the General Gorgas Scholarships. Our Scholarship Committee then selected 1. Kassner, James I... “Aiahttma State Science Talent Searcli.” Jour. Ala. Acad. Sci.. 20. p. OG. 1948. ten white entries and five Negro entries. The ten finalists (six boys and 4 girls) in this year’s ca)ntest are from ten high schools in Alabama. Nine of these high schools are members of the Junior Academy. These finalists were invited, as guests of The Gor¬ gas Scholarship Foundation, to Tuscaloosa, Alabama, on April 29-30, 1955. They were entcrtainerl at a banquet by McKesson &; Robbins, Inc., along with the judges and other representatives from the Senior Acad¬ emy. After the banquet each of the finalists demonstrated and discussed his project with all of the judges. The finalists were then personally interviewed by each of the judges. WINNERS IN THE .\NNUAL ALAB.-CMA State Science Talent Search for General Gorgas Scholarships. From left to right, Mr. John P. Singleton, plant manager for Central Foundry, Holt. Alabama, who announced the winners; Oliver Jack Edwards, first alternate. Shades Valley High School, Birmingham; Thomas Otis White, fourth place winner. Phillips High Scliool. Birmingham; Kibbee Dean Streetman, third place winner. West End High School, Birmingham; Lida Swafford, sec¬ ond place winner. Murphy High School. Mobile; Coley Clifton Mills, first place winner. Sidney Lanier High School, Mont¬ gomery. 117 The judges for the Alabama contest are: Dr. Emmett B. Carmichael, Chairman Dr. Howard E. Carr Dr. lohn A. Fincher Dr. Fred Lewis Dr. lames T. MacKenzie Dr. \Xhlliam R. Smithey, Jr. Dr. Frank J. Soday Dr, 1. A. Southern Dr. F. J. Stevens Dr. Locke White, Jr. Dr. Harold E. Wilcox Father Patrick H. Yancey, S.J. These finalists then participated in the activities of the Junior Academy of Science April 29 and 30. The winners of the 1954- 55 scholarships for white students, announc¬ ed by Mr. John P. Singleton, Plant Manager, Central Foundry Co., at the annual banquet of the Junior Academy on April 29, 1955, are: F/rst Award — Coley Clifton Mills, Jr., from Sidney Lanier High School, Montgomery, Alabama. Miss Frances D. Jones, teacher. Title of Science Project, "Some Theories on an Elementary Topic in Theory of Numbers.’’ This award is SI 200 ($300 per year) plus college tuition for four years. Second Award — Lida Inge Swafford, from Mur¬ phy High School, Mobile, Alabama. Miss Ella C. Frantzen, teacher. Title of Science Project, "The Effects of Sodium Pentothal on the Leukocyte Differential Count of the DBA-2 Strain of Mice.” This award is $900 ($225 per year ) plus college tuition for four years. Third Award — Kibbee Dean Streetman, from West End High School, Birmingham, Ala¬ bama. Miss Mary E. Hafling, teacher. Title of Science Project, "Experiment wdth Alpha Beta and Gama Rays.” This award is $600 ($150 per year) plus college tuition for four years. Fourth Award — Thomas Otis Wliite, from Phillips High School, Birmingham, Alabama. Michael Baranelli, teacher. Title of Science Project, "Characteristics and Calculations of the Binding Energy of Atomic Nuclei.” This award is $500 ($125 per year) plus college tuition for four years. First Alternate — Oliver Jack Edwards, from Shades Valley High School, Birmingham, Alabama. Wilbert Robinson, teacher. Title of Science Project, "The Van de Graff Gen¬ erator.” Second Alternate — Linda Rodgers, from Tusca¬ loosa County High School, Northport, Ala¬ bama. Mrs. W. B. Hargrove, teacher. Title of Science Project, "A Renosance Experi¬ ment.” The first white award winner has his choice of the educational institution he wishes to attend, chosen from and limited to the institutions named belov/: Alabama College Alabama Polytechnic Institute Birmingham-Southern College Howard College Huntingdon College Spring Hill College University of Alabama Likewise, in numerical order of award, the other white scholarship winners indicate their choice from the remaining institutions. The remaining four white finalists re¬ ceived Honorable Mention. These four fin¬ alists are listed alphabetically: Betty Sue Evans, from Russellville High School, Russellville, Alabama; Mrs. Bertha Under¬ wood, teacher. Ray Willis Hester, from C. I’. Vigor High School, Prichard, Alabama; Miss Lucille N. Lloyd, teacher. Edv'ard Michael Sanford, from XCLilker County High School, Jasper, Alabama; C. M. Karrh, teacher. Evelyn Adelaide W'heeler, from Ensley High School, Birmingham, Alabama; Mrs. Reba C. Ponder, teacher. Alabama students whca won honorable mentions in the W'estinghouse National ('.on test are: Kibbee D can Streetman Lida Inge Swafford Evcl\'n Adelaide \\’ heeler 1 lie Negro finalists were united tci Bir mingham on )une l, 1955, as guests cif Tin' Ciorgas Scholarship Found.ition. Thev were personally interviewed Saturdav afternoon by the judges at the Southern Research Insti tute. I'he students and teachers were tak i 118 Journal of Alabama Acadl;mv of Science on u tour of the Institute while the judges deliberated, after which the winner was an¬ nounced. Saturday evening they were enter¬ tained at a bancjuet along with the teachers and principals from their respective schools. Mr. C. W. Hayes, Director of Negro Schools for Jefferson County, looked after the hous¬ ing and entertainment for the Negro final¬ ists. From among the five Negro final con¬ testants, one was selected by the judges to receive the four-year Ciorgas Scholarship \'alued at $1200 ($300 per year) plus col¬ lege tuition for four years. The winner had his chriice of the following institutions: O Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical College The Alabama State College for Negroes I'uskegee Institute I'he W’iuner — Raymond Edward Crittenden, from D. A. Smith High School, Ozark, Ala¬ bama. Felix Blackwood, Jr., teacher. Title of Science Project, "Experiments with Thermi¬ onic Vacuum Tubes.” F/n/ AUernale — Nudie Eugene Williams, from lAirfield Industrial High School, Fairfield, Alabama. Henry L. Dobbins, teacher. Title of Science Project, "Construction and the Principle of a Slide Projector.” SetoncJ Alternate — Fannie Mae Adamson, from Parker High School, Birmingham, Alabama. Mrs. M. W. johnson, teacher. Title of Sci¬ ence Project, " Hair Preparations.” The other two finalists received Honor¬ able Mention. These are listed alphabetic- ally: Albertine Dials, from Central High School, Mobile, Alabama. W. E. Thomas, teacher, d itle of Science Project, " A Classified Study of Rocks of Mobile County, Alabama.” Edward Ross, from Fairfield Industrial High School, Fairfield, Alabama. Henry L. Dob¬ bins, teacher. Title ot Science Project, "Gen¬ erator.” A copy of the booklet of the Alabama State Science Talent Search is attached to this report. James L. Kassner, Chahituin The Gorgjs SchoLtrshtp Toundatiou, Inc. ALABAMA ACADEMY AWARD 1955 d’he Alabama Academy Award, highest honor given to a high school science teacher in Alabama, was conferred upon Miss Mary E. Hafling at the twenty-first annual con¬ vention of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science. Three hundred high school students and their sponsors representing 28 science clubs from Alabama high schools were present at the Friday evening banquet to see Miss Haf¬ ling receive the top award. The award con¬ sists of a citation and a yellow gold pin. The Academy Award is given each year by the Alabama Academy of Science to a science teacher for meritorious teaching of science. The purpose of the award is to recognize those teachers who go beyond classroom to stimulate scientific endeavor among their students. The citation reads: The Alabama Acad¬ emy of Science hereby confers upon Mary E. Hafling this award for meritorious teach¬ ing of high school science in the State of Alabama, as demonstrated by the participa¬ tion of her Science Club in the Alabama Junior Academy of Science. In testimony whereof, the Alabama Academy of Science has caused this award to be signed by its officers and its seal to be hereto affixed this 29th clay of April in the year 1955 at Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Miss Mary E. Hafling is a native Ala¬ bamian and is a graduate from Ensley High School, Birmingham, A.Iabama. She received her B.S. degree from Alabama College in 1936; she has done graduate work at Car¬ negie Institute of Technology, University of Alabama Center, Howard College and Uni¬ versity of Tennessee. She began her teaching career with the Birmingham public schools in 1936, and has been science teacher at the West End High Academy Award 119 School since 19-12. Miss Hafling has been interested in the work of the Audubon So¬ ciety and spent the summer of 1952 at the Audubon Camp in Texas. Miss Hafling reorganized the science club at W'est End in 1944 and has been sponsor to the club since that time. Since 1944 the club has attended and taken a very acti\e part in every annual con\’ention of the Ju¬ nior Academy. Last year, Carl R. Stringfellow, Jr., one of her students, won first place in the Ala¬ bama State Science Talent Search for Gen¬ eral Gorgas Scholarships. Kibbee Streetman, another of her students and president of the Junior Academy, won third place in the contest this year. What a science club does depends largely on the enthusiasm as well as the ability of the sponsor to direct projects. A successful sponsor learns the thrill of directing youth, willing to work for the joy of working. MISS MARY E. HAFLING, science teacher at West End Hign Sctioul, Birmingham, is shown receiving the citation from James L. Kassner. University of Alabama professor, and Permanent Counselor to The Alaham.a Junior ,\ctidemy of Science. 120 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science REPORT OF COUNSELOR ALABAMA |UNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FOR THE YEAR 1954-53 Plans for the 1955 annual con\ention of the Alabama Junior Academy were made at the fall executive meeting which was held at the Medical Center November 6, 1954. All of the officers and counselors were present at the meeting. Seven additional high school science clubs have applied for membership in the Junior Academy this year. This brings the total number of active chapters to -i6 for the 195-1-55 academic year. The executive committee voted to limit to ten the number of delegates that a chapter can send to the annual convention; to ask each chapter to nominate officers for a specific office; to con¬ tinue to use loving cups as aw'ards for papers and exhibits. The awards this year have been made possible by the generosity of Mr. James F. Sulzby, Jr., F’isher Scientific Company, Birmingham Section ot the American Chemical Society, and an anony¬ mous donor. These triends have donated funds to defray the entire cost of these award cups (10) this year. The constitution and by-law's of the Junior Academy have been revised and will be presented to the members for approval at the annual con¬ vention and w'ill be presented to the fall execu¬ tive committee meeting of the Senior Academy in 1955. A small filing cabinet has been purchased to house the records of the Junior Academy. 1 have enjoyed my w'ork with the Junior Acad¬ emy and will always cherish the many friends I have made while serving as permanent counselor, however, I am sorry that I now find it necessary to resign because my duties as permanent coun¬ selor and chairman of the Gorgas Scholarship Foundation, Inc., have become too great a bur¬ den. Since I was instrumental in organizing the Foundation, I feel that it is my duty to carry on here and let someone else work wdth the Junior Academy. I would like to take this opportunity to thank and express my appreciation to all the sponsors of high school clubs, officers of the Junior Acad¬ emy and the many members of the Senior Acad¬ emy for their support and fine cooperation during my term of office. I w'ould especially like to thank Dr. J. Henry Walker, associate counselor in charge of exhibits and papers, for his help and very fine cooperation. It it had not been for his help, I would have had to resign several years ago. James L. Kassner PevDidtient Coiniselor REPORT OF COOPERATOR TO SCIENCE CLUBS OF AMERICA FOR THE YEAR 1954-55 This year 326 of the approximately 500 white and Negro high schools in Alabama were af¬ filiated with Science Clubs of America. A two day Regional Science Fair Work Con¬ ference was held at the University of Mississippi, November 12 and 13, 1954. The conference was organized under the leadership of Mr. Dewey E. Large, F'ield Representative, Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies. Forty-two persons from Ala¬ bama attended the conference. Representatives from all the four-year colleges in Alabama met at the Southern Research Insti¬ tute on December 4, 1954, and endorsed the Sci¬ ence Fair Program. This group recommended to the Executive Committee of the Senior Academy that Dr. Madison L. Marshall be asked to be State chairman of the Science Fair Program. This year three regional Science Fairs were held in Alabama. The first fair was held at Vigor High School, Prichard, November 19, under the leadership of Mr. James S. Atterhury, Jr., and Mrs. Lucille Lloyd. The North Alabama Regional Science Fair was held at Athens College, April 1 and 2, 1955, Dr. Arthur B. Beindoriff, Direc¬ tor. The North Central Alabama Regional Science Fair was held at Birmingham-Southern College, April 22, 23, 1955, Dr. Emmett B. Carmichael, Chairman. Two students, a boy and a girl, were given an all expense trip from each Region to the Na¬ tional Science Fair at Cleveland, Ohio, May 12-14, 1955. Miss Kay Cowan. 17-year-old Bessemer High School student, won fourth place in the National Contest with her exhibit on Hematology Blood Diseases, and Micro-organisms. Local Science Fairs were held in many high schools in each region. Tuscaloosa County held a Science Fair at the University of Alabama, April 15 and 16, 1955, under the leadership of Mrs. W. B, Hargrove and Mr. Leon D. Willman. Signed : James L. Kassner A ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PROGRAM OF TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA UNIVERSIT^^ ALABAMA APRIL 29-30, UU*) 122 Journal of Alabama Acaufmv of Science ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OE SCIENCE Offickrs, 1954-55 President . Kibbee Streetman, West End Eligh School Vice President . Eddie Huffman, Coffee High School Secretary . Martlia Earle, Baldwin Count High School 1 reasurer . Charles Pritchard, Russellville High School Counselors, 1954-5 5 Counselor to President . Mary E. Hafling, West End High School Counselor to Vice President . Eleanor Ann Ford, Coffee High School Counselor to Secretary . Lillian Leonard, Baldwin County High School Counselor to Treasurer . Bertha A. Underwood, Russellville High School Counselor at Place of Meeting . Prof. James H. Eads, Jr., University of Alabama Cc“)ordinator for Science Clubs of America . Dr. James L. Kassner, University, Alabama Associate Counselor . Dr. j. Henry Walker, University of Alabama Permanent Counselor . Dr. James L. Kassner, University of Alabama School *Albertville High School * Athens . Baldwin County . * Bessemer . Bishop Toolen . Chilton County . Choctaw County . Coffee . Cullman . Curry . Decatur . Deshler . Dora . Douglas . Ensley . Fairhope . Eairview . * Foley . Chapter Members, 1954-1955 Spoil ujy Address . Albertville . Mrs. Gloria Hill Clem, Athens . Miss Lillian Leonard, Bay Minette . John A. Martin, Bessemer . Sister Marian Alberta, Mobile . Miss Marguerite Perry, Clanton . Mrs. Vivian P. Gilmore, Butler . Miss Eleanor Ford, Florence . Miss Opal Cooper, Cullman . Mrs. Sarah Ann Salmon, Jasper . Gilbert W. Fowler, Decatur . John Tuggle, Tuscumbia . Mrs. Dorothy Ellison, Dora . J. A. McGee, Douglas . Reba C. Ponder, Birmingham . Mrs. Barney L. Shull, Fairhope . Miss Ruth Kirby, Cullman . Clyde J. McSpadden, Foley Officers and Chapter Members 123 *Goshen . Mrs. Gladys Cowart, Goshen *Hewitt-TrussvilIe . Mrs. Ruth Adams, Trussville Hueytown . Miss Edith Geisler, Hueytown *Indian Springs . Mr. Eed Cobun, Indian Springs Lanett . Miss Helen Waid, Lanett Sidney Lanier . Mrs. Frances D. Jones, Mr. James L. Price, Montgomery Thomas W. Martin . Mrs. C. M. Tyndall, Gorgas McAdory . Mrs. Ruby L. Hodge, McCalla McGill Institute . Brother Cyr, S. C., Mobile Mercy (Convent of) . Sister Mary Aloysius, R. S. M., Mobile Minor . Mrs. Margaret McCluskey, Miss Claudia Smith, Birmingham, Route 14 Morgan County . Mr. Raymond Screws, Mrs. Dorothy Myers, Hartselle Murphy . Miss Mary Bragg, Mobile Phillips . Mr. Michael Baranelli, Birmingham Red Bay . Mrs. Gordon Gober, Red Bay Russellville . Mrs. Edgar Underwood, Russellville Sacred Heart Academy . Sister Mary Charles, O.S.B., Cullman St. Bernard . Rev. Gerald Bray, O.S.B., St. Bernard Shades Valley . Mrs. Rachael Merrill, Birmingham Sheffield . Miss Mary Ella Hammond, Sheffield Talladega . Mr. James H. Ingle, Talladega Troy . Mr. S. W. Griffin, Troy Tuscaloosa County . Mrs. Geraldine Hargrove, Northport Tuscaloosa Senior . Mr. Wayne Norman, Tuscaloosa C. F. Vigor . Mrs. Lucille N. Lloyd, Mr. J. S. Atteberry, Jr., Pridiard West End . Miss Mary E. Hafling, Birmingham Woodlawn . Mrs, Malone, Birmingham Voted in at Annual Meeting. 124 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science PAPER PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WINNING FIRST PRIZE PHOTOMODULATOR By Earl Jackson Ray and Fred W allwork \Y'est Em] High School, BivminghaDi Making a photomodulator is one of the many experiments in light which my part¬ ner and 1 have done. The photomodulator is a device which alters a beam of light by use of an electric current which has been altered by sound. The energy of the beam of light is then reconverted into an electric current and then back to sound. Thus it is a method of transmitting messages by means of a light beam. It may be called "talking on a light beam.” The process of placing the message on the light beam is called modulation. current of a radio receiver. (See diagram 1.) We have replaced the loudspeaker of the radio with a flash light by connecting the flash light in series with the transformer of the radio. The A.C. impulse from the sec¬ ondary of the transformer adds to or sub¬ tracts from the 3-volt battery voltage. This causes the bulb’s light output to vary at the same frequency as the sound in the send¬ ing station. Thus we impress the message on a light beam. Now the message must be taken off the light beam and changed back to sound. In our photomodulator the source of the modulation current is the voice modulated The phototube is the main part of the re¬ ceiver. (See diagram IE) The phototube is PM. Speaker- Tr- dnsFo r me.r- D ram I Photomodulator 125 simply a two electrode vacuum tube, with a light sensitive cathode. Light shining on the cathode causes emission of electrons from its coating of cesium. When a charge is placed on the electrodes making the anode positive with respect to the cathode, the emitted electrons are attracted to the anode and travel through the vacuum between the electrodes. Thus the current flowing from the tube is proportional to the intensity of the light falling on the cathode. The greater the intensity of light, the greater is the cur¬ rent passed by the tube. If the light varies in intensity, as does our modulated beam, the current will also vary in intensity at the same frequency thus converting the energy of the varying light beam successfully to a changing electric current. After we have a changing electric current. !t is a simple matter to convert it into sound. Before the current is changed into sound, it must be amplified or made stronger so that the resulting sound will be louder. We em¬ ploy a triode vacuum tube to amplify the current. To cause the amplified current, which is still changing at the same frequen¬ cy as before to sound, we need only to send i: through a loudspeaker. The loudspeaker consists of an electromagnet and an iron diaphram. The magnetism of the electro¬ magnet will vary in strength as the current flowing in it increases and decreases in strength. This varying magnetism causes the iron diaphram to vibrate and cause sound. The sound is like the original sound pro¬ duced in the radio sending station. The range or distance the light of this photomodulator can be transmitted depends "Diagram H LigK't' Ftrom Limp 126 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science on the efficiency of the light source. By em¬ ploying parabolic reflectors and ca)nvex lenses the light can be concentrated and made to shine farther. A larger light source cannot be used because the coil filaments of a larger lamp are too slow in reacting to the impulse of the varying voltage. The photomodulator works better in a dark room since it is free from interfering rays of light. The photomodulator principle works well as a means of supplying sound for movies. Although photomodulator transmission is less expensive than ordinary radio trans¬ mission, it will never replace radio trans¬ mission as a means of broadcasting mes¬ sages. Its chief disadvantage is that the strength of the light dwindles with the dis¬ tance, and another beam of light can inter¬ fere with its operation. Also a different re¬ ceiver has to be made for each separate transmitter unless the receiver can be made so that it can rotate in order to receive light from another transmitter. Ordinary radio re¬ ceivers receive broadcasts from all transmit¬ ters simultaneously and choose only one at a time to convert into sound. Even though the photomodulator will lead to no innovations in broadcasting, it has pro¬ vided for us a new field of light experimen¬ tation and has given us new ideas for the construction of an instrument that will be able to determine magnitudes of stars by measuring the intensity of their light. This instrument when used with our telescopes will help us in a survey of the sky. PAPER PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OE SCIENCE WINNING SECOND PRIZE ACNE AND ITS SO-CALLED CURES By Charles Herbert Brown Murphy High School, Mobile According to Funk and Wagnall’s Dic¬ tionary, ucue is a corruption of ukuie, the Greek word for point. This is a good de¬ scription of this eruptive disease of the se¬ baceous glands. Doctors say that this nuisance disease of teen-agers is caused by various things, rang¬ ing from uncleanliness to dysfunction of the glands. There is also disagreement about a mode of relieving this condition. Acne, according to most sources, is di¬ rectly caused by a stoppage of the sebaceous or oil glands of the skin. This condition leads to a backing up of the oil. Dirt enters the outer pore, causing a blackhead or come- done. When this blackhead is subjected to a certain type of staphylococcus bacteria, it develops into an almost perfect conical pus¬ tule or abscess. I’his cycle is followed in all the three major types of the disease. Acne simplex or vulgaris is the most common type. It is characterized by the pustule being the most striking feature. When black points abound, it is acne puncata. Decided induration is a sign of acne indurata. One of the minor types is acne valiformsi or infectious acne, which is found near the scalpline of the forehead. Other names for this type are acne necro- tia and acne frontalis. The back of the neck is affected by acne keloid or dermatitis papillaris capillitii. Most doctors agree that acne is affected by diet and recommend abstaining from sweets, oils, iodized salt, and chocolate. Some doctors say that X-ray will dry up acne, but I have found that relief is usually Acne and Its So-Called Cures 127 only temporary. X-ray is dangerous and may cause permanent damage to the skin. An antiseptic may help in stopping the black¬ heads from forming the pimples or abscesses normally associated with this disease. Many doctors say that acne sufferers should bathe the affected area in hot water to open the pores and help clear up the blackheads. This should be followed by an application of cold water to close the pores again and prevent the passage of dirt and germs. All these things bring partial relief. As you can readily see, there is great dif¬ ference of opinion concerning this disease. Acne affects people up to eighty years of age. Teen-agers are the most likely to have it. Acne affects not only the face but also the chest, shoulders and back in some cases. Through research and personal experi¬ ence, I have formulated a theory which could explain all the types of acne. I be¬ lieve that when the small hair erupts from a sort of seed, it catches on the side of the pore in growing out, and backs up in its growth. If the end reaches the surface of the skin, I believe that the hair has a loop or enlargement in it caused by the difficulty in coming out. This loop or enlargement lying beneath the surface would partially clog up the pore and stop the passage of oil. From here on I believe in the customary cycle of infection. Most of the doctors’ theories are tied into my own. A few of the instances are; X-ray will destroy the hair that is coming out. In fact, people may be shaved by X-ray. Vita¬ mins are used to help acne. They also strengthen the hair and might help it come through straight. Ultraviolet light, which helps acne, will kill the bacteria. The cold and hot water routine may help the hair to get room to straighten out. Some doctors associate acne with malaction of the glands. It is surprising the effect the glands have on hair growth. The Thymus gland will stunt the growth of the beard if it is underactive. The Thyroid and Adrenal glands may af¬ fect hair growth. The Pituitary gland exerts a great influence on hair growth. The sex glands affect the way in which hair grows. Another factor in support of my theory is that I no longer have acne where I have a good growth of beard. Other boys who have been late starting a beard have no acne, and girls who have acne have a growth of hair on their faces. In myself, I notice hair where there was none before I had acne in that area. I would also like to play up the fact that there is a hair in every acne pimple. I believe that the disease may be cured by the use of a hormone or \ itamin to strength- en the hair. Thymus extracts could be es¬ pecially effective. 128 MINUTES OF THE ALABAMA [UNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING April 29,-30, 1955 The official delegates, officers, and Dr. James E. Kassner met in the Auditorium, Physics Build¬ ing, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, for caucus. President Kibbee Streetman called the caucus to order. He then explained that the pur¬ pose of the meeting was to formulate a slate for Saturday’s election. The President opened the floor for additional nominations. After further nominations were made the nominees were dis¬ missed. Forms stating the qualifications of the candidates were then passed out. After discussing these qualifications, the candidates were then re¬ called. Each candidate then spoke in his own be¬ half. A vote of official delegates made the fol¬ lowing slate; President: Wayne Ross . Minor High Eerd Mitchell . Tuscaloosa Senior High i'/ce Preside)!!: Margaret Holmes . Baldwin County High Martin O’Ned . St. Bernard High Secretary: Patricia Cannon . Mercy High Kendall Black . Ensley High Treasurer: Thomas Mulligan . John Carroll High David Sidel . Murphy High The Secretary, Martha Earle, then called the roll. The chapters answering roll call were: Official Delegate School Neil Bush . Baldwin County High Anna Rasmussen . Bishop Toolen High |ohn King . John Carroll High Gerald (ackson . Choctaw County High Billy Townsley . Coffee County High Jacqueline Powey . Convent of Mercy Billy Landers . Decatur High Elarwell Holmes . Cullman High C. Donald Barton . Dora High Ronald Pankey . Douglas High David Glenn . Ensley High Charles Felters . Fairhope High Bill Lee . Hewitt-Trussville High Betsy Nichols . Hueytown High Martha Anton . McAdory High Donald Earnest . McGill Institute Sybil Ross . Minor High Joseph McCollum . Murphy High Marion Wright . Red Bay High Jeanette Wolf . Sacred Heart Academy Official Delegate Sciwol Sam Grow . St. Bernard High David Ivey . Shades Valley High Don Roger . Sheffield High Josh Johnson . Troy High Susan Washburn . Tuscaloosa High Billy Cochran . C. F. Vigor High Pat Daugherty . West End High I’ rank Howard . Woodlawn High Being no further business the meeting was ad¬ journed until 12:15 p.m. The officers of AJAS and sponsors of all chapters met in the Union Building Cafeteria private dining room for luncheon and executive meeting. Dr. Kassner extended his thanks and appre¬ ciation for the representation of chapters in A]AS and for their full cooperation and participation m the convention. At this meeting it was suggested that considera¬ tion be made of Science I’airs in Alabama and Gorgas Finalists. It was then arbitrarily ruled that students go¬ ing to Cleveland could exhibit projects at the annual convention of AJAS, but not be judged. The motion was made and tabled to allow five finalists who do not win a Gorgas Scholarship to compete in A [AS. A discussion on approval of cups then took place. It was agreed by the entire group that cups be awarded as previously had been for win¬ ners of exhibits and papers. The executive committee decided to encourage winners or finalists in Science Fairs to exhibit projects at the AJAS convention — anything from Science Fairs can be brought to AJAS with same application of Gorgas Scholarship contestants. Dr. Kassner then suggested that Alabama have one Grand Regional Fair in Birmingham with local fairs participating in Grand Regional. Kibbee Streetman then appointed a Resolutions Committee. They were: Miss Eleanor Ford . Coffee High Sister Mary Charles . Sacred Heart Academy Mr. Robert Youngblood . Woodlawn High Being no further business the meeting was ad¬ journed until 4:00 p.m. The business meeting of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science was held at 4:00 in the auditorium of the Physics Building. Officers, dele- Junior Academy gaces, sponsors and other members of the Acad¬ emy attended. President Kibbee Streetman called the meeting to order. The Secretary, Martha Earle, then called the roll. The motion was made and seconded for the admission of : Albertville, Indian Springs, Goshen, Hewitt-Trussville, Foley, and Helena. An offi¬ cial vote was then made and these w'ere accepted as chapters in AJAS. Secretary Martha Earle read two of the more interesting annual report of chapter activities du¬ ring the preceding year. Next on the agenda candidates for offices of AJAS were introduced to the assembly after which they spoke m their behalf. Kibbee Streetman then stressed that official delegates give careful consideration of the candi¬ dates and of the election. The appointees for the resolutions committee were announced by President Streetman with an addition of student representatives who were Josh Johnson,Troy High School, and Martha Anton, McAdory High School. At this time Kibbee Streetman announced that the banquet and informal dance would be held at 7:30 and 8:30 respectively, and that if Acad¬ emy members did not attend the banquet or dance, the telescopes would be opened for observation. Campaign managers then addressed the as¬ sembly in behalf of their candidates. Dr. Kassner announced that two clubs, Athens and Bessemer, had asked entrance into the Acad¬ emy and that this unfinished business be taken care of. The motion was made and seconded that the Gorgas Scholarship Entries have no authorization to enter projects in AJAS. Discussion followed concerning this motion pro and con. The motion was carried and hereafter will go into effect. A motion was then made, seconded, and car¬ ried to accept Athens and Bessemer into the Academy. Meeting was then adjourned until Saturday morning. The annual banquet of the Junior Academy was held in the Union Building Annex Dining Room. The invocation was given by Father Cliarlcs Reiner, O.S.B. Mr. Jefferson Bennett tlien ex¬ tended a welcome to officers, delegates, sponsors and members at the banquet. Dr. Emmett B. Car¬ michael then introduced President Kibbee Street- man who delivered the presidential address. Dr. Emmett B. Carmicliael introduced Dr. James L. Kassner, permanent counselor to tlic Academy who then announced tire winner of llie 129 Academy Award for meritorious teaching of sci¬ ence. This award was presented to Miss Mary Hafling, sponsor at West End. Mr. John P. Singleton then announced the Gorgas Scholarship winners. They are: First Place: Coley Clifton Mills, Jr., Lamar Road, Mont¬ gomery, Alabama Second Place: Lida Inge Swafford, 63 Silverwood Street, Mobile, Alabama Third Place: Kibbee Dean Streetman, 813 12th St. S.W., Birmingham, Alabama Fourth Place: Thomas Otis White, 711 Eighth Terrace, Birmingham, Alabama First Alternate: Oliver Jack Edwards, 106 Hawthorne Road, Birmingham, Alabama Second Alternate: Linda Rodgers, Crabbee Road, Northport, Alabama Dr. Emmett B. Carmichael in behalf of the Senior Academy, presented Dr. James L. Kass¬ ner a special citation for his many years of serv¬ ice as permanent counselor to the AJAS. Following the banejuet a gala party and in¬ formal sejuare dance was held in Foster Audi¬ torium, University of Alabama. The Saturday meeting of the Alabama [unior Academy of Science was called to order by Presi¬ dent Kibbee Streetman at 9:00, April 30. One paper was read, but due to an absence of judges. Dr. Kassner postponed presentation of papers until their arrival. The resolutions committee consisting of: Miss Eleanor Ford, Sister Mary Charles, Mr. Robert Youngblood, Martha Anton, and Josh |ohnson, then presented the following report to the as¬ sembly. Be it resohed that the Alabam.i hmior .\c.id- emy of Science go on rexord as exteni.ling thanks to the following: Members ot the 1'. D.; Gr.id- uate Students ot the Biulog\' DLpartment; Dr. Willis Baughman; Mr. lid. I'lrown; Mr. Rfl ICn- nett; Dr. Exerelt Bishop; Mrs, In.i B.irbci. Cr.uis ; Dr. Henry W'.ilker; Dr. I.inns 11. Fads. |r,; Dr. James 1.. Kassner; Dr. I.uiks Cummins; C of L. P. 1 loilnette; Mr. \'aiKe Miles: De.m F. Neige Todhunter; Mr. F. J. Finnell. |r.; Uni\i.rsit\ oi Alabam.i; the Gull St.iles P.qs(.|- ( omp.mv; .uul the [udges ot the Exhibits: Mr. lohn B.iswell. Dr. Ilow.ird ( .irr. Dr. F. Gibbs P.itlon. Dr. Wil li.im Smitherm.m, .uul Mr. |,imes Sul/bv. 130 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Be it turtlier resolved that a copy of this reso¬ lution be mailed to each of the above mentioned. A motion was made, seconded, and carried tliat this resolution committee’s report be accepted. The President then expressed his gratitude and appreciation for the cooperation of chapters in the Junior Academy and commended them for their excellent work exhibited and presented. At tliis time election of officers for the year 19^5-56 took place. The following were elected: Pyes/deni: Ferd Mitchell, Tuscaloosa Senior High Mr. Wayne Norman, Sponsor ] 'ne Pres /dent: Margaret Holmes, Baldwin County High Miss Lillian Leonard, Sponsor Secretary: Kendall Black, Ensley High Mrs. Reba C. Ponder, Sponsor Treainrer: David Sidel, Murphy High Miss Mary Bragg, Sponsor Upon arrival of the judges presentation of pa¬ pers again took place with the following de¬ liveries: 1. Manufacture of Paper- -Donald Boan, Baldwin County 2. Germ Free Life — Patrick Moran, John Car- roll 3. Nuclear Physics — Gerald Jackson, Choctaw County 4. Liesegang Rings — Eddie Huffman, Coffee 5. Activation Processes of Carbon — Nina Mayhall, Ensley 6. Behavior of Alpha and Beta Particles in Nuclear Fission — Bill Lee, Hewitt-Truss- ville 7. Spiders — Our Friends and Foes — Jack Mor¬ gan, Huey town 8. Bones of Contention — Descent of Man — Martha Anton, McAdory High 9. Role of Chemist in a Paper Mill — Harvey Eastman, McGill Institute 10. Dicumarol — Patricia Anna Reilly, Convent of Mercy 11. New Energy For A New Age — Jerry Hand, Minor 12. Acne and Its So Called Cures — Charles Brown, Murphy 13. The Development of Polio Vaccine — Anna Jean Turryville, Russellville 14. Vitamins or Else — Nell Hunt, Sacred Heart 15. The Value of Nutritional Experiments With White Rats — R. E. Smith, Tuscaloosa Senior High 16. Talking With Light — Bobby Peacock, C. F. Vigor 17. Photomodulator — Earl Ray, West End 18. Penecillium Notatum — Alma Oden, Wood- lawn 19. Expansion of a Cloud Chamber — Charles Shain, Decatur A short intermission followed in which cokes were served. The following are the exhibits entered at the annual convention of the Junior Academy of Science: Biology 1. The Life Span of a Paramecium — Athens, Mrs. Gloria H. Clem, Sponsor 2. Wild Flowers of Baldwin County — Bald¬ win County, Miss Lillian Leonard, Sponsor 3. Diphtheria — Convent of Mercy, Sister Mary Aloysius, R.S.M., Sponsor 4. Models in Biology — Choctaw County, Mrs. Vivian Gilmore, Sponsor 5. Marvels of the Insect World — Hueytown, Miss Edith Geisler, Sponsor 6. Lobund — John Carroll, Sister M. Elizabeth O.S.B., Sponsor 7. Alabama Indian Relics — McAdory, Mrs. Ruby L. Hodge Sponsor 8. Experiments in Heredity With Drosophils — McGill Institute, Bro. Cyr, S.C., Sponsor 9. Anesthesia Effects of Urethane on Small Animals — Murphy, Miss Mary Bragg, Sponsor 10. Know Your Trees — Red Bay, Mrs. Gordon Gober, Spronsor 11. Insects — Friends and Foes — Sacred Heart Academy, Sister Mary Charles, O.S.B., Sponsor 12. Animal Extracts — St. Bernard, Rev. Charles Reiner, O.S.B., Sponsor 13. Nutritional Deficiences in White Rats — Tuscaloosa Senior, Mr. Wayne Norman, Sponsor Chemistry 1. Manufacture of Paper — Baldwin County, Miss Lillian Leonard, Sponsor 2. Chemurgy — By Products of Casein — Huey¬ town, Miss Edith Geisler, Sponsor 3. Liesegang Rings — Coffee, Miss Eleanor Ford, Sponsor 4. Hydroponics — Minor, Mrs. Margaret Mc- Cluskey, Miss Claudia Smith, Sponsors 5. Flowers Used For pH Indicators — Sacred Heart Academy, Sister Mary Charles, O.S.B., Sponsor 6. Making of Ceranic — St. Bernard, Rev. Charles Reiner, O.S.B., Sponsor Junior Academy Smog — St. Bernard, Rev. Charles Reiner, O.S.B., Sponsor 8. Ethanol Recovery by Distillation — Wood- lawn, Mr. R. W. Youngblood, Sponsor 9. Extraction of K.CO3 From Granite — Woodlawn, Mr. R. W. Youngblood, Spon¬ sor Pb ) jvVi 1. Controlling Our Traffic — Athens, Mrs. Gloria H. Clem, Sponsor 2. Model of Guntersville Dam — Cullman, Mr. Kermit Hudson, Jr., John Tillman, Spon¬ sors 3. Solar Heated House — Cullman, Mr. Ker¬ mit Hudson, Jr., John Tillman, Sponsors -i. Talking With Light — C. F. Vigor, Mrs. Lucille Lloyd, Spronsor 3. Expansion Cloud Chamber — Decatur, Mr. John Teague, Sponsor 6. Oscilloscope — Ensley, Mrs. Reba C. Pon¬ der, Sponsor 7. Electroplating — Minor, Mrs. V. C. Mc- Cluskey, Miss Claudia Smith, Sponsors 8. Model Steam Engine — Sheffield, Miss Mary Ella Hammond, Sponsor 9. Picture Enlarger — Sheffield, Miss Mary Ella Hammond, Sponsor 10. Amateur Radio Telephone Transmitter — Sidney Lanier, Mrs. Frances D. Jones, Sponsor 11. Foucault Testing Device (for telescope mir¬ rors) — Troy, Mr. Stanley W. Griffin, Sponsor 12. Precipitation Chamber — Tuscaloosa, Mr. Wayne Norman, Sponsor 13. Photomodulator — West End, Miss Mary E. Hafling, Sponsor Science in Industry 1. Electrolysis of Brine — C. F. Vigor, Mrs. Lu¬ cille Lloyd, Sponsor 2. Model Rotary Drilling System — Coffee, Miss Eleanor Ford, Sponsor 3. Heat Pump — Decatur, Mr. J. H. Teague, Sponsor 4. Radio — Choctaw County, Mrs. Vivian P. Gilmore, Sponsor 3. Slide Projector — Ensley, Mrs. Reba C. Pon¬ der, Sponsor 6. Model TV Tower — Hewitt-Trussville, Mrs. Ruth Adams, Sponsor 7. Model of a Suspension Bridge — Tusca¬ loosa County, Mrs. W. B. Hargrove, Spon¬ sor 8. Model of an Oil Wcll-~T Liscaloosa Coun¬ ty, Mrs. W. B. Hargrove, Sponsor 131 Officers, delegates, sponsors, and members met in the Auditorium, Physics Building, University of Alabama, at 10:43 for a business meeting. President Kibbee Streetman called the meeting to order. Announcements of the officers of AJAS for 1933-36 were made by Kibbee Streetman. Charters were then awarded by Dr. Kassner to the following schools: Albertville, Athens, Bes¬ semer, Foley, Goshen, Hewitt-Trussville, and In¬ dian Springs. At this time Treasurer Charles Pritchard made an annual treasurer's report. A motion was made, seconded, and carried that the minutes of the preceding convention not be read, but sent out to clubs, and at the annual convention be added to and corrected. Aw'ards for exhibits and papers w'ere then made by Dr. Smithey of Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham. The following aw'ards w'ere made: EXHIBITS Biology: First Award: Lobund — Joe Giatina, Eddie Bostick, Bill Shain, John Carroll High. Second Aw'ard: Nutritional Deficiencies in White Rats — R. E. Smith, Jr., Tuscaloosa Senior High School Third Award: Diphtheria — Jackie Posey, Jean Charles, Con¬ vent of Mercy Chemistry: First Award: Chemurgy — By-Products of Casein — |crry Odom, Hueytown High Second Aw'ard: Smog— -Mike Moritarity, St. Bernard Third Award: Liesegang Rim.;s — Eddie Huffman. Coffee High PIj)\/c\: First Award: Amateur Radio Telephone Eransmitter — Walter L. Randolph, Sidney Lanier High School Second Award: lesla ( cril Paul Mollo\’ and S.uii Grow. St. Bernard Hitrh Tliird Award: Precipitation Cliamber ( liarlcs .Vd.ims. Tus caloosa Higli School Sc/ence in Industrs: First Award: Eloclrolysis ol Brine l.imes l,u^\, t 1' \ 1- gor High Siliool 132 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Second Award: Model TV Tower — Bobby Smith, Hewitt- Trussville High Tliird Award: Model Rotary Drilling System — Jimmy Stur- tevant, Coffee High PAPERS First Award: Photomodulator — Earl Ray, Fred Wallwork, West End High, Hiss Mary E. Hafling, Sponsor Second Award: Acne and Its So-Called Cures — Charles Brown, Murphy High, Miss Mary Bragg, Sponsor Honorable Mention: Spiders — Our Friends and Foes — Jack Mor¬ gan, Hueytown High, Miss Edith Geisler, Sponsor The awards of the American Association for the Advancement of Science were made to: Mary Kate Jernigan, Convent of Mercy Wayne Ross, Minor High School Frank Howard, official delegate from Wood- lawn High, then expressed the appreciation of the Junior Academy for the marvelous service Dr. Kassner had contributed and of the inspiration he had been to chapters in the Academy. Being no further business, the meeting was adjourned until 1956. Respectfully submitted, Martha Earle, Secretary of AJAS BALANCE SHEET FOR 1954-55 RECEIPTS: Balance on hand from 1954 . $136.16 Club dues (43 6/ $2.00). -- . , , 86.00 Membership cards (356 6/ 5c each) 17.00 Gulf State Paper Corporation (Donation) . 50.00 Registration (312 (Tt 75c each) . 234.00 ^=University of Alabama (Donation) 196.00 Income from meeting . 75.00 $795.56 DISBURSEMENTS : ^University of Alabama . $196.00 Student Chaperones . $32.00 Printing (programs) . 21.00 Flowers for Banquet . 10.00 Coca-Colas and paper cups . 35.00 Entertainment Director . 15.00 Public Address System 3.00 Buses . . 80.00 Kebbee Streetman (president’s expenses).. 8.96 Martha Earle (secretary’s expenses).... 4.53 Snipes Business Machine Company . 5.10 Robert M. Strickland (embossing 6 Charters for AJAS) 9.00 Tuscaloosa Library Bindery (Lettering on ribbons) .... 3.12 Charles Pritchard (treasurer’s expenses — stamps) . 3.18 University of Alabama (Audio-Visual Service) 4.50 Dr. James L. Kassner (file folders) . 2.60 Dr. James L. Kassner (ribbon and railway express) . . 2.37 Weatherford Office Supply Company (file cabinet for AJAS) . 69.42 S308.78 $795.56 CASH TO BALANCE . ..... 486.78 $795.56 $795.56 Audited by; J. Henry Walker, July 25. 1955. R. L. Chermock. July 26. 1955. 133 MEMBERSHIP LIST Industrial Members American Cast Iron Pipe Co . (James 1. MacKenzie) Alabama Power Company . (Thomas W. Martin) Bayuk Cigars, Inc . Birmingham Slag Co . (C. W. Ireland, Pres.) Gulf States Paper Corp . McKesson and Robbins, Inc . (V. E. Goodwin, Sales Mgr., Laboratory Supply Dept.) Rust Engineering Co . Birmingham Birmingham . Selma Birmingham .. Tuscaloosa Birmingham Birmingham Sustaining Members Alabama College . Montevallo Alabama Polytechnic Institute . (Ralph Draughon) Auburn Alabama State Chamber of Commerce . (John M. Ward, Ex. V. Pres.) Montgomery Birmingham-Southern College . (George R. Stuart) Birmingham Dr. J. D. Bush . P. O. Box 877, Gadsden Eirst Farmers and Merchants National Bank . (E. L. Boatner, Pres.) Troy Elorence State Teachers College . Florence Dr. Louis L. Friedman . 1906 9th Avenue, S., Birmingham Howard College . Birmingham Huntingdon College . (Hubert Searcy) Montgomery Jacksonville State Teachers College . (Houston Cole) Jacksonville Judson College . (J. 1. Riddle, Pres.) Marion Livingston State Teachers College . (W. W. Hill, Pres.) Livingston Mr. James T. MacKenzie . 4300 9th Court C., Birmingham Mr. Henry B. Rust . 1507 Ridge Road, Birmingham Spring Hill College . Mobile Southern Natural Gas Co . (Robert G. Kenan, Asst. Sec.) Watts Building, Birmingham Troy State Teachers College . (Charles B. Smith) Troy University of Alabama . . . (Dean J. H. Newman) University REGULAR MEMBERS ^Collegiate members f Honorary members Name, Title, and Address Seeiion Adams, Dr. Fred T., Sociology Dept., University of Alabama, University . SS Agee, Mr. Rucker, 305 First National Bank Building, Birmingham . IE Albrecht, Dr. Ruth E., Thomas Hotel, Auburn . SS Allen, Dr. Roger W., Dean, School of Sci. and L't., API, Auburn . C Allison, Dr. Fred., Dept, of Physics, Emory and Henry College, Emory, Va . PMf Allison, Mr. Ray, Zoology Dept., Ala. Poly. Inst., Auburn . BM Almond, Mr. Joseph Cephus Jr., Riverside Hospital, Newport News, Va . BM Anderson, Mr. Dan C., 642 Third Ave., N., Birmingham . C. Andrews, Dr. Henry L., P. O. Box 797, University . SS Applegate, Mr. Neil J., 8715 Third Ave., N., Birmingham . SS Arant, Dr. Erank Selman, Zoology-Entomology Dept., API, Auburn . BM Arnold, Mr. Paul J., State Teachers College, Jackioinille . S.S Arthur, Mr. B. Wayne, 539 Dumas Drive, Auburn . BM Attebery, Mr. J. S., Jr., C. F. Vigor High School, Prichard, Ala . . Austin, Mrs. Bonnie, Lillian, Ala . SE' Austin, Mr. John Green, Jr., Box 3822, University . (' Bailey, Dr. L. Rush, School of Dentistry, Univ. Med. (ienter. Birmingham . BM Bailey, Dr. Paul C., Dept, of Biology, Alabama College, Mt'otevalU) . BM 134 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Name. 1 /lie. a>/d Address Sect'/on Baker, Mr. Henry G., Jr., "ioy Yorkshire Drive, Birniingliam . IE Baker, Mr. Jack, U. S. Geological Survey, Box 2033, University . GA Ballentine, Mr. James B., Chemstrand Corp., Decatur . C Bancroft, Mr. William H., Jr., 802 Wrights Mill Road, Auburn . PM* Barclay, Mr. Lee A., Business Manager, Alabama College, Montevallo . IE Barker, Dr. Samuel B., Dept, of Pharmacology, University Medical Center, Birmingham . BM Barlow, Mr. Wdliam H., 121 E. Glenn Avenue, Auburn . C* Barr, Dr. E. Scott, Department of Physics, Box 7l4, University . PM Barrett, Dr. William J., Southern Research Institute, Birmingham . C Barrow, Dr. James H., Jr., Dept, of Biology, Huntingdon College, Montgomery . BM Barton, Miss Evelyn R., Box 2635, University . SS* Basore, Dr. C. A., API, Auburn . C Baswell, Mr. John L., 7928 Fourth Avenue, S., Birmingham . IE Batson, Mr. Jackie David, l6l5 4th Avenue, N., Bessemer . BM* Baughman, Dr. Willis J., Box 2552, University . C Beatty, Dr. Croom III, Chemistry Dept., Howard College, Birmingham . C-SS Beindorff, Dr. Arthur B., Chemstrand (iorp., Decatur . C Bell, Mr. Vernon L., Jr., 6- A Sheiidan Apartments, Decatur . C Bennett, Mr. J. Claude, 724 McMillan Avenue, Birmingham . BM Bensko, Mr. |ohn, Mid-Continent Petroleum Corp., Box 381, Tulsa, Okla . GA Bernhardt, Mrs. Eva G., Dept. Biology, Huntingdon College, Montgomery . BM Berreman, Mr. Gerald D., 3918 Wares Ferry Road, Montgomery . SS Bertha, Sister M., Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman . PM Biddle, Miss Mary Ann, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM* Bishop, Dr. Everett L., Jr., Box 2047, University . BM Black, Mr. William B., Gult States Paper Corp., Tuscaloosa . GC Blair, Dr. Charles B., Jr., Dept. Biology, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . BM Bliss, Miss Jane A., 3101 Cliff Road, Birmingham . SS* Blustein, Mr. Richard, Box 4266, University . BM* Boehmer, Miss Kathryn, 3928 Avenue K, Fairview Station, Birmingham . SE Boozer, Mr. Reuben B., Dept, of Biology, State Teachers College, Jacksonville . BM Boschung, Mr. Herbert T., (r.. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. Extension Center, Mobile . BM Boyer, Dr. Edward E. H., Pathologist, Providence Hospital, Mobile . BM Boyles, Mr. James M., Box 2047, University . BM* Brakefield, Mr. Wm. FL, 408 12th Street, S.W., Birmingham . BM* Brarne, Mr. .J Y., 1568 College Court, Montgomery . GA Branch, Mr. William W., I’arley Building, Birmingham . IE Brannon, Mr. Peter A., Dept, of Archives and History, Montgomery . GA Brantley, Mr. James J., 934 Canal Street (C. A.), New Orleans, La . SS* Braswell, Miss Mamie, Dept, of Mathematics, Alabama College, Montevallo . PM Bray, Mr. Gerald, St. Bernard . C Brooks, Mr. P. P. B., 662 Ponce de Leon Ave., Montgomery . SE Brown, Dr. Earl H., Fundamental Research Section, TVA, Wilson Dam . C Brown, Mr. Jack S., Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, API, Auburn . BM Brown, Dr. Robert D., Dean, School of Chemistry, University of Alabama, University . C Brundrett, Mr. N. R., Box 114, Birmingham . Bunger, Dr. William B., 563 Dumas Drive, Auburn . C Bunton, Mr. Paul B., 2900 Connecticut Avenue, Washington, D. C . GA Burch, Mr. W. Jack, 267 S. College Street, Auburn . BM* Burke, Miss Louise S., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Butler, Mr. John E., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . BM* Byrum, Mr. George R., Jr., First Federal Savings and Loan Assoc., 116 North 21st Street, Birmingham . IE Byrum, Dr. W. R., Howard College, Birmingham . BM Caffee, Mrs. Gabrielle L., Cedarlane, Fairhope . SS Membership 135 .Wzwf. Title, and Address Section Cairns, Dr. Eldon J., Dept, of Botany and Plant Path., Ala. Poly. Inst., Auburn . BM Calkins, Mr. Myron E., Box 2107, University . C Cantrell, Mr. Clyde H., P. O. Box 290, Auburn . SS Calloway, Mr. Elmer D., Box 3062, University . PM* Capps, Dr. Julius D., API, Box 309, Auburn . C Carlson, Dr. Warner W., Dept, of Bio-Chem., Ala. Med. College, Birmingham . BM Carlson, Dr. Virginia W., Dept, of Bio-Chem., Ala. Med. College, Birmingham . BM Carmichael, Dr. Emmett B., Dept, of Bio-Chem., Ala. Med. College, Birmingham . BM Carr, Dr. Howard E., Dept, of Physics, API, Auburn . PM Carter, Mr. Hugh P., 703 Title Guarantee Building, Birmingham . IE Carver, Mrs. Marie B., Swift Consolidated School, Bon Secour . SE Casey, Dr. Albert E., 2236 Highland Avenue, Birmingham . BM Cason, Mrs. Louise R., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . Chaney, Dr. David W., The Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Cheraskin, Dr. Emanual, School of Dentistry, Univ. Med. Center, Birmingham . BM Chermock, Dr. Ralph L., Dept, of Biology, U. of Ala., Box 2047, University . BM Clemmons, Mr. Ballard H., Metallurgist, U. S. Bureau of Mines, University . Cline, Dr. J. K., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Cobun, Mr. Ted C., Indian Springs School, Helena . SE Cole, Dr. Frank T., 562 Tuttle Avenue, Mobile . GC Coleman, Mr. John S., Birmingham Trust National Bank, Birmingham . IE Coleman, Mr. Mack W., 311 W. Green Street, Athens . BM* Collier, Mr. Francis Nash, Jr., Dept, of Chemistry, Howard College, Birmingham . C Conway, Dr. H. McKinley, Jr., 3009 Peachtree Road, Atlanta . IE Coons, Dr. Kenneth W., Dept, of Chem. Eng., U. of Ala., University . C Cooper, Mr. Bancroft, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM* Cotter, Mr. David James, 52 Highlands, Tuscaloosa . BM* Crafts, Mr. Arthur G., Dept, of Physics, API, Auburn . PM Craig, Mr. Alfred B., 2100 Stratford Road, Decatur . C Culmer, Miss Orpha Ann, State Teachers College, Florence . PM Curl, Dr. Elroy A., Dept, of Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . BM Dachille, Mr. Frank, 1781 E. Baars Street, Pensacola, Fla . C-GA Daly, Sister Mary Charles, Dept, of Biology, Sacred Heart College, Cullman . BM Davey, Dr. Bessie L., Dept. Home Economics, U. of Alabama, University . BM Davidson, Mr. Arlie B., Dept, of Sociology, Huntingdon College, Montgomery . SE Davis, Dr. Donald E., Dept, of Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . BM Davis, Mr. Glenn A., P. O. Box 2033, University . GA Davis, Mr. Wilson, Box 2583, University . SE Dean, Mrs. Blanche E., 1503 Ridge Road, Homewood, Birmingham . BM Dean, Mr. Harold Douglas, Dept. Biology, Abilene Christian College, Abilene, Tex . BM Decker, Miss Mary G., Dept. Science, Alabama College, Montevallo . ( Devonshire, Dr. L. N., 4-B Drury Land Apartments, I'uscaloosa . (' Diener, Dr. Urban L., Dept, of Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . BM Dejarnette, Mr. David L., Box 66, Mound State Monument, Moundville . CA Dendy, Dr. J. S., Dept, of Biology and Zoology, API, Auburn . BM DeVall, Dr. Wilbur B., 169 Bowden Drive, API, Auburn . y',(' Dietz, Mr. Robert A,. State Teachers College, Troy . l^M Dorrill, Mr. William E., 409 South 3 Notch Street, 4’roy . BM* Doster. Dr. James F., Box 2015, University . SS Doubles, Dr. James A., Jr., Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . BM Douglas, Miss Sarah Frances, 212 Mecca Avenue, Birmingham . BM Downing, Mr. Harvey T., Jr., U. S. Geological Survey, Room 200, P. D. Bldi,'., Huntsville GA Driskell, Mr. J. C., TVA, Wilson Dam . . ( Dunn, Miss Shirley T., Daugette Hall, State Teachers College, Jacksonville . BM* Dupree, Mr. Louis, 8-D Lockett Drive, Montgomery . 136 Journal of Alabama Acaufmy of Science Name. I'i/le, a)hl Address Section Eads, Mr. James 11., Huntingdon College, Montgomery . BM Early, Mr. jack J., Athens College, Athens . SS Eisele, Rev. Louis |., Spring Hill College, Mobile . PM Elder, Mr. R. H., 1613 32nd Avenue, Nortli, Birmingham . C Elliott, Mr. Howard C., |r., '103 16th Place, S.W., Birmingham . IE* Elmore, Dr. Kelly L., 106 Village 1, Sheffield . PM Elmore, Miss Ollie, D. A. R. School, Grant . SE Emerson, Dr. lack D., Physiology Dept., Univ. Med. Center, Birmingham . BM Emigh, Miss Ellen 1., 1724 Flagler Ave., N.E., Atlanta, Ga . GC Englebrecht, Dr. Mildred A., Dept. Bacteriology and Med. Tech., U. of A., University . BM English, Mrs. Lena, Castleberry, Ala . SE Estes, Miss Edna E., Box 2224, University . BM* Estess, Mr. Glenn E., 1209 Brown Marx Building, Birmingham . C Evans, Miss Para Lee, 2030 Highland Ave., Apt. C-3, Birmingham . BM I’arina, Mr. Louis V., 1109 South 22nd Street, Birmingham . BM* Parish, Mr. Preston, Box 41, Route 3, Opelika . BM F'armer, Dr. C. M., Dept, of Chemistry, State Teachers College, Troy . BMf Ikirris, Dr. Charles D., Box 4277, University . SS Faxon, Mr. F. W., 83-91 Frances St., Back Bay, Boston, Mass . IT-rro, Mr. William F'rank, Dept. Biochemistry, Medical Ciollege of Ala., Birmingham . * Ferry, Dr. James F’., Dept, of Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . BM Fies, Dr. Milton H., Alabama Power Company, Birmingham . IE Fincher, Dr. |. A., Dept, of Biology, Floward College, Birmingham . BM Finn, Dr. Sidney B., School of Dentistry, Univ. Med. Center, Birmingham . BM Fitzgerald, Mr. Richard W., 1803 Holly Street, Montgomery . BM Floyd, Dr. H. H., State Teachers College, Florence . C F’oley, Dr. James O., 409 Sunset Drive, Vestavia Hills, Birmingham . BM Foley, Mrs. James O., -t09 Sunset Drive, Vestavia Hills, Birmingham . BM Ford, Dr. Tdiomas R., 3357 Wilmington Road, Montgomery . SS F’oreman. Dr. Paul B., Dept of Sociology, University of Alabama, University . SS Foshee, Mr. James G., State of Tenn., Dept. MentalHealth, Clover Bottom Home, Donelson, Tenn., SS Foster, Mr. Franklin J., Box 2242, University . GC Fox, Mr. William Houston, 432 E. Elm Street, Troy . BM* Francis, Mr. T. M., 334 Brown-Marx Building, Birmingham . SS Fraser, Dr. James Anderson, State Teachers College, Troy . C Furman, Father W. L., Spring Hill College, Mobile . BM Gandrud, Mr. B. W., U. S. Bureau of Mines, University . IE Garin, Mr. George L, Forestry Dept., API, Auburn . GC Garrett, Mrs. W. Walton, 3312 Seventh Court, South, Birmingham . BM Gary, Mr. C. M., State Teachers College, Jacksonville, . C Gattman, Rev. Lambert C., St. Bernard College, St. Bernard . BM Gayle, Dr. John B., Box L, University . . C Geisler, Miss Edith, Star Route, Box 224, Bessemer . SE Gerhardt, Dr. Henry, 121 o Elmira St., Mobile . Gibbons, Mr. Samuel R., 326 Overbrook Road, Birmingham . IE Gillam, Miss Mary, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM* Gilmore, Mrs. Vivian P., P. O. Box L32, Butler . SE Gibilisco, Dr. Joseph A., School of Dentistry, Univ. Med. Center, Birmingham . BM Glenn, Mr. William E., Registrar, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . PM Gober, Mrs. Gordon, Red Bay School, Red Bay . . SE-BM-C Goethe, Dr. Charles M., 720 Capital Nat. Bank Bldg., Sacramento, Calif . BMf Goetz. Mr. (arnes R., 2021 Sixth Terrace North, Birmingham . . IE Gold, Dr. Raymond L., Dept. Sociology, Univ. of Alabama, University . SS Gorrie, Miss Rachel H., ,3155 Montezuma Road, Montgomery . BM Gran, Dr. John Edward, 707 11th Street, Tuscaloosa . C Membership 137 X.7/ne. Title, and Address Section Gravlee, Mr. William E., 314 Armstrong Street, Auburn . * Green, Dr. Margaret, Bacteriology Dept., Univ. of Alabama, University . BM Griffin, Mr. Stanley W., 100 White Drive, Troy . . . . . BM Grove, Dr. E. L., Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Ala., University . C Guyton, Mr. Faye E., Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, API, Auburn . . . BM Hafling, Miss Mary E., West End High School, Birmingham . SE Hammack, Mr. J. State Teachers College, Livingston . . C Hammond, Mr. Joseph L., Jr., Southern Research Institute, Birmingham . PM Hansen, Mr. A. T., Dept, of Sociology, Univ. of Ala., University . SS Hardy, Dr. Edgar E., Mobay Chemical Co., New Martinsville, W. Va. (effective Sept. ’55) . C Hargis, Dr. E. H., 1131 28th Street, N., Birmingham . BM Harper, Dr. Roland M., University . GAt Harper, Mr. Thomas D., 1109 Eighth Avenue, West, Birmingham . P Harris, Miss Ethel, Box 92, Montevallo . BM Harrison, Miss Gertrude C., Sacred Heart Academy and Junior College, St. Bernard . PM Hartman, Mr. Paul A., 1107 W. Second Street, W. Lafayette, Ind . BM* Harvey, Miss Ann C., Oneonta . BM Harvey, Dr. Henry T., State Teachers College, Florence . Hayles, Mfss Kitty Sue, Vigor High School, Mobile . SE Hays, Mr. Herbert D., Geology Dept., Univ. of Ala., University . . GA Heartburg, Mr. Carl Philip, First National Bank of B’ham, P. O. Box 2534, B’ham . Heide, Mr. S. S., 2204 28th Street, West, Birmingham . Hendon, Mr. John Franklin, 1631 Third Avenue, N., Birmingham . IE Henry, Mr. J. D., Guaranty Savings and Life Inc. Co., Box 1868, Montgomery . IE Hershey, Mr. Arthur L., State Teachers College, Florence . Hess, Dr. George W., 8009 Fourth Avenue, S., Birmingham . PM Hieserman, Mr. Clarence E., The Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Hisey, Prof. Alan, Box H, University . BM Hitchcock, Mr. .J G., Manager, Land Dept., Alabama Power Co., Birmingham . IE Hitt. Miss Nellie W., Board of Education, St. Clair County, Ashville . SE Hodge, Mrs. Ruby L., Rt. 3, Box 292, Bessemer . SE Holding, Mr. Bruce Fowler, Jr., Med. College of Ala., Birmingham . BM* Holland, Mr. John W., Jr., State Teachers College, Florence . BM Holley, Dr. Howard L., Dept. Med., Med. College of Ala., Birmingham . BM Holliman, Mr. E. S., D. A. R., Grant . SE Hollis, Mr. George Cecil, Box 36, Arkansas College, Batesviile, Ark . BM* Howell, Mr. Henry H., West Blocton, Alabama . BM* Horton, Mr. Edgar C., 4413 Fifth Avenue, S., Birmingham . GA Howse, Mr. B. C., TCI Division, U. S. Steel Corp., Fairfield . C Huff, Mr. C. E., Jr., Florence State Teachers College, Florence . Huffman, Mr. Ernest O., 909 North Pine Street, Florence . C Hughes, Sister Maureen, 2313 Highland Avenue, Birmingham . C' Hunt, Dr. T. E., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Hurtt, Mr. Oscar Lee, Jr., Connors Steel Div., H. K. Porter Co., Inc., Birmingham . C Irvine, Dr. Paul, Prof, of Education, API, Auburn . SS Ivey, Mr. John B., U. S. Geological Survey, Box 2033, University . G.\ Ivey, Mr. William D., Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, API, Auburn . BM Jackson, Mrs. Estelle O., 1415 46th Street, Belview Heights, Birmingham . C James, Dr. Perry B., President, Athens College, Athens . SS Jennings, Mr. Dawson M., 572 Morningview Drive, Montgomery . GA Jennings, Mr. Henry L., 703 Title Guarantee Building, Birmingham . 11 Johnson, Mr. E. W., Instructor in Forestry, API, Auburn . GC Johnson, Mr. Robert B., 1518 South 13th Street, B irmingliam . (' Johnson, Mr. Searcy H., Jr., 432 Longview Drive, Vestavia Hills, Birmingham . Johnson, Mr. Warren E., Sonotone Corp., 819 Bell Bldg., Montgomery . SF 138 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science 'I' /tie. a)id AJdresi Section Jones, Dr. E. V., 213 E. Vanderbilt Drive, Oak Ridge, Tenn . Ct Jones, Dr. W. B., University . GA Kassner, Dr. |. L., Dept, of Chemistry, U. of Ala., University . C Kaylor, Mr. Hoyt M., Birmingliam-Scuthern College, Birmingham . PM Kearley, Dr. Frances J., Dept, of Chemistry, Spring Hill College, Mobile . Keeler, Mr. James E., 3376 N. Georgetown Drive, Montgomery . BM Keith, Prof. Warren G., P. O. Box 2043, University . PM Kelley, Mr Roscoe D., State Teachers College, Troy . PM Kemp, Miss Ann, 83 Hueytown Road, Bessemer . SE* Klapper, Dr. Clarence E., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Klapper, Dr. Margaret S., Medical College ot Alabama, Birmingham . BM Klontz, Prot. Harold E., Dept, of Economics and Bus. Adm., API, Auburn . SS Knowles, Mr. Doyle B., P. O. Box 2033, University . GA Kraus, Dr. Frederick W., 114 Strattord Road, Birmingham . BM I, air, Mrs. June C. Alexander, 2209 18th Street, Tuscaloosa . BI* Lamar, Mrs. Sally R., 1309 17th Avenue, Tuscaloosa . SS Lamb, Mr, E. B., Box 4208, Atlanta, Ga . BM LaMoreaux, Mr. Phillip E., Box 2033, University . GA Land, Dr. fames E., Dept, of Chemistry, API, Auburn . C Langley, Dr, Leroy Lester, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Larguier, Rev. Everett, Spring Hill College, Mobile . PM Larison, Miss foyce, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM* Lauer, Mr. Karl Heinrich, Druid Gardens 18 B, Tuscakvosa . C Law.son, Mr. J. Keith, Jr., The Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Lazansky, Dr. Joseph P., School of Dentistry, Univ. of Ala., Birmingham . BM Leath, Mr. Lewis T., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . BM* Lentesty, Mr. Franklin A., TVA, Wilson Dam . C Leonard, Miss Lillian, Box 329, Bay Minette . SE Lewis, Prof. F. A., Box 1444, University . PM Linkswilcr, Dr. Helen, Laboratory of Human Nu-trition, U. of Ala., University . BM Livingston, Mr. Knox W., I'orestry Dept., API, Auburn . Lloyd, Mrs. Lucille N., C. F. Vigor High School, Prichard . C Lloyd, Dr. S. J., Dept, of Chemistry, University of Alabama, University . C Loffre, Mr. Randall O., Jr., 1.364 Government Street, Mobile . C* Long, Prof. Justin, Dept, of Chemical Engineering, API, Auburn . C Long, Mr. A. R., 1106 E. Audubon Road, Montgomery . C Lueth, Mr. Francis X., Box 413, Centreville . BM Lumpkin, Mr. Thomas Riley, Box 2047, University . BM* Lyle, Dr. James A., Dept, of Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . BM McCaffrey, Mr. J. E., V. Pres., Southern Kraft Div., International Paper Co., Mobile . GC McCluskey, Mrs. U. C., Route 3, Box 132A, Birmingham . BM McCracken, Dr. William Lionel, School of Dentistry, Univ. Med. Center, Birmingham . BM McCullough, Dr. Herbert A., Dept, of Biology, Howard College, Birmingham . BM McCurdy, Mr. G. Lofton, Principal, Lincoln Elementary School, Lincoln . SE McGlamery, Miss Winnie, Alabama Geological Survey, Box D, University . GA M'^Ilvaine, Prof. Wm. D., Jr., University of Ala., Extension Division, University . SE MtTyeire, Miss Clustie, 1804 Arlington Avenue, Bessemer . SE McVay, Dr. Thomas N., 10 Oakwood Court, Tuscaloosa . C McWilliams, Mr. Davicl H., State Teachers College, Troy . BM* Mabee, Dr. Fred C., Dept, of Chemistry, Howard College, Birmingham . C Mallory, Mr. Jack Carleton, Box 3003, University . BM* Malmberg, Mr. Glenn T., U. S. Geological Survey, P. O. Bldg., Huntsville . GA Malone, Dr. John M., 1001 8th Avenue, West, Birmingham . . PM Marshall, Miss Ethel L., Alabama College, Montevallo . GC Marshall, Dr. Hamilton Louis J., 118 Florence Place, Mobile . BM Membership 139 A.jwe’. Title, atid Ad dress Marshall, Mr. Madison L., The Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . Mayer, Mr. William C., Jr., 1467 Alford Avenue, Birmingham . Mead, Dr. A. R,. Dean of Instruction, Athens College, Athens . Merrill, Mrs. Rachel Knight, 2509 Park Lane Court, S., Apt. H, Birmingham . Meyer, Dr. Frieda L., Box 1974, University . Miles, Mr. E. P., Dept, of Mathematics, API, Auburn . Miles, Mr. R. V., Jr., 102‘i Myrtlewood Drive, Tuscaloosa . Minton, Mr. Norman A., Dept, of Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . Mitchell, Prof. F. H., Box 1392, University . Mobley, Mr. Willard M., Alabama By-Products Corp., Box 6527, Tarrant . Moffett, Dr. Benjamin C., Jr., Dept. Anatomy, Alabama Medical College, University Moore, Prof. O. C., School of Chemistry, API, Auburn . Moore. Mr. William H., Dept, of Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . Morris, Dr. Frederick K., 3334 Southmont Drive, Montgomery . Mosley, Mr. Samuel A., Chemstrand Corp., Decatur . Munro, Mr. W. M., 1232 Woodley Road, Montgomery . Mount, Mr. Robert Flughes, 267 S. College Street, Auburn . Nam, Mr. Charles B., 33 D, The Prado, Montgomery . Nancarrow, Miss Virginia, 617 St. Charles Avenue, Birmingham . Nelson, Mr. Gid E., Jr., Dept, of Biology, Alabama College, Montevallo . Nesbitt, Dr. Paul H., Chief, ADTIC, Research Studies Institute, Maxwell AFB . Nevin, Mr. Thamos A., School of Dentistry, Med-ical College of Ala., Birmingham .. Nichols, Dr. Samuel H., Jr., P. O. Box 1069, Auburn . Nixon, Mr. Lochern C., Jr., State Teachers College, Troy . Noles, Mr. Billy Jack, State Teachers College, Jacksonville . Norman, Mr. Joe R., Jr., 806 South 20th Street, Birmingham . Nunn, Mr. Grady H., Box 1427, University . Nyholm, Mr. Holger J., U. S. Geological Survey, 1201 University Ave., Tuscaloosa Oakes, Miss Sadie, Bay Minette . O'Bryan, Mr. Deric, 869 Ponce de Leon, Montgomery . Ogden, Dr. Frederic D., Drawer I, University . O’Kelley, Dr. Joseph Charles, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala., University . Ottis, Dr. Kenneth, Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, API, Auburn . Overton, Dr. Eleazer C., 2105 Warrior Road, W., Birmingham . Owen, Mrs. Marie B., Director, Ala. Dept, of Archives and History, Montgomery Palmer, Dr. George D., University of Ala., University . Pallister, Prof. Hugh D., Geological Survey of Ala., Box DiOl, University . Parks, Mr. S. Laws, Bursar, Athens College, Athens . Parrish, Mr. John, Box 309, Montevallo . Patton, Dr. Ernest Gibbes, Box 2047, University . Paul, Mrs. Edna, Bay Minette . Paustian, Dr. E. C., Athens College, Athens . Peacock, Mr. J. Talmer, Box 2047, University . Pearsall, Dr. Marion, Dept, of Sociology, Univ. of Ala., University . Petzel, Miss Florence E., School of Home Economics, Univ. of Ala., University . Piano, Mr. Arthur G. F., P. O. Box 1436, Universit)' . Pigman, Dr. Ward, Dept. Biochemistry, Medical College of Ala., Birmingham . Platt, Mr. David, Dept. Biochemistry, Medical College of Ala., Birmingham . Pollock. Dr. L. O., Howard College, Birmingham . Poole, Prof. F. W., Dept, of Psychology, Alabama College, Montevallo . Poore, Mr. Gerald A., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . Pope, Mr. Dealie W.,, State Teachers College, Tioy . Powell, Mr. Frank B., State Teachers College, )ackson\ ille . Powers, Dr. Richard, Dean, Alabama College, Montevallo . Powell, Mr. William J., P. O. Box 2033, University . Section . C . c . SE .... BM .... BM . PM .... GC . BM* ... PM . IE .... BM . C .. BM* .... GA . C BM* ... SS . BM . BM .. GA . BM .... C .. C* BM* BM* .. SS . GA .. SE . GA .. SS BM BM BM . C .. GA ... IE ... SS BM .. SF.’ SS BM* . GA .... ( BM* . BM BM* PM SS . BM .. C* BM* .\ 140 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science NdD/t . J /tie. cu/d Address Section Price, Dr. Edwin O., Dept, of Chemi.stry, API, Auburn . C Price, Mr. J. L., Sidney Lanier Higit School, Montgomery . SE Ramey, Mr. Doyle W., 311 A Cedar Crest, Tuscaloosa . BM* Rawls, Dr. Hugh C., Westminster (mllege. New Wilmington, Pa . BM Read, Mr. Harold L., Jr., U. S. Geological Survey, P. O. Box 56, Montgomery . GA Reams, Mr. D. C., Jr., Dept. Chem. Eng., University of Ala., University . PM Reid, Miss Anna Jane, 806 So. 20th Street, Birmingham . C* Reiner, Lather Charles, St. Bernard C ollege, St. Bernard . C Rhem, Dr. Walter J., Spring Hill College, Mobile . PM Richardson, Dr. Jesse M., Dept, of Economics, API, Auburn . GC Rives, Mr. John E., 1547 Tuscaloosa Avenue, S.W., Birmingham . PM Roberts, Dr. Bruno R., P. O. Box la03, Decatur . C Robertson, Mr. Robert L., Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, API, Auburn . BM Robinson, Mr. Eilward L., Box 351, Howard College, Birmingham . C* Robinson, Dr. Leonard, School of Dentistry, Univ. Med. Center, Birmingham . BM Robinson, Dr. True W., Medical (mllege ot Ala., Birmingham . BM Rodgers, Dr. Eric M., Dept. Physics, Box 1472, Univ. of Ala., University . PM Rose, Mr. E. H., P. O. Box 599, E.uriield, Ala . C Rosen, Mr. Lawrence, Dept. Biochem., Alabama Medical CAIlege, Birmingham . BM* Ruark, Dr. Arthur E., Box 204l, Luiiversity . PM Rushton, Mr. Allen, 3203 Pine Ridge Road, Birmingham . IE Sahhar, Mr. Ered, Dept. Chem., Idilane University, New Orleans, La . BM* Sanford, Mr. Thomas H., Jr., 526 Bonita Circle, Huntsville, Ala . GA Sansing, Mr. Norman Glenn, Alpha Gamma Rho House, Auburn . BM* Sartain, Dr. Carl C., Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Ala., University . PM Schneyer, Dr. Leon D., School of Dentistry, Univ. Med. Center, Birmingham . BM Schultz, Mr. E. Ered, Jr., Dept. Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . BM Scott, Mr. |ohn C., U. S. Geological Survey, University . GA Scott, Dr. Robert B., Jr., Dept. Chemistry, University of Ala., University . C Searcy, Miss Margaret Z., 1715 Fourth Street, Tuscaloosa . SS Sevier, Sister Mary Susan, Sacred Seart Academy, Cullman . PM Shaw, Mr. William P., Shaw and Renneker, Architects, 2021 6th Ave., N., Birmingham . GA-GC Sensenig, Dr. E. Carl, Dept. Anatomy, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Sharp, Prof. C. G., Dept, of Biology, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM Shelton. Rev. William H., P. O. Box 2082, University . SS Sherman, Mr. Harry L., aStte Teachers College, Jacksonville . BM* Shotts, Mr. Emmett B., Box 412, Boaz, Ala . PM Shotts, Mr. Reynold Q., Box 1526, University . GA Shotts, Mrs. Will Lacye, Box 412, Boaz, Ala . BM Shull, Mr. Barney L., P. O. Box 609, Fairhope . BM Shumaker, Mr. Thomas P., 428 Prince Avenue, Tuscaloosa . C Simmons, Dr. George A., Jr., 1215 8th Ave., W., Birmingham . C Simpson, Mr. Thomas A., U. S. Geological Survey, Room 302, City Hall, Bessemer . GA Sims, Mr. Robert McNeill, Tuscaloosa Senior High School, Tuscaloosa . SE Sipe, Dr. H. Craig, State Teachers College, Florence . SE Sizemore, Mr. W. R., Box 244, Tallassee . GC Slack, Mr. Archie V., Staff Chemical Engineer, TVA, Wilson Dam . C Sledge, Mr. Eugene B., Dept. Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . BM* Smith, Mr. Anthony J., TVA, T-285, C.E.B., Sheffield . C Smith, Mr. Donald F., Box H, University . C Smith, Mr. Frank F., Rt. 3, Fayette . GC Smith, Dr. Septima, Box 1446, University . BM Smithey, Dr. William R., Dept. Chemistry, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . C Snoddy, Mr. Gaither B., Jr., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . . . C Snyder, Mr. Andrew J., Dept. Chemistry, Univ. of Ala., University . C Membership l4l Wvf/e. Title, and Address Sect toil Snyder, Mr. Ernest E., Dept. Science, Florence State Teachers College, Florence . SE Soday, Dr. Frank, Research Director, Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . GA Southern, Prof. J. A., Floward College, Birmingham . C Sparks, Mr. Frank Milton, Dept, of Physics, API, Auburn . PM Spies, Dr. Tom D., Professor of Medicine, Med. Col, of Ala., Birmingham . BM Spieth, Dr. Alda May, State Teachers College, Livingston . BM Stanfield, Mr. James A., 434 N. Poplar St., Apt. J, Florence . IE Stauffer, Mr. Jacob M., 32 Arlington Road, Montgomery . GC Steele, Dr. Fi. Ellsworth, Dept, of Economics, API, Auburn . SS Stelzenmuller, Mr. J. G., 412 S.W. 12th Street, Birmingham . Stephenson, Mrs. Diane D., 3809 12th Court, South, Birmingham . SS Sterne, Or. M. H., Box 6l6, RED 2, Birmingham . Stevens, Dr. Frank J., API, Auburn . C Stewart, Mr. James W., Box 1526, University . GA Stickney, Mrs. Hazel L., State Teachers College, Livingston . GC Stitzer, Mr. R. B., TVA, Wilson Dam . SE Stone, Dean Paul T., Huntingdon College, Montgomery . C Sudhoff, Mr. Roy W., Development Section, The Chemstrand Corp., Decatur . C Sullivan, Mr. John L., Box 276, Birmingham . IE Sulzby, Mr. James F., 4212 Overlook Road, Birmingham . IE Summersell, Dr. Charles B., Box 2056, University . SS Sutcliffe, Mr. Horace, Jr., U. S. Geological Survey, Box 2033, University . GA Sw'indel, Mr. George W., Jr., P. O. Box 697, Sylacauga, Ala . GA Tapp, Dr. James S., 905 8th Avenue, S.E., Decatur . C Tarbutton, Mr. Grady, 111 Village 1, Sheffield . SE Taylor, Miss Geraldine, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM* Thomas, Dr. Adeeb E., School of Dentistry, Univ. Med. Center, Birmingham . BM Thomas, Mr. Carl O., Southern Research Institute, Birmingham . C Thompson, Mr. Davis Hunt, 917 Valley Road Place, Birmingham . C Thompson, Mrs. Georgia J., P. O. Box 664, Tuscaloosa . Thompson, Mrs. Wynelle D., 917 Valley Road Place, Birmingham . C Tilley, Miss Luvenia, Route 1, Reform . BM* Timonin, Dr. Michael L, Pearson and Co., Dogwood Lane, Spring Hill Sta., Mobile . BM Todd, Mr. Carl David, 354 S. Gay, Auburn . BM* Todhunter, Dr. E. Neige, Box 1051, University . BM(C) Tower, Dr. James A., Dept. Geography, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . GC Townes, Mr. M. Halsey, 4424 Cliff Road, Birmingham . IE Tucker, Mr. E. Kyle, Box 97, Camp Hill . C Twellmeyer, Rev. George O., Dept. Chemistry, Spring Hill College, Mobile . C Tyree, Mrs. Charles W., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . BM* Underwood, Mrs. Bertha A., 415 Lauderdale Street, Russellville . (i Unnewehr, Mr. E. C., Athens College, Athens . Valentine, Mr. Barry D., 20 Howland Street, Cambridge, Mass . * Valentine, Rev. Claude E., Spring Hill College, Mobile . Sli Vickery, Miss Katherine, Alabama College, Montevallo . SE Volker, Dr. Joseph F., Dean, School of Dentistry, University of Ala., Birmingham . BM Walker, Mr. Joseph C., 2100 Bienville St., Selma . SS Walker, Dr. J. Henry, Box 2047, University . BM Walker, Miss Katherene, T. H. Rogers School, Route 1, Florence . BM Walters, Mr. James, Box 799, University . SS Ward, Dr. Henry S., Jr., Dept. Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . BM Ward, Mr. John F., State Teachers College, 'Froy . C* Watson, Mr. J. Hilton, P. O. Box 422, Montgomery . tlC Wattors, Mrs. Ida R., Rt. 4, Box 1010, Sylacauga . SI' Waugh, Mr. James Douglas, State Teachers College, Jacksonville . PM* 142 Journal of Alabama Acal)i;my of Science Wv^/e. 1 /tie. and Address Section Webster, Miss Elizabeth, Box 2025, University . SS Westover, Dr, Frederick L., Dept. Educational Psychology, University of Ala., University . SS White, Mr. jesse S., Delta State Teachers College, Cleveland, Miss . BM White, Dr. Locke, Jr., Southern Research Institute, Birmingham . C Whitehead, Dr. Fred, 34y6 Cloverdale Road, Montgomery . Whitt, Mr. Carlton D., Development Section, Chemstrand Corp., Decatur . C Wiggins, Mr. William K., 437 N. Ryan Street, Montgomery . BM Vt’ilcox, Dr. Harold E., Howard College, Birmingham . C Wilkes, Dr. |ames C., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . BM Willbern, Dr. York, Bureau of Public Administration, University . SS Wilks, Dr. William T., Troy State 4’eachers College, Troy . SE-PM Williams, Mr. Melvin R., bD Hubbard St., Montgomery . GA Willoughby, Mr. Elerman L., Route 1, Tennille, Ala . C Wills, Mr. William W., Forestry Dept., API, Auburn . GC \X41son, Dr. Hazel Schoonmaker, State Teachers College, Jacksonville . PM Wilson, Dr. L. T., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . PM Wilson, Mr. Wilfred Kelso, 1.301 Eleventh St., S.E., Decatur . C Wingard, Mr. R. E. Box 177, Auburn . Wingo, Dr. William J., Dept. Biochemistry, Med. College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Wood,s, Mr. [ames W., Univ. of Alabama Medical Center, Birmingham . C 4'ancey, Dr. ICitrick H., Spring Hill College, Mobile . BM 4’anchosek, Mr. |ohn J., Box 6l47, University . GA Yocom, Mr. Herbert A., 315 l6th Street, S.W., Birmingham . GC Yokeley, Mr. Paul, [r., Box 34, State Teachers College, Florence . BM Zukoski, Mr. Charles E., Jr., First National Bank, Birmingham . SS 143 INDEX This index includes the topics discussed within the Journal, however, it does not attempt to include minute details. The membership of the Academy is not indexed since the list is arranged alphabetically on pages 133-142. The names of officers of the Academy, as well as contributors to the program, and other persons whose work is referred to within the Journal are indexed. The colleges and sci¬ entific organizations within the state are indexed wherever their names are mentioned. A Abilene Christian College . 89 Abstracts, papers of annual meet . 87-107 Acne, its cures . 126-127 Adamson, Fannie Mae . 118 Adipimide, synth. & prop . 98 Adrenalectomized rats . 90 Aglaophenia latecarinata . 92 Ala. coals, comp, of . 28-37 Ala. College . 5, 87, 114, 117 Ala. Jr. Acad., annual meet . 127-132 Ala. Jr. Acad., chapter members . 122-123 Ala. Jr. Acad., officers . 122, 128, 130 Ala. Polytechnic Institute . 5, 10, 11, 77, 88, 90, 96, 98, 102, 103, 104, 117 Ala. Sci. Talent Search . 9, 116-118 Ala., south boundary . 106 Alcohol, furfuryl . 10-14 Amer. Chem. Soc . 120 Andalusite, Ala . 27 Andrews, Henry L . 37 Andrews, T. G . Ill Anthony, H. L., writings of . 37 Anthrone reagent . 96 Applegate, Neil L . 106 Aresco, S. J., writings of . 37 Arnold, Paul J . 108-111 Artificial mouth . 92 Atomic explosion . 26 Atterbury, James S . 120 Automobiles, consumer buying . 49 Award, Ala. Acad . 118-119 Axelrod, J. M., writings of . 25 Aziactones, anti-tumor activity . 89 B Bailey, Paul C . 5, 10, 87, 108-111, 111-113 Baranelli, Michael . 117 Barker, S. B . 87, 96 Barmore, C. B., writings of . 37 Barnard, F. A. P . 63-66 Barnard observatory . 63 Barr, E. Scott . 103 Barr, Phoebe B . 106 Baswell, John . 108-111 Batnor, G. T., writings of . 36, 37 Bcindorff, A. B . 104, 120 Benagh, George . 65 Bemeria tunicata . . 91 Berge, G. W., writings of . . 37 Biology, Graphics in general ... . 104 Biology, student reaction . . 105 Bird, B. M., writings of . . 37 Birmingham-Southern College . 101, 105, 117 Bishop, Everett . . 5, 113 Blackwood, Felix, Jr . . 118 Blair, C. S., writings of . . 37 Blood glutathione . Bogue, D. S., writings of . . 57 Boschung, H. T . . 88 Bradford, R. H., writings of... . 61 Brame, J. Y . . Branchiostoma . . 88 Bray, E'ather Gerald . . 108-111 Brewer, R. E., writings of . . 37 Brown, Chas. H . . 126 Brown, Harrison . . 23 Brown, Jack . . 6, 114 Brown, R. D . . 5, 108-111 Business meeting, annual, Sr. Acad . 113-114 Butts, Chas. writings of . . 36 Byrum, George R . . 113 Bruhn, J. M . . 88 Building industry . Bureau of Mines, U. S . . 28 Burgess, E. M . . 98 Business trends, eval. of . . 49-sO C Cairns, E. J . SS Campanularia sp . 92 Cantrell, Clyde H . 10, 108-111, 111-11^ Carbohydrate, total, detect, of . 90 Caries, desalivated hamsters . 93 C.arlson, Virginia \X' . S'-t CarLson, Warner \X' . S'-"* Carmichael, E. B . l l s, ii’. ijo Carr, Howard E . 0, 9, lOi, 108-111, If Ciarrington, \X'. IF, writings of . Ciarron, M. K., work of . 2^ (.ell divisiern, inhib. (4 . 8^’ Cihalfont, Robert . o (.hemical industr)’ . > ( hemstrand ( orp . s_ oo, UH. 10^ Chemistry, demonstrations . lO'"’ Chermock, Ralph 1 . s_ (■,_ \ \\ 144 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science C_liromato^graphy, paper, use in taxonomy . 89 Chromosomes, Trillium . 87 Ciitation, Dr. (. L. Kassner . 113 Cilan, model . 67-76 Clark, W. G., writings of . 66 (ilevenger, Charles . 89 Cdostridium perfringens . 92 Cdytia eoronata . 92 (ioal, Ala. prod, areas . 31 Coal, comp, of Ala . 28-37 Cioal, oxidation of . 35-36 (iobun, Ted C . 5, 104, 113 Cochran, J. Perry . 106 Cioe, G. D., writings of . 37 Cioleman, John S . 5 Ciommittees, Ala. Acad, of Sci . 6 Committee, reports . 108-113 Communication, non-verbal . 106 Cionservation, Ala. Dept . 92 Ciopper, geochemical means for . 24 Cordylophora lac'ustris . 91 Cioulter, Don M., writings of . 37 Ciounselor, Report of Ala. Jr. Acad . 120 (iowan, Kay . 120 Crafts, A. G . 111-113 Cirittenden, Raymond . 118 Ciudworth, ]. R., writings of . 36, 37 D Dachiile, ITank . Dean, H. D . de Broglie wave . Dedication of journal . Dept, ot Health, Ala . Dental caries, study of . Design, tunctional . Desmognathus . De Vail, \V. B . Dials, Albertine . Diamonds . Dickson, W. R . Diener, V. L . Ditylenchus sp . Dobbins, Henry L . Doster, j. F . Doubles, James . Draughon, Ralph . Drug industry . Dunlop and Peters, writings of .. Dunlop and Trimble, writings of Durant, W. S . Dyes, analysis of . E Eads, James . Earle, Martha . Earth, rotation of . ....99, 102 . 89 . 45 . 7 . 57 . 95 . 102 . 89-90 ...104, 113 . 118 . 23-24 . 97 . 90 . 88 . 118 . 63 . 6 . 5 . 50 . 11, 14 11, 13, 14 . 11 . 95 ....9 132 102 Earth, velocity of . 102 Edwards, Oliver Jack . 116-117, 129 Eisele, Father Louis J . 5, 6, 108-111 Electric utilities . 50 Electrodes, use of . 88 Electrophilhc substitution . 98 Electrophoritic studies, salivary secretions . 95 Emerson, G. M . 90, 91 Emerson, J. D . 88, 90, 91 Energy waves . 42 Engel, Niels . 40, 102 Environmental stress, effects on vision . 94 Ephmephrine, effects on smooth muscle . 87 Ecjuivalence, principle of . 40 Escherichia coli . 89 Esters, anti-tumor activity . 89 Euclidian space . 42 Evans, Billie Sue . 117 Executive Committee, minutes . 108-113 Exhibits, Ala. Jr. Acad . 130-132 F Family .system, rel. to hunting . 107 Farmer, C. M . 6, 113 Fatty acids, peanuts . 96 Feaster, B. F . 89 Fieldner, A. C., writings of . 37 Financial analysts . 49 Fincher, John A . 91, 117 Finley, W. H . 89 Finn, Sidney B . 10, 108-111 First Natl. Bank, Birmingham . 49 Fisher Scientific Co . 120 Fitz, Id. C . 102 Fitz-Gerald, work of . 41-42, 48 Fitzgerald, Robert T . 87 Florence S. T. C . 105, 106 Floyd, H. H . 108-111 Fossil Man . 99 Francis, T. M . 6 Frantzen, Ella C . 117 Fraser, James A . 111-113, 114 Fulton, John, writings of . 66 Furfural . 10-14 F'usarium oxysporum . 90 G Gandrud, B. W., writings of . 37 Garland, Landon C . 65 Genealogy, Kennamer family . 67-76 Geochemistry, recent work . 22-25 Geological Survey, Alabama . 7, 15, 22, 25, 28, 99 Geological Survey, U. S . 20, 25, 101 Geology, Korat Plateau, Thailand . 20-21 Geology, menaces in Ala . 15-20 Index 145 Gilman, E. N . 92, 95 Glycogen, determination . 96 Goetz"). R . 5, 6, 108-111, 111-113 Gold, Ala . 26 Gold, R. L . 106 Goodrich, Carter, writings of . 57 Gorceixite . 25 Gorgas Scholarship Foundation . 9 Gorgas Scholarships . 116-118, 129 Graham, J. P., writings of . 37 Graphite . 23 Graphite, Ala . 27-28 Gray leaf spot, study of . 90 Green, Margaret . 113 Ground w'ater, Thailand . 20 Growth hormones pituitary . 90, 91 Guidance, child, attitudes in rel. to . 106 H Hafling, Mary E . 117, 118-119 Haller, C. P., writings of . 37 Hamilton, C. H., writings of . 6l Hammond, J. L . 5, 108-111, 113 Hansen, A. T . 5, 6, 108-111 Hanson, R. W . 96 Hargrove, W. B . 117, 120 Harper, Roland M . 6, 7-8, 10, 15, 67, 108-111, 111-113 Harperella fluviatilis . 8 Harvey, Henry . 105 Haughton, Paul . 102 Hayes Aircraft Corp . 106 Hayes, C. W . 118 Heartburg, Carl P . 49 Hendon, John F . 51 Hertzog, E. S., writings of . 37 Hester, Ray Willis . 117 Hilt's law . 31-32 Hisey, Alan . 95, 96 Hitt, H. L. writings of . 6l Horticultural Lab., U. S. Field . 38 Howard College . 5, 91, 117 Hubarium, U. S. Nat . 8 Huffman, E. 0 . 98 Hunt, Thomas E . 92 Hunting system, Tuscaloosa area . 107 Huntingdon College . 117 Hydractinia . 91 Hydroids, Miss. Sound . 91 Hypophysis, role of . 94 I Ice Age . 99 Indian Springs School . 5, 104, 105 Industry, new, impact of . 106 Industry, organizational climate . 106 Industrial plants . 77-86 Installment credit, consumer . 49 Iodine, protein bound . 96 J Jacksonville State Teachers College . 114 Jennings, Henry L . 5, 6, 10, 108-111, 111-113 Johnson, M. W . 118 Johnston, Herman J . Ill Jones, Frances D . 117 Jones, Schoenborn, & Colburn, writings of . 12, l4 Jones, Walter B . 8, 99 Jung, F. W. writings of . 37 K Karrh, C. M . 117 Kassner, James L . 5, 6, 9, 108-111, 115, 118, 120, 128-132 Kassner, J. L., Jr . 102 Keeler, James E . 92 Kennamer family . 67-76 Kester, E. B., writings of . 37 Kilgore, W. G . 94 Klapper, Clarence E . 6, 93 Kraus, E. W . 93 Kyanite, Ala . 27 L Lactobacillus casei . 92 Lamar, Sally R . 106 Langley, L. L . 94 Lewis, Fred . 117 Libbey, work of . 24 Light, demonstrations . 103 Lively, C. E., writings of . 58, 61 Lloyd, Lucille . 117 Lloyd, Stewart J . 22 Lockingen, L. S . 97 Long, A. R . 38 Loomis, Elias, writings of . 66 Lorentz, H. A., writings ol . tS Lorentz transformation . ll-i" Lovenella gracilis . 02 Lunksford, James K . 0 Lycopersieon esculentum . Ot) Lytocarpus philippinus . 02 M MaeAskill, Miriam . 8^' McC.ullough, Herbert . 6, UL 108-11, 1 1 1-1 IT lit Mt Inly re, S. C . MacNeil, Stearns, work of . 2'' Maleic and) d ride, re.ution of . ''8 Mallory, |. C . S8 146 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Man, fossil . 98 Man, races . 99 Marriages, family . 72-74 Marshall, Madison . 9, 105, 108-111, 111-113, 120 Mathematics, colorful . 102 Maxwell A. F. Base . 99 Meade, |. C., writings of . 37 Metallic bonding . 40 Meteorite, Sylacauga . 101 Meteorite, age of . 22-2 5 Mica, Ala . 26-27 Michelson, work of . 40-41, 48 Micrococcus pyrogenes . 92 Miles, E. P., Jr . 102, 113 Miles, Vance . 5, 6, 113 Milk, sorbitol diets, hamsters . 93 Mills, Coley . 116-117, 129 Milton, Chas., work of . 25 Mine Exp. Station, Ala . 28 Migration, pop. in Ala . 57-62 Minerals, Ala . 25-28 Mohr, Charles . 7 Moreley, work of . 40-41, 48 Morris, F. K . 5, 99 Mouth, artificial . 95 Mucosa, stomach, regeneration . 92 Mullins, Ray . 104 Muntz, L . 92, 95 Murphy High School . 126 Myles, Wm. R . 77 N Names, origin of . 70-71 Naugle, B. W., writings of . 37 Negro, migrating . 101 Neisseria catarrhalis . 92 I'delson, E. B., writings of . 37 Nelson, Gid E . 108-111 Nematodes, control of . 88 Neurophysiological investigations . 88 Neutrons, counting . 103 Newtonian time . 42 Newsletter, Acad . 10 Nolan, W. M . 97 O Obelia sp . 92 Ode, W. H., writings of . 37 Officers, Ala. Acad. Sci . 5-6 Ogden, F. D . 107 Oil Industry . 50 Oparin, work of . 20 Oubari stone . 23 Overton. E. C . 94 Oxid.-red. pot., measurement . 95 P Palhster, Hugh D . 25, 37 Paneth, 1'. A . 23 Parkel, Chas. O., jr . 87 Parking industry, economics . 51-56 Particle-wave principle . 40 Patient care, approach . 107 Peach, prod, in Ala . 39 Peaches, dormancy of . 38-39 Pearce, waitings of . 13, 14 Pearsall, Marion . 113 Permselective membranes . 97 Peroxide & perioxidase, saliva . 93 Personnel aclm., development . 104 Personnel practices . 77-86 Personnel specialization, industrial . 77-86 Phenylhydrazines, reaction . 98 Photomodulator . 124-t26 Physics, criticism of . 104 Piazza, Michael A . 14 Pickle hc|uor, disposal . 97 Pigman, Ward . 5, 92, 95, 108-111, 111-113 Pituophis melanoleucus . 92 Plumularia diaphana . 92 Poll tax, effects on voting . 107 Pollard oil field . 98 Population, migration in Ala . 57-62 Porter, j. F . 103 Poc.ell, R. W . 92, 95 Presidential report, Ala. Acad. Sci . 9-10 Proteins, surface tension . 95 Pyrites . 24-25 R Railroad industry . 50 Ramey, D. W . 95 Ray, Earl . 124 Regeneration, stomach mucosa . 92 Relativistic phenomena . 40-48 Research grants, Ala. Acad. Sci . 109 Research, Sci. Ed . 105 Research, undergraduate . 105 Resolutions Committee, report . Il4 Rhein, W. J . 103 Rich, J. L., writings of . 37 Richardson, A. C. writings of . 37 Reid, Jane . 95 Reynolds, D. A., writings of . 37 Rives, John E . 103 Robinson, True W . 95 Robinson, Wilbert . 117 Rodgers, John, writings of . 37 Rose, J. N . 8 Ross, Edward . 118 Ruark, A. E . 102 Rubber industry . 50 Index 147 S Salamanders, taxonomic study . 89 Salivary secretion, study . 9^ Sanford, Edward . 117 Sargent, E. H., Co . 9 Schroedinger, equation . 43 Schwartz, H. S . 96 Sci. Clubs of Amer., cooperator . 120 Science fairs . 9, 104, 103, 110, 120 Science teaching . 9, 1 1 1 Searcy, Margaret . 107 Sellers, J. B. . 66, 107 Selvmg, W. A., writings of . 37 Semmes, D. R., writings of . 37 Sensenig, E. Carl . 6, 10, 108-111, 111-113 Sewell, W. H., writings of . 6l Shotts, R. Q . 6, 28, 108-111 Sillimanite, Ala . 27 Simmons, G. A . 103 Singleton, John P . 116 Sipe, H. Craig . 3, 6, 103, 108-111, 111-113 Smith, A. J . 98 Smith, Eugene A . 66 Smith, P. H . 89 Smithey, Wm. R., Jr . 108-111, 117 Smooth muscle, response . 87 Snake, black pine, range . 92 Snoody, G. B . 108-111 Snyder, E. E . 106, 113 Snyder, N. H., writings of . 37 Soday, Frank J . 3, 99, 113, 117 Solutions, density, pH, etc . 98 Southern, J. A . 117 Southern Research Institute . 3, 97, 108 Speech, study of visible aspects . 107 Spence, D. J . 13, 14 Spring Hill College . 3, 103, 117 Sprunk, G. C., writings of . 37 Standefer, Harold R . 9 Star gazing . 63-66 Statistics, family . 69 Statistics, farm . 69 Statistics, population, Ala . 37-62 Stauffer, J. M . 113 Stearns, R. G., writings of . .37 Steel industry . ‘iO Steele, H. Ellsworth . 3, 77, 113 Stem rot, control . 90 Stephenson, Diane D . 107 Steroid, replacement in rat . 90 Stevens, F. J . 6, 98, 1 1 7 Stone, Paul T . 108-111 Stouffer, S. A., writings of . '>7 Streetman, Kibbee . 116-117, 119, 129 Streptococcus faecalis . 92 Streptococcus salivarius . 92 Stringfellow, Carl R . 119 Stull, writings of . 13, 14 Sulfates, cyclic, anti-tumor activity . 89 Sulfur isotopes . 24 Sullivan, John L . 113 Sulzby, James F., jr . 3, 6, 108-111, 113, 120 Surface tension, protein . 93 Survey, health, etc., Jeff. Co . 107 Swafford, Lida . 116-117, 129 Swindel, G. W., Jr . 101 T Taeuber, C., writings of . 38, 6l Talent search, science . 116-118 Tate, C. W . 98 Temperatures, Ala . 39 Tetrahymena pyriformis . 97 Thailand, geology . 20-21 Thiamine, effects upon growth . 97 Thomas, M. F., writings of . 37 Thomas, W. E . 118 Thompson, W. S., writings of . 57 Thorium, Ala . 26 Thornthwaite, C. W., writings of . 37 Thyroxine, effects upon smooth muscle . 87 Tidwell, O. K . 9=^ Thermal decomposition . 97 Tenn. Valley Authority . 98 Tower, J. Allen . 6, 101, 113, 114 Treasurer’s report, Jr. Acad . 132 Treasurer’s report, Sr. Acad . Trigg, O. S., Jr., writings of . 37 Trillium . 87 Troy State Teachers College . v, 9 Tubbs, writings of . 11, 14 Trustees, Ala. Acad. Sci . ^ U Unionization, ind. plants . 77-s6 Univ. of Ala., Med. Center . v, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 93, 96, 97, 98, 111. 113 Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa . v, 9, U, 20, 22, 2=1, 28, 10, =>7, 63, 67, 88, 9s. 99. 102, 103, 106, 107, 117 University lands, adm. ot . lO- Underwood, Bertha . ID Uranium, Ala . 26 \' Vance, R. B., writings ot . Vapor-pressure ecjuilibi'ium . 10 1 I Vari.ible scaling unit . 10' Velocity, earth . 102 Veter.ins Adm. 1 losp . Vision, de\', cit . t Volker. loscph . 10. ' 148 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vreteas, Mariana G . 96 Urey, work of . 2-i W Walker, Henry . 5, 6, 9, 108-111, 111-113 Wallwork, Fred . 124 Ward, H. S., Jr . 96 Warner, Herbert D . ^ Watson, R. C . 108-111 Weather Bureau, Montgomery . 38 Webster, Elizabeth . 107 Wentworth, C. K., writings of . 37 West End H. S . 124 Wheeler, Evelyn . 117 White, David, work of . 32 White, Locke, Jr . 3, 10, 108-111, 111-113, 117 White, Thomas 0 . 116-117, 129 Wikox, Harold . 6, 97, 117 Wilks, William 1’ . 5, 9, 108-111, 111-113, 11 3-114 Williams, Bert . 108 Williams, Melvin . 5, 111-113 Williams, Nudie E . 118 Willman, L. D . 120 Wilson cloud chamber . 102 Wingard, R. E . 11 Wingo, W. j . 97 Wolfson, D. E., writings of . 37 Wood, recjuirements . 104 Wood, j. W . 98 X Xan, |ohn . 108 Y'ancey, h'ather Patrick H . 5, 6, 10, 113, 117 Ydtrium . 25 Z Zeuner, E. E . 24 Zukoski, Chas. F., Jr . 107 Advertisements s' 3 i \ \ 1 f I M -) i A COMMON BOND CHEMSTRAND AND ALABAMA . . . KEEP PACE WITH PROGRESS In the Chemstrand Corporation's Research and De¬ velopment department, skilled personnel play an important role in keeping with progress in the textile fiber world. The above aerial view shows Chemstrand's Decatur facilities where men will con¬ tinue to seek newer fibers for better living. 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For use with S-76710 stirring paddles. Length, inches . 12 18 Each . $0.75 $0.85 ‘Registered Trademark, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.« inc. (Iep^iede4dmcf- AIL (lecocfHdfed Jaio^iaLaidf^ ^(^MpmenL Baker BAUSCH & LOME SINCE IjMjiji American Optical McKesson & robbins, inc. Birmingham Scientific Division 1706 First Ave. North Birmingham 3, Ala. THE JOURNAL '^^'556 OF THE Alabama Academy of Science (Affiliated With A.A.A.S.) Office of the Editor Alabama College Montevallo, Alabama VOLUME 28 DECEMBER, 1956 THE JOURNAL OF THE Alabama Academy (Affiliated With A.A.A.S.) VOLUME 28 DECEMBER, 1956 EDITOR Paul C. Bailey EDITORIAL BOARD A. T. Hansen Clarence Klapper Fred Westover Office of the, F.dhor Alabama ('oi.lece Montevallo, Alabama I V I I ) I t t 1 Foreword The 1956 annual meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science was held on the Alabama College campus in Montevallo, March 30-31, 1956. The annual meeting was preceded by a meeting on Thursday evening, March 29, of the Executive Committee. The annual banquet was held on Friday evening, March 30, in the Alabama College Dining Hall and was featured by the presidential address given by Dr. Ralph Chermock, Professor of Biology at the University of Alabama. The Fall meeting of the Executive Committee was held on November 12, 1955, in Reynolds Hall, Alabama College, Monte¬ vallo, Alabama. The Alabama Junior Academy of Science held its annual meeting on the Alabama College campus at the same time as the Senior Academy meeting, that is, March 30-31, 1956. The Junior Academy banquet was held on Friday evening, March 30. Abstracts of all papers presented to the various section meetings of the Academy are printed within this Journal and are grouped by sections. Full- length papers presented to the various sections and selected for publication in this volume are grouped likewise. Aside from papers and abstracts, this Journal includes the presidential address along with the proceedings of both the Alabama Academy of Science and the Alabama Junior Academv of Science. ■ TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Officers of Alabama Academy of Science, 1936 . 7 Committees of Alabama Academy of Science, 1956 . 8 Presidential Address . 9-14 Symposium — Improvement of High School Science Teaching in Alabama . 15-31 Complete papers presented at section meetings . 32-116 Section I, Biology and Medicine . 32-34 Chermock, R.L., and Imhof, T. A., Bird Records from Dauphin Island.... 32-34 Section III, Geology and Anthropoloc,y . 35-68 Lloyd, S. J., Geology of Coosa River Dams . 35-38 Pallister, H. D., and Hastings, E. L., Future of Alabama Mineral Deposits 38-44 Shotts, R. Q., Further Studies of Rank and Composition of Alabama Coals 44-61 Shotts, R. Q., Structure of Portion of Lookout Mountain in Alabama . 62-68 Section IV, Geography and Conservation . 69-79 May, J. T., Alabama’s Tree Planting Needs . 69-72 Miles, R. V., Jr., and Kirkpatrick, J. C., Forest Management at Gulf States Paper . 72-79 Section V, Physics and Mathematics . 80-116 Symposium — Career Opportunities in Physics, Math, and Engineering . 80-107 Harper, R. M., Some Ovals and Related Curves . 107-116 Abstracts of papers presented at section meetings . 117-138 1. Biology and Medicine . 117-123 2. Chemistry . 124-125 3. Geology and Anthropology . 126-127 4. Geography and Conservation . 128-130 5. Physics and Mathematics . 130 6. Industry and Economics . 131 7. Science Education . 131-13-1 8. Social Sciences . 134-1.38 Executive Committee Meetings . 1.39- I n Annual Business Meeting . 1-16-1 -i7 Resolutions . in Treasurer’s report . 1-17 Talent search for Gorgas Scholarships . MS- no Alabama Academy Award . 1 so Report of Counselors, Alabama Junior Academy of Sciciuc . Mi Report of Cooperator to Science I'airs of America . Ml Alabama Junior Academy ol Science proceedings . M3 l(i0 Membership list, Alabama Academy of Scieiue . 161 -Ml Index . M2-M(' Advertising . M^-iso ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICERS 19^6 7 President . Dr. Ralph L. Chermock, Dept. Biology, University, Alabama President-Elect.. Dr. J. Allen Tower, Dept. Geography, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham VICE-PRESIDENTS, SECTION CHAIRMEN AND VICE-CHAIRMEN Section I Biology and Medicine . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. Everett Bishop, Dept. of Biology, University Vice-Chairman, Dr. Margaret Green, Dept, of Bacteriology, Uni¬ versity Section II Chemistry . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. Frank J. Soday, Chem- strand Corporation, Decatur Vice-Chairman, Dr. Harold E. Wilcox, Dept, of Chemistry, Bir¬ mingham-Southern College, Birmingham Section III Geology and Anthropology . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Mr. George W. Swindel, Geological Survey, University Vice-Chairman, Dr. Frank J. Soday, Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur Section IV Geography and Conservation.... Vice-President and Section Chairman, Mr. J. M. Stauffer, Ala¬ bama Department of Conservation, Montgomery Vice-Chairman, Dr. W. B. DeVall, Dept, of Forestry, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn Section V Physics and Mathematics, Section VI Industry and Economics Section VII Science Education Section VIII The Social Sciences .Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. E. P. Miles, Dept, of Mathematics, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn Vice-Chairman, Dr. L. T. Wilson, Dept, of Physics, State Teach¬ ers College, Jacksonville .Vice-President and Section Chairman, Mr. George R. Byrum, First Federal Savings and Loan Association, Birmingliam Vice-Chairman, Mr. John L. Sullivan, Box 276, Birmingliam Vice-President and Section Chairman, Mr. Ted C. Cobun, In¬ dian Springs School, Helena Vice-Chairman, Mr. Ernest Snyder, Dept, Science, State Teachers College, Florence Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. H. Ellswortli Steele. Route 2, Box 273-A, Auburn Vice-Chairman, Dr. Marion Pearsall, Box 23S2, Unicersitv Secretary . Dr. Herbert A. McCullough, Dept, of Biology, Howard College, Birmiimham Treasurer . Dr. Locke White, Southern Research Institute, Birmmcham Editor of Journal . Dr. Paul C. Bailey, Dept. Biology, Alabama ( ollei^e, Montecallo Councilor of AAAS . Father Patrick II. Yancey, Spring Hill College, Mobile Counselor of Junior Academy . Dr. James L, Kassner. School of ( hemistrv. Um\ercit\ Associate Counselors of Junior Academy- -Dr. Henry Walker, Dept. Biology, Unnersilv; Dr lamc^ Wilkes, Dept. Biology, State Teachers College, Jacksons ilk ; Dr. Gibbes P.itton, Box 2i' i". Um versity Coordinator of Science Fairs Dr. Madison M.iishall, ( hemstr.uul ( orpc'r.Uion. Dcv.Uui 8 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science BOARD OF TRUSTEES Mr. Henry L. Jennings, Chairman Mr. James 1'. Sulzby . Mr. Vance Miles . Dr. Dalph Drau^hon . Dr. Walter B. fones . Mr. |ohn Baswell . . ^03 1 itle Guarantee Building, Birmingham . 42 Id Overlook Road, Birmingham Manager, Gulf States Paper Corporation, Tuscaloosa ...President, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn . P. O. Drawer 0, University . 3613 S. Kith Avenue, Birmingham STANDING COMMIT'I'EES Re\eaych Conm/iHee Dr. E. Carl Sensenig, Chairman Dr. A. T. Hansen Dr. j. A. Doubles Dr. H. Craig Sipe Er. L. J. Eisele, S. J. Lmig Ra>ige PUuDi 'ntg E)r. Harold E. Wilcox, Chairman Dr. James C. Wilkes Dr. Reynold Q. Shotts l'/ihi)ice Co»/»ullee Mr. Henry Jennings, Chairman Ed/toy/al BoayJ Dr. A. T. Hansen, Chairman Dr. Clarence Klapper Dr. Fred Westover E^eu'iletley Coii/ii/iltee Dr. Sidney B. Finn, Chairman Si/ence Education Coiinii'itlee Dr. Howard Carr, Cdiairman Mr. |. R. Goetz Dr. W. T. Wilkes Dr. Willis Baughman Dr. F. [. Stevens Dr. F. k. Morris Dr. R. L. Chermock, Ex-Offitio Ihstoynal Coiiniiillee Dr. Clyde Cantrell, Chairman Mr. Peter Brannon Dr. C. M. Farmer Dr. Stewart J. Lloyd Dr. George C. Palmer Memheysbip Dr. |. Allen Tower, Chairman Aclniission to Men/heyship Dr. H. A. McCullough, Chairman Local Ayyangenients Coinniittee Dr. Paul Bailey, Co-Chairman Dr. Gid Nelson, Co-Chairman SPECIAL COMMITTEES FOR 1936 MEETING KoDimatnig ConinEittee Dr. Henry Walker, Chairman Dr. |. A. Eincher Dr. William T. Wilks Resolutions Committee J. M. Stauffer, Chairman Dr. |. Allen Tower Dr. H. A. McCullough, Ex-Officio Auditing Committee. Junioy Academy Dr. George D. Palmer Dr. Walter Herndon Auditing Committee. Senioy Academy Dr. Ward Pigman Dr. W. J. Wingo Place of Meeting Committee Dr. Howard Carr, Co-Chairman Dr. H. E. McCullough, Co-Chairman 9 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS Montevallo, Alabama, March 30, 1956 OUR DWINDLING RESOURCE— THE SCIENTIST By Ralph E. Chermock Umvei's'ity of Alabama, University, Alabama Only recently, our nation has become aware of the steadily decreasing number of scientists trained each year by our colleges and universities. LInfilled vacancies in all fields of ende\aor requiring scientific back¬ grounds are on the increase. Many in¬ stitutions of higher learning, particularly the smaller colleges, have difficulty in ob¬ taining qualified research and teaching pro¬ fessors. Our high schools can no longer hire teachers who have been adequately trained in the sciences to teach their fields. Industry, with its tremendous facilities for research and need for technological skills, can no longer obtain the trained man power it needs. Government research pro¬ jects frequently cannot maintain adequate staffs. It is only recently that our educators, political leaders and industrialists have be¬ come aware of the situation, and of its critical import. Admiral Strauss, Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, recently pointed out that between 1955 and 1060, we will train 900,000 engineers and scien¬ tists, while Russia will train 1,200,000. Paul H. Robbins, Executive Director of the National Society of Professional Engineers, has estimated that we are training 2 3,000 engineers annually, and industries need 50,000 a year, the same number that Russia is already producing. In Education, the an¬ nual need for new science teachers will soon approach 10,000 while, at present, a maximum of 5,000 potential replace¬ ments graduate from college each year. In the next decade, it is estimated that there will be a deficit of at least 100,000 science teachers in our high schools. Similar trends are also predicted for college and university level instruction. All of these data indicate that while the demand for scientists in all fields of endeavor will in¬ crease, the supply will decrease, and a critical deficit is imminent. Two questions must be considered and answered if we are to understand and correct the present situation. The first is "Why do we have a shortage of scien¬ tists.^’’; the second, "How can we reverse the present trend The answer to the first question is not simple, for the problem is the result of a variety of factors which are constantly changing. One major factor has been the continually increasing need and demand for scientists. The last few decades have been character¬ ized by an industrial expansion based on new scientific achievements such as the de¬ velopment of plastics, television, synthetic fibers, antibiotics and insecticides, all re¬ quiring highly trained scientific personnel. Simultaneously, established industries ha\ e relied more and more on the scientist for their techm)logical progress. Huge industrial research programs ha\e been established with well equipped laboratories .iiul op¬ timum working conditions, which utilize engineers, chemists, physicists, mathema¬ ticians and microbiologists. Sm.iller in¬ dustries have pooled their resources ti’i sup¬ port research centers such .is our own Southern Research Institute in Hirmmgh.im. Numerous scientists .ire .ilso required tor more routine types ot wank such .is oil 10 Journal of the Alabama Academy oe Science and mineral exploration, testing labora¬ tories, and the supervison of complex man¬ ufacturing processes. It is not unusual today, for a factory foreman to have his Bachelor of Science degree, representing scientific training equipping him for the job. The epic growth of government re¬ search has also required scientific personnel. We are all familiar with the unleashing of atomic energy, the huge laboratories re¬ quired for its development, and the variety of scientists needed in all phases of research and production. The Defense Department, with the development of new weapons, planes, ships and guns, need experts in en¬ gineering, ballistics, physiology, psychology, and human ecology, to conduct necessary research on the equipment, and the men who use It. H uge power projects, such as the TVA, irrigation projects in arid lands, the LI. S. Public Health Service, the De¬ partment of Agriculture, and the Fish and \Xdlcllite Service all have increased their facilities in the last few decades and, con¬ sequently, their demand for scientists. The need for scientists in education also has increased. With the rapidly expanding population in the United States, more students are attending our public schools. Simultaneously, an increasingly larger per¬ centage of this population has been com¬ pleting high school. Larger enrollments mean more teachers, incluclinp- those in the sciences. With the cessation of the de¬ pression, and the educational boom follow¬ ing World War 11, enrollments in colleges and universities have markedly increased. Highly trained scientists are continually needed to add to the professional staffs to teach and to conduct basic research. The needs of industry, government and education, along with those of medical research foundations, technical assistance programs of the LInited Nations, public and private museums, and divisions of state and local governments all are increasing, while proportionally fewer scientists are being trained. Although we are living in a scientific age, an age with an endlessly challenging future, our young people lack an interest in choosing one of the various sciences as a profession. Why? Three factors seem to be foremost in answering this question. These are; 1) the increasing complexity of science; 2) lack of recogni¬ tion, both financial and social; and 3) inadequate stimulation in our educational institutions. With the acquisition of new knowledge, science is becoming more specialized. Know¬ ledge in its various divisions is accumulating at so rapid a pace that the time required to become authoritative in any of its fields is increasing. A modern scientist, if he is to be productive, not only needs training leading to the baccalaureate, but usually additional graduate training in his specialty. Education of this type requires exceptional ability, financial sacrifice, and time. In our modern w'oiid, too few students are willing to make these sacrifices in order to become a part of the scientific profession. Too many other fields of endeavor re¬ quiring less training or at least no addition¬ al training afford greater financial and social opportunities. To be blunt, scien¬ tists are underpaid in all fields utilizing these men, whether it be education, in¬ dustry, or government employment. The compensation is not proportional to the training and skill required. In education, we all know teachers in secondary schools are underpaid. Any young man who plans to support a family and hopes to afford a few of life’s luxuries, cannot help but re¬ ject high school teaching as a career. This is particularly true when semi-skilled, un¬ trained laborers have a sreater earning O <- ' potential in many communities than the teacher. Colleges and universities have suf¬ fered because of inflation. The return on endowment investments has decreased. Many states, particularly those in the South, (and that includes Alabama), have not Presidential Address 1) recognized the growing financial needs of the institutions they support. Consequently, professors’ salaries, in terms of buying power, have steadily decreased. Again, among professional classes he is near the bottom. Are government scientists rewarded ad¬ equately for their services? All government employees, from the President of the United States down, are underpaid for their re¬ sponsibilities and duties. The top potential for scientists is still far below that of other professions in both public and private en¬ terprises. This ceiling on earning capacity fails to attract our capable youth. Has industry adequately rewarded the scientist? The higher salaries in industry too frequently go to those with far less training, ability, and value than the scientist. Many industries confiscate new discoveries and new inventions of the scientists in their employ. Although these may eventu¬ ally result in profits to the industry of millions of dollars, the scientist remains unrewarded. This lack of recognition for achievement negates the somewhat higher salaries industry pays. In general, we may summarize by saying that science offers compartively low salaries, a slow rate of advancement, and a low monetary ceiling for a profession. Con¬ sequently, it lacks appeal for the able and ambitious youth. The next major question is, what have our high schools and colleges done to stimulate an interest in science among their students? Let us first consider secondary education. A recent survey of 80% of the high schools in Alabama shows that over 60% of the science teachers have a college major in some field other than science. Only 3 teachers of Physics in the entire state have a major in that science; only 14 in chemistry; 20 in mathematics; and biology ranks high¬ est with 32. This means that our high school teachers lack the training necessary to in¬ still an interest in the field, and to ad¬ equately prepare the students for a career in Science. In addition to this, consider that many high schools are slowly dropping the various sciences from their curricula because of the lack of teachers and equipment. We can readily understand why their graduates not only fail to select sciences as a career, but actually fear it because they recognize their lack of background on entering col¬ lege. The sciences require extra facilities if they are to be taught properly. Too many high school graduates have never seen a microscope, or have had chemical experi¬ ments explained to them rather than per¬ forming them themselves. It is inconceivable why our high school administrators arc far more interested in new buildings, new gym¬ nasia, swimming pools, and band uniforms, than they are in the basic equipment needed for teaching. In my own city of Tuscaloosa, a new high school costing over a million dollars, has been completed. In its beautiful biology laboratories, we find 7 microscopes and practically none of the equipment and supplies needed for teaching biology. Our colleges and universities are the training ground for scientists. Very few of these institutions have methods for de¬ termining the potentially capable scientists and encouraging them to select science as a career. The increasingly larger classes eliminate the personal contact between pro¬ fessor and student, a contact essential for the stimulation and encouraiiement of bud- ding scientists. The ratio of capable pro¬ fessors is steadily decreasing with the result that fewer and fewer are used to instruct the undergraduate. Ciollcges and universi¬ ties, along with the high schools, are failinr; in their responsibilities. We must never forget a tew simple f.icts. We cannot, nor will not, ha\ e scientists it we fail to educate them. 'I'o tram them, we need teachers. 4'eaching represents the 12 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science lowest rung on the financial ladder avail¬ able to scientists. Therefore, more and more are leaving this profession to enter industrial and governmental employment. Also, many students who are capable of going on for graduate studies and may eventually become great teachers of science, are distracted from this goal by other, more lucrative, opportunities. The backbone of the teaching profession is the specialist with graduate degrees; yet, today, in many sciences, we are actually turning out fewer doctorates than we did 25 years ago. The teaching profession, upon which we depend for the replacement of scientists, is being plundered. Government and Industry are diverting the stream at its source. Who is going to staff our universities and colleges.^ How will we train our future scientists? I have tried to explain the reasons for this dwindling resource of ours, the scientist. I should like to offer some constructive ideas to correct the situation. We can do nothing about the increased demand, but we can stimulate more people to select science as a career in order to produce more scientists. Simultaneously, we can have better trained scientists, by increasing thc caliber of all instruction, and by encourag¬ ing the most qualified to take advanced studies. If the scientific profession is to be at¬ tractive to our young people, its monetary reward must be increased. Our high school teachers, who play so important a role in stimulating and training our children, must be paid more adequately. There is no logic¬ al reason why they should not receive sufficient remuneration to support them and their families. Alabama, with its present salary scale for public school teachers, is losing its best instructors to neighboring states. The political leaders of Florida, Georgia, and Mississippi all have tried to meet this challenge; Alabama lags behind. No capable scientist, unless dedicated to the cause of teaching will accept a position in Alabama’s public schools today. Once the facts are known and understood, it is the re¬ sponsibility of our legislature to correct the difficulty. College and university professors also must receive increased salaries proportionate to their abilities. In state supported institu¬ tions, the responsibility rests with govern¬ ment and school administrators; in private institutions, means must be found to supple¬ ment present salaries from either public or private funds. Government scientists should be placed on Civil Service IcveC which appropriately reward them financi¬ ally. The opportunities for advacement must be liberalized and the ceilings raised. Scien¬ tists in industry are frequently receiving fair salaries. However, appropriate rewards should be given to the creative worker for new discoveries and inventions. Opportuni¬ ties for advancement into higher eschelons should be available to the deserving. If all of these monetary rewards are forth¬ coming and the ceilings raised so that they are comparable to those in other profess¬ ions, scientific careers will have increased attraction to our youth. How can we improve educational facili¬ ties and the caliber of instruction in our high schools? The Department of Defense is encouraging its retired veterans to become teachers. Many of these are ably trained in science. The idea is a sound one and will help the present situation, but we must re¬ cognize it as an emergency measure. The fact that a retired soldier worked with radar does not make him a physicist; nor a medical technician, a biologist. They are, however, as well qualified to teach these sciences as an English or History major. A few industries are encouraging their scientifically trained personnel to teach part-time in their local schools. This is an important step in the right direction, for these people are well-trained, interested, and usually enthusiastic about their fields. They cannot help but stimulate their stu- Presidential Address 13 (dents. However, the communities which neeci high school teachers most are usually small an(d lack major in(dustries. Every College of Education in the state should have some method of determining which of its prospective teachers have marked scientific abilities. No stone should be left unturned in locating them, and every effort should be made to encourage them to major or minor in one or more sciences. Superintendents of Education should in¬ sist that their teachers receive their advanced degrees in the subjects they are teaching, rather than in Education. It is time that each and every one of us realizes that methodology in education is no substitute for factual knowledge. Added training in techniques of administering examinations ot supervising janitors is no substitute for specialized courses in bona-fide subjects. ''X'e should insist that our children have teachers trained in the subject they are teaching. Alabama should have a law where¬ by teachers are accredited to teach subjects based on adequate collegiate training rather than a carte-blanche certification. If this law is enforced, all high schools would eventu¬ ally have capable, adequately trained, science teachers. The teaching of science in high school requires proper equipment. Minimum stan¬ dards should be established, not by pro¬ fessional educators, but by scientists. It should be the responsibility of each princi¬ pal, superintendent, and Board of Education to see that these minimum standards are met. New buildings, with their multitude of extra-curricular facilities, should not have precedence over basic curricular re¬ quirements. Give our children an oppor¬ tunity to become familiar with scientific equipment and processes because familiarity will eliminate fear and create interest. In¬ dustry should be encouraged to help finance the equipping of laboratories if they wish to help improve the situtation. Above all, those high schools which have dropped various science courses from their curricula, should be required to reinstate them. All students should have the opportunity to receive training in any or all basic sciences before graduating. What can we do to improve instruction m our colleges, for it is here that our future scientists are trained? Again, every college has an obligation to determine which of its students are capable of a career in science. This should be determined early in the collegiate training. These students should then be advised by impartial professors in their respective fields. Great care should be used in determining the appropriate curriculum for each based upon his interest and ability. The most capable should be encouraged to enter graduate studies. It is unfair to the student and the educational institution for industry to skim this cream thereby preventing the capable student of fulfilling his potential destiny. If industrv eventually v.'ants to employ these individu¬ als, it should establish a series of graduate scholarships and fellowships, encouraging the best students to take further training and obligating them to a reasonable dura¬ tion of employment after graduation. This would not only give industry better-trained scientists but would develop the highlv trained reserve of scientific manpower, which our country so desperately needs. State and Federal Governments willinglv have established fellowships and scholar¬ ships in professirinal schools such as medi¬ cine and dentistry for deser\ing students. The same could and should be dime in the sciences beyond the limited number now financed bv the National Science I'ounda- tion. The universities have, in the (List, assumed most of the responsibilitv ot financing graduate studies in the sciences They realized early that their source ot piw fessors in the future depends upon this subsidization. Now, our graduate sclunds. while financed by the universities, are being plundered bv gocernment and industrv. It 14 Journal of Thf Alabama Acadfimy of Scifnce is time that the latter realize the necessity for sharing in this responsibility. If iK)t, the number of college professors will fall so low that science education will be jeopar¬ dized. The government is partially solving this problem by initiating cooperative pro¬ grams between the universities and govern¬ ment projects. In Alabama, the co-operative agreement between Redstone Arsenal and the University of Alabama, and the Institute of Nuclear Studies established by Oak Ridge in co-operation with Southeastern Uni- \ersities, exemplify this trend. Industry has been lagging behind. The universities, in the past, were the centers of basic research. They were able to maintain the variety of personnel, labora¬ tories and libraries necessary for advanced studies. Decreased incomes are curtailing these efforts. When research began to leave the campus, the stimulation to undergradu¬ ate students to select science as a career decreased. They had no contact with the great scientists involved in the development of the atomic bomb; they could not be in¬ spired by scientists in closely guarded in¬ dustrial laboratories. I would recommend that government and industry, where pos¬ sible, establish their research centers on university campuses; that they share their scientists with the universities to aid in graduate training and the directing of re¬ search of graduate students. Simultaneously, they would have the benefits of the know¬ ledge of the university faculties, skilled workers in the form of graduate students, and superior library and laboratory facilities. This would help to relieve the burden of graduate training for the universities. It would more equitably apportion the re¬ sponsibility. Simultaneously, both industry and education would gain by pooled re¬ sources, knowledge and abilities. A close'" understanding of each others problems would be realized. I also feel that it would stimulate more students to choose science as a career and encourage them to complete graduate training in their fields of interest. The result would be more, and better trained scientists. The success of any program depends upon the cooperation of those groups hav¬ ing the greatest need for scientific person¬ nel. I feel that education, industry and government should organize and support a foundation to study the various problems. Its membership should include representa¬ tives of all three groups along with those of our major scientific societies. It should be the assignment of this foundation to determine how the shortage of scientists can be corrected, and to make appropriate recommendations to all concerned. I would like to see Alabama assume the leadership in this proposal. dlie final question- -''Should we do these things? What is critical about the shortage of scientists?” We are living in a scientific age; an age when international competion is based on scientific abilities, ingenuity and progress. The country which fails to produce scientists capable of successfully entering into this competion, is eventually doomed to stagnation, degeneration, and defeat. The Cold War can be lost if we fail to maintain scientific leadership in the world. This scientific leadership is directly dependent upon our dwindling resource, the scientist. 15 Symposium on The Improvement of Science Teaching in Alabama* INTRODUCTION William T. Wilks Stale Teachers College, Troy, Alabama The Alabama Academy of Science has always been keenly interested in the topic which is to be discussed by the participants in this symposium today. While our mem¬ bership represents a cross-section of science interests in Alabama the largest element of Its membership consits of individuals who teach some phase of science at the elmentary, secondary, college and university level. A second, and very substantial, seg¬ ment of its membership is made up of re¬ search persons employed by the government and the industries of our state. I have in my hand current copies of newspapers and news magazines which point out the nation¬ wide concern of government and industry with the acute shortage of trained personnel in science, mathematics and engineering. The Academy is, and has been, working on many phases of the problem to be discussed today. Many of us in the Senior Academy look upon the Junior Academy of Science as our major contribution towards interesting high school students of the state in science achievement. The Academy has a Coordinator of Science Fairs who works closely with high school students of the state. Many of our members contribute a Great deal of time to science fair activi¬ *This symposium was given before a general session of the Alabama Academy of Science on Friday morning, March bO. at Alabama College. Montevallo. Alabama. ties. We have a Science Education com¬ mittee which works actively in the area of improving science teaching in Alabama. The Academy takes pride in the fact that the Gorgas Scholarship Foundation is an outgrowth of Its activities. Many of our members are available to high school science teachers and students through the Gorgas speakers list. The symposium today reflects the con¬ cern of the Academy with science teaching. As participants we have tried to select persons with varied viewpoints on this question of improving science teaching. We are most fortunate in having with us Director of the Science Teaching Improve¬ ment Program of the American Association for the Advancement of Science who will discuss our subject from the national \iew- point. Representing our own state we have an outstanding higli school science teacher, the Director for Secontlary Education of the Alabama Department of Education, the Head of the Mathematics Department of one of our largest state collcces, i science teacher from an riutstanding liber.i’ arts collesre, the President of one ot our state teachers colleges, .ind a representatn of one of our larger state industries. These individuals will discuss with us the problenn outlined in the printed progr.im. 1 .im \ er\ happy to present these participants to you (Dr. Whiles introduces e.ieh p.irtuip.int T 16 THE SCIENCE TEACHING IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM OP THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION POR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE By John R. Mayor Director of Science 'I'eacBing linprovenient Progruni, American Association for the Advancement of Science, W ashington, D. C. Dr. John R. Mayor’s remarks are not erous other pubications and are available printed in the Alabama Academy of Science in mimeograph fonn from the American Journal since they have appeared in num- Association for the Advancement of Science. WHAT MUST BE DONE TO IMPROVE SCIENCE TEACHING IN AEABAMA By Mrs. EstfllI' Jackson W" oodlaivn High School, Birmingham Alabama The academic training of teachers has a more tlecisive effect on high school in¬ struction than all of the objectives ever written. A thorough knowledge of subject matter is the greatest assurance of sound teaching — it is essential if the teacher is to have the respect of his pupils and any in¬ fluence on their development. Science teach¬ ers need as thorough training as scientists going into industry. Teachers of chemistry and physics should have a major in their subject field and a good working back¬ ground in mathematics and related sciences, yet the trend today is to get a thorough grounding in educational methods and limit¬ ed training in subject fields. What we need is more subject matter and less methods. The insistence on so many education cours¬ es, many of which are dull and impractical, keep out of the teaching profession many who are otherwise well qualified. A science teacher occupies a unique posi¬ tion in the world of teaching — he must keep up to date or he will fail to present current information and will have no pool of knowledge to draw on. A science teacher can never "coast along” on what he has learned in college or even last year be¬ cause science progresses and changes so rapidly that any knowledge he acquires is soon inadec|uate and out of date. Science teachers should be required to take re¬ fresher courses every few years and should receive a bonus for such work. There are many converted science teachers today — teachers with training in other sub¬ jects who have been drafted into science teaching because of a shortage of trained teachers. Many wish to attend summer sessions to increase their knowledge of science and at the same time earn credit toward a masters degree, but the conven¬ tional graduate courses are not suited to their needs. They do not have the under¬ graduate background in science and math¬ ematics which qualifies them to take the only courses offered for graduate credit so they either give up the idea or work on a masters in education. Colleges do not want to water down advanced courses or What Must Be Done To Improve Science Teaching in Alabama 17 give graduate credit for elementary courses hut they could develop summer courses suitable for high school science teachers which would lead to a masters degree in the teaching of high school science, or chemistry, or physics, co distinguish it from the regular graduate work. For the con¬ certed teachers there should be more work¬ shops and institutes for presenting the latest developments in theory and applica¬ tion which would result in improved teach¬ ing and an advanced degree. There should be undergraduate and graduate programs for general science teachers so they could take basic courses in several sciences. The general attitude is that just anyone can teach general science; many teachers in this field have had little or no preparation and many pupils acquire a real aversion for anything called scince. W’T are not training our boys and girls in any basic intellectual disciplines which are essential to higher learning. Students are less willing to work. This may be due to home environment or ease in making money, but it is probably due, at least partially, to faults in our system. No pro¬ found thinking is required because all that IS difficult is being removed from high school subjects. Then there is the notion that there should be no failures, a practice defended by many educators who feel that for proper personality development "it is essential for every boy and girl to have a feeling of success.” And there is too much emphasis put on extra-curricular activities. As the curriculum is diluted inore super¬ ficial courses are substituted to "meet the needs of the pupils in changing w'orld.” Certainly if anything characterizes the world of change it is the increasing im¬ portance of science and technology and the increased demand for engineers and scientists for whom a basic knowledge of scientific principles .ind mathematics are indispensable. Only pupils wdth sufficient intelligence, interest and a working knowledge of math¬ ematics should be allowed to study chemis¬ try and physics. Our standards are con¬ stantly being lowered because "we are educating the masses” and anything that requires intellectual application is beyond the mental capacity of the majority. What becomes of the minority who possess the capacity for more serious effort? They are the underpriviledged. We are dragging pupils of superior ability down to the level of the mediocre. I spent last year as an exchange teacher to Great Britain. For children over elecen years old there are three types of schools in which they are placed according to in¬ tellectual ability and interests. Our practice of attempting to give a potential scientist and a future truck driver the same educa¬ tion IS beyond the comprehension of educa¬ tors there. We talk of democracy and equal opportunities for all but we disre¬ gard the fact that all young people are not equal in ability. The only answer to the high school science situation is the separa¬ tion of students on the basis of ability. Even the best trained teachers must ha\ c adequate laboratory facilities to do a good )ob of teaching. hTt many schools ha\e no laboratories or, at best, very poor facili¬ ties. Individual laboratory work has been virtually eliminated from many schools due to the increasing numbers in classes and to untrained teachers. Many schools haw no double periods for laborahuy work, yet the minimum should be one double period a week for general science and biology and tw'o double periods a week for chemistry and physics. Most teachers have no vacant periods F'' set up and care for equipment. Often the laboratory must serve as a session room and a class room for more than one science course. Industry needs trained technicians, so industry must help the teachers by (■'tteriiu: more summer scholarships, sendinc; te.khers 18 Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science to graduate sciniols, supplementing salaries by part time jobs, research or grants; turmshing lecturers who would demon¬ strate new techmc]ues and equipment used in modern laboratories; assisting teachers in arranging industrial plant trips for stu¬ dents; and. scr\ing as consultants on pro¬ jects, textbooks and laboratory equipment. The Academy might help by arranging the annual meetings so that teachers other than club sponsors could attend and by havine science teacher members and others O with the necessary experience submit a de¬ tailed explanation of original and practical experiments in all branches of science for use in high school laboratories. These could be compiled and distributed to teach¬ ers over the state. Working conditions and salaries are cer¬ tainly important factors prompting teachers to leave the profession and causing young people of ability to hesitate before entering, but there are other less tangible factors. The teaching profession has lost its place of prestige in the community and teacher morale is at a low ebb. THE FUNCTION OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SCIENCE TEACHING By J. C. Blair, Director Division of Secondary Education State Departiiient of Education. Montgon/ery, Alabama The State Department of Education can do little to improve science teaching with¬ out great assistance from other groups so as to help everyone to realize the im¬ portance of science in modern living. The place of science is vast today in the health of the people, industry, and the very de¬ fense of our way of life. 1. More youngsters should be encouraged to study science — especially the sciences offred as electives in the senior high school. We can help to do this by — (a) Encouraging the organization of a real functioning science club in each school. (b) Helping to improve on the teaching of general science courses now required in the junior high school and elementary school. Often these are poorly taught and prove to disinterest youth in science who, otherwise, are naturally interested in the wonders of the scientific world. (c) Promoting, along with industry and colleges, exhibits showing initiative and skill of students, such as science fairs and participation in the Junior Academy. (d) Helping to select and encourage our more able students to study advanced sci¬ ence in our high schools and colleges. For example: a greater expansion and con¬ sideration needs to be given to the Gorgas Scholarships. 2. A larger number of teachers must be really prepared to teach science in our high schools and colleges — (a) Through the counseling and guid¬ ance programs, more of the students could be guided into taking training in the teach¬ ing of science. Many of our students would accept a properly presented challenge of the service-to-f el low-man appeal and select teaching as a career. (b) The scientific professions need to come to the aid of educators and help to Function of the State Department 19 promote more than is being done at present. Maybe together, ways could be found to glorify the science teacher. To a large extent, industry and scientific professions are "killing the goose that lays the golden egg” by taking too many of the would-be teachers. 3. A vital in-service program for teach¬ ers already teaching science in our schools .should be provided. The majority of these teachers will be with us indefinitely. These teachers are greatly in need of assistance. They are a fine group of individuals, anxious to do better the job they are under¬ taking now. The following procedures could be of great value — (a) Workshops and institutes dealing with various problems of science teaching held at several of our state colleges during the summer. Alabama College is to be commended on the one being held here this summer. (b) Encouragement of teachers by super¬ intendents and principals to take additional courses during the summer. Care should be taken to see that each of these teachers is satisfactorily trained in each field of science he teaches. (c) Hold county-and city-wide in-ser¬ vice meetings for teachers of science at re¬ gular intervals during the school year in order to plan together for more effective teaching. (d) A more thorough study in each school of the standards as set forth in the Bulletin of the State Department of Educa¬ tion "Accreditment Standards for Secondary Schools.” The pupose here would be to acquaint boards of education and people of the school community as to how well the school is meeting desirable standards for science in their schools. Therefore, by all groups — teachers, mem¬ bers of the State Department of Education, college faculties, and lay people — working together in three main undertakings (l) to encourage more students to study science, (2) to enlist a larger number of teachers to prepare thoroughly to teach science, and (3) to inaugurate a vital in-service program for teachers no\\' teaching science, a new day can dawn and burst into its full light in our State. THE EDUCATION OF THE MATHEMATICS TEACHER EOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS By W. V. Parker BLibania Polytechnic Institute, ^ I believe the requirement for a Class B Secondary Professional Certificate is that the candidate has "graduated with a bach¬ elor’s degree from a standard institution and has met the requirements as prescribed by the State Board of Education for the training of secondary teachers”. These re¬ quirements for a mathematics major arc Education (Psychology, methods and direct¬ ed teaching) 36 quarter hours, English - 18 quarter hours, Social studies — 18 quarter {iihiivn. Aldhanui hours. Science — 18 quarter hours uhlI Mathematics — 36 to 45 quarter hours. .\t Auburn the mathematics major consists of -iO quarter hours .is follows; Algebr.i 'Frigonometry 5, Analvtic Ceometrv 5. Mathematics of I'inance 5, C.ilculus 10. College Ceometrv 5 and FouiuLitions of M.ithem.itics 5. The first tlurv hours listed constitute a minor in m.ithem.itk s. It is not my pupose to argiu. that the hours rer|uired .ire in.ulequ.ite or th.U the 20 Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science subject matter covered is not the best pos¬ sible selection. On the other hand I am concerned with the fact that a majority of those charged with the responsibility of teaching mathematics in high school have not met these requirements. Many of them had never intended to teach mathematics but find themselves doing so because ad¬ equately trained teachers are not available. Some of them have had little or no math¬ ematics byond the freshman year in college. For economic reasons and also with an honest desire to improve themselves many of these teachers are returning to the colleges and universities to do graduate w'ork. They have not had the necessary undergraduate courses in mathematics to perpare them for the usual graduate pro¬ gram leading to a master's degree in math¬ ematics. About four or five years ago several of us in the Mathematics Department at Au¬ burn became concerned about this matter. We felt that there should be some way to get these people into mathematics courses while they are working toward a master’s degree in Education. We set up several courses and got them approved for graduate credit. These courses included Fundamentals of Algebra (statements of postulates and logical developments from them); Founda¬ tions of Geometry (Euclidean and non- Euclidean geometries and their logical de- \ elopment from basic assumptions together with some history of geometry) ; Number systems (a study of the number systems and discussion of number to bases other than 10); Applications of Mathematics (applica¬ tions that may be used in high school, where calculus is needed the ideas are developed in the course). These courses have no specific mathematics prerequisites. Some of them are open to graduate students only. They are intended to furnish a minor for students working toward a master's degree in Education. Other students are usually permitted to take them. Similar courses are being offered in other universities. In some schools the idea has extended to other sciences. I believe that the teaching situation in most sciences is very similar to that in mathematics. In many cases the faculties have not seen fit to put in special courses for teachers. They argue that graduate courses cannot be given to students who do not have an under¬ graduate major in the subject. We do not claim that our courses are graduate courses for students majoring in mathematics and we do not include them in the master’s program in mathematics. We must realize that whether we do anything about it or not these teachers are going to obtain master’s degrees and will continue to teach mathematics and science in the high school. I believe that we can do something to help them do a better job and still maintain our graduate stan¬ dards in the subject matter areas. In fact I am not sure but that courses such as I have mentioned here may not better serve their purpose than many included in the graduate programs of the subject matter areas. These courses are designed to give the teachers a better understanding of the subject matter they are to teach in the high schools rather than to prepare them for re¬ search positions. 21 THE EDUCATION OE THE SCIENCE TEACHER FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS Paul C. Bailey Alabama College, Montevallo, Alabama Dr. Wilks has asked me to do two things this morning. The first of these is to pre¬ sent the findings of a survey made by Ala¬ bama College concerning the actual pre¬ paration which our present high school science teachers have. The second is to re¬ commend or propose a functional training program for the high school science teacher at both the graduate and the undergraduate level. I shall talk in terms of the training which our science teachers now have first and then attempt to tie in with this some suggestions which might be considered by colleges and universities interested in the problem of improving high school science teaching. With the critical need for the improve¬ ment of high school science teaching al¬ ready emphasized, I shall go directly into a discussion of these two points. Let me say to begin with, however, that I am consider¬ ing the high school science teacher to be a person who teaches the biology, the che¬ mistry, the physics, or the general science course within a high school program. The data presented in this report were col¬ lected from the State Department of Educa¬ tion files in Montgomery through the co¬ operation of Dr. Blair and his associates. This information was collected during August of last year by searching through the accreditment reports of the various high schools for the science courses offered and for the names of the people who teach these courses. We then went directly to the college transcipts of these science teachers, and collected the information re¬ lative to the actual number of semester hours college credit each teacher has in the various science areas. First of all, I shall point our the number of high schools in the state offering courses in general science, in biology, in chemistry, and in physics. This particular set of figures is based upon 259 high schools within the state. These figures include all of the non- accredited high schools for which informa¬ tion was available — that is, non-accredited with the Southern Association of Secondary Schools — and a number of the high schools which are accredited by the Southern As¬ sociation. If all of the accredited high schools within the state were included, perhaps the figures would be somewhat more encouraging. The information which we do have for the accredited high schools comes from questionnaires mailed directly to the high schools, and, as you know, the response to this type of request is usually poor. Of the 259 high schools included in this study, 209 offer a course in general science; 146 of these 259 hisrh schools offer a course in biology; 87 offer a course in chemistry; and 76 offer a course in physics. Percentagewise, this means that approximately 80% of these high schools offer a course in general science, ^6'c offer a course in biology; about offer a course in chemistry with approximatelv ,30%’ offering a course in physics. The genera! pattern seems to be that a hiuh school will offer a course in general science and then either one or two additional courses, that is, a course in biology or a course in chemistry or a course in physics, 26 to the 259 high schools iiffer a course in biology, in chemistry, and in physics, as well as in general science. I 10 of these 259 high schools offer two scienee courses in addition to the general science. Most ot these 116 offer the biology course and 77 Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science rhen either chemistry or physics. These figures indicate that approximately of the 2‘^9 high schools offer an opportunity lor students to take course work in the three science areas. Since these high schools which offer courses in all of the sciences are the larger high schools within the state, the number of students with this oppor¬ tunity would probably be greater than perhaps as high as 20 or 25 /f. Too, some of the high schools alternate their courses so that the numbers would be somewhat greater than this. The actual training of our present high school science teachers also appears to be somewhat discouraging when we look at the actual college courses in these science areas which they have completed. We must keep in mind, however, that a teach¬ er's collegiate preparation in science, and professional education as well as general fields is a necessary, but not sufficient, element in judging the quality of work which may be done. Collegiate preparation, as a yardstick, fails to measure how well the indnidual assimilates his college work, the materials given in each course, the in- dividuals personality, his philosophy of education and his understanding of young people. Nevertheless, 1 shall rely upon preparation at the moment to point out some of the inadequacies which our high school science teachers show. Out of a total of 336 high school science teachers in Alabama which includes 80-85^^ of all of the high school science teachers in the state, approximately 13.3% list a major in either biology, chemistry, or phys¬ ics; 25% of these 366 teachers list a major in general science. A closer look at the transcripts of these people who list the general science major usually indicates that the teacher has completed approximately 30-36 semester hours of science including all of the biology, the chemistry, and the physics which they may have had, plus in some instances the science education which they may have taken. This means that approximately 60% of the high school science teachers included in this study have a college major in an area other than the natural sciences. The most common areas listed include the social sciences, English, physical education, and home eco¬ nomics. The same general pattern prevails for college minors listed for these high school science teachers; and if one looks at the combination of college majors and minors which the high school science teac¬ hers have completed, it might appear on the surface that most of these teachers are prepared to teach the science subjects which they are teaching. When the actual college transcripts of these high school science teachers are ex¬ amined, however, the above figures relative to college majors and minors lose their significance. The general science teachers included in this study have an average total of 22.5 semester hourse of college credit in all of the sciences: 11.5 of these hours are listed as biology, 6.5 as chemistry, 2.5 as physics, and 2 semester hours as general science. When one looks at the material to he covered in the general science program, the preparation seems inadequate. To teach such a course successfully, a teacher would need a good background in all of the sciences, that is, biology, chemis¬ try, and physics. The average biology teacher in this study has a total of 15 semester hours of college biology on his transcript in Mont¬ gomery; 50% of these high school biology teachers have less than 12 semester hours of biology to their credit, and 10% show no credit in college biology. The average chemistry teachers show an average of 13 semester hours in chemistry; 50% of these teachers have less than 12 semester hours credit, whereas S'T’ show no college chemis¬ try on their transcipts. The physics teachers in Alabama show an average of 6 semester hours of physics; 60% of these teachers Education of the Science Teacher 2^ have less than 8 hours, or the equivalent of a general introductory course in physics; 40''f of the physics teachers in this study show no college physics on their trans¬ cripts. Perhaps thses figures can be summarized in this fashion: Approximately 2/3 of our present physics teachers are inadequately prepared to teach a course in physics when we use collegiate preparation as a year- stick. At least 1/2 of our present chemistry and biology teachers show inadequate pre¬ parations, and these figures would probably be considered conservative by most poeple interested in the training of high school science teachers. These figures are not intended to be a reflection on our present high school science teachers. They are doing the best they can. In many instances the teachers seem to be very adequately prepared and are, no doubt, doing a fine job. Furthermore, many teach¬ ers who do not show adequate preparation from the standpoint of college credits are doing a splendid job and are doing their share toward encouraging boys and girls to choose science careers. Most of these teachers who are adequately prepared, how¬ ever, are in the larger high schools, such as those in Jefferson County, Mobile, and Montgomery. These statistical figures show the same generalizations about the present status of science teacher preparation in Alabama as is true for the nation as a whole, these generalizations being listed in the bulletin entitled, "Critical Years Ahead in Science Teaching,” which reports the conference on nationwide problems of science teaching in the secondary schools held at Harvard University in August of 1953. Those of you who are interested in this problem may want to review these facts as pointed out in this publication. With these conditions in mind relative to the preparation which our high school teachers have, we may now ask the ques¬ tion: "What can be done to minimize the dangers which might accompany inadequate science teaching?” Assuming that we must continue with our present teachers, many of whom show- inadequate preparations, for the next few years, the following suggestions would be worthy of attention: 1. The inadequately trained teacher can be assisted through a supervised program carefully designed to present new ideas and information to all the science teachers. Perhaps this could best be done through a program of science supervisors as a part of our total educational program. 2. These teachers can be required to participate in a program of in-service train¬ ing consisting of summer schools, work¬ shops, extension courses, or correspondence courses. The non-certified teachers can he required to visit and observe good teach¬ ing procedures demonstrated by qualified science teachers and can be required to take needed additional training before certifi¬ cates are renewed. Many of our school systems have put this practice into effect. 3. The qualified science teacher can be assigned a full load of science teaching only. 4. Teachers can be encouraged to par¬ ticipate in the activities of professional organizations of science teachers. Perhaps a brighter hope lies in the train¬ ing of future science teachers, and if we are interested in tlie training of these future teacliers, tlien the following points should be given serious consideration:* 1. Required programs and the courses composing them should insure the pros pcctive teacher of a scholarly mastery of the fields to be taught. '■Tritlr.'il Yoar.s .Mu-ati in Soloiu-o Toaohing:." Ki'pori ,>f Confori'iH'o on Nattonwido Trolili'ins of SOonci' Toaolitns in the Seooniiary Soluiol.i. Harvard I'nlverslty. eanihrulRO. Ma.ssai'lui.'iel ts, 1 '.i.'V!, 24 Journal ol The Alabama Academy of Science 2. The prospective teacher should have d knowledge of education including such aspects as the nature and development of the child and adolescent learner, testing methods, and evaluation. 3. Skill and competence in teaching should be developed as far as possible through real experiences with actual pro blems which arise in schools and com¬ munities. 4. The prospective teacher should have contact with all the major areas of human knowledge. Specialization is not enough. The teacher should become aware of the interactions of his major field of study with other fields of human endeaxor and creative thought. 3. I’he five-year college training pro¬ gram for teachers should, perhaps become a mandatory minimum. 6. Better methods for appraising teacher competence should be found. 7. During the training process, a sense of self-criticism should be instilled in the prospective teacher so that later he may have the ability to evaluate himself and his work. These seven suggestions may sound rather idealistic, but if we are to ever actually im¬ prove our high school science training pro¬ grams, then we must think in these terms. I should like to go back to the idea of a five-year college training program for teach¬ ers and acknowledge that although it would be highly desirable we cannot afford to require this of teachers in Alabama for some years to come. If we feel that we cannot require this additional year of pre¬ paration, then we must build a strong four- year program, giving the student all the preparation in the fields of science, yet not losing sight of the professional educa¬ tion and general requirments for the degree. This four-year program should include basic courses in all the science areas, that IS, biology, chemistry, physics, and possible geology and astronomy. Too, we must keep the importance of mathematics in mind at this point. By basic courses, I do not mean the general survey courses which arc taught for the purpose of meeting the gen¬ eral education requirements for a degree in the non-science areas. To be adequately prepared to teach high school biology a person should have work in botany, zoology including some anatomy, physiology, field biology and perhaps genetics as a minimum. The biologist wouhi perhaps ask for other courses in addition to these. The high school chemistry person should no doubt have as a minimum of preparation a full year course in general chemistry, organic chemistry, qualitative and quantitative analysis and perhaps others, d’he eight-hour introductory course in physics seems inadequate as a requirement in this area, but realizing the fact that 40% of our present high school science teachers have no college physics this would be a step forward. If our science teachers could have a general introduction, even as a one- semester course, to geology and astronomy, their teaching would no doubt become more effective. These suggested requirements would add up to approximately 21 semester hours in biology, 24 hours in chemistry, 8 hours in physics, 3 hours in geology, and 3 hours in astronomy — a total of 59 semester hours. These proposed requirements could pro¬ bably be reduced somew'hat, but a person w'ho teaches all the sciences within a high school program should have a better back¬ ground within these areas than is now provided by most general science majors. Some of our colleges are now offering pro¬ grams which provide similar opportunities and these programs are steps in the direction of meeting the needs of our high schools. Of course, we should readily admit that the person in the larger high school who teaches only one of the sciences will be Education of the Science Teacher 25 sufficiently prepared if he has a major within the particular field. The people in our colleges and uni- \ersities who are responsible for curricula planning and seeing that the general educa¬ tion requirements are included within these various programs will probably question the possibility of including this amount of science in a four-year program, how¬ ever, it can perhaps be done and every ef¬ fort should be made to include as much as possible. A program of this general type would seem to offer some improve¬ ment over the current preparations offered by most colleges and universities. When we look in the direction of a grad¬ uate program for the high school science teacher, we will no doubt bring on much controversy. Ample opportunities are now available for graduate study in the various areas and graduate degrees may be ob¬ tained in any of the fields, however, we should begin to think in terms of a graduate program for the person who teaches all the sciences within a high school program. Such a program could very well include a six or eight-semester hour course in what might be called advanced general biology, with a similar course in chemistry, one in physics, and one in mathematics, the re¬ maining required hours might be used as free electives for the purpose of producing a well balanced program, recognizing, of course, that each person’s needs may be different. In a program of this type it might be well to waive the thesis require¬ ments and offer a seminar type situation whereby students could gain the necessary acquaintance with library facilities, etc. In other words, the program should become a functional one for the teacher. The neces¬ sary prerequisites for the advanced general type course would necessarily have to be determined by the institution and depart¬ ment offering the courses. Alabama College has received a grant from the National Science Foundation for the coming summer, the purpose being to take steps in the direction of improving high school science teaching. We antici¬ pate a general program of this type, and I might add that although it is a regional program, the idea has met with consider¬ able success from teachers as well as from State Departments of Education. We are hoping to have at least 75 participants within this program. In conclusion, I should like to quote from the publication entitled "Critical Years Ahaed in Science Teaching" by way of pointing out the kind of science teacher v/e should attempt train; "We need teachers who have an aware¬ ness of scientific problems, who grasp ex'erv opportunity to encourage an inquisitive pupil toward further study and imestiga- tion, who know how to direct laboratory work and student projects, and who have a desire to make science classes a stimulat¬ ing part of every high schoid curriculum." WHAT BESIDES SUBJECT MATTER DOES THE SCIENCE TEACH I'R NEED TO KNOW? By C. B. Smith, Pyes/dent State Teachers Co/lege, Troy, Alahaii/a From one point of view of subject knows too much subject matter ^omp.ired matter there are two kinds of science teach- with what he knows about many other ers. One is the kind who knows too little things. 'Fhere is doubtless a posit i\e toi- subject matter. The other is the one who relation between the sub|ed matter .1 te.uh 26 Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science er kin)ws and his success as a teacher, but this correlation is not perfect; it is considerably below one hundred percent. In my experience as a school principal and school superintendent, 1 had problems with both kinds of teachers. Once I actually took over a physics class at the rec]uest of the teacher who confessed she did not have sufficient mastery of the subject mat¬ ter. In other instances 1 have placed good elementary teachers in charge of junior hiirh school science classes rather than leaving them with the more learned high school science teacher. These arrangements worked. The high level college professor of science is not the person to teach an eighth grade science class, although I have known several vcho ccuhl teach any grade in the lower school. The science tencher must know wbut scientific knowled ge is of most worth to the students he teaches. Choosing what to teach is one of the three or four major problems in educa¬ tion today. The Harvard Report on General Education’ lists this task as number one in setting up the curriculum in any field of education. Scarcely twenty decades ago a learned man could have at his finger tips, so to speak, all the higher learning of his time. This statement was made concerning the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who lived from 1722-18.34. It could also be said of other men of his clay. The task of the teacher then, especially on the higher levels, was simply to teach all that was known about the subject. As everyone knows, knowledge in every field including the natural sciences has expanded fantastically during the last two centuries. Usually we think of the natural sciences as two great divisions, the physical and the biological. Each of these has been divided and subdivided again and again. No one scientist can pretend to know more than a small fraction of any one of these subdivisions, both of v/hich are highly specialized. In the midst of this profusion of subject matter, a teacher is faced with thirty-six seventh graders who are to study science. What scientific knowledge shall he choose to teach them i In American schools the teacher depends on the textbooks, but teachers who write the books still choose what goes into them. It is not likely that any scientist, no matter how learned, could choose what a junior high school pupil should study. Only a science teacher is assumed to know what high school and college pupils should study in science. If he knows only some science, he will not succeed as a science teacher. The science teacher must know the ob¬ jectives in the teaching of science on the various levels, and he must be conscious of his own objectives and the objectives' of his students. If the kinds of knowledge required of the teacher besides science were listed in order of importance, this knowledge might well have come first. The teaching pro¬ fession in America has set forth in rather clear cut language the purposes or ob¬ jectives of the public schools." These state¬ ments are constantly being better thought out and improved. They furnish the guides for what goes into textbooks and syllabi and into the activities of the schools. Public education objectives are defined in terms of changes in students, inclusive of be¬ havior, emotional response, attitudes and accepted values. They do not end with the setting out of certain bodies of subject matter to be "learned.” One of the first comprehensive studies of the teaching of science criticized rather severely the accepted or stated objectives of science in the schools.^ Not only did the study find the objectives psychologic¬ ally unsound, but it considered some of them fantastic and not justifiable outcomes W hat Besides Subject Matter Does Science Teacher Need To Know? 27 to be expected from the subject matter being taught. This particular study revealed that objectives were determined largely by the old concept of formal discipline or racultv psychology. One aim was to train the faculties of reason, memory and im¬ agination. One old theory, the transfer of training, was accepted; a second was com¬ prehensive knowledge of the field. These concepts led to the use of encyclopedic textbooks and much memoritor learning. A third objective, college preparation, was not, according to recent studies, successfully achieved. Any one familiar with developments in science curriculums, textbooks and teaching since the above mentioned study will know that much improvement has been made in setting forth objectives as well as in esta¬ blishing procdures for achieving them. In fact, if one will study this report along with the report on science in general education in 1938,“* he will see that modern improved approaches rest largely upon new trends of thought. On the other hand, in the arguments among science teachers today, one often gets the echo of the old objec¬ tives. Some evidently still hold them, at least in part. The science teacher must know the foundation of good learning and teaching as understood today. Some excerpts from the report of the Southeastern Conference on Biology Teach¬ ing held in Gainesville, Florida, September 6, 1954, will serve as samples under this heading. The same principles enunciated by these biologists would apply to the teaching of any other science or subject. The fol¬ lowing items are only samples, but they illustrate some things a science teacher should know besides his subject matter. The import of these suggestions is that a science teacher should know some of the motlern concepts about human growtli and develop¬ ment. To illustrate: "Learning results from interaction be¬ tween the individual and his enviorment.” "Learning is effective only if the mate¬ rials and concepts are suitable to the maturi¬ ty of the learner.” "Research evidence indicates that emo¬ tional factors have a strong influence on the rate of learning; we learn not what we are taugh, but how we react to what we are taught.” "Teacher-student relationships are as important as techniques of teaching. At the very heart of the learning situation is the teacher himself.” This conference report also recommended that the pre-service training of a science teacher include human growth and develop¬ ment, genetics, psychology, group dynamics, curriculum, the human life cycle and an understanding of emotional stability and sex physiology, a concept which implies a good preparation in what today is referred to as foundations of education along with development of a methodology based on these foundations. To this was added a knowledge of the use of such data as student cumulatixe records concerning mental maturity, subject matter backgrounds, health records, apti¬ tudes, vocational and avocational ambitions. Also approved were general education courses — humanities, social sciences and comunication skills — required of other high school teachers. It is an accepted principle now that a trained teacher must ha\ e a functional grasp of the culture m which he lives and which is helping mold his pupils.^ Additionally the science teacher mav learn that he must know the interests ot high school stiulents in the world about them. He may e\en tiiul tormal studies of student interests. He mav also learn th.it the expectations ol the non science students, and that the ways ot handling a topii, tor 28 Journal of Thf Alabama Academy of Science non-science students may not be the same as for professional and preprofessional students. All these statements are merely hints of the many things about the foundations of good learning and teaching that the science teacher must know besides the sub¬ ject matter of his science. The science teacher must know many of the relationships of his subject matter to the processes in the natural environment and to the activities of man. Some would contend that this is simply saying that the teacher should know his subject matter. Necertheless science teach¬ ing has had and does have two emphases m the schools. The facts, laws and prin¬ ciples can be taught abstractly and formally in relation to themselves or these same facts, laws and principles can be taught with much attention to application to human and natural situations. Earlier m tliis paper attention was called to certain objectives once used in the teach¬ ing of science. One was the mastery of knowledge of science. No attempt was made to relate this knowledge to any situa¬ tion. If this knowledge included principles and laws these were applied only slightly, if in any way, to'vard understanding the environment or to the solution of real problems. If formal discipline of the mind was the conscious objective, the solution of abstract problems was deemed sufficient. 'Ehe powers thus gained were assumed to be transferable later to the solution of the problems of man. In most cases these applications were not made and are not made in teaching science- today because the teacher does not know these applications. A class in chemistry pos¬ sesses a manual of set experiments to per¬ form in the school laboratory. These ex¬ periments illustrate basic chemical pro¬ cesses in simple form. The students perform them and write their finding up mechanically without learn¬ ing much about the tremendous importace of comparable processes in nature and in industrial activities or in the solution of the students’ own problems. Many of these applications are striking and even dramatic, 'khe teacher must know many of them or his teaching may become abstract and inert, although he may be vrell prepared in terms of the facts, laws and principles of his field. If it be contended that knowledge of a great many applications of the subject matter is also subject matter, then I must say that many high school teachers have not ccansidered and do not consider it as such. Many have taught their subject matter just as the algebra teacher does. They teacli in relation to what is ahead in the next higher steps of the subject. Even the labora¬ tory experiments in chemistry or physics must lead on to more elaborate experi¬ ments ahead. Increasimilv difficult ex peri- ments are his subject matter. One teacher of economics on the college level stated to me that he toiT .itrcat oride in not knowing the mundane applications of his subject matter. Ele .eave his students to understand that he was nrit interested in the applica- ions of the principles of economics to bank¬ ing or industry and agriculture, but only m the principles themselves. There are some teachers of chemistry, physics and mathematics who at least act according to this pattern; it must be contended, how¬ ever, that science teachers in the high schools must know many applications to science, industry, commerce and the naural environment. The science teacher must know that science is one of the great liberalizing and emancipating force's affecting the minds of men. The science teacher who knows onl}' his subject matter will not get the full significance of this premise. Ele may not W'hAT CONTRUiUTlONS CaN NoN-ScHOOL AGENCIES MaKE? 29 know about the historic tyrannies of various authoritatianisms over the minds of men. Unless he knows history and sociology and the humanities, he does not understand the full import of the methods of science in our culture, nor does he fully understand the fear of the empirical approach to truth on the part of certain authoritarians. Mankind is too often guided by pre judice, fear, folklore, superstition. Modern scientific approaches are the very antitheses of these things. The science teacher must know that this is true and how it is true. It is possible that some teachers of science have not even emancipated themselves from these patterns because they know too little outside their subject matter. This is another way of saying what has already been stated — that a science teacher muse be oriented to the culture in which he and his student live anci work. These observations present only a briet sampling of concepts a teacher should knoiv besides subject matter. Some others could WHAT CONTRIBUTIONS CAN TO THE IMPROVEMENT Madison 1 lieseavch and Devt The Cheni'strand Corpo Non-school agencies are already very active in promoting better science teaching, not only in Alabama but all over the nation. Perhaps my topic could be better w'orded, "What more can non-school agencies do h> improve science teaching?” We might group these agencies roughly in the following categories: Government Agen cies, PoLindations, Professional Organiza¬ tions, Talent Searches, Science Pairs and other efforts such as fellowships and scholarships. The activities of each of these agencies vary from time to time, but in general their programs fall into two bneul be added; such as, a knowledge of how to evaluate progress toward his goals and how to evaluate the goals themselves. In fact, there is really no basis for science teachers to complain about some other things they must learn in order to graduate or get a certificate to teach. No one ob¬ jects if a science teacher wants to add to his knowledge of the subject by inde¬ pendent study or by taking special courses. No one is trying to prevent his getting all the scientific knowledge he cares to get, but there are many other very essential understandings he must learn. 1. Harvard University. Committee on the Objectives of a general Education in a Free Society. “General Education m a Free Society." Harvard University Press, 1945, 2. National Education Association of the United States. Edu¬ cational Policies Commission. "The Purposes of Educa¬ tion in American Democracy." National Education Asso¬ ciation. 1938. 3. National Society for the Study of Education. Thirty-first yearbook, 1932, Part I. “A Program for Teaching Sci¬ ence." Public School Publishing Co. 1932. 4. Progressive Education Association. Commission on Sec¬ ondary School Curricula. "Science in General Education." D. Appleton-Century Co. cl93S. 5. H. Rugg and B. M. Brooks: The Teacher in School and Society 1950 (World Book Company i. NON-SCHOOL AGENCIES MAKE OF SCIENCE TEACHING? .. Marshall 'lopnie)it Departnient ration, Decali/r, Alahanni aicas. First, their i.ork is promotit'n.il aiu! second, they supply fin;mcial backing for worthy causes. The W'hite House Cc>n ference of Education illustrated the former while Grants-in-/\id to ct>l leges and uni versitics totaling man\' hundieds of thmis ands of dollars is .i mcMSure ol the lin.inci.il interest which the I'etler.il Gtnernment h.ts taken in education. /\ goodly portion td the grants are in science. I'he Natitinal Stience 1 \nind.ituMi i- fiiuuuing 20 summer institutes this ye.ir at 20 colleges .iiul uni\ ersities. Two cii these institutes will oper.ite thiducjunit the Journal of Thf Alabama Academy of Science, 30 academic year on a trial basis. One of the institutes will be held on the Alabama Col¬ lege campus. It is hoped that these insti¬ tutes will reach over 1,000 science teachers. The cost will be in the neighborhood of one million dollars. Many of the wealthy men of our nation are setting up foundations. The number will probably increase. The trend for foundations to augment teaching salaries appears to be a good one. When teacher’s salaries be¬ come comparable to salaries in other fields for equal professional training, we will have gone a long way toward solving the teach¬ er shortage. As a rule, professional organizations are not wealthy and do not have available large amounts of money to promote activi- tie of any kind, regardless of how meri¬ torious such activities may be. A great deal can be done by these organizations in build¬ ing the prestige of science teaching. They can also frequently serve as fact finding agencies for ascertaining the exact needs of schools with respect to teachers and curricula. Dr. John Mayor, who has pre ceded me on this panel, has told you how the A A AS is seeking to help in this pro¬ blem. Local sections of the American Chemical Societly or the American Physical Society should show an interest in the science teaching within our schools and be ready to serve when asked or needed. Alabama should be proud of its Science Talent Search program. The Gorgas Scho¬ larship Foundation is a combined founda¬ tion and talent search. It correlates its work closely with the Westinghouse Talent Search and follows it through by making grants to Alabama boys and girls aggregat¬ ing about $10,000 a year. Dr. Kassner re¬ ported at the Executive Session last night that in addition to these actual grants, the talent search led to other grants from out¬ side the state exceeding in dollar value the grants made by the Gorgas Scholarship Foundation. In addition to the fine work done by Dr. Kassner in connection with the Gorgas Scholarship Foundation, he has maintained an active interest in The Junior Academy of Science and has integrated the work of the two to a remarkable degree. However, we are still not doing enough in the way of talent searching according to an arcticle, "Encouragaing Scientific Tal¬ ent,” by the oranization which issues college entrance examinations. The article states that 100,000 new scholarships are needed. According to this article 200,000 American high school graduates in the upper 30% ability bracket do not go on to college due to lack of money. Science Eairs in Alabama have now been expanded until no student lives more than 100 miles from a regional science fair. Four regional science fairs are scheduled for this year, two of which have been held. Indications are that nearly 400 exhibits will be on display at these regional fairs. The cost of putting on the four fairs will ap proximate $4,000. However, this is not the whole story. Many of the exhibits are froiii earlier elimination contests. I was told that one high school in our state has held a science fair in which 230 exhibits were on display. It is at the high school level that we need to concentrate in our science fair program now. Finally I want to point out the in¬ terest which industry is taking in the science educational efforts of our youth. I can document this statement with a few pub¬ lished statistics. Eastman Kodak plans to give this year $300,000 to 50 schools from which employees in the company ha\'e graduated in the past five years. This is in addition to other grants totaling $350,000. The Shell Foundation gave 49 fellowships and 20 grants in 1955 to total $350,000. The Dow Chemical Company will give gifts exceeding $33,000,000 this year. The American Viscose Corporation has grants to 34 institutions at the graduate and under¬ graduate level. Monsanto Chemical Com- W'hat Contributions Can Non-School Agencies Make? 31 panv plans to make 111 separate direct aid awards during the academic year 19'>6- ^7. Eighty-three American colleges and universities will benefit. For the most part, the gifts have very few strings attached other than indicating the general area of interest in which the grants are to be made. These figures indicate, I believe, that in¬ dustry feels that the schools are doing a good job. It seems to me that industry is seeking in every way possible to help our schools without interfering m the school processes. Three main objectives are before us. We must find talented boys and girls to enter science. Secondly, we must motivate them to secure the best possible training and lastly, we must reward them so that our scientists will not feel that their efforts have been misdirected. Talent searches, Science Fairs, scholarship grants, better salaries for science teachers and increasing- prestige for the teacher are all important ways to achieve these three objectives. 32 louRNAL oi- Thi; Alabama Academy of Science Complete Papers Presented at Sectional Meetings SECTION I SOME INTERESl INC; BIRD RECORDS EROM DAUPHIN ISEAND, AEABAMA By Ralph L. Chermock Umvei'sity of /{Idbcinni, U niversity. Aldhcund and 'Fhomas a. Imhof Aldbdd/d Depdi'tiuoil of Conseridtioii iWontgoDieyy, Aldhdo/d Dauphin Island is located south of Mobile County, Alabama at the mouth of Mobile Bay. It is separated from the main¬ land, to the north, by Mississippi Sound; from Fort Morgan Peninsula, to the east, by the Mobile Ship Channel; and from Petit Bios Island, to the west, by Petit Bois Pass. Its southern shore faces on the Gulf of Mexico. 'Phe island is about Id miles long and varies in width from 100 yards at the western end, to over 1 “sOO yards in the eastern portion. The eastern four miles of the island is characterized by a forest of Slash Pine {P/////S Cdi'bded') intermingled with small hardwood hammocks consisting primarily of Magnolias [Alagdo/hi virginidUd and Mdgnolia gydUcl'ifloYd') ^ Five Oak (Odei'c/is vh’g//ud/hi) , and Black Gum (Nyssd sy/- vdticd b/floYd) in damp boggy areas in the interior. Large dunes separate this forest from the Gulf, along which grow Saw Palmetto {Seyenod yepens) and Scrub Oaks iyOiieycus geniinata and Oueycns myttfelid') . Large Indian shell mounds located on the northeastern portion and on little Dauphin Island are distinguished by old twisted Red Cedars {Jun 'ipeyus v/yginiana) . Extensive saltwater marshes consisting of Black Rush [f/o/cds sp.) lie north of the wooded area in the general region of the bridge. d'he western portion of the Island con¬ sists of a long, narrow sandbar approxi¬ mately 10 miles long and averaging 230 yards in width. It is devoid of trees and shrubs except for a few scattered palmettos at the base. A moderately wide beach to the south IS backed by a low dune. Behind this lies a low, flat, marshy area of varying width, covered with a low herbaceous growth, interspersed with small brackish water pools. I’hese flow into shallow tidal lagoons which are separated from Miss¬ issippi Sound by a narrow sandbar. At the western end of the island is a one-acre shallow Glasswort {SdUcoynid sp.) pool. Dauphin Island is unique as far as Ala¬ bama Ornithology is concerned. It provides a considerable variety of habitats ranging from the tidal flats on the western end, abounding in shore birds; to salt water marshes with their distinctive fauna of rails. Marsh Wrens, and Seaside Sparrows; to the pine forests with the warblers, vireos and sparrows. Pelicans, gulls, and cormer- ants sit along the beaches and on pilings, while in winter rafts of ducks float in the water. Many migratory birds come south to Mobile Bay, and Dauphin Island is frequently the last stopping point for many species which winter on the Gulf such as the Black-bellied Plover, the Western Sand- Some Interesting Bird Records 33 piper and the Semipalmated Sandpiper. Other birds, such as the curlews, Knots, vellowlegs, and geese stop on the island before moving co their permanent winter homes. The Willet, Little Blue Heron, Osprey, Least Tern, Skimmer, and many others nest in the region. Probably in no one area in the state can an Ornithologist come in contact with a greater variety of water birds than on this island. Civilization has a habit of discovering these distinctive natural areas. It visits, in¬ vades, alters, exploits, and eventually de stroys the basic natural features which in¬ itially attracted its attention and admiration. The construction of the Dauphin Island Bridge, the draining of the freshwater ponds which once were the haven of geese in their migration, the construction of miles of roads and pipelines, and the influx of visitors have already left the mark of civi¬ lization. This paper intends to record some of the interesting records since the opening of the bridge in the summer of 1955, and serve as a reminder of "What might have been.” Fortunately, Petit Bois Island, only one mile of which is in Alabama, is a Federal Wildlife Refuge. Although it is not as diversified as Dauphin Island, it may provide a refuge for these birds which no longer find Dauphin Island a suitable habitat. Previous ornithological investigations of Dauphin Island are few. Based on literature. Dr. William C. Avery of Greensboro visited the island on September 21, 1892. During this same decade, Capt. W. M. Sprinkle of Bayou Labatre, and an Audobon Society warden, often visited the Island. As part of a biological survey of Alabama con ducted between 1911 and 1916 by the Lk S. Biological Survey, four biologists made several visits to Dauphin Island. Arthur H. Howell visited the island in May, 1911, February and March, 1912, and early July, 1913. Ernest Holt of Barachias was there in late July, 1913. J. S. Gutsell \isited it several times in August, 1913; and James Lee Peters spent five days there in early June, 1914. Many of their records are sum¬ marized in Howell’s Birds of Alabama, and most of their specimens are in the collec¬ tions of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Washington, D. C. Mrs. Helen M. Edwards of Eairhope visited the island in the summer of 1930, and located a recently collected specimen of the Roseate Spoonbill the only record from the state. Until now, this species is the only bird from the island which has never been recorded from other localities in the state. However, several species have been recorded from the island which have been found in few other places. These in¬ clude the Whooping Crane, which used to winter there, Man-O’-War Bird, Gannet, Snowy Plover, Thickbilled (Wilson’s) Plover, Long-billed Curlew, Hudsonian Cur¬ lew, Marbled Godwit, Gull billed Tern and Sandwich (Cabot’s) Tern. During the last year, a number of visits have been made to the island. On July 23, and August 17-19, the senior author \'isited the island to collect specimens for the Lhii- versity of Alabama Collections. Dr. and Mrs. Julian L. Dusi of Auburn were there on September 14. The lunior author and Mr. WTilter Beshears of the State Con¬ servation Department visited and collected on the island on September 23. Both authors visited Dauphin Island again on Noxembcr 4-5. These five trips resulted in tire follow- inn new data on Alabama bird life. C' Three species of birds ha\ e been recorded for the first time from Alabama. Small flocks of Reddish Egrets were seen in lulv, August and September, two speciments ot which were ci'illected. A specimen ot the Mottled Duck was collectetl hr- the lumor author on September 23, loss m the Sii/uon/hi pond at the western end ot tlu' island. This specimen is ol p.irttcular in terest because it is the onlv concrete e\ 1 dence ot an intermediate |''0|''ul.it ion be tween the two races ot the Mottled Duck 34 Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science (A/h/s fulvigula DUiciilosa) and {Amts julvig/tlci fulvigula^ of Florida, thus further substantiating the subspecific classification. A Hudsonian Godwit was observed on the ground and in flight on August 19, 1953 by the senior author, also representing an initial state record. It is interesting that one seen in Lousiana on August 6, 1955 re¬ presented the second record for that state in this century. Four species of birds which are extremely rare in the state were also observed on Dauphin Island this year. Three Oyster- catchers were first seen by the senior author on August 18, 195 5 and were ob¬ served on all subsequent trips. These re¬ present the first state records since 1926. The Long-billed Curlew, which is so rare east of the Mississippi River that Federal laws forbid their collection, has not been seen in Alabama since 1912. The senior author observed 2 on July 23, 5 on August 18, and the junior author observed one on September 23. The Marbled Godwit has been recorded only 6 times from Ala¬ bama, once from Dauphin Island; each time, represented by a single bird. A flock of seven were seen on September 23, and a flock of nine on November 4 and 5. two of which were collected. A female Northern Phalarope in summer plumage was seen on July 23 at the edge of a flock of Western Sandpipers. The only two previous records for the state are from Decatur and from Lakeland Farm, Marion, Alabama. The following records constitute the earliest known Gulf Coast arrival records for winter residents in Alabama: Horned Grebe — November 4 Shoveller — November 5 Redhead — November 4 Ring-necked Duck — November 5 Greater Scaup — November 4 Old Squaw — November 5 Red-breasted Merganser — November 4 Piping Plover — July 23 Pectoral Sandpiper — July 23 Semipalmated Sandpiper — July 23 Western Sandpiper — July 23 Water Pipit — November 5 Orange-crowned Warbler — November 4 Yellow Palm Warbler — November 4 Song Sparrow — November 4 In addition, two species have excep¬ tionally late records for Alabama. These are the Sandwich Tern on November 4-5, and the Wood Thrush on November 5. Further observations on the Island should reveal additional interesting data on birds for Alabama. All ornithologists, in fact all naturalists, are encouraged to conduct their investigations now, before the imminent real estate development of the island de¬ stroys this natural haven for birds and other forms of wildlife. 35 SECTION III GEOLOGY OF THE COOSA RIVER DAMS By Stewart J. Lloyd Alabama Geological Survey University, Alabama I suppose everyone here has heard that the Alabama Power Company is proposing to build a series of dams on the Coosa River between Rome, Georgia, and Wetum- pka, Alabama. When these are all finished there will exist a chain of lakes between these two points, useful to industry as well as attractive to recreation seekers, and when the Government has built the necessary locks, 9' navigation will be possible. This preject will cost the company over 100 million dollars, and will, on completion, several years ahead, furnish nearly 400,000 K. W. It should greatly stimulate the ec¬ onomic growth of central Alabama, and help to raise the general standard of living, the aim of every worth-while project. I have had the privilege of doing much of the geological work necessary in an en¬ terprise of this kind, and it is about this work that I intend to talk today, about the geology of the foundations of these dams, and of the reservoirs they will create. This present project of the Alabama Power Company on the Coosa River covers the section from Mayo’s Bar near Rome, Georgia, to the existing Lay Dam, and the section between Wetumpka and Jordan Dam. The following is a brief sketch of the geology of these two sections with special reference to those factors which concern the dams about to be built. Surface study of the areas in c^uestion has of course been supplemented and checked by the results of an elaborate drilling pro¬ gram which has covered not only the sites finally chosen but a great many alternative ones. Many chemical analyses also were made of outcrops and cores, and a geo¬ physical study carried out on one site. Leesburg From Mayo’s Bar to a point about ten miles a little north of east of Ashville the river flows in a serpentine course through a wide plain underlain by tlie Conasauga formation. At five places in this stretch the river touches or comes very close to the overthrust fault planes which bound the Conasauga on the northwest, separating it from younger formations which it would normally underlie. The Conasauga is composed almost al together of shale, limestone, and calcareous shale. It is free from caverns and under¬ ground passages, is exceptionally water tight and although sometimes slightly plas¬ tic to the touch is quite capable of sustain¬ ing heavy loads. The proposed Leesburg dam 47' high will he entirely on the (ionasauga, the boundary fault coming fairly close to it on the northwest but not touching it. I'he logs of the drill holes on the northwest bank of the river at the dam site establish this fact. The accompanving canal, which w’ill shorten and straighten the ri\er, like- w'ise throughout its course rem.iins south of the fault. It should be emphasizei,! that the l.tiLe faults encountered in the wlu'le ri\er v.illev as far down as l.av D.un .ire thrust or compressiiMi laults which Jo not usu.illv produce any open channels. Indeed the 36 Journal of the Alabama Academy oe Science junction of the two formations along faults of this kind is often tigliter than between different beds of the same formation. An examination of the reservoir above the Leesburg dam did not indicate any points where leakage out of the reservoir might occur. d’hrce other possible sites along this great Conasauga plain were visited and studied, one a»: Cedar Bluff, above Leesburg, the other two near Hoke's Bluff a few miles above Gadsden. All three have the same foundation conditions as Leesburg, an ad¬ equate thickness of the Conasauga for¬ mation, but all are considerably farther from the boundary fault. No particular importance is to be attached to this last point, however, and the choice between the three sites can be safely made on con¬ siderations other than geological. In the proposed Lock 3 reservoir, below Leesburg, the river touches the fault plane or approaches it near Murray Cross, An¬ derson, Gadsden and west of Glencoe. These points were all visited and examined, but no reason was found to be apprehensive of any leakage. Lock 3 At this last point mentioned, west and a little south of Glencoe, the river abandons its former N. E.-S. W. course, and cuts almost at right angles across a series of narrow strips of formations, some of them faulted, including the northeast extremity of the Coosa Coal Field. The proposed dam at Lock 3 lies in this disturbed area. Floyd shale (Mississippian) , Little Oak limestone (Ordovician), Fort Payne chert (Mississippian), and Coal Measure rocks (Pennsylvanian) are close together in this part of the Coosa. The Lock 3 dam 36' h.igh will lie on the Little Oak limestone which fortunately is not a cavernous type, and the reservoir will extend up through the Floyd shale, the Coal Measure sand¬ stones and shales, and narrow strips of different formations until it emerges into the Conasauga, reaching as far as Leesburg. The generally disturbed attitude of the rocks in the area makes it possible, almost probable, that some unexpected and trouble¬ some conditions may be found when con¬ struction of the dam and clearing of the reservoir begin. A number of other possible sites in this stretch of the Coosa were visited and ex¬ amined. Lock 2, a couple of miles above Lock 3, is underlain on both sides by Pennsylvanian (Coal Measure) rocks, sand¬ stones and shales. The attitude (dip) of the rocks is different on the two sides, but the drilling results were satisfactory tfii'oughout. Below Lock 3 two tentative axes were laid out with their southeast ends in Floyd shale, and their northwest ends on cliffs of cherty sandstone and Little Oak limestone. Geologically they offer no advantages over Lock 3 or 2, but are close to large outcrops of limestone aggregate. The Trout Creek site just below these did not show satifactory foundation rock on drilling. Several axes on Emory Bend were also studied briefly, one of them lying wholly in the Floyd shale, the other, at the head of the bend, touching the Little Oak limestone. Sites quite satisfactory geo¬ logically could be found in the bend. Lock 4 on the main river, just to the south of Emory Bend, was examined briefly. It is on the Knox dolomite not far from the boundary fault. It would no doubt have characteristics similar to those of the sites examined in the Kelly Creek area. As indicated above, the river below Lock 3 runs along a fault plane between Floyd shale and older rocks, makes a loop, Emory Bend, near Coal City ( Wattsville) , and then emerges into the wide plain underlain by Knox dolomite, which continues down to and beyond the Kelly Creek project. Geology of the Coosa River Dams 37 Ke//y Creek This dam, at Kelly Creek, with a head of 58 feet, will be built on the dolomite, indeed anv dam in this neighborhood, above Childersburg and below Emory Bend would have this same rock as a foundation. It is hardly ideal, though strong and massive, as in many places it is highly cavernous, with connecting channels. However, the re¬ cord of drill holes and other investigations indicated Kelly Creek’s superiority to any of the numerous other sites on this part of the river studied by the Alabama Power Company and other orgnizations. In addition to numerous drill holes and much conventional geological investigation, a geophysical study using the electrical re¬ sistance method was made to detect and map underground cavities. For this purpose a group of consulting specialists in this sort of work was employed. Further use of this geophysical method will probably be made on the Kelly Creek site at a later date. The fault line which separates the Knox dolomite from the Floyd shale on the northwest was traversed and examined to see if any likelihood existed of reservoir leakage. The area between the proposed reservoir and Kelly Creek, which enters the river below the dam, should be ex¬ amined in detail before construction as both the river and the creek run through this cavernous dolomite, and the possibility of connecting underground channels cannot be ruled out. A number of other possible axes in this section of the river were visited and con¬ siderable drilling done at several of them. Radcliffe Island, Hall's Camp, Drake Is¬ land, Stemley Bridge, above and below, were all examined. The underlying rock, cherty Knox dolomite, is present in all ex¬ cept that one site, just below Stemley bridge, has very pure limestone instead of dolomite on Its eastern end. Lay Dam From the Kelly Creek site the river runs through dolomite, limestone, sandstone, and shale of various ages until four miles above Lay Dam it enters the Talladega Slate, which also underlies this dam itself. As the pool level Vvill be raised only 14 feet in rhe proposed raising of Lay Dam there is not much likelihood of reservoir leakage. The present Lay Dam has been in existence for nearly forty years, and the drilling done recently (1955) has merely confirmed the results obtained by earlier investigation. This "Talladega Slate,” more properly call¬ ed a schist, is fairly uniform at the dam site, showing in addition to schist a little quartzite. It is a metamorphosed, impenetr¬ able series of sediments, free from cavities and passages, and was found to be an excellent base for the existing dam. As an alternative to the raising of Lay Dam a site for a low dam at Fort William Shoals was studied. The left (east) abut¬ ment would consist of highly inclined hard sandstone, probably of Clinton age, the west bank shows no rock in place but from boulders on the surface it probably consists of the sandstone phase of the Floyd shale, but possibly of Fort Payne chert. IF etumpka Below Lay Dam the ri\er as it passes Mitchell and Jordan dams traverses succes sively Talladega Slate, Ashland gneiss, Pinckneyviile granite, and other allied erv stalline rocks until it reaches Wetumpk.i, v.'here it drops into the Coastal Plain. The two possible dam sites above the W etumpk.i bridge are both underlain by h.ird m.is six'C siliceous mica .schist, similar to th.'t occurring at Jordan d.im. RoA does irot outcrop at the site below the hrid>te, hut was found at shallow i.le['’th in two hore lioles, and pro\eel to he the s.iine iuk,: .schist. The WetumiT.i dam will he A high. Journal of The Alabama Academy of ScifiNCe The whole project then calls for four dams, Leesburg, Lock 3, Kelly Creek, and Wetumpka, with the raising of Lay darn by 14'. Nothing in the geological nature of the river and its surroundings suggests any insuperable difficulties in building these five. Leesburg, Wetumpka, and Lay Dam offer few or no uncertainties geologically, but as mentioned previously. Lock 3 and Kelly Creek may require special treatment not obvious from what work has already been done on them. The question has often been asked of Power Company officials, "Is it not unwise with nuclear power in the offing to spend over one hundred million dollars in hydro¬ electric projects.^" I do not know how they answered it, but for myself 1 have no fear that hydro plants and efficient steam plants will shortly become obsolete. There is no saturation point for power, we cannot get enough of it, and where good fuel and water are abundant, nuclear power is no threat. There are still hydro sites in Alabama not yet developed, even after this Coosa project is iinished, and I expect to see work done on them before too loner. THE FUTURE OF THE MINERAE DEPOSITS OF AEABAMA* By Hugh D. Pallister and Earl L. Hastings Geological Survey of Alabauia, IJ nirerrity, Alabauta Emphasis has been placed on the mineral deposits which the authors feel will play the principal role in future mining op¬ erations in the state. The instigation and success of these mining operations depend upon improvement of ore beneficiation methods, growth of all types of industries in the mining localities, improvement in water transportation facilities, establishment of adequate power facilities and, perhaps the most important single factor, detailed exploration of seemingly low grade mineral deposits. Barite {Barytes, Heavy Spar) A compound of barium sulphate, barite finds its chief uses as a paint adulterant and as a heavy mineral which is added to drilling muds used by the oil industry. Deposits occur in Bibb, Madison, Etowah, Calhoun, Cleburne, Cherokee, Jefferson, St. Clair, and Shelby counties. An increased demand for this mineral in Alabama fol¬ *Published with permission of the State Geologist. lowed by detailed exploratory work may reveal reserves sufficient to warrant a re¬ newal of mining. Bauxite Bauxite is a rock composed essentially of hydrated aluminum oxides. Its chief use is as an ore of the metal aluminum. However, because of the rather impure character of the Alabama bauxite, its prin¬ cipal use is in the manufacture of refrac¬ tories, abrasives, and chemicals. The rock is presently being mined in Barbour and Henry counties, but it also occurs in Colbert, Cherokee, DeKalb, Cle¬ burne, Calhoun and Talladega counties. Mining has increased sharply in the last year. New uses and better methods of ore beneficiation for these impure bauxites will no doubt enhance the value of the de¬ posits. Rather complete chemical analyses which have been made for known bauxite deposits will aid the prospector in his The Future oe the Mineral Deposits of Alabama 39 MPORTANT ALABAMA MINERAL DEPOSITS O BAUXITE 1^1 BITUMINOUS COAL DEPOSITS m RED IRON ORE (HEMATITE) BARITE BROWN OREIGOETHITE-LIWONITE ) A OIL FIELDS S SALT DEPOSITS 40 Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science search for a particular type of bauxite or bauxitic clay. BitnDiuious Codl Between the Coosa River and the Tenn¬ essee State line, Alabama has many seams of high grade bituminous coal. Many of these seams are so thin that underground mining would be too costly, hence where possible some of them are being stripped. I’he mam uses today of Alabama coals are: to make coke for companies using blast furnaces; to make by-product coke for foundry use; to make the steam for the plant operation of hydroelectric companies, and to supply the small need for domestic fuel. The last use has been replaced largely by natural gas and fuel oil which is con¬ serving our coal supply and will do so as long as the oil and gas supply can be maintained. Shoidd the underground gasification of coal become economical, thin coal seams under considerable overburden could be utilized without actually mining the coal. As blast furnace smelting of iron ore is now the cheapest method of making pig iron, Alabama’s coking coal should be set aside insofar as possible for the making of high grade blast furnace coke to insure the continued operation of iron blast furn aces in Alabama in the future. Building Stone Limestone, marble, and sandstone are being quarried in Alabama at the present time. These operations represent only a small fraction of what could be quarried for building stone. The marble industry, centered in Talladega County, and the limestone industry, centered in Franklin County, are said to produce stone superior in many respects to other world famous deposits. Crushed limestone and marble appear to be an increasingly important by¬ product of the building stone industry. Quartz diorite, commonly called granite, is found in the Crystalline area in large quantities and may some day be used. Crushed chert, dolomite, and limestone are used locally for road metal. Clays and Shales Scattered deposits of these two rocks dot the entire surface area of the state. Clay is composed essentially of the clay minerals kaolimte (kaolin) and montmorillonite (bentonite). Shales consist chiefly of the clay mineral illite. Both clays and shales are used in the manufacture of brick, in the manufacture of portland cement, and in the manufacture of refractories and pottery. Continued mining of these materials is a certainty; however much more efficient utilization of existing deposits can be accom¬ plished by more detailed investigation of the quality and quantity of all exposed clay and shale deposits in Alabama. Fddlers earth is a rather indefinite term to describe a clayey rock containing mont¬ morillonite or attapulgite which is used as a decolorizing agent and is found in a few places in the state. Copper In the hope of finding deposits of high grade copper ore which will warrant under¬ ground mining, a great deal of prospecting and core drilling has been done in the Cleburne, Randolph and Clay county sulp¬ hide deposits. The results of this work have been none too successful as the copper con¬ tent of the deposits has been too low grade for present day operation. Blake Graphite The mining of flake graphite in Ala¬ bama has been largely confined to the years of the first and second World Wars, when imports of cheap graphite from Ceylon in World War I and from Mada¬ gascar in World War II were cut off. Be¬ fore and between these periods the market The Future oe the Mineral Deposits of Alabama 41 has been practically all in imported gra¬ phite. There are large deposits of graphitic schist containing two to five percent of flake graphite and five to eighteen percent of muscovite mica in the Ashland schist from Clay County southwest across Coosa and into the southern part of Chilton County. The flake graphite and mica can be re¬ covered by flotation at a reasonable cost. Although no mining is being done at the present time, it is believed that with ef¬ ficient management and proper preparation of the ore to meet the needs of the custo¬ mers the finished flake graphite and scrap mica can be mined at a fair profit. Gold There are many scattered occurrences of gold in the Crystalline area of Alabama where gold in small quantities can be ob¬ tained by panning the sand and gravel in streams. It is doubtful if a large operation would be successful in the state. Iron Ore The first iron ore used in Alabama was brown iron ore, limonite-goethite or hydrous iron oxide. It was not until years later that red iron ore, hematite, came into use. Gradually the smelting of iron ore centered around what later became the Birmingham and Gadsden sections of Alabama. The red iron ore comes mainly from de¬ posits extending under Red Mountain and Shades Valley to the southeast of Birming¬ ham. Some of the underground mining operations are at great distances from the openings on the northwest side of Red Mountain. Brown iron ore has always been in de¬ mand because usually it can be mined and washed to 50% iron content and some by careful selection to a low phosphorus con¬ tent. During the last few years high grade iron ore has been imported into Alabama from South America, Africa, and even from Labrador. Furnace capacities of finished pig iron have been increased by these high grade ores and this has resulted in the conservation of Alabama ores. When our lower grade ores are used they will probably require very careful beneficiation to make them available for furnace use. It therefore seems that we will have many years of iron ore to supply Alabama’s needs. Limestone and Dolomite Limestone, composed essentially of cal¬ cium carbonate as the mineral calcite, finds its chief uses in the cement industry, in the lime industry, and in the steel industry as a flux stone. Dolomite, a calcium magne¬ sium carbonate, is used for flux stone in blast furnace operation. Limestone and dolomite are certain to maintain their very important position in the mining industry of Alabama. The great potential use of the carbonate rocks, which underlie nearly one third of the surface area of Alabama, is the result of the variation in the calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate content. iMica {Alnscovite') The scrap mica industry in Randolph County is small but should be a consistent producer for many years. Very little sheet mica is recovered, although it is probable that land owners will be able to mine this mineral at a profit during the off season on the farm. Oil and Gas Alabama is rapidlv becoming a leading oil and gas state. With production t rom its three prexiouslv developed oil lields and the potential of the new ('itronelle field the future looks bright indeed. Gas production should also increase in the next few years. 42 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science The Future of the Mineral Deposits of Alabama 43 Radioactive Materials Thousands of samples have been sent to the Geological Survey of Alabama for examination and radioactive tests. Many sections of the State have been examined for radioactive minerals without finding what would be considered a commercial deposit. The Chattanooga shales in North Ala¬ bama have shown evidence of radioactivity, all of it of low grade, usually in the neighborhood of five one thousandths of one percent (.005%) uranium oxide equivalent. The phosphates of South Alabama give evidence of radioactivity but again of very low grade. Some of the black sand concentrations which occur in stream deposits in the Crystalline area show considerable radio¬ activity. The deposits at present do not seem to have a large enough volume to be of commercial importance. A few water seeps over carbonaceous material have deposited a thin coating of fairly high radioactive matter in many places in the state. Some of the pegmatites in the Crystal¬ line area show evidence of radioactivity but they are too low grade. With the little evidence available it would, therefore, appear that Alabama cannot qualify as a State containing com¬ mercial deposits of radioactive materials. Salt Deposits (Halite) In the last few years an alkali-chlorine industry has been built upon a salt dome which is 450 feet below the surface near McIntosh in Washington County. There appears to be no valid geological reason why other salt domes, perhaps as¬ sociated with gypsum, anhydrite and nati\e sulfur, will not be discovered in the same general area. Oil has often been found trapped in rocks around the periphery of salt domes. Silica Silica occurs as the mineral quartz in the rocks sandstone, quartzite, buhrstone, and in an unconsolidated form in sand and gravel. Sandstone and quartzite are found in the Paleozoic area and the buhrstone and the sand and gravel in the Coastal Plain. The Weisner quartzite and some of the sands and gravels contain as much as 98% silica. The buhrstone which extends in a belt across the southern part of the state runs as high as 90% silica and in various places it is extremely fine grained. It is believed that this buhrstone will .soon find a use in industry. OtbePs Other mineral deposits which can be found in the state but which probably will not be mined on a large scale are; talc, being mined at Winterboro and milled at Alpine in Talladega County; asbestos, the amphibole variety, found in Tallapoosa and Coosa counties; asphaltic sandstone found in large quantities in Morgan, Law¬ rence, Colbert, and Franklin counties; and asphaltic limestone mined in Colbert Coun¬ ty and found in Morgan, Lawrence, and Franklin counties; phosphatic limestone and marl from various places in the Coastal Plain; and yellow ocher from many parts of the state. SuN/ii/ary Of the three general geologic areas of Alabama the Paleozoic area will no ^loubt consistently produce the greatest dollar value with its coal, iron ore, and limestiine. The Crystalline area, with the exception of the marble quarrying, has been .md probably will be characterized by small .ind sporadic mining oper.itions. The Co.ist.tl Plain area shows great promise with its recent increased oil prodiKtion. clay Journal of the Alabama lVcademy of Science 44 minerals, limestone, buhrstone, bauxite, sand and gravel and even marl and phos¬ phate whie'h may some day have local use as a fertilizer. TABLE 1 — MINERAL. PRODUCTION IN ALABAMA, 1954-55 (10) IVI 1 NEPAL 1954 (1) VALUE 1955 (2) VALUE Cement -376 jiound barrels $28,585,384 $30,800,000 Clay . . , (3) 1,879,783 (3) 1.300.000 Coal. . . . . . 62,700,000 115,000,000 Iron Ore. . . 33,327,(183 Lime . 4,488,167 4,500,000 Mica . . .... 14,956 (4) Natural Gas. 1,000 cu. ft. 5,220 5.000 Petroleum (crude 42 gal. bbls . . (4) (4i Sand and Gravel . 3.450,858 4,000,000 Stone .... . (3) 7.693,011 (3) 6. 900. 000 Undistributed : Bauxite, salt, and minerals whose values must be concealed for particular years (indicated in appro¬ priate column by footnote reference (1)... 3,959,686 4,000.000 Total Alabama . 146,105,000 166,506.00(1 (1.) The production totals of coal, iron ore, natural gas. petroleum, sand and gravel, mica and bauxite for the year 1!I51 will be compared with the Bureau of Census totals for these commodities when they are available. Differences in the totals will be adjusted or explained. (2.) Estimated from producers’ reports and other sources. (3.1 To eliminate duplications of values, the value of clay used in cement (,?37S,-128 — 382,250 tons — in 1951 and $100,000 — 100.000 tons — in 1955), and the value of lime¬ stone used in cement and lime ($4,296,964 — 3,866,505 tons — in 1954 and $4,600,000 — 4.100.000 tons in 1955) are not in¬ cluded in total values for clay or stone. (4.1 Figure witliheld to avoid disclosure of individual company operations. Value included with "undistributed.” LITERATURE CITED 1. Smith, Eugene A., and McCalley, Henry, "Index to the Mineral Resources of Alabama,” Geological Survey of Alabama. Bulletin 9, 1904. 2. Jones. Walter B., "Index to tlie Mineral Resources of Alabama,” Geological Survey of Alabama, Bulletin 28, 1926. 3. Jones, Walter B., "The Non-Metallic Minerals of Ala¬ bama," Pit and Quarry, Oct. 7, 1931. 4. Jones, W. B., and McVay, T. N.. "Barite Deposits of the Sinks District, Bibb County, Alabama,” Econ. Geol., Vol, 29, pp. 701-766, 1934. 5. Jones, Walter B., "Bauxite Deposits of Alabama,” Ge¬ ological Survey of Alabama, Bulletin 47, 1940. 6. McMurray, Lynn, and Bowles, Edgar, "Talc Deposits of Talladega County, Alabama,” Geological Survey of Ala¬ bama, Circular 16. 1941. 7. Editorial Board, American Institute of Mining and Metal¬ lurgical Engineers, "Industrial Minerals and Rocks,” 1949. 8. Ladoo Raymond B., and Myers. W. M.. "Nonmetallic Minerals,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1951. 9. Lloyd, Stewart J.. and Toffel, George M.. "Alabama Physical Resources,” Industrial and Engineering Chem¬ istry, Vol. 47, Page 2330, Nov. 1955. 10. "The Mineral Industry of Alabama in 1955,” (Prelim¬ inary), Mineral Industry Surveys, Bureau of Mines, United States Department of Interior. 11. Ballister, Hugh D., "Index to the Minerals and Rocks of Alabama,” Geological Survey of Alabama. Bulletin 65, 1955. 12. Engineering and Mining Journal, "87th Annual Survey and Outlook,” February, 1956. FlJR'rHER STUDIES OF THE RANK AND COMPOSITION OE ALABAMA COALS ANALYZED BY THE U. S. BUREAU OF MINES SINCE 1925 By Reynold Q. Shotts University of Alahauia, U niversity, Alabanm GENERAL. Last year, before this group, the author reacd a paper^ which made use of a collection of analyses of Alabama coals made since 1925 by the United States Bureau of Mines. The collection had been compiled earlier for the Tennessee Valley Authority in connection with re¬ serves estimates and a quality survey which the author made for TV A. The collection was limited to the Plateau and Warrior fields and contained 168 separate complete (proximate and ultimate) anaylses. It has never been published nor has it been ap¬ pended to any paper because of its length. The present paper is a further study of these anaylses. In it, attempts are made to correlate certain aspects of chemical com¬ position of the coals with their "rank”, and to suggest ways whereby both composition and rank may be related to the geologic history of the coals. Some of the principles observed and assumptions made are; (1) All analyses were calculated to the dry mineral matter-free (Parr unit coal) basis. Because of actual variations in the composition of mineral matter and of the Rank and Composition of Alabama Coals 45 peculiar physio-chemical part played by moisture in the composition of coal, this basis is not perfect but does have the ad- \'antas:e of eliminating non-organic material on an approximately quantitative basis so that the real organic "coal matter” of dif¬ ferent coals may be compared directly. This basis is more nearly applicable to the higher ranks of coal than to the lower ones. (2) The only criterion used for rank of coal in this paper is unit or dry, mineral matter-free fixed carbon. As all the coals of Alabama, except the Tertiary lignites, range from high volatile A bitum¬ inous to low volatile bituminous in rank, this criterion is identical to that used in the ASTM standard specification and is probably the best available." It is true that moist, mineral matter-free heating value must also be 14,000 Btu per pound or above for the high volatile A bituminous group. However, the author has never seen an analysis of an Alabama bituminous coal which fell below this limit except for one sample in this collection from the Upper Cliff No. 2 bed of Lookout Mountain, a coal which is normally of medium or low volatile bituminous rank, the peculiar composition of which has been attributed to its extremely oxidized state. ^ The unit coal fixed carbon is not an adequate criterion for defining the rank of a lignite but its value for Alabama lignites so clearly differentiates them from bituminous coals that, for the purposes of this paper, the author believes its use can be justified. (3) In order to shorten the calculations and simplify the plots, the average com¬ position of the coals by beds was calculated. It is evident from a study of the analyses that coals of the same bed vary greatly in rank and percentage compositiim so that any "average” value will have no absolute meaning because it will be weight¬ ed heavily by the coal compositions of the region from which the most analyses were available. For example, the Mary Lee bed near the Sequatchie anticline in Jefferson County has a dmmf FC of 70-73 percent while around Carbon Hill in western Walker Co., it is 60-62 percent. The only advantage possessed by averaging is that all coals hi the same bed or same g!'oap of beds. are of very nearly the same age and therefore probably were formed of essentially the same phvit matter a)id under nearly the same climatic conditions. It is recognized, however, that conditions could have and did vary both laterally and vertic¬ ally in the coal swamps. These variations are reflected in the banded character and diverse petrographic composition of coals. In the absence of information regarding the petrographic constitution of the samples, averaging by beds, objectionable as it is, appears to be the most logical way in which to reduce the number of analyses for study. (4) The 6l analyses from the Upper Cliff No. 1 bed of Lookout Mountain offered an opportunity to study the possi¬ ble effects of oxidation upon the composi¬ tion of coal from this bed. Thirty-nine drill core samples were presumably unoxi¬ dized while the 22 mine samples could have been mildly to ' severly oxidized as many of the mines had been idle for years. Unfortunately the mine samples appeared to come from areas of greatest metamorphism and have the higher axeraitc rank.^ Among the other coals, the face samples probably were fresh while tipple oi’ car- bonizing samples probabh' were but slighth- oxidized. 'Flic lignite samples probabh were oxidized as most of them were taken on outcrop exposures. ('>) All coals probabh were common bandcxl "bright" caxds. The Pratt bed in known to ha\e streaks and zones I'l sphnt and semi splint roal while the tusain >.on tent ol hlat k ( reek C''' h i lersvin) (.oah 46 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science at Brilliant, and Milldalc coals, is appreci¬ able. The coarser sizes of Clements coal are cjuite "dull lire petrographic con¬ stitution of the other coals is virtually unknown. Ilei// of Por///c!t/o// of Coal. The heating value of a coal is substantially dependent upon the carbon and "net" hydrogen con¬ tents. Sulfur and sulfur compounds have some heating value, but per unit of weight, it is low. Nitrogen and its compounds apparently are unoxidized during com¬ bustion. Oxygen has no heating value and its effect upon the heating value of coal is purely negative. In calculating "net" hydrogen, a cjuantity of hydrogen equiva¬ lent to 1 8 of the oxygen is subtracted from the total hydrogen on the assumption that ciU of the oxygen is combined with hydrogen. When analyses are calculated to the "unit coal" or dry, mineral matter-free basis, sulfur is substantially eliminated along with mineral matter and moisture. For such a basis, the sum of the carbon fraction times the heating value of element¬ al carbon plus the net hydrogen fraction times the heating value of elemental hydrogen, should be fairly close to the actually determined heating value. That it is not exactly so depends upon a number of factors including: (1) Analytical errors of all determina¬ tions. These can be, but are not necessarily, random and therefore may cancel each other out or average out correctly for a large number of analyses. (2) The failure of the unit coal formula to represent the actual composition of the coal. The fact that all sulfur is not pyritic has been mentioned and the water of hydration of the clay minerals of the coal may not average eight percent as presup¬ posed by the unit coal formula. The pre¬ sence of carbonates and other volatile in¬ organic substances in the ash also introduces errors. (.s) All the oxygen is not necessarily combined with hydrogen. Some of it may be combined witli carbon only, or with sulfur v)r even with nitrogen. Oxygen may lorm links between hydrocarbon groups or may be present as hydroxyl groups. The quantity of hydrogen tied up or combined with oxygen may vary from a very small quantity to a maximum of 1/8 the weight of oxygen in a given coal. Spooner^® sug¬ gests that only 2/3 of the oxygen is com¬ bined with hydrogen, the rest forming CO and COj complexes. (4) The heating value of hydrogen and carbon in compounds is not the same as the sum of the heating values of the sepa¬ rate elements. The compound exists at a different energy level from the separate elements because to attain the compound state from the elements, energy changes were involved as heat of foru/atiou. This energy may be either positive or negative from any reference temperature different from absolute zero. The way in which the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, etc., is finally combined to form the mole¬ cules of a given coal largely measures the energy going into formation. If (AH)f(coai) is iihe heat of formation of coal; (AH)t(H20), (AH)f(sn2i, (AH) ncoo), etc., the heats of formation of the products of combustion and (— AH)<(coai) the determined heat of combus¬ tion of coal, the relation (— AH)ccnai = (AH)r ,r„2, + (AH)r ,H2o, + (AH)f ,S02, + — — (AH)f (a,,ai) (1) should hold true. As¬ suming only carbon and hydrogen to be pres¬ ent in the coal, it should be possible to cal¬ culate the heat of formation of coal by the relation (AH)f (cnal) = (AH)t (vn-t) + (AH)f (H'JO) - (-AH). ,eo,„. (2) The heats of formation of CO2 and H2O are well known and the heat of combustion of coal is easily determined. 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OC' ©. ©. ©V © © © TO C L. < > W CO ro c Cd cd cd cd cd 01 OJ a> ‘ Bed X s 0 X £ WH i«o. 0* tki:) a> 0) g OJ > c Cl b = cd 9 p X o cd it O) if Ui p (r O) ? (-< TD O •3 O •m ' CD c c K H CO 0) O O O u V hH c 0 D P OJ w cd c U2 0) if if i E 3 O o Q E .iC a 3 c c <1» s c o u o “ £ liO V. > cd X Cl cd § cd if a> ”3 c D, U O) O) 1 c ix 1 O O w w w u c o l-j •-> p*i PL. pt; pj pj L) IJ k c o e ‘Carbon atoms per atom of total hydrogen. '‘Carbon atoms per atom of net hydrogen. Drill core samples, presumably unweathered. FOOTNOTES: Mine samples, presumably weathered. 48 Journal of thi-; Alabama Academy of Science A difficulty with ecjuation (2) is the term (AH)r iiL’". There is no way to determine the quantity of hydrogen oxidized by external oxygen during combustion. All that is cer¬ tain is that it is somewhere between the gross and the net hydrogen. Another difficulty is that . . is somewhat dependent upon the crystal form of the carbon being slightly different for graphite, diamond and amor¬ phous carbon. The value for carbon in coke or coal or other combined form is still not definitely established. Ignoring these two difficulties, indexes were found for each bituminous coal of the 168 analyses and for the seven lignites, by substituting appropriate values in equation (2) and designating (-^H)r calculated with )iel hydrogen as Di and calculated with toted hydrogen, as Dj, or 1), 14,096 + 60,998 H,„., - (^H), (3) D. 14,096 + 60,998 H . . - (AH), (4)- Values for carbon and hydrogen are on a unit coed basis. The values for (AH)f mn ( 1 4,096 btu lb. ) and for (AH)f u-^o (60,998 btu lb.) are recent ones for carbon as graph¬ ite and for gaseous hydrogen to water at 77°C." Calculations Made. Table 1 shows the basic items calculated from the average of the analyses from each bed. The number of samples ranged from 40 for the Mary Lee bed to one only from the Blue Creek, Rosa and Sewanee beds. The Upper Cliff No. 1 analyses were divided into drill core samples, presumably not oxidized, and mine samples which must have been more or less oxidized. Columns 1, 2, 3 give the dry, mineral matter-free values for carbon, total hydrogen and oxygen. These values do not add to 100 percent, the difference being the nitrogen content. In column 4 is recorded the average dry, mineral matter-free fixed carbon con¬ tent of each coal. As stated above, this is the sole ASTM criterion for rank for all of the coals except the lignites. In columns 5, 6, 7, each of the three elements of columns 1, 2 and 3 has been divided by its atomic weight to get the relative number of atoms present. In columns 8, 9 and 10 each of the figures of columns 5, 6 and 7 has been divided by the figure in column 7 to get the relative number of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms on the basis of one oxygen atom to the molecule. In effect, the figures of these three columns give a possible formula for the average analysis of Pratt bed coal as Cji;.3iHio,.3.50. Column 11 is a figure for the number of carbon atoms per atom of total hydrogen. As the removal of one oxygen atom as water would involve the removal of two hydrogen atoms, column 8 and column 12 carry the relative numbers of carbon and net hydrogen atoms and column 13 shows the number of carbon atoms per atom of net hydrogen or the ratio of carbon to hydrogen in the coal on an oxygen-free basis. Columns 14 and 15 carry values for Di and for D2-D1, respectively, calculated as stated above. It is clear that the first two terms in equation 3 constitute a modified Dulong formula. The value for D2 as¬ sumes no oxygen is chemically combined with hydrogen in coal. The Dulong heating value (assuming correct values for the heat of formation of CO2 and H2O) should differ from the determined heating value only by the heat of formation of the coal. It assumes that all oxygen had become combined with hydrogen during the forma¬ tion of the coal. The heat of formation of the coal, then, should approach Di as one limit and D2 as the other, but probably is not equal to either. D2-D1 (column 15) should represent the extreme range of possible values for heats of formation for each of the coals. Rank and Composition of Alabama Coals 49 FIG. 1— The number of carbon atoms per atom ©f TOTAL hydrogen plotted against rank, far the Alabama coals of Table 1. Discussion of Composition-Rank Relation¬ ships. That there is a fairly close relation between the average rank of the coals and the atoms of carbon per atom of total hydrogen is shown in Fig 1. The average line drawn by eye departs little from a straight line for the bituminous coals and its slope indicates a change of about 0.02 in the ratio of carbon atoms/hydrogen atoms, per one percent change in rank. That only the bituminous coal portion of the plot approaches a straight line is shown both by the position of the value for lignite and by the value for Rhode Island metanthracite shown in Table 1 but not plotted in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 shows that the relation of rank to the number of carbon atoms per atom of net hydrogen, even among the bitumin¬ ous coals, is decidedly non-linear. The highly oxidized sample of Upper Cliff No. 2 coal and the lignites do not follow t!ie trend of decreasing relative quantities of carbon to net hydrogen as rank decreases but the ratios are much larger than for the bituminous coals indicating a relative poverty of "free” hydrogen in low rank or severly oxidized coals. From the position of the lignites on the plot we may con¬ clude that in passing from lignite to bituminous rank coals, relatively more oxygen than hydrogen is lost so that the oxygen loss is not all in the form of water. This agrees w'ith Mott’s conclusion that the change from low rank lignite to low rank bituminous coals can be accounted for by the loss of COj and CO- alone.’" The position of the b.idh’ we.ithered sample in Fig. 2 also suggests th.it oxygen atoms are added (.luring oxidation in quantities larger than one oxygen equnalent to two hydrogen atoms. All the tigure imply furtlier that some ol the oxygen may be .ukled to molecular component.s Journal of thf Alabama Academy of Science “)() yielding "fixed carbon” on thermal decom¬ position in such a way as to "loosen up” certain molecular bonds because the rank of this sample is so much lower than that of the other samples from the same bed that were collected nearby. This is confirmed in Fig. 3 which shows that, compared to the other two Upper Clift No. 2 samples, a slightly greater relative reduction in total than in fixed carbon apparently resulted from the severe oxida¬ tion. I'he oxygen content of bituminous coals IS a fairly good index of rank with per¬ cent of oxygen decreasing slowly but steadi¬ ly as nink goes up. This is shown in Fig 4. The decrease in oxygen from about 10 per¬ cent at a rank measured by a dry mineral matter-free fixed carbon of about 37 per¬ cent to approximately three percent at a rank of 80 percent fixed carbon, for the coals checked, is a narrowing band de¬ creasing from a width of about 2-1/2 per¬ cent oxygen at the lower rank to one percent at the higher. Clements and Jagger coals appear to be high-oxygen and the Corona, low-oxygen, in tendency. For a wider variety of coals it might prove that the oxygen band is wider than shown in Fig. 4. It will be observed that samples of lignites could be included with the bitumin¬ ous coals M'ith little, if any, more curiva- ture of the non-linear band. The same, however, is not true of the severely oxi¬ dized Upper Cliff No. 2 sample. Its oxygen content is far higher than its present rank, let alone its probable original rank, re- c]uires. The values of Di and D2, as defined above, are shown plotted against rank in Fig. 3. The circles indicate the average of all samples and the length of the arrows, the extreme values found. Only coals having UC 2-0 _ IDENTlFlCi A An BC BIc BiC Bk BW Br CR Co Cl Cle Co Co Jo Jo - Je J« L Te ML Me Md Mi P Pr R Ro S« Se UCI DD UCI M I? till 1 I- CRIli/ oJci M( / ose(i) 2) fiory LfgPites try Lee Idole If M aronee C Upper Cliif No. I.DIom Upper Clif t No 1 . Mine ond Drill Coroj Samples OJO (2) Cl (2) / y BIC [\)^y ^oUCI DDC(39) / / oUC 2 (5 ) L'C2 UC2 0 note: Numtrtf Upper Cliff No 2 Upper Cliff No. 2,0»i< In porentheMB are numbe zed Somple r of sompleo cveroged RID Je (4) ® ® BW(2) ML (40) ^ OA{6) OU0 (4) OP (18 oUL(t) oMd (2) dmmf FC. PefC*rrt FIG. 2 — The number of carbon atoms per atom of NET hydrogen plotted against rank for the Alabama coals of Table 1. Rank and Composition of Alabama Coals 51 FIG. 3— The percent of total carbon plotted against rank for the Alabama coals of Table 1. three or more analyses available were plotted. The line marked "zero” is, in effect, the determined heating value considered as a norm. Actually, any errors in these values could cause the plotted points to appear in the wrong position as well as could an actual eccentricity in carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen composition of the coal. Several facts may be noted regarding the plot: (l) Di is practically a linar function of rank for the bituminous coals with a very slight decrease in absolute value as rank increases above low rank high volatile A bituminous. If heat of formation is pro¬ portional to the values of Di, then this quantity changes little in the higher ranks. This conclusion is in agreement with that of Francis. (2) The curve drawn for the D2-rank relationship fits the points well and is also practically linear from 60 percent fixed car¬ bon to the highest rank Upper Cliff No. 1 coals. (3) The change in slope of the straight portion of the D2 curve is more rapid than that of Di curve. If the calculated Dj value equals the determined heating value at 82.5 percent fixed carbon, as shown, the heating value of the truly availably hvdro- gen in coal of that rank (D,- assumes .ill hydrogen contributes heat) must equal the heat of formation of the coal. For coal of higher rank than this, if all the hydrogen were available, its heat of combustion would be less than that of the heat of formation of the coal. (4) If the two curves are extended .is strainght lines until they intersect, the [vunt of intersectiiMi .qq'>cMrs at about UHi percent fixed carbon and D, -1^^ btu lb. It m.iy 52 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science be coincidence but 100 percent dry mineral matter-free fixed carbon would be graphite, having no hydrogen content, a substance considered by some to the end point of the coal metamorphism series. It might be concluded that the heat of formation of coal in the graphitic state is about -175 Btu per pound or -2100 Btu lb. mol. Crystalline graphite is arbitrarily assigned a heat of formation of zero and -175 Btu/lb. is not too far from this value. Coal at the end of the series may be graphitic but not neces¬ sarily completely crystalline and there cer¬ tainly should be some energy change in converting the disorded atoms of coal-de¬ rived graphite into the pure crystalline kind. The heat of formation of the lower rank coals are much larger than are those of higher rank.^^ The -956 Btu lb. for lignites contrasts strongly with the -300 to -400 for some of the lower rank bituminous coals. Fig. 6 also shows the close relation be¬ tween rank and Dj - Di, the latter being a measure of the maximum heating value of <_5 the hydrogen which may or may not be combined directly with oxygen. The rapidly increasing ratio, hydrogen atoms/ oxygen atoms, in the higher ranks emphasizes that oxygen atoms are eliminated faster than hydrogen with increasing rank. As pointed out previously, the values for Di are probably not quantitatively correct in an absolute sense but should be pro¬ portional to the heats of formation. Discussion of Coni position-Heating Values by the For unit a of iMott and Spooner. Mott and Spooner have made an elaborate study of the agreement between determined calori¬ fic values and those calculated by modifica¬ tions of the Dulong formula. In their pap¬ er, heat of formation was not discussed but a 30 Btu correction for "heat of decomposi- L OENTFICATION OF COAL BEDS: A AMERICA BC BLACK CREEK BX BLUE CREEK BROOKWOOO CR castle rock Ce COROHA Jq JAGGER J« JEFFERSON L TERTIARY LIGNITES Pi«. MARY lee Md MILLDALE P PRATT R ROSA S* SEWANEE 1X2-0 UCI M U( UC2 U< UC2 0 J NOTE: NUMBERS IN SAMPLES A »PER CUFF NO, 1, MIN 3PER CLIFF NO 2 >PER CUFF NO. 2, OX PARENTHESES ARE /ERAGEO. E SAMPLES. CNZEO SAMPLE ■DUMBER OF (2) ) ^\o^(40) oCl(2) UB(I) _ LCIM(22) - - ru~crd5cT39^-^^^ 3«(l) dmirit. FC, PERCENT FIG. 4— The percent of oxygen plotted against rank for the Alabama coals of Table 1. AVERAGE VALUE, D, AVERAGE VALUE, Rank and Composition of Alabama Coals 53 A' 800 600 200 -200 -400 I -600 A AMERICA BC B-ACK CREEK So CORONA J« .£FFERS0N u TERTIARY LiG - 1 - 1 MITES )RLL CORES ^ES - SAMI=LE P PRATT UCI OK UPPER CUFF NO, 1 , DIAMOND ir.l M IIPPFR rj IFF NO 1 . MINE SAM vL UC2 UPPER a 1X52 0 UPPER CL JFF NO. 2 IFF NO 2, OXIDIZED UC2 «0 Je > BC ! MU tlR 1 h .n (P »UCl ^ I A UCI DDC A _ Jco 'Jg »BC ■ ’1 fp / • JC2 0 -175 BTU 1 L n_ D| = ( fiH,)c02 + ( AH,)h ^0 ( FROM C Af^D Hf, Q (FROM C AMD Hjq Et) - ( aH(.)C0AL ^ THE C,H FRf SE SAMPLES MAY REPRESENT ERRORS . OR BTU VALUES, THEY ARE ISOLATE M THE AVERAGES. | DETERMINED ) AND FAR -1200 50 65 AVE. 70 FC, PERCENT FiG. 5. _ Values for D, and from Equations (3) and (4) plotted against rank for those Alabama coals of Table 1 having three or mere available analyses. The badly oxydiied Upper Cliff No. 2 sample is also plotted. tion” was added to the heating value of 8000 calories per gram which they consider¬ ed best for the carbon in coal. The cor¬ rection was selected as probably the best one for "heat of decomposition” of bitu¬ minous coal among several proposed ones. It was credited to J. D. Davis of the U. S. Bureau of Mines. The 8000 ±10 calories per gram value was arrived at bv a study of many analyses of Amercan cokes and with the application of certain corrections. Rossini’s value for tlic heating \alue of hydrogen, 33,900 cal. gni., was accepted. The conclusion of Spooner”', referred to above, that only about 2 3 iif the oxyocn of coal (for coals up to 12 percent oxvcen') 54 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science 30 20 ^ 10 XCR IDENTIFICATION OF COAL BEDS: A 0C BIC AMERICA BLACK CREEK BLUE CREEK __ . BW BROOKWOOD UCI DDC X \ xS CR CASTLE ROCK BIC Cl CLEMENTS ULx \ xP Co CORONA Ja JAGGER \ xMd Je JEFERSON UC2* L tertiary LIGNITES ML MARY LEE UCI M X Md MILLDALE P PRATT R ROSA \ tRC. Se SEWANEE xML UCI DDC UPPER CLIFF NO 1, DIAMOND DRILL CORES *UB \ X BW UCI M UPPER CLIFF NO, 1, MINE SAMPLES K A \ X UC2 UPPER CLIFF NO 2 UC2 0 UPPER CLIFF NO, 2, OXIDIZED SAMPLE »Co xja UC2 0 500 1500 2000 FIG. 6— D^-D, plotted against rank for the Alabama coals of Table 1. is combined with hydrogen, was adopted. The final modified Dulong formula was Q = 14,454 (C) + 61,020 (H) — 6,246 (O) (5) where carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are expressed as percent by weight on the unit coal basis. Equation (5) was applied to 176 analyses distributed among eight groups of Anaeri- can coals. The difference between calculated and determined heating values was zero for Appalachian bituminous coals, positive (maximum of + 10 Btu for low and medium volatile coals of Pa. and W. Va.) for eastern coals and negative for all ranks below bituminous. Nineteen lignites averag¬ ed -360 btu difference. Table 2 applies Equation (5) to the Alabama coal analyses and the analysis of Rhode Island metanthracite of Table 1. The agreement for Alabama coals is not nearly so good as for the 176 American coals cited. From Table 2 it will be noted that; (l) The average difference between calculated and determined values is + 1-40 Btu per pound. Differences vary from + 360 Btu for one sample of Underwood bed from Lookout Mountain to -110 Btu for one sample of Rosa bed coal from the Blount Mountain field. The difference of -360 btu for the seven lignites is close to the value found for all American lignites while the maximum difference of + 430 Btu occurred with the sample of meta¬ anthracite of Table 1. If the values for all the coals for which there were fewer than three analyses are eliminated, the range of values is only from + 80 for Mary Lee Rank and Composition of Alabama Coals 55 coals to ^ 170 for Upper Cliff No. 1 drill cores but the mean value is still -r 140. Thus those coals having enough analyses available so that the influence of occasional "freak” results are minimized, yield the same average excess of calculated over determined values but eliminates most of the apparently erratic values. (2) There is a general rough increase in the difference, with rank, but there are exceptions. Elimination of those coals having fewer than three analyses does not improve the relationship noticeably. (3) The oxidized Upper Cliff No. 2 sample gave closer agreement between cal¬ culated and determined values than did any of the more nearly "normal” samples. The slight oxidation of the Upper Cliff No. 1 samples may have reduced the difference for that coal. The negative value for Cle¬ ments coal, which had been out of the ground for several years when analyzed, would represent more oxidation than the composition of the coal suggests. Actually, slight oxidation usually results in a lowering of determined heating values long before it is detectable, in the percent of oxygen pre¬ sent. Mild oxidation should result in a decrease in the determined heating value and a corresponding increase in the differ¬ ence between that value and the caluclated value rather than the reverse, as suggested for Clements and Upper Cliff No. 1 mine coals. With limited knowledge as to petrogra¬ phic type which might explain some of the apparent anamolies of Table 2 it must be concluded that equation (5) does not pre¬ dict the heating values of Alabama coals very well. Mott and Spooner explain the positive errors found for high rank coals as being due to the fact that the allowance for "heat of decomposition” is too high but refer to the errors as negligible. They suggest also that the negative errors for low rank coals likewise are due to consider- TABLE 2 Table Shows the Average Heating Value for 21 Groups of Alabama Coals and a Rhode Island Meta-anthracite as determined and as Calculated by the Modified Dulong Formula of Mott and Spooner. (14) 144.54 C 1 610.2 H — Coal Bed 144.54 C 610.20 H 62.46 0 62.46 O (-dH)c Diff. 1. America ... . . . 12633 3356 350 15640 15460 ISO 2. Black Creek . . . 12416 3417 400 15430 15320 110 3. Blue Creek . . . . . 12S50 3173 275 15750 15680 To 4. Brookwood . . . . . 12416 34 78 468 15430 15270 1 60 5. Castle Rock ...................... . 13081 2929 225 15790 15560 230 6. Clements . . . 12662 3173 362 15470 15510 -3(1 7. Corona . . . 1209, S 3600 525 15170 15010 160 8. Jagger . 3356 593 11830 11770 60 9. Jefferson . . . . . . . 12257 3117 46.8 15210 15120 90 10. Mary Lee . . . . . . . 12517 3356 122 15150 15370 NO 11. Milldale . . . . . 3117 306 15790 15580 210 12. Pratt .... . 12777 3332 2.80 15830 156s0 150 13. Rosa . . . . . . . 12315 3117 181 1 5250 15360 -110 14. Sewanee . ... . ..... ..... 13121 2929 169 15880 15790 90 15. Underwood (1) . . 12561 33,56 337 1 5580 15130 1 50 16. Underwood (2) .................... . . 13023 3173 191 16000 15610 360 17. UC No. 1— DDC . ........ . . 13095 2953 168 158Stl 15710 170 18. UC No. 1--M . 1303S 2‘h5‘» 230 15770 15610 160 19. UC No, 2 . . . 13153 3112 219 16050 15710 310 20. UC No. 2 O . . 2197 1 106 12150 12130 20 21. Lignite . 30, ss 1 6.86 11200 1 1550 •35(1 22. R. I. Anth . . . 11295 171 90 1 i;i80 13950 130 Average. Coals 1-19 (1) Blount Mountain field (2) Lookout Mountain field 56 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science ably higher heats of decomposition for low rank coals. Heat of decomposition and heat of formation may be indentical if the chemi¬ cal reatctions of formation and decomposi¬ tion are the same. The reactions undoubted¬ ly are not the same but Mott and Spooner do suggest the same direction of change in heat of decomposition as is suggested in this study and by Francis^^ for heat of formation. Disc union of Coni posit ion-Petro graphic Types. From the meager knowledge avail¬ able concerning the petrographic types re¬ presented by Alabama coals^'® and from the general characteristics of the types^“, a few things may be inferred about certain of the coals analyzed. Among the general principles to be remembered are: (1) Dull coals (durain and fusain) are usually higher in fixed carbon than are the associated bright coals (vitrain and clarain). They are usually subhydrous. (2) Dry mineral matter-free fixed carbon is, therefore, in¬ fluenced both by the "rank” or stage of metamorphism and by the petrographic composition. (3) Increase in rank has been attributed to increasing "condensation and polymerisation of polynuclear six-mem bered carbon ring compounds containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and other elements found in coal."’^ Not only, then, should the total carbon increase with rank but the proportion of it in the form of fixed carbon should increase also. The more condensed the molecular structure, the greater the porportion of carbon that would be left behind on decomposition. If, however, the dull coal components also have a more condensed structure than the accompanying bright coal, relatively low rank dull coals of a given total carbon should have a higher fixed carbon yield than would bright coals of the same total carbon content. The best cases regarding petrographic composition can be made for the Jagger and Clements bed samples. A little is known about the Clements coal. Actually, the two analyses averaged for the Clements coal values of Table 1 were from the same source. One sample was plus 1-inch mine run coal and the other minus 1-inch. The fusain and dull coal contents of the plus l-inch samples, particularly, were high.’^ The total hydrogen content shown in Fig. 1 is not low for its rank but the rather high oxygen percentage makes the net hydrogen rather low (5.2 - 1/8 x 5.8 = 4.5%). Fig. 3 shows a high fixed carbon value for both Jagger and Clements bed coal, in porportion to their total carbon contents. Assuming the correctness of the line drawn in Fig. 3, coal of Jagger rank should have a carbon content of about 85.5 percent and Clements coal should have about 89.7 percent. The position of the "best fit” line drawn on Fig. 3 cannot be certainly known as representing the trace of predominately bright coal, dull coal or mixed samples. If it is the latter, which it probably is, Mary Lee and Rosa coals are also slightly on the dull coal side and Pratt, Corona (Pratt group) and Milldale are the oppo¬ site. A study of coal from one mine on the Mary Lee bed in the high rank coking coal area, however, shows predominently bright coal.^ The Pratt bed is known to contain some splint and semi-splint coal in places'’ and the Milldale bed has .some fusain.^ Attempts to evaluate petrographic constitu¬ tion from analyses, or vice versa, have nevei been successful because of the many ex¬ ceptions and the prevailingly small analyti¬ cal differences between the constituents. The extent of oxidation and the neglect of nitrogen, organic sulfur and other elements occasionally present in small quantities in coal matter also interfere with correlations between chemical and petrographic com¬ position. The apparent misplacement of the points representing Jagger and Clements bed anal¬ yses are again apparent in Fig. 2 and 1. In the former, the higher ratio of total Rank and Composition of Alabama Coals 57 / _ PRATT BED ( UNIT COAL BAS 1 1 4IC CONSTITUENT S) / / / 1 1 0 PETROGRAPt S, ON E fPlE . y X OTHER SAh (PLES - 1 1 os : P / / ; "7 - / I / / 1 / X 1 1 1 / / S I / 7 1 1 S90 1 B 1 X X /. / / 7 \ / / /■ ■/' \ \ \ ~r~ 1 1 7 X X 7 \ \ X 1 1 / / V X r 7 5.0 &0 60 60 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 HTDROGEN, PffICENT nXED CARBON, PERCENT FIG. 7 — Carbon, total hydrogen, oxygen and rank plotted against the number of car¬ bon atoms per net hydrogen atom for the 18 individual coal analyses from the Pratt bed. 58 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science carbon net hydrogen, then would be ex¬ pected for coal of their rank, suggests either a deficiency of net hydrogen or an excess of carbon. Since it was shown that the latter condition is improbable, the noted relations must he attributed to a deficiency of net hydrogen, probably due to the large oxygen content since an excess of that ele¬ ment in proportion to rank is shown in Fig. 4. Clements bed analyses show similar but less marked trends. In Fig. I, the Jagger bed total carbon/total hydrogen ratio is consistent with the "best” line but the Clements samples seem either to be de¬ ficient in carbon or to have an excess o: total hydrogen in porportion to their rank. Apparently, the presence of much dill coal and fusain in at least one of the samples is placing its rank higher than its total carbon content would indicate. Examination of the values for Di and D.- Di in Table 1 will show that with the pos¬ sible exception of Jagger coal, the analyses that are most badly "out of line” with re¬ gard to heating value — rank relationships are Clements, Rosa and Corona, all of which apparently have anomalous composi¬ tions. SoDie Possibilities for Putnye Studies. As mentioned early in this paper, the use of average analyses for the study of chemical, petrographic and geological relationships of coals is objectionable. Coal is such an ex¬ tremely complex substance, the source- materials for the making of coals were of so diverse a character, the environmental conditions under which coal-forming mate¬ rials accumulated were so variable horizont¬ ally and with respect to time and the sub¬ sequent processes of metamorphism, min¬ eralization and oxidation have been so un¬ evenly active that unweighted averages mean little. Even a single sample from a single locality on one becl is a heterogeneous collection entirely different from another sample from a nearby spot on the same bed. For these applications a single sample is an improvement on an average in that it is weighted according to the heterogeniety of its various layers as they actually were in place at that locality. Figs. 7 and 8 illustrate some of the wide variations that are hidden in average values. In Fig. 7, the percent of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and the rank of each of the individual samples that made up the aver¬ age given for the Pratt bed in Table 1, is shown plotted against the atoms of carbon per atom of net hydrogen, the same ratio used in Fig 2. Four of the 18 samples were from the same locality one being a sample of a splint coal band (s), another of a semi-splint band (ss) and two others of an upper and a lower bright coal band (b). The unit coal analyses of the two bright coal bands were identical except that one (top) was slightly higher in rank than the other. With regard to rank there are two distinct groups. The separate petrographic com¬ ponents and the lowest rank sample con¬ stitute one group and the other 13 samples, the other. The rate of change in ratio with respect to rank is about the same but the ratios in proportion to rank of the smaller group are considerably the larger. The lowest rank sample (Gorgas) came from west of the Warrior river where Pratt coals are not used for coking while the four pet¬ rographic components (Wylam No. 8) came from the strongly coking coal area near the edge of the city of Birmingham and about 20 air miles from Gorgas. The over-all rank of the latter coal, however, was only 67.4 percent unit coal fixed carbon which was well below the 68.8 percent average for all Pratt bed samples (Table l). The relation between the carbon/net hydrogen ratio and the percent total hydro¬ gen was good. This was certainly to be expected except possibly for coals having a high oxygen content or with a greater than normal proportion of oxygen united to Rank and Composition of Alabama Coals 59 FIG. 8 — Carbon, total hydrogen, oxygen and rank plotted against the number of car¬ bon atoms per net hydrogen atom for the 40 individual coal analyses from the Mary Lee bed. 60 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science hydrogen. The relation between the ratio, carbon net hydrogen, in Fig. 7 shows no indication of grouping as did that between the same ratio and rank. The upper part of Fig. 7 shows the ratio, carbon atoms net hydrogen atoms for the Pratt bed plotted agaist percent total car¬ bon and percent oxygen. In both plots the grouping of analyses is again plainly visi¬ ble. The grouping cannot be correlated with geography as noted above for Gorgas and Wylam No. 8. All the other mines are in the G^alburg basin, mostly in the interior of the basin, but one mine (Clift) is on the soLitheastern edge as is Wylam and another (Joe Tombrello) is rather far up the basin from the others, in the northeastern direc¬ tion. Differences in the fundamental pet¬ rographic constitution appear to offer the most likely reason for the groupings. Table 8 shows exactly the same things regarding the 4u samples from the Mary Lee bed as did Fig. 7 for the Pratt bed. Evidence of grouping of analyses with re¬ gard to the carbon atom 'net hydrogen ratio appear here also. In the case of Mary Lee coals the grouping even extends to the ratio- percent total hydrogen plot but is clearest in the ratio-percent oxygen plot. It was probably fortituitous but between about 6.0 and 7.5 percent unit coal oxygen not a single analysis appears. About half the coals ranged 4. 5-6.0 percent and the others 7.5- 9.5 percent oxygen. In the case of total carbon, one set of analyses grouped verti¬ cally about the 88 percent carbon line and another in the 84-86 percent carbon range. The grouping of the points about the lines drawn for the ratio-percent hydrogen relation tend to merge around the ratio of 1.55 to 1.60 level but are rather distinct both above and below this range. The lines are about 0.25 percent hydrogen apart. The points are quite badly scattered on the ratio-rank plot but are particularly scarce in the 66-67 percent fixed carbon range and in the 70-71 percent range. This distribution was examined for geographical relations. Of those samples having dmmf FC greater than 67.0 percent, over half are from near the axis of the Sequatchie anticline (Porter, Praco, Powhatan, Labuco, Sayre, Flat Top, Gamma) while the others (Lewisburg, Allen, Sayreton, Hamilton) are near the southeastern boundary fault of the Warrior field. All the other samples came from west of the Sequatchie anticline and at varying but noticeable distances from its axis. Of course, these geographical relations are neither new nor unexpected’ but the effects of rnetamorphaism on net hydrogen and oxygen contents are clearer for Mary Lee coals than usual. It must be remembered that some of the mines from which samples were ob¬ tained cover many square miles. If samples could be obtained which were regularly distributed geographically, a continuous change in properties with distance from the centers of diastropic action probably could be noted. The Mary Lee bed outcropping at the southeastern boundary of the Warrior field appears to be practically of the same rank as it is near the Sequatchie anticline. Coals from Wylam No. 8 and Clift, on the Pratt, however, are lower in rank than these in the interior of the Coalburg basin and farther southwest. The Pratt bed is several hundred feet above the Mary Lee and the difference may be between degree of relief or non-relief of pressure througli faulting.’ Although this paper has been confined largely to suggesting possibilities rather than to the rigid demonstration of clear and precise relations, the writer believes that a much clearer picture could be obtained of coal-forming environment, of the relation of petrographic to chemical constitution and of the relation of constitution to diastrophic and other chemical and physical forces, if sampling, analyses and study were de Rank and Composition of Alabama Coals 61 liberately designed to reduce the number of variables inherent in any set of uncon¬ trolled data. It has been suggested in this paper that (a) petrographic constitution (b) diastrophic forces and (c) degree of oxidation are very important in interpret¬ ing the results of chemical analyses of coals. Other have suggested that the type of plant matter and the chemical environment of the coal swamps are also important bur this may be, if sufficiently understood, re¬ flected in petrographic constitution. The following suggestions are submitted as de¬ sirable for the best scientific study of coal constitution; (1) Use only properly collected bed samples from single localities. The exact location of the sample should be known, not just the mine it came from. (2) Analyses of coals to be compared should be of samples in the unoxidized condition or in approximately the same state of oxidation. If there is evidence of pos¬ sible pre-mined oxidation such as mud slips' etc., this should be noted. (3) The petrographic constitution should be known. If this is not possible only bright coals should be studied in relation to each other, or only dull coals or only fusains. Separation at some arbitrary speci¬ fic gravity, such as 1.30 should isolate the bright coals. ^ Other, usually heavier, specific gravities may be used to concentrate dull coals. (4) Because of the extreme heterogene¬ ous nature of coal, samples should not be averaged but the separate samples should be studied and compared by modern stat¬ istical techniques. The quantity of com¬ putation by hand would be immense but a computer should handle it with ease. Because of the many factors involved cor¬ relation would almost always include a number of variables. (5) As much as possible should be learned about the environment of the sam¬ ple when it is taken. Nature of roof and floor rock and of any discarded partings should be noted. Any regional changes in environment should be estimated both in direction and magnitude. It is believed by the writer that the ob¬ servation of these and similar precautions would yield data that could satisfactorily be correlated with factors of geological en¬ vironment LITERATURE CITED 1. Reynold Q. Shotts: A Study of the Rank and Composi¬ tion of Alabama Coals Analyzed by the U. S. Bureau of Mines Since 1925. The Journal of the Alabama Acad¬ emy of Science. 27, pp. 28-37. 2. American Society for Testing Materials: Standard Spe¬ cifications for Classification of Coals by Rank. ASTM Designation: D388-38. ASTM Standards on Coal and Coke. 1938. 3. A. C. Fieldner, J. D. Davis. R. Thiessen. E. B. Kester. A. W. Selvig. D. A. Reynolds. F. VV. Jung, and G. C. Sprunk: Carbonizing Properties and Constitution of Washed and Unwashed Coal from Mary Lee Bed, Flat Top, Jefferson County. Ala. U. S. Bur. Mines Technical Paper 519 (1932) 78 pp. 4 . , Carbonizing Properties and Consti¬ tution of Black Creek Bed Coal from Empire Mine. Walker County. Ala. U. S. Bur. Mines Technical Paper 513 (1932) 44 pp. 5. Reinhardt Thiessen and G. C. Sprunk: Microscopic and Petrographic Studies of Certain American Coals. U. S. Bur. Mines Technical Paper 564 (1935) 71 pp. 6. Reynold Q. Shotts: The Distribution of Fusain in the Various Size Fractions of Three Alabama Coals. The Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science (1948) 20. pp. 45-52. 7. Reynold Q. Shotts: An Oxidation Method for Investiga¬ ting the Petrographic Composition of Some Coals. Trans. AIME (August 1950) 187, pp. 889-897. 8. Reynold Q. Shotts: Quantitative Petrographic Composi¬ tion of Three Alabama Coals. AIME Trans.. May 1953, vol. 5. pp. 522-526. 9. Reynold Q. Shotts: The Petrographic Composition of Two Alabama Whole Coals Compared to the Composition of Their Size and Density Fractions. AIME Trans.. June 1955, vol. 7. pp. 563-570. 10. C. E. Spooner: The Composition of the Volatile Matter of Coal. Jour. Inst, of Fuel. 1937. xi. p. 131. Original paper not seen but conclusion cited In reference number 14 below. 11. H. M. Spiers: Technical Data on Fuels: lanuli'n. British Nat. Com.. World Power Conf.. 1952. p. 463 (Kef. to Nat. Bur. Stds. (Circular C161. Nov. 1947). 12. R. A. Mott: The Origin and Composition of Coals. Fuel. l‘»42-3 xxi, pp. 129-135. and xxii pp. 20-2c. 13. Wilfred B'rancis; Coal. London: Edward Arnold. 19M p. 333. 14. K. A. Mott and C. E. Spooner: The (''alorlflc ^'alue of Carbon in Coal: The Dulong Kelatimiship. Fuel. Xl\ Nov. -Dec. l‘)H). pp. 22t>-23l. 212-251. 15. II. 11. Lowry: The ('hemical: Coal. Industrial Kngmeor- ing ('hemislry (February 1931) pp, 133-Lb,>. 62 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science THE STRUCTURE OF A PORTION OF EOOKOUT MOUNTAIN IN ALABAMA By Reynold Q. Shotts U !/}vei\sity of Alabama, U niversity, Alabama In 1945 the United States Bureau of Mines published the results of extensive exploration by drilling which had been done by the Bureau and the Alabama Power Company on Lookout Montain in Cherokee and DeKalb counties, Alabamad Complete well logs are found in the ap¬ pendix to the report. The position of each drill hole is described and its location shown on a small scale map of the sur¬ face but no sections, bed contours or iso- pach maps are given. In the present paper and its accompanying maps the writer has simply taken the U. S. Bureau of Mines published data, plotted it, and appended a few remarks on the stratigraphy and struccLire shown for the area. Structure — Fig. 1 shows elevation con¬ tours drawn on top of the LJpper Cliff No. 1 coal horizon as it was identified in the holes. The position of the Lookout Mountain synclinal axis is quite clear. It follows, roughly, the east fork of Little River. The axis is only about two miles from the southeastern escarpment of Lookout Moun¬ tain and approximately six miles from the Wills valley side. The topographic map of the area shows surface elevations of 1600-1700 feet along both the southeastern crest of the mountain and the brow facing Wills valley. The depth of the axis of the syndine is about 550 feet below the crest and as the outcrop of the Upper Cliff No. 1 bed, if extended to the crest, would be even higher above the axis, an average slope of over 300 feet to the mile charac¬ terizes the southeastern limb of the an¬ ticline while the northwestern limb dips an average of only about 100 feet to the mile. The assymetry of the Lookout Moun¬ tain syncline is thus quite pronounced. Near the center of Fig. 1 and extending from the deepest part of the synclinal axis is S2 T7S RlOE through 534, 35, 27 and 2] T6S RlOE, there appears to be a north¬ west trending cross fold. There is evidence for this structure only on the northwest limb of the syncline. It may not be a fold but a fault of small displacement. The holes are not spaced sufficiently close to decide the question. The northeastern end of the axis as shown in Fig. 1 is very close to the place w'here the axis of the Lookout Mountain syncline and that of the Pigeon Mountain (Georgia) syncline split off from each other." There is no clear indication from Fig. 1 that this axis division has affected the structure of the Upper Cliff No. 1 coal horizon in the area studies. It will be noticed in Fig. 1 that the trace of the axis of the Lookout Mountain sync¬ line on the Upper Cliff No. 1 coal horizon does not slowly and continuously rise to¬ ward the north as implied by Hayes^ for the axis in general, but that there is a minimum elevation of the axis in S3, 10 T7S RlOE. From this point south for about 6 miles the trace appears to be essentially horizontal while toward the north it rises from near 1100 feet to 1250 feet in about the same distance. Conditions of Deposition — The abun¬ dance of sandstones and conglomerates in the strata and the demonstrated irregularity of the coal beds^ suggests that the distribu¬ tion and thickness of all the Lower Coal Measures rocks is likely to be quite ir¬ regular. That this is true is shown by Fig. 2 which is an isopach map showing the thick¬ ness of the interval between the Uppe; Cliff No. 1 and the Sewanee coal horizons. T8S T7S T 7S T6S Structure of a Portion of Lookout Mountain 63 R9E RIDE RlOE RUE 64 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science The Sewanee bed has been removed by erosion over all except the deeper parts of the basin so that only the holes near the axis of the basin cut that bed in the lower half of Fig. 2. Thicknesses of the interval vary from 175 feet in S7 T6S RllE to 35 feet or less in S25 T6S RlOE. From the area of minimum thickness northeastward, essenti¬ ally along the axis of the synciine (Fig. 1), the interval thickens rapidly. The axis of minimum thickness extends almost straight north from S25 T6S RlOE and well to the west of the axis of the syncline. This streak of minimum interval thickness may remain around 50 feet thick to S2 T6S RlOE where one hole shows a thick¬ ness of only 43 feet. There is evidence for a possible second thinning area beginning in S3 T7S RlOE and continuing south and southwest. Eig. 3 shows generalized logs of selected holes along the section A-A' of Eig. 2. The holes roughly from FP 82 to FP 1 are all very near the synclinal axis. The other holes from FP 82 to FP 17 are successively higher up the northwest limb of the sync¬ line. FP 1 was the only hole drilled through the entire thickness of the Coal Measures. The measures are 575 thick at that locality and are predominately sandstones. The hole was bottomed at 1040 feet in black shale of Pennington age. The interval between the Sewanee and Elpper Cliff No. 1 horizons is almost wholly sandstone or conglomerate as shown in Fig. 3 Shale streaks were encountered in some holes. In hole FP 17 the entire siliceous part of the interval is conglomerate. In the other holes conglomerate usually occurs in the bottom part of the interval, just over the Upper Cliff No. 1 coal. In FP 40, how¬ ever, the conglomerate is at the top of the interval with the Sewanee coal being found in the conglomerate. The thickening of the Sewanee — Upper Cliff No. 1 interval at right angles to the synclinal axis in the northern part of the area is well illustrated in Fig. 3 as is also the place where the axis of the syncline crosses the thin part of the bed in holes FP 26 and FP 29. The coarseness and the rapid variation in thickness and character of the sediments as shown in the sections of Fig. 3 suggest rapid accumulation, possibly in an area of swift, heavily loaded streams. It is possible that the area may have been one of rapidly shifting deltas on a surface of fairly low relief. Vestal and Mellen^ describe the probable environment of accumulation of the Eower Coal Measures of Jackson Coun¬ ty (similar to those of Eookout Mountain) as follows; "The geologic relations described above obviously point to a conspicuous absence of uniformity in conditions of erosion and de¬ position in early Pottsville time. The area of the Pre-Pennsylvania plain received sediments of diverse character and coarseness from slowly rising lands to the east and northeast, and at rates which varied widely, with time and local conditions. There was a percentage of moderately coarse material, as evidenced by the pebbles in the rock; but the presence of fine-grained sandstones and of shales points to a high proportion of fine sediment. Also, all sorts of minor structures — current bedding, wavy bedding, ripple-marks, sun- cracks, cross-bedding, contemporaneous ero¬ sion surfaces, interwedging of beds, lateral gradation, dissemination of fine and coarse materials in the same bed — point to great irregularity of deposition, apparently due to the velocity of the water which carried the sediment. The evidences seem to be conclusive that the Pottsville of the northern Alabama area examined in non-marine, deposited on a gently-sloping surface of low relief by run¬ off from higher terrane. No marine fossils were found in the Pottsville beds; plant fos¬ sils are very numerous in rock of all sorts, and in all cases noticed were oriented paral¬ lel to the bedding or at low angles to it. The conditions described above were very unfavorable for the preservation of coal in situ. The variable thickness of the coal seams, their discontinuity, the branching off of thin seams from a thicker bed and their inter- T8S T7S Structure of a Portion of Lookout Mountain 65 FIG. 2— Isopach map showing the interval between the Sewanee and the Upper Cliff No. 1 coal horizons and the location of the section of Fig. 3. ELEVATION, FEET 66 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science lamination with sinuous sandstone or shale laminae, the absence of the entire bed al¬ though the fire-clay underbed remains — all these conditions, and others, seem to sug¬ gest that much of the coal has been trans¬ ported.” The Upper Cliff No. 1 — Sewanee in¬ terval may have accumulated in the area of Fig. 2 as a number of coalescing deltas of streams flowing from more than one direction. Perhaps at least one stream flow¬ ing from a high land northeast of the area of Fig. 2, in Georgia and another from high land to the west or northwest, dumped coarse material into both the northeast and west portions of the mapped area. The areas in which the old mines arc shown, presumably where the coal is thick¬ est, are near the places where the Upper Cliff No. 1 — Sewanee interval is the thin¬ nest (Fig. 2 and 4). These low places were covered by the least sediments and were, therefore, probably fartherest from the centers of sediment accumulation. Most of the coal zones of the area, both before and after the Upper Cliff No. 1 — Sewanee deposition may have been deposited in similar inter-delta swamps, not necessarily at the same location as the thicker lenses of these two coals. DRILL HOLE NUMBER FIG. 3 — Generalized section taken from typical well logs along the line A-A' of Fig. 2. Structure of a Portion of Lookout Mountain 67 FIG. 4 _ Isopach map showing the thickness of the Upper Cliff No. 1 coal bed. 68 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science The Coal Beds — Fig. 4 is an isopach map or the Upper Cliff No. 1 bed. The 7, 14, 21, and 28-inch contours are inferred in the areas containing the thickest coal. The dotted lines online the areas where a distinct bed was encountered. The crosses and the cross within the circle represent holes in which thicknesses of coal and rock together were given, the latter symbol indicating that more than 18-inches of coal was found in the coal-rock interval. In some cases holes showing coal-rock sections were off-set slightly by a second hole which gave a distinct coal bed thicnkess. Presumably, in such cases, the second hole was cored more carefully than the first as the Upper Cliff No. 1 zone was approached. If this supposition is correct, some of the other holes that are indicated as mixed coal and rock may have shown one or more distinct "beds" of coal had they been offset by a second hole. The solid black symbol in¬ dicates no coal was found at the probable Upper Cliff No. 1 horizon. The three areas in which distinct, separate coal beds were found line close to areas of thinning or of minimum thickness of the Sewanee — Upper Cliff No. 1 interval above the bed. Such areas are in most cases border¬ ed by areas of alternating coal and rock streaks but in some cases, as on the south¬ east side of the Hickey-Eller area and all around the Yellow Creek area except on the east side, the coal apparently is cut out rather sharply with little or no intertoung- ing of coal and rock. The coal horizon (1-1/2 inch bed) in the Pennington tormation (Mississippian) is of scientific interest. The log of FP 1 does not state the basis for placing the top of the Pennington in, but near the top of what is apparently a 101 foot interval of sandstone with streaks of shale. Presum¬ ably, it was based on some striking change in color or other evidence of a break in de¬ position or a change in conditions of de¬ position. Many coals of Virginia have been assigned a Mississippian Age^ and evidence has been presented for Mississippian coals in Jackson County, Alabama^ and in the coal measures of the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee. ‘ The occurrence of streaks of Mississippian coals in Lookout Mountain are even more logical than are those of the main Cumberland Plateau because Vir¬ ginia coals of that age are those which oc¬ cur fartherest to the east. The nature of the sedimentary record in this area of Lookout Mountain and inferen- tially, for similar areas in the Lower Coal Measures of the Plateau field, is not en¬ couraging to the prospect of finding ex¬ tensive areas of minable coal. LITERATURE CITED 1. Don M. Coulter. “Coking Coal Deposits on Lookout Mountain, DeKalb and Cherokee Counties. Alabama,” U. S. Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations No. 4030, February 1047. 80 pages, maps. 2. c. V/ Oard Tl^yes, “Report on the Geology of North¬ eastern Alabama and Adjacent Portions of Georgia and Tennessee.” Geological Survey of Alabama. Bulletin No. 4, 1802. 86 pages. 3. Franklin E. Vestal and Frederick F. Mellen. “The Coal of Northern Alabama.” TVA. Mss. Report. 1936, 72 pages (with 5 maps and photographs). 4. W. C. Phelan, “Preliminary Report of the Coal Resources of the Pikesville Special Quadrangle of Eastern Tennes¬ see,” Tennessee Geological Survey. Resources of Tennes¬ see. vol. 1. p. 117-162, 1011. 5 Andrew Brown, Henry L. Berryhill. Jr.. Dorthy A. Tay¬ lor and James V. A. Trumbull. “Coal Resources of Vir¬ ginia.” U. S. Geological Survey Circular 171, 57 pages, 1052. 69 SECTION IV ALABAMA’S TREE PLANTING NEEDS By Jack T. May Alabama Polytech/Bc Institute. Auburn, Alabama The need for a tree planting program in Alabama is closely associated with two major factors, namely, the demand for raw materials of a rapidly expanding timber industry, and the virtual necessity for a wise land use and soil conservation pro¬ gram. Based on land use, Alabama is primarily a forested state. 20,771,200 acres out of a total acreage of 32,689,900 acres, or 63.5 per cent of the land area, is classed as forest land (3). The present commercial forest area is 10 per cent more than in 1935-36, due primarily to the abandonment of farm land. North Alabama, the most heavily industrialized section of the state, has 62 per cent of its land area in forest. Southwest Alabama which has the highest proportion of forest land is 75 per cent forest. From an industrial viewpoint, much of Alabama’s economy is tied to the forest. The manufacture of products derived from Alabama’s forest is a leading source of income. The forest industries are out-ranked only by metal industries and textiles. One of every five persons employed in Ala¬ bama’s m.anufacturing industries is engaged in the conversion of raw forest products into finished items. Alabama’s timber resources support a large number of different type industries. Some 3,000 sawmills (3), or an average of 44 mills per county, need a continuous sup¬ ply of sawtimber. One hundred and twenty or more no-lumber forest industries such as veneer mills, cooperage plants, crate and box mills, handle stock plants, wood pre¬ serving plants, and others draw their rav,' materials from Alabama’s forests. Seven pulp and paper mills are located in the State. Most of these pulp mills are increas¬ ing their capacity; and four new ones arc planned or are already under construction. Seven pulp mills in adjoining states draw' substantial portions of their raw material from the forests of Alabama. Demand for raw materials from the forests of Alabama can be expected to increase by 30 to ^'0 per cent by I960. The important question is whether or not Alabama can meet the needs of an expand¬ ing v.'ood using industry. The answer is that it can, provided production is maintained at a high level on the presently productive forest lands and the presently non-produc¬ tive lands are brought into production. Analysis of Planting Needs Sixty-three per cent of Alabama’s forest land is considered to be well stocked. An¬ other twenty-eight per cent of the forest acreage is medium stocked, i.e. -lO to 69 per cent of full stocking. Nine per cent id the commercial forest land is poorh' stocked or non-stcxked (3). The Southern I'orest Suriey (3) reports that in 1951 the net annual urowth in .\la hama was 796, 000, 000 cubic feet of wood. The total consumption for the same period was 595,300,000 cubic teet. Net growth exceeded consumption by only 29 per cent. W'ithin ti\ c years, exp.insion of exist me; in dustries and construction of proposed new industries well elimiiuite this 29 per leet 70 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science differential between growth and consump¬ tion, and create a shortage of raw material unless forest productivity is correspondingly increased. The pLilpwood industry provides a good example of increased consumption of raw materials. From less than 300,000 cords in 1938, consumption rose to 1.4 million cords in 1951 — an increase of 366 per cent in eighteen years. From 1952 through 1954, puipwood consumption increased from 1.4 million cords to 1.8 million cords — an in¬ crease of 28 per cent (4). In 1954, the capacity of Alabama’s pulpmills was 208'' tons of pulp per twenty-four hour day (4). In i960 the pulp capacity of existing mills plus new facilities will be approximately 4,000 tons per day, for an expansion of 90 per cent over the 1954 capacity. Many other wood using industries show similar trends, although not to the same extent as the pulp industry. As an example, the veneer log output was 60 per cent greater in 1951 than in 1937. The Southern Pine Association (5) and the Timber Re¬ source Review (7) predict that the bulk of the lumber industry will eventually con¬ centrate in the south. Although, at present, net timber growth exceeds consumption in Alabama and a few other states, the United States is a timber-importing country ( 1 ) . In 1952, imports amounted to I,l47 million cubic feet of raw material, representing I, 752 million board feet of lumber and II. 2 million cords of puipwood. The U. S. imports 1 50 per cent more timber per year than is being grown in Alabama (7). The possible scarcity of raw materials is of vital concern to the woodusing in¬ dustry. The Southern Puipwood Conserva¬ tion Association predicts that the pulp in¬ dustry will be in serious trouble within 20 years unless it can spark increased pulp- wood production by small private land- owners (6). Additional raw materials can be provided by planting the non-productive forest areas and the idle farm land. The Timber Re¬ source Review (7) reports that Alabama has 1,734,000 acres of commercial forest land that is in need of planting. The Soil Conservation Service estimates that over three-quarters of a million acres (823M) of farm land are idle. With the development of a National Soil Bank Program, another half-million acres of marginal land might be removed from cultivation and converted to pasture or forest. A total of over three million acres, or nearly ten per cent of Alabama’s land area, will remain unpro¬ ductive for many years unless neve forests are established by planting. The planting estimates summarized here are conservative because they include neither planting m lieu of natural regeneration after cutting nor interplanting to improve stocking on partially stocked lands. It is believed that planting for these purposes will become more common, especially on lands managed on a 15 to 30 year rotation for puipwood production. From an eco¬ nomic viewpoint, the puipwood industries cannot afford to wait five to ten years for natural restocking when cutover areas can be planted within one to two years after havest. Planting can improve forest growth and quality through use of superior planting stock. Much of the present natural regenera¬ tion comes from genetically inferior trees. Research has shown that carefully selected planting stock may produce 100 per cent more volume than stock of inferior oriein (8) within the same rotation. In analyzing and appraising Alabama’s planting needs, one can predict future de¬ velopments only in the light of the present situation. At present, in order that good land use be insured and additional raw materials provided, three million acres must be planted. Forest industries may find that Alabama's Tree Planting Needs 71 timber production on the presently stocked sreas can be augmented by planting another one-half to one million acres per year. Status of Pla)ithig on Coniniercial Forest Land Forest tree planting began in Alabama during the late 1920’s. Demands for seed¬ lings during the first few years was never lartre, since few landowners were interested in tree planting for w hat seemed a too- far-away future. The U. S. Forest Service planted several thousand acres on the Ala¬ bama National Forests during the 1930’s. After 1933, seedlings were made available by the Tennessee Valley Authority and the Soil Conservation Service. Several thousand acres of eroded and marginal farm land were planted. Since 1946, the wood-using industries have sponsored an active planting program on their own lands and on margi¬ nal farm lands (2). Over a 25-year period (1926-1951), acceptable plantations were established on 156,800 acres. Ninety-six thousand acres, or 61 per cent, were pri¬ vately owned lands. Since 1952, 25 to 35 million seedlings have been produced annually in Alabama. This production provides for the restocking of 25,000 to 35,000 acres each year. There are still over 2,500,000 acres of good land idle or poorly stocked. At 1000 seedlings per acre, the present need is for 2,500,000,000 seedlings. With Alabama’s current production of 30,000,000 seedlings per year, a total of 80 years or more will elapse before all of the 2'/' million acres can be planted. However, the figures do not accurately reflect the planting needs for Alabama. Some factors previously mentioned must be considered. First, good forest land should not be permitted to remain idle for ex¬ tended periods of time. Good land manage¬ ment demands that the best and most pro¬ ductive forest land be fully utilized for its most productive purpose, that is, timber growth. Poor land or low value lano can and should be relegated to other uses, such as wildlife management or Vv'ater.shed protection. A planting program should be tied to a program of good land use. Most of the non-productive land that needs plant¬ ing is good land. Second, from a dollars-and-cents view¬ point, many land owners favor artificial regeneration rather than natural restocking. In some sections of Alabama natural re¬ generation becomes established only after a period of 2 to 10 years longer. However, if a stand is fully stocked, a consercative average annual growth rate is one cord of pLilpwood or 500 board feet of sawtimber per acre per year. With pulwood stumpage at S3. 00 to $8.00 per cord and sawtimber at $15.00 to $35.00 per thousand board feet, a land owner is not justified, eco nomicallv, in waiting more than three years for natural regeneration. Therefore, within the foreseeable future, a considerable amount of planting might be done on lands that are now fully stocked. What Should be Alabama's Plant/no Ob- O jective? Any discussion of planting objectnes is open to criticism as being too conservatne or too liberal. In the opinion of the speaker, the objective in Alabama should be to plant the most productice areas within a span of 10 to 20 years and, at the same time, to maintain full stocking on the good sites that are now stocked. A reliable estimate of the demand for planting stock is not axailable. Fach vear. demand exceeds supply. I 'sing production figures from other states as a I’lasis for prediction, the author and others estimate that an annual production of 1 OO.OtHhtH'O to 120,000,000 seedlings could and wouKl be planted without o\er-t,i\ing the pocket book of the kiiulowner. The t. inner who 72 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science has fifty acres of idle land cannot finance the planting of his entire area in one year, nor can a large company that owns 25,000 acres of plantable land. Regardless of needs,, planting must be geared to the financial capability of the landowner. A production of 100,000,000 sedlings per year would provide for planting 100,000 acres, or one- thirtieth of the present plantable acreage, each year. A planting program of this magnitude should maintain a balance be¬ tween wood consumption and timber growth during the next few years. It will provide the beginning of good land use programs. Can These Objectives be Met? The factor that limits Alabama’s seedling production today is not planting needs, seedling demand, or nursery capacity; it is the shortage of good forest tree seed for sowing in the nurseries. It is not within the scope of this paper to discuss the pro¬ blems associated with the collection anJ storage of forest tree seed. Generally, landowners and wood using industries consider that seedling production is a function of state or federal agencies. Physical facilities capable of meeting Ala¬ bama’s needs for seedlings have been de¬ veloped. Existing nurseries in Alabama have a high potential capacity. The fiv(? forest tree nurseries have a net cultivatable area of over 200 acres. Under nursery management practices developed in the re¬ search program at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, these nurseries have a maximum combined annual capacity of 135, 000., 000 seedlings per year. Alabama’s planting needs can be satisfied if the forest indus¬ tries and the landowners provide ample quantities of forest tree seed. LITERATURE CITED 1. America’s Demand for Wood. A Report by Stanford Re¬ search Institute, Stanford. California. June 1954. 2. Business Review. The Birmingham News. January 1, 1956. .3. Forest Survey Release 73. Forest Statistics for Alabama. Southern Forest Experiment Station. New Orleans, Da., r»ecember 1953. 4. Forest Survey Release 76. 1954 Pulpwood Production in the South. Southern Forest Experiment Station. New Or¬ leans, La. May 1955. 5. Southern Pine Association Release. New Orleans. La. November 1955. 6. Southern Pulpwood Conservation Association Release. Xt’anta. Georgia. January 1935. 7. Timber Resource Review. Forest Service. U.S.D.A. Wash¬ ington, D. C. 1955. •S. Wakeley, P. C. Planting the Southern Pines. Agriculture Monograph No. 18. Forest Service. U.S.D.A. 1954. FOREST MANAGEMENT AT GULF STATES PAPER R. 'Vance Miles, Jr., and John C. Kirkpatrick Gnlj Slates Paper Corporation, T itscaloosa, Alabama In presenting this paper to the Academy today, it is done only in the light that here is a report which contains just the highlights of a very big picture. I do not solicit your questions or discussions because the basis for decisions expressed herein involves in¬ timate details that I do not feel at liberty to disclose. For this presentation we have as a basis our own records, accomplishment and past costs. We have as a basis our own forest ami its stand composition and type. We have our own basis of interpretation of the future. And, we have as a basis a period of at least ten years of cautiousness of forest management adjusted by economic dictates, and a full two years of study and accumula¬ tion of data which is presented to you in this summary. If you are prepared to judge your own position in the light of this report, I advise exhaustive studies of the intimate details of your own problems, some soul-searching of your belief in the future, and a keen Forest Management at Gulf States Paper 73 appreciation and understanding of the economic laws which might overshadow wishful desires. To state the basic principle which gave rise to our inauguration of the forest management being applied is to state that we are forest owners interested in the pro¬ duction of pulp producing species of tim¬ ber. Our interests are shaded towards that controversial term "Pulpwood Economy ’- But, the line is drawn at the boundaries of our own forest. Any other owner or man¬ ager of other forests has only his own in¬ terest to satisfy, and we shall invariably aid him in satisfying his own interests within the dictates of sound forestry when¬ ever he indicates a desire for our advice and counsel. There is one point that causes trepidation on my part, and that is that this presenta¬ tion may over simplify the highly complex problem of sustained yield forestry, de¬ signed to fit our requirements. The brief presentation of interest rates earned, calculations of rotations and break¬ even points, were only accomplished with voluminous computations, critical scanning of volumes of literature, and much testing by discussion at numerous staff meetings and other gatherings of an official nature. To begin our system of regulation, we first investigated fully the principal ob jective towards which our management would be directed. In other words, should we direct oui' management towards pulpwood production or should it be towards sawtimer pro¬ duction. We have decided to direct our forest management toward maximum pulp- wood production, commensurate with ac¬ cepted principles of sustained-yield and multiple-use under an even-aged silvicultur¬ al system that we have chosen to call "Area Control”. Stand regeneration and the annual sawtimber cut is provided for by utilizing a modified reserve cut method embodying seed trees or a light shelter wood. Sawtimber Production vs. Pulpivood production To define these terms it is intended to mean by "Sawtimber Production” that the principal objective of our management system would be to grow maximum volumes of sawtimber with pulpwood yields to be derived from thinnings and topwood from sawtimber sales. Rotation ages for saw¬ timber production would be in the range of 30 to 60 years. It is intended to mean by "Pulpwood Production” that the principal objective of our management would be to grow maxi¬ mum crops of pulpwood with sawtimber yields to be obtained from sale of seed source trees after regeneration has been established by the reserve cutting. Rotation ages involved would be 23 to 30 years for the pulpwood crop and '>0 to 60 years for the sawtimber crop. Discussion of these objectives is pre¬ sented under ad^’antages and disacb antages. Pulpivood Production Advantages 1. Maximum production of pulpwood from the Corporation's forest under the stated policy of growing a definitely esta¬ blished volume per year expressed as a percentage of the total consumption of our pulp manufacturing plants would allow for minimum investments to be made for the acquisition of land. 2. By use of the shortened rot.ition .q''- plicable to pulpwood production, a quicker turnover of the forest would result, tlierebv shortening time requirements of getting the forest into lull production. 3. Maintenance of .i rel.iti\elv low \.ilue pulpwarod forest would be conducoe to 74 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science probably maintaining a lighter ad valorem tax burden, tending to minimize this in¬ evitable cost with its overall benefits, rather than direct benefits of the land itself. 4. The influence of site upon pulpwood rotation age being recognized as negligible with given species, and with rather complete utilization afforded by pulpwood pro¬ duction, we provide the closest approach to the predicted financial rotations. Thus the managemet of the forest, with its several pine species and variety of pine sites, would more closely fit the schedules of a chosen rotation age and minimize the extent of variations away from the highest monetary returns. “i. The relative assurance of pulp and paper markets m long range predictions allow for working with a known quantity, thereby minimizing risks. 6. The need for wood to be purchased from outside markets would be leveled to a stated annual amount, thereby minimiz¬ ing Corporation activities in a highly competitive field, and also minimizing open market purchase of higher priced wood than could be produced by the Corporation for¬ est. Piilpiiood Prodnetion Discid vantages 1. The appearance of loss of annual le- venue by not maintaining maximum saw- timber production. A thorough economic study shows the spread of this loss as negligible. 2. Heavy production of pulpwood from the Corporation’s forest would minimize valuable outside contacts and concentrated pulpwood procurement from other land- owners. 3. Unfavorable public opinion might re¬ sult by reason of withholding or substituted use of our products. It is estimated, how¬ ever, that from 12 million to 15 million board feet of sawtimber, Scribner Decimal C rule, would be available from seed tree cuttings annually to offset any possible un¬ favorable opinion. Sawt'/niber Production Advantages 1 . Monetary returns appear to be higher hv sale of products and purchase of out.ide wood. This is true of timber purenased with land, but tends to disappear when growing timber under sustained yield. 2. Outside contacts would be maintained at highest possible level through sales of forest products and purchase of outside wood. This factor would be regulated by acreage ownership whereby increase in acreage would increase outside contacts through sawtimber sales but would de¬ crease outside wood procurement. Sawtimber Production Disadvantages 1. To maintain stated policy of supplying a definite and predetermined volume of pulpwood annually from the Corporation forest, expressed as a percentage of our total requirements, this type of production would require that investment in land be materially increased. 2. This expanded land acquisition pro¬ pram would probably be at increased prices per acre, thereby minimizing returns to be made. 3. The tinre requirement of bringing the forest into full productivity would be doubled over pulpwood production. 4. Material lowering of investment in lands will force heavy procurement of out¬ side wood. 5. By maintenance of heavy outside procurement, we maintain a direct relation¬ ship with highly competitive procurement activity, making stability risky. "We also lose the advantage of our ability to grow wood cheaper than can be procured in the open market. Forest Management at Gulf States Paper 75 6. The possibility of heavy tax burden of ad valorem taxes by maintaining high ralue sawtimber forest with a large tax expenditure as a cost of operation without a direct benefit to the land. 7. The influences of site upon rotation ages in sawtimber afford wide variation within a given species. These variations have to be overcome by management, either for¬ cing complexities into the program, or else effecting divergencies away from a known position of best financial return. These complexities would only be magnified by additions of species with which to work. Feasibility of a Pidpwood Forest To test the feasibility of a pulpwood forest, caluculations were made and results portrayed in the form of a "break even” chart and "rate earned” indicator. The theory of "growing wood” more cheaply than it could be purchased in the open market was explored under assumed con¬ ditions. An interpretation of the break even chart is as follows: Under an assumed condition of 300,000 acres of Corporation timber lands, a re¬ quirement of 275,000 cords of pulpwood annually, and an indicated rise in the stum- page price of pulpwood with a relatively constant stumpage price for sawtimber, the following points are evident: 1. The cost of supplying the assumed mill requirements with wood is at a break even point, i.e., cost to the mill is the same whether sawtimber or pulpwood is grown primarily, if the cost of pine pulp- wood stumpage reaches a price in the future which is not unreasonable to an¬ ticipate at this time. 2. If pine pulpwood stumpage exceeds this anticipated amount, the cost to the mill for a pulpwood supply will be lowered by growing primarily pulpwood. 3. If pine pulpw'ood stumpage does not reach this anticipated amount per cord. the cost to the mill for wood supply will be higher by growing primarily pulpw^ood. Adjustments to assumed conditions gave rise to the following interpretations: 1. Increasing the annual requirements for pulpw'ood, but leaving the acreage re¬ quirement constant, increases the break even point. 2. Decreasing the annual requirement for pulpwood, but leaving the acreage reepire- ments constant, decreases the break even point. 3. Increasing the acreage requirements, but leaving the annual requirement for pulpwood constant, lowers the break even point. 4. Decreasing the acreage requirements, but leaving the annua! requirements for pulpwood constant, increases the break even point. A "rate earned” indicator has been pre¬ pared to ascertain if acceptable rates of return were able to be earned even if the w'ood could be grown more cheaply. Under assumed conditions as originally stated, and with predicted conditions re¬ lative to income, and estimates of past costs for land and administration, the fol¬ lowing points relative to rate earned are apparent. Interpretation of the rar'ous curves w'as as follows: 1. Finder constant cost of administration and present stumpage prices the rate earned on a sawtimber torcst is l.Si times greater than would be earned from a pulpwood forest. 2. W'ith conditions of higher ai.lminist ra¬ tion costs for a sawtimber huest and lower¬ ed administration costs lor a pulpwood forest, and with constant stumpage price, the rate earned on a sawtimber forest is 1 .6 1 times greater than that ol a pul[''wood forest. 76 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science 3. Under conditions of the same ad¬ ministration costs and with indicated in¬ crease of pulpwood stumpage price, as¬ suming that sawtimber stumpage prices remain relatively the same, rates earned are approximately the same. It appears entirely feasible that a pulp- wood forest will both "grow wood more cheaply than it can be bought” and also give an acceptable rate of return, the rea¬ son being an indicated increase in pulp- wood stumpage price and constant saw- timber stumpage price. MANAGEMENT Eve)i-Aged vs. U ueven-aged iManageuient Several forms of management to ac¬ complish growing a pulpwood forest are readily applicable. These would be grouped broadly under the terms of even-aged management or uneven-aged management. These are illustrated pro and con as follows: In speaking of "even-aged” it is meant to imply a range of stand ages approximated at five to ten years, each acre containing only a stand of trees varying in age with¬ in this range as stated. (A pulpwood forest would at times contain two age classes separated however by a spread of 25 to 30 years.) In speaking of "uneven- aged” it is meant to imply that all acres would contain all ages in proper relation¬ ship from 0 years (seed) to mature trees. This discussion can best be presented by listing broad terms of advantages and disadvantages. Even- Aged Management Advantages: 1. Because of the size of the Corporation forest, even-aged management presents an orderly arrangement, simplifying planning and administration. 2. Simplification would minimize ex¬ penditures by reason of lower personnel requirements, numerically speaking, anti the consolidation of activities. 3. Maximum volumes being moved with¬ in a given area would cut down operating time within a logging chance thereby creat¬ ing lowered costs of logging and assign¬ ment of higher value to sales of stumpage. 4. Allows for a concentration of silvi¬ cultural activities in a predetermined area of the size most economically advantageous to intensively administer. 5. Areas of high risk, because of stand conditions, can be concentrated allowing for intensification of protection in a known area definitely limited in extent. 6. Road and trails betterment and main¬ tenance can be concentrated allowing for savings in cost. 7. The pulpwood dealer organization can be given a planned activity for a year’s op¬ eration with tentative planning for sub¬ sequent years, and with such advanced in¬ formation can plan for other wood pro¬ curement within that vicinity. After a few ^'ears, this "Area Control” system is capable of building an orderly progression through any given wood procurement area. 8. Management of a pulpwood forest would have its best application with this type of silviculture. 8. Capable of more fully presenting minimum value, pulpwood stands thereby offer the possibility of lower ad valorem taxes. 10. Accelerates the development of a normal series of age classes thereby speeding up the ability to reach full production at an earlier date. Even-Aged Disadvantages: 1. Unfavorable public opinion might re¬ sult from maximizing operations on a small area. Below 10,000 acres of ownership in any given area, the appearance of the Forest Management at Gulf States Paper 77 lodged area following cutting would tend to create an extreme impression. 2. Operators would be required to equip themselves to operate in weather extremes, however, volume concentration would allow' for increase machinery investment as an offsetting feature. 3. Some timber quality would be sacri¬ ficed by concentration of cutting on the area, through the treatment of stands rather than individual trees. Uueveu-Aged Management Advantages: 1. More conducive to growing high quality products working best towards main¬ taining the forest in higher value products, mainly sawtimber. 2. Optimum public relations would resulc from maintaining the most attractive look¬ ing forest on every acre at all times. 3. A scattered dealer organization of many small operators could best be served by this form of management. Uneven-Aged Management Disadvantages: 1. Intensification of management is re¬ quired on every acre all the time. 2. Intensification of management would require higher expenditures for administra¬ tion. 3. Increased personnel would be required to effect intensified management, causing increased administrative load. 4. Requires extended coverage by a road and trail network maintained in high level of efficiency at all times. 5. Entire forest must be classified as a high risk area in order to maintain a normal series of age classes on every acre of the forest. 6. The length of time to reach full pro¬ duction would be increased because of ex¬ treme requirement of attempting to get a normal series of age classes on every acre. 7. Protection costs would be greater be¬ cause of maintenance of the entire fores. as a high risk. 8. Liable for extremes of taxation because of maintaining every acre in a relative high value forest. 9. Limited to management objective of high value products. Proposed System of Even- Aged Manage - )nent of A Pnlpivood Forest: Given the feasibility of even-aged management of a pulpwood forest, a system of management under this scheme was developed. It employs the use of natural regeneration of pine species by a stand of "Heavy Seed Trees”, more trees than needed. In actuality, tevo crops of trees would be grown at the same time, the principal crop of pulpwood from younger trees, and secondly a minimum crop of older sawtimber trees, w'hich would be carried through two pulpwood rotations of 25 to 30 years each. These trees in the reserve cut would be especially selected because of form, growth, disease resist¬ ance, and other hereditary characteristics, and would become the parent trees of suc¬ ceeding crops. Continued upgrading of the successive crops is assured, because these trees, wisely selected through successix e cut¬ tings, would constantly work toward improv¬ ed yields due to their superiority and the genetic superiority of their progeny. Even-aged management employs rotation ages in its application, or the spread in years from seed to mature tree. To de¬ termine this number of years, rotation ages of pulpwood under three methods of cal¬ culation were made. These metlKxds are expressed as .soil rent, forest rent, and technical rotation. Selection of a h) ve.ir rotation more nearly fits the predominant pine species, loblolly and shortleat. This favors the calculation of rotations in which interest (.soil rent) has been applied .it a. level of four or fixe per cent, but is higher 78 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science thiin soil rent rotations at these rates, in order to move to a limited degree, toward the technical rotation age. Indicated by the calcnlations of soil rent and forest rent rotation, is the position of shortleaf pine in relation to the other southern pines, as a species to be favored in a pulpwood forest. Also indicated is the object of management to work towards elimination of longleaf if and whenever practical, in the management of a pulpwood forest. These things appear true with existing knowledge of growth and yields of these pines. There is nothing in evidence novc that would tend to reverse this position. Aliplicatioii to specific Gulf States Paper Corporation area: All of the above factors of even-aged management are incorporated into the term "Area Control" or regulation. Fortunately because of the Gulf States Paper Corpora¬ tion’s forest age composition, this simplest and most easily accomplished form of management may be applied. There are no dictates to be made because of pre¬ ponderance of mature or overmature timber that would demand extreme cutting because of decadence. There is in addition, because of purchases through a period of years, and subsequent minimum cuttings, no heavy accumulation of cutover re-stocking lands. To begin now with the minimum volumes to be removed in concentrated operations would be to incorporate into the wood procurement framework of the company, readily available wood with least efforts. As volumes to be moved are increased gradually, no serious disruption of pro¬ curement operations will result. Ease of adjustment is further guaranteed by selling material either as sawtimber or as pulpwood at the beginning with gradual absorption of all primary material as pulp¬ wood at a later date, with the sawtimber assuming the role of the secondary material. The normal steps of applying manage¬ ment to forest property are to first establish normal series of age classes, i.e., if using a 30 year rotation there should be thirty different areas differing one from the other by one year in age. Every year an area of l/30th of the total is mature and ready for harvest. The second step towards complete management is to have every acre as fully stocked as possible. Area control promises this progression in the shortest possible time, i.e., complete man¬ agement of the forest will be effected in the shortest possible time. I’he arrangement of the cutting areas throws the heaviest burden of proof of ability upon the foresters assigned the responsibility of its management. This re suits in the elimination of the custodial aspect of whatever material nature has allowed to become established, and demands of professionally trained men that they grow the best yield possible upon the acreage assigned to their responsibility. The Pickens Working Circle was the first to be set up for operation under Area Control. In the beginning, all of the pine area as delineated by the forest survey was classified as standard acres. Using a certain species and site classification as a base, all acres of differing species and site were classified in relation to this base. Eor example, loblolly pine growing on Site 1, or better, was capable of producing one cord per acre per year. Eongleaf pine, growing on poorer site, or Site 11, was capable of growing 1/2 cord per acre per yeai. Hence, it would require two longleaf acres on Site 11 to each one acre of Eoblolly on Site 1 in order to create a balance. Each section of land was then classified as to the number of standard acres within the section. The total number of standard acres was then divided by 30, the number Forest Management at Gulf States Paper 79 of years of rotation age. This then was the number of standard acres to be operated each year. This figure was divided in half in order to spread the cut each year and allowing for a cut in North Pickens and in South Pickens each year. This arrangement was to attempt to keep the procurement organi¬ zation from becoming dislocated any one year, allowing them in a small way to keep constant contact throughout the county. Using the average number of standard acres as a guide, blocks were worked up by attempting to stay as close as possible to regular land subdivision boundaries. A plus and minus divergence away from the aver¬ age figure was finally set up, however, these divergencies were minimized as much as possible. The controlling interest here was ease of administration of the blocks. The plus and minus variation away from a standard production of cords of pine pulpwood each year are minor in extent. Next, volumes contained within the blocks were compiled for each of the blocks. Priority of cutting each block was assigned from high volumes to low volumes. The year of cutting was then set by additions to year 1955 in order of priority. This system was not devised as a hard and fast rule. Judgment of the manager must be allowed if in his opinion priority is strong because of some influence which cannot be incorporated in the long range planning such as wind, fire, insect or disease damage. Therefore, it is entirely feasible that he may rearrange priority within a three to five year period based on sound recommendations. Further leeway is allowed for by an ability to accelerate or decelerate cutting for any short period of approximately two to three years. It must be recognized that adjustments must be made to take care of these divergencies within the thirty year period of total rotation age. Growth was projected through each of the blocks for the first thirty year rota¬ tion by the use of standard yield tables It was developed that each year’s operation during the first rotation would be approxi¬ mately of the same magnitude. Reasoning applied to these figures is indicative that the volume cut from the later blocks must be larger than the initial cuts. Another benefit from this type of ar¬ rangement is the minimizing of require¬ ments for large forest surveys, such as are being completed now. Each year, our ''OC^ood- lands Management Department could be served by operational type surveys which would give them the volumes to be moved in the cutting that year. Since it would primarily be a volume cruise, it would be accomplished with speed and maximum utilization of aerial photogrametry. Growth will be reported by establish¬ ment of a system of permanent plots that would need remeasurement only periodic ally. This type of remeasurement could also be accomplished with minimum ex¬ penditure. After full consideration was gi\en to all phases of the development of a forest management plan to fit the needs of Gulf States Paper, we chose the Area (\>ntrol System, as it is described herein. In our considered judgement, it will be the best plan to follow iner the long run tor our companv. 80 Journal of the Alahama Academy of Science SECTION V Symposium on Career Opportunities in Mathematics, Physics and Engineering* INTRODUCTION E. P. Miles, Jr., Chairuiau, Physics and Mathematics Section, Alabama Acad¬ emy oj Science: Associate Professor of Mathematics, Alabama Polytechnic In¬ stitute, Auburn, Alabama. I wish to extend on behalf of the Senior Academy a hearty welcome to you members of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science who are our guests for this Symposium and a warm expression of gratitude to the distinguished scientists whose addresses will follow shortly. Our subject for today is a timely one; we are reminded daily bv the press, news magazines, radio or tele¬ vision of the critical shortage of scientific manpower in our country. Physicists, mathe- matidans and engineers are in such short supply that industry, government and educa¬ tion are competing vigorously for the limited number available. Although the demand for scientists is widespread, three areas unheard of fifteen years ago, are perhaps the mvst critical of all. They are the fields of atomic energy, guided missiles and electronic computers, including automation. Three of the papers to follow are given by men intimately as¬ sociated with one or more of these fields. Dr. Alston S. Householder, for instance, has served as senior mathematician at the Oak Ridge National Laboratories for the past ten years where he tackles the mathe¬ matical problems of atomic energy with the aid of an electronic computer called the ORACLE. Dr. Johann G. Tschinkel from Alabama’s own Redstone Arsenal is re¬ presenting the guided missile program. One of the German scientists who developed *This symposium was presented at a joint session of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science and the Physics and Mathematics Section of the Alabama Academy of Science on March 30, 1956. the V-2 Rocket, he holds a doctor’s degree with majors in both physics and chemistry, and is chief of the Combustion and Luels Laboratory at the Huntsville Missile center. Mr. Howard True, the third of these area speakers, is an Automation and Methods Engineer (Electronics) with the Liberty National Life Insurance Company in Birm¬ ingham. A graduate of the U. S. Naval Academy and later an Electrical Engineer¬ ing Instructor there, Mr. True came to his present job after serving as a Eield In¬ structor with the International Business Machine Corporation. The three glamorous new areas just discussed are quite important to the de¬ fense and development of our country, yet they represent just a few of the many interesting and challenging scientific career opportunities that await today’s student upon completion of appropriate college or graduate training. Time limitations prevent a complete discussion of the other areas, but Dean James R. Cudworth of the LTniversity of Alabama School of Engineering will give us a survey of many of them. Dcm Cudworth, who holds degrees from M. 1. T. and the University of Alabama, comes from a family of engineers in which most branches of engineering are represented. A prominent mining engineer, his administra¬ tive experience with all phases of engineer¬ ing makes him well qualified to present this survey. Dr. Rolland G. Sturm, Director, Auburn Research Eoundation and Engineering Ex- Opportunities for Mathematicians in Government 81 periment Station, Alabama Polytechnic In¬ stitute, will conclude the Symposium with a paper on the need for basic research in all the fields considered. Dr. Sfurm, the holder of several engineering degrees, spent many years as a research engineer at the Aluminum Company of America. In spite of his heavy administratic e duties at A. P. I., he finds time to serve as a consultant for several national organizations and to parhcipate in the development of the world’s largest press. One parting word of advice to you high school boys and girls in the audience, and to those of you who will read this* when reprints of the Symposium are sent to the school libraries of the state; obtain as broad a science training as possible. It will not only contribute greatly to your understand¬ ing of the world in which we live, it may also enable you to contribute to the scienti¬ fic advance of our country by assuming your place in one of the scientific . fields discussed in this Symposium. OPPORTUNITIES FOR MATHEMATICIANS IN GOVERNMENT SPONSORED RESEARCH By A. S. Householder Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee Fifteen years ago, in 19-41, a report entitled "Industrial Mathematics’’ was pub¬ lished in the American Matheniatical Mon¬ thly, written by Dr. Thornton C. Fry, a well known industrial mathematician at the Bell Telephone Laboratories. This re¬ port was published before we entered the war, and its preparation must have taken place about a year before that. In the course of the report Dr. Fry estimated that in government and industry combined there were about 150 mathematicians em¬ ployed, and he estimated further that in the course of the next decade perhaps as many as 10 more mathematicians might be hired each year. Neglecting mortality this would have amounted to about 250 mathematicians employed in government and industry by the year 1950 or 1951. Last August, when the Mathematical As¬ sociation met in Ann Arbor, Dr. Fry spoke on the use of mathematicians in industry today, and this speech appeared in the February issue of the Matheniatical Mon¬ thly. In this speech he quoted an estimate that government and industry together now employ, or would like to employ, about 1500 mathematicians, a tenfold in¬ crease in a decade and a half. Whereas Dr. Fry predicted the hiring during the decade of the ’40’s, of about ten mathema¬ ticians per year, a representative of a single well known manufacturer was quoted to me recently as saying that his company alone would be willing to hire every successful Ph. D. candidate in mathematics in the LInited States and Canada for the next ten years. In the United States and territories, there w'ere 227 such during the year 1953-4, the latest year from which I have figures. Undoubtedly the statement was exaggerated and involved no binding commitment on the part of his company, but their ads for mathematicians are prom¬ inently displayed in all the likely places, and this is only one company among many others, all a\'id in their search for mathema tical talent. *Tluinks to i\ generous donation of Liberty National Life Insurance ('’omiKiny of Birmingluim, the Academy is pub- lisldng the proceedings of this symposium in booklet form for tlistribution to the high schools of Alabama. The book¬ lets will Inchule the appendix of Pr. Householder’s paper omitted from the Journal due to space limitations as well as an article, "The Crowing Pemand for Actuaries." by the Liberty National .\cluary, J. A. Livingston, Jr. Journal of thf Alabama Academy of Science My assignment is to speak on opportuni¬ ties for mathematicians in government spon¬ sored research, rather than in industry prop¬ er. Nevertheless, it is sometimes hard to draw a sharp line between research that is and research that is not government spon¬ sored. Many corporations, such as Westing- house and General Electric, are engaged in government sponsored, as well as in private¬ ly supported research, and many employees will find themselves engaged in both types. Moreover, in estimating the extent of the demand for mathematicians, present and future, since government, private industry, and the colleges will all be in competition, on the same manhunt, one cannot be dis¬ cussed in complete isolation from the others. The figures of 150 for 1940, and 1500 for 1955, are quite meaningless except for comparison until one knows how the term "mathematician” is defined. Dr. Fry had in mind well trained, high caliber people, perhaps not necessarily Ph.D's, but of Ph. D. capabilities. For purposes of this talk I intend to define a mathematician rather more broadly as a person fulfilling either of two conditions. First, 1 shall call him (or her) a mathematician if the inajor field for his highest degree was mathematics and if this degree is at least at the bachelor’s level. Second, I shall call him a mathematician if his job is primarily mathematical and his mathematical back ground, whether acquired in college or on the job, could be considered at least equi¬ valent to that provided by an undergraduate major. The employment figures relating to this class would be larger than those given by Dr. Fry by a factor of, perhaps, 4 or 5. To allow a person to qualify as mathema¬ tician either on grounds of present activi¬ ties or of past training may seem a bit illogical, but it seems to me to be the only appropriate approach for this audience as I assume it to be. I conceive this audience to be made up of students and teachers who wish to know something of the pro¬ fessional outlook for mathematics majors. It is of interest, therefore, to know of non-mathematical jobs for which mathema¬ ticians are eligible just as much as it is of interest to know of mathematical jobs which for some reason are being filled by erstwhile non-mathematicians. Never¬ theless, although my definition is easy to state, it is not always easy to apply, especi¬ ally in deciding when a person's job is primarily mathematical. Hence any statis¬ tics must be regarded as to some extent arbitary. But however the terms may be defined, the fact is that at the turn of the previous decade, mathematicians v/ere little needed outside the classroom, whereas in the middle of the current decade the colleges cannot possibly turn out the mathematicians fast enough to meet present demands from government and industry, and, vdiat is worse, college facilities are being raided to the further detriment of training facili¬ ties that are already inadequate. That there should be a shortage of mathematicians is partly only a corollary to the general proposition that there is a shortage of technically trained people in all lines. There are many reasons for this. You must have seen an ad which has been appearing recently in many leading magazines and which makes the following statements: "The help America gets from electricty can double by 1965. Today elec¬ tricity equals 41 servants in the home. 1965 electricity can equal 90 servants”. Elsewhere the same ad states that in 1965 the manufacturing worker can have at his command the electrical energy equal to the energy of 500 strong men, and con¬ tinues to say: "By extending the productive arm of working men and women, electric power makes possible jobs requiring skill and judgment — helps create new industries and greater employment opportunities”. Opportunities for Mathematicians in Government 83 Here is part of the story: Human beings are virtually obsolete as sources of power; they are somewhat obsolescent eyen as con¬ trolling agents. They are by no means ob¬ solete as creators. Increasingly the menial tasks, backbreaking or merely repetitiye and monotonous, once open to the unskilled and uneducated laborer or maid, are being performed by machinery. At the other ex¬ treme, more and more elaborate uses are being made of inanimate sources of energy, whether from the petroleum molecule or the uranium atom, and a high leyel of training is required of those who partici¬ pate in the deyelopment and application of these uses. Machines, that is to say, do indeed put men out of work. But this is at the bottom only. At the top they create new jobs, calling for greater training, higher skills, deeper understanding. Com pare, for example, the operation of a jet plane with that of a horse and buggy. As a more elaborate example of the creation of jobs at the top, you may have seen an article in a recent issue of Collier’s on the ICBM, the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile. This is called a ballistic missile because it is to be propelled and guided over only a short segment of its path, after which it continues in free flight to its de¬ stination. Bear in mind that it is to travel thousands of miles, and must be directed so as to hit within a relatively very small num¬ ber of miles of the target. Moreover, its path will take it through the varying layers of the atmosphere to virtual vacuum and then back to the surface. Such a missile does not now exist, it is merely under de¬ velopment. But one can easily imagine what an army of experts of all types will be involved in the design and development, and ultimately in the production of this weapon. Another example is, of course, the artificial satellite. Ten years ago these developments would have been out of the question. Today they are actively un¬ derway, and one hardly even thinks of questioning the ultimate success of the en¬ terprise. This accelerating demand for trained people, though it would have been foreseen long ago, comes at a time when the public schools are in the worst possible position for increasing the supply. For one thing, the salaries of the teachers are so low that only the most dedicated will endure the sacrifice of staying in the profession. Con¬ sequently there is a critical shortage of qualified teachers, and this shortage, too, is becoming worse. But beyond this there has been prevalent for some years in many of our public schools a philosophy of educa¬ tion, sometimes called "Progressive”, that confuses equality of opportunity with equa¬ lity of achievement; that frowns upon and discourages superior performance as an evidence or source of social maladjust¬ ment; that generally discourages competi¬ tion as being (of all things!) "undemo¬ cratic”; that dispenses almost altogether with external discipline either of mind or of conduct; and that discourages students from taking the substantive courses in science, mathematics, language, and history, diverting them instead into vacuous courses called "Life Adjustment”, "Core”, and other euphemisms for academic idleness. These are factors relating to the present and future supply of technical people, scientists and engineers, of all types. But in 1940 the demand for mathematicians by government and industry was quite negligible, almost nonexistent, whereas now the shortage is no less acute in mathema¬ tics than in other technical areas, and pi^s- sibly more so. Why does a great demand exist now where viturally none at all ex¬ isted before? At least two factors might be mentioned. To begin with the fact that mathematicians were not commonly employed vears ago did not by any means implv that mathema tics was not commonly utilized. 'I'he slide rule, for example, has been associ.ited with 84 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science engineers for much longer than 15 years. Mathematics lias been used, but of a re¬ latively simple sort, quite within the reach of the man whose primary training was elsewhere — physics, in chemistry, or in en¬ gineering. But as technology becomes more complicated and varied, so does its mathe¬ matics. For example, game theory and linear programming did not exist in 1940. Today these mathematical disciplines are of vital importance in military planning and fundamental to much of contemporary economic theory. A second factor is more special and largely a conseqence of the first. This is the advent of the electronic computing machine. I do not know how many comput¬ ing machine installations there are in the country today, but it is indicative that one leading manufacturer is said to be preparing to produce 500 units of a single one of its several models, intermediate as to price and performance. Whatever the staff may be that will in fact be associated with any one of these machines, there should be at least one mathematician, if not several, and in many cases there certainly will be. Probably not the most fanatical advocate of high speed computation ten years ago could have foreseen the demand for high speed com¬ puters that exists today. In partial ex¬ planation, I quote a brief passage from a speech given before a Senate Subcommittee by the president of the General Electric Corporation. He is discussing one of the several computers operated by the Corpora¬ tion, and he says: "For the most part, these are calcula¬ tions that could not be done without the aid of computers, or would be so expensive we could not afford to do them. For ex¬ ample, there are certain calculations which will determine the best nozzle and bucket angles in a low-pressure steam turbine. These calculations take from 15 minutes to one hour to do on the computer at Even- dale. It is not practical to do this calculation by hand since it would require from one to three years of continuous error-free hand calculation for each turbine. Obviously, before we had the computer we had to rely on less exact data. Guided and un¬ guided missiles would be practically un¬ thinkable without computers to calculate their trajectories. We will have to use computers in our work on the earth satel¬ lite project, for example. The computers have greatly speeded the development of jet-engine and air-frame designs which are so important to our national security. It costs many months and many millions of dollars to build and test an experimental jet engine in order to try out a single new design. Now the computer enables us to explore and test thousands of design possibilities on paper before we proceed to production”. Lip to this point I have been explaining that opportunities do exist for mathema¬ ticians, in government and also in industry. T have indicated in a qualitative sort of way how great the demand is and how greatly it has increased, and have attempted to suggest reasons for this. I wish, now, to indicate what and where these oppor¬ tunities are. Before starting to prepare this paper 1 wrote letters to a number of people, mainly friends of mine upon whom I felt I could impose, asking for information about the employment of mathematicians in their own organizations. I am indebted to these friends c. for much of what I have to say from here on, and I hereby make grateful acknowledg¬ ment. I did not cover all possible agencies; moreover, the sample was hardly random in the statistical sense. Nevertheless I think It is reasonably representative. Government sponsors research in a variety of ways. First there are the establishments such as the National Bureau of Standards or the Naval Research Laboratory, where the employees are on Civil Service. Job Opportunities for Mathematicians in Government 85 classifications and qualifications are set by the Civil Serc ice Commission in Washington and apply uniformly to all such establish¬ ments; salary scales are set by Congress. Second, there are laboratories such as those of the Atomic Energy Commission. These are operated by private corporations, and personnel are hired by these corporations, not by Civil Service. Thus, Union Carbide Nuclear Company operates the plants in Oak Ridge; the University of Chicago ope¬ rates the Argonne National Laboratory; the Universitv of California operates the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. But they are supported, and their research programs set by a government agency, in these cases the AEC. Third, there are private corpora¬ tions carrying out special research projects on contract with one or more government bureaus or departments. Thus the Rand Corporation and the Ramo- Wooldridge Corporation exist largely for the purpose of working on such projects. Lourth, many universities have organized research in¬ stitutes, with varying titles, often indepen¬ dently incorporated, for the purpose of carrying out sponsored research, frequently with the government as principal sponsor. Linally, there are the many government financed fellowships, as well as special contracts for research to be carried out on the campus by single individuals or small groups of individuals. The distinctions are not always clearcut, and there may be still other possibilities. I have listed some or¬ ganizations (Appendix I) in each of the first four groups where I know mathema¬ ticians are employed. Where a number is given after the name, this represents some¬ body’s estimate of the number of mathema¬ ticians not including statisticians, or else of mathematicians and statisticians (S). Where two or three figures are given, these give the breakdown accordiny to backirround, in the order Ph. D. level, master’s — bach¬ elor’s level, or else Ph. D., master’s, bachelor’s separate. On the Civil Service jobs, the first figure is GS-12 or higher, the last GS-7 or lower. Ligures in parentheses refer to contemplated expansion, not broken down. In Appendix II is given the salaries and experience associated with each GS rati n S'. O The inclusion of the Naval Air Missile Test Center in group II is explained by saying that this applies to the computing orsanization alone. The list is by no means complete, and if anyone takes offense at having been left out, I can only offer sincere apologies. Under group II or IV, I am not sure which mention should be made of a new Army mathematical research center to be set up on the University of Wisconsin campus which will eventually employ perhaps .50 to 40 mathematicians. Several, or possibly all, of the airplane manufacturers should have been included under III. In the time at mv disposal it did not seem possible to make even a reasonably representative survey of either Group III or IV, and so I mention only those I happen to know something about at the start. Where figures are gi\’en they are gener¬ ally on the low side. I have agreed to consider a person a mathematician if he satisfies either of two conditions, hut th," counts are usually made on the basis of only one of these conditions. No figure at all is placed beside what may becxMne the most avid employer of mathematicians in government. This is the MLI' Lincoln Labcrratory, and it is said they hope to hii\- 6{)() programmers, eventually. In Appendix 111 and IV, 1 gi\e two sets of overall figures th.it m.iv be of interest. 1 he sal. try schc\lule (or ( i\ il .ker\ kc employees is gi\en in Appendix 11. Ci\il SeiA'ice employment otfers m.m\' Irinee 'oenelits. 'Iherc' is .i hber.il policy on \.u.i lions .iikI sick lc'.i\ e. Moreen ei', lor tl;C junior scientist there .ire otten \erv elcsir.ible 86 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science in-service training programs which enable an employee to take courses leading toward an advanced degree partly on work time, and sometimes right on the grounds where he works. Outside Civil Service, salary scales, fringe benefits, and hiring policies generally are set by the operating agency. The Civil Service scale seems to represent a rough average, but there is considerable variation. One contractor, on whom I have informa¬ tion, will pay an inexperienced college graduate between $5700 and $6800 per year, according to what his capabilities appear to be. On the other hand, even the man who starts at $6800 would require more than 5 years to work up to $10,000, whereas in principle one could be a GS-15 at $11,610 after only 4 years in government service. Doubtless this would be an extremely rare occurrence, and in the case of the con¬ tractor, I am told that there are deviations above and below from the schedule as it v.as shown me. Comparisons are, there¬ fore, very hard to draw. As for the functions of the mathema¬ tician, in most cases these relate to some phase of computing, whether operating a Frieden, wiring a plug board, programming and coding for a high speed computer, or doing the mathematical analysis and de¬ vising a computational procedure prepara¬ tory to the programming steps. In non¬ computing fields, the mathematician usually works in close cooperation with the scien¬ tists and engineers, assisting in the form¬ ulation and in the solution of the problems of his organization. But wherever the math¬ ematician finds himself, there is this strik¬ ing feature of his work, that it is part of a joint effort and the mathematician is a member of a team. He must, therefore, have a willingness to become interested in other people's problems, and, what is per¬ haps harder, to learn the language they use in explaining them. And although publication is generally encouraged in government sponsored research, especially in mathematics where security problems are seldom serious, the mathematician may often have to be content with a footnote acknowlelgment for his assistance on a problem of no real mathematical signifi¬ cance, however difficult the problem may have been, or how important for the pro¬ ject as a whole. In this general connection, both articles of Dr. Fry are to be recom¬ mended highly. This is one of the hazards of the profession. To summarize, both government and in¬ dustry have suddenly found it necessary to employ mathematicians, and there is every reason to expect that the demand will con¬ tinue to increase for at least a long time to come. If you are a young mathematician, or prospective mathematician, you are to be congratulated, for never before would your ruture have held so many opportunities for personal advancement. Unfortunately for the nation, the need IS far in excess of any possible source of supply, and what is worse, the teachers, v;ho should help train the mathematicians of the future, are being lured away into government or industry. And, to add further complications, the public school students are encouraged to adjust to life, but they are too often not encouraged to exert the effort necessary for understanding and i.mproving it MAJOR PROBLEMS WITH LONG RANGE ROCKETS By 87 Johann G. Tschinkel Chief, Combustion aiid Fuels Section Development Operations Division Army Ballistic Missile Agency Redstone Arsenal. Huntsville, Alabama (l) Introduction About 12 years have passed since the first strategic V-2 rocket soared into the sky to cover a ground range of about 180 miles. Today, we speak lightly of ranges of 1500 miles, 5000 mules, artificial satel¬ lites, and space travel. The means to achieve projection of bodies over these ranges still is the rocket motor. unchanged in principle, but refined since the days of the V-2. Recently, atomic energy has entered the speculation about a more powerful rocket propellant. Novel modes of propulsion by ion beams have been proposed for space ships starting from satellites. It is the purpose of this talk to appraise the state of the art in propulsion develop- FLI6HT VELOCITY AND ORBIT FIG I 88 Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science ment and to show the main areas of science and engineering involved in the long range rocket. (2) Range Public discussion has accepted the term long range to mean a range of 5000 nautical miles or more. This is also called inter¬ continental range. It covers 1/5 of the globe’s circumference. Around 1500 nautical miles, we speak of "medium range”. One obvious border case of longer ranges would be the projection of a body with so much kinetic energy that the missile will completely circle the globe; then the centrifugal force set up by its curved tra¬ jectory exactly equals the force of gravity, i.e., the weight of the body at its altitude. Figure 1 shows such a circular orbit, the ascending paths, and the required velocity for maintaining such an orbit above the atmosphere of the earth, at an altitude of 300 miles in this case. The velocity for this circular orbit would be 4.76 miles/sec. At the start all orbits are chosen to be hori¬ zontal. What happens if the speed of the body is smaller than this circular speed? The body will return to earth in an elliptical trajectory where the greater part of the ellipse falls inside the globe. And if greater? The body will circle the earth in an ellipse which becomes more oblong the higher the velocity. At a certain speed, the kinetic energy of the body equals the work to remove it from the gravity field of the earth. This is called escape velocity. Its value for 300 mile altitude is 6.71 miles/sec and 7.0 miles/sec for sea level. (3) Rocket Motors The only means known to man at this time to achieve such speeds is the rocket motor. The rocket motor is based on New¬ ton’s reaction principle. Essentially, it ejects mass at high speed in one direction and utilizes the recoil in opposite direction. The recoil force, called thrust, is related to the mass flow rate and velocity of ejection in very simple fashion, namely: Thrust = (mass flow rate) (jet velocity) It is obvious that the thrust produced per unit mass flow rate is a measure for the economy of our motor and the concentration of usable energy in the propellant. This ratio equals the jet velocity as the thrust equation shows. Dividing the jet velocity by the gravitational constant furnishes the so-called specific impulse, the thrustforce • time product or impulse per unit propellant weight. This ejection of mass can be effected by forcing liquid fuel and liquid oxygen into a chamber at high pressure, burning it, and exhausting the flame gases through a funnel shaped nozzle. Figure two shows an outline of a V-2 combustion chamber and the change of gas properties along their path through the motor. A challenging task for the propellant chemist arises: to select chemical systems capable of releasing as much heat as pos¬ sible per unit mass. Thermodynamicists have calculated the performance of innumerable combinations. Chemical synthesis has come up with, and still continues to furnish, new compounds. Figure three shows a few chemical sys¬ tems, comparing the impuse per unit pro¬ pellant weight and also per unit propellant volume. We shall explain later that the im¬ pulse per unit volume is more decisive for the range of the rocket; this means that a high propellant density is desirable. Note that even the best combination, hydrazine- fluorine, improves the volume-impulse only by about 50% beyond the V-2 standard. Major Problems With Long Range Rockets 89 u p T P VARIATION OF FLOW PARAMETERS ALONG AXIS V-2 COMBUSTION There is little hope that a chemical pro¬ pellant can ever exceed much this limit of about 2 miles/sec jet velocity. For the performance evaluation, one docs CHAMBER 2 not only rely on thcinctical calculation, but actual combustion tests are earned (.Hit on motors held in some fr.imework. Such ,i test stand was used tor the \’^-2 90 Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science R E L ATIVE PROPELLANT PERFORMANCE OXIDIZER FUEL I I 100 150 200 1 1 LIQUID 75 W % OXYGEN ALCOHOL V2 - PROPELLANT LIQUID OXYGEN PETROLEUM FUEL LIQUID OXYGEN HYDRAZINE LIQUID OXYGEN LIQUID HYDROGEN NITRIC ACID (RFNA - 15) HYDROGEN j PEROXIDE i HYDRAZINE HYDRAZINE LIQUID LIQUID FLUORINE 1 HYDROGEN LIQUID FLUORINE HYDRAZINE SPEC GRAVITY j 0.99 0.98 I .06 0.43 I .26 I .24 0.75 I .30 COMPARED AT EXPANSION RATIO 500 PSIA TO I ATM IMPULSE PER UNIT WEIGHT IMPULSE PER UNIT VOLUME FIG. 3 under construction at the German Rocket Center in 1943- Newspaper pictures just released show the recently completed test tower at Huntsville, Redstone Arsenal, holding a Redstone rocket m its clutches. On these test stands, the thrust force and feed rate are measured, thus yielding the important thrust/ weight-flow ratio or the effective jet velocity as a motor performance criterion. Further purpose of such tests is to see whether the mechanical design and the chosen materials of construction withstand the high pressure (up to 600 psia) and high gas temperature of the combustion chamber. Much research on heat transfer, mixing nozzles, etc., has gone into these combustors. They operate at heat release rates per unit volume that are higher than those of any industrial furnace. Their design offers a great challenge to heat engineers, metallur¬ gists, and mechanical engineers. (4) Rocket Flight The fundamental law of rocket flight is readily derived from the law of conservation of momentum. At any instant of flight, the increase of momentum of the missile must equal the change of momentum that the propellant undergoes in ejection. Result of integration between starting mass and cut-off mass of the rocket is the fundamental equation of rocket flight: m o ml Ma jor Problems With Long Range Rockets. 91 where: . . . ideal flight velocity of rocket in vacuum and gravity free space Uj . . . jet velocity relative to rocket mo . . . starting mass of rocket moo . . . cut-off mass of rocket ( 'dry mass”) mp . . . Propellant mass A . . . propellant fraction of starting mass It must be noted that these relations are valid only for flight in gravity-free empty space. It is at this point that the propellant chemist and the design engineer join hands. While the chemist has to boost the pro¬ pellant rating (impulse per unit weight), the designer must decrease the structural mass, the cut-off mass, to the very minimum. His goal is to achieve as much propellant tank volume with as little expense of struct¬ ural weight as possible. The chemist then fills this tank volume with a propellant of high density and high specific impulse. These two properties are hard to compromise. Assume that we could build a rocket con¬ sisting of 80 weight percent of propellant; assume that we have a propellant producing jet velocity of 2 miles/sec, then we could reach an ideal flight velocity of 3.2 miles' sec as Figure four shows. A study of the in¬ fluence of the mass ratio upon flight veloci¬ ty shows a propellant mass fraction of 80% as a present day possibility, thus limiting the flight velocity to about 1.6 times jet FIG. 4 92 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science velocity. Fortunately, the rocket engine is the lightest of known engines per unit produced. Here we shall recall that our circular velocity at 300 miles altitude was 4.76 and the escape velocity 7.0 miles./sec. How can we then realize our ambitious dreams with chemical propellants? By the trick of stage rockets; that is, we put one rocket on top of another, jettison the base rocket after burnout, then fire the next rocket, and so on. In this way, the velocities are added. Thus, combining two rockets, each capable of reaching an ideal velocity of about 3 miles/sec, our final velocity will be 6 miles/sec; adding a third step carrying the payload, this needs to have only ! mile/sec ideal velocity by itself to reach the required 7 miles/sec. Of course, the expenditure in material becomes tremendous. The reason for this is, that each rocket stage constitutes a pay- load for the foregoing rocket. Assume we want to project 1 ton of mass out of the gravity field of the earth. Assume it to be sufficient to let 25 mass % of the third stage be payload; this stage then has a mass of 4 tons. To achieve maximum velocity, we can af¬ ford only 5 Wt % payload and we have to reserve 15% for structure. For the first and second stage; that is, the stage weighs 20 times as much as the payload, resulting in 80 tons for the second plus third stage and MASS DISTRIBUTION OF A THREE STAGE ROCKET I AND n STAGE 5 % NEXT STAGE 15% STRUCTURE 60% PROPELLANT m STAGE 25 % PAYLOAD 25% STRUCTURE 50% propellant STRUCT n PROP, in STRUCT, nr ^ PAYLOAD 25% OF HI STRUCT I OVERALL ROCKET payload 0.06 % STRUCTURE 1 5 8 2 % propellant 84,12 % 1 00. 00 % OR payload 1 TON STRUCTURE 253 PROPELLANT 1346 1600 TON Major Problems With Long Range Rockets 93 1600 for all stages, a total of 1600 tons to carry 1 ton of payload to escape from the earth. Figure five illustrates the mass proportions of such a rocket. Although the expense is tremendous, the job can be done if man wants to. A tre¬ mendous amount of engineering in all fields must go into such a development. Progress must be gradual going to larger and larger missiles and accumulating the necessary experience. (5) Satellite A design of a three-stage satellite ferry rocket has been proposed by Dr. von Braun of Redstone Arsenal, for the preparation of a Mars journey. It transports 36 tons of cargo to an orbit 1000 miles above ground at an expense of 7000 tons of material. There is no doubt that the launching of an earth satellite would be a great step tov/ard space flight. Launching of an unmanned but instrumented satellite is within reach, in fact has been planned by U. S. for the middle of 1957. It will be a small body of about 50 lb weight carrying measuring instruments. Scientists of many fields are eagerly awaiting the results allowing them to peek into the unknown space beyond the earth atmosphere. This is what they expect to learn: (1) To survey and map the earth more accurate¬ ly by photographing from a satellite, (2) nature and density of cosmic rays, meteo¬ rites, ions; this has important bearing on weather and climate, on survival chances in space, on radio communications, etc. Measured data will be transmitted to the ground by radio signals; tracking of such a small body invisible to the naked eye is a tough problem for the astronomer. (6) Heat Barrier With the increasing range of ground-to- ground missiles, excessive frictional heating of the missile skin has become an increas¬ ing problem. Moving a missile rapidly through stag¬ nant air has the same effect as rushing the air against a missile at rest. The kinetic energy of the gas molecules colliding with the structural molecules, and other rebounc¬ ing molecules, is converted into heat, which i.^ distributed over a layer of hot gas ad¬ jacent to the missile skin and from there, enters the skin. This layer is called the boundary layer in aerodynamics and an immense amount of research has gone into study of its behavior. Not only the heat effect is important, but also its mechanical equivalent, a retarding force, called drag. Compression waves forming in front of supersonic missiles, are studied by means of pictures taken of a model in the wind- tunnel by the "Schliern ” technique which makes density zones in the gas visible. The relation between the relative velocitv of air and missile and the temperature of this boundary layer is a simple function of velocity squared; T.a„„„l„n = (1 -r 0.2 M“) • ts,,.ea,„ where M signifies Mach number, the velo¬ city in multiples of sound velocity. The range of a ballistic missile is ap¬ proximately proportional to the square of the cut-off velocity. From this results the graphed dependency of stagnation tempera¬ ture vs. range is shown in Figure six. We see that at a range of 'sOO nautical miles, we already exceed a boundary Liver temperature above the melting point ot any material. Fortunately, the longer the range, the faster the missile will tr.ixerse the atmos¬ phere. 1 hus, the exposure would be .ibout 10 secs only .it lOOO miles r.inee. A great i.le.il of rese.irch is eium; (.'•n presently all o\er the count r\- to in\ estiit.ite such extieme he.it tr.insler (.oiulitions. to 94 Journal of the Alabama Academy oe Science find refractory materials and methods of skin cooling. For such research, simulations of actual flight conditions on the ground are necessary. Chemical flames give out at about 5000°K; above this, solar furnaces and elec¬ tric arc remain up to about 10,000°K. Recently a Naval Research Lab revealed a hypervelocity gun whereby projectiles can be fired at 15 times sound velocity and still be photographed. This problem of aerodynamic heating will be, for some time to come, a fascinating field for aerodynamicists, material experts, heat engineers, etc. Its solution will be mandatory if ever a space ship is to be brought down to earth safely. ( 7 ) Guidance How is a rocket aimed We saw that rhe trajectory of any ballistic rocket is an ellipse. Thus, the problem is to set the rocket on an ellipse intersecting the target and do this with the exact velocity re¬ quired. Since large rockets can only be launched vertically, a steering mechanism using guide vanes or steering rocket motors must tilt it gradually and steer into the right trajectory. There must be a device on board which senses the position of the rocket in space. Gyros, oriented in three spatial coordinates, stabilize a so-called platform in space. The rocket moves, so to speak, around this platform. Inertial accelerometers mounted on this platform pick up any change of velocity in the Major Problems With Long Range Rockets 95 three directions, electronic devices compute the velocity from the summed up accelera¬ tion and report to a cut-off mechanism when the pre-set velocity is reached. A variety of different and very complex systems is used to guide rockets, some in- \olving radio signal connection with ground station, ground based computing machines, and radio commands to the rocket from ground. Difficulties of guidance rise tremendous¬ ly with the range. A lateral deviation of only one angular degree in the propelled trajectory will result in a lateral deviation of 25 miles at 1500 nautical miles and about 100 miles at 5000 nautical miles range. (8) Atomic Energy We had seen that a great expense of chemical propellant and very large rockets are required for satellite and escape rockets which make it almost mandatory that more powerful propellants be found before space travel can flourish. At first glance, atomic energy appears as an ideal solution for rocket propulsion. Atomic fission is capable of releasing about 10® times as much energy as the best chemical propellant. The energy given off as heat must be converted into mechanical energy. To do this rocket fashion, we need a so-called working fluid to which this heat must be transferred. This requires very large heat transfer surfaces; in contrast, a chemical propellant releases the heal within the working fluid, the flame gases. The power to motor weight ratio would be prohibitively low for a pile-type reactor with working fluid and reactor based on present published data. 100 AVERAGE RELIABILITY OF ALL COMPONENTS. PER CENT FIG. 7 96 Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science But, one should never predict the im¬ possible. New modes to utilize the atomic energy for rocket propulsion may some ilay be found, thus bringing the space dream closer to reality at lesser expense of material. (9) \\el lability The measure of perfection that all the cumbersome efforts of scientists and engi¬ neers have achieved has become a science in itself spelled reliability. With great expense of mathematical analysis, particularly statis¬ tics, conditions for reliability have been laid down. Remember that a rocket does not have a pilot on board, like a plane, who can make corrections for some faulty operation of a component. In the rocket, every part must perform perfectly. Assume we want to produce rockets good enough that 80 out of 100 succeed. Depend¬ ing on the number of vital components, we can only permit a certain failure prob¬ ability of components, e.g., for 400 com¬ ponents only one failure in 1800 com¬ ponents. These relations are presented in Figure seven. Reversely, a component reliability of 99% would only give a missile reliability of about 3% at 400 components. (10) Closing Remark It was the purpose of this brief out¬ line to emphasize the main areas of science and engineering contributing to long range locket flight, to show the present limita¬ tions, and to challenge young people of technical interest to dedicate their efforts to this fascinating field. QUALIFYING FOR A CAREER IN AUTOMATION INVOLVING HIGH SPEED COMPUTERS By A. True, Electronic Methods Liberty National Life Insurance Howard Engineer, Company. The title of this talk infers that I will explain Automation, fit High Speed Com¬ puters into the pattern and then tell you how to prepare for a career in this fascinat¬ ing field. Unfortunately I cannot explain Automation, I will talk about it and ex¬ press some opinions, you will have to for¬ mulate your own explanation. I will be specific in talking about a particular type of Computer though general in speaking of the overall Computer field. Concerning the necessary qualifications for this type of work, I must rely on you to translate the mental requirements I shall speak of into terms of academic courses you have already taken or must plan to take in the next few years. Automation is a relatively new word and should be in the new dictionary when it comes out. The current dictionary contains the words Automatism and Automaton, the meanings given are applicable but re¬ strictive. The word Automation was prob¬ ably coined then to describe broadly the entire field of Automatic Control and certainly covers all forms of Feedback. Feedback is essentially a sampling opera¬ tion, performance of a quality analysis and finally the application of a change to con ditions if required. Making Feedback avail¬ able is the work of the Engineer, what to do with it falls in category of Machine Logic and except for simple cases Logic is in the province of the Mathematician. The Qualifying for a Career in Automation 97 technical explanation of Automation then is — Maximum utilization of Feedback. Per¬ haps a few reactions will illustrate what Automation means to different groups of people: — The working girl — "When will I be replaced by a machine". — The Company President — "Quick ans¬ wers, fewer workers, accurate planning, lower costs, etc.” — The Labor Leader — "Not one Union Worker is going to suffer, we will fight it it things get out of hand”. — The Methods Engineer — "All thinking will be done by People.” This word or concept has become very provocative and the mass of opinions out¬ side of the Scientific and Methods field has resulted in either negative or exces¬ sively optimistic reactions. The people who v.'ill plan for and operate Automation equipment are fanatics for facts and well they might be for none of these systems will replace the human being wherein thinking power is involved. It is highly probable that 90% of the work now being handled by human beings is of such a repetitive nature that machines could handle it if a rearrangement of procedures and schedules could be made, much of it would not be so economical though due to low volumes. We can at this point distinguish between the human being and the machine as to feasibility. The manual system is faster and more economical where the procedure is complex and not too repetitive, the machine thrives best on simple repetitive operations of high volume. Mass production and standardization techniques of the past 1 5 years have brought us through a mech¬ anization era and new advances in solid state Physics and Electronics have brought us to the brink of the automation era. My opinion of what Automation means in broad terms would be this: A completely controlled process or system requiring a minimum of human intervention involving a minimum of ex¬ ceptions. I shall explain this practical de¬ finition in this way: It isn’t Automation un¬ less completely controlled, process and system covers everything from complex manufacturing operations to data reduction, human intervention covers anything requir¬ ing restoration to the automatic operating state ranging from valid or invalid stops to handling unforseen exceptions. It is quite obvious that complete Automation or Auto¬ matic operation over a sustained period is more than we could ever hope for or even desire. There are very few people qualified now to predict accurately what the state of the art will be ten to twenty years from now; however there are many of us that will give our opinions without even being asked and here is my opinion. Automation will come too fast for many people and too slow for some. It should be more evolutionary than re\olu- tionary, the primary reason for this is the tremendous amount of thought, detailed planning and money involved for each in¬ stallation. Most people will grow with it and reap rewards, some will go too slow or even fight it, competive and financial ruin will be their reward. More and better jobs will be produced, more and better training will be required. Methods and Procedures Personnel will become the backbone of the company organization, thev ^^ill work harder, progress faster and reap the great¬ est rewards The effect on the nation as a whole probably will not be quite as severe as the impact of Television during the period 1947 to IP'i 4. Sm,ill businesses will not feel any real effect except where thev compete with fairly large companies. The demand for equipmenf will greatlv exceed supply, the scheduled w.iiting period id Irom one to three ve,irs or more will [uo \ide the moderation needed. Oming tins 98 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science •■vaiting period intensive training classes v.ill prepare current personnel for the new and better jobs. It is highly probable that elimination of jobs and the resulting re¬ shuffling of people will be absorbed as a part of normal movement and attrition. Seniority Systems will be replaced more and more by Merit Systems. The Computer enters the picture as the controlling medium for other Automation equipment. The logical ability of a Com¬ puter IS the coded thoughts of the Pro¬ grammer and the action taken is one of many preconceived operations selected by the Computer by comparison of developed data with reference data. The Computer can determine high, equal or low conditions and act accordingly. Anything that can be coded in machine language can be handled by the Computer and to illustrate the ex¬ tremes — Sentences in the Russian language have been translated into English by a Computer. I’here are two basic types of Computers, the Analog Coingutei and the Digital Com¬ puter. A few comments on the Analog type* will have to suffice due to lack of time. It is well established that most physical situations can be represented electrically c:)r mechanically or simply stated — they have an electrical or mechanical analogy, hence the Analog Computer. One form of Analog Computer is the Network Analyzer used by Power Companies to represent large transmission systems in miniature form. The Analog Computer will perform basic linear operations such as sign in¬ version, multiplication by a constant, addi¬ tion, and integration and differentiation with respect to time, it performs non-linear operations such as multiplication and func¬ tion generation. The usual output from such a Computer is a reasonably accurate measurement. The other type of Computer is the Digital Computer and the rest of this talk will be directed to it. Computers fall within certain basic classifications; however modifications and attachments can change the classifica¬ tion of any Computer. The Large Computer, which has been erroneously called the "Giant Brain”, covers the UNIVAC, the IBM 700 SYSTEMS and the RCA BIZ- MAC. There are some others which are not well known now. The Super Computer is the NORC or Naval Ordance Research Calculator. There is but one of this type and it is the fastest Computer ever built. The NORC will perform more complete calculations in 24 hours than 1,000 people could perform in a lifetime. This is equi¬ valent to about one billion complete cal¬ culations. The NORC stores 510 characters on one inch of magnetic tape and will read or write tape at the rate of 70,000 characters per second. The small Computer comes in many sizes and shapes and has been in widespread use in Mechanization Programs for many years, they do not fit \ery well in the Automation Programs of the present and future. The final and in¬ sofar as I am concerned the most important classification is the Intermediate Computer. All Institutions of Higher Eearning desiring to obtain Government Research Contracts as well as General Business Research Con¬ tracts must give serious thought to estab¬ lishing their own Computational Center cvith an Intermediate Computer. This class has the greatest flexibility for Scientific, Engineering and Business computations. The monthly rental price is from $3,090-90 to $15,000.00 and the sale price is $200,000.- 00 to $1,000,000.00. I predict all good academic courses on Computers will be with reference to this Intermediate Stage Computer. Some of the well known types are: The IBM 650, The Remington Rand FILE COMPUTER, The ElectroData DATATRON, and CRC 102D. There are several others and more and more to come. The specific Computer I want to talk about now is the IBM 650 with multiple Qualifying for a Career in Automation 99 attached units: The 650 Console, the 655 Power unit, the 533 Card Reader and Punch, the 653 Magnetic Core High Speed Buffer, the 652 Tape Control unit, the Magnetic Tape Drive Units Type 727 and the attached Line Printer which is a modi¬ fied Type 407. This system is large and powerful but not quite complete, in the not too distant future it is logical to antici¬ pate that RAM units, which are random and immediate access Disk File arrange¬ ments, will be integral parts of the system. There are only two conventional type con¬ trol panels involved and they are for form¬ at control in reading, printing and punching. The Computer is exclusively of the Stored Program Type. To illustrate what a stored program is we will go through the simple addition problem in which the program step 15 0052 0004 is executed. This coding was previously stored in Magnetic Drum location listed as 000.3. An analysis of this program step and the sequence in which things happen is this: The 15 is read first and electronic circuits are set up to add a number in the lower accumulator, 0052 is the Drum location of the number, the num¬ ber is read or copied from 0052 and added algebraically to the current contents of the lower accumulator, 0004 tells the machine that the next step is located in 0004 Drum location. This looks simple and it is, but a knowledge of the 90 different 2 position operation codes is essential for the meaning of the Data Address 4 position number and the Instruction Address 4 position num¬ ber varies with different Op Codes. This simple treatment is intended to illustrate how the stored program works for a speci¬ fic Op Code and under restricted conditions. Automatic Modification of numbers through the use of Index Registers is an art within itself and only a highly experienced pro¬ grammer can use them properly. We should at this point bring in some of the fundamentals that our Computer Programmers and Operators must be well grounded in if they are to understand what goes on in the machine. It is obvious that a fine mathematical background is a must, for these machines are mathematical in concept. Physics, Electrical Engineering and Electronics are closely related and should be somewhere within the background of our Computer personnel for a knowledge of Magnetic circuits. Electrical charact¬ eristics and Mechanical limitations will re¬ move all the mystery. Exposure to Binary Arithmetic seems to be essential because all Electronic Computers perform opera¬ tions in the Binary form. Circuits and Tubes can have only two states which are con¬ ducting current or not conducting. Magnetic materials can have just two states which are Magnetized or not magnetized. It is true that opposite polarity could be considered as a third state but in the Computer two states are used and are designated as 0 and 1. Since Binary represents everything or specifically numbers using only 0 and 1 selectively positioned then the Computer can perform all basic arithmetic operations such as add, subtract, multiply and divide. It is interesting to note that Univac uses the Binary Excess Three system which al¬ lows simple development of complements. To carry this discussion a little further it is interesting to note that basically a Com¬ puter only adds, for subtraction is merely the addition of the complement of the ac¬ tual figure to be subtracted and multipli¬ cation is merely successive addition and counting, division is merely successive sub¬ traction and counting and counting is merelv successive addition, the net result then is just addition in modified form. 1 urge you then to study Numerical Analysis. The Methods and Procedures people must not only be well versed on the Camu- puter but also be well \ersed on how to break down a problem for programming, ddiis means that he must h.i\e a goovl knowledge of correlations and consii-lerable experience in Business Methods and Pro 100 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science cedures. It is indicative then that a new breed of key personnel must be developed and the development must start at the High School level if Automation is to progress at its logical rate. I urge each and everyone of you to keep your sights high and prepare your¬ selves well so that when the time for decision comes you can step into this field- if you so desire. I hope you will consider going into the teaching field for this is the best area for service that 1 know of. Our various Boards of Education are in desperate need of new blood to keep acade¬ mic requirements current with the needs of the day and many public offices must be filled with technically trained people to revise laws that will become obsolete with the new advances. You have much to look forw'ard to, so set your sights now' m a broad way and make the fine adjust¬ ments later. OTHER CAREER OPPORTUNITIES FOR GRADUATES IN PHYSICS, MATHEMATICS, AND ENGINEERING By James R. Cudworth, Dean College of Eugiueeving UjiiverCity of Alabaonu University, Alabama lire title of this paper is the one which was assigned me, but like the politician w'ho leaves his political platform as soon as he is elected, I am going to throw this one over board in the interest of clarity. In the first place, my remarks are going to be restricted mainly to careers in engi¬ neering, since I am far more familiar with this field than that of physics and mathe¬ matics. How'ever, I could make a very good case for using a training in these fields for most any profession, including law' and medicine. I recall listening to our local radio station one evening a year or so ago when the announcer mentioned that the next program would be a direct description of an unusual operation being performed in one of the great hospitals of the w'orld. The Massa¬ chusetts General, by a most distinguished brain surgeon. My w'ife started across the room to shut off the radio, saying that she supposed I would not care to listen and I started to nod my head, when the name of the doctor w'as given, Dr. Reginald \V. Smithwick. I recalled instantly that this W'as the name of the president of my senior class at M. I. T., that this was a man who taking mining engineering at the time, maintained that he intended to become a surgeon and that he needed the scientific discipline of the engineering school to pre¬ pare for it. Needless to say, my wife and I listened with great interest to that radio program. As a matter of observation over the past thirty years, it has seemed to me that few subjects in any high school curriculums are as important as those in mathematics and science for training an orderly and rea¬ soning mind; and, certainly, such equip¬ ment IS of utmost value whether or not the student goes directly into the business world or on to college. With aptitudes and motivations for mathematics and science a student can con¬ fidently move toward a college degree, if he is willing to work consistently durin^ his college career. LIpon graduation he can be assured of ample job opportunities in any branch of engineering, or mathematics, or physics. Other Career Opportunities 101 since the demand is in far excess of supply, and apparently will be for many years. There are many branches of engineering to choose from with perhaps the best ad¬ vertised those in electrical and mechanical engineering, but a perusal of any city newspaper will indicate many opportunities in civil, aeronautical, metallurgical, indus¬ trial, mining and chemical, to mention some of the most prominent. All institutions carry about the same type of four year courses although some colleges have many more branches than others. It is well to inquire if the engineering school is ac¬ credited by the Engineers’ Council for Pro¬ fessional Development, which is the nation¬ al accrediting agency for engineering and which is used by State Engineering Licens¬ ing boards in their qualifications. It is a common practice to have a uniform fresh¬ man year so that a student need not make a branch selection until his second year. On the other hand, the sooner a selection can be made, the better, in my opinion, because it tends to increase motivation. I am in¬ clined to favor more recently a four year curriculum in general engineering, although few institutions offer it at present. Perhaps engineering physics is the closest approach we make in this section. Now as to opportunities for careers in these fields exclusive of those my colleagues on this program have discussed. There has developed in this country over the past few years a terrific recruiting program for engineering, physics, and mathematics grad¬ uates for industry, government, and even by the colleges and universities for teachers. Let us consider the fields first as to functional specializations in nearly all branches of engineering. I’hey are: 1. Research development. 2. Design. 3. Production, including manufacture and installation. 4. Testing. 5. Government service. 6. Teaching on the university level. Much of this information was derived from Description of Professional Series Pamphlet No. 2, Roster of Scientific and Specialized Personnel, U. S. Department of Labor, which can be secured from Washing¬ ton. Let us take as the first branch of engi¬ neering, alphabetically not chronologically, since it is one of the newer branches — aero¬ nautical engineering. Lirst, it should be pointed out that a four year course in aeronautical engineering does not produce a pilot or a co-pilot, or engineer of a com¬ mercial plane. Some high school students are confused about this point; second, it should be pointed out that the aviation in¬ dustry employs many kinds of engineers, such as civil, electrical, and mechanical en¬ gineers, as well as aeronautical. It is not necessary to be an aeronautical engineer to work in the aviation industry. Those who are trained in the aeronautical field may be concerned with research, de¬ sign, and production of all types of air¬ craft and parts, including the lighter-than- air craft, i.e. balloons, blimps, etc., or he may be concerned with stress analvsis, aerodynamics (performance tests of models in wind tunnels and flight testing.) He may be in\'ol\ed with the technical aspects of airline operation and the nccessarv ac¬ cessory operations such as airways oper.ition and maintenance. Then there is the produc tion or manufacture of airplanes which in- x'ohes such specialities as heating, sound¬ proofing, \'entilation systems; pn'pellor de¬ sign; engine design and production; instru¬ mentation, to mention |ust .i few fields. It should be noted that there are opportunities lor men in this Held not only in industry but also in government bure.ius such as the N.i tional Advisory ('.ouncil tor Aeron.iutus .ind in teaihing, or research at colleges, umversi- 102 Journal of The Alabama Academy of Science ties and technical institutes. I sometimes think that students who enter the field of aeronautical engineering should show higher aptitudes for mathematics and science than some of the other branches of engineering because of the great need of mathematical ability in many of the duties. Perhaps some of you are interested in chemical engineering. Here we have an engineering field with many branches. It is closely related to chemistry and concerns mainly the application of chemistry and the carrying out of chemical operations on an industrial scale. Here the engineer may be working on; ( 1 ) The design phases (2) Construction (3) Operation, or (4) Instrumentation of the "unit processes” involved in the whole chemical process. Here, chemical engineers may be concerned with a special industry. To name a few, w'e have (1) petroleum refining, (2) plastics, (3) ex¬ plosives, (4) paper and pulp, (5) paints and varnishes, and (6) rayon and synthetic fibers. While the trainine of chemical en- gineers involves studies of most of the unit operations or processes common to many industries, there are trained spe- calists in each one, such as (l) absorption and absorption processes, (2) grinding and crushing, (3) materials handling, (4) evaporation and distillation. Again, as in every branch, we can special¬ ize according to the function in (a) re¬ search and development, (b) design, (c) construction, (d) operation and production, (e) sales, (f) management, (g) teaching, and (h) miscellaneous. In chemical engineering a sizable pro¬ portion of graduates return to the universi¬ ties and colleges for graduate work and more intensive specialization, and there are more Ph.D. degrees conferred in this branch of engineering than any of the others. This field should be of interest in the South generally, and particularly within Alabama, because of the fine industrial opportunites in the paper and pulp field, the rubber field, and the synthetic fiber field, to mention a few of the heavy users of chemical engineers, all of which have plants here. The next branch of engineering which we should consider is the oldest (other than the military) and the one which the public is more cognizant of, since their works such as dams, bridges, canal locks, build¬ ings, tunnels, are all conspicuous and more or less in constant use by the public carriers of one kind or another, or by the people themselves. This is the civil en¬ gineering branch. Here, again, is one of the larger engineering branches, now, as it has been at all times in the past. The major divisions of civil engineering are (1) struc¬ tures and construction; (2) railways; (3) valuation and appraisal; (4) highway and street engineering; (5) hydraulic engineer¬ ing; (6) surveying and mapping (aerial, geodetic, and hyrographic) ; (7) sanitary engineering. All of these branches have many specialized areas in which a man or a woman can develop a life’s work. To develop just one of them, consider hydraulic engineering, where we have the following kinds of projects (a) canals, tunnels, aque¬ ducts, hydro-power plants, etc; (b) channel maintenance (dredging, etc.); (c) water distribution mains and systems; (d) irriga¬ tion projects; (e) flood control; (f) miscel¬ laneous. I might mention two or three special civil engineering branches that I think offer particular promise in Alabama: (1) Airport design and layout (2) City and community planning (3) Soil mechanics, which involves tests Other Career Opportunities 103 and analyses of the physical and chemical characteristics of earth and rock so vital to know in foundation and construction work. There are many civil engineers who are self-employed or in consulting firms, and many more in the Federal, State, and Coun¬ ty governments, such as the highway en gineer. A great demand in the universities for teachers and research workers in this branch is ever present. Now we come to one of the larger branches of engineering, that of electrical, which has grown by leaps and bounds, until it is one of the two largest branches, the other being mechanical. In no branch of engineering has there been greater expan¬ sion than in the field of electrical engi¬ neering, with the multitude of electronic or communication developments over the past few years, and yet there remains the still large demand of the electrical power field which, either by steam or hydro-electric plants, produce and distribute the current for our industries and homes. The two major branches of power and communica¬ tions have many courses in common and the specialization comes afterwards. The more popular branch in recent years has perhaps been that involving electronics, due to the growth of radio, television, and the automation devices. This branch has been covered by another speaker and I will dwell no longer on it. To consider the power field in more detail, however, there are opportunities in the generation, trans¬ mission, and utilization of electric power which involves not only the design and operation of the central plant but also the sub-station and distribution systems. Rate analysis and load studies absorb a number of engineers. In the illumination field we are concerned with systems for outdoor and indoor light and the design and production of the equipment used therein. Engineers are also used in light measurement, light standards, and the like. Under the heading of wire communications come all of those fields in which so many electrical engineers are employed, such as telephone systems, telegraph systems, underwater cable, and traffic control systems, all of which are becoming increasingly important. Some closely related fields to electrical engineer¬ ing are acoustics and ballistics, which are primarily branches of physics. Again, the electrical engineers are used in functional positions such as research and development, operations, teaching in colleges and uni¬ versities, administration, construction and design. Industries which are great employers of electrical engineers are railroads, telephone, telegraph, radio broadcasting and television campanies, electric power and light, govern¬ ment, colleges, universities and professional schools, manufacturers of electrical ma¬ chinery and appliances. It should be pointed out that, in general, electrical engineering candidates should show high aptitudes for mathematics and the other sciences since they are so much used in the applications of this field. In this respect this branch resembles aero¬ nautical. The other large branch of engineering comparable in number of members to elec¬ trical is mechancial engineering, which is an even broader branch. Primarily, mechani¬ cal engineers deal with power and the necessary power equipment. I'hev make heavy applications of the basic engineering sciences such as mechanics, thermodynamics and mathematics, particularly for powc devices, power transmission or power con¬ sumption. Perhaps the most notable recent development in the mechanical engineering field is in the production or remo\.d ot heat energy, b'rom this springs the heatinit, refrigerating, and air-conditioning fields so necessary in our modern hie. Here unnes in the peace-time utilization ot .iti'inu energy. Here, also, will come in due tune 104 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science the use of the greatest of all energy re¬ sources, that of the sun, which is really the most inexhaustable. I understand that the development of solar energy is far more complicated and intriguing than that of atomic energy. To you future scientists and engineers will come the victory in this field, I hope. The term mechanical engineer covers areas, as do many of the other branches, that are classified under separate term¬ inology as marine engineer, naval architect, aeronautical engineer, etc. Most of these deal with the internal combustion engine in one form or another. The engineer designs, produces, and installs them so that he is concerned with all of the needed ac¬ cessories, such as fuels, cooling systems, and lubricants. Have you ever stopped to consider the various types of internal com¬ bustion engines'' We have designed them for movement on the ground, in the air, and through the water; and we have them stationary. If you are interested in engines, (here are still great opportunities to de¬ velop and refine all of them. Then there are steam plants with all of the ecjuipment needed to make them func¬ tion. Mechanical engineers design the plant and fit together the component parts, be they boilers, engines, pumps or fans. Many, many engineers are concerned with steam power, for we are constantly needing more power for our increasing industrialization. Mechanical engineers are concerned with air compressors, coolers, material con¬ veyors, heat exchangers, and fans, to men¬ tion a few of the industrial machinery group. Ventilating, alone, involves much de¬ sign and manufacture of ducts, fans, blow¬ ers, to remove the impurities in the air, be they fumes, dusts or bacteria. Ordnance engineering is a special area in mechanical engineering dealing with mili¬ tary equipment. So essential is it these days to keep ahead in this field that bil¬ lions of dollars are being poured into our defense program. Perhaps the most spec¬ tacular is the missile project, the opportuni¬ ties of which have already been described. The functional specialization of mech¬ anical engineers are the same as the other branches, with perhaps even more emphasis on administration of plants, of consulting, of evaluation. Now, we have not mentioned many branches of engineering which may present opportunities greater than those already mentioned because they have been in adequately supplied with engineers for years. Some’ of them I do not even have time to mention, but here in Alabama there are three of great importance, ( 1 ) in¬ dustrial engineering; (2) metallurgical en¬ gineering; and (.s) mining engineering (my own field.) lire first one deals pri¬ marily with production in manufacturing plants and cuts clear across the board in (hat it touches every variety of these. Size of plant and degree of mechanization, of course, increases the need for this type of engineer. He deals with people as well as with tools; he is interested in flow-sheets and coordination; in safety and health factors of manufacturing, as well as quality of production. His basic tool is time and motion studies, for this is the yardstick by which he improves the production line and brings order out of chaos. The metallurgical engineer, on the other hand, as well as the mining engineer, deals primarily with metallic materials (ores) and fuels. The mining engineer extracts these from the earth, oft times in far places, which appeals so often to the in¬ dividual who likes to live outside of the cities and even of advanced civilization. The metallurgical engineer refines them and mixes them to produce desired qualities. Much advancement has been made in both of these fields, but the ground has hardly been broken. Think of the difficulties of Other Career Opportunities 105 handling radio-active substances; think of the problems involved in drilling an oil well several miles off-shore and to a depth of several miles, or of mining coal with shovels capable of taking 35 cubic yards of earth in one bite. Think of the intricate operations in spinning a cast iron pipe or in producing that wonder metal of today, titanium, which is lighter than steel but of comparable strength. All of these mining and metallurgical industries need engineers and need them badly. But you have to have the desire and the stamina to follow through the preparatory curriculum. It may interest you to know that not only do we have in Alabama an iron and steel in¬ dustry, several coal fields, but we also have an aluminum plant, a copper fabricating plant and refractory plants. These are full of opportunities for many fields of en¬ gineering as well as those just mentioned. Now I have about used all of my time and I have said nothing at all about physi¬ cists and mathematicians. In all of these in¬ dustries I have tried to point out that re¬ search and development are important phases of the work and no substantial engineering research department can be without physicists and applied mathema¬ ticians. There are ample opportunities for those of you who are, shall we say extrava¬ gantly interested in these two sciences in these research laboratories. I would make this distinction between the scientist and the engineer that the latter is primarily in¬ terested in these sciences as a means to an end, that is, he wants to apply them to processes, while the scientist is interested in the theoretical phases. Of course, the field of university teaching, as well as high school teaching, sadly needs people willing to instruct you who are interested in going on to the universities and technical schools. I repeat that there are not only opportuni¬ ties, but there is also a critical need, for science teachers in the high schools of the entire country, just as there is great need for engineering teachers in all branches of engineering. I would like to end this talk with a brief description of what we are trying to do in guidance work for high school students and staff. The Engineers’ Council for Profes¬ sional Development, called ECPD for short, has establiished in the Birmingham, De¬ catur, Montgomery, Mobile, Opelika, and Tuscaloosa areas, guidance committees com¬ posed of practising engineers of outstanding reputation in various fields. They have volunteered their sevices to you, or to the high school faculty, for information on en¬ gineering and the necessary qualifications and aptitudes. Do not hesitate to cal! on them freely for advice and help, or ask your teacher to do so. All you need to do is to contact me as State Chairman and 1 will put you in touch with the chairman of your area committee. THE NEED FOR BASIC RESEARCH By Rolland G. Sturm Director, Auburn Research Voundation and Engineering Experiment Station, Alahtima Polytechnic Institute, Aubuoi. Alabama. Research is actively seeking answers to questions starting with Why, How, When, Where, What, Which, and Who. Such active seeking or research requires the ob¬ servation and analysis of phenomena. By observation 1 mean not onlv to look at, but to see to see with the mind's eve or comprehension as well as wnh the physical eye. Anavlsis is not onlv correl.Uion, but is also the separation ol the obserxa 106 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science lions into understandable units and the organization of these units into an under¬ standable whole. Phenomena are occur¬ rences whether natural or man made; whether physical, mental, or spiritual; and whether they are controlled or left to chance. The program indicates that I am to speak about the need of research in mathematics and the sciences which are two of the great building blocks of our civilization but there are other building blocks such as the arts, the humanities, and religions. The need for research in mathematics and the sciences as well as in all fields of civilization is three-fold. There is an economic need, there i.'; a national defense need, and there is a need for the preservation of civilization it¬ self. You have heard from previous speakers of the tremendous demand for mathema¬ ticians which grows out of the need for mathematical research and its applications. These needs have been largely in the field of applied mathematics but there is a real need for basic research in mathematics it¬ self. Mathematics is a shorthand for close thinking, the universal language of the sciences. With the advent of new scien¬ ces, such as the nuclear sciences, a new mathematical language is growing up and new laws need new mathematical expres¬ sions, the like and extent of which we know not. Another very basic need in mathematics is the mathematics of the thinking pro¬ cesses of human beings. For instance, if I have a dollar and you have a dollar and we exchange dollars, then you have a dollar and I have a dollar. But if you have an idea and I have another idea, and we ex¬ change ideas, then you have two ideas and 1 have two ideas. In the first case, dealing with things, the arithemetic of experience shows that one minus one equals zero. In the second case dealing with ideas, we find that the arithmetic of experience shows that one minus one equals one, which re¬ quires some new fundamental concepts in mathematics. The need for basic research in the scien¬ ces from the economic point of view is evident from the fact that at the present time 60 per cent of the national income is derived from industrial operations and products which were unknown 70 years ago. The tremendous need for fundamental basic research from the point of view of National defense is understood best by consideration of the need for basic scientific research in rockets and nuclear energy. America must keep pace with the rest of the world. Still transcending both of these needs there is a need for basic research to im¬ prove the understanding of man. This active seeking, or research, may be likened to swimming upstream. Humanity cannot exist in a stagnant condition or status quo. We )}iust swim, upstream. I would like you to think about the following allegory: Time is a vast river available to every one; flowing through the realm of space which is everywhere into the unknown sea of oblivion. On the bank of the river of time there is a reality, a reference of here and now established by the Creator. Mankind is caught up in this river of time like a large school of fish. In order to maintain our position in the Creator’s plan, we must swim upstream. Sometimes a people will get caught in a backwash only to find that they have been swimming in the wrong direction. Sometimes a people will lose sight of Some Ovals and Related Curves 107 the Creator’s here and nou' and cease to swim upstream. They are swept from the bourne of time and space into the sea of oblivion. The need for active seeking — research — which is swimming upstream, is coupled with its great comariand of creation that man is to have "dominion over all things.” 'N^oung people, let us maintain an active effort in research so that our civilization shall not lose sight of God’s reference and shall not be swept out to sea. SOME OVALS AND RELATED CURVES By Roland M. Harper, University, Alabama Mathematics, one of the oldest of the sciences, has been growing increasingly complex through the centuries, until now it seems hardly possible to develop anything new in that field, except by following the ramifications of narrow specialties that only a few people understand. But the present study, dealing with curves, brings out some relations between very different curves that seem to have been overlooked, and at the same time uses very few technical terms that would not be understood by any one who has had an elementary course in analy¬ tic geometry. The ancient Greeks, and the European mathematicians of the 17th and 18th cen¬ turies, discovered or invented a considerable variety of curves, with definite properties and equations. The latest Encyclopaedia Britannica (article on Curves) describes about 60 kinds of plane curves (not to mention three-dimensional ones), and tells something about their history; and if that IS a reliable guide, very few new ones have been developed in the last 150 years. Most of the "old masters" of course never saw a steam engine, and therefore could not realize its wonderful curve-making possibilities. However, James 'V(''att, the principal inventor of the steam engine, is said to have shown in 1784 how a lemnis- cate could be developed from some of its motions. But apparently he did not pursue the subject further. In my boyhood in the 80’s I and some of my playmates used to amuse ourselves with toy steam engines with oscillating cylinder, and piston rod and driving rod all in one piece; only three moving parts. (One is illustrated in Eig. 3.) But I knew nothing of geometry in those days, and it never occurred to me to wonder what kind of curv'es were traced by points on the driving rod. The ordinary steam engine, in use at that time and long before, also has only three essential moving parts (apart from the eccentric, slide vabe, etc.); and a considerable variety of curves can be traced by points on its driving rod. Both of these types of engine will be re¬ ferred to in more detail farther on While studying civil engineering at the University of Georgia in the 90 s I once had a problem involxing a graphic re¬ presentation of the stresses on beams and girders. I do not now remember wh.it the problem was, or whether its solution w .is indicated in the text-book used, or the pro¬ fessor (who was later a professor of m.ithe- matics) thought it up liimselt and g.i\e It to his students to wank out .is best thev could. But its fin.il result w.is .in o\.il- shaped cur\e. Ihis wall be discusse«.l more .It length presentlv. 108 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Another decade and more passed, and I was entirely out of the engineering field, and doing botanical work in Florida, when I happened to notice in the Scientifn' A)iiericau Supplement for July 30, 1910, an article by one Frank McLees, on "The egg- shaped oval." He had gotten interested in the problem in some way, and had con¬ sulted mathematicians and library books, without getting much satisfaction about how an oval could be constructed in a scientific manner. He first tried a "commonly taught method" that did not seem very satis¬ factory, because it gave results that did not differ enough from a circle. Finally he devised his own method, using a circle with a series of straight lines intersecting it and converging to a point a convenient distance away, a focus. By taking points on those lines the same distance from the cir¬ cumference of the circle, all the way around, he got a very neat oval. Then he got a mathematician friend to construct a polar equation for it. McLees’s method embodies the principle of the toy steam engine, previously referred to, though he did not mention that. Fie stated that at one extreme his oval be¬ comes the (guiding) circle, and at the other it comes to a point. Then if extended a little way beyond the focus it becomes a lemniscate, and if completely beyond, it makes an inverse oval. He was then on the brink of discovering a whole new family of curves, so to speak, but he did not carry his investigation far enough. He failed to note that his lemniscates could never be symmetrical, like that of Ber- nouilli, and that his inverse "ovals” could never be true ovals. Likewise he did not say what would happen if his oval was pushed beyond the circle in one direction, or a considerable distance beyond the focus in the other, except that "many curiously proportioned ovals” could be thus produced. Some of the possibilities of his method will be discussed presently. When I read Mr. McLees’s article I im¬ mediately recalled a quite different method that I had used to draw an oval in 1896 or thereabouts (as mentioned a page or two back), and I wrote an account of it which was published in the same periodical for Oct. 1, 1910. In my method I took a circle of convenient size, drew a straight line through its center, and at a convenient distance away drew another straight line perpendicular to that, which I called the directrix. On the same center line, at a convenient distance on the other side of the circle, I selected a point which I called the focus. From any and every point on the circle a straight line can be drawn perpendicular to the directrix, and parallel to the central axis, each such line serving two points. Then from the point of in¬ tersection of every such line with the directrix a straight line is drawn to the focus. Finally from every selected point on the circle a straight line is drawn par¬ allel to the directrix, intersecting its cor¬ responding diagonal line. Every such in¬ tersection is a point on the desired oval. In practice the circle can be covered with a rectangular grid with convenient intervals, a sort of scaffolding, each line of which, both horizontal and vertical, will serve two points. Then when the diagonal lines are d raven from the focus to the points on the directrix, the points on the oval can be located rather quickly. But if we try to build a series of curves on the same circle, each will have to have a different focus, or directrix, or both, so that the diagonal lines will have to be different in each case. So to simplify matters I have not reproduced the oval in my 1910 article, and have shown in Fig. 1 only two curves, with the same circle but different foci and directrices. Then I will outline some of the possible variations, and an interested reader can construct as many other curves as he likes. Some Ovals and Related Curves 109 In my 1910 article I stated that the equation of such an oval would be an algebraic equation of the fourth degree, but I did not give the equation, and do not remember it now. I also told how carious kinds of curves, including a sharp- pointed oval and a lemniscate, could be produced by moving either the focus or the directrix, or both. I thought all these curves might be matched pretty well by McLees’s method, not realizing that I might have quite a different family of curves from his. I also observed that an instrument might be constructed to dravz an oval on my principle, but did not try to describe one. (It would evidently be pretty com¬ plicated.) That article was illustrated by an oval constructed by my 1896 method, with the focus at the left of the circle and the directrix at the right. Let us now consider some of the variations that can be produced by changing the position of the focus or the directrix. It should be noted at the out¬ set that every curve drawn by this method has the same width, from left to right, as the governing circle. (In the typical cases all these curves are symmetrical up and down, and their diameters coincide with that of the circle; but in skewed curves, discussed father on, that is not true.) In every typical case there are three constants or parameters involved, the radius of the circle and the distance of the focus and directrix from its center. Let us first leave the directrix fixe.l and move the focus. If moved to an in¬ finite distance, our curve coincides with the circle. As it approaches the circle the narrow end of the oval narrows, and if moved up to the circumference of the circle, the curve comes to a point there,* and looks like a pear-shaped quartic; especially if the directrix is moved at the same time so that it cuts the circle somewhere between *It would take a microscope, or some pretty abstruse mathe¬ matics. to tell whether this point is an an^le or a cusp. center and circumference. Move the focus inside the circle, and the curve becomes a lemniscate, symmetrical if the focus is at the center of the circle, otherwise not. Now let us leave the focus outside the circle and move the directrix. If it is at an infinite distance the curve will be a straight line, the horizontal diameter of the circle. As it approaches the circle the oval broadens in an up and down direction, and when the directrix touches the circle the oval at the same point has the same curvature as the circle. When the directrix intersects the circle that part of the oval to the rii ht of it will be outside the circle. Consequently when the directrix is brought all the way through the circle, to the same side as the focus, the whole curve will be outside the circle. It will no longer look like what is commonly called an oval, but it is what an oval would be if its transverse dimen¬ sions were considerably exaggerated. If we put the focus at the center of the circle and the directrix between there and the circumference, on either side, the re¬ sulting lemniscate will have somewhat triangular lobes, partly outside the circle, suggesting a butterfly. FIG. 1 — Two curves made by the 1896 method, using the same circle for both. One is an exaggerated oval, with the focus and directrix on the same side of the circle, and the other a lemniscate, with focus and directrix in- S'de the circle. I'i'L 1 shows two cuiwcs made b\ nw I SDti method, using the same lircU tor both, but dillereiit positions of the K\us Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science 1 10 and directrix. One is an unsymmetrical lemniscate, with both focus and directrix inside the circle. The other is an exag¬ gerated or oblate oval, outside the circle, with the directrix between the focus and the circle. If space permitted, many other curves could be shown. For every position of focus or directrix we can get an in¬ finite series of curves by moving the other. Curves of this group can also be skewed, putting the focus somewhere else than on the central axis, or drawing the directrix at other than a right angle to the axis. To make a long story short, I will show only one skewed curve, a lemniscate made with the focus above the center of the circle but still inside, and the directrix a convenient distance away. (Fig. 2.) This is a neat lemniscate, radially but not bilater¬ ally symmetrical, and suggesting a pro¬ peller. Note that while it is still the same width as the circle, from right to left, one of its ends is outside. FIG. 2 — An oblique but radically symmetrical lemniscate, made by a modofication of the 1896 method, skewed by putting the focus above the center of the circle. Directrix a little to the right. Now let us revert to McLees’ method of 1910. Fde used the principle of the oscil¬ lating steam engine previously referred to, but may not have been aware of the fact. Fig. 3 is a photograph of such an engine FIG 3— Toy steam engine with oscillating cylinder, 10 cm. tall and 8.1 cm. wide at base. This was given to be by a neighbor boy in Southbridge, Mass., about 1887, and may have been several years old then. (It probably once had a cast-iron stand a few inches high, so that an alcohol lamp could be put under it to heat the water in the boiler.) that I used to play with, and Fig. 4 shows an instrument I have constructed recently, to draw curves by the McLees method. It is quite simple, having only two fixed points and two moving parts. The figure is of a crude wooden model, but a neater and better one could be constructed of metal, if there was any demand for it. (A metal model could have a handle by means of which the system could be rotated rapidly.) That would allow the three constants to be adjusted to any desired degree, instead of restricting them to a series of holes, as in the wooden model. The black dots represent the three pivots and the position of the pencil or marking point, and the circles are holes to which either of these points could be moved to draw different curves. The three constants we may call R, the radius of the circle or revolving arm; L, the distance between the two fixed points; and P, the distance of the marking point from the joint. In the simplest case, we make P^R less than L, and draw an oval. If P^R is equal to L, we get a sharp-pointed oval, much like that of the 1896 method when Some Ovals and Related Curves 111 FIG. 4— Wooden instrument for drawing surues of the Me¬ lees family, or series. It has only two moving parts (be¬ sides a metal sleeve for the sliding arm to slide through). The black dots are the three pivots and the marking point, and the circles of the same size are holes to which some of the points can be moved, to draw different curves. As shown in the inserted diagram, R is the radius of the cir¬ cle, L the distance between the two fixed points, and P the distance between the joint and the marking point. Q is the distance of the offset from the sliding bar, when it is desired to draw skewed curves, as in Fig. 9. the focus is on the circle. If P + R is a little greater than L, we get a sort of leminiscate. If P = L, the lobes of the lemniscate will be equal in length from left to right, but the inner lobe (the one toward the circle) will be narrower than the other, curiously enough. (It does not seem possible to produce a symmetrical lemniscate by this method, as we can by the 1896 method.) If P — R equals L, we get a sharp-pointed oval, or perhaps a pear- shaped quartic, just beyond the focus. With increasing values of P, putting the curves still farther beyond the focus, we soon get curves suggesting a fig or sea- shell, with two points of inflection, so that they can be intersected by a straight line at four points, and cannot properly be called ovals, as Mr. McLees seems to have done. Farther out the necks flatten out, and wc get curves more elongated up and down, and perhaps ultimately concave toward the focus on the inner side. Now let us look in the other direction. Ir P = 0, the instrument traces the irovernini: circle. If we move the marking point to the left of the joint, giving P negative values, we get first what might be called an oblate oval, a little higher than wide. The curvature is always sharpest on the side away from the focus and circle, and soon it becomes 0 at the point nearest the focus, suggesting a cross-section of a biscuit or puff-ball. Farther out it elon¬ gates in an up and down direction, always keeping the same width, and soon suggests a "hot dog” bun, and still farther out a sausage. It should be sbserved that all the curves of this series, of whatever shape, have the same width from left to right, which equals the diameter of the guiding circle, as in my 1896 method. For any given position of the focus we can get an infinite series of curves by varying P, and there should be an equation that applies to all of them, but I have not tried to work it out. Fig. 5 shows several curves of such a series. It is divided into two parts, to save space, the upper half showing curves mostly to the left of the focus, and the lower half those mostly to the right. Any two of the constants or parameters, or even all three of them, could be made equal, to simplify matters. Let us experi¬ ment a little along that line. First let us make L a little greater than R, hringini; the focus close to the circle (which would not be possible with a steam engine). If at the same time P IS a little less than R, v.'e get a lemnisc; ite wi ith a small left lobe and a large right lobe If in this case wc m akc 1^ iieg, .iti\e, and. lor con\eniencc . ihout one-third of R, we get a ( cur\e sugc :esting the seed ot .some leguminous plant. If a name tor It should be des i red , it m ight he (..died a t.iboul ( from i-alx iceae. the technic.il n.ime ('I die leg lime tamil v). 1 his and d le uns\ni metric, 1 1 lem niscat c .ire shown in l ig. (v Now let us 1 'iring the fo(.us in e('n tact w ith t he (. ii\ le. ni.ikinc; 1 R A: 112 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science FIG. 5— Series of curves made by the McLees method. Divided into two parts, one mostly to the left of the focus and one mostly to the right, to save space. this point the large lobe of the lemniscate bursts, so to speak, and swings around to the other side of the circle, making a hmacon. From here on we have a different series, or perhaps family, of curves, with their nght-and-left diameters not equaling FIG. 6 _ Unsymmetrical lemniscate, made by the McLees method, with both I and P somewhat greater than R. Also a kidney-shaped curve made with the same focus, but P a minus quantity (marking point to left of circle). This curve is something like the outer one in Fig. 8. that of the circle. If we make all three parameters equal, we get a neat curve which is a special case of Pascal’s hmacon. If we then leave R and L equal and shorten P, the two loops ap¬ proach each other, and when P = 0 they coincide on the circle. Two such curves are shown in Fig. 7. On the other hand, if we increases P, the inner loop of the lima- con contracts and the outer one expands, until when P equals the diameter of the circle (2R) the inner lobe disappears and we have a cardioid. With greater values of P the cusp begins to straighten out, and we get something like the faboid described above. All the curves mentioned in the preceding paragraph were well known to the math¬ ematicians of 200 years ago, and they have been described in text-books and encyclo¬ pedias. It is also well known that they can be produced in an entirely different way. Some Ovals and Related Curves 113 FIG. 7 — Limacons made by a special case of the McLees method, with the focus on the circumference of the circle (L equals R). In the one drawn in full, all three constants are equal. In the dotted one, P equals {R. If we make P equals 2 R, we get a cardioid. by rolling a circle around on another one of the same size. If the marking point is on the circumference of the rolling circle, it traces a cardioid; if outside, a limacon; and if inside, a faboid. (These are analogous to the ordinary, prolate and curtate cycloids produced by rolling a circle along a straight line.) If we bring the focus inside the circle, making L less than R, different values of P give curves which at first look much like those just described, and might be regarded as belonging to the Cartesian class. Two of them are shown in Fig. 8. The one out¬ side the circle looks something like the faboid of Fig. 6, but may have quite dif¬ ferent properties. The one partly inside the circle suggests a limacon; but by further manipulation of the parameters it can be made to have three nodes or double points, which a true limacon could never have. Curves of the McLees family could be skewed by putting the marking point on an offset from the slidimi bar. An m- O strument thus adjusted would still have only two moving parts, but it would involve an additional parameter, the distance of the point from the bar, which we may call Q. I have not gone into that much, but Fig. 9 shov/s three possibilities, a skewed circle, a skewed oval, and a skewed lemniscate. Equations for such curves would be pretty complicated, but might not be of higher than fourth degree, for none of the curves can be intersected by a straight line at more than four points. Now let us consider the ordinary steam engine, which has a fixed cylinder, a piston rod directed toward the center of the driv¬ ing wheel, and a driving rod of fixed length, connecting the cross-head at the end of the piston rod with the crank-pin on the driving wheel or fly-wheel. (All adults should be familiar with such an engine, though children who have grown up in the automobile era may not be.) Geometric¬ ally it has one fixed point, the axis of the vyheel, and one fixed line, the axis of the F!G. 8— Two curves made by the S4ime method, except that the focus is inside the circle. In the inner curve P w somewhat greater than R, and in the outer one. it is greater than 2R. Ill Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science FIG. 9— Some skewed curves of the McLees system, made by putting the marking point on an offset from the sliding bar. The one at the left corresponds to the circle, the middle one to an oval, and the one at the right to a lemniscate. piston rod. There are three constants, the crank radius, the length of the driving rod, and the distance of the selected marking point from the crank-pin. We can use the same symbols as in the McLees family of curves, but L will be the length of the driving rod, there being no focus to measure to. An instrument to draw the curves traced by the marking point on the driving rod would be fairly simple, but I have not tried to make one, for it would best be made of metal. In the McLees method one diagonal or focal line serves two points on the circle, but in this case there is a separate diagonal for every point, and only two of them converge at any one point, which makes the construction by ruler and compass methods a little more difficult. If we put the marking point at the crank- pin, it will describe a circle, and if at the cross-head, a straight line. Those are tire limiting conditions of an ellipse; and if we put the marking point at or near the middle of the driving rod it will describe a curve that looks almost exactly like an ellipse. But it cannot be an ellipse, for it has no identifiable foci. It is really a little narrower at one end than at the other. though it seems impossible to make it noticeably so. At tills juncture I consulted Dr. G. G. Becknell, professor of physics at the Uni¬ versity of Tampa, who is better versed in mathematics than I am, and he kindly worked out for me an equation for this ellipse-like curve, and found it to be ot the fourth degree, as I had anticipated. I have since found a parametric equation for it in the third edition of Sisam and Atchison’s Analytic Geometry, 1955 (no. 33 on pages 170 and 280), but that does not mention a steam engine or give a drav/- ing of the curve. Now let us extend the driving rod in both directions, beyond the crank-pin and cross-head (wTich w'ould never be done with a steam engine), and see what we get. It gives us apparently a whole new family of curves, or perhaps two of them. Some of the results are shown ing Fig. 10. Let us go first to the left of the circle, marking P a minus quantity, which is simplest to draw. We get a series of curves gradually broadening in an up-and-down direction, but having the same width from left to right, as in the McLees series. They lesemble the McLees curves in being more convex at the left than at the right, and at a considerable distance to the left the two series would be scarcely distinguishable. But they must surely have different equa¬ tions, being constructed on different princi¬ ples. The shapes can be varied by shorten¬ ing the driving rod, even to less than the diameter of the circle (which would never be done with a steam engine), but this method can never produce a lemniscate, or any of the Cartesian curves. Going to the right, with marking point beyond the cross-head, and P greater than L, we get another story, and a somewhat surprising one. When P is only a little greater than L, we get a flattened ellipse¬ like curve, much like that when P is only Some Ovals and Related Curves 115 FIG. 10— Series of curves of the steam-engine family, divided into two parts to save space, as in Fig. 5. The second curve from the right in the lower figure is the one corresponding to the circle (P equals 2L). The heavy bar in both is the path of the cross-head, and might be regarded as a curve completely flattened out. a little less than L. Farther out the curve gradually broadens in an up-and-down direc¬ tion. especially at the left or inner end. Without trying it, one might easily imagine that if the marking point were extended beyond the cross-head a distance equal to the length of the driving rod proper (making P = 2L), it would trace a duplicate of the original circle. But it does nothing of the kind. The resulting curve IS nearly flat on its inner or left side and rounded on the other, suggesting a cross-section of a chocolate drop. If the driving rod is shortened enough, it will be concave on the inner side, so that a straight line can cut it at four points. Such a curve might appropriately be called a deltoid, from its resemblance to the letter D. Farther to the right the curves gradually elongate up and down, and become scarcely distin¬ guishable from the corresponding ones of the McLees series. The steam-engine curves can be skewed by changing the position of the evlinder so that the piston rod does not point to to the center of the circle (which of course would hardly be done with a real steam engine). 1 have not pressed this experiment very far, but as far as 1 have gmie, the curves seem to have alxnit the same shape as the normal ones, but different align ments. The curves might also be skewed bv putting the marking point on .in ottset, as 1 did with some of the iNKl.ees curves, but I have not gone into th.it except v erv bnel ly, enough to show that one ot the curvvvs c.in be a I kittened lemnisc.ite. vvlmh w.in r.ither suipnsing. 116 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science There is an interesting corollary to this steam engine series, or family. Curves made by my 1896 method all have the same diameter, and no envelope. The envelopes of the McLees series, as long as the focus is outside the circle, are two straight lines, tangents to the circle from the focus. When the focus IS inside the circle, of course there are no such tangents, and no envelope. In the steam engine series, considering only those curves in which P is equal to or less than L (including negative values), the envelope is two lines meeting at a cusp at the point corresponding to IT R (measured from the center of the circle). Going to the left from there they diverge gradually, becoming tangent to the circle, and soon straighten out and continue so to infinity, instead of approaching an asymp¬ tote as many curves do. This suggests two railroad tracks diverging from a switch and soon straightening out. In the other direction we get a similar pair of lines, with the cusp at the point (measured from the center of the circle) corresponding to L R. I have not attempted to work out an ecjuation for this. Summing up, these three groups of curves, each making an infinite series, might be looked upon as analogous to families with the same mother (a circle) and different fathers. Some of the "half- brothers" are very similar in appearance, but apparently never identical. All the families produce only closed curves, ap¬ parently of the fourth degree m their normal or typical phases. But all can be skewed in one way or another, and that might produce additional complications. The 1896 family has no envelope, but can produce lemniscates. The McLees family can produce lemnis¬ cates, and has the most diverse possibilities, especially if w'e include the Cartesian sub¬ family, with the focus on or inside the circle. The steam-engine family normally ap¬ parently can never produce a lemniscate, or any other curve with a double point, but it has some interesting envelopes. 117 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING* OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE SECTION I BIOLOGY AND MEDICAL SCIENCES ALIIN STRAIN MOUSi SPLilN TISSUE AND ITS ABILITY TO INDUCE RESISTANCE IN THE C,H/JAX MOUSi TO THE LYMPHOSARCOMA 6lC,H.|D Sister Bernadette Agnes, O. P. and Rev. Claude E. Valentine, S. J., Spring Hill Col¬ lege, Mobile. In confirmation with the findings of E. J. Fol¬ ey, injections of spleen tissue from alien strains of mice, implanted subcutaneously in CjH/JAX mice five days prior to the challenge innoculation of tumor cells, do protect some of the mice. This protection is manifested in regression or failure of the tumors to develop. CERTAIN INTERNAL ANATOMICAL PiCULIARITIIS OF THE GENUS D6SMOGNATHUS AS CONTRASTED WITH OTHER SALAMANDERS Everett L. Bishop, Jr., and Arthur G. F. Piano, University of Alabama, University. THE COSTLY LACK OF CARRY-OVER OF BASIC TRAINING FROM COURSE TO COURSE IN THE PLANT SCIENCES James F. Ferry, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. An introductory step in the exploration of this problem was made in the following manner. At the first class meeting for the past 12 quarters, the students enrolled in elementary plant physiology at Alabama Polytechnic Institute were examined by means of a 50 question test to measure their retention of certain basic facts of plant structure and function which are emphasized in general botany. Analysis of student performance on these tests revealed: 1. That on the average the command of gen¬ eral botanical information is about 60 per cent. 2. That there is a positive relationship between the grades made on this first day test and tiie ^Correction: Volume 2B of the Journal .should have road Thirty-First Annual Meeting and Volume 27 should have read Thirty-Second Annual Meeting. grades at the termination of the course, i.e., stu- students who make the top grades on the pre¬ liminary test also make the better grades in the course and vice versa. 3. That there is no significant difference in the average performance of the students who were taught general botany by 5 different pro¬ fessors with various backgrounds. 4. That the time lapse between the passing of general botany and the taking of elementary plant physiology is a very important factor for the aver¬ age or above average students. In addition to statistical information disclosed by the test, the statements of several administra¬ tors and teachers indicate: 1. That the retention of fundamental knowledge of chemistry, physics, and mathematics by many students is practically nil, and therefore such in¬ formation as is needed from these subjects mu',t be retaught in a large measure. 2. That the same incompetence is frequently true of grammar, spelling, and reading compre¬ hension. Although not condusive, this study indicates that lack of carry-over of basic training from course to course constitutes a grave weakness in our educational system which must he corrected if colleges are to avoid a serious decline in pres¬ tige, performance, and production. SOME ASPECTS OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM IN TETRAHYMENA, A CILIATED PROTOZOAN Ro(,i-r W. Hanson* and S. B, Barktr. Un- iv. of ALiham.i Aiedic.il Center. B,'rm/n<^l'.:": . All strains thus Lir tested ha\e been reported to ferment glucose althougli their .’bilitv to fer¬ ment or otherwise utilize \ancnis i.irbciln dr.it es may diller. Tiiis lermentation leads to an .uaim- uLition ot large amounts ol acid, prim.irih sik ‘ I’libllo IhMith Kosoiir.'li Kollow nf llu- .NCitioMiit liistitiito of Arthritis ami Motabollo I'lsoasos, Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science 1 18 tinic. Anaerobically, stored glycogen has been found to serve as the energy source. In the present investigation, strains whirh util¬ ize glucose aerobically have been found to accum¬ ulate large amounts of glycogen which disappear after the nutrient medium is depleted of gknose. On the other hand, one strain incapable of ubl- izing glucose aerobically synthesizes only negli¬ gible amounts of glycogen. Its medium become: more alkaline as growth proceeds. Accompanying the increase in pH is an increase in the NH,, con¬ tent. Death of the culture occurs at about pH 8.3. This can be attributed to the high pH, accumula¬ tion of NH;, or both. Current investigations are attempting to adapt this latter strain to utilize ex¬ ogenous glucose and to elucidate the cause of death under the present conditions. VARIATIONS IN TREE LEAVES Roland M. Harper, Alabama Geological Sur¬ vey. V Hirer sity . Some trees, especially evergreens, have the leaves on the same tree, or even on different trees of the same species, so nearly alike that no one would think of mentioning any differences between them. But some deciduous trees show decided variations, even on the same tree. Some¬ times it is a mere difference in size, depending on the age of the shoot, or whether the twig is high up and well exposed, or shaded by other branches. But astonishing and inexplicable variations are found in some species, or branches occupying ap¬ proximately the same position on the tree, and sometimes even on the same twig. Photographs of two species of oak and one of maple, showing this phenomenon, will be exhibited. A LABORATORY CONSTRUCTED PHOTOCOPYER (DEMONSTRATION) Alan Hisey, University of Alabama, Univer¬ sity. A simple home made apparatus will be demon¬ strated which enables any one to produce in a short time photo-copies of anything printed or drawn, whether in bound volumes or in single sheets, without a dark room and with negligible cost. The ecjuipment is specially designed to per¬ mit easy preparation of reflex negatives from pag¬ es bound in bulky volumes that are inaccessible by ordinary methods of contact photography. The copies obtained may be used in lieu of reprints, photostats or microfilms. When cemented to stiff cardboard the prints can be used in the opac|ue projector. EFFECT OF CARBON MONOXIDE SATURATION ON THE STABILITY OF BLOOD BANK ERYTHROCYTES Alan Hlse'^’,* DrniJ City Hospital. Tinea' loosa. Fresh, cold bottles of ACD blood which had been rejected from the blood bank veere saturated with carbon monoxide under sterile conditions and returned to the bank. The treatment stopped the oxygen uptake of the blood, maintained a bright red color in the cells, had no effect on the rate of hemolysis, but did preserve the transparency of the plasma through a storage period of four months. It stopped the transformation of the free native hemoglobin into abnormal brown pigments which cause a dense turbidity in the plasma. The arrest of plasma turbidity may make it possible to extend the useful life of stored blood, because the carboxyhemoglobin itself is nontoxic. THE PREPARATION OF A STATE BIRD BOOK FOR ALABAMA Thomas A. Imhof, Conservation Department, Montgomery. Alabama has had only one bird book, published in 1924, reprinted in 1928. Compared with ten other southeastern states, most of whom have put out two or more books, a revision is overdue. Bird populations are dynamic; man is constantly chang¬ ing the earth; and birds with their power of flight and ability to exploit new areas are constantly changing to meet the situation. Louisiana pub¬ lished her fourth state bird book on October 2, 1933. On October 17 the Cattle Egret was added to its avifauna. The present bird book for Alabama, now in preparation, is like a progress report on our knowl¬ edge of our local birdlife. It will contain as much data as possible from local sources on life history. Sources of information are many; difficulties are also many. Blanks in our information are numer¬ ous, and while these cannot all be filled within the scope of the present work, it is certainly hoped that our future work will be clear. The job to be done is twofold: the actual writ¬ ing; and collecting information from literature, museums, many ornithologists, professional and amateur, within and outside the state, and finally by field work in areas and at times indicated as poorly known. Many people present already have aided in the work, and I am sincerely grateful. If anyone knows of some source of information on Ala- Aided by a research grant from the Surgeon General of the Army. Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 119 bamj birds — a paper in a journal or a local bird student — I urge him to contact me so that Alabama's bird book will be as complete as pos¬ sible and the people will have all the information passible about their local birdlife. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE CARIOGENIC PO¬ TENTIALITIES OF VARIOUS STARCHES C. E. Klapper and J. F. Volker, University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham. The influence of various carbohydrates on the etiology of experimental dental caries in the Syrian hamster continues to be one of the problems under investigation in our laboratory. From pre¬ vious experiments it has been established that starch in high concentration of the diet can be considered cariogenic only if the animals have been completely desalivated. Recent exxperiments have been conducted to determine the relative cariogenic potentiality of various starches under the condi¬ tions of the original experiment. In this study, thirty hamsters, 29 days of age. were completely desalivated by the method des¬ cribed previously. These animals were divided into four equal groups and placed on the exper¬ imental diets three days after the operation. Group I was fed a modified Hoppert, Weber, Conniff diet in which the carbohydrate fraction was 60% corn starch. Groups II, III and IV were maintained on similar diets except for the carbohydrate frac¬ tion which was respectively 60% potato starch, 60% soluble starch and 60% dextrin. All animals were continued on the experimen¬ tal diet for 69 days and then sacrificed. The re¬ sults showed that the Group II animals (potato starch) developed the least amount of dental caries. Groups I and III (corn starch and soluble starch) showed similar caries scores which were slightly higher than in Group II. The caries score of Group IV (dextrin) was nearly twice that of Group II (potato starch). From these results it appears that the cariogenic potentiality is not sim¬ ilar for all starches. It might be concluded that the cleansing action of the saliva is of paramount importance in the control of dental caries. The reduced salivary flow in these desalivated animals is not sufficient to remove the polysaccharides from the surface of the teeth before the cariogenic process has been initiated. The physical characteristics of the diet may also be a contributing factor to its cariogenit properties. Dextrin, for example, becomes much more viscid than the other starches when moist¬ ened. Thus diets containing this starch mixture will adhere to the teeth in desalivated moutlis longer and more closely than other starch-contain¬ ing diets. This condition could be an explanation for the greater amount of dental caries found in the animals maintained on the dextrin diet. We are continuing this line of investigation in an attempt to clarify the influence of dextrin up¬ on the etiology of experimental dental caries. ANTLER DEVELOPMENT IN ALABAMA DEER Francis X. Lueth, Alabama Department of Conservation, Centreville. Contrary to a still-lingering notion among many sportsmen, antler development and age are not closely related. A buck that is thirteen to eigh¬ teen months old during the hunting season may have from two to ten points. Although most deer with spike antlers are usually of the one and one- half year class, some have been observed to be as old as three and one-half years. Deer of all ages are more likely to have an even number of points than an odd number. In Alabama, about one third of all deer more than two years of age will have eight points, regardless of the age class to which they belong. COMPARATIVE CONTENT AND COST OF ASCOR¬ BIC ACID IN CITRUS FRUITS AND TOMATOES Frieda L. Meyer and Martha Dicks, Re¬ search Laboratory of Hitman Nutrition. Univer¬ sity of Alabama, University. Ascorbic acid content of a food is of concern to the consumer but cost per serving or for a given amount of ascorbic acid must also be considered. Tomatoes, oranges and grapefruit are popular sources of this vitamin. To obtain information on comparative cost and ascorbic acid content of these foods, fresh oranges, frozen and canned orange- juice; fresh grapefruit and canned grapefruit juice; and fresh tomatoes, canned tomatoes and canned juice were purcliased during March and April 1954 from two independent and two chain stores in Tuscaloosa. These foods were analyzed for re¬ duced, dehydroascorbic acid and total asiorbu acid. Average values for total ascorbic acid ob¬ tained by direct analyses were slightU’ higher than that obtained from the sum of reduced and dehv- droascorbic acid. There \sas a wide \ariation in .is- cO'-bic acid content in eadi grou|'' of foods, .-^xer- age xalues tor reduced ascorbic .uid in orange juice (fresh 37. S mg., reconstituted frozen i2.') mg. and canned i i.o mg. KHi gm ) were hmher than lor gra[x-lruit (Iresh 2''.S mg. and canned juice 30.'^ mg. IDO gm.). Canned tomatoes % i.' nig. too gm. ) were shghth higher th.m tresh ( 1 2.cS mg. too gm.) or the eaniuel juue (11.0 mg. 100 gm.). 1 here were onl\ .small .uiuiunts ol dehydroaseorbie acid in these- lemds. The eeist of these loods ealcul.iled cm the b.isis eil ''0 me 120 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science ascorbic acid was as follows: frozen orange juice 2.3 cents, canned orange juice 2.6, fresh orange juice 3.3, canned grapefruit juice 3.4, fresh grape¬ fruit 5.2, canned tomatoes 12.4, canned tomato juice 12.7 and fresh tomatoes 21.9 cents. These figures are for March and April 1954; costs at another season of the year might well be different. EFFECTS OF CERTAIN PRESCRIBED FIRE TREAT¬ MENTS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME HER¬ BACEOUS QUAIL FOOD PLANTS IN LOBLOLLY- SHORTLEAF PINE COMMUNITIES OF THE ALA¬ BAMA UPPER COASTAL PLAIN* William Holtam Moore, Alabama Polyiech- uic Institute. Auburn. The Forestry Department of the Alabama Poly¬ technic Institute is making a study of the effects of certain prescribed fire treatments in the manage¬ ment of an immature loblolly-shortleaf pine (Pi- nus taeJa L. and P/nus echinata Mill.) subclimax community located on the Fayette Experiment Forest near Fayette, Alabama. The forestry ex¬ periment consists of six replications of two to¬ pography positions (ridge and slope) in combina¬ tion with three fire treatments (none, burned in January, and burned in August). This statistically designed experimental area was utilized to study the effects of fire on the distribution of some herbaceous plants important as food for the bob- white quail {Colinus virginianus L.). Coverage data obtained from a 50-foot line in¬ tercept placed at random in each plot was studied by analysis of variance. Desmodium spp. and the Compositae had the greatest coverage on the Aug¬ ust-burned plots, Galactia volubilis had the great¬ est coverage on the January-burned plots, and P/n¬ us spp. reproduction had the greatest coverage on the fire protected plots. Lespedeza spp.. Euphor¬ bia corollata, and Tragia urtici folia had a greater coverage on the burned plots regardless of time of burning. The most vacant space in the herbaceous stratum occurred on the August-burned plots. Analysis of variance, from the standpoint of topography, showed a significantly higher occu¬ pancy of Andropogon spp. and Smila.x glauca on the slope positions while more vacant space in the herbaceous stratum occurred on the ridges. An analysis of covariance of Andropogon spp. with canopy indicated an even greater difference in the coverage of Andropogon spp. on the fire treat¬ ments and topography positions. Burning increased the area occupied by quail food plants, with the highest occupancy occurring on the August-burned plots. *This paper received honorable mention in the Graduate Di¬ vision of the Student Research Awards sponsored by The Alabama Academy of Science. MICROHARDNESS STUDIES OF INTACT SURFACE ENAMEL M.L. Muntz, R. W. Gilmore, Robert C. Caldwell, and Ward Pigman, University of Alabama School of Dentistry and Medical College. Birmingham. Hardness studies in the past have been carried out almost exclusively on ground sections of teeth. The present preliminary studies have been carried out on intact surface enamel by the use of a Ken- tron Microhardness Tester with a Knoop diamond indenter. After extraction, human teeth were kept in iso¬ tonic saline until the tests were carried out. Hu¬ man teeth of different ages and positions were used, especially incisors, cuspids, and bicuspids. Just prior to the tests, the teeth were cleaned with a rubber cup and were mounted in acrylic boxes with the surface to be studied in a horizontal posi¬ tion. Twenty to fifty indentations were placed on each tooth, according to the amount of surface available for study. Most impressions were placed on the labial or buccal surfaces. I’he Knoop hardness ranged from an average of 300 K. N. in a 75 year old upper central in¬ cisor to 407 K. N. in a 35 year old lower central incisor. Sufficient teeth have not been studied to draw extensive conclusions. But, in general, less variation between teeth from different individuals and between different areas on the same teeth was found than was anticipated from the pub¬ lished results. In addition to providing basic data, the present work is being done in order to establish a method of measuring in vitro "tooth decay” quantitative¬ ly. Pilot experiments indicate that the average hardness for one tooth dropped from 364 K. N. to 181 K. N. after one week in the "artificial mouth”, and to 99 K. N. after two weeks; this tooth was brushed twice daily. Another tooth from the same individual was treated similarly except without brushing. Its average hardness dropped from 406 K. N. to 92 K. N. in one week; after a second week it was too soft to measure readily. SOME LIMNOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE ALA¬ BAMA COLLEGE LAKE Gid E. Nelson, Jr. Alabama College. Mon- tevallo. A general limnological study was initiated on the Alabama College lake during June 1955 and has continued until the present time. Three col¬ lecting stations were established and each visited at ten day intervals. Data were collected as to the physical and chemical characteristics of the water. Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 121 and net plankton samples were taken at each sta¬ tion. Certain of the above data are presented and dis¬ cussed, more or less as a preliminary report since the study will not reach completion until June 19‘^6. A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE INFLUENCE OF BORATE IONS ON SUGAR ABSORPTION BY ISOLATED PLANT CELLS. Joseph C. O'Kelley and Arthur G. F. Pi- .VNO, Unwersity of Alabama. T nscaloosa. Previous studies on the influence of borate ions on translocation of sugars in higher plants indi¬ cate a stimulatory effect in the case of sucrose translocation when borate is supplied to borate deficient plants. It has been postulated that borate exerts an effect on the membranes of plant cells which results in greater permeability to sugars and an increase in translocation rates. Present studies involve the influence of borate ions on sugar absorption by germinating pollen. The addition of borate, necessary for pollen tube grov.Th, increases the absorption of sucrose. The increase is statistically significant at the 59^ level when 10 p.p.m. of boron is supplied. The study is being supported by the University Research Committee of the University of Alabama. EFFECTS OF EPINEPHRINE AND ADRENOCORTO- COTROPIN UPON THE EOSINOPHILS, BLOOD PLATELETS AND MARROW MEGAKARYOCYTES OF THE INTACT AND SPLENECTOMIZED WHITE RAT Kenneth Ottis, Alabama Polytechnic histi- tute. Auburn. Eighty, 200± 20 gm, healthy, 2-month-old rats of the Holtzmann strain were used in this inves¬ tigation to compare the action of epinephrine and adrenocorticotropin* upon the blood platelet, eos¬ inophil, and bone marrow megakaryocyte values of the splenectomized and intact rat. In the epinephrine experiment, 20 animals were splenectomized; 12, sham-splenectomized; and 8 left intact as controls. Base counts ( not to be confused with O-hour counts) of eosinophils, platelets, and megakaryocytes were taken before splenectomy and sham-splenectomy were per¬ formed. The time of epinephrine injection (0.2‘i ml. of 1:10,000) was concurrent with the first blood sampling for platelet and eosinophil counts and was designated as O-hour. Further blood samples were taken and counts were made 1 1, SO, and 60 minutes post O-hour. This experiment led to the following results and com lusions: 1. Platelet means of the intact group showed a 6S per cent increase at the 15 minute period and a 43 per cent increase at the 30 minute period; the sham-splenectomized group showed a 69 per cent and 66 per cent increase in the platelet means over the same period of time. From these data it was concluded that both intact and sham-splenectom¬ ized rats would respond significantly to epine¬ phrine but that there was no significant differ¬ ence between groups. On the basis of this fact, shams were not run in the subsequent experiment. 2. The mean platelet increase in the splenecto¬ mized rats was not significant; only 21 and 24 per cent increases showed at the 15 and 30 minute periods respectively. 3. Epinephrine action upon blood platelet values was immediate and of short duration in all three experimental groups. 4. All three experimental groups showed sig¬ nificant decreases in eosinophil values at the 30 and 60 minute periods. Bone marrow megakaryocyte values rose sig¬ nificantly post-epinephrine treatment. In the short-term ACTH experiment, 16 rats were splenectomized; and 16 were left intact as control animals. The counts made from the sample of blood taken concurrently with the first injection (2 Armour units of ACTH per 100 grams of body weight) were designated as O-hour. Counts were subsequently made 1, 2, 3, 4, and 10 hours from O-hour. This experiment led to the following re¬ sults and conclusions: 1. The initial effect was one of immediate, sig¬ nificant platelet depression; release from this de¬ pression was not noted at the end of the exper¬ iment. 2. Both groups were under the same degree of adrenocortical stress as was affirmed bv their eosinopenic condition from the third hour of the experiment to the end of the period ol obserc ation. 3. Marrow megakaryocytes did not par.dk 1 the platelet trend but increased signil ic.mtlv in both experimental groups. 4. Splenectomy did not protect the .mimal 1 rom ad renoc ort ic al st ress. SOURCES OF NORMAL SYNOVIAL FLUIDS D.win Pi ,\TT, W’.Mtf) Pu.M.cN, Franc u P\t- TON and Howard 1 Ion i s . {' >in\rs:'.s i . L..- bam.t .Wcilic.il Cutter. Birm/iti^h.m: . Syno\ i.d lluids I rom 1 i norm.d mdoulu.d' dll ter III .1 numbe r ol elec I rophorct u pic'iperl ic s from those of liicum.iloid .irthnlus .uul I rom s., rums. Norm.d lluids I rc'c|uc'nt l\' ccuil.iin twci ^c'lr, pone Ills moxing Lister th.ui .dbumm. Hu mc'bditc “^Hereafter referred to ACTH. 122 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science (relative to albumin) of the faster moving com¬ ponents, and particularly of the alpha-two and beta-globulins, differ significantly from those of arthritic joint fluids. Since normal fluids can be obtained at best in only small amounts (0.2 to 0.5 cc.) other sources of synovial fluid have been investigated. Examina¬ tion of post-mortem fluids obtained at autopsy was made. The properties of these fluids resem¬ bled closely those taken from normal individuals, except for a greater variability of the dialyzable NPN. Eight of the eleven fluids had two compo¬ nents moving faster than albumin. With proper discrimination, post-mortem synovial fluids may be substituted for normal fluids in investigative studies. Synovial fluids collected from 12 cattle were studied in similar fashion. Three of the fluids exhibited two fast moving components. Studies are in progress on the nature and significance of the fast moving components. ELECTROPHORETIC AND ULTRACENTRIFUGAL STUDIES OF HUMAN SALIVA Jane Reid Patton and Ward Pigman, Uu- iverstly Medical Center, Birniingbam . For the first time, the secretions of the major salivary glands have been studied by means of the Tiselius electrophoresis apparatus and the analy¬ tical ultracentrifuge. The parotid gland secretion and the submaxil¬ lary gland secretion of humans have been collected after stimulation. Ultracentrifugal analysis has been performed both before and after concen¬ tration. Three to four-fold concentration is neces¬ sary before electrophoretic analysis may be under¬ taken. The concentrated materials have been stud¬ ied at pH 6, 7 and 8.5 in 0.1 ionic strength buffers. Electrophoretic analysis indicates the presence of eight components in the pure parotid secretion. By preliminary ultracentrifugal analysis, only a few components with different sedimenta¬ tion characteristics were indicated. The parotid secretion has one major component with a very low mobility (about +0.3 x 10'^ cm. sec./volt/- cm. at pH 8.5 in veronal-sodium chloride buffer) over the pH range studied. Two or three compo¬ nent; were apparently present in intermediate concentration. The remaining components repre¬ sent only minor constituents of the parotid secre¬ tion. The submaxillary secretion showed evidence for the presence of six electrophoretically separable components. Three of these were apparently pres¬ ent in intermediate concentration. The others re[)- resented only minor components of submaxillary saliva. Preliminary ultracentrifugal analysis indi¬ cated the presence of only two components with different sedimentation characteristics. These com¬ ponents have rather low molecular weights as judged from their sedimentation constants. PRECIPITATION OF SALIVARY MUCOID BY FREEZ¬ ING AND THAWING OF SALIVA Leon H. Schneyer, School of Dentistry and Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . It has long been known that salivary mucoid, especially when freshly obtained, may be readily precipitated in the form of a coagulum by the ad¬ dition of dilute acid to the mucoid-containing flu¬ id. This characteristic has been used to identify and to prepare mucoid of salivary gland origin. It has now been observed that freezing of chem¬ ically untreated mucoid-containing salivary secre¬ tions for varied periods of time results in the for¬ mation of a persisting coagulum when the secre¬ tion is thawed. This coagulumm, or clot, gener¬ ally resembles in appearance the mucin dot formed in re ponse to the addition of acid. Evidence from viscosity measurements, response to dilute acetic acid, and analyses of sialic acid indicates that the coagulum formed after freezing and thawing is de¬ rived from the salivary mucoid. REACTIONS TO INFECTIONS BY SYNCHYTRIUM BROWNII James T. Sinski, Spring Hill College, Mo- bile. The reaction of onagraceous hosts to infection by incipient prosori or resting spores manifests itself primarily by a marked enlargement of the infected cell. This is usually accompanied by di¬ vision and subsequent enlargement of the sur¬ rounding epidermal, palisade and collenchyma cells causing the development of composite galls. Based upon observations of single and scattered galls, S. broivnii is compositely dihomeogallic in relation to the majority of its hosts because it in¬ duces both sporangial and resting spore galls which are composite or multicellular and thus similar in structure. However, the size, structure, and com¬ plexity of the galls produced does vary on differ¬ ent hosts. Other host reactions include: the disorganization of the host nucleus; large amounts of extraneous material developing in infected cells; and the dis¬ appearance of chloroplasts in the sheath cells de¬ rived from the mesophyll. Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 123 PATHOGENICITY OF THE SPIRAL NEMATODE, HELICOTYLENCHUS NANNUS STEINER, 1945, IN RELATION TO SELECTED VARIETIES OF CORN* E. B. Sledge, Alabama Polytechnic histit/ite. Auburn. An experiment was conducted ( 1 ) to deter¬ mine it the spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus nan- nus. could be a detrimental factor in the produc¬ tion of corn and (2) to determine the nematode population response of selected corn varieties. A test was conducted with H. nannus in relation to six corn varieties. Nematode multiplication in¬ crease was significant at the 3 percent level be¬ tween varieties showing high and low counts of nematodes. In a second test, corn plants inoculated with various levels of nematode inoculum showed stunting during the first tw'o weeks of growth. Stunting persisted after this time only in the high¬ er levels of inoculum. Spiral nematodes failed to multiply and died in cultures of three soil fungi or in pots without corn plants. Feeding of the spiral nematode on corn seedling roots was ob¬ served in micro-observation chambers. In most cases the nematodes fed on root hairs, but feeding was observed on primary and secondary roots. Under the conditions of this experiment H. nannus caused little or no damage to corn plants except for initial stunting at all levels of inoculum and for some root necrosis at higher levels of in¬ oculum. Differences in host suitability suggest the use of certain corn varieties in areas w'here this nematode is present. Fallowing may also reduce nematode populations by causing starvation of this microorganism. THE VALUE OF SUPERVISED SEED QUALITY IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL INCOME Marion Viccars, Viccars Seed Testing Labora¬ tory, Montgomery. Emphasis on declining farm income indicates the need for investigation concerning farm costs as w'ell as of output. In a seed testing laboratory it has been observed that many loopholes exist under the seed law's w'hich permit the falsification of labeling information. There is no recjuirement that the seed be tested, but only labeled; no Fed¬ eral inspection service despite large cjuantities of seed moving in interstate commerce; separation of technical and administrative functions, so that despite much research, political activity can negate ♦This paper received second [)lace in the Graduate Division of the Student Research Awards sponsored by the Ala¬ bama Academy of Science. its value; such activity can also be used to keep inspection service inadequate. Fimited demand for the services of the seed Fiboratories indicate a strong possibility that insuf¬ ficient work is done to guarantee the quality of seed on sale since such work is a seller's service. In a like manner there may also be mislabeling ot other commodities a farmer buys thus increas¬ ing operating costs, and reducing net income. THE HISTOPATHOLOGICAl EFFECT OF NITROGEN ON THE BRAINS OF GUINEA PIGS^ Jane Congleton Yates, University oj Ala¬ bama. University. This research was planned to investigate histo¬ logically whether morphological changes were created by anoxic anoxia utilizing guinea pigs as the experimental animal and nitrogen as the causative agent. A series of three experiments were performed in which a minimum of two and a maximum of twelve anoxic insults were administered. Time lapses of fourteen, seventy-four and two hundred and forty hours were allowed before sacriticing the animal. The brains of the guinea pigs were then analyzed and both gross and histological damage were described. The histopathological picture consisted of hyper- chromatic and pyknotic Purkinje cells in the cere¬ bellum, hyperchromatic and pyknotic pyramidal and polymorphic cells in the cerebral cortex, de¬ generation of the membranes of the astrocytes, peri-cellular and peri-vascular vacuoles, and fenes¬ tration of the intercellular matrix. This pathology was ascribed to neurotrauma. The histopathologi¬ cal pattern as well as gross observation, were cor¬ related with the amount of insult and the length of the survival period. Those animals sutfering the greatest amount ot insult and sai.ritii.cd in the fourteen and scvent)'-four hour period ex¬ hibited the greatest degree ot damage. The ani¬ mals witli the longer sur\i\.il period exhibited let's extensive damage tor Jiangcs ot a rc\crstble nature had h.ul time ti> undergo histologii.d rcp.ur. The data obtained from this experiment \ield- cd further wilid.ition to support the viewpoint that histopathologie.il eliangcs were cvieleiit tol lowing anoxie anoxi.i ere.itcel bv nitrivgen. *Tbis paper ueeivetl lir.'Jl plaoe in ibe <'»railuate Dnision of the Student Ke.'^eareh .\wards spoti.'ti'retl by The Vlabatu.a Aeatleuiy of Soieiiee, 124 Journal of thf Alabama Academy of Scfencf SECTION n CHEMISTRY 8-BROMO-6-ETHYLQUINOLINE AND SOME OF ITS DERIVATIVES Karl Altau, James G. Beasley and Julius D. Capps, Aldhama Polytechnic butiliite. Au¬ burn. 8.-Bromo-6-ethylc|uinoline and some of its derivatives were prepared. The methods used for synthesizing the compounds and assigning struc¬ tures are summarized as follows: 1. 8-Bromo-6-cthylquinoline was obtained in 579^ yield by subjecting 4-amino-3-bromethy- Ibenzene to the conditions of a modified Skraup ring-closure. 2. 'I’he nitration of 8-bromo-6-ethylquinoline at 0 degrees gave 8-bromo-6-ethyl-S-nitroquino- line which was shown to be identical witn the product resulting when 4-acctamido-S-bromo-2- nitroethylbenzene was subjected to a modified Skraup ring-closure. 3. 4-Acetamido-5-bromo-2-nitroethylbenzene re¬ sulted from the acetylation of 4-amino-^-bromo- 2- nitroethylbenzcne. 4he conversion of 4-amino- 3- bromo-2-nitroethylbenzene by means of well characterized reactions into 2,3-dibromobenzoic acid served to verify the structure assigned the nitration-product of 4-amino-3-bromoethylbenzene. I’his was also corroborated by the fact that a-amino-3-bromo-2-notroethylbenzene yielded 2- acetamido-3-bromoethylbenzene that gave 6-bromo- 8-ethylquinolme when subjected to a Skraup ring- closure. Since replacement of the amino group in 2-am- ino-3-bromoethylbenzene by bromine followed by oxidation gave 2,3-dibromabenzoic acid, the as¬ signed structure of 2-amino-‘'-bromoethylbenzene was also verified. 4. Conversion independently of 4-amino-5- bromo-2-nitroethylbenzene and 2-amino-5-bromo- 4- nitroethylbenzene into the same diacetamido- bromoethylbenzene served as supporting evidence for the structures assigned the various compounds synthesized. Both 8-bromo-2-chIoro-6-ethylquinoline and 8-bromo-6-cthyl-2-hydroxyquinoline when nitrated gave ^-nitroquinoline derivatives. 6. Adaptations of previously reported synthetic methods were applied during the synthesis of ^-amino-8-bromo-6-ethylquinoline, 5-acetamido-8- bromo-6-ethylquinoline, "i-benzamido-S-bromo-b- ethylquinoline, 8-bromo-2-chloro-6-ethylquinoline, 5- amino-8-bromo-2-chloro-6-ethylquinoline, 3-ace- tamido-8-bromo-2-chloro-6-ethyiquinoline, "i-ben- zamido-8-brc)mo-2-chloro-6 - ethyl - quinoline and 8-bromo-2-hydroxy-6-ethylquinoline. PREFABRICATED ARTERIAL GRAFTS OF CHEM¬ ICALLY TREATED NYLON W. SterlinCj Edwards, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham , and James S. Tapp, Chemstrand Corporation. Decatur. Braided tubes of nylon are treated with a so¬ lution of formic acid. This chemical is a standard solvent of nvlon, and if the tube, on a glass man¬ drel, is dipped for a brief period into the solu¬ tion, the outer layer of each nylon fiber softens or liquifies. As the formic acid is then carefully washed off, each fiber adheres to the adjacent fiber. This reduces the pore size between fibers, hence eventually reducing blood loss at the time of insertion, and makes suturing easier by pre¬ venting unraveling at the cut ends. A permanent circular crimp is incorporated in this tube before it sets by pushing one end toward the other on a glass mandrel. This crimping provides flex¬ ibility to 180 degrees without kinking. For de¬ tails see "Chemically Treated Nylon Tubes as Ar¬ terial Grafts," by Edwards and Tapp, Surgery, 38:61, July, 1933. This Chemically Treated braided Nylon tube has, therefore, the following characteristics: 1. Grafts of various sizes and lengths are read¬ ily available. 2. Very easily sutured to host vessels. 3. Flexible without kinking for use in the gro¬ in, axilla, popliteal space. 4. Permeable to fibroblastic penetration but not porous enough to allow blood loss. 3. Easy to sterilize by auto Having. 6. Can be used as a replacement graft or as a by-pass graft around an area of obstruction. 7. Low incidence of thrombosis even in small vessels. THE POLAROGRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF TITANIUM James L. Kassner, Myron Eugene Cald- KINS, E. L. Grove, Univenitj of Alabama, Un¬ iversity. This investigation was undertaken to develop a rapici method for the determination of titanium in its ores. The titanium is reduced in 9 N sul¬ furic acid solution at a half-wave patential of -0.48 volt versus the saturated calomel electrode at 23° C. Tantalum, zirconium and aluminum are not reduced under these conditions. Iron is re¬ duced prior to the titanium and compensation may be made before the titanium reduction be¬ gins. The method is rapid, accurate, convenient and subject to few interferences. A BSTR ACTS — Che m i str y THE USE OF NEPHELOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS TO DETERMINE THE PRESENCE OF CHELATES |ames E. Land, Al.ibaniA Polytechnic InUitnte, Auburn. Measurements have been made as to the rel¬ ative per cent ot light scattered by the precipitate formed in a series of suspensions produced by mixing appropriate volumes of standard copper (II) nitrate and cupferron solutions so that the total combined concentration per unit volume re¬ mained constant. Applying to these determina¬ tions the method of continuous variations, it was demonstrated that a known complex or chelate compound formed. Conditions for the reproducible formation or the precipitates w'ere discussed, graphical repre¬ sentation of results presented and a considera¬ tion of the method’s applicability to other situ¬ ations offered. THE DETERMINATION OF ELECTRONEGATIVITIES FROM MOLAR REFRACTION MEASUREMENTS Edward E. Purvis, Alabama Polytechnic Insti¬ tute, Auburn. A relationship between the electronegativities of the elements united in certain organic alkyl and aryl halogen compounds and the compound’s mo¬ lar refractivity has been demonstrated by appro¬ priate graphical plots. Expressing this relationship as a mathematical function, embodying several easily measured constants, a method has been sug¬ gested whereby molar refraction measurements may be used to determine the apparent electro¬ negativity values being demonstrated by the ele¬ ments in certain compounds. CONTINUOUS RECORDING OF pH AND ELEC¬ TRODE POTENTIALS. True W. Robinson and John L. Jeffries, University of Alabama Aiedical Center. B/rm Ingham. A times it is desirable to know the oxidation- reduction potential and pH of a solution in rela¬ tion to chemical or biochemical reactions occur¬ ring within the solution. Also, it may be neccssa ry to measure any changes which occur in tiie g.r. volume above the liquid. Eor these reasons m.in ometric vessels were designed and constructed with separate sidearms which contain a glass electrode, a platinum electrode and a calomel electrode. These ves.sels in combination with nec¬ essary equipment for continuous recording ot electrode potential and pH have been assembled so that it is now possible to record the pH and potential changes in six microrespirometer vessels. This is done by the use of a Beckman Model W 125 pH meter and a Beckman Model RM MillivoR Indicator v/ldch control tv/o Beckm.an 6-channel Automatic Sv, itches, one for pH measurements and one for potentials. Each switch connects with one of the six vessels every 15 seconds or longer and thus a reading on the same vessel can be made every 1% minutes. These readings are printed on two Brown Recorders, one for pH and one for electrode potentials. Th.us one can follow, nearly continuously, the potential and pH in six different microrespirometers at the same time that any of a variety of reactions may be oc¬ curring v/ithin the vessels. These could be acid- base, oxidation-reduction, or enzyme reactions, or even oxygen consumption, glycolysis, photo- syntheseis, or cellular growth responses. The elec¬ trodes are in airtight ground glass joints which may also be used interchangeably in other type vessels, such as titration chambers, kinetic reac¬ tion vessels, etc., and thus almost any type of re¬ action may be followed as a function of the pH and potential of the solution. STUDIES ON THE AMADORI REARRANGEMENT Lawrence Ro.sen, James W. Woods, and Ward PiC/Man, University of Ala. Aiedical Cen¬ ter, Birmingham . The formation of 1-deoxy-l-p-toluidino-D- fructose from N-tolyl-D-glucosylamine (an ex¬ ample of the Amadon rearrangement ) has been studied in homogeneous pyridine and methanol solution. The reduction of sodium 2,6-dichloro- phenol-indophenol solution was used as an an¬ alytical method in determining the presence of the iructose derivative in solution. Isolation of the product was done in selected experiments in order to confirm the reductimetric method. The formation of 1 -deoxy- 1 -p-toluidino-D-fruc- tose from both N-p-tolyl-D-glucosvlamine or glu¬ cose and p-toluidine could not be effected in methanolic solutions employing hydrogen clilo- ridc as the catalyst at .50°, 65° and 100 . There is a loss ot fructose eompountl w lien it is lieat- ed under these tonditions. Tlie addition of pyri¬ dine (25^ by volume) to methanolit solutioiN ot N-p-tolyl-D-gliKOsylamine i..uisee a signifi¬ cant yield ol tlie Iru.losc deri\ati\e. Tile yield increases (toi s(> minute lie.itinc; pe’rioeK .U 100°) will) iiureased p\'ruline eontent u[' to lOO'f pyruhne to w liieh a sm.ill .unoun! eO In - elroeillorie ae iel is .ideled. W'l'.eii gliMi.e IS rc.kteel witli seleeted prim.iry aryl.imines ( 1 00 ; sO min.) in tlu preseiue eU a small .imount of aeleied InalroJiiorK .uid. tlie yielel ol a suInl.iiK e, prob,ild\ the .Vm.uK'n pn' eluet, w hu h reeluees the' ii\e'. iiuieasis w itli m e leased b.ise stre ngth ol the iM im.UA amiiu 126 Journal of thf: Alabama Academy of Science SECTION III GEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL PLAIN OF LUZON WITH RELATION TO GROUND WATER RESOURCES Juan A. Filler, Depini>//en/ oj P//hl/c IL'o/Tt and ConiDiunicalioui, Pb/l/ppi)!e lsla)iJ f. WHAT IS THE LAFAYETTE FORMATION? Roland M. Harper, Ceo/og/cal Su>vey of Alahatud, LUiivenity. The term Lafayette (from Lafayette County, Mississippi) has been applied sin:e 1891 to beds typically of red sandy clay, and sometimes also sand, gravel or ferruginous sandstone associated with it, widely distributed over the coastal plain of the southeastern United States, and always at or near the surface. (Some photographs of it were shown, and the history of its investigation sketched. ) Its age is problematical. It has sometimes been regarded as Pliocene, for it seems to overlie all our Miocene and earlier strata, just as the gla¬ cial drift overlies rocks of all ages in the North. It is not strictly confined to the coastal plain, for beds referred to it have been found in valleys in northern Alabama, even as far inland as jack- son County. Some geologists have regarded it as a mere product of weathering of whatever beds are im¬ mediately under it, and that may be true of some materials that have been referred to it. But it is often sharply differentiated from the underly¬ ing strata, and its base, where visible, is usually horizontal, instead of following the contours of hills, as would be expected if it was a weathering phenomenon. Others have regarded it as a series of river ter¬ races, and that is plausible too, for the terrace on which Tuscaloosa is built is certainly of red sandy clay, which develops the characteristic diagonal cracks on sunny faces of cuts, that have been regarded as typical. But it is often found 200 feet or more above the nearest river, and many miles from any river. So its exact or¬ igin is still a problem to be solved. DISCOVERY AT CITRONELLE Walter B. Jones, Geological Snrve) of Ala- ba»ia. U n/versily. APPLICATION OF AQUIFER-TEST METHODS TO GROUND-WATER STUDIES IN MARENGO COUN¬ TY, ALABAMA D. B. Knowles, U- S. Geological Snrvey. G niveysiiy. An investigation of the ground-water resour¬ ces of Marengo County, Ala., was begun in July 19‘33 by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the Marengo County Board of Revenue and the Geological Survey of Alabama. The purpose of the investigation is to determine the occurrence and availability of ground-water supplies for municipal, industrial, domestic, and farm use. (Quantitative studies are important in evaluatin': tl.e Occurrence and availability of ground-water supplies in any area. The value of an aquifer as a source of water depends largely on two characteristics: its ability to store and its ability to transmit water. These characterisics, referred to as the coefficients of storage and transmissibility, provide the basis for quantitative studies. Pump¬ ing tests or aquifer tests, are made to determine these constants from field data. After the hy¬ draulic characteristics have been determined, thev may be used in the prediction of water-level changes, the de:;ign of well fields, and the deter¬ mination of optimum well yield. Obviously, tlie hydraulic characteristics are determined by the geology of the area and can be used successfully in predicting well yields and water-level changes only if they are applied with local and regional variations in geology in mind. Marengo Gounty is underlain by chalk, marl, sand, gravel, clay, and shale ranging in age from Early Cretaceous to Recent. Sand beds in th.e Eutaw and Ripley formations of Late Cretaceous age and the Nanafalia formation and Tuscahoma sand of Tertiary age are the principal aquifers in the county. These beds dip gently to the south¬ west at the rate of about -40 feet per mile. Water in these gently dipping sand beds is under arte¬ sian pressure, and flowing wells can be obtained in the lowland areas adjacent to the streams. Aquifer tests involve turning a well on or off and observing the change in water levels in near¬ by observation wells. Analysis of data from tests on municipal wells developed in the Eutaw form¬ ation at a depth of about 1,400 feet at the city of Thomaston indicates a coefficient of transmissi¬ bility of about 1400, which represents the quan¬ tity of water in gallons per day that will flow through a cross section of the aquifer a mile wide under a hydraulic gradient of one foot per mile, and a coefficient of storage of about 1.3 x 10-®, which is the volume of water an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit surface area of the acjuifer per unit change in the component of head normal to that surface. Preliminary analysis of tests made on wells developed in the Eutaw for- Abstracts — Geology and anthropology 127 r.iition in anil near the city of Linden show a sub¬ stantially higher value for the coefficient of trans- missibility. Analysis of data from aquifer tests on industrial wells developed in the Nanafaia forma¬ tion at a depth of about 200 feet near the town of Nanafalia indicate a coefficient of transmissi- bility of about 2,400 and a coefficient of storage of about 5.0 X lO’’^. The Nanafalia thickens down the dip wdth a corresponding increase in the coefficient of transmissibility. It supplies large-capacity wells in the Monroeville area about 60 miles southeast of Linden. A single test rarely satisfies the demand for a qu.antitative study of an aquifer and generally must be supported by many additional tests, as well as other geologic and hydrologic data. Fur¬ ther tests are planned on wells developed in the Eutaw and Nanafalia formations, and on wells developed in the Ripley formation and Tuscaho- ma sand. ORIGIN OF SUBMARINE CANYONS ALONG THE CONTINENTAL SLOPE Robert C. MacElvain, Geological Survey of Alabama. University. In this discussion, the submarine canyons in the continental slopes are briefly described as to their shape, location and magnitude. Some of the more important theories concerning the or¬ igin of the submarine canyons are mentioned. However, the paper primarily deals with the pos¬ sible origin of the submarine canyons in the light of a more recent theory. A MICROLITHIC SITE IN MISSISSIPPI Frank J. Soday, Cbemstrand Corp., Decatur. The microlithic site at Belzoni, Mississippi, w'as discovered by Dr. Haag of Louisiana State University seme four years ago. It was the first microlithic site discovered in this country. Since that time, microliths have been found on at least three Poverty Point sites. The cultural assemblage will be described, and the possible relationship of the culture with the Old World Microlithic cultures will be discussed. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE PALEO IN¬ DIAN COMPLEX IN NORTHERN ALABAMA Frank J. Soday, Chemstra)!d Corp.. Decatur. Following the discovery of the first major Pal- eo Indian site in the Southeast by the writer. a number of additional sites have been found in northern Alabama, principally along the Ten¬ nessee river and its numerous tributaries. While the artifacts found on these sites are basically similar in character, several of the sites show significant variations. It is apparent that northern Alabama contained a substantial Paleo Indian population, and that this population was fairly continuous over a very large span of time. The artifact Types and distributions will be discussed, particularly with reference to similar sites in other sections of the country. LAND-SURFACE COLLAPSE IN AN AREA UNDER¬ LAIN BY LIMESTONE George W. Swindel, Jr., U. S. Geological Survey, Sylacauga. Ground-water studies are being carried on in the Sylacauga area, Alabama, by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the city of Sylacauga and the Geological Survey of Ala¬ bama. The study includes the determination of the quality, quantity, and availability of ground water in the area. The Sylacauga area is underlain by marble, limestone, dolomite, schist, slate, and quartzite. The limestone, interbedded with some irolomite and the marble occur in parallel northeastward- trending belts, and are in contact along a fault. Test drilling and quarrying indicate that extensive solution channel systems h,ive devel¬ oped in the limestone and marble, generallv along faults where the rocks are highly fractured. Several large-capacity water wells have been de¬ veloped in these rocks. Water levels in observa¬ tion wells respond quickly to rainfall, indicatim: a close connection between the solution channels and the areas of recharge. Sinkholes liave tormed in areas where solution channels are extensively developed, and where the soil cover is relatively thin. It is believed that most ot these sinks are tormed b\- surtan waiter percolating through the soil zone to .in ing in the underlying rock, lausing collapse of the soii cover, l•|■om the studv of the smkhohs there is no indication ot .i cc'il.ipse c>l the riicsls ol large caverns in the bedro, k. 128 Journal of tul Alabama Acadlmy of Science SECTION IV GEOGRAPHY AND CONSERVATION THE ESCAMBIA FOREST RESEARCH PROJECT Thomas C. Croker, Jr., Southern forest fx^i. Sta.. Breicton. 1. South Alabama's lon^leaf forests play a vi¬ tal role in the expanding forest eronomy. 2. The Escambia researrh project, a unit m the coordinated research program of the Southern and Southeastern Eorest Experiment Stations, is de¬ signed to provide answers needed to properly manage these forests. s. Major objectives of the project are; (a) To develop reliable, inexpensive, natural systems for regenerating the pure longleaf and intermingled slash hardwood stands. (b) To find better methods for predicting and improving growth and equality of the long- leat and slash-hard \vood stands. (c) To evaluate various alternatives of man¬ agement and provide up-to-date cost and return data for intensive management, partisul irly of smaller tracts. (d) To learn how range and wildlife manage¬ ment can best be coordinated with timher man¬ agement. FORESTRY RESEARCH AT WORK W. B. DeVall, Alabanui Polytechnic hnt.Onte, Anbnr)!. Eormal research on forestry problems in Ala¬ bama IS relatively new. Some of the earliest work was done by the Agricultural Experiment Station of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at Auburn. Afforestation studies date back to 1927. In the late 1940’s silvicultural and management research was expanded at Auburn and at two federal research centers, one at Birmingham and one at Brewton. A comparable program of inves¬ tigation was underway in northern Alabama head¬ ed by the Tennessee Valley Authority. Experi¬ mental work was also conducted by the Soil Con¬ servation Service. Informal experimentation and demonstration by industry was also in progress. During the past decade, forestry and forest products research has been intensified. Research¬ ers now seek answers to growth and utilization problems in such fields as forest economics, measurements, wood products, protection, regen¬ eration, genetics, stand improvement, manage¬ ment, soils, tree physiology and silvicides. Research findings must be more than 10 years ahead of application if problems are to be solved efficiently and economically. New meth¬ ods of handling forest lands, additional b.asic information on tree growth, and new uses for wood will have to be found if forestry as a s.i- cnce is to meet tb.e predicted need for wood by 197^. IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF SOUTHERN PINES Geor(,e I. Garin, Alabama Polytechnic lnst<- ti/te. Auburn. Silvic Lilturally, forest stands are improved by controlling forest composition and density. Eun- damental scientific principles underlie applica¬ tion of silvicultural measures. Recently, the sci¬ ence of genetics has been added to the other sciences that govern the art of silviculture. The first south-wide conference on tree im¬ provement was held in January, 1951. and the Southern Eorest Tree Improvement Committee was organized at that time. As a result of this conference, research in forest tree improvement was rapidly expanded. The research effort has been mainly directed toward the four commercial¬ ly important species of southern pines. Research in tree improvement is basically aimed at improving inherent cjualities of trees to meet the diverse requirements of various forest products. Such research is concerned with range of variability, mode of inheritance, degree of genetic control, races, and resistance to diseases and insects. Methods and techniques are also the concern of forest geneticists. In addition to fundamental research, tree im¬ provement work in the South has proceeded along the line of selecting plus trees for use in propagation. Seed producing areas have been established, and establishment of seed orchards is under way. These sources will provide seed to make available a quantity of genetically better- than-average planting stock in the near future. Research in management of seed producing areas and seed orchards has been started. The momentum of research in tree improve¬ ment, only begun in the last ‘i years, indicates recognition of its importance. It promises sub¬ stantial results m the near future and will help to maintain, or even increase, southern pine’s share of the national wood market. FOREST RESEARCH IN ALABAMA'S MINERAL DISTRICT II. H. Muntz, A. S. Fore.ft Service. Birming¬ ham. Eorest Service research in North Alabama is conducted by the Birmingham Research Center. Abstracts — Geography and Conservation 129 This is one of 9 centers operated by the South¬ ern Forest Experiment Station with headquarters in New Orleans. Each center is located in a dis¬ tinctive forest problem area. In the case of the Birmingham Center, it is concerned with the mountainous forest lands of North-Central Ala¬ bama. Most of the Center’s vrork is conducted on the Flat Top Experimental Forest. It was established in 19-^6 on land donated by the U. S. Pipe and Foundry Company of Birmingham under a coop¬ erative agreement. It is typical of the forests in the Birmingham area. They are low in per-acre volume, have a high proportion of cull, and con¬ sist mainly of small trees. Research at the Center is organized by projects, each of which includes one or more studies. The projects represent broad forest problems, and are selected after a careful analysis of forestry conditions and needs, and in close cooperation wdth the Advisory Committee of the Center. Pro¬ jects established include the following; (1) Im¬ provement of depleted stands: (2) Farm Fores¬ try; (3) Production and use of wood; (4) Plant¬ ing; ( “i ) Forest management alternatives; (6) Forest soils; and (7) Littleleaf disease. Research is also needed on watershed and wdldlife prob¬ lems. USES FOR WOOD AND HOW TO EXPAND THEM D. B. Richards. Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. Wood use can be expanded in the following 3 ways: (1) improving selling and distribution techniques; (2) lowering cost; (3) increasing utility to the final consumer. Item 3 is of special interest to certain scientists, since there seems to be no limit to the ways scientific research can be used to improve existing wood products and to develop new ones. Present work points to in¬ creased use of all wood species m the chemical and fiber industries; increased use of glued-up products such as plywood, laminated wood, and particle boards; improved methods of stabilizing wood to prevent dimensional changes under changing moisture conditions; increased use of preservative-treated wood; and better methods of fastening wood in tension members and at corn¬ ers. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STANFORD REPORT AND THE TIMBER RESOURCE REVIEW REPORT Hilton Watson, Alabama forest Products Association . The projections of both the Stanfonl Report and the Timber Resource Review Report are based on the assumption tliat we will cnjo\' continued economic prosperity and higher living standards, and continued military preparedness and population increase. In estimating the potential demand for timber products, two sets of estimates veere developed in TRR. One set, called the "lower level " esti¬ mate, was derived from a projection of past trends in consumption, and reflects a decrease in the use of wood per capita. The "upper level" estimate is based on the assumption that wood will continue to occupy about the same place it now does in the national economy. For the year 2000 these estimates indicate a potential demand of 18 and 22 billion cubic feet respectively as compared to some 12 billion cu¬ bic feet consumed in 1932. They would require a timber cut of 69 and 93 billion board feet of saw'timber as compared to 49 billion board feet cut in 1932. Dr. John Zivnuska, a noted forest economist who directed the conversion of "product de¬ mand" into "wood requirements” for the Stan¬ ford Report, and was later retained by the For¬ est Industries Council to study the TRR and re¬ port his conclusions, does not agree with the Forest Service despite the fact that both used the same data for study. He believes that projecting the estimates of timber growth and wood needs beyond 1937 to the year 2000 is fraught with uncertainties and recommends that the "high level” estimate be dropped. There are several logical conclusions to be drawn from the aforementioned reports. Certainly the economy of the U. S. will expand in size and activity, along with an increase in population, living standards and technological ad vances. With this economic expansion will come increased construction with over two million housing starts predicted for 1973. With the expanding markets, lumber prices are likely to increase slightly, but not without giving competitive construction materials a more- favorable advantage. Despite these higher lumber prices, however, there will no doubt be a good market for all lumber produced. Both production and consumption ot pulp- vvciod and paper products wall shciw m,i|or 'u- c reascs. Better utilization ot mill w,istc such ,'s slabs and edgings will meet about 1 s ch the in¬ crease in pulpw'ciod rec|uiremc nts and imprc'i\,cl pulping methods will ,illow ,i gic,itcr usv c'l in¬ terior species. Hie lorest industries will bcccMiie increasingly .licit to the possibilities ot imprcncal lorestry .iiul logging pr.ictices .iiul iicw Uchnuil cle\ elopments. With these points in mind. 1 ,im inclined 130 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science agree with Dr. Zivnuska’s opinion based on his study of the TRR, that "the opportunity exists for a considerable expansion of industrial forest products output while simultaneously achieving an increase in the growth and inventory volume of the nation's forests.” Information and data from both the Stanford Report and the TRR reassure us of the tremen¬ dous progress that has been made in forest prac¬ tices. There is no reason for complacency, how¬ ever. Continuation and acceleration of present trends in fore.stry and wood utilization are neces¬ sary to overcome some of the obstacles that lie ahead. Even allowing a wide margin for error, our forest resources will occupy a major role in the economic stability of this nation both in the near and distant future. SECTION V PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS CONSTRUCTION OF A ONE-TENTH SECOND PERIOD GALVANOMETER Gordon Hughes, Alabama Polytechnic In¬ stitute, Auburn. Intermediate frequency galvanometers are gen¬ erally characterized by their low sensitivity to all but natural period frequencies, and very low coil resistances, usually fractions of an ohm. Since these instruments are not in common use they are generally costly. The instrument to be described has been con¬ structed with little but the Alnico magnet and the speaker coil of a four inch permanent mag¬ net loud speaker. The particular coil used had a resistance of four ohms. The coils of up to twelve ohms are readily available. The sensitivity of the galvanometer has been measured as approximtely 1 ma/cm on a scale at 50 cm. The natural fre¬ quency for this sensitivity is approximately seven cycles per second. The period of the instrument is adjustable. SIX TYPES OF FOURIER SERIES REPRESENTATIONS Ernest Ikenberry, Alabama Polytechnic In¬ stitute, Auburn. Any function f(x) satisfying the Dirichlet conditions over the interval (O, L) can be rep¬ resented by any of six types of Fourier series, namely: a sine-cosine series, an odd harmonic series, a cosine series, a sine series, an odd har¬ monic cosine series, and an odd harmonic sine series. According to the terminal conditions, one or another of these representations is required in obtaining the temperature distribution in a rod of length L at any time t, given the initial dis¬ tribution f(x). Formulae for calculating the coef¬ ficients of the Fourier series may be written in an easily memorized form. SOME BIOLOGICAL AND GEOMETRIC ASPECTS OF FIBONACCI SERIES E. P. Miles, Jr., Alabama Polytechnic Insti tute. Auburn. A Fibonacci sequence is one in which the n*^*^ term, u,„ is the sum of the two preceding terms. When Ua = u, = 1 the sequence starts 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 etc. and the j^*^ term is given by the formula Uj = [ ( 1 + '^5 )•> - ( l-\3'5)-'] /2-''^5. The occurrence of these numbers in theoretical population computation was discussed. Their oc¬ currence in Phyllotaxis in plants was illustrated by exhibiting pine cones of the 5, 8 and 8, 13 pat¬ terns. The relation of the Fibonacci sequence to the spiral r = e*^'’ was discussed. In conclusion the Fibonacci type sequence in which which u„ = u„_i + u„_2 + u„_3 was discussed. APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS TO THE TELEGRAPHER'S EQUA¬ TION BY DIFFERENCE EQUATION METHODS* Chester Miracle, Alabama Polytechnic In¬ stitute, Auburn. In one treatment of planetary atmospheric flow, the solution of the problem is found to be given by the telegrapher’s equation V^, + 1/^V = 0. In order that computing machines may be used to solve this equation, it is desirable to solve it us¬ ing numerical methods. One such method is to approximate the differential equation by a differ¬ ence equation. In doing this the x-t domain, as determined by the conditions on the differential equation, is divided into a rectangular mesh con¬ taining rectangles of length Ax and width At. The difference equation is constructed in terms of the function values at the mesh points only. In this paper two such difference analogs for Vxt + 1/^ V = 0 are constructed and solved. If we let: D = exact solution of the partial dif¬ ferential equation, N = numerical solution of difference analog, and A = exact solution of difference analog. The quantity D — A is called the truncation error. If A — N is kept small and does not tend to increase as the time variable ’ At increases, then the difference equation is said to be stable. An indication of the truncation error is found for both difference equations considered. An indication of the stability of each is considered- Both are found to be stable for all meshes which greatly aids and speeds computation. •This paper received third piace in the Graduate Division of the Student Research Awards sponsored by The Aiabama Academy of Science. , SECTION VI INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS 131 NOTES ON THE PROBLEMS OF INDUSTRIAL DE¬ VELOPMENT IN AN EXPORT ECONOMY Richard Powers, Alabama College, AIow- tevallo. The central thesis examined in this paper is that economics dominated by a single crop ex¬ port commodity, and in a state of socio-economic development less sophisticated than the contem¬ porary world, do not respond to industrial de¬ velopment in a manner which orthodox eco¬ nomic theory purports to describe. Such an eco¬ nomic unit does not have the control over the lev¬ el of employment within its own group, and is highly susceptible to imported inflation because of a dependence upon primary foodstuffs. This dependence upon importation is further aggra¬ vated by a propensity to imitate the conspicious consumption habits of a small but very wealthy merchant class. This merchant class is composed of the top level of income and there is a marked tendency for income polarization to be accentu¬ ated as investment outlets become scarce for domestic capital. Such an arrangement creates a situation in which the domestic market does not create wages, rents, interests, and profits suffi¬ cient to buy back all products created. There are no induced exports or imports and capital forma¬ tion is negligible or impossible. The conclusion reached is: A. The law of comparative advantage should be suspended and bi-lateral trade agreements con¬ cluded through which induced exports could fol¬ low autonomous imports and induced imports could follow from autonomous exports. B. Receipts of large money payments from the sale of the export commodity should be seques¬ tered until the tastes and consuming habits of the population are sufficiently sophisticated ef¬ fectively to use these resources. SECTION VII SCIENCE EDUCATION REPORT OF THE SOUTHEASTERN WORK CON¬ FERENCE AT GAINESVILLE, FLORIDA, SPON¬ SORED BY THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDA¬ TION Blanche E. Dean, Woodlawn High School, Birmingham. Alabama was represented by a team of four; namely, Mr. G. W. Smith of the State Depart¬ ment of Education, Father Yancey of Spring Hill College, Dr. W. T. Wilks, past president of Ala¬ bama Academy, Troy and Mrs. Blanche E. Dean, biology instructor at Woodlawn High School, Birmingham. Attending and taking part in the conference were representatives from seventeen states, District of Columbia and the Canal Zone with delegates from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Research Council, and the National Science Foun¬ dation. The total science 'program, particularly the biology from the introductory sciences through college and professional training of teachers and research workers was sharply fo¬ cussed. Many of the problems discussed related to the acute shortage of qualified high school teachers. Recommendations were made to im¬ prove the quality of training of high school teachers and to make his job more attractive. To meet these recommendations would require cooperation of the Colleges and State Depart¬ ment of Education. The conference recognized that the high school student is to be trained to take his place in the community life, become a citizen interested in the conservation of all her resources, and become familiar with problems of this changing world. Reports at the AAAS meetings in Atlanta show several states have made progress in meet¬ ing the recommendations of the conference thereby improving the curriculum to meet the needs for better qualified teachers and make science teaching more appealing to the youths of the southland. THEY'RE YOURS, IF YOU ASK FOR THEM Mary E. Hafling, West End High School, Birmingham. Do you need inspiration, stimulation, encour¬ agement, new' ideas, practical experience, sub¬ ject matter competence, credit toward a Masters Degree? They are yours for the asking. Since high school and: college -teachers play the key role in stimulating young people into the field of science, programs have been made avail¬ able by industries and national foundations to im¬ prove subject matter competence of teachers in science, strengthen the capacity of teachers to mo¬ tivate students toward careers in science, bring science teachers into personal contact with success- 132 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science tul scientists to stimulate their interest and to increase their prestige professionally. One type of program is a four to six weeks summer course at various colleges and univer¬ sities designed especially for science teachers. Nearly 1300 fellowships and stipends are avail¬ able for the summer These vary in value from $200 to $300. In addition, some provide tuition, board and lodging, travel expenses and allowance for dependents. These programs are supported by National Science Foundation, West- inghouse Educational Foundation, General Elec¬ tric Company, Shell Oil Company, Future Scien tists of America Foundation, du Pont Company and Hill Family Foundation. A second type of program is the Summer Re¬ search Assistantships. In the summer of 1936 thirty-two or more universities will offer about $400 for cjuahfied science teachers to serve as re¬ search assistants with researchers in biological, physical, and earth sciences. This program is sponsored by Future Scientists of America Foun¬ dation of the National Science Teachers Asso¬ ciation. The National Science Foundation has provided $.3000 stipends plus fees and liberal allowances for dependents and travel for the year 1936-1937 Fifty of these are for study at Oklahoma Agri¬ cultural and Mechanical College at Stillwater and titty are for study at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. The fellowships, stipends and research assis- tanceships with addresses for your applications are listed in "ihe Science Teacher, Volume XX- 111, No. 1, February 1956, p. 27-28, 43-46. The National Science Foundation stipends are listed also in Science, Volume 123, Number 3188, p. 177-178. From four wonderful experiences I have en¬ joyed, I urge all Alabama science teachers to ap¬ ply so they may reap the benefits of participating in an enriching program, and science in Alabama will be upgraded. SOME TEACHING VALUES IN CHILDREN'S CHEMISTRY SETS Henry 1’. Harvey, State Teachers College. Florence. 1 . A brief description of the contents of the sets and the table of ijontents of the accompany¬ ing booklet of experiments. 2. Conditions under which the sets are ordi¬ narily used and some advantages of their use un¬ der these circumstances. Some reasons why we should encourage gifts of chemistry sets to child¬ ren of junior and senior high school age. 3. Some disadvantages of the use of these sets at home. 4. The main emphasis of this paper is to point out some of the teaching values and teaching techniques that are inherent in children's chem¬ istry sets that may be used in teaching chemis¬ try in high school and college general science and chemistry classes. SOME EXPERIENCES AT THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE John S. Martin, Bessemer High School, Bes¬ semer. IT CAN BE DONE James Hocker M.ason, Indian S firings School, Helena. Referring to the scientists of today's world as "employees” of the citizens of that world with certain responsibilities to these citizens, Mr. Ma¬ son stresses the necessity facing the scientist of expressing himself both clearly and concisely. Such ability depends upon practice in the use of communicative skills. If the above is true today, it is all the more true of tomorrow's scientist. But this particular scientist must be trained today. Mr. Mason out¬ lines several techniques useful to today's teacher of science as he trams the scientist of the future to express himself well. These techniques will help today's teacher of science to arouse his students' interests in cor¬ rect expression and to induce them to put their expressions in written form. Writing one's ideas for others to read is not only a responsibility, but a high privilege. The subject matter of sci¬ ence and the necessity of informing the public about science make this privilege even greater; greater, too, becomes the responsibility of the science teacher who must help train the student in self-expression. SNAKES AND WHAT OUGHT TO BE TAUGHT ABOUT THEM Ben Massie, Indian Springs School. Helena. Although snakes have sulfered ill repute ever since the time of Adam and Eve, they, with the exception of the poisonous species, are greatly beneficial to man. Among Alabama species, the king snakes and rat snakes are especially use¬ ful because they eat rodent pests. Although they will occasionally do some harm in preying upon useful birds, they more than repay for this. Snakes are the subjects of many superstitions, such as the one about the Milk Snake stealing milk from cows. This superstition, like most of Abstracts — Science Education 133 the others can be easily disproved by an examina¬ tion of the snake, which in this case will show that it is absolutely incapable of sucking milk. Although poisonous snakebite is at best an un¬ pleasant, and often an agonizing experience, the danger of it has been greatly overestimated. In- as much as the annual American death toll on the highways equals the annual total from snakebite in the uorld (especially since America accounts for only a small percentage of the snakebite deaths), the danger of snakebite is not nearly as great as that from everyday occurences. In general, since snakes are beneficial, they ought be protected, not hated. PROVIDING FOR THE GIFTED STUDENT IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE Joseph Payne, Indian Springs School, Helena. THi DEViLOPMINT OF AN EVALUATION PRO- GRAM IN THi PHYSICAL SCIENCES H. Craig Sipe, Indian Springs School, Helena. The development of an evaluation program serving the needs of administration, instruction, and public relations is a challenging problem in action research. Particularly is this true in the physical sciences for there are few guide posts. Of necessity, an evaluation program is predicated on a body of assumptions relating to the ob¬ jectives of instruction, the means for testing, the degree of faculty-student cooperation, and the time available for conferences. These factors vary from situation to situation, consequently the findings in a single locale have limited rather than general application. The presentation and discussion of our conclusions may catalyze the thinkincf of others w’orking on a similar prob¬ lem. An evaluation program developed for a small school may have a number of unique features. Among these are the following: (1) Progress is reported regularly on a three point scale (su¬ perior, creditable, minimal) not only with re¬ gard to several categories dealing with subjcct matter accomplishment, but also in categories bearing on skill in human relations, communica tion skills, study skills, and citizenship activ¬ ities. (2) A deliberate attempt is made to share the objectives of the course and the expected standard of accomplishment with the student. Mastery quizzes are used. Questions specifically related to the mastery ot facts and ideas, to tb.c application of facts and ideas, to quantitatic e thinking, to reasoning in science, to the organ ization ot subject matter, to the development of intellectual curiosity, to the development of Lib oratory skills, and to the development ot an understanding of the role of science in society are included on the tests. ( 3 ) From time to time students report on the way they study, how much they help others, what they are reading beyond assigned work, and what they are doing to help class activities run smoothly. From observation and from the remarks of a student’s peers, the teacher gets information for anecdotal records filed in the student’s folder. (4) Both student and teacher independently arrive at an evaluation of the student's work. The report to parents is v/orked out in a conference where the differences in viewpoint are compromised. Such a procedure encourages self-appraisal and provides the opportunity for counseling on the areas wherein improved work may be expected. ( 5 ) The student’s rank, as expressed by a letter grade for the official school record, is assigned but once during the year. To date the experience of developing an eval¬ uation program in the physical sciences has been an instructive and a creative one. Hypotheses that ( 1 ) evaluation can serve an instructional role, (2) students profit by extended participation, and (3) the means for comprehensive evaluation can be developed within the classroom situation ap¬ pear to be verified. As in all continuing action research, colleagues, students, and experience have suggested refinements of technique to be incorporated in the next edition of our evaluation p'-ogram in the physical sciences. THE PREPARATION OF A MANUAL ABOUT NORTHWEST ALABAMA INDUSTRIES Ernest E. Snyder, Florence State Teaclnrs College. Florence. The purpose of preparing a manual of inform¬ ation about northv/est Alabama industries was to provide elementary, secondary and college sci¬ ence teachers in that geographical area with a ready source ot supplementary teaching material. When published, tlie manual will i.ont,un tlie following information concerning each of the principal industries and representatic e industries in the tourteen counties of the I'loreiue ,btatc Teachers (iollcgc serxice area: r,i\\ materials, manufacturing [srocesses, and jsroducts; eiicrgv sources; by-products and waste pre'ducts; scnirccs of raw materials; policies of ihe industries con¬ cerning field trips by sciiool groups; and ,iuduv \ isual and field serxices s[sonsored b\ the iiulus tries. Ihe science teachers in the are,i will be [srex \ idecl with copic's of this m.iiui.il w ithc'ut ch.irge. 1 he Alabam.i ,St,ite ( h.imber ot (ommeicv nirectory of M.iiui I ,u tiirers, I nd.'i ilr:.:.' ■ Montgomery, loss, hsts over oOO iiulustnes lcxi the fourteen counties. Ih ,i\c'iding duplK,Uu'i 134 Journal of 'riiF Alabama Acadfmy of Science and eliminating those industries that do not man¬ ufacture a standard final or intermediate product, the number of different kinds of industries vas reduced to about 1 30. In gathering the material for the manual, the writer visited each of these 130 different concerns. In almost all cases either the manager or the director of public relations (or comparable personnel) was interviewed be¬ fore touring the plant. I'here were only a few instances in which there was a company policy against visits to the manufacturing area. General¬ ly, no attempt was made to make appointments ahead of the actual visits. Appointment-making was found to be unjustifiably time-consuminr; and very satisfactory results were obtained by ap¬ plying unannounced at the company office and presenting a letter of introduction and identifi¬ cation from the president of FSTC. The manual was organized and written in such a way that easy reference may be made to any of the 390 described or listed industries ac¬ cording to raw materials, manufacturing proces¬ ses, products, or geographical location. Wher¬ ever practicable, suggestions were made as to how the industries might be used to illustrate or extend understanding of scientific principles. THE SCIENCE TEACHING IMPROVEMENT PRO¬ GRAM OF THE AAAS F. H. Yancey, S. J., Spying H/ll College, Mo¬ bile. The American Association for the Advance' m.ent of Science received a grant of $300,000 from the Carnegie Foundation for the purpose of developing a program for the improvement of science teaching in the secondary schools of the nation. It has employed Mr. John Mayor to di¬ rect this program cn a full time basis. Ffe ap¬ peared on a panel at the Academy Conference of the AAAS in Atlanta and outlined what they were trying to do. He said they are interested in working with state and other school divisions on Teacher Certification requirements. He is availa¬ ble to such divisions and also to academies of science for consultation. He may be reached at the Washington office of the AAAS. SECTION VIII SOCIAL SCIENCES RECENT CHANGES IN FAMILY STRUCTURE Ruth Albrixht, Alahduia Polylechnic hnt/- tnte. Auburn. In recent years our families have become elong¬ ated with more living generations. Homes arc- apt to be family units and fewer "extra" peoplc are living with families. Marriages last longer and certain family functions are shared with commun¬ ity organizations or institutions. Roles of family members have been intensified and in a nuniber of them quality is replacing quantity of inter¬ action. This study includes an analysis of the ef¬ fects of these changes and of family-role-values held by a group ot modern young people. PERSONNEL VALUES AND ECONOMIC VITALITY OF SELECTED TEXTILE COMPANIES Robert E. Garren, Alabama Polyleshnic In- \tilute, Auburn Certain personnel values in an industry may be found reflected in the internal house organ of given companies. These personnel values are believed to be agents for increased production of the workers and consequently for increased ec¬ onomic return for the company. The study of relationship between available personnel induce¬ ments as reflected in the internal house organ of six Southern textile companies was made. Through the use ot Kendall’s Ian in rank order correlation an exiguous association was found. An explansion of this approach may conceiv¬ ably aid in a better understanding of the indus¬ trial reward system. ON THE NATURE OF RAPPORT RA^■MON^) L. Gold, Untversily of Alabama, IJ ntversit). The concept, rapport, may be understood in terms of dyadic and triadic forms of social in¬ teraction. In field work activities, dyadic rapport is usually the most desirable form of interaction between observer and informant, for it permits sharing of information without fear of losing face. Triadic rapport also permits sharing of pri¬ vate, and even secret, information, but makes it difficult for the observer to remain enough of a stranger to play his role successfully. In addi¬ tion, triadic rapport changes informants to con¬ verters, who try to get the observer to accept, not merely understand, their way of life. Accordingly, when field worker and informant can act as if their relationship divorces them from convention¬ al societal attachments and concerns, they achieve dyadic rapport and fulfill the demands of suc¬ cessful performance of their roles. CLOTHING BUYING PRACTICES IN A SMALL TOWN iMA Jean Goodrick, Alabama Polytechnic histitute. Auburn. This study was made in an effort to determine Abstracts — Social Sciencls 135 clothing buying practices oi murried women in j small Alabama town. It was felt that some¬ what definite trends in buying might exist among small town women and that there w'ere certain casual factors associated with these trends. Data were collected by personal interviews in everv fourth household in the community. Forty-two per cent of the women came from adult fam¬ ilies; the rest had children of varying ages. Ap¬ proximately one-half of the women were em¬ ployed outside the home. About three-fourths of the last acquired garments were bought out of town. There seemed to be recreational values in¬ volved in out-of-town shopping trips even when the women felt rushed. Social participation scores and occupation seemed to be more important than family composition in determining buying practices. COMMUNITY AS EXPERIENCED BY THE INDIVIDUAL A. T. Hansen, University of Alabama, Uni¬ versity. This paper compares how a growing individual experiences w'hat he eventually comes to call his community in a backcountry peasant village in Mexico and among the middle class of a present- day American city. In the village, he has direct contacts with every facet of his local society and culture that is appropriate for one of his age and sex. Neither his parents nor any parent surrogates urge or require him to select certain persons as associates and to avoid other persons; to choose particular activities and to eschew other activities that are current and tolerated in his community. The social-cultural world that is pre¬ sented to him is "real" in the sense that it is an actual operating system. As he finds his place in the system and learns to live in it, his community becomes his very completely. His feeling of be¬ longing is usually dear and strong. Middle-class urban American parents character¬ istically put themselves to considerable trouble and expense to expose their children to narrov.ly selected persons and activities. In explicit and in subtle ways, youngsters are told that their so¬ cial environment teems with moral and status hazards from which they must be protected. In deed, the general state of things is so unsatisfac tory that parents and parent surrogates devise con¬ structs, compounded of elements of reality and ot symbols without referents, and use these con¬ structs to guide the growing up process. The in¬ dividual is encouraged to learn to live in a world that fully exists only in tlie minds of tliesc persons. To complicate matters, tliere is r.irely agreement on the constructs 1 rom person to per¬ son. Eventually the individual does affiliate with some "real" segment or segments of his commun¬ ity. Much of the rest ot the community remains for him a sort of social jungle regarding which he is ill informed or misinformed. Still, he gen¬ erally thinks of all of it as hi.\ in a way. The sit¬ uation is likely to create uncertainty as to just what social something is truly his and what he truly belongs to. It can happen that the segments he has joined absorb him and give him a suffi¬ cient sense of membership. When this occurs, the rest of the community largely ceases to be his and becomes the "habitat" of the segments with which he identifies himself. More commonly it happens that he stays in a condition of some de¬ gree of uncertainty. In this case, one possible source of solace that is available to him is to de¬ vise plans so that his children will be able to grow up and live happily in a construct he form¬ ulates. His children, in consequence, will sub¬ stantially repeat his experiences as they experience their community. COMMUNISTIC INFLUENCES IN EDUCATION AND SCIENCE Roland M. Harper, University, Ala. The influence of Communism on economics and politics, and to a lesser extent on religion, has been discussed at great length in our papers and magazines, especially in the last decade or two. But less attention has been paid to its in¬ fluence on education and science. A typical Communist seeks to obliterate dis¬ tinctions of all kinds, and treat everybody alike, to save the mental exertion of discriminating. Early in the 19th century most .schools in the United States were private, and they must have varied considerably in different parts ot the country, and many children, especially the piio'-er ones, were not reached by them at all. But m the last too years the public school system h.N been greatly expanded and standardized, so th.it all children can get the same kind ot education. Not only that, but it is now a common custom to promote every child every year, whether he makes passing grades or not. '1 he theor\ seems to be that the dull ones are merel\- "unde rprix i- leged", and should not be discriminated ag.iinst A typic.il Scientist, who should be |cist the op [sosite ot .1 ( omnumist, h.is .m .ictixe mind, .uid is const.intly looking Icrr dillerciices between things tormerU reg.irded ,is identical. But. large ly on .iccounl ot ['resent c'duc .it ion.d poluice. modern )Oung Scientists ,ire lU'l ,is c nt luisi.iet n about discoxering new principles .is their ['lede' cessors were. In the lieid cit bot.inx .it ie.isi, there has been .1 tendency in Kite Ne.irs tc' hinij' tc' 136 Journal of thf Alabama Acai)i:mv of Scilnce gcther genera and species formerly regarded as distinct (whkh gives fewer names to remember) Not only that, but many college professors, some of them reputable scientists, beve become fascinated by the Marxian principle of ccjuality, and have tried to influence their students in that direction. Some of these have already been pub¬ licly branded as ’’fellow-travelers”, and a few have been dismissed; and tliere must be many others who are favorably inclined to such ideas, but have not publicized their views. PREDICTING ALABAMA'S SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ENROLLMENTS TO 1965 Paul Irvine and Fowler Ducr^er, [r., Alabama Polytechuw Institute, Auburn. This study predicts total enrollments by grades in Alabama's public schools and in its colleges to 196“^. The method is based on corrected and adjusted birth figures, white and Negro, from 1940. Survival rates Irom grade to grade were determined and then projected by regression ecpiation or ’best fit” to provide predictions for each grade. Similarly, college enrollments v/er^ studied and projected, (dianges due to migra¬ tion were held constant; changes due to higher birthrates and increased holding-power of the schools were indicated in enlarged enrollments. Conclusions. 1. Increased birthrates since 1942 have al¬ ready inlluenced school enrollments in all grades up to grade 7. This first ’’wave” will reach college level in the fall of 1961; the full force of enlarged enrollments will reach the colleges in 1965. 2. The second ’’wave” of increased births, beginning in 1947, has now reached grade 3. By I960, it will greatly increase the need for more rooms and more teachers at the high school level. This ’’wave” will reach the colleges in 1965. 3. Increased enrollments appear to be per¬ manent gains since the iiighei birthrate tends to remain steady at about 26 per 1000 population. Also, longer stay in school is indicated by the increase in high school enrollment. 4. Enrollments in schools and colleges, 195 5- 1965 Consolidated totals : Alabania Grades 1-6 7-12 Total 1-12 12th Grade College: Freshmen Total 1955-56 1965-66 454,079 4S2,ono 274.859 326,543 728.938 808,543 26., 807 37,086 8.191 12.024 30.3.37 46,246 Increase Percent 27.921 6.2 51,684 18.8 79.605 10.9 10,279 38.3 3.833 46.8 15,909 52.4 Within the next ten years, enrollments are pre¬ dicted to increase: a) elementary schools, 27,921, or 6.2 percent; b) junior-senior high schools, 'll, 684, or 18.8 percent; c) total all public schools, 79,605, or 10.9 percent; this requires building 3,000 addi¬ tional classrooms and training and employ¬ ing 3,000 additional teachers; d) high school seniors, 10,279, or 38.3 per¬ cent; e) college freshmen, 3,833, a gain of 46.8 percent; f) total college enrollments, a gain of 15,909, or 52.4 per cent; requiring nearly 1,000 additional college teachers in the ten year period. “1. Increases of population and enrollments are so strong as to demand immediate atten¬ tion to meet urgent needs for buildings and teaching personnel. A FORGOTTEN INSTITUTION — PRIVATE BANKS IN NORTH CAROLINA H. H. Mitcjiell, Alabama Polytechnic InUu tute. Auburn In the all too sketchy treatment which histori¬ ans have given to banking in North Carolina, they have practically ignored the role of the private bank. The purpose of this paper is to partially fill this gap. Between IBb'i and 1905 over one hundred private banks opened tor business. During this period sixty-one towns, at one time or another, had private banks in operation. There were never over twenty-one banks in operation at any one time, and total resources never exceeded $2.-1 million. Private banks played an important role in the economy of the state, however, because they provided banking services during a time when other banking institutions were not avail¬ able in sufficient numbers to serve the public. During nineteen of the tw'entythree years be¬ tween 1865 and 1887, private banks outnum¬ bered state banks, and during most of these years they ran a close second to national banks from the standpoint of number. A study of private banks revealed that they generally differed from state and national banks in the following ways: Their lives were usually shorter. A smaller percentage of their assets was represented by loans and discounts. Overdrafts were more common. The capital account-liabilitv ratio was lower. The percentage of assets invest¬ ed in buildings and fixtures was low'er. Their accounting practices were more slipshod. The Abstracts — Social Sciences 137 percentage of assets invested in private securi¬ ties was higher. Although private banks generally did not fol¬ low as sound banking practices as did other types of banks, the failure rates of private insti¬ tutions compared favorably with those of other types of institutions. Private banks continued to thrive alongside state and national institutions until 1903 when the North Carolina General Assembly made it easier to charter a state bank by abolishing the requirement that all state bank charters had to be granted by the assembly. PERSONNEL PRACTICES IN THE SOUTHEAST- JOB EVALUATION William R. Myles, H. Ellsworth Steele, and Sherwood C. Mc/ntyre, Alabama Poly- techn'ic Institute. Auburn. In an effort to obtain more information on the ways in which job differentials are deter¬ mined, a questionnaire survey was conducted of 292 plants in the southeast. Replies were obtained from 218 of these plants, 30% of which are lo¬ cated in Alabama. The survey was designed to answ'er, in part, five major questions concern¬ ing job evaluation; How extensively is job evalu¬ ation used in the southeast; What systems of job evaluation are being used; How are job evalua¬ tion programs administered; and, How effective is job evaluation. The study is an outgrowth of an earlier one concerning the extent of use of personnel practices in the southeast, and has been made possible by a Research Grant-in-Aid from the Alabama Polytechnic Institute. Summary of Results: 1. It is estimated that an upper limit of 23% of the plants in the southeast use job evaluation. 2. The most used system of job evaluation is the point system, followed by the ranking system, factor comparison system, ranking-point system combination, and the classification system. 3. The basic reasons for deciding to develop a system of job evaluation are: to pay uniform base rates for all like jobs; to fit rates to job requirements and avoid charges of favoritism; to attract and keep desirable employees without paying excessive rates, and possibly because of "home office” pressure. The systems are installed in the main by consultants and by "home office” officials, very seldom by a local plant official. In setting rates most plants consider area wage patterns and customs, and to a lesser extent indus¬ try wage patterns. Many plants consider no criteria outside the job evaluation program in setting rates. Practically all the installations ot job evalution were preceded by careful analysis of job facts before installing the system. Most plants use dif¬ ferent sets of value scales for measuring shop job values than for measuring office job values. 4. Job evaluation programs are usually admin¬ istered by plant officials who have duties addi¬ tional to their job evaluation responsibilities. A large proportion of the plants use r-ate ranges. Job evaluation is used to establish the midpoint of the range, and employees progress through these ranges primarily on the basis of ability. Plants using job evaluation as a rule are not very active in explaining the systems to their em¬ ployees. Those plants explaining the system to their employees also have communication pro¬ grams for direct supervisors. 3. Job evaluation eliminates many job ineq¬ uities, but does not eliminate them all. The greatest advantages of job evaluation appear to be: it reveals inequities in wages; it puts wage programs under central control; and it reduces management-labor conflict. The greatest disad¬ vantages reported were: the program reduces possible incentives; the program is too complex (not understood); and the program neglects certain important factors in determining wages and salaries. Some of these disadvantages are not a result of inherent qualities of job evalution, but result from the pecularities of administration. The feeling of the respondants as reported in the cjuestionnaire was that both management and labor overwhelmingly liked job evaluation. THE EFFECT OF SIMILARITY OF MATERIALS UPON RETRO¬ ACTIVE INHIBITION AND RETENTION* Shirle\- Nicholson, Alabama Polytechnic In- Uitute, Auburn. One of the most important causes of "'for¬ getting things learned” has been attributed to retroactive inhibition — "a principle coming chieflv from experiments on verbal memorization and retention which accounts for forgetting as tlic re¬ sult of disruption or interference by new learning interpolated between memorization and rcc dl ( 3,330)”. This experiment evas a paired associates re¬ learning problem interested in testing the vlif- ference in retroactive inhibition as a tuiiMion of similarity of response items. Six subjects were chosen t rom tlic c \pc .ri- mental psychology class at Millsa ps ( ollc Uc. jackson, M ississi ppi. The experiment was dl\ u' LaI into Part 1 and i'art 11, each p.irt c onsi sting ot ^HTiis p.-ipi 'V rot'oivoi A til's t plaot' in till' I’lui lor^ra au:lto Oi- \’UsU>n 1)1' till' SlUlli out Ki t'soari'h Aw arils spinisori' a In ■ riu' Alah.nina Ai'adomy of St' ii'iu' i'. 138 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science an original learning, interpolated, and relearning task. The stimuli and response items in Part I and Part II were lists of three letter nonsense syllables and were of approximately equal as¬ sociation value. The only difference in Part I and Part II was in the dissimilarity and similarity of the original learning to the interpolated learning. Part II was given seven days after Part I. The savings method was employed to measure re¬ tention and study retroactive effects, and the test was used to test for significant differences in the per cent savings. From the present investigation, these con¬ clusions may he drawn: 1 . On the basis of these procedures, there are no significant differences in the speed ot re¬ learning material when comparing similarity and dissimilarity between the interpolated task and the original learning. It can further be stated on this basis, that there were no significant differ¬ ences in the retroactive inhibition effects of Parts I and II. 2. In Part I of the experiment, ^ out of 6 of the subjects saved when relearning the original material; one of the subjects taking as long to relearn the task as it took him originally to learn it. 3. In Part II using similarity between the 01 and II, only four out of six subjects saved, with their percent savings amounting to 30% or over. SCIENCE AND EMPIRE; JOHN ELLIS, KING'S AGENT FOR WEST FLORIDA Robert R. Rea, Alabama Polytechnic Inst/' t/ile. Auburn John Ellis ( 1703 ?-1776) became King’s Agent for the new colony of British West Florida in 176-1. For twelve years his official capacity linked him with an area which he sought to investi¬ gate and develop with the zeal of the collector and the interests of the natural scientist. A Fel¬ low of the Royal Society since 1734, Ellis util¬ ized his political influence to secure specimens of the flora and fauna of the Gulf Coast for the advancement of science, and simultaneously he sought to encourage, not only in West Florida, but throughout the British Empire, the develop¬ ment of diversified agriculture planned upon scientific principles for the mutual benefit of all parts of the English-speaking world. Ellis owed his political appointment to the horticulturally-minded Earls of Northington and Hillsborough. His duties, essentially those of a disbursing officer, were light. His chief interest was scientific and was pursued through corre spondence with fellow-naturalists in America like Dr. Alexander Garden of Charlestown, in whose honor Ellis named the gardenia. Much encouragement was given to Ellis by the re¬ nowned Swedish botanist Linnaeus, but English settlers at Mobile and Pensacola fell far short of satisfying the Agent’s scientific curiosity. De¬ spite the handicap of research at a distance and the insecurity of ocean transportation, Ellis cata¬ logued the swamp magnolia, the starry anise, the loblolly bay, and other native American plants. Seeds and cuttings from West Elorida were propagated at Kew, and Ellis was honored by the Royal Society for his many contributions to natural science. John Ellis's scientific interests were global; his correspondents ranged from Canton to Mo bile, and his advice was sought by the natural¬ ists who accompanied the Cook expedition to Australia. His publications dealt with the prob¬ lems of seed preservation, the merits of agri¬ cultural experimentation, and the complexities of biological nomenclature. He was an outstanding member of the international fraternity of scient¬ ists and the god-father of natural science in Ala¬ bama. A STUDY OF INFLUENCES ON RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTAL¬ ISM IN MIDDLE TENNESSEE Lewis Rhodes, University of Alabama. Uni- ver\i!\. WORKING PAPER: IN SEARCH OF DESCRIPTIVE CONTINUA FOR A MORE EFFECTIVE CLASSIFI¬ CATION OF PROTESTANT RELIGIOUS BODIES FOR USE IN SOCIAL RESEARCH Lewis Rhodes, University of Alabama, Uni¬ versity. Ala. The category "Protestant” in the trichotomy: Catholic'Protestant-Jew currently used by social researchers is too broad. A model is needed for further classification of Protestant faiths into two or more related categories. A prototype for such a model is offered as a starting point for dis¬ cussion. The model involves four distinctions which are given in what seems to be their order of importance: (1) fundamentalism versus mod¬ ernism; (2) church versus sect; (3) Arminian- ism versus Calvinism; and (4) hierarchical or¬ ganization versus individualization. These dis¬ tinctions were chosen because they each represent a number of finer distinctions. Appeal is made for more objective studies of religious belief and practice so that proper selection and weighing of religious variables will be possible in social research. ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING Reynolds Hall, Alabama College, Montevallo, Alabama, November 12, 1955 Dr. Ralph Chermock, President of the Acad¬ emy, called the meeting to order at 1 :45 P.M. The minutes of the Executive Committee Meet¬ ing of April 28, 19‘'5, were distributed in mim¬ eographed form. The Secretary, at the request of the President, introduced the following members and guests: Dr. Ralph Chermock, Dr. Allan Tower, Dr. Locke White, Dr. A. T. Hansen, Dr. Clyde Can¬ trell, Dr. Howard Carr, Dr. Paul Bailey, Dr. Gid Nelson, Dr. Everett Bishop, Mr. James Sulzby, Dr. E. P. Miles, Jr., Mr. Ted Cobun, Dr. George Swindle, and Dr. Madison Marshall. A combined Report of the Secretary and the Admission to Membership Committee was given. (Copy attached) (Summary of report: The num¬ ber of members of the Academy is 474 with 40 new members having been added since the last Annual Meeting. Arrangements have been made to purchase a used Elliott Addressing Machine from Howard College at a cost of $75.) Dr. Cantrell moved the acceptance of the combined report. Upon a second by Dr. Tower and a vote of the members the report was accepted. Dr. White gave the Report of the Treasurer. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: As of October 28, 1955, the balance in general fund was $1,366.62 and in the research fund, $590.24.) Upon a motion by Dr. Tower, a second by Dr. Bailey and a vote of the members the report was accepted. The Report of the Editor of the Journal was given by Dr. Bailey. He announced that volume 27 of the Journal should be in the mail shortly after December first. All papers had been read by at least two persons. The cost of volume 27 will be $987. Dr. Carr moved. Dr. Tower sec¬ onded and upon a vote by the members the re¬ port was accepted. Dr. Hansen, called upon to give the Report of the Editorial Board, announced that because of the efficiency of the Editor, the Editorial Board had had little to do. Dr. Tower moved the ac¬ ceptance of the report. After a second by Dr. Carr and a vote of the members, the report u.n accepted. In the absence of the ehairman, tlicrc was no Report of the Research Committee. Dr. Tower gave a Report of the Memberslfip Committee announcing that contacts have been made with his committee memoers encouraging them to double their efforts to recruit members. Dr. Carr moved. Dr. Bailey seconded and the report was accepted. Dr. Carr read a Report of the Long Range Planning Committee. (Copy attached.) (Sum¬ mary of report: At the request of President Cher¬ mock on May 5, 1955, the committee accepted the duties of a Temporary Committee on Science- Education to encourage improvement of science and mathematics teaching in high schools. The report is of the activity of this committee. A brochure on science and mathematics as careers is being prepared. Attempts, unsuccessful to date, have been made to discuss this matter with Su¬ perintendent of Education Meadows. Consider¬ able correspondence has been written to students and to other individuals and organizations witb. similar interests. The committee has urged the consideration of establishing graduate courses in the colleges and universities of the state designed to meet the specific needs of teachers.) There was considerable discussion of the report. At tlie sug¬ gestion of several members. President Chermock requested Dr. Carr to prepare a motion for con¬ sideration under new business to place the weight of the Academy behind the idea of encouraging students to become good science teachers. Dr. Bailey moved the acceptance of the report. Llpon a second by Dr. Tower the report was accepted by the members present. In the absence of the chairman, tliere was no Report of the finance Committe: and in tlie ab¬ sence of the councilor no Report of the C'O/n- cilor of the AAAS. In the absence of either ot the tounselors ot the Junior Academy, President ChermoA ask ed the secretary to read the Report oj tin C 'or- selors of the Junior Acadeni). (Copy att.khcd.) (Summary of report: A total of I6 .uti\e Jiap ters was reported lor the l'')''i-19ss .u.ulcmic year. 'Hie by-laws ot tlie Junior Ai.ulciin li.uc been rewritten diiiding the work between three associate counselors and the counselor. It w .is requested that the lixemtive Committee of the Senior Academy aiqnove the revision of the by-laws. It was recommended that the l\eiu live ( ommittee approxe the .ippciintment ot i 140 Journal of thf Alabama Academy of Science third associate counselor to take office at tlie close of tlic 19^^1-19^6 academic year. The of¬ fice ot permanent counselor is to be changed to counselor whose duties will be mainly ad¬ visory. ) The secretary then read the Report of the Coopeviitor of Science Chihs of Ain erica. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: 3-^6 of the ap¬ proximately >09 white and negro high schooh in Alabama were affiliated with Science Clubs of America. A list of speakers available tor science clubs or assembly programs has been prepared. ) The secretary concluded this series of reports with the reading ot the Report of the Alabaina State Science lalent Search. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: The choice of schools made by the 19‘i4-19‘i3 winners are given. A certifi¬ cate is being designed to go with the cash awards. Contributions during past year totaled sSl 1,000. The Foundation has enough money on hand to operate at least another year. ) Dr. Swindle moved the acceptance of these reports. Dr. Bishop seconded and upon a vote of the members the three report.^ were approved. Dr. Marshall gave a Report of hte Coordinator of Science Pairs. He announced that five final¬ ists went to the National Science Fair with one of these receiving an honorable mention. Dr. Marshall indicated that the state had been di¬ vided into tour general regions: Northern with a fair at Athens, North Central with a fair at Birmingham, Southwestern with a fair at Mo¬ bile, and Southeastern with a fair at Montgom¬ ery. Considerable discussion cxcurred as to the relationship to exist between the Science Fairs and the Junior Academy meetings. /Motion: By Mr. Sulzby, seconded by Dr. Han¬ sen. Dr. Marshall is asked to reconsider the re¬ lationship between the Science Fairs and the Junior Academy and to recommend to the Ex¬ ecutive Committee at its next meeting adju.st- ments to avoid detrimental overlapping and to integrate any duplication of the two activities. Aiotion passed. Motion: By Dr. Miles, seconded by Mr. Sulz- by. Action is to be taken to insure that in all publicity relative to the Science Fairs the joint sponsorship by the Alabama Academy of Sci¬ ence with other groups is to be emphasized. Motion passed. Dr. Marshall’s report was accepted upon a mo¬ tion by Dr. Carr, a second by Dr. Bailey and a vote of the members. There was no Report of the Editor of the Newsletter. President Chermock called upon Dr. Cantrell to give the Report of the Custodian and of the Historical Connnittee. Dr. Cantrell announced that Il6 publications are received on an ex¬ change basis and that the Academy collection now has 830 volumes. Considerable quantities of the correspondence and other papers of the Academy have been organized for the use of the Historical Committee. The committee met on April 30, 193 3, at the University of Alabama at which time a rough outline of the project was considered and specific chapters tentatively were assigned to members of the committee or other members of the Academy. A meeting is planned at Auburn early in December. It is hoped to have the first draft of the history ready early in the spring. F)r Carr moved, Dr Bailev seconded, the members voted and the report wa s accepted. The president declared a five minute recess and the meeting reconvened at 3:35 p.m. Dr. Bailey gave the Report of the Local Ar¬ rangements Committee. He announced that ar¬ rangements had been worked out to house and provide facilities for the Academy and the Jun¬ ior Academy. He reminded the members that the dates of the meeting are March 30 and 31. The report was approved after a motion, second and vote. As items of new business President Chermock presented the four proposals which had been approved by the Steering Committee by mail previously. The proposals are as follows: 1 . The Secretary asks that he be authorized to stop issuing membership certificates to the Academy, unless specifically requested to do so by the new members. Apparently most new members seem to have little concern as to whether they receive these certificates or not. In addition, the money saved can be utilized for other academy expenses. /Motion: By Dr. Marshall, seconded by Dr. Tower. The Secretary is authorized to suspend issuing membership certificates except when re¬ quested to prepare one by the applicant. Motion passed . 2. The President requests that the Editor of the Newsletter of the Alabama Academy of Science be admitted to membership in the Execu¬ tive Committee of the Academy. His duties and responsibilities are such that he deserves this recognition. Mr. Sulzby moved the approval ot the pro¬ posal. Dr. Marshall seconded and the proposal was approved. Motion: By Dr. Tower, seconded by Dr. Han- Executive Committee Meeting I4l sen. The by-laws are amended to establish a new standing committee to be known as the News¬ letter Committee. The Editor ot the Nev/sletter is to be chairman of the committee. Motion passed. 3. The President has appointed a Committee on Science Education in Alabama w'hich will have as its primary function the evaluation of science education in the state at all academic levels, and the formulation of ideas to improve the present system where possible. It is felt that if the committee can consider the problems care¬ fully and objectively, it can contribute much to the state. The present membership of the committee is as follows: Dr Howard Carr (Chairman), A. P. I., Au¬ burn, Alabama Dr. William T. Wilks, Troy State Teachers College Dr. Willis Baughman, University of Alabama Dr. Frank J. Stevens A. P. I. Auburn Dr. F. K. Morris, Maxw'ell Airforce Base Dr. R. L. Chermock, Ex-officio. Because of the importance and significance of the assignment of the committee, the President feels that it should be made a standing committee of the Academy, and that its Chairman should also be admitted to membership in the Executive Committee, and requests your approval of this measure. Motion: By Dr. White, seconded by Dr Tow'er. The by-laws are amended to establish a Committee on Science Education in keeping wdth the terms of the proposal. Motion passed. 4. The President proposes that the Alabama Academy of Science grants ’’Student Research Awards" which will be awarded at their annual meeting beginning in 1956. The following re¬ gulations will prevail: 1 ) The Student Research Awards will consist of the following prizes: A first prize of $25.00, a second prize of $15.00; and a third prize of $10.00. In addition, the judges may award as many Honorable Mentions as they deem advis¬ able, each of which will consist of a one year’s membership in the Alabama Academy of Science. 2) Eligibility for the awards will be based on the following: A) The contestant must be regularly enrolled as an undergraduate or graduate student in a col¬ lege or university in Alabama. B) The contestant must have completed an original piece of research and presented the re suits of this research as a paper in one of the sections at the annual meeting of the Academy. C ) The results of the research must be un¬ published prior to the meeting. D ) The research must not constitute all or part of a Master’s thesis or a Doctoral disserta¬ tion. E) The contestant must be the sole author of the paper submitted for competition. F) Prior to the meeting, the contestant must have submitted three copies of the paper in its final form to the Secretary of the Academy for distribution to the judges for their consideration. Each ot these copies should be accompanied by a personal data form which can be obtained from the Secretary. 3) The committee of judges evaluating the papers will consist of the Vice Chairman of each of the sections of the Academy. They will judge the papers on the basis of clarity, the qualit)' and originality of the research, and the scientific value of the results. Their decisions will be final. 4 ) The announcement of the aw'ards will be made at the annual banquet and or the final business meeting of the Academy, and will be printed in the Journal of the Academy. 5) Funds to support the awards will be ob¬ tained by special solicitation and will be maintain- ned in a separate fund by the Treasurer of the Academy. 6) It the quality and quantity of the com¬ petition justifies as increase in the number of prizes, or a division of the prizes into separate catagories ba.sed on the educational level of the contestants, or the scientific field of research, this might be done with the approval of the Executive Committee of the Acaclemy. It would be inadvisable, however, to decrease the number or value ot the prizes. 7) It is hoped that the Student Research Awards will stimulate an interest in researCi among the college students in Alabama, and will encourage student participation in the Annual Meetings of the Academy. The president requests that this proposal be approN'C'd so that he can take a[''pro[''ri.itc stepe to initiate the centure. Motion-. By Dr. Tower, seconded bv Dr. Miles. The proposal is amended to delete from paregraph 2A the words "cir graduate" thus limiting the [sro[Hisal to undergraduate students. Motion pawed. Motion-. B\ Dr. White, seconded b\ Dr. lower. 1 he propos,il is ,imenclccl tc' dche [saiMgraph ^ and to substitute the following Weirding: luiuls ti' suppc'it the ,iw,irds will be 142 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science provided from the research fund.” Motion passed. Motion-. By Dr. Miles, seconded by Dr. Tower. 'Ihe proposal for the establishment ot Student Researcli Awards is approved as amend¬ ed. Motion passed. Motion-. By Dr. Bishop, seconded by Dr. Bailey. Similar research awards for graduate students are established to be administered and awarded as described in proposal four as amend¬ ed except that paragraph 2D be deleted thus permitting the consideration of research re¬ presenting portions ot a Master's thesis or a Doctoral dissertation. Motion passed. Dr. Chermock then rec|uested consideration of the reorganization of the Junior Academy. Motion-. By Dr. Tower, seconded by Dr Miles. The Executive Committee approves the rewriting of the by-laws of tlie Alabama Junior Academy of Science as proposed in the Report of the Counselors of the junior Academy and authorizes the appointment of a third associate counselor. iWotion passed. President Chermock anni)unced the following appointments: d'o the Coiniiiittee on the Place of Meet in-’ Howard Carr, H. A. McCullough. To be Alternate Delegate to the Acadein-y Con¬ ference meeting in Atlanta. Dr. Everett Bishop. I he president announced that Dr. E. P. Miles, vice chairman of Section V has ascended to the position of vice president and chairman of the section to till the vacancy created when Mr. |. L. Hammond lett the state. Dr. Miles nominated Dr. E. T. 'Wilson to be¬ come vice chairman of Section V until the next election. Dr. Wilson was elected and the secre¬ tary was instructed to so notify him. Dr. Miles suggested the possibility of an open meeting with interested members of the Junior Academy at one session of Section V. Dr. Cher- mock ruled this was within the authority of the section chairman to decide. Motion-. By Mr. Sulzby, seconded by Dr. Tower. The Eriday morning session of the next annual meeting is to consist of a symposium on the subject of furthering the cause of science education. Motion passed. Dr. Carr was designated by the president to have the committee on Science Education pre¬ pare plans for the symposium. It was understood by the motion that there would be no section sessions on Eriday morning. President Chermock announced that unle-s there were objections titles and abstracts of papers to be presented at the next annual meet¬ ing must be in the hands of the section chairmen by February 1, 1956. The section chairmen must have the program in the hands of the secretary by February 15, 19^6. In the absence of any ob¬ jections these deadlines were established. Dr. Cantrell commented on the cost of copies of the Journal to non-members of the Academy. It was the consensus of the members that this cost should ec]ual that of individual membership in the Academy ($3.00). Motion: By Dr. Tower, seconded by Mr. Sulzby. (From prepared copy by Dr. Carr) Mindful of the real need of promoting better instruction in mathematics and the sciences throughout our secondary schools the Executive Committee of the Aiabama Acaciemv of Science wishes to urge the temporary establishment of courses for graduate credit in the departments of science and mathematics in the colleges and universities of Alabama for the purpose oi teach¬ ing these disciplines to the large number of tea¬ chers who attend our summer schools as graduate students. The Executive Committee also urges that all Schools and Departments of Education in our state colleges and universities examine their present science and mathematics teaching curricula and take such measures that are deemed advisable to strengthen the collegiate programs of our prospective teachers so that some relief might be had from the presently unsatisfactory status of science and mathematics instruction in our high schools.” Motion iinaniinoiisly passed. Upon a motion by Dr. Miles, seconded by all the members. Dr. Chermock declared the meet¬ ing adjourned at 4:50 P. M. Respectfully submitted, Herbert A. McCullough Secretary. ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING 143 Reynolds Hall, Alabama College, Montevallo, Alabama, March 29, 1956 President Chermock called the meeting to order at 8;00 P. M. The following members and guests were in attendance; J. Allan Tower, A. T. Hansen, E. G. Patton, Tom Croker, J. M. Stauffer, Ted C. Cobun, Ernest E. Snyder, M. L. Marshall, E. P. Miles, |r., H. Ellsworth Steele, W. T. Wilks, James C. Wilks, H. E. Wilcox, U. L. Diener, H. S. Ward, Jr., James E. Eerry, John L. Basw'ell, James R. Goetz, Harold Loesch, Herbert Bosc- iiung, Locke White, James F. Sulzby, Jr., R. H. Harper, Paul Bailey, Clyde Cantrell, James Kassner, Fr. Patrick Yancey, Fr. Claude Valen¬ tine, H. A. McCullough, and Ralph Chermock. The Secretary distributed copies of the agenda for the meeting and copies of the minutes of the Executive Committee meeting of November 12, 1955. The Secretary pointed out that the minutes for the Executive Committee meeting of April 28, 1955, distributed at the November meeting, had not been approved. In the absence of any corrections or objection, both sets of minutes w’ere declared approved. The Report of the Secretary and the Report of the Adoiission to Membership Connnittee were given. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: The membership of the Academy is 516. A total of 157 new members have been admitted since the 1955 annual meeting. The deaths of Mr. Edgar C. Horton and of Dr. Fred C. Mabee were noted. An addressing machine has been purchas¬ ed and is in the possession of the Secretary. The Secretary commented on the cooperation and assistance given him during his term of office by the administration of Howard College.) Upon a motion by Mr. Sulzby and a second by Dr. Hansen, the reports were voted approved. Motion: By Dr. Miles, seconded by Dr. Steele. The incoming President is requested to write tlie administration of Howard College expressing the thanks of the Academy for the assistance rendered the Secretary and the Academy. Motion approved. Dr. Marshall gave the Report of the Coordi- nator of Science Fairs. (Copy attached.) (Sum¬ mary of report: Four regional fairs w'ill be liehl in 1956. No further division of regions is plan ned. These fairs are all scheduled for affiliation with the National Science I'airs. Ciost of a single fair ranges from $800-51000. As an additional matter. Dr. Marshall presented the problem of having funds contributed to the financing of science fairs to be tax exempt. Motion: By Dr. Hansen, seconded by Dr. Steele. The President is authorized to appoint a a committee to study the problem of tax exemp¬ tion for funds contributed to financing science fairs and to make recommendations for action in this matter. Motion approved. President Chermock appointed Dr. Marshall, Chairman, Mr. Baswell, Mr. Sulzby, Dr. White and Dr. Tower (ex officio) to this committee. Dr. Marshall was requested by the President to relay to Dewey Large of the National Science Fair organization the relation of the Alabama Academy of Science to science fairs in Alabama. No other formal action w'as taken on Dr. Marshall’s report. The Report of the Counselor to the fnnio--- Academy was given by Dr. Kassner. ( Copy attached.) (Summary of report: The total num- bre of active chapters for the 1955-s6 academic year is fifty one . The constitution and by-laws were revised during the past year.) Dr. Kassner requested authorization to purcliase addition.ii pins for presentation to Academy Award winner^. Motion: By Dr. Wilcox, seconded by Dr. Hansen. The Academy authorizes the purthasc- of additional Academy Award pins. Motion passed. Dr. Kassner than presented tlie Report of the Cooperator to Science Ciiih\ of Amcnc.i. (Copy attached.) (Summary of re[iort : 26s of the 500 high schools in Alabama were affiliated with Science Cilubs ot America. A summ.irc of awards given by the Gorgas Scholarship Eouiula- tion was included.) Dr. Kassner's reports were a[''|''ro\ cd without lormal action. In the absence ot Father ^'alKev at this tiiiK. President C Irermock read a Report of the ( lor of the A A AS submitted preciously. U-*thet \’ancey .subsec|ueiit!y [sreseiitcd a report in [serson as recorded Liter m these, minutes.) op\ .it tadied.) (Summary ot re|sort : The .uticitics of the (anincil of the A A AS and cO the .Xeademc ( onlereiue were summarized.) Prcsulent ( lu r- moc k commented tli.it l .ithcr ,uue\ is lurreiitlc 144 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science President of the Academy Conference. Dr. Tower moved the acceptance of the report. Upon a second by Dr. Bailey and a vote of the members, the report ivci) accepted. Dr. Bailey made several announcements for the Local Arran genieyitr Conini/ttee. Dr. Bailey then gave the Report of the Editor of the journal. He reported that Volume 27 was printed and should be in the hands of the mem¬ bership. He commented that the unanticipated delay in getting Volume 27 published had been due to the difficulty of getting the material. Dr. William Wilks moved, Mr. Sulzby seconded and upon a vote by the members, the report was ac¬ cepted. Dr. Hansen gave the Report of the Editor/at Board. (Copy attached.) The report presented three proposals which were acted upon separately. 1. Papers must be read at an annual meeting by the wniter or by a substitute authorized by him in order to be eligible tor publication in the journal. It is understood that the writer is a member of hte Academy. It is further understood that papers read by abstract or title fulfill thi.i rccjuriement. Dr. White moved to amend the sentence reading, "It is understood that the writer is a member of the Academy," to include invited guests. I lie amended proposal was approved. 2. The editor should prepare a set of instruc¬ tions for the preparation of manuscripts in order to minimize the amount of editing recjuired. The instructions would be printed in a suitable place in thejonrnal. They would also be run as separate sheets. Each Section Chairman would be provided with a supply to be mailed to persons who have submitted acceptable titles so that the instructions would be at hand while papers were in pre¬ paration. Dr. White moved the approval of this pro¬ posal. Dr. James Wilkes seconded and upon a vote by the members, proposal two was approved. 3. The jonrnal be understood as having two clearly defined functions: (a) To record the scholarly production of its members (including Junior Academy members) and (b) to record business of the Academy (including Junior Aca¬ demy) during the course of each year. The only clearly appropriate use of pictures is to aid com¬ munication in scholarly articles. Here they are in a class with such other graphics as maps and charts. The business of the Academy should be reported as fully as necessary in simple and chaste English. A proper exception would seem to be a picture in connection with a signal honor. Tire dedication of an issue of the jonrsial would be an example. It would be wise to have excep¬ tions authorized by the Executive Committee. President Chermock ruled that the Editor and the Editorial Board already have the authority to determine the policy of the journal relative to pictures. The Report of the 7 reasurer was read by Dr. White. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report. As of March 13,1933, the General Fund con¬ tained $1,424.33 and the Research Fund, $292.84. This was after the cost of Volume 27 had been paid.) Dr. Tower moved acceptance of the report. Dr. Wilcox seconded. Upon a vote by the members, the report was accepted. Dr. Tower gave the Report of the M.emhe<-- sh/p Committee. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: The activities of the Committee during the year were summarized. The activities of Sec¬ tion IV and at Alabama Polytechnic Institute were commended.) Dr. Wilcox moved and Mr. Baswell seconded, and the members voted the acceptance of the report. The Report of the Research Committee was read by the Secretary in the absence of tl'c Chairman. (Copy attached.) (Summary of re¬ port: Grants have been made to C. C. Hall $130. 00), Gid E. Nelson, Jr., ($130.00). A grant is under consideration for Jack C. Avery ($30.00). Dr. Wilcox moved the acceptance, fol¬ lowed by a second by Dr. Hansen. The report was accepted. Notice was taken of the absence of Mr. Henry Jennings, chairman of the Finance Committee.^ due to illness. The Secretary was instructed to extend best wishes and the anticipation of a speedy recovery to Mr. Jennings on behalf of the Academy. Dr. Wilcox gave the Report of the Long Range Planning Committee. (Copy attached) (Summary of report: The Committee recom¬ mended that papers in the Biology and Medical Sciences Section be arranged so that those in the field of Biology are presented as a unit when possible. It was also recommended that a definite and forceful effort be made to bring science teachers into the Academy program through the Science Education Section. Work¬ shops in science education should be planned. ) The president requested a delay in considering the items mentioned in the report because of sub- secpient business which would involve aspects of the report. Mr. Baswell moved the reception of the report. Mr. Cantrell seconded, the members voted, and the report was received. The Report of the Science Education Committee was presented by Dr. William Wilks in the absence of the chairman. The informal report Executive Committee Meeting 145 summarized the activities of the committee. Since brochures on science careers are now available from industrial sources, the plan to pre¬ pare one was abandoned. Attempts have been made to develop a workshop jointly with the State Department of Education without success. This committee was responsible for the sym¬ posium being presented at the annual meeting. Lpon a motion by Dr. Hansen, a second by Dr. W'hlcox and a vote of the members, the report lias accepted. The Report of the Historical Coninuttee was given by Mr. Cantrell. (Copy attached.) (Sum¬ mary of report: The work of writing chapters covering the different activities of the Academy IS in the hands of the authors. A number of chapters are already complete in preliminary form. It is expected that the completed study will be available in final form sometime during this year.) Mr. Sulzby moved the acceptance ol the report. Father Yancey seconded and the report was accepted. Mr. Cantrell then presented the Report of the Custodian. (Copy attached.) (Summary of re¬ port: It is recommended that the number of cop¬ ies of the Journal to be printed be increased to accommodate an increased membership and still maintain an adec^uate supply for exchanges. ) Dr. Hansen moved. Dr. William Wilks seconded, the members voted and the report was accepted. Father Yancey presented an additional Report of the Councilor of the AAAS summarizing the activities of the Executive Committee of the Academy Conference. (Copy attached.) Dr. Tower seconded and the report wa\ accepted. Motion -.By Dr. Kassner, seconded by Father Yancey. The Treasurer of the Senior Academy is authorized to pay the bill for the Junior Academy Charters. Motion passed. As the first item of new business. President Chermock recommended that the Fong Range Planning Committee study the matter of having the incoming president preside over that portion of business meeting dealing with new business. The president announced the appointment ot the following committees: Auditing Committee, Junior Academy — George D. Palmer, Walter Herndon. Nominating Committee — Henry Walker, Chair¬ man; J. A. Fincher, William Wilks. Resolutions Committee — |. M. Stauffer, Chair¬ man; J. Allen Tower, H. A. McCullough. Place and Date of Meeting Commitice — Howard Carr, H. A. McCullough. Motion: By Dr. Tower, seconded by Dr, Miles. The Editor is authorized to publish Vol¬ ume 28 of the Journal. Motion passed. The problem of whether persons applying for membership and paying dues in the fall are entitled to the current Journal or the one follow¬ ing was brought up. Motion: By Dr. Hansen, seconded by Dr. Wilcox. The Steering Committee should consider the matter of which volume of the Journal per¬ sons applying for membership after the annual meeting are entitled. This committee should make recommendations and report back to the Ex¬ ecutive Committee. Motion passed. President Chermock presented a petition signed by members of the Biology and Medical Sciences Section at Alabama Polytechnic Institute request¬ ing that a separate section devoted to the biologi¬ cal sciences be established. Motion: By Dr. Wilcox, seconded by Mr. Sulzby. Section I (Biology and Medical Sciences) is authorized on a one year trial basis to be sub¬ divided and to elect co-chairmen and co-vice chairmen, one each from the purely biological sciences and one each from the medical sciences. Motion passed. President Chermock authorized the officers of Section I (Biology and Medical Sciences) to ad according to this motion subject to final ap proval by the Academy at the annual meeting. The Secretary mentioned a communication from the AAAS indicating a new policv re¬ garding the use of the AAAS research funds for high school and undergraduate college students of small colleges. This matter was referred to the Research Committee. The problems which have arisen regarding the administration of the Student Research Awards were presented by the Secretary. Motion: By Dr. Steele, seconded by Dr, lower. Following the intent of the Executive Committee at its November 12, UHs. meeting, the Founders Prizes arc discontinued. .\l >ti >: passed. Motion: By Dr. Miles, secc'inded by Dr. Steeh.' Dr. lower is appointed to be ch.iirman of th. committee judging the ap|ilK.itions lor Student Research Awards. This Ciommittee is also desi¬ gnated to study the procedure ol administering the awards and to bring recommend.itions to the Executive Committee at its next meeting. \l >,■ passed . Dr. Miles asked th.U c onsider.iticm be rtiNcii to meetings ol other societies when the dates lor the meetings ol the Ac.ulcinv .tre .irr.iimcd I'here being no other business. President ( her moek declared the meeting .ul|eniincel at 1 1 10 P. M. Respec 1 1 ull\' submitted. Herbert \. Me( ulKnigh See ret.n \' 146 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING Comer Hall, Alabama College, Montevallo, Alabama, March 31, 1956 President Ralph Chermock called the meeting to order at DM'i A. M. The minutes were distributed to the members in mimeographed form by the Secretary. Upon a motion by Dr. Hisey and a second bv Dr. barker, the members voted approval of the m mutes. The Report of the Secretary was given. Dr. Barker moved the acceptance of the report. Dr. Bishop seconded and the report was approved. I'he Treasurer' s Report and the Report of the Editor of the fourual were given informally by the President. No formal action was taken on these reports . No reports were available for the Auditing; Committees. The President read the Report of the Nominat¬ ing Committee. The following nominations were presented by the committee: President, J. Allan Tower President-Elect, Howard E. Carr Secretary (3 year term), Herbert A. Mc¬ Cullough Counselor for junior Academy (2 yr. term) E. Gibbes Patton Coordinator of the Junior Academy with Science Clubs of America, James L. Kassner Coordinator of Science Pairs, Madison L. Marshall Trustees (3 year terms), Henry L. jennings, Ralph Draughon The President called for action on these nomoinations. Dr. Bishop moved and Dr. James Wilkes seconded that the nominations be closed and the nominees be elected. Upon a vote of tire members, the nominees were elected. President Chermock then read the nominations for officers of the sections. The nominations were as follows: Vice Presidents and Section Chairmen and Vice Chairmen: Section /.' (Biological Sciences) Chairman, James Ferry Vice-Chairman, Gid Nelson Section I: (Medical Sciences) Cliairman, Margaret Green Vice-Chairm i.i, S. B. Barker Section II: Chairman, Harold E. Wilcox Vice-Chairman, F. J. Stevens Section III: Chairman, Frank J. Soday Vice-Chairman, Wiley S. Rogers Section IV: Chairman, Wilbur B. DeVall Vice-Chairman, Thomas C. Croker, Jr. Sectio)! V: Chairman, L. T. Wilson Vice-Chairman, Hoyt Kaylor Section VI: Chairman, ). R. Goetz Vice-Chairman, John L. Sullivan Sect/on VII: Chairman, Ernest J. Synder Vice-Chairman, Blanche Dean Section VIII: Chairman, Marian Pearsall Vice-Chairman, Ruth Albrecht Dr. 4'ower moved the nominations be close ! and the nominees elected. Dr. Marshall seconded and upon a vote of the members the nonTmees were elected. The Secretary read the Report of the Place of Aleet/ng Comniittee. The locations of the next two meetings as recommended in the report are: 19‘^7 Meeting State Teachers College, Jacksonville 1958 Meeting Howard College, Birm ingham Dates for these meetings, for the convenience of the host institutions and the Academy, are to be determined at a later date and reported to the Executive Committee. Dr. Barker moved accep¬ tance of the report. Upon numerous seconds and a vote of the members the report was approved. The Report of the Resolulio)is Committee was read by Mr. Stauffer. (Copy attached.) Upon a .motion by Dr. Steele, a second by Dr. Wilcox, and a vote of the members, the resolutions were adopted. 'Fhe President gave a summary of the .'Execu¬ tive Committee Meeting, March 29, 1956, men¬ tioning specifically 1 ) the subdivision of Section I into a Biological Science Subsection and a Medical Sciences Subsection with co-chairmen on Executive Committee Meeting 147 a trial basis, and 2 ) the problem of income tax exemption for contributions to Science Fairs. ^{otio)l: By Dr. Tower, seconded by Dr. Marshall. The action of the Executive Committee m establishing on a one year trial basis a Biolo¬ gical Subsection and a Medical Sciences Sub¬ section of Section I is approved. Aiotion passed. Motio)2: By Dr. Marshall, seconded by Dr. W’dlcox. The Alabama Academy of Science goes on record as the official sponsoring agent or in¬ stitution for any one or all regional science fairs in Alabama which may want to claim Federal Income Tax exemption as an affiliate of the Academy. Motion passed. President Chermock commented upon the in¬ terest which had been created regarding the im¬ provement of science teaching. Motion: By Dr. Steele, seconded by Dr. Barker. The incoming president is authorized to appoint a committee separate from the Committee on Science Education to consider college level training and the relation ot science and industry. The committee is encouraged to put into effect, when possible, the necessary actions to carry out its decisions. Motion passed. President Chermock declared the meeting ad¬ journed at 9:40 A. M. Respectfully submitted, Herbert A. McCullough Secretary REPORT OF THE RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE Your resolutions committee submits herewith the following resolutions: 1. Whereas the Alabama Academy of Science is successfully completing its thirty-third annual meeting, now therefore be it resolved: a. That the Academy express its appreciation to Alabama College and to its president. Dr. F. E. Lund, for their hospitality; b. That special appreciation is expressed for the work of Dr. Paul C. Bailey, chairman. Dr. G. E. Nelson, Jr., co-chairman, and to their colleagues of the Local Arrangements Com¬ mittee, and to the young ladies of the college who so effectively assisted them in the work of caring for both the Senior and Junior Academies; c. That the gratitude of the Academy is ex¬ pressed to Mr. J. K. Lunsford and the Bir¬ mingham division of E. H. Sargent and Co. for their hospitality in providing the Annual Academy Dinner; d. That the sincere thanks of the Academy are given to Mr. James F. Sulzby, Jr., to the Bir¬ mingham Section of the American Chemical Society, to Fisher Scientific Co., and to an anonymous donor lor financing the Junior Academy Awards; e. That the Academy express its appreciation to the participants in symposia on "The Im¬ provement of Science Teaching in Alabama" and on "Career Opportunities in Physics, Mathematics, and Engineering." f. That the Academy express its deep apprecia¬ tion to Dr. James L. Kassner and his asso¬ ciates, and to Dr. Madison L. Marshall, for their devoted and effective work with the Junior Academy and Science Talent Se.irHi and the Science Fairs. 2. Whereas during the past year death has de¬ prived the Academy of the valued services of two of its members, now therefore be it resolved that the Academy express its sympathy to the families of Mr. Edgar C. Horton and Dr. Fred C. Mabee and its appreciation of their loyal and valuable service they gave to the Academy. J. Allen Tower Herbert A. McCullough J. M. Stauffer, Chair man AMENDED FINANCIAL STATEMENT' ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE I’or Period April 21, 195 s, through March 15, I9s6 Assets, 4/21 5S . Receipts to date . ..$2,025.17 .. 2,69 5.00 Less disbursements . S-t,7 16.17 .. 2,99S.S0 Bank Balance . ..sSl,717.57 Assets, 4/2 1/5 s . Receipts to date . (n')ural .. 1,-157. '’s .. L5S5.00 /\t M.arh ^Ss,c)2 .5 10.00 Less disbursements to date.. 5.S20.2^ .. 2.G)s,tj SGS.OJ (lO vOS Balance . ..SI . 12 1."' 5 S2'C.S 1 l.oc Ki Wniii, |k., I ( heckc'il .ig.imst |■c■^c■lpts .uul disbui scnic nts. May 17, u;sG. B)': W'.ird Piitm.iii By: W'. J. W'mgo .■{.■idilinp ( onimitti ( 148 Journal of thf Alabama Academy of Science ALABAMA STATE TALENT SEARCH FOR GENERAL GORGAS SCHOLARSHIPS Each year the Alabama Academy of Sci ence conducts the Alabama State Science Talent Search for General Gorgas Scholar¬ ships in cooperation with the Gorgas Scholarship Foundation and ten educational institutions. The contest is promoted and financed by The Ciorgas Scholarship Foun¬ dation and the winners selected by a scholar¬ ship committee appointed from the member¬ ship of the Alabama Academy of Science. Each of the ten educational institutions has agreed to remit to one scholarship winner each year all tuition for four years as its contribution to the advancement of science. 'Fhe purpose of the contest is to stimulate interest in science in the secondary schools. Progress made in the four years is indicated in the following table; Entries Requested Entries Completed Schools Examinations Schools Examinations Year No. No. No. No. Per Cent* 1952- .S3 3(i 291 12 31 12c; 1953- 51 53 371 21 61 16.1''! 1951-55 61 39.S 25 811 2(I'V 1955-56 62 516 26 9(1 16. S'! Note: The national average for 195(1-51; IS'V — 1951-52: lic},^ 1952-53: 16' , — lii53-51 ; 16% — 1951-55; 1 6%-- 1955-56 ; 16.2% This year, of the 546 examinations sent to 62 high school teachers only 90 students cleared all the hurdles. This, however, was a yl.2'/f increase over last year and a record-breaker for Alabama. In Alabama \6.Y/f of the examinations requested were completed while in the nation as a whole, only 16. 29^ of the 20,828 examinations were completed. The first and second place winners in the 1954-55 contest elected to attend college outside the state of Alabama and thus automatically forfeited the cash and tuition awards of the Gorgas Scholarship. They will receive a certificate showing that they were awarded first and second places m the state contest. Mr. Coley Clifton Mills, Jr., from Sidney Lanier High School, first place winner in 1955, holds a John Duncan MacGregoi Scholarship at the University of Chicago. This scholarship provides $900.00 per year for four years. In addition the University provides part-time employment which yields approximately $500.00 per academic year. Miss Lida Inge Swafford from Murphy High School, second place winner in 1955, has a scholarship at Sophia Newcomb Col¬ lege in New Orleans. This scholarship provides $550.00 per year for four years. The $1200.00 and $900.00 cash awards, lorfeited by the first and second place win¬ ners, were given to the third and fourth place winners respectively. The first and second alternates were then given the cash awards which normally would have gone to the third and fourth place winners. Later the first alternate decided to leave the state, and this then made the $500.00 cash award available to the second alternate. Mr. Jack Edwards, first alternate in the 1955 contest, was accepted at Duke Lhii- \ersity in the N. R. O. T. C. program. This program allows him $700.00 a year for tuition, general fees, and textbooks. In ad¬ dition, he receives a cash award of $600.00 a year. Miss Evelyn Wheeler, the third alternate from Ensley High School, who is studying pharmacy at Alabama Polytechnic Institute, was given the $500.00 cash award in the Gorgas Scholarship and vvas also given tuition for four years at A. P. I. In January 1956 she was awarded the first General Motors Foundation College Scholarship at A.uburn. She v/ill receive $750.00 a year for four years from this scholarship. The finalists in the sixth Alabama State Science Talent Search were given an all State Science Talent Search 149 expense trip to Alabama College, Monte- vallo, Alabama, on March 29-31, 1936. They were entertained at a banquet Thurs¬ day evening in the college dining room along with the judges and other representa¬ tives from the Senior Academy. After the banquet each of the finalists demonstrated and discussed his project with all of the judges. The finalists were then personally interviewed by each of the judges. The judges for this year’s contest were; Dr. Emmett B. Carmichael, Chairman; Dr. \V. J. Wingo, Mrs. D. H. Thompson, Dr. Roger B. Hanson, Dr. Croom Beatty, Dr. John A. Southern, Dr. Hoyt Kaylor, Dr. \Y. E. Glenn, Dr. J. F. Eocke, Dr. R. E. Burks, Dr. William Baker, Dr. A. B. Deindorff, Dr. F. J. Stevens, Dr. Harold E. Wilcox, Mr. J. A. Johnson, Jr., Mr. James T. McKenzie, Eocke White, Jr., James W. Woods. The finalists participated in the activities of the Junior Academy of Science on March 30-31. The winners of the 1955-36 white- contest were announced by Mr. Frank P. Samford, Jr., vice president of Liberty Na¬ tional Life Insurance Co., Birmingham Alabama, at the annual banquet of the Junior Academy, Friday evening, March 30, 1956. The w'inners were; F/rsf Place— -John Tilmon Bagwell from Sidney Lanier High School, Montgomery, Alabama, Frances D. Jones, teacher .Ttile of Science- Project, "Figurate Numbers”. This award is $1200 ($300 per year) plus college tuition for four years. Second Place — Phillip Walton Laney, )r., from Indian Springs High School, Helena, Ala¬ bama. Ted C. Cobun, teacher. Title of Science- Project, "Some Homemade Photographic Equipment”. This award is $900 ($22S per year) plus college tuition lor lour years. Third Place — Ferdinand Mitchell, |r., from Tuscaloosa City High School, 'I'uscaloosa Alabama. William Berryman, teacher. 'Idtle of Science Project, "Construction of and Ex¬ perimentation with Schlieren App.ir.ctus”. I'his award is $600 ($IS0 per year) plus college tui*^ion lor lour years. Fourth Place — Bruce Stone Keenan from Mur¬ phy High School, Mobile, Alabama. M. C. Mancil, teacher. Title of Science Project, "Three Dimensional Paper Chromatography and Paper Electrophoresis”. This award is $500 ($125 per year) plus college tuition for four years. Fir\t Alternate — William Boyd Nickell from Indian Springs High School, Helena, Ala¬ bama. Ted C. Cobun, teacher. Title of Science- Project, "The Construction and Operation of a Hi-Fidelity Sound System”. Second Alternate — Richard F'ranklyn Sweet from McGill Institute, Mobile, Alabama. Bro. Cyr, S. C., teacher. Title of Science Project, "The Theory of The Slide Rule”. The remaining five white finalists re¬ ceived Honorable Mention. These fi\e finalists are listed below: Paul Franklin Helmick from Sidney Lanier High School, Montgomery, Alabama; Fran¬ ces D. Jones, teacher. Henry Clifford Alexander from McGill In¬ stitute, Mobile, Alabama; Brother Cyr. S. C., teacher. James Jordon Denson Irom C. F. Vigor High School, Prichard, Alabama; A. T. Simmons and Lucille N. Lloyd, teachers. Donald Earl Bayles from Coffee High School, Florence, Alabama; E. G. Dorris, teacher. Jol:n Thomas Daniel from Lanett High School, Lanett, Alabama; J. C. Ledbetter, teacher. One Alabama student whn won Honor able Mention in the Westingbouse N.ition.il ton .... ....Hewitt-Trussville High Dave Steward . . Hueytown Hig!' Bill Nickell . . Indian Springs Richard Hobbic . . Sidney Lanier High Wayne Hornbuckle . . McAdory High Harvey Eastman . . McGill High Wayne Ross . . Minor High jack Herring . . Murphy High Walter Prescott . . Phillips High Mickey Williams . . . Russellville High Frank Harwell . . Talladega High Ihomas Fox . . Troy High Rob Langford . ...Tuscaloosa Senior High Billy Smith . . C. F. Vigor High Tommy Halbrooks ... . West End High Phillip Walker . . Woodlawn High After the roll call, the President explained that the purposes of the meeting was to formulate a slate for Saturday's election. Following this an¬ nouncement, the President read to the delegates the section in the constitution relating to election of officers. He then opened the floor for further nominations. After further nominations were made, the forms stating the nominees' qualifica¬ tions were read aloud. After discussing these qualifications, the candidates were recalled in order of office. Each candidate then spoke in his own behalf. A vote of official delegates made the following slate: Presideiit: Billy Cochran . C. F. Vigor High Chester Stafford . Minor High Vice Preiiclent: Murphree Flippen . Russellville Fligh Carolyn Thompson . Ensley High Secretary: Marvin Uphouse . McGill Fhgh Robert Lewis . Murphy High Treas/zrer: Ruth Lambert . Baldwin County High Jo Ann Sample . Choctaw County High After the vote, Dr. Patton reminded the nominees who were elected to be sure to remain after the adjournment Saturday morning to take care of some business. He also asked for prompt attendance of the 1:10 P. M. business meeting. T hext being no further business the meeting was adjourneci until 1:10 P. M. Luncheon for all Junior Academy members was served in Anna Irvin Hall at 12:30 P. M. The first business meeting of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science was held at 1:10 P. M. in Palmer Auditorium. Officers, delegates, sponsors and other members of the Academy at tended. President Ferd Mitchell called the meeting to order. In order to allow the delegates more time to look at the exhibits, the roll call by the Secre tary was deleted from the agenda. The President then made an announcement about a meeting of candidates and campaign managers after the session. Following this, the President appointed the Resolutions Committee. Members of this Committee were: Miss Leonard . Baldwin High Miss Boehmer . Ensley High Mr. Martin . Bessemer High "Wayne Ross . Minor High Mary Kate Jernigan . Convent of Mercy Dr. Patton then requested that all papers and exhibits which were not registered be quickly registered after the session. Dr. Nelson announced that the Supply Shop and Coke Room would be open after the session. He also stated that the athletic equipment in the Field House would be open after the session; that the truck for the boys staying out at the camp house would be at its appointed place at 11:00 P. M. after the party and at 7:00 A. M. for the breakfast call; that anyone who desired fish at the banquet could have it; and that the Junior Academy Career Symposium would begin at 1:30 P. M, immediately following the session. Dr. Patton then reminded the members of the Junior Academy of the business meeting at 3:00 P. M., of the banquet at 6:30 P. M., and of the Catholic Services to be held at 3:00 or 3:30 P. M. at the Catholic Church. There being no further business, the meetiiT’ was adjourned until 3:00 P. M. The second business meeting of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science was held in Palmer Auditorium at 3:00 P. M. Officers, delegates, sponsors, and other members of the Academy at tended. President Ferd Mitchell called the meeting to order. The Secretary. Kendall Black, called the roll. The President annouced the results of the caucus. Following this, campaign managers and candidates spoke in their behalf. Next on the agenda, the President re-assigneO the Resolutions Committee. He then reminded the members of the forthcoming banquet and party at 6:30 and 8:30 P. M. respectively. After¬ ward, the President announced that the Gorgas Finalists and candidates for office were to meci in the lobby of Palmer Auditorium to have their pictures made. There being no further business the meeting was adjourned until Saturday morning. The annual banquet of the Junior Academ; was held in Anna Irvin Hall. The invocation was given by the Reverend Davis Ycuell ot the Montevallo Presbyterian Church. Dean Richard Powers of Alabama College, acting as master ot ceremonies, extended a welcome to the officers, delegates, sponsors and members of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science; introduced the of ficers, counselors, special guests and h’erd Mit¬ chell who delivered the presidential address. Dr. James L. Kassner, Permanent Counselor for the Junior Academy of Science, was introdiu- ed and he announced the winner of the Academv Award for Meritorious Teaching of Science. This award was presented to Mrs. E.stcile Jackson, sponsor at Woodlawn High School. Mr. Frank P. Samford then announced the Chm- gas Scholarship winners. They are: rh'st Place: J. T. Bagwell, Sidney Lanier High, Mont gomery, Alabama Second Place: Phillip Fancy, Imlian Springs School, 1 Icl ena, Alabama 157 Third Place: Ferd Mitchell, Tuscaloosa Senior High, Tuscaloosa, Alabama PoHYlh Place: B. S. Keenon, Murphy High, Mobile, Ala¬ bama Alternate: W. B. Nichol, Indian Springs School, Helena, Alabama Dr. Gibbes Patton then announced that ap¬ plications for new members would be acted on Saturday morning. He did, however, have the representatives of the schools seeking member¬ ship to stand and be recognized. Dr. Patton then dismissed the members of the Academy to the party and informal square dar.cc. Following the banquet a gala party and in¬ formal square dance was held at the Field House, Alabama College. The Saturday meeting of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science was held in Palmer Audi¬ torium March 31 at 9:00 A. M. The President, Ferd Mitchell, called the meeting to order. He then told the delegates to occup)’ the first two rows of the auditorium and the leaders of the papers to occupy the section ju;i to the delegates’ right. The President stated that the Secretary, Kendall Black, would give a warning at the end of four minutes and another warning at four minutes and forty-five seconds. Each paper was to be limited to five minutes. Due to the absence of the judges, the Secre¬ tary read one of the more interesting annual re¬ ports ot chapter activites during the preceding year. Following this reading, presentation of paperx took place with the following deliveries: 1. 1 he C.ustodi.in of the Bod)' Ann lurnci, Athens 2. ChemiLal Digestion Betty )o 1 le.iton Baldwin County 3. Solar Energy- |o Ann S.imple, ( iiouau C.ounlv d. Hypnotism Carol Bledsoe. Cullman Neurolog)' Ci.ir\' Adams (preseiilid b\ Linda H.immond), Fnsk\ (i. Fuiutions ot the I teart Kenneth Sluilt.;, Foley 7. I he Su[sc rheterodc lu Rtiener Douel.is C haiq-'ell. t lue)'to\\ n 8. I Ik I r.insislor M.ircel ot l'li.>.li'oni,s Marxin Hphaus. MiGill 9. (ongenti.il Ik art Dise.ist Jei'iiig.m. Mii'i)' M.irx' K.it, Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science ns 10. Strip Mining Versus Soil Conservation - Merritt Cork, Minor 11. Tornado Generation and Structure- l^lill Gandrud, I’uscaloosa Senior 12. Solar Furnace — James Middleton, C. F. Vigor 13. Excavating is Fun- Randolph Gray, West End Li. The Relationship of Clouds to the Weather Which Accompanies Them —Bill Bradley, Woodlawn 13. Ecjuine Encephalomyelitis — Marie Ory, (,of- tee 16. Color- Noel Flarris, Decatur A short intermission followed. 'Fhe following are the exhibits entered at the annual convention of the Junior Academy of Science. Biology 1. The Divisions of Protozoa— -Athens, Mrs. flazel Ruf, Sponsor 2. Bacteriology — Baldwin County, Miss Lil¬ lian Leonard, Sponsor 3. 'Fhe Study of Hearts— Childersburg. Miss Dean Ingram, Sponsor -1. Fungi of Butler Area — Choctaw County, Mrs. Vivian P. Gilmore, Sponsor 3. Coronary I’hrombosis — Ensley, Miss Kath¬ ryn Boehmer, Sponsor 6. Circulation of the Blood — Foley, Mr. Clyde MeSpadden, Sponsor 7. Our Legless F’riends — Snakes, Foley, Mr. Clyde MeSpadden, Sponsor 8. Biological Wax Models — Sidney Lanier, Mrs. F. D. Reid, Sponsor 9. Pre- Historic America — Robert E. Lee, Mr. Jesse L. Price, Sponsor 10. The Eye — Vertebrate and Invertebrate — Mercy, Mrs. Lucille Lloyd, Sponsor 11. Plant Reproduction from Stems, Roots and Leaves — Montevallo, Miss Ethel Harris, Sponsor 1 2. Original Research on the Anesthetic Ef¬ fects of Urethane on small Animals— Murphy, Miss Craddock, Sponsor 13. A Study of Varicose Veins — A. G. Par¬ rish, Mrs. Harry Reid, Sponsor CbeDiistry 1. Chemical Digestion — Baldwin County, Miss Lillian Leonard, Sponsor 2. Oil Extraction by Distillation — Coffee, Mr. E. G. Dorris, Sponsor 3. Cosmetics — Chemistry’s Aid to Beauty, Hueytown, Miss Edith Geisler, Sponsor 4. The Electromotive Series of Common Metals — McGill, Brother Cyr, S.C., Sponsor 3. Crystals — Mercy, Mrs. Lucille Lloyd, Sponsor 6. Blood Chemistry — Minor, Mrs. M. Mc- f.luskey, Sponsor 7. The Quantitative Chemical Analysis of Iron Ore — Russellville, Mrs. Bertha Un¬ derwood, Sponsor 8. Destructive Distillation of Coal — C. F'. Vigor, Mr. Alvin Simmon, Sponsor 9- Excavating is Fun — West End, Miss Mary E. fUfling, Sponsor I’ by sics 1 . A New Transmission — Athens, Mrs. Hazel Rut, Sponsor 2. An Antarctic City — Childersburg, Miss Dean Ingram, Sponsor 3. Photo-Tube Relay — Choctaw County, Mrs. Mrs. Vivian P. Gilmore, Sponsor •L Geiger Counter — Coffee, Mr. E. G. Dor¬ ris, Sponsor 3. Decision Meter — Cullman, Mr. John Till¬ man, Sponsor 6. The Superheterodyne Receiver — Hueytown, Miss Edith Geisler, Sponsor 7. Photomicrography — Sidney Lanier, Mrs. Frances Jones, Sponsor 8. Micro-Midget- Robert E. Lee, Mr. J. F. Price, Sponsor 9. Aerodynamic Pressures on An Airfoil — McGill, Brother Cyr, S.C., Sponsor 10. Radiation Detection — Montevallo, Miss lithel Harris, Sponsor 11. A Vacuum Tube Tesla Coil — A. G. Par¬ rish, Mrs. Harry Reid, Sponsor 12. Electronics Assortment — Phillips, Mr. Bar- nelli. Sponsor 13. Eelectronics Demonstration — Phillips, Mr. Barnelli, Sponsor 14. Transistor Radio — Troy, Mr. S. W. Grif¬ fin, Sponsor 13. Model Tornado — Tuscaloosa Senior, Mr. Ralph Murphy, Sponsor 16. Solar Furnace — C. F. Vigor, Mrs. Lucille Lloyd, Sponsor 17. Radio Receivers — West End, Miss Mary E. Hafling, Sponsor 18. Solar Furnace — Woodlawn, Mrs. Estelle Jackson, Sponsor Science In Indtislry 1. Progress of the Tennessee Valley — Cull¬ man, Mr. John Tillman, Sponsor 2. Hydraulic Press — Decatur, Mr. John Tea¬ gue, Sponsor 3. Hydro-Electric Dam — Decatur, Mr. John Teague, Sponsor 4. Strip Mining Versus Soil Conservation — Minor, Mrs. M. McCluskey, Sponsor Junior Academy 159 5. Gyroglider — Shades Valley, Mr. Holloman, Sponsor 6. Automobile of the Future — Troy, Mr. William Brown, Sponsor 7. Digital Computer (EMAC) — Woodlawn, Mrs. Estelle Jackson, Sponsor Officers, delagates, sponsors, and members met in Palmer Auditorium at 10 A ‘i A. M. for a busi¬ ness meeting. The President, Ferd Mitchell, called the meet¬ ing to order. The Treasurer, David Sidel, then gave the an¬ nual treasurer’s report. At this time, the President asked for a report of the Resolutions Committee. Mary Kate Jerni- gan presented the following report. ’Be it resolved that the Alabama Junior Academy of Science go on record as extending thanks to the following; Dr. James L. Kassner, Dr. Lund, Dr. Patton, Dr. Bailey, Dr. Nelson, Dr. Sharp, Dr. Herndon, Dr. Kaylor, Dr. Sulzby, Dr. Wilks, Dr. Goetz, Dr. Byrum, Dean Powers, Mr. Gene Reeder, Dr. Marshall, Mr. Murphey, Dr. Walker, the officers: Ferd Mitc¬ hell, Margaret Holmes, Kendall Black, David Sidel, and their sponsors. Be it further resolved that a copy of this re¬ solution be mailed to each of the above men¬ tioned.” A motion was made, seconded, and carried that this resolution committee’s report be accept¬ ed. A motion was made, seconded, and carried that the minutes of the preceding convention not be read, but sent out to clubs, and at the annual convention be added to and corrected. Before the election of officers, the Secretary, Kendall Black, called the roll to be sure that all clubs at the meeting were represented. The candidates for office were introduced, the ballots distrbuted, and the vote taken and counted. At this time the motion was made, seconded, and carried to accept these schools to member¬ ship: Alexandria, Childersburg Jacksonville, Robert E. Lee, Montevallo, Piedmont, St. Mar¬ garet’s, Semmes, A. G. Parrish. Dr. Patton presented each of the newly elected schools with their charter. The returns of the election were then an¬ nounced by the President. The officers of the Junior Academy for l^'^l are as follows: Pres/deiil: Billy Cochran, C. F. Vigor High, Mrs. Lu- cile Lloyd, Sponsor Vice President: Carolyn Thompson, Ensley High, Miss Kath¬ ryn Boehmer, Sponsor Secretary: Robert Lewis, Murphy High, Miss Mary Bragg, Sponsor Treasurer: Jo Ann Sample, Choctaw County High, Mrs. Vivian P. Gilmore, Sponsor The awards for outstanding exhibits and papers were then made by Dr. William T. Wilks. They are: EXHIBITS Biology: First Award: Biological Wax Models — Clarence Thomas. Sidney Lanier High Second Award : Our Legless Friends — Snake, Marshall White, Foley High Third Award: Circulation of Blood — Joe Brown, Foley High Chemistry: First Award: Excavating is Fun — Randolph Gray, West End High Second Award : Cosmetics — Chemistry’s Aid to Beauty — Margaret McCIinton, Hueytown High Third Award: Crystals — Jessie Hillard, Mercy High Physics : First Award: Aerodynamic Pressure on an Airfoil Ed¬ ward Andrews, McGill Institute Second Award: Model Tornado- -Charles Ad ams, 'Fusi.aloos,i Senior High Ihird Award: A Vacuum 'lube Tesla (oil Dale Powell. A. G. Parrish Higli Science in Industry: I'irst Award: Digital Computer (FMA() Mike ( ar penter, W'ooellawn High Secoiul Award: Hydroeleiti'k Dam George I’.irrish, Dv catur High Third Aw.iiel: Ciyroglider William Reeves, High Sh.leles X’alleV 160 Journal of thf Alabama Acadlmv of Scifnce PAPERS First Award: The Superlietei'odync Receiver — Douglas Cliappell, Hueytown Higlr, Miss Editli Geisler, Sponsor Second Award : Chemical Digestion — Betty Joe Eaton, Bald¬ win County High, Miss Lillian Leonard, Sponsor I'hird Award: Tornado Generation and Structure - - Bill Gandrud, Tuscaloosa Senior High, Mr. Ralph Murphy, Sponsor The awards of the Amei'ican Association for the Advancement of Science were then made to: Micki White, Athens High Harrell Holmes, Cullman Fligh The President, Eerd Mitchell, reminded the newly elected officers to stay lor the meeting .Tier the adjournment. Dr. Kassner thanked the members for their co-operation and spirit. He asked the clubs to urge more dubs to join the Alabama Junior Academy of Science. He also announced about the Science Institute for Teachers this summer at Alabama College. President Mitchell conveyed the thanks of the olf iters to the members for theiv fine co-opera¬ tion. There being no further business, the meeting was adjourned until iyS7. Respectfully submited, KENDALL BLACK, Secretary of A] AS BALANCE SHEET FOR 1955-56 RECEIPTS: Balance on hand from 11<55 . . S486.78 Club Dues (45 6/ S2.00 ea. » . 09 Yorkshire Dr., Birmingham . IE Ball, Dr. Richard W., Dept, of Math, API, Auburn . PM Ballentine, Dr. James Bruce, Research Chemist, Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Bancroft, Mr. William H., Jr., 2I/2 Riverside Drive, I’uscaloosa . PM Barclay, Mr. Lee A., Business Manager, Alabama College, Montevallo . IE Barker. Dr. Augustus L., 227 Marion Avenue, Auburn . C Barker, Dr. Samuel B., Dept, of Pharmacology, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . Barlow, Mr. William IE, 121 E. Glenn Avenue, Auburn . Barr, Dr. E. Scott, Dept, of Physics, Box 714, University . PM Barrett, Dr. William J., Southern Research Institute, Birmingham . C Barrow, Dr, James H., Jr,, Dept, of Biology, Huntingdon College, Montgomery . BM Basore, Dr. C. A., Dept, of Chemical Eng., API, Auburn . C Baswell, Mr. John L., Birmingham Real Estate Board, 3613 South 10th Avenue, Birmingham . IE Batson, Mr. Jackie David, Box 2047, University . BM Batson, Mr, John O., Box 37, Bellamy . GC Baughman. Dr. Wilhs J., Dept, ot Health and P. E., Box 2332, University . C Beatty, Dr. Croom III, Dept, of Chemistry, Howard College, Birmingham . C Beindorff, Dr. A. B., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Bell, Mr. Vernon L., 6 A Sheridan Apts., Decatur . C Bennett, Mr. J. Claude, Vanderbilt Hall 264, Harvard Medical School, Boston 13, Mass . BM Bernhardt, Mrs. Eva G., Dept, of Biology, Huntingdon College, Montgomery . BM Berreman, Mr. Gerald D., 3819 Perry Road, Montgomery . Bertha, Sister M., O.S.B., Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman . PM Biddle, Miss Mary Ann, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM Bishop, Dr. Everett L., P. O. Box 2047, University . BM Black, Mr. William B., Eorest Analyst, Gulf States Paper Corporation, Tuscaloosa . GC Blair, Dr. Charles B., Jr., Dept, of Biology, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . BM Blair, Dr. Mary Grace, Biochemistry Dept., Univ. of Ala. Medical-Dental Schools, Birmingham . C Blake, Dr. George Henry, Jr., Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, API, Auburn . BM-B Bliss, Jane Alice, 3101 Cliff Road, Birmingham . SS Blustain, Mr. Richard, 1924 9th Avenue South, Birmingham . BM Boehmer, Miss Kathryn M., 3928 Avenue "K", Eairview Station, Birmingham . SE Boozer, Mr. Reuben B., Route 2, Jacksonville . BM Boschung, Mr. Herbert T., Jr., Mobile Center, Univ. of Alabama, Box 1473, Mobile . BM Boyd, Mr. John W., 131 North College, Auburn . GA Boyd, Dr. Rirhard D., Eorestry Dept., API, Auburn . Boyer, Dr. Edward E. H., Providence Hospital, Mobile 71 . BM Boyles, Mr. James McGregor, Box 2047, University . BM Bradley, Mr. Charles E., Jr., Weather Bureau Airport St., Birmingham . CC Bradley. Mr. John M., Jr., 209 V6 N. 21st Street, Birmingham . G Brame, Mr. }. Y., 1368 College Court, Montgomery . G Branch, Mr. William W., W. W. Branch and Company, Farley Bldg., Birmingham . IE Brannon, Mr. Peter A., Ala. Dept, of Archives and History, Montgomery . GA Brantley, Mr. James J., 934 Canal St. (Ca) New Orleans, La . SS Braswell, Professor Mamie, Dept, of Mathematics, Alabama College, Montevallo . PM Bray, Rev. Gerald, O.S.B., Prof, of Chemistry and Physics, St. Bernard College, St. Bernard . C Brooks, Mr. P. P., Apt. 132, 3100 Connecticut Ave. NW, Washington 8, D. C . SE Brown, Dr. Earl I. II, Dept, of Civil Engineering, API, Auburn . PM Brown, Mr. Jack S., Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, API, Auburn . Brown, Dr. Robert D., Dean, School of Chemistry, University . C Membership 163 Name. Title. j)til Address Section Browne, Dr. Edward T., Jr., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, API, Auburn . Brundrett, N. R., Box 114, Birmingham 1 . Bunger, Dr. William B., School of Chemistry, API, Auburn . C Bunton, Mr. Paul B., 2900 Connecticut Avenue, Washington 8, D. C . GA Burch, Mr. W. Jack, 267 S. College Street, Auburn . BM Burke, Mrs. Louise Slaughter, 1130 South l6th Avenue, Birmingham . BM Burnham, Mr. Chester F., c o U. S. Forest Service, P. O. Box 401, Montgomery . CG Burton, Dr. L. P., Dept, of Mathematics, API, Auburn . Bush, Dr. J. D., P. O. Box 877, Gadsden . BM Bush, Mr. Newbern W., 4l6 N. Church St., Jacksonville . PM Butler, Mr, John E., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . BM Byrum, Mr. George R., Jr., First Fed. Savings and Loan Assn., 116 E. 21st St., Birmingham . IE Caffee, Mr. Gabrielle L., Cedarlane, Fairhope . SS Cairns, Dr. Eldon J., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, API, Auburn . BM Calkins, Mr. Myron Eugene, Box 2107, University . C Cantrell, Mr. Clyde Hull, 129 Woodfield Dr., Auburn . SS Calloway, Mr. Elmer Dean, Box 3062, University . PM Capps, Dr. Julius D., Alabama Polytechnic Institute, P. O. Box 309, Auburn . C Carlson, Dr. Warner W., Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham. .. BM Carlson, Dr. Virginia W., Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Alabama Medical College, Birmingham "i . BM Carmichael, Mr. Albert A., }r., 2169 Allendale Rd., Montgomery 6 . B Carmichael, Dr. Emmett B., Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham. ...BM Carr, Dr. Howard E., Dept, of Physics, API, Auburn . PM Carter, Hugh P., 303 Title Guarantee Building, Birmingham . Carver, Mrs. Marie B., Public School System, Bon Secoui . SE Casey, Dr. Albert E., 2236 Highland Avenue, Birmingham . BM Cason, Mrs. Louise R., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 3 . Chaney, Dr. David W., The Chemistrand Corporation, Decatur . C Cheraskin, Dr. Emanual, School of Dentistry, University Medical Center, Birmingham . Chermock, Dr. Ralph. Dept, of Biology, Box 2047, University . BM Clark, Dr. Edward M., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, API, Auburn . Clark, Father Victor J., O.S.B., St. Bernard Abbey, St. Bernard . Clemmons, Mr. Ballard H., Box L, University . . Cobun, Mr. Ted C., Indian Springs School, Helena . S Cole, Mr. Frank T., 362 Tuttle Avenue, Mobile 19 . GC Coleman, Mr. John S., Birmingham Trust National Bank, Birmingham . IE Congleton, Miss Jane Hinton, Box 2047, University of Alabama, University . BM Coons, Dr. Kenneth W., Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Drawer H, University . Cotter, Mr. David J., 32 Highlands, Tuscaloosa . Cox, Miss Claire, Dept, of Chemistry, Jacksonville State Teachers College, Jacksonvi Craddock, Miss Emma A., 1 C Azalea Court Apts., Mobile . Crafts, Mr. Arthur G., Dept, of Pliysics, API, Auburn . Craig, Mr. Alfred B., Chemistrand Corporation, Decatur . Croker, Mr. Thomas C., Jr., Box 311, Brewton . Culmer, Professor Orpha Ann, State Teat hers College, Florence . Curl, Dr. Elroy A., Dept, of Botany and Plant Patliology, API, Auburn . Daly, Sister Mary Charles, Dept, of Biology, Sacred Heart Aiadeiu)’, ( iillman . Davey, Dr. Bessie L., School of Plome Economics, Universit)' . Davidson, Mr. Arlie B., Huntingdon College, Montgomery .. . Davis, Dr. Donald E., Botany and Plant Pathology Dept., AP Davis, Mr. Wilson, Box 2328, University . Dean, Mrs. Blanche E., 1303 Ridge Rd., Homewood, Birmingh.im . Dean, Mr. Harold Douglas, Abilene Christian College, Abilene, 'U x.is Dean, Mr. William E., fr., 207 8th Street, South, Birmingh.im . Decker, Miss Mary G., Alabama College, Montco.illo . . ( BM .. ( Aubur PM . ( G( P.M BM BM BM SI BM Gt 164 Journal of tuf Alabama Academy of Science 1 itle. and Address Section Deerman, Miss Jo, R.F.D. No. 2, Section . Dejarnette, Mr. David L., Box 66, Mound State Monument, Moundville . Dendy, Dr. j. S., Dept, of Zoology and Entomology, API, Auburn . BM IdeVall, Prof. Wilbur B., Head, Dept, of Forestry, API, Auburn . GC Devonshire, Dr. L. N., 4 B Drury Lane Apts., Tuscaloosa . C DeWitt, Dr. Hobson D., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C DeWitt, Dr. Thomas W., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Dickson, Mr. Harold A., 247 South Cannon Ave., Sylacauga . Diener, Dr. Urban L., Botany and Plant Pathology, API, Auburn . BM Dietz, Dr. Robert A., State Teachers College, Troy . BM Dorrill, Mr. William E., 409 South 3 Notch Street, Troy . BM Doster, Mrs. Charles S., 2924 Hastings Road, Birmingham . BM Doubles, Dr. James A., Jr., Dept, of Biology, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . BM Douglas, Miss Sarah F., 212 Mecca Avenue, Birmingham . BM Dow(.ly, Mr. I'elix, International Paper Co., Mobile . Driskell, Mr. J. C., Research Chemist, Tennessee Valley Authority, Wilson Dam . Dunn, Miss Sl irley T., Daugette Hall, Jacksonville . BM Dupree, Mr. Louis, 8-D Lockett Drive, Montgomery . Eads, Mr. James IL, Jr., Science Dept., Middle Tennessee State College, Murfreesboro, Tenn . BM Early, Mr. jack (., Athens College, Athens . SS Eden, Dr. Wm. G., Dept, ot Zoology and Entomology, API, Auburn . Lisele, Rev. Louis John, S.J., Dept, ot Physics, Spring Hill College, Mobile . PM Elder, Mr. R. FL, Chief Chemist, American Cast Iron Pipe Co., Birmingham . C Elliott, Mr. Howard C., Jr., 403 1 6th Place, SW, Birmingham . C Emerson, Dr. Jack D,, Dept, ol Physiology, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 3 . BM Engelbrecht, Dr. Mildred A., Dept, of Bacteriology and Medical Tech., University . BM English, Mrs. Lena, Conecuh County High School, Castleberry . SE Estes, Miss Edna E., P. O. Box 2224, University . BM Estes, Mr. Glenn E., 1209 Brown-Marx Building, Birmingham . C Evans, Dr. Lawrence E., 203 Gardner Dr., Auburn . BM Evans, Miss Para Lee, 2030 Highland Avenue, Apt. C3, Birmingham . BM I'arish, Mr. Preston T., Box 41, Route 3, Opelika . BM Farmer, Dr. C. M., 809 So. Brundidge Street, Troy . BM F'arris, Dr. Charles D., Box 4277, University . SS F’axon, F. W., 8 3-91 Frances Street, Back Bay, Bo:ton, Massachusetts . Ferry, Dr. James F., 131 North Avenue, Auburn . I'ies, Dr. Milton H., 711 Alabama Pow'er Building, Birmingham . IE Filler, Mr. Juan A., U.S.G.S. Ground Water Branch, Box 2033, University . Fincher. Dr. (. A., Dept, of Biology, Howard College, Birmingham . BM Finley, Mr. Wayne FL, 1620 Tenth Avenue S., Birmingham . C Finn, Dr. Sidney B., University of Alabama School ot Dentistry, Birmingham . BM I'itzgerald, Mr. Richard W., ISO^i Flolly Street, Montgomery . BM F’loyd, Dr. H. FL, Professor of Science, State Teachers College, F’lorencc . C F'oley, Dr. (ames O., Dept, of Anatomy, Medical College ot Alabama, Birmingham 3 . BM Foley, Mrs. James O., 409 Sunset Drive, Vestavia Hills, Birmingham . BM Foreman, Dr. Paul B., Dept, of Sociology, Box 2932, University . SS Foshee, Mr. James G., Clover Bottom Home, Danelson, Tennessee . SS Foster, Mr. Frank J., 6 Beech Hill, University . BC F’ox, Mr. G. J., 1337 4lst St. Ensley, Birmingham . BM Fox, Mr. William Houston, 432 Elm Street, Troy . BM F'rancis. Mr. 4’. M., 334 Brown-Marx Building, Birmingham . SS Fraser, Dr. James A., Prof, of Science, State Teachers College, Troy . C F'reidman, Dr. Louis L., Friedman Diagnostic Clinic, 1906 Ninth Avenue S., Birmingham . Frisby, Mr. Carl E., Dept, of Economics, API, Auburn . IE Furman, Rev. W. L., S.J., Dept, of Physics, Spring Hill College, Mobile . PM Membership 165 Kame, Title, and Address Gandrud, Mr. B. W., U. S. Bureau of Mines, University . Garin, Mr. George I., Forestry Department, API, Auburn . Garren, Dr. Robert Earl, 119 South Ross Street, Auburn . Garrett, Mr. W. Walton Garrett, 4212 Overlook Dr., Birmingham . Garrett, Mrs. Marion Huey, 4212 Overlook Drive, Birmingham . Gary, Mr. C. M., Dept, of Science, State Teachers College, Jacksonville . Gayle. Dr. John B., Box L, University . Geisler, Miss Edith, Star Route, Box 224, Bessemer . Gerhardt, Dr. Henry, 1212 Elmira Street, Mobile . Gibbons, Mr. Samuel R., 326 Overbrook Road, Birmingham . Gillam, Miss Mary, Box 128, Bynum . Gilmore, Mrs. Vivian P., P. O. Box 132, Butler . Glenn, William E., Registrar, B. S. College, Birmingham . Gober, Mrs. Gordon, Red Bay School, Red Bay.... . Goethe, Dr. Charles M., 720 Capital National Bank Bldg., Sacramento, California . Goetz, Mr. James R., 2021 Sixth Avenue, N., Birmingham . Gold, Dr. Raymond L., Box 4834, University . Goodrich, Mrs. Ima Jean, 228 East Glenn Avenue, Auburn . Gordon, Dr. Kenneth M., Dept, of Chemistry, B’h un-Southern College, Birmingham . Gorrie, Miss Rachael H., 3135 Montezuma Road, Montgomery . Graben, Mr. Henry Willingham, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . Graham, Mr. Charles Edward, 802 S. Lawrence St., Montgomery . Gran, Dr. John Edward, 707 11th Street, Tuscaloosa . Graves, Mr. Leland, Jr., 730 15th Street, Fairfield . Gravlee, Mr. William Edward, 314 Armstrong St., Auburn . Gray, Dr. James H., Drawer H, University . Green, Dr. Margaret, Department of Bacteriology, University . Griffin, Mr. Stanley W., Troy High School, Troy . Grimes, Harold W., Department of Agronomy and Soils, Auburn . Grove, Dr. E. L., Department of Chemistry, University . Gutierrez, Mr. Simplicio A., Bureau of Public Wo'ks, Manila, Philippines . Guvton, Mr. Faye E., Zoology-Entomology Dept., API, Auburn . Hafling, Miss Mary E., West End High School, Birmingham . Hall, Mr. Clarence C., Jr., Howard College, Birmingham 6 . Hammack, Mr. J. J., State Teachers College, Livingston . Hammond, Mr. Joseph L., Jr., Apt. 75, Building 7, 251 lOth North West, Atlanta, Georgia Hampe, Mr. David Earl, 200 Bonita Dr., Birmingham 9 . Hampton, Mr. Ronald K., Box 221, Howard College, Birmingliam . Hannum, Mr. Joshua E., 425 East Magnolia Ave., Auburn . Hansel, Dr. Asael T., Prof, of Soc. and Anth., Box 2982, University . Hard, Mr. Herbert G., Jr., Orradio Industries, Inc., 120 Marvyn Rd . Hargis, Dr. E. H., Hargis Clinic and Hospital, 1131 North 28th Street, Birmingham . Hargreaves, Mr. George W., 235 Woodfidd Dr., Auburn . Harper, Dr. Roland, Geological Survey of Ala., Box O, University . Harper, Mr. Thomas D., 1109 Eighth Avenue, W., Birmingham . Harris, Miss Ethel, Box 92, Montevallo . Harrison, Miss Gertrude, Sacred Heart Academy, St. Be rnard . Harshman, Mr. L. Raymond, 3495 Southmont Dr., Montgomer)' . Flartwig, Dr. Chester W., 63 3 Sanders St., Auburn . Harvey, Miss Ann Chapman, Oneonta . Harvey, Dr. Henry T., Dept, ol Biology, I'loreiv.e Stale Te.uhers ( olhge, FloixiKe . Hastings, Mr. Earl L., Geological Survey ol Ahi., Llni\'ersily . Hayles, Miss Kitty Sue, 10 4th Ave., Priih.ird . Hays, Dr. Ncrbert, Dept, of Geology, Uni\ersity . Heartburg, Mr, Carl Philip, First Nation.d B.ink, P. (). Box 22 3 i, BirmingiMm Section . IE . GC . ss . IE .... BM C SE IE BM BM SE-BM-C . BM . IE SS ,. C BM PM PM GA ., C IE BM BM .. C GA BM SE BM ., C PM GC SE IF. , SS SF BM C t ; A PM BM PM t'.t ,sc BM BM t;,\ SI 166 Journal ol the Alabama Acai)i;my of Science I u}ui /{chi yes s SGCiio)i 1 leide, Mr. S. S., 2204 28th Street, West, Birmingham . Hendon, Mr. John h., Hendon N Company, 1613 North 3rd Avenue, Birmingham . IE Henry, Mr. jeffer.son D., P. O. Box 1868, Guarantee Saving and Lite Ins. Co., Montgomery . IE I less. Dr. George W., 10 Edgewood Street, Selma . PM Hieserman, Mr. Clarence E., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Hindis, Mr. Walter H., I4l6 Beach St., Decatur . IE Hisey, Prot. Alan, Dept, ot Chemistry, University . BM I litchcotk, Mr. J. G., Manager, Land Dept., Alabama Power Company, Birmingham 2 . IE Hitt, Miss Nellie W., State Teachers College, Box 233, Troy . Elobson, Dr. Patrick H., 1313 I6th Ave. S. E., Decatur . C Hocking, Dr. George M., School of Pharmacy, API, Auburn . BM Hodge, Mrs. Ruby L., Rt. 7, Box 162, Bessemer . SE Holding, Mr. Bruce F., jr., Medical College, Birmingham . BM Holland, Mr. John William, Jr., State I’eachers College, Florence . BM Hollis, Mr. Cecil George, Box 36, Arkansas College, Batesville, Ark . BM Howell, Mr. Henry IF, 3201 Euclid Ave., Cleveland 13, Ohio . BM Howse, Mr. B. C., U. S. Steel Corp., General Office, Fairfield . BM H.utt, Mr. C. F., Jr., State I’eachers College, Florence . Huttman, Mr. Ernest O., Research Chemist, I’VA, 909 N. Pine Street, b'lorence . C Hughes, Sister Maureen, O.S.B., 2313 Highland Avenue, Birmingham . C Hunt, Dr. T. E., Dept, of Anatomy, Medical College, Birmingham . BM Hurtt, Mr. Oscar Lee, Jr., Connors Steel Division, 3000 Powell Avenue, Birmingham . Hutcheson, Mr. Lewis Bryan, 914 9th Court West, Birmingham . GA Hyatt, Mr. Atliol J., Elks Building, Huntsville . GC Imhof, Mr. Thomas A., 307 38th Street, Fairfield . BM Irvine, Dr. Paul, Dept, of Education, API, Auburn . SS Ivey, Mr. William IT, Zoology-Entomology Dept., API, Auburn . BM fackson, Mrs. Estelle O., 1413 46th Street, Bellvicw Heights, Birmingham . C James, Dr. Perry B., Pres., Athens College, Athens . SS Jennings, Mr. Dawson M., 372 Morningview Drive, Montgomery . GA Jennings, Mr. Henry L., 303 Title Guarantee Building, Birmingham . IE lohnson, Mrs. Mildred B., Jacksonville . PM Johnson, Mr. Robert B., 13 18 South 13th Street, Birmingham . C johnson, Mr. Searcy IT, Jr., Moore-Handley Hdw. Co., Inc., Birmingham . IE (ones. Dr. E. V., Consultant, Carbon Chem. Co., 213 E. Vanderbilt Dr., Oak Ridge, Tenn . C Jones, Dr. Walter B., State Geologist, Drawer O, University . GA Kallay, Dr. Ferenez P., Box 2003, University . GC Kassner, Dr. J. L., 1620 2nd Ave., Tuscaloosa . C Kayler, Mr. Hoyt M., Dept, of Physics, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . PM Kearley, Dr. Frances J., Chemistry Dept., Spring Hill . Keeler, Mr. James E., 3376 N. Georgetown Dr., Montgomery . BM Keith, Mr. Warren G., Dept, of Civil Engineering, University . PM Kiser, Miss Lola, 603 4th St. S. W., Birmingham . PM Klapper, Dr. Clarence E., Dept, of Anatomy, Medical College, Birmingham 3 . BM Klapper, Dr. Margaret S., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 3 . BM Klontz, Dr. Harold E., Dept, of Ec. and Bus. Adm., API, Auburn . SS Knight, Mr. Vernon J., Coosa River Newsprint Co., Coosa Pines . GC Knowles, Dr. Doyle B., P. O. Box 2033, University . GA Kraus, Dr. Frederick W., 114 Stratford Rd., Birmingham 9 . BM Kuderna, Mr. Jerome G., 137 Cary Dr., Auburn . SE Lamar, Mrs. Sally Rainer, 2042 Canterbury Road, Birmingham 9 . SS LaMoreaux, Mr. Phillip E., Box 2033, University . GA Land, Dr. James E., Dept, of Chemistry, API, Auburn . C Lane, Dr. William E., Ibept. of Industrial Manage, API, Auburn . IE Membership 167 Wv//e. Title, and Address Sertion Langley, Dr. Leroy Lester, Dept, ot Physiology, Medical College, Birmingham S . BM Larguier, Rev. Everett, S.J., Spring Hill College, Mobile, . PM Larison, Miss Joyce, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM Lauer, Dr. Karl H., 18 B Druid Gardens, Tuscaloosa . C Lawson, Dr. J. Keith, Chamestrand Corp., Decatur . C Lazansky, Dr. Joseph, University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham S . BM Leath, Mr. Lewis T., Jamestown . BM Leibold, Dr. Armin A., .ISO Cary Dr., Rt. L, Box 448, Auburn . BM Lenfesty, Mr. Franklin A., Research Chemist, Tennessee Valley Authority, Wilson Dam . C Leonard, Miss Lillian, Box .129, Bay Minette . BM Lewis, Dr. F. A., Dept, of Mathematics, University . PM Livingston, Mr. Know. W., Dept, of Forestry, API, Auburn . GC Lloyd, Mrs. Lucille N., C. F. Vigor High School, Prichard . C Lloyd, Dr. S. J., Dept, of Chemistry, University . C Loffre, Mr. Randall C., Jr., 1364 Government St., Mobile 19 . C Long, Mr. A. R., 1106 E. Audubon Road, Montgomery 6 . C Lueth, Mr. Francis X., Box 41°), Centerville . BM Lumpkin, Mr. Thomas, Box 2047, University . BM Lyle, Dr. James A., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, API, Auburn . BM hlcArthur, Dr. Charles Wilson, 162 Forest Park Circle, Auburn . PM McCaffrey, Mr. J. E., Woodland Dept., International Paper Co., Mobile . GC McCracken, Dr. William Lionel, University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham 3 . BM McCullough, Dr. Herbert A., Dept, of Biology, Howard College, Birmingham . BM McCullough, Mr. John M., 2844 Spann Place, Montgomery 7 . GC McCurdy, Mr. G. Lofton, Johnston Jr. High School, Anniston . SE McGlamery, Miss Winnie, Alabama Geological Survey, Box O, University . GA McKnight, Mr. Everett A., Woodward . GC McTyeire, Miss Clustie, 1804 Arlington Avenue, Bessemer . SE McVay, Dr. Thomas F., 10 Oakwood Court, Tuscaloosa . Q McWilliams, Mr. David Holmes, State Teachers College, Troy . BM MacKenzie, Mr. James T., 4300 9th Ct. So., Birmingham . Mabee, Dr. Fred C., Howard College, Birmingham . Mallory, Mr. Jack Carlston, Box 3003, University . BM Malmberg, Mr. Glenn T., U. S. Geological Survey, Room 206, P. O. Bldg., Huntsville . GA Marshall, Miss Ethel, Dept, of Geography and History, Alabama College, Montevallo . GC Marshall, Dr. Hamilton Louis J., 118 Florence Place, Mobile . BM Marshall, Dr. Madison L., Research Chemist, Chemstrand Corp., Decatur . C May, Mr. Jack T., Forestry Dept., API, Auburn . GC Mayer, Mr. William C., Jr., 1467 Alford Ave., Shades Mountain, Birmingham 9 . (' Merkal, Mr. Richard Sterling, Rt. 2, Box 380 . (' Merrill, Mrs. Rachel Knight, 2509 Park Lane Court South, Apt. H, Birmingliam 9 . BM Meyer, Dr. Frieda L., University of Ala., Box 1974, University . BM Miles, Dr. E. P., Jr., Dept, of Mathematics, API, Auburn . Miles, Mr. Vance, 102 5 Myrtlewood Dr., Tuscaloosa . Gi( Miller, Mr. Carl A., Rt. 3, Box 258, Auburn . Miller, Mr. ]e.sse E., 1107 South 30th St., Birmingham . y;C Miller, Dr. William L.. 460 Pinedale Dr., Auburn . gg Mills, Mr. Walter L., Box 51, Selma . (',( Minton, Mr. Norman A., Dept, of Botany and Plant Patliology, API, Auburn . BM Miracle, Mr. Chester L., Mathematics Dept., API, Auburn . p;^l Mitchell, Dr. F. H., Dept, of Physics and Astronomy, University . PM Mitchell, Dr. Herbert H., 338 Armstrong St., Auburn . gg Mobley, Mr. Willard M., Alabama By-Products Corp., Box 'I'arr.inl . IP Moffett, Dr. Benjamin C., Jr,, U. ol A. Med. (enter, OH) 7th A\e. So., Birmini^luim s BM Moore, Mr. O. C., Dept, of Chemical Engineering, AIM, Auburn . ( 168 Journal of thf Alabama Academy of Science Name, Title, and Address Section Moore, Mr. William H., DepL of Botany and Plant Pathology, API, Auburn . BM Morehead, Dr. Beachley A., Chemstrand Corp., Decatur . C Morgan, Mr. Sheldon L., 3.^7 East Magnolia Ave., Auburn . SE Morris, Dr. Erederick K., 2334 South Montgomery Dr., Maxwell Air Force Base . GA Mosley, Mr. Samuel A., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Munro, Mr. W. M., 1282 Woodley Road, Montgomery . Mount, Mr. Robert H., 267 South College St., Aubuin . BM Mulican, Mr. Charles L., Jr., =>10 Comer Lane, Tallassee . GC Muntz, Mr. Herbert H., U. S. Forest Service, Room 267, I'ederal Bldg., Birmingham 3 . GC Myles, Mr. William R., Dept, of Economics and Business Adm., API, Auburn . SS Nam, Mr. Charles B., 33 D The Prado, Montgomery “s . SS Nancarrow, Miss Virginia, 617 St. Charles Ave., Birmingham . BM Nelson, Mr. Gid E., Jr., Dept, of Biology, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM Nesbitt, Dr. Paul H., Arctic, Desert, Tropic Into. C.. Research Studies Inst., Maxwell AFB . GA Nichols, Dr. Samuel H., Jr., Dept, of Chemistry, API, Auburn . C Nicholson, Miss Catherine S., 133 Wesley Ave., Jackson, Miss . BM Noles, Mr. Billy J., S. T. C., Jacksonville . BM Nunn, Mr. Glady Harrison, Box 1427, University . SS Nyholm, Mr. Holger J., 1201 University Ave., Tuscaloosa . GA Oden, Mr. E. Clarence, 141 “S Beech St., S. E., Decatur . C Ogden, Dr. Frederic D., Drawer I, University of Ala., University . SS O’Kelley, Dr. Joseph Charles, Dept, of Biology, Box 2047, University . BM Ottis, Dr. Kenneth, Zoology-Entomology Dept., API, Auburn . BM Overton, Dr. Eleazer C., 210'> Warrior Road, Birmingham . BM Owens, Mr. James W., Jr., 906 Homewood, Tuscaloosa . GC Palmer, Dr. George D., Jr., Dept, of Chemistry, University . C Pallister. Dr. Hugh D., Ala. Geological Survey, Box 1‘iOl, University . GA Pankey, Mr. Paul, 2413 1st Ave. No., Birmingham . IE Parker, Dr. W. V., Mathematics Dept., API, Auburn . PM Parks, Mr. Billy R., 10a7 31st Street West, Birmingham . GA Parks, Mr. S. Laws, 314 E. Bryan St., Athens . Parrish, Mr. John W., Box 309, Montevallo . SS Patton, Mr. Ernest Gibbes, Box 2047, University . BM Patton, Mrs. Anna R., Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Medical College of Ala., Birmingham 3 . C Paul, Miss Edna, Public School System, Bay Minette . SE Paustain, Dr. E. C., Athens College, Athens . SS Peacock, Dr. J. Talmer, Box 2047, University . BM Pearsall, Dr. Marion, Dept, of Sociology and Anthropology, University . GA Peterson, Dr. |oe G., School of Chemistry, API, Auburn . C Piano, Mr. Arthur G. I’., P. O. Box 1436, University . BM Pigman, Dr. Ward, Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Medical College of Ala., Birmingham . BM Pitts, Mr. Robert G., 216 Genelda Avenue, Auburn . PM Poitras, Dr. Adrian W., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, API, Auburn . BM Poole, Mr. Donald L., Rt. 4, Box 773, Bessemer . GA Poort, Mr. Gerald A., S. T. C., Jacksonville . BM Pope, Mr. Dealia W., S. T. C., Troy . C Porter, Mr. Earl, 123 Florence Place, Mobile 17 . GC Powell, Mr. Frank B., S. T. C., Jacksonville . BM Powell, Mr. P. P., 126 W. Glenn Ave., Auburn . C Powers, Dr. Richard, Dean, Alabama College, Montevallo . SS Powell, Mr. William J., P. O. Box 2033, University . GA Prather, Mrs. Mary Elizabeth, Smith Hall Annex, Auburn . BM Prestridge, Mrs. Virginia W., 470 Samford Ave., Auburn . IE Price, Dr. Edwin O., Dept, of Chemistry, API, Auburn . C Price, Mr. J. L., Robert E. Lee School, Montgomery . SE Membership 169 Name, Title, and Address Section Purdom, Mr. Cloyce L., 121 S I6th Ave. S. E., Decatur . IE Purvis, Mr. Edward E. Ill, Delta Sigma Phi, API, Auburn . C Ramey, Mr. Doyle Winford, Box 1481, University . BM Rau, Mr. William, ^30 South 80th St., Birmingham . BM Rea, Dr. Robert Right, 241 Payne St., Auburn . SS Reid, Mrs. Harry, Selma Jr. High School, Selma . SE Reiner, Rev. Charles, St. Bernard College, St. Bernard . C Rhein, Dr. Walter J., Spring Hill College, Mobile . PM Rhodes, Mr. Albert Lewis, Box 3016, University . SS Richardson, Dr. Jesse M., Dept, of Economics, API, Auburn . GC Ringwold, Dr. Eugene L., 1302 Morningside Court, Decatur . C Rives, Mr. John E., 2324 Chapel Hill Road, Durham, North Carolina . Roberts, Dr. Bruno R., P. O. Box 1303, Decatur . C Robertson, Mr. Robert L., Zoology-Entomology Dept., API, Auburn . BM Robinson, Dr. True W., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . Rodgers, Dr. Eric, Dept, of Physics and Astronomy, University . PM Roger, Mr. Wiley S., Geology Dept., Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . GA Rosen, Mr. Lawrence, Dept, of Bio-Chemistry, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Rowe, Mr. Luther Conrad, 1927 8th Avenue S., Birmingham . Ruark, Dr. Arthur E., Dept, of Physics, Box 204l, University . PM Rust, Dr. H. B., 1507 Ridge Road, Birmingham . IE Sanders, Dr. Robert H., 296 Chewalda Dr., Auburn . SS Sanford, Mr. Thomas Herbert, Jr., 526 Bonita Circle, Huntsville . Sansing, Mr. Norman G., Alpha Gamma Rho House, Auburn . BM Saunders, Dr. Charles Richard, 369 Payne St., Auburn . C Schneyer, Dr. Leon D., University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham . BM Schultz, Mr. E. Fred, Jr., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, API, Auburn . BM Scott, Mr. John C., P. O. Box 613, Montgomery . G Scott, Mr. Louis D., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . Scott, Dr. Robert Blackburn, Jr., 14 Guild’s Wood, Tuscaloosa . C Searcy, Miss Margaret Z., 1715 4th Street, Tuscaloosa . SS Seibold, Dr. Herman Rudolph, Rt. 2, Box 256, Auburn . BM Sellers, Mr. Edwin M., 2 S. 32nd St., Birmingham . IE Sellers, Mr. William D., Jr., 2 S. 32nd St., Birmingham . C Sensenig, Dr. E. Carl, Dept, of Anatomy, Medical College of Ala., Birmingham . BM Sevier, Sister Mary Susan, OSB, Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman . PM Shamblee, Mr. Thomas E., Rt. 3, Box 138, Anniston . BM Sharp, Mr. C. G., Dept, of Biology, Alabama College, Montevallo . GA Shaw, Mr. William P., Shaw & Renneker, Architects, 2021 6th Ave. N., Birmingham . GA-GC Shelton, Rev. William H., P. O. Box 2082, University . SS Sherman, Mr. Harry L., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . BM Shotts, Mr. Emmett B., Sr., Snead Junior College, Boaz . PM Shotts, Mr. Reynold Q., Prof, of Mining Engineering, Box 1526, University . Shotts, Mrs. Will Laceye B., Dept, of Biology, Snead Jr. College, Boaz . BM Shull, Mr. Barney L., P. O. Box 609, Eairhope . BM Shumaker, Mr. Thomas P., 428 Prince Ave., Tu.scaloosa . C Simpson, Mr. Thomas A., U. S. Geological Survey, Room 302, City Hall, Bessemer . G.\ Sinski, Dr. James T., Spring Hill College, Mobile . BM Sipe, Dr. H. Craig, Dept, of Physics, State Teachers College, Florence . SF Sizemore, Mr. W. R., Box 244, Tallassee . CC Sledge, Mr. Eugene B., Dept, of Botany and Plant Path., API, Auburn . BM Smith, Anthony J., 710 Prospect, Florence . Smith, Miss Carol Ann, Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, API, Auburn . B.M B Smith, Mr. Donald F’., Box H, Univ ersity . . (' Smith, Mr. Frank F., Fayette Experimental Forest, Route 3, Fayette . CiC 170 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Name. 1 /lie. ami AJilress Sect/on Smith, Dr. Scptima, Dept, of Botany, Box 1446, University . BM Smithey, Dr. William R., Jr., Dept, of Chemistry, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . C Snoddy, Mr. Gaither B., Jr., 504 N. Pelham Rd., Jacksonville, Fla . C Snyder, Mr. Andrew J., Dept, of Chemistry, P. O. Drawer H, University . C Snyder, Mr. Ernest E., Dept, of Science, State Teachers College, Elorence . SE Snyder, Mr. Robert Loring, 3266 Wilmington Rd., Montgomery . GC Soday, Dr. Frank J., Research Director, Chemstrand Corp., Decatur . GA Southern, Dr. John Albert, Dept, of Chemistry, Floward College, Birmingham . C Sowell, Mrs. Inez G., 6-B Hare Apt., Auburn . SS Spann, Mr. Ransom Davis, 314 E. Tach, Auburn . PM Spencer, Miss Eilly H., Smith Hall, Auburn . SS Spidle, Mrs. Marion W., 306 Cary Dr., Auburn . SS Spies, Dr. lorn D., Hillman Hospital, Birmingham . BM Spieth, Dr. Alda May, Dept, of Biology, Livingston . BM Stanfield, Mr. Zenas A., 434 N. Poplar St., Apt. J, Florence . Stauffer, Mr. Jacob M., State F'orester, Ala. Dept, of Conservation, Montgomery . GC Steele, Dr. H. Ellsworth, Route 2, Box 273 A, Auburn . SS Stelzenmuller, f. G., 412 S. W. 12th St., Birmingham . Stephens, Mr. Miles E., P. O. Box 893, Auburn . GC Stephenson, Mrs. Diane D., 3809 12th Court So., Birmingham . SS Sterne, Dr, M. H., Sterne, Agee &. Leach, First National Bank Bldg., Birmingham . IE Stevens, Dr. Frank J., Dept, of Chemistry, API, Auburn . C Stewart, Dr. James, Dept, of Mining Engineering, Box 1526, University . C Stickney, Mrs. Hazel Latendress, Dept, of Geography, State Teachers College, Livingston . GC Stitzer, Mr. R. B., Tennessee Valley Authority, Wilson Dam . C Stone, Dean Paul T., Huntingdon College, Montgomery . Strickland, Dr. Harold S., 4061/-, Haralson Ave., Gadsden . SE Sudhoft, Mr. Roy W., 1807 Stratford Road SE, Decatur . C Sullivan, Mr. John L., Great A. & P. Tea Co., Box 276, Birmingham . IE Sulzby, Mr. James E., 4212 Overlook Rd., Birmingham . IE Summe,sell, Dr. Charles G., Box 2056, University . SS Sutcliffe, Mr. Horace, Jr., c/o Sut's Six, 111 University Ave., Tuscaloosa . GA Swindel, Mr. George W., Jr., U. S. Geological Survey, University . GA Tankersley, Route 3, Alexander City . BM Tapp, Dr. James S., 905 8th Avenue, SE, Decatur . C Tarbutton, Dr. Grady, Applied Research Section, Tennessee Valley Authority, Wilson Dam . C Taylor, Miss Geraldine, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM Thomas, Dr. Adeeb E., University of Ala. School of Dentistry, Birmingham . BM Thomas, Mr. Carl Owens, Univ. of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee . Thompson, Mr. Davis Hunt, 917 Valley Road Place, Birmingham . C Thompson, Georgia J., Station 3, Bryce Hospital, Tuscaloosa . Thompson, Mrs. Wynelle D., 917 Valley Road Place, Birmingham . C Tilley, Miss Luvenia, Rt. 1, Reform . BM Timonin, Dr. Michael I., Pearson and Co., Dogwood Lane, Spring Hill Sta., Mobile . BM Todd, Mr. Carl David, API, Auburn . PM Todhunter, Dr. Neige E., School of Home Economics, University . C Tower, Dr. James Allen, Dept, of Geography, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . C Townes, Mr. M. Halsey, 4424 Cliff Road, Birmingham . IE Tucker, Mr. Charles Eugene, 46 Vonore Ave., Montgomery . BM Tucker, Mr. Edd Kyle, P. O. Box 97, Camp Hill . C Turner, Mr. Henry F., Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, API, Auburn . BM-B Twellmeyer, Rev. George O., Dept, of Chemistry, Spring Hill College, Mobile . C Tyrea, Mrs. Charles W., S. T. C., Jacksonville . BM Ucci, Mr. Pompelio A., Chemstrand Corp., Decatur . C Underwood, Mrs. Bertha A., 4l5 Lauderdale St., Russellville . C Membership 171 Name. Title. a)id Address Section Unnewehr, Dr. Emory C., Athens College, Athens . PM Valentine, Barry D., 20 Howard Street, Cambridge 38, Mass . Valentine, Rev. Claude E., S.J., Dept, of Biology, Spring Hill College, Mobile . SE Van de Mark, Mrs. Mildred S., Smith Hall Annex, Auburn . BM Veazey, Dr. Thomas M., Chemstrand Corp., Decatur . C Viccars, Miss Marion, 2123 Mt. Meigs Rd., Montgomery . BM Vickery, Dr. Katherine, Dept, of Psychology, Alabama College, Montevallo . SS Volker, Dr. Joseph, University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham 5 . BM Wade, Mr. Albert, Jr., Box 237, Howard College, Birmingham 6 . BM Walker, Mr. Joseph Clyde, 2100 Bienville Street, Selma . SS Walker, Dr. J. Henry, Dept, of Biology, P. O. Box 2047, University . BM Walker, Miss Katharene, Route Mars Hill Rd., Florence . Walters, Mr. James, Box 799, University . SS Ward, Dr. Henry S., Jr., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, API, Auburn . BM Ward, Mr. John F., Box 1717, University . C Watson, Mr. J. Hilton, Box 422, Montgomery . GC Waugh, Mr. James Douglas, S. T. C., Jacksonville . BM Webster, Miss Elizabeth, Box 2025, University . SS Wesson, Dr. James Robert, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham 4 . PM Westover, Dr. Frederick L., Dept, of Educational Psychology, P. O. Box 1 553, University . SS White, Mr. Jesse Steven, Delta S. T. C., Cleveland, Mississippi . BM White, Dr. Locke, Jr., Southern Research Institute, Birmingham . C Whitehead, Dr. Fred, Dept, of Chemistry, Huntingdon College, Montgomery . Whitt, Mr. Carlton D., Route 4, Athens . C Wiggins, Mr. William K., 2250 Carler Rd., Montgomery . BM Wilcox, Dr. Harold E., Dept, of Chemistry, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . Wilkes, Dr. James C., Jr., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . Wilks, Dr. William T., Professor of Science, State Teachers College, Troy . SE-PM Willbern, Dr. York, Bureau of Public Administration, University . SS Williams, Mr. Glenn Alvin, 4741 Ave. R, Central Park, Birmingham . G Williams, Melvin R., 615 Hubbard Street, Montgomery . Willoughby, Mr. Herman Lamar, Route 1, Tennille . C Wilson, Dr. Hazel Schoonmaker, State Teachers College, Jacksonville . PM Wilson, Dr. L. T., Dept, of Physics, State Teachers College, Jacksonville . PM Wilson, Dr. Wilfred Kelson, 344 Forest Hills Road, Springfield 8, Massachusetts . C Wingard, Dr. R. E., Box 177, Auburn . C Wingo, Dr. William J., Dept, of Biochemistry, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Wood; James W., University Alabama Medical Center, Box 63, Rt. 4, Birmingham . Yancey, Rev. Patrick H., S.J., Dept, of Biology, Spring Hill College, Mobile . BM Yanchosek, Mr. John J., U. S. Geological Survey, Box 6l47, University . GA Yocom, Mr. Herbert A., 315 l6th Street, S.W., Birmingham . GCi Yokeley, Dr. Paul, Jr., State Teachers College, Florence . BM Zukoski, Mr. Charles F., Jr., First National Bank, Birmingham . SS 172 Journal of the Alabama Academy oe Science INDEX This index includes tlie topics discussed within the Journal, however, it does not attempt to include minute details. The membership of the Academy is not indexed since the list is arranged alphabetically on pages 161-171. The names of officers of the Academy, as well as contributors to the program, and other persons whose work is referred to within the Journal are indexed. The colleges and sci¬ entific organizations within the state are indexed wherever their names are mentioned. A Academy Award, Ala . I'iO Adrenocorticotropin . 121 Agnes, Sister Bernadette . 117 Ala. Acad. Sci. experiences . 132 A A AS, Sci. Teach. Improv. Prog . 134 Alabama College . 9, n, 19, 21, 120, 131, 139, 143, 146, 147, n3 Ala. Forest Prod. Assoc . 129 Ala. Geol. Survey . 3^, 38, 1 18, 126, 127 Ala. Jr. Acad. Sci . 133-160 Ala. Jr. Acad. Sci., chapter members . 154-133 Ala. Jr. Acad. Sci. Minutes . 136-160 Ala. Jr. Acad. Sci., Officers . 154 Ala. Polytechnic Institute . 19, 69, 80, 103, 117, 120, 121, 123, 124, 123, 128, 129, 130, 134, 136, 137, 138 Ala. Power Co . 33-38 Albrecht, Ruth . 134, 146 Alexander, H. C . 149 Altau, Karl . 124 Amadori rearrangement, studies on . 123 Amer. Assoc, for Adv. of Sci . 16 Amer. Chem. Soc . 147 Amer. Inst, of Mining & Metal. Engineering. ...44 Amer. Soc. of Test. Materials . 61 Amer. Viscose Co . 30 Acjuifier — test methods . 126 Arterial grafts . 124 Ascorbic acid . 119 Automation, career oppor . 86-100 Awards, Student Research . I4l B Bailey, P. C . 21, 139-142, 143-143, 147 Bagwell, J. T . 149 Baker, Wm . 149 Banks, private in N. C . 136 Barite . 38 Barker, S. B . 117, 146 Baswell, J. L . 143-143 Bauxite . 38 Bayles, D. E . 149 Beasley, J. G . 124 Beatty, Croom . 149 Beindorff, A. B . 149 Berryhill, H. L . 68 Berryman, Wm . 149 Bessemer High School . 132 Bird book, Ala . 118 Bird records. Dauphin Island . 32-34 Bishop, Everett 1 . 117, 139-142 Black, Kendall . l6o Blair, J. C . 18 Borate ions . 121 Boschung, Herbert . 143-143 Bowles, Edgar . 44 Bromo-ethylcjuinaline . 124 Brooks, B. M . 29 Brown, Andrew . 68 Building stones . 40 Business Meeting, annual, AAS . 146-147 C C. F. Vigor H. S . 149 Caldkins, M. E . 124 Caldwell, R. C . 120 Camden Academy . 130 Cantrell, Clyde . 139-142, 143-143 Canyons, submarine, origin of . 127 Capps, J. D . 124 Carbohydrate metab. in Tetrahymena . 117 Career opportunities, physics, math, and engineering . 80-107 Carmichael, E. B . 149 Carr, Howard . 139-142, 146 Chelates, presence of . 125 Chemstrand Corp . 29, 124, 127 Chermock, Ralph . 9, 32, 139-142, 143-143, 146-147 Chemistry sets, values of . 132 Citronelle discovery . 126 Clothing buying practices . 134 Clay . 40 Coal . 40 Coals, rank and comp, of Ala . 44-61 Cobun, Ted . 139-142, 143-145, 149 Coffee H. S . 149 Committees, A.A.S . 8 Community, experienced by indiv . 133 Communistic influences in ed . 135 Computers, high speed . 96-100 Conservation Dept., Ala . 32, 118, 119 Coosa River, Geol. of . 35-38 Copper . 40 Coulter, D. M . 68 Counselor, Report of A. Jr. A. S . 151 Index 173 Croker, T. C., Jr . 128, 143-145, 146 Cudworth, J. R . 80, 100 Cyr, Bro. S. C . l'^9 Fox, Barbara . 149 Francis, Wilfred . 61 G D Dams, Coosa River . 35-38 Daniel, J. T . l‘^9 Dauphin Island, Ala . 32-34 Davis, J. D . 6l Dean, Blanche E . 131, 146 Deer, anter development . 119 Denson, J. J . Desmognathus . 117 DeVall, W. B . 128, 146 Dicks, Martha . 119 Dickson, Luther . 150 Diener, V. L . 143-145 Dobbins, H. L . 149, 150 Dolomite . ^1 Dorris, E. G . 1^9 Dow Chem. Co . - AO Draughon, Ralph . 146 Druid City Hospital . 118 Dugger, Fowler, Sr . 136 E Enamel, surface microhardness Enrollments, Ala. school and college . .......136 Epinephrine effects . .....121 Erythrocytes, effect of CO sat . . . .118 Escambia forest project . 128 Exec. Com. Minutes, A.A.S. . ...139-145 Export economy, problems in . .131 E. H. Sargent Co. . . ..........147 Eastman Kodak Co . -.30 Education of scientists . 9-l4 Edwards, Jack . . ...148 Edwards, W. S . . . .........124 Electrode pat., recording of . 125 Electronegatives, det. of . 125 Ellis, John . . 138 F Fairfield Ind. H. S. . . 149 Family structure, change in . 134 Ferry, James F . . . 117, 143-145, 146 Fibonacci series, aspects of . 130 Fieldner, A. C . 6l Filler, J. A . 126 Fisher Scientific Co . 147 Florence S. T. C . 132, 133 Forest management . 72-79 Forestry research . 128 Forest research, Ala. mineral district . 128 Fourier series representations . 1.30 Galvanometer, construction of . 130 Gann, G. 1 . 128 Garren, R. E . 134 Gas . 40 Gifted students . 133 Gilmore, R. W . 120 Glenn, W. E . 149 Goetz, J. R . 143-145, 146 Gold . 41 Gold, R. L . 134 Goodrich, Ima Jean . 134 Gorgas Scholarships . 148-150 Gorgas Scholarship Found . 30 Government scientists . 9-14 Green, Margaret . 146 Grove, E. L . 124 Gulf States Paper Corp . 72 H Hafling, Mary E . 131 Hansen, A. T . 135, 139-142, 143-145 Hanson, R. B . 149 Hanson, R. W . 117 Harper, R. M . 107, 118, 126, 135, 143-145 Harvard Univ . 29 Harvey, H. T . 132 Hastings, E. L . 38 Hayes, C. W. . 68, 149 Helicotylenchus nannus, pathogenicity of . 123 Helmick, P. F . 149 Hisey, Alan . 118 Holley, Howard . 121 Horton, E. C . l47 Householder, A. S . 80, 81 Howard College . 1 46 Hughes, Gordon . 130 Hydrogen ion cone., recording of . 12‘> I Ikenberry, Ernest . 130 Imhof, T. A . 32, 1 1 8 Inhibition, retroactive, effect of similar materials upon . 13'’ Indian Springs Sch(X)l . 1 32, 1 3 3. I tO Industries, N. W. Ala . 133 Instruction, improvement ot science . 9-11 Iron ore . tl Irvine, Paul . 1 3(i J Jackson, Mrs. Estelle . K'. 1^0 |ackson\'iIle S. T. (' . 1 U' 174 Journal of tul Alabama Academy of Scifncf Jeffries, J. L . 125 Jennings, H. L . l46 Job evaluation . 137 johnson, J. A., Jr . 149 Jones, E. E . 150 Jones, Erances D . l49 Jones, W. B . 44, 126 Jung, E. W . 61 K Kassner, J. 1 . 124, 143-145, 146, 1-17, 150, 151 Kay lor, Hoyt . 146, 149 Keenan, B. S . 149 Kester, E. B . 61 Kiinmons, Mary Claudette . 150 Kirkpatrick, J. C . 72 Klapper, C. E . 119 Knowles, D. B . 126 E Ladoo, R. B . 44 Lafayette formation . 126 Laney, P. W., Jr . 149 Lanett H. S . 1 49 Land, J. E . 125 Land-surface collapse . 127 Leadership, scientific . 9-14 f,eclbctter, J. C . 149 Lloyd, L. N . 1 49 Lloyd, S. J . 35, 44 Liberty Nat. Life Ins. Co . 81, 96 Limestone . 4l Limnology . 120 Livingston, J. A., Jr . 81 Locke, J. E . 149 Loesch, Harold . 143-145 Lookout Mt., structure in Ala . 62-68 Lowry. H. H . 6l Lueth, F. X . 119 Luzon, t;eol. of coastal plain . 126 Lund, E. E . 147 Lunsford, J. K . 147 Lymphosarcoma, 6-C,H-ED . 117 M Mabee, F. C . 147 MacElvain, R. C . 127 Mancil, M. C . 149 Marengo Co., Ala., ground-water studies . 126 Mason, J. H . 132 Martin, John . 132 Marshall, Madison L . 29, 139-142, 143-145, 146, 147 Massie, Ben . 132 Math, oppor. in gov’t res . 81-86 Math teachers, ed. of . 19-20 May, Jack T . 69 Mayor, John R . 16 McCalley, Henry . 44 McCullough, H. A . 139-142, 143-145, 146 McGill Institute . 149 McIntyre, S. C . 137 McKenzie, J. T . 149 McMurray, Lynn . 44 Mellen, F. F' . 68 Membership, A.A.S . 161-171 Meyer, F. L . 119 Mica . 4l Microlithic site, ^Mississippi . 127 Miles, E. P., Jr . 80, 130, 139-142, 143-145 Miles, R. V., Jr . 72 Mills, C. C., Jr . 148 Mineral, Ala. prod, of . 44 Mineral deposits, Ala . 38-44 Miracle, Chester . 130 Mitchell, Ferdinand, Jr . 149 Mitchell, H. H . 136 Monsanto Chem. Co . 31 Moore, W. H . 120 Matt, R. A . 61 Muntz, H. H . 128 Muntz, M. L . 120 Murphy H. S . 149 Myers, W. M . 44 Myles, Wm. R . 137 N Nat. Ed. Assoc . 29 Nat. Science Found . 131 Nat. Soc. for Study of Ed . 29 Nelson, G. E . 120, 139-142, 146, 147 Nephelometric measurements . 125 NichoLson, Shirley . 137 Nickell, W. B . 149 Nitrogen, histopathological effects . 123 Nylon, as arterial grafts . 124 O Oak Ridge Nat. Lab . 81 Officers, A.A.S . 7-8 Oil . 40 O’Kelley, J. C . 121 Ornithology, Ala. . . 32-34 Ottis, Kenneth . 121 Ovals and related curves . 107-116 P Paleo Indians, N. Ala . 127 Pallister, H. D. . . 38, 44 Parker, W. V . 19 Index Patton, H. G . 143-145, 146, 151 Patton, Francis . 121, 122 Payne, Joseph . 133 Pearsall, Marion . 146 Personnel practices in S.E . 137 Personnel values of textile cos . 134 Pettway, G. M . 150 Phelan, W. C . 68 Philippine Islands . 126 Photocopyer . 118 Physical Sciences, eval. program . 133 Piano, A. G. F . 117, 120 Pigman, Ward . 120, 121, 122, 125, 147 Pines, quality of southern . 128 Plant Sciences . 117 Platt, David . 121 Powers, Richard . 131 Presidential address . 9-14 Progressive Ed. Assoc . 29 Pulpwood . 72-79 Purvis, E. E . 125 Q Quail foods . 120 R Radioactive materials . 43 Rapport, nature of . 134 Rea, R. R . 138 Redstone Arsenal . 87 Research awards, student . 123, 130, 137 Research, need for . 105-107 Research, scientific . 9-14 Resolutions Committee report . 147, Religions, class, of . 138 Religious fundamentalism. Middle Tenn . 138 Resource, the scientist . 9 Retention, effect of similar materials upon . 137 Reynolds, D. A . 6l Rhodes, Lewis . 138 Richards, D. B . 129 Rockets, problems with . 87-96 Robbins, Paul H . 9 Robinson, T. W . 125 Rogers, W. S . 146 Rosen, L . 125 Rugg, H . 29 S Salaries of scientists and science teachers . 9-14 Saliva, studies of human . 122 Salivary mucoid, prec. of . 122 Salt deposits . 43 Schneyer, L. H . 122 Science Clubs of America, report of Cooperator . I 1 175 Science Fairs . 30 Science teachers, ed. of . 21-29 Science teach., contrib. of non-school agencies . 29-31 Science teaching in Alabama . n-31 Scientists, demand for . 9-l4 Scientists, education of . 9-l4 Scientists, industrial . 9-14 Seed quality . 123 Selvig, A. W . 6l Shale . 40 Shell Found . 30 Shotts, R. Q . 44, 61, 62 Sidney Lanier H. S . 149 Silica . 43 Simmons, A. T . 149 Sinski, J. T . 122 Sipe, H. C . 133 Sledge, E. B . 123 Smith, C. B . 25 Smith, E. A . 44 Snakes . 132 Snyder, E. E . 133, 143-145 Snyder, E. J . i46 Soday, F. J . 127, 146 Southeastern Work Conference . 131 South. Forest Exp. Sta . 72, 128 Southern, J. A . 149 South. Pine Assoc . 72 South. Pulpwood Conservation Assoc . 72 Southern Research Institute . 9 Splenectomized white rats . 121 Spiers, H. M . 6l Spooner, C. E . 6l Spring Hill College . 117, 122, 134 Sprunk, G. C . 6l Starches, cariogenic potentialities of . 119 Stanford report, significance of . 120 Stanford Research In.stit . 72 State Dept, of Ed . is Stauffer, J. M . l-t3-l D, I t” Steele, H. E . 137, M3-1.4S Stevens, I’. J . i-t6, MO Strauss, Adm. Lewis . 0 Sturm, R. G . SO, 10"' Sugar ab.sorption, plant cells . 121 Sullivan, J. L . M(i Sulzby, J. F., Jr . 130-M2, Mi l is. i p Sw'afford, Lida . ms Sw’cet, R. F . I |o Swindcl, G. W . MO-i (2 Sym[iosium, Physics. Math N Fngincvring St' U'” Symposium, Suciuc Tc.uhmg in .Ma . M il Syiulp'trium biatwnii, mfictions b\ . 122 Syiunial lluid souixcs . 121 176 Journal of tuf Alabama Acadfmy of Scifncf T 'I'alent search, Ala . 148-150 Tapp, J. S . 124 'I'aylor, D. A . 68 Teachers, science . 9-14 Telegrapher's ecjuat., solutions to . 130 Tetralymena . 117 Th lessen . 6l Thompson, Mrs. D. H . 149 Timber resources . 72-79 Titanium, polarographic det. of . 124 Toffel, G. M . 44 Tower, J. Allan . 139-142, 143-145, 146 Treasurer's Report, A.A.S . 147 Treasurer's Report, A. Jr. A. S . 160 Tree leaves, variation . 118 Tree planting, Alabama's needs . 69-72 Troy State Teachers College . 15, 25 True, Howard . 80, 96 Trumbull, J. V. A . 68 Tschinkel, J. G . 80, 87 Tuscaloosa City H. S . 149 U U. S. Bureau of Mines, analysis of Ala. coals . 44-61 U. S. Dept, of Interior . 44 U. S. Forest Service . 128 U. S. Geol. Survey . 126, 127 University of Alabama . 9, 32, 44, 62, 100, 107, 117, 118, 119, 121, 123, 124, 134, 135, 138 Univ. Med. Center . 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125 V Valentine, Fr. Claude . 117, 143-145 Vestal, F. E . 68 Viccars, Marion . 123 Viccars seed testing lab . 123 Volker, J. F . . 119 W Wakely, P. C . 72 Walker, J. H . 151 Ward, H. S., Jr . 143-145 Watson, Helton . 129 West End High School . 131 Westinghouse Talent Search . 30 Wheeler, Evelyn . 148 White, Locke . 1.39-142, 143-145, 147, 149 Wilcox, H. E . 143-145, 146, 149 Wilks, J. C . 143-145 Wilks, William T . 15, 143-145 Wilson, L. T . 146 Wingo, W. J . 147, 149 Woods, J. W . 125, 149 Wood, uses for . 129 Woodlawn High School . 16, 131 Y Yancey, P. H . 134, 143-145 Yates, J. C . 123 BIND YOUR Technical and Scientific JOURNALS into Permanent Sturdy Volumes Preserving Valuable Data for Future Ready Reference Write for Prices and Information Art Quild bindery, ]hc, 324 E. Ninth St. Cincinnati 2, Ohio WALTER J. JOHNSON, INC. Sale and Acquisition of • Scientific periodicals: complete sets, short runs, single volumes —all fields, all languages. • Scientific books— out-of-print— domestic, foreign • Complete subscription service for domestic and foreign periodicals • All nev^ books of U. S. and foreign publishers Send requirements and offers to WALTER J. 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INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS Editorial Policy: All papers and abstracts of papers to be pub¬ lished in the Alabama Academy of Science Journal must have been given at the Annual Academy meeting prior to the particular issue of the Journal in which they are to appear. These papers and abstracts may be eligible for publication if they appear on the printed pro¬ gram of the Academy and are read by title only. Papers are also eligible for publication if they are given by an invited guest of the Academy, or if they represent areas which may benefit the Academy if published in the Journal. Full- length papers which are submitted for possible publication will be judged by a review board on the basis of original data presented and upon the interpretation or review made of the ma¬ terials presented within a limit of ten printed pages. An article exceeding this limit will be charged at the rate of $10.00 per additional page. Papers must be submitted solely to the Alabama Academy of Science Journal and must not be reprinted in another publication with¬ out the consent of the editor. Manuscripts: The manuscript should be typed double¬ spaced allowing good margins. Captions and legends for figures should be typed on sheets separate from the text. Footnotes are not de¬ sirable and should be avoided whenever pos¬ sible. Illustrations should not exceed 20 per cent of the text; the authors of more copiously illustrated articles may be asked to pay for the excess. The title of the paper should be as short as is consistent with clarity. Primary divisions may be indicated by central headings and sub¬ divisions by italicized captions at the margin. Every paper should normally conclude with a summary of numbered paragraphs. Abstracts of papers should not exceed 200 words and should not include illustrative ma¬ terials except where absolutely necessary. Figures: All figures and tables should be numbered consecutively with legends included. Illustra¬ tions (including tables) should be planned to occupy the entire width of a page (5% inches) or the width of a single column (2% inches), and any portion of the height (8 1/8 inches). It is best to combine illustrations into the small¬ est possible number of groups. Original photo¬ graphs should be submitted in the form of clear back and white prints on glossy paper. Care should be taken to see that they cannot be bent or folded in handling, and paper dips should not be used. References: References to literature should be dted by the author’s name or by the literature cited ref¬ erence number. The bibliography should be ar¬ ranged alphabetically by author under the head¬ ing Literature Cited. Complete reference is necessary and the arrangement should normally be as follows: Harper, R. M. Some Menaces to the Study of Geology. Jour, of Ala. Acad, of Science. 27:15-20. 1955. Proofs and Reprints: Galley proofs will be sent to the author, and the corrected proof and reprint order should be returned to the Editor. Page proofs will be sent only when necessary. Cost of reprints will be indicated at the time proofs are mailed. All manuscripts should be handed to the various Section Chairmen at the close of the Annual Academy meeting or mailed directly to the Edi¬ tor of the Journal. All correspondence con¬ cerning the publication of papers, etc., within the Journal should be addressed to the Editor. Correspondence relative to securing copies of the Journal, etc., should be addressed to Dr. Clyde H. Cantrell, Director of Libraries, A.P.I., Auburn, Ala. ' iMf:/ , .p ' ' i'(i/ I nri -if ■' THE JOURNAL OF THE Alabama Academy of Science (Affiliated With A.A.A.S.) Office of the Editor Alabama College Montevallo, Alabama VOLUME 29 OCTOBER, 1957 THE JOURNAL OF THE Alabama Academy of Science (Affiliated With A.A.A.S.) VOLUME 29 OCTOBER, 1957 EDITOR Paul C. Bailey EDITORIAL BOARD A. T. Hansen F. L. Westover E. P. Miles Office of the Editor Alabama College Monti-vallo, Alabama / Foreword The 1957 annual meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science was held on the Jacksonville State Teachers College campus in Jacksonville, April 26- 27, 1957. The annual meeting was preceded by a meeting on Thursday even¬ ing, April 25, of the Executive Committee. The annual banquet was held on Friday evening, April 26, in the Jacksonville State Teachers College Dining Hall and was featured by the presidential address given by Dr. J. Allen Tower of Birmingham-Southern College. The fall meeting of the Executive Com¬ mittee was held on November 10, 1956, in Ingalls Hall, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama, The Alabama Junior Academy of Science held its annual meeting on the Jacksonville State Teachers College campus at the same time as the Senior Academy meeting, that is, April 26-27, 1957. The Junior Academy banquet was held on Friday evening, April 26. Abstracts of all papers presented to the various section meetings of the Academy are printed within this Journal and are grouped by sections. Full- length papers presented to the various sections and selected for publication in this volume are grouped likewise. Aside from papers and abstracts, this Journal includes the presidential address along with the proceedings of both the Alabama Academy of Science and the Alabama Junior Academy of Science. 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Officers of Alabama Academy of Science, 1957 . 7 Committees of Alabama Academy of Science, 1957 . 8 Presidential Address . 9-16 Symposium — Our Changing Alabama . 17-32 Complete papers presented at section meetings . 33-76 Section I, Biology and Medicine . 33-44 Boschung, H. T., Jr., Some Records of Marine Fishes from Alabama . 33-35 Loesch, Harold, Bait Shrimping Activities in Rivers North of Mobile Bay Causeway . 36-43 Turner, H. F., Notes on the Life Cycle of Fibricola cratera . 43-44 Section III, Geology and Anthropology . 45-54 Shotts, R. Q., Relation to Rank of the Apparent Composition of Volatile Matter from Alabama Coals . 45-54 Section IV, Geography and Conservation . 55-60 Whelan, D. E., Effect of Land Use on Streamflow . 55-60 Section V, Physics and Mathematics . 61-64 Harper, R. M., Some More Curve-Drawing Instruments . 61-64 Section VII, Science Education . . 65-68 Kassner, J. L., and Fr. C. J. Reiner, Qualitative and Quantitative Aspects of Science Fairs . 65-68 Section VIII, Social Sciences . 69-76 Dawson, M. U., Television’s Effect on the Home . . . 69-72 Sanders, R. H., Differentials in Self-Concept: A Pilot Study . 72-76 Abstracts of papers presented at section meetings . 77-96 1. Biology and Medicine . 77-86 11. Chemistry . 86-90 III. Geology and Anthropology . 90 IV. Geography and Conservation . 90-91 V. Physics and Mathematics . 92 VII. Science Education . 92-93 VIII. Social Sciences . 93-96 Executive Committee Meetings . 97-102 Annual Business Meeting . 103 Resolutions . 104 Treasurer’s Report . 104 Articles of Incorporation and By-Laws of the Alabama Academy of Science . 10*1-113 Talent Search for Gorgas Scholarships . 114-116 Alabama Academy Award . 116 Report of Cooperator to Science Clubs of America . 116-117 Report of Counselor, Alabama Junior Academy of Science . 117 Alabama Junior Academy of Science proceedings . 118-123 Membership list, Alabama Academy of Science . 12 I I '6 Index . 1,37-1 10 ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICERS 1957 7 President . Dr. J. Allen Tower, Dept. Geography, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham President-Elect . Dr. Howard Carr, Physics Dept., Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn VICE-PRESIDENTS, SECTION CHAIRMEN AND VICE-CHAIRMEN Section I Biology . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. James Ferry, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn Vice-Chairman, Dr. Gid Nelson, Alabama College, Montevallo Medical Sciences . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. Margaret Green, Uni¬ versity of Alabama, University Vice-Chairman, Dr. S. B. Barker, University Medical Center, Birmingham Section II Chemistry . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. Harold Wilcox, Bir¬ mingham-Southern College, Birmingham Vice-Chairman, Dr. F. J. Stevens, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn Section III Geology and Anthropology . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. Frank Soday, Chem- strand Corporation, Decatur Vice-Chairman, Mr. Wiley S. Rogers, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham Section IV Geography and Conservation.... Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. Wilbur B. DeVall, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn Vice-Chairman, Mr. Thomas C. Croker, Jr., Box 311, Brewton Section V Physics and Mathematics . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. L. T. Wilson, State Teachers College, Jacksonville Vice-Chairman, Dr. Hoyt Kaylor, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham Section VI Industry and Economics . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Mr. J. R. Goetz, 2021 Sixth Avenue N., Birmingham Vice-Chairman, Mr. John L. Sullivan, Box 276, Birmingham Section VII Science Education . Vice-President and Section Chairman, Dr. Earnest |. Snyder. State Teachers College, Florence Vice-Chairman, Mrs. Blanche Dean, 1503 Ridge Road, Birming¬ ham Section VIII Social Sciences . Vice President and Section Chairman, Dr. Marian Pearsall. Faii- versity of Alabama, University Vice-Chairman, Dr. Ruth Albrecht, Alabama Polvtechnic Insti¬ tute, Auburn Secretary . Dr. Herbert A. McCullough, Dept, of Biology, Howard ('ollege, Birmiimham Treasurer . Dr. Le)ckc White, Southern Research Institute. Birmumham Editor of Journal . Dr. Paul Bailey, Alabama College, Montevallo Councilor of AAAS . Father Patrick 11. Yancey, Spring Mill College, Mobile Counselor of Junior Academy . Dr. Gibbes Patton, De(^t. of Bioloev. Uni\cr.;itv Associate Counselor of Junior Ac,idemy . Dr. Walter Herndon. Dipt, of Biology. Univeisit\ Local Counselor of Junior Academy . Mr. Ruben Boozer, State Teachers ( ollcr;e. ]acksonville Coordinator of Science Fairs . Dr. Arthur Beindorff, Chemstrand Corporation. Dy^.uur 8 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science BOARD OF TRUSTEES Mr. Henry L. Jennings, Chairman Mr. James F. Sulzby . Mr. Vance Miles . Dr. Ralph Draughon . Dr. Walter B. Jones . Mr. John Baswell . . . 503 Title Guarantee Building, Birmingham . 4214 Overlook Road, Birmingham . Gulf States Paper Corporation, Tuscaloosa President, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn . P. O. Drawer O, University . 5613 S. 10th Avenue, Birmingham STANDING COMMITTEES Research Committee Dr. E. Carl Sensenig, Chairman Dr. A. T. Hansen Dr. Henry Ward Fr. L. J. Eisele, S.J. Dr. Charles Blair Long Range Planning Committee Dr. Harold Wilcox, Chairman Dr. J. C. Wilkes Dr. J. A. Fincher Dr. Ward Pigman Dr. H. E. Steele Finance Committee Mr. James Sulzby, Chairman Trustees, Ex-Officio Chairman of Research Committee, Ex-Officio Chairman of Science Talent Search, Ex-Officio Editorial Board Dr. A. T. Hansen, Chairman Dr. F. L. Westover Dr. E. P. Miles Newsletter Committee Dr. Sidney B. Finn, Chairman Local Arrangements Committee Dr. Paul J. Arnold, Chairman Dr. H. S. Strickland Mr. Ruben Boozer Science Education Committee Dr. W. T. Wilks, Chairman Dr. Howard Carr Mr. J. R. Goetz Dr. W. J. Baughman Dr. F. K. Morris Dr. F. J. Stevens Historical Committee Dr. C. H. Cantrell, Chairman Dr. Paul Bailey Mr. Peter Brannon Dr. E. B. Carmichael Dr. C. M. Farmer Dr. R. M. Harper Dr. E. V. Jones Dr. J. L. Kassner Dr. S. J. Lloyd Dr. C. D. Palmer Dr. H. E. Steele Public Relations Committee Mr. John Baswell, Chairman Mr. J.' R. Goetz Mr. James Sulzby Membership Committee Dr. Howard Carr, Chairman Adtnission to Membership Committee Dr. Herbert A. McCullough, Chairman SPECIAL COMMITTEES FOR 1957 MEETING Nominating Committee Dr. J. A. Fincher, Chairman Dr. W. T. Wilks Dr. Harold Wilcox Resolutions Committee Dr. W. T. Wilks Dr. Margaret Green Place of Meeting Committee Dr. Howard Carr, Chairman Mr. C. C. Hall Auditing Committee, Junior Academy Dr. E. P. Miles, Chairman Dr. Gid Nelson Auditing Committee, Senior Academy Dr. Hoyt Kaylor, Chairman Dr. J. R. Wesson Legislative Committee Dr. Paul Bailey, Chairman Mr. James Sulzby Dr. E. P. Miles Dr. Herbert T. Boschung Dr. J. Allen Tower, Ex-Officio 9 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS Jacksonville, Alabama, April 26, 1957 INDUSTRIAL ALABAMA: NEEDS AND TRENDS By J. Allen Tower Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham, Alabama In 1938 President Roosevelt referred to the South as "the Nation’s No. 1 economic problem,” but Fortune Magazine called it the "nation’s No. 1 economic opportunity.”’^ These conflicting viewpoints are still applic¬ able to Alabama. Cultures may be evaluated in many ways. For our purposes, let us think of the ade¬ quacy of the standard of living, the oppor¬ tunities for individual development, and the amenities available for people. In terms of these standards, how adequate is the cul¬ ture offered the people of Alabama, and what improvement seems probable ? For spe¬ cific criteria I shall use educational level, in¬ come level, and population movements. Since education is the primary method by which youth is trained to survive and to ad¬ vance itself in our society, the status in edu¬ cational achievement is critically important. It takes but a brief analysis to find that Alabama’s achievement m this respect is still sadly deficient. This picture is shown by an examination of the status of our young men in the draft, and by the level of adult edu¬ cation tabulated by the Census. Selective Service draftees must pass both pre-induction and induction examinations, medical and mental. During fiscal years 1951 through 1955 for the country as a whole 38.1 per cent were rejected on the pre-induction examination, 50.0 per cent of these for fail¬ ure on the mental test, 56.6 per cent for medical reasons. Some of the rejections (9.5%) were for both. In Alabama the re¬ jection rate was 54.0 per cent, compared to the national average of 38.1 per cent. Only South Carolina with 60.0 and Mississippi with 55.6 per cent made worse records. Du¬ ring fiscal year 1955 on the induction exami¬ nation the national rejection rate was 8.0 per cent, but for Alabama it was 38.8 per cent, highest in the nation, with Arkansas second with 23-3 per cent.^ Scores on the Armed Forces Qualification Test are classi¬ fied in five groups. Those answering cor¬ rectly less than 10 per cent of the questions (Group V) are rejected, those answering correctly 10-30 per cent are put in Group IV and are considered suitable only for basic soldiering, unsuitable for any advanced training. During fiscal years 1953 and 1954, in addition to the 27.9 per cent rejected as in Group V for the Southeast, another 24.8 per cent were in Group IV, making a total of over half (52.7%) our draftees inade¬ quately qualified.^ Similar evidence is shown by the median number of years of school completed by adults age 25 and over. In 1940 the average level for Alabama was 7.1 years, in 1950 7.9 years; for the country as a whole these figures were 8.6 years in 1940 and 9.3 years in 1950. In 1950 Alabama tied with North Carolina for fourth place from the bottom, above Louisiana (7.6) , South Carolina (7.6) and Georgia (7.8).’ Figure 1 shows these 1950 data by county for Alabama. Mont¬ gomery County with 9.5 years, was the only one to exceed the national average. Only counties exceeded the State average. I'ive of these were industrial counties; the others were Montgomcrv with the State c.ipital, Lee with Alabama Polytechnic Institute, plus 2 agricultural ones, Baklw in and Clav. The 10 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Figure 1. Median School Years Completed by Adults Aged 25 and older. six lowest counties were in the Black Belt, with Greene and Lowndes tied for the bot¬ tom with only 5.4 years. The next lowest group (6. 0-6. 9 years) includes the piney- woods counties of southwest Alabama, sev¬ eral Black Belt counties, and 3 agricultural counties of the Tennessee Valley. In gen¬ eral, South Alabama stands below North Alabama, with the Black Belt region of high Negro population lowest of all. This presently low educational status is, of course, improving. Examination of the 1954 public school enrollment reveals that It was 91.4 per cent of the school census of eligible children, with a range from 116.8 per cent in Montgomery County to 77.8 per¬ cent in the Black Belt county of Hale.® De¬ tailed analysis of these data does not seem feasible because of the complications result¬ ing from migration, and possibly some in¬ adequate census taking. In general, rural counties all over the State have the lowest percentage attendance figures, the urban- industrial counties the highest. If the school census figures are reasonably accurate, then a greater proportion of eligible Negro chil¬ dren are in school than is true for the white children. While the I960 census will show a higher educational level for the State, there is much room for improvement, as we all know. This improvement is needed in attendance ratios, in the quality of the instruction, and in ex¬ penditures per pupil. On the State level ex¬ penditures per pupil in elementary and high schools of Alabama quadrupled from 1929- 1930 to 1953-1954, whereas the national average trebled; however, in 1953-1954 the Alabama expenditure per pupil of $150.88 was just 57 per cent of the national average, ranking only above Arkansas and Missis¬ sippi.® Th's low ranking is not for lack of effort by the State. In 1954 the 48 states expended 30.4 per cent of their total State revenue on education, but Alabama spent 40.2 per cent.^ The basic need for Alabama is to develop a greater tax base which can yield the needed revenues. Another line of evidence on the effective¬ ness of the culture of Alabama is that of income levels, which fluctuate with the level of education. In 1953 per capita income in Alabama was third from the bottom of the list, only 6l per cent of that for the United States as a whole. This ratio is a distinct im¬ provement over 1929, when the Alabama figure was 45 per cent of the national aver¬ age; per capita income in Alabama increased 242 per cent in those 14 years while for the nation the increase was only 151 per cent.® Even more significant than this national ratio is the wide variation within the State as shown in Figure 2; Jefferson County, which ranked highest, had 84 per cent of the national per capita income level and over three times as much as that of Lowndes Presidential Address 11 Figure 2. Per Capita Income Payments to Individuals, 1953. Figure 3. Population Change 1940-50, by County. County, whose income was only a quarter of the national average. Eleven counties rated above the State average; these are all urban-industrial counties except Dale, which rates high because of Camp Rucker. The 21 counties with per capita incomes below $700, while widely scattered, are concentrated pri¬ marily in the Black Belt and its fringes where agriculture and forestry dominate.® It is obvious that in most parts of Alabama adequate income opportunities are either not available or are not satisfactorily used. This situation results partly from the restricted distribution of the State’s manufacturing en¬ terprises, but even more from the low returns of Alabama agriculture, which typically is over-manned and under-capitalized. Forestry work also too often shares in these low re¬ turns. Improvement is, of course, occurring in both of these industries. These restricted job and income opportu¬ nities are reflected in the migration of the population. Although the Bureau of the Cen¬ sus reported an increase in State population of 8.1 per cent for the decade 1940-1950, this figure is not accurate for an analysis of migration. It omits consideration of natural increase (births minus deaths). Adjustment of Census data to allow for natural increases reveals that this decade showed a loss of 264,557 to the State, a loss of 8.2 per cent of our people.^® The distribution of these changes rex eals surprising uniformity. Figure 3 shows that only 8 counties gained hv migration; all ot these are industrial counties except B.ildwin. across the bay from Mobile trom which there is some commuting to Mobile. C)nl\ 14 otiier counties had a loss ot under 1 > per cent; these are partly industn.ihzed are.is 12 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Figure 4. Change in Non-White Population 1940-50, Figure 5. Change in White Population 1940-50, by County by County. except for Macon, with Tuskegee Institute, and Russell with its recreation business for Fort Benning. The other 45 counties lost from 15 to a maximum of 33 per cent in the Black Belt’s Perry County; even Chambers County is included, despite its textile indus¬ try. In general, agricultural and forestry counties lost most. Three-fifths of this population loss was Negro, of whom 162,256 left the State; this was a loss of 14.2 per cent. As shown in Figure 4, only 3 counties gained by Negro migration; Mobile, Etowah, and Jefferson. The 15 counties losing under 15 per cent are primarily North Alabama areas of some industry but few Negroes; the same is true also for the 3 extreme South Alabama coun¬ ties in this class. Montgomery and Macon are different, but also had scant loss. There were 49 counties losing over 15 per cent of their Negroes, the maximum being in Blount County, which lost 39.8 per cent of its few Negroes. Loss in Negro population, then, is typical of all parts of the State except in the 3 chief industrial counties; this loss has, as you know, been characteristic for several decades. What has not been as well known, how¬ ever, is the loss by migration of the white population (See Figure 5). The decade shows a loss of 102,301, equal to 4.6 per cent of the whites. Twelve counties showed a gain by migration, with a maximum of 43.0 per cent for Lee County, the result of expansion both in manufacturing and at Alabama Polytechnic Institute; industrializa¬ tion is the growth cause in all of these 12 except for Baldwin and for Russell, with its Presidential Address 13 Figure 6. Manufacturing Production Workers, 1939, by County. off-duty appeal for Fort Benning soldiers. There were 23 widely scattered counties with a loss of less than 15 per cent, mostly in the east central and northeastern parts of the State. The remaining 32 counties are all ru¬ ral ones; the maximum loss of 26.9 per cent occurred in Clay and Lamar Counties. On the basis of this evidence, therefore, it seems obvious that Alabama does not now offer adequate opportunities for its peo¬ ple. Education has not adequately trained them to use their opportunities, and conse¬ quently incomes are very low. As a result, over a quarter of a million of our people, both wTite and colored, left the State du¬ ring the 1940’s in search of better opportu¬ nities elsewhere. The State of Alabama is trying to remedy these deficiencies by devot¬ ing a greater proportion of its revenues to Figure 7. Manufacturing Employment, September 1956, by County. public education than does the average State in this country, but our tax base in property and incomes is not great enough to supply the necessary funds. The preceding illustra¬ tions reveal a clue to the necessary remedy. The shortages in education and incomes, the greatest migration losses — these are centered in the rural counties dominated by agricul¬ ture and forestry; they are least in the urban- industrialized counties. What Alabama needs, therefore, is indus¬ trial growth. It needs new or expanded in¬ dustries to provide more and better paving jobs and to increase our taxable resources. Tlie \ alue of such is shown by ,i recent study by the Chamber of Commerce of the Cmted States.” The research coxered counties, ot which S were in the Southe.ist. and 1 (Col¬ bert) in Ahib.ima, One hundred new tactorv 14 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Figure 8. 1954 Jobs in New Factories Located in Ala* Figure 9. New and Expanding Factories, 1954-56. bama January 1946 through March 1954, by County. jobs resulted in; 74 other jobs 296 more people in the community $270,000 increase in bank deposits $360,000 increase in annual retail sales $590,000 more personal income per year. Such effects are understood in Alabama, and much effort is being exerted to attract new and expanded industry. Since our non- mdustrial counties have the greatest defi¬ ciencies, these industries need to be located in them. What results are we getting, both in expanding our industrial employment and in decentralizing it? Industrial establishments and employment in Alabama are expanding, and at a rate slightly greater than that in the Southeast as a whole. From 1939 to 1954 the Bureau of the Census reports an increase of establish¬ ments from 1,982 to 3,911, a growth of 97 per cent. Industrial employment increased from 115,698 production workers in 1939 to 216,476 employees in 1954, a growth of 87 per cent.^^ The bulk of this growth oc¬ curred between 1939 and 1947, but there was also an increase from 1947 to 1954. Employment data published by the State Department of Industrial Relations are for personnel covered for unemployment com¬ pensation; while not identical, these figures are quite similar to those for the Census. These State figures show an increase in in¬ dustrial employment from September 1953 to September 1956 of 15,308, a growth of 6.6 per cent. Other evidence of continued industrial ex¬ pansion is shown by the annual announce- PRESroENTIAL ADDRESS 15 ment by the president of the State Chamber of Commerce listing new and expanded plants for the yeard® For 1954 there were 65 new plants announced, for 1955, 66; and for 1956, 160, a total of 291 new ones with some 24,000 jobs and a capital investment of $279,524,000 in a three year period. Du¬ ring the same period 225 existing plants in the State announced $406,446,695 in one or more expansions, with some 15,000-20,000 new jobs. Many of these plants are still un¬ der construction, but their benefits will soon affect the State. It seems obvious, therefore, that for Ala¬ bama as a whole, industrialization is pro¬ gressing rapidly. For best results in solving the problems of our more backward counties, decentralization of industry is needed instead of concentration. What are the results in this direction? Concentration of industry was typical of Alabama in 1939, as is shown in Figure 6. One-fourth of the workers were in Jeffer¬ son County, and over a third were in the 6 industrial counties of Mobile, Etowah, Chambers, Calhoun, Tallapoosa and Talla¬ dega. There were only 11 counties with as many as 2,500 industrial workers each. By contrast 27 counties had under 500 each, and another 20 had only 500-1000 each. By September 1956 the distribution was much more widely dispersed. Figure 7 shows these data from State sources. Jefferson County increased its dominance slightly, hav¬ ing 27 per cent of all manufacturing em¬ ployment. The 6 counties with 35 per cent of the total in 1939 now have only 28 per cent, even though their jobs increased by three-fourths. Six other counties moved into the class of 2,500 or more workers. Where in 1939 there were 47 counties with less than 1,000 factory workers each, in 1956 there were only 24; nearly 50 per cent moved into the next higher class. The counties with the fewest industrial workers are still in the Black Belt, where Greene County had only 209 and Macon County 244. A special tabulation by the State Depart¬ ment of Industrial Relations gives the 1954 employment of factories located in Alabama between January 1, 1946 and March 31, 1954.^^ Figure 8 shows these gains by coun¬ ty. Jefferson County had 28 per cent of these new jobs, while 19 per cent went to Talla¬ dega, Calhoun, and Tuscaloosa Counties. There were 43 counties getting less than 500 jobs each, with Monroe County getting none at all. One last bit of evidence is to be seen in Figure 9, which shows by county the location of the 394 different, new or expanding fac¬ tories listed by the President of the State Chamber of Commerce for 1954, 1955, and 1956. One dot stands for one factory. There were 8 counties in the Black Belt and its fringes which got none. There were 35 get¬ ting from 1 to 4 each; these are widely scattered throughout the State, especially In the southern and western portions. Only 24 counties got 5 or more each, with Jefferson getting 54, Talladega 25, Marshall 22, and Walker 18. Some increased dispersion of industry and its jobs is now evident in the State. In addi¬ tion to the older industrial areas centering on Birmingham and Tuscaloosa, Gadsden and Anniston, Huntsville and Sylacau^a, the lower Piedmont textile towns and Mobile, there are now some new industrial centers. These include the Muscle Shoals District and Decatur, Talladega and Opelika, Mont¬ gomery and Selma, Dothan and Andalusia. The advantages of cheaper land and taxes, abundant labor and communitv welcome, and sometimes water and other resources — these are slowly dispersing industrial plants and jobs. Onlv' slight t^ain is vet shown, how¬ ever, in much of the Black Belt and its fringes, the area of lowest education and in come, and therefore of lesser appeal to in¬ dustry. Industrial expansion is certainly occurring in Alabama, and therefore we mav expect 16 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science increased tax receipts both from the factories and from the higher incomes of the workers. Part of this increased revenue must be spent, however, in raising standards in the by¬ passed more backward areas so they too may have a chance for a decent education and the opportunities it opens. Emigration from such areas will continue, but part of it should increasingly be toward one of the now near¬ er industrial centers. Increased amenities and a rising standard of living seem definitely en route for our people. FOOTNOTES 1. The National Emergency Council: “Report on Economic Conditions of the South," l!i3S: 1; The Editors of For¬ tune: "The Industrial South", Fortune, IS: Nov, '38, 48. 3. "Annual Report of the Director of Selective Service. 1955." 1956: 35-38, 92-94. 3. US Department of Labor: "The Skilled-Work Force of the United States." 1955 (pamphlet). 4. "1950 Census of Population": Bulletin P-C2, Table 65; Bulletin P-B2, Table 12; “Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1955," Tables 129 and 131. 5. "Annual Report 1954 State Department of Education,” Montgomery. 6. US Office of Education: "Biennial Survey of Education in the United States. 1952-54,” Chapter 2, 1956: Table 39. 7. Calculated from “Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1956": Table 479. 8. “Survey of Current Business." August 1954: 9. 9. Marion H. Hawley: “Income Payments in Alabama Coun¬ ties,” .Alabama Business, April 15, 1956: 1-3. 10. Calculated from 1940 and 1950 Census data, plus Federal Security Agency: "Vital Statistics of the United States, 1947 Part II, Table 1. and 1948 Part II, Table 1; State Board of Health: "Report Relating to the Registration of Births, Stillbirths, Deaths, Marriages and Divorces for 1940, 1941”: Tables 21 and 32; Alabama Depart¬ ment of Health: "Provisional Summary of Births, Deaths and Marriages for the Year 1948,” mimeo; “Annual Re¬ port of the Bureau of Vital Statistics, 1946," Tables 33 and 39; letter from Bureau of Vital Statistics, Mont¬ gomery, 18 Nov. '54. 11. Chamber of Commerce of the United States; “What New Industrial Jobs Mean to a Community,” 1954 (pamphlet). 12. Alabama Business Research Council; “Alabama's Manu¬ facturing Economy.” 1955: Tables 23 and 48. 13. “US Census of Manufactures: 1947," Bulletin MC 101, 1949; Table 2; 1954, Bulletin MC-Sl, 1956; Table 4. The employment category for 1954 is more inclusive than that for 1939. 14. State Department of Industrial Relations: “Statistical Bulletin," Feb. 1954: Table 10; Feb. 1957: Table 11. 15. “Alabama Today and Tomorrow,” Dec. 1954: 1 ff; Dec. 1955: 1 ff; Dec. 1956; 1 ff. 17 (^1 Symposium on OUR CHANGING ALABAMA Introduction by W. B. DeVall Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama No state is without change. In some, change is abrupt, in others only gradual. It may take place in an industrial or agricul¬ tural area, or both. The impact of any change, regardless of where it takes place, or the area in which it occurs, is eventually felt by people — citizens of the area or state. It is, therefore, fitting that we, as citizens in our respective fields of professional en¬ deavor, be cognizant of certain changes that are taking place in our State. This symposium has been planned to pro¬ vide a brief report on agricultural and in¬ dustrial change by defining some of its po¬ tential implications. All change has to be measured or evaluated in economic terms. As individuals, we feel these changes as the economics of our household reveal that some¬ thing has caused a shortage of a product or that the cost of an item is no longer what it was when we were younger. The perspective of the symposium has been developed to acquaint you with the changes that have taken place in the pro¬ duction of goods from renewable sources. Furthermore, the symposium will stress the significance of agricultural change in Cal¬ houn County, where we are meeting, as well as over the state. The rapid rise in import¬ ance of Alabama’s timber crop, as a resource of the farm and a source of consumer goods, has prompted the Academy to devote equal time to forestry and agriculture. Your chair¬ man suggests that you recount in your own minds the conditions you have experienced over the years as each of the speakers fo¬ cuses attention on specific changes. If this is done, I feel sure we will all agree that "Our Changing Alabama” is not only ag¬ gressively changing, but changing into a modern and somewhat complicated economic system, quite different from what we knew it to be 25 years ago. AGRICULTURAL CHANGE IN ALABAMA By Ben T. Lanham, Jr. Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama In a symposium devoted to a discussion of "Our Changing Alabama,” we are con¬ cerned with at least three kinds of changes — those which have occurred in the past, those which are in evidence at present, and those which are likely to occur in the fu¬ ture. My comments with respect to "Agri¬ cultural Change in Alabama,” therefore, will touch on all three of these kinds of *'Thl3 symposium was given before a general session of the Alabama Academy of Science on Friday morning. April 26. at Jacksonville State Teachers College. Jacksonville. Ala¬ bama. changes. Without going into a great deal of detail about changes that have occurred in recent years, we can review very briefly some of the more significant recent trends that h.n e been invohed in the State's agriculture. These changes will serve as a background for our discussion that will follow on pres¬ ent trends and on the outlook tor changes in the future. During the past two dec.ides. a number 18 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science of changes have occurred in the pattern of agricultural production in the State. Among these have been: (l) a big reduction in to¬ tal harvested crop acreage, particularly cot¬ ton; (2) a large increase in the acreage de¬ voted to pastures and to grain and forage crop production; and, (3) large increases in the net production of beef, pork, milk, poul¬ try, and eggs. These have been our most dramatic, most highly publicized changes. But equally important have been the changes that led to these over all changes. Accompanying the over-all changes in the State’s agricultural production pattern, a number of other shifts and changes have occurred — all of which have affected farms, farming, and farmers — and which are highly important insofar as the future of the State’s agriculture is concerned. Among these have been: 1. Increased technological and scientific developments, including new and improved varieties of crops, and new and improved methods of insect and disease control. 2. Increased use of commercial fertilizers, lime, and winter legumes. 3. Decreased workstock numbers which have both directly and indirectly increased farm efficiency; and a saving in feed re¬ quired for workstock and in cropland acre¬ age required for workstock feed production. 4. Increased farm mechanization, particu¬ larly farm tractors. 5. Increased per acre yields. 6. Increased productivity of workers en¬ gaged in agriculture. 7. Increase in average size of farms, and a shift to less acreage devoted to intensive crops and more acreage devoted to extensive crops. 8. Decrease in number of people on farms, number of farms, number of farms grow¬ ing cotton, and acreage of cotton grown per farm. 9. Decrease in number and in percentage of colored farmers, all tenants, and share¬ croppers. 10. Increase in both urban and rural non¬ farm population, while farm population has declined. Continued increased percentage of urban over total rural population. 11. Significant shifts in the source of cash farm receipts from marketings, particularly in the case of cotton, which has decreased from 75 to 40 per cent of the total. 12. Increased per capita farm incomes for Alabama’s farm people. These and other developments of prob¬ able equal importance have come about in Alabama during the past two or three dec¬ ades. They, for the most part, represent progress — real progress that is being made in Alabama. One of the most significant shifts that has occurred in the State’s agricultural econ¬ omy during recent years has been the shift in cotton’s relative position in the utilization of farm resources and as a farm income pro¬ ducer. Alabama’s cotton acreage declined from more than 3 million acres annually during the twenties to about 1 million acres annually during recent years — a decrease of 67 per cent. This decrease has been largely offset by an increase in yields per acre. Aver¬ age yields increased from less than 150 to more than 400 pounds of lint cotton per acre — an increase of nearly 200 per cent. The net result has been that the State’s an¬ nual production during the past few years has been at about the same level as during the twenties. In the twenties, cotton contributed nearly 75 per cent to the State’s cash farm receipts from marketing, but during the past few years it has contributed only about 40 per¬ cent. This 35 per cent decrease in cotton’s relative importance as an income producer has been replaced by increases in other cash crops and in livestock and livestock products. Agricultural Change in Alabama 19 The division between the two has been about 50-50. Despite cotton’s past and present record, theie is nothing yet to indicate that Ala¬ bama will go out of the cotton business or that if should go out. Every current indica¬ tion, however, is that cotton will become in¬ creasingly less important in relation to other enterprises in the State — both from the standpoint of acreage and of income. Current conditions and the outlook for the future strongly favor an expansion in the relative importance of livestock in Alabama. If this expansion occurs, current trends to¬ ward increased acreages and expanded pro¬ duction of feed grains, forage crops, and pastures must continue. A great deal of progress has been made in recent years in converting from crop farm¬ ing to livestock farming in the State. Prob¬ ably more significant, however, has been the progress made in supplementing cash crops with livestock. The gains that have been made, for the most part, have been on farms that were above average in size, were above average in general fertility, were generally adaptablfe to livestock;, and were operated by farmers who had adequate resourcesTor mak¬ ing changes, and who were above average in managerial abilities and skills Blessed! with more than a diecade of relatively high incomes, these operators were able to finance farming adjustments out of past savings, cmr- rent incomes, or credit obtainable through well-established credit institutions. They were able tO) make shifts, and adjustmscn>ts about as rapidly as was technically feasible. This group,, however, constitutes but a small proportion of all farmers in the State. The vast majority of Alabama’s farmers are less favorably situated. They are living on and are operating small units. Tliey have limited money savings. Even with high prices, their incomes are little above living needs. Dependent mainly on credit for an¬ nual farm operations, many of these smaller farmers have too little collateral to obtain credit under usual requirements to adequate¬ ly finance annual operations, let alone credit for long-time improvements. These farmers constitute the big problem group in Alabama that is today faced witha the decision of whether to convert from crop) to livestock farming, or to supplement pres>- ent cash crops with livestock. And if theiir decision is to make a change, then, they airc .• faced with the problem of making the me cessary adjustments in the organization,, ©r p. eration, and management of their farmEs to attain their objectives. It is this group of farmers that corat rib- utes most to the State’s low average f arm productivity and consequent low awe rage farm incomes. Despite recent changees , and improvements- that have been made am some farms, the State as a whole is. stilJJ faced with low farm productivity andi Ibrw - farm incomes. To assist in overcoming low fanm produc¬ tivity rates and' low farm income levels, it has long beeni recommended by^ the Alabama Agricultural Experiment statiom that Ala¬ bama farmers- supplement cottoim and other cash crops with various types c ,{ livestock enterprises. OVer the past fe w decades, numerous technological and! f .cientific de¬ velopments. have resulted in st :>ecific recom¬ mendations to farmers for cei tain basic im¬ provements in farming pract’ ^ces and meth¬ ods. Farmers, in general, ha^ been slow to adopt these recommendatic nis. The question always arises as to why fa; .mers ha\ e laq^ed so far behind recommend ations. particul.irlv when the results of sue' n recommendations can mean more efficienc’ *•. niore productivity, lower production costs, higher farm incomes, and higher standards of living for farm people. Foremost in any farmer's mind with re¬ spect to the adoptii >n of any kind of chance 20 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science in his farm organization, its operation, and its management is the question — -Will it pay? Will it pay as much or more than what he is now doing? Many farmers are not interested in enter¬ prises that will bring in the greatest return over a period of time. They are interested in immediate investment, opportunities that may give a lower but more certain return now. Since farm decisions must be made within the framework of an uncertain fu¬ ture, "stability” or "certainty of income” is the major goal of some farmers. For these farmers, their "goal” constitutes, not a prob¬ lem, but an obstacle to the State’s over-all program of developing a livestock industr)' in the State. The necessary adjustments and changes in¬ volved in the development of a livestock program vitally affect the organization, op¬ eration, and management of the farm as a whole. Adjustments needed on many farms involve shifting from a simple cash-crop type of farming, with hand-and-mule opera¬ tions, to relatively complex soil-conserving types, that involve pastures, forage produc¬ tion. use of winter cover crops, livestock, mechanical power, and often larger farms. This kind of farming requires more man¬ agement and more mechanical and technical skill for successful operation than do pres¬ ent systems of farming. The shift from hand-and-mule row-crop farming to mechan¬ ical-powered livestock farming represents a drastic change. It is today being retarded by limited managerial and mechanical skills on the part of the present farm operators on many Alabama farms. If we look at some of the differences be- tv,^een crop farms and livestock farms, these differences will indicate some of the prob¬ lems and obstacles that will have to be over¬ -come before the State can make more rapid progress in converting from crops to live¬ stock, or of supplementing present cash crops with livestock. One of the most obvious differences is size. Livestock farming is usually an exten¬ sive type of farming and normally requires much larger acreages to obtain the same in¬ come as can be obtained from more inten¬ sive types of row-crop farming. Many Ala¬ bama farms are too small for extensive types of farming. Eighty-five per cent of the State’s farms in 1955 had less than 50 acres of harvested cropland per farm; two-thirds had less than 30 acres. And even on these farms, a high percentage of land was not in commercial production. On these farms, the more intensive types of livestock such as hogs, chickens or even the production of manufactured milk can be and, in most cases, should be used to supplement present cash crops. This would not only more effec¬ tively utilize the land and labor on these farms but would materially increase farm productivity and farm incomes. In the case of these smaller units, lack of adequate capi¬ tal and limited managerial abilities are the two big obstacles in the way of progress. In the development of a livestock pro¬ gram on individual farms, the problem of tenure is also important. Alabama’s short¬ term tenure system is generally unfavorable to the development of a livestock industry. Sharecropping has long been associated with crop farming, low farm productivity, and low farm incomes. Improvement is being made, however, in reducing the prevalence of sharecroppers in the State changing the form of tenure will not in itself increase farm productivity or the level of farm fam¬ ily living. It must be accompanied by changes in other factors which may be of even more importance than tenure itself. The operation and management of live¬ stock farms often require a different type of labor than that needed on crop farms. In addition, less labor is usually needed on live¬ stock farms than on crop farms. Surplus la¬ bor, therefore, must find employment oppor¬ tunities off the farm. In recent years, this Agricultural Change in Alabama 21 factor has been greatly emphasized. Where off-farm work has been available, there has been a steady flow of farm people away from farms. Where off-farm work has not been available, there has been an accumula¬ tion of people on farms with a consequent lowering of farm productivity per worker and low per capita incomes. Full-time trans¬ fer out of farming for some farm families and part-time work off the farms for others probably would have some effect in increas¬ ing all-around productivity. The availability and adequacy of market¬ ing facilities is a highly important factor af¬ fecting the development of a livestock pro¬ gram in any area. Markets for the State’s staple crop — cotton — have always been avail- ale, and new markets for new products are rapidly expanding. The growth of the State’s urban population has been and will continue to be an important factor affecting Ala¬ bama’s agricultural economy. Community auctions and small-scale livestock industries have been major factors in the development of the State’s livestock industry to its present level. The special attitudes and likes of farmers may be important problems. Some farmers do not use improved practices and methods simply because they are reluctant to change. Custom, habit, and inertia often prevent some farmers from making the shifts and adjustments needed on their farms. These factors are normally related to educational standards. At the same time, educational standards are normally related to productiv¬ ity and income levels within an area. Educa¬ tional standards are always low where agri¬ cultural productivity has been low over a period of years. Low educational standards are often a major obstacle preventing rapid and widespread adoption of improved pro¬ duction methods. Educational standards cer¬ tainly need to be raised, but if farm pro¬ ductivity is to be increased, it must be ac¬ companied by progress in other factors too. Situations such as (l) the lag of produc¬ tion methods behind proved knowledge, and (2) the failure of an over-populated agri¬ cultural area to fully utilize all of its avail¬ able resources are difficult to explain. There is today, as in the past, some force which propels men into action. Within a given production area, this force may be expressed through community standards or incentives. If, through good community leadership and sound, progressive farm organization, com¬ munity standards are high, there is individual effort to keep up. But where community standards are static, individual effort quite often becomes static. Alabama today is changing in the direc¬ tion of greater farm productivity and higher farm incomes. A major factor contributing to this trend is the past and present rate of development of the State’s livestock indus¬ try. There are still many obstacles, however, in the way of progress — obstacles that are slowing down the State’s rate of progress. Probably the most important single obstacle is the lack of adequate available capital re¬ sources. Capital is often scarce on Alabama farms. Where adequate capital is not available, many farm operations are kept small, al¬ though land and labor are sufficient for ex¬ panding the farm business. Also, scarcity of capital is prohibiting a shift from crop farm¬ ing to livestock farming, and of supplement¬ ing cash crops with livestock, on many farms where such changes would be desirable ad¬ justments. The prevalence of small farms and a gen¬ erally low level of capitalization of the farm business intensifies the diffiailties that many Alabama farmers face in making de¬ sirable changes. New capital investments are needed to make these changes possible. Frequently, new investments cannot be made without the use of credit. Returns from such investments are often delayed, particularlv when they invoke a change trom crop t.irm 22 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science ing to livestock farming, or of supplement¬ ing crops with livestock. There is a need, therefore, for the fur¬ ther development of credit facilities and of lending policies and procedures that will permit the lender’s capital to be fully util¬ ized in financing needed adjustments on in¬ dividual farms. Repayments should be geared to returns. In addition, special provisions should be made to provide adequate incomes for the living requirements of farm families during the transition period. The new capital investments that are of¬ ten needed in the development of a livestock program on individual farms include those for soil improvements, the purchase of live¬ stock and machinery, and the construction of buildings and fencing. Demonstrations of profitable changes in farming can be observed on farms in all parts of the State. These farms serve to il¬ lustrate the feasibility not only of cotton- livestock systems of farming, but also of the use of credit, when credit is needed to en¬ able good farmers to make necessary new investments. In this State, as in other Southern States, there is a need for developing farm capital investments so that farmers, both small and large, can utilize the benefits of research and of modern technology in conducting an efficient farm business. As now organized, many farms in this State have net incomes barely large enough to permit a nominal expenditure for family living. These farms need changes in present organization and operation that will permit reasonably good management to yield higher farm incomes, whether it be from cash crops or from live¬ stock. These changes require capital invest¬ ments that cannot be paid for out of earn¬ ings from farms as now organized and op¬ erated. As research and educational agencies are continually pointing out new developments that can mean more efficient production, there is an ever-growing problem of com¬ bining managerial skill with natural and capital resources in order to take advantage of these developments. For the individual farmer, this often means major farm ad¬ justments. It often means new capital in¬ vestments. Changing from crop farming to livestock farming, or of supplementing pres¬ ent cash crops with livestock, for instance, brings the farmer face to face with many new and different problems and obstacles. The over-all problems and obstacles that are today holding back Alabama’s rate of progress in the development of a livestock industry can be groupedl as two major prob¬ lems. One is the individual farmer, his re¬ sources, and his abilities. The other is the current credit and lending institutions upon which farmers depend for the credit needed in financing farm adjustments and farm operations. A major part of the responsibility for overcoming these problems and obstacles must be borne by the farmer himself. This, however, does not lessen the tremendous re¬ sponsibilities that research, educational, and credit institutions have to the farmer in guiding, directing, and assisting him to over¬ come any problem or obstacle that may' stand in the way of more efficient and more profitable farming. What is the future of the agricultural economy of this State? Probably the most important single question facing the Statels agricultural economy is in respect to the fu¬ ture of cotton — which is still the State’s number one cash crop. It may be worth re¬ peating that despite cotton’s past and present record, there is nothing yet to indicate that Alabama will go out of the cotton business or that it should go out. Every current indi¬ cation, however, is that cotton will become increasingly less important in relation to other enterprises — both from the standpoint of acreage and income. This will probably Agricultural Change in Alabama 23 be true regardless of whether or not we have federally-sponsored control programs in the future. Current trends toward increased acreages and expanded production of feed grains, and/or forage crops, and of pastures are likely to continue in Alabama for many years. It may also be worth repeating that current conditions and the outlook for the future seem to strongly favor an expansion in the relative importance of livestock in the State. If this expansion occurs, there must be an expansion in the acreages devoted not only to pastures but to feed grain and/or forage crop production as well. Commercial production of perishable-type field crops, such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, etc., is now, and will continue to be, limited by available market outlets for such crops. Recent increases in the acreages devoted to these crops have been at about the same rate as increases in population. This trend will probably continue. A large acreage of Alabama’s farm land today is used as neither cropland, pasture land, nor commercial woodland. It is large¬ ly waste land. Much of this land should be in trees. Under proper conditions, part of this land will grow trees through natural reseeding. In other cases, transplanting will be required. Farm woodlands are probably the most neglected farm enterprises in the State. Farm woodlands offer real opportuni¬ ties for increasing farm incomes if properly managed. They also offer opportunities for more profitable and efficient use of the farm¬ er’s labor and equipment in producing, har¬ vesting, and marketing farm woodland products. Improved farm practices and new techno¬ logical and scientific developments will con¬ tinue to be adopted where economically feasible. Farm decisions must be made with¬ in the framework of an uncertain future. An efficient practice on one farm may be an inefficient practice on a different farm. Re¬ sistance to change (new methods, new prac¬ tices, etc.), therefore, is inevitable. Many of the changes and shifts that are likely to occur in the agricultural economy of the State in the years ahead will call for major adjustments in farm organization, operation, and management. Such adjust¬ ments will require more capital (money) than past or present systems of farming. Fi¬ nancing problems, therefore, are likely to become increasingly more important for Ala¬ bama farmers in the future than in the past. To relieve the acuteness of these problems, Alabama farmers should strive for an even greater over-all farm efficiency and for lower costs of production than has been achieved during recent years. Recently, farm prices have been falling faster than farm costs. Increased efficiency and lower pro¬ duction costs would tend to narrow this spread and cushion the shock of possible additional price decreases in the future. The use of mechanized farm equipment should continue to expand in Alabama in the future; however, there will be some re¬ sistance to further advances due to the rela¬ tively large number of small farms in the State. For example, there are currently avail¬ able on the market mechanical cotton pick¬ ers, strippers, and flame cultivators — all of which indicate tremendous potential possi¬ bilities insofar as cotton production is con¬ cerned. Such labor-saving devices are being used in some areas. Where used, they are substantially increasing production per farm worker, lowering costs of production, and in¬ creasing per capita incomes. 'The vast majority of farmers in Alabama, however, are not utilizing these t\'pes of equipment that are currently available nor will they utilize them in t’le immediate fu¬ ture. Present size of opera ing units, limited capital facilities, price-c >st relationships, tenure systems, degrees of managerial skill available, and many other factors cliarac- teristic of most Alabama cotton producers 24 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science are obstacles to full adoption of such equip¬ ment in the State. The average size of farm and the average family farm probably will continue to in¬ crease in size for several years. The rate of increase will ptobably be at a decreasing rate. Current indications are that present trends in the relative importance of differ¬ ent size groups will continue. This will mean that there will be relatively large increases in the number of large farms (many of which will be mechanized) and in the num¬ ber of small farms (mostly part-time and self-sufficing farms), with some decrease in the middle groups. Continued increases in average yields per acre will be made as more farmers adopt approved production practices. The farm tenure situation should con¬ tinue to improve as the percentages in va¬ rious tenant groups decline and as poorer- quality tenants leave Alabama farms. There may be a leveling-off in produc¬ tivity of workers engaged in agriculture while new technical and scientific develop¬ ments are perfected, followed in several years by an increase to a new high level of productivity. There will be a continued shift in sources of cash farm receipts in the State, with cot¬ ton declining in importance quite rapidly and pulling the combined income from all crops down, while livestock and livestock products increase in relative importance. There should be and probably will be con¬ tinued increases in per capita farm incomes throughout the State. A high level of nation¬ al income, full employment of the Nation’s labor force, the elimination of the dangers of a global war, and all of the above listed factors will contribute to this potential in¬ crease. Material increases in production and in¬ come for farm workers in Alabama largely depend upon (l) providing more land, live¬ stock, machinery, fertilizer, and other capi¬ tal items per worker, and (2) opportunities for non-farm work for the young people who grow up on farms but who will not be needed in farm occupations, and for the workers who will be released from agricul¬ ture as mechanization and other improve¬ ments gain momentum. These changes are inevitable. They are already under way. The only question is how rapidly the transforma¬ tion will take place. What will our agricultural communities look like in the future? All of the above gives us some clues as to what we might expect. One recent writer has described agri¬ cultural communities 20 years from now as "city life widely spaced.” The factors that will determine this pattern 20 years from now are already known. These include (1) the revolution in agricultural technology and farm management now underway; (2) the population gains and the growth of urban centers now underway; (3) the impending labor shortage; and (4) the rising standard of living of American people. The rural community today is more than ever dependent upon the urban segment of our population. Before World War II, only 25 per cent of the farmer’s production sup¬ plies (feeds, seeds, fertilizers, etc.) came from urban-industry groups. Today, farmers get more than 60 per cent of these supplies from cities and factories. By 1975, this per¬ centage may reach 80 or more. Many of the chores once done by farmers themselves are today performed by urban industries or individuals. These services in¬ clude such things as contract hauling of live¬ stock and other farm products, pickup of milk and eggs, custom harvesting, weed con¬ trol, insect control, and many others. The upward trend in this direction is expected to continue. While more highly commercialized agri¬ culture brings about larger farms, greater Agricultural Change in Alabama 25 investments, and greater incomes, it may also transfer certain functions and some de¬ cision-making from the farm to non-farm sectors. This can be seen, for example, in broiler production where rural and urban interests are closely linked. Farm land values will be determined to an increasing extent by non-agricultural fac¬ tors, such as location of good roads, de¬ mands of non-farmer buyers, and suburbani¬ zation. Suburban communities — like clusters of leaves along the main stem and branches of highways and roads — have grown in recent years at about 31^2 times the rate of the gain in national population. This movement into the countryside probably will increase rath¬ er than diminish. By 1975, the total U. S. population is expected to increase by two-fifths, but the working force — made up of persons already born — will have increased by only one-fifth. During the same period, farm population may decline by as much as 30 per cent. All this makes for closer ties with urban com¬ munities, since the remaining rural families will have more members working off the farm in urban jobs. A new standard of living has spread rap¬ idly over the Nation in the past 20 years. The levels of living of farm and city people are more nearly alike now than they vcere only a short time ago. The gap will con¬ tinue to narrow. Socially, also, the new look of the agri¬ cultural community is one of greater de¬ pendence on urban centers. More and more rural residents will be going to urban schools, churches, shopping centers, and to recreation and entertainment facilities. In the new agricultural community, various oc¬ cupational groups will live in the rural areas, and many of them will have jobs in towns or cities. Thus, evidence is piling up that the farm communities of the future will be drawn more closely than ever before into the life of urban communities. This, too, represents a type of change that is taking place in Alabama’s agriculture. It represents a type of change in which all of us have an interest and a part to play. It represents a type of change that we not only want to watch and observe, but one to which we can all make a contribution to the better¬ ment of the combined agricultural, indus¬ trial, business, and social interests of our respective communities. CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE IN CALHOUN COUNIA^ FOR THE PAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS By A. S. Mathews, Jr. County Agent, Anniston, Alabama The changes Calhoun County’s agriculture has undergone during the past twenty-five years are similar to the changes that have taken place throughout the Southeast, es¬ pecially in the more-or-less urban counties such as Calhoun. These changes have seemed slow in coming about, but as we look back we see that we have had a revolution in ag¬ riculture. Time, of course, does not permit going into details on many of the changes or factors bringing these changes about. Neither shall I attempt to give you the solu¬ tions to our farm problems of today. To compare farm conditions now with those twenty-five years ago we must, of ne¬ cessity, use quite a few figures. The Calhoun County land area comprises 39'7,0()0 acres. Two-thirds of this is wood¬ lands and one-third in row crops and pas 26 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science ture land. The Government owns and is us¬ ing about 15 per cent of our total land area for military purposes. The Government owns an additional five per cent, which is in forests. It would be safe to say that Calhoun’s agriculture has changed more during the past twenty-five years than during the pre¬ vious 100 years. The same may be said for the entire Southeast. The changes in the population must be considered when we think of the changes that have taken place in our agriculture. Twenty-five years ago about one-half of the population of Calhoun County was in the rural areas, the other half in the incorporat¬ ed towns. The total population in the Coun¬ ty was about 56,000. In our seven incorporated towns now, plus the metropiolitan areas surrounding these towns, we have, roughly, 80 per cent of our population of 80,000. The remaining 20 per cent are in the rural unincorporated areas. Tv/enty-five years ago 75 per cent of all the people living in the rural areas depend¬ ed solely upon agriculture for their liveli¬ hood. Today, seventy-five per cent of the people living in rural areas are working in industry. Some part-time farming is being carried out by many of the people working in industry. Fewer people, however, are doing part-time farming now than was the case even five years ago. Farm tenancy decreased from 65 per cent to 18 per cent during this period. During this period the number of farms decreased from approximately 3000 to less than 2000. Acres in farms over the County decreased from approximately 300,000 to 191,000. The size of the farms, however, increased from approximately 50 to 90 acres. Twenty-five years ago cotton was "king” of the cash crops, and yielded 80 per cent of our total farm income. One-third of our cropland was planted to cotton, or about 44,000 acres. Corn was planted on approxi¬ mately 30,000 acres. Other feed crops, both for livestock and human consumption, used the balance of the cropland. Of course, cotton was the cash crop and corn was used to feed the workstock, which included approximately 7,000 mules, the family milk cows, hogs, chickens, and for human food. In those days farmers practiced a live-at- home program by producing practically all of their food. This was absolutely necessary, due to the fact that cotton did not furnish enough income to buy food for the family. Marketing of farm products was very simple, because we had very little to sell other than cotton. The crossroad store did buy a few eggs during spring and summer. The local town stores bought a few fryers and fresh vegetables. As farmers have diversified their opera¬ tions marketing has become more complex. We have very few new markets for agri¬ cultural products, and Calhoun County farmers are in competition with farmers throughout the nation in producing and mar¬ keting of all farm products. This competition IS keen and will continue to be more so. This is especially true with dairy products, poultry products, pork, and truck crops. We have had certain price advantages in the past, but with improved transportation, re¬ frigeration, and marketing practices, these price advantages are rapidly disappearing. In the not-too-distant future we might ex¬ pect prices of all farm products, regardless of where they are produced, to be about the same. Low per acre yields were prevalent on all our crops, as was soil erosion. The fluctua¬ tion in the price of cotton of 10 to 14 cents per pound was not uncommon in a year. This made it mandatory that farmers follow a live-at-home program. The relatively small amount of research information we had was not being accepted Changes in Agriculture in Calhoun County 27 by farmers as it is today. This was partly due to the fact that the average educational level was about the 5th grade for all farm¬ ers. A fraction of the farm people had elec¬ tricity in their homes, and other conveni¬ ences we associate with electricity. We have less than 1000 full time farm¬ ers in Calhoun County today. These farm¬ ers are producing more, however, than the 3000 farmers produced tw'enty-five years ago. Of course, cotton is the exception. We had an allotment of 7000 acres of cotton for 1956. Thirty per cent of that w'as placed in the Soil Bank. The total crop and pasture land in the County now is approximately 75,000 acres, as compared to 120,000 acres twenty-five years ago. Our agriculture has become commercial¬ ized and specialized. Cotton continues to give us over a million dollars in income, the poultry business in the County amounts to a million and a half dollars a year, the hog business is about a million dollars, the dairy business amounts to one and a half million dollars, truck crops a half million dollars, and forest products one-half million dollars. We have about the same number of milk cows that we had 25 years ago. On most farms, however, the family cow is no longer an important item in the family’s food sup¬ ply. Grade A distributors are delivering milk through the rural areas of the County each day. Unlike 25 years ago, a person in any section of the County may have milk de¬ livered to his house, or purchase it at the crossroad store. Fifty-five Grade A dairy¬ men are producing more milk than 3000 families produced 25 years ago. The production of beef may be found on around 200 farms over the County. The acreage of the average farm, however, is too small to make the production of beef a major source of income. We have about the same number of hogs on 200 farms over the County as we had on 3000 farms 25 years ago. The average farmer in the County does not have hogs. He is either eating less pork, or buying it at the crossroad store. The total number of laying hens is not too different from what it was twenty-five years ago. We have, however, 100 farmers who are producing more eggs than were produced by the 3000 farmers twenty-five years ago. These poultrymen are producing eggs on a twelve months basis instead of just in the spring and summer months. The average farmer does not have chickens on the farm to provide his eggs. Broiler raising is big business in this County. Over 2 mil¬ lion were produced in 1956 by approximate¬ ly 125 boiler growers. This, of course, is at least 10 times as many broilers as were produced 25 years ago by 3000 farm families. We continue to plant about 30,000 acres corn each year. Our yields are about twdce what they were 25 years ago. The average yield today is approximately 25 bushels per acre. Instead of feeding this corn to mules we are feeding it to our livestock. We have fewer than 1000 mules or horses in the County. They have been replaced by approxi¬ mately 1200 tractors. The average farmer today has twenty times as much money in¬ vested in machinery as his counterpart twenty-five years ago. Many things had a part to play in the changes that have taken place in Calhoun County’s agriculture. First, and not neces¬ sarily most important, was the increased in¬ dustrial activities which have taken place in the County during the past quarter-centurv. Thirty-four thousand people are employed in industry in Calhoun County. Most ten¬ ants and less efficient operators left the farm for industrial jobs. Another thing con tributing to these changes has been machani zation. Our farmers have kept abreast on changes along these lines, and are able to do a much more efficient job producing farm products than has ever been true. Flee 28 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science tricity, for example, has taken many chores out of the farm picture. Finally, and probably most important, the educational level of our people has advanced possibly five grades — -up to the 10th grade. As a result of this, farm people have made better use of scientific information result¬ ing from research. Better management, bet¬ ter breeding, along with better feeds and feeding practices, have resulted in doubling milk production per cow. The same is true with layers. Through greater efficiency the broiler grower is producing a pound of broiler meat for 17 cents per pound instead of 22 cents, as was the case five years ago. We did not have enough broilers to count twenty-five years ago. All of this has resulted in better living for our farm people. The farm home is well kept and has all conveniences which may be found in the city home. The average full time farmer has twelve months productive employment on the farm, instead of six months, as was the case twen¬ ty-five years ago when two-thirds of our farmers were tenant farmers. With con¬ tinued full employment, peace, and the con¬ tinual application of research information, farmers should be able to adjust production with demand and have a much higher stan¬ dard of living in the future than they have ever had in the past. ALABAMA’S CHANGING FOREST INDUSTRY By John C. Kirkpatrick and R. Vance Miles, Jr. Gulf States Paper Corporation, Tuscaloosa, Alaba^na Alabama industry for a great many years had certain unchanging industrial charac¬ teristics. Our State has had a very definite industrial pattern. Part of this pattern was the concentration of its manufacturing force, to a high degree, in four leading industrial centers of Birmingham, Mobile, Montgom¬ ery and Gadsden. As late as 1952, 44% of all manufacturing workers of the State were employed within these centers. One of the State’s leading industries, tex¬ tiles, was characterized by a fairly high de¬ gree of area concentration in the East cen¬ tral part of the State. Sixty per cent of all textile employment was located in Calhoun, Chambers, Etowah, Talladega, and Talla¬ poosa Counties. Another of the State’s leading industries was lumbering. It was rather widely dis¬ persed throughout the State with seemingly a concentration of 58% of its total employees located in 17 counties of the State. This was in 1952 and the counties were Jefferson, Tuscaloosa, Pickens, Bibb, Sumter, Marengo, Choctaw, Wilcox, Dallas, Elmore, Mont¬ gomery, Butler, Monroe, Clarke, Escambia, Baldwin and Mobile. The third industry of the "big three,’’ primary metals, was concentrated also. This was in Birmingham and Gadsden. The "big three’’ are all traditional indus¬ tries which are part of the type classified as "raw materials and semi-finished goods” in¬ dustries. This industry type is one whose employment and wage payments tend to slump badly in periods of economic adver¬ sity, and to rise rapidly in periods of stimu¬ lated business activity. It is quite noticeable now that our State has been making a very definite change in its industrial framework. We are breaking away from our traditional industrial frame¬ work and from the traditional industries, and now we see industry spreading through¬ out Alabama. This spread is being made simultaneously with the introduction of more Changes in Agrigulture in Calhoun County 29 and more "high value added by manufac¬ ture” industries. Their characteristic is one of high wages, because of high requirements for skilled and semi-skilled labor. Our tra¬ ditional industries are being very effectively challenged for a place in the manufacturing limelight by relatively new, rapidly growing industries, such as rubber goods, paper products, machinery and apparel. That, very briefly, is a broad picture of our State industrial economy and includes, as a part of the whole, our major forest indus¬ tries of lumber and paper. This dissertation shall be confined to these two principals of the industry since together they are a tre¬ mendous portion of the total forest industry of the State. As lumbering and paper goes, so goes Alabama’s forest industry. That a change is taking place in Alabama is shown by figures from Unemployment Compensation Payment reports, for the State. In 1946, the category "Logging Camps, Logging Contractors, Sawmills & Concentra¬ tion Yards” showed a total of 32,164 em¬ ployees with a total wage payment of $32,- 484,698; in 1950, employees numbered 36,- 853 with wages of $58,268,071; in 1955 there were 28,382 employed with wages to¬ taling $54,790,239. Significant is the decrease in employees with an increase in wages from approxi¬ mately $1,000 annually per employee, to ap¬ proximately $2,000 annually per employee. In 1946 the category of Paper and Allied Products showed 4,441 persons employed with wages of $9,935,649; in 1950 there were 7,780 employed with wages of $26,348,220; and in 1955, 8,733 employees paid an an¬ nual wage of $37,949,368. Significant is the increase in number of employees and the increases in annual wages, from an average of $2,200 annual wage to an average of $4,350 average annual wage per employee. Now let’s look at lumber first. As has been previously stated, it is one of our traditional industries producing raw material or semi-finished goods. One of its main characteristics is its tendency to slump badly in periods of economic adversity. It is surrounded by the economic theory of "no growth” or "limited growth,” which as¬ sumes that "if I am to have more, you must have less.” Practically all lumber mill mod¬ ernization programs today consist of re¬ placement with new machinery, which, if it had been put in five to ten years ago would still have been capable of the same volume and quality of production. The industry doesn’t enjoy "obsolescence,” it just has "de¬ preciation.” Its greatest shot in the arm in the past few years has been its coordination with the paper industry in a wood-waste utilization program. Even this today is on mighty shaky footing, for with an expand¬ ing pulp and paper industry and a contract¬ ing lumber industry, wood-waste or chip utilization, becomes even less significant to the total wood requirements of the pulp in¬ dustry. It is my opinion that the lumber in¬ dustry should do all in its power to main¬ tain this market for pulp chips which is so meaningful to the lumber industry, but which becomes less and less meaningful to the paper industry as pulp and paper ex¬ pands its plants and production. Unnatural economics durine the war years and following the war gave rise to an ex¬ pansion in the lumber industry which might have been a detriment to the industry while being an advantage to some indi\ iduals. This same thing happened to cattle and to wheat The period 19‘^0 to 19“^“^ appears to show an adjustment within the lumber industry in reverse of other industrial expansion. That is, while new industrial manufactur¬ ing units are spreading throughout the State, lumber is contracting. This contraction ap¬ pears to be to the W'est (Central and South W^est portion of the State. During the period lumber production, as delineated by severance tax 30 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science reports, declined in pine lumber, from 1,- 433,314,000 board feet to 1,099,717,000 board feet — a drop of 23.2% for the State as a whole. Hardwood production for the same period 1950-55 shows a decline of 20.7% from 670,967,000 board feet to 531,- 694,000 board feet. Our traditional 2 billion board feet of production for the State of Alabama seems to have been broken. Separating the State into two parts, one part being the seventeen counties mentioned as containing 58% of the employees in lum¬ bering in 1952, and the other being all other counties, a significant trend is indicated. For the 17 counties there was a 17.9% decrease in pine production and for all others there was a 26.7% decrease. For hardwood there was an 18.6% decrease for the 17 counties and a 21.8% decrease in all other counties. These production decreases occurred in the period 1950-1955. Part of this may be explained by timber supply but a large part is also explainable by increases in minimum wage rates, in¬ creases in stumpage prices, increases in costs of materials and supplies, and the reluct¬ ance on the part of the industry to make capital expenditures in plant and improve¬ ments. The December 1956 issue of the Alabama Lumberman very concisely sums up the lum¬ bering situation of Alabama in an article reporting from the 1954 Census of Manufac¬ turers released by the U. S. Bureau of the Census. The article says in part: "For Alabama in 1954 the following en¬ tries appear relating to the lumber industry: Number of establishments — ^1,070. Number employing 20 or more — 223. Number of employees — 19,398. Annual payroll — $34,326,000.00. Cost of materials — $74,499,000.00. Value added by manufacture — $53,046,- 000.00. Total value of shipments — $127,998,- 000.00 Capital expenditures — $3,542,000.00. In 1947 Alabama saw mills were credited with 31,394 employees and the valued added by manufacture was set down at $84,350,- 000.00. By dividing the number of employees for each year into the value added by manufac¬ ture in the corresponding year a slight in¬ crease in productivity per worker is found. In 1947 the added value was $84,350,- 000.00 with 31,394 employees or $2,690.00 per employee. In 1954 the added value was $53,046,- 000.00 with 19,398 employees or $2,743.00 per employee, an increase in "value added by manufacture” per worker of $44.00 per year. Notable of recent date has been the ab¬ sorption and liquidation of some of the old lumber companies into the other major seg¬ ment of the forest industry, pulp and paper. It is believed that those companies who can and will recognize the opportunities which surround all problems, and the larger the problems the greater the opportunities, they should be able to firm themselves and ex¬ pand into what has been reported very re¬ cently as a more or less constant require¬ ment for lumber in the United States. Those who plan to succeed must break with tradition. They must adapt themselves to the economic theory that there is to be economic growth which can be brought about by readjustment within the industry, and they must find ways of forcing the condi¬ tion of ’’making more by everybody making more.” They must accelerate their investment ex¬ penditures, for the greatest hope for strengthening their position lies in improved technology and processes, modernization of old plants and equipment and the develop¬ ment of more aggressive research. That is a tremendous order in the face of existing con¬ ditions. If the industry fails to take these Changes in Agriculture in Calhoun County 31 steps, however, you will soon see an even greater separation of the men from the boys. One of the industry weaknesses, namely: the production pattern of thousands of pro¬ ducers with "casual” trade practices, has been broken; the thousands of producers have dwindled to hundreds, but the "casual” trade practice lingers on. The other major weakness, the lack of research, puts the lum¬ ber industry in the position of giving its market away to competing materials by the fact that less than 1% of the value of prod¬ uct, lumber, is being spent by the industry on research, whereas investments up to 3% of value of product is being spent by some of the competing industries. Now let’s look at the . Paper Industry. It is an industry which had its beginning in Alabama in 1929. In this 28 year period our State’s production of pulp and paper has risen from 150 tons per day to its present production rate of 2,000 tons daily. It now employs some 8,000 persons di¬ rectly in its manufacturing process. Gen¬ erally throughout the industry an equal num¬ ber of people are required in the woods op¬ erations which supply the mills. The 8,000 wage earners in Alabama’s pulp and paper manufacturing industry is nearly 4% of the total manufacturing force of the State, and it draws 5% of the total wages pa'd in manufacturing. The average annual wage paid its workers is fourth high¬ est in the State following (l) rubber work¬ ers, (2) petroleum and coal workers and (3) printing. The pulp and paper industry is almost as important as lumber when Alabama’s in¬ dustries are compared in terms of value added by manufacture; lumber being 7.7% of the State’s total and paper being 6.2%. Valued added (trees to pulpwood to pulp to finished paper products) for the paper industry is $10,101 per production worker and ranks second in the State. In terms of employment and payrolls, the non-traditional industries of Alabama such as paper, chemi¬ cals, rubber and machinery are growing faster than the State’s traditional "lower value added by manufacture” industries. A vigorous further growth of paper con¬ sumption for the United States through this current decade is predicted. This growth in consumption may exceed 440 pounds per capita in 1958-60 compared to a current rate of a little more than 400 pounds. Consump¬ tion at the end of the present decade is predicted to be 38 million tons as compared to 31.5 million tons which was consumed in 1954. At least two highly reputable organiza¬ tions have projected the United States paper production through 1975 with an average estimate of 45 million tons of production of paper and paper board. The pulp and paper industry of the State of Alabama, judging from the announce¬ ments of its expansion, seems to be keeping pace with these predictions for the future. Present construction promises an additional 2,000 tons of daily production to be added to the existing 2,000 tons. The latest plant completion date announced in this expansion program for Alabama is 1958, which is right here at hand. Additional expansion by mills in border¬ ing states, I estimate will rely on Alabama for additional raw material supply and to a certain extent for workers to the tune of approximately another 200 tons of daily pro¬ duction. All comparisons of daily tons of produc¬ tion and number of persons employed, th.it I haye seen, ayerage about 4 employees per ton of paper. Hence, 2,000 new tons of production becomes a new employee require¬ ment of perhaps 8,000 additioiuil people right here in the present and immediate fu ture. All together Alabama’s pulp .md paper industry announced plans in lOSS for e\ 32 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science penditure of $170,000,000 in new construc¬ tion and expansion of existing facilities. According to General Lewis A. Pick, who was before his recent death, Alabama’s Di¬ rector of Industrial Development, and I quote, "We are already committed as the greatest paper State in the Union; we must make sure that there are enough forests to keep these mills rolling.’’ The forest situation as I view it shows a favorable balance to support this expansion. Five general facts make me feel strong in my opinion — First, approximately 40% of the proposed expansion is to be manufacture of newsprint, which because of the production process, gives yields in tons of paper per cord of wood almost twice that of the sulphate or kraft paper process. Second, a segment of this expansion will be in hardwood utilization, a heretofore little used source of raw material in Ala¬ bama. Constant references are made through¬ out the industry, to as much as 20 to 25% of total state production to be from hard¬ woods. Third is the increasing importance being assigned to the utilization of wood waste, the trimmings and outside tree portions, which are left over from lumber manufac¬ ture. Fourth, the tonnage production promised will not all be supplied with pulpwood from only the State of Alabama, but will be drawn in part from neighboring states. This factor may, however, only balance the withdrawal from Alabama by our neighboring states. And fifth, the dislocation of lumber mar¬ ket as a stumpage outlet because of the abandonment of production by major seg¬ ments of the lumber industry. Today, state wide, our forest statistics show a net growth of 10,080,000 cords, about half pine and the other half hard¬ woods. Drain of products from our forests is ap¬ proximately 7,500,000 cords indicating an excess of better than three million cords of growth. Only 750,000 cords of this excess is in pine which by itself, is 400,000 to 500,000 tons of production annually or 1200 to 1500 tons daily. This is a conversion of cords to tons at the conservative level of between 1.4 and 1.9 cords per ton. This excess of growth balanced by the other factors mentioned is my belief of the existence of a balance. Not even counted is the backlog of tim- berland in Alabama which can be made more productive by its owners. If the improve¬ ment in woodland management continues its advance in the future as it has in the past, our supplies of raw material should be more than just balanced. Complete Papers Presented at Sectional Meetings 33 SECTION I SOME INTERESTING RECORDS OF MARINE FISHES FROM ALABAMA By Herbert T. Boschung, Jr. University of Alabama, University, Alabama One hundred and sixty-eight species of fishes have been recorded from Mobile Bay and the Gulf shore of Alabama since 1950. Of these 168 species, only 29 were pre¬ viously collected in Alabama and recorded in the annals of ichthyological literature. I do not intend to imply that the remaining 139 unrecorded species constitute unexpect¬ ed distribution records; on the contrary, most of them were expected to be in our waters and their absence would have aroused more excitement than their presence. The presence of some of them in Alabama, however, does constitute new distribution records worthy of note. Family BELONIDAE Ablennes hians (Valenciennes). Houndfish Belone hians Valenciennes, 1846. In Cu¬ vier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. 18, p. 321, PI. 458 (type locality, Bahia). Athlennes hians Jordan and Evermann, 1896. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 47, pt. 1, p. 718 ("West Indies, ranging from Florida to Brazil; generally common”). Ablennes hians Longley and Hildebrand, 1941. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. no. 535, p. 26 (Tortugas, Fla.; no specimens in col¬ lection). — Springer and Bullis, 1956. Fish and Wildlife Ser., Scientific Rept., Fisher, no. 196, p. 57 (Records in the northern Gulf near the 100 fathom curve) . Alabama Records. One specimen was caught by hook and line in about 6 fathoms of water off the coast of Alabama in July, 1956. This specimen is in the University of Alabama Ichthyological Collection, Acces¬ sion No. 460. Family ACANTHOCYBIIDAE Acanthocybium solandri (Cuvier) Wahoo Cybium solandri Cuvier, 1831. In Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. 8, p. 192 (open seas; exact locality unknown). Acanthocybium solandri Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930. Check List, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish., for 1928, Appendix 10, p. 256 ("Warmer parts of the Pacific; Hawaii) — Springer and Bullis, 1956. Fish and Wild¬ life Ser. Special Scientific Rept., Fisher, no. 196, p. 69 (Gulf of Mexico outside or near the 500 fathom curve). Alabama Records. One specimen was caught in July, 1956, by hook and line sev¬ eral miles off the Alabama coast in about 6 fathoms of water. This specimen consti¬ tutes the first record of this fish in the north¬ ern Gulf of Mexico outside the 500 fathom curve. This specimen is mounted and in the collection of the Alabama Deep Sea Fishing Rodeo in Mobile, Alabama. Family CARANGIDAF A I ectis crinitiis ( M i tch i 1 1 ) . African pompano. Thrcadfin. Zeus crinitiis Mitchell, 1826. Amer. four. Sci. Arts, vol. 11, p. I l l (tvpe locality. New York). Alectic ciliaris foixlan and Fvermann. 1896. Bull. U. S. Nat. Bus., no. pt. I. p. 34 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science 931 ("Tropical America on both coasts north to Cape Cod’’). — Nichols, 1920. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 42, p. 286 (New York and North Carolina). — Meed and Hildebrand, 1925. Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. (zool. ser.), vol. 15, pt. 2, p. 365 (At¬ lantic and Pacific coasts of Panama; Vir¬ ginia, Key West, Florida; Hawaii; New South Wales). Alectis crinitus Ginsburg, 1952. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci., vol. 2, no. 2, p. 104, pis. 6a, b, and c (Massachusetts to Key West, Florida; Yucatan, Mexico; Cuba; Jamaica; Colon; Panama; Brazil). — Springer and Bullis, 1956. Fish and Wildlife Ser., Special Sci¬ entific Kept., Fisher, no. 196, p. 74 (Cam¬ peche, Mexico). Alabama Records. An example of this fish was caught by hook and line in the mouth of Mobile Bay in July, 1956. The presence of the Threadfin on the coast of Alabama extends its known range northward in the Gulf of Mexico by more than 600 miles. This specimen is catalogued in the Univer¬ sity of Alabama Ichthyological Collection, Accession No. 470. Family GOBIODIDAE Gobioides brussonnettii Lacepede. Violet goby. Gobioides brussonnettii Lacepede, 1800. Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. 2, p. 586 (type lo¬ cality, probably Surinam). — Bean and Bean, 1895. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 17. p. 631 (New Orleans, Louisiana). Alabama Records. Four specimens of the Violet goby have been collected in Alabama by Mr. Harold Loesch. One specimen was found in Portersville Bay in May, 1953, and three in lower Mobile Bay in November, 1954, and in June and May, 1955. One of these specimens is catalogued in the Univer¬ sity of Alabama Ichthyological Collection, Accession No. 473. The others are deposited in the Alabama Marine Laboratory Collec¬ tion at Cedar Point, Alabama. A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE BLACK BEAR IN ALABAMA By Ralph L. Chermock University of Alabama, University, Alabama Data on the distribution of the Black Bear, Euarctos amer ic anus, in Alabama are sparse. Howell (1921) recorded bear from the swamps between the Tensaw and Mo¬ bile Rivers around Carlton in Clarke Coun¬ ty, from Bayou la Batre and Irvington in southern Mobile County, Bon Secour in Baldwin County, and Ashford in Houston County. We have examined a specimen from Mobile collected in 1917 by C. W. Howe which is in the U. S. National Museum Col¬ lection (No. 228292) ; and have a specimen in the University of Alabama Collection (No. M-1528) collected in the "Late 30’s between Clear Water Lake and Little Bear Creek west of Latham in Baldwin County.” These data justify the conclusions of Allen and Kyle (1954) that today the Black Bear is restricted to the swampy regions along the rivers in south Alabama. They estimated that only about 100 individuals are left. However, new information adds to the pres¬ ent distribution of the bear in Alabama. Lueth (1956) recorded evidence of a bear near Centreville in Bibb County; and a bear was killed near Mount Zion in Chilton County in 1956 (Tuscaloosa News, 1956). These localities are in the central part of the state. Recently, we have obtained a skull of a specimen at the University (M-1529) which was killed near Decatur in 1955, rep¬ resenting the first specimen available for study from North Alabama. From these data we conclude that the Black Bear is A Preliminary Report on the Black Bear in Alabama 35 found most abundantly in the south Alabama swamps, although individuals do occur rare¬ ly in other parts of the state. Throughout Alabama, this animal is nearing extinction. A survey of the literature reveals consid¬ erable disagreement among authors concern¬ ing the taxonomic status of Alabama bears. Howell (1921) examined four skulls from southwestern Alabama and indicated that they were intermediate between jloridanus and luteolus. Although he had no specimens from northern Alabama, he tentatively as¬ signed them to typical americanus. Hamil¬ ton (1943) indicated that jloridanus was found in the extreme southeastern part of the state, while luteolus extended into Mo¬ bile County from the west; bear was absent in all other parts of the state. Miller and Kellogg (1955) stated that americanus oc¬ curs in northern Alabama, and jloridanus in the swamps of southern Alabama, with lu¬ teolus being found in Louisiana and pos¬ sibly in southeastern Texas. Because of the lack of speciments available to these auth¬ ors, at least part of their conclusions are conjectural. We have available for study the skulls of five bear from the swamps of southwestern Alabama, the four which Howell studied in the collection of the U. S. National Museum, plus an additional specimen at the Univer¬ sity of Alabama. A careful analysis of these skulls indicate that Howell (1921) was cor¬ rect in concluding that this population is intermediate between luteolus and jlori- danus. In some individuals, the palate is flat as in luteolus, in others, deeply excavated as in jloridanus. Similar variations occur in regard to other diagnostic characters as the profile of the frontal region, the length of the upper molars, the ratio of zygomatic breadth to basilar length, and the interorbital breadth. One of these specimens (U.S.N.M. 178373) has a shorter and broader skull suggestive of typical americanus. The skull of the specimen from Decatur, when com¬ pared with specimens from south Alabama and skull measurements of typical ameri¬ canus from New York, shows intergrada¬ tion between the populations. From these studies, we suggest the follow¬ ing taxonomic conclusions. The population from the swamps of southwestern Alabama is intermediate between luteolus and jlori¬ danus, and it is doubtful if true luteolus oc¬ curs in the state. Howell (1921) had re¬ corded bear from Houston County. Speci¬ mens are needed from this area to determine if they can be assigned to jloridanus. The north Alabama population is probably in¬ termediate between typical americanus and the Gulf Coast subspecies, although addi¬ tional specimens are needed for confirma¬ tion. The specimen from Chilton County was not made available for study so no con¬ clusions can be made concerning it. It is suggested that it be studied to determine if it represents a part of a dine between ameri¬ canus and the coastal forms. LITERATURE CITED Allen, Ralph H. J. and George M. Kyle. 1954. “Game and Furbearing and Predator Animals of Alabama.” Ala. Dept, of Conservation. Montgomery, pp. 15-16. Anonymous. “Male Bear Is Shot Near Mount Zion.” Tusca¬ loosa News. July 29. 1956. Hamilton, William J. Jr. 1943. “The Mammals of Eastern United States.” Comstock Publishing Company. Ithaca, pp. 114-118. Howell, Arthur H. 1921. “A Biological Survey of Alabama. Part II. The Mammals.” North American Fauna No. 45. pp. 29-30. Lueth, Francis X. 1956. “The Bear in Alabama,” Alabama Conservation, vol. 27. no. 4. p. 11. Miller. Gerrit S. Jr. & Remington Kellogg. 1955 "List of North American Recent Mammals.” U. S. National Mu¬ seum Bulletin No. 205. pp. 692-693. 36 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science OBSERVATIONS ON BAIT SHRIMPING ACTIVITIES IN RIVERS NORTH OF MOBILE BAY CAUSEWAY By Harold Loesch Division of Seafoods Alabama Department of Conservation Small young shrimp are found in some abundance during the summer and fall months in an area in Mobile Bay north of a line from Daphne to Arlington and south of the Causeway. Bait dealers have been al¬ lowed to take these small shrimp in this area for bait purposes. However, because shrimp are sometimes difficult to locate in this area, bait dealers asked the Conservation Depart¬ ment for permission to trawl certain areas in the rivers North of the Causeway. This permission was given during the fall of 1956 on condition that detailed reports were to be kept by the bait dealers permitted in the area. From this collection of data, informa¬ tion would be obtained on the operation of bait shrimping activities in this area. From this it might be determined to what extent, if any, these activities affected the shrimp population in Mobile Bay. Collection of Data The following data was to be included in the reports made by the designated shrimp dealers: river, day of month, dragging time in both morning and afternoon, percentage of white shrimp, estimated pounds caught, estimated count of shrimp per pound, depth of water, and other comments. A record of each shrimping expedition was to be kept by the participating catchers and the records turned in at regular intervals. The writer met with the Bait Dealers As¬ sociation members regularly and discussed their reports with them. A common error was in reporting total time instead of time spent dragging. Since data concerning catch per unit of effort was being computed from their figures, this was a serious error. Most of the reporters increased in usefulness as time went on; however, some reports re¬ mained as puzzles until the end of the ob¬ servations. The information gathered from all the participating shrimp dealers was totaled. The data was divided into four time inter¬ vals ranging from 13 to 23 days each. It was then tabulated according to dates, then according to time of day to see if there was any significant difference between morning and afternoon catches in catch per unit ef¬ fort. Totals were then computed for each river and for each period. Table I includes for each river and for each time interval the following in¬ formation: total pounds caught, total time spent dragging, and the computed pounds per minute. This was further divided into morning and afternoon. The data for each operator reporting for that time interval was similarly tabulated and analyzed to evaluate the reliability of the data. This data concerning operators has not been repro¬ duced for obvious reasons. The catch per unit effort was considerably lower for some operators. It is not believed that these opera¬ tors were materially less efficient but rather that they were consistently conservative in their estimates of shrimp caught. There were also other extremes. However, most of the operators’ catch per unit effort was quite close to the median. It is therefore consider¬ ed a random distribution, with extremes av¬ eraging out, and judged to be reliable. All reports that contained the proper data were used. If an operator neglected to report either the river, dragging time, or estimated poundage his data could not be used. Observations on Bait Shrimping 37 TABLE I. Shrimp Data — North Causeway (September-November, 1956) SEPTEMBER 11-25, 1956 River Total Lbs . A. M. Lbs. P.M. Lbs. Total Mins. Drag. A. M. Mins. P. M. Mms. Total Mins. Drag. A. M. lbs /min P. M. lb/ mil Blakley 432 397 35 Below Bridge 5 5 Total 437 402 35 1300 1090 210 . 34 . 37 . 17 Tensaw 986 713 273 2575 1745 830 . 38 . 41 . 33 Spanish 2460 1646 814 2840 1730 1110 . 87 . 95 . 73 Apalachee 17 17 30 30 . 57 . 57 Sub- T otal 3900 2778 1122 6745 4595 2150 . 58 . 60 . 52 Unid. from Record 550 Grand Total 4450 2778 1122 SEPTEMBER 25- OC ,TOBER 8, 1956 Blakley 1362 922 440 Below Bridge 342 292 50 Total 1704 1214 490 2520 1620 900 . 68 . 75 . 54 Tensaw 58 58 0 Below Bridge 60 . _ 60 Total 118 58 60 225 45 180 . 52 1.29 . 33 Spanish 230 155 75 540 270 270 . 43 . 57 , 28 Sub- Total 2052 1427 625 3285 1935 1350 . 62 . 74 . 46 Unid. from Record 416 Grand Total 2468 1427 625 OCTOBER 9-31, 195 6 Blakley 2054 1529 528 Below Bridge 797 619 178 Total 2851 2148 703 5239 3559 1680 . 54 . 60 . 42 Tensaw 492 457 35 Below Bridge 215 210 5 Total 707 667 40 1195 1065 130 . 59 . 63 . 31 Spanish 3058 2605 453 6630 5080 1550 . 46 . 51 . 2P Apalachee 140 125 15 Below Bridge 75 75 Total 215 125 90 370 220 150 . 58 . 57 . bO Sub - Total 6831 5545 1286 13434 9924 3510 . 51 . 5b . 37 Unid. from Record 577 Grand Total 7408 5545 1286 38 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Table I Continued NOVEMBER 1-15, 1 Rive r 956 Total Lbs. A. M. Lbs. P. M. Lbs . Total Mins. Drag. A. M. Mins. P. M. Mins . T otal Mins. Drag. A. M. lbs /min P. M. lb / mm Blakley 735 523 212 Below Bridge 579 386 193 Total 1314 909 40 5 3265 2240 1025 . 40 . 41 . 40 Tensaw 35 35 0 Below Bridge 81 31 50 Total 116 66 50 240 170 70 . 48 . 39 . 71 Spanish 1355 1094 261 2510 1960 550 . 54 . 54 . 47 Sub- Total 2785 2069 716 6015 4370 1645 .46 . 47 . 44 Unid. from Record 304 Grand Total 3089 2069 716 1 Table II consolidates the total poundage of shrimp per day for each river during each period, as well as the average pounds per day for that period and pounds per min¬ ute dragging time for that period. In addition to these operators’ reports, three stations were set up and sampled for shrimp every two weeks. All shrimp were measured and length- frequency charts were made for the shrimp so caught (Table III). Temperature and salinity checks for both top and bottom water were also made at each of these stations as well as for two other stations. (Table IV.) Analyses Catch. As may be seen from Table II, a total catch of 17,415 pounds, or 83 barrels, was reported by the catchers’ reports for the sixty-six days’ duration of this survey. This was an average of 265 pounds per day. Ar¬ ranged in order of pounds of shrimp caught, the rivers are as follows: Spanish, Blakley, Tensaw, and Appalachie. The total pounds per minute of dragging time for each suc¬ cessive period is .58 lbs. /min.; .62; .51; and .46. The catch was the highest for the period September 26 to October 8. The average for the entire duration of the observations was .56 pounds per minute. Each of the reporting operators used a l6-foot trawl. Assuming that the average trawling speed was 2 mph, the linear dis¬ tance covered in a minute is 178 feet. With a sixteen-foot trawl about 0.02 acre would be covered in a minute. With an average of 0.56 pounds of shrimp per minute caught, there was 28 pounds of shrimp per acre in the area being trawled. This is a concentra¬ tion far in excess of that found in either Mobile Bay or the Gulf of Mexico. Of course, the shrimp are not uniformly thick in all parts of the rivers; the operators will seek those areas of the greatest concentra¬ tion and will work in those areas. AM vs. PM. The pounds of shrimp caught per minute was noted for each operator du¬ ring each of the four periods reported. The total amount of shrimp caught during the AM was greater than that caught during the PM for all four periods. For the ten opera¬ tors reporting, catch per unit effort was greater in the AM for five, equal for four (±.02 Ibs./min.), and for only one was the catch per unit effort greater in the PM. In Observations on Bait Shrimping 39 the 24 analyses of each operator for each period, 15 were greater for AM, 5 for PM, and 4 were the same. It is thus apparent that catch per unit ef¬ fort was greater in the morning than in the afternoon. However, it was also noted that most of the shrimping was done in the morn¬ ing. Thus, when shrimp were plentiful the operators did not go back in the afternoon because they did not need any more shrimp. Had they returned they would have probably found shrimp plentiful also in the after¬ noons. Thus more afternoon shrimping was done on days when shrimp were scarce. It cannot therefore be said that shrimp under normal conditions can be found to be more plentiful at this season in these rivers du¬ ring the morning hours. Random sampling in both AM and PM is needed to produce unbiased results. Length-frequency of shrimp. Three sta¬ tions were checked at approximately two week intervals and samples of the shrimp were measured. This data is tabulated in Table III. Apparently in the white shrimp sampled, small shrimp were still coming into the area until mid-September. In each of the samples taken on September 12 and Sep¬ tember 20 there were two size groupings of shrimp, the small of which had a mode at 65 millimeters on both dates. However, the mode of the larger shrimp advanced from 105 millimeters to 120 millimeters in these eight days. This is almost 2 millimeters ad¬ vance per day. The constancy of the mode of the small shrimp indicated that recruitment POUNDS OF SHRIMP CAUGHT ESTIMATED FROM CATCHERS' REPORTS River Above Below Bridge Bridge Sept. 11-25 Above Below Bridge Bridge Sept. 26-Oct. 8 Above Bridge Oct. 9 Below Bridge -31 Above Below Bridge Bridge Nov. 1-15 ‘Above Below Bridge Bridge TOTAL Blakley 432 5 1362 342 2054 797 735 579 4583 1723 Tensaw 986 58 60 492 212 35 91 1571 356 Spanish 2460 230 3058 1355 7103 Apalachee 17 140 75 157 75 Total 3895 5 1650 402 5744 1087 2125 660 13414 2154 Grand Total 3900 2052 6831 2785 15568 Unid. 550 416 577 304 1847 TOTAL 4450 2468 7408 3089 17415 83 bbls. Lbs. per day 297 190 322 206 265 Total lbs. per minute dragging tim< . 58 . 62 - 51 . 4b . 56 TABLE NO. II 40 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science was still in progress. The mode of the small shrimp advanced from 65 millimeters on Sep¬ tember 20 to 85 millimeters on October 9 to 105 millimeters on October 25. Although young shrimp were still appearing in the catch, they were not in large enough numbers to affect the mode. Assuming the advance in mode to be caused by growth, these shrimp grew a little less than a millimeter a day, indicated a slower rate of growth from Sep¬ tember 20 than during the period before September 20. This would be expected, as with cooler water the growth would be slow¬ er. As shown in Table IV, the temperature had fallen from about 28° on September 20 to about 23° on October 25. From October 25 to November 28 the mode remained al¬ most constant, indicating that growth had ceased. The temperature of the water had fallen during this period to about 15° on November 23. Not enough brown shrimp were taken du¬ ring this period to make any estimate of growth. It is interesting to note that the abun¬ dance of brown shrimp increased from none on September 12 (the first sampling date) to more than half of the total catch on No¬ vember 28 (the last sampling date). This increase was not apparent until November 16, the next to the last sampling date. Salinity and Temperature. Four stations were checked at approximately weekly in¬ tervals for salinity and temperature. The salinity fluctuated greatly in this area, as shown on Table IV. At times fresh water infiltrated this area suddenly, other times it came in slowly. On October 4 the salinity at Station 2 was 11.3 parts per thousand, but on October 5 it had dropped to 0.8 PPM on top and 3.4 PPM on bottom. During the period just preceding October 4 fresh water was pushing the salty water out of the rivers. Then beginning about October 9 a wedge of salty water began appearing in the Blak- ley River again. By October 18 this wedge had appeared at the bottom at all stations except the Tensaw at Crab Creek. In early November fresh water began again driving the salt water out, and fresh water prevailed until the last samples were taken on De¬ cember 8. In general, the temperature fell gradually from a high of about 28° in late September to about 15° in late November. Conclusions Shrimp 100 millimeters in length would be about 50 count, legal size according to Ala¬ bama regulations and about the minimum edible size. As seen from Table III few shrimp taken during these observations were that large; before October 25 almost no shrimp caught were that large. Previous investigations by this writer have been concerned with shrimp in Mobile Bay. In comparing Mobile Bay with the area north of the Causeway, it was found that the shrimp per given area are much more abundant north of the Causeway. The growth rate — about 2 millimeters per day, diminish¬ ing as the water gets cold — is about the same as that in Mobile Bay. If the demand for shrimp by the bait dealers is, say 400 per pounds per day, it would make no difference if those shrimp came from Mobile Bay or from the rivers. They could find these smaller-than-commer- clal size shrimp needed for bait purposes in some areas of Mobile Bay, but the amount needed can be caught with far less effort in the rivers. In either case, the amount of shrimp taken would be very nearly the same. Recommendations As outlined above, bait dealers use a cer¬ tain amount of bait shrimp, and as far as the total shrimp population is concerned it makes no difference if those shrimp come from the Bay or from the rivers. Since shrimp are more plentiful in the rivers, bait shrimp would be more generally available for the sports fisherman if baft dealers were permitted to take shrimp in the rivers. Observations on Bait Shrimping TAB LE NO. Ill 41 LENGTH FREQUENCY OF SHRIMP TAKEN AT ALL STATIONS SAMPLED ON A GIVEN DATE WHITE Size interval in nam. Sept. 12 Sta. 4 Sept. 20 Sta, 3 Oct. 9 Sta. 2, 3, 4 Oct. 25 Sta. 2, 3, 4 Nov. 16 Sta. 2, 3. 4 Nov. 28 Sta. 4 21-25 1 26-30 31-35 36-40 1 41-45 2 1 1 46-50 7 5 2 1 51-55 12 18 8 6 1 56-60 18 26 9 3 61-65 - - 33 13 9 2 66-70 12 13^V 17 15 4 71-75 17 15 16 4 19 5 76-80 7 6 \ 59 3 18 4 81-85 12 6 2 16 3 86-90 1 4 63N. 8 10 2 91-95 3 1 45 \ 11 30 4 96-100 3 17 9 _ 9 101-105 3 19 26—- — 34 106-110 7 2 9 18 31 111-115 4 2 3 13 16 3 116-120 7 ^^7 2 4 10 1 121-125 3 4 1 5 1 126-130 1 4 1 2 131-135 136-140 Total 150 150 401 104 259 51 BROWN 36-40 41-45 46-50 2 51-55 3 1 56-60 2 1 4 61-65 1 1 1 66-70 1 2 4 7 71-75 1 14 14 76-80 1 5 12 81-85 4 2 10 13 86-90 4 3 91-95 1 1 96-100 100-105 Total 0 4 7 6 41 00 42 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science SHRIMP DATA - NORTH CAUSEWAY (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER, 1956) SAL - TEMP DATA - SELECTED STATIONS SAL %o TEMP °C Date Station 6 2 3 4 5 AVG. 6 2 3 4 5 AVG. Sept. 12 Top 5. 5 5. 8 5. 6 26 26 26 Bottom 8. 1 11.6 9. 8 27 27 27 Sept. 20 T. 2.3 4. 6 7. 9 4. 7 4. 9 27i 27 28 28l Z7\ B. 17. 1 11.4 8. 7 10. 1 11.8 29 28 28 29 28l Oct. 4 11. 3 Oct. 5 T. 0. 8 0. 6 1.9 2. 9 1.6 27 27 27 271 B. 3. 4 1.4 5. 3 3. 8 3. 5 26 25 25 26 Oct. 9 T. 1. 1 0. 9 2. 5 1. 3 1.4 24 25 24 24i 24i B. 11.4 3. 7 6. 0 7. 2 7. 1 25 24i 24i 24i 24i Oct. 11 T. 1. 5 1. 2 2. 7 2. 1 1.9 24l 25 25 25 25 B. 11. 1 6. 3 8. 8 9. 0 8. 8 24 3/4 24i 25 25 24i Oct. 14 T. 2. 2 2. 8 3. 8 4. 3 3. 3 24 23 23 23 231 B. 10. 7 7. 6 7. 0 9. 1 8. 3 23 3/4 24 24 23i 23i Oct. 18 T. 3. 5 2. 7 3. 2 3. 0 3. 1 23 23 22i 23 B. 11.0 4. 7 12. 8 13. 3 10.4 23l 23 24 24 23l Oct. 25 T. 1.5 4. 0 2. 7 5. 7 4. 4 4. 2 231 24 23i 23i 23i 23i B. 5. 5 7. 9 8. 3 9.0 9. 9 8. 8 24 24 23i 24 24 ■ -| — Nov. 2 T. 4. 1 3. 3 4. 0 3. 7 3. 4 22| 23 22 22 B. 8. 1 5. 5 5. 5 4. 8 6. 0 23 22| 22 22 22| Nov. 16 T. 3. 8 3. 2 2. 6 3. 8 3. 4 19i 19i 19 19i I9i B. 7. 7 6. 5 4. 9 4. 0 5. 8 19 19 19 19 19 Nov. 23 T. 2. 5 0. 8 3. 3 2. 1 2. 2 15 15i 14 15| 15 B. 4. 1 4. 1 12. 6 13, 5 8. 6 14 16 16 16 15 3/4 Nov. 28 T. 2. 2 1.4 2. 1 1.9 B. 2. 4 8. 0 12. 8 7. 7 Dec, 8 T. 1.4 1.3 3. 0 2. 9 2,2 15 15 16 17 15 3/4 B. 1. 6 ! 4. 5 6. 9 5. 5 4. 6 14i 15i 15 16 AVE T. 2. 6 2. 4 3. 3 3. 0 22l 22i 22l 22 B, 7. 5 5. 8 8.5 8. 0 22l 22l 22l 22 _ Station 2 - Station 3 - Station 4 - Station 5 - Station 6 - One Mile North Blakley Bridge Crab Creek and Tensaw Spanish River at Mouth Grande Bay 100 Yards South Tensaw Bridge Hole Tensaw Blakley Fork TABLE 4 Preliminary Notes on Life Cycle of Fibricola Cratera 43 However, as most of the shrimp are small¬ er than 50 count, great wastage in culling would occur should shrimping for food be allowed in the rivers, even on an individual basis. Whether or not bait shrimping should be allowed in the rivers is a touchy problem. Some sportsmen and commercial shrimpers will object to the taking of shrimp from the rivers. Shrimping should definitely not be allowed in shallow bodies of water like Grand Bay, Polecat Bay, Chacaloochee Bay, Big Bateau Bay, Delvan Bay, Chuckfee Bay, or any other fresh water bay. Nor should shrimping be allowed in the smaller creeks or bayous that feed into the larger rivers. These shallow bays and creeks are spawn¬ ing places for fish and also furnish sub¬ merged aquatic food for ducks; dragging the bottom would be detrimental to fish and ducks. However, the channels of the deeper rivers serve neither as spawning area for fish nor as feeding area for waterfowl. Shrimp trawling catches practically no game fish, with the possible exception of white trout. As I see the problem, it is thus: If all shrimp that are taken in the river channels north of the Causeway are used for bait, little or no harm will be done to the shrimp population. Great wastage would occur, however, should anyone try to cull these shrimp for food. LITERATURE CITED Loesch, Harold. (Unpublished) Ecological observations on the shrimp in Mobile Bay. PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE LIFE CYCLE OF FIBRICOLA CRATERA (Barker and Noll, 1915) Dubois 1932 (Trematoda; Diplostomatidae) . By Henry F. Turner Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alaba7na Adult frogs (Rana pipiens), collected from roadside ponds near the Iowa Lake¬ side Laboratory at Lake Okoboji in north¬ west Iowa are heavily parasitized by strigeid diplostomula encysted in the pelvic and pec¬ toral musculature. When such metacercarae were fed to laboratory-reared white mice, adult trematodes of the genus Fibricola were recovered from the duodenum. Further investigations were made to deter¬ mine the life cycle of this parasite. The re¬ sults of the investigations completed thus far are presented herewith; Adult: The adult is a typical strigeid with the body constricted forming a forebody and hindbody. The forebody is considerably wid¬ er than the hindbody, with the sides rolled ventrally giving it a spoon-shaped appear¬ ance. The hindbody is markedly narrower than forebody, tapers to a rounded end, and houses the reproductive organs. The attachment of the adult worms to the villi of the duodenum of the experimental definitive host (white mice) is tenacious. The oral sucker, acetabulum and holdfast are involved in this attachment. In comparison with many other trema¬ todes, Fibricola produces very few eggs. Egg: The operculated eggs are dark amber in color. An average size of 20 eggs is llo microns Icing x 72 microns wide. These pass out of the definitive host c\ ith the feces. Length of time for hatching of the eggs is highly variable, depending primarilv upon temperature but seeminglv on other factors as well. Germ cells can be ditferentiated from the yolk material easilv and the de velopmcnt of the larvae to the eve-spot stage 44 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science is rapid. Prior to hatching, there are con¬ tinuous, rapid movements of the miracidium within the egg. Miracidium: The ciliated living miracidia swim in straight lines and do not seek any particular level in shallow dishes of water. There are four rows of ciliated epidermal plates with 6, 9, 4, and 3 plates, respective¬ ly. There are 2 pairs of flame cells and large crescent-shaped eye spots present. The reactions of the miracidia to snails of the genus Physa is not consistent. At times, they appeared to be definitely attract¬ ed to the snails and would burrow into them immediately, while at other times they would crawl over the mantles of the snail without burrowing in. Sporocysts: There are two generations of sporocysts produced in the life cycle of this fluke. The mother sporocysts develop in the mantle, especially around the collar region, with their long thread-like bodies projecting into the mantle cavity. Young mother sporo¬ cysts are difficult to locate in exposed snails, a nine-day-old specimen being the youngest one yet seen. The mother sporocysts give rise to daughters which leave the mother by way of the birth pore near the anterior end and migrate to the liver of the snail. A single mother sporocyst may give rise to as many as 50 daughters which are seen threaded in and out of the liver. Daughter sporocysts produce the second free-swimming larvae, the cercariae in about 25 days after exposure to rniricidia. Cercariae: The cercariae are forked-tailed and are shed from an infected snail in large numbers. The average body measurements of 40 naturally emerged cercariae fixed in hot 10 per cent formalin was 126 microns long X 35 microns wide; the tail stem meas¬ urements were 195 microns long x 42 mi¬ crons wide. The mouth within the oral sucker leads directly into the muscular pharynx. The esophagus is long, bifurcating shortly in front of the acetabulum. The ceca are long, bend around the acetabulum and terminate near the posterior end of the body. The two pairs of penetration glands lie very near the acetabulum and the openings of the ducts from these glands can be seen lateral to the oral sucker. There are six pairs of flame cells; one pair in the anterior portion of the tail stem, two pairs which are post-acetabular, one pair approximately at the equator of the acetabulum, one pair between the pharynx and the acetabulum, and one pair approxi¬ mately on a level with the pharynx. Apparently, cercariae are attracted to tad¬ poles placed in shallow dishes with them. Only the bodies of the cercariae penetrate the tadpoles and this is accomplished not only through secretions of the penetration glands, but also by violent movements of the tails. Metacercariae: The cercariae quickly trans¬ form into metacercariae which can be seen within the body cavity of a tadpole crawling actively over the various internal organs. All structures associated with the adult fluke develop within a short time except the re¬ productive structures. Metacercariae remain unencysted in the body cavity until metamorphosis of the tad¬ pole is complete. Shortly after metamorpho¬ sis, the metacercariae migrate to the pelvic musculature of the frog where they encyst. In heavily parasitized frogs, encystment of metacercariae also occurs in the pectoral mus¬ culature. Definitive hosts feeding on frogs obtain encysted metacercariae. In the intes¬ tines of these hosts, the metacercariae en¬ cyst, rapidly grow a hindbody and reproduc¬ tive structures, attach themselves to villi in the intestines and within 5 to 6 days are producing eggs. 45 SECTION III THE RELATION TO RANK OF THE APPARENT COMPOSITION OF VOLATILE MATTER FROM SOME ALABAMA COALS By Reynold Q. Shotts University of Alabama, University, Alabajna Last year before the Academy the author presented a paper (l) which was a study of the average composition, by beds, of 168 Alabama bituminous coals and 7 lignites plus a few individual coals which appeared to have unusual compositions. The analyses for the lignites had been published (2) and the collection of bituminous coal analyses has been published since that time (3). Some atomic ratios were calculated and plotted against bed average and individual sample rank. A discussion of heating values of the coals and of the heat formation of various rank coals was included. The present paper is a similar study, on a somewhat more modest scale, of the volatile matter portion of the coals. It includes 182 bituminous coal analyses. This paper does not discuss heating values or thermodynamic relations. It will be observed that the title of the paper refers to "apparent” composition. By this it is meant that the composition of the volatile gases and liquids was not deter¬ mined but was calculated from proximate and ultimate analyses. Any errors inherent in these analyses, if not randomly distribut¬ ed, would be reflected and possibly magni¬ fied in calculations based upon them. The composition of highly complex substances like coals exhibits considerable variability but it is felt that any strongly indicated re¬ lations are real, even if not precise quanti¬ tatively. In addition to the limitations im¬ posed by indirect calculation of volatile gas composition it is necessary also that certain assumptions be made. Among them are the following: (1) That the differences between the sep¬ arate determinations (somewhat unrelated analytical procedures) of total carbon and fixed carbon represent the carbon appear¬ ing in the gases as hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide and as free carbon or soot. The latter may not be a pri¬ mary product but is probably the result of thermal decomposition of released gases, oils, and tars. (2) That all of the hydrogen will ap¬ pear in the volatile fraction. This is not strictly true as analyses of high temperature cokes usually show some hydrogen. (3) That all of the oxygen will appear as volatile matter. This also is only approxi¬ mately true. (4) That all analyses can be compared on a moisture and ash-free or Parr unit coal basis and that the corrections apply equally well to all coals. This is not necessarily true. As the mineral matter in Alabama coals is usually free of significant quantities of lime the unit coal corrections may be a smaller source of error than would be the case for coals from many other areas. The Parr or unit coal basis was therefore used for all analyses reported in this paper. Finally, it must be remembered that the standard method for the determination of volatile matter ( i) is arbitrary, depending upon the time, temperature and rate of heat¬ ing of the sample. As all these \ariables are 46 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science closely specified in the standard method it is possible that the fairly large tolerances allowed in the reproducibility limits of the standard method are necessary because of variations in the catalytic effect of certain minerals present in the inorganic matter of the coal, to lack of sufficient mixing to give identical compositions to duplicate samples, or to other subtle but unsuspected influ¬ ences. Before examining the composition of the volatile matter from Alabama coals, the composition of selected coals over the en¬ tire range of coal rank might be examined. Figure 1 shows the percentage of hydrogen in the volatile matter plotted against vola¬ tile matter content for substances ranging from pure aromatic hydrocarbons to graph¬ ite. The section of the resulting curve oc¬ cupied by Alabama coals is shown by the dotted line. The portion of the curve on which are found benzene, anthracene, cellulose and peat is almost a straight line and the in¬ crease in hydrogen from the "100% volatile "matter” of pure liquid hydrocarbons to around 50 per cent volatile matter for lignites is insignificant on a dry, mineral-matter-free (dmmf) basis. The increase in hydrogen with the increasing rank in the subbitumi- nous and bituminous rank range is consider¬ ably more rapid but within that range the plot is essentially linear. The percentage of hydrogen in coals drops rapidly from medium- and low-volatile bi¬ tuminous ranks to anthracite but the total volatile matter content drops more rapidly so that the rate of increase in the percent of hydrogen in the evolved volatile matter is very rapid. Anthracites, which contain only 2 to 8 percent dmmf volatile matter, evolve gases that are over half hydrogen, conse- G • GRAPHITE MA* META'ANTHRAGITE (NEWPORT AND PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND)* A 'ANTHRACITE (LACKAWANA, PA.)* SA* SEMIANTHRACITE (POPE, ARK.)* LVB - LOW VOLATILE BITUMINOUS (WYOMING, W. VA )* HVCB - HIGH VOLATILE C BITUMINOUS (PEORIA, ILL.)* BR - BROWN COAL (GERMANY)" S8A - SUB BITUMINOUS A (KING, WASHINGTONf ^ SBC • SUB BITUMINOUS C (EL PASO, COLORADO) . PE 1 - PEAT (BEAVER MARSH NEW HAVEN, CONN.)* PE 2- PEAT (BAYARD- FLA.)** UC 1 • UPPER CLIFF NO. 1 BED (ALABAMA) P - PRATT BED (ALABAMA) ML- MARY LEE BED (ALABAMA) BC- BLACK CREEK BED (ALABAMA) L' LIGNITE (ALABAMA) CeHioOg- CELLULOSE CgHg - BENZENE Ci4H^ • ANTHRACENE «^H J.flOSE IN ‘ENCYCiLOPEDIA OF CHEMICAL TECHNiXOGY*. VIX. 4, P. 90 **RAISTRICK a MARSHALL , "THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF COAL SEAMS," R 224 ANALYSES PROBABLY WERE MADE BY THE U. & BUREAU OF MINES CO _ m Lu s s o z UJ o cr a ' V of UJ t- < t- o \lvb ? 24 1 J Ima // o I 8 b2^ HVCB SBC ,PE 2 =6 toOs CeMe 0, ^ PE 1° t ASSUMI CJ C|4H,o 'IG 1/2 OF C ARBON IS VOLATILE 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 VOLATILE MATTER, PERCENT (DMMF BASIS) Figure 1. The Apparent Hydrogen Content of the Volatile Matter, Plotted Against Rank (dmmf VM), for Coals of All Ranks and For Certain Other Substances. Relation to Rank of Apparent Composition of Volatile Matter From Coals 47 Table 1 Tha ApparoDt CoaposltiOD of Volatile Matter and Some Atoslo Ratios fr^BW R^^OBC \^CA Oja oco L-E» UC* -0 GL 35 4 0 45 VOLATILE MATTER, PERCENT (DMMF BASIS) Figure 3. The Apparent NET Hydrogen Content of the Volatile Matter, Plotted Against Rank, for Certain Alabama Coals and Lignites. the low net hydrogen side of the line while the position of Corona coals was unaffected. The increase of 0.543 percent net hydrogen for every one percent decrease in volatile matter does not show the upward bend in the medium-and low-volatile region that is shown in figure 2 for total hydrogen. In columns 13 through 19, table 1, the ratios of certain atoms are calculated. Be¬ cause the hydrogen content of coals by weight changes rather slowly with rank, more contrast is secured by using the ratios of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms to hy¬ drogen atoms in volatile matter, which are shown in columns 13-15. In column 16 the ratio, net hydrogen to total hydrogen is cal¬ culated; in column 17, net hydrogen to car¬ bon and in column 18, carbon to oxygen. The basis for column 19 is the whole coal analyses and it shows the ratio between car¬ bon atoms which remain "fixed” and those which are expelled on devolatilization. In figure 4, the ratio of net hydrogen to carbon is plotted against rank (dmmf VM). Comparison of atomic ratios are more satis¬ factory than the comparison of percentages because the effect of the presence of a third atom in varying quantities is thereby elimi¬ nated. Up to about 24 percent volatile matter the atomic ratio Hn/C increases about 0.1 per one percent decrease in volatile matter. Beyond this point the rate of change ap¬ pears almost to triple. Clements and Corona coals show high ratios which indicate high hydrogen or low carbon. For practical pur¬ poses, the dmmf volatile matter driven from the six Alabama lignites contains equal num¬ bers of net hydrogen and carbon atoms. The net hydrogen increases uniformlv and the averatre of 19 Pratt coals contain three times as many net hydrogen atoms as carbon atoms 50 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science in the volatile matter. Because of the as¬ sumption that all the hydrogen is evolved on devolatilization, the carbon-containing units capable to being broken loose and ex¬ pelled by heat must have decreased from lignite to Pratt coal by about three-fold. Un¬ doubtedly some net hydrogen was lost, too, in this rank range (51-31% dmmf VM) in which case the decomposable carbon atoms must have decreased even more than 3:1. If change in rank in this interval were char¬ acterized by loss of CO2 and CO a relative increase in hydrogen would result. But it has been shown that these gases along with H2O are rapidly lost near the lignite end of the range (1, 5), probable partly as water which existed as water in the coal and partly as hydrogen and oxygen forming water. Near the Pratt coal end of the range, CH4 is an important constituent expelled with in¬ creasing rank as is shown by the presence of large quantities of that gas associated with HVAB, MVB and LVB coals. Because of these facts it should be clear that carbon is lost during rank changes as well as is hydrogen and oxygen but even more im¬ portant, loosely bonded carbon is rapily "condensed” into non-volatile forms in that range (1). The rapid increase in the H^/C ratio with Figure 4 \ \ \ ^CR LEGEND AS ON FIG. 2, PLUS P PRATT BED, AVERAGE P| UPPER BRIGHT LAYER Pz SEMI-SPLINT LAYER P3 SPLINT LAYER P4 LOWER BRIGHT LAYER P5 TOP BENCH d Pe MIDDLE BENC" 1 P7 LOWER BENCH J THE FOLLOWING ^ WYLAM NO. 8 MINE DOLOMITE MINE ^C'2 S^\ \ \ \ \ \ UCI-D^^ • CL-2 \CL-I BLC U-L» P3 P? ^ np Pi C A tNJML X R D ^JA s. OCO •UC2-0 LO \eL-E 20 2 4 28 32 36 4 0 4 4 48 VOLATILE MATTER, PERCENT (DMMF BASIS) 52 56 60 Figure 4. The Ration of Net. Hydrogen Atoms to Carbon Atoms, Plotted Against Rank, for Certain Alabama Coals and Lignites. Relation to Rank of Apparent Composition of Volatile Matter From Coals 51 Figure 5. The Ratio of Fixed Carbon Atoms to Volatile Carbon Atoms, Plotted Against Rank, for Certain Alabama Coals and Lignites. LVB coals suggests an increased rate of "condensation” of carbon for coals beyond 24 percent dmmf VM rank. Analyses of the three petrographic con¬ stituents of Pratt coal (Wylam No. 8 Mine) and the three samples of the benches or layers of the Pratt bed at Dolomite, gave points close to the average line of figue 4 in spite of the rather wide range in rank of the samples of the former. The splint layer, P3, yielded volatile matter somewhat deficient in hydrogen but the semi-splint lay¬ er gave volatile matter similar in composi¬ tion to the top bright layer. Plots (not shown) were made against VM, of the ratio’s C/Ht, O/Ht, and C ^O. In the first of these graphs, there was fairly good grouping about a central line; in the second one the grouping occupied a wide but distinct zone and in the third one, little relation of the atomic ratio to rank was dis- cernable. If the oxygen were all primary and linked directly to carbon some relation should exist. As the ratio O/H. in volatile matter gives a more regular relation to rank than does the ratio C/O, it might be deduced that primary oxygen, at least, occurs in OH groups rather than in CO groups. Figure 5 shows the partitioning of car¬ bon atoms between non-volatile and vola- 52 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science tile forms, with rank, for the whole coal. The relation it not linear and resembles closely other atomic ratio distributions pre¬ viously published for Alabama coals (l). The two Clements bed sizes, the lignites and the badly oxidized Upper Cliff No. 2 bed sample show a deficiency in volatile carbon relative to the prevailing relation. For the other coals, it is evident that the increase in heat resistant carbon-carbon bonds with rank is fairly uniform through the bitumi¬ nous coals up to about 24 percent dmmf volatile matter after which condensation in¬ creases rapidly. As has been pointed out in a previous paper (l), there are objections to the use of bed averages when studying coal com¬ positions. For this reason, it is desirable to plot the composition of individual samples in a manner similar to that done for the bed averages and to compare the results. In that way the relative magnitude of the va¬ riation from bed average to bed average can be compared to that from sample to sample in a given bed. Atomic ratios were not calculated for the volatile matter of the individual samples but the apparent com¬ positions from which the averages were made, were available. Figure 6 shows the plots of apparent percent hydrogen in coal against percent volatile matter for four of the six groups of bituminous coal beds for which analytical data were available. Table II contains a summary of certain facts about the plots and those of two bituminous coal groups and one lignite group which are not shown in figure 6. F.ijure e Figure 6. The Apparent Hydrogen Content of Individual Coal Samples, Plotted Against Rank, for Four Groups of Beds of Alabama Bituminous Coal. Relation to Rank of Apparent Composition of Volatile Matter From Coals 53 TABLE 2. Certain Facts Regarding the Hydrogen in the Volatile Matter of Some Alabama Coal Beds. (The Beds are Arranged with Age Increasing Downward.) Average V. M. % V. M. range, % Average {%H/%VM)x100 Range (%H/7oVM)x100 Rate of Change %H /7„VM Tertiary: Lignites (6) . 50.9 45.6-55.1 9.0 10.5- 7.3 Pennsylvanian (Pottsville) : Brookwood group: 0.30 Brookwood (5) . . . 36.2 31.7-40.3 15.6 14.4-17.0 Milldale (3) . . 35.2 33.2-37.6 15.9 14.9-16.9 Pratt group: 0.31-0.56 Pratt (19) . . . 31.4 27.3-39.1 17.4 14.8-19.4 * Corona (4) . . 42.7 41.5-43.7 13.7 13.3-14.0 America (8) . . . 32.2 23.1-38.1 16.9 14.7-21.2 Mary Lee group: 0.39 Mary Lee (42) . 33.4 26.7-40.2 16.6 14.2-19.9 Blue Creek (1) . . 17.0 dagger (2) . . 37.3 36.8-37.7 14.7 14.5-14.9 Black Creek group: 0.30 Jefferson (5) .... 39.4 33.9-42.5 14.3 13.4-15.9 Black Creek (16) . . . 37.1 30.8-43.1 15.1 13.4-17.9 Lookout Mountain group: 0.60- Sewanee (1) • . . 21.6 22.2 6.40 Upper Cliff No. 1 (39)* . . . . 23.0 20.3-31.1 21.1 15.8-24.6 Upper Cliff No. 2 (li* , 21.4 23.8 Underwood (1)* . 18.9 Castle Rock (1)* ... . 19.8 25.3 Upper Cliff No. 1 (22)* . . . 21.6 20.3-23.0 22.5 19.6-24.1 1.65 Upper Cliff No. 2 (1)“ ... . . . 21.6 23.1 Upper Cliff No. 2*** . . 33.5 10.7 Castle Rock (1) “ . 21.1 ‘Drill core samples only “Mine samples only “•Very badly oxidized mine sample It may be noted from figure 6 and table 2 : (1) The grouping of points representing individual coals about the best straight line is as good as it was for the bed averages in figure 2 but little or no better. (2) All groups, with the possible exception of the Mary Lee, show a trend toward an increase in hydrogen content of volatile matter which is greater than linear near the high rank end. In the Lookout Mountain group (core samples) the line bends dis¬ tinctly, below 24 percent volatile matter. (3) With the exception of the Black Creek group, the percent hydrogen yield per one percent volatile matter becomes greater with the geological age of the groups. Actually, in Alabama, the decrease in metamorphic intensity is east-to-west and southeast-to- northwest and few Black Creek group samples come from the high rank southeast and many came from the north and north¬ west. (4) The perfect way in which the very low rank Corona coals extend the trend line of the Pratt coals may be evidence of the accuracy of McCal ley’s correlation of the Corona with the Pratt bed. (5) The hydrogen content of the volatile matter from Pratt group coals is slightly higher than that from the Black Creek group (16.1% vs. 15.8% at 35% VM) but the rates at ivhich they increased with rank are almost identical and less than that of Mary Lee coal of intermediate rank. CONCLUSIONS The study of the changes in the apparent composition of the "volatile matter" por¬ tion of 182 bituminous coals and 7 lignites from Alabama with rank (as measured bv the percent of volatile matter on a dmmf basis) supports the following conclusions; 1. Alabama coals appear to be "normal" in that the changes in composition with rank shown fits into the generalized relation found over the entire range of coal ranks. 2. One or two individual coals and a splint coal sample from the Pratt bed appear to be hydrogen-poor as com]''ared to the preat- cr number of coals. 54 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science 3. The trends shown tend to support the generally accepted idea that H2O, CO2 and possibly CO losses predominate in the early stages of coal metamorphism and that CH^ is probably the principal substance lost in the later stages. 4. Bed averages of several samples have no wider distribution about the "best” line rep¬ resenting the relation of rank to composition than do individual samples from coals of a single bed or group of beds. 5. In general, the increase in hydrogen con¬ tent of volatile matter with decrease in vola¬ tile matter, became larger with increase in geological age as well as with rank. The one exception, the Black Creek group, prob¬ ably is an exception because a preponderance of samples from that group were collected in the prevailing low rank northern and northwestern parts of the Warrior field. LITERATURE CITED 1. Reynold Q. Shotts, “Further Studies of the Rank and Composition of Alabama Coals Analyzed by the U. S. Bureau of Mines Since 1925,” Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, v. 28, pp. 44-68, 1956. Reprinted as Alabama State Mine Experiment Station Technical Re¬ port No. 19, February, 1957. 2. Hugh D. Pallister and Charles Morgan, “Preliminary In¬ vestigation of the Lignite Deposits of South Alabama.” Mimeographed Bulletin, Geological Survey of Alabama, 1950, 22 pages. 3. Reynold Q. Shotts, “A Compilation of Complete Analyses of Alabama Coals Published Since 1925, Warrior and Plateau Fields,” Alabama State Mine Experiment Station Bulletin No. 6, 1956, 31 pages. 4. American Society for Testing Materials: Standard Methods of Sampling and Analysis of Coal and Coke. ASTM Desig¬ nation D 271-42. ASTM Standards on Coal and Coke, Au¬ gust 1947, 159 pages. 5. R. A. Mott, “The Origin and Composition of Coals,” Fuel, 1942-3, xxi pp 219-135 and xxil pp 20-22. 55 SECTION IV EFFECTS OF LAND USE ON STREAMFLOW By Donald E. Whelan Coiveeta Hydrologic Laboratory, Dillard, Georgia How land is used and managed has a very definite effect on streamflow. Vegetal cover and soil are the intervening factors between precipitation and runoff in our streams. The things we do to the vegetal cover and soil as foresters, farmers, conservationists, con¬ tractors, highway engineers, recreationists and others affect how much water is inter¬ cepted by the vegetal cover, runs off over the surface of the ground, and infiltrates into the soil profile to relieve soil moisture deficits, to recharge the groundwater table, and to runoff laterally into the streams as subsurface flow. These things we do also affect the sediment production from a wa¬ tershed in the form of sheet, gully, and streambank erosion. The first factors deal with the production of water and the regi¬ men of flow and the second with water quality. In Northern Alabama we can expect 60 inches of precipitation on the average every year. This precipitation produces an average of 22 inches of runoff annually. The dif¬ ference in these two values represents water losses of 38 inches. About 6 inches of the 38 inches will be absorbed as interception and 32 inches will be utilized as evapo-trans- spiration. These figures are determined from average watershed conditions including all types of vegetal cover and soils, and apply to an average annual temperature of 66 de¬ grees. I shall discuss briefly that portion of the hydrologic cycle dealing with precipitation occurring as a supply of water to the land and eventually part of it becoming runoff in our streams. Interception of the rainfall by trees and grasses is the first factor in the disposition of precipitation. The water, which is held by the vegetal matter tempo¬ rarily and evaporated back into the atmos¬ phere, usually amounts to about 10 to 20 percent of the precipitation. The amount of interception varies with the type of vegetal cover and with the number of storms and particularly the amount of precipitation which occurs annually in storms of less than say V2 inch. The water reaching the ground surface is disposed of in several ways. Part is re¬ tained on the surface and evaporated back into the atmosphere. Part flows over the ground as overland flow or surface runoff. Part infiltrates into the soil profile. The in¬ filtrated water is used first to satisfy any soil moisture deficit existing in the soil pro¬ file with the remaining portion going to either accretion of the groundwater storage or running off laterally as subsurface flow. The water in soil storage between wilting point and field capacity is available for trans¬ piration by plant life and for evaporation from the ground surface. The annual values of evaporation and transpiration are includ¬ ed in the amount of water losses. I would estimate that on the average about 10 percent of the 22 inches of annual run¬ off of Northern Alabama would occur as surface runoff, 40 percent as subsurface run¬ off, and 50 percent as groundwater ruiuiff. These percentages are for an average w .iter- shed, and can vary widelv due to the kinds of vegetal cover and the types of land man¬ agement prevailing, the types of soil profile, and the groundwater geology. The most important elements here are the infiltration characteristics of the soil and 56 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science cover complex and the capacity of the groundwater storage. The soil is the base for the infiltration rate and the vegetal cover is the modifying factor. The soil factors af¬ fecting infiltration are structure, texture, depth, and internal drainage. Soil structure represents the arrangement of soil particles and aggregates into certain patterns. This is closely related to the soil texture and the development of the surface soil horizons. In a light texture soil a large percentage of the pore space is available for soil moisture stor¬ age between field capacity and saturation, while in a heavy texture soil the reverse is true. The amount, size, and continuity of the voids in this pore space govern the per¬ colation rate through the soil. An imper¬ meable or restrictive layer in the soil profile limits the percolation to the lower horizons. Similarly the depth of the soil profile may limit the total infiltration possible during the progress of a storm. The effect of cover and land management modifies the percolation rate of the surface soil horizons and provides protection to the ground against raindrop erosion. A forest cover for instance adds organic matter to the soil in the form of humus. The humus layer provides quick storage almost instantly available to absorb high rainfall bursts and permits the infiltrated water to percolate at slower rate over a longer period of time. In a forest soil the structure is also materially affected by root development and decay and by biologic activities which convert the lit¬ ter into humus. In our work in rating the hydrologic condition of forest land, we find that there are three items which can be used as indices to indicate the runoff potential. These items are litter depth, humus depth, and humus type. Litter is necessary to pro¬ tect the soil and humus against raindrop erosion and puddling and sealing. The depth of humus provides the amount of quick stor¬ age available. The type of humus reflects the type of land management and degree of dis¬ turbance for grazing, fire, clear-cutting, par¬ tial cutting, and logging. In rating the hydrologic condition of agri¬ cultural open land and its infiltration charac¬ teristics, we work in terms of soil capability classes and the kinds of conservation prac¬ tices applied on the land. The main objec¬ tive in developing a farm plan is to design, for instance, the crop rotation so that the soil loss is held to minimum allowable value. Since this farm plan is developed to hold sheet and rill erosion to a minimum, it also follows that the surface runoff is held to a minimum. The best cover for agricultural land in terms of infiltration is permanent meadow and the others in decreasing order are native pasture or range, legumes or ro¬ tation meadow, small grains, row crops, and fallow. Contouring and terracing are prac¬ tices which can be used to hold surface run¬ off to its least value, just contouring is next best, and straight row, the worst. The type of management such as for grazing and the length of rotation also affect the infiltration rating of crop land. Where the use of the land is such that the soil loss is above the allowable minimum value, it follows that both the sheet erosion and the surface runoff are excessive. As to whether on a particular watershed the percentage of annual groundwater run¬ off is 50 or more or less, a lot depends on the capacity of the groundwater table to store water. We find at the Coweeta Hydro- logic Laboratory in the North Carolina por¬ tion of the Southern Appalachian Area that as much as 6 inches of runoff can be stored in the groundwater table at one time. In the White Mountains Area of New England 2 inches would be a probable maximum value. In the Salt River Watershed of Kentucky along the Ohio River, the value is less than one inch. In each case this maximum ground- water storage value would be a function of the gnoundwater geology. The regulating ef¬ fect of the groundwater reservoir depends on the annual amount of infiltrated water and its time distribution and in turn on the Effects of Land Use on Streamflow 57 annual precipitation. The operation of the flow from the groundwater table can be compared to that of a surface reservoir with a fixed outlet. The rate of groundwater flow can be con¬ sidered to be a function of the amount of groundwater storage or the effective head of water. As the outflow from the ground- water table depletes the storage, the rate of flow is gradually decreased, following a die- away type of exponential curve. This ground- water depletion curve and the total storage capacity of the groundwater table varies for each watershed with the geology, type of aquifers, and the general topography. In the case of the surface reservoir when the stor¬ age has been used up to the spillway level, the storage above this level is mostly dis¬ charged thru the spillway with some in¬ crease in flow thru the fixed outlet due to the increased head. In case of the ground- water table the excess above maximum stor¬ age may be discharged thru subsurface flow in the soil profile, outflow from perched v/ater tables, and occasionally as overland flow when the level of the groundwater table is above the surface of the ground. Thus the hydraulics of the groundwater table determine what the maximum storage is and its time-distribution of runoff. In working out any hydrologic problem it is necessary to establish the present soil and cover relations on a watershed. This ap¬ plies to both flood and water yield prob¬ lems. We therefore need to know as much as possible about land use hydrology not only to estimate the hydrologic effects of a land treatment program, but also to deter¬ mine the rainfall-runoff relations under present existing conditions. The key factor in our land use hydrologic problems is surface runoff. The amount of annual surface runoff was estimated above as 10 percent with a probably range of 1 to 20 percent. Most of this surface runoff is apt to occur in one or several flood-produc¬ ing storms. In flood volume for a particu¬ lar storm the surface runoff may represent as much as 50 percent of the total flood runoff. Since surface runoff has the shortest time of travel from any point on the water¬ shed to — say — a bridge on a main stream^ surface runoff makes the greatest contribu¬ tion to the flood peak. It can be approxi¬ mated that it takes 2 or 3 times as long for subsurface runoff to peak on a watershed as surface runoff and groundwater runoff 5 to 10 times that for surface runoff. In working out a flood problem it is therefore necessary to know as accurately as possible what the amount of surface runoff is. In developing a land treatment program to al¬ leviate flood problems, it is necessary to es¬ timate to what extent the program decreases the volume of surface runoff and its contri¬ bution to the flood peak. In water yield problems any water occurring as surface run¬ off loses an opportunity to satisfy soil mois¬ ture deficits and to increase the storage in the groundwater table. In water quality and sediment problems sheet, rill, and gully ero¬ sion are directly related to the amount of surface runoff and streambank erosion to the height of the flood peak. It seems obvious that the infiltration theory should be applied only for the de¬ termination of surface runoff. Many people apply this theory, however, to the direct volume of flood runoff which is easily ob¬ tained by subtracting the groundwater run¬ off from the total flood hydrograph as measured. In such cases an average water¬ shed infiltration index rate is derived by trial and error by finding out what rate when applied to the rainfall intensities would re¬ produce the volume of direct runoff. These index infiltration rates are usually verv low and entirely unrelated to actual infiltration rates established for the various soil and cover complexes. In land use hydrology the infiltration theory is followed by using one of the accepted methods for separating the surface runolf from the direct runoff and 58 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science checking it against the weighted value com¬ puted for all the soil and cover complexes m the watershed. In determining the reduc¬ tion in surface runoff due to a land treat¬ ment program, the surface runoff is esti¬ mated by taking into account the changes in areal extent and in hydrologic conditions of the soil and cover complexes. It has been estimated under the flood pre¬ vention and small watershed studies of the U. S. Department of Agriculture that a land treatment program would generally produce a 5 to 15 percent reduction in the flood peak discharge. These reductions apply to watersheds in excess of — say — ten square miles and vary with the present hydrologic condition of the watershed and the magni¬ tude of the changes which can be effected within the framework of the economic de¬ velopment of the watershed. These reduc¬ tions in flood peak discharge are greatest for the small flashy flood peaks and least for the large, long duration ones. While these reductions may seem small, a reduction of 5 percent in peaks may reduce annual flood damages as much as 15 percent and a 15 percent peak reduction may reduce the dam¬ ages by 40 percent. A large reservoir and structural program seldom reduces the flood peak discharge more than 50 percent and the flood damages more than 90 percent. When the land has been not used accord¬ ing to its soil capabilities classes, which oc¬ curs more frequently and to a larger extent on the smaller watersheds, the flood peaks can be even more greatly reduced. When a steep 23-acre mountain forested watershed was converted to a mountain farm with corn cropland and heavily grazed pastures at the Cowetta Hydrologic Laboratory, the flood peaks were increased from three to four times. The soil losses were increased by mountain farming by over ten times. Another factor which is contributing to the flood problems of today, and will do so even more in the future, is the extension and development of suburban areas in the countryside. Metropolitan Planning Boards are gradually giving more and more recog¬ nition to the flood problem created by the conversion of agriculture and forested land to housing, industrial, and road develop¬ ment. The problem is two-fold: one phase is reduced infiltration into the soil due to both the increased impervious areas of build¬ ing and roads and to changes in the hydro- logic condition of Ahe land remaining ex¬ posed to the elements; and the other phase is the reduced time of travel of runoff thru a developed drainage system. In many such suburban areas the frequency and severity of floods have increased greatly. Improvement of the stream carrying capa¬ city and other flood prevention measures could be considered as an associated cost to be included in the total costs for the de¬ veloping the area. Land use and management also have an¬ other important effect on stream runoff in the case of winter floods. The type and den¬ sity of vegetal cover affects the amount of snow accumulation on the ground and the rate of snow melt. The type, depth, and duration of concrete frozen ground during the winter season is closely correlated to the factors affecting the rating of the hydrologic or infiltration condition of the soil and cover complexes, being most adverse for cropland without a winter nurse crop cover and most favorable for an excellent forest stand with deep humus development. Frozen ground contributes to the flood problem by increasing the amount of surface runoff and to water yield problems by preventing ac¬ cretion to the groundwater table. So far our discussion of land use hydrol¬ ogy has been on basic principles and pri¬ marily on the relation of land treatment to flood peaks. I would now like to discuss how land use and management is related to water yield. I have previously indicated how any reduction in surface runoff achieved by improved land management would increase Effects of Land Use on Streamflow 59 the amount of infiltrated water and to lesser extent the amount in groundwater storage. An increase in groundwater storage would usually increase the evapotranspiration and the usable annual water yield. Since land management does affect the type and den¬ sity of vegetal cover, it can also be expected to affect the amount of water absorbed by interception and used by plant life in evapo¬ transpiration. In the beginning I mentioned that the annual water losses, including evapo-tran- spiration and interception, for a typical wa¬ tershed in Northern Alabama would equal about 38 inches or the difference between average values of precipitation and runoff of 60 and 22 inches respectively. This is called the water balance equation and the water lossses can be estimated for any wa¬ tershed where the precipitation and runoff are measured. The water losses have a nar¬ row range of variation and are usually con¬ sidered constant. Annual precipitation and runoff have a wide variation which often deviate more than 50 percent from the mean. It is self-evident that any changes effected in evapo-transpiration brought about by land treatment results in changes in annual run¬ off or water yield. The amount of evapo¬ transpiration occurring in any given locality is directly related to such metorological ele¬ ments as wind, humidity, and temperature, and also solar radiation, soil moisture con¬ tent, and plant factors. Plant factors include stage of growth, season, amount of leaf area, adaptability, and height. Any manipulation of vegetal cover con¬ templated to increase water yield by de¬ creasing evapo-transpiration should be done only after an investigation of the climate, soils, and runoff characteristics of the water¬ shed has been made. Most studies of this na¬ ture have been made on forest cover. Such studies have been made on unit watersheds at the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory where the precipitation averages 75 inches per year. the soils are a deep sandy loam, the cover was in undisturbed forest stands, the surface runoff was negligible, and the annual water losses were 38 inches. On Coweeta unit watershed 17, all forest vegetation was clearcut and no forest prod¬ ucts removed. This resulted in an increase of 15 inches of runoff the first year and a similar decrease in water losses. Each year thereafter except for two World War II years the sprout growth was cut back which resulted in an average increase in water yield of 11 inches over a 15-year period. No surface runoff was observed during the treatment period, and flood peaks were not increased. On Coweeta unit watershed 13 the treat¬ ment was similar to that for watershed 17 except that regrowth was permitted to come back. The increase in annual runoff was the same — 15 inches — the first year and aver¬ aged less than 8 inches over a 15-year period. No surface runoff was observed during the treatment period, and flood peaks were not increased. On Coweeta unit watershed 19 a dense understory of laurel and rhododendron, rep¬ resenting about 20 percent of the basal area of the forest cover on the watershed was cut and then permitted to grow back. The increase in annual runoff was 2.8 inches the first year and averaged 2.0 inches o\er a six-year period. Other watershed studies being made at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory are design¬ ed to determine the effects on water vield by cutting the riparian vegetation, bv cut¬ ting the forest cove tvpe, and bv cutting or deadening 50 percent (T the forest stand evenly distributed o\er the watershed. paired w'atershed study is now underway at Coweeta to determine what the changes in w'atcr yield will be for twai watersheds when one is managed prim.irih' tor timber production and the other for water produc 60 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science tion. It must be remembered when manipu¬ lating vegetation to increase water yield that surface runoff must be held to a realistic minimum in order not to increase flood and water quality problems. The basic principles involved in land use hydrology have been presented to illustrate how land use and management may affect runoff. Better land use and management alleviates flood and water quality problems primarily thru reduction in the amount of surface runoff. Manipulation of forest cover increases water yield, particularly du¬ ring low flow periods, by decreasing the amount of water used by plants for intercep¬ tion and evapo-transpiration. SECTION V SOME MORE CURVE-DRAWING INSTRUMENTS 61 By Roland M. Harper University, Alabama At the 1956 meeting of this Academy I exhibited and demonstrated an instrument with one fixed part and two moving parts, which would draw ovals, lemniscates, and various other curves.* At this time I will show a still simpler instrument, with only tw^o parts, which will draw ellipses and re¬ lated curves, and I will describe, without actually constructing or even drawing the instruments, some other methods of drawing the same curves. I faintly remember seeing, many years ago, a picture of an instrument for draw¬ ing ellipses without using any foci. I have not been able to verify it recently, but I have reproduced it from memory. It has only two essential parts: a pair of slotted bars intersecting at right angles, and a di¬ agonal bar of convenient length with two pivots sliding in the slots. (The slots should have overhanging edges, so that the little blocks to which the pivots are attached can¬ not fall out.) A pencil or something of the kind is attached to the diagonal bar at any desired point, so that it will trace a curve when the bar is rotated. The instrument should preferably be made of metal, so that the distance between pivots can be adjusted at will, and the marking point can be clamp¬ ed in place anywhere. For drawing small ellipses, the cross-bars should be longer than the diagonal bar, and *Since my 1956 paper was published. Dr. C. M. Breder, Jr., of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, has sent me a paper of his, “An analysis of the geometry of symmetry with especial reference to the squamation of fishes.” from the Bulletin of the American Museum of Nat¬ ural History (New York) 88:321-412. April, 1947. It contains figures of many curves, some of which (on page 372) are about the same as some of those I got with the McLees method. As the author was a zoologist, it is very likely that few mathematicians have seen his paper. In that paper I forgot to call attention to an interesting feature of Fig. 7. which shows two limagons. Equal arcs on the governing circle subtend equal angles at the focus on its circumference; which would not be true of any other point, except the center of the circle, where it is axiomatic. their ends held in rigid supports a con¬ venient distance above the paper, so that the diagonal bar can be rotated beneath them. But for large ellipses the cross-bars should be short, and fastened to the paper, while the diagonal bar should be above them, and long enough for the marking point to clear their ends as it rotates. If the marking point is put midway be¬ tween the pivots, it will trace a circle as the bar rotates. At any other point between the pivots, it will trace an ellipse, which becomes a straight line when the marking point coincides with a pivot. The envelope of all these ellipses will be an astroid or tetracuspid, each segment of which looks much like a quadrant of the bounding circle turned inside out, but is a little flatter than that. It is also the envelope of the various positions of the diagonal bar, and it could be constructed in that way without drawing any of the ellipses. As is well known, such a curve can also be generated in an entirely different way, by a point on the circum¬ ference of a circle that rolls around inside of a circle of four times its diameter, mak¬ ing a hypocycloid. Now put the marking point outside the pivots, and it still traces ellipses, but of a different series. Beginning with a straight line at the pivot, the ellipses become pro¬ gressively larger, but increase in width rela¬ tively faster than in length, until the one at infinity is a circle. This outer series of el¬ lipses of course has no envelope. Some of the same ellipses, both inner and outer, pro¬ duced by a different method will be shown farther on. Now let us add an offset bar to the di agonal bar, and put the marking point on 62 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science FIG. 1. Instrument for drawing ellipses and some of the other curves described in this paper. The two black dots are pivots on the diagonal bar, and in a metal model the dis¬ tance between them could be made adjustable. The small circles of the same size are holes in which a pencil or other suitable marking point could be inserted. In a metal model they could be spaced at will. The shorter bar at right angles to the main diagonal serves to put the mark¬ ing point on an offset from the main bar when desired. that. (See Fig. 1.) If we attach the offset midway between the pivots, and put the marking point at a distance from the di¬ agonal bar equal to half the distance be¬ tween pivots, it will trace a straight line, in¬ clined at 45° to the cross-bars, and equal in length to twice the distance between pivots. (This is one way of drawing a straight line with a linkage instead of a ruler.) Put the marking point at the same distance on the other side of the diagonal bar, and it will draw another straight line, at right angles to the first. Intermediate points will pro¬ duce the complete series of ellipses, of the same size as those produced with the mark¬ ing point on the diagonal bar, but turned at 45° to them. Put the marking points farther from the diagonal bar than half the distance between pivots, and they will trace the outer series of ellipses, extending to infinity as before, but with their axes still inclined 45°. Now attach the offset at some other point than midway between pivots, and the re¬ sulting ellipses will be inclined at an angle other than 45°. But this need not be pur¬ sued further here. Now let us make a more drastic change, and hold the diagonal bar stationary, attach the marking point to the cross-bars, and ro¬ tate them. If the marking point is at the intersection of the cross-bars, it will describe a circle. (This is one way of drawing a circle without using a radius.) If it is a little away from the center, in any direction, it will de¬ scribe a limacon. If it is put at a distance from the center equal to the distance be¬ tween pivots, it will describe a cardioid. A little farther out, we get the other member of the Cartesian trio, a bean-shaped curve, which seems to have no generally accepted name, but has been called (inappropriately) an "outer oval" in one encyclopedia I have seen.* Move the marking point to infinity, and it will trace a circle. We can vary this in another way by put¬ ting the marking point on a suitable offset in the angle between the cross-bars. If mid¬ way between them, it will trace a limacon as before, but oriented at right angles to the others. And other positions would produce other angles. It is interesting to note here that if the marking point is nearer to the center than the distance between pivots, it will go around twice, and trace both loops of the limacon, while the cross-bars make one complete rotation. All these curves could also be produced by some very different instruments, whi'rh I will describe but not attempt to illustrate. They could be made by a well-equipped metal-worker, but I have no facilities of that sort. If a circle is rolled around inside one of twice its diameter, any point on its circum¬ ference will trace a straight line, the diameter of the outer circle. (Another way of draw¬ ing a straight line of limited length without a ruler.) The center of the small circle will *In my 1956 paper I called a somewhat similar curve of the McLees series, shown in Fig. 6, a "faboid.” But I re¬ frained from applying that name to one of the Cartesian series, because that is constructed in a somewhat different way. and might already have a name that I have not seen. Some More Curve Drawing Instruments 63 trace a circle of the same size, and any other point inside it will trace an ellipse. If all the marking points are on the same diameter of the inner circle, they will trace a series of ellipses, just like those made by the bar and cross described. Furthermore, any mark¬ ing point on an offset outside the inner circle will trace an outer ellipse, and by in¬ creasing the distance from the circle we get the same series of ellipses as by the first method, approaching a circle at infinity. All this is illustrated in Fig. 2. FIG. 2. One outer and several inner ellipses (including a circle and two straight lines), which could be drawn with the isntrument shown in Fig. 1. But these curves were drawn by an entirely different method, rolling a circle around inside one of twice its diameter, and using several different marking points inside it and one outside, all on the same diameter. The outer circle, four positions of the inner circle, and the envelope of the inner ellipses, are drawn as broken lines. If now the small circle is held stationary and the larger one rolled around on it, with¬ out slipping, any point on its circumference will trace a cardioid. A point inside it will produce a limacon, and one on an offset outside it a bean-shaped curve at first, soon becoming unicursal as the offset lengthens, and becoming a circle at infinity, just as with the bar and cross instrument. This is illustrated in Fig. 3, with dotted lines con¬ necting corresponding points on the three curves. It has long been known that if a circle is rolled around on one of the same size, any FIG. 3. A set of Cartesian curves which could be made with the instrument shown in Fig. 1, holding the diagonal bar stationary and rotating the cross-bars. But these are made by marking points on the same diameter of a circle rolling around with internal contact on one half its size. In this case the outer bean-shaped curve, made by a point outside the circle, can be expanded indefinitely, while the limacon is strictly limited, as it would be if drawn in the conventional way. Corresponding points on the three curves are connected by dotted lines, each being in direct line with one on the opposite side of the node. Only one position of the outer rolling circle is shown. The fixed inner circle would be the governing circle if the curves were drawn in the same way as in Fig. 7 of my 1956 paper. point on its circumference will trace a cardi¬ oid; and it would be a comparatively simple matter to demonstrate this with a pair of cog-wheels, suitably mounted. But it may not be generally known that if the marking point is inside the rolling circle it will trace a bean-shaped curve, and if on an offset, a limacon. But these are not the same as in the preceding example. The bean-shaped curve is strictly limited in size, for at one extreme it is the cardioid, and at the other the circle traced by the center of the rolling circle. (See Fig. 4.) The limacon is different too. At one ex¬ treme it is the cardioid. As the dist.ince ot the marking point from the circumterence of the rolling circle increases, the inner lobe enlarges, with its node no longer coinciding 64 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science FIG. 4. A set of Cartesian curves made by marking points on the same diameter of a circle rolling around on an¬ other of the same size. When the marking point is on the circumference of the rolling circle it traces a cardioid, and this is a long-recognized method for doing so. Note that the node of the limacon traced by a point outside the roll¬ ing circle does not coincide with the node of the cardioid, as it does in the regular Cartesian series. Also that the limacon can be expanded indefinitely, while the third mem¬ ber of the series is strictly limited; just the reverse of the condition in Fig. 3. with that of the cardioid, as it does in pre¬ vious examples. By the usual definition of the limacon, the inner and outer lobes are the same distance from the guiding circle along lines through the focus (as in Fig. 7 of my 1956 paper), and when that distance is 0, they coincide on the circle. In this case, however, the distance between the inner and outer lobes along the central axis remains constant (equal to twice the diameter of the circle), and they both expand together and become circles at infinity. It is probably pretty well known that these same Cartesian curves, particularly the car¬ dioid, can be expeditiously constructed by using polar coordinates and versed sines. But it would be difficult to devise an instrument for drawing them on that principle. 65 SECTION VII THE QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF SCIENCE FAIRS By James L. Kassner University of Alaba^na, University, Alabama and Father Charles J. Reiner, O.S.B. St. Bernard College, Cullman, Alabama The science fair program is not an idea unique to our generation. Agricultural and industrial fairs were held as early as 1828 by the American Institute of the City of New York to encourage invention and in¬ dustrial development in America.* In 1928 — just 100 years later, the Ameri¬ can Institute launched a high school science club and science fair program to stimulate an interest in science among the youth of our nation.* By 1941 the American Institute found that it could no longer support its science club program on a national basis. On the recom¬ mendation of Joseph H. Kraus and Marga¬ ret E. Patterson, and with the approval of Watson Davis, the program was transferred to Science Service. Stimulated by the Na¬ tional Science Talent Search for the West- inghouse Science Scholarships, begun in 1942, the number of high school science clubs grew rapidly from 907 in 1941 to ap¬ proximately 16,000 active science clubs in 1956. These science clubs were affiliated with Science Clubs of America, a branch of Science Service. With a membership of ap¬ proximately 400,000 boys and girls, these clubs served as a good nucleus on which to build today’s science fair program and un¬ doubtedly had more to do with its rapid growth than any other factor. The growth of the National Science Fair is summarized in the following table. ♦Blackwell, Ashby C.. “The Origin. Development, and Pos¬ sibilities of Science Fairs, “ presidential address at the an¬ nual meeting of the West Virginia Academy of Science on April 20. 1956. Growth of the National Science Fair Year Place States Areas Finalists 1950 Philadelphia. Pa. 10 13 30 1951 St. Louis. Mo. 13 15 30 1952 Washington, D. C. 15 19 42 1953 Oak Ridge, Tenn. 20 30 71 1954 Lafayette. Ind. 24 50 95 1955 Cleveland, Ohio 32 71 136 1956 Oklahoma City, Okia. 41 110 213 (States include the District of Columbia. ) Increased interest is shown by the finan¬ cial assistance and support of the science fair program by many organizations includ¬ ing the National Science Foundation, the American Medical Association, the Ameri¬ can Society of Medical Technologists, and the National Association of Manufacturers. Many national organizations support the program through their sections, chapters, etc., i.e., American Chemical Society, Sigma Xi, Kiwanis, Rotary, and some foundations also. The local, regional and state fairs are largely supported and promoted by colleges, universities and state academies in coopera¬ tion with other local scientific and technical organizations, newspapers and the general public. Some idea of the spread of tlie spon¬ sorship of the regional fairs is illustrated in the following table. Regional Science fairs Number of Number of Cooperntlng Colleges or Nnme of Fair Co-sponsors Newsp.ipers Universities San Francisco 100 75 8 Westchester (N. Y.I i:i 1 Spokane (Wasli.) 67 Lehigh Valley tPa.I 2 12 The growth of the Lehigh V.dlev Science Fair in Allentown, Pa., is a good ex.imple 66 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science of how interest in a regional science fair in¬ creases after the program gets underway. Growth of Lehigh Valley Science Fair Number of Number of Students Public Year Schools Exhibits Attending Attending 1947 7 14 100 Not given 1948 8 27 300 Not given 1949 18 67 386 Not given 1950 18 67 386 Not given 1951 23 162 500 1,500 1952 26 326 645 6,000 1953 31 395 1.105 16,400 1954 45 447 3,300 19,000 1955 45 449 3,400 20,000 1956 49 825 3.200 27,888* ‘Electronic count. There is, of course, a definite limit to the number of schools in each region and the space in the auditorium in which the fair is held. Most of the regions have found it necessary to apply quotas to the schools in the area. This forces the schools to hold their own local fairs to determine which ex¬ hibits to send to the regional fair. The following table gives some idea of the magnitude of some of the regional sci¬ ence fairs and the elimination program car¬ ried out in the high schools. Regional Science Fairs Number of Number of Region Exhibits Made Exhibits Shown Attendance Los Angeles lO.OUO 374 37,000 San Francisco 1,200 325 58,000 Maryland 4,000 376 4,500 Wisconsin 340 10,000 Allentown. Pa. 3,222 825 27,888 St. Louis 2233 at 30,000 The rapid growth of the science fair move¬ ment in the South and Southeast can be at¬ tributed largely to the influence of a pro¬ gram set up m 1954 by the Board of Direc¬ tors of the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies to promote science fairs in the thir¬ teen southeastern states and Puerto Rico. Dewey Large was added to the staff at Oak Ridge in June, 1954, to act as field repre¬ sentative for this program. Since that time eighteen science fair work conferences have been held under his leadership for fifteen states and the District of Columbia. In July, 1956, Mr. Large wrote that there was cor¬ respondence in his files to substantiate a total of 528 new science fairs being organ¬ ized and held during the school year 1955- 56. However, the total number of fairs re¬ ported as being organized since 1954 within the fourteen-state area is 819. He pointed out that he was stretching the boundary some¬ what when he included West Virginia, but felt that it should be included since a sci¬ ence fair work conference was held espe¬ cially for that state. The following table shows the distribution of the fairs organized since 1954 in the southern and southeastern states. Number of State New Fairs Alabama 37 Arkansas 32 Florida 102 Georgia 79 Louisiana 27 Mississippi . . 46 North Carolina ....... 67 Oklahoma . . South Carolina . 7 Tennessee 29 Texas ........ . . . 319 Virginia 5 West Virginia . 69 Now that the science fair program is un¬ derway, a large amount of the administra¬ tive and organizational details is being as¬ sumed by the State Academy of Science in eleven of the fourteen states in the South and Southeast. The student interest and response is per¬ haps the most phenomenal aspect of the science fair program. Science fairs appeal to students for three reasons that are basic to youth — "public recognition”, "real com¬ petition”, and "direction for their future career”. Hope for the solution of the serious sci¬ entific manpower shortage brightens as teachers in elementary and secondary schools report that students are anxious to pioneer in science. Creative imagination is evident everywhere as students plan and make ex¬ hibits for display at science fairs. The enthusiasm with which some students pursue their project "rubs off” on their friends and soon many more are investigat¬ ing projects of their own choosing. Then too, the district, regional and national sci- Qualitative and Quantitative Aspects of Science Fairs 67 ence fairs have a stimulating influence on the local fairs. Speaking before the American Medical Association’s Public Relations Institute, Jo¬ seph H. Kraus, Coordinator of the Nation¬ al Science Fair, pointed out that "interest of teenagers in science is at an all time high, and standards for exhibits are improving rapidly.” Mr. Kraus said that record-break¬ ing crowds of over 950,000 people saw 197,- 110 teenagers’ exhibit this year at fairs in 110 areas of the nation. Comments from many of the 110 areas were summarized by Science Service as fol¬ lows; "50% increase in the number of stu¬ dents entering”; "capacity crowds of visits to see students’ work”; "highest quality of work ever”; "crowds larger than for ath¬ letic events”. In an effort to determine what triggers interest in science, a questionnaire was mail¬ ed by Science Service to the finalists in two of the National Fairs. The questionnaire asked, "what or who sparked your first in¬ terest in science” and "how” and "at what age was your interest first aroused.^” The results from these two surveys as tabulated in the following tables show that exposure to science in elementary school, science-minded teachers, and parents were the most potent factors in swaying a student into a life-time of scientific leadership. It also points out that regional fairs are fully justified in inviting student participation from nursery school through high school. It also indirectly emphasized the importance of elementary school teachers’ having at least high school training in basic sciences. What or Who Sparked Original Interest in Science 1953 1954 School 40.7% 36.7% Home . . . .... 20.3% 2.9.4%, Personal Drive 8.3% Science Equipment . 5.8% 8.3% Miscellaneous 16,0% 7.3% Science Clubs 6.5% Reading 8.7% 5.5% Environment 8.5% 100.0%* 100,0%* *65 out of 71 finalists reported in 1953; 79 out of 95 finalists reported in 1954. Age of First Interest in Science 1953 1954 Pre-school 9 4 Grades 1 to 6 29 47 Grades 7 to 8 . 15 8 Grades 9 to 10 . . . 12 Grades 9 to 12 . . . 20 Not reporting 6 16 71 S)5 The parents of 20% of the finalists in the 110 regional science fairs held through¬ out the United States this past year are em¬ ployed in work of a scientific nature. The other 80% are children of farmers, sales¬ men, steel workers, contractors, store own¬ ers, clerks, laborers, and teachers. These data show that the scientific interest and training of the parents have a great deal to do with the success that their children have in science projects and their continued interest in scientific work. The comments from participants in the National Science Fairs make it plain that once a youth is interested in science that in¬ terest is likely to continue. Some comments are: "the fair made me determined to get a college education”; "it made me feel my efforts were well rewarded”; "it made me more sure of my ability and I am pretty sure I can make a success of a scientific career”. The quality of the exhibits entered in the regional fairs and National Science Fair has improved each year. The high quality of the judging at the regional fair level is best ex¬ pressed in a story in the Allentown Call- Chronicle in which the writer states that if the National Science Fair judges had given top awards to any of the 100 finalists, no one could have found fault with the judg¬ ing. It was the opinion of the writer, Gor¬ don Fister, who has had years of experience in science fair work, that there were that many top notch exhibits. The selections made bv the judges for the American Medical Association and the Na tional Science Fair show the uniformity ot judging at the Fair. Both groups used the same scoring system but worked indepen dently of each other. Ot the tour selections 68 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science made by the A.M.A. judges (two citations and two honorable mentions), three were independently selected by the National Sci¬ ence Fair judges for high honors in the bio¬ logical divisions of the fair. Students receive excellent training in the science fair program which prepares them for competition in State and National Sci¬ ence Talent Searches in their senior year. For example, in the past seven years, sixteen of the National Science Fair Finalists have won scholarships in the National Science Talent Search, and 37 have received honor¬ able mention. In 1956 a total of 20 of the 40 students invited to attend the Science Talent Institute in Washington had obtained experience in the science fair program. Among the 260 honorable mentions, 106 boys and 22 girls had participated in science fairs. Out of the 404 finalists in the first six National Science Fairs, 25 represented their regions at two National Fairs and two at three, leaving a total of 375 individual final¬ ists at the six fairs. A survey of the 375 boys and girls conducted by Science Service showed that 54 were still in high school. "Of the remainder, over 76 per cent have gone or are going to college or some other institution of higher learning. As of April, 1956, finalists were attending or had gradu¬ ated from 123 institutions of higher learning in 36 states or abroad. The remainder went directly into marriage, the services, full-time employment, or data from them were not available.” Other national surveys have shown that only about half of the students who finish high school in the upper 20 per cent of their class go to college. By comparison this in¬ dicates that science fairs are finding those who pursue higher education and who are most likely to become the scientists of to¬ morrow. Regarding career choices of the National Science Fair finalists who are undergrad¬ uates in college, 35 are studying engineer¬ ing, 30 chemistry, 24 physics and 41% are studying medicine or its allied fields. These subjects include biology, bacteriology, medi¬ cal technology, nursing, pharmacy, physical therapy, psychology and zoology. The science fair movement is one of the fastest growing and most important educa¬ tional programs in America today. The fairs are helping to destroy "the wave of anti- intellectualism” that has swept our nation by making the public aware of the impor¬ tance of science to our industrial and eco¬ nomic strength. They also give each com¬ munity an opportunity to appraise the crea¬ tive ability of their boys and girls in com¬ parison with those in other sections of the state and nation. The purpose of the program is to stimu¬ late and motivate an interest in science and to encourage more of the bright youngsters to prepare for careers in science and tech¬ nology. I would like to close with a quotation from Charles F. Kettering,* Dean of Ameri¬ ca’s inventors, who said, "We should en¬ courage more young Americans to prepare themselves now while they are in high school for careers in the exciting world of science and engineering. The number of engineers and scientists now being graduated is barely enough to cover replacement requirements. At our rate of progress the needs of industry and education are skyrocketing every day. That is why America’s greatest need is also their greatest opportunity. Take it from an old engineer — making your country’s prog¬ ress your profession is an exciting and re¬ warding way to spend your life.” ♦Kettering. Charles F., personal letter to Thomas W. Martin, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, Southern Research In¬ stitute (Oct. 15, 1956). 69 SECTION VIII TELEVISION’S EFFECT ON THE HOME By Margaret Underwood Dawson Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama The school children of today have a dif¬ ferent home environment from that of the school children of the same age group less than a decade ago. With the advent of tele¬ vision to the home, the family group found that it could have professional entertainment in its own living room by the simple device of turning a knob and setting the station. This rapid change in environment caused much concern as to how children were af¬ fected by the constant accessibility of pas¬ sive entertainment. Auburn, Alabama, was considered a good locale for a study on the influence of tele¬ vision, because the growth of television was very rapid and very recent. When permis¬ sion was granted to undertake a study on one third-grade room, twenty-six of the thirty-seven subjects were members of fami¬ lies owning a TV. Two months later, when the interviews began, it was found that five more families had acquired sets. Auburn had had access to television for less than three years. The pupils of one third-grade class in Lee County Elementary School were used as sub¬ jects for this study. All of the children ranged in age from eight to ten years. There were twenty-three boys and fourteen girls m this group. None of the children were repeaters in the third grade, but one of the boys had repeated the second grade the pre¬ vious year. Third graders were picked because: 1. They would be able to give the desired information. It was doubtful if young¬ er children could do so with as much accuracy. 2. Homework was almost nil in this grade, therefore, school obligations would have little effect on the child’s out-of- school habits. 3. Since there were few clubs and organi¬ zations for this age group, only a small percentage of the child’s time would be occupied in this way. Three separate questionnaires were de¬ veloped to gain information from: (l) the children who had access to TV, (2) the par¬ ents of these children, and (3) the remain¬ ing children who did not have access to TV. A different schedule of questions was used for each group. These questionnaires sought data pertaining to participation in organiza¬ tions, program preferences, sleeping and eat¬ ing habits, recreational interests, and family routines. About one-half hour was spent with each child in an individual interview using a ques¬ tionnaire as a guide. He was encouraged to talk freely, and any remark that seemed to have a bearing on the study was taken ver¬ batim and later used in the analysis of data. The teacher kept a record for two weeks of the number of hours the children watched TV. This was accomplished with the aid of TV schedules obtained from daily news¬ papers. Each morning, the teacher would call out the names of the programs shown the previous day. The children were asked to signify, by raising their hands, the pro¬ grams which they had seen. This procedure seemed more reliable than depeiulinr: en¬ tirely on the memory of the children for de sired information. The information obtained was analyzed 70 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science in order to determine whether or not TV made any appreciable differences in the routines and habits of these third-graders and their families. The interviev/s were not difficult to con¬ duct, because third-graders are honest in their opinions and have little regard for tact. If they dislike something they are quite merciless in their criticism, but by the same code, if they like something their praise is loud and vigorous. Yes, you can count on third-graders to let you know what they like, and they like television. The survey shows that the children of TV owners watch television an average of eigh¬ teen hours per week. Eight and nine year olds in our society have few obligations. Parents seldom assign definite and non- optional chores to their offspring. Teachers are usually lenient as far as home-work is concerned. There are few organized clubs available for this age group other than the Brownie and Cub Scouts. If playmates are unavailable and the weather is bad, then the child may find himself with nothing to do. This is an intolerable situation for a rest¬ less youngster. It does not have to be tol¬ erated, for the television set is a constant source of entertainment until something else of interest comes along. The children are freed of responsibility, but nevertheless many adults have an uneasy feeling that the children should be doing something more worthwhile than viewing television. Many adults have wondered why healthy, active children would spend so much time in a non-participating activity. The answer might lie in personal preference, in lack of outside stimuli or in the easy accessi¬ bility to fanciful entertainment. Third-Graders Have Certain Characteristics in Common They like companionship and dislike soli¬ tude. They become restless if alone for any length of time. If another child is present, television usually takes a back seat, but if no one else is around TV can be company for a lonesome child. They like action. They are quick to con¬ demn a program in which the star "talks too much" and "doesn’t do anything”. This love of action and excitement could easily explain why the westerns, designed especially for children, have been so heartily endorsed by this age group. They like moral lessons. They admire the hero who fights fair and makes other peo¬ ple "do what’s right”. They like excitement. Children of this age have always responded to the world of fan¬ tasy. For years they have thrilled to stories of adventure, action, excitement, and to stories about animals. They like to learn and store up facts. They would rather see a program that they do not understand fully than one that is oversimpli¬ fied. For example, they like adult quiz pro¬ grams like the $64,000 Question, but feel that Miss Frances’ Ding Dong School is "too babyish”. Mothers of Third-Graders Have Their Likes and Dislikes They are enthusiastic about prograrn tim¬ ing. The late afternoon programs bring the children in before dark and quiet them physi¬ cally before dinner. As one mother puts it, "It helps in that before dinner lull.” Another says, "It keeps them out of the kitchen and that’s good because I’m tired, and if they stand around in my way, it annoys me and I fuss at them.” They also appreciate the fact that father gets a chance to rest a few minutes when he comes in from work. TV keeps the children at home and the family together. Mothers feel that this is one of the major advantages, because much is gained by shared enjoyment. They explain that it is a source of comfort and pleasure Television’s Effect on the Home 71 to them to have their entire family under one roof and participating in one activity, although it might be passive in nature. One mother mentioned the feeling of "oneness” that follows a hearty laugh enjoyed by the whole family. Others say the programs serve as a basis for conversation, and that this gives the busy fathers a better chance to learn what amuses, distresses, entertains and interests their children. Mothers believe that television is educa¬ tional. The children learn about geography, customs and news events. Even the commer¬ cials come in for their share of favor as many mothers feel the printed advertisements help the children in their reading, and increases vocabularies. Viewing Habits One out of three of the children watches television sometime before leaving for school. School is dismissed at two o’clock in the afternoon. They youngsters do not seem to follow any specific pattern of activity until four o’clock in the afternoon when programs for children come on the air. These are pre¬ sented every week-day at the same time. A few children do not make a special effort to see these each time they are shown, but the majority v/atch unless they have some¬ thing else to do. All but one of the children whose fami¬ lies have TV say that they watch television every night when they are at home. The only exception is a boy who says he prefers to read. The rest list the presentations that they enjoy and say that they look forward to see¬ ing these particular programs each time they are shown. Comedies, quiz panels, westerns, and mysteries form part of the children’s daily viewing routine until their bedtime. In the majority of cases this is eight o’clock. It might be anticipated that Friday would be one of the heaviest viewing nights, but this is not the case. In a good many instances. the children spend the night with chums, go visiting with the parents, or attend movies. Saturday morning at eight-thirty the chil¬ dren’s programs come on the air. From this time until tv/o o’clock in the afternoon, the telecasters have the day planned for the youngsters. The average viewing time per week is greatly increased by the time spent with television on Saturday. The children do not watch TV on Sunday as much as on some of the week-days. Most of them go to Church and Sunday School. (Only one child reports that he is too sleepy to attend Sunday School since his family bought a TV set.) In the afternoon, the programs are narrated and lack action. They are not interesting to the group as a whole. Attitudes Toward Available Programs The parents and the children involved in the study approve of most of the programs that have been especially geared to this age group. Generally the programs are informa¬ tive, educational, and meet the standards that have been set up by educators. They are on a child’s level and concern things with which children are familiar. However, due to their love of action and excitement, the pupils are especially fond of the children’s westerns, while their parents classify them as poor entertainment. Granted that they are not as educational as many others, most par¬ ents admit that they themselves seldom choose their own favorites for their informa¬ tive value. There is a possibility that parents rate these children’s westerns by their ow n tastes rather than by their appropriateness for children. Family Problem.s Presented BY Television Mealtime problentc Homem.iker.s' com¬ plain that they do not like to have hiod grow cold on the table because the tamily will not leave a certain program. I'hev attack this problem by shutting oft the tele\ ision set 72 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science at mealtime, by juggling meals to fit the TV schedules, letting the children eat in front of the set, or by just letting the children eat after the program is over. None of these methods prove satisfactory at all times. Bedtime problems. Many youngsters want to stay up, "to see just one more program." Some of the mothers say that children have always had some excuse for not going to bed even in pre-television days. Family disputes. The question, "Do you argue with your brothers and sisters over the choice of programs?”, was very amusing to the children. They all admit that they do, and outline schemes by which they get their own way, or the manner in which the dis¬ putes are settled by parents or older brothers and sisters. Their attitude and comments suggest that this behavior is not at all con¬ fined to TV program selection, and that the children enjoy these verbal scrimmages. The parents admit that the children argue over the programs but do not feel that tele¬ vision is responsible for an increase in fam¬ ily discord. They list such disadvantages as "taking too much of the child’s time, delay¬ ing the performance of daily routines, pre¬ venting outdoor activities, and disrupting family discussions.” However, parents and pupils alike are of the opinion that after the essential adjustments are made, family relationships improve as a result of having a television set for group entertainment in the home. Other Effects of Television Television is still comparatively new in our country, but its widespread appeal can not be denied. Since children spend hours sitting in front of their sets, the possible influence of TV has caused great concern. Recent studies made on various groups show that scholastic achievement is not ad¬ versely affected by television viewing, al¬ though an excess of time spent in this way results in lower school grades. The young¬ sters who spend a great deal of time with TV seem to lack initiative to begin with. However, the emotional impact of television can be determined only on an individual basis. Since Auburn gained access to television almost a decade later than many other sec¬ tions of the United States, the parents in this study did not find it necessary to pro¬ test against the types of programs available to their children, as other communities had done. The television industry deserves credit for modifying some presentations, eliminat¬ ing others, and changing schedules in order to meet the wishes of the public in general and parents in particular. DIFFERENTIALS IN SELF-CONCEPT: A PILOT STUDY* By Robert H. Sanders Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alaba^ita The notion of a person’s concept of self has found wide usage in the literature of Sociology and Psychology. Typically it is held that this concept is somehow associated with that individual’s previous life experi¬ ence as well as to the particular set of cir¬ cumstances in which he finds himself at any *Appreciation Is expressed to Mrs. Henry L. Taylor, Research Assistant, for the efficient and insightful processing of the data reported herein. given moment in his life. Characteristically, however, the concept of self is dealt with as an entirety rather than as a pattern made up of many features. Indeed, little effort has been made to analyze the concept of self in terms of possible sub-factors. Further¬ more, even when self-concept is subjected to an analysis the individual factors have been little or not at all related to specific Differentials in Self-Concept: A Pilot Study 73 social circumstances which might be observ¬ able. Thus, the theories concerning the con¬ cept of self are not well developed. This is especially true of sub-factors of the self con- cept in relation to current or anticipated ex¬ periences in the area of marriage and family relations. The concept of self, as used herein, is thought to involve perceptions of oneself in terms of characteristics which are judged to be desirable, or self-accepting, and those which are judged to be undesirable, or self- rejecting. It is probable that there are other components but such are not considered here¬ in. Thus, the research here reported is con¬ cerned with various differentials in self¬ acceptance and self-rejection, as elements of the concept of self and as found within the framework of marriage and the anticipation thereof. In order to provide a frame of ref¬ erence for the study it was assumed that these elements might have theoretical rela¬ tionship with the social statuses of (l) "no particular girl or boy friend,” (2) "favorite date,” (3) "going steady and/or pinned,” (4) "engaged,” and (5) "married.” It was further assumed that the sexes might mani¬ fest differential levels of self-acceptance and self-rejection in each of these categories. These assumptions were based upon the ob¬ servation, supported by previous studies (1) that persons reared in contemporary Ameri¬ can society are subjected to numerous influ¬ ences which aid in forming the concept of self, particularly with respect to marriage as an experience to be anticipated either favor¬ ably or unfavorably. Most of these influ¬ ences are in the form of vicarious experi¬ ences, such as ". . . exposure to the repre¬ sentations of marriage in print, movies, the radio and television . . . marriage is also very directly depicted and defined for the young by the marital relationship of their parents.” (2) It is usual, also, for the young to be exposed to attitudes expressed by other people concerning the meaning that going steady, being engaged or married ought to have for a boy or girl. For example, Wilson (3) reports that teenaged boys and girls view marriage, or lesser stages of emotional in¬ volvement, in different ways. That is, teen¬ aged boys tend to think of going steady, be¬ coming engaged and marriage as progres¬ sive entrapment, whereas, teenaged girls tend to view these stages of progressive emotion¬ al involvement as fulfillment of life’s pur¬ pose. If this is true then it seems reasonable to suppose that the individuals in the sev¬ eral stages leading to marriage would mani¬ fest differential levels of self-acceptance and self-rejection. It also seems likely that the sexes would evidence differentials of self¬ acceptance and self-rejection. Nature and Scope of Present Investigation The research here reported is the first phase of a broader investigation. Ultimately it is anticipated that in the second phase self-acceptance and self-rejection will be studied in relation to the subject’s attitude toward marriage as revealed through the use of a Guttman scale developed by Richard J. Hill (4) . The Hill study was concerned with the relationship between judgments of the happiness of the parents’ marriage and the offspring’s attitude toward marriage. In the third phase, these same scales of self-ac¬ ceptance and self-rejection will be applied to disagreement imputations for intimacy groups varying from favorite date to mar¬ ried as reported by Kirkpatrick and Hobart (5). In this study matched couples and ran¬ dom groups were compared with respect to their ability to impute responses to questions concerning various aspects of marital adjust¬ ment. It was learned that couples in the groupings of "favorite date,” 'Toinc steady,” "engaged,” and "married” showed increasing ability to predict their partner's responses to these questions as thev pro gressed in intimaev. The results reported in the present study, phase one. is restricted to sex and status differentials in self-accept ance and self-rejection. 74 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Methodology The data of the study were obtained with Adjective Check Lists^ filled out in two ways: (l) by students enrolled in classes, mainly Marriage and Family Relations, and (2) lists were mailed to individuals with whom the student was emotionally involved and whose address was provided by the stu¬ dent. The subjects were asked to check those words which they believed described them as they really are, not as they would like to be. The subjects were scored by the calcula¬ tion of ratios of self-acceptance and self-re¬ jection. That is, the self-acceptance ratio was obtained by dividing the number of "most favorable adjectives” checked by the total number checked and multiplying by 100. The self-rejection ratio was obtained in the same manner, except that the number of "most unfavorable adjectives” was substi¬ tuted in the formula for the number of "most favorable adjectives.” The selection of the "most favorable” and the "most un¬ favorable” adjectives is described in the Ref¬ erence Handbook for the Gough Adjective Check List 7 A mean ratio was calculated for each intimacy grouping and for each sex grouping. A critical ratio was ob¬ tained between the means of each sex group¬ ing within each intimacy category and be¬ tween the intimacy grouping for each sex. The Sample The data of the study were obtained from 215 men and 194 women. The ages of the subjects ranged from fifteen to fifty-six with the male median age of twenty-two and the female median age of twenty. The subjects were predominantly undergraduate students, although almost ten per cent of the females had twelve or fewer years of schooling and more than fourteen per cent of the males had sixteen or more years of schooling. The intimacy groupings were almost equally rep¬ resented with 18.3 per cent having no partic¬ ular date, 24.7 per cent having a favorite date, 17.6 per cent going steady and/or pinned, 19-3 per cent engaged and 20.1 per cent married. The respondents were pre¬ dominantly Protestant. LEGEND Fig. 1. Mean Scores On Self Acceptance By Sex And Intimacy Groupings. The Findings The findings for the self-acceptance ra¬ tios are presented in Figure 1. They are con¬ sistent with the hypothesis that there are differences in self-acceptance between males and females in the intimacy groupings indi¬ cated above. However, not all the differ¬ ences were found to be significant when com¬ paring the sex categories within the intimacy groupings. That is, differences significant at the .05 level were found when compar¬ ing male and female mean ratios in the cate¬ gories "no particular date” and "going steady.” It is of note that the sexes reverse positions — in the "no particular date” group¬ ing the male mean self-acceptance ratio is 47.86 whereas for the female the mean ra¬ tio is 43.29; this difference has a critical ratio of 1.94. In the "going steady” cate¬ gory the male mean self-acceptance ratio dropped to 43.40 and the female mean self¬ acceptance ratio rose to 47.40, again with a critical ratio of the difference at 1.94. When comparing intimacy groupings with¬ in the sex categories, additional significant differences were found. Among the male subjects the only significant difference was found when comparing the "going steady” grouping with the "engaged” grouping. For the females the only significant differences Differentials in Self-Concept: A Pilot Study 75 were found when comparing those in the "fa¬ vorite date’’ category with those in the "go¬ ing steady” category. This difference was significant at the .001 level. All other dif¬ ferences were found not to be significant. These differences may be interpreted in at least two ways. It is not within the limits of this study to ascertain if girls are able to go steady because their self-acceptance is high or if the girl’s self-acceptance increases when she goes steady. Nor is it clear if the males whose self-acceptance is low are the ones who are able to go steady or if the self-acceptance declines when he goes steady. However, the suggestion is strong that un¬ attached males have a relatively high self¬ acceptance ratio and as they become emo¬ tionally involved certain changes occur. At first there is some decline when he has a favorite date, more decline when he is go¬ ing steady but then a return to the "no par- hcular date” level when he becomes engaged and still more increase when he is married. There is also the suggestion that women tend to have a relatively low self -acceptance while unattached, but experience a slight decline when becoming sufficiently emotionally in¬ volved as to have a favorite date. It is in¬ teresting to note, in line with this interpre¬ tation, that the female may then experience a modest loss of self-acceptance when en¬ gaged and still more loss after marriage. If this interpretation is correct it would appear that the male may anticipate mar¬ riage with some sense of dread but when he gets "trapped” he finds that marriage is rather pleasant. 'Whereas the female anti¬ cipates marriage as a desirable state but later finds that it was not all what it appeared to be. This interpretation appears to be support¬ ed by the findings relative to self-rejection shown in Figure 2. In these data we find the most significant sex difference is in the "no particular date” category. This is significant beyond the .001 level, with the female level of self-rejection almost double that of the male. LEGEND Fig. 2. Mean Scores On Self Rejection By Sex And Intimacy Groupings. It is also noteworthy that among the fe¬ males the mean difference between the "fa¬ vorite date” and the "going steady” cate¬ gories is significant at the .05 level. These are the only significant differences found relatively to self-rejection. It should be noted that the male and fe¬ male ratios approximate each other at the engagement and the married stages. This may at least partially explain the tendency for engaged couples to carry out their plans to marry. Although the role of the female in mar¬ riage appears later to result in some loss of self-acceptance and an increase in self-rejec¬ tion, the male role in marriage may result in reduction of self-rejection and a continua¬ tion of self-acceptance at the same level achieved during engagement. Finally, it should be noted that the self¬ acceptance ratios for both men and women return to approximately the same level in marriage as obtained at the "no particular date” stage, even though several changes occur in the interim stages. Similarlv in self- rejection the male ratio in the married cate¬ gory is as low as in the "no particular date” category, although for the female the selt- rejection ratio remains lower in the married category than in the "nii particular date’' grouping. It mav. thus, be concluded that 76 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science though several changes occur in the stages leading to marriage both males and females achieve about the same level of self-accept¬ ance and self-rejection in the married state. LITERATURE CITED 1. Paul Wallin, “Marital Happiness of Parents and their Children's Attitude to Marriage,’’ American Sociological Review, 19 (February, 1954), pp. 20-23. 2. Ibid, p. 20. 3. Frances M. Wilson, “Teen Age Attitudes,” Coronet, Vo. 41, No. 6, April, 1957, p. 14. 4. Cited in Wallin, op. cit., p. 22. 5. Clifford Kirkpatrick and Charles Hobart. “Disagreement, Disagreement Estimate, and Noh-Empathetic Imputations for Intimacy Groups Varying from Favorite Date to Mar¬ ried," American Sociological Review, 19 (February, 1954), pp. 10-19. 6. Developed by Harrison G. Gough, University of California, Berkeley. 7. Harrison G. Gough, “Reference Handbook for the Gough Adjective Check-List,” University of California, Institute of Personality Assessment and Research, April, 1955. ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING 77 OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE SECTION I BIOLOGY AND MEDICAL SCIENCES KEY TO SOME COMMON SPRING FLOWERING PLANTS OF BLOUNT COUNTY Jack C. Avery, Howard College, Birmingham. This work is written in five parts, namely, key, general description, outline, key of reference and glossary. After collecting flora throughout Blount Coun¬ ty from March to June 1956, a key has been written to include the plants collected and addi¬ tional plants common in this area which are repre¬ sented by a preserved specimen in the Howard College Herberium. Plant differences were used in the construction of the key with paired arabic numerals designating them. The general description is included to help in the identification of the plants included in the key. The description gives the general habitat the particular plant would more than likely be found, the various states in the United States where the plant is found, the particular place in Blount County where specimens were collected, its abun¬ dance in the area in which collected, and general remarks that would be helpful in identifying the plant. The outline lists in the following order: class, subclass, order, family, tribe, genus, and species. In preparing the glossary, words not commonly known to the amateur botanist were defined from "Gray’s Manual of Botany” and "Taxonomic Terminology of Higher Plants” by Featherly. THE TADPOLE OF PSEUDACRIS ORNATA Lt. Jack S. Brown, Gunter Air Force- Base. LOCALIZATION OF THE TETRAZOLIUM STAINING REAC¬ TION IN THE EMBRYONIC AXIS OF THE PEANUT Edward T. Browne, Jr., A. P. /., Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn. The staining reaction of 2,3,5-triphenlytetra20- lium chloride (TTC) has been widely used as a quick test for the viability of seeds. This test is highly reliable in some instances. However, a high correlation between a positive TTC test and seed viability has not been reported. In this investigation with peanut seed {Arachis hypogaea L. var. Dixie Runner), a high percent¬ age of entire embryonic axes gave a positive TTC reaction. Similar results were obtained with em¬ bryonic axes that had been halved longitudinally prior to staining. In these two tests the reaction appeared to have taken place throughout the em¬ bryonic axis. However, when the entire stained embryonic axes were cut in half longitudinally or fixed, dehydrated, infiltrated in paraffin, embed¬ ded and sectioned, the TTC reaction was found to be localized in the outer two or three cell lay¬ ers of the embryonic axes. The problem, therefore, is to determine whether the TTC reaction using the entire embryonic axes is a valid test for seed viability, since only the outer cell layers were stained, while the bulk of the internal tissues, which are also involved in growth during germi¬ nation, remained unstained. Investigations are be¬ ing continued to determine whether the entire axis or the split-axis test gives a more accurate measure of the viability of peanut seed. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORMAZAN FORMATION IN PEANUT EMBRYONIC TISSUE AND GROWTH. Father Victor J. Clark, St. Bernard Semi¬ nary, and H. S. Ward, Jr., Alabama Polytech¬ nic Institute, Auburn. QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATIONS IN STORED PEANUT SEED Urban L. Diener, A. P. I. Agricultural E.\- periment Station, Auburn. Numerous fungi were isolated from stored pea¬ nut seed and identified. Asperfilus fl.irus and A. oryzae were the dpminant species. Pcnicillium relutinurn, P. verruculosum. and strains ot .1. tcr- reus, occurred frequently. Sclerotium b.il.ilicol.i and unidentified species ot Fusarium. Hiplodi.i. dl/<- cor, and Rhizopus were also isolated. A quantitative procedure tor estimating mold 78 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science populations of peanut seed was developed. Analy¬ ses of the data of several extensive experiments resulted in the following sampling scheme. Three dilutions were made for each sample, 3 plates from each dilution, and 1 sample from each lot for each date. The nurhber of dates required to define stated differences for 40 and 20 per cent of the mean was 2 or 3 and 9, respectively. The sample size determined was from 20 to 50 gm. of shelled peanut seed, randomly selected from the unshelled lot. Samples were selected from a large lot by means of a riffle. After hand shelling, the sample of peanuts was ground in a food chopper and a 10-gm. sample placed in a sterile 400-ml. beaker with 200 ml. of sterile tap water. The sample was then homogenized in a Bodine Centrifugal Wet Mill under aseptic conditions. Dilutions of 1 to-20 to 1 to-200 and 1 to-2000 were prepared by using 10-ml. aliquots and 90 ml. of water. One-ml. aliquots of each dilution were pipetted into each of three Petri plates and about 20 ml. of malt-salt were added. Plates were incubated at 25° C. Mold counts were made about 4 days later with a stereoscopic microscope (lOX). WILCOX COUNTY'S "VIRGIN FOREST" Rorert a. Dietz, State Teachers College, Troy. An approximately 45 acre woodlot near Cam¬ den is alledged by the owner to be a "virgin pine” stand. Both present day borings and field notes from an 1821 survey substantiate the claim that the woodlot has not been cut by white men at least since 1800. Although pines (in this case, mostly loblolly), by the nature of their seedling requirements, cannot become a "climax” forest in this area, this mature forest is of especial in¬ terest to botanists. A brief description of the area in its present state concludes this report. CHROMATOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE THYROXINE MODI¬ FICATIONS PRODUCED BY KIDNEY SLICES Nicole Etling, W. J. Lewis and S. B. Barker, Department of Pharmacology, University of Alabama Medical Center, Birmingham. Thyroxine has the ability to maintain oxygen consumption of kidney cortex slices in long term incubation experiments. The modifications under¬ gone by thyroxine following these incubation ex¬ periments were considered to be of great interest. After measuring the kidney slice respiration by the direct Barcroft-Warburg manometric method, the ihcubation medium and the methanol-ammonia extracts of the tissue were chromatographed in several solvents. Methanol-ammonium acetate was especially useful in the differentiation of the acid analogs of thyroxine, w-butanol-ammonia for the unmodified thyroxine and for triiodothyronine, and «-butanol-acetic acid for the iodotyro- sines and iodine. The material was rapidly ex¬ tracted and concentrated under conditions where deiodination of the metabolic products of thy¬ roxine did not occur. The Bowden and McLagan staining technic allows an accurate determination of about 0.5 microgram of iodoamino acids. These experiments, made without using radio-* active material, are able to show all known cata¬ bolic products formed from thyroxine during the incubation. The first results indicate the forma¬ tion of several metabolic products from thyroxine including tetraiodothyroacetic acid and diiodotyro- sine. THE REACTION OF ANTIBODY WITH MICROBIAL CAPSULES E. Edward Evans, University of Alabama Medical Center, Birmingham. Certain microorganisms such as Diplococcus pneutnoniae and Cryptococcus neoformans are surrounded by a polysaccharide capsule. The cap¬ sule is ordinarily water-clear and difficult to see without special stains; however, if specific anti¬ body is added, a reaction occurs which renders the capsule clearly visible. Formerly this reaction was called "capsular swelling” or "Quellung” since it was believed that there was an increase in capsular volume. Using C. neoformans as a test organism, it was found that no increase in capsular volume during the reaction could be shown by either direct micro¬ scopic measurement or centrifugation in graduated tubes. Additional information on the mechanism of the reaction has been obtained by immunochemi¬ cal studies with the purified capsular polysac¬ charide and by microscopic examination of cell fragments. AN ANALYSIS OF THE ANATOMY OF THREE STEM TYPES OF SERICEA LESPEDEZA, L. CUNEATA (DUM. DE COURS) G. DON. James F. Ferry, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. An anatomical study was made using representa¬ tive stems of fine-, medium-, and coarse-stemmed sericea inbred lines and strains grown in the same test to determine differences that might help ex¬ plain why fine-stemmed sericea plants are less rigid and more palatable than the coarse-stemmed plants of commercial sericea. In addition, the rela¬ tive amounts of carbohydrate- and protein-contain¬ ing materials were studied. Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 79 Using internodal cross-sections stained with safranin and fast green, microscopic analyses were made of the first and second cuttings of the three stem types. Mean values were determined for va¬ rious tissues in each stem type. The most important differences were evident in the xylem and pith. For the first cutting, the numbers of xylem cells were 12,800, 16,200, and 22,000 for the fine-, medium-, and coarse-stem¬ med strains, respectively. Furthermore, the xylem of the fine-stemmed strain was only 1/2 heavily lignified, that of the medium-stemmed strain 3/5 heavily lignified, while the xylem of the coarse¬ stemmed strain was 4/5 heavily lignified. Al¬ though no cell counts were made, the diameter measurements of the pith were 600-micra, 700- micra, and 865-micra for the fine-, medium-, and coarse-stemmed strains in that order. For the second cutting, both the numbers of xylem cells and the diameters of the pith were less in all three stem types. However, the same relationships occurred as in the first cutting, ex¬ cept that the xylem of the fine-stemmed strain was proportionately more lignified than in the first cutting. These differences in structure between cuttings appear to be the result of: (1) greater meris- tematic activity and more rapid growth of the first cutting, and (2) a retardation of cell divi¬ sion accompanied by greater xylem lignification in stems of the second cutting. The difference in lignification is mainly re¬ sponsible for the fine-stemmed strain being less rigid and tough than the other two strains. This may account for the greater palatability and ani¬ mal preference for the fine-stemmed strains as shown by feeding tests. Since lignification inter¬ feres with digestibility, both the medium- and the coarse-stemmed strains possess a larger volume of poorly digestible fibrous material than the fine¬ stemmed strain. The fine-stemmed strain is equal to the medium- and surpasses the coarse-stemmed strain in cellulosic material. Moreover, if the amount of parenchymatous tissue is an indication of protein availability, the fine-stemmed strain compares favorably with the other two stem types, particularly in the first cutting. DEMONSTRATING PHOTOSYNTHESIS WITH ARTIFICIAL LIGHT James F. Ferry and H. S. Ward, Jr., Ald- hama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. Water plants, such as Eloclea, are commonly used to demonstrate the evolution of 0._> during photosnythesis. The conventional apparatus con¬ sists of a few plant tips placed cut-end up under an inverted glass funnel which is submerged in a large glass vessel of tap water containing CO2. A tek tube idled with tap water is then inverted over the neck of the funnel. As the water plant carries on photosynthesis, bubbles of O2 escape, rise through the neck of the funnel, and displace the water in the test tube. A glowing splinter in¬ serted into the test tube will burst into flame in¬ dicating that the gas is mostly O,. The compara¬ tive rate of photosynthesis under different condi¬ tions may, therefore, be determined by counting the number of bubbles released per unit of time. This method has shortcomings, however. First, for a maximum rate of photosynthesis, some wa¬ ter plants may require 5,000 or more foot candles of light. Second, the two layers of glass (that of the vessel and the funnel) materially reduce the intensity of the light that reaches the plant. Third, the results obtained are affected by conditions that influence the metabolism of the plants such as temperature, concentrations of CO._, and Oo, and age. On dark days and at night, these difficulties can be overcome sufficiently for demonstrational purposes with the following apparatus. A reflec¬ tor approximately two feet in diameter and con¬ taining four 300-watt tungsten filament lamps plus three l6-inch fluorescent tubes is placed about 8 inches from the apparatus. This will pro¬ vide 1,500 to 2,000 footcandles. of light of de¬ sired quality at the outer surface of the glass ves¬ sel. Since the tight will heat the water, a hose is connected to a faucet so that a constant flow of cool water enters the bottom of the large glass vessel while the warmer water is siphoned off at the top. For best results the water temperature should be held within the range of 20° to 25° C. In addition, a small amount of thiamine hvdro- chloride, vitamin B, (about 0,01 g. Bj/gal. H O), will sometimes accelerate plant activity. THE CORRELATION BETWEEN HYDROCHEMICAL ECOLOGI CAL FACTORS AND THE QUANTITY OF FISH IN A BLACK BELT AND AN UPPER COASTAL PLAIN STREAM OF ALABAMA Arthur L. Gross, University oj Aiib.tm.i. ['>::■ vers it y. An investigation w.is undertaken to determine the correlation between hydrochemic.il ecological factors and the qu.intity ot fish in a Bl.u k Ik It and an Upper ( o.istal Pl.iin stre.im i4 .\lab.un.i The streams were \ isited once each se.ison for a period ol one year. Fish were lolleOed b\' rotenon ing .ind w.iter s.imples were obt.iined and analwed 80 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science for calcium, magnesium, arsenic, iron, non-protein nitrogen and pH. It was found that the Black Belt stream had significantly more fish than the upper Coastal Plain stream. There were significant differences in the calcium content and the pH of the streams; the Black Belt stream having a higher calcium content and a more alkaline pH. It was concluded that it is most probable that the high calcium content of the Black Belt stream is a contributing factor to the presence of an abundant fish popu¬ lation as compared to that which was found in the Upper Coastal Plain. COMPOSITION OF THE "MUCIN CLOT" IN HUMAN SYNOVIAL FLUID Edgar S. Gram ling. Ward Pigman, Howard Holley and David Platt, Departments of Biochemistry and Medicine, Medical-Dental Schools, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama. The "mucin clot” which is obtained by the addition of acetic acid to synovial fluid has been used as a criterion for differentiating pathological and normal synovial fluid. Early work on the chemical composition of the "mucin clot” was of a qualitative nature. This investigation was car¬ ried out to determine quantitatively the proteins present in the "mucin cfot” and the differences in the components present in the "mucin clot” ob¬ tained from normal and pathological fluids. Acetic acid was added to synovial fluid, the isolated clot was dissolved and analyzed electro- phoretically. The results will be discussed. ERIOPHYID MITES-PHYTOPHAGUS VIRUS VECTORS C. C. Hall, Hotvard College, Birmingham . Recent interest in this ubiquitous family of plant feeding mites has been largely the result of Dr. J. T. Slykhuis’ discovery of one species as the vector of wheat streak mosaic, a virus of wheat. These mites have long been known as gall mites; actually many species cause no noticeable damage to the host plant. At present some two hundred plus species, including about forty-five genera, are known. Eriophyids are paramecium in size which means they can be spread by air currents. Deuterogyny, two types of females, has complicated taxonomic work. In some instances females described as sep¬ arate species have been found to be the summer and winter females of the same species. As arachnids these mites are misfits, having only two pairs of legs and a wormlike body. Eriophyids live in a variety of places on the host plant. More commonly they occur on the un¬ der surfaces of leaves in summer and in buds, cracks, etc., during the winter but they are to be found in many other places and often within ab¬ normal growth pockets on leaves. Populations are much larger and collecting much better in the latter part of the summer. Members of this family of mites are now known to vector fig mosaic, wheat streak mosaic, and peach mosaic. Size, feeding habit, and tremendous numbers of individuals make these mites highly suitable as vectors of virus diseases. Eriophyids show a high degree of host specificity, but in some popular groups studied and collected by a number of workers host specificity has not been strongly exhibited. These mites occur on practically all trees, many shrubs, several grasses and rarely on annuals. Ala¬ bama trees apparently are heavily infested with these mites. CONCERNING THE EXISTENCE OF TWO TYPES OF GLYCOGEN R. W. Hanson, H. S. Schwartz and S. B. Barker, Department of Pharmacology, Uni¬ versity of Alabama Medical Center, Birming¬ ham. Recently much emphasis has been placed on the physiological significance of a "free” as op¬ posed to a "fixed” form of tissue glycogen. These types are usually distinguished or characterized by their differences in extractability. The "free” is liberated from the tissue with trichloroacetic acid (TCA) while the "fixed” form appears to re¬ quire more drastic extraction procedures, i.e., hot alkali. Furthermore, after ethanol precipitation the "free” glycogen is soluble in cold water while the "fixed” form requires extraction with hot TCA or hot water. There is no general agreement as do the exist¬ ence of the two types yet many investigators make the distinction and impart physiological signifi¬ cance to the determined quantities. We have found that the "fixed” fraction de¬ pends upon the amount of the precipitated tissue and the concentration of the glycogen in the supernatant. These amounts, of precipitate and of supernatant, are in turn dependent upon the meth¬ od of extraction. Hot alkali extraction leaves a small amount of precipitable protein, hot TCA more and cold TCA most. Our studies show that all of the glycogen is found in the liquid phase and that the "fixed” form is an artifact produced by the enclosure of glycogen by the protein during the latter’s pre¬ cipitation. Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 81 THE POISONOUS EUPOTORIUMS Arthur L. Hershey, Florence State College, Florence. The poisonous properties of Eiipotoritim rugo- sum (white snakeroot) have been recognized for many years. Other species have not been consid¬ ered as detrimental to livestock. In recent years the cause of "limestone disease”, prevalent in cer¬ tain areas of the Southwest, has been attributed to Eupotorium wrightll. This paper discusses the author’s work in discovering the plant which has been the apparent cause of this disease for many years. THE LOWERING OF THE SURFACE TENSION AS A COLLIGA- TIVE PROPERTY OF SOLUTIONS Alan Hisey, University of Alabama. Gibbs' equation, dF/d In C = aRT, has long been known to describe accurately the rate of change of surface tension with change in solu¬ tion concentration. The author has previously shown that the integrated form of the equation, F = aRT In C divided by K, expresses the be¬ havior of protein solutions, but unaccountable variations in K prevented its successful applica¬ tion for molecular weight determination. If the solution concentration is expressed in grams per liter, the integration constant has the value k which can be measured. In plotting the curves it has been discovered that the expression k/a — RT In M has a constant numerical value which may be represented by the symbol L/a. The inte¬ grated equation can therefore be written as F/a divided by RT In V = RT In g divided by RT In M + L/a This expression permits the calculation of the molecular weight from the surface tension data and shows that F/a is a true colligative property. THE RELATION OF MAST CELLS AND ADRENAL GLANDS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF GASTRIC ULCERS Thomas E. and Eleanor A. Hunt, Depart¬ ment of Anatomy, University of Alabama Medi¬ cal Center, Birmingham. Intraperitoneal injections of 100 to 500/i,g of compound 48/80 for one or more days resulted in gastric ulcers in 50 to 100% of the animals. The percentage of animals reacting and the se¬ verity of the reaction depended on the size of the dose, and presumably the number of large mast cells present which release histamine due to the action of 48/80. In some instances, the glandular mucosa was practically destroyed, in others there was no obvious damage or there were only small ulcers a few hundred micra in diameter. Outside of the mucosal lesions many parietal cells were exhausted or degenerated 24 hours after injec¬ tion, and by 48 hours mitoses were greatly in¬ creased in number and occurred in all layers. Sub¬ sequently mucous neck cells increased in number and regeneration of the mucosa occurred if the damage was not too great even though increased amounts of 48/80 were given. The adrenal gland also showed signs of activity. At 24 hours there was loss of sudanophilia especially in the glomeru- losa and also reduction in glycogen which nor¬ mally is most concentrated in the reticularis. By 48 hours mitoses in the fasciculata were greatly increased. By the 5th day after beginning the in¬ jections the glycogen was partially restored in one gland and by the 7th day was restored in both glands. Mitoses in the glomerulosa were much more numerous than in controls on the 5th and 7th days but in the fasciculata the number had dropped to normal. ADDITIONS TO THE AVIFAUNA OF ALABAMA IN 1955-56 Thomas A. Imhof, Department of Conserva¬ tion. Ornithology is unique among the natural sci¬ ences. The amateur plays a larger role than in perhaps any other science, and sight records pro¬ vide a major share of distribution data. Thus the subjective element enters into any evaluation of field data. In any regional faunistic work, the sound sci¬ entific basis for the occurrence of all forms lies in the properly labeled, well-preserved specimens. In Alabama the list of bird species with speci¬ mens numbers 292. An additional 12 species have had specimens taken but not preserved, or other similar transitory evidence (List and comment). Another 29 species are recorded from the state only on the basis of sight records (List). The to¬ tal state list therefore is at present 3.5 .r (Mention examples of the difficulty of obtaining speci¬ mens.) Since January 1955, first specimens of 14 spe¬ cies have been collected in the state, and 7 more have been seen only (List and name collector or observer). A breakdown of localities shows that the Gulf Coast (Baldwin .md Mobile Counties) has furnished the major share of .ulditions to the list, and they arc largely from Dauphin Island, (List localities and the number of first records from each.) In our previous paper. Dr, Chcrmock and the writer alluded to the potentialities of Daupin Island, and our frequent tield work there has been well rewarded. Other naturalists should find it equally rewarding. 82 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science In the next two years, it is my hope that speci¬ mens will be obtained for most of those 4l spe¬ cies on our "hypothetical list” and probably a liberal number for species entirely new to Ala¬ bama. I want to thank those who have helped in making our knowledge of ornithology in Alabama more complete. I hope they will continue their contributions, and that they will be joined by others, for the ornithology of Alabama depends on the cooperation of many observers. IN VITRO EFFECTS OF THYROXINE AND AMINO ACIDS ON OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF INCUBATED RAT KIDNEY TISSUE R. H. Lindsay and S. B. Barker, Department of Pharmacology, University of Alabama Medi¬ cal Center, Birmingham. The inclusion of certain amino acids in an in¬ cubation medium which also contained L-thyroxine was found to maintain oxygen consumption of kidney slices. Initial measurements of oxygen up¬ take were made at 37° C. for one hour by direct Barcro ft- Warburg manometry; the vessels were then placed in a cold room at 5° C. At one day intervals the vessels were removed, oxygenated and oxygen consumption determined at 37° C. for one hour. Previous work in this laboratory had shown that the substitution of DL-alanine for phosphate in the standard Krebs’-Ringer phosphate glucose medium resulted in very good maintenance of oxygen consumption. Respiration in the control vessels was 100%, 50% and 15% of the initial level after 24, 48 and 72 hours, respectively. Tis¬ sue in the presence of thyroxine was able to main¬ tain oxygen at 90% of the initial level even after 72 hours of incubation. An extensive survey of the effects of the amino acids and structurally related compounds on main¬ tenance of tissue respiration was undertaken. Of all the compounds tried, alanine, proline and N-acetylalanine gave the best results. These sub¬ stances, in a medium containing thyroxine, were able to keep oxygen uptake at 90% of the initial level for three days. B-alanine, B- and y-amino- n-butyric acids, B- and oc -aminoisobutyric acids, asparagine and threonine gave better maintenance than a medium without added amino acid, but were less effective than proline, alanine and N- acetylalanine. A COMPARISON OF WATERBIRDS AT U. S. FISH HATCH¬ ERY AND LAKELAND FARM NEAR MARION, ALABAMA Lois McCullough, fudson College, Marion. This report, based on 105 hours of observation at Lakeland Farm and 80 hours of observation at the U. S. Fish Hatchery, shows the effect of dif¬ ferent environmental conditions on the species of water birds populating these two localities. The U. S. Fish Hatchery, six miles north of Marion, lies in rolling foothills. A limited number of herons, grebes, and ospreys are shot at the Fish Hatchery, but the chief influence on bird popu¬ lation here is the fluctuation of water in the ponds; many remain dry or form mud flats during the winter. They are filled in the spring and pond edges are burned off. Lakeland Farm lies four miles southeast of Marion in the upper part of the Black Belt. Shooting takes place during the hunting season and large numbers of fishermen are present on the many lakes over weekends. These conditions plus weather and food supply conditions constitute factors which cause a con¬ stant shift in the number and species of birds, including migrants, breeders, year round residents, and winter residents, in these two areas. DISTRIBUTION OF ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE IN ALABAMA Norman A. Minton, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agricul¬ ture, Auburn. A survey was conducted in Alabama to deter¬ mine the distribution of the root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp. The survey included 44 coun¬ ties representing locations in each of the four major soil areas into which the state is divided. A total of 262 root and soil collections was taken from field crops, pasture lands, forest areas, fruit orchards, pecan groves, home gardens, and lawns. Seventy-seven of these were from home gardens and lawns, and 185 were from other kinds of locations. Root-knot larvae were recovered from the soil by a combination of the decanting-seiving and Baerman funnel techniques. Larvae identified as to genus served to indicate the presence of root- knot infestation in the absence of infected roots. Root-knot females were obtained from the roots and identified as to species. Fifty-eight per cent of the samples contained adult females, larvae, or both. Root-knot nematodes occurred in 81 per cent of the samples from home gardens and lawns and in 48 per cent of those from other locations. Root-knot nematodes were widespread in the state in soils ranging in texture from light sand to heavy clay. The following species were found: Meloidogyne arenaria, M. haplar, M. javanica, M. incognita, and M. incognita acrita. This informa¬ tion makes possible improvement in control by crop rotation because these species have host range differences. Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 83 Home gardens, lawns, and other areas where transplants and nursery stock are used to start crop plants serve as sites of introduction for new root-knot species. These areas are then a source of nematodes that can spread into surrounding non-infested areas. EFFECTS OF ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN AND CORTISONE ACETATE UPON THE EOSINOPHILS, BLOOD PLATELETS AND MARROW MEGAKARYOCYTES OF THE INTACT AND SPLENECTOMIZED WHITE RAT Kenneth Ottis, Alabama Polytechnic Insti¬ tute, Auburn. One hundred and ten, 200 ± 20 gm., healthy, 2-month old rats of the Holtzman strain were used in this investigation to determine the ef¬ fects of Adrenocorticotropin* and cortisone ace¬ tate upon certain peripheral blood and marrow elements of the splenectomized and intact white rat. This investigation was divided into four experi¬ ments at follows; Exp. 1: determination of the short term action of ACTH, Exp. 2; determina¬ tion of the long term effects of ACTH, Exp. 3: determination of the short term effects of corti¬ sone acetate, Exp. 4: determination of the long term effects of cortisone acetate. From these four experiments the following re¬ sults and conclusions were obtained: Exp. 1 ; Both splenectomized and intact groups showed significant blood platelet depression at the two and three hour periods. Both groups were under the same degree of adrenocortical stress as was affirmed by their eosinopenic condition at the third hour. There was a significant increase, post-experimentally, of the marrow megakaryocytes for both groups. Exp. 2: The first day’s data were consistent with the results of the short-term experiment; however, the intact group showed a platelet in¬ crease of 134 per cent on the eleventh day. The splenectomized animals responded to a lesser de¬ gree; nevertheless, they showed a 52 per cent in¬ crease by the ninth day. Splenectomy in some way modified the animals’ ability to respond to ACTH. Megakaryocyte increases supported the platelet data of the experiment. Exp. 3: The early effect of cortisone was one of degression. This depression, however, was shortlived for the platelets returned to 0-hour levels at the two-hour period and remained there to the end of the experiment. Eosinopenia was complete at the fourth hour of the experiment. Exp. 4: The intact group showed platelet in¬ creases of 131 per cent and l48 per cent on the fourth and sixth day, respectively. The splenec¬ tomized group never rose above a top of 70 per cent established on the fourth day. Both groups reached eosinopenic levels on the fifth day, from which they never recovered during the period of the experiment. Splenectomy, in some way, modi¬ fied the animals’ ability to respond to induced hormonal stress with a percentage increase in platelet numbers of a magnitude similar to that of the intact animal. DEVELOPMENTAL VISION AND INTELLIGENCE Eleazer C. Overton, O.D., Optometrist, Bir¬ mingham. This paper discusses the concept that phenomen¬ ologically the vision complex functions in man-as "the mobilizer of experience.” Reference is made to a former paper in which reports from the lit¬ erature are quoted supporting this theme. An attempt is made to objectively survey the historical development of the sensory organization in man. A description of the form and function of the projicient senses are followed through the phylogenetic chain of evolution. A parallel time¬ table is noted in the emergence of these senses in the ontogeny of human development. The emergent nature of morphological form and func¬ tion parallels the emergent nature of human be¬ havior, emotions, vision, intellect, etc., such that they all seem to be related to a common develop¬ mental i?nport. All the attributes of human be¬ havior seem to follow the developmental time¬ table from a general or diffuse characteristic into more diversified and discreet characteristics. The whole pattern of growth and development seems to follow the statistical law of chance in that the older the organism the less opportunity it has ot being anything else than what it is. This would seem that organisms are genetically predestined and lower forms of life do follow stereotyped patterns of development with their .secminglv in¬ born instincts. However, human development, with its many learned reactions and environmental influences, poses an excellent continuum within which to apply conditioning f.ictors. In the course ot development such conditioning influence tould be brought to bear on those emerging characteris¬ tics at a time in organismic maturation, and in such a w'ay, that the future course of development of these characteristics are directed toward an opti¬ mum of performance. This is known as dcrclop- mcntal guidance. Such is the course ot deselopmental \ision as ♦Hereafter referred to as AOTH. 84 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science it undergirds and implements the intellect. Pri¬ mate vision, other than homo, is essentially epi- critic and specific behaviors are fairly well stereo¬ typed, The chimpanzee can master almost as many manual skills as man. One visual function a chimp cannot perform is reading. In man vision operates sequentially in three stages: 1st — the "where is it” stage, in which the whole organism is centered on the point of in¬ terest (somatic control) 2nd — the "what is it” stage, in which the ob¬ ject of interest is brought into focus and identi¬ fied (autonomic control) 3rd — the "what does it mean to me” stage, in which the cognitive faculties are brought into play and the whole process is conceptualized (feedback and memory matching) The first stage emerges during the first three years of postnatal life and is characterized in concrete experiences and established in motor skills. The second stage blends with the first and emerges during the first eight or nine years of postnatal life, when form and color become high¬ ly cognitive. The third stage emerges out of the first two with discriminative finesse as the child is able to abstract and conceptualize. Effective conceptualization depends on the ac¬ quisition of a high degree of sensory motor effi¬ ciency with concrete experience during the first two stages. Prenatal deprivation (in utero) that tends to interrupt maturational timetables, brain damage due to birth trauma, postnatal accidents, environmental deprivations, disease, etc., all serve to delay the emergence of "normal” behavioral characteristics. A non-stimulating environment serves further to deprive the already disadvant¬ aged organism into a more progressive state of retardation. The nature and accessibility of the visual complex to clinical therapy, coupled with its close relationship to manifest intelligence, makes it a fruitful medium for developmental guidance. Special visual training techniques have been designed to set the stage for learning "de¬ grees of freedom” in sensory motor organization. Special developmental lenses (glasses) (as sug¬ gested by the Gesell Institute of Child Develop¬ ment) can be provided, when necessary, to help establish better functional binocular balance be¬ tween the two nervous systems subserving the eye. This is done at the near point of seeing where reading and close concentration are performed. This paper provides an answer to the question — what special educational therapy on a clinical basis can help the slow learner or the mentally retarded ? Audio-visual education has proven a great boon to pedagogy — specialized sensory per¬ ception training on a clinical basis may prove to be the answer to habilitation of the mentally dis¬ advantaged. OCCURRENCE AND IMPORTANCE OF CERTAIN AQUATIC PHYCOMYCETES IN ALABAMA Adrian W. Poitras, Alabama Polytechnic In¬ stitute, Auburn. Few records of the occurrence of species of aquatic Phycomycetous fungi exist for Alabama. The current investigation is being made to deter¬ mine the species occurring in this state and to point out the significance of those species causing diseases on game fish and their eggs. During 1956, samples of water from streams and ponds in 46 locations in southeastern Ala¬ bama were baited with sterile halves of henjp seed and rosaceous fruits and kept in the labora¬ tory. Fungi that grew on this bait were isolated and grown in uni-fungal culture. The species of Saprolegnia most frequently identified were S. diclina, S. ferax and S. mixta. The species of Achyla most commonly isolated were A. ameri- cana, A. colorata and A. flagellata. Representa¬ tives of other phycomycetous fungi were placed in the following genera: Dictyuchus, Blastocladia, Gonapodya, Monoblepharis and Pythitnn. Sapro¬ legnia parasitica, S. Ferax and Achlya flagellata were isolated from diseases of fish. THE EFFECT OF ALLOXAN MONOHYDRATE UPON THE PERI¬ PHERAL BLOOD CELLS OF THE ALBINO RAT Carol Ann Smith and Kenneth Ottis, Ala¬ bama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. Twenty-four, 325 ± 20 gram, healthy, three month old male rats of the Holtzman strain were used in this investigation to determine the ef¬ fects of alloxan monohydrate upon the peripheral blood picture of the intact white rat. In the pilot experiment twelve animals were divided into four groups and their base blood counts taken. After a 48-hour fast. Group I re¬ ceived 100 mgm. of Alloxan per kg. of body weight; Group II, 150 mgm. per kg.; Group III, 200 mgm. per kg.; and Group IV, 300 mgm. per kg. The injections were done subcutaneously un¬ der light ether anesthesia. Red, white and dif¬ ferential counts were made daily on these four groups and the results tabulated. The pilot experiment led to the following re¬ sults and conclusions: 1. All animals in groups II, III, and IV died within three days after injection. Severe neutro¬ philia and lymphopenia were noted in all the ani- Abstracts — Biology and Medicine 85 mals; these variations from normal were greatest immediately before death. A concomitant leuco- penia was evident in the white cell counts. 2. All animals injected with 100 mgm. of al¬ loxan per kg. of body weight lived and were diabetic. From this data it was concluded that this dosage level was diabetigenic for our strain of rats and would be satisfactory for the experiments to follow. A second experiment was then set up with eight animals in the experimental group and four in the control group. Blood samples were taken on both groups and their base red, white and dif¬ ferential counts calculated. After a 48-hour fast the experimental received 100 mgm. of alloxan monohydrate per kg. of body weight subcutan¬ eously. Sampling and counting were done on both groups every other day for twenty days and the results tabulated. At the termination of the ex¬ periment the animals were sacrificed and the pan¬ creatic glands removed, fixed in Bouin’s solution, and embedded in paraffin for future study. The second experiment led to the following results and conclusions: 1. The mean white count dropped sharply two days after alloxan injection. 2. The lymphocyte level decreased significantly four days after injection. Directly proportional to this lymphopenia was a corresponding neutro¬ philia. All experimentals exhibited periods of lymphocyte depression and neutrophilia at the eight to ten day and the fourteen to sixteen day post-injection periods. 3. The control group showed none of the above phasic changes; they did, however, exhibit a mild amount of variation from day to day, but this was well within the normal physiological variation. Throughout this experiment the differential counts on the control group remained approximately at the base count levels. 4. The difference in red cell count means of the two groups was not statistically significant, and the slight drop from base count level was probably due to the frequent samplings. 5. It was, therefore, concluded that the 100 mgm. per kg. dosage level of alloxan monohy¬ drate resulted in a severe upset of the mean leuco¬ cyte count level and differential blood cell pic¬ ture of the three month intact male white rat. RECENT INVESTIGATIONS RELATING TO THE PIKE COUNTY "POCOSSIN" Claudette Brooks Stabler and Robert A. Dietz, State Teachers College, Troy. The Pike County "pocossin” has aroused tlie interest of botanists since late in the last century, and local legend (with widespread support) as¬ cribes to it a uniqueness in this hemisphere. Har¬ per considers it to be a hammock which is out of its range. The senior author has made detailed en¬ vironmental studies within the area in an effort to describe it precisely. These data are herein re¬ ported by means of charts. They reveal that the "pocossin” is remarkably more uniform in tem¬ perature and humidity than the adjacent sand¬ hill pine woods. The characteristic plants of the "pocossin” are listed. Earliest recorded mention of the area is found in the field notes of S. D. Weakly, who surveyed the township line adjacent to it in 1846. Weakly records it as "hammock land”. Unlike a true pocossin, the Pike County "pocossin” is also un¬ like a true hammock. It is here interpreted as an ecological exclave of hammock vegetation. STUDIES OF THE BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS IN PEANUT KERNELS Henry S. Ward, Jr., Alabama Polytechnic In¬ stitute, Auburn. PATHOGENICITY OF ROOT-KNOT NEMATODES TO SELEC¬ TIONS OF LESPEDEZA CUNEATA (DUM DE COURS) G. DON. Muhammed Waseem, a. P. /. Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn. This investigation was conducted to determine the degrees of pathogenicity of five species of root-knot nematodes to six selections of Lespe- deza cuneata. The root-knot nematode species were; Meloidoyne incognita, M. incognita acrita, M. javanica, M. arenaria and M. hapla. Sixteen plants of each selection were inocu¬ lated with each species of root-knot nematodes. Af¬ ter approximately 190 days, the green foliar weights, root weights, and heiglits were tabulated. The numbers of galls and egg masses on the root systems were also tabulated. It was found that there were highly significant differences in tlie heights and root and top weights of various lespedeza selections to the different root-knot nematode species. Plants on which the nematode reproduced most abundantly had tlie lowest foliar and root weiglits. For all the rmit- knot nematode species, the least reproduction oc¬ curred on lespedeza selections 1373 and 1 3‘17. The results ol the investigation show that to get the greatest benefit ol growing lespedeza in a root-knot infested tield it is necess.irv to know whiih root -knot nematode species is present. Thus, the le.ist susceptible selection of les['«edeza for the location can be recommended. As tlie least amount 86 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science of egg mass production was found to occur on the least susceptible selections, their use would provide the additional benefit of limiting the inoculum potential for the crop following the les- pedeza. These experiments also indicated the interest¬ ing possibility of distinguishing biologically the different selections of Lespedeza cuneata on the basis of susceptibility to the various species of root-not nematodes. SECTION II CHEMISTRY FLAME SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF LITH¬ IUM IN MINERALS AND CERAMIC MATERIALS Virgil M. Benson, James L. Kassner and E. L. Grove, University of Alabama, Univer¬ sity. A rapid determination for lithium has been developed. This procedure does not require the removal of interfering elements or the prior analy¬ sis of the samples. Any materials as Ti02 and ZrOa that does not readily dissolve in the HCIO4 were either filtered or allowed to settle. The ef¬ fects of enhancement or inhibition of the lithium excitation caused by other elements was eliminated by controlling the pH of the final solution with a citric acid-ammonium citrate buffer. Samples containing from 12 to 0.03% lithium oxide were analyzed with an average error of less than 2% of the amount present. THE SEPARATION OF ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES FROM PROTEIN BY PRECIPITATION WITH CATIONIC DETERGENTS Mary Grace Blair, Lu Klie Yeilding, and Ward Pigman, Arthritis and Rheumatism Re¬ search Laboratory, University of Alabama Medi¬ cal and Dental Schools, Birmingham . Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (Cetavlon) and cetylpyridinium chloride form insoluble salts when reacted with acidic polysaccharides such as hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparin, and carrageenin. The salts have been used previously in the partial purification of chondroitin sulfate from cartilage (B. C. Bera, A. B. Foster, and M. Stacey, J. Chem. Soc., 3788 (1955)) and in the removal of carrageenin from tissue material, the formation of which had been stimulated by its in¬ jection (H. G. B. Slack, Biochem. J., 64, 7P 1956) ). Some proteins are reported not to be pre¬ cipitated by cationic detergents even if the pH is on the basic side of the isoelectric points. In con¬ trast, the salts of the acidic polysaccharides are soluble only at relatively high acidity or at high salt concentration. The present work is an electro¬ phoretic study of the extent to which acidic poly- .saccharides and serum proteins of connective tis¬ sues can readily be separated by use of the above reagents. DETERMINATION OF SIALIC ACID Mary Grace Blair, W. L. Hawkins, Ward Pigman, H. L. Holley, and David Platt, Arthritis and Rheumatism Research Laboratory, University of Alabama Medical and Dental School, Birmingham. Sialic acid, a nitrogen containing polyhydroxy- acid seemingly related to glucosamine, occurs in saliva, serum, cerebrospinal fluid, and synovial fluid. At least five colorimetric reagents for this substance are being used in various laboratories. A comparison will be given of several spectral curves of biological fluids with those of ovine sialic acid after treatment with colorimetric re¬ agents. THE NEAR ULTRAVIOLET ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF SOME ALPHA-SUBSTITUTED TOLUENES E. D. Calloway, Birmingham-Southern Col¬ lege, Birmingham. The near ultraviolet absorption spectra of ben¬ zyl alcohol, benzyl acetate, benzlyamine, benzyl methyl ether, B-phenylethyl alcohol, and y-phe- nylpropyl alcohol in the vapor were obtained and an analysis with the probable band assignments was made for each except the last compound. A spectrum suitable for analysis was not obtained for y-phenylpropyl alcohol. For the first four com- pomids, their 0 - 0 band shifts relative to the 0 - 0 band position of benzene have been interpreted to show that the groups substituted in the alpha position in compounds cause electrons to migrate from the ring into the side chain. The 0 - 0 band shift for B-phenylethyl alcohol has been interpret¬ ed to show that electrons migrate from the side chain into the ring. The 0 - 0 band shifts of some other alpha- monosubstituted toluenes^ along with those found in this research are listed in Table 1. The order of the shifts from the greatest to the smallest shift is benzyl chloride ^ benzyl cyanide ben- 1. The shifts for toluene, ethylbenzene, n-propylbenzene, benzyl chloride, and benzyl cyanide were taken from E. L. Grove and James L. Kassner, “A Study of the Ultra¬ violet Absorption Spectra; Spectra of Certain Aromatic Compounds,” Project No. 247, University Research Com¬ mittee, University of Alabama, p. 32. Abstracts— Chemistry 87 zyl alcohol benzyl acetate — >• benzylamine —> benzyl methyl ether = toluene ^ ethylben¬ zene = n-propylbenzene ^ B-phenylethyl alco¬ hol. From a consideration of the electronic structure of each group substituted in the alpha position and a consideration of hypercorijugation, reso¬ nance, mass, and inductive effects operating in each compound, this same order is found to pre¬ vail. TABLE 1. 0 - 0 Band Shifts Compound Shift, cm.'^ Benzene . 0 Toluene . 620 Ethylbenzene . 580 n-Propylbenzene . 580 Benzyl Chloride . 970 Benzyl Cyanide . 960 Benzyl Alcohol . 790 Benzyl Acetate . 740 Benzylamine . 680 Benzyl Methyl . 620 B-Phefiylethyl Alcohol . 510 A STUDY OF THE KINETICS OF THE CHLORAMINE-AMONIA AND CHLORAMINE-HYDRAZINE REACTIONS IN LIQUID AMONIA Harry H. Sisler, Chairman of the Dept, of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Jack G. Calvert, Associate Professor of Chemistry, The Ohio State University, Co¬ lumbus, Ohio; Francis Nash Collier, Jr., Associate Professor of Chemistry, Howard Col¬ lege, Birmingham, Ala.; Forrest R. Hurley, Research Chemist, The Davison Chemical Cor¬ poration, Division of IF. R. Grace, Baltimore. Maryland. The rate of the hydrazine forming reaction NH^cl + 2NH3 NH2NH2 -f NH,cl ( 1 ) in liquid ammonia solution was followed conduc- timetrically at —75°, — 60°, — 50°, — 38°, and — 33° C. The reaction was found to be pseudo¬ order, and its rate was independent of the ionic strength and acidity in solutions of ammonium chloride from 0.001 to 0.01 molar. From the temperature dependence of the rate constants the energy of activation, 13.3 kilocalories per mole, and the entropy of activation, — 22.6 e.u. were obtained. The data suggest that the rate-deter¬ mining step in the formation of hydrazine is NH2CI + NH3 NHoNHa^ -f d- (2) The rate of the hydrazine decomposition reac¬ tion, 2NH2CI -f NH2NH2 2NH,cl + N2 (3) was investigated at several temperatures. The stoichiometry of the reaction was measured by three independent methods. The overall reaction (3) leading to hydrazine decomposition has a much lower temperature coefficient than reaction (1), this factor favors higher yields of hydrazine at the higher temperatures. Reaction (3) has an induction period which permits reaction ( 1 ) to proceed long enough un¬ disturbed to give useful yields. The higher yields obtained at lower concentrations are accounted for by the fact that the induction period is length¬ ened by decreasing the concentrations of hydra¬ zine and chloramine. Some possible detailed free radical mechanisms for the reactions summarized by (3) are considered. POLYMERIZATION CATALYSIS L. T. Jenkins, The Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur. Vinyl-type monomers can be readily polymer¬ ized with a number of catalyst systems at various temperatures (term term catalyst is used in con¬ nection with the initiation of an exothermic chain reaction). The starting of these chains can be ef¬ fected by free radicals, carbonium ions, carbanions and more recently coordination catalysts. Acry¬ lonitrile can be polymerized with carbanions at sub zero temperature or with the correct choice of redox free radical systems it can be polymer¬ ized over a wide range of temperature. One such system consisting of potassium persulfate and ti- tanous sulfate for polymerization of acrylonitrile at room temperature will be discussed. With tliis discussion will be a demonstration showing the actual polymerization reaction. SYNTHETIC FIBER MANUFACTURE L. T. Jenkins, The Chemstrand Corporation. This is a continuation of the paper to be gi\en on "Polymerization Catalysis," and will include a short discussion on how a synthetic fiber is manu¬ factured. A miniature demonstration unit will be set up to show tlie actual spinning operation start¬ ing witli polymer as prepared in tlie first paper from a vinyl-type monomer and ..atalvst. The polv- mcr is dissolved in tlie desired soKent to give a solution called the spin dope. The spinning opera tion will then be carried out showing how fiber is actually made trom the polymer solution, (dope). 88 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science THE USE OF THE SANDERSON STABILITY RATIO CONCEPT TO ACCOUNT FOR THE AMPHOTERISM OF CERTAIN COMPOUNDS James E. Land, Alabama Polytecb77ic Instili/te, Auburn. Amphoterism is a property displayed by a num¬ ber of metallic oxides and hydroxides. Assuming that their reaction with basic solutions to involve a nucleophilic attack by the hydroxyl ion on a hydrogen atom in a hydrated metallic oxide or hydroxide, which has developed a certain degree of positive nature as a result of electron drainage away from it by other more electronegative ele¬ ments in the molecule, and employing the Sander¬ son stability ratio concept to calculate the neces¬ sary electron density distribution within the mole¬ cule, a criterion has been established to explain and account for amphoterism in these compounds. ABOUT THE STRUCTURE OF NATURAL CELLULOSE FIBERS Karl Lauer, University of Alabama, Univer¬ sity. Our knowledge about the structure of natural cellulose fibers, prototypes of excellent textile fi¬ bers, is still far from complete. During the last few years all the experimental work has led to a somewhat relativistic concept of fiber structure, a concept which does not fit with out experi¬ ence of living cells. The application of drying to fibers has given new aspects, concerning fiber structure, especially in connection with structural changes, occurring in acid or alkaline media, which permit certain conclusions in the direction that the structure of natural cellulose fibers must have a certain super- molecular order, which is not only of a statistical nature. PREPARATION OF SOME SUBSTITUTED 3(2H)-PYRIDAZONE DERIVATIVES Lawrence R. Moffett, Jr., Alabama Poly¬ technic Institute, Auburn. Some 2 ( 4’-alkoxyphenyl ) -6-methyl-3 ( 2H ) -pyri- daxone derivatives previously made in these labora¬ tories showed some analgesic activity and a re¬ markably low toxicity. This paper is a progress report on some additional syntheses of derivatives of 2-phenyl-3(2H)-pyrida2ones for pharmacologi¬ cal testing. Properly substituted phenylhydrazines or derivatives are condensed with (gamma) - oxoacids to yield phenylhydrazones, which are cyclized to 4,5-dihydro-2-phenylpyridazones. Treat¬ ment with phosphorus pentachloride yields a mix¬ ture of the 4-chloro-2-phenyl-3(2H)-pyridazone and 2-phenyl-3-(2H) -pyridazone. Levulinic, (al¬ pha) -ketoglutaric, and (beta) -acetylacrylic acids were used. THE SYNTHESIS OF SUBSTITUTED INDOLEACETIC ACIDS BY THE REFORMATSKY REACTION* James R. Piper, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. When ethyl levulinate m-chlorophenylhydrazone is subjected to the Fischer Indole Synthess, two products could possibly be formed, ethyl 4-chloro- or 6-chloro-2-methyl-3-indoleacetate. Stevens and Higginbotham of these laboratories reported a single product from this reaction. Proof of the structure of this compound by an unambiguous synthesis proved to be exceedingly difficult due to the unavailability of the necessary intermediates. Recently Pretka and Lindwall described a novel synthesis of 3-indoleacetic acid via a Reformatsky reaction utilizing indoxyl. This synthesis has been extended to the preparation of 4-, and 6-chloro- 2-methyl-3-indoleacetic acids. The preparation of 4-, and 6-chloro-2-methylindoxyls from the cor¬ responding chloroanthranilic acids, and the Re¬ formatsky reaction of these compounds with ethyl bromoacetate will be described. THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT MEASUREMENT FOR A SERIES OF KETONES J. L. Randall, James L. Kassner and E. L. Grove, University of Alabama, University. The dielectric constant for a series of ketones was determined at 25° C. over the frequency range from 3-25 me. with a non-inductive type capacitance cell. The measurements were made with a General Radio Type 821-A Twin-T im¬ pedance bridge. The cell was calibrated with compounds that showed no frequency dispersion over this range. The dielectric constant value for each of the ketones was constant with respect to frequency over the 3-25 me. range. MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF STARCH GRAINS AND FIBERS B. R. Roberts, The Chem strand Corporation, Decatur. The chemical and physical methods, customarily applied to the study of objects having at least one dimension of microscopic magnitude show certain limitations. In the investigation of such objects, the heterogeneities which are due to their bio¬ logical growth or to manufacturing processes, it is necessary to isolate the structural components either physically or by optical methods. Such an analysis of microscopic objects in which starch grains, cotton and wool fibers served as model structures — but which can be extended to ^This paper received first place in the Graduate Division of the Student Research Awards sponsored by the Alabama Academy of Science. Abstracts — Chemistry 89 analogous though different materials — was per¬ formed by a combination of the following meth¬ ods: 1 . Ultramicroscopy. 2. Micromanipulation (a technique making pos¬ sible "surgical” operations of a controlled nature and in microscopic dimensions). 3. Selective swelling (controlled changes of the colloid chemical equilibrium of macromolecular systems. Swelling and syneresis (de-swelling) are used to obtain the desired effects). 4. Observation of Brownian movements pro¬ duced in these structures or in morphologically defined, limited parts of them. 5. Cinemicrography. Since the quick sequence of the structural changes effected by changes in degree of swelling cannot be followed by the human eye, moving pictures are the only way of analyzing the fast movements in the treated ma¬ terials. The results of this study are shown in moving pictures as follows: 1. On cotton fibers the applied methods make visible a high speed movement of ultramicro- scopic particles. They stream from areas of higher swelling pressure towards lower pressure areas and under their impact the fiber skin bursts, thus releasing the contents. 2. On starch grains the changes in swelling pressure cause formation of Brownian movements. Their boundaries indicate a skin surrounding the swollen particles. The toughness of this skin and the high pressure exerted on it by its contents can be realized when the grain is punctured by action of microneedles. 3. In wool fibers it is shown that the surface scales form morphological units, completely closed towards the cortex. Brownian movements are gen¬ erated and after detaching the scale by means of the micromanipulator, the movements continue to be visible. Thus the morphologically independent structure of the wool scale is proven. NOTE ON ADVANCED SECONDARY SCHOOL CHEMISTRY H. Craig Sipe, Indian Springs School. Students interested in science as a career and Students filled with curiosity about their environ¬ ment can profit by a more rigorous course than that suggested by the usual high school textbook. The development of such a course has been a challenge. Experience has taught that the superior student with a consuming interest has no more difficulty with the ideas and logical structure of chemistry than does the college freshman. More care must be taken in the advanced secondary school chemistry course to provide through the laboratory and the demonstration lecture the range of experience for the understanding of theoretical aspects of chemistry than is usually done with the college student. Scores reflecting the comparative standing of a small group in such a course with college students using similar texts will be available at the end of the year. AMPHOTERISM OF THE OXYGEN ACIDS J. A. Southern, Howard College, Birmingham. On the long form of the periodic chart of the elements a diagonal line from boron through tel¬ lurium about separates the metals from the non- metals. Those elements close to the line usually are considered as being amphoteric. Since the properties of the elements, chemical and physical properties, change gradually hori¬ zontally and vertically in the periodic arrange¬ ment the property of amphoterism may well be applied to elements removed from the diagonal line which separates the metals from the non- metals. In the area of the oxygen acids amphoterism may be observed when some simple mass action effects are considered. Basic ionization of these acids depends on the degree of hydration which in turn depends on the acidity of the media in which the acid ion exists. The fact that for the most part a low pH is necessary for these acids to act as oxidizing agents lends itself to the basic ionization. Oxidation potentials of these acid ions increase in value with increased acidity. Electrolysis of potassium iodate results in the liberation of iodine at the cathode, but only in acid solution. The arsenate ion is an oxidizing agent only in acid solution. With sodium arsenate in one beaker and sodium bromide in another, the two beakers connected with a salt bridge, no cur¬ rent flows until the arsenate solution is acidic at which time bromide is liberated in the bromide solution. Precipitation of arsenic pentasulfide oc¬ curs only in strong, hot acid media. THE HIGH-FREQUENCY TITRATIONS OF ORGANIC ACIDS AND SALTS WITH THE ALKALI METHOXIDES S. F. Ting, E. L. Grove and James L. Kass- NER, University of Alabama, University. The purpose of this investig.ition w.is to study the shape of the high-frequency and conducti- metric curves of a number of organic acids and salts in dimethylformamide produced by the titra¬ tion with alkali methoxides. The methoxides were in a 9 to 1 ratio benzene and methyl alcohol. It was observed that the shapes of the titration curves was a function of the strengths of the 90 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science acids and bases used. The slopes of the titration curves changed as the basicity of the titrant changed. Under these conditions cesium meth- oxide was strongly basic and lithium methoxide was weakly basic. However lithium methoxide in methyl alcohol only acted as a strong base. The shape of some of the curves depended on the purity of the dimethylformamide. SECTION III GEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY A PRELIMINARY GEOLOGICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE WEISS DAM RESERVOIR T. W. Daniel, Jr., and Earl L. Hastings, Geological Survey of Alabama, University. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE WEISS RESERVOIR David L. DeJarnette, Mound State Monu¬ ment, Moundville. PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF LIMESTONE COUNTY, ALABAMA Earl L. Hastings, Geological Survey of Ala¬ bama, U niversity. STRUCTURE OF THE CITRONELLE OIL FIELD. Walter B. Jones and Winnie McGlamery, Geological Survey of Alabama, University. NITRATES IN GROUND WATER OF ALABAMA Philip E. LaMoreaux, U. S. Geological Sur¬ vey of Alabama, University. A HISTORY OF THE CAHABA COAL FIELD Stewart J. Lloyd, Geological Survey of Ala¬ bama, University. THE CAUSE OF THE ICE AGE-AN ARGUMENT Erederick K. Morris, U. S. Air Force, Max- ivell Field, Montgomery. OUR MINERAL RESOURCES-A DISCUSSION OF A NON- REPLACEABLE RESOURCE Hugh D. Pallister, Geological Survey of Ala¬ bama, U niversity. RECENT INFORMATION ON THE PALEO-INDIAN PROBLEM Frank J. Sod ay. The Chem strand Corporation, Decatur. THE MICROLITHIC INDUSTRY IN AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY Frank J. Sod ay. The Chem strand Corporation, Decatur. OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL OF ALABAMA Robert C. MacElVain, Alabama State Oil and Gas Board. Although the exploratory drilling for oil in Alabama first started in Lawrence County in 1865, it was not until 1944 that the first commercial oil was discovered in the State. From the 43,000 barrels produced in 1944, production has climbed very gradually to over 3 million barrels in 1956 and is still rising steadily. Is there any peak of production in sight What does it take to develop oil and gas in the State? Can development be speeded and production greatly boosted? Why is oil so hard to find? Why is natural gas so elusive? Who is looking for oil in the State, and how are they going about it? Are their methods right or wrong? To what areas of the State should the oil search be limited? Can we overlook certain areas as impossible? What makes an area impos¬ sible? Have we found only a little of our oil or most of it? How much can we expect to find, and where can we expect to find it? How much does it cost to drill an oil well ? What are the chances for a dry hole? What are the rewards of success? What are the present oil trends in Ala¬ bama and where are they leading us? The answer to these and other questions is the theme of this paper. SECTION VI GEOGRAPHY AND CONSERVATION WATER, ALABAMA'S COOL, CLEAR GOLD Earl I. Brown II, Alabama Polytechnic Insti¬ tute, Auburn. During the last 55 years daily water use in the United States has increased by 222 billion gal¬ lons. It is estimated that in the next twenty years the daily use will rise by more than 190 billion gallons. Water is essential for the development of municipal, industrial, agricultural and recrea¬ tional facilities. Fortunately, Alabama has been blessed with a large supply of water. This can be as valuable an asset to the development of Alabama as any of the other natural resources found within its boun¬ daries. As development within the state increases, the differential between supply and demand will decrease and it is probable that the demand will exceed supply in some industrial areas and per¬ haps in the state as a whole. Planners at local and state levels need to be Abstracts — Geography and Conservation 91 better informed as to the vital importance of an adequate water supply in the development of their areas. Additional legislative action is pro¬ posed and is thought to be necessary in order to make sure of the efficient use and development of available supplies of Alabama’s Cool, Clear Gold, WATER. EFFECTS OF FIRE ON UNDERGROWTH VEGETATION IN UPLAND SOUTHERN PINE FORESTS Earl J. Hodgkins, Alabama Polytechnic In¬ stitute, Auburn. Experimental burnings were applied in the lob- lolly-shortleaf pine type in the Fayette Experiment Forest near Fayette, Alabama. The treatments con¬ sisted of August burning, January burning, and an unburned check. Each treatment was applied to six 1-acre plots on ridges and to six plots on slopes. The total number of plots was 36. Under¬ growth vegetation was measured on line inter¬ cepts in the third growing season after burning. The kill of undergrowth trees was more severe in first burns than in repeat burns (three years later), in August burns than in January burns, and in pine little and broomsedge fuels than in other fuels. Pine undergrowth was still reduced on all burned plots two and one-half growing seasons after the first burnings. Hardwood cover under six feet in height was more than replaced on all burned plots by sprout growth after two and one-half seasons, but hardwood sapling canopy was still reduced on August-burned plots. Burning caused increased cover of shrubs and vines after two and one-half seasons, even after adjustment for the effect of reduced total tree cover. January burning stimulated shrubs and vines more than August burning. Various ecologi¬ cal reasons are advanced. After adjustment for a closer negative rela¬ tionship with total tree cover, grass cover showed reduction in the first growing season after burn¬ ing, complete recovery after two and one-half seasons. The forb cover increased in the first growing season after fire, with the composites and some of the legumes responding better to August burn¬ ing than to January burning. Forb cover decreased in subsequent years as grass and woody cover increased. Conclusions are based on these results and on a comprehensive review of the literature. The succession pattern of forbs-to-perennial-grasses-to- perennial-woody-species after fire seems to be largely a matter of spatial relationships among the plant forms involved. Invading shrubs and woody vines offer substantial competition to trees. AERIAL SPRAYING AND ITS EFFECT ON FOREST VEGETATION Vernon J. Knight, Coosa River Newsprint Company, Tuscaloosa. ROOT COMPETITION AND SOME OF ITS EFFECTS ON SOIL MOISTURE Frank W. Woods, Southern Forest Experi¬ ment Station, Forest Service, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, Marianna, Florida. Soil moisture measurements were made three times weekly for more than two years on one natural and three specially prepared pine plant¬ ing sites on the Chipola Experimental Forest in the sandhills of west Florida. Daily rainfall and temperature records were taken also during this period. Drought days from May through August, the rate of moisture depletion, and the relative field moisture content were used to show relationships between soil moisture and pine survival. In the Lakeland sands of the study area, the 3- to 9-inch soil depth was found more useful in relating soil moisture to seedling survival than any other depth. The 0-to 3-inch depth is sub¬ ject to high evaporation losses regardless of the type of plant cover, and below 9 inches the con¬ centration of roots decreases sharply. Soil moisture was found to be extremely im¬ portant to survival of planted pines in Florida's sandhills: the greater the soil moisture, the better the survival. The only acceptable methods of site preparation for planting pines in deep sands, among those tested, are those which completely denude the site prior to planting. 92 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science SECTION V PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS INSTRUMENTATION FOR THE API SUB-CRITICAL ASSEMBLY H. Bryant Brooks, Alabama Polytechnic In- stitute, Auburn. The types of instruments used in sub-critical assemblies are discussed with emphasis on the particular differences of each instrument. A short discussion follows describing the calculation of koo , the multiplication factor, by use of the sub- critical reactor. Other experiments, planned for the future, are listed. THE DESIGN OF THE A.P.I. SUB-CRITICAL REACTOR R. H. Davidson, Alabama Polytechnic Insti¬ tute, Auburn. The A. P. I. subcritical reactor is discussed, stressing the role of the infinite multiplication factor, Koo. The physical design is described, with emphasis on the dependence of K//n»;- to- table passed. 100 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Motion: by Mr. Goetz, second by Dr. Kaylor. The Secretary is instructed to set the date for pa¬ pers to be in the hand of Section Chairmen ap¬ proximately nine weeks prior to the date set for the annual meeting. Motion passed. President Tower called for consideration of the revised By-Laws. (Copy attached.) Copies had been mailed to all members of the Executive Committee prior to meeting. The following actions were taken on specific portions of the proposed revisions: Motion-to-T able: by Dr. Hansen, second by Dr. Green. Article I paragraphs 4 and 5 are tabled for consideration at a time when the Treasurer can be present to discuss them. Motion-to-table passed. Motion: by Mr. Goetz, second by Dr. Hansen. Article IV shall have added to it paragraph 15 to read "13. Committee on Archives. The Presi¬ dent shall appoint a Chairman of the Committee on Archives who shall be the Archivist.” Article V paragraph 9, Editor of the Journal shall have deleted the sentence beginning "With the ap¬ proval of the President he shall appoint an Ar¬ chivist — ” Article V shall have added to it para¬ graph 26 which shall read "26. Committee on Archives. The Archivist shall keep in a safe place the Archives of the Academy consisting of back numbers of the Journal, exchange publications and records of the Academy.” Motion passed. Motion: by Father Yancey, second by Dr. Green. The revised By-Laws of the Alabama Academy of Science as amended by the previous motions are approved and adopted. Motion approved and the revised By-Laws adopted by unanimous vote of the ten members present. Upon a motion by Dr. Carr, seconded by Dr. Kaylor and all others present Dr. Tower declared the meeting adjourned at 5:15 p.m. ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING Room 108, Ayers Hall, State Teachers College Jacksonville, Alabama, April 25, 1957 President J. Allan Tower called the meeting to order at 8:10 p.m. The following members and visitors were in¬ troduced by the secretary: J. Allan Tower, Howard Carr, James Ferry, Gid E. Nelson, Margaret Green, S. B. Barker, Wilbur B. DeVall, Hoyt M. Kaylor, Blanche E. Dean, Ruth Albrecht, Locke White, Jr., Paul Bailey, Henry R. Jennings, Carl Sensenig, A. T. Hansen, James Wilkes, William T. Wilks, Gilbert O. Spencer, Roland Harper, Paul Arnold, and H. A. McCullough. Arriving after the introductions were over were James L. Kassner and Mrs. Kassner, Gibbes Patton, Harold Wilcox, Harold Loesch and Mrs. L. M. Lloyd. The minutes of the Executive Committee Meet¬ ing of November 10, 1956, were distributed. Dr. William Wilks commented that a report of the Science Education Committee was given. Dr. Bai¬ ley moved the approval of the minutes as cor¬ rected. Dr. Barker seconded and the minutes were approved. At the request of the President, Dr. White commented on the portion of the revision of the By-Laws which had been tabled at the last meet¬ ing. Motion: By Mr. Jennings, seconded by Dr. Han¬ sen. Article I, paragraph 4, of the revised By- Laws presented at the November 10th meeting of the Executive Committee is approved and adopted. Motion passed. Motion: By Dr. Barker, seconded by Dr. Wil¬ liam Wilks. Article I, paragraph 5 of the revised By-Laws presented at the November 10th meet¬ ing of the Executive Committee is approved and adopted. Motion passed. Dr. Arnold gave a brief Report of the Local Arrangements Committee consisting of comments and announcements relative to the mechanics of the meeting. Dr. Bailey moved, Mrs. Dean sec¬ onded the approval of the report and upon a vote of the members, the report was approved. The Report of the Councilor of the A.A.A.S. was read by the Secretary. (Copy attached.) (Sum¬ mary of report: At the Council meeting the A. A. A.S. interesting actions include the merging of Science and Scientific Monthly, the receipt of the report of the Committee on the Social Aspects of Science of which Dr. Ward Pigman was chair¬ man, and the consideration of raising dues to $8.50 a year. At the Academy Conference, the most important action was the scheduling of the Conference on Junior Academies. Fr. Yancey pre¬ sided at this conference at which proposals were drawn up to be submitted to the A.A.A.S. These Executive Committee Meeting 101 included suggestions that a National Clearing House of Information for Junior and Senior Acad¬ emies be established, that the Academy Confer¬ ence give awards to outstanding Junior Academies and that a full-time Junior Academy field worker in each state be considered.) Dr. White moved the approval of the report, Dr. Albrecht seconded, and the report was approved. Tliere was no Report of the Coordinator of Science Clubs of America and Science Talent Search. The Report of the Counselor to the Junior Academy was given by Dr. Patton. (Copy at¬ tached.) (Summary of report: There should be a rotation of leadership from the Senior Academy with the Local Counselor appointed each year to move up to Senior Counselor during the last year of his term. The possibility of a full time leader for the Junior Academy should be inve.stigated. The Finance Committee and the Committee on the Junior Academy should study the financing of the Junior Academy and make recommenda¬ tions to the Senior Academy at the next meeting. The relationship of the Senior Academy to the Junior Academy should be studied to find addi¬ tional ways of encouraging the Junior Academy.) President Tower pointed out that the Articles of Incorporation provided for the rotation of the Counselors of the Junior Academy, but that this procedure had not been followed until now. On the matter of studying the financing and the re¬ lation of the Senior Academy, President Tower instructed Dr. Patton in consultation with the president-elect to appoint the Committee on the Junior Academy. Dr. Carr moved the approval of the report. Upon a second by Dr. James Wilkes and a vote of the members, the report was ap¬ proved. The Report of the Coordinator of Science Fairs was read by the Secretary in the absence of Dr. Beindorff. (Copy attached.) (Summary of re¬ port: It may prove desirable to increase the num¬ ber of regional fairs because of increased local interest. The Medical Association of the State of Alabama has endorsed the science fair program. The science fair workshop will be held at the University, June 24-29.) Dr. White moved. Dr. Albrecht seconded, and the report was approved. President Tower instructed the Committee on the Junior Academy to study the relationship of the Science Fair Program to the Junior Aiadcmy. The Report of the Secretary and of the Ad¬ mission to Membership Committee was given. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: The elec¬ tion of Mr. Henry Jennings to honorary mem¬ bership was recommended. Members were re¬ minded that according to the By-Laws applica¬ tions for membership must be endorsed by three members in good standing. The present member¬ ship in the Academy is 567. Student Research Award papers should be sent to the Chairman of the Research Committee rather than to the Secre¬ tary.) Mrs. Dean moved the approval of the re¬ port and the election of Mr. Jennings. Upon a second by Dr. Hansen and a vote of the members, the report was approved and Mr. Henry Jennings was elected to honorary membership. The Report of the Treasurer was giv^en by Dr. White. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: The General Fund has a balance of $1,709.47, the Research Fund, $474.74, and the President’s Special Fund $85.00, giving a total balance of $2,269.21.) Dr. Barker moved. Dr. Carr second¬ ed, and the report was approved. There was no Report of the Finance Committee. Dr. Bailey gave the Report of the Special Com¬ mittee on Legislative Relations. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: While the committee was designed to work toward the obtaining of funds through appropriation by the legislature and some efforts were made in this direction, certain events caused the committee to turn its efforts toward providing funds for the Journal to other sources with a view to the possible establishment of a quarterly journal. Alabama College, subject to approval by its Board of Trustees, has offered to assume one-half the cost of printing the Journal, one-half the cost of mailing the Journal, full cost of maintaining an editorial office, full cost of secretarial services for the editor, full cost of eo.^ing the Journal, and would assume the re¬ sponsibility of housing the exchange volumes. The Journal itself would remain entirely in the hands of the Academy.) Motion: By Mr. Jenning, second by Dr. Carr. The Special Committee is to be continued with authority to act for the Academy in considering the offer of Alabama College or any other in¬ stitution. Motion passed. The Report of the F.ditor was given by Dr. Bailey. (C.opy attached.) (Summary of report: Volume 28, somewhat larger than previous vol¬ umes, was ready for mailing shortly after the first of January, 19‘i7. Seven luiiuired copies were printcxl at a cost of $l,6i9.l8. two luindrcvl tlollars of wliich was obtained from .ulvertismt;.') Dr. Barker moveil the aiiiirosal of tlie report. Upon a .second by Dr. Hansen and a vote bv the members, the report iv.is .ipproted. 102 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Motion: By Dr. Ferry, seconded by Prof. De- Vall. The Editor is commended for his excellent work during the past year. Motion passed. Dr. Tower declared a recess at 9:56 p.m. The meeting continued at 10:15 p.m. Dr. Hansen as Chairman of the Editorial Board gave a brief comment in support of the Editor. No formal action was taken. In the absence of Dr. Finn, there was no Re¬ port of the Editor of the Newsletter. The Report of the Membership Committee was given by Dr. Carr. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: About 1,000 letters were sent out to school teachers in the state.) Dr. William Wilks moved, Dr. Bailey seconded and the report was approved. Dr. Scnsenig gave the Report of the Research Committee. (Copy attached.) (Summary of re¬ port: Research grants have been made to Jack Avery of Howard College and Dr. Catherine Vickery of Alabama College.) Dr. White moved the acceptance of the report. Upon a second by Mr. Jennings and a vote of the members, the report teas accepted. The Report of the Long Range Planning Com¬ mittee was read by Dr. James Wilkes for the Chairman, Dr. Wilcox. (Copy attached.) (Sum¬ mary of report: New business of the Executive Committee should continue to be presided over by the president instead of the incoming presi¬ dent. The Academy should offer its assistance to teachers of science in various ways. It should con¬ sider sponsoring interim workshops. The Science Education Section should investigate the possi¬ bility of cooperating in science programs on edu¬ cational television.) Motion: By Dr. Ferry, seconded by Dr. Barker. The three recommendations of the Long Range Planning Committee pertaining to Science Edu¬ cation are referred to the Science Education Sec¬ tion with a recommendation for their serious consideration. Motion passed. Dr. Carr moved the acceptance of the report and following a second by Dr. Bailey, the report was accepted by vote of the members. Dr. William Wilks gave the Report of the Science Education Committee. (Copy attached.) (Summary of report: Activities of the committee have been of a general nature.) The report was approved by vote of the members following a mo¬ tion by Dr. Albrecht and a second by Dr. Hansen. The Report of the Archivist was read by the Secretary. (Copy attached.) (The various routine activities of the Archivist are summarized.) Dr. Barker moved. Dr. Green seconded, and the mem¬ bers voted, and the report was approved. The Report of the Historical Committee was also read by the Secretary. (Copy attached.) (Sum¬ mary of report: Six chapters of the history of the Academy are completed with four yet to be fin¬ ished.) Dr. William Wilks moved the accept¬ ance of the report. Upon a second by Dr. Hansen and a vote of the members, the report was ac¬ cepted. There was no Report of the Committee on Pub¬ lic Relations. The President called for new business. Motion: By Dr. Ferry, second by Dr. Green. Article III, paragraph 1 of the By-Laws are amended to establish a separate Biological Sci¬ ence Section and a separate Medical Sciences Sec¬ tion. Motion passed. Motion: By Dr. Kaylor, seconded by Dr. Han¬ sen. Dr. Eric Rogers is elected vice chairman of the Physics and Mathematics Section. Motion ap¬ proved and Dr. Rogers elected. Upon a motion by Dr Ferry and numerous sec¬ onds, Dr. Tower declared the meeting adjourned. Respectfully submitted, Herbert A. McCullough Secretary 103 ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING Little Auditorium, Bibb Uraves Hall State Teachers College, Jacksonville, Alabama 9:00 a.m., April 27, 1957 President J. Allan Tower called the meeting to order at 9:10 a.m. with 43 members in attend¬ ance. The minutes of the Alabama College meeting of March 31, 1956, were distributed in mimeo¬ graphed form. Fr. Yancey moved the acceptance of the minutes as mimeographed. Dr. Hansen seconded and the minutes were approved. The Secretary gave a summary of the actions of the Executive Committee Meetings of Novem¬ ber 10, 1956, and April 25, 1957, followed by a brief Report of the Secretary. Upon a motion by Dr. Sipe, a second by Mrs. Dean and a vote of the members, the report was approved. The Treasurer’s Report was given by the Sec¬ retary. Dr. William Wilks moved the approval of the report. Dr. Fincher seconded and the mem¬ bers voted approval of the report. Dr. Bailey gave the Report of the Editor. Dr. Barker moved. Father Yancey seconded, the mem¬ bers voted and the report was approved. Father Yancey gave a Report of the Councilor of the A.A.A.S. The report was approved by vote of the members following a motion by Dr. Sipe and a second by Dr. Bailey. The Report of the Auditing Committee for the Senior Academy was given by Dr. Kaylor. The books were found in good order. Dr. Kaylor moved the acceptance of the report. Dr. South¬ ern seconded, and the report was approved. President Tower announced that the books of the Junior Academy were not available for audit at present. Dr. Fincher read the Report of the Nominating Committee. President — Howard Carr President-Elect — Herbert A. McCullough Vice Presidents, Section Chairmen and Vice Chairmen: I. Gid E. Nelson, Jr., Chairman James Wilkes, Vice Chairman II. Frank J. Stevens, Chairman E. L. Grove, Vice Chairman III. Wiley Rogers, Chairman William Powell, Vice Chairman IV. Thomas C. Croker, Chairman William B. Black, Vice Chairman V. Eric Rodgers, Chairman L. P. Burton, Vice Chairman VI. John Baswell, Chairman John Sullivan, Vice Chairman VII. Blanche E. Dean, Chairman Paul J. Arnold, Vice Chairman VIII. Raymond L. Gold, Chairman Robert E. Garren, Vice Chairman IX. Sam B. Barker, Chairman Alan Hisey, Vice Chairman Secretary (3 year term) — Hoyt M. Kaylor Treasurer (3 year term) — William J. Barrett Editor (3 ‘year term) — Paul C. Bailey Coordinator of Junior Academy with Science Clubs of America — James L. Kassner Counselor to the Junior Academy (3 year term) - — John A. Southern Coordinator for Science Fairs — A. B. Beindorff Trustees (terms to expire in I960) — Walter B. Jones, John Baswell Dr. Fincher moved the approval of the report and the election of the nominees. Dr. Sipe sec¬ onded. The president called for additional nomi¬ nations from the floor. There being none, the nominees were elected by a unanimous vote of the members. Dr. Carr gave the Report of the Place and Date of Meeting Committee. He announced that the date of the 1958 meeting to be held at Howard College would be set at the fall Executive Com¬ mittee Meeting. No other official invitation has been received for the 1959 meeting but it is un¬ derstood that one will be forthcoming as soon as administrative confirmation is available. Dr. Al¬ brecht moved. Dr. Bailey seconded and the re¬ port was approved. The Report of the Resolutions Committee was given by Dr. William Wilks. (Copy attached.) Upon a motion by Dr. Fincher, a second by Mrs. Dean and a vote of the members, the resolutions were adopted. Motion: By the Secretary, second by Dr. Han- .sen. Article VIII, paragraph 1 of the Articles of Incorporation of the Alabama Academy of S«.i- ence is amended to in.sert the office of Coordina¬ tor of Science Fairs. Asnendment p.issed. President Tower declared the meeting adjourn¬ ed at 9:4“! a.m. Respectfully submitted. Herbert A. McCiu i isuon Secret. ir^ 104 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science REPORT OF RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE THIRT\^-FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING APRIL 26-27, 1957 The Resolutions Committee submits the fol¬ lowing resolutions: 1. Whereas the Alabama Academy of Science is successfully completing its thirty-fourth annual meeting, now, therefore, be it resolved that the Academy expresses its appreciation to Jacksonville State Teachers College and to its president. Dr. Houston Cole, for their hospitality. That special appreciation is expressed for the work of Prof. Paul J. Arnold and Prof. Reuben B. Boozer and to their colleagues who so effec¬ tively prepared arrangements for both the senior and junior academies. That the gratitude of the Academy is expressed to Mr. J. K. Lunsford and the Birmingham Divi¬ sion of E. H. Sargent and Company for their hospitality in providing for the annual Academy dinner. That the Academy expresses its appreciation to the participants in the symposium on "Our Chang¬ ing Alabama.” 2. Whereas during the past year death has de¬ prived the Academy of two of its members, now therefore be it resolved that the Academy express its sympathy to the families of Dr. Madison L. Marshall and Dr. Joseph Lazansky and its appre¬ ciation of the loyal and valuable service they gave to the Academy. W. T. Wilks Margaret Green Resolutions Committee ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT For the Period of March 15, 1956-ApriI 19, 1957 Assets, 3/15/56 . ..$1,717.37 Receipts to date . .. 3,332.25 5,049.62 Less disbursements to date.. .. 2,780.41 Bank Balance . ..$2,269.21 President’s General Research Special Fund Assets, 3/15/56 $1,424.53 $ 292.84 $100.00 Receipts to date.. 2,807.25 425.00 $100.00 4,231.78 717.84 100.00 Less disbursements, to date . 2,522.31 243.10 $ 15.00 $1,709.47 $ 474.74 $ 85.00 Locke White, Jr., treasurer Checked against receipts and disbursements, April 19, 1957 Hoyt M. Kaylor James R. Wesson Auditing Committee 105 ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE STATE OF ALABAMA ) ) ss. JEFFERSON COUNTY ) KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS: That we, the undersigned, constituting the trustees of Alabama Academy of Science, an association heretofore unincorporated, desiring to become incor¬ porated under the provisions of Title 10 of the 1940 Code of Alabama, do hereby file this declara¬ tion in writing, and state: ARTICLE 1. NAME The name of this corporation shall be the Alabama Academy of Science. ARTICLE 11. OBJECTS The objects for which the corporation is formed are: 1. To promote the development of interest in scientific matters in the State of Alabama; 2. To provide means for publication of scientific papers and abstracts;; 3. To provide opportunity for increased cooperation and fellowship among its members; 4. To cooperate with other organizations having similar aims; 5. To render public service in scientific matters; 6. To promote the interest in and study of science by the youth of Alabama; 7. To provide for and aw'ard scholarships to deserving youths in Alabama; 8. The Alabama Academy of Science shall not have any capital stock, shall not pursue any of its objects or purposes for pecuniary profit to any of its members, and no part of its net receipts shall inure to the benefit of any private share-holder or individual. ARTICLE III. LOCATION The office of the Academy shall be in Birmingham, Jefferson County, Alabama. ARTICLE IV. POWERS In furtherance, but not in limitation, of the powers conferred by statute, the Academy shall have pow’er : 1. To charge an initiation fee and membership dues to provide income sufficient to meet the needs of its activities; 2. To acquire and hold real property and personal property, stocks in business corporations, bonds and other evidences of indebtedness, to receive property by gift, will, or devise, and to hold the same in conformity with all lawful conditions imposed by the donor; to sell, lease or otherwise alienate its property and to exercise such other powers as are incident to private corporations, but not for the pecuniary gain of any member; 3. To borrow money and to secure the payment thereof by mortgage or deed of trust on all or any part of its property, real or personal or both; 4. To apply for, obtain, register, purchase, lease or otherwise to acc]uire, and to hold, use, own. operate and introduce, and sell, assign, or otherwise to dispose of, any trademarks, trade names, patents, inventions, improvements and processes used in connection witli or secured under letters patent of the United States, or elsewhere; and to use, exercise, develop, grant licenses in respect ot, or otherwise turn to account any such trade-marks, patents, licenses, processes and the like, or any property or rights. ARTICLE V. TRUSTEES THE NAMES, post office addresses, and terms of office ot the trustees are as follows: NAME ADDRESS TERM Henry L. Jennings . . Title Guarantee Buildiui;, Birmingham, Alabama . Arthur T. McWane . . McWane Cast Iron Pipe Company, Birmingham, Alabama . 106 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Carl B. Fritsche... George R. Stuart, Harwell G. Davis. James L. Kassner. Reichhold Chemical Company, Tuscaloosa, Alabama . 2 yrs. .Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham, Alabama . 2 yrs. •Howard College, Birmingham, Alabama . 1 yr. .University, Alabama . . . 1 yr. ARTICLE VI. MEMBERS 1. All members of the Alabama Academy of Science in good standing shall become members of the Corporation, and different classes of membership together with the right and privileges of each class shall be determined by the By-Laws of the Corporation. 2. There shall be no personal, individual or other liability whatsoever on the part of any mem¬ ber of the Academy for the debts of the Academy or for any act or omission of the Academy or of any officer, agent or employee thereof. ARTICLE VIE MEETINGS OF THE MEMBERSHIP 1. There shall be an annual meeting of the members of the Academy, the time and place to be determined by the Executive Committee at least twenty days in advance. 2. Special meetings of the membership may be called by the president and he shall call such meet¬ ings on the written request of ten (10) active members. 3. Notice of all meetings of the members shall be in writing mailed to the last known address at least ten (10) days in advance of such meeting. The members present at any such meeting shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. 4. The rights of members to vote at meetings of the membership shall be determined by the By-Laws. ARTICLE VIII. OFFICERS 1. The officers of the Academy shall be elected by the membership and shall be six trustees, a president, president-elect, such vice-presidents as may be determined by the membership who will act as Chairmen of the various sections, vice-chairmen for the various sections, a secretary, a treasurer, a councilor of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, an editor of the Journal, three counselors of the Junior Academy, a coordinator with Science Clubs of America, and a coordi¬ nator of Science Fairs. 2. At the close of each annual meeting the President-elect, elected at the previous annual meet¬ ing, shall become President of the Academy. A new president-elect and officers to succeed all offi¬ cers whose terms of office terminate at the current annual meeting of the Academy shall be elected by a plurality of the votes of the members present at said annual meeting. The term of office for all officers shall begin at the close of the annual meeting except the Councilor of the American Asso¬ ciation for the Advancement of Science whose term of office shall begin on January first following his election. 3. The tenure of office shall be for one year or until successors shall be elected, except that the Trustees, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Councilor of the American Association for the Advance¬ ment of Science, the Editor of the Journal, and three Counselors of the Junior Academy, one of whom shall be elected each year to replace one whose term is expiring, shall serve three years and shall be elected triennially. 4. Vacancies on the board of officers occurring between annual meetings shall be filled in the following manner: In case the office of President shall become vacant the President-elect shall be¬ come president. In case the office of president-elect shall also be come vacant the office of president shall be filled by the Executive Committee called into special session by the Secretary and/or Treas¬ urer. Vacancies in any other offices of the Academy shall be filled by the Executive Committee con¬ vened on call of the President. Arucles of Incorporation 107 5. At the first business session of the Executive Committee, the President shall name a nomi¬ nating committee to nominate officers of the Academy, including the Vice-Chairman. Each Section will suggest a nominee for Vice-Chairman. 6. The affairs of the Academy shall be managed by an executive committee which shall be com¬ posed of the elected officers together with the three immediate past presidents, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and the chairman of standing committees authorized by the By-Laws. 7. The Executive Committee shall have power to make and alter the By-Laws of the Academy; to hold meetings at such places and at such times as shall from time to time be designated by the By-Laws or by resolution of the committee; to fix the amount of fees and dues to be collected from members and shall have such other powers, not inconsistent herewith as may be necessary to carry out the purposes of the Academy. The By-Laws may prescribe the numbers of members of the com¬ mittee necessary to constitute a quorum which number may be less than a majority of the whole number of the members. 8. The Trustees shall be ex-officio members of the committee on finance for the Academy and shall take and hold title to all real property of the Corporation and shall act as custodians of all money and personal property of whatsoever kind except membership fees and dues, acquired by the Academy for purposes other than the general operating expenses thereof, in trust for the Aca¬ demy, and shall disburse such money, dispose of such property, borrow money for such purposes other than the operating expenses of the Academy and make and issue notes, bills, bonds, and other evidences of indebtedness and convey by mortgage or deed of trust all or any part of the property owned, real or personal or both, by the Corporation, to secure the payment of any debts contracted by the authority of the Executive Committee; but before such mortgage or deed of trust can be executed, the majority of the Executive Committee shall have first authorized the incurring of the debt and the execution of such mortgage or deed of trust on all or part of the real or personal prop¬ erty, or both of the Corporation, which authorization must be made at a regular meeting or at a special meeting of the Executive Committee especially called for the purpose. And the Executive Committee at any regular meeting, or at any special meeting called for that purpose, may grant authority to the Board of Trustees to convey by mortgage or deed of trust any or all of its property, real or personal, it may then own or thereafter acquire, for the purpose of securing any debts con¬ tracted by the Trustees for the Corporation. 9. The trustees shall serve for a term of three (3) years, unless specifically elected for a lesser term, except that one-third of the Trustees first elected shall be elected to serve for one year, one third for two years, and one third for three years, respectively. 10. In case of any increases in the number of trustees, the additional trustees shall be elected as may be provided in the By-Laws and one third of their number shall be elected to serve for one year, one third for two years, and one third for three years. 11. In case of any vacancy in any class of trustees through death, resignation, disqualification or other cause, the Executive Committee, at any regular meeting, or any special meeting called for that purpose, by affirmative vote of the majority of the Committee present, may elect a successor to hold office for the unexpired term of the Trustee whose place shall be v.icant and until the elec¬ tion of a successor. ARTICLE IX. DURATION The duration of the Corporation shall be perpetual. ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS This certificate may be amended at any annual meeting by a three-fourths vote of the attending members. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, This certificate has been executed by the trustees of the ( orpora- tion, acknowledged as required by Law, and offered for record in the Office of the ludge of Pro¬ bate of Jefferson County, Alabama, this 27th day of May, 19-17. 108 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Henry L. Jennings T rustee SEAL Arthur T. McWane T rustee SEAL Carl B, Fritsche T rustee SEAL George R. Stuart T rustee SEAL Harwell G. Davis T rustee SEAL James L. Kassner T rustee SEAL Title Guarantee Building Birmingham, Alabama Address Sworn and subscribed to before me this 17 day of May, 1947. Dorothy Stephens Notary Public McWane Cast Iron Pipe Co. Address Sworn and subscribed to before me this 17 day of May, 1947. Dorothy Stephens Notary Public Reichhold Chemicals, Inc. Tuscaloosa, Alabama Address Sworn and subscribed to before me this 26 day of May, 1947. Lucy Barnes Notary Public Birmingham Southern College Birmingham, Alabama Address Sworn and subscribed to before me this 21 day of May, 1947. Dorothy Stephens Notary Public Howard College Birmingham, Alabama Address Sworn and subscribed to before me this 20 day of May, 1947. Dorothy Stephens Notary Public University, Alabama Address Sworn and subscribed to before me this 26 day of May, 1947. Lucy Barnes Notary Public BY-LAWS OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ARTICLE 1. MEMBERSHIP CLASSIFICATION 1. The membership of the Academy shall consist of the following classes: a) Individual Members: Individual membership of the Academy shall be open to any man or woman in the State of Alabama who is actively engaged in science, either pure or applied, and who has received a four year collegiate degree, or who has had a minimum of ten years professional or industrial experience. Two years may be deducted from this minimum of ten years for each year the individual spent in college. By-Laws 109 b) Associate Members: Any adult interested in the promotion of science in Alabama who does not qualify for the grade of member shall be eligible for associate membership. c) Collegiate Members: Any college student interested in the promotion of science in Ala¬ bama may qualify as a collegiate member. d) Junior Members: High School seniors, whose Science Club is in full standing with the Alabama Junior Academy of Science, and who have presented a paper or exhibit before the annual meeting of the Junior Academy may become Junior Members of the Senior Academy. e) Honorary Members: Members of the Academy who have had some national honor conferred upon them shall be eligible for honorary membership. Not more than two honorary mem¬ bers shall be elected in any one year. f) Patrons: Any person contributing One Hundred Dollars (SlOO.OO) or more to the treas¬ ury of the Academy may become a patron upon being duly elected. g) Life Members: Any member of the Academy may become a life member by paying into the treasury the sum of fifty dollars ($50.00). h) Fellows: Members of the Academy who are Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science shall be classed as Fellows of the Academy. i) Sustaining Members: Individuals, organizations, or institutions may secure sustaining mem¬ bership upon the minimum payment of Ten Dollars ($10.00) per year. j) Industrial Members: Industrial membership in the Academy of Science is open to those business firms and corporations who are interested in the advancement of science in Alabama. The dues are Twenty-five Dollars ($25.00) per year. Each industrial member is entitled to designate two individuals from its organization to represent it as active members in the pro¬ ceedings of the Academy. 2. Patrons, Associate Members, Junior Members, and Collegiate Members shall not hold office or vote, but may present papers before the Academy without introduction. 3. No one shall be eligible for office who is in arrears in the payment of dues. 4. The opening date of the Academy’s fiscal year shall be the first day of the annual meeting. Dues for new members will be credited to the current year, unless they are received during the last two months of the fiscal year, or unless the supply of copies of the Journal for that year has been exhausted. Members in arrears with their dues for two consecutive years shall be dropped from the rolls except that members in any of the armed forces in time of war shall be excused from the payment of dues. Members so dropped, however may be reinstated at any time upon payment of dues for the current year and one year preceding. 5. All members with the exception of Junior Members shall receive all literature issued by the Academy. No member will receive a copy of the Journal until he has paid his dues for the year of the annual meeting covered by that Journal. Moreover, unless he has paid his dues by the time the Journal goes to press, he cannot be sure of receiving a copy. 6. All applications for membership must be endorsed by at least three members in good standing, regardless of the qualifications of the applicant for membersliip on other grounds. ARTICLE 11. DUES The dues for the several classes of membership shall be as follows; 1. Life Members, Fifty Dollars ($50.00). 2. Individual Members, Three Dollars ($3.00) per annum. 3. Associate Members, Three Dollars ($3.00) per annum. 4. Junior Members, One Dollar $(1.00) per annum. 5. Collegiate Members, One Dollar ($1.00) per annum. 6. Sustaining Members, Ten Dollars ($10.00) or more per annum. 7. Honorary Members, Patrons, none. 8. Industrial Members, Twenty-five Dollars ($25.00) or more j'ler annum. 9. Fellows, Three Dollars ($3.00) per annum. no Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science ARTICLE III. SECTIONS 1. The Academy shall have the following scientific sections: I. Biological Sciences II. Chemistry III. Geology and Anthropology IV. Geography and Conservation V. Physics and Mathematics VI. Industry and Economics VII. Science Education VIII. The Social Sciences IX. Medical Sciences 2. Each Vice-President shall be Chairman of his Section. Each Vice-Chairman shall act as Sec¬ retary of his Section. The Vice-chairman of each section shall become the Chairman of the Section the following year. ARTICLE IV. COMMITTEES Standing committees of the Academy shall be set up as indicated below and serve for the terms and purposes stated. 1. Steering Committee: The Steering Committee consists of the President, Past President, Presi¬ dent-Elect, Secretary and Treasurer. 2. Committee on Membership: This committee consists of the Vice-Chairmen of the sections with the President-Elect as Chairman. 3. Committee on Research: The committee is appointed by the President. 4. Committee on Long Range Planning: The Chairman retires at the end of each year, but for the purpose of continuity in planning may be reappointed by the incoming President until he has serv¬ ed three years. 5. Committee on Finance: This committee consists of eight members appointed by the President, the Chairman of which is to be a leading business man or industrialist. The chairman of the Research Committee is a member of this committee. 6. Committee on Admission to Membership: The Secretary shall be Chairman of this committee with the President-Elect and the Councilor of the A. A. A S as additional members. 7. Auditing Committees: The President shall appoint annually two auditing committees of two members each, one for the Senior Academy and one for the Junior Academy. 8. Editorial Board: The Editorial Board shall consist of three members each appointed for a term of 3 years with the Editor as an additional member ex officio. The members are so appointed that only one appointment is made each year. 9. Committee on Junior Academy. This committee shall be appointed by the Counselors of the Junior Academy, with ten to twelve members (not necessarily members of the Alabama Acad¬ emy of Science) scattered throughout Alabama. 10. Committee on Place of Meeting: The President shall appoint a committee of five, a month or more before the annual meeting. 11. Committee on Local Arrangements'. The President shall appoint chairmen, one to serve for the Senior Academy and one to serve for the Junior Academy. Each chairman shall have the power to select members of his committee. 12. Committee on Science Education: This committee is appointed .by the President. The Chair¬ man and Vice-Chairman of the Science Education Section and the Coordinator of Science Fairs are ex officio members. 13. Committee on the Newsletter: The President shall appoint a Chairman of the Newsletter Committee. The Chairman, in consultation with the President, shall nominate the members of his committee. By-Laws 111 14. Conirnittee oyi Public Relations: This committee shall be appointed by the President. 15. Committee on Archives: The President shall appoint a Chairman of the Committee on Ar¬ chives who shall be the Archivist. ARTICLE V. DUTIES OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 1. Trustees: The duties of the trustees are as enumerated in the Certificate of Incorporation. They shall have the right to hold meetings, both regular and special at such times and places as may be convenient and at such meetings a majority of the trustees shall constitute a quorum for the trans¬ action of any business which may come before them. All funds of the Academy which may come into the custody of the trustees shall be carried in a separate bank account in the name of the Academy. The trustees may designate one or more of their number to sign checks drawn to such account. 2. Executive Committee: The duties of the Executive Committee are as set forth in the certificate of incorporation. At the first business session of the Executive Committee AT THE TIME OF THE ANNUAL MEETING the President shall name a nominating committee to nominate officers of the Academy, including the Vice-Chairman; nominations for Vice-Chairman may be suggested by Sec¬ tion Chairmen. The Executive Committee shall meet at least twice annually. The first meeting being called by the President in the fall. The second meeting shall be immediately before the annual meeting of the Academy. The Executive Committee shall consider at these meetings such business as may prop¬ erly be brought before it and shall make recommendations for action by the business sessions of the entire Academy. Special meetings of the Executive Committee may be held whenever called by a majority of the members thereof, or by the President. Timely notice of a meeting stating the time and place thereof and indicating briefly the object thereof, shall be given the members of the committee, by mail, publication, or by other suitable means whereby the notice may be, conveyed. At all meetings of the Executive Committee, regular or special, the members present shall constitute a quorum for the trans¬ action of any business which may come before it. 3. President: The President shall preside at the sessions of the Academy as a whole, and of the Executive Committee. He shall appoint all committees except as otherwise herein provided. He shall deliver the Presidential Address at the annual banquet at the end of his tenure of office. The text of the address shall be published in the Journal, either in full, in abstract or by title, as he desires. 4. President-Elect: The President-Elect shall perform the duties of the President in the latter's absence. He shall serve as chairman of the Committee on Membership. 5. Vice-Presidents: The Vice-Presidents shall preside as Chairmen of their respective sections and, in the absence of the President and the President-Elect, at sessions mentioned in Section 2 hereof. They in cooperation with the Vice-Chairmen shall be responsible for the planning and arr.ing- ing of programs for their respective sections. They in cooperation with the Vice-Chairmen shall endeavor to build up the membership of their respective sections. 6. Secretary: The Secretary shall keep the minutes of the Executive Committee and of the Acad¬ emy as a whole. He shall be responsible for the arrangements of the annual meeting, including the drawing up of the general program and the arranging of the sectional programs sent him by the Section Cliairmen. He shall keep the membership roll of the Academy, including rank, .section member ot the A.A.A.S., etc. He shall act as Chairman of the Committee on Admission to Membersliip and sliall notitv ap placants for membership of their selection or non-.selection. At the close of the annual meeting, he shall provide tlie Treasurer with a list of the members. He shall perform such other duties as may be assigned to liim by llie Executive ( omnuttee. 112 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science 7. Treasurer: The Treasurer shall be in charge of all funds of the Academy, derived from mem¬ bership fees and dues, but not special funds held by the trustees, as provided in the Certificate of Incorporation. The Treasurer shall keep all funds belonging to the Academy in a separate bank ac¬ count. The Treasurer is charged with the duties of sending notes relating to dues and the collec¬ tion of dues. He shall make only such disbursements as are approved by the President. He shall check the membership roll furnished him by the Secretary, for payment of dues and forward the revised roll to the Editor of the Journal. 8. Councilor of the A.A.A.S.: The Councilor of the A.A.A.S. shall represent the Academy on the Council of the A.A.A.S. and the Academy conference, and shall attend any other meetings of the A.A.A.S. conventions which he shall deem of interest to the Academy. He shall report at the annual meeting on the meetings of the Council and the Academy Con¬ ference. He shall be a member of the Committee on Admission to Membership. 9. Editor of the Journal: The Editor of the Journal shall publish the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science. He shall be a member of the Editorial Board, ex officio. 10. Counselors of the Junior Academy: The Counselors of the Junior Academy shall supervise the activities of the Junior Academy for the Senior Academy. 11. Co-ordinator With Science Clubs of America: The Co-ordinator With Science Clubs of America shall act as a laison officer between the Academy and Science Clubs of America and also between the Academy and the Gorgas Scholarship Foundation. 12. Steering Committee: The Steering Committee is authorized to handle routine jobs of the Academy which shall arise between Executive Committee meetings. It is responsible to the Executive Committee and is not authorized to make major decisions for the Academy. 13. Committee on Membership: This committee shall, through its Statewide membership, seek to secure new members, solicit Sustaining Memberships, and handle such investigations and projects as may be assigned to it by the officers or committees of the Academy. 14. Committee on Research: The Committee on Research shall encourage scientific research in Alabama, by whomsoever initiated and conducted, investigate possible sources of funds to be awarded by the Academy to research scientists, and make recommendations on the placing of such funds where they will be likely to be of the greatest possible use to scientific research. This Committee shall collaborate with the Committee on Long Range Planning. 15. Committee on Long Range Planning: It shall be their responsibility to formulate and pro¬ mote long range plans for broadening and intensifying the activities of the Academy so that a maximum number of workers in its various fields shall share in and contribute to the progress and prosperity of our State. 16. Committee on Finance: The duties of the Committee on Finance shall be to promote the fi¬ nancial welfare of the Academy. The chairman of this committee shall be a member of the Long Range Planning Committee. 17. Committee on Admission to Membership: This committee shall examine the qualifications of the applicants for membership and assign them to the different grades of membership. They shall keep a complete and up-to-date record of the membership of the Academy. 18. Auditing Committee: The Auditing Committee shall examine and report to the Academy upon the financial record of the Treasurers of the Academy and the Junior Academy respectively at the meeting for which they were appointed. 19. Editorial Board: The Editorial Board shall concern itself with broad editorial policies and with problems of finance and shall act in a general advisory capacity to the Editor. 20. Committee on Junior Academy: The duties of this committee shall be to function in the organization of Chapters of the Junior Academy and by all possible means promote the welfare of such Chapters. 21. Corn mitt ee on Place of Meeting: This committee is to make recommendations at the annual business meeting concerning the time and place for holding subsequent annual meetings. By-Laws 113 22. Committee on Local Arrangements: This committee shall have the responsibility of provid¬ ing for the physical needs of the Academy at its annual meeting. The chairman of the Local Ar¬ rangements Committee for the Senior Academy shall work closely with the President and the Secre¬ tary relative to all aspects of the meeting; the chairman of the Committee for the Junior Academy shall work closely with the Counselor of the Junior Academy. 23. Committee on the Newsletter: The Committee on the Newsletter shall prepare and forward to the members a newsletter. The newsletter shall be published at regular intervals determined by the President and the chairman of the committee. The chairman of the Committee on Newsletter shall act as editor of the newsletter. 24. Committee on Science Education: This committee will have as its primary function the eval¬ uation of science education in the state at all academic levels, and the formulation of ideas to im¬ prove the present system where possible. 25. Committee on Public Relations: This committee shall seek adequate publicity for the meet¬ ings and work of the Academy. 26. Committee on Archives: The Archivist shall keep in a safe place the Archives of the Acad¬ emy consisting of back numbers of the Journal, exchange publications, and records of the Academy. ARTICLE VI. PROGRAM RULES Titles and abstracts of papers to be presented at the annual meeting of the Academy must be sent in duplicate to the Chairman of the Section in which the paper is to be presented before the date set by him. Non-members may read papers on the invitation of the respective Section Chairman. The Section Chairman shall send one copy of the paper and the abstract to the Secretary and one to the Editor of the Journal before the final date set by them. The program of the annual meeting shall consist of the following features: 1. Meeting of the Executive Committee; 2. First business session, at which will be heard reports, and at which committees wdll be ap¬ pointed; 3. Second business session for reports of committees, election of officers, select of place of next meeting, and such other business as may properly be brought before the meeting. 4. Sectional meetings which shall be held in the intervals between business sessions, or on the succeeding day, and which should not interfere with the business sessions; 5. Annual banquet on the night of the first day of the convention with Presidential Address followed by a reception; 6. Field trips of scientific interest. ARTICLE VIE JOURNAL The Journal of the Academy shall be published annually. It shall contain an account of the business transacted at the annual meeting, papers of outstanding merit, abstracts of all other papers, and such other materials as the Editor and the Editorial Board may think proper. ARTICLE VIII. THE ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The Academy shall sponsor the Alabama Junior Academy of Science, composed of liigh school science clubs. Counselors of the Junior Academy are officers of the Academy and are elected as provided in Article VIII, Section 4, of the Articles of Incorporation. ARTICLE IX. AMENDMENTS The By-Laws may be amended by a plurality vote ot the Executive Committee present at anv meeting, or at any special meeting tor that purpose. 114 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science ALABAMA STATE SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH FOR GENERAL GORGAS SCHOLARSHIPS Sixty-four high school teachers requested entry material for 520 seniors in the seventh annual Alabama State Science Talent Search of whom 103 completed their entries by taking a science aptitude examination, ob¬ taining recommendations and writing a re¬ port on "My Science Project.” The white finalists — 2 girls and 10 boys — were invited to the Jacksonville State Teachers College for an all expense trip, April 25-27, 1957, to attend the annual convention of the Ala bama Junior Academy of Science. They were entertained at a banquet Thursday eve¬ ning in the college dining room along with the judges and other representatives from the Senior Academy. After the banquet each of the finalists demonstrated and discussed his project with all of the judges. The final¬ ists were then personally interviewed by each of the judges. The judges for this year’s contest were Emmett B. Carmichael*, Chairman, Eric Rodgers*, Frank Stevens, William J. Wingo, Mrs. Wynelle Thompson, Harold E. Wil¬ cox, Father Patrick H. Yancey, Willard N. Mobley, C. C. Hall, Jr.*, Miss Claire Cox, W. S. Bishop, W. H. Bancroft*, John B. Miles, E. P. Miles, Joe J. Freymuth, Jr. The judges for the 1957 Negro contest were S. B. Barker, S. Eason Balch, Hoyt Kay- lor, Frank E. Lankford, J. E. Lunsford, Thomas L. McWater, John A. Southern, Da¬ vis H. Thompson, James W. Woods. Those judges designated by (*) served in both the white and Negro contests. The winners in the white contest were announced by Honorable Albert Rains at the annual banquet of the Junior Academy, Friday evening, April 26, 1957. The winners are: First Place — William B. Gandrud, from Tusca¬ loosa Senior High School, Tuscaloosa, Ala¬ bama. William C.' Berryman, Teacher. Title of Science Project, "A Study of Polar Air Masses and Related Frontal Intensities.” This award is $1200 ($300 per year) plus college tuition for four years. Second Place — Dwight L. Eddins, from Deca¬ tur High School, Decatur, Alabama. John H. Teague, Teacher. Title of Science Project, "The Prism Spectroscope.” This award is $900 ($225 per year) plus college tuition for four years. Third Place — Miss Jo Ann Luker, from Tusca¬ loosa Senior High School, Tuscaloosa, Ala¬ bama. William C. Berryman, Teacher. Title of Science Project, "An Experimental Study to Discover the Cause of Hemolysis of Blood at Druid City Hospital, Tuscaloosa, Ala¬ bama.” This award is $600 ($150 per year) plus college tuition for four years. Fourth Place — Miss Joan Bryant, from S. R Butler High School, Huntsville, Alabama. Mrs. Ibbie K. Bradford, Teacher. Title of Science Project, "Effect of Antibiotics on the Growth of Several Common Bacteria.” This award is $500 ($125 per year) plus college tuition for four years. First Alternate — Theodore J. Panayotoff, from Murphy High School, Mobile, Alabama. Mrs. Etta V. Frantzen, Teacher. Title of Science Project, "Rocket Propulsion.” Second Alternate — Charles L. Adams, from Tus¬ caloosa Senior High School, Tuscaloosa, Ala¬ bama. William C. Berryman, Teacher. Title of Science Project, "Design and Construction of a Precipitation Chamber.” The remaining six white finalists received Honorable Mention. These six finalists are listed below: John T. Hannon, Jr., from Bessemer High School, Bessemer, Alabama; John S. Martin, Teacher. Lynn D. Grubbs, from Hueytown High School, Hueytown, Alabama; Edith Geisler, Teacher. John L. Kelly, from C. F. Vigor High School, Prichard, Alabama; Mrs. Lucille N. Lloyd, Teacher. State Science Talent Search 115 Stephen A. Scharfenberg, from St. Bernard High School, St. Bernard, Alabama; Rev. Ronald Veigl, O.S.B., Teacher. Richard M. Hobbie, from Sidney Lanier High School, Montgomery, Alabama; Mrs. Frances D. Jones, Teacher. Joseph M. O’Neill, from St. Bernard High School, St. Bernard, Alabama; Rev. Ronald Veigl, O.S.B., Teacher. It is note worthy that three of the twelve finalists in this year’s contest — 2 girls and 1 boy — were selected to represent their re¬ gional science fair to the National Science Fair in Los Angeles. Two of the finalists — Dwight L. Eddins and Joan Bryant — received honorable mention in the National contest for Westinghouse Scholarships. The first, second and fourth place win¬ ners and the first alternate in the 1955-56 contest elected to attend college outside the state of Alabama and thus automatically for¬ feited the cash and tuition awards of the Gorgas Scholarship. They will receive a cer¬ tificate showing that they were awarded first, second and fourth places and honor¬ able mention in the state contest. Mr. John T. Bagwell from Sidney Lanier High School, first place winner in 1956, re¬ ceived a scholarship to the University of Chicago, where is now enrolled. Mr. Phillip W. Laney, Jr., from Indian Springs High School, second place winner in 1956, has a scholarship at Yale Univer¬ sity which includes admission and financial aid totaling $800. Mr. Ferdinand H. Mitchell, Jr., from Tus¬ caloosa Senior High School, third place win¬ ner in 1956. was awarded the $1200 cash award and elected to attend the University of Alabama. Mr. Mitchell was also awarded a Merit Scholarship by the General Dy¬ namics Corporation. Mr. Bruce S. Keenan from Murphy High School, fourth place winner in 1956, accept¬ ed a University scholarship to the Flniver- sity of the South in Sewanee, Tennessee. Mr. William B. Nickell from Indian Springs High School, first alternate in 1956, was awarded a Meyer Memorial Scholarship to Princeton which includes tuition for four years. Mr. Richard F. Sweet from McGill Insti¬ tute, second alternate in 1956, received the $900 cash award forfeited by the second place winner and chose to attend Spring Hill College. Mr. Sweet also was awarded a National Merit Scholarship by the Sears Foundation which includes a $100 grant each year for four years. Mr. Henry Clifford Alexander from Mc¬ Gill Institute, fourth alternate in 1956, was awarded the $600 cash award and is en¬ rolled at Spring Hill College in Mobile. He was awarded a Badger Dam Scholarship amounting to $1600 offered only to sons and daughters of Spring Hill Alumnae. Mr. Donald Earl Bayles from Coffee County High School, sixth alternate in 1956. elected to attend Dartmouth College in Han¬ over, New Hampshire, and was awarded a National Merit Scholarship providing $600 per year for six years. Mr. John Thomas Daniel from Lanett High School, seventh alternate in 1956, re¬ ceived the $500 cash and elected to attend Alabama Polytechnic Institute. The Negro finalists were invited to Bir¬ mingham to the Southern Research Institute, on June 8, 1957, as guests of The Gorgas Scholarship Foundation. After the finalists demonstrated and discussed their projects with all of the judges, they were personal Iv interviewed by each of the judges. The win¬ ner was announced bv Dr. Emmett B. Car¬ michael. That evening the finalists were en tertained at a banquet along with the teach ers and principals from their respectixe schools. Mr. C. \N^. Haves, Director ot Negro Schools for Jeffer.son Countv, looked atter 116 Journal of thh Alabama Academy of Science the housing and entertainment for the Negro finalists. The W'' inner — Miss Daisy Beatrice Grayson, from Fairfield Industrial High School, Fair- field, Alabama. Henry L. Dobbins, Teacher. Title of Science Project, "Computor — 'Add¬ ing Machine’.” This award is $1200 ($300 per year) plus college tuition for four years. First Alternate — Miss Judith E. Dearing, from Tuskegee Institute High School, Tuskegee, Alabama. Mrs. Harriette W. Jeffries, Teach¬ er. Title of Science Project, "Value of Amino Acids Base on Southern Foods.” The other three finalists received Honor¬ able Mention. These are listed below; Charity Marie Boykin, from Fairfield Industrial High School, Fairfield, Alabama. Henry L. Dobbins, Teacher. Ruth M. Patterson, from Parker High School, Birmingham, Alabama, M. H. Johnson, Teacher. James H. Hill, from Parker High School, Bir¬ mingham, Alabama, M. H. Johnson, teacher. This boy did not report for the screening. James L. Kassner ALABAMA ACADEMY AWARD 1957 The Alabama Academy Award for 1957 was conferred upon Sister Mary Charles Daly of Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman, Alabama, at the twenty-third annual con¬ vention of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science, April 26-27, 1957. The award con¬ sists of a gold key accompanied by a certifi¬ cate of citation. It is given annually by the Alabama Academy of Science for merito¬ rious teaching of science in the state. The purpose of the award is to recognize those teachers who go beyond the classroom to stimulate scientific endeavor among their students, as evidenced by their sponsorship of science clubs active in the Alabama Junior Academy of Science. Sister Mary Charles has been sponsor of her science club for thirteen years, attend¬ ing nearly every convention of the Junior Academy during that time. Her club’s record of participation in these events has been outstanding, including the presentation of numerous exhibits and papers and holding of state offices by her students. A high pro¬ portion of her club’s exhibits and papers have won awards, and one of her students was a finalist in the Alabama State Science Talent Search for the General Gorgas Schol¬ arships. It is in recognition of her success¬ ful performance of this work with young people that the Alabama Academy Award for 1957 was presented to Sister Mary Charles. REPORT OF COOPERATOR TO SCIENCE CLUBS OF AMERICA FOR THE YEAR 1936-57 Thi,' year 2 50 of the approximately 500 white and Negro high schools in Alabama were af- tiliated with Science Clubs of America. Manuals and posters on the Alabama Talent Search w'ere mailed to approximately 1200 teach¬ ers and principals in the state and about 100 Manuals to each of the four regional science fairs for distribution to teachers. A letter was given to each of the participants in the four regional science fairs and the teachers attending these fairs urging the students to con¬ tinue working on their science projects and to enter them in the Alabama State Science Talent Search their senior year. Each of the participants was also given a reprint published in the Alabama School Journal by the Alabama Power Company in which the needs and opportunities for scientists were set forth. A Science Fair Work Conference for educators, scientists, and other people interested in the in¬ crease and improvement of science education is to be held June 24-29, 1957, at the University of Alabama. This conference is arranged by the Sci¬ ence Teachers’ Division of the Alabama Educa¬ tion Association, the Alabama Academy of Sci¬ ence and the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies in cooperation with the Alabama State Department of Education and Alabama Institu- Report of Counselor 117 tions of Higher Learning (National Science Foundation) . A summer Institute for High School Teachers of Science and Mathematics will be held at the Uuniversity of Alabama June 10 to July 19- This Institute is sponsored by the National Science Foundation in cooperation with the University of Alabama. Each of the fifty-nine participants in the Institute will receive Id'jO.OO in cash plus $15.00 a week for each dependent up to four in number and a travel allowance. The following courses are offered by the Institute: Fundamental Concepts in Modern Chemistry; Fundamental Con¬ cepts of Earth Sciences; Fundamental Concepts and Techniques in Physics; and Basic Concepts of Mathematics. James L. Kassner REPORT OF COUNSELOR ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EOR THE YEAR 1956-57 Plans for the 1957 annual convention of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science were made at the executive meeting at Jacksonville State Teach¬ ers College in January. The total number of active clubs this year is forty-one, including four new or reinstated clubs. Plans for this meeting are the re¬ sult of substantial help from Messrs. Arnold, Boozer, and Strickland of our host institution; from the Senior Academy section chairmen who invited Junior Academy members to their sessions; from Dr. Walter Herndon, associate counselor; from the anonymous donor who donated the funds to defray the entire cost of loving cups to be awarded as prizes for papers and exhibits; and from Dr. Kassner, veteran AJAS counselor, for valuable advice. The counselor expresses his sincere appreciation to the Academy and to the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies for the privi¬ lege of attending the Chicago Conference on Ju¬ nior Academies of Science in Eebruary. Repre¬ sentatives of all Junior Academies in the nation were able here to exchange experiences and plan for the future. On the basis of the Chicago Conference and my one year’s experience, I venture here certain brief definitions and proposals concerning problems of the Junior Academy for consideration of our parent Academy. A. Leadership of the AJAS. The problem here is simply stated: We no longer have the irreplace¬ able volunteer services of Dr. Kassner. The His¬ tory of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science (1956) documents the various systems of leader¬ ship w'hich have been tried and abandoned by tlie Senior Academy. Rotation is probably necessary. I propose that the Senior Academy appoint the present Local Counselor or a past Local Counselor as 1957-58 Associate Counselor. Eor the future, I propose that a Local Counselor be appointed at the fall meeting of the Academy Executive Com¬ mittee to serve through the spring annual meeting of the Junior Academy, with the understanding that he will be appointed Associate Counselor im¬ mediately following the meeting on his campus; the Associate Counselor to be appointed Counselor after one year’s service; the Counselor to serve for one year; and that the Presidential appointments carry a strong recommendation that secretarial help be furnished the Local Counselor and the Counselor by their institutions or employers. B. Financing of the A/ AS. Our financial re¬ sponsibility as sponsors for the Junior Academy is not clear. I propose that the Einance Committee of the Academy, in consultation with the Com¬ mittee on the AJAS, study the following ques¬ tions and make recommendations for approval by the Executive Committee at the autumn meeting: 1. What, if any, is the present financial obli¬ gation of the Academy to the Junior Academy.^ What, if any, should it be? Eor example, should a Senior Academy "adopt” a category in the an¬ nual competitions and be responsible for purchase and award of prizes which have heretofore been solicited by a permanent counselor? 2. Should the AJAS solicit contributions for its work outside the Senior Academy? Who should keep such receipts if this is done? Who should have the authority to spend such funds? C. Relation of Senior Academy members cor¬ porately and individually to AfAS members and to AJAS chapter sponwrs. Our individual rela¬ tions with local chapters are sometimes a gen¬ erous and fruitful activity, but corporately we fail to seize our unique opportunity for contact with potential future scientists and citizens. I propose that tlie Committee on the Junior Academv studv anil recommend to the autumn meeting of the l-\- ecutive Committee certain ways in wiiiih Senior Academies in other states have sliown .utive in¬ terest in Junior Ac.idemy members. Our problems .ui' not uniijue to .Mabama. luit they demand attention it our |unior .Ac.ulemv is to grow .uul not atrophy in the immediate future. 1'. CiUBi s P.vnox ('.ounselor. /9s('- 'S ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PROCEEDINGS OF TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE JACKSONVILLE, ALABAMA APRIL 26-27, 1957 120 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science MINUTES OF THE ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING Jacksonville State Teachers College lacksonville, Alabama ’ April 26-27, 1957 The official delegates, officers, nominees, and Dr. Walter Herndon met for caucus at 10:30 a.m., April 26, 1957, in the little auditorium. Science Building, Jacksonville State Teachers Col¬ lege, Jacksonville, Alabama. President Billy Coch¬ ran called the meeting to order. Acting in the absence of the Secretary, Lynn AuCoin called the roll. Chapters answering were: School Athens . Baldwin County .. Bessemer . Bishop Toolen . C. F. Vigor . Childersburg . Coffee . Cullman . Decatur . Ensley . Foley . Hewitt-Trussville .. Huey town . John Carroll . McGill Institute ... Mercy . Minor . Montevallo . Murphy . Phillips . Semmes . St. Bernard . Talladega . Tuscaloosa County Tustaloosa . West End . Woodlawn . Official delegate . Tom Coggin . Faye Prestwood . Eugene Grimes . Erin Wheeler . Ben Hrabe . Bill Whitlow .... Margaret Davies . Norman Powell . Jane Veazey . Frank Morris . Patty Sherman . Gene Harris . Dave Stewart . John Huels . Bob Conolly . Joyce Don i van . Steve Wesson . Ann Birchfield . Jack Werring . Joe Lewis . Carolyn Couey . Bill Jermain Nettie Jo Prestridge . Hayes Boyd . Mixon Vibbart . Diane McGinty . Charles Wyatt passed that two nominees would compose each slate. A motion was made and passed that the two standing nominees for each office of Treasurer and Vice President would automatically compose their respective slates. A vote of official delegates completed the following slate: President-. Marvin Uphaus . McGill Institute Mark Smith . Woodlawn I dee President-. Andrew Niedenthal . St. Bernard Jim Marshall . Decatur Secretary-. Ann McDonald . Bishop Toolen Dixie Summerlin . Minor T reasnrer -. Homer Thompson . C. F. Vigor Luther Fuller . Ensley After the vote. Dr. E. G. Patton reminded the convention that general lunch would be at 12:00 noon in the College Dining Hall and the execu¬ tive council luncii at 12:00 noon in the Faculty Dining Room. He also repeated that all papers and exhibits be registered and all exhibits set up by 12:00 noon. There being no further business, the meeting was adjourned until the General Assembly at 1 :00 p.m. The first business meeting of the General As¬ sembly of the A. J. A. S. was held at 1:00 p.m. in the High School Auditorium. President Billy Cochran called the meeting to order and the act¬ ing Secretary called the roll. The Resolutions Committee was then appoint¬ ed. Members were: After the roll call, the President explained that the purpose of the meeting was to formulate a slate for Saturday’s election. Following this an¬ nouncement, the President read to the delegates the section of the constitution relating to the elec¬ tion of officers. We then opened the floor for further nominations. There being no further nominations, the quali¬ fications of the nominees were discussed. Each candidate then spoke in his own behalf. Then followed the official withdrawal of Steve Posev for the office of Treasurer. A vote was taken and Chairman: Dr. Clyde MsSpadden . Foley Edith Malone . Ensley Steve Wesson . Minor Sister M. Charles . Sacred Heart E. G. Dorris . Florence Dr. Patton then announced that those taking the trip to the Chemical Warfare School, Ft. Mc¬ Clellan, should meet in front of Bibb Graves Hall at 2:00 p.m., and that the Senior Academy was to meet at 1:30 p.m. The officiall slate of nominees was then an¬ nounced. The authorized areas for campaign post- Junior Academy 121 ers was explained. The schedule for the remaind¬ er of the day was read. In order for all to be able to attend the field trip, the meeting was adjourned at 1:20 p.m. The second business meeting of the General Assembly was held at 5:30 p.m. The President called the meeting to order and the acting Secre¬ tary called the roll. At this time a motion was made and carried that S. R. Butler High (Hunts- \'ille) and Tallassee High be admitted and Marion Institute be reinstated in the A. J. A. S. The President then called for the speeches by the candidates and their campaign managers. He urged that the speeches be extremely short be¬ cause of the delay in schedule. After the speeches, the meeting w'as adjourned until Saturday morn¬ ing. The annual banquet of the A. J. A. S. was held Friday night, April 26, at 6:30 p.m. in the Col¬ lege Dining Hall. An address entitled "Russian Science Today” was made by the retiring Presi¬ dent, Billy Cochran. Master of Ceremonies was Mr. Lawrence Miles. There was an announcement of finalist in the scientific paper judging. The Honorable Albert Rains, Alabama Repre¬ sentative to the U. S. Congress, announced the winners in the Alabama State Science Talent Search. They are: First Place William Bently Gandrud from Tuscaloosa Senior High School, Tuscaloosa, Alabama Second Place Dwight Eddins from Decatur High School, Decatur, Alabama Third Place Miss Jo Ann Luker from Tuscaloosa Senior High School, Tuscaloosa, Alabama Fourth Place Miss Joan Bryant from S. R. Butler High School, Huntsville, Alabama First Alternate Theodore John Panayotoff from Murphy High School, Mobile, Alabama Second Alternate Charles L. Adams from Tuscaloosa Senior High School, Tuscaloosa, Alabama The members of the Academy were then dis¬ missed to the party and informal dance under the direction of Mr. Gene Reeder. The business meeting of the 1957 A.J.A.S. was held Saturday morning at 9:00. The Presi¬ dent called the meeting to order and asked that the roll call be omitted. He then asked all mem¬ bers to move toward the front of the auditorium and told the delegates to occupy the first two rows and the readers of the papers to occupy the seats just to the right of the delegates. The President then explained the timing meth¬ od used in the reading of the papers. After the presentation of the papers, the President called for a ten minute break. The President reconvened the meeting immedi¬ ately after the break. Roll was called. At this time, the President asked for a report of the Resolutions Committee. Steve Wesson pre¬ sented the following report: "Be it resolved that the Alabama Junior Acad¬ emy of Science go on record as extending thanks to the following: Mr. Reuben Boozer, Dr. Paul Arnold, Dr. Harold Strickland and all other mem¬ bers of the faculty of Jacksonville State Teachers College who have made our visit here most en¬ joyable; to the members of the Senior Academy for their assistance and inspiration, especially Dr. Walter Herndon and the judges — Col. Aldrup, Dr. Hoyt Kaylor, Dr. Kenneth Ottis, Dr. Ken¬ neth Gordon, and Dr. Gibbes Patton, and espe¬ cially Dr. James Kassner. We wish to extend thanks to Mr. Lawrence Miles for being a most excellent master of ceremonies at our banquet. To the President, Billy Cochran, and the other offi¬ cers of the Junior Academy and their sponsors, to Lynn AuCoin for the splendid job done in the absence of the Secretary, Robert Lewis. Our special thanks to Miss LaRue Morris of Jacksonville State College who has been the strong right arm of the local chapter of the Junior Academy. To Mr. Joe Rutledge of the Coca-Col.i Bottling Company, our thanks for the free drinks after our field trip. We also thank Fort McClellan, the J.S.T.C. Science Club, and the students of J.S.T.C. Be it further resolved that a copy of this reso¬ lution be mailed to each of the above mentioned." A motion was made, seconded, and carried that this resolution committee's report be .r. • cepted. Dr. Gibbes Patton then t.dked to tlie c.indi- dates. Floor was opened to discussion concerning of¬ ficers’ negligence to duty. Alter the introdintion of several motions and a lieated discussion tliat followed, it w.is suggested that tlie discussion be postponed until tlie executive (.ommittee workv out some solution. Tlie t.uulidates for office were Introduced, tlie ballots distributed, aiul the vote t.iken and counted. 122 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science The officers of the Junior Academy for 1957- 58 are as follows: President : Marvin Uphaus . McGill Institute Vice President'. Andrew Niedenthal . St. Bernard Secretary. Ann McDonald . Bishop Toolen T r easier er : Homer Thompson . Vigor Awards for exhibits and papers were made by Dr. Kenneth Gordon, of Birmingham-Southern College, as follows: EXHIBITS Biology First Place: "Drosophila Melanogaster", Thomas Mulli¬ gan, John Carroll High, Birmingham. Second Place: "Trees of Alabama”, James Reeves, C. F. Vigor, Prichard, Alabama. Sponsor, Mrs. Lloyd and Mr. Simmons. Honorable Mention: "A Method for Detecting Dermocystidium”, Mary Ellen Steiner, Bishop Toolen High School, Mobile. Sponsor: Sister Marion Alberta. Chemistry First Place: "Production of Chlorine, and Caustic Soda”, Buster Scarbrough and Bill Compton, Cof¬ fee High, Florence, Alabama. Sponsor: Mr. E. G. Dorris. Second Place: "Soy Bean Oil Extraction”, George Allen Price, Foley High, Foley, Alabama. Spon¬ sor: Mr. C. J. MeSpadden. Honorable Mention: "The Effect of pH in Dyeing”, Jane Veazey, Decatur High, Decatur, Alabama. Spon¬ sor: Mr. John H. Teague. Physics First Place: "Study of Growth and Classification of Mi¬ croscopic and Macroscopic Artificial Cry¬ stals”, Allen D. Lewis, Shades Valley High, Birmingham. Sponsor: Mr. F. V. Rankin. Second Place: "Electron Microscope”, Clifford Vaughan, Decatur High, Decatur, Alabama. Sponsor: Mr. James H. Teague. Honorable Mention: "Robot Truck”, Charles Black, Murphy High School, Mobile. Sponsor: Emma A. Crad¬ dock. Science in Industry First Place: "Automation in Action”, Jimmy Anderson, Tuscaloosa High, Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Sponsor: Mr. Ralph Murphy. Second Place: "Magic Electronics”, Bill McCulla, John Walton, Mike Carpenter, Woodlawn High, Birmingham. Sponsor: Mrs. Pauline Long. Honorable Mention: "The Working Automobile”, Tommy Camp¬ bell, Athens High School, Athens, Ala¬ bama. Sponsor: Mrs. Hazel Ruf. Awards for Scientific Papers First Place: "Study of General Histology”, Edith Malone, Ensley High, Ensley, Alabama. Sponsor: Miss Kathryn Boehmer. Second Place: "Exponential Function”, Kitty Stansell, Mon- tevallo High, Montevallo, Alabama. Spon¬ sor: Miss Ethel Harris. Honorable Mention: "A Study of the Growth and Classification of Microscopic and Macroscopic Crystals”, Allen Lewis, Shades Valley High, Birming¬ ham, Alabama. Sponsor: Mr. E. V. Rankin. A.A.A.S. Award to a Girl Miss Ann Doody, Mercy High School, Mobile, Alabama. Sponsor: Sister Mary Robert, R.S.M. A.A.A.S. Award to a Boy Marvin Uphaus, McGill Institute, Mobile, Ala¬ bama. Sponsor: Brother Cyr, S.C. There being no further business, the meeting was adjourned. Respectfully submitted, LYNN AUCOIN, Acting Secretary ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE BALANCE SHEET FOR 1956-57 123 RECEIPTS: Balance on hand from 1956 . $6l4.90 Club dues (4l at $2.00 each) . 82.00 Membership cards (275 at 5c each) . 13.75 Registration fees (256 at 50c each) . 128.00 $838.65 DISBURSEMENTS: Billy Cochran (president’s expenses) . $ 30.00 Jo Ann Sample (treasurer’s account) . 5.00 E. G. Patton (postage, convention ribbons) . 26.89 University of Alabama (printing and telephone) . 5.48 University Supply Store (envelopes) . 5.62 Robert M. Strickland (charters, lettering and framing) . 9.00 Weatherford Printing Co. (programs, stationery, membership cards) . 97.72 Mr. Gene Reeder (recreation at convention) . 25.00 Tuscaloosa Library Bindery (lettering on ribbons) . 19-24 Southern Bell Telephone Co . 25.64 $249.59 $838.65 CASH TO BALANCE . ^89.06 $838.65 $838.65 Audited : Walthr R. Herndon Everett L. Bishop 16 October 1957 124 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science MEMBERSHIP LIST (Current as of January 20, 1957) lndustyial Members American Cast Iron Pipe Co. Alabama Power Company .... Bayuk Cigars, Inc . Birmingham Slag Co . Gulf States Paper Corp . McKesson and Robbins, Inc.. Rust Engineering Co . . (James T. MacKenzie) Birmingham . (Thomas W. Martin) Birmingham . Selma . (C. W. Ireland, Pres.) Birmingham . Tuscaloosa (V. E. Goodwin, Sales Mgr., Laboratory Supply Dept.) Birmingham . Birmingham Sustaining Members Alabama College . Montevallo Alabama Polytechnic Institute . (Ralph Draughon) Auburn Birmingham-Southern College . (George R. Stuart) Birmingham Dr. J. D. Bush . P. O. Box 877, Gadsden First Farmers and Merchants National Bank . (E. L. Boatner, Pres.) Troy Florence State Teachers College . Florence Dr. Louis L. Friedman . 1906 9th Avenue, S., Birmingham Howard College . Birmingham Huntingdon College . (Hubert Searcy) Montgomery Jacksonville State Teachers College . (Houston Cole) Jacksonville Judson College . (J. 1. Riddle, Pres.) Marion Livingston State Teachers College . (W. W. Hill, Pres.) Livingston Mr. James T. MacKenzie . 4300 9th Court S., Birmingham Mr. Henry B. Rust . 1507 Ridge Road, Birmingham Spring Hill College . Mobile Southern Natural Gas Co . (Robert G. Kenan, Asst. Sec.) Watts Building, Birmingham Troy State Teachers College . (Charles B. Smith) Troy University of Alabama . (Dean J. H. Newman) University REGULAR MEMBERS The following symbols are used to designate section preference: BM — Biology and Medicine C — Chemistry GA — Geology and Anthropology GC — Geography and Conservation PM — Physics and Mathematics IE — Industry and Economics SE — Science Education SS — Social Sciences The following symbols are used to indicate classes of membership other than individual members: * — Collegiate Members t — Honorary Members Name, Title, and Address Section Acton,* Mr. Horace C., Blount Springs . B Adams, Mr. Cleveland L., 318 College St., Auburn . IE Adams, Mr. Fred T., Box 3584, University . SS Agee, Mr. Rycker, 706 First National Bank Building, Birmingham . IE Aiken, Mr. W. C., Box 293, Prattville . GC Membership 125 Name, Title, and Address Section Albrecht, Dr. Ruth E., Thomas Hotel, Auburn . SS Allen, Miss Mary Elizabeth, Box 102, Huntingdon College, Montgomery . BM Allen, Mr. Paul L., Box 103, Brewton . GC Allen, Mr. Ralph H., Jr., Ala. Dept, of Conservation, Montgomery . GC Allen, Dr. Roger W., Dean, School of Science and Lit., Ala. Polytechnic Institute, Auburn . C Allison, Dr. Fred, Dept, of Physics, Emory and Henry College, Emory, Va . Allison, Mr. Ray, Zoology Department, A.P.I., Auburn . BM Almond, Mr. Joseph Cephus, Jr., Chief Pharmacist, Riverside Hospital, Newport News, Va . BM Alvord, Mr. Ben F., Auburn . SS Andrews, Dr. Henry L., P. O. Box 797, University . SS Angel e,* Miss Barbara, Box 631, Alabama College, Montevallo . B Anson, Dr. Charles P., Dept, of Econ., Bus. Ad. & Sociology, Auburn . IE Applegate, Mr. Neil J., 8715 3rd Ave. No., Birmingham 6 . SS Arant, Dr. Frank Selman, Head, Zoology-Entomology Dept., A.P.I., Auburn . BM Arnold, Mrs. Dorothy Dean, Smith Hall Auburn . SS Arthur, Mr. B. Wayne, Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, A.P.I., Auburn . BM Atkins, Dr. A. J., School of Education, A.P.I., Auburn . SE Attebery, Mr. J. S., Jr., C. F. Vigor High School, Prichard . SS Attleberger, Dr. Marie H., School of Vet. Med., Auburn . BM Austin, Mrs. Bennie, Teacher, Public Schools, Alberta . SE Austin, Mr. John Greene, Jr., Box 3822-C, University . Avery, Mr. Jack Clifford, Rt. 3, Oneonta . BM Bailey, Dr. L. Rush, University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham 5 . BM Bailey, Dr. Paul C., Dept, of Biology, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM Bailey, Dr. Wilford S., Rt. 2, Box 2, Auburn . BM Baker, Mr. H. G., Jr., 509 Yorkshire Dr., Birmingham 9 . IE Ball, Dr. Richard W., Dept, of Math., A.P.I., Auburn . PM Ballentine, Dr. J. B., Research Chemist, Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Bancroft, Dr. W. H., Jr., 211/2 Riverside Dr., Tuscaloosa . . . PM Barclay, Mr. Lee A., Business Manager, Alabama College, Montevallo . IE Barker, Dr. Augustus L., 227 Marion Ave., Auburn . . . C Barker, Dr. S. B., Dept, of Pharmacology, Med. College of Alabama, Birmingham . Barlow, Mrs. Wm. H., 121 E. Gleen Ave., Auburn . Barr, Dr. E. S., Dept, of Physics, Box 714, University . PM Barrett, Dr. W. J., Southern Research Institute, Birmingham . C Barrow, Dr. J. H., Jr., Dept, of Biology,^ Huntingdon College, Montgomery . BM Basore, Dr. C. A., Dept, of Chemical Eng., A.P.L, Auburn . Baswell, Mr. John L., Birmingham Real Estate Board, 5613 So. 10th Ave., Birmingham . IE Batson, Mr.. Jackie D., Box 2047, University . BM Batson, Mr. John O., Box 37, Bellamy . GC Baughman, Dr. Willis J., Dept, of Health and P. E., Box 2552, University . C Beatty, Dr. Croom III, Dept, of Chemistry, Howard College, Birmingham . C-Sh Beindorff, Dr. A. B., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Bell, Mr. Vernon L., 6 A Sheridan Apts., Decatur . C Bennett, Mr. J. C., Vanderbilt Hall 264, Harvard Medical School, Boston 15, M.iss . BM Bernhardt, Mrs. Eva G., Dept, of Biology, Huntingdon College, Montgomery . BM Berreman, Mr. Gerald D., 3819 Wares Ferry Rd., Montgomery . SS Bertha, Sister M., O.S.B., Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman . I’M Bishop, Dr. Everett L., P. O. Box 2047, University . BM Black, Mr. Wm. B., Forest Analyst, Gulf States Paper Corp., Tiisc.iloos.i . GC Blair, Dr. Charles B., Jr., Dept, of Biology, Birmingham-Soutliern (College, Birmingli.im . BM Blair, Dr. Mary G., Biochemistry Dept., Univ. of Ala. Medical-Dental Scliools, Birmingltam . . C Blake, Dr. George H., Jr., Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, A.P.L, Auburn . BM B Blake,* Mr. Thomas E., State College, Jack.sonvillc . B Bliss, Miss Jane A., 3101 Cliff Road, Birmingham . SS 126 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Name, Title, and Address Section Blustein, Mr. Richard, 1924 9th Ave., South, Birmingham . BM Boehmer, Miss Kathryn M., 3928 Avenue "K”, Fairview Station, Birmingham . SE Bonner,* Miss Jean, Abercrombie Hall, Jacksonville . Boozer, Mr. Reuben B., Rt. 2, Jacksonville . BM Boschung, Mr. H. T., Jr., Mobile Center, Box 1475, Mobile . Boyd, Mr. John W., 131 North College, Auburn . GA Boyd, Dr. Richard D., Forestry Dept., A.P.I., Auburn . Boyer, Dr. Edward E. H., Providence Hospital, Mobile 71 . BM Boyles, Mr. James McGregor, Box 2047, University . BM Bradford, Mr. Ibbie B., Route 2, Toney . SE Bradley, Mr. Charles F., Jr., Weather Bureau Airport Station, Birmingham . GC Bradley, Mr. John M., Jr., 2091/2 N. 21st St., Birmingham . GC Brame, Mr. J. Y., 1568 College Court, Montgomery 6 . GA Branch, Mr. Wm. W., W. W. Branch and Company, Farley Building, Birmingham . IE Brannon, Mr. Peter A., Ala. Dept, of Archives and History, Montgomery . GA Brantley, Mr. James J., 934 Canal St., Tallassee . SS Braswell, Prof. Mamie, Dept, of Mathematics, Alabama College, Montevallo . PM Bray, Rev. Gerald, O.S.B., Prof, of Chemistry and Physics, St. Bernard College, St. Bernard . C Broadway,* Miss Carolyn, Box 711, Alabama College, Montevallo . B Brooks, Mr. P. P., Apt. 132, 3100 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington 8, D. C . SE Brothers,* Miss Ann, Box 155, Gallant . . Brown,* Mr. Billy Olan, 212 So. Main St., Piedmont . PM Brown, Dr. Earl I., II, Dept, of Civil Engineering, A.P.I., Auburn . PM Brown, Mr. Jack S., Dept, of Zoology and Entomology, A.P.I., Auburn . BM Brown, Dr. Robert D., Prof, of Chemistry, University . C Brown, Dr. Edward T., Jr., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, A.P.I., Auburn . Brundrett, Mr. N. R., Box 114, Birmingham 1 . . Bunger, Dr. William B., School of Chemistry, A.P.I., Auburn . C Bunton, Mr. Paul B., 2900 Connecticut Ave., Washington 8, D. C . GA Burch, Mr. W. Jack, 267 S. College St., Auburn . . BM Burke, Mrs. Louise Slaughter, 1130 So. I6th Ave., Birmingham . BM Burnham, Mr. Chester F., c/o Forest Service, P. O. Box 401, Montgomery 1 . GC Burton, Dr. L. P., Dept, of Mathematics, A.P.I., Auburn . Bush, Dr. J. D., P. O. Box 877, Gadsden . BM Bush, Mr. Newbern W., 4l6 N. Church St., Jacksonville . PM Butler, Mr. John E., State Teachers College, Jacksonville . BM Byrum, Mr. George R., Jr., First Federal Savings and Loan Assn., II6 N. 21st St., Birmingham.... IE Caffee, Mrs. Gabrielle L., Cedarlane, Fairhope . . SS Cairns, Dr. Eldon J., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, A.P.L, Auburn . BM Calkins, Mr. Myron Eugene, Box 2107, University . C Campbell, Mrs. James J., 1400 Forest Lane, Anniston . C Cantrell, Mr. Clyde Hull, 129 Woodfield Dr., Auburn . SS Calloway, Mr. Elmer Dean, Box 5062, University . PM Capps, Dr. J. D., A.P.L, P. O. Box 309, Auburn . C Carlson, Dr. Warner W., Dept, of Biochem., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 5 . BM Carlson, Dr. Virginia W., Dept, of Biochem., Alabama Medical College, Birmingham 5 . BM Carmichael, Mr. A. A., Jr., 2169 Allendale Rd., Montgomery 6 . Carmichael, Dr. Emmett B., Dept, of Biochem., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Carr, Dr. Howard E., Dept, of Physics, A.P.L, Auburn . PM Carter, Mr. Hugh P., 503 Title Guarantee Building, Birmingham 3 . Carver, Mrs. Marie B., Public School System, Bon Secour . SE Casey, Dr. Albert E., 2236 Highland Avenue, Birmingham . BM Cason, Mrs. Louise R., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 5 . Chaney, Dr. David W., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Cheraskin, Dr. Emanuel, School of Dent., Univ. Med. Center, Birmingham . Membership 127 Natne. Title, and Address Section Chermock, Dr. Ralph, Dept, of Biology, Box 2047, University . BM Clark, Dr. Edward M., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, A.P.I., Auburn . Clark, Father Victor J., St. Bernard Abbey, St. Bernard . Clemmons, Mr. Ballard H., Box L, University . . Cobun, Mr. Ted C., Indian Springs School, Helena . S Cole, Mr. Frank T., 562 Tuttle Avenue, Mobile 19 . GC Coleman, Mr. John S., Birmingham Trust, Birmingham . IE Collier, Mr. F. Nash, Jr., 8528 3rd Avenue So., Birmingham 6 . C Congleton, Miss Jane H., Box 2047, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa . BM Conway,* Miss Ophelia Ann, Route 1, Maplesville . B Coons, Dr. Kenneth W., Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Drawer H, University . C Cotter, Mr. David J., 52 Highlands, Tuscaloosa . BM Covington, Mr. Perry C., 206-C Foxhall Road, Birmingham . IE Cox, Miss Claire, Dept, of Chemistry, Jacksonville State Teachers College, Jacksonville . C Craddock, Miss Emma A., L c Azalea Court Apts., Mobile . BM Crafts, Mr. Arthur G., Dept, of Physics, A.P.I., Auburn . PM Craig, Mr. Alfred B., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Croker, Mr. Thomas C., Jr., Box 311, Brewton . " . GC Culmer, Prof. Orpha Ann, State Teachers College, Florence . PM Curl, Dr. Elroy A., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, A.P.I., Auburn . BM Daly, Sister Mary Charles, Dept, of Biology, Secred Heart Academy, Cullman . BM Daniel, M’r. Thomas W., Jr., 113 Cedar Crest, Tuscaloosa . GA Davey, Dr. Bessie L., School of Home Economics, University . BM Davidson, Mr. Arlie B., Huntingdon College, Montgomery . SE Davis, Dr. Donald E., Botany and Plant Pathology Department, A.P.I., Auburn . BM Davis, Mr. Wilson, Box 2585, University . Dawson, Mrs. Margaret Underwood, Route 1, Box 156, Auburn . SS Dean, Mrs. Blanche E., 1503 Ridge Rd., Homewood, Birmingham . BM Dean, Mr. Harold D., Abilene Christian College, Abilene, Texas . BM Dean, Mr. William E., Jr., 207 8th Street, So., Birmingham . GC Deaton,* Mr. Wayne, Pannell Hall, Jacksonville . PM Decker, Miss Mary G., Alabama College, Montevallo . Deerman, Miss Jo, R.F.D., Section . . . BM Dejarnette, Mr. David L., Box 66, Mound State Monument, Moundville . Dendy, Dr. J. S., Dept, of Zoology and Entomology, A.P.I., Auburn . BM DeVall, Prof. W. B., Head,_Dept. of Forestry, A.P.I., Auburn . GC Devonshire, Dr. L. N., 4B Drury Lane Apts., Tuscaloosa . C DeWitt, Dr. Hobson D., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C DeWitt, Dr. Thomas W., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Dickinson, Dr. Harry E., 8213 10th Ave., So., Birmingham . SS Dickson, Mr. Harold A., 247 South Cannon Ave., Sylacauga . GC' Diener, Dr. Urban L., Botany and Plant Pathology Dept., A.P.I., Auburn . BM Dietz, Dr. Robert A., State Teachers College, Troy . BM Dorrill, Mr. William E., 409 So. 3 Notch Street, Troy . BM Doster, Mrs. Charles S., 2924 Hastings Road, Birmingham 9 . BM Doubles, Dr. James A., Jr., Dept, of Biology, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . BM Douglas, Miss Sarah E., 212 Mecca Avenue, Birmingham . BM Dowdy, Mr. Felix, International Paper Co., Mobile . . C'lC' Driskell, Mr. J. C., Research Chemist, Tennessee Valley Authority, Wilson Dam . C Dunn, Miss Shirley T., Daugette Hall, Jacksonville . BM Dupree, Mr. Louis, 8-D Lockett Drive, Montgomery 7 . SS Eads, Mr. James H., Jr., Science Dept., Middle Tennessee State C'ollege, Murfreesboro. Tenn . BM Early, Mr. Jack J., Athens College, Athens . . SS Eden, Dr. Wm. G., Dept, of Zoo. and Ent., A.P.L, Auburn . Edwards, Mr. O. E., 8213 10th Ave., So., Birmingham . SS 128 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Name, Title, and Address Section Eisels, Rev. Louis John, S.J., Dept, of Physics, Spring Hill College, Mobile . PM Elder, Mr. R. H., Chief Chemist, American Cast Iron Pipe Co., Birmingham . C Elliott, Mr. Howard C., Jr., 405 l6th Place, S.W., Birmingham . C Emerson, Dr. Jack D., Dept, of Physiology, Medical College of Alabama Birmingham 5 . BM Engel, Dr. Niels N., P. O. Box 2035, University . PM Engelbrecht, Dr. Mildred A., Dept, of Bacteriology, University . BM English, Mrs. Lena, Castleberry . SE Estes, Miss Edna E., P. O. Box 2224, University . BM Estes, Mr. Glenn E., 1209 Brown-Marx Building, Birmingham . C Evans, Dr. Lawrence E., 203 Gardner Dr., Auburn . BM Evans, Miss Para Lee, 2030 Highland Ave., Apt. C 3, Birmingham . BM Parish, Mr. Preston T., Box 14, Route 3, Opelika . BM Parmer, Dr. C. M., 809 So. Brundidge St., Troy . BM Farris, Dr. Charles D., Box 4277, University . SS Faxon, Mr. F. W., 83-91 Frances Street, Back Bay, Boston, Massachusetts . Perry, Dr. James F., 131 North Avenue, Auburn . BM Fies, Dr. Milton H., 711 Alabama Power Building, Birmingham . IE Filler, Mr. Juan A., U. S. G. S. Ground Water Branch, University . GA Fincher, Dr. J. A., Dept, of Biology, Howard College, Birmingham . BM Finley, Mr. Wayne H., 1620 Tenth Ave., So., Birmingham 5 . C Finn, Dr. Sidney B., University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham 5 . BM Fitsgerald, Mr. Richard W., 1805 Holly Street, Montgomery . Fleming, Mr. Julius D., 328 Palisade Drive, Florence . C Floyd, Dr. H. H., Professor of Science, State Teachers College, Florence . C Foley, Dr. James O., Dept, of Anatomy, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 5 . BM Foley, Mrs. James O., 409 Sunset Drive, Vestavia Hills, Birmingham . BM Foreman, Dr. Paul B., Dept, of Sociology, Box 2982, University . SS Foshee, Mr. James G., Cloven Bottom Home, Davelson, Tennessee . ,. SS Foster, Mr. Frank J., 6 Beech Hill, University . GC Foster, Dr. Virginia, Judson College, Marion . B Fox, Mr. G. T., 1537 4lst St., Ensley, Birmingham 8 . "BM Fox, Mr. William H., 432 E. Elm Street, Troy . BM Francis, Mr. T. M., 334 Brown Marx Building, Birmingham . SS Fraser, Dr. James A., Prof, of Science, State Teachers College, Troy . . C Freidman, Dr. Louis L., Freidman Diagnostic Clinic, Birmingham . Freymouth, Mr. Joseph J., Jr., 517 No. Pelham Rd., Jacksonville . PM Frisby, Mr. Carl E., Dept, of Economics, A.P.L, Auburn . IE Furman, Rev. W. L., S. J., Dept, of Physics, Spring Hill College, Mobile . PM Gandrud, Mr. B. W., U. S. Bureau of Mines, University . IE Garin, Mr. George L, Forestry Dept., A.P.L, Auburn . GC Garren, Dr. R. E., 119 South Ross St., Auburn . SS Garrett, Mr. W. W., 4212 Overlook Dr., Birmingham . IE Garrett, Mrs. Marion H., 4212 Overlook Dr., Birmingham . BM Gary, Mr. C. M., Dept, of Science, State Teachers College, Jacksonville . C Gayle, Dr. John B., Box L, University . Geisler, Miss Edith, Star Route, Box 224, Bessemer . SE Gerhardt, Dr. Henry, 1215 Elmira St., Mobile . Gibbons, Mr. S. R., 326 Overbrook Rd., Birmingham . IE Gibbs,* Mr. Billy, Pannell Hall, Jacksonville . PM Gillam, Miss Mary, Box 128, Bynum . BM Gilmore, Mrs. Vivian P., P. O. Box 132, Butler . BM Glasscock,* Miss Mary Nell, Box 502, Alabama College, Montevallo . B Glenn, Mr. Wm. E., Registrar, B. S. College, Birmingham . Gober, Mrs. Gordon, Red Bay School, Red Bay . SE-BM-C Goethe, Dr. Charles M., 720 Capital Natl. Bank Bldg., Sacramento, California . BM Membership 129 Name, Title, and Address Section Goetz, Mr. James R., 2021 Sixth Avenue, North, Birmingham . IE Gold, Dr. Raymond L., Box 4834, University . SS Goodrich, Mrs. Ima Jean, 228 East Glenn Ave., Auburn . Gordon, Dr. Kenneth M., Dept, of Chemistry, B’ham-Southern College, Birmingham . C Gorrie, Miss Rachel H., 3155 Montezuma Road, Montgomery . BM Graben, Mr. Henry W., B’ham-Southern College, Birmingham . PM Graham, Mr. Charles Edward, 802 S. Lawrence St., Montgomery . PM Gran, Dr. John E., 707 11th Street, Tuscaloosa . C Graves, Mr. Leland, Jr., 730 15th Street, Fairfield . GA Gravlee, Mr. William E., 314 Armstrong St., Auburn . C Gray, Dr. James H., Drawer H, University . IE Green,* Miss Betty Lynn, Daugette Hall, State College, Jacksonville . B Green, Dr. Margaret, Dept, of Bacteriology, University . BM Griffin, Mr. Stanley W., Troy High School, Troy . BM Grimes, Mr. Harold W., Dept, of Agronomy andSoils, A.P.L, Auburn . Grove, Dr. E. L., Dept, of Chemistry, University . C Gutierrez, Mr. Simplicio A., Bureau of Public Works, Manila, Philippines . GA Mr. Faye E. Guyton, Zoology-Entomology Dept., A.P.L, Auburn . BM Hafling, Miss Mary E., West End High School, Birmingham . SE Hall, Mr. Clarence C., Jr., Howard College, Birmingham 6 . BM Hammack, Mr. J. J., State Teachers College, Livingston . C Hammond, Mr. Joseph L., Jr., Apt. 75, Building 7,251 10th North West, Atlanta, Ga . PM Hampe, Mr. David Earl, 200 Bonita Dr., Birmingham 9 . GC Hampton, Mr. Ronald Keith, Box 221, Howard College, Birmingham . SE Hannah,* Mr. Bernis O, Howard College, Birmingham . PM Hannum, Mr. Joseph E., 425 East Magnolia Ave., Auburn . IE Hansel, Dr. Asael T., Prof, of Sociology and Anthropology, Box 2982, University . SS Hanson, Dr. Roger W., U. of A. Medical Center Pharmacology, Birmingham . M Hard, Mr. Herbert G., Jr., ORRadio Industries, Inc., 120 Marvyn Rd., Opelika . SE Hargis, Dr. E. H., Hargis Clinic and Hospital, 1131 North 28th Street, Birmingham . BM Hargreaves, Mr. George W., 235 Woodfield Dr., Auburn . C Harper, Dr. Roland, Geological Survey of Alabama,Box O, University . GA Harper, Mr. Thomas D., 1109 Eight Avenue, W., Birmingham . PM Harris, Miss Ethel, Box 92, Montevallo . BM Harrison, Miss Gertrude E., Sacred Heart Academy, St. Bernard . PM Harshman, Mr. Raymond L., 3495 Southmont Dr., Montgomery . GC Hartley,* Mr. Felix, Pannell Hall, Jacksonville . C Hartwig, Dr. Chester W., 633 Sanders St., Auburn . SS Harvey, Miss Ann Chapman, Oneonta . BM Harv'ey, Dr. Henry T., Dept, of Biology, State Teachers College, Florence . BM Hastings, Mr, Earl L., Geological Survey of Alabama, University . GA Hayles, Miss Kitty Sue, 10 4th Avenue, Prichard . SE Hays, Dr. Herbert D., Dept, of Geology, University . Heartburg, Mr. Carl Phillip, First National Bank, P. O. Box 2534, Birmingham . IE Heide, Mr. S. S., 2204 28th Street, West, Birmingham . Hendon, Mr. John F., Hendon and Company, Inc., 1613 Nortli 3rd Avenue, Birmingham . IE Henry, Mr. Jefferson D., P. O. Box 1868, Guaranty S.ivings and Life Ins., Montgomery . IE Herndon, Dr. Walter, Biology Dept., University of Alabama, Lhiiversity . B Hershey, Mr. Arthur T., Florence S. T. C., Florence . Hess, Dr. George W., 10 Edgewood Street, Selma . PM Hieserman, Mr. Clarence E., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . (' Hindle, Mr. Walter EL, I4l6 Beach St., Decatur . IE Hisey, Prof. Alan, Dept, of Chemistry, University . BM Hitchcock, Mr. J. C., Manager, Land Dept., Ala. Power Company, Birmingham 2 . IE Hitt, Miss Nellie W., S. T. C. Box 255, Troy . 130 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Name, Title, and Address Section Hobson, Dr. Patrick H., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur, . C Hocking, Dr. George M., School of Pharmacy, A.P.I., Auburn . BM Hodge, Mrs. Ruby L., Rt. 7, Box 162, Bessemer . SE Holding, Mr. Bruce F., Jr., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Holland, Mr. John W., Jr., S. T. C., Florence . BM Holley, Dr. Howard L., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 5 . BM Hollis, Mr. Cecil George, Box 36, Arkansas College, Batesville, Ark . BM Howell, Mr. Henry H., 3201 Eudid Ave., Cleveland 15, Ohio . BM Howse, Mr. B. C., T. C. I. Div., U. S. Steel Corp., General Office, Fairfield . BM Huff, Mr. C. F., Jr., State Teachers College, Florence . Huffman, Mr. Ernest O., Research Chemist, TV A, 909 Pine Street, Florence . C Hughes, Sister Maureen, O.S.B., 2313 Highland Avenue, Birmingham . C Humphrey,* Mr. Johnny M., Jamestown . C Hunt, Dr. T. E., Dept, of Anatomy, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . BM Hurtt, Mr. Oscar Lee, Jr., Connors Steel Division, 5000 Powell Avenue, Birmingham . Hutcheson, Mr. Lewis B., 914 9th Court West, Birmingham . GA Hyatt, Mr. Athol J., Elks Building, Huntsville . GC Imhof, Mr. Thomas A., 307 38th Street, Fairfield . BM Irvine, Dr. Paul, Dept, of Education, A.P.L, Auburn . SS Ivey, Mr. William D., Zoology-Entomology Dept., A.P.L, Auburn . BM Jackson, Mrs. Estelle O., 1415 46th St., Belview Heights, Birmingham . C James, Dr. Perry B., Pres., Athens College, Athens . Jennings, Mr. Dawson M., 572 Morningview Drive, Montgomery . GA Jennings,f Mr. Henry L., 503 Title Guarantee Bldg., Birmingham . IE Johnson,* Mr. Eugene F., Route 2, Jacksonville . B Johnson, Mrs. Mildred B., Jacksonville . PM Johnson, Mr. Robert B., 1518 So. 13th Street, Birmingham . C Johnson, Mr. Searcy H., Jr., Moore-Handley Hdw. Co., Inc., Birmingham . IE Jones, Dr. E. V., Consultant, Carbon Chem. Co., 213 E. Vanderbilt Drive, Oak Ridge, Tenn . C Jones, Dr. Walter B., State Geologist, Drawer O, University . GA Kallay, Dr. Ferenz Paul, Box 2005, University . GC Kassner, Dr. J. L., 1620 2nd Ave., Tuscaloosa . C Kayler, Mr. Hoyt M., Dept, of Physics, B’ham-Southern College, Birmingham . PM Kearley, Dr. Frances J., Chem. Dept., Spring Hill . Keeler, Mr. James E., 3576 N. Georgetown Dr., Montgomery . BM Keith,* Miss Barbara, 705 Clark Ave., N.E., Fort Payne . B Keith, Mr. Warren G., Dept, of Civil Engineering, University . PM Kiser, Miss Lola, 605 4th St., S.W., Birmingham . PM Klapper, Dr. Clarence E., Dept, of Anatomy, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 5 . BM Klapper, Dr. Margaret S., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 5 . BM Klontz, Dr. Harold E., Dept, of Ec. and Bus. Adm., A.P.L, Auburn . SS Knight, Mr. Vernon J., Coosa River Newsprint Co., Coosa Pines . GC Knowles, Mr. Doyle B., P. O. Box 2033, University . GA Kraus, Dr. Frederick W., Il4 Stratford Rd., Birmingham . PM Kuderna, Mr. Jerome G., 157 Cary Dr., Auburn . SE Lamar, Mrs. Sally R., 2942 Canterbury Rd., Birmingham 9 . SS Long, Mrs. Pauline King, 4222 Fourth Avenue, South, Birmingham . B Moreaux, Mr. Phillip E., Box 2033, University . GA Land, Dr. James E., Dept, of Chemistry, A.P.L, Auburn . C Lane, Dr. William E., Dept, of Industrial Management, A.P.L, Auburn . IE Langley, Dr. Leroy L., Dept, of Physiology, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 5 . BM Larguier, Rev. Everett, S.J., Spring Hill College, Mobile . PM Larison, Miss Joyce, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM Lauer, Dr. Karl H., 18 B Druid Gardens, Tuscaloosa . C Lawson, Dr. J. Keith, 1310 Morningside Court, Decatur . C Membership 131 Name, Title, and Address Section Lazansky, Dr. Joseph, University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham 5 . BM Leath, Mr. Lewis T., Jamestown . BM Leibold, Dr. Armin A., 350 Cary Dr., Rt. 1, Box 448, Auburn . BM Lenfesty, Mr. Franklin A., Research Chemist, Tennessee Valley Authority, Wilson Dam . C Leonard, Miss Lillian, Box 329, Bay Minette . BM Lewis, Dr. F. A., Dept, of Mathematics, University . PM Lindsey, Mr. Ralph H., Vet. Apt. 4, Jacksonville . PM Livingston, Mr. Know W., Dept, of Forestry, A.P.L, Auburn . GC Lloyd, Mrs. Lucille N., C. F. Vigor High School, Prichard . C Lloyd, Dr. S. J., Dept, of Chemistry, University . C Loffre, Mr. Randall O., Jr., 1364 Government St., Mobile 19 . C Long, Mr. A. R., 1106 E. Audubon Road, Montgomery 6 . C Lueth, Mr. Francis X., Box 415, Centerville . BM Lumpkin, Mr. Thomas, Box 2047, University . BM Lyle, Dr. James A., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, A.P.L, Auburn . BM McArthur, Dr. Charles W., 162 Forest Park Circle, Auburn, . PM McCaffrey, Mr. J. E., Woodland Dept., International Paper Co., Mobile . GC McCluer, Mr. Leon, Box 14, Jacksonville . GC McCracken, Dr. William L., University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham 5 . BM McCullough, Dr. Herbert A., Dept, of Biology, Howard College, Birmingham . BM McCullough, Mr. John M., 2844 Spann Place, Montgomery 7 . GC McCollough,* Miss Alice Lois, 424 Judson Street, Marion . B McCurdy, Mr. G. Lofton, Johnston Jr. High School, Anniston . SE| McGlamery, Miss Winnie, Alabama Geological Survey, Box O, University . GA McKnight, Mr. Everett A., Woodward . GC McSpadden, Mr. Clyde J., Foley . C McTyeire, Miss Clustie, 1804 Arlington Avenue, Bessemer . SE McVay, Dr. Thomas N., 10 Oakwood Court, Tuscaloosa . C McWilliams, Mr. David H., State Teachers College, Troy . BM MacKenzie, Mr. James T., 4300 9th Ct. So., Birmingham . Mahan,* Mr. Stanley M., Jr., Box 184, Montevallo . B Mahan,* Mrs. Stanley M., Jr., Box 194, Montevallo . B Mallory, Mr. Jack Carleton, Box 3003, University . BM Malmberg, Mr. Glenn T., U. S. Geological Survey, Room 206, P. O. Bldg., Huntsville . GA Marshall, Miss Ethel, Dept, of Geography and History, Alabama College, Montevallo . GC Marshall, Dr. Hamilton L. J., 118 Elorence Place, Mobile . BM Marshall, Dr. Madison L., Research Chemist, Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C May, Mr. Jack T., Eorestry Dept., A.P.L, Auburn . GC Meyer, Mr. Wm. C., Jr., 1467 Alford Ave., Birmingham 9 . C Merkel, Mr. Richard Sterling, Rt. 2, Box 380, Auburn . C Merrill, Mrs. Rachel Knight, 2509 Park Lane Court South, Apt. H, Birmingham 9 . BM Meyer, Dr. Frieda L., University of Ala., Box 1974, University . BM Miles, Dr. John B., Box 18, Mooresville . PM Miles, Dr. E. P., Jr., Dept, of Mathematics, A.P.L, Auburn . PM Miles, Mr. Vance, Jr., 1025 Myrtlewood Dr. , Tuscaloosa . GC Miller, Mr. Carl A., Rt. 3, Box 258, Auburn . Miller, Mr. Jesse E., 1107 South 30th St., Birmingham . GC Miller, Dr. William L., 460 Pinedalc Dr., Auburn . SS Mills, Mr. Walter Lain, Box 51, Selma . GC Minton, Mr. Norman A., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology. A.P.L, Auburn . BM Miracle, Mr. Chester L., Mathematics Department, A.P.L, Auburn . PM Mitchell, Dr. F. H., Dept, of Physics and Astronomy, University . PM Mitchell, Dr. Herbert H., 338 Armstrong St., Auburn . SS Mobley, Mr. Willard M., Alabama By-Products Corp., Box 6‘i27, Tarrant . IF Moffatt, Dr. Benjamin C., Jr., Medical Center, 1919 7th Ave., So., Birmingham . 132 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Name, Title, and Address Section Moore, Dr. O. C., Dept, of Chemical Engineering, A.P.I., Auburn . C Moore, Mr. William H., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, A.P.I., Auburn . BM Morehead, Mr. Beachley A., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Morgan, Mr. Roy B., Chapman . GC Morgan, Mr. Sheldon L., 337 East Magnolia Ave., Auburn . SE Morris, Dr. Frederick K., 3334 Southmont Drive, Montgomery 6 . GA Morris,* Miss Bonnie LaRue, Rt. 1, Lanett . SE Mosley, Mr. Samuel A., Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . C Munro, Mr. W. M., 1282 Woodley Road, Montgomery . Mount, Mr. Robert Hughes, 267 South College Street, Auburn . BM Mulican, Mr. Charles Lee, Jr., 510 Comer Lane, Tallassee . Muntz, Mr. Herbert H., U. S. Forest Service, Room 267, Federal Bldg., Birmingham 5 . GC Murray,* Mrs. Tom Ed, Rt. 2, Delta . B Myles, Mr. William R., Dept, of Economics and Business Adm., A.P.L, Auburn . SS Nale,* Mr. Billy, Jacksonville State T. C., Jacksonville . PM Nam, Mr. Charles B., 33 D The Prado, Montgomery 5 . SS Nancarrow, Miss Virginia, 617 St. Charles Avenue, Birmingham . BM Nelson, Mr. Gid E., Jr., Dept, of Biology, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM Nesbitt, Dr. Paul H., Arctic, Desert, Tropic Info. Center, Research Studies Inst., Montgomery .... GA Nichols, Dr. Samuel H., Jr., Dept, of Chemistry, A.P.L, Auburn . C Nicholson, Miss Catherine S., 133 Wesley Ave., Jackson, Mississippi . BM Nole, Mr. Billy Jack, S.T.C., Jacksonville . PM Nunn, Mr. Grady Harrison, Box 1427, University . SS Nyholm, Mr. Holger J., 1201 University Avenue, Tuscaloosa- . GA Oden, Mr. E. Clarence, 1415 Beech St., S.E., Decatur . C Ogden, Dr. Frederic D., Drawer I, University of Alabama, University . SS O’Kelley, Dr. Joseph C., Dept, of Biology, Box 2047, University . BM Ottis, Dr. Kenneth, Zoology-Entomology Dept., A.P.L, Auburn . BM Overton, Dr. Eleazer C., 2105 Warrior Road, Birmingham . Owens, Mr. James Wilton, Jr., 906 Homewood, Tuscaloosa . Pallister, Dr. Hugh D., Ala. Geological Survey, University . GA Palmer, Dr. George D., Jr., Dept, of Chemistry, University . C Pankey, Mr. Paul, 2413 1st Ave., No., Birmingham . IE Parker, Dr. W. V., Mathematics Dept., A.P.L, Auburn . PM Parks, Mr. Billy Ray, 1057 51st Street West, Birmingham . GA Parks, Mr. S. Laws, 314 E. Bryan Street, Athens . IE Parrish, Mr. John W., Box 309, Montevallo . SS Patton, Mr. Ernest G., Box 2047, University . BM Patton, Mrs. Anna Reid, Dept, of BioChemistry, Medical College of Ala., Birmingham 5 . C Paul, Miss Edna, Public School System, Bay Minette . SE Paustian, Dr. E. C., Athens College, Athens . SS Peacock, Mr. J. Talmer, Box 2047, University . BM Pearsall, Dr. Marion, Dept, of Sociology and Anth., University . GA Peterson, Dr. Joe G., School of Chemistry, A.P.L, Auburn . C Piano, Mr. Arthur G. F., P, O. Box 1436, University . BM Pigman, Dr. Ward, Dept, of Biochemistry, Medical College of Ala., Birmingham . BM Pitman, Miss Jean E., 543 Elm Street, Apt. 10, Troy . GC Pitts, Mr. Robert G., 2l6 Genelds Ave., Auburn . PM Poitras, Dr. Adrian W., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, A.P.L, Auburn . BM Poole, Mr. Donald L., Rt. 4, Box 775, Bessemer . GA Poore, Mr. Gerald A., S.T.C., Jacksonville . BM Pope, Mr. Dealia W., S.T.C., Troy . . C Porter, Mr. Earl, 123 Florence Place, Mobile 17 . GC Powell, Mr. Frank B., S.T.C., Jacksonville . BM Powell, Mr. P. P., 126 W. Glenn Ave., Auburn . C Membership 133 Name. Title, and Address Section Powell,* Mr. William S., Route 2, Attalla . PM Powers, Dr. Richard, Dean, Alabama College, Montevallo . SS Powell, Mr. William J., P. O. Box 2033, University . GA Prather, Mrs. Mary E., Smith Hall Annex, Auburn . BM Prestridge, Mrs. Virginia W., 470 Samford Ave., Auburn . IE Price, Dr. Edwin O., Dept, of Chemistry, A.P.I., Auburn . C Price, Mr. Leroy, Smith Avenue, Elba . PM Price, Dr. Emmett W., 1921 Lookout Street, Mitchell Park, Gadsden . M Price, Mr. J. L., Robert E. Lee School, Montgomery . SE Prichett,* Miss Charlotte, 206 Jones Street, Andalusia . B Purdom, Mr. Cloyce L., 1213 I6th Ave., S.E., Decatur . IE Purvis, Mr. Edward E. Ill, Delta Sigma Phi, A.P.L, Auburn . Ramay, Mr. Doyle Winford, 311 A Cedar Street, Tuscaloosa . BM Rau, Mr. William, 530 South 80th St., Birmingham . BM Rea, Dr. Robert R., 241 Payne St., Auburn . SS Reid, Mrs. Harry, Selma Jr. High, Selma . SE Reiner, Rev. Charles, St. Bernard College, St. Bernard . C Reitman, Mr. Sanford, Dept, of Anat., University of Ala. Medical Center, Birmingham . Rhein, Dr. Walter J., Spring Hill College, Mobile . PM Rhodes, Mr. Albert L., Box 5016, University . SS Richardson, Dr. Jesse M., Dept, of Economics, A.P.L, Auburn . GC Riddle, Miss Mary A., Alabama College, Montevallo . BM Ringwold, Mr. Eugene L., 1302 Morningside Court, Decatur . C Rives,* Mr. DeLeath, Oak Street, Albertville . B Rives, Mr. John E., 2624 Chapel Hill Road, Durham, North Carolina . PM Roberts, Dr. Bruno R., P. O. Box 1503, Decatur . C Robertson, Mr. Robert L., Zoology-Entomology Dept., A.P.L, Auburn . BM Robinson, Dr. True W., Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham . Rodgers, Dr. Eric, Dept, of Physics and Astronomy, University . PM Roger, Mr. Wiley S., Geological Dept., Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . GA Rosen, Mr. Lawrence, Dept, of Biochemistry, Medical College of Ala., Birmingham 5 . BM Rowe, Mr. Luther C., 1927 8th Ave., So., Birmingham . Ruark, Dr. Arthur E., Dept, of Physics, Box 2041, University . PM Rust, Dr. H. B., 1507 Ridge Road, Birmingham . IE Sallas,* Mr. James, Pannell Hall, Jacksonville . B Sanders, Dr. Robert H., 296 Chewacla Dr., Auburn . SS Sanford, Mr. Thomas H., Jr., 526 Bonita Circle, Huntsville . Sansing, Mr. Norman G., Alpha Gamma Rho House, Auburn . BM Saunders, Dr. Charles Richard, 369 Payne St., Auburn . C Schneyer, Dr. Leon D., University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham . BM Schultz, Mr. E. Fred, Jr., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, A.P.L, Auburn . BM Scott, Mr. John C., P. O. Box 613, Montgomery . G Scott, Mr. Louis D., 2105 Somerville Rd., Decatur . IE Scott, Dr. Robert B., Jr., 14 Guild’s Wood, Tuscaloosa . C Searcy, Miss Margaret Z., 1715 4th Street, Tuscaloosa . SS Seibold, Dr. Herman Rudolph, Rt. 2, Box 256, Auburn . BM Sellers, Mr. Edwin M., 2 So. 32nd St., Birmingham . IE Sellers, Mr. William D., 2 So. 32nd St., Birmingham . C Sensenig, Dr. E. Carl, Dept, of Anatomy, Medical Ciollcge of AEilvima, Birmingham a . BM Sevier, Sister Mary S., O.S.B., Sacred Heart Academy, Cullman . I’M Shamblee, Mr. Thomas E., Rt. 3, Box 138, Anniston . BM Sharp, Mr. C. G., Dept, of Biology, Alabama (iollcge, Mon(c\allo . G.\ Shaver,* Miss Catherine, Box 515, Alabama College, Montevallo . B Shaw, Mr. William P., Shaw & Rcnncker, Architects, 2021 6th A\c., No., Birmingham . G.\ Gt Shelton, Rev. William H., P. O. Box 2082, LJnivcrsity . SS 134 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Nartie, Title, and Address Section Sherman, Mr. Harry L., S.T.C., Jacksonville . BM Shotts, Mr. Emmett B., Sr., Snead Junior College, Boaz . PM Shotts, Mr. Reynold Q., Box 1526, University . GA Shotts, Mrs. Will Laceye B., Dept, of Biology, Snead Junior College, Boaz . BM Shull, Mr. Barney L., P. O. Box 609, Fairhope . BM Shumaker, Mr. Thomas P., 428 Prince Ave., Tuscaloosa . . . C Simmons, Mr. Donald C., 310 23rd Street, Tuscaloosa . SS Simpson, Mr. Thomas A., U. S. Geological Survey, Bessemer . GA Sinski, Dr. James T., Spring Hill College, Mobile . BM Sipe, Dr. H. Craig, Indian Springs School, Rt. 1, Helena . SE Sizemore, Mr. W. R.,, Box 244, Tallassee . GC Sledge, Mr. Eugene B., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, A.P.I., Auburn . BM Smalley, Mr. Glendon W., 4748 Ave. W, Ensley, Birmingham 8 . GC Smith, Mr. Anthony J., 710 Prospect, Florence . Smith, Miss Carol Ann, Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, A.P.I., Auburn . BM-B Smith, Dr. Donald F., Box H, University . C Smith, Mr. Frank F., Fayette Experimental Forest, Fayette . GC Smith, Mrs. Guy W., 2817 Sumter Avenue, Montgomery . C Smith, Dr. Septima, Dept, of Biology, Box 1446, University . BM Smitherman,* Mr. Arvile, Route 4, Ringgold . C Smithey, Dr. William R., Jr., Dept, of Chemistry, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . C Snoddy, Dr. Gaither B., Jr., 504 N. Pelham Rd., Jacksonville, Fla . C Snyder, Mr. Andrew J., Dept, of Chemistry, P. O. Drawer H, University . C Snyder, Mr. Ernest E., Dept, of Science, S.T.C., Florence . SE Snyder, Mr. Robert L., 3266 Wilmington Rd., Montgomery . GC Soday, Dr. Frank J., Research Director, Chemstrand Corporation, Decatur . GA Southern, Dr. John A., Dept, of Chemistry, Howard College, Birmingham 6 . C Sowell, Mrs. Inez G., 6-B Hare Apt., Auburn . SS Spann, Mr. Ransom. D., 314 E. Thach, Auburn . PM Spencer, Mr. Gilbert O., Troy State Teachers College, Troy . PM Spencer, Miss Lilly H., Smith Hall, Auburn . SS Spidle, Mrs. Marion W., 306 Cary Dr., Auburn . SS Spies, Dr. Tom D., Hillman Hospital, Birmingham 5 . BM Spieth, Dr. Alda May, Dept, of Biology, Livingston . BM Standridge,* Miss Yvonne, Daugette Hall, Jacksonville . B Stanfield, Mr. Zenas A., 434 N. Poplar St., Apt. J, Florence . IE Stauffer, Mr. Jacob M., State Forester, Ala. Dept. of Conservation, Montgomery . GC Steele, Dr. H. Ellsworth, Route 2, Box 273 A, Auburn . SS Stelzenmuller, 4l2 S. W. 12th Street, Birmingham . Stephens, Mr. Miles E., P. O. Box 893, Auburn . GC Stephenson, Mrs. Diane D., 3809 12th Court S., Birmingham . SS Sterne, Dr. M. H., Sterne, Agee, & Leach, First Natl. Bank Bldg., Birmingham . IE Stevens, Dr. Frank J., Dept, of Chemistry, A.P.L, Auburn . C Stewart,* Miss Mary Elizabeth, Box 393, Marion . B Stewart, Dr. James, Dept, of Mining Engineering, Box 1526, University . C Stickney, Mrs. Hazel L., Dept, of Geography, S.T.C., Livingston . GC Stitzer, Mr. R. B., Tennessee Valley Authority, Wilson Dam . C Stone, Dean Paul T., Huntingdon College, Montgomery 6 . C Strickland, Dr. Harold S., 406I/2 Haralson Avenue, Gadsden . SE Sudhoff, Mr. Roy W., 1807 Stratford Road, S. E., Decatur . C Sullivan, Mr. John L., Great A. & P. Tea Company, Box 276, Birmingham . IE Sulzby, Mr. James F., 4212 Overlook Road, Birmingham . IE Summersell, Dr. Charles G., Box 2056, University . SS Sutcliffe, Mr. Horace, Jr., c/o Sut’s Six, 111 University Avenue, Tuscaloosa . GA Swindel, Mr. George W., Jr., U. S. Geological Survey, University . GA Membership 135 Name, Title, and Address Section Tankersley, Mr. Richard S., Route 3, Alexander City . BM Tapp, Dr. James S., 905 8th Avenue, S.E., Decatur . C Tarbutton, Dr. Grady, Applied Research Section, T.V.A., Wilson Dam . C Taylor, Miss Geraldine, Alabama College, Montevallo . BM Thomas, Dr. Adeeb E., University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham 5 . BM Thomas, Mr. Carl Owens, Univ. of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee . Thompson, Mr. Davis Hunt, 917 Valley Road Place, Birmingham . C Thompson, Georgia J., Station 3, Bryce Hospital, Tuscaloosa . Thompson, Mrs. Margene G., 353 Park Ave., Shades Mt., Birmingham . SE Thompson, Mrs. Wynelle D., 917 Valley Road Place, Birmingham . Tilley, Miss Luvenia, Rt. 1, Reform . BM Timonin, Dr. Michael E, Pearson and Company, Dogwood Lane, Spring Hill Sta., Mobile . BM Todd, Mr. Carl D., A.P.I., Auburn . PM Todhunter, Dr. E. Neige, School of Home Economics, University . C Tower, Dr. James Allen, Dept, of Geography, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . GC Townes, Mr. M. Halsey, 4424 Cliff Road, Birmingham . IE Traylor,* Miss Rebecca B., Daugette Hall, Jacksonville . B Traylor,* Mr. Weyman, Pannell Hall, Jacksonville . C Tucker, Mr. Charles Eugene, 46 Vonore Ave., Montgomery . Tucker, Mr. Edd Kyle, P. O. Box 97, Camp Hill . C Tucker,* Mr. Olon C., Route 2, Grant . B Turner, Mr. Henry E., Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, A.P.I., Auburn . BM-B Twellmeyer, Rev. George O., Dept, of Chemistry, Spring Hill College, Mobile . C Tyrea, Mrs. Charles W., S.T.C., Jacksonville . BM Ucci, Mr. Pompelio A., Chemstrand Corp., Decatur . C Underwood, Mrs. Bertha A., 415 Lauderdale St., Russellville . C Unger,* Mr. Gus, Pannell Hall, Jacksonville . C Unnewehr, c/o Athens College, Athens . PM Valentine, Mr. Barry D., 20 Howard Street, Cambridge 38, Mass . Valentine, Rev. Claude E., S.J., Dept, of Biology, Spring Hill College, Mobile . SE Van de Mark, Mrs. Mildred S., Smith Hall Annex, Auburn . BM Veazey, Dr. Thomas M., 2026 Woodlawn Ave., E.E., Decatur . C Viccars, Miss Marion, 2125 Mt. Meigs Rd., Montgomery . BM Vickery, Dr. Katherine, Dept, of Psychology, Alabama College, Montevallo . SS Volker, Dr. Joseph, University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham 5 . BM Wade, Mr. Albert, Jr., Box 237, Howard College, Birmingham 6 . BM Walker, Mr. Joseph Clyde Walker, 2100 Bienville Street, Selma . SS Walker, Dr. J. Henry, Dept, of Biology, P.O. Box 2047, University . BM Walker, Miss Katherine, Route Mars Hill Rd., Florence . Walters, Mr. James, Box 799, University . . . SS Ward, Dr. Henry S., Jr., Dept, of Botany and Plant Pathology, A.P.L, Auburn . BM Ward, Mr. John F., Box 1717, University . (' Watson, Mr. J. Hilton, Box 422, Montgomery . GC Waugh, Mr. James Douglas, S.T.C., Jacksonville . Webster, Miss Elizabeth, Box 2025, University . SS Welch,* Miss Martha Kate, 202 N. 8th St., E. Gadsden . B Wesson, Dr. James R., Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham 4 . PM Westover, Dr. Frederick L., Dept, of Ed. Psychol., P. O. Box University . SS White, Mr. Horace Gene, Box 66, Grove Hill . G.\ White, Mr. Jesse Steven, Delta S.T.C., Cleveland, Mis.sissippi . BM White, Dr. Locke, Jr., Southern Research Institute, Birmingham . ( Whitehead, Dr. Fred, Dept, of Chemistry, Huntingdon College, Montgomery . t' Whitt, Mr. Carlton D., Route 4, Athens . C Wiggins, Mr. William K., 2250 Carler Rd., Montgomery . BM Wilcox, Dr. Harold E., Dept, of Chemistry, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham . ( 136 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Name, Title, and Address Section WilkeSr Dr. James C., Jr., S.T.C., Jacksonville . Wilks, Dr. William T., Prof, of Science, S.T.C., Troy . SE-PM Willbern, Dr. York, Bureau of Public Admin., University . SS Williams, Mr. Glenn A., 4741 Ave. R, Central Park, Birmingham . GA Williams, Mr. Melvin R., 6l5 Hubbard St., Montgomery . Willoughby, Mr. Herman L., Route 1, Tennille . C Wilson, Dr. Hazel S., S.T.C., Jacksonville . PM Wilson, Mr. Wilfred Kelson, 344 Forest Hills Rd., Springfield 8, Mass . C Wingard, Dr. R. E., Box 177, Auburn . C Wood, Mr. James W., Univ. of Ala. Medical Center, Box 63, Rt. 4, Birmingham . Yancey, Rev. Patrick H., S.J., Dept, of Biology, Spring Hill College, Mobile . BM Yanchosek, Mr. John J., U. S. Geological Survey, Box 6147, University . GA Young, Mr. S. F., Howard College, Birmingham . Yocom, Mr. Herbert A., 315 16th Street, S.W., Birmingham . GC Yokeley, Dr. Paul, Jr., Dept, of Biology, State Teachers College, Florence . BM Youngblood, Mr. Robert W., 626 So. 54th Street, Birmingham 6 . SE Zukoski, Mr. Charles F., Jr., First National Bank, Birmingham . SS Wilson, Dr. L. T., Dept, of Physics, State Teachers College, Jacksonville . PM Wingo, Dr. William J., Dept, of Biochemistry, Medical College of Alabama, Birmingham 3 . BM 137 INDEX This index includes the topics discussed within the Journal, however, it does not attempt to in¬ clude minute details. The membership of the Academy is not indexed since the list is arranged al¬ phabetically on pages 124-136. The names of officers of the Academy, as well as contributors to the program, and other persons whose work is referred to within the Journal are indexed. The colleges and scientific organizations within the state are indexed wherever their names are mentioned. A Academies of Science, role . 93 Adams, C. L . 114 Adrenocorticotropin effects . 83 Aerial spraying, effect on forest vegt . 91 African soc., supernaturalistic beliefs . 95 Agriculture, Ala . 17-25 Agric., Calhoun Co . 25-28 Alabama, agri. changes . 17-25 Alabama, ed. level . 9-10 Alabama, income levels . 10-11 Alabama, industrial . 9-16 Alabama Junior Acad, of Sci. proceedings . 119-123 Alabama, migration . 11-13 Ala. Poly. Institute . 17, 43, 69, 72, 77, 78, 79, 83, 84, 855, 88, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96 Ala. State Oil and Gas Board . 90 Albrecht, Ruth . 97-100, 100-102, 103 Alexander, H. C . 115 Alkali methoxides . 89-90 Allen, R. H. J . 35 Alloxan monohydrate effects . 84-85 Amphoterism of cert, comp . 88 Arnold, P. J . 97-100, 100-102, 103, 104 Articles of Incorporation, A.A.S . 105-108 Attitudes, labor and management . 95 Avery, J. C . 77 Avifauna of Ala . 81-82 Award, Ala. Acad . 116 B Bailey, P. C . 100-102, 103 Bagwell, J. T . 115 Balch, S. E . Il4 Ballenger, Betty . 94 Bancroft, W. H . 114 Barker, S. B . 78, 80, 82, 100-102, 103, Il4 Barrett, W. J . 103 Ba.swell, John . 103 Bayles, D. E . 15 Bear, black in Ala . 34-35 Beindorff, Arthur . 97-100, 103 Benson, V. M . 86 Berryman, W. C . 114 Birmingham-Southern College . 9, 86 Bishop, E. L . 123 Bishop, W. S . 114 Black, W. B . 103 Blackwell, A. C . 65 Blair, Mary Grace . 86 Blount County, spring flowers . 77 Boozer, R. B . 104 Boschung, H. T., Jr . 33 Boykin, Charity . Il6 Bradford, Ibbie . 114 Brooks, H. B . 92 Brown, E. I., Ill . 90 Brown, Lt. J. S . 77 Browne, E. T . 77 Bryant, Joan . Il4 Burton, L. P . 103 Business meet., annual . 103 By-Laws, A.A.S . 108-113 C Calhoun Co., agric . 25-28 Calloway, E. D . 86 Calvert, J. G . 87 Carmichael, E. B . 114 Carr, Howard . 97-100, 100-102, 103 Cellulose fibers, structure . 88 Chemstrand Corp . 87, 88, 90 Chermock, R. L . 34 Chloramine-amonia, chloramine- hydrazine reactions . 87 Chromatographic study, thyroxine modif. prod, by kidney slices . 78 Citronelle oil field . 90 Clark, Fr. V. J . 77 Coals, comp, of Ala . 45-54 Cole, Houston . 104 Collins, F. N., Jr . 87 Congressional biography and Idealogy . 93 Conservation Dept . 81 Cooperator to Sci. Clubs of America . 116-117 Coosa River Newsprint Co . 91 Cortisone acetate effects . 83 Counselor, A.J.A.S., report . 117 Coweeta Hydrologic Lab . ss Cox, Claire . ll-i Croker, T. C . 103 Curve drawing instruments . 61-6-1 D Daly, Sister Mary Charles . 116 Daniel, }. T . is Daniel, T. W., Jr . oq David.son, R. H . Q2 138 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Davis, H. G . 106 Dawson, Margaret . 69 Dean, Blanche . 100-102, 103 Dearing, Judith . 116 Dedication, book . 95 Dejarnette, D. L . 90 Dept, of Conservation, Ala . 36 DeVall, W. B . 17, 100-102 Diener, V. L . 77 Dietz, R. A . 78, 85 Dobbins, H. L . Il6 E E. H. Sargent Co . 104 Ecol. factors, hydrochem . 79-80 Eddins, D. L . Il4 Educational T.V., science . 92 Ethnological problems, Canada . 94 Etling, Nicole . 78 Eupotoriums . 81 Evans, E. E . 78 Exec. Com. reports . 97-102 F Farris, C. D . 93 Fatty acids, oxid. in peanut kernels . 85 Ferry, J. F. . 78, 79, 100-102 Fibricola, life cycle . 43-44 Fincher, John . 103 Fire, effects on undergrowth vegt . 91 Fishes, records from Ala . 33-34 Florence State Teachers College . 81 Forest ind., Ala . 28-32 Formazan, form, in peanut . 77 Forest, virgin, Wilcox Co . 78 Freymuth, J. J., Jr . 114 Fritsche, C. B . 106 Fungi, isol. from peanuts . 77-78 G Gandrud, W. B . Garren, R. E . Geisler, Edith . Geol. Survey of Ala. . Glycogen, types . Goetz, J. R . Gold, R. L. . Gorgas scholarships .. Gough, H . Grad, prog., proposed Gramling, E. S . Grayson, Daisy B . Green, Margaret . Gross, A. L . Grove, E. L . Grubbs, L. D . . 114 . 94, 103 . 114 . 90 . 80 . 97-100 . 103 . 114-116 . 76 . 93 . 80 . 116 ,97-100, 100-102, 104 . 79 . 86, 88, 89, 103 . 114 Gulf States Paper Corp . 28 Gunter Air Force Base . 77 H Hall, C. C . Hamilton, W. J., Jr. Hannon, J. T., Jr . Hansen, A. T . Hanson, R. W . Harper, R. M . Harris, Ethel . Hartwig, C. W . Hastings, E. L . Hawkins, W. L . Hayes, C. W . Herndon, W. R . Hershey, A. L . Hill, J. H . Hisey, Alan . Hobart, Chas . Hobbie, R. M . Hobbs, Kenneth . Hodgkins, E. J . Holley, H. L . Howard College . Howell, A. H . Hunt, T. E . Hunt, E. A . . Hurley, F. R . . 80, 114 . 35 . 114 ,97-100, 100-102, 103 . 80 . 61, 94, 100-102 . 92 . 95 . 90 . 86 . 115 . 123 . 81 . 116 . 103 . 76 . 115 . 92 . 91 . 86 ...77, 80, 87, 89, 103 . 35 . 81 . 81 . 87 I Ice age, cause . 90 Imhof, T. A . 81 Indian Springs School . 89, 92 Indolacetic acid, synthesis . 88 Industrial Alabama- . 9-16 In-law role concepts . 96 J Jacksonville State Teachers College . 9, 99, 100, 104, 114, 119-122 Jeffries, Mrs. Harriett . 116 Jenkins, L. T . 87 Jennings, H. L. . . 97-100, 100-102, 105 Johnson, M. H . 116 Jones, Mrs. Frances . 115 Jones, W. B . . . . . 90, 103 Judson College . 82 K Kassner, J. L . . . .....65, 86, 88, 89, 100-102, 103, 106, 116, 117 Kaylor, H. M . 97-100, 101-102, 103, 104, Il4 Keenan, B. S . . . . . . . 115 Kelly, J. L . . . 114 Kellogg, R. . . . . . . . . 35 Ketones, dielectric const, meas . .........88 Index 139 Kettering, Chas. F . 68 Kirkpatrick, J. C . 28, 76 Knight, V. J . 91 Kuderna, Jerome . 92 Kyle, G. M . 35 L La Moreaux, P. E . 90 Land, J. E . 88 Laney, P. W., Jr . 115 Lanham, Ben T., Jr . 17 Lankford, F. E . 114 Laplace-like transform . 92 Lauer, Karl . 88 Lazansky, Joseph . 104 Lewis, W. J . 78 Lindsay, R. H . 82 Lithium det . 86 Lloyd, Lucille N . 114 Lloyd, S. J . 90 Loesch, Harold . 36, 100-102 Lueth, F. X . 35 Luker, Jo Ann . 114 Lunsford, J. K . 104 M Marshall, J. D . 95 Marshall, M. L . 104 Martin, J. S . 114 Mathews, A. S., Jr . 25 Maxwell A. F. Base . . 90 McCullough, H. A . 97-100, 100-102, 103 McCullough, Lois . 82 McGlamery, Winnie . 90 McIntyre, S. C . 96 McWane, A. T . 105 McWater, T. L . Il4 Membership, A.A.S . 124-136 Microbal capsules . 78 Microlithic ind . 90 Miles, E. P . 114 Miles, J. B . Il4 Miles, R. V., Jr . 28 Miller, J. M . 95 Miller, G. S., Jr . 35 Minton, N. A . 82 Mitchell, F. H., Jr . 15 Mites, Eriophyids . 80 Mobley, W. N . 114 Moffett, L. R . 88 Morgan, Chas . 54 Morris, F. K . 90 Mott, R. A . “14 Mound State Monument . 90 Mucin clot comp., human synovial fluid . 80 N Nelson, G. E . 100-102, 103 Nematodes, distribution in Ala . 82 Nematodes, path, of root-knot . 85-86 Nickell, W. B . 115 Nitrates, groundwater of Ala . 90 Nurses, practical . 94 O Oil and gas potential, Ala . 90 O’Neill, J. M . 115 Opportunities, science and math teachers . 92 Org. acids and salts, high-freq. titrations.... 89-90 Ottis, Kenneth . 83, 84 Overton, Eleazer . 83 Oxygen acids, amphoterism . 89 Oxygen consumption, rat kidney . 82 P Paleo-Indian prob . 90 Pallister, H. D . 54 Panayotoff, T. J . 114 Patterson, Ruth . 116 Patton, Gibbes . 100-102, 117 Phosphate deposits. Limestone Co., Ala . 90 Photosynthesis demon., artificial light . 79 Phycomycetes, occur, in Ala . 84 Pigman, Ward . 80, 86 Piper, J. R . 88 Platt, David . 80, 86 Pocossin, Pike Co . 85 Poitras, A. W . 84 Polmerization catalysis . 87 Polysaccharide separation, acidic . 86 Powell, Wm . 103 Presidential address . 9-16 Pseudocris ornata . 77 Pyridazone derivatives, prep, of . 88 R Rains, Albert . 114 Randall, J. L . 88 Reformatsky react . 88 Reiner, Fr. Chas . b"' Relief, legislative for public employees . 96 Resolutions Com., report . 104 Roberts, B. R . 88 Rodgers, Eric . 103, IM Rogers, Wiley . 10 3 Root competition, effects on soil moist . 91 S Sanders, R. H . '^2 Sanderson stab, ratio concept . 88 Scharfenberg, S. A . lis Schwartz, H. S . 80 140 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Science ed., problems . 92-93 Science fairs, qual. and quant, aspects . 65-68 Science talent search . 114-116 Second, school chem. ..i . 89 Self-concept, differentials in . 72-76 Sensenig, Carl . 100-102 Sericea Lespedeza, stem anat . 78-79 Shrim.p, Mobile bay . 36-43 Shotts, R. Q . 45, 54 Sialic acid det . 86 Simmons, D. C . 95 Sipe, H. Craig . 89, 92,. 103 Sisler, H. H . 87 Smith, Carol Ann . 84 Snyder, E. J . 97-100 Sociology in law . 94 Soday, F. J . 90, 97-100 Southern Forest Exp. Stat . 91 Southern, J. A . 89, 103, Il4 Southern Research Institute . 97, 115 Sowell, Inez . 96 Spencer, G. 0 . 100-102 Spring flowers, key . 77 Spring Hill College . 93 Stabler, Claudette . 85 Starch grains and fibers, morph, studies . 88-89 St. Bernard College . 65 Steele, H. E . 96 Stevens, F. J . 103, 114 Streamflow, eff. of land use on . 55-60 Stuart, G. R . 106 Subcritical reactor, A.P.1 . 92 Sullivan, John . 103 Surface tension’ . 81 Sweet, R. F . 115 Symposium, Changing Alabama . 17-32 Synthetic fiber mfg . 87 T Taylor, Mrs. H. L . 72 Teague, J. H . Il4 Television, effect on home . 69-72 Tetrazolium stain, react . 77 Thompson, D. H . 114 Thyroxine metab . 78 Ting, S. F . 89 Toluenes, alpha-substituted . 86-87 Tower, J. A . 9, 97-100, 100-102, 103 Treasurer’s report, A.A.S . 104 Troy State Teachers College . 78, 85, 93 Turner, H. F . 43 U U. S. Dept, of Agric . 82 U. S. Geol. Survey . 90 Ulcers, gastric . 81 Univ. of Ala . 33, 34, 45, 61, 65, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 86, 88, 89, 93, 94, 95, 117 V Value, sociological term . 95 Veigl, Rev. Ronald . 115 Vision, developmental . 83-84 W Wallin, Paul . . 76 Ward, H. S., Jr . . 77, 78, 85 Waseem, Muhammed . 85 Water, Ala . . 90-91 Waterbirds . . 82 Weiss Dam Reservoir . 90 Wesson, J. R . . 104 Whelan, D. E . . 55 White, Locke . . 100-102, 104 Wilcox, Harold . . 97-100, 100-102, 114 Wilks, J. T . . 103 Wilks, W. T . 93, 97-100, 100-102, 103, 104 Wilson, Frances M. ... . 76 Wingo, W. J . . 114 Woods, F. W . Y . 91, 114 Yancey, Fr. P. J . . 93, 97-100, 103, 114 Yeilding, Lu Klie . . 86 Yeung, Shiu-Fong ... . 92 Advertisements BIND YOUR Technical and Scientific JOURNALS into Permanent Sturdy Volumes Preserving Valuable Data for Future Ready Reference \V''rite for Prices and Information Mt Quild bindery, Jhc, 324 E. Ninth St. Cincinnati 2, Ohio TH kCHEMSTRAND CORPORA rioN Research Center and Acrilan* Plant: Decatur, Alabama. Nylon Plant: Pensacola, Florida. *Chemstrand's acrylic fiber A THE SARGENT Designed and Manufactured by E. H. SARGENT & CO. Style: Vertical strip chart recorder, designed for laboratory bench operation. Assembly of three individual, separable, and self contained units; viz., control panel assembly, amplifier and power supply chassis, and chart and pen drive chassis unit. Automatic null balancing potentiometric sys¬ tem with standard cell standardization by panel control, conventional chopper-amplifier method with special Sargent high gain amplifier and high stability Sargent bridge power supply using combined or alternate dry cells and mercury cells. Use of the latter obviates need for standardization over very long periods. Ranges: Multiple full scale ranges selected by panel range switch as follows: 1.25, 2.5, 5, 12.5, 25, 50, 125, 250, 500, 1250, 2500. All ranges are made direct reading as full scale deflection in millivolts, milliamperes, or micro¬ amperes by use of an associated units selector switch. All 33 scales provide true potentio¬ metric measurement. An additional series of the same eleven ranges in terms of volts is provided by an additional selector switch posi¬ tion, this series using a divider input with an impedance of one megohm. True potentiometric measurements are thus provided to a maximum of 2.5 volts, higher voltages only being measured through a divider. Accuracy: 0.1% or 20 microvolts, whichever is greater. Chart: Width, 250 mm; length, 120 feet. Ruling rational with all ranges on a decimal basis. Indexed for reference. Graduated steel scale provides for any necessary correction of cali¬ bration. Two-position writing plate, 15° or 40° from vertical. Chart Drive: Forward drive recording, reverse (Patents Fending) An automatic, self-balancing potentiometric recorder which measures voltages or current and graphically records these variables as a function of time. • MULTI-RANGE-40 ranges. • MULTI-SPEED — 9 standard chart speeds. • VOLTAGE OR CURRENT RECORDING for measurement of voltage or current or any other variable which can be translated to voltage or current signals. • FLEXIBILITY OF APPLICATION • DESIGNED FOR BENCH OPERATION drive recording, magnetic brake eliminating coasting when stopped and free clutch position with separate provision for rapid non-syn- chronous drive. Recording speeds of i/j, 1/2, 1, l'/2, 2, 2%, 4, 8, and 12 inches per minute, selected by interchange of two gears on end of chassis. Free clutch or neutral drive at the rate of approximately 20 feet per minute in either direction for rapid scanning of recorded in¬ formation, chart reroll, or chart positioning. Recording either by automatic take-up on roll or with free end chart and tear off. Synchronous switching outlet for automatic synchronization of external devices with re¬ cording. Pen Speed: 1.8 seconds full scale. Other speeds can be provided on special order with change of motors. Bridge: Special Sargent specification, ganged Helipot with resolution several times common commercial practice. Provision for coupled transmitting potentiometer for output to in¬ tegrating circuits, etc. Damping: Dynamics controlled with single panel knob adjustment of amplifier gain. Dimensions: Width, 21 1/2 inches; depth, 13 inches; height, 24 inches; weight, about 75 pounds. S-72150 RECORDER— Potentiometric, Sargent. Complete with two S-72165 chart rolls; two each S-72175 pens; red, blue and green; input cable assembly; synchronous switch cable as¬ sembly; plastic dust cover; spare ring for take- up mechanism ; spare pen drive cable assembly; and fuses. For operation from 115 volt, AC., single phase, 60 cycle circuits . $1725.00 SARGENT SaiNTiriC lABORATORY INSTRUKINTS • APPARATUS • SUPPLIES • CHEMICALS E. H. SARGENT & COMPANY, 4647 W. FOSTER AVE., CHICAGO 30, ILLINOIS MICHIGAN DIVISION, 8560 WEST CHICAGO AVENUE, DETROIT 4, MICHIGAN SOUTHWESTERN DIVISION 5915 PEELER STREET, DALLAS 35, TEXAS SOUTHEASTERN DIVISION, 3125 SEVENTH AVE., N., BIRMINGHAM 4, ALA. INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS Editorial Policy: All papers and abstracts of papers to be pub¬ lished in the Alabama Academy of Science Journal must have been given at the Annual Academy meeting prior to the particular issue of the Journal in which they are to appear. These papers and abstracts may be eligible for publication if they appear on the printed pro¬ gram of the Academy and are read by title only. Papers are also eligible for publication if they are given by an invited guest of the Academy, or if they represent areas which may benefit the Academy if published in the Journal. Full- length papers which are submitted for possible publication will be judged by a review board on the basis of original data presented and upon the interpretation or review made of the ma¬ terials presented within a limit of ten printed pages. An article exceeding this limit will be charged at the rate of $10.00 per additional page. Papers must be submitted solely to the Alabama Academy of Science Journal and must not be reprinted in another publication with¬ out the consent of the editor. Manuscripts: The manuscript should be typed double¬ spaced allowing good margins. Captions and legends for figures should be typed on sheets separate from the text. Footnotes are not de¬ sirable and should be avoided whenever pos¬ sible. Illustrations should not exceed 20 per cent of the text; the authors of more copiously illustrated articles may be asked to pay for the excess. The title of the paper should be as short as is consistent with clarity. Primary divisions may be indicated by central headings and sub¬ divisions by italicized captions at the margin. Every paper should normally conclude with a summary of numbered paragraphs. Abstracts of papers should not exceed 200 words and should not include illustrative ma¬ terials except where absolutely necessary. Figures: All figures and tables should be numbered consecutively with legends included. Illustra¬ tions (including tables) should be planned to occupy the entire width of a page (5% inches) or the width of a single column (2% inches), and any portion of the height (8 1/8 inches). It is best to combine illustrations into the small¬ est possible number of groups. Original photo¬ graphs should be submitted in the form of clear black and white prints on glossy paper. Care should be taken to see that they cannot be bent or folded in handling, and paper clips should not be used. References: References to literature should be cited by the author’s name or by the literature cited ref¬ erence number. The bibliography should be ar¬ ranged alphabetically by author under the head¬ ing Literature Cited. Complete reference is necessary and the arrangement should normally be as follows: Harper, R. M. Some Menaces to the Study of Geology. Jour, of Ala. Acad- of Science. 27:15-20. 1955. Proofs and Reprints: Galley proofs will be sent to the author, and the corrected proof and reprint order should be returned to the Editor. Page proofs will be sent only when necessary. Cost of reprints will be indicated at the time proofs are mailed. All manuscripts should be handed to the various Section Chairmen at the close of the Annu.il Academy meeting or mailed directly to the Edi¬ tor of the Journal. All correspondence con¬ cerning the publication of papers, etc., within the Journal should be addressed to the Editor. Correspondence relative to securing copies of the Journal, etc., sliould be addressed to Dr. Clyde H. Cantrell, Director of Librarie.s, A.P.I., Auburn, Ala. fr'' '' Jr ! ; j Alabama Academy of Science. Journal