1869

THE LIBRARY

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2017 with funding from
IMLS LG-70-15-0138-15

https://archive.org/details/journalofalabama4849alab

4

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 48 JAN. & APRIL, 1977 NOS. 1 & 2

EDITOR

Thomas J. Carrington
Auburn University

ARCHIVIST
R. Glen Eaves
Auburn University

EDITORIAL BOARD
R.T. Gudauskas, Chairman
Auburn University

E.A. Curl
Auburn University

G.M. Emerson

University of Ala. - Birmingham

The Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science is published four times
a year and is sent without charge to all members of the Academy.

The Journal is indexed in Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts,
America: History and Life, and Historical Abstracts.

CONTENTS

ARTICLES

Developing Tennessee Valley Agriculture
H.A. Henderson, Harold C. Young, and Billy
J. Bond . 1

The Miasmist as Reformer: John H. Griscorn
as a Test Case

Duncan R. Jamieson . 19

Fungi of Alabama VI. Dematiaceous
Hyphomycetes

G. Morgan-Jones . 26

t

Tennessee Valley Agriculture

DEVELOPING TENNESSEE VALLEY AGRICULTURE

H. A. Henderson, Agricultural Economist;

Harold C. Young, Agricultural Economist; and
Billy J. Bond, Assistant Director, Division of Agricultural Development
Tennessee Valley Authority

When Congress created the Tennessee Valley Authority in May 1933,
it charged the agency "with the broadest duty of planning for the proper
use, conservation, and development of the natural resources of the
Tennessee River drainage basin and its adjoining territory for the
general, social, and economic welfare." The Act further provided for
"proper use of marginal lands . . . agricultural and industrial develop¬
ment . . . promoting the prevention of soil erosion and otherwise . . .
and to furnish fertilizers in the most economical manner and at the
highest standard of efficiency ... to use such products in cooperation
with practical farmers . . . for the general, social, and economic
welfare. "

The intent of Congress was that TVA agricultural development activi¬
ties be a part of a total unified development and be directed toward
promotion of long-range agricultural adjustment and development.

Although the language of a "systems approach" to development was not
used, many concepts of systems analyses are traceable to discussions
that helped establish the TVA programs in the 1930 's and helped relate
agricultural development activities to total resource development.

Subsistence-Type Farming System

To understand how the integrated approach to development evolved in
the region, it is useful to identify the agricultural system in effect
at the time of TVA's creation before discussing actual development pro¬
grams. During the early 1930' s, agriculture was absorbing thousands of
people returning from industrial areas — unemployed, penniless, and
seeking home and food. Agriculture was primarily production by a family
for a family- — a subsistence-type agriculture where the farm was essen¬
tially a self-contained unit. There were poverty, hunger, isolation,
and a general separation of farming from the other economic forces at
the time. Many problems in the Tennessee Valley agriculture were very
similar to those facing many developing countries of the world today.

There were about 349,000 farms in 1934 — each depending primarily
on natural forces of rainfall, sunlight, and air. Only a few specialized
supplies were bought. There was limited service from public agencies,
but there was a favorable public attitude toward the farmer. The
farmer had a bundle of fixed resources consisting of his own labor.

1. See figure 1 for Tennessee Valley region.

1

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

management ability founded by tradition, the land that he owned, and the
capital that he had accumulated. With these he produced, processed,
stored, and consumed most of his food and much of his clothing. Farm
sales amounted to about $113 million.

The processing system for agricultural products was also largely
farmer owned and poorly developed. Except for a few specialized com¬
modities like cotton and tobacco, products were intended for consumption
within the region. There were few organized markets and few marketing
alternatives for either farm inputs or outputs.

Early Strategy Developed

Considering the subsistence nature of agriculture, TVA planners
sought answers to these questions: What type of program activities
could a regional agency initiate to assist farmers and help them move
toward a more commercial-type operation? At what point could TVA enter
and make some adjustments to influence the ongoing system? To help
answer these questions, TVA management requested a conference with the
research directors of the land-grant universities in the seven Tennessee
Valley States. These directors advised TVA to concentrate on three
problem areas: (1) improve skills in producing crops and managing farms,
(2) supply farmers with plant nutrients (primarily phosphate), and (3)
improve the farmer's access to inputs needed to operate a farm.

Following this conference, TVA initiated programs to help alleviate
short-range ills while setting the pattern for long-range development.
These programs included: (1) a direct supply of soil amendments —
phosphate, lime, and later nitrogen; (2) erosion control — to improve
farm income and to protect river navigation and the power system that
was being developed; and (3) the promotion of farmer supply and service
cooperatives. The main thrust of TVA's regional agricultural develop¬
ment effort dealt with crop management skills and farm management skills.
These elements, when combined, would recognize the independence of
farmers, would recognize their dependence on nature, and would recog¬
nize that TVA could make a contribution without becoming a direct parti¬
cipant in the management of farms.

Demonstration Method Selected

The idea that what one sees he believes prompted program planners
to select the demonstration method of teaching new skills. The strategy
was to show farmers that profitable changes could be made. A 3-way
partnership emerged among farmers, land-grant universities, and TVA.
University staffs would provide technical assistance through research
and extension; TVA would provide limited financial assistance (includ¬
ing fertilizers) and reimburse the university for part of its technical
input; and the farmer would manage his operation, use practices
recommended by TVA and the universities, and furnish information to
other farmers.

2

Tennessee Valley Agriculture

By adopting and using improved methods, the farmer would have a
pilot operation where other farmers could come and see the results of
a systems approach to enlightened management, skills, erosion control,
and increased use of soil amendments. Both production and financial
records were maintained for use in educational programs with other
farmers. The concept was to obtain spread of practices from demonstra¬
tion farms to other farms in the region.

Demonstrations were carried out at different levels:

1. Most were field demonstrations where one crop and either one
practice or a group of practices were involved.

2. Other demonstrations included the entire farm where improved
practices in all the farmers' enterprises were introduced.
Records were kept, and success of the operation and demonstra¬
tion was judged on the basis of total farm income.

3. Demonstrations included entire communities where all farmers
participated in a demonstration of improved farm techniques.

In the early years of community demonstrations, little effort was made
to contend with problems affecting the community as a whole; rather,
emphasis was placed on similar problems of individual farms within the
community. In later years, demonstrations were conducted to provide
services for the entire community.

Influencing the System

The demonstration approach was effective. However, a problem
developed in the early 1960's: How could agricultural adjustments be
made quickly in an era of rapidly changing economic complexities?

To give the development of the Valley's agricultural resources
new vision and program sophistication, TVA and university planners
created a new program activity named Rapid Adjustment Farms. This
proved to be a major step in shattering the long-held concept that
there were certain limits to agricultural production in the region.

Rapid adjustment is the use of pilot farms to study and demon¬
strate advanced levels of technology and reorganization of entire farm
organizations. The strategy is to accelerate development so that a
rapid adjustment farmer can attain income goals and make needed changes
in 4 years compared with the normal period of 10-15 years.

Farms selected are representative of many farms in a geographic
area. Resources are inventoried, management skills are evaluated,
future market opportunities are forecast, and enterprise opportunities
for farm production are developed by university specialists. By use
of linear programming mathematical techniques, the farm is analyzed to
determine the combination of enterprises and the technology that would
be more profitable. Two or three plans are usually developed for
different sets of constraints.

3

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

By agreement the farmer selects a farm organization plan, and
professional workers at the university work with him in implementing
the new technology. The farm is operated for a period of four years,
financial and physical records are kept, and the farm is examined
periodically for progress by professional workers.

The farming system and the record it produces are used to demon¬
strate to professional workers the results that will be obtained by
the simultaneous use of improved organization and advanced technology.
Thus, it serves as both a laboratory and a teaching tool.

The first rapid adjustment farm entered the program in 1962. By
1967 this farm had completed its cycle of adjustment and program parti¬
cipation. The following year (1968) the first statistical report of
a group of rapid adjustment farms was published. The technique has
now become operational. It is now considered to be the major part of
the cooperative TVA-university programs with the region's farmers and
is considered one of the most effective methods to systematically
introduce change into the farming system.

These farms have identified a fantastic potential for increased
agricultural income. The typical farmer, for example, makes about
$4,000 in annual net income when he goes on the program (table 1). By
the fourth year of the program, he typically makes about $8,700 — an
increase of 124 percent. Included with income growth is an increase in
investment of about 61 percent. Structurally, crop sales usually remain
about the same, while livestock sales increase about 200 percent. This
reflects and demonstrates the general type of changes that need to be
made in the region for full agricultural development to occur.

Table 1

Financial Progress on Graduate Rapid Adjustment Farms

Benchmark

Fourth Year

% Change

Gross farm income

$14,286

$32,038

124.3

Net farm income

3,885

8,718

124.4

Investment

41,439

66,711

61.0

1934-1964 Changes

Development programs conducted by TVA and other regional institu¬
tions, major advances in technology, along with changing social, poli¬
tical, and economic conditions, created major agricultural changes
during the 1934-1964 period. To accelerate continued development of
the region's agriculture, TVA and university planners evaluated these
changes in the late 1960's.

4

Tennessee Valley Agriculture

The TVA-university programs aimed at increasing farm production
technology and management had been effective. For example, corn pro¬
duction per acre had increased from 19 to 46 bushels (over 200 percent
increase). Cotton yields had about doubled what they were in 1934 (see
table 2). Total farm product sales moved up, too — from $113 million in
1934 to $661 million in 1964 — a change of almost 500 percent. Deflated
for changes in prices, the product more than doubled.

Other changes were taking place. The mix in farm production was
reversing. While crop production increased to only 411 percent, live¬
stock production increased to almost 800 percent over what it was in
1934.

These farm production changes also permitted structural changes
to occur in the total economic system. While the total population of
the region continued to increase, the number of farms, farm labor input,
and farm population decreased. Farm numbers were down to less than one-
half what they were 30 years before; farm population was about a third.
Younger farmers with children showed the greatest decline.

With a decline in entry rate of farmers, the farm population was
advanced in age so that the real decline in labor force on the farm
was even greater than the numbers would indicate. Amount of land used
for farming was also declining. Openland in farms had dropped from 13
million to 10 million acres.

This decline in resources used on farms represented another contri¬
bution that agriculture was making to the total economy. That is, with
more efficient farm operations, fewer farmers could produce a larger
output. They could then release labor resources formerly required to
provide food for jobs in nonfarm production. Nonfarm industrial growth
was abetted by increased efficiency in agriculture, which permitted the
release of resources — capital, labor, and land — for use in industrial
development. This transference of resources illustrates the integrated
approach of TVA to solving many of the region's problems.

By 1964, a number of other general changes were apparent. Farming
was no longer a subsistence activity where the farmer was producing for
his own consumption. Rather, most farmers had now entered commercial
production where they sold products and purchased consumer items.

Farmers were producing, not only for national consumption, but were in
world markets. By 1964, one dollar out of seven of regional farm
income came from foreign sales of farm products. This amount continues
to grow.

Farmers were no longer isolated in an agrarian social system. They
were now technology oriented. Farmers were actively seeking new skills
to use. They recognized a dependence on outside information in decision¬
making. Included was a dependence on resource and commodity markets.

Many had begun to recognize that social decisions of local, state, and
national governments were affecting farmers' welfare, income, and ability
to operate in a profit-seeking manner.

5

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

Table 2

Changes in Tennessee Valley Agriculture,

1934-1964

1964 as a

1964

Percent

of 1934

At 1964

At 1934

At 1964

At 1934

1934

Prices

Prices

Prices

Prices

Corn, bushels/acre
Cotton, bales/acre
Tobacco, pounds/acre

19.50

.52

852.00

46.40

1.18

1,914.00

-

238

227

225

-

Farm product sales
($1,000,000)

113

661

250

585

212

Crop product sales
($1,000,000)

62

255

97

411

156

Livestock product
sales ($1,000,000)

51

404

154

792

302

Farm product sales,
$/hour

.12

1.84

.70

1,533

583

Openland in farms
(million acres)

13.80

10.20

X

74

X

Harvested cropland
(million acres)

7.4

3.4

X

46

X

Farm numbers (1,000)

349

164

X

47

X

Farm population
(1,000,000)

1.80

.55

X

31

X

6

Tennessee Valley Agriculture

New Problems and Opportunities

Although early programs helped farmers make changes during this
30-year period, these adjustments created other problems for regional
planners. As farmers became more commercial and depended more on out¬
side markets, they needed a new set of skills involving market and
public policy knowledge. As they became dependent on the buyer of their
products, what happened in the buyer's business also affected their
welfare. As they depended on foreign markets, they needed skills to
anticipate and adjust to changes in the foreign market. As they re¬
leased some resources to industry, industry expanded and became a com¬
petitor for other resources.

Some public officials looked at the decline in the number of
farmers and concluded that farming was no longer important to the
economy. Thus, in the period 1966 and 1967, TVA made a systematic
reevaluation of its regional efforts to promote the agricultural indus¬
try and developed new program objectives.

While the concept of TVA originally included an integrated, compre¬
hensive view of the total social and economic problems of man, the
techniques for approaching problems in this manner were not developed
in the beginning. This concept evolved over time. TVA initiated the
1966 evaluation of agricultural development problems in a way that
approached what is now considered systems analysis. During this eval¬
uation, the concept that the farmer had a given bundle of resources to
manage remained a cornerstone of the new program ideas. However, new
elements of reasoning came into the process. Recognition was given to
the importance of input suppliers, the farmer was considered only one
stage in the total transformation process, specific development barriers
were identified as problems to be overcome, food processors and market¬
ing firms were recongized as an integral part of agriculture, and,
finally, the consumer was accepted as the ultimate purpose and destina¬
tion of all production. Another major difference was the concept that
agriculture was no longer an isolated, independent function — rather it
was an integral part of the total economic and social structure of the
region. The evaluation showed that agriculture was still a major
dynamic regional industry.

New Potential Recognized

These new situations and new program possibilities were used in a
study of agricultural potentials for the region. As a first step in
the study, certain assumptions were made, and production potentials
were computed. This analysis served three major functions: (1) Major
areas offering opportunity for improving Valley agriculture were iden¬
tified, and the relative importance of each was ascertained; (2) a
basis for determining program objectives was provided; and (3) guide¬
lines for developing and selecting new program elements were identified.

The assumptions used in arriving at the estimates of potentials
reflected sustained economic growth equal to the past 20 years,
unlimited capital, stable prices, favorable markets, full mobility of

7

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

resources constant Government restrictions on production at 1967 level,
and a goal of maximum farm income.

More specific assumptions were: (1) Row crops would be produced
on all classes I and II openland and one-half of class III openland,

(2) pastures would utilize the remaining openland in class III and all
of classes IV through VI, (3) all land in classes VII and VIII would be
used for forest, and (4) land now in forest would remain in that use.

The levels of crop yields used in estimating potentials were based on
normal growing seasons and application of presently known technology.

Livestock production potentials (not including poultry) were
limited to available feed supply and labor. Imported feed was assumed
to be available at prices favorable to expansion of poultry production.

The Valley was divided into nine physiographic regions having sim¬
ilar land characteristics because of the wide diversity of problems and
resources (figure 1). Budgeting procedures used for individual farm
planning were modified to estimate potential production that could
exist if assumptions stated earlier were met.

Harvested crop acreage could be 75 percent greater than in 1964.

Both acreage and yield increases could occur in corn, soybeans, small
grains, hay, and vegetables. Most dramatic acreage increases would
occur in corn (from 884,000 acres in 1964 to a potential 2,000,000
acres), soybeans (from 140,000 to 500,000 acres), and hay (from 1.3
million to 2.0 million acres). Acreage used for all harvested crops
would increase from 3.25 million to more than 5.75 million acres.

Attaining potentials would increase the value of crop production
two and one-half times — from $293 million in 1964 to $759 million.
Production per acre of harvested land would be valued at $131 compared
with $93 in 1964.

Livestock production potentials were even greater. Based on the
feed supply assumed available if crop potential were attained, there
would be a potential for nearly 3 million cattle and calves, 7 million
hogs, and 46 million hundredweight of grade A milk. Potential poultry
numbers were estimated at 511 million broilers and 22 million layers.

The potential value of livestock and poultry production would be
nearly three times the 1964 level. The total value of the livestock
and poultry potential would amount to $1.3 billion as compared with
$454 million in 1964. Most classes of livestock could double in numbers,
but a large share of the expansion would be in beef cattle and poultry.
The large expansion in milk production would result mainly from increased
production per cow rather than an increase in numbers.

If both crop and livestock potentials were attained, the total
value of Valley agriculture would be $1.0 billion greater than the 1964
level. The total agricultural potential for the Valley approached
$1.7 billion compared with $634 million in 1964 at constant 1964 prices.

8

Figure 1. 125 Tennessee Valley Counties By Planning Area

Tennessee Valley Agriculture

9

ill Area

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

This indicates that agriculture was operating at only about one-third
its physical capacity (table 3). Recognizing this relative position
was actually more important than the absolute dollar figures and
provided a rallying point for implementing and promoting new program
activities .

The additional agricultural production would have a pronounced
effect on the volume of Valley agribusiness and the total economy.
Recent studies had shown that for every 38 cents of farm products
produced, an additional 62 cents was spent for marketing and processing
services. 1 Using this same relationship, the added $1.0 billion agri¬
cultural production would generate an additional $1.6 billion for mar¬
keting and processing. This expanded volume of business would also
require expanded employment to process and distribute and food.

Table 3

Summary of Agricultural Production Potentials,
Tennessee Valley

1964

Potential

Increase

Million

Dollars

Million

Dollars

Million

Dollars

Percent

Total crops

293

759

466

159

Less feed crops used

113

425

312

276

Other crops

180

334

154

86

Livestock

454

1,339

885

195

Total

634

1,673

1,039

164

Farm suppliers would play
tural development activities,
because of increases in the use

an

The

; Of

even more important role
farm input market would
fertilizers, chemicals,

in agricul-
expand
feeds ,

machinery and equipment, operating capital, and hired management.

1. For examples, see:

(1) Abbas Mirakhor and Frank Orazem, "Importance of the Farm
Sector to the Economy: A Multiplier Approach," in Ameri¬
can Journal of Agricultural Economics, Nov. 1968, p. 913.

(2) USDA, "The Asheville Analysis" in The Farm Index, June
1968, p. 7.

(3) Carl E. Madewell, Maurice J. Danner, and A. R. Cavender,
"Agribusiness Growth in the Tennessee Valley Counties of
Alabama," Bulletin Y-72, NFDX, Tennessee Valley Authority
April 1974.

10

Tennessee Valley Agriculture

Consequently, agribusiness firms would have to be much larger, offering
more services and advice. Lending agencies would be called upon to
make adjustments in their lending policies so they could provide the
additional capital required.

Barriers to be Overcome

But why did not the farmers reach this potential if they, in
fact, existed? This was examined in the 1966 program study. There
were specific groups of problems identified — called barriers — which
were preventing farmers from reaching their potential. These were
identified as follows:

Management and technological restraints — Failure of farmers to
adopt available technical know-how and to fit it into good management
systems was restricting resource utilization and increased incomes.
Output per unit of input was lower in the Valley than in the rest of
the Southeast and the Nation.

Size of farm and tenure restrictions — In 1964, two-thirds of
Valley farms contained less than 100 acres, and 40 percent contained
less than 50 acres. Less than 60 percent of farm acreage is openland
suitable for crops. As a result, most Valley farms are too small to
support economic farming units for many types of agriculture. The farm
size problem was further complicated by prevailing land ownership and
tenure patterns that discourage efficient land use.

Land capability restrictions — Present land use in the Valley was
less than optimum. More than 5 million acres of classes I to IV land
in forest should be in agriculture. Approximately 2.3 million acres
of classes VI to VIII land being cultivated should be used for growing
trees. Considerable portions of good Valley soils are located In small,
fragmented patches adjacent to soils of lower productivity which hinder
their use for farming.

Human and cultural restraints — Over one-fifth of Valley farmers
were 65 years old or over, and over three-fifths of the farmers had
eight years of less of schooling. Thus, a majority of the present
farmers were elderly, poorly educated, and lacking in labor skills or
financial resources necessary to make the adjustment to significantly
alter their economic condition.

Institutional restrictions — Acreage restrictions, acreage diver¬
sions, market regulations, and land tax policies were restricting
resource use and the development of commercial agriculture.

Market limitations — Growth of agricultural markets had been phenom¬
enal in recent years, but marketing costs were rising sharply, and
many problems were evolving for Valley farmers. A general lack of
understanding of marketing prevailed.

11

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

Relative Importance of Barriers Studied

The barriers limiting attainment of the full agricultural potential
were rated in terms of their relative importance. Several independent
studies — mostly unpublished — had established a basis for many of the
individual estimates. Nevertheless, they are combined personal judg¬
ments of the authors and other TVA agricultural development staff.

The management and technology barrier was assessed to be most
important if it was assumed to be independent of the other five impedi¬
ments. However, management problems are so closely related to the other
categories that usually it is difficult to consider one without the
other. For example, tenure and land use problems can be considered
separately from management for purposes here, but, ultimately, they
must be considered together when developing programs. In fact, all
barriers are so interrelated that they cannot be dealt with apart from
the human factor. Nevertheless, analysis was made to assign ranks
(given below) to barriers in terms of the degree to which each impeded
the attainment of the overall potential increase of $1 billion in value
of farm production. The market limitations do not include the value of
restrictions on agribusiness which would be part of industrial and total
economic development objectives.

1. Management and technological restraints

2. Size of farm and tenure restrictions

3. Land capability restrictions

4. Human and cultural restraints

5. Institutional restrictions

6. Market limitations

$ 375,000,000

175,000,000
175,000,000
175,000,000
50,000,000
50,000,000

Total potential not reached

$1,000,000,000

Following this program review, it was universally recognized that
interests, needs, and opportunities of farmers had expanded from
technology adoption and management of resources to a wide range of
problems. Therefore, TVA initiated an expanded agricultural develop¬
ment program to include some effort to remove each of these six barriers.

Objectives of New Program Designed

The overall objective of Valley agricultural resource development
programs is to maximize income to the agricultural sector, subject to
relevant constraints. The objective of TVA is to maximize ". . .
general, social, and economic welfare"; hence, the objective for agri¬
cultural development becomes on of suboptimization because agriculture
is only one component of the Valley's economy. Therefore, agriculture
must be considered within a "systems" approach if maximum efficiency
is to be obtained for the Valley's total economy.

The areas identified as barriers to Valley agricultural develop¬
ment logically identified program subobjectives. Subobjectives aimed
at overcoming or minimizing the effects of each of the barriers are to:

12

Tennessee Valley Agriculture

a. Improve management on farms and encourage adoption of
improved techology.

b. Promote farm consolidation and improved tenure arrangements.

c. Encourage changes in land use compatible with its highest
economic capability.

d. Improve the educational levels of rural people in the Valley
and help them to adjust to social and economic change.

e. Investigate and assess institutional restrictions hindering
Valley agricultural development and to bring them to the
attention of Federal, state, and local governments.

f. Promote market education and upgrade and expand marketing
systems .

Specific goals for each objective were not set nor were time-
phased goals set at that time. However, an overall goal for agricul¬
tural production was set at $1.67 billion on the basis of the estimated
long-range potential. It was hoped that as progress was made toward
this goal, research would develop new technology so that a higher poten¬
tial might later be set.

New Program Activities Identified

Efforts to introduce technology and improve management ability of
farmers remained the primary activity. Two new TVA program activities
(agribusiness and institutional development) received most of the atten¬
tion after the review.

The expanded interest into these new areas required somewhat
different approaches to the traditional activities of agricultural
development. It called for dealing with a much wider audience and
clientele .

The major changes included expansion of the dissemination of infor¬
mation, largely through the formation of activities such as rural life
conferences and providing planning assistance to other organizations.

In rural life conferences, TVA serves as a catalyst in calling together
people who have information on a problem of current interest in agricul¬
tural development, stimulating an exchange of knowledge, preparing a
result of the discussions into a proceedings, and making the proceedings
available to anyone who is interested in agricultural development. The
basic principle of working with and through existing organizations is
maintained through joint sponsors of the workshops or conferences.

Seldom is a conference held with only TVA as a sponsor.

13

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

Agribusiness Development Promoted

The farmer now depends on others to process and market his products.
How these agribusiness firms conducted themselves had a major influence
on the development of agriculture both through actual handling of the
products and through the information they disseminated to farmers.
Therefore, work with agribusiness firms became a major activity follow¬
ing the 1966 review.

Activities to promote agribusiness included feasibility studies of
needed farm supply firms, training schools for certain types of agri¬
business firms such as lime vendors, and conferences to point out
opportunities for agribusiness leaders to expand their businesses.

Also, development groups such as planning commissions and chambers of
commerce are informed of the impact of farm production on total indus¬
trial growth.

Institutional Development Required

Another area of expanded concern is in public decisions affecting
land use. The expanding industrial and urban development, including
transportation, was taking much land from agriculture in an unplanned,
unorganized, unsystematic way — usually the lands most suitable for
agriculture. With the passing of agricultural surpluses, the general
worldwide food shortages, and the expanded opportunities to market food
abroad, the protection of needed land is becoming a major concern. By
providing agricultural information to development planning bodies,
these problems and opportunities can be articulated, and more informed
decisions can be made concerning the use of land and other resources.

Working with emerging planning and development bodies helps these
institutions to grow and take their places as effective organizations.

Environment Must Be Considered

Another public issue that emerged shortly after the 1966 program
review was the concern for environmental protection. Since the
industrial revolution, the United States' population had been obessed
with expanding the production of material goods, including food and
fiber. Natural resources were considered awaiting for exploitation
and used to produce desired material goods. It was recognized in the
1960's that in the process of producing for an expanding population many
byproducts had tended to destroy the original environment. Thus, in
the early 1960's, a number of activities were initiated to protect the
environment, sometimes at the cost of efficient production.

Changes in national policy as well as local interest required
TVA to assess more completely the impacts of its own construction and
other construction that is promoted in terms of lost agricultural pro¬
duction and other changes in the environment. Many of the technolgies
that had been introduced in the past 30 years included processes that
depended on manufactured purchased inputs — petroleum, chemicals, and

14

Tennessee Valley Agriculture

other inputs for which the byproduct was not fully understood and was
now associated with fears of degrading the environment. Because of
this, much of the effort of the agricultural development program in
recent years has been to assess the environmental impact of the use of
agricultural technology as well as the impact of nonfarm changes upon
agriculture itself.

Development Has Occurred.

Cash receipts from farm marketings reached an all-time high in
the region in 1976. Farm product sales in the Valley were an estimated
$1.7 billion, while sales for the rest of the U.S. reached $94.8 billion.
The significant question, though, is how have Tennessee Valley farmers
fared compared with other American farmers (table 4).

Table 4

Selected Information for the Tennessee Valley Region

and United States — -1934-1976

125 Valley Valley as

Counties U.S. Percent of U.S.

1934 farm product

sales

$113.0 million

$6,357 million

1.78

1976 farm product
sales

(in 1934 dollars)

$ 1.7 billion (est.)

($330 million)

$ 94.8 billion
($18.3 billion)

1.79

1934 $ sales per
harvested acre

$ 15.27

$ 21.50

71.0

1976 $ sales per
harvested acre
(in 1934 dollars)

$487 (est.)

($94)

$287

($55)

170

1934 average size
farm, acres

70

155

45

1976 average size
farm, acres

119 (est.)

389

31

In 1934 when Valley sales totaled $113 million, this volume repre¬
sented 1.78 percent of total U.S. agricultural sales. By 1976 when
Valley sales increased to an estimated $1.7 billion, this volume repre¬
sented 1.79 percent of total U.S. agricultural sales. For both the
U.S. and the region, this represented an increase in farm sales of 15
times from 1934 to 1973. In essence, there was no significant
difference in the aggregate growth pattern of the valley from the U.S.

15

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

In 1934 the average size of farm in the Valley was 70 acres com¬
pared with 155 acres for the U.S. In 1976 Valley farms had increased
to 119 acres, while for the U.S. the average size was 389 acres.
Relatively, Valley farms are becoming smaller when compared with the
U.S. Thus, as described previously. Valley farmers have had to make
more intensive use of their limited land resources.

Valley farmers have intensified production per acre of land dra¬
matically. In 1934 sales per harvested acre in the region was $15.27
and for the U.S., $21.50. By 1976 sales per harvested acre in the
region had increased to $487, while for the U.S. sales were $287 per
harvested acre. These changes are consistent with the objectives of
TVA's agricultural program. Even since the 1967 program reorientation,
farm sales have increased by one-third in constant (1964) dollar value.
This achieved one-third of the potential as recognized in 1967.

Other Problems to Solve

Although the system is working, there are still many problems
retarding the region's agricultural development. A few of the more
important are:

Rural Involvement in Public Land Use Decisions — While the farmer
was originally an independent operator dealing mainly with nature, he
has recently found himself in an environment where public decisions
are equally important to his welfare. He has come to want many of the
public services considered to be urban in the past. He wants good
roads, schools, and medical facilities, for example. It has been
difficult for the farmer to become a part of the decisionmaking bodies
that provide desired services. He has traditionally been independent
and isolated, making him ill-equipped and reluctant to participate in
public decisions. How to give farmers the skills to participate in
public decisions remains an evasive issue for both the affected farmer
and the professionals who would lead him.

Emergence of New Publics to Influence Agriculture — Another problem
is the emergence of new publics to support, oppose, and control agri¬
culture. In the early days, the farmers were large enough in number
that they could elect their own representatives in the public decision¬
making bodies at the national level. In recent years, the consumers of
farm products have taken as active a role as the producers in promoting
farm policy at the national, state, and local levels. Thus, many acts
have been taken to influence inputs and control the production and
marketing of farm products that the farmer does not understand. These
acts do not always work to his advantage.

Disappearance of Food Surplus and Reemergence of Food Scarcity —

World hunger is again influencing the production of food. During the
past 30 years, introduction of new technology had — at least in this
country — removed the fear of hunger. Rather, fears were caused by
over-production of food and the U.S. entered the world market. U.S.
reserves have now disappeared. High prices and actual shortages of

16

Tennessee Valley Agriculture

some food have appeared as sales have moved U.S. commodities into the
world market.

Consumers who had been accustomed to low prices based on food sur¬
pluses attempted to enforce policies that inadvertently oppose the
efficient production of food. An appraisal of the long-term demands
for food and the long-term ability of agriculture to meet those
demands remains an important problem in the world.

Choice Between Food and Other Desired Goals — A better understand¬
ing is needed of the trade-off values among food production, environ¬
mental protection, fuel conservation, and other goals in our regional
development policy. As the price of fuels becomes higher and scarcer,
as environmentalists tend to pose restrictive use of efficiency-
promoting inputs and technology, and as other public issues that affect
the efficiency of food production emerge, many more problems are likely
to face the farmer.

There will ever be a need for clearer understanding of the actual
physical and biological processes, the economic return, and the trade¬
offs between desirable goals. Generally, decisions are left to be
made either by the private sector in the market place or by the voter
and his elected representative as public policy is developed.

Meeting Energy Crises — Much of the progress was built on increased
use of petroleum for fuel on the farm and in inputs such as fertilizer.
Increased cost and reduced availability of petroleum will have tremen¬
dous effects on the profitability of farming. Increased production
will need to be found in lower fuel-using practices.

Limited Resource Farms — A final unresolved issue is what to do
about the farmer who has been bypassed by modern technology and by
other adjustments that have improved the nutrition and income of
masses. The older and less educated farmer and the farmer with limited
size of farm and other resources have been left with low incomes.

In recent years, increasing amounts of TVA agricultural development
resources have been shifted to trying to understand the limited
resource farmer and to develop ways in which he can be helped to adjust
to the competition of his more prosperous neighbor.

Summary

TVA's agricultural program is one of a number of subsystems which
constitute the total system of regional resource development. The TVA
Act provided for a long-range program of agricultural readjustment and
development, watershed protection, and fertilizer development and use
as an integral part of a comprehensive regional program. This program
provided for enlistment of the people and their organizations and for
cooperation with local, state, and Federal agencies in reaching for
the common goal of sound physical, economic, and social development
of the Valley. Thus, TVA's efforts were to complement — not replace —
the independent economic system.

17

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

In 1933, the farming system was generally a subsistence agri¬
culture forming an almost independent and separate part of the economy.
The program system used to develop it was a simple one, consisting
mainly of a 3-way partnership with the land-grant university, TVA,
and selected demonstration farmers. The main thrust dealt with
demonstrating to all farmers the effects of improved crop and farm
management skills.

By the 1960's the approach had proven effective. But economic
conditions had become more complex and were changing more rapidly. A
more skillful tool of demonstration and education was developed.

The use of linear programming in farm operation, along with the
most advanced technology known by researchers was combined into a new
element — the Rapid Adjustment Farm. The audience for its results is
professional farm leaders and the time of study is 10 to 15 years
ahead rather than present. Thus, the main thrust was changed to influ¬
ence farmers indirectly through professional leaders.

These farmers have identified fantastic potentials-typically
tripling production and doubling net income in four years.

Success of the earlier programs, along with changes in the economy
created new problems for the farm sector. An intensive evaluation
of these changes and implications of these was carried out in 1966.

The new program added several objectives such as changing the amount
of resources the farmer has, land and tenure problems, institutional,
environmental, and other restraints.

During the period, the farming system has responded to the program
system. By 1976, for example, total food produced had increased from
$113 million to $1.7 billion. This is 15 times the original output in
current dollars or 3 times the value in constant dollars. And, it has
done so with fewer resources — about 60 percent the land and 35 percent
of the farm operators.

Working on these problems has created knowledge of the increasing
complexity of the farming system and the expanding areas of need for
program systems to assist it. New problems recognized for which little
guidance is available include:

1. Rural involvement in public land-use decisions affecting
them.

2. Emergence of new publics to influcence agriculture.

3. Disappearance of food surplus and reemergence of food scarcity

4. Choice between food and other goals of society.

5. Lower energy systems.

6. Plight of the limited-resource farmer who has been bypassed
by progress.

18

Miasmist as Reformer: John H. Griscom

THE MIASMIST AS REFORMER:
JOHN H. GRISCOM AS A TEST CASE

Duncan R. Jamieson
Department of History
University of Alabama

Central to nineteenth century humanitarian reform movements was
urban health reform. Those portions of the city allotted to the work¬
ing classes desperately needed improvement. Streets and tenements
piled high with garbage were filthy and unsafe. As well as shortening
the inhabitants life expectancies, the slum districts bred crime,
disease, immorality, and intemperance. Many humanitarians believed
that people struggling for life in some dark hovel could not be inter¬
ested in reform movements such as the abolition of capital punishment
or women's rights. Reformers therefore urged society to improve
living conditions for the masses and then strive to improve the rights
of prisoners or women. The basic problems were the back courts, the
flooded cellars, or the windowless apartments on the top floor of a
tenement firetrap. Inadequate housing resulted in intemperance and in
crimes that might ultimately lead to capital punishment. Excessive
rents forced the husband to send out his wife and children in search
of work. Reformers saw a vicious circle, and they stoutly maintained
that elimination of the root evil — dehumanizing living conditions —
would make the other problems easier to treat.!

Public health became a matter of extreme urgency in nineteenth-
century American cities because of the industrial revolution. Indus¬
trialization and technological advances necessitated a concentrated
labor force, which resulted in the enlargement of factory towns. De¬
creasing standards of living and incredible overcrowding resulted from
the flow of workers to the city. An almost complete lack of urban plan¬
ning and regulation, combined with greed, led to the building of houses
and factories without regard for health or sanitation. Poor transpor¬
tation forced workers to live close to their places of employment,
which meant extreme congestion. ^

The late 1830's depression in the United States caused renewed in¬
terest in social reform. People from all social classes and walks of
life became involved. Reformers, especially those active in public
health, were products of the Enlightenment, and as such were strongly
imbued with the idea of protecting natural rights, and none more so
than the right to life. In a report on the 1849 cholera epidemic in
Boston, the city's leading physician-reformers contended that the state
had a duty to protect an individual's health just as it protected his
property. Combined with Enlightenment thought were the achievements
in science and technology which revived the ideas of progress, and
romanticism, whose advocates believed that man was improvable, thereby
further strengthening the concept of progress. Most reformers were, to
one degree or another, perfectionists who held that human freedom
meant more than simply political liberty. Popular government was
supposed to protect individual liberty and the "rights of the unfortunate."

19

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

As a result, "in the name of democracy the special privileges of busi¬
ness were attacked and the rights of the working class vigorously

asserted.

The period from 1840 to the Civil War was one of change and anxiety
in America. Not everyone viewed industrialization as an unmixed bless¬
ing. In fact, feelings of anxiety and fear concerning the effects of
industrialization helped bring about humanitarian reform. During the
1840' s many Americans "argued that there was no valid excuse, moral or
economic, for the presence of want in the midst of plenty; they con¬
demned the bending of human lives to the will of the machines as
inhumane and unwise; and they expressed regret and concern at the signs
of growing estrangement between social classes.

In pre-Clvil War America, those physicians who accepted the miasma
theory of disease causation contended that filth removal would ease the
burden of disease, thereby improving the living conditions of the lower
classes. One of the most active of these physician-reformers was Dr.

John H. Griscom (1809-1874), a New York City physician educated at the
prestigious University of Pennsylvania Medical School. Griscom devoted
the major portion of his life to alleviating the suffering of "how the
other half lives." Believing that overflowing privies, putrefying gar¬
bage, filthy streets, rancid slaughterhouses, and other nuisances common
to nineteenth century cities spread cholera, typhus, typhoid, consump¬
tion and a host of other diseases, Griscom labored to end these abuses.
His endeavors in prison reform, immigration reform and tenement house
reform, to mention a few, were related to his acceptance of the miasma
theory. He served as City Inspector (chief health officer for New York),
General Agent of the New York Commissioners of Emigration, and Chairman
of the Board of the New York Prison Association, devoting his time and
energy to the avoidance of obvious nuisances. He influenced the passage
of an improved immigrant shipping law and the Metropolitan Health Bill —
both pioneering pieces of legislation — as well as sponsoring tenement
house controls, new prison reforms and the creation of new parks for
the crowded lower wards of Manhattan.

Dr. Griscom always based his proposed reforms on his understanding
of medicine and medical science. Until the bacteriological discoveries
of the late nineteenth century, regular physicians (excluding quacks and
sectarian practitioners) were either miasmists, the dominant group
during Griscom's lifetime, contagionists or limited contagionists . The
English physician Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689) formalized the miasma or
atmospheric theory of disease causation. Sydenham assumed that malefic
changes in the atmosphere, perhaps due to the noxious effluvia "arising
from the earth," caused the waxing and waning of epidemic disorders such
as plague, dysentery, or smallpox. Adherents to the miasma theory
believed that the overflowing privies, filthy streets, and deleterious
manufactories created a local atmospheric state which in turn produced
disease. The contagion theory, on the other hand, held that disease
resulted from specific organisms or fomites. A leading contagionist
was Dr. John Snow, the English physician who discovered that cholera
was water-borne. Limited contagionists stood between these two schools,
contending that while filth caused some diseases, others resulted from

20

Miasmist as Reformer: John H. Griscom

specific organisms. This lack of precision can be illustrated in Dun-
glison's medical dictionary, an accepted nineteenth-century authority.
When defining contagion, he pointed out that "physicians are, indeed,
by no means unanimous in deciding what diseases are contagious, and what
not." Contagious diseases were produced by a virus or "by miasmata,
proceeding from a sick individual. . . ." To confuse issues further,
some diseases were contagious in some circumstances but not in others.
The opposite of epidemic or contagious diseases were endemic afflictions
which arose "from some peculiarity in a situation or locality." Unfor¬
tunately, as Dunglison pointed out, physicians had "no accurate knowl¬
edge of the emanations or other circumstances which give occasion to
endemic afflictions." Obviously this lack of unity and understanding
undermined the authority of the physician-reformer. Whereas Griscom
and the miasmists called repeatedly for clean streets and a healthier
environment for the poor, contagionists argued that such improvements
would have had little or no effect on mortality rates. And as long as
the debate continued, during normal times city fathers saw little reason
to concern themselves with the city's cleanliness . 5

Griscon contended that while the pernicious emanations of swamps
were bad for the health of the masses, the effluvium from the mountains
of filth that daily grew larger in the streets was infinitely more harm¬
ful:

At all seasons of the year, there is an amount of sickness
and death in this, as in all large cities, far beyond those
of less densely peopled places . . . proving conclusively that
the congregation of animal and vegetable matters, with their
constant effluvia, which has less chance to escape from the
premises, in proportion to the absence of free circulation
of air, is detrimental to the health of the inhabitants.

Smallpox, cholera, typhus, diarrhoea, dysentery, and malaria were among
the diseases that supposedly arose from the miasma of putrefying garbage
in the street, from the filth that collected in the hallways, from the
human excrement that oozed from privies located in already filthy court¬
yards, and from the rank air of poorly ventilated apartments. (Yellow
fever, Griscom thought, could not arise in New York unless the "seeds"
first were introduced from the South.) The combined evils of dampness
and vitiated air caused, so the miasmists thought, consumption, the most
common affliction of the tenement dweller. The miasmist theory, which
lacked precise definition because of limited knowledge, included the
"shears of fate," a concept applied to many of the zymotic (epidemic)
diseases. One shear represented atomospheric conditions, which when
combined with the other shear of filth in the streets, created the
proper environment for all manner of diseases. Griscom accepted the
shears analogy in some cases (cholera) and rejected it in others
(yellow fever). ^

Until the 1870's the miasma theory was quite popular with physicians
and with reformers, on both sides of the Atlantic. Miasmists supported
the elimination of decaying organic matter, which in their minds pro¬
duced disease-ridden effluvia. The miasma theory provided an opportunity

21

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

to strike out against the inhuman living conditions of the poor. The
contagionists , on the other hand, supported quarantines aimed at pre¬
venting the introduction of disease. The interest in liberal reform
forced the contagionists to support a theory which represented despo¬
tism over individual liberty and officialdom rather than the private
citizen. Even after the discoveries of Lister, Pasteur and Koch, the
battle raged on, but it became increasingly clear that the miasmists
were in error. From a scientific point of view, however, the putrefying
garbage provided a breeding ground for microorganisms and insect
vectors, and from a humanitarian view, the incessant filth dehumanized
the poor and destroyed their spirit. ^

Griscom argued, then that the answer to the problem of urban
diseases was a thorough cleansing of the tenement districts and a con¬
centrated effort to maintain cleanliness. Other physician-reformers
supported this belief; in 1855 Boston's Dr. Josiah Curtis stated sani¬
tation had become the "great question of the day." With the advent of
modern medicine, based on the germ theory, however, sanitation continued
to play a role environmentally, but it no longer occupied center stage.
Griscom's significance, therefore, goes deeper than filth removal; it
rests on his basic assumption that every human being, regardless of
station of life, was entitled to a clean, healthful place in which to
live, work and raise a family. Underlying all this, Griscom demanded
that the laboring classes be treated with dignity, which included clean
ships for immigrants, spacious airy apartments, parks and trees for
urbanites, and for those who broke the law, a place of confinement where
they could be rehabilitated rather than broken in body and spirit.

Among public health reformers of the day — John Bell, Wilson Jewell,
Elisha Harris, and Isaac Parrish, to name a few — Griscom was the only
one who took such a broad view of the subject, dealing with man in his
several relations to society. Aware of the interrelatedness of crime,
vice, overcrowded housing, poverty, pollution, and poor health, Griscom
realized the futility of treating each as a separate issue. He favored
an attack at the root of the problem — dehumanization. The poor, he
regretted, were treated as problems, not as people. To treat them thus
made matters worse; a new approach was needed, one which would see the
individual as most important.

A sense of disgust pervades Griscom's major writings. In his test¬
imony for the United States Senate select committee on immigration,
Griscom wrote of the immigrants crossing the Atlantic: "There is not a
fact more shocking to our sensibilities, nor more disgraceful to human¬
ity, than the condition of these people. ..." At another point,
directing his anger against the sub-landlord who robbed and cheated his
tenants at every turn, Griscom wrote of the "merciless inflictions and
exhortations. . . ." Realizing that part of the problem was attribu¬
table to the lack of care on the part of the lower classes, Griscom
still communicated the feeling of hopelessness of people "crushed under
the pressure of all the degrading circumstances by which they are sur¬
rounded." Well conversant with the city's tenements, he found the
cellars by far the worst. "It is almost impossible, when contemplating
the circumstances and condition of the poor beings who inhabit these
holes, to maintain the proper degree of calmness requisite for a

22

Miasmist as Reformer: John H. Griscom

thorough inspection, and exercise of a sound judgment, respecting them."

It was in such places that "the luckless and degraded tenants pass
their nights, weary and comfortless .

It is evident that Griscom fully accepted the reformer's duty and
responsibility to improve the condition of those who suffered without
cause. Several forces motivated the doctor; his father, educator and
Quaker humanitarian John Griscom raised his son in the midst of reformers
and humanitarian endeavors. The Quaker faith, to which both father and
son clung, influenced his life work, but of equal or greater importance
was his medical training. The miasmist theory gave him a belief that
he could intercede on the part of the suffering classes and ease their
lot in life. As a physician, he hoped to force city officials to clean
the streets and landlords to disinfect their property, thereby improving
the position of the poor urbanite. Another influence was of course the
humanitarian spirit of the age. In his essay on the "Romantic Reformers,"
John L. Thomas maintains that a "dramatic disclosure of deprivation and
suffering which did not tally with preconceived notions of perfecti¬
bility. . ."9 moved people to reform. Thomas cites the discovery of
suffering by Dorothea Dix, and in much the same way Griscom discovered
suffering himself. As early as May, 1833, Griscom came in direct contact
with the plight of the immigrant when he inspected a recently arrived
immigrant ship. At this same time, working with the dispensaries of
New York, he treated the poor in their homes, visually experiencing how
the other half lived. Throughout his life he saw instances of depri¬
vation and suffering. Taken together, these forces spurred Griscom to
crawl about in unlighted, foul smelling cellars to gather accurate
statistics; to go deep into the bowels of immigrant ships to experience
firsthand the conditions, thus enabling him to present precise reports;
and constantly to do battle with officials at the city, state, and fed¬
eral level to bring about the much needed reforms.

Throughout his forty-year career John H. Griscom associated with
many New York organizations. Among the more important was the New York
Academy of Medicine. Griscom was one of the charter members in 1846
and continued his membership until his death in 1874. He also belonged
to the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor,
and was responsible for its First Report of a Committee on the Sanitary
Conditions of the Laboring Classes in the City oe [sio] New York, With
Remedial Suggestions . He was chosen chariman of two key committees at
the 1846 meeting of the National Medical Convention, and submitted
significant reports the following year. This was the predecessor of
the American Medical Association, to which Griscom was a delegate and
active member for several years. He was elected to permanent member¬
ship in the Medical Society of the State of New York in 1860. He served
as General Agent of the Commissioners of Emigration from 1848 until 1851
when ill health forced his retirement. He was one of the early members
of the New York Prison Association, serving in several important posts.

He was a founder of the New York Sanitary Association and the New York
Association for the Advancement of Science and Art. He was active in
the New York Medical and Surgical Society, the New York Pathological
Society, the New York Physicians Mutual Aid Society, and the Social

23

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

Science Association. One of his most important roles was President of
the Third National Quarantine and Sanitary Convention, held in 1859.
Finally, he was associated with the Juvenile Reformatory and the Home
for the Friendless .

Griscom's concern for the poor was directly limited by his medical
training — he never, for example recommended higher wages for workers to
allow them the opportunity to rent decent accomodations. Griscom, and
many others physician-reformers who accepted the miasmist theory,
refused to accept any theories (i.e., contagionism) which might lessen
the impact of their attack on slum conditions and filthy environments.

He and others like him were instrumental in ending many of the abuses
under which the poor suffered, although this resulted in no fundamental
restructuring of American society. Throughout his career he clung to
his medical theory, fearing that any swing to contagionism would under¬
mine his efforts of the past. Even as late as 1866, for example, when
the New York Academy of Medicine was discussing the nature of cholera,
then threatening New York for the last time, Griscom was reluctant to
accept the obvious conclusion that it was contagious, and not directly
related to the filth in the street. If the contagionists triumphed,
he feared, then city officials would no longer be concerned with the
living conditions of the poorer classes. Medically, his work is of
little value today — filth per se does not cause disease — but doubtless
it spurred him to reform. Along with the other reformers of the ante¬
bellum period, he was overly sanguine, believing that by simply clean¬
ing up the slums and tenements, disease, crime, vice, and poverty
would be eliminated . H

In the years prior to the Civil War many of the humanitarian re¬
formers — including Griscom and the miasmists — accepted the concept that
man was perfectible. To the miasmists this meant a clean, wholesome
urban environment in which people treated one another with respect and
dignity was also possible. Unfortunately the Civil War shattered the
dreams of the perfectionists and the acceptance of the germ theory
reduced the work of the miasmists to the realm of "environmental sanita¬
tion" rather than medicine. When the emphasis shifted from dirt and
filth to bacteria and vectors, concern with urban living conditions
lessened. Streets remain dirty, crime still breeds in darkened hall¬
ways, and vice lurks where overcrowding deadens moral sensibilities.
Perhaps the miasmists were overly hopeful, but any move towards their
goal of a clean, well-lighted and ventilated city would be a marked
improvement over the then present conditions.

NOTES

Ijohn H. Griscom, The Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population
of the City of New York with Suggestions for its Improvement (New York,
1845), passim. John H. Griscom, Anniversary Discourse Before the New
York Academy of Medicine, November 22, 1854 (New York, 1855), passim.
John H. Griscom, Sanitary Legistlation, Past and Future: The Value of
Sanitary Reform, and the True Principles for its Attainment (New York,
1861) , passim.

24

Miasmist as Reformer: John H. Griscom

^George Rosen, A History of Public Health (New York, 1958), 19 A,
201-05, 208.

^Alice Felt Tyler, Freedom's Ferment (New York, 1962), 225. Merle
Curtl, The Growth of American Thought , 3rd Edition (New York, 1964),
360-62, 367.

^See, for example, Nathaniel Hawthorne, "The Celestial Railroad"
(1843), "Fire Worship" (1843), or "The New Adam and Eve" (1843); Herman
Melville, "The Tartarus of Maids" (1850), or "Pierre" (1852); Edgar
Allen Poe, "The Man of the Crowd" (1840). See also Douglas T. Miller,
The Birth of Modem America (New York, 1970), and Harry Levin, The
Power of Blackness (New York, 1958).

^Rosen, History of Public Health , 104-05, 287-90, 508. Robley
Dunglison, A dictionary of Medical Science (Philadelphia, 1839), passim.

^Griscom, Sanitary Condition , 2-4. John H. Griscom, A History t
Chronological and Circumstantial, of the Visitations of Yellow Fever at
Hew York, with a Supplemental Report on Yellow Fever (New York, 1858),
22-23.

^Rosen, History of Public Health, 287-88.

®U.S., Congress, Senate, Report of Select Committee On Emigrant
Shipping, 33rd Cong., 1st sess. , 1853-54, Senate Report no. 386, 53-54.
Griscom, Sanitary Condition, 6-10.

^John L. Thomas, "Romantic Reform in America, 1815-1865," American
Quarterly, XVII (Winter, 1965), 656-81.

^Samuel W. Francis, "Biographical Sketches of Distinguished Living
New York Physicians," Medical and Surgical Reporter (Aug. 4, 1866),
118-22.

Hjohn H. Griscom, "The Where, The When, The Why, and The How of
the First Appearance and Greatest Prevalence of Cholera in Cities," New
York Academy of Medicine, Bulletin, III (Feb., 1866), passim. N.W.J.,
Heath, "Asiatic Cholera as It Appeared on the Steamship England, in
April, 1866," ibid (Sept., 1866), 131-38.

25

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

FUNGI OF ALABAMA VI. DEMATIACEOUS HYPHOMYCETES
G. Morgan- Jones

Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama

INTRODUCTION

Ten further dematiaceous hyphomycetes collected in Alabama are
described and illustrated.

TAXONOMIC PART

Cacumisporium capitulation (Corda) Hughes, Can. J. Bot. 96:743, 1958
(Fig. 1).

B Helminthosporium capitulation Corda, leones Fungorum 2:13, 1838.

Colonies effuse, dark brown, hairy. Mycelium superficial or
immersed in the substratum, composed of branched, septate, smooth,
brown hyphae, 3-6y wide. Conidiophores macronematous , mononematous ,
straight or slightly flexuous, simple, septate, dark brown, paler dis-
tally, smooth-walled, proliferating percurrently , 190-285 X 5-8y, with
a swollen base 12-17y wide. Conidiogenous cells monoblastic or poly-
blastic, integrated, terminal, cylindrical, percurrent, pale brown to
subhyaline. Conidia solitary, acrogenous, broadly fusiform with obtuse
ends, 3-septate, smooth-walled, at first hyaline, guttulate, later
maturing brown with the end cells paler, 16-20 X 5y.

On decorticated wood, Chewacla State Park, Lee County, Alabama,
March 1976, G. Morgan-Jones and P. S. Plotka, AUA.

This species, known to occur in Europe and North America, was
reported by Matsushima (1975) to occur in Japan.

Cladosporiion oxysporum Berkeley and Curtis, J. Linn Soc. 10:362, 1868
(Fig. 2).

Colonies effuse, gray, hairy. Mycelium mostly immersed, in part
superficial, forming small stromata of subglobose, pale brown cells,
otherwise composed of branched, septate, subhyaline to very pale brown
hyphae, 3-5y wide. Conidiophores macronematous, mononematous, straight
or slightly flexuous, cylindrical but distinctly nodose with terminal
and intercalary swellings, smooth-walled, septate, pale brown, bulbous
at the base, 260-480 X 3-5y, up to 8y in diameter at the swellings.
Conidiogenous cells polyblastic, integrated, terminal, but becoming
intercalary, sympodial. Ramoconidia present, short cylindrical, obtuse
at each end. Conidia catenate, acropleurogenous , ellipsoidal, limoni-
form to subglobose, subhyaline, unicellular, smooth-walled, subhyaline
to very pale brown, 5-27 X 3-5. 5y.

26

Fungi of Alabama

On leaves of Bambusa sp., Chewacla State Park, Lee County, Alabama,
April 1976, G. W. Karr, Jr., AUA.

Codinaeopsis gonytrichodes (Shearer and Crane) Morgan-Jones , Mycotaxon
4:167, 1976 (Fig. 3).

= Codinaea gonytriahodes Shearer and Crane, Mycologia 63:245, 1971.

Colonies broadly effuse, somewhat appressed, whitish or cream to
brown as numerous conidiophores are produced, setose. Mycelium partly
superficial, partly immersed, composed of branched, repent, septate,
smooth, subhyaline to pale brown hyphae , 3-5. 5y wide. Conidiophores
macronematous , mononematous , scattered or gregarious in large groups,
erect, straight or slightly curved, dark brown, paler distally, apex
frequently very pale brown to subhyaline, producing laterally at the
septa in the middle part short, encircling, somewhat nodose hyphae which
occasionally grow out to form subhyaline to brown, sometimes setose
branches. Conidiogenous cells mono- or polyphialidic , borne terminally
on the main axis, hyaline to subhyaline, smooth, cylindrical, straight
or somewhat flexuous, with an apical funnel-shaped collarette or with
several collarettes as a result of the production of a number of new
conidiogenous loci by sympodial proliferation, 10-19 X 3-4. 5y, collar¬
ettes 1.5-2. 5 X 1.5-3y. Conidia continuous, cylindrical, curved, hyaline,
obtuse at each end, guttulate, with a basal scar, bearing at the apex
and to one side of the basal scar a simple, curved setula, aggregated
at the collarettes in mucilaginous masses, 10-15.5 X 1.5-2.5y long.

On dead stem of Rubus sp., Chewacla State Park, Lee County,

Alabama, April 4, 1974, W. C. Blair, BPI, AUA.

This fungus was first described from a collection made on dried
fruit of Carya sp., in a swampy habitat in Illinois. Two other col¬
lections were made in that state and one on submerged balsa-wood in a
Maryland river (Shearer and Crane, 1971). Yokoyama (1975) reported a
collection from Japan.

CurvuZaria gudauskasii Morgan-Jones and Karr, Mycotaxon 3:559, 1976
(Fig. 4).

Colonies effuse, grayish brown, hairy. Mycelium immersed in the
substratum, composed of branched, septate, smooth, pale brown hyphae,
2.5-6y wide. Conidiophores macronematous, mononemtous, sometimes some¬
what fasciculate, erect, simple, straight or flexuous, cylindrical,
slightly nodose distally, septate, brown, paler towards the apex, smooth,
62-98 X 5-6y, up to 9y wide at a bulbous base. Conidiogenous cells
monotretic or polytretic, integrated, terminal and intercalary, sympodial,
cylindrical. Conidia acropleurogenous , solitary, simple, broadly ellip¬
soidal to obovoid, curved, 3-septate, smooth-walled or with the walls of
the lower two cells, especially the basal, minutely verruculose, brown,
second cell from the apex darker and much larger than the other cells,
apical cell frequently distinctly flattened at the top, basal hilum
protuberant, up to 2y long, 27-29 X 15-19y.

27

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

On leaves of Zea mays. Auburn University Agricultural Experiment
Station, Piedmont Substation, Camp Hill, Tallapoosa County, Alabama,

July 1975, G. W. Karr, Jr., BPI, AUA.

A second collection of this fungus is known; on Cyanastrum johnstoni,
Mkenke, Kigoma, Tanzania, December 3, 1964, K. A. Pirozynski, IMI
107045, AUA.

Drechslera biseptata (Sacc. and Roum.) Richardson and Fraser, Trans. Br.
mycol. Soc. 51:148, 1968 (Fig. 5).

= Helminthospovium biseptata Saccardo and Roumeguere, Revue mycol.
3:56, 1881.

Colonies effuse, brown, hairy. Mycelium mostly immersed in the
substratum, composed of branched, septate, pale brown, smooth-walled
hyphae, 3-5y wide. Small brown pulvinate stromata sometimes formed.
Conidiophores macronematous , mononematous , arising singly from swollen
cells of the hyphae or in groups from the stromata, straight or somewhat
flexuous, brown, paler towards the apex, septate, smooth-walled, 60-140
X 3-7p, slightly bulbous at the base. Conidiogenous cells monotretic
or polytretic, integrated, terminal, sympodial, cylindrical. Conidia
solitary, acropleurogenous , simple, straight, obovoid, 2 to 3-septate
(pseudoseptate) , verruculose, pale to mid brown, 22-30 X 14-16p.

On unidentified grass. Auburn, Lee County, Alabama, April 1976,

K. Roland, AUA.

Memnoniella eohinata (Riv.) Galloway, Trans. Br. mycol. Soc. 18:165, 1933
(Fig. 6).

= Penioillium echinatum Rivolta, Dei Parassiti Vegetali 451, 1873.

Colonies effuse, black, velvety. Mycelium mostly immersed in the
substratum, composed of branched, septate, smooth, hyaline to subhyaline
hyphae 2-3. 5y wide. Conidiophores macronematous, mononematous, determi¬
nate, simple or sometimes branched, cylindrical, straight or very slightly
flexuous, septate, smooth-walled or minutely verruculose, pale brown to
olivaceous brown, slightly swollen at the apex, 63-92 X 3-4. 5y. Conidio¬
genous cells monophialidic , discrete, in groups of 4 to 8 at the apex of
the stipe, determinate, clavate, smooth-walled, bearing a very small
terminal collarette, 7-9 X 3-4. 5p. Conidia catenate, acrogenous,
simple, globose or subglobose and flattened slightly dorsiventrally ,
verrucose, dark brown, 3.5-5.5p in diameter.

On leaves of Bambusa sp., Loachapoka, Lee County, Alabama, April
1976, G. W. Karr, Jr., AUA.

Spadieoides klotzschii Hughes, Fungi Canadense 8, 1973 (Fig. 7).

Colonies effuse, black, velvety. Mycelium partly superficial,
partly immersed in the substratum, composed of branched, septate, sub¬
hyaline to brown hyphae, 1.5-2y wide. Conidiophores macronematous.

28

Fungi of Alabama

mononematous , simple, cylindrical, straight or slightly flexuous,
solitary or in groups of several, brown to dark brown, somewhat paler
towards the apex, septate, smooth-walled, the distal half conidio-
genous, 60-200 X 3-6p. Conidiogenous cells polytretic, integrated,
terminal and intercalary, determinate, cylindrical. Conidia solitary,
dry, acropleurogenous , forming through minute pores in the walls of the
conidiogenous cells, simple, 2-septate, oblong with obtuse ends or
obovoid, smooth-walled , brown to dark brown, upper two cells usually,
but not invariably, slightly darker than the basal cell, septa obscured
by dark bands of unequal width, 10-12 X 4-5. 5y.

On decorticated wood, Chewacla State Park, Lee County, Alabama,
February 4, 1976, G. Morgan-Jones and P. S. Plotka, AUA.

Hughes (1973) described this species from two collections made in
British Columbia, Canada. He also indicated that it was known to him
from two old European collections of unknown date housed as Spondylo-
cladium fumosum Mart., in herbaria at Berlin and Geneva. The Alabama
collection is the first record of its occurrence in the United States.

Stachybotvys bisbyi (Srinivasan) Barron, Mycologia 56:315, 1964 (Fig. 8).

= Hyalostachybotrys bisbyi Srinivasan, J. Indian Bot. Soc. 37:341,

1958.

Colonies effuse, gray, hairy, with salmon-pink conidial heads.
Mycelium mostly immersed in the substratum, composed of branched, septate
hyaline hyphae, 1.5-2.5y wide. Conidiophores macronematous , mononematous
simple or more rarely branched, single or in groups of several, cylindri¬
cal, straight or slightly flexuous, hyaline, septate, smooth-walled or
sometimes minutely verruculose distally, slightly swollen at the apex,
50-160 X 2.5-4. 5y. Conidiogenous cells monophialidic , discrete, in
groups of 3 to 8 at the apex of the stipe, determinate, ellipsoidal to
subclavate, smooth-walled, bearing a small terminal collarette, 10-15 X
4-5. 5y. Conidia aggregated in slimy masses, acrogenous, simple,
hyaline, smooth-walled, unicellular, guttulate, limoniform or broadly
fusiform, 8-14 X 5-8. 5fi.

On leaves of Bambusa sp., Loachapoka, Lee County, Alabama, April
1976, G. W. Karr, Jr., AUA.

This species has previously been reported from Canada, Egypt,

India, Japan, Mozambique, Papua-New Guinea and South Africa.

Stachybotrys kampalensis Hansford, Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 1942-1943:

45, 1943 (Fig. 9).

Colonies effuse, gray to blackish with the production of conidia.
Mycelium mostly immersed in the substratum, composed of branched, septate
hyaline hyphae, 2-3p wide. Conidiophores macronematous, mononematous,
simple, single or more rarely in groups, cylindrical, usually straight,
occasionally very slightly curved, septate, smooth, thick-walled, hyaline

29

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

tapering distally but swelling at the extreme apex, bulbous at the base,
90-200 X 4-8y, up to 13y wide at the base. Conidiogenous cells mono-
phialidic, discrete, in groups of 3 to 6 at the apex of the stipe,
determinate, ellipsoidal, smooth-walled, 10-14 X 5.5-7y. Conidia agre-
gated in slimy masses, acrogenous, simple, dark olive-brown to blackish,
verrucose, oblong with obtuse ends or somewhat ellipsoidal, biguttulate,
unicellular, 11-14 X 6-7. 5y.

On dead twig of Hydrangea arboresaens , Chewacla State Park, Lee
County, Alabama, April 1976, G. W. Karr, Jr., AUA.

This species was first discovered in Uganda (Hansford, 1943). Sub¬
sequent collections housed at the Commonwealth Mycological Institute,

Kew, have been made in the British Solomon Islands, Ghana, Jamaica and
Tanzania. Matsushima (1975) reported its occurrence at Osaka and
Okinawa, Japan. The Alabama collection is the first record from North
America.

Tetraploa ellisii Cooke, apud Cooke and Ellis, Grevillea 8:12, 1879
(Fig. 10).

Colonies effuse, brown. Mycelium superficial, composed of branched,
septate, smooth-walled, hyaline to subhyaline hyphae , 2-4y wide. Coni-
diophores micronematous . Conidiogenous cells monoblastic or occasionally
polyblastic, integrated, intercalary on the hyphae, cylindrical, smooth-
walled, subhyaline to very pale brown. Conidia solitary, pleurogenous ,
dry, elliptical to long obovate, brown, thick-walled, smooth, muriformly
septate, usually verruculose at the base, 30-48 X 15-24y with 4 to 7
transverse septa and four columns of up to eight cells, each column
terminating distally in a long, subulate, septate, cellular, setiform,
divergent, smooth-walled, pale brown appendage, 18-150 X 6-9y wide at
the base, 2-4y wide at the apex.

On Andropogon sp., Chewacla State Park, Auburn, Lee County, Ala¬
bama, G. W. Karr, Jr., AUA.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank the collectors cited for allowing me to study their material.

REFERENCES

HANSFORD, C. G. 1943. Contributions toward the fungus flora of Uganda.

V. Fungi Imperfecti. Proc. Linn. Soc., Lond . 155:34-67.

HUGHES, S. J. 1973. Fungi Canadense 8. Biosystematics Res. Inst.,

Ottawa.

MATSUSHIMA, T. 1975. leones microfungorum a Matsushima lectorum. Kobe.
Published by the author.

30

Fungi of Alabama

SHEARER, C. A. and J. L. CRANE. 1971. Fungi of the Chesapeake Bay and
its tributaries. 1. Patuxent River. Mycologia 63:237-260.

YOKOYAMA, T. 1975. In Descriptive Catalogue of IFO fungus collection.
IV. IFO Res. Comm. 7:113-142.

31

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

FIGURE 1. Cacvmispovium aapitulatwn

32

Fungi of Alabama

33

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

FIGURE 3.

Codinaeopsis gonytriahodes

Fungi of Alabama

FIGURE 4. Curvularia gudauskasii

35

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

36

Fungi of Alabama

FIGURE 6. Merrmoniella echinata

37

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

FIGURE 7. Spadoaoides klotzsohii

38

Fungi of Alabama

39

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

FIGURE 9. Stachybotrys kampalensis

40

Fungi of Alabama

FIGURE 10. Tetraploa ellisii

41

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Editorial Policy:

Publication in the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science is not
restricted to members, but priority is given to material submitted by
members of the Academy.

Subject matter should be from original research in one of the
eleven disciplines which comprise the sections of the Academy: Biologi¬
cal Sciences; Chemistry; Geology; Forestry, Geography, and Conservation;
Physics and Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education;

Social Sciences; Medical Sciences; Engineering; Anthropology. Timely
review articles of exceptional quality will be considered.

Regular articles are published in approximate order of acceptance.
Each manuscript received is sent to one or two qualified reviewers (the
Editor may serve as a reviewer when subject matter is in his field), and
copies of their comments and suggestions are sent to the author. Upon
acceptance of a paper, the author receives a galley proof and a reprint
order form.

Manuscripts :

Since the Academy encompasses many disciplines, no standard format
for manuscripts is feasible. Each author should follow the form and
style of a major quality journal in the author's field. Manuscripts in
the Biological Sciences may follow suggestions of the AIBS STYLE MANUAL.

Manuscripts should be double-spaced throughout (including title,
footnotes, legends, literature cited, etc.) allowing 1-inch margins.

The original and two copies should be submitted to the Editor. Papers
which are unreasonably long and verbose, such as uncut theses or reviews,
will be returned for reworking. Number all pages.

Manuscripts should be typewritten in the following order: title,
author's name, author's address, summary or abstract (if author desires),
text (with desired headings), acknowledgments, and literature cited.

Titles:

Make titles short but informative. Do not abbreviate.

Abstracts :

Authors may include a summary (abstract) with full-length articles
if desired. This should come before the main body of text and should
not exceed 200 words.

All abstracts of paper presented at the annual meetings will be
published if submitted on time and in proper form. Such abstracts should
be typed double spaced, should not include illustrated material, foot¬
notes or references, and should not exceed 200 words. Abstracts should

Instructions to Authors

be given to the appropriate section chairman by the close of the annual
Academy meeting. The chairmen will send these to the Editor.

Headings :

Use headings and subdivisions where necessary for clarity. Common
headings for research papers are: Introduction (usually includes a
short literature review), Procedure (or Materials and Methods), Results,
Discussion, Conclusions, and Literature Cited. Others are more appro¬
priate for certain subject matter areas. Primary headings should be
in all-caps and centered on the typed page; subdivisions should be
italicized (underlined) and placed at the margin.

Footnotes :

Avoid excessive use of footnotes. Where few are used, number con¬
secutively and place at bottom of page where cited. Where large numbers
are necessary, list them consecutively at the end of the manuscript under
the heading, FOOTNOTES.

Illustrations :

Submit original inked drawings (graphs and diagrams) or clear black
and white glossy photographs. Designate all illustrations as figures
(abbreviate, Fig.), number consecutively, and cite all figures in text.
Type figure captions on a separate sheet of paper. Send one extra set
of illustrations for review purposes; xeroxed photographs are unsatis¬
factory. All illustrations will be reduced to a size not exceeding 4b
by 6b inches. Thus, any lettering or symbols will also be reduced.

Tables:

Place each table on a separate sheet and type the caption, or title,
directly above it. Number tables consecutively. Use symbols or letters,
not numerals, for table footnotes. Cite all tables in the text.

Literature Cited:

Only references which are cited in the text should be listed under
Literature Cited. Do not group references according to source (books,
periodicals, newspapers, etc,). List in alphabetical order of senior
author names. Cite references in the text by number (preferred) or by
author-date. Do not cite personal communications or unpublished data in
Literature Cited; these may be placed in the text. Consult a recent
issue of the Journal for satisfactory styles used in various subject
matter areas.

43

Notes

Notes

Notes

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 48 JULY, 1977 NUMRER 3

EDITOR:

W.H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830
ARCHIVIST:

R.G. Braves, Department of History, Auburn University, Auburn AL 36830
EDITORIAL BOARD:

R.T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany and Microbiology,
Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830

E.A. Curl, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn University,
Auburn, AL 36830

G.M. Emerson, Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294

ADVISORY BOARD:

W.L. Alford, Auburn University
Charles Baugh, Univ. South Alabama
G.F. Brockman, Univ. Ala., BTiam
R.J. Fornaro, LIniv. South Alabama
A. Wayne Lacy, Auburn Univ., Mtgy.

Walker H. iMnd, Jr., IBM
H.S. Marks, N.E. St. Jr. Col.
M. Miller, Univ. South Alabama
W.W. Paudler, UA, Tuscaloosa
Dan Whitson, Decatur

E.M. Wilson, Univ. South Alabama

The Journal is the official publication of the Alabama Academy of Science,
and is indexed in Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, America: History
and Life, and Historical Abstracts

Publication and Subscription Policies

Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent cor¬
respondence to the EDITOR. For style details, follow Instruction to Authors,
J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 48:42-43, 1977.

Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.

Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the
CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD.

Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news releases w ill not be
published in the Journal.

CONTENTS

KEYNOTE ADDRESS . 44

ABSTRACTS

Biological Sciences . 50

Geology . 71

Forestry, Geography, and Conservation . 82

Physics and Mathematics . 89

Industry and Economics . 96

Science Education . 103

Social Sciences . 105

Health Sciences . 112

Engineering . 125

Anthropology . 131

MINUTES OF ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING . 138

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS

148

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 3, July, 1977.

KEYNOTE ADDRESS

THE HONORABLE WALTER FLOWERS
ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA
APRIL 9, 1977

As we begin our third century in this nation, we face one of our
greatest chal lenges--the challenge of producing enough energy to ensure
economic growth, social tranquility and national security for ourselves
and future generations. In other words--the energy crisis.

We find ourselves using more and more energy and producing less.
We've become more dependent than ever on foreign oil, having reached the
point where we are importing half of our petroleum needs. And we're
confronted with the sobering prospect that for practical purposes the
world may run out of oil and natural gas by the end of the century or
shortly thereafter.

Although Americans have suffered through an energy crisis in two of
the past four winters--first it was the oil embargo, then the natural
gas shortage--we still have no truly coordinated national energy policy
--that is, a policy for conserving the resources that we do have and at
the same time developing in a rational manner the new resources that we
will need in the future.

Personally, I think our people are willing to make the sacrifices--
economic and otherwise--that are necessary to solve the energy problem.
All they are waiting for is straight talk, clear direction and decisive
action on a policy that is fair and equitable.

There are some encouraging signs in Washington. The Administration
has promised to submit to the Congress by April 20th important new pro¬
posals in energy policy, and all of us, of course, are eagerly awaiting
that statement. There have been some strong signals on what will be the
focus of the message.

From what the President has been saying, I expect there will be
much emphasis on conservation and greater production and intensified
usage of coal. It's unclear to me at this point what will be the bottom
line on nuclear. The question of reprocessing and the breeder remains
open, but the push for more conventional reactors seems assured.

We won't agree with everything the President will propose, but I
think it's important that he is dealing with energy in a coordinated
fashion and not in a piecemeal manner as has been the case in the past.

President Carter already has offered his proposal for a new Depart¬
ment of Energy, to be structured out of the functions of the Energy

44

Walter Flowers

Research and Development Administration, the Federal Energy Administra¬
tion and the Federal Power Commission.

The majority of the members of Congress--mysel f included--feel that
creation of an energy Department is long overdue, but there will be
controversy over certain aspects of the plan.

The Congress itself has been reorganizing in an attempt to deal
better with energy legislation. The Joint Atomic Energy Committee was
stripped of its legislative power, the Senate created a single energy
committee with enormous powers and responsibilities, and the House has
drastically realigned committee jurisdictions, including the Speaker's
announced new "select" committee.

As a result of the changes in the House, the Science and Technology
Committee created a new subcommittee--on Fossil and Nuclear Research,
Development and Demonstration. And through the good graces of my con¬
stituents in the 7th District of Alabama and the seniority system, which
is still alive and well in Washington, I'm chairman of that subcommittee.

It would be the understatement of the year to say that I have a
whole lot to learn in the energy field--in fact, I feel a little ridicu¬
lous being here on the platform. I ought to be out there in the audi¬
ence. I'm reminded of what happened a few years back when the nomination
of G. Harold Carswell to the Supreme Court was pending in the Senate.

The complaint was lodged that he was then a mediocre federal judge and
would most assuredly make a mediocre Supreme Court Justice. Senator
Roman Hruska--defending the nomination--said "Maybe that's what we need,
a little mediocrity on the Court."

We've held extensive hearings on the 1978 Authorization for ERDA,
receiving testimony on all kinds of nuclear as well as fossil projects
such as synthetic fuels from coal and oil shale development.

I doubt, though, that we'll try to decide on any final authorization
levels or project updates until we find out exactly what the President
has to say in his energy message on April 20th.

Our Subcommittee obviously exerts a lot of influence over the di¬
rections to be taken in energy research by the federal government, but I
hope we can go beyond that and play a major role in the formation of the
overall energy policy we've been talking about.

We've got the advantage of being able to look at various forms of
energy side by side and make the necessary comparisons and trade-offs.

And I think it's very important that the American people be brought in--
perhaps we can help serve as a sort of public forum in this regard.

For years--the United States and the rest of the world--used energy
as though it were a freely given resource. But suddenly, the availabil¬
ity of energy can no longer be taken for granted.

45

Science and Energy Policy

Energy supply problems have disrupted daily life — they have led to
bitter confrontations between various interest groups and different
sections of the country, even altering the relations between industrial¬
ized nations and the developing ones, because it illuminates the world's
most dangerous political issues. It wrenches into open view the national
competition for resources--the festering issues of modern war.

The energy crisis forces us to make long-avoided choices.

Most people in this nation--some in high places--had no idea we
even had an energy problem until 1973. That was when the OPEC countries
instituted an embargo and stopped selling us crude oil. Most were
astonished to learn that the United States was importing 40 percent of
its annual crude oil supplies.

A great hue and cry went up. There was a lot of finger-pointing
and blame-placing--but very few constructive suggestions were forthcom¬
ing.

A few clear-headed and conscientious national leaders urged the
formulation of a national energy policy. It's failed thus far because
of selfishness, sectionalism, shortsightedness and stupidity.

We tried to place a bandaid over a serious wound that required major
surgery. We hoped it would get well. It didn't and it won't.

It took the abnormally cold weather of this winter to get our at¬
tention again. Perhaps now we will face up to the hard choices we must
make to deal with this complex problem.

Recently, another aspect of the energy situation has arisen. There
are people who decry the fact that America uses a large portion of the
world's energy. They imply that there must be something wrong and un¬
fair and immoral about this.

But let's remember that the abundance of energy on this continent
during the first 200 years of our national history enabled the United
States to build the most complex industrial society the world has ever
known--to become the richest nation ever known--and the most energy de¬
pendent nation. A large portion of all energy consumed in the United
States goes for agricultural production. And, because of it, America is
the world's bread basket. Millions of people in scores of countries
would be starving today except for the fact that Americans use a high
portion of the world's energy, use it effectively, and are uncommonly
generous with its product. No, we need have no energy guilt complex.

To the contrary--we should have pride because of what we can do with
energy. We use it intensely, and generally we use it wisely, and we use
it to human benefit.

But what of the future?

We have to start with conservation. In fact, there is a good case
to be made that this conservation potential is maybe our greatest

46

Walter Flowers

resource for the immediate future. More efficient automobiles, insula¬
tion of the nation's homes, offices, factories, better appliances and a
thousand other big and little conservation moves will help enormously.
Encouraging them--mandati ng them--makes economic and moral sense. But
this conservation must be done with extreme care so as not to impair em¬
ployment or obstruct the national industrial and agricultural effort, or
eliminate reasonable choices of life styles among a free people.

At the same time--there is a pressing need for additional energy
which must come from somewhere here in the United States--that is, if
we're to avoid coming to the edge of a cliff around 2000 when the oil
and gas gives out. And there is little dispute that this will happen
with current rates of consumption.

We must, of course, try to improve our methods of extracting oil
and gas from the earth--and we must provide incentives for a far greater
effort at drilling and developing. But this will only help in a mar¬
ginal way.

Hydroelectric could be increased, too, some say almost doubled--
but it only provides about 2 percent of our needs now. Geothermal also
could be virtually doubled--but with little real impact--in spite of
pretty bad environmental results anyway.

What about solar? Solar energy is certainly a hot item in the
press--and for "supplemental" heating of homes, schools, offices and hot
water, it will certainly grow rapidly. But from near zero percent now
it will take a monumental effort and tremendous expense for the sun to
provide more than 2 percent of our energy needs in this way by the turn
of the century.

Now you ask--where are all the scientific miracles we keep reading
and hearing about? Gasoline producing trees and bushes? Wind energy?
Tidal power? Ocean thermal gradients? Energy from wave motion? Fusion
power (as opposed to nuclear fission)? Electricity directly from sun-
1 ight?

Can't we just leave our problems to the scientists and engineers--
our great minds--and won't they come up with something in the nick of
time?

Well, the fact i s that inventions will be made; they are being made.
Many of the world's greatest minds are working on these energy chal¬
lenges. But even under the most miraculous of conditions new discover¬
ies can't be tested, scaled up, proved economically feasible and environ¬
mentally compatible, and actually constructed on a scale big enough to
really matter for at least TWO DECADES OR MORE. Plus the amount of capi¬
tal investment required to commercialize such an energy operation would
be staggering--and totally out of the question.

In short, I don't know a straight-thinking scientist or engineer
anywhere who can look you in the eye and promise you a miracle of any

47

Science and Energy Policy

kind--based on an invention not "yet" made or proved technically feasible
that will close the energy gap for the rest of this century.

It seems to me clearly then that we have open to us only three pos¬
sible courses of action--with a fourth possibility being a combination
of the first three.

--(1) We can start right now to design and build 200 or 300 more
large nuclear plants at a cost of about a billion each, or

--(2) If we don't want to go the nuclear route--we must start, right
now, to construct 600 or more massive new coal mines with the accompany¬
ing transportation--rai 1 roads , railway cars, barges, coal slurry pipe¬
lines, etc. And we must still build massive new facil ities--at a cost
in the many billions of dollars--to convert this coal to electricity and
other forms of energy cleanly and efficiently. Or . .

--(3) We can simply change our way of 1 i vi ng —

? Give up the impressive social gains of recent years

? Give up on trying to improve human health standards and the
quality of medical care

? Let the bulk of our work force return to the backbreaking toil of
the 19th century

? Relinquish the idea of income security in old age--like other
ideas made possible by our growing productivity as a nation

? Give up our cherished ideas of owning your own car, your own
home

? And perhaps worst of all--we could give up the idea of a strong
America with a defense capability second to none

--My (4th) option--and obviously the most appropriate--and least
costly in human and environmental terms would be a variable mixture of
the first three--attempting to avoid the worst and most costly implica¬
tions of any one of them.

It's clear then that coupled with a STRONG DOSE OF CONSERVATION--
our needed additional energy supplies for the rest of this century must
come from COAL and NUCLEAR.

Looking beyond into the 21st century--and that's only 23 years off--
there are four possible technologies which now seem to offer the best
hope for us humans--

(1) the breeder reactor--an advanced form of fission

(2) fusion

(3) use of energy from the sun to either generate electricity, or

(4) produce fuels such as hydrogen.

These technologies will have little or no impact before 2000. In
the case of the "breeder" the "know how" is there--we have the technical
knowledge and certain test facilities are under way here and greater de¬
velopment has taken place in France, Germany and Russia.

48

Walter Flowers

We also have in hand much of the needed technology for solar heat-
i n g - - a 1 though the costs are too high still and will have to come down.

But unlike the breeder and solar heating--the technical feasibili¬
ties of fusion power or of generating fuels from sunlight have not yet
been demonstrated.

The potential for the future is so great that we must continue our
research and development investment on what could be these "ultimate"
energy sources. This will not be just a gift to future generations
either because we will undoubtedly gain much for immediate application
and benefit to our economy.

More then any time in the past, the choices we're making today will
have a 1 i fe-or-death impact on future generations. The issues are com¬
plex and the consequences of today's mistakes can be profound.

But these decisions cannot be avoided or long postponed. One thing
is clear--making the decisions demands both the knowledge and careful
weighing of all the facts--and not just by the so-called experts--deci -
sions of this magnitude aren't made that way in our participatory de¬
mocracy. Nor should they be made that way.

We should welcome and help build an informed electorate--an en¬
lightened body politic.

If war is too important to be left to the Generals--as the saying
goes--should the future of mankind be any less important?

Thank you.

49

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 3, July, 1977.

ABSTRACTS

Papers presented at the 54th Annual Meeting
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, Alabama
April 7-9, 1977

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

INHIBITION OF UTERINE RESPONSIVITY BY
ACUTE DEXAMETHASONE PRETREATMENT

P. S. Campbell, C. E. Yankowsky, and H. J. Wilson
Department of Biology
The University of Alabama, Huntsville

The adrenal glucocorticoids inhibit estrogen stimulated water imbi¬
bition and increased membrane permeability in uterus. Thus, their an¬
tagonism of uterine growth was assumed to be a consequence of reduced
precursor uptake obviating production of new cellular constituents. How
ever, recent evidence that labilization of lysosomal membranes (which
corticoids are known to stabilize) in the vicinity of the nucleus may
mediate estrogen action compounds the above interpretation.

Dexamethasone, a synthetic corticoid, administered prior to estra¬
diol significantly (p < .001) reduced twenty-four hour uterine wet
weight. Dexamethasone administration also significantly (p < .05) re¬
duced both 1 hour and 6 hour levels of specifically bound estradiol in
the nuclear fraction of the uterus compared to the quantity observed as
the result of estradiol injection alone, while no inhibitory effect of
dexamethasone was observed on estradiol stimulated glucose oxidase ac¬
tivity. The reduction of the uterine weight response and nuclear bound
estradiol was shown not to be the result of dexamethasone competition
for receptor binding sites.

Since the stimulation of uterine glucose oxidase activity by estro¬
genic hormones appears independent of an interaction of the hormone with
its receptor, these data suggest that the antagonism of corticoids on
estrogen stimulated responses may be primarily mediated at the level of
the genome. As the level of nuclear bound estradiol at 6 hours after
estrogen injection is critical to long term uterine growth responses,
its reduction by dexamethasone would most likely reduce the level of hor
mone stimulated transcriptional activity and consequently synthesis of
new proteins involved in uterine metabolism and growth. These data also
reinforce a plausible role for lysosomal involvement.

50

Abstracts

TOXICITY OF 3-( 1 , 2-EPOXYPROPYL) -5 ,6-DIHYDR0-5-HYDR0XY-
6-METHYLPYRAN-2-ONE TO FIVE-DAY CHICK EMBRYOS

Leslie Perry, Joy Westmoreland, Jack H. Moore,
and Thomas P. Murray
University of North Alabama

The lactone [3-(l ,2-Epoxypropyl )-5,6-dihydro-5-hydroxy-6-methyl -
pyran-2-one] was isolated from a liquid-culture medium of Aspergillus
oahraaeus Wilhelm. It was toxic to 5-day chick embryos when injected
directly into the yolk-sac. The LDgg was 12.5 mg/kg.

DIFFERENTIAL SEASONAL ADRENOCORTICAL RESPONSE TO
NOISE STRESS AND ACTH IN WILD COTTON RATS,

SIGMODON HISPIDUS

M. L. Browder, J. F. Pritchett, J. L. Sartin, and W. L. Harper
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Feral Sigmodon hispidus were utilized in an investigation designed
to detect possible seasonal variation in adrenal cortical responsiveness
to noise stress and/or ACTH stimulation. Paired adrenal glands from
control or noise-stressed animals collected in the Spring and Fall were
incubated in the presence or absence of ACTH. Incubation media were
assayed f luorometrically for corticosterone content.

Noise stress within either seasonal group significantly reduced the
responsiveness of the adrenal glands to ACTH. Additionally glands from
animals collected in the Fall of the year exhibited significantly lower
responses to ACTH than did their Spring-collected counterparts. Finally,
noise stress exerted a significantly greater effect upon diminishing
ACTH responsiveness in the Fall as compared to Spring group.

The data suggest that noise stress in concert with unknown seasonal
variables may act to markedly restrict the animals' ability to respond
to stressful stimuli through ACTH-mediated adrenal cortical activity.

INTERACTION OF AGING, PHOSPHODIESTERASE INHIBITION AND
THYROIDECTOMY WITH ADRENAL CORTICAL ACTIVITY

C. D. Connor and J. F. Pritchett
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

This investigation was designed to determine possible alterations
in the adrenal cortical ACTH-adenylate cyclase-cyclic AMP activation
system in control and thyroidectomized aging rats. Two groups of male
rats, aged 60 and 340 days, were utilized. Animals were sacrificed by

51

Abstracts

decapitation, adrenal glands were removed, weighed, quartered, and placed
into incubation. Glands were incubated in 2 mis. Krebs Ringer bicarbo¬
nate or in a like quantity of incubation medium fortified with either
cyclic AMP, ACTH, theophylline or theophylline plus ACTH. Adrenal secre¬
tory rates of corticosterone were determined fluorometrical ly and glands
were extracted for the radioimmunoassay of cyclic AMP.

The data suggest an age-related decline in ACTH responsiveness
which may in turn be a function of elevated phosphodiesterase activity
in aged animals. In turn the data suggest that elevated phosphodiester¬
ase activity may be related to diminished thyroid hormone availability
in mature animals.

REGULATION OF PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES OF A SMALL
MOLECULAR WEIGHT PROTEASE FROM

STAPHYLOCOCCUS STAPHYLOLYTICUS

J. M. Robinson, H. E. Heath, and G. L. Sloan
Department of Microbiology
The University of Alabama, University, Alabama

Lysostaphin is a protein preparation obtained from the culture fil¬
trate of an organism in the genus Staphylococcus (Staphylococcus staphylo-
lyticus). Commercially available lysostaphin contains five basic pro¬
teins. The major constituent is a glycyl -glycine and endopeptidase
which is a powerful lytic agent for the cells and cell walls of other
staphylococci. Two of the other proteins in lysostaphin also have enzy¬
matic activity on cell walls, one being an acetylmuramic acid-L-alanine
amidase and the other a hexosaminidase.

We have found the lysostaphin producing organism also produces a
small molecular weight protease which is present in small amounts in
lysostaphin along with a constitutive penicillinase. The protease has
been shown to hydrolyze casein, albumin, and gelatin. The enzyme has
been found to be inhibited by sulfhydryl reagents and divalent cations
and to be activated by reducing agents and metal chelators, suggesting
it is a sulfhydryl protease.

Ten mutants of Staphylococcus staphylolyticus which have lost the
ability to produce the protease have been isolated after nitrosoguani -
dine mutagenesis. Each of these isolates also has lost concomitantly
the ability to produce the lysostaphin endopeptidase, the hexosaminidase,
and the penicillinase.

Induction and repression of the protease and endopeptidase by dif¬
ferent amino acids and carbohydrates also have been investigated.

52

Abstracts

CELL WALL COMPOSITION AND LYSOSTAPHIN ENDOPEPTIDASE
RESISTANCE IN STAPHYLOCOCCUS STAPHYLOLYTICUS

J. M. Robinson, J. K. Hardman, and G. L. Sloan
Departments of Microbiology and Biology
The University of Alabama, University, Alabama

Staphylococcus staphylolyticus , the lysostaphin producing organism,
is unique among the staphylococci in that it is totally resistant to
lysis by the glycyl -glycine endopeptidase it produces.

Biochemical tests have demonstrated that this organism is probably
a coagulase-negati ve strain of Staphylococcus aureus. The organism is
sensitive to the antibiotic novobiocin, gives 3-hemolysis on blood agar,
and produces a heat-stable DNase, a phosphatase, and black colonies on
glycine-tellurite agar.

Amino acid analysis of the peptidoglycan of S. staphylolyticus in¬
dicates the organism incorporates serine in its peptidoglycan cross¬
bridges, presumably playing a part in the resistance of the organism to
the endopeptidase. Incorporation of serine in the crossbridges of S.
aureus strains has been shown by others to be associated with loss of
coaqulase production and the ability to ferment mannitol anaerobically.

Mutants of S. staphylolyticus which have lost the ability to pro¬
duce the endopeptidase have been shown to be sensitive to lysis by this
enzyme. In addition, wild-type organisms are somewhat susceptible to
the enzyme prior to the onset of endopeptidase production, suggesting the
endopeptidase is a constant selective pressure against the appearance of
susceptible cel Is.

MYCOFLORA OF ALABAMA GRAIN SORGHUM

Urban L. Diener, Gareth Morgan-Jones , and Norman D. Davis
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The mycoflora of eight varieties of grain sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor
(L.) Moench) from Camden and Prattville, Alabama was determined shortly
after harvest in the fall of 1976. Samples were dried at 40-45 C,
ground in an electric grinder, and plated on rose bengal -streptomycin
agar in serial dilutions of 1:200, 1:2,000, and 1:20,000. Fifteen spe¬
cies of fungi representing nine genera were isolated from grain sorghum.
Curvularia, Penicillum, and Mucor were the dominant genera in the eight
samples. Curvularia lunata , C. clavata , and Drechslera sorghicola had
not been previously identified to species from grain sorghum.

53

Abstracts

MYCOTOXIN PRODUCTION BY FUNGI ISOLATED FROM COTTON.

I. TENUAZONIC ACID

Norman D. Davis, Gareth Morgan-Jones , and Urban L. Diener
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Three isolates of Alternaria altemata and three of A. tenuissima

were obtained from cottonseeds and bolls and determined to be toxigenic
to brine shrimp, chicken embryos, and rats when cultured on cottonseed
and on YES medium. The principal mycotoxin was identified as tenuazonic
acid. Five of six isolates produced this mycotoxin on cottonseed and
YES medium. Maximum tenuazonic acid (266 mg/kg) was produced by A.
tenuissima #843 on cottonseed. Its production by species of Altertiaria
commonly associated with cotton bolls is considered significant with
respect to use of cottonseed meal in animal feeds.

ENDANGERED AND THREATENED CARNIVOROUS PLANTS OF ALABAMA

George W. Folkerts
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The carnivorous plants of Alabama are included in the genera utri-
cularia, Pinguicula (Lentibulariaceae) , Drosera (Droseraceae) , and Sar¬
raaenia ( Sarraceniaceae ) . Sarraaenia alabamensis subsp. alabamensis,
which survives in only a few localities in Elmore, Chilton, and Autauga
counties, is endangered and needs immediate protection. Sarraaenia
oreophila, occurring in northeast Alabama and in Elmore County has been
listed as endangered but more realistically should be classed as threat¬
ened. Listed as currently threatened on the Alabama List are Sarraaenia
psittacina and Sarraaenia alabamensis subsp. wherryi (as S. rubra).

Both are restricted to south Alabama although S. psittacina occurs
abundantly in other states. Two butterworts, Pinguicula planifolia and
P. primuliflora have restricted distributions in south Alabama and are
placed in the Special Concern category. Among the factors decimating
populations of these plants are clear-cutting of forests, stream-chan¬
nelization, strip-mining, farm pond construction, and prevention of
natural fires.

OXYGEN CONSUMPTION MEASUREMENTS IN STREAM SEDIMENTS

Ken Shannon and J. J. Gauthier
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham

Appropriate levels of dissolved oxygen are essential for the exist¬
ence of normal flora and fauna in streams. Consequently, it represents
a key water quality parameter. Although measurements of levels of

54

Abstracts

dissolved oxygen in stream water can be made easily, it is more difficult
to estimate the levels and rate of oxygen consumption in stream sediment.
We have therefore initiated investigations of rate of oxygen consumption
in local stream sediment. Water and sediment samples were collected
above and below the discharge site of a municipal waste treatment plant
and the rate of oxygen consumption was measured using a Clarke type oxy¬
gen electrode. The instrument was calibrated using the glucose oxidase
system. Results indicate that this instrument provides a rapid measure
of oxygen consumption rates by sediment and can be used to determine the
effects of exogenous substrates on oxygen consumption rates. Future
studies will be directed toward use of sediment oxygen consumption
measurements to estimate the benthic contribution to oxygen consumption
in streams. Possibly, estimates of times of recovery can be determined
using this approach. This project has been supported, in part, by a
grant from the Graduate School, University of Alabama in Birmingham.

USE OF THE ELECTRONIC PARTICLE COUNTER FOR QUANTITATIVE
ESTIMATION OF FLOC FORMATION IN ZOOGLEA SP.

William J. Champion and J. J. Gauthier
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham

To study the factors involved in bacterial flocculation, methods for
accurately measuring the extent of flocculation under varying culture
conditions, must be determined. Our investigations show that the elec¬
tronic particle counter and multichannel analyzer can be used for this
purpose. Data obtained includes both the numbers of individual cells
and the size distributions of aggregates of cells. To determine the
extent of floe formation, the number of individual, free cells in the
culture is compared with the total number of cells. The total number of
cells is determined by counting cells after treatment with a floe dis¬
persing agent. Methods for dispersing floe are described. This study
was supported by the Water Resources Research Institute and by the Office
of Water Resources Research of the Department of the Interior as author¬
ized under the Water Resources Research Act of 1964.

HELMINTHS OF CROTAPHYTUS COLLARIS COLLARIS FROM ARKANSAS

★

Patricia C. Yonders and Carl F. Dixon
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The fifty-seven Crotaphytus collaris collaris necropsied for hel¬
minths were collected by Stanley E. Trauth of Auburn University from
seven Arkansas counties--Baxter , Boone, Carroll, Izard, Marion, Newton,
and Stone. Nematodes were cleared with lactophenol and cestodes were
stained with semichon carmine. The helminths infecting C. collaris col¬
laris included immature Physaloptera sp. and mature Oochoristica sp.

The uteri of the immature female Physaloptera and the spicules of the

55

Abstracts

immature male Physaloptera were not developed. These reproductive
structures are species characters and the Physaloptera sp. is therefore
unknown. Oochoristica infecting C. collaris collaris from Arkansas may
be a new species because measurements of the scolex, strobila, suckers,
cirrus pouch, and testes do not approximate those measurements of spe¬
cies previously described in the literature.

A mixed infection of Physaloptera and Oochoristica was not observed
in any C. collaris collaris. Thirty-two C. collaris collaris were in¬
fected with immature Physaloptera (Incidence Rate = 56.1%) and eight
specimens were infected with Oochoristica (Incidence Rate = 14.0%).
Physaloptera were found in C. collaris collaris collected in March,
April, May, June, July, and August with the highest incidence rates oc¬
curring in April and July (66.7% for both months). Oochoristica was in¬
fecting specimens collected in March, April, May and June and the high¬
est incidence rate occurred for June (38.5%). Physaloptera sp. infected
C. collaris collaris from all counties with the exception of Stone
County. Oochoristica was found infecting lizards from Carroll, Izard,
and Stone counties.

★

Montevallo University

NON-TARGET EFFECTS OF THREE TURFGRASS HERBICIDES

Guy W. Karr, Jr., R. T. Gudauskas, and Ray Dickens
Department of Botany and Microbiology, and
Department of Agronomy and Soils
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Effects of the herbicides N-butyl-N-ethyl-a,a,a-trifluoro-2,6-
dinitro-p-toluidine (benefin), 0,0-di isopropyl phosphorodithioate S-
ester with N-(2-mercaptoethyl ) benzenesulfonamid (bensulide), and 2-
e thoxy-2, 3-d i hydro-3, 3-d i methyl -5-benzofuranyl methanesul phonate (NC
8438) on some turfgrass pathogens and diseases were evaluated. Radial
growth of Pythium aphanidermatum , Rhizoctonia solani, and Sclerotinia
homoeocarpa on artificial medium amended with 0, 1, 2, or 10X recommended
field rates of each herbicide was measured at 24-hr intervals until con¬
trol plates were overgrown. Generally, growth was inhibited by most
herbicide rates, and inhibition increased with increased herbicide con¬
centration. Growth of S. homoeocarpa at 35C was inhibited 17, 62, and
71% by IX rates of bensulide, NC8438, and benefin, respectively. The IX
rates of each also inhibited R. solani 31-41% at 18C, but at 35C benefin
and NC8438 stimulated growth of the fungus 45-140%. NC8438 at IX rate

inhibited growth of P. aphanidermatum 34-36% at 18, 26, and 35C.

Effects on diseases were evaluated by treating pots of bermudagrass
and ryegrass with 0, 1, and 3X field rates of the herbicides and then
inoculating the grass with the fungi. The IX rate of benefin increased
severity of brown patch and dollar spot caused by R. solani and S.

56

Abstracts

homoeoaairpa , respectively, whereas, NC8438 reduced these diseases and
also pythium blight caused by P. aphanidermatum .

CONTROL OF BARLEY YELLOW DWARF WITH INSECTICIDES

Vera K. Varner, Robert T. Gudauskas, and Paul M. Estes
Department of Botany and Microbiology, and
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Barley yellow dwarf (BYD) is a viral disease of cereals and many
other grasses. Typically, diseased plants are stunted and discolored.

In oats, the disease is known as red leaf because of the red to purple
coloration that may develop. The causal virus is spread by several
species of aphids. Occurrence of BYD in Alabama had been suspected for
many years but was not confirmed until 1975 when the causal virus was
experimentally transmitted from diseased oat and wheat plants.

During 1975-76, effect of four systemic insecticides on incidence
of BYD was evaluated in plots of 'Elan' oats. Insecticide formulations
and rates (a.i./A) used were: aldicarb (Temik 10G, 1 lb), carbofuran
(Furadan 10G, 1.5 lb), dimethoate (Cygon 2.67 EC, 0.5 lb), and disulfoton
(DiSyston 15G, 1 lb). Aldicarb, carbofuran, and disulfoton were applied
as granules at time of planting; dimethoate was applied as a foliar
spray 3 weeks later. Incidence of BYD at harvest was significantly re¬
duced by all insecticide treatments. Numbers of aphids in treated plots
were lower than those in untreated plots throughout the 40-day period
after planting. Yields from plots treated with aldicarb, carbofuran,
and disulfoton were significantly higher than those from dimethoate-
treated and untreated plots.

EFFECTS OF CARBOFURAN ON INCIDENCE OF MAIZE CHLOROTIC
DWARF AND MAIZE DWARF MOSAIC IN CORN

Clauzell Stevens, Robert T. Gudauskas, Guy W. Karr,
and Paul M. Estes

Department of Botany and Microbiology, and
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Incidence of the viral diseases, maize chlorotic dwarf (MCD) and
maize dwarf mosaic (MDM), was determined in corn treated with the sys¬
temic insecticide carbofuran. Plots of 'Pioneer 3369A ' corn of two
planting dates on the Upper Coastal Plain Substation, Winfield, AL, were
treated at planting time with 1.5 lb (a.i.) carbofuran per acre and again
at 30 and 60 days. The unusually heavy insecticide treatment was part of
an experiment to determine corn performance when major insect pests were
suppressed. Viral disease assessments were made approximately 12 weeks
after planting.

57

Abstracts

In nontreated plots of the early planting (April 9), 19% of the
plants were diseased with MCD and 6% with MOM, whereas incidence in
treated plots was 9% for MCD and 6% for MDM. In the later planting
(June 22), 24% of the plants in nontreated plots were diseased with MCD
and 13% with MDM as compared to 10% MCD and 5% MDM in treated plots. Re¬
duction in incidence of MCD in carbofuran-treated plots was significant
in both plantings as was the reduction in MDM incidence in the later
planting. Yields from the April 9 and June 22 plantings of treated
plots were 161 and 120 bu/A, respectively, as compared to 1 1 1 and 74 bu/A
from corresponding plantings of untreated plots; yield increase for
treated plots was significant for both dates of planting.

INHIBITORY EFFECTS OF THE CHA0TR0PIC AGENT
NaN03 ON SEED GERMINATION

A. M. Dorries, H. J. Wilson, and P. S. Campbell
Department of Biology
The University of Alabama in Huntsville

NaN03 in concentrations ranging from .8M to .125M were used to
study the effects of these N03 concentrations on seed germination and on
the process of plant cell protoplast fusion. Some seeds were treated
after germinating root tips of 3-5mm while others were treated immedi¬
ately following vernalization. Following a minimum of 7 hours treatment,
samples of root tips and protoplasts were collected and prepared for rou¬
tine electron microscopy.

NaN03 in concentrations of .5M to .8M promoted fusion in protoplast
as evidenced by large multinucleate cells and cells in the fusion pro¬
cess. In concentrations of .25M and higher, the N03 inhibits/or retards
seed germination and root tip growth. Electron micrographs show an ef¬
fect on the membranous elements of the Golgi apparatus in those seeds ef¬
fected by the N03. The effect appears to be one of inducing vesiculation
and dilation in what are otherwise stacks of flattened Golgi membranes.

The results from these preliminary studies suggest that the Golgi
apparatus and its role in phragmoplast (cell plate) formation may serve
as a model system to investigate the mechanism whereby the fusion of
plant cell protoplast takes place. This would make a particularly at¬
tractive system since the fusion of Golgi vesicles at the cell plate is
the origin of new plasma membrane which can subsequently participate in
protoplast fusion. Experiments making use of a range of chaotropic
agents are currently underway.

58

Abstracts

THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS TEMPERATURE LEVELS UPON
THE RATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF HELIOTHIS ZEA

Curtis H. Adams, The University of Alabama in Huntsville
Baldev S. Mangat, Alabama A&M University

The effect of temperature on the rate of development of the cotton
boll worm Heliothis sea (Boddie) was determined by exposing larvae from
a laboratory colony to a constant temperature from the first larval in¬
star until pupation occurred. Each representative sample of the larvae
was exposed to one of the following constant temperature levels: 64, 70,
75, 80, 86 and 91 degrees Fahrenheit. The temperature threshold was
found to be 56°F and the mean day-degrees was determined to be 361.

INITIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF A TRYPSIN
INHIBITOR FROM MURINE EPIDIDYMIDES

James E. Jackson and Gary R. Poirier
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham

Various aspects of fertilization are regulated by proteinases.
Acrosin, an acrosomal proteinase, functions in the penetration of the
zona pellecida. Proteinase inhibitors, associated with the seminal vesi¬
cles, epididymides and testes, have been shown to disrupt the fertiliza¬
tion process.

We sought to isolate and characterize the murine epididymal inhibi¬
tor and determine if it is unique and separate from the known seminal
vesicle inhibitor.

The epididymal factor is heat labile and a competitive inhibitor
while the seminal vesicle factor is not heat labile and is a non-competi¬
tive inhibitor. The molecular weights also differ.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE GROWTH OF A MARINE DIATOM,

CYCLOTELLA, WHEN EXPOSED TO GIBBERELLIC ACID

Olivia Vynn Adair, John H. Greene, and Margaret Miller
Department of Biology
University of South Alabama, Mobile

The plant hormone, gibberellic acid (GA3), was found to effect the
growth of a marine diatom, Cyclotella. Five different concentrations of
GA3 (5, 15, 20, 25, and 35ppm) were added to pure cultures of Cyclotella.
An initial run was made which established an effect on the growth of
Cyclotella by GA3 with an apparent dose dependent increase in cell count.
Twenty ppm showed the greatest influence.

The parameters turbidity and dry weight were monitored in addition
to cell counts, using the same concentrations of GA3 as stated above.

59

Abstracts

Results obtained (in percent transmittance) showed that 20-35ppm pro¬
moted greatest growth stimulation, with 20ppm being the optimal stimu¬
lant. Less stimulation was noted at the lowest concentrations. Dry
weight results were consistent with turbidity data, 20ppm stimulating
the greatest growth. Thus, the parameters used revealed stimulation of
Cyclotella by the plant hormone GA3, with 20ppm giving optimal growth in
the cultures maintained.

A FIELD STUDY OF REPRODUCTION IN THE FENCE LIZARD,

SCELOPORUS UNDULATUS, IN CENTRAL ALABAMA

Greg M. Flippo and Ken R. Marion
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham

A field study of a population of Saeloporus undulatus in Jefferson
Co., Alabama, was undertaken to investigate the relationships between
life history characteristics of a population and environmental parame¬
ters. Lizards were marked and released after recording body weight,
snout-vent length, tail length, and reproductive condition by palpation.
These methods revealed that adult females develop large yolked ovarian
follicles by early April and remain in a reproductive condition (enlarged
follicles or eggs) through July. Extensive recaptures of individual fe¬
males indicate that adults lay three clutches of eggs, with oviposition
periods in each of the months. May, June, and July. Hatching occurs from
mid-July through September. Autopsy of 61 females from surrounding popu-
lations_shows that the first clutch is larger than either the second or
third (x = 9.2 ± .55; 7.9 ± .41; 7.9 ± .61 eggs, respectively). The po¬
tential selective values of a larger reproductive effort during the first
clutch are discussed.

Partially supported by a grant from the Graduate School, UAB.

THE LIFE HISTORY "STRATEGY" OF THE FENCE LIZARD,

SCELOPORUS UNDULATUS, IN CENTRAL ALABAMA

Ken R. Marion and Greg M. Flippo
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham

A field study of a population of Saeloporus undulatus in Jefferson
Co., Alabama, and autopsy data from individuals captured from surrounding
populations demonstrate that Alabama Saeloporus have demographic charac¬
teristics considerably different from populations in more northern re¬
gions of the United States. When compared to available data from popula¬
tions in Ohio and Missouri, individuals in Alabama lay more clutches and
more total eggs per season, grow faster, reach maturity quicker, and have
a lower survivorship. Specifically, adult females in Alabama lay three
dutches per year, averaging a total of 25.0 eggs. Hatchlings grow ra¬
pidly (x = 0.25 mm/day), with some individuals reaching snout-vent
lengths of greater than 60 mm by October. Nearly all females reach

60

Abstracts

sexual maturity (60-65 mm S-V length) in less than a year, but only
about one-fourth of these live to reproduce again the following season.
The high fecundity, low survival life history "strategy" of the Alabama
population is veiwed as a response to certain environmental parameters,
such as heavy predation. Tail break frequencies (x = 67% for females)
nearly double those of Ohio and Missouri lizards support this view.

Partially supported by a grant from the Graduate School, UAB.

MEASUREMENT OF MICROBIAL VIABILITY IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE

James Russell and J. J. Gauthier
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham

With the growth of the population as well as the industrial com¬
munity, the need for effective waste removal is essential. The activated
sludge process utilizes bacteria to remove waste materials and may be the
answer for low cost waste removal.

The efficiency of this process is dependent on the removal of waste
materials by the viable bacteria. In order to insure correct plant oper¬
ation it is necessary to maintain a high number of viable bacteria. Con¬
sequently, measurements of sludge viability are important. Techniques
presently employed consist of simple dry weight and ash weight measure¬
ments, which may correctly reflect the viable mass. Consequently, we
have initiated studies of sludge viability on both a municipal and coke
waste activated sludge plants to provide a sensitive plant operating
parameter. We have examined the following methods: viable plate counts,
fluorescence microscopy, ATP measurements, oxygen consumption, and total
microscopic counting; these methods are compared with the classical dry
weight (MLSS) and ash weight measurements.

Results of the viable plate counts, fluorescence microscopy, and ATP
measurements indicate a significant variation in the viability when com¬
pared with MLSS. Endogenous respiration for municipal sludge varied out
of proportion with the other viability measurements. However, substrate
stimulated respiration was more consistent with the other methods em¬
ployed.

MLSS does not reflect the true state of sludge viability and thus
the differences can be quite significant.

This study was supported by the Water Resources Research Institute
and by the Office of Water Resources Research of the Department of the
Interior as authorized under the Water Resources Research Act of 1964.

61

Abstracts

EFFECT OF VARIOUS CARBON SOURCES ON FLOC
FORMATION BY ZOOGLOEA RAMIGERA

Barry Stuman and J. J. Gauthier
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham

Biological waste treatment provides a practical and economical
method for removal of municipal and industrial wastes. At present, how¬
ever, relatively little is known about some of the microbial activities
that are important in the waste treatment process. For example, the
mechanisms which control floe formation are poorly understood. In the
activated sludge process, microbial floe formation is essential for the
separation of the microbial mass from the treated water. As part of an
initial study of the control of floe formation, we have examined the ef¬
fect of different carbon sources on floccing efficiency. Zoogloea
ramigera cultered in several different liquid media, including mannitol,
inositol, starch, and acetamide, exhibited varying floccing efficiencies.
Flowever, an exocel lular polymer, reported as being involved in floe for¬
mation, could be isolated in good yield from cultures grown on all of
these media.

In liquid media containing 0.1% mannitol and 0.01% arginine, Zoo¬
gloea ramigera flocced extensively with floccing efficiency being optimal
as the culture approached the stationary phase of growth. When 0.1%
acetamide and 0.01% arginine is used as the carbon and nitrogen sources
respectively, floe formation was found to be minimal and independent of
the growth phase. Since floe formation can be controlled by varying the
carbon source, floe forming and non-floc forming cultures can be studied
by transferring cultures from one medium to another. This should pro¬
vide a useful system for further elucidation of the mechanisms that con¬
trol flocculation at the molecular level.

This study was supported by a grant from the Graduate School, Uni¬
versity of Alabama in Birmingham.

STAINING OF PHYTOPARASITIC NEMATODES OF THE
SUBFAMILY H0PL0LAIMINAE

R. Rodriguez-Kabana and Peggy S. King
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

The use of toluidine blue solution 0.05% (p/v) in a phosphate buf¬
fer (pH 4.6; 0.05 M) was studied for staining specimens in toto of
Hoplolaimus galeatus and of Helicotylenchus dihystera. Staining for 7
hours at 60 C gave good general staining. When stained specimens were
washed for 5 hours at 55-60 C in phosphate buffer good differentiation
was observed between the esophageal region and the reproductive appara¬
tus in females and males. Satisfactory results were also obtained at
low temperatures but with increased time of exposure.

62

Abstracts

EFFECTS OF THE FUNGICIDES BENOMYL AND FENTIN HYDROXIDE
ON PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES

R. Rodriguez-Kabana and E. G. Ingram
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

Technical benomyl and fentin hydroxide were applied at rates from 0
to 100 mg/kg to a sandy laom soil infested with root-knot ( Meloidogyne
incognita). Stunt ( Tylenchorhynchus claytoni) , lance ( Hoplolaimus galea-

tus) , and saprophagous nematodes. Treated pots of soil were either
planted with "Rowden" cotton or left unplanted and placed in the green¬
house; there were 8 replicates per treatment. After 4 weeks, soil sam¬
ples were taken from all pots, and in planted pots roots were washed and
assessed for galling. In cotton-planted pots the following results were
recorded: Benomyl increased gall densities by 94% at 50 mg/kg; a 35% in¬
crease and a 66% reduction in numbers of stunt nematodes occurred at 2.5
and 10 mg/kg, respectively; lance nematodes showed a 69% and 95% reduc¬
tion at 30 and 50 mg/kg; and saprophagous nematodes were not signifi¬
cantly affected by benomyl treatment. Also, fentin hydroxide increased
gall densities by 80% at 5 mg/kg with a 95% reduction at 40 mg/kg, a
270 % increase in numbers of stunt nematodes occurred at 10 mg/kg; and
numbers of lance and saprophagous nematodes increased by 166% and 132%
at 40 and 2.5 mg/kg, respectively. In pots not planted with cotton, the
following results were recorded: Effects of benomyl on stunt and lance
nematodes were similar to results for cotton-planted pots. In contrast,
however, saprophagous nematode numbers were reduced by 88% at 10 mg/kg.
Fentin hydroxide did not significantly affect numbers of stunt nematodes,
but significantly reduced lance nematodes by 70% at 50 mg/kg. Sapro¬
phagous nematodes were reduced 45% and 81% at 10 and 40 mg/kg, respec¬
tively.

A TOXICOLOGICAL STUDY IN WHITE LEGHORNS USING CORN MOLDED
WITH AUBURN STRAIN AUA-532 PENICILLIUM CITRINUM

Winford T. Roberts and E. C. Mora
Department of Poultry Science
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Two replicates of 10 chicks each of day-old White Leghorns were fed
rations containing 0, 3.88, 7.75, 31 and 62% Penicillium citrinum moldy
corn rations for five weeks. The 31% and 62% dose levels significantly
depressed body weight throughout the five-week period. Eighty-five
percent of the 62% dose level birds and 20% of the 31% dose level birds
had died by the end of five weeks. Pathological findings were atrophy
of the pectoral muscles, heart, spleen, liver, and Sidney. The gall¬
bladder was distended and the bone marrow had many deposits of fat.
Duplication of the experiment, however, with heavier infestations of P.
citrinum caused a ten-fold increase in toxicity. Chicks fed a 62% dose
level of this corn in the ration were all dead by seven days. The chicks
had hemorrhaging in the intestines, spleen, kidney, and skeletal muscles.

63

Abstracts

The U.V. analyses of this compound were similar to citrinin, and TLC
analyses of the moldy corn for citrinin indicated the presence of 50 ppm
of citrinin. Mass spectral data, however, showed a larger molecule than
citrinin and no molecular ion peak was detected at 250. Citrinin was
thus not completely confirmed. Preliminary feeding trials in chickens
with pure citrinin showed that up to 260 ppm of dietary citrinin caused
no toxicity comparable to that observed with the P. citrinum moldy corn
ration. A review of the literature on citrinin shows conflicting reports
of toxicity or lack of toxicity of citrinin and indicates there may be
several forms of citrinin or several closely related compounds which ap¬
pear to be citrinin when analyzed by TLC or U.V., but which have widely
differing toxicities. Whether the toxicity seen in this study is due to
one of these compounds is unknown at this time.

Analysis of the P. citrinum moldy corn for aflatoxin was negative,
although a blue flourescent compound with the same Rf as aflatoxin B] was
observed. It is possible that a compound similar to aflatoxin or a bound
form of aflatoxin is present. P. citrinum was reported by Kulik and
Holaday to produce aflatoxin, though this work was not confirmed.

A COMPARISON OF HELMINTH PARASITES OF THE SUNFISH FAMILY
(CENTRARCHIDAE) IN THREE MICHIGAN LAKES

Evelyn C. Johnson
Jacksonville State University
Jacksonville, Alabama

Various environmental factors were considered in their influences
on the presence or absence of helminth parasites infecting the Centrarch-
idae of three closely situated Michigan lakes. The data include the
physical factors of the lakes, the vegetation present, the fauna availa¬
ble as definitive and intermediate hosts, and the incidence of parasitic
infection in those hosts. The variety and numbers of parasites found in
the centrarchids is explained in consideration of these factors.

The lake with the greatest incidence and variety in the number of
parasites also showed the greatest variety of definitive and intermediate
hosts and the least eutrophication. The lakes with the least incidence
of parasitism had few hosts available for completion of the life cycle.

As eutrophication continues in these three lakes a reduction in the num¬
ber and variety of hosts and parasites is expected. The data suggest
that parasite populations may be an indicator of biotic wealth in a com-
muni ty.

64

Abstracts

A STUDY ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ETHEOSTOMA OKALOOSAE ,

THE OKALOOSA DARTER, AND ETHEOSTOMA EDWINI,

THE BROWN DARTER, IN NORTHWEST FLORIDA

Maurice F. Mettee
Environmental Division
Geological Survey of Alabama
University, Alabama

The Okaloosa darter, an endemic species to the Choctawhatchee sys¬
tem in northwest Florida, was placed on the official list of endangered
species in 1973 because of concern over habitat destruction in the
streams occupied by it and also possible competition with the brown
darter, its nearest relative. In 1975, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife serv¬
ice funded a one-year study on the Okaloosa darter. The primary goals
of this study were to determine the extent to which the brown darter had
invaded the range of the endangered form and to evaluate the effects of
its presence there.

Six field trips were made to Florida during which 63 collections
were made at 43 stations. A total of 3,374 specimens comprising 30
species and 16 families of fishes were collected. Two hundred fifty in¬
dividuals of the Okaloosa darter were collected of which 21 percent (53)
were retained for museum specimens. Three hundred forty-five specimens
of brown darter were recorded from 15 stations, 10 of which are herein
reported for the first time. Examination of collection data from a 9-
to 12-year period at four sites on Okaloosa darter streams indicates that
the endangered form is being replaced by the introduced brown darter pop¬
ulation.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE OVARIAN DEVELOPMENT OF
SMALLMOUTH BASS IN PICKWICK RESERVOIR

Wayne A. Hubert and Vester P. Mitchell, Jr.

Tennessee Valley Authority

The sexual maturity and seasonal ovarian development of 202 Pickwick
Reservoir smallmouth bass were evaluated. A few fish were found to be
sexually mature at three years, but most did not reach sexual maturity
until their fourth year. Sexually mature smallmouth bass contained ova
in several stages of development prior to spawning. Two distinct size
groups were observed, only a portion of the largest size group became
fully ripened at one time. Following the spawning season residual ova
were resorbed during the summer and renewed ova development was observed
in September. Throughout the ova maturation process larger females were
advanced over smaller, sexually mature fish. Smallmouth bass were found
to produce larger ova, but a smaller number per unit of total length,
than either the largemouth bass or spotted bass.

65

Abstracts

PROBLEMS IN THE SYSTEMATICS OF SOUTHEASTERN TARDIGRADES

Dierdre Chri stenberry , George Folkerts, and William Mason
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Data obtained by examination of 117 specimens of Echiniscus quadri¬
spinosus brachyspinosus , collected from four widely separated locali¬
ties, suggest that this variety does not represent juveniles of E. q.
quadrispinosus, as previously suggested by Cuenot and Rammazzotti .
Echiniscus q. brachyspinosus is geographically and morphologically dis¬
tinct from the nominate form and may represent a subspecies or a dis¬
tinct species. Additionally, the nominal species Echiniscus virginiscus
Riggin is apparently identical to Echiniscus quadrispinosus brachyspino¬
sus and is here placed in the synonomy of the latter.

RADIONUCLIDE EXCRETION AND METABOLIC RATE IN FLATWORMS

Nitaya Lauhachinada and W. H. Mason
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Dugesia tigrina (Griard) was labeled with *^Zn by both direct ab¬
sorption and feeding techniques. Bioelimination curves were erected for
groups of individuals held at 18°C and 28°C, and biological half-life
determinations were made on the basis of whole-body counts taken after
an initial rapid loss of the nuclide. Animals labeled by both methods
eliminated the nuclide at very similar rates when held at the same tem¬
perature. Animals held at 28°C eliminated the nuclide approximately 3.5
times as rapidly as those held at 18°C. Individuals are readily labeled
with 65zn and our data shows that the nuclide's elimination rate is di¬
rectly correlated with metabolic rate.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING ECOLOGY OF THE
TIGER SALAMANDER, AMBYSTOMA TIGRINUM

Daniel A. Botts and George W. Folkerts
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Several aspects of the breeding ecology of the eastern tiger sala¬
mander were studied at a temporary pond located in southern Macon Co.,
Alabama. Phenomena associated with the breeding migration were studied
using a drift fence with pitfall traps designed to completely encompass
the pond. Migration was initiated by a combination of rainfall and tem¬
perature. Salamander recapture data suggest orientation of the individ¬
uals to certain entry and exit corridors around the pond.

66

Abstracts

The breeding population comprised 151 individuals (83 males and 68
females). Variation by sex existed in weight (males 31.7 g, females
36.5 g) but not in length (males 106.4 mm Snout-vent, females 105.0 mm).

Breeding occurred twice during the four month period on 7 December
1975, and 1 January 1976. Egg masses were located on supports 15-30 cm
below the surface in 30-60 cm of water, in areas of the pond with little
or no emergent vegetation. Average number of eggs per mass was 33.05
(N = 40; R = 9,70). Reproductive effort in the pond totaled 2115 eggs.

Causes of mortality included predators, both on eggs and larvae,
diseases that killed the eggs of fungal and bacterial infestations, and
climatic factors, especially fluctuating water levels in conjunction with
extremes of temperature. During the study period, mortality was assumed
to be 100% since no transforming individuals were captured in the pond
or while exiting from it.

A RESURVEY OF THE ICHTHYOFAUNA OF CEDAR CREEK

Vester P. Mitchell, Jr., William H. Host, Jr., and Paul Yokley, Jr.

Tennessee Valley Authority

2

Cedar Creek drains an area of some 616 Km in northwest Alabama.
Four collections from nine stations revealed the presence of 40 species
representing 11 families of fish. New records of Moxostoma anisurum,
Moxostoma duquesnii, Pimephales vigilax, Notorus miurus , Peroina sciera,
Percina evides, Peroina shumardi , Etheostoma flabellare , Aplodinotus
grunniens, and Angiulla rostrata were obtained for the Cedar Creek
drainage.

POSTNATAL TESTICULAR DEVELOPMENT IN THREE
INBRED STRAINS OF MICE

John H. Wilters and Gary R. Poirier
Department of Biology
University of Alabama at Birmingham

Postnatal testicular development was studied in 3 inbred strains of
mice; SJL/Dg, BALB/cDg and C57BL/10Dg. Testes development in all strains
exhibited logistic growth. The testes of C57BL/1 ODg mice reach maximum
size in the shortest time. BALB/cDg, on the other hand has the slowest
rate of testes growth and take longer to reach maximum size. The SJL/Dg
strain is intermediate. The difference in testicular development of
these strains may have a hormonal base.

67

Abstracts

PLASMA STERIOD LEVELS DURING THE OVULATORY CYCLE
OF THE QUAIL COTURNIX COTURNIX JAPONICA

W. A. Collignon, Jr. and R. MacGregor III
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham

Peripheral plasma samples were collected at 0600, 1200, 1630, and
2200 hours from laying japanese quail [Cotumix cotumix japonica) which
had been maintained under a constant photoperiod of 16 hours light.
Plasma samples of 100 ml were then assayed for estradiol and progester¬
one by means of radioimmunoassay. Progesterone levels reached a peak of
912.5 ± 304.2 Pg/ml at 1200 hours. Estradiol also tended to show a peak
at this time in the majority of samples. When the data of birds with an
estradiol peak at 1200 were pooled, a peak of estradiol (194.8 ± 61.6
Pg/ml) was more pronounced. The ranges of estradiol levels seen here
were very similar to values reported in the domestic hen although pro¬
gesterone in the hen was almost twice the peak obtained in the present
study. Ovulation was seen to occur regularly between the hours of 1430
and 1630, therefore these steriods peaked some 4 to 5 hours before ovu¬
lation. A similar peak of steriods 4 to 5 hours before ovulation has
also been reported in the domestic hen. Whether these steriod peaks are
caused by LH remains to be determined.

IMMUNOLOGICAL STUDIES OF AVIAN PROLACTIN

P. M. Nagrodzki and R. MacGregor III
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham

Chicken pituitaries were extracted using the Scane's et al. method
to obtain the prolactin fraction. This pituitary fraction was found to
have electrophoretic mobility similar to ovine prolactin in a Polyacryla¬
mide gel electrophoresis system. Similar banding was found in a crude
homoginate of sparrow pituitary. Both the chicken pituitary prolactin
fraction and the crude sparrow homogenate failed to crossreact with
rabbit-Anti-Ovine Prolactin in an immunoelectrophoretic system and in
an Ouchterlony Double diffusion. Although avian and ovine prolactin are
similar in electrophoretic mobility, these data indicate that the immuno-
reactive properties of these prolactin molecules are dissimilar enough to
disallow their use in a heterologous radioimmunoassay.

THE DESCRIPTION OF TWO PARAMETERS IN COLOR DISCRIMINATION
IN A lOTROPIS SIGNIPINNIS (BAILEY AND SUTTKUS)

John H. Greene, III and Olivia Vynn Adair
Department of Biology
University of South Alabama, Mobile

Notropis signipinnis (Bailey and Suttkus), a freshwater schooling
minnow with striking, red coloration, was used in our investigation. Two

68

Abstracts

parameters were monitored: behavioral, eliciting a conditioned response
to colored lights, and biochemical, extracting and analyzing retinal pig¬
ments.

Two communities with eight N. signipinnis in each were used in the
behavioral experiment. One group had feeding paired with blue light and
the other had feeding paired with red light. The group trained to red
light exhibited the conditioned response while the group trained to blue
1 ight did not.

The visual pigments extracted from the retinae of ten N. signipinnis
were pooled and the absorbance at varying wavelengths measured. The ex¬
tract had maximal absorbance in the extremes of the visible spectrum, at
400 and 780 nm. The peak of absorbance in the blue wavelengths (400 nm)
was narrow, while the peak in the red (780 nm) was high and broad.

The behavioral and pigment extraction experiments indicate that N.
signipinnis can distinguish red light. However, the results are incon¬
clusive as to whether they can or cannot distinguish blue light.

ENDANGERED AND THREATENED PTERIDOPHYTES OF ALABAMA

John W. Short and John D. Freeman
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

Alabama has a rich pteridophyte flora, but a great many species are
rare. The recent publication "Endangered and Threatened Plants and Ani¬
mals of Alabama" contains several mistakes, mostly in nomenclature, and
numerous omissions. The report lists four species as endangered--Lepto-

gramma pilosa var. alabamensis, Trichomanes boschianum , T. petersii and
Selaginella riddellii (erroneously listed as S. tortipila) ; six as
threatened --Asplenium bradleyi, A. ebenoides, A. ruta-muraria , Lycopodium
porophilum (not "porophyllum") , Chelanthes alabccmensis and Lygodium pal-
matum, and five as species of special concern--Jsoe£es melanopoda, Lyco¬
podium cemuum, L. flabelli forme , Ophioglossum crotalophoroides and
Polypodium virginianum.

The addition of twelve species to the endangered list in Alabama is
pro posed --Asplenium gravesii, A. trudellii, Cystopteris fragilis, C.
tennesseensis , Dicranopteris flexuosa (possibly already extinct in Ala¬
bama), Dryopteris australis, D. campyloptera, D. cristata, D. spinulosa,
Equisetum arvense and Marsilea mucronata', four are considered threat-
ened --Athyrium thelypteroides, Dryopteris goldiana. Lycopodium lucidulum
and L. obscurum-, and nineteen are considered to be species of special
concern --Athyrium pycnocarpon, Botrychium alabamense, B. lunarioides,
Dennstaedtia punctilobula, Dryopteria celsa, D. intermedia, B. ludo-
viciana, Isoetes butleri, I. engelmannii, I. melanospora, I. piedmontana.
Lycopodium tristachyum, Osmunda claytoniana, Selaginella ludoviciana,
Thelypteris dentata, T. ovata, T. quadrangularis var. versicolor, Ophio¬
glossum engelmannii and O. nudicaule. Several taxa in each category are
not as rare in other parts of the United States as they are in Alabama.

69

Abstracts

The state lies just barely within the extreme limits of their ranges.
Thus, a species such as Equisetum arvense, which is fairly common in
the Northeast but is known in Alabama from only one locality, should be
considered endangered in this State.

RATTUS NORVEGICUS, S.A.F./S.D. AND TUMOR RESEARCH
ON THE UNDERGRADUATE LEVEL

Michael W. Fountain
Samford University
Birmingham, Alabama

I have found the rat strain S.A.F./S.D. (Southern Animal Farm/
Sprague Dawley) of Rattus norvegicus ideally suited for undergraduate
research with tumors. I have studied the occurrence of spontaneous
pseudo-encapsulated fibrosarcomas in this strain and have found that
of 12 cases of spontaneous malignant mammary tumors examined 11 were in
fact pseudo-encapsulated fibrosarcomas. The 91.6% occurrence rate for
such tumors is very high and serves well for observational and statisti¬
cal studies conducted by undergraduate students. This strain also lends
well to operative procedures performed by undergraduate students. Bi¬
lateral adrenalectomies, spleenectomies , spleen-to-ovary auto and cross
transplantation, ovariectomies, ovary-to-spleen auto and cross trans¬
plantations, orchidectomies , spleen-to-testes auto and cross transplanta¬
tion and adrenal transplantations; all of these procedures were performed
and the S.A.F./S.D. strain served as an excellent research animal in all
procedures. After four years of experience and research with this strain
of rats I would recommend it to be investigated further as an excellent
test animal for future undergraduate tumor research.

ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF PIGMENTATION IN A PIGMENT-DEFICIENT
LARVAL RAM HECKSCHERI (ANURA: RAN I DAE)

William A. Cox and Ken R. Marion
University of Alabama in Birmingham

Most amphibians possess three types of epidermal and dermal chro-
matophores: xanthophores , guanophores and melanophores. Normally,
these are fully distributed and wel 1 -developed very early in larval de¬
velopment. In the river frog, Rana heoksoheri, melanophores comprise the
majority of cells responsible for pigmentation and color changes. In
November, 1975, a pre-metamorphic larval R. heoksaheri was captured at
Emerald Springs, Bay County, Florida, which appeared on initial inspec¬
tion to be an albino. The specimen was returned to our laboratory,
placed in a 10-gallon aquarium, and reared through metamorphosis to the
adult form. Shortly after capture a light suffusion of dark pigment was
noticed in the dorsal and ventral borders of the tail fin, the tip of
the tail musculature, and in the anterior head region between the eyes
and mouth. These changes appeared at approximately the same time as the
emergence of the hind limb buds. At the completion of metamorphosis,
dorsal pigmentation had developed to such an extent that the specimen

70

Abstracts

was within the range of normal variation for members of the species.
The ventral surface, however, was abnormally light. To our knowledge,
observations concerning abnormally delayed development of pigmentation
have not been previously reported in a larval anuran.

THE FINE STRUCTURE OF SPERMATOZOA OF STERNOTHAERUS
MINOR MINOR (CHELONIA: KINOSTERNI DAE )

William A. Cox, Ken R. Marion, and Gary R. Poirier
University of Alabama in Birmingham

An elongated acrosome with a pronounced anterior curvature is pres¬
ent. A prominent subacrosomal space separates the acrosome from the
nucleus. The nucleus contains a central invagination which extends to
the posterior margin of the acrosome. The head articulates with the mid
piece portion of the tail by a capitulum. The proximal centriole lies
at a right angle to the tail. The distal centriole, embedded in a dense
matrix, has two additional tubules. The axial filament of the midpiece
is also associated with a dense matrix. Mitochondria, as individual
organelles, are composed of loosely-organized whorls of double membranes
Five mitochondria are evident in cross-sections and eight to ten in
longitudinal sections of the midpiece. The junction between the mid¬
piece and principle piece is demarked by an annulus. The axial filament
of the principle piece is surrounded by a fibrous sheath. The fibrous
sheath terminates at the juncture of the principle piece and end piece.
The axial filament of the principle piece and end piece has the typical
9+2 arrangement of microtubules.

GEOLOGY

HUMATES IN THE TOMBIGBEE SAND, MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA

Ronald S. Taylor
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Humates are common features of modern coasts located within 40 de¬
grees of the equator. However, humate is seldom recognized in coastal
sands that are older than Pleistocene. Six varieties of humate sands in
Florida and Alabama were recognized and classified. One variety is
characterized by discontinuous lenses in high-angle cross-beds. A proba
ble ancient analog can be observed in the Tombigbee Sand exposure at the
Montgomery Industrial Terminal locality. Geologic evidence strongly sug
gests that this ancient humate-like deposit is a humate-deri ved carbo¬
naceous deposit. However, the carbonaceous material from the black sand
coatings has properties that are different from those of modern humates.
The combustive, solubility, and oxidation states are sufficiently differ
ent to indicate major diagenetic changes.

71

Abstracts

PROBABLE ORIGIN OF THE TOMBIGBEE SAND,

EUTAW FORMATION, MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA

Bernard R. Coons
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The Upper Cretaceous sediments in Alabama are subdivided into three
stratigraphic units: the basal Tuscaloosa Group, the intermediate Eutaw
Formation, and the overlying Selma Group. One interesting exposure of
the Eutaw Formation in West Montgomery is in the Tombigbee Sand Member.

It is known as the Industrial Terminal exposure and represents a sequence
of coastal sands. Fifteen feet of the exposure consists of cross-bedded,
fine-grained, glauconitic sands with angles of dip indicative of subaque¬
ous avalanching migration. The cross-bed sets are divisible into large-
scale planar, small-scale planar, and trough-type sets. Paleocurrent
analysis reveals three current directions: a strong longshore current to
the northwest, a flood tidal current to the north and a weak bimodal
tidal current which was northeast and southwest. Grain size analysis re¬
veals a mode of 1.8 4> in a well sorted, fine skewed sand. The fauna in¬
cludes Callianassa major, several Hardouina echinoid species, Trigonia,
and Gryphaea, as well as some problematical V-shaped and spiral burrows.
There are four common depositional environments in which high-angle
large-scale cross-strata are observed: tidal deltas, offshore bars,
barrier islands and spit platforms. Of these four environments only
spit platforms and flood tidal deltas commonly display tabular cross¬
beds, rapid accretion, and tidal current transport.

THE GEOLOGY OF PART OF THE DADEVILLE COMPLEX--
A PROGRESS REPORT

Michael J. Neilson
University of Alabama in Birmingham
University Station 35294

Four lithologic units (Agricola Schist, Ropes Creek Amphibolite,
Camp Hill Gneiss, and Doss Mountain Complex) are recognized near Camp
Hill in the Dadeville Complex of Alabama's Inner Piedmont. Two periods
of folding are evident on a mesoscopic scale: (1) northeasterly and
southwesterly plunging isoclinal folds; and (ii) northerly plunging open
folds. Outcrop patterns of the Agricola Schist, Ropes Creek Amphibolite
and Camp Hill Gneiss suggest that the area suffered macroscopic folding
along axes parallel to those of the mesoscopic isoclinal folds. The
dominant metamorphic event, which was synchronous with the early meso¬
scopic isoclinal folding, raised the pelites of the Agricola Schist to
the kyanite and sillimanite zones of the Barrovian (moderate pressure)
Facies Series. The Doss Mountain Complex consists of several layered
intrusions, each intrusion containing gabbro, norite, pyroxenite and
metagabbro.

This work was supported by a University of Alabama in Birmingham
Faculty Research Grant.

72

Abstracts

STATISTICAL ESTIMATION OF COAL RESERVES

George F. Brockman
University of Alabama in Birmingham

Statistical methods used in economic geology often are inefficient.
Improvements in statistical techniques may be easier and less expensive
than obtaining the excess data required by the use of inefficient meth¬
ods of analysis.

Particular attention should be paid to selection of distributional
models and, where applicable, of appropriate confidence bounds. The use
of asymptotic distributions and central -1 imi t-theorem results with small
samples is common, and also is costly. One-sided confidence intervals
are typically more appropriate and more efficient than the two-sided
ones in general use.

Most of the studies examined by the author fail to incorporate in
estimates all of the relevant data that appear in the text or in tables,
because of the data are of more than one kind, or are from more than one
source. Joint likelihood methods, weighted statistics, and the use of a
Bayesian framework may permit the incorporation of all the available
information.

In reports that the author has reviewed, it often has been possible
to construct relatively simple analyses of the data with two to four
times the efficiencies of those used in the original reports. In practi¬
cal terms, this means that the statistical effort required for the im¬
proved data anlaysis is equivalent to doubling or quadrupling the volume
of data. Commonly, a few hours of paperwork with a hand calculator pro¬
duces the equivalent of several thousand dollars' worth of data, and/or
several days of data-gathering.

MINERALOGY OF A "PROTOCONCRETION," GORDO
FORMATION, LEE COUNTY, ALABAMA

Verner N. Guthrie
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The physical properties, mineralogy, and iron oxide content of
"protoconcretions" in the Gordo Formation were studied and compared to
the sediment immediately surrounding them and to the overlying B-hori-
zon.

"Protoconcretions" are generally circular to elliptical in outline
and are redder in color than the surrounding sediment. Some "protocon¬
cretions" are isolated from the B-horizon while others are connected to
the B-horizon. The cohesiveness in a "protoconcretion" is greater than
in the surrounding sediment. In overall shape, "protoconcretions" are
generally cylindrical to bulbous.

73

Abstracts

Soil samples analyzed by x-ray diffraction contain kaolinite,
quartz, and hematite. Small flecks of mica were seen in each sample.

The predominant clay mineral indicated by x-ray diffraction in all
samples is kaolinite. The greatest amounts of kaolinite occur in the
B-horizon. The least amount of kaolinite is in the cross-bedded sedi¬
ment. The "protoconcretion" contains an intermediate amount of kaoli¬
nite.

An iron analysis was done on all samples using x-ray spectroscopy.
The B-horizon sample contains the most iron oxide with the cross-bedded
sediment containing the least amount of iron oxide. The "protoconcre¬
tion" contains intermediate amounts of iron oxide.

"Protoconcretions" are extensions of the B-horizon and occur within
cross-bedded sands in this particular case.

"Protoconcretions" differ from the true concretions by having no
cementing minerals and by being bulbous and cylindrical in shape rather
than spherical. It is suggested that these "protoconcretions" be
thought of as authigenic pseudoconcretions.

POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF LIGNITE MINING
IN THE ALABAMA-TOMBIGBEE RIVERS REGION

Tola B. Moffett and Maurice F. Mettee
Geological Survey of Alabama

There are an estimated 562 million short tons of near-surface lig¬
nite in the Alabama-Tombigbee Rivers Region of southwest Alabama. These
deposits occur in the Oak Hill Member of the Naheola Formation (Midway
Group) and the upper unnamed member of the Tuscahoma Sand (Wilcox Group).
The Oak Hill lignite generally has a good heating value but its sulfur
content is high. The Tuscahoma lignite is generally inferior to the Oak
Hill lignite in heating value but has a lower sulfur content. Both of
these near-surface lignites can be extracted using existing surface
mining technology.

The detrimental environmental effects of coal mining in the eastern
U.S. are well documented. The short- and long-term environmental ef¬
fects of lignite mining in the Alabama-Tombigbee Rivers Region of south¬
west Alabama are not known at this time. These effects will depend on
the nature of the overburden, topography, plant cover, methods of ex¬
traction, time of recovery and reclamation procedures. The potential
effects, however, can be inferred from what is known about strip mining
in other areas. Extraction of the lignites in southwestern Alabama will
necessitate disturbance of the land surface and may create problems of
acid mine drainage, increased erosion and sedimentation, and contamina¬
tion of ground water. Preliminary data indicate that the primary en¬
vironmental problems of mining in the area may be the low pH and uncon¬
solidated nature of the overburden and the high sulfur content of the
lignite. These factors could contribute to significant erosion and acid

74

Abstracts

mine drainage unless careful ly planned reclamation procedures are prac¬
ticed .

A PETROGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE AUGEN GNEISS
IN SOUTHWESTERN LEE COUNTY, ALABAMA

Rose M. Kilpatrick
Department of Geology
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

A common rock type in the Auburn area of Lee County, is locally re¬
ferred to as augen gneiss. Large, well-exposed outcrops occur along
several streams near the Piedmont-Coastal Plain boundary. It is typi¬
cally dark colored with lighter bands and "eye-shaped" porphyroblasts
set in a finer-grained matrix. In an effort to better define this promi¬
nent rock type, samples were collected across strike from several good
outcrops exposed along Choctafaula Creek.

Petrographic studies indicate that the unit has been subjected to
intense cataclastic deformation. Using the classification system of
Higgins, 1971, the rocks found in the study area can be categorized as
mylonite gneisses and porphyroclastic blastomylonites. Mineralogically,
the rocks consist primarily of quartz, feldspar, biotite, and muscovite.
However, the overall appearance of the various types present are related
more to differing intensities of shearing than to differences in miner¬
alogy.

Textural relationships suggest that the rock was originally a por-
phyroblastic gneiss which underwent cataclastic defomration accompanied
or closely followed by some recrystallization. According to a prelimi¬
nary map by Bentley and Neathery, 1970, the study area is located within
the Towaliga Fault Zone, whose formation is probably responsible for the
cataclastic texture which characterizes this augen gneiss.

THE CORRELATIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SOME SOLUTION, STRUCTURAL
AND WEATHERING FEATURES IN NORTHWEST ALABAMA

Paul Moser

Alabama Geological Survey

The orientation of sinkholes, joints, lineaments, streams, escarp¬
ment faces and cave chambers in a karst area of northwest Alabama indi¬
cate a striking mutually-related alignment which is probably controlled
by correlated geologic processes. The dominant trend of five of these
features is generally in a northwest direction. However, a secondary
trend in a northeast direction characteri zes cave chamber alignment.

The first five correlative and parallel surface features were prob¬
ably acted upon contemporaneous geologic processes. Cave chamber align¬
ment was possibly the result of an additional subsurface erosional ac¬
tion when surface water base level and water table were much higher.

75

Abstracts

COCCOLITHS OF MOBILE BAY: A PRELIMINARY REPORT

William F. Bauer
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The purpose of this study is to determine the presence of cocco-
liths in sediment samples taken in Mobile Bay and to identify taxa pres¬
ent and determine their areal distribution.

The Mobile Bay depositional province is a relatively narrow lagoonal
environment located on the Southern Pine Hills of the Gulf Coastal Plain.
Examination of sediment samples taken in Mobile Bay, using polarized
light microscopy, revealed no coccolith taxa preserved, with the excep¬
tion of samples taken near the entrance to Mobile Bay from the Gulf of
Mexico. This is not to say that coccol i thophorids are not present in
the water column, but that coccoliths are not being preserved in the
sediments. In Scholle and Kling's work (1972) titled. Southern British
Honduras: Lagoonal Coocolith Ooze, the hydrological and geological pa¬
rameters are similar to those in Mobile Bay, and the samples observed
contained abundant coccoliths; this is interesting due to the absence of
coccoliths in the Mobile Bay sediment samples.

Thus far, in this continuing study, it is possible to extend several
hypotheses for the absence of coccoliths in the sediments of Mobile Bay:
1) The ratio of sediments to coccoliths is so high there appears to be
an absence of coccoliths, 2) Pollutants in the Bay have a toxic effect
on coccolithophorids, 3) Sediments in the Bay are highly rich in organic
material and on decomposition could produce acidic conditions in the
sediments preventing any coccolith preservation.

CHUNNENUGEE: FOSSIL RIDGE REDISCOVERED

Norman Bayne Cranford
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The word Chunnenugee is an Indian word meaning "high long ridge" or
"high bluff." Chunnenugee Ridge, or "The Ridge," as local townspeople
call it, is located near the town of Union Springs in Bullock County,
Alabama. Being the highest land in Bullock County, Chunnenugee Ridge
attracted early settlers as an excellent building site for their homes.

Chunnenugee Ridge is described in newspaper articles. National Geo¬
graphic Magazine, and professional reports as an area of early scien¬
tific interest.

Renamed the Enon cuesta and included as one of the Chunnenugee
Hills, Chunnenugee Ridge is part of the Upper Cretaceous deposits of
Alabama and lies within the eastern Gulf Coastal Plain. Fossils from
the ridge are from the two great faunal zones known throughout the

76

Abstracts

Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains as the Exogyra ponderosa zone below and

the Exogyra costata zone above.

This paper describes the rediscovery, for geological study, of a
fossi 1 iferous railroad cut across the Enon cuesta scarp half a mile
north of Peachburg, Bullock County, Alabama. It attempts to substanti¬
ate the occurrence of fossil arthropods, insects, in the strata of Chun-
nenugee Ridge. This writer has written two letters to Canada in an at¬
tempt to find the collection from Chunnenugee Ridge which the late Dr.
Peter Brannon, former Montgomery archivist, saw in Canada and said the
collection contained fossil insects. This area seems to have been ne¬
glected by geologists since 1941, but my search for the fossil insects
continues .

PRELIMINARY WHOLE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE MITCHELL DAM
AMPHIBOLITE: CHILTON AND COOSA COUNTIES, ALABAMA

Pamela Bloss

Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

The Mitchell Dam Amphibolite is a metabasite located near the
southern terminus of the central Piedmont of Alabama. It is one of
many similar but smaller amphibolitic bodies which occur within the
Higgins Ferry Group (formerly Ashland-Wedowee) . Metamorphism of the
Mitchell Dam is believed to have been essentially isochemical, therefore
geochemical analysis has been undertaken in order to determine the proto
lithology. Thirty-three samples were analyzed for major elements, and
the results interpreted graphically, using methods described by Macdon¬
ald and Katsura (1964) and Miyashiro (1975). The Mitchell Dam Amphibo¬
lite has the composition of a tholeiitic basalt, associated with highly
silicic layers, either igneous or sedimentary in origin; and was possi¬
bly formed within an island arc system. Additional work using trace
element analysis must be done in order to confirm or modify this hypothe
sis.

A GEOLOGIC GUIDE TO THE CAHABA RIVER— AN INTEGRATED
UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH EXPERIENCE

W. Gary Hooks, Travis H. Hughes, and James F. Tull
Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

The Cahaba River Project has been funded by the Venture Fund of
The University of Alabama as an effort toward stimulation of undergradu¬
ate research and enhancement of student-faculty interaction in Geology
and Geography. The project will provide an opportunity for research ex¬
periences which integrate formal classroom studies, field courses, li¬
brary research, field work, report preparation, and publication of re¬
sults. Specifically the project involves 23 undergraduate students, as
research teams of 3 or 4, in the production of a guide-book to the

77

Abstracts

geologic aspects of the Cahaba River and its major tributaries. Each
team is responsible for geologic description of a reach of the stream
(average length 48 km.). The team reports will consist of maps and
description of structural geology, stratigraphy, geomorphology (river
morphology, river processes, and slope studies), environmental geology
(effects of urbanization and mining), and localities for mineral and
fossil collecting.

In addition to use in the guide-book, information from this project
will serve as a source for student papers at professional meetings, and
be used as input to the U.S. Forest Service for their study concerning
incorporation of the Cahaba River under the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act.

If evaluation indicates the project has been successful, similar
projects will be initiated involving the Black Warrior, Coosa, and
Tallapoosa Rivers.

A STUDY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY
PERTAINING TO THE USE OF SEPTIC TANKS
IN THE LAKE TUSCALOOSA AREA

Douglas A. Freehafer
Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

Lake Tuscaloosa, completed in 1969, was formed by the damming of
the North River 1J miles from its confluence with the Black Warrior
River. The lake supplies water for the residential, commercial, and in¬
dustrial demands of Tuscaloosa. It also provides recreation and is a
place of increasing residential development.

Lake Tuscaloosa is located on the "Fall Line." The rock units ex¬
posed in the area consist of the Pottsville Formation of Pennsylvanian
Age which is in places overlain unconformably by deposits of late Cre¬
taceous to Holocene in age.

Presently there is no municipal sewage connection in the Lake area,
and residential homes are using septic tanks; however, problems are
arising due to improper placement.

The purpose of the study is to delineate geologic constraints for
proper installation of septic tanks. Individual homesites should be
tested for the following:

1) depth to bedrock or impermeable clay layer

2) depth to water table

3) percolation rates to determine if the effluent can move properly
through the soil and to determine the size of the absorption
field

4) determination of erosion potential of slopes

This study is underway to integrate the above parameters with the
planning process to produce maps to show the most feasible areas for

78

Abstracts

septic tank disposal systems and those areas where septic tanks should
not be used.

PETROLOGICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL RELATIONSHIPS IN THE
HILLABEE CHLORITE SCHIST IN THE MILLERVILLE
REGION, CLAY COUNTY, ALABAMA

Lamar Long

Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

In the Hillabee Chlorite Schist around Millerville, Alabama, mafic
and intermediate rocks occur. The mafic unit, which comprises most of
the Hillabee, consists of three types based on texture: 1) fine grained
massive greenstone, 2) phyllite, and 3) massive greenstone with gabbroic-
like texture. In all three mafic rock types the mineral association is
epidote, chlorite, actinolite, albite and relic pyroxenes in varying
abundances. The mafic rocks are composi tional ly similar to basalts.

In hand specimen the intermediate rock has a gneissic texture with
hornblende porphyroblasts. In thin section, the rock has a phyllitic
texture, and the hornblendes appear to be relic igneous grains. The
mineral association is relic hornblende, sericite, chlorite, epidote,
albite, and quartz. Composi tional ly, the intermediate rocks are ande¬
sitic, with higher S i 02 , Na20, and K2O and lower CaO, MgO, and total Fe
than the mafic rocks.

Geochemical data indicate that the parent basalt was an island arc
tholeiite. Also, the association of the parent basalt with andesite
lends credence to this idea. A possible model for the tectonic setting
of the Hillabee Chlorite Schist is an island arc system, the phyllites
are interpreted to represent incompetent ash falls and the greenstones
represent more competent lava flows.

THE TECTONIC RELATIONSHIPS OF THE HILLABEE CHLORITE
SCHIST TO THE ADJACENT ROCK UNITS IN SOUTHERN
CLEBURNE COUNTY, ALABAMA

Bertram Hayes-Davis
Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

In southern Cleburne County, the Talladega Group, the Hillabee Chlo¬
rite Schist, and the Poe Bridge Mountain Group are the major geologic
units. The Hillabee Chlorite Schist is a layered mafic volcanoclastic
sequence containing lower greenschist facies mineral assemblages. The
Talladega Group also contains low grade metamorphic assemblages. Upper
amphibolite facies mineral assemblages are found in the Poe Bridge Moun¬
tain Group. The Hillabee Chlorite Schist and the Talladega Group have
undergone the same structural and metamorphic events and show a concord¬
ance of structures and interlayering stratigraphic relationships. The

79

Abstracts

Poe Bridge Mountain Group has undergone similar structural and metamor-
phic events including a higher grade of dynamothermal metamorphism, and
three or more later deformationsal events. The upper boundary of the
Hillabee is the Hollins Line Fault, which emplaces high grade rocks
against low grade rocks. This fault has been suggested as a major re¬
verse fault of large magnitude, marked by terminating lithologies, dis¬
cordant structures, and an abrupt metamorphic grade change. The proper
understanding of the relationships of the Hillabee Chlorite Schist to
the adjacent 1 ithotectonic units is critical for a more complete inter¬
pretation of the geologic history of the Alabama Piedmont.

LOW ALTITUDE MULT I SPECTRAL IMAGERY AS AN AID
FOR LITHOLOGIC MAPPING

Rex C. Price

Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

Analyses of mul ti spectral photographs taken in vegetative regions
indicate that rock types can be differentiated. Electromagnetic radia¬
tion is reflected to the remote sensor primarily from vegetative sur¬
faces. Underlying lithologies are frequently the dominant factor con¬
trolling vegetative distribution.

Multispectral photographs were enhanced by using the color additive
viewer and by photographing and printing as kodalith and panatomic-x
positive prints and as bas-relief positive prints. Panatomic-x prints
were economical, were easy to use, and showed as much, if not more, de¬
tail than other type enhancements.

Studies were conducted to show the correlation between tonal values
of the multispectral images and ground truth data such as lithology and
moisture percent. High correlation was noted for both the red and infra¬
red bands. Photographs should always be viewed stereoscopical ly prior
to constructing lithologic maps. Field work must also be an essential
part of map construction.

Characteristic signatures were developed to delineate broad litho¬
logic types. Lithologic predictions were made based on signatures and
subsequent field checking of predictions ensued. Percent correlation
between predictions and field mapping was high for alluvial deposits and
for indurated sedimentary rocks. Sands and clays could be delineated
but with less accuracy than the previous mentioned lithologic types. If
this type analysis were conducted in a remote region with natural vege¬
tation the percent correlations should increase.

Multispectral analyses for lithologic determinations appear to have
possible applications. Efficiency decreases in urban areas and areas
not naturally vegetated. This type analysis will prove beneficial if
limited time is a factor and if areas to be mapped have limited accessi¬
bility.

80

Abstracts

TRACE ELEMENT ABUNDANCE OF CERTAIN ALABAMA COAL ASH
Whitney Telle

Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

In order to determine if different coal seams can be distinguished
by their trace element contents, seventeen samples collected from the
Mary Lee, Blue Creek, and Jagger seams in western Walker County were
analyzed for the elements silver, gold, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, cop¬
per, manganese, nickel, strontium, and zinc. The samples used were mine
ash samples collected and prepared according to A.S.T.M. standards.
Triplicates of each coal sample were ashed, fused in lithium metaborate,
dissolved in dilute nitric acid, and analyzed against salt standards with
a Perkin-Elmer Model 303 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.

Differences in trace element concentrations among coal seams were
not large, although several significant variations were apparent. No
strontium was detected in any of the Blue Creek samples, although stron¬
tium does occur in significant quantities in the Mary Lee and Jagger
seams. Copper and nickel concentrations were higher in Jagger samples
than in those of the other two seams. Economic concentrations of the
trace elements analyzed were not found in any seam.

The trace elements detected in these ashes are presumed to be both
inherent and adventitious. Differences among seams are due apparently
to adventitious epigenetic processes, notably through the action of
mineralized groundwater. Concentrations of all trace elements considered
appear to be consistent with Goldschmidt's observations on the elemental
geochemistry of coal ash.

A PETROGRAPHIC AND PELEOENVIRONMENTAL STUDY OF THE
JEM I SON CHERT IN CHILTON COUNTY, ALABAMA

David E. Sutley

Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

The Jemison Chert is a massive siliceous sedimentary rock sequence
included in the low rank metasedimentary rocks of the Talladega Slate
Belt located in the southwestern part of the Alabama Piedmont. It is
composed dominantly of microcrystalline alpha quartz.

Petrographic examination of rocks very near the contact of the
Jemison Chert and the underlying Butting Ram Sandstone, along with de¬
tailed field evidence shows large amounts of quartz and felspar clasts
which decrease in abundance in the Jemison Chert away from the contact.

The fossil assemblage of the Jemison Chert includes different genera
of Brachiopods, Bryozoans, and possible scarce Radiolarians and oolites.
This seems to suggest a normal marine environment of moderate depth,

81

Abstracts

below wave base. The possible occurrence of oolites may be due to the
transport of debris into this environment since they are very scarce.

THE FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SANITARY LANDFILL
SITE IN A LIMESTONE AREA: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO HUNTSVILLE, MADISON COUNTY, ALABAMA

Margaret M. Naughton
Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

Sanitary landfills are an efficient method of disposing of solid
municipal waste if precautions are taken. Limestone as a dense impermea¬
ble rock with solutional openings causes extra problems in the develop¬
ment of a sanitary landfill over it. Lack of an impermeable barrier,
either suitable clayey soil or a man-made liner, could cause leachate,
which is a chemically concentrated fluid waste, to come into contact with
the aquifer and destroy its potability. The site should be chosen after
a detailed study of the parameters listed in this paper are made of al¬
ternate sites. Inherent problems at the site must be researched and re¬
solved before the waste is disposed of at the site. Lack of research
could cause an environmental catastrophe. The author suggests that an
Environmental Impact Statement be required before permission to use the
site is granted.

FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, AND CONSERVATION

A REPORT ON THE TUSCALOOSA TORNADO OF
SUNDAY, FEBRUARY 23, 1975

Alan F. Koch

Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

On Sunday, February 23, 1975, at approximately 1:30 p.m. the micro¬
barograph located at the geology and geography department of the Univer¬
sity of Alabama recorded a low of 29.42 inches of mercury. Meanwhile, a
severe tornado struck the city of Tuscaloosa, one of three reported in
the immediate area. This destructive storm stayed on or near the ground
from Moundville, Alabama to Holt, Alabama, a distance of 25 miles. The
course of the storm followed an almost straight line on a bearing of
North 45° East. The tornado passed through one of the city's heaviest
commercial areas, as well as numerous residential neighborhoods.

As a field study for Geography 402 (Climatology) instructed by H.
Don Hays, a group of six students mapped on a microscale the damages
caused by the tornado from Taylorville to Holt. Each student inspected
a two mile section of the storm's path and mapped the total extent of
damage. City zoning maps with a scale of one inch to 500 feet were used
as base maps.

82

Abstracts

The study concluded that although the tornado followed a straight
course it varied in width from 300 to 2600 feet. However, the path of
intense destruction modulated from extremes of only 50 to 750 feet. It
was also apparent that the tornado responded to contours, gravity and
forward velocity. Uniform destruction did not always accompany the tor¬
nado's trajectory and in many cases structures apparently in the twist¬
er's median path were unaffected, whereas intense random damage occurred
at various spots. This may have been the result of the contraction, ex¬
pansion and direction of severe suction spots.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS PARAMETERS FOR ESTIMATING
THE ECONOMIC BASE OF SOUTHEASTERN SMSA'S

Richard Smyth

Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

In a development conscious South, the community economic base study
is a document vital to both the understanding of current conditions and
the evaluation of proposed economic impacts. One special result of a
base study is the generation of values for the relevant economic multi-
pi iers.

While there are direct methods for determining the nature and magni¬
tude of the local economic base and its multiplier values, the applica¬
tion of these techniques may be limited by constraints on data collec¬
tion. An indirect method, the minimum requirements technique, as de¬
scribed by Uhlman and Dacey, uses readily available industrial employ¬
ment data as the means for establishing a surrogate measure estimate of
the local economic base.

An examination of the employment profiles and populations of the
Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA's), as defined in 1970, of
nine southeastern states produces the parameters for linear functions
required in each of fifteen industrial sectors to satisfy local demand
for the goods or services of that industry. Employment levels in excess
of that minimum requirement approximate the basic employment, subject to
exogenous demand, of that industry. A summation of the linear functions
of all industries produces the estimating equation

E = 61 .42 + (0.000020) (P)

where E equals the estimated percentage of non-basic employment in an
SMSA of population size P. The relationship

ke = E/OOO.O - E)

will then provide an estimate of the employment multiplier ke, as the
number of non-basic workers required to support themselves and one basic
worker .

83

Abstracts

EL PETEN, GUATEMALA: A DEVELOPING REGION

Frank D. Huttl i nger
The University of Alabama, University

El Peten, a sparsely-populated department in northern Guatemala,
represents one-third of the total area of the country. The region has
long been known for the production of chicle and mahogany lumber from
its forest. Recent road construction has overcome the isolation of past
centuries, resulting in a largely spontaneous immigration of settlers--
more than 30,000 between 1964 and 1973. A government program provides
for additional infrastructure, increases in beef cattle production, ra¬
tional development and utilization of forest resources, and an increase
in tourism. All this will result in expanding the role of the Peten in
the economic development of Guatemala and in alleviating population
pressure in other parts of the country.

RODENT NUMBERS ON SITE PREPARED LANDS IN ALABAMA
Francis X. Lueth

Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
Division of Game and Fish, Montgomery, Alabama

Arasan-endrin coated pine seed are recommended to repel birds and
rodents for direct seeding to establish a stand of forest trees. The
mixture is lethal to some birds and rodents.

Tests were made by the use of snap traps on the following areas:
Lauderdale Wildlife Management Area, Thomas Wildlife Management Area,
Bankhead National Forest, Choccolocco Wildlife Management Area, Wolf
Creek Wildlife Management Area, Oakmulgee Wildlife Management Area,
Butler Wildlife Management Area and in Bibb County.

Catches varied from .2 to 2.0 rodents per 100-trap nights. This
is below the numbers that would justify the expense of treated seed.

APPLICATION OF BERRY'S THEORY OF URBAN
COMMERCIAL LOCATION TO TUSCALOOSA

Eric Q. Strong

Department of Geogrpahy and Geology
The University of Alabama, University

Since commercial establishments make up a large proportion of urban
land use, it is essential for students of urban planning to understand
some of the basic concepts and rationale underlying commercial location
decisions. Therefore, it is the objective of this paper to explore the
theoretical underpinnings of Berry's theory of urban commercial location
and investigate its applicability to Tuscaloosa.

84

Abstracts

Berry's work is based on the concepts of market geography and cen¬
trality. He developed the four following classifications of urban com¬
mercial location outside the central business district: (1) a hierarchy
of business centers, (2) highway oriented commercial ribbons, (3) urban
arterial commercial developments, and (4) specialized functional areas.
The commercial establishments in Tuscaloosa were found to be typical of
these classifications.

THE STATUS OF GEOGRAPHY IN ALABAMA'S
INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Howard G. Johnson
Department of Geography
Jacksonville State University
Jacksonville, Alabama

The purpose of this presentation is to determine the current status
of geography in Alabama's public and private institutions of higher
learning, so that plans can be formulated to promote the growth of the
discipline in the future.

A questionnaire was used to gather data on geography programs,
courses, enrollments, and instructors. Of the forty-six institutions
contacted, nineteen responded. Analysis of the data received indicates
that the bulk of Alabama's geography enrollment is generated on four
campuses. A second finding is that approximately forty percent of the
geography teachers in institutions of higher learning do not hold gradu¬
ate degrees in geography.

It is suggested that greater dialogue be established between uni¬
versity and junior college geographers which will serve to stimulate
interest on junior college campuses and ultimately lead to an increased
flow of transfer students into geography programs at the universities.

It is further suggested that professional geographers encourage the
State Board of Education to require geography in the curricula of junior
and senior high schools throughout the state.

THE GEOGRAPHY OF DEATH: A CULTURAL LANDSCAPE APPROACH

Gregory Jeane
Department of Geography
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

Burial of the dead is a universal cultural trait; cemeteries, there¬
fore, are one of the most numerous of all landscape features. Because
of man's reluctance to disturb them, graveyards tend to be among the most
persistent of man's impression upon the land. Cemeteries have only re¬
cently become the object of scholarly examination. They are storehouses
of cultural data available to many disciplines. Religious, economic,
and social factors are necely exemplified and, because they are

85

Abstracts

relatively undisturbed, cemeteries are excellent for the analysis of
folk traditions and their evolution.

The morphological method, initially used by Carl Sauer, provides a
meaningful approach to the problem of cemetery classification. Observa¬
tion over a decade has led to the conclusion that there are noticeable
distinctions between American graveyards and a typology is needed. The
morphology of a cemetery, by virtue of its inclusiveness, comes closest
to achieving a total analysis. Selecting single traits, such as tomb¬
stone style, does not result in significant enough results to aid in
graveyard classification.

It is proposed that the Upland South cemetery, from Texas to the
Atlantic, possesses enough characteristic traits to recognize it as a
unique type. Characterized by the lack of vegetation, few tombstones,
and peculiar decorative techniques, perhaps the classification of Ameri¬
can cemeteries might begin with the Upland South graveyard.

THE GEOGRAPHY AND POLITICS OF MINING THE OCEAN'S FLOOR
Alan F. Koch

Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

The increasing demand for minerals by industry and the increasing
difficulty in obtaining these minerals on the land has encouraged large
corporations and national governments to look to the ocean for new re¬
sources. The main resource of interest is manganese nodules, which con¬
tain nickel, copper, and cobalt, as well as manganese. The most impor¬
tant concern of prospective miners involves licensing, regulations and
legal requirements in an aera that has no international legal status.

The developed nations hope that the expol itation of the ocean floor will
lead to mineral independence for their industrial needs. However, the
developing countries have complained that the resources on the floor of
the open sea are the "common heritage of mankind."

The manganese oxides are found in grains, nodules, slabs, coating-
on-rocks, and impregnations of porous material. A field of nodules 500
miles south of the Hawaiian Islands has been determined the best site
for mining. Two mining systems; the continuous line bucket (CLB) and a
hydraulic recovery method, which has been successful in tests by the
Summa corporation's ship, the Glomar Explorer, provide means of recover¬
ing the valuable nodules.

The United Nation's Third Conference on the Law of the Sea is de¬
veloping an ocean convention that would assure the equitable distribution
of benefits gained from deep-sea mining. Prospects for success at an
early date are not very promising. Unilateral action may proceed before
an international agreement is found.

86

Abstracts

EVALUATION OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT BLOCK
GRANT FORMULA FOR CENTRAL CITIES

Ted Klimasewski
Department of Geography
Jacksonville State University
Jacksonville, Alabama

This study evaluates the success of the allocation formula in the
Housing and Cominrnnity Development Act of 1974. The formula is supposed
to distribute funds to the cities in greatest need. As stated in the
Housing and Community Development Act, three variables define need: num¬
ber of people living in central cities, number of people in central cit¬
ies living under the poverty level, and number of houses in central cit¬
ies with 1.01 or more persons per room. Poverty variable is counted
twice.

Analysis of the data in this study shows that a close association
exists between funding and the indicators of need. Two other statements,
however, modify this conclusion. (1) Despite the strong association be¬
tween funding and the indicators, certain central cities deviate from the
expected allocation; and (2) no significant relationships occur between
formula funding and measures of relative poverty and relative housing
bl ight .

Tiie effect of these conclusions is to increase the predominance of
population in allocating funds. To reduce the influence of population,
it is recommended that relative indicators of poverty and housing blight
be incorporated into the formula process. The best variables of relative
poverty and poor housing conditions are percentage of persons living
under poverty and percentage of houses lacking some or all plumbing
facilities. Once such changes evolve, the formula will corne closer to
achieving its purpose--al location of funds to improve the living environ¬
ment for people of low and moderate incomes.

AN EC0L0GIC SYSTEM OF NORTHWESTERN YUCATAN

Jane Newman, Aaron Williams, Jr., and Eugene M. Wilson
University of South Alabama, Mobile

The northwest coast of the Yucatan Peninsula represents an extra¬
ordinary example of an ecosystem involving vegetation, the hydrologic
cycle, and human activity. A diurnal sea breeze serves as the driving
force in the system of minimizing rainfall, particularly in the summer,
and causing excessive rates of evaporation.

Human and vegetational responses to this semi -arid climate are
seasonally oriented in two distinct regions: 1) a mainland limestone
platform of "tree islands," and 2) a beach ridge complex. The tree is¬
lands consist of shallow cenotes, either filled-in or open, that are fed
by groundwater from inland rains and are surrounded by a small, and

87

Abstracts

occasionally lumbered, tropical hardwood forest. Salt collects in shal¬
low basins between the beach ridges and serves as a major industry for
the few coastal settlements.

SEX DIFFERENCES IN TOPOGRAPHIC MAP READING ABILITY
AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS IN AN INTRODUCTORY
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY COURSE

Gary M. Green
Department of Geography
University of North Alabama
Florence, Alabama

Is it reasonable to expect sex differences in learning at the col¬
lege level? The objective of this study was to determine if college
males scored higher than college females on topographic map reading
skills. It was found that there was no significant (.05) difference be¬
tween males and females on the posttest after means were adjusted for
differences on the ACT Composite scores and when the posttest was admin¬
istered immediately after the instructional period. However, as evi¬
denced by the delayed-posttest scores, it was found that males scored
significantly (.05) higher than females on the delayed-posttest nine
weeks later.

Why did males perform significantly (.05) better than females on
the delayed-posttest? The writer offered several explanations. Since
members of each sex are encouraged to become interested in the kinds of
tasks that are most relevant to the roles that society expects of them
in the future, differences in leisure-time activities between sample
males and sample females may have contributed to higher scores on the
delayed-posttest. Thus, higher male scores on the delayed-posttest may
reflect general map reading skills built up over a longer period of
time; past experiences by males influenced by cultural expectations; and
formal classroom instruction and practice work.

Sample females' interests and hobbies were generally not oriented
towards using topographic maps. Most females' ability to read topo¬
graphic maps probably reflected first-time learning gained from formal
classroom instruction and practice work. During the nine weeks interim
period between the posttest and the delayed-posttest, some of the funda¬
mental topographic map skills may have weakened more for the females
than for the males.

THE COMIC STRIPS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO WITHOUT GEOGRAPHY?

James E. Bagwell
Department of Geography
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

The comics, an American tradition, draw heavily on geography as
setting or inspiration for many of their episodes. A survey of selected

88

Abstracts

strips and cartoons revealed adventures and incidents circling the
globe, touching five continents, and blanketing North America. Syste¬
matic topics geographers take for granted became pivotal factors deter¬
mining the outcome of various undertakings. Not only geography but
history, geology, weather and climate, politics, philosophy, sex, soci¬
ology, literature, and current events as well are cleverly incorporated
for the reader's enjoyment and enlightenment. The thesis prompting the
survey is the conviction based on observation and sampling that rela¬
tively few Americans of any age read the comics with any degree of regu¬
larity. Further, classroom experience questions the capability of many
readers to understand and appreciate the satire and sophisticated play
on words presented daily. A chronic criticism of modern education in
recent years has been the complaint that "Johnny can't read." Johnny
cannot, or will not, yet read as much and as often as he should. The
comics, thanks to very well-informed creators, reveal more insight into
social mores interacting with natural or geographic conditions showing
people and places and events as they are than much of the trivia offered
readers today. The conclusion drawn is that the comics enjoyed as a
daily habit might become the vehicle for renewed interest in all facets
of knowledge, especially geography, pertaining to life and society in
the world we live in.

PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

CROSS SECTIONS FOR 45Sc(n,2n)44m+gsc AND 93Nb(n,2n)92mNb
IN THE ENERGY RANGE 13-19 MEV

Charles G. Hudson and William L. Alford
Department of Physics
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

Activation analysis has been used to experimentally measure the ex¬
citation functions of 45sc(n,2n)44m+gSc and 93Nb(n ,2n)92mNb in the neu¬
tron energy range 13-19 MeV. The neutrons were produced by the T(d,n)4He
reaction with the Auburn University 3 MV accelerator and placing the sam¬
ples from 0-140°. Absolute cross sections are calculated by applying
the mixed powder method with 27 A1 (n ,oi)24Na as the monitor reaction. The
experimental isomeric yield ratios were calculated by analyzing the ac¬
tivity of each reaction and then applying a least squares fit to the
data.

TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS FOR THE 6Li(d,n)7Be REACTION

Helen C. Knight and John R. Williams, Jr.

Department of Physics
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

The ^Li(d,n)^Be reaction has been studied at bombarding energies of
1.0 and 2.0 MeV. Total cross sections, believed to be accurate to 25%,
have been determined from the yield of the ?Li* 477-keV y ray.

89

Abstracts

Preliminary data indicates average values of 84 mb at 1.0 MeV and 96 mb
at 2.0 MeV.

AN INEXPENSIVE NMR GAUSSMETER

James E. Gaiser
Department of Physics
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36380

A NMR gaussmeter is described. With 3 interchangeable probes, the
device has a frequency range from 7 to 28 MHz, which corresponds to mag¬
netic field intensities of 1.6 to 6.5 k-gauss. Limitations and applica¬
tions to charged particle momentum analysis are also discussed. The en¬
tire device can be easily built for less than $20.

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION FOR CALCULUS
LEVEL GENERAL PHYSICS AT A SMALL COLLEGE

Dennis A. Likens
Department of Physics
Tuskegee Institute, Alabama

Computer assisted instruction (CAI) has been developed during this
school year for the sophomore general physics course at Tuskegee Insti¬
tute. The development of teacher written CAI came as a result of at¬
tempting to individualize instruction for marginally prepared college
students using only existing facilities, a Hewlette-Packard 2000 Access
System operating in the BASIC language. A number of commercial programs
proved to be unsuccessful because of language or content.

The programs developed at Tuskegee use chaining to other programs,
automatic scoring, recording, and log off. The student has only to log
on, give his name, and select the topic. The student does not need the
ability to type or program and needs only to know how to log in and re¬
spond to questions. A calculator and paper are generally required to
work each lesson. The computer obtains the proper program and logs the
student off when finished. The person taking the lesson cannot break
execution or modify any portion of any program.

The CAI uses a standard starting program (START) which contains the
logic. New programs may be written by the instructor with only a mini¬
mum of difficulty and programming ability. By using CAI, the amount of
time spent answering student questions on how to work problems has been
greatly reduced. Consequently, more time can be spent in teaching phys¬
ics. Student response and rapport has been quite high.

90

Abstracts

ELECTRIC FIELD EFFECT IN THIN BISMUTH FILMS

Jeff Powers Garmon
Department of Physics
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

Electric field effect measurements were used to search for quantum
size effects in bismuth films, ranging in thickness from 30 nm to 120
nm. The films were produced by vacuum evaporation onto mica substrates
which were at 215 C. Silver counter electrodes were deposited on the
other side of the mica.

The electric field effect measurements determined the resistance of
the bismuth films as a function of the electric charge applied to the
capacitor, which was formed by the bismuth film and backing electrode.
The quantity 1 / R ( AR/ AQ ) q=o was observed to oscillate as a function of
film thickness (R = film resistance, Q = added charge).

LUMINESCENCE IN NON-REACTIVE MOLECULAR SYSTEMS INDUCED BY A
VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION OF A NORMAL MODE THROUGH THE
MULTIPLE IR PHOTON ABSORPTION PROCESS

L. M. Narducci

Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA
and

R. A. Shatas

MIRADCOM, Redstone Arsenal, AL

In the process of internal conversion and intersystem crossing,
vibrational excitation energy imparted to a molecule by the multiple
photon absorption may be distributed among the electronic states of the
same molecule. This process, the vibrational to electronic (V-E) energy
transfer, is explainable in general terms by the non-applicability of
the adiabatic (Born-Oppenheimer) approximation for the high vibrationally
excited states. Typically, a molecular electronic state is characterized
by energy eigenvalues exceeding a few eV above the ground electronic
state. The lowest vibrational states are typically separated by 0.05 to
0.1 eV energies. Hence, if the molecular system is vibrationally excited
by the absorption of energy from a weak electromagnetic field, the ratio
of electronic to vibrational eigenvalues is much greater than 10 and
therefore the intersystem coupling does not take place. With the availa¬
bility of pulsed intense IR lasers, however, the vibrational system of a
molecule can be excited to a high vibrational state whose energy eigen¬
value may be of the same order of magnitude as the lowest-lying excited
electronic state. When this occurs, there is a finite probability of
intersystem crossing that creates an excited electronic state. Subse¬
quently, there is another finite probability that the excited electronic
state will decay through an electric-dipole allowed transition to its
ground state and emit a photon of an energy much greater than that of
the incident radiation field. This effect is known as the IR laser in¬
duced luminescence (LIL) and is easily observed in relatively isolated
molecules. It has been speculated that the emission of visible

91

Abstracts

luminescence observed in laser induced chemistryO) may be due to this
effect. The first-principle theoretical treatment of the IR LIL effect
is rather difficult because of the non-separability of vibrational and
electronic eigenfunctions; hence, the usual methods of quantum theory
which are based on the validity of the Born-Oppenheimer approximation
cannot be directly applied in predicting various intersystem crossing
probabilities. Furthermore, beside the radiative decay channels, there
are also many non-radiati ve decay channels which lower the efficiency of
the IR laser energy conversion into the visible. However, the photon
energy of LIL is typically in the visible-uv spectral range in which
sensitive photo-effect detectors are readily available. Therefore beside
the demonstration of an interesting physical effect, the IR LIL process
may be used to identify remotely molecules of interest in air pollution,
and remote schemes for detection of materials and targets of opportunity.
As a first step to predict analytically the probability in V-E energy
transfer, we have evaluated IR laser intensities and pulse durations
needed to attain a certain distribution of vibrational states by a nearly
resonant excitation of a fundamental vibrational mode in multiple-photon
process. (2) The molecular system was patterned by an anharmonic oscil¬
lator coupled to the radiation field by the electric dipole moment.
Phenomenological damping parameters have been introduced to follow the
decay of the initial vibrational occupation number distribution attained
at the end of a short IR laser pulse. The time-evolution of the vibra-
tionally excited state is described by the Liouville equation whose
numerical solutions have been attained for arbitrary dipole moments, IR
laser pulse durations, IR laser intensities and various relaxation times.
These results are being applied to design the experiments in measuring
IR-LIL conversion efficiencies to molecules of interest in the applica¬
tions.

References:

(1) G. A. Tanton, H. C. Meyer, and R. I. Greenberg, Luminescence in
Laser Photochemistry Experiments, Bull. SE APS, 43, 17 (1976); see
also Bull. APS 22, 497 (1977).

(2) L. M. Narducci , S. S. Mitra, R. A. Shatas, and C. A. Coulter, Se¬
lective Multiple Photon Absorption by an Anharmonic Molecule, manu¬
script in press with Phys. Rev. A.

INFRARED LASER AUGMENTED CHEMISTRY OF BORANES: SINGLE STEP
FORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE DECABORANE FROM DIBORANE BY
THE VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION OF THE v|4
FUNDAMENTAL MODE*

Clyde Riley, S. C. Shatas, and R. A. Shatas**

Department of Chemistry
University of Alabama in Huntsville, AL

Vibrational excitation enhanced, laser-induced-chemistry (LIC) ex¬
periments are reported that yield decaborane BioHh crystallites from the
gas phase diborane B2H5 at room temperature. Without the laser irradia¬
tion, B2H6 is relatively stable, and the dark reaction rate is negligible

92

Abstracts

compared with that attained under illumination. In a similar experiment
described previously, Bachman, Kompa et al 0 ) obtained predominantly a
oloso- borane, icosaborane, [B20H16] upon irradiation with a CW CO2 laser
of a reaction vessel filled with diborane. In our experiments, we varied
the reaction cell pressure and the laser intensity to maximize the yield
of a nido-borane, Bl OHi 4 , as the predominant solid compound produced by
the LIC. The reagent gas, B2H6, was prepared by at least quadruple bulb
to bulb distillation of B2H6 drawn into an all-glass manifold from a
pressurized steel container of B2H6. The reaction cell fitted with IR
transmitting windows was evacuated with £N2-trapped diffusion pump and
filled with B2H6 to the desired pressure monitored by a mercury manome¬
ter. Laser irradiation was undertaken with grating-tunable CW CO2 laser
(Coherent Radiation Model #42) tuned to the absorption peak of the vi4
fundamental vibrational mode of diborane. Laser power, intensity and
reactant gas pressure were varied to maximize the yield of decaborane.
Infrared spectroscopy was employed to determine the LIC reaction prod¬
ucts; decaborane was sublimed from the reaction vessle walls into a
weighed vial and identified by its infrared spectrum and melting point.
The gross reaction 5 ( B2H6 ) + nhv|4 [ B i oHi 4 ] + 8(H2) was optimized to

give yields up to 15% at diborane pressures of 50 to 450 Torr and laser
intensities between 10-20 W cm_2. Typically, approximately 10^ CO2 laser
photons were expended in obtaining one molecule of B 1 oH 1 4 . Since the
formation of pentaborane appears to precede the growth of Bq oHq 4 crys¬
tallites, the actual LIC reaction path is seemingly much more complicated
than indicated by the gross reaction. Tentatively, the relatively high
number of photons required to obtain one molecule of reaction product is
explained by the vibrational deactivation and by the heat conduction to
the walls of the reaction vessel mediated by the free hydrogen released
in the reaction. Also, contrary to the Reference (1), no luminescence
was observed during the irradiation.

Reference :

(1) H. R. Bachman, H. Noth, R. Rinck, and K. L. Kompa, Chem. Phys.

Lett. 29, 627 (1974).

^Supported in part by AR0 Grand DAAG29-77-M-0099.

Permanent Address: Physical Sciences Directorate, Technology Labora¬
tory, MIRADC0M, Redstone Arsenal, AL.

COMPARISON OF PROPAGATION OF SUBMILLIMETER
AND INFRARED WAVELENGTHS THROUGH FOG

Dorathy Anne Stewart
Physical Sciences Directorate
Technology Laboratory, MIRADCOM
Redstone Arsenal , AL 35809

Fog is one of the major obstacles to infrared and submillimeter
wave propagation in the atmosphere. Unfortunately, observational pro¬
grams relating electro-optical propagation parameters to fog character¬
istics have not been made systematically.

93

Abstracts

Visibility is routinely measured but propagation through fog depends
upon liquid water content and drop-size distribution which are not avail¬
able as standard meteorological observations. The data are limited even
when presently available measurements throughout the world are consid¬
ered. Therefore, each available set of measurements was classified ac¬
cording to the type of fog which was probably represented. This classi¬
fication was used to determine propagation characteristics of different
submi 11 imeter and infrared wavelengths for the different types of fog.

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSIONS STUDIES OF A PULSED HELIUM DISCHARGE

Michael D. Haworth and Eugene J. Clothiaux
Department of Physics
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

Microwave techniques^ provide a reliable means of obtaining the
time evolution of the electron number density in a transient plasma.
Transmission--reflection experiments and microwave interferometry are
discussed, as well as preliminary transmission--reflection results for
a pulsed plasma.

1. M. Heald and C. Wharton, Plasma Diagnostics with Microwaves

(John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 1965).

2. R. Huddlestone and S. Leonard, Plasma Diagnostic Techniques
(Academic Press, New York, 1965), p. 477.

3. S. Glasstone and R. Lovberg, Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions

(D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1960), p. 170.

A COMPARISON OF SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATION
OF TWO VACUUM SPARK PLASMAS

Robert E. O'Connor and Eugene J. Clothiaux
Department of Physics
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

The spectra from two vacuum spark discharges in the 300 to 500 nm
range are compared. The absorption spectrum obtained in one case is
contrasted to the emission spectrum obtained in the other case. Differ¬
ing magnetic field configuration is cited as a possible cause for the
spectra observed.

94

Abstracts

TIME-RESOLVED MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENT IN A
HIGH-TEMPERATURE, DENSE VACUUM SPARK

Robert L. Houghton
Department of Physics
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

Detailed magnetic field measurements inside the vacuum spark dis¬
charge were correlated to the current passing through the discharge. It
was observed that the magnetic field remained positive throughout the
discharge whereas the current performed simple RLC oscillation.

In order to explain this phenomena it was assumed that the differ¬
ence between the magnetic field measured and the calculated magnetic
field due to the current was a result of a displacement current within
the discharge chamber.

Calculations showed the displacement current to decrease linearly
with time until the end of the first half-cycle when it begins to decay
exponentially. The hypothesis is advanced that the displacement current
is due to a non-neutral electron-dominated plasma in the chamber.

SOLUTIONS OF THE GENERALIZED FELLER EQUATION
Siegfried H. Lehnigk

US Army Missile Command, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama

and

Department of Mathematics
University of Alabama in Huntsville
Huntsville, Alabama

The one-dimensional, autonomous, parabolic equation

A(x)zxx + B(x)zx + C(x)z - zt = 0, z = z(x,t)

(la)

with coefficients

A(x) = ax^ , a > 0, X < 1

B(x) = 8-jX^ + fig* > $i 2 rea^ ’

C(x) = pxA 1 + 82 , P = X[8-| - a(l + A)j

(lb)

will be considered on the domain x > 0, t > 0. Equation (la,b) is of
Fokker-Planck type. It is called the generalized Feller equation.

There exists a basic solution of ( 1 a , b ) and its adjoint which de¬
fines an integral kernel. The general initial condition solution of
( 1 a , b ) can be given in terms of an integral transform (singular integral)
for any initial function which is summable over every compact interval.
Furthermore, there exist singular solutions, conservative solutions, and
delta function initial condition solutions.

95

Abstracts

Let v = (1-A)~ (of Bl - 1 - 2.X). Then, if either A < 0,
v = -A(l-A)-1 or A = 0, v < 0, there exist also boundary condition solu¬
tions which can be expressed as unilateral convolutions for any boundary
function which is summable over every compact interval. In this case an
initial condition can be imposed in addition to the boundary condition.

The basic distribution laws of Maxwell, Wien, and Poisson can be de
rived from equation ( 1 a , b ) for suitable values of the parameters.

INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS

THE EQUITABLE SALARY PROGRAM OF THE UNITED METHODIST CHURCH:

A MICROCOSM OF MODERN AMERICA

H. Ellsworth Steele
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The great majority of United Methodist Church parishes have fewer
than 200 members. And most of these small churches are located in small
towns or in the open country. Without outside assistance, they are un¬
able to attract and hold pastors.

In this situation, each of the 70 regular conferences in the Church
have established "equitable salary programs." These plans have as their
objectives to assure a minimum standard of living for pastors, to pro¬
mote equitable salaries for all pastors, and to enable the Bishops to
assign ministers as needed to further the mission of the church.

In carrying out this salary subsidy program, the equitable salary
commissions encounter numerous problems which confront society at large.
These questions and issues constitute a microcosm of modern America.

For instance, the commissions must decide which pastors should re¬
ceive aid, much as social workers must decide who receives public assist
ance. Ministerial couples reflect the rise of women's liberation. Pas¬
tors of retirement age are pressed out of the ministry much as older
private workers are forced into retirement. Seniority affects minimums
set in many conferences, just as in most factories. Many conferences,
like welfare agencies, pay more to pastors living in areas with higher
costs of living.

Overall, the plans have been successful in providing a minimum
standard of living, but the funds attracted have not been sufficient
enough to enable the Bishops to assign ministers as needed without re¬
gard to the ability of the local churches to pay. Nor have the programs
significantly influenced salaries throughout the conferences so as to
make them "equitable."

96

Abstracts

CONSIDERATIONS FOR EVALUATING THE SELECTION OF
PARTICIPANTS AND THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF A JOBS PROGRAM

H. Dean Moberly and John J. Politi
Department of Economics
Auburn University at Montgomery
Montgomery, Alabama

Unemployment of labor resources continues to be a problem of major
importance in these United States. Several political schemes have been
set forth and continue to be proposed by the Legislative and Executive
branches of government. Labor Unions also have their schemes. Many of
these jobs training programs have been ineffective in actually training
and placing an underemployed person in a rewarding job market. The suc¬
cess and effectiveness of most jobs programs have been measured by the
numbers who successfully complete the prescribed course of training.

Costs per graduate remain high when measuring job program success in
this way.

However, the success of most training programs can generally be
measured more ways than simply whether a person graduates or not. For
this reason the authors sought to seek out other short-run and long-run
variables which would also measure the effectiveness of jobs training
programs. The Job Corps Training Program near Nemo, South Dakota was
selected as a focal point of study. Least squares regression was used
as a tool in determining statistical significance of other job success
measures .

Educational milestone, post Job Corps pay scale and length of stay
were some of the dependent variables considered. Entry competence and
other test scores wer^. considered as independent variables for the re¬
gressions .

Among the findings, it was noted that the longer a corpsman stays
in the training program the more likely he is to improve his vocational
potential and his educational attainment. But more important, the longer
the stay, the longer the individual is exposed to the socializing process
of learning to accept responsibility and to get along with others. Also,
it is crucial to note that success measured by the six point effective¬
ness scale is closely correlated with race. The black corpsman did sig¬
nificantly better than their white colleagues.

Implications of this study are important to center management,
screening and processing procedures and to economic efficiency of Job
Corps Centers. The importance of flexibility in center management cannot
be overemphasized. That is, success can be achieved in several other
ways than just trying to make each enrollee graduate. Some stay only
six months and improve themselves economically.

97

Abstracts

CHANGING TYPES OF RURAL HOUSING IN THE TENNESSEE VALLEY
H. A. Henderson

Division of Agricultural Development
Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals

The type of rural housing has changed in the past and will change
in the future as families adjust to economic conditions, family re¬
sources, social pressures, availability of materials, and the knowledge
available to deal with these.

Housing types used by major institutions and affluent urban fami¬
lies have been well documented in literature. But most knowledge of
homes for rural families of moderate means has been incidental to other
writings or in folk or oral history.

In recent years, some attention has been given to describing rural
housing quality. This has been reported in government censuses and sur¬
veys and in literature of advocates for programs for the rural poor.
Others have begun designing improved housing for the rural people of
moderate means. These efforts have been led by a southern rural housing
research team sponsored by the USDA land-grant university system and
other agencies such as TVA.

Typical homes of the rural South in the past included, in succes¬
sion:

1. The one- or two-room log cabin located on an open stream, ori¬
ented to be heated by the sun and using wood for cooking fuel
until the late 1800' s.

2. A three-room house of rough sawn lumber with an open dug well
and a stove used for both space heating and cooking built dur¬
ing the late 1800' s.

3. A several-room weatherboarded house of finished lumber featuring
a hand water pump, a cook stove, and a fireplace for space heat¬
ing, built in the early 1 900' s.

4. A smaller brick veneer house with indoor plumbing, electric
water pump, and electric heat, constructed with specialized
hired labor, built in the 1940's or 1950' s.

5. And finally, a factory-built mobile home using considerable
metals and other manufactured materials and loaded with many
kinds of electric gadgets of convenience, built since circa
1960.

Several types of housing are being designed by the cooperating
agencies for use by moderate- income rural families. Types of the future
will be determined by changing energy and materials availability and
costs. Some representative designs now being use-tested by occupying
families to meet these needs are:

1. Typical exterior appearance and room arrangement with solar
energy collectors integrated into a conventional roofline. The
system may also include cooling using cool night air as a heat
purge.

98

Abstracts

2. A combination solar attic greenhouse collector and residence
for farm families.

3. High heat insulation systems using traditional insulation
materials .

4. High heat insulation systems using soil as an insulator and
built largely underground. This can be combined with solar
heat collectors, or with other heat sources.

5. Flexible housing produced by having external "pole-type" frame
and movable curtain walls making changes in location of walls,
doors, windows, etc., easy to accommodate changes in family
desires and needs.

PROFIT MANAGEMENT OF RETAIL LIME VENDORS
W. J. Free

Division of Agricultural Development
Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals
W. S. Stewart

University of North Alabama, Florence

The agricultural limestone business of four independent lime vendor
firms in Alabama and Tennessee was analyzed in 1974 using a case study
approach. These firms operate in a market structure that approximates
monopolistic competition. The industry was characterized by excess
capacity. Barriers to entry or exit of agricultural lime firms were
low, very little product differentiation existed, and price competition
was practiced extensively. The pricing policy of these independent ven¬
dors is to meet competition prices or sell below the price of the compet
itors. Frequently, the price was inadequate to cover full cost when
depreciation on equipment was included.

None of the independent vendors kept adequate records for making
management decisions. Rather, decisions were made based on what the
manager thought or remembered about his costs. Sales of lime were ob¬
tained through "telephone orders" initiated by the purchaser. No adver¬
tising or promotion was done by the vendors.

Reasons vendors sometimes priced agricultural lime below their full
costs were:

1. Since they kept inadequate records for documenting their full
cost, they tended to underestimate the full cost of hauling and
spreading a load of lime, particularly for sales that resulted
in long hauls.

2. All vendors operated a "hand-to-mouth business." Cash flows
were a problem for many, and they made sales to generate cash
to meet monthly bills even though sales might be costly because
of distance from lime supplies. Although this policy kept the
firms in business in the short run, exit of firms is common and
frequent if the primary business is agricultural lime retailing
None of the vendors made allowance for the purchase of new
equipment in their records or in their pricing decisions.

99

Abstracts

Income to labor was much less than minimum wage, and vendors
often worked from 10 to 12 hours during the peak lime season.

Independent vendors did not take advantage of economies available
to them such as field stockpiling and scheduling to maximize efficiency
of driver time. Stockpiling of lime at the vendor's place of business
was often avoided to minimize investment costs which increased hauling
costs. It was common for the vendor to drive 50 miles round trip to
spread 8 tons of lime. This distance included driving from his place of
business to the lime quarry for a load of lime and then to the farmer's
field and return. No sales effort, inadequate profit margins, inexperi¬
enced drivers, and older poorly maintained equipment resulted in poor
service to farmer customers and low returns, often submarginal, to the
retail agricultural lime vendors.

Cost savings could be realized by coordinating sales efforts so
that lime can be stockpiled in or near customer fields so that spreader
trucks are utilized in the field and their use for over-the-road hauls
is minimized. Records should be established and maintained for use in
making management decisions, including replacement of equipment, pricing
to farmers, and opportunities for market development. Preventive mainte¬
nance of equipment should be practiced by vendors during off-seasons and
during periods of adverse weather to minimize downtime during periods of
peak spreading.

PROJECTIONS OF IMPORT TONNAGES THROUGH THE PORT OF
MOBILE, ALABAMA, 1980-2035

Venkareddy Chennareddy and Sheldon Schaffer
Southern Research Institute

The purposes of this paper are to present the import tonnages pro¬
jected to move through the Port of Mobile, Alabama during the period
1980-2035, and to describe the methodology used to prepare these projec¬
tions, which were developed as part of a larger study for the Corps of
Engineers. A simple model was used to relate a nine-year moving average
of import tonnages of each important commodity imported through the Port
of Mobile to one or two appropriate independent variables and a time
variable. The independent variables include gross product originating
in appropriate end-use sectors, population, and per capita income at the
national, regional, or tributary-area level in Alabama. Depending upon
the trend of the nine-year moving average of import tonnages of a given
commodity, an appropriate mathematical form was chosen for statistical
estimation of the regression equation. The regression equations were
estimated separately for 23 major commodities. The remaining tonnages
were treated as a single commodity.

Total imports of all commodities from the Port of Mobile were 8.8
million tons in 1970 and are projected to increase to 13.165 million tons
in 1980 and to 48.903 million tons in 2035. Among the 24 total projec¬
tions, 8 are projected to decrease and the remainder are projected to
increase.

100

Abstracts

TOWARD A MORE EFFECTIVE FRAMEWORK
FOR ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

E. D. Chastain and Harold E. Klontz
Department of Economics
School of Business, Auburn University
and

Wayne C. Curtis
Department of Economics
Troy State University

The American economy is characterized by accomplishments and weak¬
nesses in terms of the commonly recognized goals and objectives. These
experienced results suggest reexamination of the framework and its use
in economic analysis.

This paper has three major components. First, there is the recog¬
nition and orientation of the natural order concept in a more conspicuous
role than is characteristic of contemporary works. Second, there is
emphasis upon the knowledge element oriented in a systems perspective for
decision making. This leads to the third element of strategies to fur¬
ther accomplish the desired goals and objectives. These strategies are
offered conscious of the mul ti -variable dimensions of the economy.

IMPORTANCE OF FERTILIZER USE IN MAINTAINING
A FAVORABLE BALANCE OF TRADE

W. J. Free and B. J. Bond
Division of Agricultural Development
Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals

The United States is the world's leading exporter of agricultural
products. In 1974 and 1975 the Nation's agricultural exports were almost
$22 billion and accounted for one-sixth of the world's agricultural ex¬
ports. Agricultural exports accounted for one-fourth of the total U.S.
exports in 1974 and 21 percent in 1975. Imports of agricultural products
such as coffee, sugar, bananas, etc., amounted to slightly less than $10
billion in 1 974- 1 975 — 1 0 percent of the value of all imports. Agricul¬
ture had a positive trade balance of almost $12 billion which offset the
nonagricul tural trade balance of about $10 billion to give a positive
total trade balance of about $2 billion in 1974 and 1975. The ability
of U.S. agriculture to deliver an abundant supply of food and fiber for
the Nation's consumers and maintain a comparative advantage in the world
market can be attributed to the use of fertilizer and other modern tech¬
nology. Estimates suggest that about 37 percent of all U.S. crop pro¬
duction can be attributed to proper fertilizer use.

Crops produced for export accounted for over one-fourth of the
fertilizer used in the U.S. in 1974, and the share is projected to in¬
crease. In 1974 over one-half of the plant nutrients used to produce
feed grains, soybeans, and wheat for export was applied in the north
central region. Tobacco, soybeans, and cotton were produced for export

101

Abstracts

in the south Atlantic and south central regions and required significant
quantities of fertilizer. Fertilizer use on crops for export was rela¬
tively insignificant in the north Atlantic, mountain, and Pacific states.

World demand for agricultural products is expected to increase. If
this demand is supplied by U.S. producers, the demand for fertilizer will
increase, since most productive agricultural land has already been
brought into production. Fertilizer will play a major role in the abil¬
ity of U.S. farmers to maintain a competitive edge in the world market
and contribute significantly to a positive U.S. trade balance.

AN OVERVIEW OF ALTERNATIVE RATE STRUCTURES

James R. Cudworth, Jr. and H. Edwin Overcast
Division of Power Utilization, TVA

The question of rate design has become a primary issue in the analy¬
sis of the conduct of the electric power industry. Those who advocate
departure from present practices and policies do so in response to rapid
changes in the economic and social environment of the utility industry.
Alternative rate design proposals include time-of-use, inverted, life¬
line, and a variety of other rate forms.

In response to these alternative rate reform proposals, the utility
industry, its regulators, and the Federal Government have embarked on a
number of rate test and demonstration programs. In addition, several
states have implemented various alternative rate designs for some or all
classes of consumers.

The principal issues of rate reform involve reduced costs through
improved capacity utilization, energy conservation, reduced environmental
impacts, improved energy resource allocation, improved financial stabil¬
ity for the utility, and improved welfare for the economically disadvan¬
taged. Each of these objectives is associated with one or more of the
rate alternatives under discussion. Careful analysis of the objectives
of rate reform indicates the complex nature of rate design when objec¬
tives are conflicting or even mutually exclusive.

This paper summarizes the major factors contributing to the concern
over electric rates, develops the principal cost issues which form the
foundation for time-differentiated rates, and analyzes a variety of cost
and noncost rate structure alternatives. Finally, the paper summarizes
both action and reaction of regulators and industry spokesmen to the rate
issues.

102

Abstracts

SCIENCE EDUCATION

ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY MONITORING OF SAMPLES TAKEN
FROM THE AREAS SURROUNDING THE TVA
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

V. L. Bulger, D. W. Nix, L. G. Kanipe,

W. R. Clayton, B. B. Hobbs, and E. A. Belvin
University of North Alabama
Florence, Alabama

A summer research project was conducted at the TVA Radionanalytical
Laboratory to improve analytical procedures for 1 31 j in milk. Techniques
were developed to shorten the time necessary for chemical separation of
iodine from milk. Beta-gamma coincidence counting techniques were de¬
veloped as an alternative to low background beta counting. A lower limit
of detection of 0.016 pCi/L was achieved while substantially reducing the
amount of time and effort necessary to carry out the analytical proce¬
dure.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION FOR COMING GENERATIONS
R. 0. Woodward

Division of Agricultural Development
Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals

The steadily increasing efficiency of the American farmer has been
noted widely. With less than five percent of our population engaged in
farming, food and fiber producers have become a minority group. But
this relatively small segment produces adequately for our needs plus
large quantities for export--and provides more than one-third of the jobs
in the labor force. This is cause for considerable satisfaction.

At the same time, the minority position of agriculture also is
cause for concern. The portion of the population with a working knowl¬
edge of agriculture and its problems is decreasing. This could portend
trouble down the road for those concerned with generating public support
for agriculture, particularly among policymakers.

General courses of study, books, and resource materials contain only
limited information on agriculture and this is used by a small percentage
of today's students. Agricultural courses offered in our schools reach
less than five percent of the students. About 5,000 students are gradu¬
ated from Alabama high schools each year with some training in agribusi-
ness--about one-third of the number needed for career replacements.
Guidance counselors indicate a serious deficit in agricultural career
opportunity material.

Several programs underway are altering present trends and, with
proper support, could become very effective. Additional awareness of
the situation is needed within the present educational structure.

103

Abstracts

Similarly, awareness among groups outside the school system could enhance
ongoing programs and lead to additional innovations with far-reaching
effects.

TVA is helping to develop several activities which will strengthen
agricultural awareness and education in the public school system. Among
these are: (1) a summer conference on resource development, (2) helping
to organize and promote student visits to operating farms, (3) prepara¬
tion of supplementary curriculum materials, and (4) involving high
schools in experimental testing of new fertilizers.

OCEANOLOGY FOR THE LAND-LOCKED: AN ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL SCIENCE APPROACH

Carole Rutland
Muscogee County Schools
and

Ernest D. Riggsby
Columbus College

This is an interim report of an effort to design a unit of study in
oceanology for fifth and sixth grade students who will not have access
to the "real ocean" during the study. Certain of the students who work
with this unit never have taken a trip to the seashore nor have had any
direct experience with a large body of salt-water. From a collection of
coral shells, preserved specimens, a small salt-water aquarium and a re¬
presentative assembly of experiments, demonstrations, investigations, and
activities, the students are guided in their exploration of the science
of oceanology. A wide array of home-made and commercially prepared audi¬
ovisual aids are utilized. The unit is designed for approximately six
weeks of study, with forty minutes of class time, five days per week.
Selected topics include: (1) physics--tides , waves, currents, storms,
temperature, pressure, and turbidity; (2) chemistry--components of sea¬
water, corrosion, salinity, and dissolved gases; (3) biology--l ife in
the epicontinental seas, and life in the abysses; and (4) notions about
the ocean--a potpourri of fact, fable, and futures.

MICROTEACHING ESS UNITS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION CLASSES

Hollis C. Fenn
University of North Alabama
Florence, Alabama

Students in my Elementary Science Methods course have been teaching
small groups of children for several years. Some time ago we started
teaching the ESS units "Kitchen Physics," "Batteries and Bulbs," "Light
and Shadows," "Pattern Blocks," "Structures," "Tangrams," "Behavior of
Mealworms" and a few others to primary and intermediate EMR classes.

The students and the Special Education teachers were generally
pleased with the response of the students to these hands on activities.

104

Abstracts

Since none of these units require reading, many of the EMR students ap¬
peared to handle the material quite as well as average classes.

USING CLASS MEETINGS TO DEVELOP SCIENTIFIC THINKING
Neil P. Clark

Education Division, Columbus College
and

Floretta G. Clark
Clubview Elementary School
Columbus, Georgia

Teaching scientific thinking in the public schools is a different
and often hap-hazard process. Much has been written in support of using
an inquiry or discovery approach to the teaching and learning of science
concepts and scientific thinking. The primary purpose of this study was
to investigate the use of group process in stimulating and developing
scientific thinking among students--in this instance, among thirty-two
third grade students in a self-contained classroom.

A model for group process called "class meetings" was used to in¬
volve students not only in thinking processes such as observing, classi¬
fying, inferring, theorizing etc., but also in skills of group interac¬
tion such as listening, questioning, responding and cooperation.

Observations by the classroom teacher indicate that students gen¬
erally showed improvement in both thinking and communication skills.
Further investigation in this area is planned at both elementary and
secondary levels.

See Dr. William Glasser's book Schools Without Failure for a de¬
scription of the "class meeting" technique and discussion of its ration¬
ale.

SOCIAL SCIENCES

THE CAREER OF THE IRONCLAD TENNESSEE (1862-67)

Glenn Quiggle

U.S. Navy, The University of Alabama

The ironclad Tennessee was part of a plan by the Navy Department of
the Confederacy for the defense of Mobile Bay. She was built at Selma,
Alabama and commissioned 16 February 1864, becoming part of the defensive
squadron of Admiral Franklin Buchanan with Commander James D. Johnston as
her skipper. She had to be floated over Dog River Bar into Mobile Bay by
means of huge caissons ("camels") because her deep draft. By the time
she had gotten into the bay. Admiral David Farragut's Union fleet was
readying itself for invasion. The ensuing Battle of Mobile Bay was a
combination of iron will on the part of both the opponents and some

105

Abstracts

serious mistakes made by Buchanan's squadron ( Tennessee with Gaines,
Morgan and Sebna--t\\e latter three being only wooden gunboats). Though
outnumbered and outgunned, Tennessee and Buchanan fought valiantly, al¬
though she was the only Confederate ship left at battle's end; and both
Buchanan and Johnston were taken prisoner and sent north. Tennessee was
used by the US Navy after this in its mopping up operations as a member
of the Mississippi River Squadron after the war. She was then decommis¬
sioned for two years in New Orleans and then sold for scrap in 1 867 - -
quite an ordinary ending for such a gallant, extraordinary ship! Per¬
haps she deserved a better fate, but she was obsolete and not yet five
years old!

In further review of the problem of turning out classy ships in the
Confederacy, it is not enough to mention inexperience and poor planning
from the top down, inadequate transportation, or an inflexible economy.
By examining the career of CSS Tennessee , one can see that organization
and administration were as much at fault as the aforementioned defi¬
ciencies. There were not enough experienced river pilots, nor were
there enough engineering officers to be had.

SPECIFIC COGNITIVE SKILLS ASSOCIATED WITH
FORMAL REASONING

Claudia E. Me Dade and Martha M. Gray
Jacksonville State University

The trend toward increasing accountability in higher education in
the face of a population of students who are poorly prepared to reason
formally and solve problems appropriately presents a challenge to the
teaching profession. An initial step in teaching to enhance cognitive
development is defining and measuring specific cognitive skills involved
in problem-solving and formal reasoning. This study isolated students
at three reasoning levels described by Piaget--formal operational,
transitional, and concrete operational. Six specific cognitive skills--
thing-making, qualification, classification, structure analysis, opera¬
tion analysis, and analogy--were measured in students at each level.
Correlation among the skills indicated a clustering of them into analogy
and classification. An analysis of variance demonstrated significant
differences in the thinking skills across the reasoning levels. The
implication for higher education is that specific skills associated with
formal reasoning can be described and measured; thus, methods to teach
these skills can be developed.

A BRITISH AESTHETE VISITS THE SOUTH

Alma B. Weber
University of Alabama

In 1882, at the time of Oscar Wilde's lecture tour in America, he
was almost unknown as a writer. It was to be a full decade until the
publication of the superbly written novel. The Picture of Dorian Gray,

106

Abstracts

or of the publication or production of his first play. Lady Windermere's
Fan.

The public had, however, become aware of the young aesthete, for he
had been the subject of numerous cartoons by George Du Maurier, the popu¬
lar cartoonist of Punch, and had been identified as the prototype of
Benthune, the leading character of Gilbert and Sullivan's newest musical
comedy, Patience. He was, at the time, generally thought of as the
young man who walked down Picadilly with a lily in his hand.

Much has been written about Oscar Wilde's discovery of America, al¬
though little attention has been given, even by his most recent biogra¬
pher, to his brief stay in America. This paper is concerned with Wilde's
impressions of Alabama, especially of Mobile and Montgomery, and with the
impact of the young lecturer on these and some other southern cities.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE 1791 FLOODS IN ALABAMA
Jack D. L. Holmes

University of Alabama in Birmingham

Torrential rains beginning on the "Tides of March"--March 15,

1791 — and again on March 18 and 19 caused the Alabama River to rise
twenty-five feet above its normal level, an extraordinary circumstance
unknown in the memory of any settler or even among the Indians. Loss of
crops, livestock and all but a handful of buildings at Fort San Esteban
de Tombecb£ (St. Stephens, the Spanish post established in 1789) and
spread destruction across the Tensaw and Tombigbee valleys. There were
no casualties, however, and a benevolent Spanish government attempted to
provide relief, recovery and rehabilitation. For starters, 200 barrels
of corn were sent to commandants in the Mobile District, and those who
had lost everything could draw on funds for New Settlements to buy seed
and replace lost tools and equipment. To prevent speculation by mer¬
chants hoping to make a profit from the suffering. Commandant Vicente
Folch y Juan at Mobile issued ceilings on the price of corn at 65tf a
barrel on the cob and $5.00 a barrel in seed. The chain of command
found support for the flood victims at all 1 evel s--Mobi 1 e to New Orleans
to Havana to Spain. Noblesse oblige characteri zed Spanish colonial ad¬
ministration, contrary to the mistaken notion of inept, wicked, tyranni¬
cal and crooked Spanish actions.

TO SAVE HIS SOUL: JOHN WESLEY IN GEORGIA

David B. Franklin
University of Alabama

John Wesley arrived in Georgia in 1736 with the intent of serving
as a missionary to the Indians. He hoped not only to spread the gospel
to these people, but to attain salvation for himself by working with
them. Having settled down, instead of being a missionary, Wesley found
himself serving as parish priest to the Savannah community. Many members

107

Abstracts

of his congregation disapproved of his strict adherence to the rules of
the English church. He was also outspoken in regard to civil matters,
thus alienating himself from many of the colonists. Finally, Wesley be¬
lieved that he would no longer have to contend with the temptation of
women in Georgia. He was mistaken, as he fell hopelessly in love with a
member of his congregation. This romance directly led to his departure
from the colony nearly twenty-two months after he had arrived. Wesley's
attempt to find salvation through his ministry to the Indians had failed
He did, however, come into contact with a German religious group, the
Moravians, which clearly set him on the right road to salvation. Hence,
Wesley's venture to Georgia was not made in vain.

THE IMPACT OF ALABAMA'S POPULATION TRENDS ON
THE REORGANIZATION OF LABOR, 1865-1880

John B. Myers
Department of History
Columbus College, Columbus, Georgia

Economic devastation and social disruption in post-war Alabama were
complicated by white employer dissatisfaction with both the quality and
quantity of free black labor. The former slaves' adjustment to freedom
combined with the state's political instability and violence frequently
resulted in black migration within the state and emigration out of Ala¬
bama. Those who remained on plantations rejected the old slave disci¬
pline and control. In response, planters attributed their difficulty
in adjusting to the new labor system to a lack of cooperation and the
unreliability of former bondsmen. Consequently, some employers looked
to the North, Europe and even China for immigrant labor as a solution to
labor problems.

Early efforts to increase Alabama's labor force were designed to in
duce the immigration of German workers. Experiments with German immi¬
grant labor were infrequent, isolated, and had only minor success.
Another alternative involved the feasibility of supplementing black
labor with Chinese immigrant labor which was a controversial matter.
Those who supported the use of Chinese workers waited in vain for the
first 500 immigrants expected to arrive in Alabama in 1869. Opponents
contended that it was folly to exchange the freedmen for Chinese, and
proposed that white workers from the northern states might serve as a
better substitute. Despite all attempts by state government, private
organizations and individuals, few immigrant laborers arrived in Alabama
between 1865 and 1880.

Since attempts to supplement or supplant black workers with immi¬
grant labor failed, the migration patterns of the freedmen were ex¬
tremely significant in the reorganization of labor in Alabama. Factors
such as economics, politics, and violence contributed to black migration
within the state and emigration out of the state.

Economic incentive and adversity affected migration patterns.
Freedmen tended to gravitate to areas where their labor was needed and

108

Abstracts

job opportunities prevailed. Economic adversity precipitated by the
panic of 1873 reduced job availability and prompted some black workers
to leave Alabama.

Changed political conditions, freedmen voting and holding office
for the first time, and white employer resentment resulted in some
forced black migration. Political factors combined with social pres¬
sures stemming from emancipation stirred some white Alabamians to vent
their frustrations through violent actions against freedmen. Activity
of the Ku Klux Klan in northern Alabama and vigilante action perpetrated
against blacks in southern counties affected migration patterns. The
aim and impact of the violence was to either drive the freedmen into the
central, traditionally black-populated counties, or to force the former
bondsmen out of the state. Whether prompted by social, political, or
economic factors, black population trends in Alabama between 1865 and
1880 resulted in a polarization of white and black population, some emi¬
gration, and continued reliance on the former slave as the main source
of labor.

IN RETROSPECT: ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF REFORM
JUDAISM IN HUNTSVILLE

Marsha Kass Marks
Alabama A. & M. University

Jewish people began to arrive in Huntsville possibly in the 1 840 ' s
and Jewish marriages occurred here at least as early as 1855. These
first pioneers were primarily merchants and cotton factors. They began
to prosper very late in the ante-bellum period, some beginning to ac¬
quire important real estate in Huntsville and the surrounding areas in
1860. The first known Jews in Huntsville were Robert Herstein and Mor¬
ris Bernstein; both were listed in the 1859 Huntsville City Directory.
After the war a number of Jews moved to Huntsville from Cincinnati. At
a meeting in the Masonic Hall on September 10, 1876, eighteen men formed
B'nai Sholom congregation.

In 1898 land was purchased at the corner of Lincoln and Clinton
Streets, and the present Temple building was dedicated on November 26,
1899. After World War II, the Jewish population of Huntsville mush¬
roomed. Many of these new arrivals joined the congregation and the Re¬
ligious School required more classrooms. The Educational Building, begun
in 1967, was completed in 1968 at a cost of $100,000. In 1975 renovation
of the sanctuary was undertaken and completed.

From its inception, the Huntsville Jewish community, while coping
with its own needs and difficulties, clearly involved itself in the life
of the city, sharing and reflecting its activities, problems, and growth.

109

Abstracts

BILLY WEATHERFORD IN THE CREEK WAR:

A CRITICAL ESSAY IN BIBLIOGRAPHY

Katherine A. Cullen
The University of Alabama

Billy Weatherford, a Creek Indian, is one of Alabama's more contro¬
versial folk-heroes to come out of her early history. Billy's physical
part in the Creek War of 1813-1814 has been established. But his motives
and actual movements remain under controversy.

Billy was at the Fort Mims Massacre (August, 1813). But his reluc¬
tance to support the massacre 100% has been attributed to several things:
His relatives and friends who were in the fort at the time, his noble ef¬
fort to stop the hostile Creek Indians from waging a war they couldn't
win and cowardice.

During the Battle of Holy Ground Town (Dec., 1813), Billy found
himself surrounded by the U.S. Army. To escape them, he took the cele¬
brated Weatherford's Leap. The questions are whether he jumped or rode
to the bottom of the bluff, and how high the bluff was.

His surrender to Andrew Jackson after the Battle of Horse Shoe Bend
(March, 1814) is his most famous act. Billy's reason for surrendering
range from selflessness to selfishness. But the great controversy stems
around the words exchanged between Weatherford and Jackson.

Within the last fifty years, a lot of the myths have been debunked.
But this has not stopped the stories about Billy Weatherford. Alabama
has a firm grasp on her hero and intends to keep him there.

THE REORGANIZATION AND EARLY SERVICE OF THE TWENTY-THIRD
ALABAMA INFANTRY REGIMENT, C.S.A.

Donald Ansley Cope
Department of History
Columbus College, Columbus, Georgia

The Twenty-third Alabama Infantry Regiment of the Confederate Army
was formed in October, 1861, from companies raised separately in nine
south Alabama counties. Four companies from Wilcox, Clarke, Marengo,
and Conecuh counties were consolidated into a battalion at Camden in
September under the command of Franklin King Beck. In Montgomery Joseph
Bibb brought six companies from Conecuh, Macon, Lowndes, Choctaw, and
Baldwin counties under his command in an effort to gather the necessary
strength to form a regiment. Beck's proposal that they unite their com¬
mands resulted in the creation of the regiment with Bibb as colonel and
Beck as lieutenant colonel. After a brief period of training in Mont¬
gomery the regiment, armed by private enterprise and the State of Ala¬
bama, was ordered to Mobile to boost the strength of Braxton Bragg's De¬
partment of Alabama and West Florida. For two and one-half months the
unit served garrison duty in the unhealthy camps along the Dog River

110

Abstracts

below Mobile, continued its training, and suffered numerous losses to
disease. No Federal attempt was made against Mobile, and in February,
1862, the regiment was ordered to Knoxville to join Kirby Smith's Depart¬
ment of East Tennessee. Subsequently it would serve with distinction in
the central theatre until its surrender at Salisbury, North Carolina, in
Apri 1 , 1865.

SHORT HISTORIES OF THREE ACTING GOVERNORS OF ALABAMA
IN THE ANTE-BELLUM PERIOD

Henry S. Marks

Educational Consultant, Huntsville, and Social Sciences
Division, Northeast State Junior College, Rainsville

and

Cheryl L. Gorham
Social Sciences Division
Northeast State Junior College, Rainsville

The Tennessee Valley before the Civil War was one of the most impor¬
tant political regions in the state, yet it is most unusual that the only
three men to serve as acting governors of Alabama during the ante-bellum
period were from the Tennessee Valley. They were Thomas Bibb of Lime¬
stone County, Samuel B. Moore of Jackson County and Hugh McVay of Lauder¬
dale County.

The Bibb family stands pre-eminent in early Alabama history. Six of
eight brothers settled in Alabama. Two became governors, the first and
second chief executives of Alabama; a third was a prominent lawyer and
judge of the criminal court of Montgomery, while a fourth served in the
Alabama Legislature before moving to Mississippi. Thomas Bibb served as
acting governor, succeeding his brother William when he died from a fall
from a horse on July 9, 1820. He chose not to run for governor after
finishing out his brother's term.

Smauel B. Moore has the distinction of being the only governor of
Alabama from Jackson County--and of having served one of the briefest
periods in that office.

For most historians the highlight of McVay's political career actu¬
ally came in 1836, when he was elected president of the Senate, defeating
Samuel Moore by one vote. In June of the next year, Gov. Clement Comer
Clay of Huntsville resigned to become a U.S. senator. As president of
the state Senate, McVay replaced him as governor in July. He discharged
the duties of the governorship until the inauguration of Gov. Arthur
Bagby in December.

Ill

Abstracts

PROJECTIONS OF LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATES,

UNITED STATES, 1975-2035

Venkareddy Chennareddy and Sheldon Schaffer
Southern Research Institute

The purposes of this paper are to present projections of labor
force participation rates by age group and sex for the United States and
to describe the methodology used to prepare these projections, which
were developed as a part of a larger study for the Crops of Engineers.

Two different methods were used for projecting labor participation rates,
one for male rates and the other for female. The equation for the male
labor force participation rate was chosen to provide the necessary upper
or lower asymptote in all age groups. The equation for the female labor
force participation rate was chosen such that, in each age group, the
lower asymptote for the male labor force participation rate becomes the
upper asymptote for the female labor force participation rate. The total
labor force participation rate of each age group was obtained by weight¬
ing the projected male labor force participation rate and female labor
force participation rate by the male population and female population
above 16 years of age.

The total male labor force participation rate for the year 2035 is
projected to 79.72. The total female labor force participation rate is
projected to increase from 44.73% in 1975 to 60.65% in the year 2035.

The total labor participation rate for all groups is projected to in¬
crease from 62.68% in 1975 to 69.85% in the year 2035.

HEALTH SCIENCES

BIOELECTRICAL EFFECTS OF MECH0LYL ON THE SURFACE CELLS
OF MUDPUPPY GASTRIC MUCOSA, IN VITRO

Richard L. Shoemaker
Department of Physiology and Biophysics
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

3 m KC1 filled microelectrodes were used to measure intracellular
electrical potentials from surface cells of Hecturus maculosus (mudpuppy)
fundus gastric mucosa, in vitro. Simultaneous recordings were obtained
from Vjviim , Vm$, V$n (M = microelectrode, N = nutrient or serosal solution,
S = secretory or lumen solution); also recorded were Ry ( transmucosal
resistance, and RS/RN (ratio of membrane resistances). The microelec¬
trode tip resistance averaged 15 Meg ohms. As previously reported (Am.

J. Physiol. 219:1056, 1970) mecholyl produced a hyperpolarization in VsN>
and a reduction in Ry. This effect was not obtained in Cl" free solu¬
tions (SO4" replacing Cl") and was blocked by atropine.

112

Abstracts

A summary of the results from ten experiments is listed below:

VMN

(mv)

Vmc

MS

(mv)

V

VSN

(mv)

rt

ftcm^

RS/RN

Control values

-71

-49

-22

825

8

Values at maximum

-80

-51

-29

450

3

voltage change

^MS

The change in RS/RN / -rr. — (Exp. condition-control values); therefore
VMN

the change in volage across the survace cell after mecholyl , 10"^M added
to nutrient, could not be explained by assuming the surface cell was a
passive shunt, i.e., the AV's could not be explained by an iR drop across
surface cell membrane due to current flow from the oxyntic cell. But the
change recorded could be explained by assuming that mecholyl increased
the Cl' emf on the nutrient membrane of the surface cells.

NSF Grant Support

TWO DIMENSIONAL ELECTROPHORETIC ANALYSIS OF HUMAN
ERYTHROCYTE PLASMA MEMBRANE PROTEINS

Jesse J. Edwards, Jack L. Flippo, and G. B. Cline
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham

A two step combination of SDS-acryl amide gel electrophoresis fol¬
lowed by isoelectric focusing on thin-layer Amphol ine-containing poly¬
acrylamide gels was used to analyze SDS-solubi 1 ized components from hu¬
man erythrocyte membranes.

Well washed erythrocyte plasma membranes were prepared from outdated
human blood according to the procedure of Dodge (1963). Following solu¬
bilization in 1 % sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), the peptides were frac¬
tionated into 25 components on SDS-containi ng polyacrylamide gels basi¬
cally by the procedure of Neville and Glossman (1971). The molecular
weights ranged from approximately 150,000 to below 20,000 as estimated
from parallel migration of standard proteins. Separation of these pep¬
tides in the second dimension was accomplished by fusing an unstained and
unfixed SDS-disc gel to a thin layer acrylamide gel prepared for isoelec¬
tric focusing. Results of the focusing show approximately 9 components
thus suggesting that several peptides of different molecular weight
either have similar amino acid composition and similar net charge or
recombine in this step. Using 12 M urea on the focusing plates did not
appear to improve the results.

113

Abstracts

A HISTOCHEMICAL AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF BLOOD
PLATELET FACTOR-3: STORAGE AND AVAILABILITY

Thomas B. Johnson, Jr.

University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

Blood platelet factor-3 (PF-3) plays a key role in the process of
intrinsic coaggulation. Previous investigators have reported biochemical
and electron microscopic evidence which proposes either a platelet mem¬
brane or a granule location for PF-3. In order for PF-3, a phospholipo-
protein, to become available for interaction with circulating plasma
clotting factors either cell coat would have to be removed to expose
plasma membrane or some masked form of PF-3 would have to be released
from a cytoplasmic granule.

The present study used ruthenium red, horseradi sh peroxidase (HRP),
dialyzed iron, Concanavalin A-HRP, and periodic acid-TCH-silver protein-
ate to determine the distribution of platelet coat material. The lyso¬
somal enzymes acid phosphatase and aryl sulfatase were used to identify
alpha granules.

Uniform staining of the coat material was interrupted by the ap¬
parent release of membranous vesicles from the platelet surface. The
membranes, vesicles, or blebs were not stained by any of the techniques
used to localize coat material. Acid phosphatase and aryl sulfatase
activity was localized in the platelet alpha granule, but was not seen
in all granules within all platelets. The blebs protruding from the
platelet surface demonstrated only aryl sulfatase activity.

These observations support the hypothesis that PF-3 is located
within the alpha granule in a masked form. The results also suggest a
heterogeneous population of granules. Some membrane-bound granules con¬
taining aryl sulfatase are made available on the platelet surface.

Other alpha granules containing acid phosphatase may not be released
until secondary aggregation.

CARDIAC ENLARGEMENT FOLLOWING MULTIPLE ROUTES OF INJECTION
OF ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE STEROIDS IN THE CHICK EMBRYO

Michael S. Manning and Edwin M. Weller
Department of Anatomy
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

Oral contraceptive agents have been shown to produce a deleterious
effect on human fetal cardiovascular development. In the chick embryo,
a marked cardiac enlargement has been described using large doses of
Enovid, a potent oral contraceptive compound. In the current study an
attempt was made to reduce the concentration of Enovid administrated to
the chick embryo.

114

Abstracts

Ethanol-saline (3 parts absolute ethanol :2 parts of 0.9% saline)
containing as little as 0.3 mg of Enovid was found to be a better carrier
solution than corn oil previously used for steroid delivery to the chick
embryo. The allantoic cavity injection route was superior to the air sac
route in reducing overall mortality without compromising the cardiac en¬
largement response. Strain differences were not significant with respect
to the latter.

Steroid-induced cholestasis in the chick embryo liver which re¬
sulted in bright-green livers compared with the normal yellow-brown he¬
patic coloration was almost always observed with cardiac enlargement.
Similar cholestasis (inhibition of bile release from the liver) has been
described in some women on the "Pill." The apparent interaction between
the liver and heart which results in cardiac enlargement is not under¬
stood; neither is it known whether the cardiomegal ic response is caused
by hypertrophy or hyperplasis or both.

PRESERVATION AND QUANTITATION OF ACID MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES
IN TISSUES BY CETYL PYRIDINIUM CHLORIDE
FIXATION AND ATOMIC ABSORPTION
SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

W. L. Salomon, W. H. Wilborn, and J. D. Gottch
Department of Anatomy
University of South Alabama, Mobile

Some investigators claim that cetyl pyridinium chloride (CPC) pre¬
serves acid mucopolysaccharides (AMPs) in tissues. This study was made
to test that hypothesis quantitatively.

Representative tissues of the adult rat, hamster, and man were bi¬
sected. One piece was fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin (NBF) con¬
taining 0.5% CPC and the other in 10% NBF only. Other samples obtained
at the same time were divided and fixed with or without CPC for electron
microscopy.

Deparaffinized and hydrated sections of the formalin fixed tissues
were stained with alcian blue (AB) 8GX to show AMPs. Washed and dried
sections were scraped from the slides and weighed. Each tissue sample
was placed in a test tube, dissolved with nitric acid, and the copper
concentration determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AA).

The quantity of copper, a constituent of AB, reflects the concentration
of AMPs in the tissue (expressed as pg Cu/mg dry tissue).

The results clearly showed that CPC enhanced the preservation of
AMPs. Values for human trachea were 5.1 with CPC and 3.5 without CPC.
Values for duodenum, skin, heart, and kidney were also greater with CPC.
Interestingly, sex differences in AMPs were found in certain hamster
tissues. Submandibular gland values for males were 4.8 (with CPC) and
4.4 (without CPC) while corresponding values of 6.2 and 5.9 were obtained
for females. In contrast, values for sublingual glands and duodena were
higher for males. Electron micrographs showed that CPC stabilized

115

Abstracts

intracellular AMPs, particularly sialomucins, and illustrated conclu¬
sively the mechanism of action of CPC at the cellular level.

INDUCED GROWTH CHANGES IN IMMATURE RAT PARATID GLAND

Alice H. Morgan and Charlotte A. Schneyer
Department of Anatomy and
Department of Physiology and Biophysics
University of Alabama in Birmingham

Compensatory enlargement has been described for a number of organs,
but little is known about this phenomenon in salivary glands. This re¬
search was undertaken to determine whether the usual growth patterns of
parotid gland of the immature rat could be modified during postnatal de¬
velopment by bilateral extirpation of the other major salivary glands.

Removal of the submandibular and sublingual glands in postweanling
animals resulted in a 30-50% increase in gland weight, 20-27 % enlargement
of cell size, and 47-92% elevation in total gland amylase. The extent of
these increases was dependent on the age of the animals at the time of
partial desalivation and the length of time between desalivation and
sacrifice. A marked increase in the size of and a change in the stain¬
ing of secretory granules within acinar cells occurred in toluidine blue-
basic fuchsin stained sections from enlarged glands. Little change in
gland size, cell size, secretory granules, mitotic index, or total gland
amylase was seen in preweanling animals.

The induced compensatory enlargement was due to cellular hypertrophy
rather than to hyperplasia, since cell size was increased in experimental
animals, but no increase in mitotic index was observed. A relationship
between the time of desalivation and weaning was found to be a critical
factor in the induction of the compensatory response. It was only when
the period following desalivation extended beyond weaning that compensa¬
tory enlargement occurred. Preliminary denervation studies reveal that
a neural regulation of the compensatory response is involved in post¬
weanling but not in preweanling animals.

RESPONSE OF THE RAT PAROTID GLAND TO CYSTIC FIBROSIS SERUM

Walter H. Wilborn
Department of Anatomy
University of South Alabama, Mobile

Schneyer and Wilborn (1976) showed that injections of serum from
human patients with cystic fibrosis into adult rats caused alterations
of the acinar cells of the parotid gland (Cell Tiss. Res. 169: 111).
Changes were first noted after 2-3 days of serum injections (0.2 ml/day).
The purpose of the present study was to determine if changes could be ob¬
served with a single serum injection after an interval of only 3 hours.

116

Abstracts

Three groups of rats were injected intraperitoneal ly with 0.2 ml of
one of the following: Group I, normal saline; Group II, cystic fibrosis
serum (CFS); Group III, normal human serum (NHS). Three hours after in¬
jection, rats were sacrificed with Nembutal and the parotid glands were
removed for histological, ul trastructural and biochemical studies.

CFS caused pronounced structural alterations of the parotid gland,
resulting in acinar cell hypertrophy, degranulation, and an increase in
lysosomes and autophagic vacuoles. These same kinds of effects were ob¬
served after NHS, but they were greatly reduced in magnitude. Parotid
amylase levels were significantly lower and serum amylase levels were
higher in rats injected with CFS than in rats receiving NHS or saline.

It was concluded that a single injection of CFS caused striking
changes in the parotid gland within 3 hours. These results further indi¬
cate that the rat parotid may have potential usefulness in assaying for
the presence of the cystic fibrosis factor(s) in human serum.

THE EFFECTS OF A SYNTHETIC CATECHOLAMINE
ON RAT SALIVARY GLANDS

James H. Sheetz, Jr. and Charlotte A. Schneyer
Department of Anatomy and
Department of Physiology and Biophysics
University of Alabama in Birmingham

The synthetic sympathomimetic drug dimethylepinephrine, commonly
known as isoproterenol (ISP), has been shown to cause hyperplasia and
hypertrophy in secretory cells of rodent salivary glands. ISP-induced
alterations in immature rat submandibular glands include a modification
of the secretory product as well as the presence of atypical secretory
granules (Lab. Invest. 30: 341, 1974). This study has been conducted to
compare the effects of chronic ISP treatment on the histological and
morphological features of immature rat parotid and submandibular glands.
Parotid and submandibular gland tissue was obtained from normal 18 day
old rats and rats injected with ISP twice daily for 8 days. The tissue
was fixed and processed for electron microscopy and embedded in epoxy
resin .

Light microscopic observations of lp epoxy sections stained with
toluidine blue and basic fuchsin reveal similar histological alterations
in the parotid and submandibular secretory cells of ISP treated animals.
ISP induces the formation of large, basic fuchsin staining granules in
the secretory cells of both glands. This suggests a modification of the
granule contents has occurred. Alterations in the secretory granules
have been verified by electron microscopy. Large electron lucent gran¬
ules containing fine filamentous material are induced by ISP in the paro¬
tid and submandibular secretory cells. These modifications seem more
drastic in the parotid cells since they normally contain small electron
dense granules containing digestive enzymes. These results suggest that
the stimulus imparted by ISP may similarly alter the function and mor¬
phology of two types of cells in functionally different glands.

117

Abstracts

THE EFFECT OF A CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENT ON HUMAN
DENTAL PLAQUE AND GINGIVITIS

T. W. Weatherford, III, S. B. Finn, and H. C. Jamison
Institute of Dental Research, Department of Periodontics
University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham

Dental plaque is regarded as a predominant etiological factor in
dental diseases. Safe effective antibacterial agents have been searched
for because elimination of plaque by personal oral hygiene is not
achieved by many individuals. Alexidine, a bi sbiguanidine, has reduced
plaque and gingivitis in animals and in small groups of humans studied
for short periods. Our purpose was to determine the effectiveness of an
0.035% alexidine mouthwash in reducing plaque and gingivitis in humans
continuing their usual oral hygiene over a six month period. Also, we
evaluated the safety of six months continuous use of alexidine and deter¬
mined its effect on tooth staining.

Two hundred forty adults, assigned randomly to either an active or
placebo group, rinsed for 1 minute twice daily. On day 0, a history and
oral examination were done. Tooth staining was assessed, gingival status
was graded based on surface characteristics and by bleeding on probing,
and plaque was scored using the Quigley-Hein Index. Saliva samples were
taken to monitor changes in oral microbiota. Blood and urine samples
from 1/3 of the subjects were analyzed. Examinations similar to the
first examination were done at days 30, 90 and 180.

A statistically significant reduction in plaque was found in the
active group. Greater reduction of gingivitis also occurred in this
group and was statistically significant at the 30th and 90th day. No
significant adverse reactions were noted in oral or systemic parameters
other than removable brownish extrinsic tooth staining, predominantly in
the active group. Under the study conditions, alexidine was effective
in reducing plaque and gingivitis.

THE SIX NOBEL PRIZES AND AMERICAN LAUREATES

Emmett B. Carmichael
Medical Center

University of Alabama in Birmingham

Alfred Bernard Nobel invented dynamite and blasting gelatine and
accumulated a large fortune. He bequeathed $9,000,000, the interest of
which was to be distributed yearly to those who had most benefited man¬
kind the previous year. The Nobel Foundation was established in 1895
and the first Nobel Prizes were awarded on December 10, 1901. Only nine
native Americans received Nobel Prizes up to 1930: one, chemistry; two,
physics, one, literature; and five, peace. Native Americans have re¬
ceived Nobel Prizes in all categories since 1931. If we consider only
native laureates of the countries that have received a majority of the
prizes through 1976, we find that America has won the most: America,
103; Great Britain, 60; Germany, 53; and France, 34.

118

Abstracts

Due to either the destruction of laboratories in Europe during
World War I or the influence of dictators, 42 scientists emigrated to
the United States of America. Most of them became naturalized and all
of them received Nobel Prizes. Thirteen scientists emigrated to Great
Britain and they won Nobel Prizes.

The number of American Laureates in each of the categories is im¬
pressive: Physiology and Medicine, 53, Physics, 41, Chemistry, 22,
Peace, 16; Literature, 7; and Economic Sciences, 6.

NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING

Sylvia Squires Britt
University of Alabama School of Nursing
Birmingham, Alabama

A review of the literature related to fertility factors in the fe¬
male reveals much information that can be applied to the clinical prac¬
tice of nursing. The desire for naturalness and fear of damaging side
effects stimulated public interest in fertility awareness. The utiliza¬
tion of knowledge of fertility factors can be used to plan or prevent a
pregnancy.

A scientific basis exists for the natural methods as a result of re¬
search efforts of physiologists, physicians, and nurses who are studying
reproductive function and infertility. Physiological signs and symptoms
that can be observed by the client are quantity of cervical mucus, spinn-
barkeit, body temperature, ferning, cervical dilitation, cervical height
in the vagina, mittelschmerz, and midcycle spotting. These physiologi¬
cal signs are the result of the influence of estrogen and progesterone
on the woman's body.

Four methods of natural family planning are nationally recognized:
calendar rhythm, basal body temperature, ovulation method, and sympto-
thermal method. The two latter methods are becoming popular. Research
comparing the ovulation and the sympto-thermal methods is being conducted
in various parts of the country.

THE EFFECTS OF PATIENT POSITIONING AND MODES OF TRANSFER
ON ENERGY EXPENDITURE, HEART RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE

Bettie S. Jackson, Marguerite R. Kinney, and Sandra A. Walker
University of Alabama School of Nursing
Birmingham, Alabama

Nurses are often responsible for prescribing modes of transfer for
patients from one place to another and for placing them in various posi¬
tions. With knowledge regarding effects of positioning and transfer on
energy expenditure (EE), heart rate (HR), and systolic and distolic
blood pressure (SBP/DBP), nurses should be better able to prescribe pa¬
tient positioning and transfer activities. Purposes of this study were:

119

Abstracts

1) to establish reference values for EE, HR, SBP and DBP for normal
healthy females assuming common hospitalized patient positions and modes
of patient transfer; and 2) to compare these parameters in the various
positions and during transfer.

M.A.M.A., a mobile automatic metabolic analyzer built by N.A.S.A.,
an open circuit method for indirect calorimentry , was used. Five posi¬
tions, six minutes in each, were assumed by 34 subjects: semi-fowlers
#1 , dangling, wheelchair, semi-fowler #2, and stretcher. ANOVA and t
tests were appl ied .

Among several conclusions were: 1) the move from dangling to the
wheelchair is more desirable in terms of its effects on EE, HR and DBP
than the move from semi-fowlers to the stretcher; 2) maintaining the
wheelchair position is more desirable in terms of its effects on HR and
DBP when compared with maintaining the stretcher position; 3) the move
from stretcher to bed when compared with the move from wheelchair to bed
is more desirable in terms of its effects on EE and DBP; 4) SBP has not
been shown to be a significantly varying parameter in either maintaining
positions or in various modes of transfer; 5) energy expenditure, heart
rate and diastolic blood pressure have been shown to be useful parameters
in determining differences among modes of transfer.

NURSING INTERVENTION VIA HOME VISITATION IN IDENTIFIED
NON-COMPLIANT HYPERTENSIVE ADULTS

Billie R. Rozell

University of Alabama School of Nursing
Birmingham, Alabama

Nurses, as providers of health care in communities, have long been
aware of the difficulties encountered when caring for adults who have
essential hypertension. It is becoming increasingly apparent that the
greatest roadblock to successful long term care involves compliance to
prescribed therapy.

The purpose of this study was to determine if nursing intervention
involving home visits by fourth year B.S. nursing students could be ef¬
fective in reducing identified non-compl iant behavior of hypertensive
adult patients. Also, an attempt was amde to identify changes in pa¬
tients' verbal responses to a questionnaire with a "worry" factor relat¬
ing to himself, his family, his disorder and other significant variables
in his life. In addition, a tool designed to compare the patients' per¬
ception of how well he followed medical recommendations was compared with
a similar tool completed by the nurse.

The experimental study involved 58 patients (mean age 63) deter¬
mined to be non-compl iant in at least one of 4 specific areas (weight,
blood pressure level, serum cholesterol level and/or appointment break¬
ing behavior). During the study period (3 months) home visits were pro¬
vided to the experimetal group (19 patients).

120

Abstracts

Analysis revealed no significant improvement in identified compli¬
ance behaviors in the experimental group. This was not unexpected in
terms of the time limitations of the study. However, verbal response to
the questionnaire containing the "worry" factor revealed significant
change in sections dealing with "Functional Ability" and "Finances" in
the experimental group.

Thus it would appear that the nurse can be a significant factor in
providing emotional support to clients and in assisting them to relate
to their illness in a more positive manner.

INHIBITION OF THYROID PEROXIDASE BY 2-SELENOURACILS

James L. Thomas and R. H. Lindsay
Department of Pharmacology, UAB Medical Center

Thyroid peroxidase is the enzyme responsible for the organification
of iodide and the subsequent synthesis of hormones in the thyroid gland.
The primary action of the thioureylene group of antithyroid drugs is to
inhibit the activity of this enzyme. The objective of this study was to
synthesize and determine the antiperoxidase activity of thioureylene ana¬
logs in which the sulfur was replaced by selenium, an element in the same
group of the periodic table as sulfur and oxygen. The procedures em¬
ployed in the synthesis of selenouracil and propyl selenouraci 1 were modi¬
fications of those used in the production of thiouracil and propyl thiour-
acil in that selenourea rather than thiourea was a starting material.

The antiperoxidase activity of these compounds was measured by determin¬
ing their effects on purified porcine thyroid peroxidase catalyzed iodin-
ation of bovine serum albumin (BSA) using Nal 25 i . The iodinated BSA was
separated from unreacted 1 25 j by ge] chromatography and the degree of
iodination determined using a well counter.

Selenourea, selenouracil and propyl selenouraci 1 were compared with
their respective sulfur analogs to determine relative antiperoxidase ac¬
tivities. In each case the concentration of selenium compound which pro¬
duced 50% inhibition of the control peroxidase activity was comparable
to that of its sulfur analog. These results demonstrate that active
antiperoxidase compounds are produced by replacing the sulfur in thio¬
ureylene antithyroid drugs with selenium. This is contrary to previous
findings in which other substitutions for the sulfur resulted in com¬
pounds having essentially no antiperoxidase activity.

SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASES IN MYCOBACTERIA

Albert Domm and William B. Davis
Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine
University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama

Previous investigation has indicated that catalase may have an im¬
portant function in rendering mycobacteria sensitive to the antitubercu-
lar drug isoniazid (INH). Since superoxide dismutase (SOD) may act in

121

Abstracts

concert with catalase in oxidative metabolism, studies were done to de¬
termine whether SOD might have a corelationship with catalase in mediat¬
ing the mycobactericidal action of INH.

Based on electrophoretic mobility, INH sensitive and resistant
Mycobacterium phlei (ATCC 345) were shown to contain three SOD isozymes,
one of which was thermostable. Mycobacterium tuberculosis contained only
one SOD. The level of SOD activity in cell-free extracts was independent
of the organism's sensitivity to INH. INH at concentrations up to 0.1M
had no effect on SOD activity of INH sensitive or resistant strains.

Hence from these data it appears that SOD does not have a role in rend¬
ering the mycobacteria sensitive to INH; however, differences in SOD
enzymes do exist between mycobacterial species.

SOD activity was demonstrated in whole cells of M. phlei and iso¬
lated washed membranes. It is suggested that the whole cell SOD activity
may be attributable to membrane bound SOD(s) exposed to the surface of
the bacterium. Such localization of SOD may contribute to the ability
of mycobacteria to persist as intracellular parasites by protecting the
organism from the toxic effects of oxygen anions generated by phagocytic
cel 1 s in vivo.

HUMMEL'S EQUATION APPLIED TO ENZYME ASSAYING
Alan Hisey

Department of Chemistry

The University of Alabama, University, Alabama

Hummel's equation, derived from the equation for radioactive decay,
has been previously reported (J. Acad. Sci. 45, 280 (1974)) in the form
1/x = 1/a + 1/akt [l-g(t)], in which x represents the product concentra¬
tion, a the initial substrate concentration, k the velocity constant, t
the time and g(t) a bending factor which has little influence during the
first half of the reaction. The plotted curve of 1/x versus 1/t de¬
scribes a trajectory which is nearly linear up to and beyond the mid¬
point. To simulate an ordinary enzyme reaction during the first half
period, holding a constant and using assumed values of t, values of x
were calculated to five places using the exponential equation. The
plotted results of 1/x versus 1/t, for three supposed enzyme concentra¬
tions, formed a family of almost straight lines with nearly identical
extrapolated intercepts on the 1/x axis. The average of the intercepts
can be taken, with little error, as a common point on all curves in the
family. With this information it is possible, using the two point
slope formula, by means of a single determination of the product con¬
centration at any convenient time within the half period, to calculate
approximately the initial velocity ak, which is a true measure of enzyme
activity. Since, within a family of such curves, the slight individual
deviations from linearity are of like magnitude, the usual practice of
comparing an unknown with a standard gives results whose deviation is no
more than 0.25%, well within the limit of experimental error.

122

Abstracts

COMPARATIVE ACTIVITIES OF MITOCHONDRIAL ENZYMES IN HEARTS,

BRAINS AND LIVERS OF MICE AND RATS*

G. M. Emerson and W. J. Wingo
Department of Biochemistry, Medical Center
University of Alabama in Birmingham, 35294

Mitochondrial fractions were prepared from hearts, brains and
livers: of 94 individual E-LE rats (approximately equal numbers of
males and females); of 6 pools of 3 each Balb/c female mice; and of
four male Fisher 344 rats raised under germ-free conditions by Charles
River Breeders for the NIA. The ages of the E-LE rats and of the groups
of mice were distributed throughout the lifespans of these species. The
NIA rats were approximately 900 days old.

Specific activities of cytochrome oxidase, succinate dehydrogenase,
glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase, 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and
glutamate dehydrogenase of these preparations were determined. Statisti¬
cal group comparisons were done.

No significant (p <_ 0.01) differences were found in any organ in
the oldest group of male E-LE rats (5) and the NIA rats.

When the six groups of mice and all the E-LE rats were compared,
significant differences were noted in only three cases: succinate dehy¬
drogenase specific activities of rat heart and brain were greater than
those of mouse heart and brain; rat liver glutamate-oxaloacetate trans¬
aminase was less than that of mouse liver.

These results indicate that different strains or species of rodents
often have no specific enzymatic activity differences; however, enough
occur to signal caution in applying values to other strains or species.

★

We thank Dr. Maxie L. Davis, Director, Division of Radiation Biology,
UAB, for the mouse organs and Dr. Don C. Gibson, Health Scientist Ad¬
ministrator, for the NIA rats.

Aided by JECA Grant #75-7470.

SALICYLIC ACID DIFFUSION AND INTERACTION IN
POLYETHYLENE GLYCOL OINTMENT BASES

Albert A. Belmonte and Wendy S. Tsai
School of Pharmacy

Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 35830

Percutaneous absorption has been shown to be affected by obvious
physiological factors. However the ability of ointment base constitu¬
ents to affect drug release is less clearly understood. While the poly¬
ethylene glycols are useful as water-soluble ointment and suppository
bases, little is known about their effect upon drug release. Drug

123

Abstracts

diffusion from four water-soluble ointment bases was studied using a
custom-made dialysis cell fitted with polydimethylsiloxane membranes.
Ointments containing various molecular weight fractions of polyethylene
glycols were formulated with salicylic acid. Drug release from these
ointment bases was found to follow zero order kinetics and was related
to the molecular weight of the polyethylene glycols used. Results showed
addition of low molecular weight polyethylene glycols may adversely af¬
fect salicylic acid release from the base. While the mechanism is not
clearly understood it may relate to interaction of salicylic acid with
the lower molecular weight fractions. Alteration of pH in the receiving
compartment of the cell did not influence salicylic acid release.

STARRED SCIENTISTS IN AMERICAN MEN OF SCIENCE
LISTED IN WORLD WHO'S WHO IN SCIENCE, 1968

Emmett B. Carmichael
Medical Center

University of Alabama in Birmingham

The editor of the first edition of American Men of Science, 1906,
prefixed stars (asterisks) to the subjects of research of about one
thousand biographical sketches. Approximately 250 were added to each of
the next six editions. A star was voted by the peers of the scientist
and it indicated that he was distinguished for his research. The star
not only gave the recipient considerable satisfaction but also increased
his opportunities for advancement. The custom caused institutions to
increase their facilities for their starred members and for attracting
other starred individuals. The starring system has been given credit for
a major contribution to the growth of research in America.

However, since the names of the voting peers were not published and
since a high percent of those that were starred had either earned a de¬
gree or served in some capacity as a staff member of one or more of the
Ivy League Institutions, it was decided to compare the starred scientists
with scientists who were selected by an international advisory council
for the World Who's Who in Sicence From Antiquity to the Present , 1968.

The percent of the starred scientists in each of the first seven
editions of American Men of Science who were also listed in World Who's
Who in Science was as follows: 1906, 52.9%; 1910, 52.3%, 1921, 52.9%;
1927, 54.1%; 1933, 59.4%; 1938, 61% and 1944, 59.9%.

Were the voting peers influenced in their selection of individuals
for starring either because of personal acquaintances or because of the
fact that the scientists had been associated in some official capacity
with the proper educational institution?

124

Abstracts

ENGINEERING

DIESEL ENGINES, COMBUSTION CHAMBERS, AND AIR POLLUTION

Milan S. Djordjevic and Rodoljub Radovanovic
The University of Alabama

In view of the current, and likely continuing, national energy and
environmental crisis, any contribution which helps alleviate the crisis
will be welcomed. The authors selected the diesel engine for research
and development because of the promise it offers as a very economical
prime mover which may meet government requirements without after-combus¬
tion correction devices by optimizing the design parameters of the com¬
bustion chamber. Additionally, diesel engines will operate on a number
of diverse fuels.

To achieve optimum comparison between different diesel engine com¬
bustion systems, a test engine was developed so that the basic engine
remains unchanged while design parameters of the combustion chamber are
varied .

The air flow characteristics during the compression stroke of a
prechamber system were calculated as a function of the design parameters:
compression ratio, prechamber and main chamber volume ratio, and throat
area connecting the main chamber and the prechamber. The air in-flow
velocity and mass flow rate were calculated for various values of these
parameters. The results obtained identified optimum inflow velocity into
the prechamber and the corresponding mass flow rate.

Experiments were conducted on the test engine with an open-chamber
and a prechamber configuration. As was expected, the prechamber con¬
figuration was more promising, producing substantially less N0X and less
smoke at rated power with only slightly higher fuel consumption.

Based on the results of the theoretical study of the prechamber flow
characteristics, experiments were conducted to optimize the prechamber
combustion system operational and design parameters. The results ob¬
tained concerning air pollution (primarily N0X) and fuel economy were
satisfactory and promising.

THE FORMULATION OF A MODEL TO TEST AND EVALUATE
THE DESIGN OF A DME/IMU NAVIGATION FILTER*

W. H. Land, Jr., D. R. Regan, F. H. Schlee, and R. L. Finch
IBM Federal Systems Division
Owego, New York 13827

The development of operational software for integrating inertial
measuring unit (IMU) and distance measuring equipment (DME) requires a
simulation of the IMU and DME behavior. The simulation is used both for

125

Abstracts

development and analysis of the navigation algorithm and for checkout
of the operational program.

The purpose of this paper is to formulate a simulation tool which
can be used to evaluate the design of a DME/IMU navigation filter.

This formulation is flexible in that it includes both real time and off¬
line capability. Specifically included are the theoretical construction
and program flow for the following modules:

• Initialization (to provide required initial data for the test
model )

• Flight (to provide the necessary aircraft flight trajectory)

• The inertial subsystem (which includes the baro-inertial loop,
the modeling of necessary inputs and output I MU parameters and
oblateness)

• The DME Range Generator (which comprises the modeling of the DME
ranging data)

• The "motion" module (which provides the motion of another loca¬
tion in the aircraft with respect to the I MU stable element).

Simulation results are included to illustrate the application of
the simulation to DME inertial system design.

Work performed was sponsored by:

Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
1400 Wilson Blvd.

Arlington, VA 22209

Air Force Systems Command
Rome Air Development Center
Griffis Air Force Base, NY 13441

OVERVIEW OF GUIDANCE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT FOR A
NEW CLASS OF TERMINALLY GUIDED WEAPONS

Harold L. Pastrick, Jess B. Huff, and Paul L. Jacobs
Guidance and Control Directorate
US Army Missile Research and Development Command
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35809

An Army requirement had been established through various operational
studies for providing additional firepower against tanks and other ar¬
mored elements. The studies supported the conclusion that new weapon
systems had to be developed to meet that threat. One of the concepts
which was given a high probability of success in such an engagement was
a projectile, launched from a gun, and then guided by tracking reflected
energy from a target illuminated by a remote laser designator. Thus,

126

Abstracts

the 1 5 5 MM howitzer with semi-active laser homing guided munitions was
conceived. As part of an Advanced Development (AD) program, effort was
initiated at the US Army Missile Research and Development Command di¬
rected toward identification of potential problem areas within the me¬
chanization of this concept, and to delineate approaches to their solu¬
tion. In particular, the task was to insure that guidance and control
systems and components would be developed to withstand the anticipated
10,000 g launch environment and guide the projectile to the target with
unerring accuracy.

Efforts to validate the guidance and control system were directed
primarily to a time frame immediately after all design freezes were made
and just prior to initial flight tests of the weapon. A realtime hybrid
computer simulation with hardware-in-the-loop was one method chosen to
accomplish this important milestone along with numerous other laboratory
tests. The tests included the sequential steps from laboratory bread¬
board subsystems, through ruggedized functional subsystems to full -up
rounds for final demonstration of operational performance. Some of the
tests included: Breadboard system functions, projectile aerodynamics
using wind tunnel and gun launched vehicles, aircraft captive flights and
air drops to simulate seeker acquisition characteristics, g-hardened sur¬
vivability and soft recovery, laboratory emulated flights via hardware-
in-the-loop simulations, and fianlly full-up gun launch flights. The
gun launched flight tests of the recently completed AD program were at
the White Sands Missle Range for firings at various target conditions.

The predictions of the hardware-in-the-loop simulation and other test
data are compared to the results of the flight test program.

A PNEUMATIC ACTUATION SYSTEM FOR A LARGE BALLISTIC MISSILE

Paul L. Jacobs
Technology Laboratory

US Army Missile Research and Development Command
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35809

Traditionally, large missiles have been controlled in post boost
flight by hydraulic control actuation systems. Hydraulic systems possess
the advantages of high stiffness, high response and high torque capa¬
bility. They have the disadvantages, however, of being expensive and
bulky. This paper describes a pneumatic control system that has been
developed for a large ballistic missile as part of the Simplified Iner¬
tial Guidance Demonstration (SIG-D) program at MIRADC0M. The design of¬
fers the potential for a significant cost reduction over a hydraulic sys¬
tem to meet the control and stabilization requirements for a missile of
this type.

The missile itself utilizes a strapdown inertial guidance system and
digital processing for sensor signals and autopilot compensation. It is
seen that the processing, autopilot design, and actuation system per¬
formance are intimately coupled, as characteristics unique to each sub¬
system drastically affect the performance of every other one. The basic
control system design philosophy, mechanical design, modeling.

127

Abstracts

performance, and influence on the total missile system performance is
discussed. Typical data on the pneumatic system is presented.

COMPLEX RADAR TARGET CONSIDERATIONS

J. C. Brand, D. G. Burks, and E. R. Graf
Department of Electrical Engineering
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

When a complex target is in the near-field of a radar, the predicted
location of the target can be distorted by phase-front errors known as
glint. The modeling of target complexes is presented in this survey
along with diversity techniques that can be used to reduce glint error.
The literature presented within this survey points out that with the use
of effective diversity techniques, glint error can be considerably re¬
duced. The construction of reliable target models is required to study
the effects of glint accurately. An overview of the above topics is
discussed .

RADAR WAVEFRONT DISTORTION PRODUCED BY AERODYNAMIC RADOMES

D. G. Burks, J. C. Brand, and E. R. Graf
Department of Electrical Engineering
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

The front of a missile must be streamlined in order to have minimum
drag in flight. When a radar is located on the missile, the nose of the
missile must be capable of passing the radar signal to and from the
radar antenna. Such a streamlined protective antenna cover is known as
a radome. Ideally a radome should have no effect on the radar signal
passing through it, but it is not possible to build a radome that is
transparent for all angles of the incident wavefront, so some radome-
induced wavefront distortion always exists.

The radomes presented here are modeled as dielectric shells having
ogive geometry. A ray tracing technique is used to predict the ampli¬
tude and phase distortion of a plane wave incident on the radome by as¬
suming that the radome is a locally planar sheet. Any polarization may
exist in the incident wave and it is seen that the wavefront distortion
varies with polarization in general.

128

Abstracts

VALIDATING MODELS FOR HARDWARE- IN-THE-LOOP SIMULATIONS

Harold L. Pastrick, Charles M. Will, Larmon S. Isom
US Army Missile Research and Development Command
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35809
and

Larry H. Hazel, Ray J. Vinson
Scientific Applications, Inc., Huntsville, Alabama

Before confidence is placed upon simulation results, model verifi¬
cation and validation must have been performed. In the case where hard-
ware-in-the-loop (HWIL) simulation is to be used for gathering a large
ensemble of performance statistics, the model verification procedure is
afforded an additional level of information. It is not only desirable,
but convenient to update mathematical models with data obtained in the
HWIL simulation activity. Enroute to an acceptable HWIL simulation,
however, many of the proven techniques for model validation are used to
reach a simulation performance level commensurate with that expected
from the hardware. Several methods and cases are documented in the paper
for achieving this goal. The objective of this paper is to emphasize the
utility of HWIL simulation as a major checkpoint in dynamic verification
of flight hardware, while using the extensive data obtained, thereby, to
validate and update the simulation models.

SOME PROBLEMS IN EVALUATING COAL LANDS
Reynold Q. Shotts

Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering
University of Alabama, University

Coal lands must be valuated for many reasons in addition to the im¬
portant purposes of buying and selling. The reason for seeking evalua¬
tion may influence that evaluation.

For undeveloped coal lands not valued for immediate mining, three
methods are possible. These are: (1) discounted present value of future
royalties, (2) some kind of formula method based upon location, physical
conditions, coal quality and likely mining costs; and (3) the comparable
sales method.

The problems with, advantages of, and shortcomings of all three
methods are discussed and some modification of one formula method is
proposed.

129

Abstracts

STREAM TEMPERATURES IN ALABAMA

Tola B. Moffett
Geological Survey of Alabama
and

Edward R. German
U.S. Geological Survey

Periodic temperature records have been made at most Alabama stream-
discharge gaging stations and water-quality sampling stations since 1962
by federal, state, and municipal agencies. Continuous or daily-tempera¬
ture records have been collected at 24 of these stations for at least 2
years since 1959.

This report summarizes and interprets most of these data, much of
which is unpublished. Data from 168 stations were analyzed using a har¬
monic function to determine annual temperature variations. Three gen¬
eralized zones of water temperature are delineated on a state map. From
north to south, the average estimated mean annual temperature for each
zone is 15.5, 16.7, and 17.9° C.

PROVING STRIPPABLE RESERVES IN PART OF THE
WORLD'S LARGEST CANNEL COALFIELD

Reynold Q. Shotts

Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering
University of Alabama, University

What has been stated possibly to be the world's largest cannel coal¬
field lies just east of the Rio Grande River, in the northern part of
Webb County, Texas. Laredo is the county seat.

The author estimated the reserves of coal on two large tracts of
land in the area using data from about 112 holes drilled in 1975.

The coal is true cannel of Eocene Age (Claiborne group). The geol¬
ogy and stratigraphy are discussed briefly. The structure of the coalbed
is depicted on maps showing elevations on top of the principal coalbed.
Isopach map show the variations and directional trends in thickness.
Mineable coal reserves lying in beds one foot, or more, thick and under
overburden of 100 feet or less, were calculated. The distribution of
these reserves by probability category, for the two areas is given.

In addition to some statements about cannel coals as a class, the
quality of coal from the two areas is shown. Also shown are washability
data that indicate the quality of fuel that can be prepared from the raw
coal at one locality in one reserve area.

The deposit, while probably not extremely large, is one of the best
coal deposits to be found in Texas.

130

Abstracts

ANTHROPOLOGY

TUTANKHAMUN : PREVIEWS OF COMING ATTRACTIONS

Robert J. Fornaro
University of South Alabama

This paper introduces interested individuals to the artifacts and
mentifacts that exemplify the cultural contributions of the ancient
Egyptians of 1300 B.C. Background information is provided on Pharonic
mummification rites and the cultural innovations of the Amarna Period.
The rule and personality of the Amarna Period's most important Pharaoh,
Akhenaton, is discussed with emphasis on his influence on the court of
Tutankhamun. Representative artifactual examples from the Tutankhamun
Exhibition now touring the United States were presented in conjunction
with this paper.

IGNORANCE AND STEREOTYPING: THE MISREPRESENTATION OF SOUTHERN
INDIANS IN STATE APPROVED SOCIAL STUDIES TEXTBOOKS

Deborah K. Hicks
Department of Anthropology
The University of Alabama, University

A selected survey of social studies textbooks used in Alabama public
school fourth year elementary classes was made to determine the nature
and accuracy of the presentation of southern Indian cultures. As a part
of the fourth year curriculum, a study of Alabama Indian cultures pre¬
senting their role in Alabama's past is normally offered. Textbooks
utilized are chosen from a master list of books approved by the Alabama
State Textbook Committee.

Certain books surveyed were found to be factually unsubstantiated
and grossly inaccurate in the stereotypical account of Indian ethnogra¬
phy.

THE MANY VIEWS OF DEPTF0RD--A NEED FOR A CLOSER LOOK

David W. Chase
Department of Liberal Arts
Auburn University at Montgomery
Montgomery, Alabama

As in the case of Lamar, Swift Creek and certain other cultural com¬
plexes seen in southeastern archeology, Deptford, a Middle Woodland en¬
tity, is suffering from an acute case of "identity crisis."

Since its earliest definition by Waring and Holder on the banks of
the Savannah River in 1937, and subsequent descriptive treatment in text
by Caldwell, Sears and others, "Deptford" has become an identification

131

Abstracts

tag popularly applied to similar or related cultural mani testations from
coastal Georgia to Mississippi and from Florida to the southern Appala-
chi ans .

Much of this casual naming is based mainly upon ceramic trait simi-
larities--a justified approach if referring to a "tradition" but cer¬
tainly not to be employed in defining a "phase."

This paper is designed to point up this as a frequently committed
error in taxonomic descriptive procedure and that the widespread usage
of the term "Deptford Phase" or the like, is, in effect, without ethno¬
logical meaning or significance.

The need, then, is a) To regard and accept "Deptford" as a far
ranging tradition involving material culture similarities but reduced
geographically to a number of culture units which produced sufficiently
disparate artifact assemblages to warrant the designation of "phase" in
the taxonomic structure, and b) To identify, for regional purposes, each
phase within the Deptford tradition in terms of these artifact varia¬
tions.

MORMON ISM AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Charles H. Ainsworth
University of Montevallo
Montevallo, Alabama

Brigham Young University under the direction of the Mormon Church
has established a program in American archaeology with emphasis upon the
claims of the Book of Morman as to the origin and early history of the
Ancient civilizations of the New World.

The program started over 30 years ago has produced an archaeology
department, a professional association, and a foundation for conducting
archaeological research. The foundation which has been officered by
nonmormons such as A. V. Kidder, Gordon R. Willey, and Gordon F. Ekholm
has established an outstanding reputation for outstanding research,
especially in southern and central Mexico. It appears that Brigham
Young University will continue to function in this manner in the future.

THE ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF SITE 1 Au28

Janice Hutchinson
Department of Anthropology
University of Alabama, University

This anthropometric study of 1 Au28 was carried out in the Fall of
1976 by the author. Site 1 Au28 is located in the Jones Bluff Reservoir
on the Alabama River between Montgomery and Selma, Alabama. The five
burials discussed in this paper were identified as Mississippian, based
on the shell tempered pottery found in the pit fills. The study

132

Abstracts

describes the burials giving the estimated sex, age, and stature of the
individuals, also noting any pathologies. A variety of osteometric in¬
dices are utilized in order to demonstrate their value. It is concluded
that, although the use of indices has fallen into disfavor since the de¬
velopment of multivariate statistics, they should not be totally aban¬
doned since they are useful in studying fragmented skeletal materials.

REPORT ON THE CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION
OF THE ARTIFACTS FROM 1 Tu 267

James W. Parker
Archaeologist

Brooms Archaeological Associates

The emphasis of this paper is to relate the activities of the con¬
servator on the artifacts recovered from a nineteenth century college
dormitory that was burned during the Civil War. Discussion of tech¬
niques for the removal of lime concreations from ceramics is forwarded.
The uses of Sulfuric and Citric acids and mechanical means of cleaning
copper alloys and the process of electrochemical reduction, electrolysis
and "peening" on iron objects is discussed. A time usage comparison is
included.

MARRIAGE, CHILDREARING, AND THE HOMOSEXUAL SUBCULTURE

Donald W. Green, Jr. and Jerry J. Waxman
Department of Sociology and Anthropology
University of South Alabama, Mobile

A study of homosexual attitudes toward marriage and childrearing was
undertaken. The data were gathered from interviews conducted with ap¬
proximately fifty males at four gay bars in Mobile and Biloxi. Half the
interviews were informal, unstructured, and conversational in nature;
the other twenty-five were informal but structured and included the fill¬
ing out of a questionnaire. Homosexuals prefer to marry members of the
same sex, and feel as though they are being discriminated against as well
as being refused their constitutional right to the pursuit of happiness.
There is a feeling among homosexuals that they will have future political
power by which to change some of what they consider to be unjust laws.
Homosexuals do wish to raise children and believe very strongly in their
ability to be good parents.

133

Abstracts

MEDICINAL PLANT USAGE BY THE TUKUNA INDIANS,

AMAZONAS, COLOMBIA

Linda Leigh Glenboski
Environmental Information Division
3636 Combat Crew Training Wing (ATC)

Maxwell AFB, Montgomery, Alabama

Despite the presence of an outpatient clinic with patent medicines
within easy access, the Tukuna Indians living along the Rio Loreto-Yacu
in Amazonas, Colombia continue their traditional reliance on plant prod¬
ucts for combating sickness. A total of 130 prescriptions involving 84
plant species are used by the Tukuna for a variety of common ailments
including diarrhea, rheumatism, intestinal worms, and malaria. A large
number of prescriptions are also reportedly used for contraceptives and
aborti facients .

HEAT TREATMENT EFFECT ON CHERT USED
FOR PROJECTILE POINTS IN ALABAMA

Pamela M. Pincha
Deparment of Anthropology
The University of Alabama, University
and

Marc J. Defant

Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama, University

Chert samples were collected from four gravel bar localities along
the Tombigbee River, in an area southwest of Aliceville, Pickens County,
Alabama. These chert samples bear a strong resemblance to chert found
in two nearby Indian localities suggesting that chert of this variety
was used by the Indians.

The objectives of this investigation are to: 1) identify the tem¬
perature at which chert changes color during heating, 2) if the color
change is continuous with increasing temperature, 3) the cause of the
color change, 4) show how weight loss is affected by the length of the
heating period, and 5) determine if these results can be applied to the
identification of preheated chert samples found in archaeological sites.

Chert samples were crushed to one to two gram sizes, weighed, and
placed in a preheated furnace. All treated samples were removed between
temperature increases, cooled to room temperature in a dessicator, and
reweighed. The color was described using a Munsell Rock-Color Chart.

From the data various results become apparent. The amount of weight
loss (probably due to C02 and H2O vol ital ization) during heating is time
dependent but bears no relationship to color changes in the chert. This
research suggests that the change in color is the result of iron oxida¬
tion. The color change of the specimens analyzed occurs between 250°-
300°C. A continuous color change with increasing temperature was not
found.

134

Abstracts

EARLY 1 9TH CENTURY ARTIFACTS FROM FORT STODDERT
Dan L. Jenkins

Department of Sociology and Anthropology
University of South Alabama, Mobile

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the artifact assemblage re¬
covered during test excavations at Fort Stoddert. An analysis of this
material can help give an insight into the role Alabama river forts
played in the southerly expansion of the American "frontier" during the
early 1 800 1 s .

Considering the chronological position (1799-1828?) the site and
the excellent state of artifact preservation. Fort Stoddert may prove to
be an invaluable type site for an important period of Alabama history.

NEOCOLONIAL ATTITUDES REFLECTED IN AFRICAN URBAN STUDIES:

OR 'UNDER EVERY AFRICAN THERE IS A PRIMITIVE TRIBESMAN'

Susan Middleton-Keirn
Jacksonville State University
Jacksonville, Alabama

Neocolonial attitudes, often insidiously present in research and
writing on the subject of urban Africans, can inhibit our understanding
of certain segments of this population. Analytical perspectives have
centered upon the concept of adaptation--a concept basic to anthropology
In this perspective the adjustments and adaptations made by rural resi¬
dents as they move into the urban milieu and out again to their rural
homes are the focus. Alternately anthropologists have stressed the
persistence of varied elements of African tradition in order to present
a model that has urban-dwelling Africans portrayed as selectively, situa
tionally, and uncomfortably straddling two worlds.

The contention of this paper is that in dealing with a study of
Africans committed to an urban life-style in urban areas there is an im¬
portant (and often neglected) perspective that could enrich our under¬
standing of social process. This is the perspective of developing forms
of social stratification.

Drawing on her own field research in two urban African centers, as
well as a brief survey of current literature, the author suggests a com¬
bination of specific approaches by which anthropologists can explore
social process in an urban-committed population segment.

135

Abstracts

THE BLAKELEY SITE: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Richard Fuller

Department of Sociology and Anthropology
University of South Alabama

Beginning in February of this year, the University of South Alabama
commenced an archaeological investigation of the early 19th century town
of Blakeley (IBa 221). The field work through April has consisted of
test pits at selected locations, the excavation of a kiln site (IBa
221 -A ) , and the partial excavation of a trash pit (IBa 221-B).

The purpose of this paper is to summarize the field work during
this period and to present a representative selection of the artifacts
that the site has produced.

By doing cross-site comparisons with other early 19th century sites
in the area the archaeological survey of Blakeley may aid in understand¬
ing what life was like in the "frontier" Alabama Territory.

A RESTUDY OF THE ANTHROPOLOGY CURRICULUM AT ALABAMA'S
INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION 1977*

Margaret Z. Searcy

The University of Alabama, University

The development of the anthropology curriculum in Alabama's institu¬
tions of higher learning can be traced over a thirty year period begin¬
ning with the first joint Department of Sociology and Anthropology at
The University of Alabama in 1948. The first separate anthropology major
was listed in the 1959-1960 Catalogue. In 1967 this Department split
creating the State's first Department of Anthropology.

During the early sixties anthropology grew steadily, but only The
University of Alabama offered a minor, major and a master's degree in
anthropology. In 1968 the Social Science Section of The Alabama Academy
of Science split creating Section XI for anthropologists. A survey of
the anthropological curriculum at fifty-three Alabama institutions of
higher learning revealed that twenty persons at fourteen institutions
taught anthropology; five had Ph.D. degrees (only two taught a full
schedule); six additional persons had advanced training in anthropology;
the remainder were trained in other disciplines.

This year at seventeen of Alabama's four year institutions forty-two
persons haveing specialized training in anthropology are faculty members;
twenty-seven have terminal degrees. The number of junior colleges teach¬
ing anthropology increased from three to five; an additional three list
it. The faculty at junior colleges as a whole lacks advanced anthropo¬
logical training. The area of real growth has been within the universi¬
ties with a marked increase in student numbers, course offerings and

136

Abstracts

faculty expertise. The University of Alabama still offers the State's
only master's degree.

★

For a chart write: Anthropological Curriculum in Alabama
Box 6135

University, Alabama 35486

137

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 3, July, 1977.

MINUTES

ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, Alabama
April 9, 1977

President Diener called the meeting to order and asked for the secre¬
tary's report.

SECRETARY'S REPORT: Dr. Ken Ottis

Status of Membership. Our membership has been slipping the last couple
of years. There are over 3000 professors, associate professors, assist¬
ant professors, and instructors in the state colleges and universities of
Alabama. The faculties of our private colleges and universities swell
this figure to over 4000. We are not doing the recruiting job that we
should be doing. With our present administrative set-up, we could easily
handle 200 more members. You do not encourage young staff members to be¬
come active in the Academy after they attend a section meeting and see
only 6 or 8 people in attendance.

Present Membership:

New Members 63

Reinstatements 7

Members dropped (address unknown) 51

Members deceased 3

Total membership as of April 5, 1977 667

Motion was made and seconded that the report be accepted. Motion was
passed.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER: Dr. William J. Wingo

April 1 , 1976 to April 6, 1977

Balance in checking account

4/1/76 =

$ 6,348.41

Income and/or deposits to

4/6/77 =

7,779.60

$14,128.01

Expenses incurred and/or paid

4/1/76-4/6/77 =

$ 6,720.91

Balance

4/6/77 Checking

7,407.10

Passbook

4,254.41

Cert, of Deposit

8,261 .61

$19,923.12

138

Mi nutes

Income

Journ. Subsc.

15

Jr. Academy

1300

Dues

5300

Ann. Mtg.

1165

7780

ises

Pres .

244

Sec .

702

Treas.

206

3 iss. Journal

807

Jr. Academy

1850

Pub. Relations

10

Newsletter

82

Student g & p*

1435

Coord. Off.

300

Pri nti ng

1051

Assessment

33

6720

grants and prizes

REPORT OF COMMITTEE OF PLACE AND DATE OF MEETING : Dr. Jack S. Brown

1) Dr. Ralph Adams, President, Troy State University has confirmed the
invitation to meet at the Montgomery campus. Dr. James Bailey and Dr.
James Wilkes have been appointed to coordinate arrangements. Dates will
be set later for the 1973 meeting.

2) Contact has been made with Dean Frank McArthur and Executive President
Roy Stevens, of the University of North Alabama, in regard to the 1979
meeting. A tentative approval has been given and confirmation is ex¬
pected in the near future.

3) No invitations have been received for the 1980 meeting.

The motion was made, seconded, and passed that the report be accepted.

REPORT OF THE RESOLUTION COMMITTEE: Dr. Hoyt Kaylor

Whereas the Alabama Academy of Science has held its 1977 annual meeting
at The University of Alabama, and has enjoyed the hospitality of the
University, now therefore

BE IT RESOLVED that the Academy express its gratitude to Dr. David
Matthews, President of the University, and to the University for hosting
this meeting. To Dr. Billy P. Helms, Chairman of our local hosts, and
to the members of his host committee, Dr. James D. Walker and Mr. William
Rodgers; to the faculty and staff of the University; and to all of the
many others who contributed to the success of this meeting, we, the
Academy members, express our appreciation for their efforts on our be¬
half.

139

Mi nutes

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Academy express its appreciation to Com¬
mander Robert Crippen, USN, and to the Honorable Walter Flowers for
their presentations to the Academy and to Mr. John L. Cain and the mem¬
bers of his panel for the excellent symposium on "Science in Public
Pol i cy . "

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Academy express its appreciation to those
who retire from leadership in the Academy this year, and especially to
Dr. Urban L. Diener, President, and Dr. Thomas J. Carrington, Editor of
the Journal .

WHEREAS Dr. Charles Feazel has resigned as Secretary-Treasurer of the
Gorgas Scholarship Foundation, and

WHEREAS he has been a member of the Board of Trustees of the Foundation
since 1963, now therefore

BE IT RESOLVED that the Alabama Academy of Science and the Alabama Junior
Academy of Science express their appreciation to Dr. Feazel for the out¬
standing service he has rendered to the Foundation, to the Academies,
and to the furthering of an interest in science among the young people
of our state.

WHEREAS The Reverend George 0. Twellmeyer, S. J., has rendered his
resignation as State Coordinator of Science Fairs for the Academy and

WHEREAS Father Twellmeyer held this office for twenty years, and

WHEREAS he has served the Academies most faithfully and competently dur¬
ing his tenure of office, now therefore,

BE IT RESOLVED that the Alabama Academy of Science and the Alabama Junior
Academy of Science express their appreciation to Father Twellmeyer for
the dedicated and outstanding service that he has rendered to the Acade¬
mies and to the Science Fair program.

It is hereby moved by the Committee on Resolutions that the above be
accepted and entered in the Minutes of the Academy.

A motion was made, seconded, and passed that the report be accepted.

REPORT OF THE AUDITORS (SENIOR ACADEMY): Drs . Paul Bailey and

Dan Holliman

April 6, 1977

TO: Chairman

Executive Committee
Alabama Academy of Science

FROM: Auditing Committee

RE: Audit 1976-1977

140

Minutes

On this date we have examined the records of the Treasurer of the Alabama
Academy of Science and have found them to be in order.

The motion was made, seconded, and passed that the Auditor's report be
accepted.

REPORT OF THE RESEARCH COMMITTEE: Dr. Jack Moore

No papers were presented in competition for the Student Research Awards
this year. The Committee asks all members of the Academy to encourage
students to enter this competition in the future.

Two Student Research Grants were awarded:

1. Deborah K. Hicks, U. of Ala., Tuscaloosa was awarded $230.00 for
the reserach proposal entitled: Ethnographic Study of an Ala¬
bama Indian Community.

2. Duane F. Chapman, U. of Ala., Tuscaloosa was awarded $200.00 for
the research proposal entitled: Case Study of a Migrant Family
in Baldwin County.

A motion was made, seconded, and passed that the report be accepted.

REPORT OF THE NOMINATING COMMITTEE: Dr. Reuban Boozer

The Nominating Committee of the Alabama Academy of Science respectfully
submits the following members of the Academy for nomination to serve
specified offices of the Academy:

President Elect: William F. Arendale, UAH
Editor of the Journal: William H. Mason, AU
Counselor of the AAAS: H. A. Henderson, TVA
Counselor of the Junior Academy: James D. Welker, UAT
Coordinator of Science Fairs: Rosemary Crawford, Spring Hill College
Board of Trustees : Wayne F. Finley, UAB
John H. McKibbin, UAB
Harry M. Philpott, AU
James F. Sulzby

A motion was amde that the above nominations be accepted and that they
be elected by acclamation. The motion was seconded and passed.

REPORT OF THE CHAIRMAN FOR REGIONAL SCIENCE FAIRS: Mrs. Rosemary
Crawford, Secretary . Report was read by Betty Bigham.

All seven of the Regional Fairs of Alabama have operated successful
Fairs this year. Six of them hold contracts with Science Service and
will send Finalists to the International Science & Engineering Fair in
Cleveland, Ohio May 9-14.

Students representing their regions are:

Central Region Miss Becky Ann Reitenour

Mr. Marvin M. Smith

141

Mi nutes

Mobile Region

Miss Karen Duke

Eastern Region

Miss Melanie Gardner
Mr. Butch Clothioux

North Region

Miss Janine Ask ins
Mr. William 0. Wear

Northeastern Region

Mr. Paul W. Lightsey
Mr. Wesley D. Tarvin

Western Region

Mr. Steve Odewahn
Mr. Glenn Stokes

South Region

(Winners not reported)

Motion was made, seconded, and passed that the report be accepted.

REPORT OF THE GORGAS SCHOLARSHIP FOUNDATION: L. S. Hazelgrove. Report
was read by W. P. Rodgers.

The Gorgas Scholarship Foundation announced today that it has selected
the winner and alternates from the finalists in the 1977 Alabama Science
Talent Search. The Search was held at the meeting of the Alabama Academy
of Science at the University of Alabama. The winner of the cash award is
Butler Preston Mine, III, 1208 27th Avenue, East, Tuscaloosa, Alabama
from Tuscaloosa High School. His teacher is Robert W. Cleere. Alter¬
nates are: 1) Akshay Kumar Bajaj, 347 West Vanderbilt Loop, Montgomery,
Alabama from Robert E. Lee High School. His teacher is Frank R. John¬
son. 2) Thomas McWhorter Smith, 1202 Linda Street, Andalusia, Alabama
from Andalusia High School. His teacher is Lawrence DeFillipi. 3) John
Lemoyne Castle, 4018 Heatherhill Road, Huntsville, Alabama from the Ran¬
dolph School. His teacher is William T. Smathers, Jr. 4) Alexander
Collins Brown, 984 Neal Street, Tuskegee Institute High School. His
teacher is Harriett W. Jeffeies. 5) George Benjamin Ackley, 904 Betty
Street, S.W., Decatur, Alabama from Austin High School. His teacher is
Dan Whitson. 6) James Haywood Graddy, P.0. Box 234, Cottonwood, Ala¬
bama from Cottonwood High School. His teacher is Phyllis E. Walch. 7)
Katherine Denise Stringer, Route one, Ashford, Alabama from Cottonwood
High School. Her teacher is Phyllis E. Walch. 8) Michael Wayne Grier,
Route three. Box 282, Montgomery, Alabama from Robert E. Lee High
School. His teacher is Brenda Garrigan.

The finalists for the Gorgas Foundation competition were selected on the
basis of their high school records and their entries in the National Sci¬
ence Talent Search from the Westinhhouse Science Scholarship and Awards,
administered by Science Service. Mr. Ackley, Mr. Bajaj, Mr. Graddy, Mr.
Grier, and Ms. Stringer were named to the honors group in the national
competition. Winners and alternates in the Gorgas contest receive offers
of tuition scholarships to colleges and universities in Alabama for the
study of science. The Gorgas Foundation is named for General William
Crawford Gorgas, the Alabama physician who conquered yellow fever in the
Panama Canal Zone while serving as Surgeon General in the U.S. An

142

Minutes

The purposes of the Foundation are to promote interest in science and
to aid in the education of promising students.

The motion was made, seconded, and passed that the report be accepted.

ANNUAL REPORT OF JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE: James Welker

The JSHS Paper Competition was held in Birmingham on the campus of UAB,
Saturday, February 19, 1977. The following papers were presented, with
the winners being students identified with asterisks:

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

1. Ricky Bajas, "Observations and Studies of the Isoleucine-Valine
Gene From Escherichia coli"

2. Richard Conn, "Germination: One of the Many Wonders of the World"
*3. Kathryn Dollison, "Tissue Culture of Phaleonopsis Orchids"

*4. Stephen Heimburg , "Comparison of Physical and Biological Solar
Cells"

5. Pam Palmer, "The Amount of Protein in Rat Liver with Chronic Use
of Ethanol"

6. Marvin Smith, "Research in Plant Cancer"

7. Thomas Smith, "The Effect Fluorides Have on the Growth of Staphy¬
lococcus aureus"

8. Richard Torkington, "Color Sensitivity Response of the Human Eye
During Dark Adaptation"

9. Cynthia Washington, "The Effects of Monocrotophos and Acephate on
Seed Germination"

HUMANITIES

1. Gerrie Chunn, "Boy Named Sue; Girl Named Gerrie"

2. Cassandra Evans, "Drinking Water: Is It Too Clean Or Not Clean
Enough"

3. Robin Giles, "Cosmetics: The Need For Control"

*4. Nancy Granberry, "Can Genetic Laterality Be Suppressed By the En-
vi ronment?"

5. Pam Lester, "Human Genetic Engineering"

6. Jimmy Mayo, "Guru-Group Isolation: Implications of Isolated Group"

7. Barry Moody, "Why Ban Chloroform?"

8. Cindy Nunnelley, "Recycling"

9. Cynthia Pryor, "An Evaluation of the Sub-Conscious as It Relates to
Human Socialistic Behavior as Opposed to Life After Death"

MATHEMATICS AND ENGINEERING

1. Karen decker, "Analysis of Population Patterns"

*2. Michael Hauck, "Graphic Multiplication and Division with 0 and -1
Defined as Operations"

3. Butler Hine III, "A Low-Cost Radio Telescope for Amateur Use"

4. Yolanda Humphrey, "Dimensional Analysis: Problems in Physics"

*5. Amy Morris, "The Generation and Analysis of Alterations of the

Snowflake Curve"

143

Minutes

6. Carl Powe, "Holography Applied to Mass Data Storage"

7. Martin Rogers, "The Effects of Tilting the Probability Curve"

8. Lee Shackleford, "Using the Desert Sun for World Power"

9. Lynda Ward, "Principles of Flight Demonstrated by the Use of a
Model "

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

1. Caroline Anderson, "Hidden Dangers in Food"

2. Tim Booter, "Can We Analyze More Inorganic Compounds Qualitatively
and Quantitatively by Using Chromatography?"

3. Michael Brett, "The Investigation of Dimethymercury in Fish Phoxinus
phoxinus"

4. Alex Brown, "Action Photography With a Fast and Slow Film"

5. Terissa Certain, "The Effects of Temperature on Graphical Record¬
ings of Sound Wave Forms"

6. James H. Graddy, "Effect of Preparation Variation on Variability
of Dyeings on Cotton Fabrics"

7. Eugene Knight, "Epinephrine"

8. Charles Mathews, "Fission and Fusion: The Answer to Today's Con¬
fusion"

*9. Stephen Odewahn, "The Observation and Analysis of Stellar Spectra"

All of the winners of the paper competition, with the exception of
Stephen Odewahn, will attend the National JSHS to be held at West Point
Academy, May 4-7, 1977. Stephen Odewahn, who also attended the National
JSHS in 1976, chose this year to visit the Bell Laboratories at Murray
Hill, New Jersey, as guest of the Bell Telephone Company. Steve will
be accompanied by his teacher, Mr. Robert Cleere, Tuscaloosa High School.

Michael Hauck was selected by the judges of the paper competition to
present his paper at the National JSHS. As the representative from Ala¬
bama, he will compete for an opportunity to participate in the Interna¬
tional Youth Science Fortnight, July 27-August 10, 1977.

Eighty science clubs are represented at the Annual Meeting in Tuscaloosa,
with more than 300 students and teachers participating. Three new clubs
are attending this year's meeting for the first time: Litchfield High
School (Gadsden), West End Christian School (Tuscaloosa), and Sumter
County High School (York).

Childersburg High School had the largest group in attendance with 28
students, Cottonwood had 26, and Bradshaw had 22.

Speakers for the 1977 meeting were: Dr. Sarah L. Light, Assistant Pro¬
fessor of Business Office Education, University of Alabama, who spoke on
the topic "Come With Me on a Journey Into Creativity," and Astronaut
Robert Crippen, Johnson Space Flight Center, Houston, who spoke on the
topic "The Future in Space Exploration."

The following persons received awards:

Outstanding Teacher with more than five years of experience--Mrs .
Loyce Whitson, Winston County High School, Double Springs.

144

Mi nutes

Outstanding Teacher with less than five years experience--Mr.

George Gorey, Jr., Donoho School, Anniston

Student Research Grants: Amy Morris, Childersburg, $150; Charles
Barnett, Phillips High School, Bear Creak, Debra Barnett, Bradshaw,
$80. These awards are dependent on arrival of special research
funds from AAAS.

Henry Walker Memorial Scholarship--Patrick Wayne Mardis, Ramsey
H.S., Birmingham, $500.

AAAS Subscription Awards--Gene Knight, The Donoho School, Anniston;
Yolanda Foster, Ramsey H.S., Birmingham.

Officers for 1977-78 are:

President: Cliff Hindma, Childersburg High School
Vice-President: Rex Wright, Randolph School, Huntsville
Secretary: Ann Waldrup, Robert E. Lee, Montgomery
Treasurer: Canh Viet Le, Tuskegee Institute High School

REPORT FROM THE SECTIONS: (Tenure temination date after the name)

Biological Science: Carl Dixon

Section 1 -A Morning--12 papers

Attendance--20

Section 2-B Morning--13 papers

Attendance--15

Elections: Chairman, Dr. Margaret Mill
Chairman, Dr. Curt Peterson (1979), AU,

Afternoon--l 0 papers
Attendance--21
Afternoon--l 0 papers
Attendance--25
er (1979), USA; Vice-

II. Chemistry: T. G. Jackson

Morning Session--2 scientific lectures & discussion
Afternoon Session — 2 scientific lectures & discussion
Elections: Chairman, Dr. Bill Paudler (1979), UAT ; Vice-Chai rman ,
Dr. Cox (1979), JSU.

III. Geology: Robert Cook

Morning Session--8 papers Afternoon--l 1 papers
Attendance--30 Attendance--37

Elections: Chairman, George F. Brockman (1979), UAB; Vice-
Chairman, Denny N. Bearce (1979), UAB.

IV. Forestry, Geography & Conservation: Eugene Wilson

Morning Session--7 papers Afternoon--7 papers

Attendance--28 Attendance 25

Elections: Chairman, Euguen Wilson (1978), USA; Vice-Chairman,
Howard Johnson (1978), JSU.

V, Physics and Mathematics: Bill Alford

Morning Session--7 papers Afternoon--7 papers

Attendance--23 Attendance--25

145

Minutes

Elections: Chairman, Dr. Bill Alford (1978), AU; Vice-Chairman,

Dr. Aldo Forte (1978), UAH.

VI. Industry and Economics: Wayne Lacy

Morning Session--9 papers Afternoon--5 papers

Attendance--16 Attendance--16

Elections: Chairman, Wayne Lacy (1978), AUM; Vice-Chairman,

Billy J. Bond (1978), TVA.

VII. Science Education: Dan Whitson

Morning Session--8 papers Afternoon--No session

Attendance--30

Elections: Chairman, Dan Whitson (1978), Decatur; Vice-Chairman,
Gordon Bliss (1978), Ala. State U.

VIII. Social Science: Charles Swwiersell

Morning Session (Friday)--3 papers Afternoon Session--3 papers
Attendance--9 Attendance--4

Morning Session (Saturday)--3 papers
Attendance--5

Elections: Chairman, Henry Marks (1979), UAH; Vice-Chairman,

Glen Eaves (1979), AU.

IX. Health Science: George Hand

Morning Session--9 papers Afternoon--l 1 papers

Attendance — 23 Attendance--20

Elections: Chairman, Dr. Charles Baugh (1979), USA, Vice-Chair¬
man, Dr. Richard Shoemaker (1979), UAB.

X. Engineering: Reynolds Shotts

Morning Session--6 papers Afternoon--4 papers

Attendance--5 Attendance--6

Elections: Chairman, Walker H. Land (1979), I.B.M.; Vice-Chair¬
man, Harold L. Pastrick (1979), Redstone Arsenal

XI. Anthropology: Avery Church

Morning Session--7 papers Afternoon--6 papers

Attendance--19 Attendance--1 7

Elections: Chairman, Dr. Robert J. Fornaro (1979), USA; Vice-
Chairman, Dr. John A. Wallthal (1979), UAT.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT:

The President thanked the Secretary and the Treasurer for the help that
he had received during his administration. The Secretary would like to
add that he, the Secretary, received more help than he gave. The Presi¬
dent also thanked all of the officers of the Academy for their coopera¬
tion during the year.

OLD BUSINESS: President Diener

The President reviewed the proposed changes in the Constitution and by¬
laws. These changes have been presented to the Executive Committee where

146

Minutes

they were discussed most fully. The Executive Committee gave its ap¬
proval to the changes and asked that they be presented to the Academy
assembled. The changes are noted, in detail, in the minutes of the
Executive Committee meeting.

MOTIONS:

Jack Moore moved and Emett Carmichael seconded a motion that the changes
in the Constitution be made as suggested. The motion was passed.

Wayne Lacy moved, Robert Gudauskas seconded a motion that the changes in
the Bylaws be made as suggested. The motion was passed.

The Secretary read a Resolution tendered by the Medical Science Section
requesting that the Section change its name to Health Sciences. Bill
Wingo moved and Danice Costes seconded the motion that the section name
change be allowed. The motion was passed.

CHAIRMAN OF THE NOMINATING COMMITTEE: Rueben Boozer

Since the constitutional changes call for a second Vice-President, he
would like to place in nomination for that office the name of Jack Moore.
A motion was then made that the nomination be accepted and that Jack
Moore be elected Second Vice-President by acclamation. The motion was
seconded and passed.

President Diener then introduced the new president for the coming year.
Dr. James Wilkes of Troy State University. Dr. Wilkes complimented Dr.
Diener for the many things he had accomplished during his tenure.

Dr. Wilkes adjourned the meeting at 12:00 p.m.

147

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 3, July, 1977.

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS

OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

(as amended April 9, 1977)

Adopted in 1924 (1 ), amended (2-5,7-10), published in journal (1,2, 3, 6).

STATE OF ALABAMA)

ss.

JEFFERSON COUNTY)

KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS: That we, the undersigned constitut¬
ing trustees of Alabama Academy of Science, an association heretofore un¬
incorporated, desiring to become incorporated under the provisions of
Title 10 of the 1940 Code of Alabama, do hereby file this declaration in
writing, and state:

ARTICLE I. NAME

The name of this corporation shall be Alabama Academy -of Science.

ARTICLE II. OBJECTS

The objects for which the corporation is formed are:

1. To promote the development of interest in scientific matters in the
State of Alabama;

2. To provide means for publication of scientific papers and abstracts;

3. To provide opportunity for increased cooperation and fellowship
among its members;

4. To cooperate ■ wi th other organizations having similar aims;

5. To render public service in scientific matters;

6. To promote the interest in and study of science by the youth of Ala¬
bama ;

7. To provide for and award scholarships to deserving youths in Alabama;

8. The Alabama Academy of Science shall not have any capital stock,
shall not pursue any of its objects or purposes for pecuniary profit
to any of its members, and no part of its net receipts shall inure
to the benefit of any private shareholder or individual.

148

Constitution and By-Laws

ARTICLE III. LOCATION

The office of the Academy shall be in Birmingham, Jefferson County,
Alabama.

ARTICLE IV. POWERS

In furtherance, but not in limitation, of the powers conferred by

statute, the Academy shall have power:

1. To charge an initiation fee and membership dues to provide income
sufficient to meet the needs of its activities;

2. To acquire and hold real property and personal property, stocks in
business corporations, bonds and other evidences of indebtedness,
to receive property by gift, will, or device, and to hold the same
in conformity with all lawful conditions imposed by the donor; to
sell, lease or otherwise alienate its property and to exercise such
other powers as are incident to private corporations, but not for
the pecuniary gain of any member.

3. To borrow money and to secure the payment thereof by mortgage or
deed of trust on all or any part of its property, real or personal
or both;

4. To apply for, obtain, register, purchase, lease or otherwise to
acquire, and to hold, use, own, operate and introduce, and sell as¬
sign, or otherwise to dispose of, any trademarks, trade names, pa¬
tents, inventions, improvements and processes used in connection
with or secured under letters patent of the United States, or else¬
where; and to use, exercise, develop, grant licenses in respect of,
or otherwise turn to account any such trade-marks, patents, li¬
censes, processes and the like, or any property or rights.

ARTICLE V. TRUSTEES

The names, post office addresses, and terms of office of the found¬
ing trustees are as follows:

NAME

ADDRESS

TERM

Henry L. Jennings

Title Guarantee Building, Birmingham

3 yrs

Arthur T. McWane

McWane Cast Iron Pipe Company, Birmingham

3 yrs

Carl B. Fritsche

Reichold Chemical Company, Tuscaloosa

2 yrs

George R. Stuart

Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham

2 yrs

Harwell G. Davis

Howard College, Birmingham

1 yr.

James L. Kassner

University, Alabama

1 yr.

The names, post office addresses, and terms of office of the pres¬
ent trustees are as follows:

149

Constitution and By-Laws

NAME

Samuel B. Barker
Elroy A. Curl
H. A. Henderson
Joseph C. Thomas
William J . Barrett
Emmett Carmichael
Howard E. Carr
G. 0. Spencer
Wayne H. Finley
John H. McKibbin
Harry M. Philpott
James F. Sulzby

ADDRESS TERM EXPIRES

University of Alabama, Birmingham 1978

Auburn University, Auburn 1978

TVA, Muscle Shoals 1978

University of North Alabama, Florence 1978

Southern Research Institute, Birmingham 1979
University of Alabama, Birmingham 1979

Auburn University, Auburn 1979

Rt. 2, Box 426, Harvest 1979

University of Alabama, Birmingham 1980

University of Alabama, Birmingham 1980

Auburn University, Auburn 1980

3121 Carlisle Road, Birmingham 1980

ARTICLE VI. MEMBERS

1. All members of the Alabama Academy of Science in good standing shall
become members of the Corporation, and different classes of member¬
ship together with the rights and privileges of each class shall be
determined by the By-Laws of the Corporation.

2. There shall be no personal, individual or other liability whatsoever
on the part of any member of the Academy, either for the debts of
the Academy or for any act or omission of the Academy or of any of¬
ficer, agent or employee thereof.

ARTICLE VII. MEETINGS OF THE MEMBERSHIP

1. There shall be an annual meeting of the members of the Academy, the
time and place to be determined by the Executive Committee at least
twenty days in advance;

2. Special meetings of the membership may be called by the President
and he shall call such meetings on the written request of ten (10)
active members;

3. Notice of all meetings of the members shall be in writing mailed to
the last known address at least ten (10) days in advance of such
meeting. The members present at any such meeting shall constitute
a quorum for the transaction of business;

4. The rights of members to vote at meetings of the membership shall be
determined by the By-Laws.

150

Constitution and By-Laws

ARTICLE VIII. OFFICERS

1. The officers of the Academy shall be elected by the membership and
shall be twelve trustees, a president, a first vice-president (presi¬
dent-elect), a second vice-president, chairmen for the various sec¬
tions, vice-chairmen for the various sections, a secretary, a treas¬
urer, a councilor of the American Association for the Advancement

of Science, an editor of the Journal, three counselors of the Junior
Academy, and a coordinator of Regional Science Fairs.

2. At the close of each annual meeting, the first vice-president (presi¬
dent-elect) shall become President of the Academy. A new first vice-
president (president-elect), a second vice-president, and other offi¬
cers to fill all other offices becoming vacant following the current
annual meeting shall be elected by a plurality of the votes of the
members present at said meeting and their terms of office shall begin
at the close of the meeting.

3. The tenure of office shall be one year or until successors shall be
elected, except that the section Chairmen and Vice-chairmen shall
serve two years and the Trustees, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the
Councilor of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
the Editor of the Journal, the Coordinator of Regional Science Fairs,
and the three Counselors of the Junior Academy, one of whom shall be
elected each year to replace one whose term is expiring, shall serve
three years and shall be selected triennially.

4. The affairs of the Academy shall be managed by an Executive Commit¬
tee which shall be composed of the elected officers together with
all active past Presidents and the Chairmen of standing committees
authorized by the By-Laws.

5. The Executive Committee shall have the power to make and alter the
By-Laws of the Academy; to hold meetings at such places and at such
times as shall from time to time be designated by the By-Laws or by
resolution of the committee; to fix the amount of fees and dues to
be collected from members and shall have such other powers, not in¬
consistent herewith as may be necessary to carry out the purposes of
the Academy. The By-Laws may prescribe the number of members of the
committee necessary to constitute a quorum which number may be less
than a majority of the whole number of the members.

6. Vacancies on the Executive Committee that occur between annual meet¬
ings shall be filled in the following manner: If the office of
President shall become vacant, the first vice-president (president¬
elect) shall become President. If the office of first vice-president
(president-elect) shall become vacant, the office shall be filled by
the second vice-president. Vacancies in any other offices of the
Academy shall be filled by the Executive Committee convened on call
of the President or, if necessary, by the Secretary.

7. At the first business session of the Executive Committee, the Presi¬
dent shall name a Nominating Committee to nominate officers of the
Academy, including the Vice-Chairmen. Each Section will suggest a
nominee for Vice-Chairman.

8. The Trustees shall be ex-officio members of the committee on finance
for the Academy and shall take and hold title to all real property
of the Corporation and shall act as custodians of all money and
personal property of whatsoever kind except membership fees and

151

Constitution and By-Laws

dues, acquired by the Academy for purposes other than the general
operating expenses thereof, in trust for the Academy, and shall dis¬
burse such money, dispose of such property, borrow money for such
purposes other than the operating expenses of the Academy and make
and issue notes, bills, bonds, and other evidences of indebtedness
and convey by mortgage or deed of trust all or any part of the pro¬
perty owned, real or personal or both, by the Corporation, to secure
the payment of any debts contracted by the authority of the Executive
Committee; but before such mortgage or deed of trust can be executed,
the majority of the Executive Committee shall have first authorized
the incurring of the debt and the execution of such mortgage or deed
of trust on all or part of the real or personal property, or both of
the Corporation, which authorization must be made at a regular meet¬
ing or at a special meeting of the Executive Committee specifically
called for the purpose. And the Executive Committee at any regular
meeting, or at any special meeting called for that purpose, may
grant authority to the board of Trustees to convey by mortgage or
deed of trust any or all of its property, real or personal, it may
then own or thereafter acquire, for the purpose of securing any
debts contracted by the Trustees for the Corporation.

9. The Trustees shall serve for a term of three (3) years, unless spe¬
cifically elected for a lesser term, except that one-third of the
Trustees first elected shall be elected to serve for one year, one-
third for two years, and one-third for three years, respectively.

10. In case of any increases in the number of Trustees, the additional
Trustees shall be elected as may be provided in the By-Laws and one-
third of their number shall be elected to serve for one year, one-
third for two years, and one-third for three years.

11. In case of any vacancy in any class of Trustee through death, resig¬
nation, disqualification or other cause, the Executive Committee,

at any regular meeting, or any special meeting called for that pur¬
pose, by affirmative vote of the majority of the Committee present,
may elect a successor to hold office for the unexpired term.

ARTICLE IX. DURATION

The duration of the Corporation shall be perpetual.

ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS

This certificate may be amended at any annual meeting by a three-
fourths vote of the attending members.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF,
tees of the Corporation,
for record in the Office
Alabama, this _ day

this certificate has been executed by the Trus-
acknowledged as required by Law, and offered
of the Judge of Probate of Jefferson County,
of _ , 1977.

152

Constitution and By-Laws

Trustee

Address

Sworn and subscribed to before me this
day of , 1977.

SEAL

Notary Public

Trustee

Address

Sworn and subscribed to before me this
day of , 1977.

SEAL

Notary Publ ic

Trustee

Address

Sworn and subscribed to before me this
day of , 1977.

SEAL

Notary Public

Trustee

Address

Sworn and subscribed to before me this
day of , 1977.

SEAL

Notary Publ ic

Trustee

Address

Sworn and subscribed to before me this
day of , 1977.

153

Constitution and By-Laws

SEAL _

Notary Public

Trustee Address

Sworn and subscribed to before me this
_ day of _ , 1977.

SEAL _

Notary Publ ic

BY-LAWS OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

ARTICLE I. MEMBERSHIP CLASSIFICATION

Sec. 1. The membership of the Academy shall consist of the following
classes :

a) Member: Full membership in the Academy shall be open to any adult
person in the state of Alabama and other states, who is actively engaged
in teaching, research, or other professional activity in pure and ap¬
plied science. Persons working in industry, economics, science educa¬
tion, and social sciences shall also be eligible for full membership in
the Academy.

b) Collegiate Member: Any person interested in the promotion of science
in Alabama who is registered as a student in a college or university may
qualify as a collegiate member for a maximum of five years.

c) Emeritus Member: Full members upon formal retirement and after at
least twenty (20) years of active membership in the Alabama Academy or
other state academy, may upon application to the secretary, have their
status changed to Emeritus member with full voting and office holding
privileges.

d) Honorary Member: Members of the Academy who have received outstanding
recognition beyond the State of Alabama shall be eligible for honorary
membership. Not more than two honorary members shall be elected in any
one year.

e) Life Member: Any member of the Academy may become a life member by
paying into the treasury at one time the amount established in Article
II. (e).

f) Fellow: Members of the Academy who are Fellows of the American As¬
sociation for the Advancement of Science shall be classed as Fellows of
the Academy.

154

Constitution and By-Laws

g) Complimentary Member: High school science clubs are classed as com¬
plimentary members. The counselor of the Junior Academy shall certify
to the Secretary of the Academy by January 1 of each year those clubs
entitled to such membership.

h) Institutional Member: Any educational institution in Alabama may be¬
come an institutional member.

i) Sustaining Member: Any individual, corporation, or organization may
become a sustaining member of the Academy. Each corporate or organiza¬
tional sustaining member is entitled to designate two individuals from
its organization to represent it as active members in the proceedings
of the Academy.

Sec. 2. Collegiate Members shall not hold office nor vote. Members not
residing in Alabama may not hold elective offices, but may serve
on committees of the Academy.

Sec. 3. The membership year and the fiscal year shall correspond to the
calendar year.

a) New members joining October 1 or thereafter shall be new members as
of January 1 the following year.

Sec. 4. Each nomination for membership must be endorsed by a dues-paid
member who is in good standing in the Academy. Payment of the
required dues and determination by the Secretary that the ap¬
plication meets the requirements for one of the classes of mem¬
bership set out in Sec. 1. above shall constitute admission to
membership .

ARTICLE II. DUES

Sec. 1. The dues for the several classes of membership shall be as
fol lows:

a) Member: Ten Dollars ($10.00) per annum.

b) Collegiate Member: Five Dollars ($5.00) per annum.

c) Emeritus Member: Five Dollars ($5.00) per annum.

d) Honorary Member: None.

e) Life Member: Two Hundred Dollars ($200.00).

f) Fellow: Ten Dollars ($10.00) per annum.

g) Complimentary Member: None.

h) Institutional Member: High Schools, Ten Dollars ($10.00) or more,
per annum; Junior Colleges, Twenty Dollars ($20.00) or more, per annum;

155

Constitution and By-Laws

Four-year Colleges and Universities, Fifty Dollars ($50.00) or more, per
annum.

i) Sustaining Member: Individual, Twenty-five Dollars ($25.00) or more,
per annum. Corporations and Organizations, One Hundred Dollars ($100.00)
or more, per annum.

Sec. 2

. No one shall be eligible for office who is in arrears in the

payment of dues.

Sec. 3

. Members in arrears with
from membership.

their dues as of May 1 shall be dropped

ARTICLE

III. SECTIONS

Sec . 1

. The Academy shall have

the following scientific sections:

I.

Biological Sciences

II.

Chemi stry

III.

Geology

IV.

Forestry, Geography, and

Conservation

V.

Physics and Mathematics

VI.

Industry and Economics

VII.

Science Education

VIII.

Social Sciences

IX.

Health Sciences

X.

Engineering

XI.

Anthropology

ARTICLE IV. COMMITTEES

Sec. 1. Standing committees of the Academy shall be set up as indicated
below and serve for the terms and purposes stated.

a) Steering Committee: The Steering Committee shall consist of the
President, Immediate Past President, First and Second Vice-Presidents,
Secretary, and Treasurer. The Steering Committee is authorized to han¬
dle routine jobs of the Academy which shall arise between Executive Com¬
mittee meetings. It is responsible to the Executive Committee and is
not authorized to make decisions for the Academy.

b) Committee on Membership: This committee consists of the Vice-Chairmen
of the sections and a chairman appointed by the President-Elect. The
chairman will serve a one-year term but may be reappointed to successive
terms until he has served three years. The committee shall also include
such other persons as the chairman deems necessary to provide. The com¬
mittee shall, through its statewide membership, seek to secure new mem¬
bers, solicit contributing memberships, and handle such investigations
and projects as may be assigned to it by the officers or committees of
the Academy.

c) Committee on Research: The President-Elect shall appoint one member
to this committee of five (5) by the annual meeting and the President

156

Constitution and By-Laws

shall fill other vacancies as they occur. Terms shall be staggered and
for five (5) years. The Chairman will serve a one-year term, but may be
reappointed to successive terms until he has served three years. He
must have served previously on this committee. The committee shall en¬
courage scientific research in Alabama by whomsoever initiated and con¬
ducted, investigate possible sources of funds to be awarded by the Acad¬
emy to research scientists, and make recommendations on the placing of
such funds for the greatest benefit to science. The committee shall
recommend any awards and the nature of each recognizing scientific ac¬
complishments by high school students, college undergraduate, graduate
students, and research scientists. Any funds awarded shall be expended
directly for the purposes designated by a member of the Academy at the
institution and/or department receiving the grant.

d) Committee on Long-Range Planning: The committee shall consist of
four past presidents of the Academy, serving staggered terms of four
years each, and shall be designated by the President-Elect. The com¬
mittee shall elect its chairman who shall serve a one-year term. The
committee shall respond to any and all assignments referred to it by the
President or the Executive Committee and shall make recommendations in
the best interest of the Academy. The Committee may also originate re¬
commendations to the Executive Committee on matters considered of sig¬
nificance to the Academy.

e) Auditing Committee: The President-Elect shall appoint annually two
auditing committees of two members each, one for the Senior Academy and
one for the Junior Academy. The committee shall examine and report to
the Academy upon the financial records of the Treasurer of the Academy
and the Treasurer of the Junior Academy, respectively, at the meeting
for which they were appointed.

f) Editorial Board: The Editorial Board shall consist of three members
serving staggered terms of three years each, and the annual vacancy
shall be filled by appointment by the President-Elect. The Editor of
the Journal is an additional ex-officio member of the Board. The Edi¬
torial Board shall concern itself with broad editorial policies and with
problems of finance and shall act in a general advisory capacity to the
Editor of the Journal. The Chairman of the Editorial Board, appointed
for three years, shall be responsible for all matters pertaining to in¬
stitutional subscriptions and exchanges for the journal with the approval
of the Executive Committee.

g) Committee on Junior Academy: This committee shall consist of the
counselors of the several regions, the state officers of the Junior Acad¬
emy of Science, the sponsors of the state officers of the Junior Academy,
and the three counselors elected by the Alabama Academy of Science. The
duties of this committee shall be to coordinate the activities of the
several regions of the Junior Academy in cooperation with the Coordina¬
tor of Regional Science Fairs, to promote the organization of chapters
and by all possible means promote the welfare of the chapters, the re¬
gions and the entire Junior Academy.

157

Constitution and By-Laws

h) Committee on Place and Date of Meeting: The President-Elect shall
appoint one member to this committee of five (5) prior to taking office
and the President shall fill other vacancies as they occur. Terms shall
be staggered and for five (5) years. The chairman will serve a one-year
term, but may be reappointed to successive terms until he has served
three years, and must have served previously on the committee. The com¬
mittee will make recommendations at the annual business meeting concern¬
ing the time and place for holding subsequent annual meetings.

i) Committee on Local Arrangements: In consultation with the administra¬
tion of the host institution, the President shall appoint a Local Ar¬
rangements Chairman. The Local Arrangements Chairman shall appoint sub¬
chairmen for the Senior and Junior arrangements and each subchairman will
select the other members of his subcommittee. He is responsible for pro¬
viding for the physical needs of the Academy at its annual meeting. He
shall work closely with the President and the Secretary of the Academy

as well as with his subchairmen.

j) Committee on Newsletter: The President-Elect shall appoint a Chair¬
man of the Newsletter Committee. The chairman, in consultation with the
President, shall select the members of his committee. The chairman will
serve a one-year term but may be reappointed to successive terms until
he has served three years. The Committee on the Newsletter shall pre¬
pare and forward to the members a Newsletter. The Newsletter shall be
published at regular intervals determined by the President and chairman
of the committee. The Chairman of the Committee on the Newsletter shall
act as Editor of the Newsletter.

k) Committee on Public Relations: This committee shall be appointed by
the President-Elect. The chairman shall serve a one-year term but may
be reappointed until he has served three years. This committee shall
seek adequate publicity for the meetings and work of the Academy.

l) Committee on Archives: The President-Elect shall appoint a Chairman
of the Committee on Archives who shall be the Archivist. The Archivist
shall keep in a safe place the Archives of the Academy consisting of
back numbers of the Journal, exchange publications, and records of the
Academy.

m) Committee on Regional Science Fairs: This committee shall consist of

the State Coordinator of Science Fairs and Regional Coordinators of the
several regions. The committee shall coordinate the activities of the
Regional Science Fairs in cooperation with the counselors of the Junior
Academy of Science.

n) Committee on Science and Society of the Alabama Academy of Science:

This committee shall have a two-fold function: (1) to make scientific
advice available to personnel at all levels of government in Alabama,
and (2) to disseminate scientific information to the people of the
State. The chairman shall be appointed by the President-Elect for a
one-year term, shall be eligible for reappointment, and shall be re¬
sponsible for seeing that the committee functions.

158

Constitution and By-Laws

ARTICLE V. DUTIES OF OFFICERS

Sec. 1. Trustees: The duties of the trustees are as enumerated in the
Certificate of Incorporation. They shall have the right to hold
meetings, both regular and special, at such times and places as
may be convenient; and at such meetings a majority of the trus¬
tees shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of any busi¬
ness which may come before them.

a) All funds of the Academy which may come into the custody of the trus¬
tees shall be carried in a separate bank account in the name of the Acad¬
emy. The trustees may designate one or more of their number to sign
checks drawn to such account.

Sec. 2. Executive Committee: The duties of the Executive Committee are
set forth in the Constitution.

a) The Executive Committee shall meet at least twice annually. One
meeting shall be called by the President in the fall. One meeting shall
be immediately before the annual meeting of the Academy. The Executive
Committee shall consider at these meetings such business as may properly
be brought before it and shall make recormiendations for action by the
business sessions of the entire Academy.

b) Special meetings of the Executive Committee may be held whenever
called by a majority of the members thereof, or by the President. Timely
notice of a meeting stating the time and place thereof and indicating
briefly the object thereof shall be given the members of the committee

by mail, by publication, or by other suitable means whereby the notice
may be conveyed. At all meetings of the Executive Committee, regular or
special, the members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of
any business which may come before it.

Sec. 3. President: The President shall preside at the sessions of the
Academy as a whole, and of the Executive Committee.

a) The President shall appoint members to fill vacancies on all commit¬
tees except as otherwise herein provided.

b) The President shall obtain an appropriate speaker to address the
annual banquet. He will share this responsibility with the Counselor

of the Junior Academy in alternate years, with the approval of and invi¬
tation to the speaker coming from the President of the Academy.

c) The President and Secretary shall make a site visit to the host insti¬
tution to evaluate facilities for the annual meeting with the Local Ar¬
rangements Chairman at least 30 days prior to the Fall meeting of the
Executive Committee. A report shall be made at this meeting.

Sec. 4. First Vice-President (President-Elect) : During his tenure the
First Vice-President shall select chairmen and members to all
committees provided herein. They shall be appointed and begin
their tenure when he becomes President.

159

Constitution and By-Laws

a) He shall become acquainted with the duties and problems of Secretary
through personal visits and other contacts.

b) He shall work with the Public Relations Chairman and the Newsletter
Chairman in informing the Public and the Academy members of the programs
and activities of the Alabama Academy of Science, its officers, and mem¬
bers .

c) He shall perform any other duties delegated by the President.

d) In the absence of the President, he shall chair all meetings.

Sec. 5. Second Vice-President: During his tenure, he shall review the
financial and publication operations of the Academy.

a) The Second Vice-President shall work with the Section Chairmen and
Vice-Chairmen in building up membership in their sections and the Academy

b) He shall become acquainted with the duties and problems of the Treas¬
urer and the Journal Editor through personal visits and other contacts.

Sec. 6. Section Chairmen: Each chairman in cooperation with the Vice-
Chairman, shall be responsible for presiding over, and planning
and arranging the program of this section.

a) The Chairman shall be responsible for transmission of program material
to the Secretary by the deadline recommended by the Secretary and ap¬
proved by the Executive Committee.

b) The Chairman, in cooperation with the Vice-Chairman, shall endeavor
to build up the membership of the Section.

Sec. 7. Section Vice-Chairmen: Each Vice-Chairman shall cooperate with
the Chairman in the efficient handling of all sessions at the
annual meeting.

a) The Vice-Chairman shall be secretary of the business meeting of the
Section and make his report to the Academy Secretary before the annual
business meeting.

b) In the event that the Office of Section Chairman is vacated, the
Vice-Chairman shall serve as temporary Chairman.

c) He shall be a member of the Membership Committee of the Academy and
shall be responsible for building up the membership in his Section with
the assistance of the Chairman.

Sec. 8. Secretary: The Secretary shall keep the minutes of the Execu¬
tive Committee and of the Academy as a whole.

a) Shall be responsible for the arrangements of the annual meeting, in¬
cluding the drawing up of the general program and the arranging of the
sectional programs sent him by the Section Chairmen.

160

Constitution and By-Laws

b) He shall maintain the current membership roll of members and Fellows
of the Academy and provide the President, Treasurer, and Archivist with
a revised roll shortly after the annual meeting upon receipt from the
Treasurer, of a list of members dropped for non-payment of dues. He
shall submit a roll of members of the Academy to AAAS in alternate years
for the purpose of verifying which members are Fellows of AAAS.

c) He shall notify applicants of action on their applications for mem¬
bership.

d) The Secretary shall join the President for the site visit to the host
institution to obtain information on arrangements for the annual meeting.

e) Shall perform such other duties as may be assigned to him by the
Executive Committee.

Sec. 9. Treasurer: The Treasurer shall be in charge of all funds of
the Academy derived from dues and fees, but not special funds
held by the Trustees, as provided in the Constitution.

a) The Treasurer shall send dues statements to the members for the next
calendar year by November 15, followed by a second notice on January 15
to those not remitting payment. A list of members in arrears as of the
annual meeting shall be sent to the Secretary before May 1.

b) The Treasurer shall prepare a budget for the next fiscal (calendar)
year and present it at the Fall Executive Committee meeting.

c) He shall make only such disbursements as are approved in the budget.

d) He shall check the membership roll furnished him by the Secretary for
payment of dues and forward the revised roll to the Secretary.

e) He is required to be bonded.

Sec. 10. Councilor of the AAAS:

a) He shall represent the Academy on the Council of the American Associa¬
tion for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and the Conference.

b) He shall attend any other meetings of the AAAS conventions which shall
be deemed of interest to the Academy.

c) He shall make a report at the Spring Executive Committee meeting.

d) The President is authorized to appoint a substitute or alternate
Councilor of the AAAS.

e) Other delegates up to five in number may be designated by the Presi¬
dent to attend the annual meeting of the AAAS.

161

Constitution and By-Laws

Sec. 11. Editor of the Journal:

a) He shall be responsible for publication of the Journal of the Alabama

Academy of Science.

b) He shall be an ex-officio member of the Editorial Board.

Sec. 12. Counselors of the Junior Academy: The Counselors of the Junior
Academy shall supervise the activities of the Junior Academy
for the Senior Academy.

Sec. 13. State Coordinator of Regional Science Fairs: The State Coordi¬
nator of Regional Science Fairs shall supervise the activities
of the Regional Science Fairs.

ARTICLE VI. PROGRAM RULES

Sec. 1. Titles and abstracts of papers to be presented at the annual

meeting of the Academy must be sent to the Chairman of the Sec¬
tion in which the paper is to be presented prior to the date
set by the Executive Committee. A non-member may read a paper
on the invitation of the respective Section Chairman.

Sec. 2. The Chairman shall compile the section program and forward it
in standard format to the Secretary by the time set by the
Executive Committee.

Sec. 3. The program of the annual meeting shall include the following
features:

a) A meeting of the Executive Committee.

b) The Annual Business Meeting of the Academy.

c) Sectional meetings.

d) Annual banquet.

e) Other activities in keeping with the purposes of the Academy.

ARTICLE VII. JOURNAL

Sec. 1. The Journal of the Academy shall be published at least once and
not more than four times each year at the discretion of the Edi¬
torial Board. It shall contain an account of the business
transacted at the annual meeting, papers of outstanding merit,
abstracts of all other papers, and such other materials as the
Editor and the Editorial Board may think proper.

ARTICLE VIII. THE ALABAMA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Sec. 1. The Academy shall sponsor and supervise the Alabama Junior Acad¬
emy of Science, composed of high school science clubs.

162

Constitution and By-Laws

Sec. 2. Counselors of the Junior Academy are officers of the Academy

and are elected as provided in Article VIII of the Constitution.

ARTICLE IX. REGIONAL SCIENCE FAIRS

Sec. 1. The Academy shall sponsor and supervise the Alabama Regional
Science Fairs.

Sec. 2. The State Coordinator of Regional Science Fairs is an officer
of the Academy and is elected as provided in the Constitution.

ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS

Sec. 1. The By-Laws may be amended by a plurality vote of the Executive
Committee present at any annual meeting or at any special meet¬
ing for that purpose.

REFERENCES

1. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 2:20. 1930. First Constitution.

2. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 19:68-75. 1947. First Incorporation.

3. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 29:105-113. 1957.

4. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 30:43. 1958.

5. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 31:56-58, 60, 360. 1959.

6. Cantrell, C. H., P. C. Bailey, and S. B. Barker. 1963. A history

of the Alabama Academy of Science, J. Ala. Acad. Sci. Suppl . , p.

105-117.

7. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 33:166-168. 1962.

8. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 37:288. 1966.

9. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 39:256. 1968.

10. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 45:315. 1974.

(Possibly amended on other occasions between 1930 and 1957. Minutes not
available. )

163

Notes

Notes

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 48 OCTOBER, 1977 NUMBER 4

EDITOR:

W.H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830
ARCHIVIST:

R.G. Eaves, Department of History, Auburn University, Auburn AL36830
EDITORIAL BOARD:

R.T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany and Microbiology,
Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830

E.A. Curl, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn University,
Auburn, AL 36830

G.M. Emerson, Department of Biochemistry, L^niversity of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL .35294

ADVISORY BOARD:

W.L. Alford , Auburn University
Charles Baugh, Univ. South Alabama
G.F. Brockman, LIniv. Ala., B’ham
R.J. Fornaro, Univ. South Alabama
A. Wayne Lacy, Auburn Univ., Mtgy.

Walker 11. iMtid, ]r., IBM
H. S. Marks, N.E. St. Jr. Col.
M. Miller, Univ. South Alabama
W.W. Paudler, II A, Tuscaloosa
Dan Whitson, Decatur

E.M. Wilson, Univ. South Alabama

The J ournal is the official publication of the Alabama Academy of Science,
and is indexed in Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, America: 1 listory
and Life, and Historical Abstracts

Publication and Subscription Policies

Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent cor¬
respondence to the EDI LOR. For style details, follow Instruction to Authors,
J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 48:42-43, 1977.

Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.

Subscriptions and ] ournal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the
CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD.

Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news releases w ill not be
published in the Journal.

CONTENTS

ARTICLES

Range Extension of Phagocata bursaperforata

(Turbeliaria, Tricladida) into an
Alabama Cave

Jerry H. Carpenter . 164

Comparative Food Habits of Sinai lmouth and Largemouth
Basses in Pickwick Reservoir

Wayne A. Hubert . 167

Spring Stomach Contents of Lepomis from the
Wilson Dam Tailwater

Robert L. Warden, Jr. and Wayne A. Hubert . 179

Optimal Design of Structural Trusses Using
Dynamic Programming

James N. Hool and Paul A. Darden . 184

The Integration of Experience and Theory
in Physics Teaching

D. Lee A1 1 i son . 190

Kolb Versus Oates: The Alabama Gubernatorial
Election of 1894

Karl Rodabaugh . 193

Electricity Use in Alabama by Income Class with
Implications Regarding the Effectiveness of
Lifeline Rate Structures

A. Wayne Lacy and Donald R. Street . 218

INDEX . 231

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 4, October, 1977.

RANGE EXTENSION OF Phagoaata bursaperforata

(TURBELLARIA , TRICLADIDA) INTO AN
ALABAMA CAVEl

Jerry H. Carpenter

Department of Biological Sciences , Northern Kentucky University
Highland. Heights, KY 41076

Abstract. The distribution of Phagoaata bursaperforata (Turbel-
laria, Tricladida) is extended more than 100 miles from the previously
known range of surface pools on granite outcrops in DeKalb and Rockdale
counties, Georgia, to include Eudy Cave, Marshall County, Alabama. Sur¬
face pool and cave pool habitats are compared. Species dispersal is
hypothesized to be by normal surface mechanisms rather than by ground
water movement.

INTRODUCTION

Phagoaata bursaperforata Darlington, 1959, was originally discov¬
ered living in small pools on granite outcrops in Georgia. Darlington
collected his type specimens from pools on Stone Mountain, DeKalb
County, Georgia. He also found specimens on Mount Panola, Rockdale
County, Georgia. The only other known locality is over 100 miles away
in Eudy Cave, Marshall County, Alabama, where I collected many specimens
on 10 May 1969.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Phagoaata bursaperforata is a slender planarian (Fig. 1) about 1 mm
wide and usually less than 14 mm long. The anterior margin of the head
is slightly convex with long auricles projecting antero-1 aterally . Eyes
and pigment are lacking. It differs from all other Phagoaata in that it
has a bursa-intestinal duct, which connects the bursa with the right
posterior intestinal trunk. It can also be distinguished from other
North American Phagoaata by the following combination of characters:
elongate auricles, absence of eyes, and prepharyngeal testes.

•>

Fig. 1. Phagoaata bursaperforata live after feeding on chips of dried
blood.

1

Manuscript received 25 April

1977; accepted 26 July 1977.

164

Jerry H. Carpenter
DISCUSSION

While collecting the worms from quiet rimstone pools just past the
twilight zone in Eudy Cave, I noted the long auricles, which immediately
reminded me of the cave alloeocoel Geocentrophora oavernicola (Carpen¬
ter 1970); but the position of the pharynx was definitely that of a tri-
clad. Then I realized that these specimens also resembled drawings and
descriptions I had seen of P. bursaperforata. Serial sections of six
specimens confirmed the diagnostic characteristics. In April 1970 I
collected P. bursaperforata from surface pools on Mount Panola to fur¬
ther confirm the identification; specimens from Eudy Cave are indis¬
tinguishable from Mount Panola specimens.

These two habitats are strikingly different in several respects.
While caves have a tendency to be constant in light, temperature, and
humidity, the granite outcrops are subject to strong fluctuations in all
of these. The sunlight is so intense that Darlington noted daily fluc¬
tuations in water temperature on the slopes as much as from 0° to 18°C.
From April to November the pools become dry and baked most of the time.
Perhaps the only major characteristic these two habitats have in common
is that they are marginal habitats where primary productivity, food, and
competition are scarce. As Darlington (1959) noted, other planarians
are scarce on the outcrops and probably cannot survive from season to
season .

It appears that P. bursaperforata is better adapted to the cave en¬
vironment than to the granite outcrop pools both morphologically (with
the lack of eyes and pigment) and physiologically (with the preference
for cooler and more constant conditions). Darlington (1959) noted that
his specimens remained alive at room temperature for only about 3 weeks,
but at 15°-17°C they survived more than 3J months. I have maintained
specimens from Eudy Cave at 13°C for over a year. During this period
they fed readily on my standard culture food, chips of dried blood.
Neither Darlington nor I observed any signs of encystment as is fre¬
quently characteristic of worms prone to inhabit small bodies of water
that either become very warm or dry up during some seasons. Cave pla¬
narians do not encyst because the high humidity in caves makes this un¬
necessary. It should also be noted that the population density of P.
bursaperforata in the surface pools was much lower than in the cave
pools where approximately 100 specimens were collected in about i hour.

With these observations in mind, it does not seem strange to find
P. bursaperforata in a cave, but it is more of a problem to explain its
existence on the granite outcrops. There are no caves in the area that
might serve as sanctuaries. Although the other turbel larians on the
outcrops have special mechanisms to help them survive desiccation in
the summer months (the alloeocoel Geooentrophora marousi Darlington,
1959, encysts readily, and the rhabdocoel Mesostoma georgianum Darling¬
ton, 1959, lays resistant eggs), P. bursaperforata apparently does not.
In order for it to survive it probably burrows deep into the mud and
debris at the bottom of pools located at the base of the granite out¬
crops. Phagooata bursaperforata is considerably less numerous in pools
on the granite slopes than in pools at the base, which contain water
during longer periods of the year (Darlington 1959).

165

Phagocata i n an A1 abama Cave

If we accept the hypothesis that P. bursaperforata is cave adapted
and that caves are its normal habitat, we need to explain not only how
it can survive in the granite outcrop area but also how it managed to
get there from a cave area. If this were a troglobitic species (i.e.,
one so adapted to cave life that it is confined to caves), its disjunct
range would have to be explained either by recent travel through ground
water or by the survival of relict populations that were at one time
(perhaps thousands of years ago) members of a more widespread population.
But P. bursaperforata obviously is not troglobitic since it occurs on
the granite outcrops year after year. Therefore, although we cannot
rule out the travel by ground water and relict population mechanisms,
it is perhaps more likely that these worms are (or were) dispersed by
the usual surface mechanisms such as normal movements through rivers
and streams or via the feet of aquatic birds.

Although Darlington (1959) stated that he could not find P. bursa-
perforta in the surrounding area, it seems likely that it does exist in
areas other than Eudy Cave and the granite outcrops. I predict that
some day other populations of P. bursaperforata will be found in simi¬
lar marginal habitats in northern Georgia and Alabama.

Acknowledgements. Financial support for this study was provided
in part by summer research fellowships during 1969 and 1970, a doctoral
research travel grant during 1969, and a Haggin Predoctoral Fellowship
during the 1969-70 school year. I am grateful for these funds which
were received from the University of Kentucky and for the support of my
advisor. Dr. Thomas C. Barr, Jr. Suggestions for improvement of the
manuscript were provided by Dr. Roman Kenk of the Smithsonian Institu¬
tion, Dr. Julian Darlington of Southwestern at Memphis, and Dr. John W.
Thieret of Northern Kentucky University.

LITERATURE CITED

Carpenter, Jerry H. 1970. Geocentrophora cavernicola n. sp. (Turbel-

laria, A1 1 oeocoel a ) : First cave alloeocoel. Trans. Am. Microscop.

Soc. 89(1): 124-133.

Darlington, J. T. 1959. The Turbellaria of two granite outcrops in

Georgia. Am. Midland Naturalist 61: 257-294.

166

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 4, October, 1977.

COMPARATIVE FOOD HABITS OF SMALLMOUTH AND LARGEMOUTH
BASSES IN PICKWICK RESERVOIR1’2

Wayne A. Hubert, Biologist

Division of Forestry , Fisheries , and Wildlife Development
Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660

Abstract. The stomach contents are described for 432 smallmouth
bass and 558 largemouth bass collected from Pickwick Reservoir by ang¬
ling and electrofishing. Significant differences in the frequency of
empty stomachs relative to season, but not relative to fish length,
were noted for both species. Substantial differences in the relative
volume of various components of the diet were observed with increasing
length in smallmouth bass; smaller changes were found in largemouth
bass. Observations indicate that differences in the relative mouth
size of the two species of bass may lead to differences in food habits
of the coexisting bass populations in Pickwick Reservoir. Seasonal
fluctuations in composition of the diet were similar for both species.

INTRODUCTION

The sport fish harvest of black bass from Pickwick Reservoir is
dominated by smallmouth bass ( Micropterus dolomieui) and largemouth bass
(Micropterus salmoides) . Hubert (1976) has indicated that the growth of
smallmouth bass in the reservoir is exceptionally fast, while growth of
largemouth bass is slow relative to other southeastern impoundments.
Smallmouth bass are distributed throughout the reservoir, but the ma¬
jority caught by fishermen are within the upstream 20 km of the 75 km-
long impoundment. Largemouth bass are abundant in population surveys
and in the sport fish catch over the entire reservoir. The coexistence
of populations of smallmouth and largemouth basses in the same body of
water allows a comparison of food habits and .evaluation of the competi¬
tion for food between these two closely related species. The purpose of
this paper is to describe the food habits of the two bass species and to
evaluate the similarities and differences in their diet.

STUDY AREA

Pickwick Reservoir is a 17,400-ha mainstream impoundment on the
Tennessee River. The reservoir is bordered by the states of Alabama,
Mississippi, and Tennessee. Pickwick Reservoir is a relatively old
impoundment; the dam was closed in 1938. Pickwick Dam, located at

Manuscript received 4 May 1977; accepted 16 August 1977.

2

This article is a Government publication and not subject to copy¬
right.

167

Food Habits of Bass in Pickwick Reservoir

Tennessee River Mile (TRM) 206.7, is the second in a series of main¬
stream dams. The upstream boundary of Pickwick Reservoir is Wilson Dam,
located at Florence, Alabama, at TRM 259.4. Wilson Dam discharges a
mean annual volume of approximately 1,000 m^/s into Pickwick Reservoir.
From Wilson Dam downstream to approximately TRM 247 (20 km distance),
the Tennessee River flows within its original banks and is distinctly
riverine in nature. Below TRM 247, the river spreads out to inundate
overbank areas and the velocity of flow declines to form a more reser¬
voir-like habitat.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Specimens were collected by angling and electrofishing throughout
Pickwick Reservoir. Fish stomachs were collected by a creel clerk from
anglers on the headwaters of Pickwick Reservoir and in bass fishing
tournaments throughout the reservoir. Angler-harvested fish accounted
for 78 percent of the total sample. Electrofishing was utilized pri¬
marily to supplement the angler-harvested samples during low-harvest
fishing periods, especially late fall to midwinter, and to obtain speci¬
mens smaller than the size caught by fishermen. All stomach samples
were gathered between April 1973 and September 1975.

Specimens were weighed, measured, and sexed in the field. Stom¬
achs, including intestines and attached viscera, were removed and placed
in individual jars with 10 percent formalin. In the laboratory, the
stomachs were washed to remove excess formalin and cut longitudinally
to remove the contents. Food items were separated by taxa and enumer¬
ated, and volume was determined in graduated cylinders after each taxon
was drained and blotted.

For comparative purposes, food items were categorized as decapods,
insects, clupeids, other identified fishes, unidentified fishes, and
other food items. The percent by volume and the percent frequency of
occurrence in stomachs containing food items of each category were de¬
termined for both species over five length intervals from 100 to 599 mm
and over the four seasons.

Statistical comparisons of the qualitative and quantitative nature
of each species' diet relative to total body length and season were per¬
formed. Statistical methods included Chi-square analysis, nonparametric
linear regression, and normal theory linear regression. A probability
of 0.05 was chosen for critical values of all applied tests.

RESULTS

Stomachs from 432 smallmouth bass and 558 largemouth bass between
100 and 599 mm total length were examined. One hundred eighty-four
smallmouth bass and 244 largemouth bass contained food items.

Quantitative Comparisons

A 2 x 2 contingency Chi-square analysis (Steel and Torrie 1960) did
not show a significant difference (0.05 < p < 0.10) in the proportion of
empty stomachs of largemouth bass taken by the two collection techniques.

168

Wayne A. Hubert

but a significant difference in the smaiimouth bass collection methods
(p < 0.01) was indicated. Only 27 of 95 smaiimouth bass stomachs ob¬
tained by electrofishing contained food items. Sixty-three of the smaii¬
mouth bass were collected by electrofishing between November 1 and Febru¬
ary 29; 32 were obtained during the remainder of the year. Eighty-seven
percent of the November through February samples were empty compared to
48 percent during the eight other months. These observations indicate
that the significant difference in the frequency of empty stomachs be¬
tween angler-harvested and electrofishing smaiimouth bass samples was
not a function of collection technique but a result of the high propor¬
tion of electrofishing samples collected during cold weather when feed¬
ing activity was reduced. Angler harvested and electrofishing samples
were, therefore, pooled for the purpose of comparing the frequency of
empty stomachs between length groups and seasons.

Possible differences in the frequency of empty stomachs among 100
mm length groups between 100 and 599 mm were tested using nonparametric
linear regression in a 5 x 2 table (Steel and Torrie 1960). No statis¬
tically significant difference in the frequency of empty stomachs was
shown between the five length groups for either smaiimouth bass (0.60 <
p < 0.70) or largemouth bass (0.10 < p < 0.20).

To determine if a statistically significant difference in the fre¬
quency of empty stomachs occurred among the four seasons, a Chi-square
test of independence was utilized. A statistically significant differ¬
ence was observed between seasons in both smaiimouth bass (p < 0.01) and
largemouth bass (p < 0.01). The lowest frequency of empty stomachs was
observed in winter samples (37 percent for both species) and the highest
in the fall collections (82 and 81 percent for smaiimouth bass and
largemouth bass, respectively). Spring and summer samples were 54 and
60 percent empty among the smallmouths and 51 and 55 percent empty among
the largemouths.

Qualitative Comparisons

Length Related Trends

The percent by volume and the percent frequency of occurrence of
six food item categories over five length intervals for smaiimouth and
largemouth basses are presented in Table 1. Relations between the per¬
cent by volume of three food item categories and length were defined by
linear regression. For smaiimouth bass, the relations between percent
by volume of (1) decapods (Ds), (2) insects (Is), and (3) all fish (Fs)
with increasing total length (Ls) in mm are as follows:

(1) Ds = 58.5 - 0.11 Ls (r* 1 2 3 = 0.90)

(2) Is = 12.2 - 0.02 Ls (r2 = 0.74)

(3) Fs = 26.1 + 0.14 Ls (r2 = 0.90)

Length alone accounted for a high proportion of the variance in the

quantitative composition of smaiimouth bass food.

169

Food Habits of Bass in Pickwick Reservoir

Table 1. Percent by volume (1) and percent frequency of occurrence (2) of major food items
in five size classes of smailmouth bass and largemouth bass, Pickwick Reservoir.

Smailmouth Bass

Food items

Length Class (mm)

100-

199

200-

299

300-

399

400

-499

500-599

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

2

1 2

Decapods

47. 5

35.7

24.7

36.8

14.5

24. 7

3.2

11. 1

0.5 6.7

Insects

8. 5

35.7

8.7

21.1

0.6

4.9

0. 1

5.6

0.6 20.0

Clupeids

7. 1

3.6

37.3

23.7

63.5

43.2

70.2

44.4

37.4 53.3

Other identified fish

16.3

14.3

16.5

13.2

10. 2

16.0

15. 5

11.1

53.3 30.0

Unidentified fish

17.0

35.7

12.7

26.3

11.0

30.9

9.7

41.7

8.2 20.0

Other food items

3.5

3.6

0. 1

5.3

0. 1

3.7

1.3

2.8

0. 0 0. 0

Total sample size

24

97

207

75

29

Number empty

10

59

126

39

14

Largemouth Bass

100-

199

200-

299

300-

399

400

-499

500-599

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

2

1 2

Decapods

0.9

n. i

13.4

15. 0

3.7

10.5

0.5

3.6

* 3.8

Insects

1.9

44.4

0.3

10.0

0.2

10. 5

*

8.9

0.0 0.0

Clupeids

78.3

44.4

52. 1

30.0

59.8

48.8

80.2

60.7

87.9 53.8

Other identified fish

18.9

22.2

22.0

30.0

31.9

18. 0

12.4

12. 5

10.3 14.5

Unidentified fish

0. 0

0.0

12. 0

45. 0

2.7

18.0

5. 5

16.3

1.7 30.8

Other food items

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.6

0.8

1.3

1.8

0.1 3.8

Total sample size

14

39

330

117

56

Number empty

5

19

197

61

30

’Calculated value less than 0. 05.

170

Wayne A. Hubert

For largemouth bass, the percent by volume of (1) decapods ( Dg ) ,
(2) insects (I]), and (3) all fish (F-|) changed very little with in¬
creasing length (L]). The calculated regressions for the largemouth
bass were:

(1) D] = 8.84 - 0.01 L] (r2 = 0.17)

(2) I] = 1.91 - 0.004 L-, (r? = 0.64)

(3) F, = 89.2 + 0.01 L] (r2 = 0.25)

The percent frequency occurrence of the three major food classes

Ii.e., decapods, insects, and fishes) was related to length of small-
mouth bass and largemouth bass. Nonparametric linear regression in a
5x2 table was utilized to determine if the frequency of occurrence of
decapods, insects, and all fishes changed with increasing bass length.
For smallmouth bass between 100 and 599 mm, the calculated Chi-square
values and associated slopes indicated a statistically significant de¬
crease in the occurrence of decapods (p < 0.01) and insects (0.02 < p <
0.05) and a significant increase in fish (p < 0.01) with increasing
length. For largemouth bass, a statistically significant increase in
frequency occurrence of fish (p < 0.01) was observed, while the fre¬
quency of insects (p < 0.01) decreased with increasing total length.

No statistically significant change in decapod frequency (0.05 < p <
0.10) was noted.

Seasonal Trends

The seasonal composition of the diet by percent volume and percent
frequency of occurrence for both bass species is presented in Table 2.
Fishes and decapods dominated the winter diet of smallmouth bass, while
insects were completely lacking. During winter, the highest volume and
occurrence of Dorosoma of any season were observed. Seventy-seven per¬
cent of the Dorosoma consumed during the winter were threadfin shad [D.
petenense) . The spring food of smallmouth bass was also dominated by
clupeids; both the volume and frequency occurrence of decapods increased
over the winter. In spring, insects occurred in 17.8 percent of the
stomachs containing food items but comprised only 5.0 percent of the to¬
tal spring food volume. Summer samples showed continued utilization of
decapods and insects as a small portion of the diet, but fish dominated
by volume and frequency occurrence. By volume, the summer food was
primarily fishes other than clupeids, especially sunfish ( Lepomis spp.)
and freshwater drum ( Aplodinotus grunniens) . During fall, a decline in
both the volume and occurrence of decapods was observed, while utiliza¬
tion of fishes other than clupeids increased. Clupeids occurred in 21.4
percent of the stomachs and comprised 25.2 percent of the volume of fall
food items. Fishes other than clupeids were observed in 14.3 percent of
the stomachs and comprised 66.3 percent of the total volume.

Seasonal patterns were also evident in largemouth bass. Clupeids
domonated the diet of largemouth bass throughout the year; however,
significant changes in the volume and occurrence of clupeids were noted
over the seasons. Clupeids comprised 85.5 percent of the winter food by
volume, but fishes other than clupeids and decapods also occurred during
the winter. Spring food was essentially the same as winter food, except

171

Food Habits of Bass in Pickwick Reservoir

Table 2. Percent by volume (1) and percent frequency of occurrence (2) of major food
items by the four calendar seasons for smallmouth bass and largemouth bass,
Pickwick Reservoir.

Smallmouth Bass

Winter

Spring

Summer

Fall

Food items

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

2

Decapods

10.2

21.3

12.2

27.8

6.5

24.2

0.8

14.3

Insects

0.0

0.0

5.0

17.3

4.1

15.2

*

7.1

Clupeids

67.1

68.1

59.3

27.8

22.2

21. 2

25.2

21.4

Other identified fish

13. 0

10.6

11.4

17.8

36.0

12.1

66.3

14.3

Unidentified fish

9.7

38.3

9.2

22.0

31.0

45. 5

7. 6

34. 5

Other food items

0. 0

0.0

2.6

7.8

0.0

0.0

0.0

0. 0

Total sample size

75

196

82

79

Number empty

28

106

49

65

Largemouth Bass

Winter

Spring

Summer

Fall

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

2

Decapods

3.2

13.5

C. 5

3.4

1. 1

5.9

8.5

33.3

Insects

0.0

0.0

*

5.7

0.3

15.7

0.1

16.7

Clupeids

85.5

64.9

90.1

58.6

42.9

39. 2

87. 5

33.3

Other identified fish

8.1

13.5

5.3

10.3

46.2

24.5

0.3

5.6

Unidentified fish

3.2

24.3

2.9

20.7

7.6

24. 5

3.7

22. 2

Other food items

0.0

0.0

1.2

2.3

1.9

1. 0

0. 0

0. 0

Total sample size

59

176

226

97

Number empty

22

89

124

79

♦Calculated value less than 0.05.

172

Wayne A. Hubert

decapods declined and insects appeared (less than 0.05 percent of vol¬
ume) in the diet. A significant change in diet occurred among the large-
mouth bass in summer. The occurrence of invertebrates and fishes other
than clupeids increased substantially; fishes other than clupeids, pri¬
marily centrarchids and freshwater drum comprised 46.2 percent of the
volume of summer food. In the fall increased utilization of decapods
and insects and a decline in fishes other than clupeids was noted.
Clupeids made up 87.5 percent by volume of the fall diet.

Diet Composition

Qualitatively, the smallmouth bass diet was varied. Decapods con¬
sisted primarily of crayfish of the genus Orconectes ; of 36 crayfish
identified, 32 were Orconeates and four were Cambarus . The insects
consumed by smallmouth bass were primarily Plecoptera (56 percent by
number); but Odonata and Ephemeroptera (28 and 9 percent, respectively)
were also abundant. Coleoptera, Diptera, and Trichoptera made up the
remaining 7 percent. With the exception of a few beetles, all insect
food items were immature aquatic forms.

The clupeids consumed by Pickwick Reservoir smallmouth bass were
Dorosoma petenense (threadfin shad), Dorosoma cepedianiwi (gizzard shad),
and Alosa chrysochloris (skipjack herring). Eighty-two clupeids were
identified: 50 threadfin shad, 28 gizzard shad, and 4 skipjack herring.
Threadfin shad appeared to be utilized more than gizzard shad in small
size smallmouth bass; all shad in smallmouth bass less than 300 mm were
threadfin shad. Threadfin shad comprised 65 percent by number of Doro¬
soma in 300-399 mm smallmouths, while a 1:1 ratio of the two shad spe¬
cies was observed in smallmouth bass exceeding 400 mm.

Other fishes utilized were Cyprinidae, Sciaenidae, Centrarchidae,
Ictaluridae, and Percidae. Minnows and freshwater drum composed 37 per¬
cent each of identified fish other than clupeids. Minnows of the genera
Notropis , Hybopsis , and Pimephales were identified from smallmouth bass
stomachs. Centrarchids were composed of Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill),
Lepomis megalotis (longear sunfish), Lepomis microlophus (redear sun-
fish), and a single smallmouth bass fingerling.

The qualitative food habits of largemouth bass did not differ
greatly from the smallmouth bass. All identified decapods were Orco-
nectes. Insects utilized were Ephemeroptera (34 percent by number),
Odonata (24 percent), Coleoptera (21 percent), Diptera (19 percent),
and Plecoptera (2 percent). Identified clupeids consisted of 72 thread¬
fin shad, 40 gizzard shad, and two skipjack herring. As in smallmouth
bass, a greater utilization of threadfin shad than gizzard shad was
noted in small size largemouth bass. Seventy percent of the Dorosoma in
largemouth bass less than 300 mm were threadfin shad. In largemouths of
the 300-399 mm class, 72 percent were threadfin shad; they also accounted
for 57 percent of the Dorosoma in specimens over 400 mm. Centrarchidae,
Sciaenidae, Cyprinidae, Cypri nodontidae , Ictaluridae, and Percidae were
identified from largemouth bass stomachs. Forty-eight percent of the
identified fishes other than clupeids were centrarchids. Bluegills,
longear sunfish, and redear sunfish were the most abundant centrarchids.
Two smallmouth bass finger! ings and one largemouth bass fingerling were

173

Food Habits of Bass in Pickwick Reservoir

identified. Freshwater drum comprised 27 percent and cyprinids 17 per¬
cent by number of the identified fish other than clupeids.

DISCUSSION

Of the 432 smallmouth bass stomachs examined from Pickwick Reser¬
voir, 57 percent were empty. The frequency of occurrence of empty
smallmouth bass stomachs is not well documented. Doan (1940) indicated
a range of from 13 percent empty in 6-9 inch smallmouth bass to 50 per¬
cent empty in fish 15 inches or greater. Tate (1949) observed a differ¬
ence in the frequency of empty stomachs (13.5 to 34.4 percent) among
four streams. Webster (1954) found 64 percent of the smallmouth bass
stomachs empty in fish collected from Cayuga Lake, New York, and further
noted differences in the frequency of empty stomachs related to the site
of col 1 ecti on .

Fifty-six percent of the Pickwick Reservoir largemouth bass stom¬
achs were empty. Snow (1971) observed that 68 percent of the largemouth
bass caught by anglers from Wisconsin's Murphy Flowage had empty stom¬
achs. Zweiacker and Summerfelt (1974) found 55 percent of the large¬
mouth stomachs, analyzed by gastroscope, were empty in an Oklahoma reser¬
voir. When they related their observation to four other largemouth bass
studies using the same methods (Dubets 1954, Schnei dermeyer and Lewis
1956, Moehn 1956, and Lambou 1961), they found that the frequency ranged
from 49.3 to 61.0 percent.

The findings of Doan (1940) suggest that the frequency of empty
stomachs in smallmouth bass may be positively correlated to the length
of the fish. Lewis et al . (1974) found the percent of empty largemouth
bass stomachs was independent of the size. The frequency of empty stom¬
achs fluctuated over the five length groups of both smallmouth and large¬
mouth bass from Pickwick Reservoir. A statistically significant trend
was not shown in either of the bass species.

Within Pickwick Reservoir the highest frequency of empty (small-
mouth and largemouth bass) stomachs occurred in the fall (82 and 81 per¬
cent empty, respectively). The high frequency of empty stomachs may
have reflected decreased feeding activity or a relative scarcity of
vulnerable forage during the fall period. The lowest frequency of empty
stomachs (37 percent for both species) was observed during winter. The
majority of bass in the winter sample were collected between February 1
and March 21. During this interval, extensive mortality of threadfin
shad occurs on the Tennessee River. The high vulnerability of dying
threadfin shad and the reduced digestive rate of the basses caused by
low water temperatures may have accounted for the low frequency of empty
stomachs during the winter. The frequency of empty stomachs during
spring and summer was similar to the average for both species; however,
the spring frequency was less than that observed in the summer for both
species .

Of all the smallmouth bass stomachs containing food, 67 percent had
a single food item in the stomach. Seventy percent of the largemouth
bass stomachs with food contained only one forage organism. Lewis et
al . ( 1974) observed that 90 percent of the largemouth bass from Crab

174

Wayne A. Hubert

Orchard Reservoir contained only one food item. Seasonal variation in
the number of food items in the stomach was noted in both bass species.
The smallest percentage of fish consuming a single food item occurren
during the winter for both smallmouth (42 percent) and largemouth (43
percent) basses. Over the other three seasons, the percentage was much
higher in both smallmouth (66-86 percent) and largemouth (76-78 percent)
basses. The low frequency of stomachs containing a single food item
during the winter is attributed to predation upon moribund threadfin
shad during late winter when the majority of basses collected had multi¬
ple shad (2-20) in the stomach.

In past food-habit analyses, smallmouth bass have often been char¬
acterized as being less piscivorous and more benthophagic than large¬
mouth bass. The change in diet of smallmouth bass fingerlings with in¬
creasing size is well documented (Wichliff 1920, Tester 1932, Doan 1940,
Lachner 1950, Webster, 1954, Applegate et al . 1966, Mullan and Applegate
1967, and Warden and Hubert, in press). The present Pickwick Reservoir
study shows a significant change in the composition of the diet of ju¬
venile and adult smallmouth bass with increased length. Most previous
smallmouth bass studies have generalized smallmouth bass food habits for
bigger than fingerlings (Tester 1932, Surber 1941, Webster 1954, and
Mullan and Applegate 1967). Doan (1940) observed a gradual switch from
decapods and insects to fish with increasing length from 3 to 15 inches
(7.5 to 35 cm). The observations of Doan are corroborated by this study.
At 100-199 mm, the volume of the smallmouth bass diet is made up of ap¬
proximately 50 percent fish, 40 percent decapods, and 10 percent in¬
sects. When the smal Imouths attain 300-399 mm, the diet is composed of
approximately 75 percent fish, 20 percent decapods, and 5 percent in¬
sects. In smallmouth bass over 500 mm, more than 95 percent of the diet
was fish.

Many investigators have found a change in largemouth bass food
habits with increasing fingerling size (Murphy 1949, Mullan and Apple-
gate 1967, Chew 1974, Applegate et al . 1967, Goodson 1965, Kramer and
Smith 1960, Hodson and Strawn 1969, McCammon et al . 1964, and Pasch
1974). Pickwick Reservoir samples indicate that 60-99 mm largemouth
bass fingerlings are highly piscivorous with fish occurring in 65 per¬
cent of the stomachs (Warden and Hubert, in press, Tenn. Acad. Sci.).

A statistically significant change in the frequency occurrence of fish
and insects between 100 and 599 mm was still noted.

In many ways, the food habits of Pickwick Reservoir smallmouth and
largemouth basses were similar. The frequency of empty stomachs in
both species was almost identical, and the qualitative nature of the
diet in both species was quite similar. Although the species were dif¬
ferent in respect to the volume and frequency occurrence of different
food items eaten at a given length, the composition of the smallmouth
bass diet at a given interval was remarkably similar to the next shorter
largemouth bass interval. An exception occurs with the 100-199 mm
largemouth bass, but a small sample of only fourteen specimens may have
biased the results. An example of the similarity is taken from the 300-
399 mm smallmouth bass compared to the 200-299 mm largemouth bass.
Smallmouth bass of 300-399 mm consumed 14.5 percent decapods, 0.6 per¬
cent insects, and 63.5 percent clupeids by volume; largemouth bass of

175

Food Habits of Bass in Pickwick Reservoir

200-299 mm consumed 13.4 percent decapods, 0.3 percent insects, and 52.1
percent clupeids. A high positive correlation is observed between the
percent by volume of decapods, insects, clupeids, and all fishes in the
diet of 300-399 and 400-499 mm smallmouth bass and the next shorter
length interval of largemouth bass.

Mouth size can determine the size of various forage organisms which
can readily be swallowed by bass (Lawrence 1957). The observations of
this study suggest that differences in the relative mouth size of the
two bass species may lead to differences in food habits of Pickwick Re¬
servoir fishes. At least two possibilities are implied: (1) species
differences in distribution or behavior may not be highly significant in
governing the diet of reservoir basses or (2) the various forage organ¬
isms are available in the specialized habitats utilized by each bass
species within the reservoir. Further evaluation of the relation be¬
tween mouth size, diet, and habitat selection of each species is needed
to reveal the competitive aspects of coexisting bass populations in
reservoi rs .

LITERATURE CITED

Applegate, R. L., J. W. Mullan, and D. I. Morais. 1967. Food and
growth of six centrarchids from shoreline areas of Bull Shoals
Reservoir. Proc. S.E. Assoc. Game Fish Comm. 20: 469-482.

Chew, R. L. 1974. Early life history of the Florida largemouth bass.
Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Comm. (Fishery Bull. No. 7).

76 pp.

Doan, K. H. 1940. Studies of the smallmouth bass. J. Wildlife Manage.
4(3): 241-266.

Dubets, H. 1954. Feeding habits of the largemouth bass as revealed by
a gastroscope. Prog. Fish-Cult. 16(3): 134-136.

Goodson, Lee F., Jr. 1965. Diets of four warmwater game fishes in a
fluctuating, steep-sided California reservoir. Calif. Fish Game
51(4): 259-269.

Godson, R. G. and K. Strawn. 1969. Food of young-of-the-year largemouth
and spotted bass during the filling of Beaver Reservoir, Arkansas.
Proc. S.E. Assoc. Game Fish Comm. 22: 510-516.

Hubert, W. A. 1976. Age and growth of three black bass species in Pick¬
wick Reservoir. Proc. 29th Ann. Conf., S.E. Assoc. Game Fish Comm.
29: 126-134.

Kramer, R. H. and L. L. Smith, Jr. 1960. The early life history of
the largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, and some related eco¬
logical factors. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 89(2): 222-233.

Lachner, E. A. 1950. Food, growth, and habits of fingerling northern
smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieui dolomieui Lacepede, in trout
waters of western New York. J. Wildlife Manage. 14(1): 50-55.

176

Wayne A. Hubert

Lambou, V. W. 1961. Utilization of macrocrustaceans for food by fresh¬
water fishes in Louisiana and its effects on the determination of
predator-prey relations. Prog. Fish-Cult. 23(1): 18-25.

Lawrence, J. W. 1958. Estimated sizes of various forage fishes large-
mouth bass can swallow. Proc. S.E. Assoc. Game Fish Comm. 11: 220-
225.

Lewis, W. M., R. Heidinger, W. Kirk, W. Chapman, and D. Johnson. 1974.
Food habits of the largemouth bass. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 103(2):
277-280.

McCammon, G. W., D. La Faunce, and C. M. Seeley. 1964. Observations
on the food of fingerling largemouth bass in Clear Lake, Lake
County, California. Calif. Fish Game 50(3): 158-169.

Moehn, L. D. 1956. Demonstration of low vulnerability of forage fishes
to predator fishes. M.S. Thesis, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale. 22 pp.

Mullan, J. W. and R. L. Applegate. 1967. Food habits of five centrar-
chids during filling of Beaver Reservoir, 1965-66. U.S. Dept. In¬
terior, Bur. Spt. Fish Wildlife Tech. Paper No. 50. 16 pp.

Murphy, G. 0. 1949. The food of young largemouth black bass ( Miorop -
terus salmoides ) in Clear Lake, California. Calif. Fish Game 35:
159-163.

Pasch, R. W. 1975. Some relationships between habits and growth of
largemouth bass in Lake Blackshear, Georgia. Proc. S.E. Assoc.

Game Fish Comm. 28(1974): 307-321.

Schneidermeyer , F. and W. M. Lewis. 1956. Utilization of gizzard shad
by largemouth bass. Prog. Fish-Cult. 18(3): 137-138.

Snow, H. E. 1971. Harvest and feeding habits of largemouth bass in
Murphy Flowage, Wisconsin. Wisconsin Dep. Natur. Res. Tech. Bull.
50. 25 pp.

Steel, R. G. D. and J. H. Torrie. 1960. Principles and procedures of
statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 481 pp.

Surber, E. W. 1941. A quantitative study of the food of the smallmouth
black bass, Mioropterus dolomieui, in three eastern streams. Trans.
Am. Fish. Soc. 70: 311-334.

Tate, W. H. 1949. Growth and food habit studies of smallmouth black
bass in some Iowa streams. Iowa St. Coll., Jour. Sci . 23(4): 343-
354.

Tester, A. L. 1932. Food of smallmouth bass ( Micropterus dolomieui) in
some Ontario waters. Univ. Toronto Studies, Biol. Series No. 36,
Pub. Ont. Fish. Res. Lab. No. 46: 169-203.

177

Food Habits of Bass in Pickwick Reservoir

Webster, D. A. 1954. Smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieui, in Cayuga
Lake. Part I. Life history and environment. Cornell Univ. Agric.
Exp. Sta. Mim. 327. 39 pp.

Wichliff, E. L. 1920. Food of young smallmouth black bass in Lake
Eri . Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 50: 364-371.

Zweiacher, P. L. and R. C. Summerfelt. 1974. Seasonal variation in
food and die! periodicity in feeding of northern largemouth bass,
Miaropterus s. salmoides (Lacepede), in an Oklahoma Reservoir.

Proc. S.E. Assoc. Game Fish Comm. 27: 579-591.

178

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 4, October, 1977.

SPRING STOMACH CONTENTS OF Lepomis FROM
THE WILSON DAM TAILWATER1 >2

Robert L. Warden, Jr. and Wayne A. Hubert

Tennessee Valley Authority

Division of Forestry , Fisheries , and Wildlife Development
Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660

Abstract. The stomach contents are described for 181 bluegill and
211 longear sunfish collected in the spring from the Wilson Dam Tail-
water by electrofishing. Qualitative aspects of the fish's stomach
contents were described for 25 mm length intervals. Observations indi¬
cated that fish eggs and insects were the major components of the spring
diet.

INTRODUCTION

This study was performed to describe the spring food habits of
bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus (Rafinesque) , and longear sunfish, Lepomis
megalotis (Rafinesque) in the tailwater of a Tennessee River mainstream
impoundment. Special interest was focused on the extent of predation by
sunfish on fish eggs and larvae.

METHODS

Collections were made from the Wilson Dam tailwater near Florence,
Alabama. Wilson Dam, located at Tennessee River Mile (TRM) 259.4, dis¬
charges a mean annual volume of 1,000 m2/s into the tailwater. From
Wilson Dam downstream to approximately TRM 247, the Tennessee River flows
within its original banks and is riverine in nature. Below TRM 247, the
river inundates the flood plain and forms a more reservoir-like habitat
due to the influence of Pickwick Dam at TRM 206.7.

Bluegill and longear sunfish from 75 to 199 mm total length were
collected by electrofishing between March 10 and May 21, 1975. Fish
were placed on ice when collected and later transferred to 10 percent
formalin for storage. Twenty-five mm length groups were assigned and
stomach contents from all fish within a length group were pooled for
analysis (Borgeson 1966). Number and volume of each food type were
measured and recorded.

^Manuscript received 4 May 1977; accepted 16 August 1977.

2

This article is a Government publication and not subject to copy-

ri ght .

179

Stomach Contents of Lepomis
RESULTS

Analyses of 181 bluegill and 211 longear sunfish stomachs were per¬
formed (Tables 1 and 2). Fish eggs made up 67.2 percent of the total
number of food items and 59.2 percent of the total volume in bluegill,
and 56.1 percent by number and 3.7 percent by volume in longear sunfish.
Insects were abundant in the stomachs of both species. Insects accounted
for 27.1 percent by number and 32.1 percent by volume of food items in
bluegill, and 23.0 percent by number and 22.0 percent by volume in long¬
ear sunfish. The insect portion of the diet consisted almost exclusively
of Diptera, Ephemeroptera , Coleoptera, and Trichoptera. Chironomid
larvae and mayfly nymphs made up more than 90 percent of the number and
volume of insects. Decapods were important with respect to volume but
represented only 14 of 1,756 food items identified. Larval fish, iso¬
pods, mulloscs, arachnids, and annelids were also observed in the stom¬
achs .

DISCUSSION

Predation on fish eggs by Lepomis has been observed in reservoirs.
During the filling of Beaver Reservoir on the White River, Arkansas-
Missouri, fish eggs comprised up to 3 percent by volume of the stomach
contents in Lepomis for the April to June period (Mullan and Applegate
1968). In Bull Shoals Reservoir, an older reservoir on the White River,
fish eggs formed 23 percent by volume of the total annual stomach con¬
tents in 2.0 to 3.9-in (59-99 mm) longear sunfish and 3 percent in blue¬
gill. Fish eggs composed only 3 percent of the stomach contents in 4.0
to 7.9-in (102-201 mm) longear sunfish, but made up 19 percent of the

volume in bluegill of the same size (Applegate, et al . 1966). In a

California storage reservoir, fish eggs comprised 54.1 percent of the

total annual number of organisms (21.7 percent by volume) in 4.0 to

5.9- in (102-150 mm) bluegill and 68.1 percent (17.7 by volume) in 6.0 to

9.9- in (152-252 mm) specimens (Goodson 1965). Fish eggs could not be

identified with certainty; however, based on egg size and morphology the
majority of the eggs in Lepomis from the Wilson Dan tailwater were be¬
lieved to represent freshwater drum, Aplodinotus grunniens (Rafinesque) .

Very few larval fish were found in Lepomis from the Wilson Dam
tailwater. This agrees with observations made in previous reservoir
studies (Applegate, et al . 1970, Mullan and Applegate 1968, Goodson 1965).
It may be due to rapid digestion of fragile larva or reduced vulnerabil¬
ity of larval forms to predation of sunfish.

Within the Wilson Dam tailwater, bluegill and longear sunfish are
functioning as predators upon early life history stages of other fishes.
The impact of Lepomis predation upon other fish populations is not well
understood, but it may have significant influence in population dynamics
in reservoirs and their tailwaters.

LITERATURE CITED

Applegate, R. L., J. W. Mullan, and D. I. Morais. 1967. Food and growth
of six centrarchids from shoreline areas of Bull Shoals Reservoir.
Proc. Southeastern Assoc. Game and Fish Comm. 20: 469-482.

180

Table 1. Percent of total number and volume of food organisms in bluegill from the Wilson Dam Tailwater, March 10-

Robert L. Warden, Jr. and Wayne A. Hubert

181

Number examined 11 59 58 40 13 181

Table 2. Percent of total number and volume of food organisms In longear sunfish from the Wilson Dam Tailwater,
March 10-May 21, 1975.

Stomach Contents of Lepomis

182

Number examined 10 105 85 11 211

Robert L. Warden, Jr. and Wayne A. Hubert

Borgeson, D. P. 1966. A rapid method for food habit studies. Pages

143-144 i_n: Inland Fisheries Management. Alex Calhoun, Ed. State
of California, Department of Fish and Game.

Goodson, L. F. 1965. Diets of four warmwater game fishes in a fluctuat
ing, steep sided, California reservoir. Calif. Game and Fish 51(4)
259-269.

Mullan, J. W. and R. L. Applegate. 1968. Centrarchid food habits in a
new and old reservoir during and following bass spawning. Proc.
Southeastern Assoc. Game and Fish Comm. 21: 332-342.

183

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 4, October, 1977.

OPTIMAL DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL TRUSSES
USING DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

James N. Hool

Dept, of Industrial Engineering , Auburn University , Auburn, AL 26830

Paul A. Darden

Dept, of Building Saienoe, Auburn University , Auburn, AL 36830

INTRODUCTION

This paper discusses the problem of optimally designing structural
trusses using dynamic programming optimization methods. A general mathe¬
matical model of the design problem is formulated. The problem requires
that the truss weight, therefore cost, be minimized while meeting the
design restrictions of truss stiffness imposed by the designer. This
model is then reformulated into a dynamic programming format. A com¬
puter program has been written to implement the dynamic programming
optimization.

Trusses are often used in construction work, and their contribution
to the total weight of the structure can be significant. The weight
contribution of a truss depends on the number of truss members, their
lengths, and cross-sectional areas. In actual truss design, geometry of
the truss (i.e. the depth and panel locations) are pre-established by
purlin locations, depth limitations, etc. For any given truss the mini¬
mum cross-sectional areas and the maximum truss deflection can be estab¬
lished. Within these specified constraints a truss can then be designed
by determining the cross-sectional areas so that the total weight of the
truss is minimized. The truss design problem is thus one of determining
the optimum cross-sectional areas so that total truss weight is mini¬
mized, and all constraints on minimum cross-sectional areas and the truss
deflection are satisfied.

THE TRUSS DESIGN PROBLEM

The following diagram shows a simple structural truss with loading
and other characteristics given:

\

184

James N. Hool and Paul A. Darden

The truss is to be built with A36 steel (E = 29,000 ksi) which implies
an allowable tension strength of = 22 ksi, and allowable compression
strength of oc = 13 ksi (for the slenderness ratio in this particular
truss). The stiffness criterion for the truss permits an allowable de¬
flection at B of .3 inches.

Statis analysis of the truss is summarized as follows:

= 50 k + (by symmetry)

50 k

EFy = 0 ABg = 50 k T

AB = | (50) = 83.3 k
£Fh = 0 AC = j (50) = 66.7 k

Truss member selections, based on strength, involve selection of
minimum member areas to satisfy strength requirements. Hence, for AB &
BC we have

83.3/13 = 6.42 si

and for AC we have

66.7/22 = 3.02 si

Solution for deflection at B by virtual work where

- _ 12 „ PP'L

6 = T Z -j-

involves solution for the P' above by placing a unit load at B. Dia-
gramatically we have

4-

where R^'

5 by symmetry.

185

Optimal Design of Structural Trusses

ZFV = 0

AB,

.5

ZF,

H

AB = J (.5) = .83
0 AC = | (.5) = .67

As 6 is in inches, L in feet, and E is a constant

6 =

12

PP'L

29,000

we have the following tabular results
Truss

Member

L( ft. )

A( si )

P(k)

P ' (k/k)

PP'L/A

AB

25

6.42

-83.3

-.83

27.15

BC

25

6.42

-83.3

-.83

271 .5

AC

40

3.03

66.7

.67

587.5

_ PP'L

1 A

1 ,130

yields

r - 12

[1 ,130]

= .468

in. > .3 in.

c 29,000

and therefore

max

PP'L

,3

.468

[1,130] = 725

where

Next, solving for the relationship between areas and deflection

A-| = area of member AB and member BC
A^ = area of member AC

we have

186

James N.

Hool

and Paul A.

Darden

Truss

Member

L(ft. )

A( si

) P(k)

P1 (k/k)

PP'L/A

AB

25

A1

-83.3

-.83

1 ,743/A

BC

25

A1

-83.3

-.83

1,743/A.

AC

40

A2

66.7

.67

1 ,780/A,

Hence, we arrive at the design constraints

A] _> 6.42 si _ strength
Ao _> 3.02 si | requirements
11 )

3,486 + 1 ,780 < ^5 _ stiffness
A.| — requirement

and the objective function (which is to be minimized) given by

W = 50 A-jY + 40 A 2 y

where y is a constant to convert square inches of steel to dollars.
Letting (arbitrarily) y = 1, the objective function is written as

W = 50 A] + 40 A2.

The design problem thus is concisely stated in mathematical form as
Minimize W = 50 A-j +40
Subject to: A-j 6.42
A2 > 3.02

3,486 , 1,780 ^or
— + —K — 1 725
1 A2

and is obviously non-linear due to the last constraint.

The purpose of the above discussion was to illustrate the methods
to be employed in developing the mathematical model for a structural
truss design problem. The methods can be used for more complicated truss
designs than that considered here, and will result in a mathematical
model equivalent to that developed above. Once the model has been de¬
veloped, it can be solved. The method of solution is the topic of the
remainder of this paper.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE TRUSS DESIGN PROBLEM

Let n be the number of different cross-sectional areas of the mem¬
bers in a truss, and A-j (i = l,2,***,n) be the cross-sectional area of
member i. The conversion of cross-sectional area to weight for member i
is accomplished by multiplying A-j by a conversion factor C-j . The objec¬
tive function, W, (total truss weight) can thus be written as

187

Optimal Design of Structural Trusses

Minimize W = C-|A-| + C2A2 + ••• + CnAn

(1)

For each truss member a lower limit on cross-sectional area must
be specified. If this limit is B-j , then a set of n constraints can be
written as

A1 > B1

A 2 B2

(2)

A

n

> B

— n

Finally, a constraint expressing the maximum allowable truss de¬
flection is written as follows, where D-j is a specified deflection con¬
stant for member i and E* is the maximum allowable total truss deflec¬
tion.

D

A

1

1

+

+ ~ < E
A -
n

(3)

Stated succinctly, the general truss design problem mathematical
model is

Mi nimi ze W =

C i A i + C2A2 + • •

• + C A
n n

Subject to:

(1) A-j > B]

(2) A2 > B2

(4)

(n) A > B
v ' n — n

D-, D9 D

(n+1 ) a“+a~ + ■** + /P — E

r\ i n r\ n

1 2 n

Obviously, this is a non-linear model (due to the deflection con¬
straint). The model lends itself to solution using the methods of dy¬
namic programming (see references) which will be discussed next.

DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING FORMULATION

For the general n member truss design problem (see equation set (4)),
n dynamic programming stages can be defined, each stage associated with a
single decision variable A-j (i.e. truss cross-sectional area). The first
n constraints in the general model simply impose lower limits on the
values of the A-j at the various dynamic programming stages. The last
constraint (involving maximum allowable truss deflection) is associated
with the state variable (defined as S-j, i = l,2,**-,n) that is required

★

E as used here is not to be confused with its earlier use in the

paper.

188

James N. Hool and Paul A. Darden

to implement the dynamic programming approach to solution of the problem.
Si is, in essence, the amount of E that can be assumed by the truss mem¬
bers associated collectively with stages i, i - 1 , ••*,!. The dynamic pro¬
gramming recursive optimization proceeds from stage 1 corresponding to
decision A], to stage 2 corresponding to decision A2,-*-, to stage n
corresponding to decision An. The general recursive relationship for
stage i (i = l,2,***,n) is shown below.

f..(S.,A.j) = (C^A. + ft -|(S.j_i)} = weight contribution to W at

stage i from making decision A..

V W ■ ‘cini +

ft(S-) = Min { C - A - + ft , (S--D-/A- )} = optimal weight contribution
11 to W at stage i

A.

l

where A. > B^

D.+l D.+2 D

£ - _ 1 _ _ 1 - - - - _ -H < s < £

L A.+l A. +2 A - l - t

l l n

At stage n, the state variable, S , must satisfy Sn < E.

In order to apply the dynamic programming approach to problem solu¬
tion, a computer program was written to implement the recursive equa¬
tions of stage i for stages i = l,2,**-,n in that order. The program
was written in FORTRAN IV language for the IBM 360/50, but can be readily
adopted for use on other systems. Presently trusses having a maximum of
8 areas can be solved for, although this limit can be easily extended.

A 4-area truss design example problem required 144 k bytes of main stor¬
age space, and had a total run time of 80 seconds. The program logic
involves executing the recursive equations for stages i = l,2,***,n. At
each stage for each S-j value considered the optimal values of A-j and
ft(S-j) are determined. When the stage n analysis is completed the pro¬
gram then determines the unique set of optimal A-j values, and the optimal
value of W. The program is available from the authors upon request.

LITERATURE CITED

Bellman, Richard, and Stuart Dreyfus. Applied. Dynamic Programming,
Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1962.

Hillier, Frederick, and Gerald Lieberman. Introduction to Operations
Research, Holden-Day, Inc., San Francisco, 1967.

Stark, Robert, and Robert Nicholls, Mathematical Foundations for Design:
Civil Engineering Systems, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1972.

189

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 4, October, 1977.

THE INTEGRATION OF EXPERIENCE AND THEORY IN PHYSICS TEACHING

D. Lee A1 1 i son

Department of Physics and General Science
University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 356S0

A problem with many introductory physics courses is the correlation
of material covered in lab with the development of theory in lecture.

In some areas there are many good laboratory exercises and the lecture
gets ahead. For example there are Ohm's Law, V-I Curves of a Black Box,
Series & Parellel circuits, Kirchoff's Law, which would require four
weeks. It is hard to justify 16 lectures on electric circuits in an
introductory physics course. Then in the area of magnetism there are
only a few teaching experiments and the labs get ahead of the lectures.

To avoid being impaled on the horns of this dilemma, the Department
of Physics at the University of North Alabama has integrated experience
and theory. For scheduling purposes we schedule an official lab time
and a separate lecture time, but we meet in a room which can serve as lab
or lecture room. The room is equipped with four desk-height tables
parallel to the chalkboard in the front of the room. It also contains
peripheral units of stand-up height. Experiments can be performed at
any of the units but if an experiment is to progress over some period of
time it can be set up on the peripheral units, leaving the other tables
free to serve as desks.

Laboratory experiences are used in three ways in the introductory
physics course:

I. To arouse curiosity and motivate students to inquiry.

II. To compare measurements of the quantity made in two different
ways .

III. To test theory by making predictions and comparing them with
measurements .

To introduce electric circuits, the student is given equipment
which he does not understand, supposedly. A meter which gives a number
after which you write "volts," a power supply that is used to control
the number of volts, another meter which gives you a number called "am¬
peres" and a resistance box on which you can dial a number. Systemati¬
cally by holding one variable constant, the student varies the other two.
By use of graphs, the student then attempts to find the relationships
among the three variables: e.g., plot V vs. I and get a straight line
the slope of which is R. Following this the student is given a black
box which contains a diode, a capacitor, and some other non-linear device

190

D. Lee Allison

to test "Ohm's Law." From this a discussion of emf, current, and re¬
sistance evolves.

To compare the results of measurements made in two different ways,
the Atwood machine is used. One mass is dropped a measured distance and
the time is measured, a = 2x/t2. The difference in mass on each side
of the pulley is measured from which a = ( nr| -n^ ) g/ ( m-| +m2 ) - It is then
possible to compare the acceleration of the mass, m-j , arrived at in two
ways .

In developing the concept of vectors, the inclined plane is used.
The class predicts the amount of mass on the mass hanger which will hold
the cart on the "hill." Then the instructor adds or removes some mass
and asks why the cart still doesn't move. Someone invariably mentions
friction which leads to another discussion. After the concept is de¬
veloped, the students in the class are required to determine the coef¬
ficient between their cart and plane by limiting angle of repose. After
this the mass of the cart is measured. The student is then asked to
predict the maximum and minimum amounts which will allow the cart to
remain at rest on a plane inclined with the horizontal by 10°. Percent
differences between predicted and measured results are calculated.
Usually the percentage difference is less than 5.

By meeting in the laboratory it is possible to have lab experiences
when they are most helpful or to have lectures demonstrated when these
are most appropriate. With all the students together for every physics
session, it is possible to develop a "group spirit" which is not possi¬
ble with separate lab sections, if half of the group meets for one lab
and the other half meets at another time. To foster the group spirit,
the students are involved in taking measurements during demonstrations,
or in recording the results of an experiment in tabular form on the
chal k board .

The students seem to appreciate this approach to physics teaching.
When the students critique the course they state that "Physics is Fun,"
as advertized at UNA. Many say that it is difficult at times but even
then it is fun.

The introductory physics students are making better grades now than
when the separate lecture and laboratory sessions were held. The in¬
crease in good grades may be due to following a trend in higher educa¬
tion. Table 1 shows the grade distributions before and after the adop¬
tion of this technique.

Table 1. Grade Distributions in Introductory Physics Before and After
Integrating Experience and Theory in Physics Teaching

A B C D & F

Before

14%

39%

40%

11

After

24%

37%

17%

3%

191

Experience and Theory in Physics Teaching

The final examination in this course consists entirely of multiple
choice items. It is comprehensive and aims to test both grasp of physi¬
cal concepts and problem solving ability. These tests are built from a
large selection of test items which the author devised or which he in¬
herited from Dr. E. Scott Barr when he retired. The tests are nearly
equivalent. When the traditional method of teaching was used, the aver¬
age grade on the final exam was 53%. Since integrating "lab and lecture,"
the average grade on the final exam is 59%.

Because of the current pressure on many departments for increasing
class size, integrating experience and theory in teaching introductory
physics may not be practical. In the experience of this author when the
calss size exceeds thirty, the efficiency of this approach to physics
teaching falls off.

If the integration of experience and theory can be implemented, try
it.

192

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 4, October, 1977.

KOLB VERSUS OATES: THE ALABAMA GUBERNATORIAL ELECTION OF 1894

Karl Rodabaugh

Dept, of History, East Carolina University, Greenville, N.C. 27834

While Alabama suffered from the effects of a severe depression and
experienced the bitterness of a prolonged labor strike, the 1894 guber¬
natorial race opened a Pandora 1 s box for the politically divided state.

A political battle over the governor's office became a certainty when
Governor Jones announced that he did not seek reelection. Moderate and
conservative factions of the regular Democratic party--split chiefly
over financial questions and represented, respectively, by Joseph F.
Johnston and Congressman William C. Oates--soon fought for control of
the party machinery in another of a series of divisive races for the
Democratic gubernatorial nomination. Outside the ranks of the Demo¬
cratic party, Reuben Kolb served as the candidate of several anti-
Democratic groups and shaped an effective coalition supporting his
candidacy of Jeffersonian Democrats, Populists, and Republicans. Kolb
and his supporters, convinced that they had little hope for success if
Democratic control of the election machinery continued unabated, con¬
centrated on the issue of a free ballot and a fair count. Heavily Demo¬
cratic returns from the black-belt and corrupt election practices pro¬
duced a Democratic victory in 1894, but not before the state's voters
had the chance to consider the issue of a free ballot and a fair count,
the role played by blacks in the state government, and the questions--
spawned by a massive labor strike--of the plight of the workingman, of
labor's right to organize and strike, and of 1 aw-and-order versus anarchy.

The Alabama labor strike of 1894 was largely a product of the 1893
national depression, but the immediate causes were local. Soon after
the national financial crisis began, a decrease in the demand for coal
and iron produced sharp declines in the prices of both ores and caused
Alabama mine operators to reduce production levels.' In June 1893, min¬
ers staged a strike to protest wage cuts announced by the Tennessee Coal
and Iron Company, the largest mining corporation in the state. Although
this initial strike was short-lived, similar strikes occurred throughout
the summer of 1893. When rumors developed that the striking miners
might attack the stockades that housed the convicts leased to the mining
companies by the state. Governor Jones made preparations to use the
state militia against the miners. Jones's preparations proved to be un¬
necessary, for most of the 1893 strikes soon failed due to a lack of
organization among the miners. But continuation of both wage cuts and
economic distress soon drove the miners together and made them easy
proselytes for the organizers of the recently established United Mine
Workers of Alabama. By January, 1894, the growing UMW had taken over
the management of another strike that had developed in reaction to
twenty-five percent wage reductions recently declared by the Woodward

193

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

Company, another large firm operating in the Birmingham mineral district.
The UMW soon called similar strikes; but the mining companies forcefully
opposed the union efforts at organization, used mostly black scab labor¬
ers and some convicts to maintain production, and soon broke the
stri kes .2

In April the UMW tried to force concessions from the companies by
calling a statewide strike involving over six thousand miners. When the
mine operators used scab laborers and convicts to maintain satisfactory
production levels, many strikers talked of resorting to violence. In
May violence erupted: a mine was dynamited, strikers exchanged shots
with company guards, and Walter Glover, a black scab, was murdered near
Birmingham. Governor Jones reacted by ordering three regiments of the
state militia into the mineral district to prevent further violence;
after a month of relative calm, the troops were withdrawn. Then in the
first week of July Eugene V. Debs's American Railway Union strike came
to Alabama. Before long new acts of violence plus the likelihood that
transportation into the mineral district would be halted caused Jones
to issue a statement denouncing the ARU strike and to send the state
militia back into the area. After the ARU strike was crushed--largely
due to Governor Jones's use of the state troops--the troops once more
were withdrawn. Then on July 16 a large group of miners attacked some
black scabs working at the Pratt Mines of the Tennessee Coal and Iron
Company, killing three blacks and one company guard. The "Pratt Mas¬
sacre" produced a wave of condemnation of the strikers from the Alabama
press and forced Jones to order the troops back into the troubled area,
where they stayed until mid-August. The strike continued until after
the 1894 state election in August, when finally the striking miners--
their resources exhausted, their unity crumbled, and their adversaries
supported by the state government--had no choice but to accept the terms
of the mine operators. 3 Because Governor Jones's actions stymied labor's
efforts at organization and because the Democrats declared their opposi¬
tion to labor's attempts to establish the right to strike, the strikers
"held the Democrats politically accountable" in 1894 for the failure of
the strike. ^

Other political issues arose during Jones's second administration.
Early in 1893, the Democrats in the General Assembly fulfilled the
promise made in the thirteenth plank of the 1892 Democratic platform by
introducing the Sayre Election Law bill. This bill became law despite
strong opposition from Jeffersonians, Populists, and Republicans. Al¬
though the Sayre law was pictured as a means of disfranchising blacks.
State Senator Albert T. Goodwyn--the leader of the Jeffersonians in the
legislature--declared that the law would disfranchise 30,000 white vot¬
ers; he described the Sayre law as "the most iniquitous measure that
ever came through the portals of the Senate chamber. It is clear that
the Jeffersonians and Populists "did not oppose the disfranchisement of
the Negro who was being used to 'outvote' the 'white' counties, but
feared the [Sayre] law would disfranchise many of their illiterate
white voters. "6 Opposition to the law also stemmed from the increased
control over the election machinery it gave to the dominant party, which
included empowering the governor to appoint local registrars. Moreover,
the registration process--set during planting time under the new law-
worked to the disadvantage of farmers. The process also could work to

194

Karl Rodabaugh

the disadvantage of illiterates: the illiterate voter could have his
ballot marked in secret by an election official, who might mark the
ballot contrary to the directions of the illiterate. 7

Another political battle occurred when Jones asked the legislature
for a higher tax rate. The Governor claimed that the increase would
protect the state's credit and prevent a drop in investments in Alabama's
industries. But well-organized Jeffersonian opposition in the legisla¬
ture forced Jones to make a strong stand in order to secure passage of
the proposed tax rate increase. The combination of Jones's unpopular
stand and the Jeffersonians' pleas not only for a low tax rate but also
for cuts in governmental expenditures put the Governor and his party on
the defensive. ^ The Democrats also suffered political setbacks for
several other reasons: the effects of Jeffersonian attacks on a pro¬
posed school tax amendment, the criticism of Jones for pardoning Issac

H. Vincent (a former state treasurer who had been convicted of embezzling
$250,000), the resentment generated by the failure of the legislature to
pass the state elections contest law that Jones has promised in his
second Inaugural Address, and the dissatisfaction spawned by the depres¬
sion. 9 in regard to the question of the state government's role in
meeting the economic crisis. Governor Jones said that the state govern¬
ment had no right or responsibility to become involved in the economic
problems created by the depression; he therefore did nothing to alleviate
the economic distress. Soon he was burned in effigy in Bessemer. 10

Despite these signs of a lack of concern among Democratic leaders
over popular support, Jones's second administration did not end without
any Democratic moves to appease the state's voters. The Democrats not
only pointed to the Sayre law as proof that they desired honest elec¬
tions, they also charged the Sayre law's opponents with seeking to per¬
petuate corrupt election practices. Introduction of the proposed school
tax amendment fulfilled an 1892 Democratic campaign promise to provide
improved education for all races of Alabamians. Early in 1893 Democrats
in the legislature sought to placate the workingman by passing an act
that prohibited wage garnishments for any debts owed for taxes, rent, or
food. At about the same time, the legislature passed an act (recommended
by Governor Jones) which provided for reform of the convict-lease system:
state convicts were to be removed from the mines sometime before January

I, 1895, but only if removal would not be detrimental to the financial
interests of the state. ^

These moves apparently had little effect: Governor Jones's popu¬
larity was at its lowest ebb in 1893 and rumors of his retirement in
mid-term spread across the state. Yet the Jeffersonians and Populists
realized that they had only a qualified chance for political success in
1894 because the Democratic party controlled the election machinery. To
get an early start on the careful planning necessary to offset the Demo¬
cratic advantage’, the Jeffersonian and Populist state executive commit¬
tees met jointly in Birmingham on May 11, 1893. Among those present were
Reuben Kolb, Albert T. Goodwyn, J. C. Manning, P. G. Bowman, S. M. Adams,
and Philander Morgan (the Populist brother of Senator John T. Morgan).
Calls were issued for delegates to attend the 1894 Jeffersonian and Popu¬
list state conventions, both of which were scheduled for February 8 in
Birmingham. As a basis for compromise with some elements of the

195

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

Democrats, the Jeffersonian and Populist parties proposed jointly that
a white primary--to be unaffected by the recent Sayre law limiting the
suffrage--be held in April of 1894 to select the next Democratic state
ticket. 12 This gesture toward compromise produced an uncompromising
response: the Democratic State Executive Committee not only refused to
accept the proposal but also declared that only those voters who had
supported Cleveland in 1892 would be eligible to participate in future
Democratic primaries. (Earlier the Democratic State Executive Committee--
in response to longstanding criticism--had streamlined the method for
holding local conventions and had established population as the basis for
county representation in the next state convention. )13

When the Jeffersonian and Populist conventions convened in February
in the same hall, they held both separate and joint sessions. Before
the Populists agreed to accept the Jeffersonians' proposal for a joint
session, the former adopted a platform and a list of resolutions denounc¬
ing the demonetization of silver by the federal government, the Sayre
election law, and Democratic policy on the use of school funds. In their
platform, the Populists went on record in favor of a free ballot, fair
treatment of blacks, the creation of a separate state for blacks, and tax
decreases. 14 Not all members of the People's Party supported the deci¬
sion to meet with the Jeffersonians: a handful of Populists who felt
that the Jeffersonians were too moderate on most questions opposed any
degree of fusion with Kolb's party and mentioned Philander Morgan as a
possible gubernatorial candidate on a "straight-out" Populist ticket. 15
Although one "straight-out" Populist newspaper had earlier gone so far
as to call Kolb an unprincipled demagogue and a traitor to the ideals of
American democracy, a large majority of Populists met with the Jeffer¬
sonians in a massive joint session involving over 1,500 delegates. 15 In
the keynote address of the joint session, A. T. Goodwyn called for free
and unlimited coinage of silver, a lower tariff, a graduated federal in¬
come tax, and a free ballot and a fair count. The combined parties then
nominated Reuben Kolb for governor without opposition, whereupon the con¬
vention hall fell into pandemonium. 17 One impassioned Populist declared:
"Kolb — the immortal Kolb! His name will go down with Wash ington ' s . "1®

Many members of the convention crowd predicted that if Kolb could win in
August his name would be on the 1896 Populist national ticket. 19

After selecting a fusionist state ticket, the Jeffersonians and
Populists devoted their energies to hammering out a platform and framing
resolutions. Because the fair elections issue was uppermost in the minds
of the delegates, it appeared in the platform as the demand for a state
elections contest law and the call for "a free ballot and a fair count."
Financial planks included demands for the free coinage of silver at a
ratio of si xteen-to-one with gold, a circulating currency of fifty dol¬
lars per capita, a graduated federal income tax, and an end to "corporate
control" of the circulating medium. One-third of the platform consisted
of measures intended to attract the support of labor: a demand for the
immediate removal of state convicts from the mines, a proposal that bene¬
fits of the lien laws be extended to miners, a pledge to enact a law
stipulating that miners receive semi-monthly cash wages rather than com¬
pany script, and a recommendation that children of less than thirteen
years be prohibited from working in the mines. An ambiguous plank call¬
ing for a tariff "solely" for revenue and for limited protection was de¬
signed to appeal to Republ icans.20

196

Karl Rodabaugh

Conspicuously absent was the Negro rights plank of the 1892 Jeffer¬
sonian platform. This plank had favored protection of the political
rights of blacks, improvement in the over-all condition of blacks, and
better relations between the races. An incident at the 1894 convention
symbolized the changes in outlook that had developed: William Stevens,
the black Republican leader, entered the convention hall and interrupted
a speech (being delivered by William H. Skaggs, ex-Mayor of Talladega)
in an effort to address the joint meeting on behalf of his faction of
the GOP; Skaggs denounced Stevens as an unprincipled rascal; the dele¬
gates cried for Stevens1 expulsion, and the police had to be called upon
to escort him safely from the hall. 21 Earlier the Jeffersonian and Popu¬
list state executive committees in effect had proposed disfranchisement
of blacks when they called for a white primary. Obviously they did not
intend to bid for the black vote as openly as they had done in 1892.

For several reasons in addition to the cooperation between the Jef¬
fersonians and the Populists, the Democrats faced stronger opposition in
1894 than in 1892. Growth of the Jeffersonian party had been stimulated
by their winning control of many local offices and a small amount of
patronage. Most observers agreed that in 1894 Kolb commanded a well-
organized statewide political machine second in strength only to the
Democracy. The Populists were also stronger; in some counties they even
outnumbered the Jeffersonians. Although the two groups retained their
separate state organizations throughout the 1894 race ("straight-out"
Populists only reluctantly agreed to support Kolb's party), the two
parties were virtually one. 22 The coalition promised to be hard to de¬
feat.

While the Democrats became enmeshed in what threatened to be a very
divisive nomination race, Kolb began campaigning actively. He criss¬
crossed the state, warning that the Sayre law would disfranchise poor
whites and charging that Democratic frauds had prevented him from taking
office as governor in 1892. On the Democratic side, Joseph F. Johnston,
Birmingham banker and perennial gubernatorial candidate, became the
first Democrat in the race when he announced his candidacy as a free
silver Democrat representing those members of his party dissatisfied
with Cleveland's financial policies. Johnston said his goal was "to
build and not to destroy, to bring peace, and to unite our party once
more. "23 He declared his intentions to bring about many reforms, but
claimed that "all the reforms and all the remedies we are seeking are
easier to accomplishment inside the ranks [of the Democratic party] than
outside. "24 Johnston had the support of Senator Morgan and the largest
Birmingham papers — the News and the Age Herald .25 Johnston's opponent
for the nomination was Congressman William C. Oates, the one-armed Con¬
federate hero from Henry County. Oates, a staunch conservative, had been
a constant enemy of the Farmers' Alliance when that organization was
stronger. When he endorsed President Cleveland and opposed free silver,
this made clear the lines of division in the Democratic party. Congress¬
man Oates enjoyed the backing of Governor Jones and the Montgomery Ad¬
vertiser. 26

In their battle for delegates to the state convention, both Demo¬
cratic gubernatorial candidates campaigned throughout the state and ex¬
pressed confidence in an easy victory. Because of the two candidates'

197

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

divergent financial views, one might have expected the free silver ques-
tion--which Oates's forces viewed as a measure designed to confuse the
voters--to become the test of a man's Democracy. But endorsement of
Cleveland became the major issue. The Advertiser focused attention on
this question when it declared that Johnston was "medium soft on Popu-
lites, and at best only lukewarm in favor of endorsing Cleveland's ad¬
ministration. "27 Despite Johnston's success in attracting significant
support in North Alabama counties that had gone for Kolb in 1892 and
despite predictions of Oates's withdrawal, the closeness of the race soon
forced Johnston to give President Cleveland a firm endorsement in order
to ward off the Advertiser’s cri ti ci sms . 28

The Democratic State Convention met May 22 and completed its work
in a single day. Oates was nominated on the first ballot, obtaining 271
votes to Johnston's 232.29 Johnston felt that the nomination had been
stolen from him, but pledged nevertheless to support Oates. 30 Once
Oates had been nominated and Democratic party unity had been restored,
the conservative faction showed a willingness to retreat from the Bourbon
philosophy that the party had embraced in recent years. Portions of the
Democratic platform made clear this change: the Democrats not only ex¬
pressed support for the free coinage of silver — if that policy would not
endanger a safe and sound currency-- but also went on record in favor of
repealing the ten percent federal tax on state bank notes; they also
called for continued efforts to end the evils of the convict-lease sys¬
tem; in addition, the Democrats advocated new laws to prevent injustice
to any class of people. 31

Once they had completed their party business, the Democrats entered
the 1894 political struggle in earnest. They rapidly put Kolb on the
defensive by charging that he had forged an agreement with the Republi¬
cans in 1892: the Democrats claimed not only that Kolb had made a deal
concerning Alabama's electoral votes but also that he planned to hand
over control of Alabama to the GOP in 1894.32 Although Kolb had made
the electoral vote bargain with the Republicans, Kolb's supporters
called the Democrats' charges "silly twaddle. "33 The Democrats also
attacked Kolb's stand on the tariff: because on several occasions Kolb
had advocated a protective tariff, his attempt to "hitch the farming pop¬
ulation of Alabama to the high tariff coach of the East" was called mad¬
ness; the Democrats also claimed that Kolb's "tariff madness" exposed
his true Republican character. 34 Despite the apparent viability of the
tariff issue, neither Kolb nor the Democrats gave much additional atten¬
tion to the question. Kolb's response to the attack on his "tariff mad¬
ness" contained nothing substantive: "I can stand any name--Republ i can ,
Populist, Jeffersonian, or anything else — except a democrat. Do not call
me a Democrat. "35

Damaging to Kolb's chances was the controversy over alleged Repub¬
lican contributions to his campaign. Earlier in the year, Kolb had met
with Republican Senator George F. Hoar of Massachusetts to discuss the
possibility of defeating the Democrats in Alabama. 36 After Hoar found
Kolb's views on a protective tariff to be acceptable, he wrote a letter
to the Home Market Club of Boston suggesting that campaign funds be
raised to aid Kolb. 37 The Hoar letter soon appeared in Democratic pa¬
pers in Alabama, accompanied by statements claiming that Kolb had

198

Karl Rodabaugh

received $50,000 in campaign funds from the Home Market Club. 38 Al¬
though the Montgomery Alliance-Herald declared that the Hoar letter
charges were absurd, the Troy Jeffersonian said that it welcomed all
contributions to the fight against the Democrats. 39 in the opinion of
one Democrat, the episode proved that Kolb was plotting to return Ala¬
bama to Radical Republican rule. 40

Although Kolb probably received 1 i ttl e — if any — financial support
from the GOP, Kolb's Jeffersonians cooperated closely with the Republi¬
cans during the 1894 campaign. They had a common goal--to defeat the
Democracy. They could unite on the fair elections issue. Kolb helped
create an atmosphere favorable to cooperation by favoring Republican
ideology on a protective tariff. But even before the Jeffersonian con¬
vention, the Montgomery Advertiser had predicted that the GOP would back
the Jeffersonian candidates. 41 During spring of 1894, the Republican
group led by GOP state boss Robert A. Moseley, Jr., had fulfilled the
Advertiser' s prophecy by endorsing Kolb. 42 Later the Moseley faction
got the Republican State Convention not only to endorse Kolb but also to
forego nominating GOP candidates for state offices. 43 These actions
caused William H. Smith, the Radical Republican Governor of Alabama dur¬
ing Reconstruction, to declare that Kolb would receive ninety percent of
the Republican vote. 44 While the Republicans contributed significantly
to Kolb's cause, the Jeffersonians in turn supported local GOP candi¬
dates in a few heavily Republican North Alabama counties. 45 The Stevens
Republicans, however, ran a separate state ticket and gained the support
of many other Republicans who refused to cooperate with Kolb's forces. 46
Stevens, himself, endorsed Oates ! 47

The labor strike added to the election year tumult and gave rise to
a number of political issues, the most important of which was the ques¬
tion of 1 aw-and-order versus anarchy. Numerous acts of violence in the
mineral district produced an aura of lawlessness that generated fear in
the minds of many Alabamians. The Democrats took advantage of the cli¬
mate by planting in the frightened voters' fertile minds this slogan:

"A vote for Kolb is a vote for the perpetuation of unrest in Alabama. "48
Putting things in clear terms of law-and-order versus anarchy, the Mont¬
gomery Advertiser said: "if you want riots, lawlessness, turmoil and
feuds vote for Kolb. If you wish peace, respect for law and order, good
government, and prosperity vote for Oates. "49 Fearing an increase in
radicalism if Kolb were elected, many professional men--merchants, bank¬
ers, and 1 awyers--announced that they had heard enough to convince them
to support Congressman Oates. 80 Not content with merely that develop¬
ment, the Democrats continued to harp on the same theme by comparing
Kolb with Eugene V. Debs and by accusing Kolb of favoring the recent
murder of a Monroe County law enforcement officer. 8^ Kolb's followers
were charged with stirring up labor, prolonging the strike, and commit¬
ting acts of violence. 32 And the Birmingham Age-Herald published the
following description of the Jeffersonians:

men spewed out of their old party, men who have failed in
business and politics; fanatics, [the] brood of ignorance
and prejudice; every bridge burner and midnight torch bearer;
old carpet baggers and scalawags, rising up and sniffing the
prey again; every anarchist and socialist; every man whose
lean and clammy fingers are itching for the contents of other
people's pockets. 93

199

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

Other issues linked to the labor unrest soon came into focus, in¬
cluding the use of state troops during the strike and the existence of
the convict-lease system. The Jeffersonians criticized Governor Jones's
use of the troops, ridiculed "Tommie Jones and his tin soldiers," and
accused him nf promoting clashes between the troops and the strikers.
William H. Skaggs, Chairman of the Jeffersonian-Populist Central Campaign
Committee, declared that the Governor had overstepped the bounds of his
authority when he called out the state troops. Kolb's forces warned
that Jones's actions revealed a trend toward the establishment of total
militarism in Alabama, with troops soon to accompany farmers into their
fields. 54 Although even some Democrats condemned Jones for using the
troops, most members of the Governor's party defended his actions as
necessary to preserve 1 aw-and-order and to protect property. 55 in
another campaign offensive, Kolb's supporters tried to capitalize on
labor's discontent by demanding the immediate removal of state convicts
from the mines, but they failed to emphasize the issue. This was proba¬
bly because the Democratic promise to end the evils of the convict-lease
system neutralized the Jeffersonian's statements on that question--except
among the miners. An added reason for avoiding the issue might have been
to prevent further attention from being given to the Democrats' interpre¬
tation of the Jeffersonian demand for immediate removal as a plan for
turning the convicts loose in order to make room in the mines for foreign

anarchists. 56

The miners, who often displayed more interest in the campaign than
in their own 1894 strike, supported Kolb and the Jeffersonian party. Be¬
cause the miners regarded Governor Jones as the leader of the interests
that originally had placed the convicts in the mines, they ignored his
overtures on the convict-lease issue. Their intransigence toward the
Democrats was increased as a result of the miners' view that the mine
operators' hiring of black scabs in effect constituted Democratic pro¬
tection of blacks. The miners' feelings were reflected in the actions
of a convention of labor leaders held during March: the convention en¬
dorsed Kolb and the Jeffersonian platform, and also selected local labor
candidates to run on the Jeffersonian ticket. Then on June 18 a mass
meeting of miners voted unanimously to back Kolb and his party. 57 in the
final week of the campaign, J. R. Sovereign, Grand Master Workman of the
Knights of Labor, spoke in Birmingham for Kolb and the Jeffersonians.
Sovereign claimed that if Oates won the 1894 election striking miners
would be shot down by state troops acting on Oates's orders. 58 The
miners' reaction to such statements caused one of Jones's associates
(who was in an excellent position to know) to declare privately that the
miners would give Kolb his strongest support. 59 Perhaps on the basis of
such declarations, the Democrats discounted the labor vote. The Demo¬
crats not only alleged that the perpetrators of the "Pratt Massacre" and
other acts of violence against black scabs were all "Kolbites," but also
declared that both miners and blacks could not be in the same political
camp. 60 with the implication that the blacks would support the Demo¬
crats, the Advertiser announced that Kolb had no hope of attracting
black support. 61

In addition to the labor dissatisfaction occurring during Jones's
second administration, Cleveland's second administration also produced
problems for the Democratic party in Alabama. Although many Democrats

200

Karl Rodabaugh

in the state praised Cleveland and most endorsed his administration.
Populists across Alabama and the nation used the President's rising un¬
popularity as a catalyst in their formula for precipitating growth of
the People's Party. Thousands of laborers resented Cleveland's use of
federal troops during the 1894 Pullman strike. Because Cleveland failed
to give a satisfactory explanation of his bond issues and his support of
the gold standard, thousands of anti-Cleveland voters gained greater con¬
viction in their belief that he was involved in a conspiracy with "monied
interests." When Cleveland blamed the 1893 depression on the Sherman
Silver Purchase Act of 1890 and then obtained its repeal, the President
embittered the multiplying number of free silver advocates. His finan¬
cial policies were called a "sell-out" to the "gold bugs" of Wall Street
and his actions led the Jeffersonians in Alabama to label him "an image
of debauchery" comparable to Nero. 62

After 1892, financial issues raised during Cleveland's second ad-
ministration--especially the free silver issue--began replacing agricul¬
tural issues as the chief concern of the People's Party. During this
time, the Populists became closely associated with western silver mining
interests--a source of desperately needed campaign funds. Before long
such agricultural planks as the demand for prohibitions against dealing
in agricultural futures--a major goal of the farmers--disappeared from
the Populist national platform, and financial planks predominated. 63

Kolb and his party sought to capitalize on the financial issues.

Both the Jeffersonian and Populist platforms contained free silver planks.
In addition, Kolb proclaimed that the free coinage of silver would solve
many of the farmers' economic problems. 64 Even Senator Morgan, who had
his ear closer to the ground than many Democrats, endorsed free silver
and condemned Cleveland's financial policies. But many Democrats pre¬
ferred to side-step free silver by giving it nothing more than quali¬
fied support. 65 The Democratic press, however, announced that free sil¬
ver should have no bearing whatsoever on the state race. 66 And Congress¬
man Oates, a sound money advocate, avoided making a clear statement on
the question, although his supporters told free silverites that he had
introduced a free silver bill in Congress. 67 The Troy Jeffersonian
countered by alleging that the " Advertiser and Col. Oates are so wedded
to the interest of the money power; and so firmly fastened to the
Cleveland ring that they have quit thinking for themsel ves . "68 Not only
did the Montgomery Advertiser defend Oates from this attack and similar
attacks (including one that he was financing his campaign with British
gold), the Advertiser also defended him from the charge that he had re¬
ceived a $100,000 bribe from the Sugar Trust in return for his support
of congressional legislation favorable to the "money power. "69 But
many other questionable Jeffersonian allegations came to light during
the campaign. For example, William Skaggs spread the rumor that Oates
had proposed a law designed to imprison debtors. 70 And the Troy Jeffer¬
sonian sank to absurdity in its maligning of Oates, calling him a
"cuckoo of the first water. "71

With regard to the question of education, Oates clearly found him¬
self on the defensive. Although the Jeffersonian stance on education
was questionable in view of their opposition to the recent school tax
amendment proposed by the Democrats, the Jeffersonians demanded a strong

201

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

policy to increase educational opportunities for the masses. Kolb was
applauded for championing the cause of better education, while Oates was
criticized for saying not only that the masses would suffer from too
much education but also that ninety percent of the blacks were incapable
of progressing past the primary grades. 72 Oates tried to explain: he
supported education for the masses, but thought that only the primary
grades would be beneficial to the majority. 73 Yet Kolb's forces still
made political hay of the Congressman's unfortunate statements.

From the standpoint of the Jeffersonians, no issue had more politi¬
cal significance than the problem of fair elections. "It is useless for
us to talk about the money question, about taxation, or about education,"
declared the Troy Jeffersonian, "for we can have no voice concerning any
of these questions until we have the right to cast our vote as we please
and have it counted as cast. "74 Kolb's followers shared a recognition
of the urgency of the campaign: one anti -Democratic paper even called
the election the most critical period in American history since the
revolutionary era. 75 "if We fail to free ourselves from the bossism of
unprincipled demagogues in 1894," declared the Albertville Sand Mountain
Signal, "we shall never be anything but hewers of wood and drawers of
water. "76 The Troy Jeffersonian warned that "if relief for the masses
does not come through equitable laws it will come through revolution. "77
With "Ballots or Bullets" as their slogan, Kolb and the Jeffersonians
sought to "redeem the state from the clutches of the machine that had
governed it for so long. "78

The Jeffersonians' emphasis of the fair elections issue was related
to their belief that they were striving not only to preserve American
Democratic ideals but also to save the downtrodden masses from domination
by a privileged group. Because Oates's opponents feared that if elected
governor he might limit freedom of speech, they criticized him and his
party for their alleged intolerance of different viewpoints .79 Even
such a prominent Democrat as future governor Emmet O'Neal privately ex¬
pressed his opinion that the machine protected corporate interests and
ignored the people's rights. 80 Populist leader Joseph C. Manning, con¬
vinced that society had failed to live up to his ideals, wrote these
words :

The common people always fight all the battles in times of war,
create all the wealth in periods of peace; but, whether in the
battle of blood or the struggle for bread, they have never
reaped a substantial benefit from either contest. They have
been engaged in a prolonged, though varying struggle, all down
the history of the ages, and greed and avarice have always
sapped their energies and sucked their 1 ife-blood.81

At the same time. Manning expressed his sadness over the "life of the
average Alabamian, who . . . , after years of toil, privation, and en-
curance, approaches the verge of eternity unable to bequeath a heritage
of neither full-fledged liberty nor [sic] free-titled land to uneducated,
homeless, and hopeless children. "82

Discussion of the fair elections issue focused on the Sayre election
law and on charges of political corruption. Jeffersonian speakers

202

Karl Rodabaugh

maintained that the law not only disfranchised 40,000 white voters but
also increased Democratic control of the election machinery. 83 the Jef¬
fersonians even claimed that the Sayre law was so stringent that it dis¬
franchised Congressman Oates. 84 "The farmer who votes the Organized
ticket," declared the Albertville Sand Mountain Signal, "votes for dis¬
franchisement of himself and his family. "85 On the other hand, the
Democrats maintained that the Sayre law would end Jeffersonian election
frauds and allow illiterates to cast an honest ballot. 86 Oates answered
the charges that he sought to disfranchise some Alabama voters by declar
ing that the only group he favored disfranchising was ignorant foreign-
ers.87 Apparently Kolb and his supporters thought that the corrupt elec
tions issue outweighed the disfranchisement issue, because they devoted
virtually all of their attention to the question of Democratic election
frauds. 8o In North Alabama where secession and the Civil War had been
unpopular, the Jeffersonians accused the Democrats of committing frauds
in the election of delegates to the 1861 Alabama secession convention. 89
The Butler Chootaw Advocate referred to more recent elections when it
said: "the name of Tom Jones [will] be a synonym in the future for one
of the vilest political robberies ever inflicted upon the state of Ala¬
bama. "90 On June 16 Jeffersonians issued a statement charging the Demo¬
crats with planning to steal the 1894 election by resorting to corrupt
methods: padding registration lists, refusing to permit examination of
the lists, issuing fraudulent registration certificates, bribing voters,
and failing to provide for bipartisan election inspectors .91 The Jef¬
fersonians also alleged that the manipulation of black votes continued
to be the basis of Democratic power; fraudulent black votes, said Kolb's
supporters, permitted the Democrats to rule a white majority in Ala¬
bama. 92 The Jeffersonians boldly proclaimed that the voters would not
submit any longer to such outrages: "They are demanding, and, in the
name of God and humanity, will have a free and fair expression of their
political will on the rostrum and at the polls. "93 The Democrats
countered by accusing the Jeffersonians of preparing to commit election
frauds and by alleging that Kolb's followers had threatened to shoot or
hang the election managers if the count went against Kolb. 94 Yet the
Democrats threatened to count out Kolb even if he had a 75,000 vote
majori ty . 95

Democratic control of both the election machinery and the black
vote produced readjustments in the Jeffersonian position on Negro Rights
since the 1892 campaign. Protection of the political rights of blacks
had been one of the announced goals of Kolb's party in 1892, and the
Jeffersonians had appealed to the blacks for support on the grounds that
defeating the Democrats would be in the best interests of the blacks.

But by the time of the 1894 campaign, the Jeffersonians believed that
ballot freedom for blacks could not be achieved. Therefore an increas¬
ing number of Kolb's supporters favored either black disfranchisement
or some other method for preventing Democratic use of black votes. 96

Yet even if Kolb's party had tried to cooperate with blacks, there
was no basis for a Jeffersonian-Negro Alliance in Alabama. In cases
where cooperation between agrarians and blacks was attempted and failed,
the reasons for failure cited by historians have been race prejudice,
Democratic election frauds, and black votes cast for the Democracy. 97
It is noteworthy that only the last of these reasons recognizes an

203

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

active role played by blacks in failure. Although mutual self-interest
has been pointed to as the stimulus for agrarian overtures to the Negro,
blacks and whites did not share a common conception of self-interest.

On the other hand, "the promises and doctrines of Populist ideology were
antithetical to Negro experience . "98 One historian has said that blacks
wanted protection and patronage, while the agrarians had goals which were
basically economic. 99 Yet without adopting agrarian ideology, blacks
might have supported the Jeffersonians in return for protection and
patronage. After 1892, however, the Jeffersonians offered the blacks
very little protection and no patronage: there is no evidence that
blacks held any offices in the Jeffersonian party, and Kolb's followers
actually excluded blacks from participation in the 1894 Jeffersonian-
Populist convention .100

Agrarian political positions that could have attracted black votes
in 1894 concerned fair elections, the convict-lease system, and educa¬
tion.^ gU£ closer examination reveals reasons why these issues might
not have appealed to blacks in Alabama as much as expected. The Jeffer¬
sonians' emphasis of the fair elections issue stemmed from their desire
to increase the power and effectiveness of white votes, not from their
desire to protect the voting rights of blacks. In addition, blacks
looked with extreme suspicion on Populist demands that a secret ballot
be adopted. 102 The convict-lease issue, which appealed to blacks far
more than the fair elections question, lost some of its clout as a re¬
sult of the Democratic stand on the issue and of the Jeffersonian associ¬
ations with free white labor. And while Kolb's followers put Oates on
the defensive on the education issue, the Jeffersonians favored segre¬
gated schools and advocated splitting up the school funds on the basis
of the amount of taxes paid by each race. 193

The agrarians have been credited with offering alternatives to the
later pattern of southern racism because of their views on lynching, jury
service, and black civil rights. 104 Yet before 1896 no southern agrarian
political platform came out against lynching. 105 During the 1894 elec¬
tion, White-Caps--organi zed groups of whites who sought to intimidate
bl acks--appeared in many pro-Kolb counties in Alabama, and some of
Kolb's supporters were reported to be busy threatening blacks who favored
Oates. 106 Although the agrarians did condemn lynching, they did so in
about the same manner as Democrats . 1 07 The Jeffersonians apparently did
not differ from the Democrats on the matter of black office-holding. No
evidence exists that a single black served on any jury in any Alabama
county controlled by the Jeffersonians or the Populists. In addition,
the Alabama agrarians supported the state's Jim Crow laws of the 1 890s J 08

In 1894 the Jeffersonians made white supremacy an issue. They de¬
clared that the Democrats had to be defeated in order to preserve white
unity and to prevent black rule in Alabama. 109 a. T. Goodwyn warned that
Democratic dependence on black votes would force the Democrats to bring
blacks into the center of political life. HO Some of Kolb's supporters
accused the Democrats of appointing blacks to numerous political offices.
(But Kolb's party tried to avoid letting the blacks know of this accusa¬
tion. ) 1 1 1 At the same time, Oates's forces--now called the "Radicrats"
by the Troy Jeffersonian — were maligned for seeking black votes and were
charged with organizing leagues of black voters similar to those

204

Karl Rodabaugh

sponsored by the Radical Republicans during reconstruction.!^ The
Jeffersonians also claimed that fraudulent black votes would be used in
1894 as they had been used in 1892 to defeat Kolb. 113 a North Alabama
Allianceman expressed the opinions of many agrarians on the Democratic
party's use of black votes when he wrote:

Why, those blackbelters wouldn't part with their negro vote
for anything in the world--it is their all in a political
way. They grow fat on negro votes. But, don't forget it,
they keep us white people powerful lean by the use they make
of their negro army. H 4

For most Jeffersonians, the solution to the problem of black votes
was simple: remove the blacks from politics. The Troy Jeffersonian re¬
flected this sentiment when it warned that "the best thing for the negro
voter to do in the coming registration and election is to keep hands off
and let the white voters settle the matter between themsel ves . "1 1 3 One
Kolb partisan advocated "shooting every damned negro who offers to
vote. "H6 Yet in the counties that they controlled, the Jeffersonians
tried to register blacks. H7 To offset this effort, the Moseley Repub¬
licans distributed throughout fifteen black-belt counties copies of a
circular signed by Robert Moseley that urged blacks not to register or
vote. US W. H. Skaggs, commenting on the success of the Moseley Repub¬
licans' effort, estimated that only five percent of those blacks eligi¬
ble to vote would actually register. 119

At the same time, the Democrats' need for black votes forced them
to appear moderate on the race issue in contrast to their previous pro¬
nouncements. The Democracy, however, still claimed to be the party of
white supremacy and tried to portray the Jeffersonians as a dangerous
band dependent upon black votes. 120 Democratic newspapers still alleged
that Kolb's supporters were saying: "Vote the negro is our motto, and
elect Kolb is our aim. "121 The Montgomery Advertiser still claimed that
Kolb's men "are driving the negroes to the registration boxes like
sheep. "122 gut in contrast to the situation in recent elections, there
occurred a significant change in the nature and intensity of racist
rhetoric now used by the Democrats. The Democratic party now sought to
attract the votes of the "better class" of blacks, causing the Birming¬
ham Age-Herald to announce: "The negroes are supporting Oates and the
'niggers' Kolb. "123 One contemporary later declared that the "colour
line seemed to have broken down" in Alabama, but Kolb's party did not
force the Democrats to adopt as moderate a position as that of the
Democrats in Georgia--where Tom Watson's agrarian contingent was making
a strong bid for black votes. One reason for this was because Kolb's
supporters included persons with widely different attitudes toward
blacks: J. C. Manning favored a strong defense of black political
rights, while some of Kolb's associates actually had reputations as re¬
pressors of black rights. 124 Kolb apparently "equivocated on a rap-
proachement with the Negro and from time to time let a strong strain of
antipathy for the Negro erupt which made Negroes hesitant to support
him. "125

Perhaps this explains why the blacks responded to the Democrats'
strong appeals for black votes by giving them their support. After a

205

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

meeting in Birmingham, black leaders published a letter calling for
equal protection of blacks before the law, equal and separate accommoda¬
tions on the state's railroads, and equal employment opportunities for
qualified blacks. When H. C. Tompkins, Chairman of the Democratic State
Executive Committee, declared his approval of the blacks' demands, the
black leaders endorsed Oates. 126 a black convention soon convened to
discuss the respective positions of Kolb and Oates on the Negro: the
delegates first announced that the Democrats promised to enact laws
beneficial to blacks that Kolb's party refused to consider; then they
voted unanimously to endorse Oates J 27 Throughout the state, Democratic
speakers told black crowds that Oates would protect them from mob vio¬
lence and uphold equal protection before the law for all people. 128 with
some apparent justification, Oates not only accused Kolb of seeking to
use black votes but also warned the blacks that race relations would
deteriorate if Kolb were elected.' 29 jhe Birmingham News kept up the
pressure by advocating equal justice for blacks and labeling Kolb a foe
of the black race. 130 These statements apparently convinced many blacks
that their best chance for racial moderation lay with the Democrats, be¬
cause many local black politicians, lawyers, ministers, teachers, and
editors gave their support to Oates. 131

As the campaign approached the election-day climax, Kolb and Oates
debated the issues at Salem in late July before a crowd of two thousand.
Each spoke for about two hours. Kolb rehashed the fraud charges, casti¬
gated the Sayre election law, advocated a limited protective tariff,
charged Oates with gaining the Democratic nomination by trickery, and
claimed that Senator Morgan and many other Democrats favored the Jeffer¬
sonian platform. Oates emphasized Kolb's associations with Republicans
and Populists and warned that Kolb meant to return Alabama to Radical
Republican rule. 132

Even more bitterness was evident in the 1894 campaign than the
hotly-contested 1892 election. In June, P. G. Bowman killed a Democrat
in a brawl started by a political argument. 133 Before dinner was served
at an Alliance barbecue, the guests were told: "If you are Kolb men you
are welcome; if you are Oates men you cannot eat our meat and bread.

You can sneak off--you can't eat our bread and meat. "134 When a Tusca¬
loosa store clerk declared that "every damn man who [votes] for Kolb in
the coming election ought to go to hell," his store was boycotted by
Kolb's supporters. 135 in clashes on school grounds, children defended
the honor of their champions . 1 36 Kolb was called a traitor, a liar, a
thief, a radical, and a "drunk, not on liquor, but on a blind ambition
to be Governor of Alabama." Oates was labeled an infidel, "an adulturer"
[sic], and a chi 1 d-molester . 1 37 Bands of armed "Kolbites" drilled as if
preparing for war and threatened violence if the election were not con¬
ducted fairly. 138 Peace usually prevailed on election day, the sixth of
August, but an atmosphere of tension and rumors of stolen ballot boxes
precipitated a few clashes between Kolb and Oates men. 139

Returns coming in the day after the election, and for the next
three days, indicated a Democratic victory. The official count gave
Oates 109,547 votes and Kolb 84,602. Oates's margin of v ictory--almost
25,000 votes--resul ted from overwhelming Democratic majorities in a
handful of black-belt counties. In Dallas County, Oates received 6,517

206

Karl Rodabaugh

of 6,684 votes counted; in Wilcox County he picked up 6,270 of 6,401; in
Montgomery County 4,930 of 5,210, and in Lowndes County 4,995 of 5,356.140
Outside the black-belt, Oates's greatest support came from the towns,
where he captured as much as eighty-nine percent of the vote. 141

On August 7 Kolb announced that he would appeal the results of the
election to the people. "I have carried forty out of fifty-one white
counties," he declared. "I have been elected with the entire state tic¬
ket by a majority of not less than 18,000. "142 Although he admitted his
total vote had declined since 1892, Kolb cited instances of widespread
Democratic corruption as proof that Democratic "frauds of this year are
more notorious and shameful than those of 1 892 . "143 After meeting two
days later to discuss the situation, Kolb's supporters issued a state¬
ment claiming a Jeffersonian victory in the recent election and accusing
the Democrats of fraud. 144 The Troy Jeffersonian said: "There is no
question that the Sayre law has proven a better instrument of fraud in
elections than the old law. "145 But the Democrats maintained that the law
had been responsible for a very clean election. 146 Kolb men circulated
a call for vigilante groups to form and converge on county courthouses
on the day of the official count of the votes to force an honest tally
of the ballots. 147 Talk was heard throughout the state of the estab¬
lishment by force of a provisional Jeffersonian government to replace

the Democrats . 1 48

Because Alabama lacked a contest law applying to state elections,

Kolb tried to interest his Republican friends in an alternate method for
challenging the victorious Democrats. In letters to Senator William E.
Chandler of New Hampshire, Kolb not only said he was "prepared to show
up greater frauds than in the election of 1892" but also proposed estab¬
lishing a Jeffersonian state government with a legislature pledged to
elect a United States Senator devoted to a policy of tariff protection
for American industry. 149 Chandler soon tried to introduce a resolution
in the United States Senate calling for an investigation of the recent
Alabama elections to determine if the new legislature had been honestly
elected and if it could rightfully select a Senator. 150

Prior to the first meeting of the new legislature in November,

Kolb's political alii es — 1 ed by A. T. Goodwyn--met to discuss possible
methods for seating Kolb, but they failed to adopt a definite plan of
action. However, those Jeffersonians present voted to join the People's
party, and in future elections the dissident groups in Alabama were
united as Populists. After the legislature convened, Goodwyn challenged
the official election returns for fifteen black-belt counties. This
protest had no chance of being considered by the predominantly Demo¬
cratic legislature, and it was ruled out-of-order . 1 51

Kolb still refused to acknowledge defeat. He reiterated his claim
that he had been elected and declared: "I shall be in Montgomery for
the purpose of taking the oath of office and my seat as governor. "152
On the first day of December, Oates was inaugurated in a brief ceremony
conducted on the steps of the capitol in Montgomery .153 Later the same
day Kolb took the oath of office astride a wagon a few blocks from the
capitol. In a short address, Kolb said: "I promise ... to use all
legal means at my command to set aside the fraudulent election returns

207

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

by which Colonel Oates claims the office of governor. "1 54 For a few
weeks, Kolb tried to keep his pledge by sending message to the new leg¬
islature demanding that he be recognized as the legitimate governor. His
messages were ignored. 155

LITERATURE CITED AND NOTES

1 Ethel Marie Armes, Story of Coal and Iron in Alabama (Birmingham,
1910), pp. 425-426. An excellent study of the causes and effects of the
1893 depression is Charles Hoffman's, "The Depression of the Nineties,"
Journal of Economic History, XVI (June, 1956), pp. 137-164.

2

Robert D. Ward and William Warren Rogers, Labor Revolt in Alabama:
The Great Stirke of 1894 (University, Ala.: University of Alabama
Press, 1965), pp. 48-57.

3

Northport West Alabama Breeze, April 19, 1894; Ward and Rogers,
Labor Revolt in Alabama, pp. 80, 82-85, 75-76, 78, 94-95, 101-106, 110—
113, 131-136,

4

William Warren Rogers, The One-Gallused Rebellion: Agrarianism in
Alabama , 1865-1896 (Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State University Press,
1970), p. 275.

5

Malcolm Cook McMillan, "A History of the Alabama Constitution of
1901" (M.A. thesis. University of Alabama, 1940), pp. 7-13, 58-59; Wil¬
liam H. Skaggs, The Southern Oligarchy: An Appeal in Behalf of the
Silent Masses of Our Country Against the Despotic Rule of the Few (New
York: Devon-Adair Company, 1924), p. 129; Mobile Register, February 20,
1893.

Malcolm Cook McMillan, Constitutional Development in Alabama,
1798-1901 : A Study in Politics, the Negro, and Sectionalism (Chapel
Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1955), p. 224.

^Skaggs, Southern Oligarchy, pp. 117-118; McMillan, "Alabama Con¬
stitution of 1901," pp. 9-11.

g

Carolyn R. Huggins, "Bourbonism and Radicalism in Alabama: The
Gubernatorial Administration of Thomas Goode Jones, 1890-1894" (M.A.
thesis. Auburn University, 1968), pp. 182-183, 213-214.

^ Ibid . , pp. 210-212, 220-221; Rogers, One-Gallused Rebellion, p.

236.

^Huggins, "Bourbonism and Radicalism," p. 313; Montgomery Adver¬
tiser, March 5, 1893.

^Northport West Alabama Breeze, July 12, 26, 1894; Huggins "Bour¬
bonism and Radicalism," pp. 210, 214; Ward and Rogers, Labor Revolt in

Alabama, p. 45.

12

John Bunyan Clark, Populism in Alabama (Auburn, Ala.: Auburn
Printing Company, 1927), pp. 148-149; Troy Jeffersonian, December 1,
1893.

208

Karl Rodabaugh

1 3

Clark, Populism in Alabama, pp. 149-150; Northport West Alabama
Breeze, March 29, 1894.

14

Birmingham News, February 9, 1894.

1 5

Montgomery Advertiser, February 9, 1894; Northport West Alabama
Breeze, March 29, 1894.

1 6

Greenville Living Truth, cited in Northport West Alabama Breeze,

May 17, 1894; Birmingham News, February 8, 1894.

^Birmingham News, February 9, 1894. Other Jeffersonian-Populist
candidates were: John C. Fonville, Secretary of State; Thomas K. Jones,
Treasurer; William T. B. Lynch, Auditor; Junius P. Oliver, Superintendent
of Education; Samuel M. Adams, Commissioner of Agriculture; and Warren S.
Reese, Jr., Attorney-General. See: Jeffersonian-Democratic Nomination
Certificate, June 14, 1894, Files of the Alabama Secretary of State,
Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery; and Northport
West Alabama Breeze, February 22, 1894.

1 8

Birmingham News, February 8, 1894.

] 9 Ibid.

20

Montgomery Advertiser , February 9, 1894.

21

Birmingham News, February 9, 1894; Montgomery Advertiser , February
9, 1894. For an excellent account of Skaggs' part in the campaign, and
for a defense of his actions described above, see: Terrence Hunt Nolan,
"William Henry Skaggs and the Reform Challenge of 1894," Alabama Histori¬
cal Quarterly , XXXIII (1971), pp. 117-134.

22

Louise Goodwyn Mustin, “Albert Taylor Goodwyn" (M.A. thesis, Uni¬
versity of Alabama, 1936), p. 44; Charles Grayson Summersell, "A Life
of Reuben F. Kolb" (M.A. thesis. University of Alabama, 1930), pp. 90-
91; Northport West Alabama Breeze, February 1, March 29, 1894.

23

Mobile Register, April 14, September 6, 1893; Northport West Ala¬
bama Breeze, February 8, 1894; Johnston to Robert McKee, January 19,

1894, Robert McKee Papers (hereinafter cited as McKee Papers), Alabama
Department of Archives and History, Montgomery.

24

Johnston to McKee, January 19, 1894, McKee Papers.

^John Sparkman, "The Kolb-Oates Campaign of 1894" (M.A. thesis.
University of Alabama, 1924), pp. 8-9.

26

Guylinn M. Gurley, "William Calvin Oates, Governor of Alabama.
1894-1896" (M.A. thesis. Auburn University, 1967), pp. 1-4; Ward and
Rogers, Labor Revolt in Alabama, p. 119; Oates to Harvey Jones, August 4,
1893; Official Correspondence of Governor Thomas Goode Jones (herein¬
after cited as Jones Papers), Alabama Department of Archives and History,
Montgomery; Oates to Jones, January 27, 1894, Jones Papers; Montgomery
Advertiser, April 3, May 18, 1894.

209

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

27

Eutaw Whig, cited in Northport West Alabama Breeze, May 10, 1894;
Montgomery Advertiser, April 3, 1894.

"^Birmingham News, April 15, May 6, 1894; Gurley, "Oates," p. 102.

29

Montgomery Advertiser , May 23, 1894. Other Democratic nominees
were: J. Kirk Jackson, Secretary of State; J. Craig Smith, Treasurer;
John Purifoy, Auditor; William C. Fitts, Attorney-General; John 0.

Turner, Superintendent of Education; and Hector D. Lane, Commissioner
of Agricul ture. See: Birmingham Age-Hera Id, July 1, 1894, and Demo¬
cratic Nomination Certificate, June 14, 1894, Files of the Alabama
Secretary of State, Alabama Department of Archives and History, Mont¬
gomery.

30

Sparkman, "Kolb-Oates Campaign," p. 17.

31

David Alan Harris, "Racists and Reformers: A Study of Progressiv-
ism in Alabama, 1896-1911" (Ph.D. dissertation. University of North Caro¬
lina, 1967), p. 25; Bi rmingham Age-Herald, July 3, 1894; Montgomery
Advertiser, May 24, 1894.

32

Democratic Party Campaign Committee, Democratic Campaign Book
(n.p., 1894), pp. 3-7, passim ; Montgomery Advertiser, June 26, 1894.

33

Joseph Columbus Manning, Politics of Alabama (n.p., 1893), p. 17.

34

Northport West Alabama Breeze, April 19, 1894; Democratic Party
Campaign Committee, Democratic Campaign Book, pp. 5-7; James E. Webb,
Birmingham attorney, to Senator John T. Morgan, August 10, 1894, Morgan
Papers, Library of Congress, quoted in Vincent P. DeSantis, Republicans
Face the Southern Question: The New Departure Years, 1877-1897 (Balti¬
more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1959), p. 248.

35

Northport West Alabama Breeze, July 26, 1894.

36

DeSantis, Republicans Face the Southern Question, pp. 247-248.

37

Mongtomery Advertiser, May 19, 1894.

38

Northport West Alabama Breeze, March 29, 1894; Montgomery Adver¬
tiser, May 19, 1894. Democratic papers claimed that Kolb's associations
with Republicans caused many former "Kolbites" to support the Democratic
ticket. See: Northport West Alabama Breeze, April 19, May 10, 1894.

39

Troy Jeffersonian, March 30, 1894.

40

Mongtomery Advertiser, June 26, 1894. The Northport West Alabama
Breeze, May 17, 1894, charged that the Home Market Club was planning to
send a brigade to Alabama to aid the enemies of the Democratic party.

41

Mongtomery Advertiser, February 7, 1894.

^ Ibid . , June 16, 1894.

210

Karl Rodabaugh

43

Ward and Rogers, Labor Revolt in Alabama, p. 126.

44

Montgomery Advertiser, June 16, 1894.

45

Rogers, One-Gallused Rebellion, p. 280.

46

Sparkman, "Kolb-Oates Campaign," p. 20; Houston Cole, "History of
Populism in Tuscaloosa County" (M.A. thesis, University of Alabama,

1927), pp. 85, 87; Thomas Kermit Hearn, "The Populist Movement in Mar¬
shall County" (M.A. thesis. University of Alabama, 1935), pp. 92-93.

47

Ward and Rogers, Labor Revolt in Alabama, p. 125.

48

Northport West Alabama Breeze, August 21, 1894.

49

Montgomery Advertiser, August 5, 1894.

50

Sparkman, "Kolb-Oates Campaign," p. 21.

^Gurley, "Oates," p. 29; Sparkman, "Kolb-Oates Campaign," p. 28.

Debs supported the national Populist party in 1894. See: Ray Ginger,
Eugene V. Debs: A Biography (New York, 1962), p. 167.

52

Montgomery Advertiser, August 4, 5, 1894; Northport West Alabama
Breeze, August 2, 1894.

^Birmingham Age-Herald, July 22, 1894.

54

Troy Jeffersonian, April 6, 1894; Ward and Rogers, Labor Revolt in
Alabama, p. 122; Montgomery Advertiser, June 26, 1894.

55

Emmet O'Neal to Senator John T. Morgan, July 8, 1894, McKee Papers.

56

Ward and Rogers, Labor Revolt in Alabama, p. 122.

57 Ibid. , pp. 45-46, 99-100, 120-121 , 125-126.

^Birmingham Age-Herald, August 3, 1894.

59

Lt. Erwin to Jones, August 10, 1984, Jones Papers.

^Gurley, "Oates," p. 28; Montgomery Advertiser, July 22, 1894.

^Montgomery Advertiser , July 22, 1894.

62

Sparkman, "Kolb-Oates Campaign," p. 22; Joseph Rogers Hollings¬
worth, The Whirligig of Politics: The Democracy of Cleveland and Bryan
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), p. 27; Anna Rochester,

The Populist Movement in the United States (New York: International
Publishers, 1943), p. 8; John D. Hicks, The Populist Revolt: A History
of the Farmers' Alliance and the People's Party (Minneapolis, Minn.:
University of Minnesota Press, 1931), pp. 321-324; H. Wayne Morgan, From
Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877-1896 (Syracuse, N.Y.:
Syracuse University Press, 1969), p. 453; Joseph Dorfman, The Economic

211

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

Mind in American Civilization (3 volumes. New York, 1949), III, pp. 225-
226; Mongtomery Advertiser, February 9, 1894.

^Daniel M. Feins, "Labor's Role in the Populist Movement, 1890-96"
(M.A. thesis, Columbia University, 1939), p. 25; Fred A. Shannon, The

Farmers' Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860-1897 (New York, 1945), pp.
323-324; Frank LeRond McVey, The Populist Movement (New York, 1896), p.

141 .

^Gurley, "Oates," p. 17.

65

Summersell, "Reuben F. Kolb," p. 100. The Democratic platform gave
free silver a qualified endorsement. See: Montgomery Advertiser, May
24, 1894.

^Northport West Alabama Breeze, May 10, 1894.

^Oates to John W. DuBose, November 3, 1893, John W. DuBose Papers,
Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery; Gurley, "Oates,"
pp. 23-24; Summersell, "Reuben F. Kolb," p. 99.

c o

Troy Jeffersonian, June 1, 1894.

69

Montgomery Advertiser, July 1, 1894. See: Birmingham Age-Herald,
July 24, 1894.

^Cleburne Plouboy, cited in Montgomery Advertiser, June 7, July 1,
1894.

7"* Troy Jeffersonian, June 22, 1894.

^^Ibid. , June 1 , 1894.

73

Montgomery Advertiser, June 7, 1894; Democratic Party Campaign
Committee, Democratic Campaign Book, pp. 11-12.

74

Troy Jeffersonian, March 16, 1894.

75

Albertville Sand Mountain Signal, May 25, 1894, quoted in Hearn,
"Populist Movement in Marshall County," pp. 84-85.

^Albertville Sand Mountain Signal, November 3, 1893, quoted in
Hearn, "Populist Movement in Marshall County," p. 84.

^Troy Jeffersonian, May 4, 1894.

?0

Hicks, Populist Revolt, p. 330.

79

Manning, Politics of Alabama, pp. 26-28; Democratic Party Campaign
Committee, Democratic Campaign Book, p. 10; Birmingham Age-Herald, July
1, 1894.

^ Emmet O'Neal to Senator John T. Morgan, July 8, 1894, McKee Papers.

212

Karl Rodabaugh

81

° Manning, Politics of Alabama, p. 23.

82Ibid.

O O

Hearn, "Populist Movement in Marshall County," pp. 73-74, 82; Man¬
ning, Politics of Alabama, pp. 31-33.

84

Troy Jeffersonian, June 1, 1894.

85

Albertville Sand Mountain Signal, quoted in Hearn, "Populist Move¬
ment in Marshall County," pp. 73-74.

86Democratic Party Campaign Committee, democratic Campaign Book, pp.
14-16; Northport West Alabama Breeze, July 12, 26, 1894.

87

Democratic Party Campaign Committee, Democratic Campaign Book, p.

10.

OO

Robert Saunders, "Southern Populists and the Negro, 1893-1895,"

Journal of Negro History, LIV (1969), p. 245.

89

Manning, Politics of Alabama, p. 22.

90

Butler Choctaw Advocate, May 17, 1893, quoted in Huggins, "Bour-
bonism and Radicalism," p. 302. Jones was threatened with assassination
if the 1894 elections were unfair. See: Birmingham Age-Herald, December
13, 1893.

91

Montgomery Advertiser, June 16, 1894.

92

Troy Jeffersonian, March 16, June 15, 1894.

93

Manning, Politics of Alabama, p. 36. The Troy Jeffersonian, May

4, 1894, declared that many Democrats, fed up with the corruption of
their party, were supporting Kolb.

94

Montgomery Advertiser , August 4, 1894; Birmingham Age-Herald,

Auugst 4, 1894. One Democratic paper reported that Kolb admitted stuff¬
ing ballot boxes in Barbour County during the redemption campaigns of
the mid-seventies. See: Northport West Alabama Breeze, July 26, 1894.

95

Troy Jeffersonian, August 3, 1894.

96

Montgomery Advertiser, June 10, July 26, 1892; Troy Jeffersonian,
March 2, 1894.

97

William H. Chafe, "The Negro and Populism: A Kansas Case Study,"
Journal of Southern History, XXXIV (1968), pp. 402-403.

98Ibid., p. 416.

99 Ibid ., pp. 404, 416, 418.

^Birmingham News, February 9, 1894; Montgomery Advertiser , February
9, 1894.

213

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

^Saunders, "Southern Populists and the Negro," p. 242.

^^Tbid. , p. 243.

^°^Ibid. , pp. 243, 245; Thomas Goode Jones, "The 1890-92 Campaigns for
Governor of Alabama," Montgomery Advertiser, September 17, 1911, re¬
printed in Alabama Historical Quarterly, XX (1958), p. 672.

1 04

Saunders, "Southern Populists and the Negro," p. 245.

105lMd. , p. 248.

^Montgomery Advertiser, April 3, July 22, 1894.

^Saunders, "Southern Populists and the Negro," pp. 248-249.

1 08

Sheldon Hackney, Populism to Progressivism in Alabama (Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969), pp. 45-46.

1 09

Hearn, "Populist Movement in Marshall County," pp. 71-73; Mont¬
gomery Advertiser , June 7, 1894; Albertville Sand Mountain Signal, May
25, 1894, quoted in Hearn, "Populist Movement in Marshall County," p.

85.

^Summersell , "Reuben F. Kolb," pp. 100-101.

^Northport West Alabama Breeze, July 12, 1894.

1 1 2

Troy Jeffersonian, June 15, August 3, 1894.

113

Ibid., March 16, 1894; Manning, Politics of Alabama, p. 35; Ward
and Rogers, Labor Revolt in Alabama, p. 125. The Troy Jeffersonian, June
15, 1894, credited Kolb with a 100,000 majority of the white votes which
could be reversed only by unbelievable Democratic corruption.

1 1 4

Eufaula Times and News, December 21, 1893, quoted in Rogers, One-
Gallused Rebellion, p. 248.

1 1 5

Troy Jeffersonian, March 2, 1892. But the Jeffersonian, May 4,
1894, accused the Democrats of threatening to ambush Negroes who voted
for Kolb and issued a plea for all men to uphold the right of a man to
vote, whatever his race.

116

Dadeville Herald, quoted in Birmingham News, August 4, 1894.

^Mongtomery Advertiser, May 19, June 7, 1894. In Clay County, the
"Kolbites" organized groups of Negro voters to be used to offset Demo¬
cratic votes. See: Henry Pelham Martin, "A History of Politics in Clay
County during the Period of Populism from 1888-1896" (M.A. thesis. Uni¬
versity of Alabama, 1936), pp. 68-69.

118

Rogers, One-Gallused Rebellion, p. 281.

1 1 9

Montgomery Advertiser, June 16, 1894.

214

Karl Rodabaugh

120IMd. , June 7, 1894.

1 Ibid. , June 24. 1894.

]Z2Ibid. , May 19, 1894.

1 23

Birmingham Age-Herald, August 2, 1894.

1 24

Charles B. Spahr, Ameriaan's Working People (New York, 1909), p.
103, quoted in C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877-1913
(Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State University Press, 1951), p. 257;
Saunders, "Southern Populists and the Negro," pp. 255-256.

^Saunders, "Southern Popul i sts and the Negro," pp. 255-256. Also
see: Leah R. Atkins, "Populism In Alabama: Reuben F. Kolb and the
Appeals to Minority Groups," Alabama Historical Quarterly, XXXII (1970),
pp. 167-180.

1 20

°Saunders, "Southern Populists and the Negro," p. 256.

1 27

Bi rmingham Age-Herald, August 3, 1894.

1 2g

Selma Times, cited in Montgomery Advertiser, July 22, 1894.

1 29

Saunders, "Southern Populists and the Negro," p. 256. Oates's
sincerity in appealing to blacks is highly suspect in view of his state¬
ments made on two different occasions. In an interview given while in
Congress, Oates revealed that he feared Negro rule would result if
blacks voted and their votes were counted. See: Allen J. Going, Bour¬
bon Democracy In Alabama, 1874-1890 (University, Ala., 1951), p. 39. Ad
dressing the 1894 graduating class of Tuskegee Institute, after the pre¬
ceding speaker had hinted that a new era in racial relations was forth¬
coming, Oates said:

I want to give you niggers a few words of plain talk and
advice. No such address as you have just listened to is going
to do you any good; it's going to spoil you. You had better
not listen to such speeches. You might as well understand that
this is a white man's country as far as the South is concerned,
and we are going to make you keep your place. Understand that.

I have nothing more to say.

See: Naomi Friedman Goldstein, The Roots of Prejudice Against the Negro
in the United States (Boston: Boston University Press, 1948), p. 60n.

1 30

Birmingham News, July 20, 1894.

1

Birmingham Age-Herald, August 3, 1894.

1 32

Montgomery Advertiser, July 25, 1894.

1 33

Sparkman, "Kolb-Oates Campaign," p. 28. In August, Bowman was
placed under a peace bond for threatening A. J. O'Keefe, the editor of
the Birmingham Independent. See: Birmingham Age-Herald , August 4, 1894

215

Alabama Gubernatorial Election of 1894

1 34

Montgomery Advertiser, July 24, 1894.

1 35

Cole, "Populism in Tuscaloosa County," p. 74.

1 36 Ibid. , pp. 76, 82.

1 37

Montgomery Advertiser, April 12, June 26, July 28, August 4, 1894;
Troy Jeffersonian, June 8, 1894.

1 38

Montgomery Advertiser, June 30, July 12, 1894; Albert Burton Moore,

A History of Alabama and Her People (Chicago, 1927), I, p. 728.

1 39

Sparkman, "Kolb-Oates Campaign," p. 38.

140

Manusorvpt Electvon Returns, Alabama Gubernatorial Election, 1894,
Files of the Secretary of State, Alabama Department of Archives and
History, Montgomery.

141

Hearn, "Populist Movement in Marshall County," p. 92.

142

Birmingham Age-Herald, August 8, 1894; Troy Jeffersonian, August
10, 1894.

143

Birmingham Age-Herald, August 8, 1894.

144

Troy Jeffersonian, August 17, 1894; Birmingham Age-Herald, August
10, 1894.

1 46

Troy Jeffersonian, August 10, 1894.

1 46

Birmingham Age-Herald, August 8, 1894. Professor Malcolm Cook
McMillan has concluded, in Constitutional Development in Alabama, p. 224,
that the Sayre law disfranchised many poor whites and Negroes and served
to keep the Democratic party in power. Also see: David Ashley Bagwell,
"The 'Magical Process': The Sayre Election Law of 1893," Alabama Review,
XXV (April, 1972), pp. 83-104.

147

Troy Jeffersonian, August 17, 1893; Birmingham Age-Herald, August
10, 1894.

148

Horace Wood to McKee, June 13, 1894, McKee Papers; Birmingham Age-
Herald, August 24, 1894.

1 49

Kolb to Chandler, August 20, September 22, 1894, William E.

Chandler Papers, Library of Congress, quoted in DeSantis, Republicans
Face the Southern Question, p. 249.

1 50

William Allen, Populist Senator from Nebraska, after reading into
the Congressional Record a number of petitions from Alabamians calling
for honest elections, offered a resolution to that effect that was de¬
feated in the third session of the Fifty-Third Congress. Chandler tried
to resurrect his resolution in the second session of the Fifty-Fourth
Congress, but was ruled out-of-order. See: U.S., Congress, Senate,

53rd Cong., 3rd. sess., Congressional Record, XXVII, p. 428; and U.S.

216

Karl Rodabaugh

Congress, Senate, 54th. Cong., 2nd. sess.. Congressional Record, XXIX,

p. 231 .

1 51

Clark, Populism in Alabama, pp. 155, 158; Montgomery Advertiser ,

November 13, 1894.

1 52

Northport West Alabama Breeze, November 22, 1894.

153 .

Clark, Populism in Alabama, pp. 158-159.

1 54

Birmingham Age-Herald, June 28, 1914, quoted in McMillan, "Alabama
Constitution of 1901," p. 50.

^Summersell , "Reuben F. Kolb," p. 118.

217

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 4, October, 1977.

ELECTRICITY USE IN ALABAMA BY INCOME CLASS WITH
IMPLICATIONS REGARDING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
LIFELINE RATE STRUCTURES1

A. Wayne Lacy

Dept, of Economies , Auburn University at Montgomery, Montgomery , AL

Donald R. Street

Dept, of Economics, Auburn University , Auburn, AL 36830

INTRODUCTION

This paper presents the results of a study to determine how much
electricity is used, on the average, by consumers at different income
levels. This information is then analyzed to show the effect of changing
the electricity rate structure to some "lifeline" form (low rates for
initial use with rates increasing as use increases). Although utility
companies are aware of the average consumption for all customers, they
generally have not had data that break down the averages by income
classes. Earlier research by the authors has shown empirically that con¬
sumer income is an important factor in electricity consumption (1, 2, 3).

The importance of information based on income categories has in¬
creased as regulatory agencies have sought ways to relieve the burden of
rising electric bills on the poor through some form of rate change. All
of the proposed programs have given rise to serious questions regarding
efficacy and efficiency as well as the obvious consideration of equity
in rate decisions. Without a better knowledge of electricity consumption
and user behavior by income class, many of these plans cannot be properly
evaluated by either the utilities or the regulatory agencies. This study
fills some of the gaps in such knowledge and provides an aid to sound de¬
cision making.

The set of income classes chosen for analysis is given in Table 1,
with the number of observations in each class. The final sample size
was 1,446 customers, each of whom had to be placed into one of the in¬
come classes shown.

SELECTION OF SAMPLE AND INCOME IDENTIFICATION

To allow the income segmentation necessary for this study, census
tracts were chosen that (a) represented a broad cross section of income
averages from three cities; Birmingham, Mobile, and Montgomery, ana (b)
had a reasonably high concentration of incomes within a range around the

1

Manuscript received 1 June 1977; accepted 4 August 1977.

218

A. Wayne Lacy and Donald R. Street
TABLE 1

INCOME CLASSES USED IN THE STUDY

Income

Class

Number of
Observations

Income

Range

I

34

0- $2,999

II

70

$3,000- $4,999

III

165

$5,000- $7,499

IV

305

$7,500- $9,999

V

453

$10,000-$14,999

VI

181

$15, 000 -$19,999

VII

58

$20 ,000-$24 ,999

VIII

150

$25,000 and over

mean and median. Obtaining the broad cross section was no problem.
However, since most census tracts have a wide range of incomes within
their territory, the second requirement was more difficult to fulfill.

The middle income categories presented difficulties in location of high
concentrations around the mean and median. The very high and very low
incomes were more concentrated.

A request was made to Alabama Power Company to provide a listing of
customers that would be sufficient in number to give a fairly large sam¬
ple in each income category after numerous criteria were placed on each
customer for selection. The original selection, a systematic random
sample, included approximately 24,000 consumers. To assure their place¬
ment in the proper tracts, every customer selected and their alternates
were located on maps taken from the U.S. Census of Birmingham, Mobile,
and Montgomery. Customers located outside the desired tracts were elimi¬
nated from the sample. This stage of the study reduced the total sample
by about one-half to approximately 12,000.

As a first step toward placing the customers into an income class,
the occupations of the 12,000 remaining customers were sought in the city
registers of Birmingham, Mobile, and Montgomery. Only about one-half of
the customers were listed, reducing the sample to about 6,000. Custom¬
ers who had experienced a change in address were dropped from the sample
since we desired to compare consumption levels for two different time
periods. Retired persons, widows, students and most self-employed per¬
sons, except professionals were also dropped from the sample because in¬
come identification was extremely hazardous. A separate study of widows
and retired persons is being conducted along these same lines. This step
left the sample size in the neighborhood of 5,000.

The most difficult task of the study was the assignment of custom¬
ers into income classes. The following factors were evaluated in clas¬
sifying each customer into an income group:

219

Electricity Use in Alabama

1 . Location by census tract

2. Mean and median incomes for each tract

3. Race of customer

4. Distribution of incomes within each census tract

5. Occupation by customer

6. Mean and median incomes of occupations

7. Distribution of incomes by occupation

8. Approximate housing value of customer

Unless each of the considerations was reasonably consistent with the
others, the customer was eliminated from the sample.

Certain biases from the tract distributions were bound to occur as
a result of the use of the city register. For example, only a small
percent of the very low income class was listed in the registers. This
result was expected to and did, give an upward bias to the low income
classes. Extremely high incomes tend to be biased downward because of
the reporting of income averages used.

Another factor used to aid in income classification was the distri¬
bution of income within occupational classes. In some cases the incomes
are closely concentrated, allowing relative ease of income assignment.
Even when widely dispersed, this information was valuable when consider¬
ing all of the factors collectively. In some cases, certain income
classes could be eliminated from consideration.

The race of the customer was also taken into consideration. The
degree of black and white concentration within tracts was very high.
Where doubt existed as to the race, an examination of the census block
within the tract generally provided the answer with extremely high proba
bility, often 100 percent. Each of the census tables for income was
given for blacks separately. Since a considerable difference in income
by occupational titles was noted between blacks and whites, the black or
white breakdown was essential to the procedure and proved extremely valu
able for cutting down the distributional range of incomes for each occu¬
pation .

The apparent achievement level within an occupation was also con¬
sidered. Although the census does not break down occupations by levels,
the attachment of words such as "chief," "head," "leader," "main" or
other descriptive terms were used to place the customer within the dis¬
tribution of income.

Another factor used to aid in the income classification was the ap¬
proximate value of the home occupied by the owner. This information is
available by census block. A ratio of household value to income for
each tract was computed simply as a rough guide, realizing that there
would be wide divergence from this ratio. However, this information pro
vided an additional factor for income consideration. Since the likeli¬
hood of a person earning ten thousand dollars per year and living in an
area of fifty or sixty thousand dollar homes is small, comparisons of
this type proved useful for income classification and/or elimination
from the sample. The final sample included 1,446 customers.

220

A. Wayne Lacy and Donald R. Street
RESULTS

This study entailed data on kilowatt-hour use of electricity for
1,446 Alabama Power Company customers for 1971 and 1975. Table 2 pre¬
sents the average kwh consumption and standard deviations by income
class for the two years. Average use increases in every income class
for both years as does the standard deviation, indicating less concen¬
tration as income rises. An examination of the differences in consump¬
tion levels between 1971 and 1975 reveals an interesting pattern. The
lower income classes, I through IV, exhibit an increase in use with the
percentage change between the years following a decreasing pattern ex¬
cept from class I to class II. Consumption in class V remains approxi-
matley constant (+7 kwh on a base of 13,527 kwh) and declines for the
higher income groups, with the percentage decline increasing as incomes
increase. This shifting use pattern may be attributable to a number of
factors. One possibility is that growing appliance saturation for up¬
wardly mobile low-income customers keeps their use rising while high-
income customers with very high saturations of appliances try to conserve
energy. The largest percentage decreases experienced were in classes
VII and VIII, the over $20,000 income groups, and constitute only a
small proportion of the total population in Alabama.

Weather does not appear to have been a major factor in any differ¬
ential between the two years. Two of the basic measures of the need for
heating and air conditioning are called heating degree days and cooling
degree days respectively. Heating (Cooling) degree days measures the
amount of time the temperature is recorded below (above) 65 degrees,
times the number of degrees below (above) 65 degrees. From 1971 to 1975
a 6.4 percent decrease in heating degree days and a 6 percent increase
in cooling degree days was noted (5). Weather would favor a slight in¬
crease in consumption for 1975, depending on the distribution of cooling
and heating degree days.

Table 3 gives the relative frequency (the percent of the observa¬
tions in the class) distribution for all eight income classes for 1971.
Table 4 gives the same information for 1975. In both tables the increased
use with higher levels of income can be traced by examining the modal
values. The increase in use from class I with 31.4 percent of the ob¬
servations in the less than 2,000 kwh group, to class VII, with 19.0 per¬
cent of the observations between 14,000 and 15,999 kwh is fairly steady.
Then there is a sharp increase for class VIII with 19.7 percent of the
observations with over 30,000 kwh for the year. This last figure is
probably attributable to a larger percentage of all-electric homes in
this income class and to the open ended interval itself covering all in¬
comes over $25,000. The pattern of the modal values for the 1975 con¬
sumption is much the same as 1971 although not quite as smooth.

The concentration of kwh's around the modal class decreases as the
income level increases in both years. For class I, the lowest income
group, 62.8 percent of the customers in 1971 (60 percent in 1975) used
less than 4,000 kwh; for income class II, 51.4 percent of the customers
used 2,000 to 6,000 kwh. When class IV is examined, a spread of 6,000
kwh (6,000 to 12,000) is needed to account for 60 percent of the cusO
tomers in 1971 (8,000 kwh spread in 1975). The concentration of use

221

AVERAGE YEARLY KWH CONSUMPTION BY INCOME
CLASS FOR 1971 AND 1975

Electricity Use in Alabama

4->

C (U^
CD CD C
U C (U

i. (O (U

(D -Cl

Q- - -

co c\j co

CO ^ LO

CO

+*

o

(XI

+

CO

+

LO

+

o

o

’=3"

LO

c

-a o

S- -r-

ro +->

■o fd

C -I—

<T5 >
+-> d)
LT) O

CT>

CO

CT>

O

CO

LO

CO

CO

C\J

CT)

CT>

CO

CO

,=d-

o

C\J ^ 'Xl'

LO

LO

co

LO

r"'-

cr»

i — LO

o co

lo cr>

CT) co LO

LO LO CO

• — lo

CO

o

co

CT)

OT

CO CO

-a o

S- -r-
1X5 4->
-O C3

C -r—
(X5 >

cn

CO

•xt*

CO

CO

00

222

23,025 11,460 21,755 9,777

RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF ELECTRICITY USE BY INCOME CLASS, 1971
(ALL FIGURES IN PERCENTAGES)

A. Wayne Lacy and Donald R. Street

o r-^ i — aiounimnLOcooN

OooNMro'^oc\jcncri(TiN't]-(Mcrt

^ ^ n tn o r— or co oi c\j cd

ororoi — tn oi M ld ro ld in ro o lo

lo ^ cr> ro . — (MLOLOLn-tfOvUDCo
OOrOCOCO^DNimDO^tJ-rOMOM

^rr^c\jc\Jco^f-

O f— CXI O CO CO

i\ooroLOCTir^'d-cooTro
cm ^ ai n ro n o i — o i —

Q^^cnON>X)'^'^rxcocOLO?nfOfn?o

OCOLDLDCTiLOCOO'^OJOdi

oooo

«=d- co

ld cd co

^ CO CO CXI CO CXJ C\J

— oooo

cxj cd
co r^-

lo cr« cr> or

co^^*^rcxiLncxiooooooo

* *

r— cd cn

r^cxjocxooooooooo

“O
I— O)

rO to

Z3 ZD
C

C JZ

<c 5

cd cd cd cd

CD CD CD CD
CD CD CD CD

• — LO N

I I I I

OOOO
o o o
o o o

S-

O)

CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD >

CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD O

CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD

CD • — CO Lf) N CD i — CO LD N CD C

i — . — ■ — . — ! — CXJ CXI CXI CXJ CXI ro

I I I I I I I I I I I

oooooooooooo

oooooooooooo

oooooooooooo

CXI^-COCOOCX^tOCOOCX^-COCOO
. — r— , — ■ — . — CXI CXI CXJ CXJ CXI CO

223

Note: * Indicates only one observation

RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF ELECTRICITY USE BY INCOME CLASS, 1975
(ALL FIGURES IN PERCENTAGES)

Electricity Use in Alabama

“O
r— CD
ro i/)
=5 ZD

i — LnoirocMincocON. — r\

OOOWMiDNO'tCONCOstM'd-Oi

NNNCTiOiOQOOJi

ro ^ cvj cnj cnj

LDLDCOOiLOCMOOOLnLDi

^ ONfON^ NfQONCOi — CD CO
OOOOLOlDCNJi — CO I — CM LD CD CM I — O C\J

^ Oin ro

C\J CO CO

i — ^j-LO<^-Lor\cDCT)Cn
LO C\J I — dDLDCNJ. — OOO

cricvicorocxicorocoro

'dTOOCTlCOlDNNCDCOi

o o o o

c\j co cr> cr>

st ^ O CO ,

■ o o o o o

COCNJCvJCDDCDD'^-CDDCDD

MDOinLn'tMCVJOOOOOO

ro <3- co cr> cn

. — COOCNJCXJOOOOOOOO

CTi CT> CTY CTt CTt CTi CH OD CTi CT> CTt CTt CTt CT> CT> >
CT) CTt CTT CTi OT CTi CTt CTi CJY OD OD CTi CTt CTT OD O
OTcrtCJTcr>czTcr>crtcjTcr)Cr>crtcjTcr)crtcri

0000000000000000

000000000000000

000000000000000

224

Note: * Indicates only one observation

A. Wayne Lacy and Donald R. Street

around the modal level decreases as income increases from class I through
class VIII. This relationship holds within the 1975 data also. How¬
ever, a comparison between the 1971 and 1975 Tables 3 and 4, and an ex¬
amination of the standard deviations of Table 2 shows that there was less
variability within income classes in 1975 than there was in 1971. The
fact that emerges most clearly from these data is that while there is
considerable variation in electricity use within income classes, the re¬
lationship between income and use is very strong. The variability in use
increases as income increases. Some of the most likely causal factors
of this variability are the choice of other forms of energy such as
natural gas or heating oil, different insulation factors in homes, the
amount of time spent in homes by members of the family, different atti¬
tudes toward conservation, and the tastes and preferences of the consum¬
ers regarding appliances. The higher the income level, the more options
are available for electricity use.

IMPLICATIONS FOR DECISION MAKING

The type of information provided by this study can be useful to de¬
cision makers involved with rate making for utilities. An area of con¬
cern is that utilities may be required to adopt so-called "lifeline"
rates or inverted rate structures. Such rate structures involve a low
charge per kwh for the first block of kwh's consumed, and higher charges
beyond that block — in effect, an increasing price structure for increased
usage. The lifeline rate could be modified to have several blocks of in¬
creased rates above the minimum segment. The purpose of "lifeline"
rates is to provide a lower priced service to the poor. However, since
electric utilities themselves cannot provide welfare services and must
earn a return, the rates for high and possibly medium level users would
have to be increased to compensate for revenue losses. Such rates also
place an increased burden on persons who heat with electricity as op¬
posed to natural gas or some other energy form.

One question regarding the lifeline rate that can be partially an¬
swered with the data of this study is: What percent of the poor will
actually be helped by any given price structure, and how different in¬
come level customers will be affected. For example, assume that the
four rates in Table 5 are being considered as an alternative to a flat
rate of three cents per kwh. This rate is slightly above current winter
month rates and slightly below current summer month rates for Alabama
Power Company. The bills for each of these rates of various levels of
kwh consumption are shown in Table 6.

Rate A, a very modest price lifeline, reaches a breakeven cost when
compared with the flat 3 cent rate at 600 kwh of consumption, with a
maximum saving of three dollars to customers who use 300 kwh. Above
that quantity, the saving falls.

Rate B reaches a breakeven with the 3 cent rate at 1400 kwh, with a
maximum saving of $4. Rate C reaches the breakeven point at 1200 kwh
with a maximum saving of $8. The most liberal of the prices, rate D,
reaches breakeven at 1600 kwh and a maximum saving of $8.

By converting the 1975 figures from Tables 2 and 3 to monthly aver¬
ages and assuming that the percentages are evenly distributed over each

225

PROPOSED RATES

Electricity Use in Alabama

O

o _a
o ra
cn

o s~ o

3 04-
S- 4—

00 C O
• • +-> 3 r—
CD *i-

S- C O CD
3 13 O >
+-> CO O
O O -Q
3 O +-> ro
s- «^i- X

+-> CD r—

OO

CD i

(/>

n3 3 +-> 03

_ OS-

•r- S- 4- O
S- O 4—
Q_ 4- J3
5 ^ -C

dJ -C ^ 5
<D 2 \

S - iC i/)\

r\-P IA
I— </) C 4-J
CD C
CD C O CD

CD -C -X
CJ ^ \

■r— CO

S- \ 4->
Q- 4-> C
I C CD
O CD O

CD Cl O
E O Li-

CD
4— >

ro

QC

<C

CO

<_> Q

226

Extreme Three-Price Structure:

One cent/kwh for 1st 400 units
Three cents/kwh for next 400 units
Four cents/kwh for all above 800 units

TABLE 6

A

Wayne Lacy and Donald R. Street

CD

o

Q

c

to

- — ^

CD

— -

CO

co co co CO

*=3*

(XI

1 —

o

3"

OD 3

O CD

u

1

1

i

1

1

1

1

1

1

+

+ r-

(XJ

i— 4->

CD

- — -

+

+

' — ru

4—

LO

Cd

4-

— ^

Q

CD

O

- — -

CJ

C

CO

- — -

CD

CO

00 co

*3"

OJ

o

OJ

CO

co

CO CO

co

CT. QJ

U

i

i

1

1

1

1

4-

+

4-

4-

1 — 1 —

(XJ

- - 4— >

CD

4- +

+

ro

■3-

or

4—

'

Q

1 —

LU

CD

O

- — -

>-

CO

C

CO

<c

- —

CD

—

CO

*3*

•3"

*3-

•3"

(XJ

o

1 —

(XJ

co

i — CO

co

Q_

CO OJ

U

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

4-

4-

+

1 — 1 —

OJ

- -

CD

O'—".

4- 4-

4-

OO

<T3

•4-

CO

i — i

_l

Cd

4-

_

UJ

• 1 —

Ul

>

Q

UJ

UJ

cj

_J

CD

UJ

UJ

O

- — .

Cd

oo

C

C

co

UJ

ZD

- — -

(D

CO

<XJ

o

CXI

<3-

CO CO

OD

o

3"

OD 3

^3*

Li_

cd

U

1

1

1

+

4-

4-

4-

+

, —

1 —

1— OJ

CO

U_

=c

- - 4— >

CD

—

+

4-

+ +

4-

i — i

03

4—

CXI

o

Cd

4-

* — ■"

zc

>-

O

h-

C£D

3

UJ

sc

f—

+->

CD

oo

c

•r—

4->

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

O

O O

O

UJ

QZ

— 5

+->

03

o

o

o

CD

cd

CD

CD

CD

CD

CD

O O

O

Cd

CO

03

Cd

ZD

1—

- i -

i —

cn

(XI

CO

•3"

o

co

OJ

LO CO

O

LO O

O

h—

i —

U_

-CJ-

(XJ

CO

ro <3-

3-

3-

CO

X- OD

OJ

cj

UJ

•i —

CO

( —

ZD

CJ

CO

QC

\—

UJ

oo

UJ

4->

QZ

03

Q

o

o

o

o

CD

o

o

o

O

O

O O

0

UJ

nr

-- — «

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

O

O

O O

0

1—

!—

i_n . —

CD

«=x

^ — - 1 —

4— >

CO

•3*

o

CO

*3-

(XI

o

3- CO

3

^3-

Cd

h-

•i —

03

1 —

1 —

OJ

co

3-

3"

3~

co

co 0

^3-

<

CO

QC

1 —

1 —

CD

_J

u_

i — i

4->

>-

C

03

CJ

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

O

0

0 0

0

cd

o

CD

o

C D

C D

CJ

C D

C D

CD

C D

0 0

C D

C

> —

CD

>

o

- - i —

4->

co

•3*

(XJ

o

CO

CO

3- co

CXI

CO

co co co

QZ

•i —

03

1 —

(XJ

OJ

co 3"

3*

LO

co

co 0

^3"

Cd

u_

CO

QC

o

u_

4->

co

03

co

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

O

0

0 0

O

-- — -»

o

o

CD

o

o

o

o

o

O

0

0 0

O

_i

CO r—

CD

i — i

* — «■ i -

4— >

co

co

*3-

O co

3"

(XI

co

CJ

CO

co co

CO

CD

•i —

03

1 —

(XJ

OJ

ro

3-

3-

LO

CO

co 0

*3-

CO

QC

1

1

4->

03

<C

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

O

0

0 0

O

^ —

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

O

0

0 0

O

C\J >—

CD

— - i —

4->

CO

o

CO CO

*3-

OJ

o

3*

CO

3-

^3-

•3-

• i —

03

OJ

CO

3-

LO

LO

LO

r\

OD r—

LO

CO

Cd

r”

c

o

4->

sc

^ CL ^

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

O

0

0 0

0

r- e

o

o

CJ

CJ

CJ

CJ

CJ

o

O

0

0 0

0

— *>• Z

ro

^3

CO

co

CJ

OJ

3-

LO

CO

CJ

LO 0

0

(/)

c

I —

1 —

■ —

1 —

i —

<XJ

oj ro

^3"

C v-

O

CJ

227

Electricity Use in Alabama

use level in Table 3, Table 7 can be constructed showing what percentages
of each income class will benefit or lose by each proposed rate. Table
3 is used instead of Table 4 so that 1970 usages will be comparable to
1970 income level.

For Rate A, 87.36 percent of the customers in income class I and
73.42 percent of the customers in income class II would receive lower
bills on the average. However, even in these low income classes, under
$5,000, 12.64 percent of the customers in income class I and 26.58 per¬
cent of the customers in income class II would suffer higher bills. Also
a small percentage of the persons in the upper income classes would be
benefiting from the change.

Without elaborating on the details of Table 7, one result becomes
evident. For a company to attempt to aid the poor with only an inverted
rate structure, without also harming a significant proportion of them in
return, they must adopt a rate structure that will also give significant
levels of benefit to middle income and, to a lesser but still large per¬
centage, upper income groups. This result would take place with Rates B,
C, and D. It is questionable, however, whether these rate structures
would prove financially sound for utilities. Further analysis of use
levels and price response evaluations are necessary.

The rate structures used for analysis in this study, although hypo¬
thetical, are not unreasonable. They point up the problem of attempting
to aid the poor through rate relief. The type of proposal treated here
is only one of a myriad of different proposals that have been set forth,
but the additional information of the type provided by this study has
some use in many of them.

The information provided in this study indicates that "lifeline"
rates are not a good method of aiding the poor, if they are based on
usage levels. This supports our earlier findings (3) and raises again
the question of whether utilities should be involved in the welfare
business at all. The authors' contention is that welfare is the role
of government and not private enterprise. Among the programs that might
better suit the needs of the poor are cash payments to compensate for
rising electricity prices and a federal and/or state program aimed at
increasing resources to insulate low income housing.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Lacy, A. Wayne and Donald R. Street. An Econometric Analysis of

Residential Electricity Demand For Alabama Power Company.

Birmingham: September 1975.

2. Lacy, A. Wayne, Donald R. Street, and Walter L. Baker. "Income

Determines Level of KWHour Use," Electrical World, Vol . 186

(July 1976).

3. Street, Donald R., A. Wayne Lacy, and Carl W. Hale. An Analysis of

Plans To Aid Low-Income Electricity Users. Birmingham: Novem¬
ber 1975.

228

A. Wayne Lacy and Donald R. Street

o o

CD -xf

co cxi

o o

i — i

CD

r\ cxj

CO r—

CXJ CO

i — i

i — i

c\j

CD O

LO ^

OO CD

>

CD

cxj r\

r— 00

•vt- LO

CO

^ CD

o o

CD

i — i

r-- cxi

CD oo

CD 'd-

O CD

i — i

>

OO CD

CD O

CD o

r— CO

CD

lo

cxi

CD OO

^ CD

CO cxi

CXI CO

CD

O CD

CD oo

r— CO

cxj

>

CD OO

r— CO

0O CD

r-^ cxj

CD

co oo

LO

cxj

CXI CO

CXJ oo

CD

cd

CO

LO

0O CD

r- 00

LO

CO

>

03

O CD

LO *3"

O CD

LO

UJ

r—

«— co

r-^ cxi

CD OO

CO <—

s :

CJ

O CO

CJ UJ

CL)

^ i—

E

*— • ex

o

o o

CO CXJ

CO CXJ

CO CXJ

QC

o

CXJ CO

cxj

LO

cxj

>-

c

>

CQ Q

1 — 1

t— <

O CD

CO r—

CO r—

OO CD

UJ

CXJ

CO r—

cxj

CD

CD 1—

^ CJ

►— « UJ

CO _J

O UJ

cd

CD

CD <3-

o

_J oo

t— i

O CD

r- CO

OO CD

CD *^J-

i — i

Q U_

i — i

CD o

CD oo

i— 00

r-^ cxj

^ O

LO

CD

CD

CD

C

-Zl

CD O

^ ►— »

•— « h-

CXJ oo

CD ’ZT

CO CXI

o

f— D_

LO

cxi r^.

OO CD

o

•— 1 o

i — i

U_ Q

i — i

OO CD

cxj

cxj

o o

uj <t

cxj

CD

cd

o

UJ QC

CQ O

U_

f—

CD

o

o

o

IT OO

OO CD

o

o

o

UJ oo

i — i

CJ C

cxi

o o

o o

o o

QC _J

co

o

o

o

L±J CJ

Q_

4->

CJ

C CD

c CD

C CD

c CD

CD

■r— CO

•1— to

•r— to

•«— to

4—

03 o

03 O

03 O

03 O

4—

CD _J

CD _l

CD _J

CD _J

UJ

c:

C

c ^

c -

CD

CD JZ

CD

CD -£=

> JZ

> 2

> 5

> ^

<d

CD £

CD

cd z*:

CD Z*C

4->

C z*' z*£

CQ ZZ

CJ ZZ

Q ZZ

03

03

03 O

03 O

03 O

QC

aj o

CD O

CD O

CD O

s- o

s- 'Zf

S- (XJ

S- CD

CQ CD

CQ r—

CQ 1 —

CQ r—

— '

—

— "

—

-o

at

+->

o

c

c u

4— >
03

u

cd

jz

o

4->

CD

CD

03

jz

o

CD CD
C C

CD

c 4->

cu c

JD CL)
(J
(/) S-
(O CL)
03 Q_

CD 4->

E

O id
a •(—
c

•r- a)

s-

LJ CD

229

Notes: All figures in percentages.

Electricity Use in Alabama

4. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of the

United States , Tables P-4, 203, and 175, 1970.

5. _ Environmental Services Administration, Environmental Data

Service Local Climatological Data, Various Issues, 1971, 1975.

230

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 48, No. 4, October, 1977.

INDEX

Acid Mucopolysaccharides in Tissues by Cetyl Pyridinium
Chloride Fixation and Atomic Absorption Spectro¬
photometry, Preservation and Quantitation of . 115

Adair, Olivia Vynn . 59, 68

Adams, Curtis H . 59

Aging, Phosphodiesterase Inhibition and Thyroidectomy

with Adrenal Cortical Activity, Interaction of . 51

Agriculture Education for Coming Generations . 103

Ainsworth, Charles H . 132

Alabama's Population Trends on the Reorganization of Labor,

1865-1880, The Impact of . 108

A1 ford , William L . 89

Allison, D. Lee . 190

Alternative Rate Structures, An Overview of . 102

Anthropology Curriculum at Alabama's Institutions of Higher

Education 1977, A Restudy of the . 136

Anthropometric Study of Site 1 Au28, The . 132

Artifacts from Fort Stoddert, Early 19th Century . 135

Artifacts from 1 Tu 267, Report on the Conservation and

Preservation of the . 133

Augen Gneiss in Southwestern Lee County, Alabama, A

Petrographic Study of . 75

Bagwell, James E . 88

Barley Yellow Dwarf with Insecticides, Control of . 57

Bauer, William F . 76

Belmonte, Albert A . 123

Belvin, E. A . 103

Berry's Theory of Urban Commercial Location to Tuscaloosa,

Appl ication of . 84

Billy Weatherford in the Creek War: A Critical Essay in

Bibliography . 110

Bioelectrical Effects of Mecholyl on the Surface Cells of

Mudpuppy Gastric Mucosa, In Vitro . 112

Blakeley Site: An Archeological Survey, The . 136

Blood Platelet Factor-3: Storage and Availability, A

Hi stochemical and Electron Microscopic Study of . 114

Bloss, Pamela . ..... 77

Bond, Billy J . 1 , 101

Botts, Daniel A . 66

Brand, J. C . 128, 128

Breeding Ecology of the Tiger Salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum.

Observations on the . 66

British Aesthete Visits the South, A . 106

Britt, Sylvia Squires . 119

Brockman, George F . 73

Browder, M. L . 51

Bulger, V. L . 103

Burks, D. G . 128, 128

231

Index

Campbell , P . S . 50, 58

Cardiac Enlargement Following Multiple Routes of Injection

of Oral Contraceptive Steroids in the Chick Embryo . 114

Career of the Ironclad Tennessee (1862-67), The . 105

Carmichael, Emmett B . 118, 124

Carpenter, Jerry H . 164

Cell Wall Composition and Lysostaphin Endopeptidase

Resistance in Staphylococcus staphylolyticus . 53

Champion, William J . 55

Chaotropic Agent NaNOg on Seed Germination, Inhibitory

Effects of the . 58

Chase, David W . 131

Chastain, E. D . 101

Chemotherapeutic Agent on Human Dental Plaque and

Gingivitis, The Effect of a . 118

Chennareddy, Venkareddy . 100, 112

Chert Used for Projectile Points in Alabama, Heat Treatment

Effect on . 134

Chri stenberry , Dierdre . 66

Chunnenugee: Fossil Ridge Rediscovered . 76

Clark, Floretta G . 105

Clark, Neil P . 105

Clayton, W. R . 103

Cline, G. B . 113

Clothiaux, Eugene J . 94, 94

Coccoliths of Mobile Bay: A Preliminary Report . 76

Col 1 i gnon , W. A. , Jr . 68

Comic Strips: What Would They Do Without Geography?, The . 88

Community Development Block Grant Formula for Central Cities,

Evaluation of . 87

Complex Radar Target Considerations . 128

Computer Assisted Instruction for Calculus Level General

Physics at a Small College, Development of . 90

Connor, C. D . 51

Constitution and By-Laws, as amended April 9, 1977 . 148

Coons, Bernard R . 72

Cope, Donald Ansley . 110

Cox, Willi am A . 70 , 71

Cranford, Norman Bayne . . . 76

Cross Sections for 45sc(n,2n)^^n,+9Sc and 93j\j|-)(n52n ) ^^mNb

in the Energy Range 13-19 MeV . 89

Cudworth, James R., Jr . 102

Cullen, Katherine A . 110

Curtis, Wayne C . 101

Darden, Paul A . 184

Davis, Norman D . 53, 54

Davi s , Wi 11 iam B . 121

Defant, Marc J . 134

Deptford--A Need for a Closer Look, The Many Views of . 131

Developing Tennessee Valley Agriculture . 1

Dickens, Ray . 56

Diener, Urban L . 53, 54

Diesel Engines, Combustion Chambers, and Air Pollution . 125

Differential Seasonal Adrenocortical Response to Noise

Stress and Acth in Wild Cotton Rats, Sigmodon hispidus .... 51

232

Index

Dixon, Carl F . 55

Djordjevic, Milan S . 125

Domm, Albert . 121

Dorries, H. J . 58

Ecological System of Northwestern Yucatan . 87

Edwards, Jessie J . 113

Electric Field Effect in Thin Bismuth Films . 91

Electricity Use in Alabama by Income Class with Implications

Regarding the Effectiveness of Lifeline Rate Structures . . . 218

Electronic Particle Counter for Quantitative Estimation of

Floe Formation in Z ooglea sp.. Use of the . 55

El Peten, Guatemala: A Developing Region ..... . 84

Emerson, G. M . 123

Endangered and Threatened Carnivorous Plants of Alabama . 54

Environmental Geology and Hydrogeology Pertaining to the Use
of Septic Tanks in the Lake Tuscaloosa Area, A Study

of the . 78

Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring of Samples Taken from

the Areas Surrounding the TVA Nuclear Power Plants . 103

Equitable Salary Program of the Methodist Church: A Microcosm

of Modern America, The . 96

Estes, Paul M . 57

Etheostoma okaloosa, the Okaloosa Darter, and Etheostoma
edwini, the Brown Darter, in Northwest Florida, A

Study of the Distribution of . 65

Evaluating Coal Lands, Some Problems in . 129

Fenn, Hollis C . 104

Fertilizer Use in Maintaining a Favorable Balance of Trade,

Importance of . 101

Finch, R. L . 125

Finn, S. B . 118

Flippo, Greg M . 60, 60

Flippo, Jack L . 113

Floods in Alabama, Observations on the 1791 . 107

Flowers, Walter . 44

Folkerts, George W . 54, 66, 66

Fornaro, Robert J . 131

Fountain, Michael W . 70

Framework for Economic Analysis, Toward a More Effective . 101

Franklin, David B . 107

Free, W. J . 99, 101

Freehafer, Douglas A . 78

Freeman, John D . 69

Fuller, Richard . 136

Fungicides Benomyl and Fentin Hydroxide on Plant Parasitic

Nematodes, Effects of the . 63

Fungi of Alabama VI. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes . 26

Gaiser, James E . 90

Garmon, Jeff Powers . 91

Gauthier, J. J . 54, 55, 61 , 62

Generalized Feller Equation, Solutions of the . 95

Geochemistry of the Mitchell Dam Amphibolite: Chilton and

Coosa Counties, Alabama, Preliminary Whole Rock . , . 77

Geography and Politics of Mining the Ocean's Floor, The . 86

233

Index

Geography in Alabama's Institutions of Higher Education,

The Status of . 85

Geography of Death: A Cultural Landscape Approach, The . 85

Geography of Part of the Dadeville Complex--A Progressive

Report, The . 72

Geological Guide to the Cahaba River--An Integrated

Undergraduate Research Experience, A . 77

German, Edward R . 130

Glenboski, Linda Leigh . . . 134

Gorham, Cheryl L . Ill

Gottch, J.D . 115

Governors of Alabama in the Ante-Bellum Period, Short

Histories of Three Acting . Ill

Graf, E. R . 128, 128

Gray, Martha M . 106

Green, Donald W„, Jr . 133

Greene, Gary M . 88

Greene, John H., Ill . 59, 63

Growth of a Marine Diatom, Cyclotella, When Exposed to

Gibberellic Acid, Observations on the . 59

Gudauskas, Robert T . 56, 57 , 57

Guidance System Development for a New Class of Terminally

Guided Weapons, Overview of . 126

Guthrie, Verner N . 73

Hardman, J. K . 53

Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulations, Validating Models for . 129

Harper, W. L . 51

Haworth, Michael D . 94

Hayes-Davis, Bertram . 79

Hazel , Larry H . 129

Heath, H. E . 52

Helminth Parasites of the Sunfish Family (Centrarchidae) in

Three Michigan Lakes, A Comparison of . 64

Helminths of Crotaphytus collaris aollaris from Arkansas . 55

Henderson , H . A . 1 , 98

Hicks, Deborah K . 131

Hisey, Alan . . . 122

Hobbs, B. B . 103

Holmes, Jack D. L. . . . 107

Hooks, W. Gary . 77

Hool , James N . 184

Host , Wi 1 1 i am H . 67

Houghton, Robert L. . . . . . 95

Hubert, Wayne A . 65, 167, 179

Hudson, Charles G . 89

Huff, Jess B . 126

Hughes, Travis H . 77

Hutchinson, Janice . 132

Huttlinger, Frank D . 84

Humates in the Tombigbee Sand, Mongtomery, Alabama . 71

Hummel's Equation Applied to Enzyme Assaying . 122

Ichthyofauna of Cedar Creek, A Resurvey of the . 67

Ignorance and Stereotyping: The Misrepresentation of Southern

Indians in State Approved Social Studies Textbooks . 131

Immunological Studies of Avian Prolactin . 68

Import Tonnages Through the Port of Mobile, Alabama,

1980-2035, Projections of . 100

234

Index

Incidence of Maize Chlorotic Dwarf and Maize Dwarf Mosaic

in Corn, Effects of Carbofuran on . 57

Inexpensive Gaussmeter, An . 90

Infrared Laser Augmented Chemistry of Boranes: Single Step
Formation of Crystalline Decaborane from Diborane by the

Vibrational Excitation of the U14 Fundamental Mode . 92

Ingram, E. G . 63

Isom, Larmon S . 129

Jackson, Bettie S . 119

Jackson, James R . 59

Jacobs, Paul L . 126, 127

Jamieson, Duncan R . 19

Jamison, H.C . 118

Jeane, Gregory . 85

Jenkins, Dan L . 135

Johnson, Evelyn C . 64

Johnson, Howard G . 85

Johnson, Thomas B., Jr . 114

Kanipe, L. G . 103

Karr , Guy W. , Jr . 56 , 57

Keynote Address . 44

Kilpatrick, Rose M . 75

King, Peggy S . 62

Kinney, Marguerite R . 119

Klimasewski, Ted . 87

Klontz, Harold E . 101

Knight, Helen C . 89

Koch, Alan F . 82, 86

Kolb versus Oates: The Alabama Gubernatorial Election

of 1894 193

Labor Force Participation Rates, United States, 1975-2035,

Projections of . 112

Lacy, A. Wayne . 218

Land, W. H., Jr . 125

Lauhachi nada , Nitaya . 66

Lehnigk, Siegfried H . 95

Likens, Dennis A . 90

Life History "Strategy" of the Fence Lizard, Sceloporus

undulatus , in Central Alabama, The . 60

Lignite Mining in the Alabama-Tombigbee Rivers Region,

Potential Environmental Effects of . 74

Lindsay, R. H . 121

Long, Lamar . 79

Low Altitude Mul ti spectral Imagery as an Aid for

Lithological Mapping . 80

Lueth, Francis X . 84

Luminescence in Non-Reactive Molecular Systems Induced by a
Vibrational Excitation of a Normal Mode Through the

Multiple IR Photon Absorption Process . 91

MacGregor, R., Ill . 68, 68

Mangat, Baldev S . 59

Manning, Michael S . 114

Marion, Ken R . 60, 60, 70, 71

Marks, Henry S . Ill

Marks, Marsha Kass . 109

Marriage, Childrearing, and the Homosexual Subculture . 133

235

Index

Mason, William H . 66, 66

McDade, Claudia E . 106

Medicinal Plant Usage by the Tukuna Indians, Amazonas,

Colombia . 134

Mettee, Maurice F . 65, 74

Miasmist as Reformer : John H. Griscom as a Test Case . 19

Microbial Viability in Activated Sludge, Measurement of . 61

Microteaching ESS Units in Special Education Classes . 104

Microwave Transmissions Studies of a Pulsed Helium Discharge ... 94

Middleton-Keirn, Susan . 135

Miller, Margaret . 59

Mineralogy of a "Protoconcretion," Gordo Formation, Lee

County, Alabama . 73

Minimum Requirements Parameters for Estimating the Economic

Base of Southeastern SMSA's . 83

Minutes--annual business meeting . 138

Mitchell, Vester P., Jr . 65, 67

Mitochondrial Enzymes in Hearts, Brains and Livers of Mice

and Rats, Comparative Activities of . 123

Moberly, H. Dean . 97

Model to Test and Evaluate the Design of a DME/IMU Navigation

Filter, The Formation of a . 125

Moffett, Tola B . 74, 130

Moore, Jack H . 51

Mora, E. C . 63

Morgan, Alice H . 116

Morgan-Jones , Gareth . 26, 53, 54

Mormonism and Archaeological Research . 132

Moser, Paul . 75

Murray, Thomas P . 51

Mycoflora of Alabama Grain Sorghum . 53

Mycotoxin Production by Fungi Isolated from Cotton.

I . Tenuazonic Acid . 54

Myers, John B . 108

Nagrodzki , P. M . 68

Narducci ,L.M . 91

Natural Family Planning . 119

Naughton, Margaret M . 82

Neil son, Michael J . 72

Neocolonial Attitudes Reflected in African Urban Studies:

Or 'Under Every African There is a Primitive Tribesman' . . . 135

Newman, Jane . 87

Nix, D. W . 103

Nobel Prizes and American Laureates, The Six . 118

Nursing Intervention Via Home Visitation in Identified

Non-Compl iant Hypertensive Adults . 120

Oceanology for the Land-Locked: An Elementary School

Science Approach . 104

O'Connor, Robert E . 94

Ontogenetic Development of Pigmentation in a Pigment-

Deficient Larval Rana heakscheri (Anura: Ranidae) . 70

Ovarian Development of the Smallmouth Bass in Pickwick

Reservoir, Observations on the . 65

Overcast, H. Edwin . 102

Oxygen Consumption Measurements in Stream Sediments . 54

236

Index

Paratid Gland, Induced Growth Changes in Immature Rat . 116

Parker, James W . 133

Participants and the Effectiveness of a Jobs Program,

Considerations for Evaluating the Selection of . 97

Pastrick, Harold L . 126, 129

Patient Positioning and Modes of Transfer on Energy
Expenditure, Heart Rate and Blood Pressure,

The Effects of . 119

Petrographic and Peleoenvi ronmental Study of the Jemison

Chert in Chilton County, Alabama, A . 81

Petrological and Geochemical Relationships in the Hillabee
Chlorite Schist in the Mill erv i lie Region, Clay County,

Alabama . 79

Physics Teaching, The Integration of Experience and Theory in . . . 190

Phytoparasitic Nematodes of the Subfamily Hoplolaiminae,

Staining of . 62

Pincha, Pamela M . 134

Plasma Steroid Levels During the Ovulating Cycle of the

Quail Corturnix corturnix japonica . 68

Pneumatic Actuation System for a Large Ballistic Missle . 127

Poirier, Gary R . 59, 67 , 71

Postnatal Testicular Development in Three Inbred Strains

of Mice . 67

Perry, Leslie . 51

Phagoeata bursaperforata (Turbel laria, Tricladida) into an

Alabama Cave, Range Extension of . 164

Politi, John J . 97

Price, Rex C . 80

Pritchett, J. F . 51, 51

Pteridophytes of Alabama, Endangered and Threatened . 69

Quiggle, Glenn . 105

Radar Wavefront Distortion Produced by Aerodynamic Radomes .... 128

Radionuclide Excretion and Metabolic Rate in Flatworms . 66

Radovanovic, Rodoljub . 125

Rat Parotid Gland to Cystic Fibrosis Serum, Response of the .... 116

Rattus norvegicus , S.A.F./S.D. and Tumor Research on the

Undergraduate Level . 70

Reform Judaism in Huntsville, In Retrospect: One Hundred

Years of . 109

Regan, D. R . 125

Reorganization and Early Service of the Twenty-Third Alabama

Infantry Regiment, C.S.A., The . 110

Reproduction in the Fence Lizard, Sceloporus undulatus, in

Central Alabama, A Field Study of . 60

Retail Lime Vendors, Profit Management of . 99

Riggsby, Ernest D . 104

Riley, Clyde . 92

Roberts, Winford T . 63

Robinson, J. M . 52, 53

Rodabaugh, Karl . 193

Rodent Numbers on Site Prepared Lands in Alabama . 84

Rodriguez-Kabana, R . 62, 63

Rozel 1, Billie R . 120

Rural Housing in the Tennessee Valley, Changing Types of . 98

Russel 1 , James . 61

Rutland, Carole . 104

237

Index

Salicylic Acid Diffusion and Interaction in Polyethylene

Glycol Ointment Bases . 123

Salomon, W. L . 115

Sanitary Landfill Site in a Limestone Area: With Special
Reference to Huntsville, Alabama, The Factors

Involved in the Development of a . 82

Sartin, J. L . 51

Save His Soul: John Wesley in Georgia, To . 107

Schaffer, Sheldon . 100, 112

Schlee, F. H . 125

Schneyer, Charlotte A . 116, 117

Scientific Thinking, Using Class Meetings to Develop . 105

Searcy, Margaret Z . 136

Sex Differences in Topographical Map Reading Ability Among
College Students in an Introductory Physical

Geography Course . 88

Shannon, Ken . 54

Shatas , R. A . 91 , 92

Shatas, S. C . 92

Sheetz, James H., Jr . 117

Shoemaker, Richard L . 112

Short, John W . 69

Shotts, Reynold Q . 129, 130

Sloan, G. L . 52, 53

Small Molecular Weight Protease from Staphylococcus
staphylolyticus , Regulation of Production and

Properties of . 52

Smallmouth and Largemouth Basses in Pickwick Reservoir,

Comparative Food Habits of . 167

Smyth, Richard . 83

Solution, Structural and Weathering Features in Northwest

Alabama, The Correlations and Significance of Some . 75

Southeastern Tardigrades, Problems in the Systematics of . 66

Specific Cognitive Skills Associated with Formal Reasoning .... 106

Spectroscopic Observation of Two Vacuum Spark Plasmas . 94

Spermatozoa of Sternothaerus minor minor (Chelonia:

Kinosternidae) , The Fine Structure of . 71

Spring Stomach Contents of Lepomis from the Wilson Dam

Tailwater . 179

Starred Scientists in American Men of Science Listed in

World Who's Who in Science, 1968 . 124

Statistical Estimation of Coal Reserves . 73

Steele, H. Ellsworth . 96

Stevens, Clauzell . 57

Stewart, Dorothy Anne . 93

Stewart, W. S . 99

Stream Temperatures in Alabama . 130

Street, Donald R . 218

Strippable Reserves in Part of the World's Largest Channel

Coalfield, Proving . 130

Strong, Eric Q . 84

Structural Trusses Using Dynamic Programming, Optimal Design of . . 184

Stuman, Barry . 62

Submillimeter and Infrared Wavelengths Through Fog, Comparison

of Propagation of . 93

Superoxide Dismutases in Mycobacteria . 121

238

Index

Sutley, David E . 81

Synthetic Catecholamine on Rat Salivary Glands, The Effects

of a . 117

Taylor, Ronald S . 71

Tectonic Relationships of the Hillabee Chlorite Schist to the
Adjacent Rock Units in Southern Cleburne County,

Alabama, The . 79

Telle, Whitney . 81

Thomas, James L . 121

Thyroid Peroxidase by 2-Selenouracils, Inhibition of . 121

Time-Resolved Magnetic Field Measurement in a High Temperature,

Dense Vacuum Spark . 95

Tombigbee Sand, Eutaw Formation, Montgomery, Alabama, Probable

Origin of the . ... . . 72

Total Cross Sections for the °Li(d,n)'Be Reaction . 89

Toxicity of 3- ( 1 ,2-Epoxypropyl )-5, 6-Dihydro-5-Hydroxy-6-

Methyl pyran-2-0ne to Five-Day Chick Embryos . 51

Trace Element Abundance of Certain Alabama Coal Ash . 81

Trypsin Inhibitor from Murine Epididymides, Initial

Characterization of a . 59

Tsai , Wendy S . 123

Tull, James F . 77

Turfgrass Flerbicides, Non-Target Effects of Three . 56

Tuscaloosa Tornado of Sunday, Febraury 23, 1975, A Report

on the . 82

Tutankhamun: Previews of Coming Attractions . 131

Two Dimensional Electrophoretic Analysis of Fluman Erythrocyte

Plasma Membrane Proteins . 113

Two Parameters in Color Discrimination in Notropis signipinnis

(Bailey and Suttkus) . 68

Uterine Responsivity by Acute Dexamethasone Pretreatment,

Inhibition of . 50

Various Carbon Sources on Floe Formation by Z oogloea ramigera.

Effect of . 62

Various Temperature Levels Upon the Rate of Development of

Heliothis zea. The Effect of . 59

Varner, Vera K . 57

Vinson, Ray J . 129

Wal ker , Sandra A . 119

Warden, Robert L . 179

Waxman, Jerry J . 133

Weatherford, T. W., Ill . 118

Weber, Alma B . 106

Weller, Edwin M . 114

Westmoreland, Joy . 51

White Leghorns Using Corn Molded with Auburn Strain AUA-532

Penicillium citrinum, A Toxicological Study in . 63

Wilborn, Walter FI . 115, 116

Will, Charles M . 129

Williams, Aaron, Jr . 87

Williams, John R., Jr . 89

Wilson, Eugene M . 87

Wilson, FI. J . 50, 58

Wi 1 ters , John FI . 67

Wingo, W. J . 123

239

Index

Yankowsky, C. E . 50

Yokley, Paul , Jr . 67

Yonders, Patricia C . 55

Young, Harold C . 1

240

Notes

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 49 JANUARY, 1978 NUMBER 1

EDITOR:

W.H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830
ARCHIVIST:

R.G. Eaves, Department of History, Auburn University, Auburn AL 36830
EDITORIAL BOARD:

R.T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany and Microbiology,
Auburn Lfniversity, Auburn, AL 36830

E.A. Curl, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn University,
Auburn, AL 36830

G.M. Emerson, Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294

ADVISORY BOARD:

W.L. Alford, Auburn University
Charles Baugh, Univ. South Alabama
G.F. Brockman, Univ. Ala., B’ham
R.J. Fornaro, Univ. South Alabama
A. Wayne iMcy, Auburn Univ., Mtgy.

Walker H. Ixmd, Jr., IBM
H.S. Marks, N.E. St. Jr. Col.
M. Miller, Univ. South Alabama
W.W. Paudler, L^A, Tuscaloosa
Dan Whitson, Decatur

E.M. Wilson, Univ. South Alabama

The Journal is the official publication of the Alabama Academy of Science,
and is indexed in Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, America: History
and Life, and Historical Abstracts

Publication and Subscription Policies

Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent cor¬
respondence to the EDITOR. For style details, follow Instruction to Authors,
J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 48:42-43, 1977.

Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.

Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the
CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD.

Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news releases v ill not be
published in the Journal.

CONTENTS

ARTICLES

Fungi of Alabama VII. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes
G. Morgan-Jones and Robert C. Sinclair . 1

Effect of pH and Temperature on Kinetic Parameters
of Pyri doxami ne-Pyruvate Transaminase

Jonathan B. Ford . 16

Reproduction and Activity of the Greater Siren,

Siren laaertina (Amphibia : Si renidae) , in Alabama

Hugh G. Hanlin and Robert H. Mount . 31

Water Quality of Catoma Creek and Other Selected
Waters in Northern Montgomery County

W. E. Cooper and J. R. Owens . 40

Chinese Archaeology and the Creation of
"Peoples' History"

Robert J. Fornaro . 51

Prevalence of Leptospirosis and Tularemia in
Alabama Feral and Free-Ranging Dogs

M. Douglas Scott and M. Keith Causey . 58

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 1, January, 1978.

FUNGI OF ALABAMA VII. DEMATIACEOUS HYPHOMYCETES1

G. Morgan-Jones and Robert C. Sinclair

Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University , Auburn , AL 368S0

INTRODUCTION

Ten dematiaceous hyphomycetes collected in Alabama are described
and illustrated.

TAXONOMIC PART

Berkleasmium concinnum (Berk.) Hughes, Can. J. Bot. 36: 740, 1958 (Fig.

1).

= Sporidesmium concinnum Berkeley, Lond. J. Bot. 4: 309, 1845.

Colonies effuse. Sporodochia punctiform, gregarious or scattered,
black. Mycelium immersed in the substratum, composed of branched, sep¬
tate, smooth, pale brown hyphae, 2-3p wide. Stroma prosenchymatous .
Conidiophore macronematous, tightly packed, flexuous, cylindrical, sep¬
tate, mostly simple, pale yellowish brown, smooth, 16-28 x 2-4. 5p. Coni-
diogenous cells monoblastic, integrated, terminal. Conidia solitary,
acrogenous, simple, ellipsoidal to clavate, muriformly septate, smooth,
yellowish brown, darker above when young, truncate at the base, 58-110
x 25-30p .

On decorticated wood, Chewacla State Park, Lee County, Alabama,
August 12, 1977, G. Morgan-Jones and R. C. Sinclair, AUA.

Codinaea simplex Hughes and Kendrick, N.Z. J1 . Bot. 6: 362, 1968 (Fig.

2).

Colonies hypophyl 1 ous , effuse, gray. Mycelium immersed or semi-
immersed, composed of branched, septate, subhyaline to pale brown, 2-3p
wide hyphae. Setae absent. Conidiophores macronematous, mononematous ,
arising singly or in groups of up to three, cylindrical, attenuating
distally, with a swollen basal cell of irregular shape, simple, septate,
smooth, brown, straight or flexuous, sympodial, bearing several funnel-
shaped, subhyaline collarettes, occasionally proliferating percurrently
through a terminal collarette, 40-125 x 3-4. 5u. Conidiogenous cells
phialidic, integrated, terminal or intercalary. Conidia hyaline, curved,
continuous, 14-16 x 2-2. 5p, bearing a single, filiform, simple, straight
or slightly curved appendage, 5-7p long, at each end.

Manuscript received 4 December 1977; accepted 5 January 1978.

1

G. Morgan-Jones and Robert C. Sinclair

2

Fungi of Alabama

Figure 2. Codinaea simplex

3

G. Morgan-Jones and Robert C. Sinclair

On leaves of Quercus nigra , Chewacla State Park, Lee County, Ala¬
bama, April 1976, E. G. Ingram, AUA.

C. simplex was originally described from two collections made on
bark of Weinmannia racemosa and Rubus sp. respectively in New Zealand
(Hughes and Kendrick, 1968). It has subsequently been reported from
Papua-New Guinea on leaves of Castanopsis sp. (Matsushima, 1971), from
the Netherlands on acorns of Quercus robur (Holubovd-Jechovd, 1973),
and from Japan on leaves of Podoaarpus maarophyllus and Quercus sp. The
Alabama collection is the first record of its occurrence in North Amer¬
ica .

Codinaea cylindrospora Morgan-Jones and Ingram, Mycotaxon 4: 504, 1976
(Fig. 3).

Colonies hypophyllous, effuse, dark brown to almost black. My¬
celium immersed, semi-immersed or superficial, composed of branched,
septate, subhyaline to pale brown, 1.5-2.5p wide hyphae, aggregated to
form small stromata at the bases of setae and conidiophores. Stromatic
cells globose or angular, thick-walled, brown, up to 7p wide. Setae
arising from dark brown, swollen basal cells, erect, straight, smooth,
up to 6-septate, dark brown and thick walled in the lower part, paler
above, fertile, terminating in a single, narrowly clavate phialide,

105-125 x 3-4p, 6-7p wide at the bulbous base. Conidiophores macronema-
tous, mononematous , arising in groups of up to four near the base of each
seta, cylindrical, with a swollen basal cell, simple, septate, smooth,
30-60 x 2.5-4(j, terminating in a single, pale brown to subhyaline, nar¬
rowly clavate phialide, each phialide bearing a single apical, funnel-
shaped collarette. Conidia hyaline, straight or very slightly curved,
continuous, obtuse at each end, 8-11 x 2-2. 5p.

On leaves of Quercus nigra. Auburn University Forestry Plots, Auburn,
Lee County, Alabama, April 1976, E. C. Ingram, BPI, AUA.

Codinaea unisetula Morgan-Jones and Ingram, Mycotaxon 4: 507, 1976 (Fig.
4).

Colonies hypophyllous, effuse, gray-brown to black. Mycelium im¬
mersed or semi -immersed, composed of branched, septate, subhyaline to
pale brown, 1.5-2p wide hyphae. Hyphae giving rise to a few pale brown
to brown, subglobose cells, up to 6p wide associated with the conidio¬
phores. Setae absent. Conidiophores macronematous , mononematous, aris¬
ing singly or in groups of up to three, cylindrical, attenuating slightly
distally, with a swollen basal cell, simple, septate, smooth, straight or
somewhat flexuous, 28-76 x 2-3p, up to 6p wide at the base, terminating
in a single, pale brown to subhyaline phialide or polyphialide bearing
funnel-shaped collarettes. Conidia hyaline, straight or very slightly
curved, continuous, fusiform, 6-7 x 1, bearing a single, apical, fili¬
form appendage, 13-15p long.

On leaves of Quercus nigra, Chewacla State Park, Lee County, Ala¬
bama, April 1976, E. G. Ingram, BPI, AUA.

4

Fungi of Alabama

Figure 3. Codinaea ay lindt'ospora

5

G. Morgan-Jones and Robert C. Sinclair

Figure 4

Codinaea unisetula

Fungi of Alabama

Corynespora foveolata (Pat.) Hughes, Can. J. Bot. 36: 757, 1958 (Fig. 5).

= Helmznthosporzum foveolatum Patouillard, Journ. de Bot. 5: 321,
1891.

Colonies effuse, dark brown, hairy. Mycelium partly superficial,
partly immersed in the substratum, composed of branched, septate, pale
brown, 3-5p wide hyphae, giving rise to stromatic tissue from which the
conidiophores arise. Conidiophores macronematous , mononematous , arising
in groups, straight or slightly flexuous, unbranched, cylindrical, brown,
septate, smooth-walled, 74-380 x 4-6p, sometimes slightly bulbous at the
extreme base. Conidiogenous cells monotretic, integrated, terminal.
Conidia solitary, straight or slightly curved, obclavate, frequently
rostrate, pale brown, smooth or with the lower four or five cells ver-
ruculose, 7 to 8-septate, 67-115 x 7-8p, 1 ,5-3y wide at the apex.

On culms of Bambusa sp., Loachapoka, Lee County, Alabama, April
1976, G. W. Karr Jr., AUA.

This species is mainly tropical in its distribution. We are not
aware of a previous record of its occurrence in the United States.

Helmznthosporzum velutinum Link ex Ficinus and Schubert, FI. Geg. Dresd.
Krypt.: 283, 1823 (Fig. 6).

Colonies effuse, black, hairy. Mycelium mostly immersed, composed
of branched, septate, pale brown hyphae, 3-4. 5p wide. Stroma erumpent,
pseudoparenchyma tous , dark brown. Conidiophores macronematous, mono¬
nematous, frequently caespitose, straight or flexuous, simple, cylindri¬
cal, brown, thick-walled, septate, smooth, 350-760 x 9-14p, up to 22p
wide at the extreme base. Conidiogenous cells polytretic, integrated,
terminal and intercalary, determinate. Conidia solitary, acropleuro-
genous, straight or slightly curved, obclavate, pale brown, lighter
towards the apex, smooth, 8-1 5-pseudoseptate , 52-89 x 12-16y, tapering
to 5-7y wide at the apex, with a dark brown basal scar.

On twigs of Buxus sempervirens var. suffruticosa , Auburn, Lee
County, Alabama, March 1977, C. A. Carr, AUA.

Periconza cookei Mason and M. B. Ellis, Mycol . Pap. 56: 72, 1953 (Fig. 7).

Colonies effuse, black, hairy. Mycelium mostly immersed in the sub¬
stratum, composed of branched, septate, smooth, hyaline to pale brown
hyphae, 1.5-3.5p wide. Stroma small, immersed, dark brown, pseudoparen-
chymatic. Conidiophores macronematous, mononematous, arising in fasci¬
cles of up to six from the stromatic cells, erect, straight or slightly
flexuous, brown, thick-walled, septate, cylindrical, smooth, 300-720p
long, 1 6 -28y wide at the swollen apex, 11-1 5y wide in the middle part,
13-22y wide at the base. Conidiogenous cells monoblastic or polyblastic,
formed on the swollen conidiophore apex, determinate, ovoid or pyriform,
hyaline to pale brown and verruculose, 7-Up wide. Conidia acrogenous,
simple, spherical, brown, verrucose, 13-16p in diameter.

On leaves of Sorghum halepense. Auburn University Forestry Plots,
Auburn, Lee County, Alabama, April 1976, G. W. Karr Jr., AUA.

7

G. Morgan-Jones and Robert C. Sinclair

Fungi of Alabama

G. Morgan-Jones and Robert C. Sinclair

Fungi of Alabama

Pleurothec'ium recuwatum (Morgan) Hohnel, Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 37:

154, 1919 (Fig. 8).

= Acrotheoium recurvatum Morgan, J. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Flist. 18:

44, 1895.

Colonies effuse, hairy, dark brown. Mycelium mostly immersed in
the substratum, composed of branched, septate, smooth, pale brown hyphae,
2.5-4y wide. Coni di ophores macronematous , mononematous , straight or
flexuous, simple, smooth, brown, paler above, septate, cylindrical, some¬
what bulbous at the base, attenuating at the apex, 180-280 x 4-7. 5p.
Conidiogenous cells integrated, terminal, polyblastic, sympodial, den¬
ticulate. Conidia ellipsoid to allantoid, smooth, hyaline, 3-septate,
guttulate, 18-27 x 5-8y.

On decorticated wood, Chewacla State Park, Lee County, Alabama,
August 12, 1977, G. Morgan-Jones and R. C. Sinclair, AUA.

Spadicoides obovata (Cooke and Ellis) Fiughes, Can. J. Bot. 36: 806, 1958
( Fi 9 • 9).

= Acrotheeium obovatum Cooke and Ellis, Grevillea 5: 50, 1876.

Colonies effuse, black. Mycelium mostly immersed in the substratum,
composed of branched, septate, smooth, subhyaline to pale brown hyphae,
2-4y wide. Coni di ophores macronematous, mononematous, solitary or in
groups of a few, straight or, less frequently, flexuous, simple, smooth,
brown, septate, cylindrical, slightly swollen at the base, 60-160 x 4-9y.
Conidiogenous cells integrated, polytretic, terminal and intercalary,
determinate. Conidia solitary, acropl eurogenous , obovoid, 2-septate,
smooth, brown, with dark bands at the septa, 12-15 x 6-8p.

On decorticated wood, Chewacla State Park, Lee County, Alabama,
August 1976, G. Morgan-Jones, AUA.

Stemphylium solani Weber, Phytopathology 20: 516, 1930 (Fig. 10).

Colonies effuse, dark brown, velvety. Mycelium mostly immersed in
the substratum, composed of branched, septate, smooth, subhyaline to pale
brown hyphae, 2.5-4.5y wide. A few swollen stromatic cells are present
at the base of conidiophores. Conidiophores macronematous, mononema¬
tous, solitary or more frequently caespitose, simple, straight or flexu¬
ous, nodose, pale brown, smooth, 120-180 x 4-7p, vescicular swellings
8-10y in diameter. Conidiogenous cells monoblastic, integrated, termi¬
nal, percurrent. Conidia solitary, dry, acrogenous, ellipsoidal, with
a pointed conical apex, pale brown, smooth, muriformly septate, con¬
stricted at the median transverse septum, 33-52 x 1 8-27y .

On leaves of Gossypium hirsutum, nr. Selma, Dallas County, Alabama,
J. M. Flammond, July 1977, AUA.

This species has been recorded on both Lycopersicon and Solatium as
the causal organism of small leaf spots. We are not aware of a previous
record of its occurrence on cotton.

11

G. Morgan-Jones and Robert C. Sinclair

Figure 8. Pleurotheczwri recurvation

Fungi of Alabama

13

G. Morgan-Jones and Robert C. Sinclair

14

Fungi of Alabama
REFERENCES

Hoi ubova-Jechova, V. 1973. Lignicolous Hyphomycetes from the Nether¬
lands. Proc. K. ned. Akad. Wet. C 76: 297-302.

Hughes, S. J. and W. B. Kendrick. 1968. New Zealand Fungi. 12. Meni-

spora, Codinaea, Menisporopsis . NZ. J1 Bot. 6: 323-375.

Matsushima, T. 1971. Microfungi of the Solomon Islands and Papua-New
Guinea. Kobe. Published by the author.

15

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 1, January, 1978.

EFFECT OF pH AND TEMPERATURE ON KINETIC PARAMETERS
OF PVRI DO XAM I NE- PYRUVATE TRANSAMINASE1

Jonathan B. Ford

Chemistry Department , Birmingham- Southern College
Birmingham, AL 35204

SUMMARY

The effect of pH and temperature was examined on the kinetic para¬
meters of pyridoxamine-pyruvate transaminase, a vitamin Bg-requiring
enzyme isolated from a soil bacterium. The maximal velocity of reaction
for pyridoxamine consumption (forward reaction) and formation (reverse
reaction) and the Michaelis constants for all substrates except L-alanine
increased with increasing pH in the range pH 7-10. Logarithmic plots of
these data showed an ionizing functional group with pKa 8.3 in the
enzyme-substrate complex and a second group, also with pKa 8.3, involved
in pyruvate binding in the forward reaction. Redetermination of the pKa
at several temperatures for the latter group allowed calculation of a
heat of ionization of 4200 calories per mole. This functional group was
tentatively identified as protein-bound cysteinyl sulfhydryl. These re¬
sults are discussed in relationship to the pH theory of Dixon and Webb.

INTRODUCTION

In the reversible reaction catalyzed by pyridoxamine-pyruvate
transaminase (E.C. 2.6.1.30, reaction 1), pyridoxamine and pyridoxal
serve as cosubstrates and no coenzyme is required.

pyridoxamine + pyruvate pyri doxal + L-alanine (reaction 1)

The reaction is similar to the transamination between pyridoxamine and
a-ketoglutarate or oxaloacetate catalyzed by gl utamate-oxal oacetate apo-
transaminase (Wada and Snell, 1962a) but pyri doxami ne-pyruvate transami¬
nase is much more effective. Because of the simplicity of this reaction,
pyri doxami ne-pyruvate transaminase has served as a useful enzyme for
studying the mechanism of transamination.

In previous kinetic studies of pyridoxamine-pyruvate transaminase
(Ayling and Snell, 1968), the Michaelis constants (Km) and maximal
velocities (Vmax) were determined in both directions at 25° and pH 8.85.
From these data and related studies, the mechanism of enzyme action was
visualized as requiring a symmetrically ordered addition and release of
the four substrates of the enzyme:

1

Manuscript received 1

September 1977; accepted 30 September 1977.

16

Pyri doxami ne-Pyruvate Transami nase

E + A ^ EA ^*EXY E + C (mechanism])

where A, B, C, and D are pyridoxamine, pyruvate, pyridoxal, and L-
alanine, respectively. In order to gain further insight into the mechan¬
ism of action of pyri doxami ne-pyruvate transaminase and to identify chem¬
ical groups of the enzyme involved in catalysis or substrate binding, the
overall kinetic parameters were studied as a function of pH and the data
plotted according to the method proposed by Dixon (Dixon and Webb, 1964).
The pKa of an ionizing functional group involved in pyruvate binding in
the forward reaction, found by the latter method, was examined as a func¬
tion of temperature to determine its heat of ionization.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pyridoxamine-pyruvate transaminase was purified as described previ¬
ously (Ayling and Snell, 1968) from pseudomonas MA-1 which had been
grown on pyridoxine as the sole carbon and energy source. The enzyme
was crystallized four times from 45 % ammonium sulfate solutions and had
a specific activity of 21 pmoles pyridoxamine converted per min per mg
protein at pH 8.85 and 25°.

Pyridoxal hydrochloride, pyridoxamine di hydrochl oride , pyridoxine
hydrochloride, and sodium pyruvate were purchased from Nutritional Bio¬
chemical Corporation. Pyridoxamine was recrystallized several times
from methanol. L-alanine was purchased from CalBiochem Corporation.

All other chemicals were reagent grade obtained from commercial sources.

The forward and reverse reactions (pyridoxamine consumption and
formation, respectively) were assayed by a previously described spectro-
photometric method (Ayling and Snell, 1968). The variation in extinc¬
tion coefficient of pyridoxal was determined in the range pH 7-10 and
used to standardize the assay at each pH studied. The forward reaction
was also measured by the phenyl hydrazine assay of Wada and Snell (1962a).
All assays were started by addition of enzyme. In all cases the assays
were linear with enzyme concentration and time (enzyme concentration:

2 pg/ml ; time: <5 minutes). Nonenzymatic transamination between pyri¬
doxamine and pyruvate was negligible at the concentrations of these
substrates used in the enzymatic reaction. Assay buffer was 0.050 M
sodium pyrophosphate. The total variation in ionic strength in the
range pH 7-10 was 0.21 M.

pH was determined after each assay using a Radiometer-Copenhagen
Type PHM-4c pH meter, appropriately calibrated for temperature. Tem¬
perature was controlled (±0.05°) during the pH variation studies by use
of a water bath equipped with a Bronwill circulator and thermoregulator
(Will Corporation, Rochester, N.Y.). In determining the effect of tem¬
perature on the kinetic parameters as a function of pH (see last part of
Results section), the temperature was maintained using a Lauda K-2/R
thermoregulator water bath.

Protein was determined spectrophotometri cal ly (Ayling and Snell,
1968) and by the method of Lowry (Lowry et al., 1951), using bovine
serum albumin as standard.

17

Jonathan B. Ford

Unless otherwise indicated, the Vmax and Km values in both the for¬
ward and reverse reactions were determined by the double reciprocal
plotting method of Florini and Vestling (1957) as used previously by
Ayling and Snell (1968). At each concentration of substrate at least
four concentrations of cosubstrate were used in the determination of the
corresponding point on the secondary plots.

RESULTS

Preliminary determination of enzyme stability and effect of pH and
temperature on the initial velocities of reaction. The effect of pH on
the initial velocity of the forward and reverse reactions catalyzed by
pyridoxamine-pyruvate transaminase is shown in Figure 1 (curves A and
B, respectively). The pH optimum in both forward and reverse directions

Figure 1. The effect of pH on the initial velocities and stability
of pyridoxamine-pyruvate transaminase. Initial velocity in the forward
reaction (pyridoxal formation or pyridoxamine consumption) at the several
pH's (curve A) was measured by the phenyl hydrazi ne assay; initial veloc¬
ity in the reverse reaction (pyridoxal consumption or pyridoxamine
formation , curve B) was determined by the spectrophotometric assay. In
examining enzyme stability (curve C), enzyme (0. 5-1.0 pg) was adjusted
with dilute HC1 or NaOH to the indicated pH, incubated for 20 minutes at
25°, readjusted to pH 8.85, and assayed by the phenyl hydrazi ne method.

18

Pyridoxamine-Pyruvate Transami nase

is 9.3. Curve C in Figure 1 indicates that the enzyme is stable for at
least 20 minutes in the range pH 7-10. That the enzyme activity in the
forward reaction is stable for 20 minutes in the temperature range 0-45°
at pH 7.3 and pH 9.0 is shown in Figure 2. In the presence of excess
pyridoxal (10_3 M) the enzyme is stable for 10 minutes at pH 7.0 and 70°
(Wada and Snell, 1962b), a fact used to advantage in its purification.

At pH 8.85 and 25°, the maximal velocity and Michaelis constants for the
forward reaction (pyridoxaimne consumption) are unaffected by pyrophos¬
phate concentration in the range 0.025-0.050 M.

The effect of pH on the maximal velocities and Michaelis constants
for pyridoxamine-pyruvate transaminase. The maximal velocity in the
forward reaction (Vf) increases with increasing pH to approximately pH
10, above which it falls abruptly (Figure 3). The decline in maximal
velocity on the alkaline side of the optimum pH is probably due to ir¬
reversible inactivation of the enzyme (Figure 1). Michaelis constants

_ I _ _ _J _ 1 _ I _

O 10 20 30 40

TEMPERATURE

Figure 2. The effect of temperature and pH on the initial velocity
of pyridoxal (PL) formation (pyridoxamine consumption) by pyridoxamine-
pyruvate transaminase. Enzyme at pH 7.3 or 9.0 was incubated at the
indicated temperatures for 20 minutes, then rapidly brought to 25° and
assayed at pH 9.0. (•) Enzyme incubated at pH 9.0; (A) enzyme incubated
at pH 7.3. Assays were by the phenyl hydrazi ne method.

19

Jonathan B. Ford

pH

Figure 3. The effect of pH on the maximal velocity (Vf) of pyri-
doxal (PL) formation (pyridoxamine consumption) by pyri doxami ne-pyruvate
transaminase. The spectrophotometric assay of Ayling and Snell (1968)
was used. Vf values were obtained using the double reciprocal plotting
method of Florini and Vestling (1957). This procedure also gave the
Michaelis constants for pyridoxamine and pyruvate which are shown in
Figure 4.

for pyridoxamine and pyruvate increase in the range pH 7-10 (Figure 4),
the increase for Km pyruvate being 250-fold. In Figure 5 the logarithms
of the kinetic constants for pyri doxami ne-pyruvate transaminase in the
forward reaction are plotted as a function of pH according to the method
proposed by Dixon (1953) and extended by Laidler (1958). The log Vf
against pH plot shows a bend centered at pH 8.3 (Figure 5A) . A similar
plot of -log Kip pyridoxamine against pH has a slope of -0.31 and shows
no change of slope in the range pH 7-10 (Figure 5B). A bend, centered
at pH 8.3, was found upon plotting -log Km pyruvate against pH (Figure
5B , pyruvate). According to Dixon (Dixon and Webb, 1964), and as dis¬
cussed below, the midpoints of the bends in these graphs indicate the
pKa of groups ionizing in the enzyme-substrate complex and in the free
enzyme and substrates (Figure 5A and 5B, respectively).

The maximal velocities and Michaelis constants for pyridoxamine-
pyruvate transaminase were also examined as a function of pH in the re¬
verse reaction. The pH-dependent maximal velocity (Vr) rises to a

20

Pyri doxami ne- Pyruvate Transaminase

pH

Figure 4. The effect of pH on the Michael is constants (Km) for
pyridoxamine and pyruvate of pyri doxami ne-pyruvate transaminase in the
forward reaction (pyridoxamine consumption).

maximum at pH 9.25, then declines (Figure 6A) . The Michaelis constant
for pyridoxal behaves similarly to that of pyridoxamine as a function of
pH and shows a decrease in apparent affinity of these vitamin Bg-cosub-
strates as the pH is increased from 7 to 10 (Figure 6B). In contrast to
the pH behavior of the Km for the other substrates, K™ L-alanine de¬
creases as the pH is raised. The log Vr against pH plot shows a bend
centered at pH 8.3 (Figure 7A) ; -log Km pyridoxal and -log Km L-alanine
plotted against pH show no significant change in curvature (Figure 7B).

Determination of the apparent heat of ionization of the group with
pKa 8.3 involved in pyruvate binding in the forward reaction. To better
characterize the group found in pyruvate binding in the forward reac¬
tion, the Km pyruvate against pH experiments were performed at several
temperatures and the data at each temperature plotted according to the
method of Dixon (Dixon and Webb, 1964); these data are shown in Figure 8
The change with temperature in the pKa of the ionizing group in the en¬
zyme was found by measuring the displacement of the midpoints of the

21

- log Km log Vf

Jonathan B. Ford

7 8 9 10

pH

Figure 5. Graphs of log maximal velocity (log Vf), -log Km pyri
doxamine, and -log pyruvate against pH for pyri doxami ne-pyruvate
transaminase in the forward reaction. Data of Figures 3 and 4 are re
plotted as described in text.

22

( 6iu/ uiui/S9|oiut/) ja ( 01 y [Al ) lvxoaiHAd m

Pyri doxami ne-Pyruvate Transami nase

Figure 6. The effect of pH on the maximal velocity (Vr) of pyri-
doxamine formation (Part A) and the Michaelis constants (Km) for pyri-
doxal and L-alanine (Part B). Enzyme was assayed by the spectrophoto-
metric method of Ayling and Snell (1968). Other conditions are described
in Methods section.

23

m L-ALANINE

log Km log Vr

Jonathan B. Ford

pH

Figure 7. Graphs of log maximal velocity (log V^), -log Km pyri-
doxal , and -log Km L-alanine against pH for pyridoxamine-pyruvate trans¬
aminase in the reverse direction (pyridoxamine formation). Data of
Figure 6 are replotted as described in text.

24

Pyr idoxami ne- Pyruvate Transami nase

pH

Figure 8. The effect of pH and temperature on -log Kni pyruvate for
pyridoxamine-pyruvate transaminase. Assays were performed using the
phenyl hydrazine method which employed a single saturating concentration
of pyridoxamine (5 mM) at each pH and temperature. At each pH and tem¬
perature, Km values were determined by the Li neweaver-Burke graphing
method. At each temperature, straight-line portions of the -log Km
against pH plot, when projected (indicated by dashed lines), intersect
at points corresponding to the pKa of the ionizing functional group in¬
volved in pyruvate binding. The effect of increasing temperature is
seen to decrease the pKa of this group.

25

Jonathan B. Ford

bends. Using the van Hoff equation (Cohn and Eds a 1 1 , 1943), the apparent
heat of ionization was determined to be 4200 calories per mole (Figure
9). Because of the large number of assays needed in this determination,
Km pyruvate was obtained from Li neweaver-Burke graphs for pyruvate using
a constant saturating concentration of pyridoxamine (5 mM) , rather than
the double reciprocal plotting method used in the above experiments.
However, control experiments indicated that the enzyme was saturated
with this cosubstrate at both extremes of pH and temperature used in
this experiment.

Figure 9. Determination of the apparent heat of ionization (AH-j)
of the ionizing functional group with pKa 8.3 found in pyridoxami ne-
pyruvate transaminase when catalyzing the reaction in the forward direc¬
tion. The several pKa determined from Figure 8 are plotted as indicated.
AH i was determined from the relationship

... - A2.303 R log Ka

"AHi &U7T]

in which R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature, and Ka the
ionization constant for the functional group. This expression is of
course equivalent to that given in Table 1.

26

Pyridoxami ne-Pyruvate Transaminase

Table 1 is a list of pKa values and apparent heats of ionization of
common functional groups in model compounds which can be used as guides
in possible identification of these groups in proteins. The values for
the compounds designated reference (a) in the table were determined in
the present study. By comparison of both pKa and heats of ionization in
Table 1 and el sewhere i n the literature (Sober, 1968) with the values ob¬
tained for pyridoxamine-pyruvate transaminase, the enzyme functional
group with pKa 8.3 involved in pyruvate binding is tentatively identified
as sulfhydryl of protein-bound cysteine.

DISCUSSION

In 1953 Dixon showed that if affinities of enzymes for substrates
are determined as a function of pH and are expressed on a logarithmic
scale, the data can be interpreted by simple rules which enable deduc¬
tions to be made concerning the nature of functional groups ionizing in
the enzyme-substrate complex, free enzyme, and substrates, as well as
the ionization constants of these groups (Dixon, 1953). Although first
applied to a simple equilibrium kinetic system, these rules were found
to be valid for several steady state systems which were examined (Waley,
1953; Laidler, 1958; Dixon and Webb, 1964).

Graphing the data of the effect of pH on the kinetic parameters for
pyridoxamine-pyruvate transaminase shows an ionizing group with pKa 8.3
in the enzyme-substrate complex for the reaction in both directions and
a group in the free enzyme with pKa 8.3 involved in pyruvate binding in
the forward reaction. For the latter group it should be realized that
'free enzyme' is actually pyridoxamine-bound enzyme; there is an ordered
addition of substrates to enzyme in which the pyridine substrate adds
first, followed by addition of the three-carbon substrate in the reaction
in both directions ( Ay ling and Snell, 1968).

A full explanation of the nonintegral slopes seen in plots of log
Vmax and -log 1^ against pH in the present study is not available at
present. Nonintegral slopes were found in graphs of log Vmax against pH
for histidine decarboxylase (Recsei and Snell, 1970). These have been
interpreted to mean partial loss of charge upon dissociation of the sub¬
strate from the enzyme-substrate complex. In the present case, consider¬
ing the pH effect on Km pyridoxamine and Km pyruvate, factors which af¬
fect pyridoxamine binding may well affect pyruvate binding and this may
be reflected in the fact that slopes of -log Km against pH for both sub¬
strates deviate from an integral number by the same amount, 0.3.

Several possible enzyme-associated functional groups could give the
pKa 8.3 seen in the present study for enzyme-substrate complex and free
enzyme (Table 1): a) pyridoxamine and pyridoxal phenolic hydroxyl, b)
protein a-amino, and c) protein cysteinyl sulfhydryl. Any of these
three groups could be that seen ionizing in the enzyme-substrate complex
for the forward and reverse reactions. e-Amino group of protein-bound
lysine may be eliminated as a possibility because of its high pKa value.
Cohn and Edsall (1943) have indicated that local environmental effects
probably do not distort pKa values more than 2 pH units even under the
most extreme conditions. If one considers, in addition, the heats of
ionization (Table 1), the group in free enzyme (again, actually

27

Jonathan B. Ford

Table 1. Apparent pKa values and heats of ionization of ionizing groups
present in amino acids, peptides, and selected model compounds.

Compound and

Ionizing Group

pKa

AH-j

(calories/mole)

Method

Reference

carboxyl (a, in
peptides)

3. 0-3. 2

1500

T

c

glutamic acid
( y-carboxyl )

4.3

1040

T

b

histidine ( imi dazol i uni)

6.0

6900

T

d

pyri doxamine (phenolic
hydroxyl )

7.92

7500

T

a

pyridoxal (phenolic
hydroxyl )

8.46

7800

T

a

2-mercaptoethanol
( sul fhydryl )

9.45

4900

T

a

L-cysteine (sul fhydryl)

8.34

5000

T

a

2-mercaptobenzoic acid
(sul fhydryl )

8.88

5700

C

d

3-mercaptobenzoi c acid
( sul fhydryl )

10.80

6100

C

d

2-mercaptoaceti c acid
( sul fhydryl )

10.65

6200

C

d

amino (a, in peptides)

7. 6-8. 4

10,000-

13,000

--

b

lysine (e-amino)

10.5

11,350

T

b

Apparent heats of ionization ( AH -j ) were determined through either temper¬
ature variation of pKa (method T) or by calorimetry (method C). AH i were
determined in the present study by the former method using the expression

AH. = -2.303 x R T2 dpK /dT

1 a

where dpKa/dT is the slope of the graph of pKa as a function of tempera¬
ture. References are as follows: (a) determined in the present study,
(b) Cohn and Edsall, 1943, (c) Dixon and Webb, 1964, and (d) Sober,

1968.

28

Pyri doxami ne-Pyruvate Transami nase

pyri doxami ne-bound enzyme) participating in pyruvate binding is probably
cysteinyl sul fhydryl , although phenolic hydroxyl of the pyridine sub¬
strate should not be completely ruled out. Amino acid analyses
(Dempsey and Snell, 1963) and inhibition studies (Fujioka and Snell,

1965) have shown sulfhydryl groups to be present in pyri doxami ne-pyruvate
transaminase and required for its catalytic activity. In addition, in
every case examined to date, vitamin B6~enzymes require intact sulfy-
dryl groups for enzymatic activity. Whether enzyme-associated ionizing
groups with pKa 8.3 will be found in other pyridoxal or pyridoxal phos¬
phate-requiring enzymes remains to be determined. Ionizing groups with
pKa 7.6 and 8.5 have been found in the enzyme-substrate complex and free
enzyme, respectively, for rat liver kynureni nase (Ford, unpublished
data) .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was completed in the Biochemistry Department, University
of California, Berkeley, California, and was supported in part by grant
no. 5-F02-AM39758-02 from the National Institutes of Health, U.S. Public
Health Service.

REFERENCES

Ayling, J. E. and E. E. Snell. 1968. Biochemistry 7: 1616.

Cohn, E. J. and J. T. Edsall, 1943. Proteins, amino acids, and pep¬
tides, New York, N.Y., Hafner Publishing Company, pp. 75-90.

Dempsey, W. B. and E. E. Snell. 1963. Biochemistry 2: 1414.

Dixon, M. 1953. Biochem. J. 55: 161.

Dixon, M. and E. C. Webb. 1964. The enzymes, 2nd edition. New York,
N.Y., Academic Press, pp. 116-166.

Fluorini , J. R. and C. S. Vestling. 1957. Biochim. Biophys . Acta 25:
575.

Fujioka, M. and E. E. Snell. 1965. J. Biol. Chem. 240: 3050.

Laidler, K. J. 1958. Chemical kinetics of enzyme action, London, Eng¬
land, Oxford University Press, pp. 117-162.

Lowry, 0. H., N. J. Rosebrough, A. L. Farr, and R. J. Randall. 1951.

J. Biol . Chem. 193: 265.

Recsei , P. A. and E. E. Snell. 1970. Biochemistry 9: 1492.

Sober, H. A., editor. 1968. Handbook of biochemistry, Cleveland, Ohio,
Chemical Rubber Company, pp. J-49 to J-139.

Wada, H. and E. E. Snell. 1962a. J. Biol. Chem. 237: 127.

29

Jonathan B. Ford

Wada, H. and E. E. Snell. 1962b. J. Biol. Chem. 237: 133.
Waley, S. G. 1953. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 10: 27.

30

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 1, January, 1978.

REPRODUCTION AND ACTIVITY OF THE GREATER SIREN,
Siren tacertina ( AMPH I B I A : S I REN I DAE ) ,

IN ALABAMA 1

2

Hugh G. Hanlin and Robert H. Mount

Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, AL 36830

Data were obtained from September, 1972, through June, 1975, on
the activity and reproductive cycle of a population of Siren lacertina
in Hutto Pond near Abbeville, in Henry County, Alabama. The known
range of this large, aquatic amphibian is the Coastal Plain from the
District of Columbia southward to southern Florida and westward into
Alabama. In Alabama the greater siren is known from only two localities
(7), the locality of the population studied and one in Baldwin County.

Hutto Pond, 2.8 ha in size, is in southeastern Alabama near the
northern edge of the Lower Coastal Plain herpetofaunal region (7). It
is fed by several seepage springs and one intermittent stream and aver¬
ages approximately 1.2 m in depth. Approximately two-thirds of the pond
is open water, and one-third is occupied by emergent vegetation commonly
found in the margins of swamps and streams in the area. These include
Nyssa sylvatica, Salix nigra, Cephalanthus occidentalis , Juncus spp. ,
Typha sp., Carex vulpinoidea, and Potamogeton pectinatus.

Little is known of the natural history of S. lacertina (6). Several
authors have noted that sirens are more active at night than during the
day (3, 10, 2). Carr (1) reported finding greater sirens encapsulated
in the mud during periods of drought.

Knowledge of the reproductive cycle of this species is especially
fragmentary. Willett (12) discussed and illustrated the male reproduc¬
tive system. She stated that the testes are bilaterally asymmetrical in
position, the right being anterior to the left, and in size. Size dif¬
ferences were not discussed. She further stated that sperm develop
within series of amullae, which are absorbed when the sperm are dis¬
charged .

Sal the (9) described the eggs of S. lacertina, and Neill (8) com¬
pared the juveniles of S. intermedia and S. lacertina. Sexual dimorphism

^Manuscript received 15 December 1977; accepted 1 February 1978.

2

Department of Zoology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331.

31

Hugh G. Hanlin and Robert H. Mount

has not been reported in greater sirens. Ultsch (11) summarized the
available information of the reproductive habits of S. lacertina. On
the basis of field observations he suggested that in Florida greater
sirens congregate in the shallow water of lakes or streams for breeding
in February and March. He also concluded that fertilization is external
and that eggs are laid singly or in small groups.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Attempts were made to collect specimens monthly. On each visit air
and water temperatures were recorded with a mercury thermometer. Water
temperatures were taken at the western margin of the pond at a depth of
.5 m.

Several techniques were used in collecting. At night, adult sirens
were caught on hooks (sizes 1, 2, 4, and 6) baited with pork or beef
liver, minnows, and pieces of mullet, eels, or catfish. All areas of
the pond were sampled using 25-hook trotlines, juglines, and droplines
hung from overhanging branches. Modified funnel fish traps proved un¬
successful, as did day and night seining with a 10-foot minnow seine and
30-foot bag seine. Rotenone-col 1 ecting in small areas, tried during day¬
light hours, proved ineffective.

Specimens were killed by submergence in a choretone solution im¬
mediately after capture. The specimens were then injected with 10%
formalin and were allowed to fix for 4 to 5 days. Preserved specimens
were placed in the herpetology collection of the Auburn University
Museum. Some specimens were brought back alive to the laboratory and
kept in aquaria for observation.

Forty-two specimens were preserved and examined, 33 of which were
used for studies of the reproductive cycle. The sex of each specimen
was recorded. Weights of the preserved animals were taken to the near¬
est decigram on a platform balance. Linear measurements were made with
vernier calipers or a standard meter stick. The following linear meas¬
urements were taken:

Total 1 ength--maximum straight-line distance from the tip of the
snout to the posterior tip of the tail.

Snout-vent length--maximum straight-line distance from the tip of
the snout to the anterior edge of the anal opening.

Head length--maximum straight-line distance from the tip of snout
to a mid-ventral point opposite the anteriormost portion of the
first gills.

Width between eyes--minimum straight-line distance between the
eyes.

Ovaries and testes were removed and measured linearly with a vernier
caliper or a metric rule and vol umetrically by the water displacement
method. They were fixed in a 10% formalin, labeled, and preserved in
70% ethanol. Testes were later cross-sectioned at a thickness of 6

32

Siren laaertina in Alabama

microns and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (5) to study seasonal
changes in gonads. Some ovaries were dissected, and the ovarian folli¬
cles counted and measured. Oviducts were examined for oviducal eggs.

RESULTS

Sex Ratio and Sexual Dimorphism

Our sample consisted of 25 males and 17 females. The difference
was not significant at the 5% level.

Sexual dimorphism has not been reported in S. laaertina. Frederick
Gehlbach (pers. comm.) observed a dimorphic trait in S. i. intermedia
and S. i. texana. He stated that in males of these forms weighing more
than 40 grams, the masseter muscles were enlarged, imparting a somewhat
swollen appearance to the back of the head. By contrast, the masseter
muscles of females were not enlarged. Also, the males' tails were said
to grow more slowly in large individuals.

The character of differential tail growth was not evident in S.
laaertina. However, enlargement of the masseter muscles was noticeable
in all males examined. Moreover, the overall head size in the males ap¬
peared greater than in females of comparable sizes. Actually, the heads
of males proved to be relatively shorter than those of females, convey¬
ing the relatively more massive appearance.

For a given specimen, a numerical value for the sexually dimorphic
character may be derived by dividing head length by width between the
eyes. The ratio in most males is less than 2.30 (mean--2 .22) , and in
most females greater than 2.30 (mean--2,43) . Of 42 specimens examined,
only three (one female and two males) did not conform. These specimens
were among some in which the head shape was distorted during fixation,
perhaps causing erroneous measurements. All specimens examined were
sexually mature. It is not known whether this character is useful in
determining the sex of immature specimens or of individuals from other
populations.

Testicular Changes

In the males of our sample, the right testis was larger in some
individuals, and the left was larger in others. The testes were larg¬
est in early spring, decreased in size rapidly in late spring, and in¬
creased in the summer and fall. Testis volume and width increased with
testicular activity, whereas length decreased (Fig. 1).

Following is a generalized description of spermatogenesis in the
right testis. In April, 1973, spermatogenesis had been completed, and
only a few spermatozoa remained in the large lumina of the seminiferous
tubules (Fig. 2a). One month later the seminiferous tubules were small,
the lumina indistinct, and the only germinal cells were spermatogonia
(Fig. 2b). Proliferation of spermatogonia continued through June and
July (Fig. 2c). In August spermatocytes were apparent, and the lumina
had begun to enlarge. In September mitotic divisions of spermatogonia
were decreasing, and there were increased numbers of spermatocytes. The

33

Hugh G. Hanlin and Robert H. Mount

MAY JUL SEP NOV JAN MAR

Figure 1. Seasonal variation from 1973 to 1974 in the ratio of length,
width, and volume of testes to total length or weight.

lumina were small, and spermatids and spermatozoa were absent (Fig. 2d).
Male specimens were not collected again until March, 1974, at which time
the lumina were large and engorged with spermatozoa. No other germinal
proliferation was apparent (Fig. 2e). One month later the lumina were
smaller, few spermatozoa remained, and cellular proliferation was not ap¬
parent. Spermatozoa were found only in the vasa efferentia of the speci¬
men collected March 7, 1974.

Female Gonadal Changes

Ovaries are lobed and bilaterally asymmetrical in position and
size. The right ovary is slightly anterior to the left. In most speci¬
mens the left ovary was longer than the right. However, this tendency
was not noted in width and volume measurements.

34

Siren lacertina in Alabama

(e)

Figure 2. Seasonal variation in testicular activity as shown by a cross-
section of a seminiferous tubule in the right testis of siren
lacertina collected on (a) April 10, 1973, (b) May 11, 1973,
(c) July 3, 1973, (d) September 11, 1973, and (e) March 7,
1974.

35

Hugh G. Hanlin and Robert H. Mount

Following is a generalized discussion of seasonal changes in volume
and follicular development in the right ovary (Fig. 3). The females
from which the ovaries were removed all measured over 500 mm in length,
with the exception of the specimen captured on January 25, 1975, which
measured only 404 mm.

In April, 1973, the ovarian volume was 0.8 ml, and the largest fol¬
licle at that time measured 2.18 mm in diameter. In January, 1974, the
mean ovarian volume was 11.2 ml. The largest follicle measured 4.70 mm
in diameter. All follicles were over 3.00 mm. The eggs were yolked and
pigmented at one pole, apparently nearly ready for deposition. Six
weeks later in March, 1974, the mean volume had decreased to 1.4 ml, and
the largest follicle to 4.40 mm. However, very few follicles 4 mm or
greater were observed, with most being 1 to 2 mm in diameter. No ovi-
ducal eggs were found in any of the specimens, although the oviduct was
greatly enlarged in the specimens collected in January. No spermatozoa
were found in any of the females' tracts.

APR JUN AUG OCT DEC FEB

Figure 3. Seasonal variation from 1973 to 1974 in the ratio of length,
width, and volume of ovaries to total length or weight.

36

Siren laaertina in Alabama

Eggs and Breeding Habits

Whether fertilization in sirens is internal or external has not been
determined with certainty. No courtship or mating behavior was observed
during this study. Attempts to collect eggs were unsuccessful and no
eggs were deposited by captive specimens. The ovaries of a female col¬
lected January 25, 1974, contained about 1,400 enlarged ovarian follicles
which were yolked and pigmented at one pole, indicating a high reproduc¬
tive potential.

Larvae

Our efforts over a 3-year period to find larvae of Siren laaertina
at Hutto Pond were unsuccessful. This is surprising considering the
number of adults observed and collected. It is equally surprising that
Siren laaertina, a smaller, more widely distributed species, was not
discovered in the pond until May, 1975, when eight small larvae (total
length 42 to 63 mm) and one large larva (total length 113 mm} were col¬
lected. The small larvae resembled those of S. intermedia described by
Neill (8), except that they lacked red markings on the posterior portion
of the caudal fin. They had 32 to 33 costal grooves.

The large larva collected could be mistaken for that of S. laaer¬
tina. It was fairly stout and profusely speckled with yellow chroma to-
phores. The chromatophores were more abundant on the venter, and they
extended in a concentrated patch from the corner of the mouth to the
gills on each side. Although the ground color was dark brownish olive,
tiny black flecks were visible on the head and dorsum. Costal grooves
numbered 33.

Small adults of S. laaertina from Hutto Pond exhibit the yellow
speckling, including the patch of yellow chromatophores extending from
the mouth to the gills. Costal grooves on the adult S. laaertina, how¬
ever, number 36 to 39 (mean = 37).

Acti vi ty

Greater sirens in Hutto Pond were active from dusk to dawn, with
peaks of activity occurring within a 2-hour period following darkness
and another within a 2-hour pre-dawn period, as determined by observa¬
tions and fishing success.

A seasonal peak of feeding activity was indicated during June and
July, when the water temperature was about 28°C, and the water level of
the pond was normal. Acti vi ty decreased in August and September, when
the water temperature had reached a mean of about 29°C and the water
level dropped to about .3 m below normal.

In October the water temperature dropped to about 22°C, and sirens
were neither caught nor seen in the pond. This apparent lack of feeding
activity continued through December, when the water temperature had de-
cl i ned to about 1 1 °C.

In January, following a warming period, the water temperature rose
to 17°C, and sirens were again caught. In February, although the water

37

Hugh G. Hanlin and Robert H. Mount

temperature was about 18°C, no sirens were collected or observed. How¬
ever, in early March the water temperature reached about 20°C, and col¬
lecting was again successful.

At no time during this study did Hutto Pond dry up. However, dur¬
ing August, 1969, following a drought, the pond decreased to about 0.5
ha in size. At this time one end of the pond was deepened with a bull¬
dozer, and approximately 100 sirens were unearthed (Walter Kelly, pers.
comm.). The sirens were encapsulated in the mud in a manner similar to
those reported by Carr (1).

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

Spermatogonia become evident in the testicular tubules of male
Siren lacertina in the spring. Mitotic divisions of the spermatogonia
continue until primary spermatocytes are abundant in early fall. Sperma
togenesis continues during a period of relative inactivity on the part
of the sirens and terminates in the production of spermatozoa in late
winter. During the period February-March the spermatozoa are released.
The ampullae bearing any remaining sperm are absorbed, and the cycle
is repeated.

In females, oogenesis begins in late spring, with follicular pro¬
liferation and enlargement continuing through the summer and through the
period of fall inactivity. Oogenesis is completed in late winter (Febru
ary to early March), at which time eggs over 4 mm in diameter are pre¬
sumably deposited. Any remaining ova are absorbed. Our observations
thus support the hypothesis (11) that breeding occurs in February or
March .

Neill (8) and Duellman and Schwartz (4) reported collecting larvae
of S. lacertina in late spring or early summer. The only siren larvae
we collected in Hutto Pond during the present study were those of S.

intermedia .

Siren lacertina in Hutto Pond are nocturnal with peaks of activity
occurring within 2 hours after dark and 2 hours before dawn. Seasonal
activity appears to be affected to a considerable extent by temperature
changes. Sirens are active in the spring and summer when the water is
warm. A period of quiescence is initiated by a sharp decline in water
temperature in the fall and is terminated by a sharp increase in water
temperature the following winter or early spring, at which time breeding
apparently occurs.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Carr, A. F. 1940. A contribution to the herpetology of Florida.

Univ. Florida Pub. Biol. Sci . Ser. 3: 1-118.

2. Conant, R. 1975. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of

eastern and central North America. 2nd ed., Houghton-Mi ffl in
Co., Boston. 429 pp.

3. Davis, W. B. and F. T. Knapp. 1953. Notes on the salamander Siren

intermedia. Copeia. 1953: 119-121.

38

Siren laoertina in Alabama

4. Duellman, W. E. and A. Schwartz. 1958. Amphibians and reptiles

of southern Florida. Bull. Florida St. Mus. 3(5): 181-324.

5. Humason, G. I. 1962. Animal tissue techniques. W. H. Freeman and

Co., San Francisco. 468 pp.

6. Martof, B. S. 1973. Siren laoertina. Cat. Amer. Amphib. Rept.

128.1-128.2.

7. Mount, R. H. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of Alabama. Ala¬

bama Agr. Exp. Sta . , Auburn. 347 pp.

8. Neill, W. T. 1949. Juveniles of Siren laoertina and S. i. inter¬

media. Herpetol ogica . 5: 19.

9. Salthe, S. N. 1963. The egg capsules in the Amphibia. J. Morph.

113: 161-171.

10. Scroggin, J. B. and W. B. Davis. 1956. Food habits of the Texas

dwarf siren. Herpetologica . 12: 231-237.

11. Ultsch, G. R. 1973. Observations on the life history of Siren

laoertina. Herpetologica. 29: 304-305.

12. Willett, J. A. 1965. The male urogenital system in the Sirenidae.

J. Tennessee Acad. Sci . 40: 9-17.

39

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 1, January, 1978.

WATER QUALITY OF CATOMA CREEK AND OTHER SELECTED
WATERS IN NORTHERN MONTGOMERY COUNTY^

W. E. Cooper and J. R. Owens

Department of Biology, Auburn University at Montgomery
Montgomery, AL 36117

INTRODUCTION

The northern half of Montgomery County is rich in lotic waters, in¬
cluding the Tallapoosa and Alabama Rivers and numerous creeks ranging in
size from large creeks such as Line Creek and Catoma Creek to small
streams with flow restricted to periods of high runoff produced by heavy
rain. Relatively little is known about water conditions in most of the
creeks. Although the Alabama Water Improvement Commission maintains
monitoring stations where data are gathered on physical and chemical
conditions at fixed locations in the rivers, there has been insufficient
funding for systematic studies of smaller streams. The present study
was undertaken to determine selected aspects of water quality in a sam¬
ple of creeks in northern Montgomery County. Several physical and chem¬
ical parameters bearing on water quality were measured and additional
tests were conducted for col i form bacteria.

METHODS

This report covers data collected during the period March 15 to
August 18, 1977. Early in this period, several bodies of water were
sampled once each in an initial screening for conditions indicative of
pollution. Water was sampled at Line Creek, Miller Creek, Galbraith
Mill Creek, at the overflow of Froggy Bottom Pond, and at an unnamed
creek crossing Wares Ferry Road just west of Mt. Meigs Station. Subse¬
quent efforts were restricted to Catoma Creek.

Sampling Sites

Line Creek was sampled at Interstate 85 on March 15. Samples were
taken from Miller Creek on March 17 at the crossing of Western Railway
of Alabama. On March 24 data were collected at the overflow of Froggy
Bottom Pond on Wares Ferry Road. The unnamed creek just west of the
Mt. Meigs Station on Wares Ferry Road was sampled on April 4. Galbraith
Mill Creek was sampled at its northern crossing of Lower Wetumpka Road
on April 12. Beginning on April 28, samples were collected weekly from
Catoma Creek at Mobile Highway (U.S. 31). The only exception was that
no samples were taken during the week of June 9.

^Manuscript submitted 5 September 1977; accepted 12 October 1977.

40

Water Quality of Catoma Creek
Parameters Measured

For most samples the following data were recorded: Water tempera¬
ture (°C), dissolved solids (mg/1), turbidity (formazin turbidity units--
FTU), apparent color (APHA platinum-cobalt color units), pH, nitrate
nitrogen (mg/1), orthophosphate (mg/1), total hardness (mg/1), and cal¬
cium hardness (mg/1). Counts of col i form bacteria and human fecal con¬
forms were made in many cases. These data are reported as most probable
number (MPN) of coliforms per 100 milliliters. Turbidity, apparent
color, pH, orthophosphate, total hardness, calcium hardness and coliform
bacteria were measured with equipment purchased from and by methods de¬
scribed by the Hach Chemical Company (1973, 1976). All colorimetric
tests were performed using the Hach DR-EL/2 spectrophotometer. The
tubes for human fecal coliform bacteria were incubated at 44.5°C by the
Hach Model 15320 Bacterial Incubator. Dissolved solids were measured by
a Myron L. Deluxe DS Meter, model 512T5.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Data from the various water bodies except Catoma Creek are shown in
Table 1. Although no visual signs of pollution were detected, high
nitrate and phosphate levels are indicated in all of these waters.
Measurements were restricted to the spring, a period of high fertilizer
runoff. There is little reason to suspect severely detrimental inputs
of effluents at other times of the year. However, Line Creek and, to a
lesser extent. Miller Creek and the creek near Mt. Meigs Station may be
subject to runoff from agricultural sources--ferti 1 i zers and pesticides—
in the later spring and summer months. There are currently no major in¬
dustrial plants releasing chemicals into these waters, but Miller Creek
receives a channel designed to carry cooling water from a large silicon
plant and further industrialization may be expected in Mt. Meigs. Froggy
Bottom Pond may receive seepage from housing developments which have
closely approached it on two sides, but this may be of little import as
the pond's future is in doubt. The owner has dynamited the dam, causing
the water level to drop several feet.

The various streams showed similar values on most of the variables
measured. Nitrate nitrogen varied only between 3 and 4 mg/1, with no
value recorded for Line Creek. Orthophosphate levels were also consis¬
tent, ranging from 0.2 to 0.4 mg/1. No phosphate measurement was made
for Line Creek. The pH was close to neutral in all samples with a low
of 6.7 in Galbraith Mill Creek to highs of 7.0 at Froggy Bottom Pond and
Line Creek. The waters measured are quite soft, having total hardnesses
between 20 and 40 mg/1. Dissolved solids were likewise present in low
concentrations. All values were below 100 mg/1.

Turbidity, apparent color, and water temperature were more variable.
As expected, water temperature showed an increasing trend with time for
these data collected between mid-March and mid-April. Turbidity often
rises during periods of high flow, largely due to suspended materials
carried to the channel in runoff water. It is therefore subject to
large fluctuations. Turbidity values in this portion of the study were
all appreciable, ranging from a low of 40 to a high of 90 formazin tur¬
bidity units. This high turbidity occurred on March 15 at Line Creek.

41

W. E. Cooper and J. R. Owens

to

< — to

03 CD < —

4—> 3 \

O

1

O

O

O

OD Ol

1 — 3 E

OJ

OJ

CO

03 - -

HZ

CD

4— >

1 03 —

O -3 <—

o

o

O

LO

JO Q-\

4-> tO CD

i

CO

*=3-

CO

C\J

>>

3 O E

o

O

O

o

4->

O -3 ^

3

Q_

3

O

o

CD '

4-> i —

>>

03 \

3

3 CD

i

^r

CO

CO

CD

4— » E

E

o

IS ^

CD

4— >

3

zn

O

co

O

03

o

CL

r-^

co

r^.

CO

CO

3

>>

3

o>

•r—

j: :

T3

4->

•i—

o

o

o

o

o

3

_Q

03

co

co

co

o

3

3

3

f—

3

’r”

„ _ s

3

to

CD

4— >

4->

4-> -r-

03

3 3 3

5

CD O 3

o

o

LD

o

o

3 r—

03

(XI

CO

03

o

4-

03 O O

C\J

r—

OJ

I —

OJ

O

CLC_J> (_>

CL 1

to

<C 4— >

CD

Q-

“O

o

_Q

“O

CD

> to

03

r— -O E

3

O -r- CL

o

o

O

o

o

QJ

to 1 — CL

to

LO

LO

>

to o -

CD

•r- OO

to

Q

3

o

4-

* o

03 0

03

O 3 ° _

OJ CD

CO

r\

CO

co

, _

4->

HI CL CD

OJ

03

E 3

T3

CD 3
\— 4— >

>>

4-J

•r—

CD

LO

r^.

OJ

i -

4->

1 —

i —

OJ

1 —

03

03

\

\

\

\

\

3

Q

CO

CO

CO

cr

3

CD

I —

4— >

E

1 —

03

xc

o

CD

•r—

IS

CD

4->

QJ

CD

4->

3

CD

3

O

to (_>

_3

CD

O

CO

CD

4->

, —

3

•r- 3

■i —

(_>

3

>>

(D O

03

CD

CD

CD

-r-

3 J*C

CD

i —

CD T3

4->

JO CD

JO

3

i —

O 3

• 03

r- CD

03

• r—

• p-

3 O

4— > 4-J

03 3

1—

—1

U_ Q_

OO

O o

42

Water Quality of Catoma Creek

On this date Line Creek was swollen well beyond its normal flow with
runoff from recent heavy rains. Apparent color may be associated with
high turbidity and thus with high flow rates. The two highest levels
of apparent color, 290 and 265 platinum-cobalt units, were recorded at
Line Creek and Froggy Bottom Pond, the sites of highest turbidity. The
lowest measured apparent color, 120 platinum-cobalt units, was at Miller
Creek, which also had the lowest turbidity. Using a one-tailed test for
the hypothesis that turbidity and apparent color are positively associ¬
ated, the Spearman rank correlation coefficient of 1.0 is significant at
a = .05 .

Tests were conducted for the presence but not the density of coli-
form bacteria in all creeks. Coliforms were detected at all locations
except Line Creek.

From the small amount of data available, it is not possible to draw
conclusions regarding long-term water quality trends in Line Creek,
Miller Creek, Galbraith Mill Creek, or the creek near Mt. Meigs Station.
However, the data provide evidence of abnormally high phosphate and
nitrate levels on the sampling dates. Except for Froggy Bottom Pond,
these waters visually appear to be relatively unpolluted. At Froggy
Bottom Pond visual evidence of pollution has been noted on many occa¬
sions by one of the authors (Cooper). Refuse is often dumped into
Froggy Bottom Pond near the dam by Wares Ferry Road. At times small
amounts of oil are visible on the surface, but this is not a chronic
condition .

The first samples at Catoma Creek revealed several differences be¬
tween the water of Catoma Creek and the previously sampled waters. Dis¬
solved phosphate concentrations were over 10 times higher in Catoma
Creek, total hardness and dissolved solids were over twice as high, and
pH was somewhat elevated. Examination of data collected during the fol¬
lowing four months showed that some of the differences were transitory,
particularly those in phosphate concentration and pH.

Phosphate levels (Fig. 1) were elevated on 4/28 and 5/5 but fell
steadily to the levels found in the other waters by early June. These
lower, but still high, concentrations were maintained through the re¬
mainder of the study period. From the high initial values of 4.9 and
7.1 mg/1, orthophosphate concentration declined to 0.3 mg/1 by 6/2 and
remained at that level until late July. In early August, a slight in¬
crease occurred, peaking on 8/4 at 0.6 mg/1. The highest observed
phosphate levels were associated with periods of relatively high flow.
Although no measurements of flow rates were made, it was noted that
flow was high from spring rains in late April and early May. Flow de¬
clined during the drought in early summer, but increased again in late
July and early August, a period of increased rainfall. In late summer,
the highest flow occurred on 7/28, a week before the date on which the
greatest increase in orthophosphate concentration was detected. No
known point sources of phosphate pollution are located on Catoma Creek
upstream from the sampling site. It seems likely that increased phos¬
phates are derived from terrestrial surface sources, i.e., they come
into the stream in runoff water. The source may be a combination of
detergents, fertilizers, and pesticides.

43

W. E. Cooper and J. R. Owens

<

i

Q. 4
«✓)
o

X

a

-N — v

I TTT"I

i i i r

WEEKS

"I '111

7.6

7.4

7.2

7.0 pH
6.8

6.6
6.4

Figure 1. Orthophosphate concentrations and pM for Catoma Creek at
weekly intervals beginning 4/28 and ending 8/18. No data
were collected on 6/9.

The water of Catoma Creek remained nearly neutral throughout the
summer (Fig. 1), varying only from 6.9 to 7.6. The highest pH was re¬
corded in the first sample on 4/28. By 5/12, the pH had fallen to 7.1.
Thereafter, pH remained between 7.1 and 6.9.

Catoma Creek had considerably higher hardness than the other waters
studied. Total hardness values were between 80 and 160 mg/1 (Fig. 2).

In comparison, the other waters showed hardness between 20 and 40 mg/1.
Catoma Creek's higher hardness may be attributable to the type of soil
and subsoil in its drainage area. The soil in Catoma Creek's drainage
is primarily Lucedale-Bama and Sumter-Ikti bbeha-Leeper . The drainage
areas of the other waters include these soils, but the others all tra¬
verse Cahabe-Chewacla-Myatt soil (USDA General Soil Map, State of Ala¬
bama, 1974). The drainage of Catoma Creek is notably less silicaceous
than those of the other waters (Soil Survey, Montgomery County Alabama,
1960). The elevation of hardness to 160 mg/1 on 5/26 cannot be ex¬
plained by the available data. However, a point source may be impli¬
cated since there was no notable change in flow at that time. Measure¬
ments of calcium hardness (Fig. 2) revealed that the large majority of
total hardness is due to calcium. The maximum hardness not due to
calcium was 15 mg/1. Therefore the curve closely corresponds to that
for total hardness.

44

Water Quality of Catoma Creek

Figure 2. Total and calcium hardnesses for Catoma Creek, expressed as

milligrams of calcium carbonate per liter. Data are recorded
weekly from 4/28 to 8/18, with the exception that no data are
available for 6/9.

Dissolved solids were consistently more concentrated in Catoma Creek
than in the other waters. Dissolved solid concentrations were generally
less than 100 ppm in all samples except those from Catoma Creek (Fig. 3),
in which levels of about 200 ppm were the norm. A temporary increase to
300 ppm occurred on 5/19 and a decrease to 100 ppm was recorded on 7/28.
This decrease was associated with large increases in apparent color and
turbidity which accompanied the high flow after heavy rainfall.

Apparent color in Catoma Creek (Fig. 3) was lower than in the other
waters on most dates, but the differences may reflect seasonal changes
in the water content rather than true differences among creeks. The
other creeks (except Miller Creek) showed relatively high color values.
However, Catoma Creek had declining apparent color values over the first
month of study. Starting at over 140 Pt-Co units on 4/28, apparent color
decreased to about 60 units by 6/2. The other water bodies may have un¬
dergone similar changes. Through June and the first half of July, ap¬
parent color remained at low levels between 60 and 40 units. During the
high flow on 7/28, apparent color increased by an order of magnitude to
500 units. Thereafter, it declined rapidly to 60 units by 8/11.

Like apparent color, turbidity in Catoma Creek (Fig. 4) was initi¬
ally lower than in the other waters except Miller Creek. Turbidity also
showed decreasing levels during May, declining from over 40 FTU on 4/28

45

W. E. Cooper and J. R. Owens

TIME

Figure 3. Dissolved solids in parts per million = milligrams per liter
and apparent color in APHA Pt-Co units are shown for Catoma
Creek at weekly intervals from 4/28 to 8/18. Data for 6/9
are lacking.

to 20 FTU on 5/26. Thus, differences between creeks may reflect merely
differences in conditions on the dates of measurement. Between 5/26 and
7/21 turbidity remained near 20 FTU. Flow was reduced during this in¬
terval. Following the heavy rains in late July, turbidity jumped to 140
FTU on 7/28. By 8/11, turbidity returned to 20 FTU.

Nitrates were present in Catoma Creek (Fig. 4) at levels initially
similar to those measured elsewhere, but subsequently declined to lower
values. From a high of 5 mg/1 on 5/5, nitrate nitrogen decreased to the
2 mg/1 which was recorded on the next three weeks. Thereafter, nitrate
nitrogen varied little, remaining between 0 and 1 mg/1 for the remainder
of the study interval. Restriction of the higher nitrate nitrogen values
to the spring measurements suggests fertilizer as a probable source.

As expected, water temperature showed an increasing trend during
the spring and early summer months. From the low of 19°C on 4/28, water
temperature in Catoma Creek (Fig. 5) gradually climbed to a high of 29°C
recorded on 7/7 and 7/14. Increased rainfall and lower air temperatures
produced somewhat lower temperatures at later dates.

46

Water Quality of Catoma Creek

WEEKS

Figure 4. Turbidity in formazin turbidity units and nitrate nitrogen in
milligrams per liter are graphed for Catoma Creek at weekly
intervals beginning 4/28 and ending 8/18. No data were re¬
corded on 6/9.

Figure 5. Water temperature is recorded in degrees Celsius for Catoma
Creek at weekly intervals between 4/28 and 8/18. No tempera¬
ture was taken on 6/9.

47

W. E. Cooper and J. R. Owens

Coliform and fecal coliform bacteria were detected at all dates on
which tests were conducted. Beginning on 7/21, quantitative tests in¬
volving serial dilutions were performed to determine densities of coli¬
form bacteria. Quantitative tests for fecal coliforms were begun on
7/28. Table 2 presents the coliform and fecal coliform data for Catoma
Creek. Although it is not certain, it seems likely that the coliform
density of 1609 per 100 ml represented an increase over densities in the
preceding weeks. Prior to 7/21 the first appreciable rains in weeks had
slightly increased the flow. On 7/28, the date of greatly increased
flow, the total coliform count increased greatly. The samples were not
diluted sufficiently to determine the density, but it was established
that both coliform and fecal coliform densities were greater than 16,090
per 100 ml. Total and fecal coliform densities declined to 8000 and
5000 per 100 ml respectively on 8/4, a period of decreasing, but still
high, flow. By 8/11, flow was considerably reduced and bacterial counts
had diminished greatly to well under 300 per 100 ml. The great increase
in fecal coliforms on 7/28 probably was produced by entry of runoff from
storms. Runoff from storms is collected in open channels, some of which
discharge into Catoma Creek. In the past another possible source of
fecal coliforms would have been the Catoma Creek Sewage Treatment Plant
which had a discharge slightly upstream from the sampling site. How¬
ever, the plant ceased discharging there on May 21, 1977, well before
the densities were measured. The total coliform levels found in Catoma
Creek were below those typically encountered in highly polluted streams
except on 7/28 and 8/4. However, fecal coliforms and total coliforms at
these times were sufficiently high to render Catoma Creek unfit for most
uses. The Alabama Water Improvement Commission (AWIC, 1973a) places
Catoma Creek in its lowest water quality class, i.e.. Fish and Wildlife
as a Goal. Waters in this category are not currently suitable for use
as a public water supply, for swimming, or for fish and wildlife propa¬
gation. The classification. Fish and Wildlife as a Goal, implies that
improvement of water quality is desired, but the results of the present
study indicate that this goal has not yet been attained (AWIC, 1973b).

To qualify for use as a public water supply, water must have neither
more than 4000 coliforms per 100 ml in any sample nor a monthly geometric
mean greater than 2000 per 100 ml. To qualify for the Fish and Wildlife
class, water must contain no more than 2000/100 ml and its monthly geo¬
metric mean must be below 1000/100 ml. Requirements for swimming water
are still more stringent. The bacterial densities greatly exceeded ac¬
ceptable levels on 2 of 5 dates (Table 2). Although conditions may be
improved by the closure of the Catoma Creek Sewage Treatment Plant, the
goal of improving Catoma Creek's water sufficiently for fish and wild¬
life usage has yet to be attained. A substantial and unabated pollutant
load appears to be contributed by drainage of urban stormwater.

It is apparent that Catoma Creek is a polluted stream. Its water
quality is not static, but constantly changes due to variations in
weather, seasons, effluents and other inputs. Stream conditions in
Catoma Creek are strongly influenced by flow. Several of the variables
measured in the current study seemed to respond to changes in flow, in¬
cluding phosphates, apparent color, turbidity, total and fecal coliform
densities, and probably dissolved solids. Further monitoring of Catoma
Creek would be necessary to detect seasonal fluctuations of the variables
measured. A better understanding of stream conditions could be obtained

48

Water Quality of Catoma Creek
Table 2. Total and fecal coliform data for Catoma Creek.

Date

Col iform

Fecal Coliform

4/28

/

-

5/5

/

/

5/12

/

/

5/19

/

/

5/26

/

/

6/2

/

/

6/16

-

-

6/23

/

/

6/30

/

/

7/7

/

/

7/14

/

-

7/21

1 ,609

-

7/28

>16,090

>16,090

8/4

8,000

5,000

8/11

270

220

8/18

542

34

/ Bacteria present.

- Test not done.

Numerical data are bacteria per 100 ml.

by including measurements of dissolved oxygen concentration and biochem¬
ical oxygen demand. Data on composition of the biotic community would
also be instructive. It should also be noted that the present study re¬
ports data from a single sampling location on Catoma Creek. From its
headwaters to its junction with the Alabama River, Catoma Creek presuma¬
bly shows several variations in important aspects of water quality.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was made possible by a faculty research grant-in-aid
provided to Cooper by Auburn University at Montgomery. Helpful discus¬
sions were held with John Williford and David Rouse.

LITERATURE CITED

American Public Health Association. 1971. Standard methods for the
examination of water and wastewater. Publication Office of APHA,

New York.

Hach Chemical Company. 1973. DR-EL/2 methods. Hach, Ames, Iowa.

Hach Chemical Company. 1976. Water analysis handbook. Hach, Ames,

Iowa .

Siegel, S. 1966. Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences.
McGraw-Hill, New York.

49

W. E. Cooper and J. R. Owens

State of Alabama Water Improvement Commission. 1973a. Water use clas
sifications for interstate and intrastate waters of the State of
Alabama. AWIC, Montgomery, Alabama.

State of Alabama Water Improvement Commission. 1973b. Water quality
criteria. AWIC, Montgomery, Alabama.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1960. Montgomery County Alabama soil
survey. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1974. General soil map. State of Ala
bama. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

50

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 1, January, 1978.

CHINESE ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE CREATION
OF "PEOPLES' HISTORY"^

Robert J. Fornaro

Department of Sociology and Anthropology
University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 56688

Abstract. Throughout their long history the Chinese have viewed
their past cultural achievements as both unique and superior. This love
for things past was briefly threatened by the upheaval of the Great
Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Wall posters called for the smashing
of relics associated with the traditional culture of the emperors. In
time this threat to China's priceless archaeological heritage gave way
to a desire to use archaeology to create an ideologically useful "Peo¬
ples' History."

This paper deals with the attempt of the Chinese to create "Peoples'
History" by the political use of socio-archaeology. "Peoples' History"
enhances the cultural contributions of the masses at the expense of
China's imperial elites. Scholars interested in ethnohi storical recon¬
structions of Chinese Culture are informed of the tendency of "Peoples'
History" to make objective interpretations of Chinese archaeological and
historical data difficult.

INTRODUCTION

Due to a grant from the National Committee on U.S. -China Relations,

I was one of the thousands of Americans who experienced that aesthetic
banquet known officially as "The Exhibition of Archaeological Finds of
the Peoples' Republic of China." The Exhibition generated a milieu of
good will that should serve the cause of U.S. -Chinese Relations for many
years to come.

Currently archaeology has re-emerged as an important cultural link
between China and the West. The new discoveries made since the Communist
victory in 1949 have greatly expanded our knowledge of Chinese cultural
history. Recent fossil evidence of Ramapithecus in Yunnan, Homo Sapiens
neanderthalensis in Hupei, and the now famous Lan-tien Man of Shensi
Province has placed China in the center of paleontological activity.

The Chinese, no strangers to cultural longevity, can be justly proud of
China's place in Asia's pre-history. The several thousand neolithic
sites now recorded are rich with information about the origins of agri¬
culture in China and the changing ecosystems of ancient Chinese popula¬
tions.

1

Manuscript received 16 November 1977; accepted 31 January 1978.

51

Robert J. Fornaro

SOCIO-ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY IN CHINA

In China where, according to Judith M. Treistman: "historical con¬
sciousness has developed more intensely than anywhere else in the world, "2
archaeology is still a young science. Chinese history has been written
since the middle of the second millennium B.C., while scientific archae¬
ology in China only started about fifty years ago.

In fairness to the Chinese, the incorporation of archaeological
data in the Chinese historical expression known as "antiquarianism" pre¬
ceded the coming of scientific archaeology by about 2,000 years. The
second century B.C. court historian Ssu-ma Chien "wrote a history of
China. . . . which was in part, based upon archaeol ogical research, "3
though not true archaeology, antiquarianism did produce a great deal of
data on the discovery and locations of many ancient artifacts.

Of course the dynastic histories of the ancient Chinese do not con¬
stitute the ethnohistorical reconstructions required by modern scholars.
To supplement traditional Chinese history, archaeologists are engaged in
socio-archaeology, i.e. the use of archaeological data to reconstruct
ancient socio-cul tural systems.

Scientific archaeology started in the early 1920's with the dis¬
covery of the Yangshao neolithic culture and the paleolithic remains of
Peking Man. In 1928 the Chinese government founded Academia Sinica or
the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Chinese archaeologists began to apply
archaeological verification to many long standing questions in Chinese
history. Progress in archaeology continued until 1937 when the invasion
of China by the Japanese suspended all work. The post war struggle be¬
tween the Communists and the Nationalists further retarded archaeology,
but the end of hostilities on the mainland in 1949 was closely followed
by a resumption of archaeological activity.

POLITICAL ARCHAEOLOGY

The government of the Peoples' Republic of China shows an active
interest in archaeology but not totally from a scientific perspective.
Archaeology in China is political, a revolutionary enterprise. The
Chinese government supports archaeology because it serves the "continu¬
ing revolution." Just how archaeology serves the political interests
of the Chinese government became clear during the Great Proletarian Cul¬
tural Revolution of the late sixties. One theme of the Cultural Revolu¬
tion that was potentially dangerous to archaeology was the demand of
some propagandists that China turn violently away from the past. "When
the Red Guards began to rampage through China in 1966, the country al¬
most completely barricaded itself against the outside world. The Red

2

Judith M. Treistman, "Problems in Contemporary Asian Archaeology,"

The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol . XXIX, No. 2 (Association for Asian
Studies, 1970), p. 369.

3

Jason W. Smith, Foundations of Archaeology (Beverly Hills, Glencoe
Press, 1976), p. 26.

52

Chinese Archaeology

Guards developed into a self-generating tidal wave of youthful political
fanaticism, unadulterated and undirected, such as had never been seen
before. They shouted of smashing every relic of traditional culture as¬
sociated with the old emperors and their concubines, and everything
tainted by the West. "4 In the West there was great concern that irre¬
parable damage was being done to China's archaeological treasures. For
six years, from 1966 to 1972, China produced no archaeological publica¬
tions and this was taken as an ominous sign.

However, we now know that a subtle ideological shift took place
during those violent years that actually benefited archaeology. Describ¬
ing this shift William Watson states: "The anger about the imperial past
had spilled over into threatening demonstrations against some imperial
sites and treasures, but it had steadied and been channeled into a more
constructive attitude: that the treasures of the past demonstrated the
ageless skill and genius of the working class who made them, not the
genius of the emperors who enjoyed them. "5

Thus archaeology was incorporated in the ideological thrust of the
Cultural Revolution. The past was important because it served the pres¬
ent. As John Hay observed: "It is plain that China's many trained
archaeologists have been given ample doctrinal justification for their
work: every archaeological publication is prefaced with the words of
Chairman Mao, often to the effect that the past must not be forgotten
but must serve the present. "6

SOCIO-ARCHAEOLOGY AND IDEOLOGY

The Chinese are interested in using archaeology to reconstruct
ancient Chinese socio-cul tural and political patterns. In his article
"Socio-Archaeology" for Current Anthropology, Gutorm Gjessing states:
"Socio-political archaeology is far from a European monopoly. Chang
(1967: 53-54) discusses a site at Ching Chou, Honan, China, which a
study of the complex pattern of dwellings and burials has shown to have
been a major political and ceremonial center with quarters for various
social classes. 7

Chinese archaeologists may engage in socio-archaeology but their
analysis of recovered data must serve the political interests of the
Chinese people. The socio-cul tural and political patterns re-discovered
must reflect the class struggle as it manifested itself in ancient
China. All socio-cul tural and political reconstructions must conform to
present revolutionary ideology, "Like many other important archaeological

4

John Hay, Ancient China (New York, Henry Z. Walck, 1973), p. 12.

5

William Watson, Ancient China: The Discoveries of Post Liberation
Archaeology (New York Graphic Society, 1974), p. 9.

^John Hay, Ancient China (New York, Henry Z. Walck, 1973).

^Gutorm Gjessing, "Socio-Archaeology," Current Anthropology, Vol . 16, No.
3 (University of Chicago Press, September, 1975), p. 329 .

53

Robert J. Fornaro

undertakings in China, the excavation of the Han tombs at Manching not
only aids the study of ancient Chinese society but also provide vivid
data for popular education in ideology, politics and class struggle. "8

In addition to the politicalization of archaeology and in keeping
with "the technique known as 'the mass line, '"9 archaeology in China is
to be an enterprise of the people. The preservation of the cultural
relics is the responsibility of the Chinese people. In an essay enti¬
tled: "The Masses Support Archaeological Work," Chinese archaeologists
Chang Li-chuan and Lin Yu-ching stated: "Quite a few of the numerous
cultural relics brought to light during the Great Proletarian Cultural
Revolution have been the contributions made to the state by workers,
peasants and People's Liberation Army men. Many inspiring stories have
been told of their activities in supporting archaeological work. "10 The
Chinese people are expected to report any discoveries and freely volun¬
teer their labor in subsequent excavations.

Chinese archaeological literature is careful to note the contribu¬
tions made by non-archaeologists. In some instances the names of indi¬
vidual workers, peasants or soldiers are singled out for meritorious men¬
tion. Chinese Communist ideology demands that: "the masses must take
themselves masters of culture and science. "H Archaeology is not to be
carried on by or for "elites." The union of the archaeologists and the
people is consistent with the Marxist ideological theme that abolishes
the distinction between mental and manual work. 12 The mental contribu¬
tions of the archaeologists and the manual work of the masses is of
equal merit in the dynamics of the "mass line."

"PEOPLES' HISTORY"

According to Chairman Mao: "In China education has always been the
exclusive preserve of the landlords and the peasants had no access to
it. The landlords' culture is created by the peasants for its source is
the peasants' sweat and blood. "13 with each new discovery Chinese

New Archaeological Finds in China: Discoveries During the Cultural
Revolution (Peking, Foreign Language Press, 1974), p. 20.

g

C. Martin Wilbur, "China and the Skeptical Eye," The Journal of Asian
Studies, Vol . XXXI, No. 4 (Association for Asian Studies, August 1972),
p. 765.

^ New Archaeological Finds in China, p. 47. Chang Li-chuan and Lin Yu-
ching, "The Masses Support Archaeological Work."

^Maurice Meisner, "Utopian Goals and Ascetic Values in Chinese Communist
Ideology," The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. XXVIII, quoting a rally¬
ing cry frequently heard during the Great Leap Forward.

^Meisner, p. 103.

^Meisner, p. 104.

54

Chinese Archaeology

archaeological publications are careful to include a peoples' historical
interpretation. Since culture is created by the peasants, then their
story constitutes, for Chairman Mao, China's true cultural history i.e.
"Peoples' History." Archaeology's mission is to support the creation of
a "Peoples' History": "Tempered in the Cultural Revolution and advanc¬
ing along the revolutionary path pointed out by Chairman Mao, Chinese
archaeologists are determined to make their work serve proletarian poli¬
tics better by providing rich evidence for historical material i sm. "1 4

To peruse examples of the new "Peoples' History" all one needs to
do is review some recent Chinese archaeological publications. An intro¬
duction to a booklet on the Yunkang Caves includes this passage: "The
Yunkang cave temples spread the message of religious superstition which
helped to bolster the feudal regimes. However, as great works of sculp¬
ture, they occupy an important position in the history of Chinese art.
They reflect the superb creative talents of the laboring people of
ancient China and remain priceless relics for critical study and assimi-
1 ation . "15

In a treatment of the Han Tombs at Manching archaeologist Ku Yen-
wen observed: "The discovery of the two tombs reveals the feudal rulers'
crimes of cruelly exploiting the people in their lifetime and dreaming
of continuing to do so in another world. . . . Every cultural find of
the Han Tombs bears the sweat and blood of the working people. "15 "Peo¬
ples' History" is designed to present history in such a way as to build
revolutionary fervor and give the masses a sens-e of their own cultural
accomplishments. A revolutionary view of Ancient Chinese History meets
Mao's dictum "Make the past serve the present. "17

PEOPLES' HISTORY AND CHINA'S FUTURE

While a creation of "Peoples' History" may seem beneficial to the
contemporary Chinese, the long range interests of the Chinese people
might be better served by the development of a less political and ethno¬
centric historical consciousness. In the past, Chinese cultural and
historical consciousness isolated China from objective reality, and the
"Central Kingdom" suffered internal disorder and foreign incursions.
Scientific investigations, designed to support given political theoreti¬
cal propositions, will not, at all times, serve objective reality. A
situation of "Peoples' History" versus science is inevitable. The pres¬
ent political reality demands in China, if the political need arises.

New Archaeological Finds in China, p. 1. Hsia Nai , "Archaeological
Work During the Cultural Revolution."

1 5

The Yunkang Caves (Peking, The Institute for the Preservation of Yun¬
kang Antiquities, Shensi. Published by Wen Wu Press, 1973), p. 1.

^ New Archaeological Finds in China, p. 15-18. Ku Yen-wen, "Han Tombs
at Manching . "

^Meisner, p. 29.

55

Robert J. Fornaro

the subordination of objective reality. Chinese archaeology will still
retain the excellence achieved in excavation techniques and laboratory
reconstruction but the theoretical flexibility necessary for socio¬
archaeology will elude the Chinese.

The Western scholars, who remain hopeful for the opportunity of
cross-cultural research in China, must keep in mind the Chinese view
that: "Men still make history and the Chinese will make their history
as they interpret their own situation in the light of their own

ideas. "18

LITERATURE CITED

Gjessing, Gutorm

1975 "Socio-Archaeology," Current Anthropology . Vol . 16, No.

3. University of Chicago Press.

Great Changes in Tibet.

1972 Peking: Foreign Languages Press.

Hay, John

1973 Ancient China. New York: Henry Z. Walck.

Meisner, Maurice

1968 "Utopian Goals and Ascetic Values in Chinese Communist

Ideology," The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. XXVIII, No.
1. Association for Asian Studies.

New Archaeological Finds in China.

1974 Peking: Foreign Languages Press.

Smith, Jason W.

1976 Foundations of Archaeology. Beverly Hills: Glencoe Press.

The Exhibition of Archaeological Finds of the People 's Republic of China.

1974 Washington: The National Gallery of Art.

The Yunkang Caves.

1973 Peking: The Institute for the Preservation of Yunkang
Antiquities, Shensi. Published by Wen Wu Press.

Treistman, Judith

1970 "Problems in Contemporary Asian Archaeology," The Journal
of Asian Studies . Vol. XXIX, No. 2. Association for
Asian Studies.

Treistman, Judith

1972 The Prehistory of China. Published for The American Museum
of Natural History. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and
Company, Inc.

18

Meisner,

P-

109.

56

Chinese Archaeology

Watson, William

1974 Ancient China: The Discoveries of Post Liberation Archae¬
ology. New York Graphic Society.

Watson, William

1972 Early Civilization In China. New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Company.

Wilbur, Martin C.

1972 "China and The Skeptical Eye," The Journal of Asian Stud¬
ies. Vol . XXI, No. 4. Association for Asian Studies.

57

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 1, January, 1978.

PREVALENCE OF LEPTOSPIROSIS AND TULAREMIA IN
ALABAMA FERAL AND FREE-RANGING DOGSl

2

M. Douglas Scott and M. Keith Causey

Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University , Auburn, AL 36830

Abstract. Forty uncollared mongrel dogs suspected of being feral
were live-trapped in Alabama during 1970-71. Ten were caught near
Childersburg and 30 near Auburn. Biotelemetry equipment was used to
differentiate feral from free-ranging domestic dogs. Twelve of the dogs
were determined to be feral. Sera from 20 of the trapped dogs were col¬
lected and tested for leptospiral and tularemia antibodies using micro¬
scopic and macroscopic agglutination tests, respectively. No leptospiral
or tularemia antibodies were demonstrated in the eight feral dogs tested.
Five free-ranging domestic dogs tested from the Childersburg area had
tularemia antibodies. None of seven free-ranging domestic dogs tested
from the Auburn area had tularemia antibodies. No tests were made for
active disease, only prior experience. Leptospiral antibodies were not
found in any of the five Childersburg domestic dogs or the seven Auburn
domestic dogs. The low incidence of leptospirosis and tularemia found
in dogs during this study contrasted with the relatively high rates of
incidence published by other investigators.

INTRODUCTION

Feral dogs (dogs that have reverted to a wild existence) have been
reported from all of the continental United States (McKnight 1964) and
several papers have been published concerning leptospirosis and tularemia
in a limited number of 'feral' dogs (Gorman et al. 1962, Flays and Foster
1966, McKeever et al. 1958, McKeever et al . 1958a).

The dogs studied by all of these authors were collected by trapping
or shooting. No mention was made as to the criteria used to determine
if the dogs were truly feral, or if they were simply free-ranging pets.
During the initial stages of a study on the ecology of feral dogs in Ala¬
bama we discovered that feral dogs were not as abundant, or as easily
identified, as most local residents believed. This paper presents data
concerning the incidence of tularemia and leptospirosis in dogs we in¬
vestigated and includes the method we used to differentiate feral dogs.

^Manuscript received 22 November 1977; accepted 16 February 1978.

2

Institute of Applied Research, Montana State University, Bozeman, Mon¬
tana 59717.

58

Leptospirosis and Tularemia

Access to study areas was obtained through the Alabama Cooperative
Wildlife Research Unit at Auburn University, and the Alabama Army Ammuni¬
tion Plant at Chi ldersburg. Staff of the Veterinary Diagnostic Labora¬
tory, Auburn University, assisted in the serological tests for leptospir-
osi s .

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Feral dogs were studied on the 9,000 acre Saugahatchee research
area, located in east-central Alabama on the outskirts of the city of
Auburn, and the 4,000 acre Childersburg research area, near the city of
Childersburg in central Alabama. Both areas are located in the Alabama
Piedmont, and are forested with shortleaf pine ( Pinus echinata) and lob¬
lolly pine ( Pinus taeda) interspersed with several species of oak ( Quer -
aus spp.) and hickory ( Carya spp.). Several small rural farms are on
the Saugahatchee area. The Childersburg area is supervised by the Ala¬
bama Army Ammunition Plant, and human access is restricted to maintenance
personnel .

Tomahawk No. 110 live traps baited with waste raw meat products were
used to capture dogs. Traps were placed along logging roads in forested
areas, usually a mile or more from rural homes. Trapping was conducted
on the Saugahatchee area from May, 1970 through June, 1971, and on the
Childersburg area from October, 1970 through March, 1971.

Dogs which were aggressive toward the investigators while in traps
were assumed to be feral. Biotelemetry equipment was used to determine
if the "suspect" dogs ever associated with humans. Dogs were equipped
with 150-151 MHz radio-transmitter collars of a design similar to that
described by Cochran (1967). A portable receiver, equipped with a 3-
element yagi antenna, was used in radio-locating the dogs by triangula¬
tion (Heezen and Tester 1967).

Dogs were radio-located approximately four times per week, and were
also tracked during several diel (24-hour) periods. Any dog that associ¬
ated with humans was eliminated from our list of feral dogs.

Blood samples were taken from dogs suspected to be feral at time
of capture, and sera were collected for analyses. The macroscopic tube
agglutination test was used to determine the presence of Pasteurella
tularensis antibodies. Titers of 1:80 or higher and showing at least
50 percent agglutination were considered positive. Sera were also
tested for Brucella abortus antibodies which might have interfered with
the tularemia agglutination test.

The microscopic agglutination test was used to detect leptospiral
antibodies. Live antigens used in the test were Leptospira pomona, L.
canicola, and L. icterohaemorrhagiae . A titer of 1:100 or higher with
50 percent clearance of antigen was considered positive.

RESULTS

A total of 40 uncoil ared mongrel dogs was trapped on the two study
areas. Ten were caught near Childersburg and 30 near Auburn. Fifteen

59

M. Douglas Scott and M. Keith Causey

showed obvious signs of domestication (i.e., tail wagging and/or friendly
disposition). These dogs were immediately released, and only two were
seen on the research area again. Twenty-five dogs showed varying degrees
of aggressive behavior while in traps. Radio-tracking proved 12 of these
aggressive dogs were feral. Ten were members of three separate packs,
and two were solitary. One solitary feral dog resided on the Childers-
burg area. The other solitary dog, and all of the packs, lived on the
Saugahatchee study area, near Auburn.

Visual observations and radi o-tracki ng indicated that the remaining
aggressive dogs were not feral. Many of these dogs appeared to spend
much of their time roaming, while occasionally returning to occupied
dwellings for food and shelter.

Serological tests for leptospiral and tularemia antibodies in eight
feral dogs were negative. Sera from 12 aggressive free-ranging dogs
were also tested to determine if a difference existed between domestic
and feral dog populations. All free-ranging dogs were negative for
leptospiral antibodies, and only one (from the Childersburg area) was
positive for tularemia antibodies.

DISCUSSION

In addition to the 40 dogs trapped, we observed 66 others along
rural roads and in forested areas on the two study areas at least 1 mile
from any human habitation. Most of these dogs were uncollared mongrels
which fled when approached. We had previously observed many of these
dogs associated with rural homes. Most of the dogs we trapped or ob¬
served in rural areas would have been subject to collection for disease
surveys described by previous investigators (Gorman et al . 1962, Hays
and Foster 1966, McKeever et al . 1958, McKeever et al. 1958a). Since
our radio-tracking and visual observations indicated only a small per¬
centage of the dogs roaming in rural areas was feral, it seems likely
that the methods previous investigators used to designate feral dogs
were inaccurate. This means that previous reports of disease rates in
'feral' animals have little foundation.

The near-absence of tularemia antibodies in feral and domestic dogs
we examined was unexpected on the basis of previous reports. Serologi¬
cal evidence for tularemia in wild mammals, including one 'wild' dog,
has been reported from eastern Alabama (Hays and Foster 1966), where the
Saugahatchee area is located. Calhoun et al . (1956) found 32 percent of
the tame dogs they examined from rural Arkansas areas were positive for
tularemia antibodies.

The absence of leptospiral antibodies in dogs we examined also dif¬
fered from published information. Alexander et al . ( 1957) reported 34.7
percent of the tame dogs they examined from Alabama were positive for
leptospiral antibodies.

Differences between our results and other published data may be
due to the failure of some investigators to publish negative results
from disease prevalence surveys which, in turn, causes a false impression

60

Leptospirosis and Tularemia

that a significant proportion of the animals in all areas are disease

carriers. Also, our sample size is small enough to be misleading.

LITERATURE CITED

Alexander, A. D., C. A. Gleiser, P. Malnati, and H. Yoder. 1957. Ob¬
servations on the prevalence of leptospirosis in canine populations
in the United States. Amer. J. Hyg. 65: 43-56.

Calhoun, E. L., C. 0. Mohr, and W. I. Alford, Jr. 1956. Dogs and other
mammals as hosts of tularemia and of vector ticks in Arkansas.

Amer. J. Hyg. 63: 127-135.

Cochran, W. W. 1964. MHz wildlife beacon (tag) transmitter for small
animals. Amer. Inst. Bio. Sci . BIAC Information Module M15. 12

pp. Mimeogr.

Gorman, G. W., S. McKeever, and R. D. Grimes. 1962. Leptospirosis in
wild mammals from southwestern Georgia. Amer. J. Trop. Med. and
Hyg. 11: 518-524.

Hays, K. L. and C. H. Foster. 1966. Man, animals and tularemia in

eastern Alabama. Auburn Univ . Agric. Exp. Stn. Highlights of Agric .
Res. 13: 8.

Heezen, K. L. and J. R. Tester. 1967. Evaluation of radio-tracking by
triangulation with special reference to deer movements. J, Wild!.
Manage. 31 : 124-141 .

McKeever, S. , G. W. Gorman, J. F. Chapman, M. M. Galton, and D. K.

Powers. 1958. Incidence of leptospirosis in wild mammals from
southwestern Georgia, with a report of new hosts for six serotypes
of leptospi res. Amer. J. Trop. Med. and Hyg. 7: 646-655.

McKeever, S . , J. H. Schubert, M. D. Joody, G. W. Gorman, and J. F. Chap¬
man. 1958a. Natural occurrence of tularemia in marsupials, carni¬
vores, lagomorphs, and large rodents in southwestern Georgia and
northwestern Florida. J. Inf. Dis. 103: 120-126.

McKnight, T. 1964. Feral livestock in Anglo America. Univ. of Cali¬
fornia Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. 87 pp.

61

Notes

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 49 APRIL & JULY, 1978 NOS. 2 & 3

EDITOR:

W.H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830

ARCHIVIST:

R.G. Eaves, Department of History, Auburn University, Auburn AL 36830
EDITORIAL BOARD:

R.T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany and Microbiology,
Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830
E.A. Curl, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn Llniversity,
Auburn, AL 36830

G.M. Emerson, Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294

ADVISORY BOARD:

W L. Alford, Auburn University
Charles Baugh, Univ. South Alabama
G.F. Brockman, Univ. Ala., B’ham
R.]. Fornaro, Univ. South Alabama
A. Wayne Lacy, Auburn Univ., Mtgy.

Walker H. Land, Jr., IBM
H.S. Marks , N.E. St. Jr. Col.
M. Miller, Univ. South Alabama
W.W. Paudler, UA, Tuscaloosa
Dan Whitson, Decatur

E.M. Wilson, Univ. South Alabama

The Journal is the official publication of the Alabama Academy of Science,
and is indexed in Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, America: History
and Life, and Historical Abstracts

Publication and Subscription Policies

Submission of Manuscripts. Submit all manuscripts and pertinent cor¬
respondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two
simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow Instruction to Authors, J . Ala.
Acad. Sci. 48:42-43, 1977.

Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.

Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the
CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD.

Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news releases will not be
published in the Journal.

CONTENTS

ABSTRACTS

Biological Sciences . 62

Geology . 77

Forestry, Geography, and Conservation . 83

Physics and Mathematics . 86

Industry and Economics . 94

Science Education . 100

Social Sciences . 107

Health Sciences . 113

Engineering . 133

Anthropology . 141

Chemistry . 147

MINUTES OF ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING . 159

Journal of the Ala. Acad, of Science, Vol. 49, No. 2/3, Apr. /July, 1978.

ABSTRACTS

Papers presented at the 55th Annual Meeting
Troy State University
Montgomery Civic Center
Montgomery, Alabama
April 6-9, 1978

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

SOME AQUATIC HYPHOMYCETES FROM ALABAMA

Robert C. Sinclair and G. Morgan-Jones
Department of Botany and Microbioloty
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Imported organic material, mostly leaves, is of paramount signifi¬
cance in the food chain in streams and rivers. It has been estimated
that this material contributes well over half of the energy budget of
fresh water communities. Access by animals to much of this material de¬
pends on the interaction of micro-organisms, particularly fungi. The
fungi function as agents of degradation and by increasing their own bio¬
mass provide a source of readily digestible food material for many ani¬
mals. Although aquatic hyphomycetes have been described from several
parts of the world no adequate documentation of their occurrence in the
southeastern United States is available except for records of a few from
Georgia and Tennessee.

Our studies indicate the presence of an extensive hyphomycete flora
in fast-flowing Lee County streams. Twenty-three previously known spe¬
cies have been collected and eleven isolated in pure cultures. A number
of undescribed taxa have been discovered including a species of Triaelo-
phorus Ingold for which we propose to establish the name T. multiseptata.
Many of these fungi have not previously been reported as occurring in
North America.

Investigations of seasonal occurrence by monthly examination of na¬
turally introduced leaves and experimentally added leaf discs indicate
minor differences in populations at various times of the year. Studies
of colonization of leaf discs from seven different native tree species
show little host preference among the hyphomycetes.

62

Abstracts

SOME MYCOPARASITIC HYPHOMYCETES

Dennis J. Gray and Gareth Morgan-Jones
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

A study of mycoparasitic hyphomycetes growing on members of the
Agaricales and Aphyl lophorales in Alabama has been indicated. Prelimi¬
nary observations indicate the presence of numerous species as could be
expected given the climatic conditions and the occurrence of a diverse
flora of higher fungi to serve as hosts.

To date fifteen species have been identified and isolated in pure
culture. Of these several are new records for North America and two are
undescribed taxa. Among the most common species are Mycogone rosea Link,
Sepedoniwn chrysospermum Link and the hyphomycete state of Hypomyces
tulasneanus Plowright. It is proposed to establish the names Szbirina
alabamensis and Cladobotryum olavatum, respectively, for the new species.

Host-parasite relationships in pure culture are being investigated
as well as field studies to determine host specificities of various taxa.

PISTIL DEVELOPMENT AS RELATED TO FLORAL ABSCISSION
IN SOYBEAN, GLYCINE MAX (L.) MERR.

Larry W. Dalrymple and Curt M. Peterson
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Field studies were performed during the summer of 1976 and 1977 on
terminal racemes of 'Bragg' soybeans [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.] to gain
further information about flower and pod abscission of soybeans growing
under typical field conditions. In 1977 a mean number of 16.2 potential
pods was formed per raceme. However, only a mean number of 1.17 mature
pods per raceme was present at the end of the growing season. Over 90
percent of the potential pods abscised mostly as anthesis flowers and
young pods. More than 60 percent of these abscissions occurred during a
14-day period when flowering reached its peak in mid-August. Most of
the abscissions occurred in the distal portions, although in 25 percent
of the racemes, all potential pods abscised. In those racemes with ma¬
ture pods, 83 percent of the pods were located in the first 7 proximal
positions. Neither excising the distal ends of developing racemes con¬
taining a mean number of 6 floral buds each, nor treating the distal
ends of racemes with two different growth regulators alone or in combin¬
ation, affected the total number of abscissions.

Previous reports indicate that abscised flowers predominantly con¬
tain proembryos of 4-8 cells. Comparative histological observations
were made of abscised and nonabscised flowers and young pods collected
from field grown plants to establish the precise stage of development
when most abscissions occurred. No unfertilized ovules were observed.

63

Abstracts

More than 80 percent of the ovules examined in paraffin sections of ab¬
scised flowers contained proembryos of 4-8 cells surrounded by a con¬
spicuous acellular endosperm, thus indicating that double fertilization
had occurred. However, observations of ovules collected over a wider
range of development based on embryo sac and nectary development re¬
vealed that about 55 percent of the embryo sacs contained stages of
development at double fertilization or immediately thereafter. This
stage is characterized by heavy deposits of starch packets within the
embryo sacs, most of which disappear by the 2-celled stage and are ab¬
sent at the 4-cel led stage. Additional cyto-chemical observations of
flower pedicels, ovary walls, and ovules of both abscised and nonab-
scised flowers indicated no conspicuous qualitative differences in the
levels of total carbohydrates, protein, RNA, DNA, or ergastic substances.

SOME GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO PLANT
PATHOGENIC SPIROPLASMAS

Clauzell Stevens, Robert T. Gudauskas, and R. M. Cody
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Spiroplasmas are cell wall-free prokaryotes with a helical mor¬
phology. Originally proposed in 1971 as a trivial term for the organism
associated with corn stunt disease, spiroplasma has been adopted as the
genus name for the causal agent of citrus stubborn disease, Spiroplasma
oitri. The spiroplasmas are placed in the newly-erected family Spiro-
plasmataceae of the class Mollicutes. In recent years, spiroplasmas
have been associated with several plant diseases and spiroplasma etiol¬
ogy has been established for a few of them.

Since morphological similarities between S. oitri and the corn
stunt spiroplasma (CSS) suggest the two organisms might be closely re¬
lated, some of their in vitro growth characteristics were compared. In
a simple medium developed for this study, both spiroplasmas showed a
characteristic sigmoid pattern of growth, but S. oitri grew more rapidly
than CSS as determined by: acid and alkaline color reactions in the
medium, population generation times, and rates of growth and death. S.
oitri reached maximum titer of U)9 cells/ml in 3 days; maximum titer for
CSS was 1C)8 cells/ml in 4-5 days. These results indicate that S. oitri
and CSS differ in some growth characteristics; however, these differ¬
ences are not considered sufficient to designate CSS as a new species.

THE POTENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF C0LLEMB0LA-MICR0FL0RA
INTERACTIONS IN THE RHIZOSPHERE OF COTTON

E. A. Curl

Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Collembola (Apterygota) of the genera Proisotoma and Onyohiurus are
more abundant in the rhizosphere of Gossypiuin hirsutum L. than in

64

Abstracts

root-free soil in Alabama fields. In laboratory tests it was determined
that these minute insects are mycophagous, and they rapidly destroyed
young cultures of both saprophytic and plant-pathogenic fungi. They
were shown to transport bacteria and fungal spores on and in their bod¬
ies and to initiate microfloral colonization of cotton-seedling rhizo-
sphere; in drying soil the insects migrate to the root surface where
moisture is available. Environmentally controlled experiments were con¬
ducted in large glass tubes (20 x 150 mm) of sterilized or nonsteri 1 i zed
sandy loam artificially infested with collembolans and the cotton patho¬
gen, Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. Disinfected, pre-germinated seed (Stone-
ville 213) were then planted. Results showed a significant reduction in
the disease-injury index. Greenhouse tests in pots of nonsteri 1 i zed
field soil, either naturally infested with R. solani or supplemented
with chopped-oat-substrate inoculum, revealed further a biological con¬
trol benefit attributed to added collembolans. In all cases, the pro¬
tective role of the insects was closely dependent upon their numbers in
relation to inoculum density of the pathogen. Supplementary populations
of 500-800 collembolans were required to increase seedling emergence and
reduce disease severity in nonsteri 1 i zed soil with Rhizoctonia inoculum
supplements of 0.3-0. 5 g infested oats/kg soil (dry wt). This study
suggests the logic of considering the role of mycophagous microarthro¬
pods in ecological investigations relating to rhizosphere and root
disease.

ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF 3-(l ,2-EP0XYPR0PYL)-5,6-DIHYDR0-
5-HYDR0XY-6-METHYLPYRAN-2-0NE

Joy Wells, Lynn Kaganich, Jack H. Moore, and Thomas P. Murray
Department of Biology
University of North Alabama
Florence, Alabama 35631

The lactone was produced by Aspergillus ochracens grown on a semi-
synthetic medium. The antibiotic activity was minimal as determined by
the filter-disc method using the vegetative cells of several Gram posi¬
tive and Gram negative bacteria and endospores of Bacillus cereus.

GROWTH IN RELATION TO FOOD CONSUMPTION IN A SNAKE

( ELAPHE GUTTATA GUTTATA )

Martin Nowak and Ken Marion
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

Hatchling corn snakes ( Elaphe guttata guttata) were fed weighed
amounts of food (mice), and their growth was monitored for 570 days.
Snout-vent length, body weight, feces weight, and shed skin weight and
frequency were recorded at various intervals during the study. Snout-
vent length showed a basically linear relationship with time, though
some decrease in length increase rate was evident near the termination
of the experiment. Body weight was non-linear with time, exponential

65

Abstracts

growth being the best fit. Snout-vent length showed a non-linear rela¬
tionship with the weight of food consumed, parabolic growth being the
best fit. There was a linear relationship between body weight and weight
of food consumed. The decrease in snout-vent length increase rate is
discussed in terms of volumetric-length relationships and the attainment
of sexual maturity.

FOOD HABITS OF THE FENCE LIZARD

( SCELOPORUS UNDULATUS)

Keith Dupre and Ken Marion
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

Stomach content analysis of the fence lizard, Sceloporus undulatus,
revealed that the invertebrate orders Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Arachnida,
and Lepidoptera comprised the most common food items. Of all items in¬
gested, 53.1% were hymenopterans, 15.6% coleopterans, 8.1% arachnids,
and 5.0% lepidopterans. The total nutritional role of coleopterans and
lepidopterans is further increased, as they constituted the largest mean
lengths of food items ingested.

Stomach content volumes and number of food items/lizard were sig¬
nificantly larger (p < 0.05) for females than males. In both sexes,
significantly larger food items were ingested in fall as compared to
spring. There was a trend toward increased food intake in fall as com¬
pared to spring. These sexual and seasonal differences in results are
discussed in terms of sexual size dimorphism, seasonal food availability,
and the need for the female to secure high levels of nutrition for re¬
productive processes.

Supported by a grant from the Graduate School, University of Ala¬
bama in Birmingham.

GENETIC SOURCES OF WING LENGTH VARIATION

IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER

Robert S. Young and Jack E. Watson
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Wing length variances in inbred and outcrossed strains of both
wildtype and miniature winged Drosophila melanogaster were compared for
significant differences. Each sex of the four "fly types (inbred wild-
type and miniature and outcrossed, or polygenical ly variable, wildtype
and miniature) were analyzed separately. The wing length variances of
the resulting eight fly types, each replicated three times, were sub¬
jected to an analysis of variance in a 23 factorial design, after trans¬
forming the sample variances into the more normally distributed statis¬
tic, natural log of the variance. Tests of significance were performed

66

Abstracts

on the three main effects (sex; qualitative genotype, represented by
wildtype or miniature ; and polygenic constitution, that is inbred or
outcrossed) and all 2- and 3-factor interactions.

All three main effects were found to be highly significant in their
contributions to the overall phenotypic variation in wing length ob¬
served in the experiment. Females, for example, showed more variation
in wing length than males. This observation is best explained in terms
of a dosage effect, attributable to the extra set of polygenes on the
second X-chromosome not found in males. Furthermore, the polygenical ly
variable outcrossed strains displayed much greater variation in wing
length than their inbred counterparts due to the increased genetic var¬
iability in these flies. Also, the wildtype wing lengths showed more
variation than miniature wing lengths.

The only significant interaction was that between qualitative geno¬
type and polygenic constitution. While both wildtype and miniature
flies showed the same low wing length variance when inbred, the wildtype
strains showed a greater increase in variation when outcrossed than did
the miniature strains. Two explanations are, at present, equally plaus¬
ible. It is possible that in the presence of a homozygous miniature
genotype, the expression of the variable polygenes is restricted by some
means, whereas in the wildtype strains no such inhibition of polygenic
expression occurs. The alternative explanation, however, is that the
outcrossed miniature strain developed for this experiment simply had
less polygenic variation in it than the outcrossed wildtype strain. An
experiment is presently underway to distinguish between these two possi¬
bilities.

AUDIO-TUTORIAL BIOLOGY AT AUBURN UNIVERSITY--A
SEVEN YEAR EXPERIMENT

F. B. Lawrence and W. H. Mason
General Biology Program
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

An audio-tutorial mode of instruction for a freshmen-level biology
course was implemented in 1971. Subsequent revisions and modifications
of course content, audio-visuals, and supplementary materials have been
made repeatedly in response to recommendations and evaluations from
faculty and students.

Experimental evaluations of the A-T instructional mode has been at¬
tempted several times with the following results: (1) Optional retest¬
ing on only the first unit test was more effective than on all three
unit tests; (2) The option of incomplete grades had a negative influence
on student achievement; (3) A comparison of A-T and conventional lecture-
lab instructional modes resulted in significantly higher scores by A-T
groups on tests for both immediate achievement and long-term retention;
(4) Frequent and repeatable testing promoted significantly higher mean
cumulative scores than did conventional testing; however, it resulted in
no increase in achievement nor retention as measured by comprehensive

67

Abstracts

final tests; and (5) Student achievement, as reflected in percentage
distribution of course grades, was consistently higher at A and B levels
with A-T instruction.

STUDENT SELECTION BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AND AUDIO-TUTORIAL
INSTRUCTIONAL MODES IN BIOLOGY AT AUBURN UNIVERSITY

N. L. Marshall, W. H. Mason, F. B. Lawrence, and R. S. Lishak
General Biology Program
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The audio-tutorial mode of instruction appears to offer distinct
advantages for certain students. The method is disliked by many stu¬
dents, yet data from years past show significantly higher test averages
and grade distribution in classes taught by A-T. We have recently of¬
fered students a choice at registration between conventional lecture-lab
and A-T sections. Approximately half chose each format. We had ex¬
pected the students chosing A-T to score higher, as had students arbi¬
trarily assigned to A-T classes. This did not occur however. The dif¬
ference on identical finals disappeared between students given a free
choice of the two instructional modes.

TOXIGENICITY OF FUNGI ISOLATED FROM GRAIN SORGHUM

Urban L. Diener, Norman D. Davis, and Gareth Morgan-Jones
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Fungi were isolated from 8 samples of freshly harvested grain sor¬
ghum in 1976 and another sample of 1976 crop stored on a farm for 8-9
months. The nineteen species of fungi were isolated and identified.
Species of Aspergillus, Peniailtium, Fusarium, and Curvularia dominated
the mycoflora. Eight of these 19 species were bioassayed for toxicity
to brine shrimp. Epicoccum purpurascens and P. herquei were highly
toxic; C. lunata, C. clavata, and Mucor mucedo were slightly to moder¬
ately toxic; and A. flavus, A. fumigatus, and P. raistriakii were non¬
toxic. C. elavata, A. flavus, P. raistriakii, and M. mucedo were highly
toxic in the chick embryo bioassay.

ADDITIONAL NOTEWORTHY WEEDY PLANTS OF THE MOBILE REGION

Michael G. Lelong
Department of Biology
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

The weed Flora of the Mobile Region has apparently changed somewhat
since the turn of the century. Most of the numerous "Ballast" weeds

68

Abstracts

reported by Charles Mohr in his "Plant Life of Alabama" (1901) have
failed to become established and to spread while many of our common
present-day weeds were not observed by Mohr although he resided in Mo¬
bile over 40 years. Many of those recently introduced weeds were not
even reported by Small for our area in his "Manual of the Southeastern
Flora" (1933). Examples of such recently introduced plants are Allium
inodorum (Liliaceae), native of Africa; Chenopodium pumilio (Chenopodia-
ceae) of Australia; Eragrostis amabilis (Poaceae), adventive in warmer
parts of the Old World; Hedeoma hispida (Lamiaceae), native in the Great
Plains; Imperata brasiliensis , a tropical American grass; Koeleria
phleioides , an European grass; Leptoahloa uninervia, a grass of Tropical
America; A liaotiana longiflora (Solanaceae) , of South America; Parietaria
praetermissa (Urticaceae) ; Plantago hookeriana var. nuda, native in the
Southwest; Petunia parviflora (Solanaceae) and Scoparia dulais (Scrophu-
lariaceae), both native of Tropical America.

INDIRECT MEASUREMENT OF Q1q IN CRICKETS

Mary Grant, L. C. Wit, and W. H. Mason
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Male crickets, Acheta domestica, were labeled with 65 in by either
ingestion or injection. Subgroups were then held at 20°, 25°, and 30°C
while their 02 consumption and 65Zn elimination rates were determined.
Crickets labeled by both methods exhibited a significant correlation be¬
tween the percentage 65 zn eliminated and oxygen uptake per gram per
hour. For ingestion-labeled animals a Qg 0 of 1.89 was calculated from
65zn elimination data and 2.20 from O2 consumption data. For injection-
labeled animals a Q10 of 2.29 was calculated from 65zn data and 2.55
from 02 consumption data. It would appear that direct comparison of
QlO values determined by these two techniques is not valid.

SPERM AS AN EMBRYONIC SOURCE OF ZINC IN HELIOTHIS VIRESCENS

Jo Engebretson and W. H. Mason
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The transfer of iron and zinc to the female at the time of mating
in Heliothis was investigated through the use of 65zn and 59Fe. Male
Heliothis virescens were shown to transfer approximately 36% of their
whole body 65zn burden to the female at the time of mating. Roughly 5%
of the male's and 10% of the female's 65zn burdens were found in eggs
oviposited for 10 days after mating. No measurable amount of 69pe was
transferred at mating by Heliothis. In this instance embryonic needs
are obviously met by maternal sources of the trace element.

Conservation of zinc may be directly related to mating behavior in
Heliothis. Heliothis females mate only once, and at this mating the

69

Abstracts

male provides a significant percentage of his zinc body burden for em¬
bryo development. If Heliothis is required to provide this large amount
of zinc at mating, it may well be that one mating is all that is possi¬
ble.

PHYLOGENETIC STATUS OF HEXAPODIBIUS (TARDIGRADA)

Dierdre Chri stenberry
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Phylogenetic status of Hexapodibius , a new and rarely found genus
is re-evaluated on the basis of large numbers of specimens from two
newly discovered populations. Taxonomically important characteristics,
including those revealed by the first scanning micrographs of the genus,
are discussed.

EFFECTS OF ASPRIN ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF DARKNESS-INDUCED
BUPHTHALMIA IN CHICKENS

R. L. Jenkins, W. D. Ivey, and G. R. McDaniel
Departments of Zoology and Poultry Science
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Auburn University Broiler-type chickens were reared for ten weeks
under either 12 hours light and 12 hours darkness (12L/12D) or under
continuous darkenss (0L/24D). Three groups of chickens of each lighting
regime received daily oral doses of either asprin (65 mg/ml corn oil/ Kg
body wt.), corn oil (1.0 ml/Kg body wt.) or neither.

The ocular trans diameters and eye weights of 0L/24D birds were
significantly greater (P £ .001) than 12L/12D birds after 35 and 70 days
treatment. Asprin decreased the trans diameters and eye weights of 0L/
24D birds significantly (P £ .05) after 35 and 70 days and of 12L/12D
birds after 35 days (P £ .05) but not 70 days.

The aqueous volumes of 0L/24D birds were significantly greater (P £
.001) than the volumes of 12L/12D birds after 35 and 70 days. Asprin
significantly decreased the aqueous volumes in 0L/24D birds (P £ .05)
after 70 days of treatment. No changes in aqueous protein (mg) per eye
was produced by asprin or by darkness, despite the concurrent buphthalmia.

70

Abstracts

MATING AND FECUNDITY OF TEA SCALE

Chao-Hon Chiu and C. A. Kouskolekas
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Tea scale, Fiorinia theae Green, is an important insect pest of
camellia and holly in Alabama. Details of the biology of this insect
are poorly known.

Tea scale broods were reared on butternut squash held in constant
temperature cabinets at 25 ± 1°C, 60 ± 10% RH, and no illumination. Ob¬
servations were made under artificial lights. Males were fragile and
short-lived, most of them dying within 24 hours. Shortly after emer¬
gence, males actively sought females for mating. There was indirect
evidence of production of a sex pheromone by females. Males attempted
copulation or mated with 1-7 virgin females within 15 minutes.

Females started laying eggs following a preoviposition period of 8
days. Females laid an average of 27 eggs within 30 days, far more than
the 10-16 eggs per female reported in the literature. In another test,
females of unknown age produced an average of 28 crawlers within 30
days. Additional research is needed to determine the longevity and re¬
productive potential of female tea scales.

AGING AND IN VITRO ADRENAL CORTICAL
RESPONSIVENESS TO ACTH

J. M. Edwards^, J. F. Pritchett^, D. N. Marple^, and M. L. Ti 1 1 ^
Departments of Zoology-Entomology^ and Animal Science^

Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Young (60-70 da) and mature (390-440 da) male rats (SAF/SD) were
utilized in a two phase investigation to further assess the interaction
of aging with adrenocortical responsiveness to ACTH. During Phase I,
adrenal glands were removed from the animals and immediately subjected
to incubation in 1 of 4 ACTH levels (0, 100, 200, 400 mU). In vitro
corticosterone secretion rates were analyzed and reflected (a) signifi¬
cant responsiveness to all ACTH treatments in the young group and (b)
lack of responsiveness to the 100 mU but not 200mU and 400 mU levels
in the mature group.

In Phase II of the investigation, adrenals were subjected to an
initial incubation as in Phase I and were then subjected to a second in¬
cubation during which ACTH-stimulation of each adrenal pair was of the
same magnitude as in the initial incubation. Glands from both young and
mature animals exhibited equal and significantly elevated corticosterone
secretion rates in response to each ACTH level utilized.

The data suggest the presence of a possible competitive inhibitor
of ACTH activity in the glandular tissue of the mature animal. It is

71

Abstracts

further indicated that the activity of the inhibitory factor may be
diminished or removed by initial incubation and/or in vitro ACTH stimu¬
lation as evidenced by the lack of a significant age-ACTH interaction at
lower ACTH levels during the second incubation period.

INTERACTION OF IN VIVO OR IN VITRO ACTH STIMULATION WITH
ADRENAL CORTICAL FUNCTION IN NOISE-STRESSED RATS

W. F. Johnson^, J. F. Pritchett^, D. N. Marple^,

M. L. Tilll, and W. L. Harped
Departments of Zoology-Entomology^ and Animal Science?

Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Male laboratory rats (SAF/SD) were utilized to clarify further the
interaction of intermittent high-intensity noise with the hypothalamic-
pituitary-adrenal cortical axis. Corticosterone secretion rates of
paired adrenals from control animals and from animals exposed to a pat¬
tern of 60 seconds white noise (110 dB SPL)-300 seconds no noise for 28
consecutive days were analyzed. Glands were either (a) removed from the
animal and immediately incubated in the presence or absence of incre¬
mental levels of ACTH, (b) removed from the animal and subjected to an
initial incubation in the absence of ACTH followed by an ensuing incuba¬
tion in the presence of incremental levels of ACTH, or (c) removed from
the animal 60 minutes after in vivo injection of incremental levels of
ACTH and incubated in the absence of ACTH.

Glands from noise-stressed animals were unresponsive to low levels
of in vitro or in vivo ACTH stimulation while their control counterparts
showed no such lack of responsiveness during the initial incubation
phase. After preincubation, control and noise-exposed animals responded
equally to all levels of in vitro ACTH stimulation. The data suggest
the increase of a noise-related systemic factor or factors of unknown
origin which has the ability to diminish the expression of ACTH upon the
adrenal cortex.

EFFECT OF PREINCUBATION UPON SUBSEQUENT IN VITRO ADRENOCORTICAL
RESPONSIVENESS TO ACTH IN AGING RATS

J. M. Edwards^, J. F. Pritchett^, D. N. Marple^, and M. L. Ti 1 1 ^
Departments of Zoology-Entomology^ and Animal Science?

Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

In vitro adrenal secretory rates of corticosterone of young (60-70
da) and mature (390-440 da) male rats (SAF/SD) were analyzed to assess
the interaction of aging with adrenal cortical responsiveness to ACTH.
Glands were removed from animals and either (a) exposed immediately to
incremental levels of in vitro ACTH-stimulation or (b) subjected to a
preincubation in the absence of ACTH followed by transfer to fresh in¬
cubation medium fortified with incremental ACTH levels.

72

Abstracts

Immediate incubation with ACTH resulted in significant elevations
in in vitro corticosterone secretion rates at all ACTH levels tested in
the young group. However glands from mature animals exhibited signifi¬
cant responsiveness to only the higher ACTH levels utilized. After an
initial preincubation in the absence of ACTH, glands from both young and
mature animals responded significantly and equally to each ACTH level
tested.

The results indicate that previously reported declivities of in
vivo or in vitro responsiveness to ACTH with maturation may be a func¬
tion of an inhibitory factor or factors, the in vitro activity of which
is diminished or removed as a result of preincubation.

HISTOLOGICAL STUDIES NAD REARING OF PHYLLOSOMES OF THE
SLIPPER LOBSTER, SCYLLARIDES NODIFER

George B. Cline and Debra Chilcutt
Department of Biology
Raymond Lindsay
Department of Pharmacology
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

The slipper lobster, Scyllarides nodifer , is an underutilized spe¬
cies found normally in the deeper waters of the Gulf of Mexico and in
the offshore waters in the Gulf stream as far north as North Carolina.
Little is known about population density, habitats, reproductive capac¬
ity, migratory habits, food preferences or developmental rates. We have
attempted to rear the phyllosomes from freshly hatched eggs of two ber¬
ried females dredged from approximately 150 feet of water in the north¬
ern Gulf. Phyllosomes were isolated into 3 control and 5 experimental
groups of from 20 to 50 per 100 ml seasoned artificial sea water in 250
Erlenmeyer flasks shaken slowly. The experimental groups ranged from no
food added to food, antibiotics and thyroxin. The groups surviving best
were control groups and groups treated continuously with thyroxin and
antibiotics, and fed Artemia (brine shrimp) larvae, which are stabbed by
the very motile second maxilliped and quickly placed upon the sucking
mouth parts. Widespread bacterial infections could be controlled mar¬
ginally with antibiotics but fungi eventually killed all animals. The
most advanced ones reached at least the second stage (14 day) out of a
possible 10 stages of phyllosomal development. The phyllosomes are free
swimming, appear to be phototaxic and are noncanabilistic. A rearing
facility using UV sterilized water is now being constructed and pro¬
spects for longer development are good.

Before phyllosomes died, selected ones were fixed in a gluteral-
dehyde-paraformaldehyde solution and processed for embedding for light
and electron microscopy. Light microscopy shows expected components of
the animal including well developed muscles for the exopods of the first
and second peripods. Micrographs are being organized into an atlas
which will eventually show many of the salient macro and ultra-struc¬
tural features of the development of the lobster larvae into juveniles.

73

Abstracts

ISOLATION AND BIOPHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF
THE NUCLEAR POLYHEDROSIS VIRUS OF

AUTO GRAPH A CALIFORNICA

Jack L. Flippo and George B. Cline
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama
Roy E. McLaughlin*

U.S.D.A., S.E.A., Boll Weevil Research Lab
Mississippi State, Mississippi

The polyhedral inclusion bodies (PIB) of either the nuclear and
cytoplasmic types can readily be isolated from homogenates of most in¬
fected insect larvae by high resolution sucrose density gradients. How¬
ever, inclusion bodies from some species, notably, A. calif omica** ,
are coated with large amounts of lipids, which bind PIBs together with
bacteria and other debris and seriously affect the gradient isolation
procedure. Any studies on the biochemical composition of the PIBs must
use only highly purified materials and a useful enzyme-gradient proce¬
dure now has been worked out. First, crude homogenates of the PIBs are
treated with hog pancreatic lipase, pH 7.8 for 4 hours. Digests are
fractionated on high resolution density gradients with a single narrow
zone of PIBs being recovered at a density of 57.5% sucrose. Microscopic
analysis of the PIBs shows an extremely clean preparation with PIB size
ranges from approximately 3 to 8 microns. Alkaline digests of the PIBs
were separated on SDS acrylamide gels into 8 zones ranging in molecular
weight from 75,000 to less than 13,000. A similar sample of soluble
protein was isoelectrically focused in pH gradients and one band of pro¬
tein was detected at a pH of 5.8. The acidic nature of this matrix pro¬
tein suggests that this component of the inclusion body is most likely
cellular in origin. Isoelectric focusing studies of uninfected host
cell proteins should determine whether the protein exists in cells nor¬
mally or is virus directed. The disparity between the number of bands
detected by SDS acrylamide gels and isoelectric focusing suggests that
most of the gel proteins are dimers and polymers.

Current address: U.S.D.A., S.E.A., Gulf Coast Mosquito Research Lab,
803 Ave. J. Chennault, Lake Charles, La. 70601.

Graciously supplied by Dr. Randy Bell, Western Cotton Research Lab,
U.S.D.A., S.E.A., Phoenix, Arizona 85040.

74

Abstracts

PARTICLE SIZING AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPY OF
ZONALLY PURIFIED NUCLEAR POLYHEDROSIS
VIRUS OF AUTOGRAPHA CALIFORNICA

George B. Cline and Jack L. Flippo
Department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birminghma
Birmingham, Alabama
Roy E. McLaughlin* *

U.S.D.A., S.E.A., Boll Weevil Research Lab
Mississippi State, Mississippi

Isopycnic zonal centrifugation in sucrose density gradients is the
accepted method of purifying polyhedral inclusion bodies (PIBs) for
either biochemical, biophysical or infectivity studies. The PIBs of the
alfalfa looper, Autographa califomica** were fractionated by this tech¬
nique for a study of the distribution of particulate sizes, for the num¬
bers of virions per inclusion body, and for the LD50 of the different
size classes. Since the isopycnic approach is based on particle density
differences, the approach here was to do a rate (size) separation in
sucrose density gradients, isolate the PIBs from the various fractions,
determine the diameter and volume of the particles in each fraction,
section samples of each fraction for electron microscopy and determine
the relative infectivity of each size class. Separations were incom¬
plete and PIB yields low (~50%) due to anamalous sedimentation of the
PIBs caused by being significantly contaminated (bouyant aggregates)
with insect cell lipids. One hypothesis is that larger PIBs would con¬
tain greater numbers of virions than smaller PIBs and would therefore be
more infectious. Particle size data from an electronic counter showed
that in general the larger PIBs sedimented faster and contained more
virions by electron microscopic examination. However, some very large
polyhedra, commonly called "cuboidals" were found to have a relative
light density, were found often in the lipid layer and contain very few
virions. Average diameter for all PIBs was 4.8 to 5 microns while about
95% fell between about 3 and 8 microns for the non-lipid contaminated
ones. "Cuboidals" ranged up to 17 microns. Estimated virion contents
are 40-65 per smaller PIBs, 150-200 for larger ones and 10-20 for some
of the "cuboidals." Virion length is 0.2 to 0.23 microns long, the
capsid 30 millimicrons in diameter and the developmental membrane 60
millimicrons in diameter. An estimated 40-50% of all virus were in
multiples with about 15% being in groups of 4, 15% in groups of 3 and 0
15% being in groups of 2. Matrix protein crystal is approximately 38 A
point to point. Infectivity studies are in progress and will be re¬
ported elsewhere.

★

Current address: U.S.D.A., S.E.A., Gulf Coast Mosquito Research Lab,
803 Ave. J. Chennault, Lake Charles, La. 70601.

★ *

Graciously supplied by Dr. Randy Bell, Western Cotton Research Lab,
U.S.D.A., S.E.A., Phoenix, Arizona 85040.

75

Abstracts

UNUSUAL PLANT SPECIES AND HABITATS IN THE CAHABA RIVER VALLEY

Ann H. Sessler and John D. Freeman
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

During a floristic survey of the Cahaba River watershed, various
habitats along the Cahaba River were studied, and six were identified as
unusual. A total of 11 plant species listed as threatened, endangered,
or of special concern were found at these sites. Ten of these species
are on the Alabama list of threatened and endangered plants and three
are on the Federal list.

The localities, designated by county and access road, along with
threatened or endangered plant species found at each site, are as fol¬
lows: Jefferson County (Rd. 143 )--Panax quinque folium L., Endangered
(Alabama list); Jefferson County (Rd. 62) — Hypericum nudiflorwn Michaux
ex Willd., Special Concern (Alabama list), Scutellaria alabamensis
Alexander, Threatened (Alabama list); Shelby County (Rd. 29 )--Monarda
clinopodia L., Special Concern (Alabama list), Trillium decumbens Harbi-
son. Special Concern (Alabama list); Shelby County (U.S. Hwy Z\)— Tril¬
lium decumbens Harbison, Special Concern (Alabama list); Bibb County
(Rd. 27 ) - -Hymenocallis coronaria (LeConte) Kunth, Endangered (Alabama
and Federal lists), Croton alabamensis E. A. Smith, Endangered (Alabama
and Federal lists), Sedum nevii Gray, Endangered (Federal list),
Cheilanthes alabamensis (Buckley) Kunze, Threatened (Alabama list),
Andrachne phyllanthoides (Nuttall) Muell-Arg., Special Concern (Alabama
list), Scutellaria alabamensis Alexander, Threatened (Alabama list);
Perry County (Rd. M)--Trillium lancifolium Raf., Endangered (Alabama
list).

In addition to these species, each of these localities supports a
rich and diverse flora. In many cases, the habitats are of limited oc¬
currence in Alabama and are noteworthy as such.

REDISCOVERY OF LEPTOGRAMMA PILOSA IN ALABAMA

John W. Short and John D. Freeman
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Leptogramma pilosa var. alabamensis, the Alabama streak-sorus fern,
was based upon a collection from Winston County, Alabama, reportedly
from a locality about five miles east of Double Springs at an elevation
of approximately 1,300 feet. In 1960, the population at that locality,
a sandstone cliff on the West Sipsey Fork, was completely destroyed by
the impoundment of Smith Lake and construction of a new bridge for U.S.
Highway 278. This fern was then presumed lost from the Alabama flora.

It was not known to occur elsewhere in the United States but had been
identified from the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora.

76

Abstracts

At a symposium on rare and endangered species of Alabama held in

1975, it was learned that L. pilosa had been observed somewhere along
the West Sipsey Fork by Mrs. L. C. Smith of Birmingham and indeed was
not extinct in Alabama. A concerted effort to determine the status of
this species in our flora was undertaken. In September 1975 and April

1976, several colonies of L. pilosa var. alabamensis were found at the
upper reaches of Smith Lake near the Alabama Highway 33 bridge over the
West Sipsey Fork, about five miles north of Double Springs. Topographic
maps revealed that the elevation of 1,300 feet reported for the original
type locality was in error, since no point in Winston County is over
1,000 feet in elevation. The level of Smith Lake is about 500 feet
elevation, and L. pilosa colonies are about 10 feet above water level.

GEOLOGY

URANIUM CONCENTRATION AND ILLITE ORIENTATION IN THE
CHATTANOOGA SHALE— A RE-EXAMINATION

George F. Brockman
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

Silverman and Bates in 1961 reported a case of statistical analysis
which has become a classic in geologic statistics. They investigated
the relation between uranium concentration and an x-ray measure of il-
lite orientation in the Chattanooga Shale of central Tennessee, and con¬
cluded that the correlation of these two variables was not significantly
different from zero, and from this reported finding drew further con¬
clusions about the origin of the ore.

Regression analysis demonstrates that in fact the correlation is
highly significant when the previously unconsidered stratigraphic sub¬
divisions of the Chattanooga Shale are also included in the regression.
The statistical analysis is further improved by appropriate transforma¬
tion of the uranium concentration to either the logarithmic or the
square root transform.

The conclusions from this re-examination of old data are that geol¬
ogists must, as any other statistically oriented investigators, exercise
care that the analyses are performed efficiently. Further conclusions
about the origin of the ore are unresolved.

77

Abstracts

A PETROGRAPHIC STUDY OF A BIOTITE GNEISS, WAVERLY
QUADRANGLE, LEE COUNTY, ALABAMA

Genne Myers
Department of Geology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

A detailed study of a biotite gneiss was undertaken to determine
its petrogenesis. The biotite gneiss unit, located adjacent to Lee
County Road 11 at Loblockee Creek, is banded by light-colored, granitic-
like "veins" and is overlaid by a coarse-grained muscovite schist.
Situated near the Stonewall line within the Dadeville Complex of the In¬
ner Piedmont, the gneiss and schist are interlayered within the Ropes
Creek Amphibolite, which is locally injected by pegmatites.

From megascopic and microscopic inspection, two types of "veins"
were identified--one of anatexic origin and one of magmatic origin, the
latter probably related to the local pegmatites. Hydrothermal fluids
are the probable origin of the sulfide mineralization and may have
altered a sheared section of the gneiss to a "greisen-1 i ke" schist.

Modal analysis was employed to try to substantiate these relationships
but the results were inconclusive. A comparative chemical analysis
should be run to test these results.

PRELIMINARY STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF A METAMORPHIC ROCK EXPOSURE
IN THE WAVERLY QUADRANGLE, LEE COUNTY, ALABAMA

Joseph E. Cotten, Jr.

Department of Geology
Auburn University

Auburn, Alabama 36830

The exposure discussed is located near the Auburn University Fish¬
eries Experiment Station south of U.S. highway 280. This exposure con¬
sists of a sequence of micaceous schist and quartzite to the north and
Farmville Granitic Gneiss to the south. These rock units strike gener¬
ally NE-SW, dip to the NW and have been affected by five deformative
events. The schist unit exhibits kinkfolds with spaced cleavage indi¬
cating D2 after Dq , the initial metamorphism with mineral formation.

From measurements of the quartzite unit D3 and D4, two periods of super¬
imposed conical folding, is suggested. The most recent deformative
event, resulting in the formation of joints, is assumed in this report
to be D5. Jointing has not been affected by previous deformative events,
D4, D3, D2 or Dl.

78

Abstracts

THE DOSS MOUNTAIN COMPLEX

Michael J. Neilson
Department of Earth Sciences
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

A Mafic-Ul tramafic complex occupies the core of the Tallassee Syn-
form in the Dadeville Complex of Alabama's Inner Piedmont. This unit is
well exposed in the vicinity of Doss Mountain, 6 miles due north of Camp
Hill, Tallapoosa County, where it is mapped as eight separate intrusions
Each intrusion shows discordant contacts with the surrounding amphibo¬
lites and Camp Hill Gneiss and appears to intrude both units. Two types
of intrusions are recognized. The Doss Mountain type consists of con¬
centrically zoned plutons composed of norite and orthopyroxeni te . Cumu¬
late textures, with primocrystal orthopyroxene and intercumulus plagio-
clase, are common in the ultramafic rocks. Both mafic and ultramafic
rocks display intense alteration to tremolite, anthophyl 1 i te, chlorite,
garnet and talc. The Slaughters type consists of olivine gabbro and
hornblende gabbro with subophitic and gabbroic textures. Alteration of
these rocks is uncommon. Chemically, the two types are distinct: The
Doss Mountain type is q normative with hy > di , whereas the Slaughters
type is ol normative with di > hy.

ON THE STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF A CRETACEOUS
CONIFER CONE FROM GREAT BRITAIN

Ruth A. Stockey
Department of Geology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

A well-preserved conifer cone has been discovered in a block of
Cretaceous age limestone on the beach near Osmington Mills in Dorset.

The cone which measures 4.5 x 5.0 cm in diam is broken into 3 fragments
of lignitic material and embedded in a coarsely crystalline limestone.
Seed and cone-scale tissues are slightly flattened and show cellular
preservation. Material was prepared by an infiltration of cone pieces
with epoxy, serial cellulose acetate peels, and thin sections. Individ¬
ual seeds were embedded in glycol methacrylate and sectioned with a
rotary microtome. The spirally arranged cone-scale complexes encircle a
large pith 1.6 cm in diam. There is one recurved ovule embedded in the
surface of each ovuliferous scale. Structure of the cone is comparable
with those of some members of the genus Araucaria (family Araucariaceae)
especially the sections Eutacta and Bunya that have prominently winged
cone-scales. Cone and seed tissues are compared to the ovulate cone
Araucaria mirabilis from the Jurassic Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest in
Patagonia and other fossil members of the Araucariaceae.

79

Abstracts

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW AND GEOLOGIC FACILITIES OF
ALABAMA'S RED MOUNTAIN MUSEUM

Steve Mann and Marcia Simon
Red Mountain Museum
Birmingham, Alabama

Construction on the Red Mountain Expressway cut began in 1963.

Seven years later, it was completed. Nearly seven years after that,
something that many people had only dreamed about became a reality, the
Red Mountain Museum.

The Red Mountain Museum currently consists of a construction crew,
an education staff, an exhibits staff, and a special projects and public
relations department.

The facilities include the museum building, the Red Mountain Museum
walkway, an auditorium, offices, and a research and exhibits construc¬
tion laboratory.

The Museum building is presently being doubled in size. Work
should be completed by this summer.

The museum describes physical and historical geology, and verte¬
brate and invertebrate paleontology and neontology.

The museum plans continued expansion of exhibits. Soon the museum
will have bertebrate fossils, paleozoic dioramas, and a fossil insect
in amber exhibit.

Most of this activity parallels the paleontological research the
museum is doing. We are currently building a fossil reference collec¬
tion.

Educationally, the museum has been working very closely with the
schools of the area. The museum has also elicited the aide of the
Junior League. A series of seminars are offered to the public and a
media center comprised of geologic information is being accumulated.

Future plans include the diversification of exhibits. There will
be a health and anatomy museum, a pioneer village, an Indian museum, and
a children's museum.

The Red Mountain Museum has great potential for growth and will add
greatly to the Brimingham area and the State of Alabama.

80

Abstracts

GROUND WATER HYDROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS,

LAS VEGAS, NEVADA

James S. Dinger
Department of Earth Sciences
University of Alabama in Birmingham
University Station, Alabama 35294

Chemical analyses of major dissolved constituents in near-surface
ground water, defined as ground water within the upper 50 feet of allu¬
vium, reflect general differences in surficial alluvial lithologies in
Las Vegas Valley, Nevada.

Las Vegas Valley is an alluvium-filled valley in the Basin and
Range physiographic province. Based on surficial geologic mapping, de¬
fined units, composed of intermixed clay, silt, sand, and gravel-sized
alluvium, can be classified as either a carbonate or sulfate lithofacies.

Developed hydrochemical facies and tri linear diagram of dissolved
ions indicate that near-surface ground water has a prefominantly calcium-
magnesium, sulfate-chloride hydrochemical facies with a slight bicarbo¬
nate anion facies shift exhibited by those data originating in carbonate
lithofacies. A plot of sulfate versus theoretical carbonate thermochem¬
ical activity in ground water further substantiates correspondence be¬
tween carbonate and sulfate lithofacies and near-surface ground-water
quality especially when a high magnesium to calcium ratio is considered.
Mineral solubility calculations indicate that near-surface ground water
is supersaturated with calcium carbonate.

Areal distribution of lithofacies and of hydrochemical facies in
both the vertical and horizontal planes, and thermochemical investiga¬
tions indicate that surficial lithofacies exert partial Quality control
on ground water within 50 feet of land surface.

HEAVY METAL DISTRIBUTION IN SELECTED SOUTH ALABAMA RIVER

Jim Harden, Roger Young, Theresa Sosienski, and Maria Young
Department of Geology
University of Southern Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

Thirty-three water samples were collected along a ninety-three mile
stretch of river between Jackson, Alabama and Mobile, Alabama along the
Tombigbee-Mobi le River. These samples were analyzed for the heavy met¬
als Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd), and Copper (Cu), by Atomic Absorption Spec¬
trophotometry. The maximum value for Zinc was 500 ppb, 60 ppb for Cad¬
mium, and 980 ppb for Copper. Generally, the higher values could be
directly attributed to industrial sites.

81

Abstracts

SHORELINE CHANGES ON THE MOBILE BAY COAST
OF LITTLE DAUPHIN ISLAND

Lynn Helms

Department of Geology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Both erosional and depositional responses to coastal processes
were observed. Sediments deposited by dredges are the major source of
sediment, since the westward transport of sand from Mobile Point is now
cut off by the dredging of the shipping channel.

The southern portion of the island is affected by erosion more than
other parts of the island. Trees and grasses are most effective in in¬
hibiting erosion, which is most noticeable on the southern portion of
the island. Beach slopes vary from 6 degrees in fair weather to 10 de¬
grees in foul weather. In some locations soil units are exposed by sub¬
aqueous erosion. Heavy minerals make up less than 25% of the beach
sands. Sand ripples parallel the beach during fair weather and shift to
a more northerly orientation during foul weather.

The central portion of the island has a wider beach with a more
gentle slope and a heavier mineral concentration. Close attention was
given to erosion and deposition at an intermediate position between
Bayou Matagua and Big Pass Margaret and the erosion, breaching, and re¬
joining of Big Pass Margaret.

The northern part of the island has a narrower beach with a gentle
slope and few heavy minerals. Accretion is most noticeable at the north¬
ern end of the island.

Little Dauphin Island represents a dynamic but reasonably stable
beach.

SHORELINE CHANGES AT THE WEST END OF DAUPHIN ISLAND, ALABAMA

Martha Margaret Meng and Paul Douglas Wilkens
Department of Geology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

A short-term study of shoreline processes is essential in under¬
standing the overall dynamic changes of the downdrift terminus of an
island. Factors to be considered are wave refraction, longshore cur¬
rents, wind directions and any features that develop such as runnel sys¬
tems, tidal pools and spits.

Dauphin Island is migrating westward as evidenced by deposition and
elongation at the western tip of the island. Factors contributing to
this migration include: the general direction of waves from the south¬
east, which transport sediment to the northwest where the wave refract

82

Abstracts

around the end of the island; the westward trend of the longshore cur¬
rent; and the general direction of the wind from the south. This con¬
clusion is supported by a study of Dauphin Island done by the Geological
Survey of Alabama (1974) with the use of maps, charts and photographs.

GROWTH AND FORM OF PENTREMITES

Laura A. Waters
Department of Geology
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Absolute size measurements are so subject to environmentally in¬
duced phenotypic changes that they are useless taxonomic criteria. Us¬
ing ratios or indices is equally misleading since in allometric growth,
ratios of original variates change continuously and in a regular manner
relative to size.

Galloway and Kaska (1957) studied Pentremites and found that of the
133 assigned species of Pentremites, 63 were valid, 30 were synonyms or
unrecognizable, 30 belonged to other genera and 10 were nomina nuda.
Mistaken taxonomic distinctions have been based upon the assumption that
the shape of individual Pentremites did not change during ontogeny.
Quantitative ontogenetic and morphological studies into blastoid genera
and the use of growth patterns for taxonomic criteria may clear much of
the taxonomic confusion of Pentremites and other blastoids. The three
species of Pentremites used in this study are P. godoni, P. pyraformis
and P. robustus.

FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, AND
CONSERVATION

ALABAMA’S WIREGRASS: IMPLICATIONS OF THE REGION
FOR GROWTH AND ADMINISTRATION

Lawrence A. Brown
The Troy State University System

The extreme southeastern counties of Alabama and the adjacent por¬
tions of Georgia and Florida are included in the region known locally as
the Wi regrass. The area is emerging as one of the newer growth poles of
the Sun Belt. Traditional dependence upon mixed farming, with an empha¬
sis on peanuts, and labor intensive industries, such as textiles and the
processing of agricultural goods are now being overshadowed by capital
intensive and relatively pollution-free activities. In addition, the
region's mineral deposits are being developed on a large scale.

83

Abstracts

Economic diversification has become a byword in the Wi regrass. The
region's function as a retirement center for military and civilians is
enhanced by excellent health and recreational facilities. As a result
of the area's rapid growth, various groups have been organized to scru¬
tinize potential industries with the intent of maximizing the region's
economy while maintaining a high degree of environmental quality.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY AND PHILATELY:

EXAMPLES FROM LATIN AMERICA

Frank D. Huttlinger
The University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Many nations have issued postage stamps on which maps appear. Such
stamps as have been issued by Latin American states belong to one of
three categories.

"Map stamps" in the first category do not portray any significant
external national relationships. This class of stamps includes commem-
oratives of different kinds in which the map shown is merely a graphic
symbol of the nation.

The second group of "map stamps" shows only very simple external
relationships, such as air routes between different countries.

The final category is that which most directly relates to political
geography. Most commonly, stamps in this group portray areas, the
sovereignty of which has been questioned. Examples of such stamps in¬
volve areas that have been or are in dispute between Ecuador and Peru,
Bolivia and Paraguay, Venezuela and Guyana, Honduras and Nicaragua, and
Guatemala and Belize. In some of these cases the postage stamp has been
used in a very interesting and colorful manner to support claims to the
disputed territory.

FIRSTS IN FORESTRY AT AUBURN UNIVERSITY
OVER HALF A CENTURY

Wi 1 bur B. De Vail
Department of Forestry
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Forestry research in Alabama had its beginning in 1927 at the Ala¬
bama Polytechnic Institute (now Auburn University) under the direction
of a horticulturist L. M. Ware. He and his associates felt that cutover
forest lands and lands burned by wild fire should again grow trees. An
early need, if tree planting was to be successful, was the control of
wild fire. Early demonstrations of the growth of southern pines at dif¬
ferent spacings and the effects of wild fire on forest vegetation can
still be observed on the Auburn campus.

84

Abstracts

Forestry education had its beginning in 1946 when courses were
first offered leading to a 4-year degree in Forestry. Enrollment
through 1977 has ranged from a low of 75 to 325. Graduate programs have
been offered beginning in 1952. Two endowments in support of Forestry
date back to 1952. A number of scholarships and awards have been made
available from endowment funds and by forestry groups and industries.

Three buildings have been constructed to house the programs of the
Department of Forestry that was created July 1, 1947. The first was
finished in 1948 and added to in 1970. A Forest Products Laboratory was
dedicated as recently as 1977.

SPATIAL STRATEGIES IN RAILROAD PLANNING IN
GEORGIA AND THE CAROL I NAS, 1830-1860

David C. Weaver
The University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, Alabama

The main objective of railroad planning in Georgia and the Caro-
linas before 1860 was to secure control over a particular trade terri¬
tory and to exclude competition. Investment in line construction was
the main tool employed by ports and interior trading centers for expand¬
ing their spheres of influence. Political manipulation was the main
tool used for preserving territorial integrity and trade monopoly. The
result by 1860 was a railroad network comprised of a series of substan¬
tial, but relatively discrete short trunk lines. These systems flowed
much like the rivers of the area, draining from the Piedmont to the At¬
lantic Coast. They were controlled largely by the capital and the votes
of the major ports and were primarily sustained by the profits of trans¬
porting the agricultural produce of areas served by the system to the
coast.

The development of the railroads as a transportation mode was an
innovation to the southeast in more than the simple technological sense.
Railroads were extensive and expensive installations involving much more
in the way of benefit and locational analysis than the piecemeal road
and canal construction which had gone before. The railroads were in ef¬
fect the first of the truly large scale "planned public works" programs
in the southeast. The historical geography of their development indi¬
cates the widely perceived importance of spatial considerations in pub¬
lic works planning at this early date.

DEMOCRACY IN AFRICA
Walter F. Koch

Department of Geology and Geography
The University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Democracy as a political system including majority rule, broad suf¬
frage, political competition, and a free press is virtually non-existent

85

Abstracts

in Africa. A survey made for this study shows that of fifty-two states
examined only five were found to be democratic: Botswana, The Gambia,
Djibouti, Mauritius and Transkei .

In the remaining forty-five states the governmental system was
totalitarian either by an autocratic monarch (3), military leader or
council (9), one-party system (12) or dictatorships (11). All govern¬
ments of these states represent very small minorities ranging from two
to ten percent of the populations.

Governments in Africa reflect the colonial cultural heritage with
the minorities in power the elites developed by the European colonial
administrations. Clerks, minor officials, students and soldiers who
absorbed European political concepts during the colonial era now com¬
prise governments that keep the indigenous black populations in a state
of political impotence. Prospects for real democracy as implied by ma-
joirty rule in Africa are extremely bleak.

PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

NEUTRON CROSS SECTIONS FOR 93Nb(n,ct)90mY
AND 80se(n,2n)79mSe AT 14.1 MeV

J. E. Gaiser and W. L. Alford
Department of Physics
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Activation techniques have been used to measure neutron cross sec¬
tions for 93f^b(n ja)90my and 80se(n,2n)79mse at 14.1 MeV. Fast neutrons
were produced by the 3H(d,n)4He reaction using 333 keV deuterons from
the Auburn University Dynamitron accelerator. Associated particle tech
niques were used to measure the neutron flux. Absolute cross section
measurements were made and compared with the results of others. Experi
mental values are 5.1 ± 0.5 mb for niobium and 246 ± 22 mb for selenium

THE INTERACTION OF 13-17 MeV NEUTRONS WITH 58NI

C. G. Hudson* and W. L. Alford
Department of Physics
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830
S. K. Ghorai**

Alabama State University
Montgomery, Alabama

Based on the interest in nuetron cross sections for first wall
constituents of fusion and fission reactors, the neutron excitation

86

Abstracts

functions for the ^8|\| ^ (n,2n)57Mi and 58|sj -j (n,p)58co reactions have been
measured in the 13-17 MeV energy range. Samples of pure nickel oxide
were irradiated by neutrons from the T(d,n)^He reaction. Cross sections
were calculated from measurements of the resulting gamma-ray activity
of the samples and the neutron flux to which the samples were explosed.

A comparison of the experimental results with the semi -empirical calcu¬
lations of Pearlstein shows that the theoretical predictions provide
reasonable estimates for (n,2n) reactions but are not so trustworthy
for reactions yielding charged particles.

Present address: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

The work of S. K. Ghorai was partially supported by National Science
Foundation Grant No. SER77-04618.

TOTAL CROSS SECTION MEASUREMENT FOR THE 6|_i(d,n)7Be REACTION

J. F. Key, Jr. and J. R. Williams
Department of Physics
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The 6|_i(d,n)7[3e reaction has been studied at bombarding energies
ranging from 0.75 MeV to 2.50 MeV in 250 KeV steps. Total cross sec¬
tions have been determined from the yield of the ?Li* 477 KeV gamma ray.
The values obtained were 98 mb at 0.75 MeV, 89 mb at 1.00 MeV, 66 mb at
1.25 MeV, 78 mb at 1.50 MeV, 47 mb at 1.75 MeV, 102 mb at 2.00 MeV, 61
mb at 2.25 MeV, and 57 mb at 2.50 MeV.

HEAVY ION RESEARCH AND AN EXPERIMENT DESIGNED
TO CREATE THE SUPER HEAVY ELEMENT Z = 114*

Thomas G. Mill er+

U.S. Army Missile Research
and Development Command
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35809

The first artificially created element, Neptunium (Z = 93) was
identified in 1940. Since that time 12 additional transuranium elements
have been created and identified. Attention is now being focused on the
super heavy elements with Z = 114 and higher. The theory is now about
10 years old that indicates islands of stability around Z = 114 and Z =
164. Other theorists have found an island of stability around Z = 146.
Searches in nature and experiments at accelerators have failed to iden¬
tify super heavy elements. This paper describes an experiment designed
to produce and identify super heavy elements at an accelerator.

★

Invited paper.

Presently assigned to Physics Department, Auburn University.

87

Abstracts

EXPLOSIVE INSTABILITIES IN A BEAM PLASMA

Michael E. Jones and J. Fukai
Department of Physics
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

We have studied the evaluation of the explosive instability in an
electron beam-plasma system with three types of computer experiments, a
particle-in-cell simulation as well as two different fluid models. The
explosive instability can occur when three waves with positive and nega¬
tive energies resonantly interact in a plasma. The instability is char¬
acterized by a growth rate which is greater than exponential. The com¬
puter results show good agreement with the usual mode coupling theory
derived from the Vlasov equation until the growth terminates. The simu¬
lations indicate that the saturation results from a mismatch in the fre¬
quencies of the wave triplet due to the nonlinear frequency shift caused
by trapping of electrons in the potential wells of the waves. Two mem¬
bers of the explosive triplet are observed to Landau-damp due to the
heating of the electron distribution by trapping.

BETA RADIATION AUTORADIOGRAPHY AS A TECHNIQUE
FOR RESTORING FADED PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGES

Barbara S. Askins
Space Sciences Laboratory, ES52
NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center
MSFC, Alabama 35812

When a photographic emulsion is exposed to beta radiation the
latent image is formed much more efficiently than for exposures due to
visible light. This efficiency is utilized in the autoradiographic
technique for restoring faded photographic images. Badly faded or un¬
derexposed photographs actually contain most of the information which
was intended to be recorded by the original exposure. The information
is stored as elemental silver but the total amount of silver is too
small for easy detection by visual means. In the application of auto¬
radiographic intensification, the silver atoms are made radioactive by
chemical combination with a beta emitting isotope, sulfur-35. When a
second emulsion (the autoradiograph) is exposed to this beta radiation,
the original image is transferred with increases in density and contrast
so that images which were invisible or barely visible on the original
are easily seen on the autoradiograph. A practical technique for auto¬
radiographic intensification which was developed at Marshall Space
Flight Center for use in astronomical research has proven to have appli¬
cations in many other areas. Recently this technique has been applied
to the restoration of the image of old, faded photographs of historical
significance.

88

Abstracts

A SIMPLIFIED COMPUTER MODEL FOR CURRENT FOMENTATION
IN SILICON-ON-SAPPHIRE DEVICES

A. Baruah and P. P. Budenstein
Department of Physics
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Instability in current configuration of a thin-film silicon-on-
sapphire device occurs at tempteratures above the turnover point of the
resistivity-temperature curve. A computer simulation study of the proc¬
ess of current filamentation in silicon on sapphire devices using a sim¬
plified model has been done. This model basically divides the device
(420 microns long, 100 microns wide with a film thickness of .4-. 8 mi¬
crons) into a network of strips. A series of one-dimensional simula¬
tions yielded junction behaviors, i.e., the equations of state of the
junction as a function of current density (I.e7-l.e9 a/m2), doping con¬
centration (I.e20-l.e24 #/m3) and temperature (200-1600 k).

Constant current pulses of intermediate duration (5-25 microsec)
and amplitude (15-50 ma) were applied, and a heat flow equation (that
includes both thermal and electrical effects) was solved to obtain a
series of steady-state solutions specifying complete state of the device
at given intervals of time. Continued iterations advance the device
towards the filamentation stage. Single, narrow current filaments ex¬
tending all the way from p+ to the n+ region have been obtained.

VALENCE-BAND STRUCTURES OF THE BINARY COMPOUNDS
AND TERNARY ALLOYS OF ZnS, ZnSe AND ZnTe

Wallace G. Kistler and An-Ban Chen
Department of Physics
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The valence-band structures of the 1 1 -V I compound semiconductors
ZnS, ZnSe and ZnTe and their ternary alloys are studied using the bond-
orbital model (BOM) and the coherent-potential approximation (CPA). The
BOM is truncated at the third-neighbor interactions. These interactions
were derived by fitting to the X-ray photoemission spectra (XPS) and
photoelectric thresholds. The line shapes and the locations of the
prominent peaks of the calculated densities of states (DOS) are in good
agreement with the XPS. The CPA DOS for the 1 1 -VI alloys were found to
be more interesting than those for the III-V ternaries previously
studied in that these DOS begin to differ appreciably from the virtual-
crystal results. Our study also includes the more detailed band proper¬
ties such as energy shifts, line broadening and effective masses. The
large non-linear concentration dependence of the top of the valence band
is found to correlate well with the large experimental bowing parameters
for the E0 gaps.

89

Abstracts

POTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD DISTRIBUTION INSIDE
SEMICONDUCTOR p - n JUNCTIONS

Rishi Raj Chowdhury
Department of Physics
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

In this paper I have tried to plot the Potential and Electric Field
distribution inside depletion region using Integral Equation. I con¬
verted the non linear differential equation to its Integral Equation and
then solved it by Iteration method for an ABRUPT p - n junction case. I
used two iterations and then plotted the potential and Electric Field
distributions which shows the effect of Iterations using numerical
method. To generate the values for iterations confonterized output was
used.

THE POLARIZED ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF Hq3+ IN YTTRIUM
ORTHOALUMINATE AT 77°K

L. C. McCaleb* and J. M. O'Hare
University of Dayton
Dayton, Ohio

The upper Stark levels corresponding to the ^5 through the ^2
manifolds of Ho3+ in YAIO3 were determined by examining the polarized
absorption spectra the 0.5 mole % Hq3+ dopant. Measurements covering a
range from 880 nm to 360 nm were recorded using a Jarrell -Ash 3.4 meter
spectrograph. The spectra were analyzed using published "free ion"
energy level calculations* and the ground state splittings as given by
Weber and Bass. 2 In addition to the Stark splittings of these manifolds,
the corresponding irreducible representation state labels have also been
determined. Assignment of irreducible representation labels for some
manifolds was difficult due to ambiguities in the polarized absorption
spectra.

National Science Foundation Undergraduate Research Participant.

V T. Carnal 1 , P. R. Fields, and K. Rajnak, J. Chem. Phys. 49,4424 (68).

^M. J. Weber and M. Bass, Raytheon Co., Tech. Rep. AFML-TR-72-32, Wal¬
tham, Mass. 1972.

90

Abstracts

A TERNARY ALGEBRAIC SYSTEM
Aldo Forte

Department of Mathematics
University of Alabama in Huntsville
Huntsville, Alabama

In most of the algebraic structures a nonempty set with one or two
binary operations is considered.

The objective of this paper is the presentation of an algebraic
system with a ternary operation. Also some relationship between this
system and the abelian groups is given.

THE DECLINE IN SCHOOL MATHEMATICS

W. L. Furman
Spri ng Hill Col lege
Mobile, Alabama

Evidence of a decline in school mathematics consists of lower
scores on standard mathematics tests and increase in remedial courses
offered by college mathematics departments. Various factors mentioned
as causes include the new mathematics introduced into the schools in
recent years, decline in reading ability, shifting interests in academic
matters, use of hand calculators and other items. It is difficult to
point to specific causes. At the same time there is great improvement
on the part of good students as evidenced by advanced placement in col¬
lege mathematics programs and stronger courses for better students.

Along with poor performance in mathematics many school systems are now
considering minimal competencies in mathematics either for promotion to
higher grades or for graduation from high school.

MULTICHANNEL ANALYZER RECORDING OF SINGLE
PHOTON COUNTING MONOCHROMETER DATA

Michael J. Monaham
Department of Physics
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Single photon counting monochrometer data are taken using a multi¬
channel analyzer in place of a count rate meter. Interfacing and typi¬
cal results are discussed.

91

Abstracts

PROBLEMS IN THERMO-THERAPY I

Davis Meyer
Department of Physics
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

The historical development of thermo-therapy, a century old clini¬
cal treatment analagous to the natural fever, is briefly sketched. The
advantages and limitations of thermo-therapy as a concer treatment are
discussed with particular emphasis on the use of localized R.F. heating
techniques. Problems of energy absorption and heat transfer within
biological tissues are delineated in the light of desiring to place
thermo-therapy on the same footing as radiation therapy.

PROBLEMS IN THERMOTHERAPY II

D. Jay Freedman
Department of Physics
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

The basic theory of radio-frequency diathermy discussed in part I
illustrated the need for determination of the complex electric permit¬
tivity and the heat diffusivity of human biological materials. Tech¬
niques for determining these values are discussed and some of the perti¬
nent equations are derived. Particular attention is paid to the microme
ter electrode system and its use in resonance-rise circuits. Other prob
lems, such as sample aquisition and storage are also discussed.

DEGREE DAYS AND SOLAR ENERGY FOR SOLAR HEATING
IN HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA

Oskar M. Essenwanger
Missile Research Directorate
U.S. Army Missile R&D Command
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama

The interest in solar energy as an alternate source of energy has
increased considerably in recent times. The advantages of solar energy
are obvious: it is clean, inexhaustible (at least for the next 100-200
years), and allegedly free of charge. The latter is limited to the
source only, the costs lie with the hardware for collection and storage
of solar energy.

If solar heating of houses should become more attractive in the
future it is essential that cost effective systems be designed which
supply heat through the entire winter. Then the climatological back¬
ground for these heating systems cannot be ignored.

Unfortunately, data are not available to prepare a complete clima¬
tological data base, partly because only mean values of solar radiation

92

Abstracts

and temperature are published. The author has analyzed the past two
winters in Huntsville, Alabama, as an example of how a solar heating
system would properly function. The analysis proved that degree days
and solar energy must be examined jointly, and average values are insuf¬
ficient .

The author based the calculations on the postulation D/Dr = L/Lr:
an increase in degree days (D) implies the same increase in solar radia¬
tion (L), whereby the references Dr and Lr are left open for definition.
A reasonable choice for Dr is the average degree day in January while Lr
is a selected solar energy threshold, in general lower than the January
average. Under this concept the storage capacity would require a 27-day
supply for Lr = 192 Langleys per day (January average), and an 11-day
supply for 140 Langleys per day. While a reserve of 25 days must be
available on 1 December for the system of Lr = 192, the second threshold
requires only a one day reserve.

It is obvious that the system based on Lr = 192 Langleys per day
requires a smaller collector area than for Lr = 140. The optimum cost
effective system can only be determined in a trade-off between size of
storage (capability) and collector area. This trade-off depends on
hardware costs, and must be calculated individually from the hardware
specifications of the system. The trade-off calculation cannot be pro¬
perly carried out, however, unless data on the solar energy deficit as
a function of time and availability of carry-over energy on 1 December
are available in various climatic zones.

A PRECISION STRONTIUM-90 IRRADIATOR

C. G. Hudson
School of Public Health
The University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
H. C. Cobb and K. M. Hornsby
Department of Electrical Engineering
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

A Lucite container was designed and constructed to enclose an en¬
capsulated strontium-90 source for use as a beta irradiator. A timing
power driver was also designed and constructed to control and measure
irradiation times. Specifications of the container and the theory of
the timer and associated electronics are given. Total error of irradia¬
tion time is also given.

93

Abstracts

INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS

SOCIAL SECURITY AND LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION
OF OLDER MALES: 1947-1976

Mary E. Dunn

Auburn University at Montgomery
Montgomery, Alabama

Regression analysis was applied to time series data to determine
the impact of certain aspects of the Social Security Act upon the 1947
to 1976 downward trend in labor force participation rates of two groups
of older men: men age 55 to 64 and men age 65 and over.

The tests of the hypothesis that the labor force participation
rates of older males age 55 to 64 have been determined by the oppor¬
tunity for males age 62 to draw reduced social security benefits created
by a 1961 amendment to the Social Security Act, the general level of job
opportunities, and the level of employment opportunities available to
men in this age group, offer evidence that the opportunity for early re¬
tirement and the general level of job opportunities have contributed to
the decline in the number of males in this age group participating in
the labor force. Findings do not indicate that declining employment op¬
portunities available to these men explain the decline.

Tests results show little evidence in support of the hypothesis
that the declining 1947-1976 labor force participation rates of older
males age 65 and over have been determined by the increasing value of
social security benefits relative to earnings opportunities from market
work, the general level of job opportunities, and the employment oppor¬
tunities available to males age 65 and over.

A MODEL TO PROJECT LOSS OF EARNINGS FROM
IMPAIRED OR DESTROYED CAPACITY

Wayne C. Curtis, Director
Center for Business and Economic Services
Troy State University
Troy, Alabama

Attempts have been made for many years to place a monetary value on
human life. Rather than becoming easier over time, determination of a
value has become more difficult especially within the past 25 years,
accuracy of estimates are reduced because of uncertainties associated
with changing economic and social conditions. For example, the impor¬
tance of the variables used in this analysis has intensified within re¬
cent years because of the changing nature of the American economy, cou¬
pled with expanding social programs. Particularly important among the
variables affecting earnings are occupational alternatives, education,
age, productivity, inflation, and interest rates.

94

Abstracts

Despite the restraints noted above, a methodology exists for con¬
ceptualizing these factors into a systematic economic approach for esti¬
mating and projecting individual earnings. This article has utilized a
methodology to relate economic concepts to the problem of establishing
a monetary value of lost earnings due to impaired capacity or death. It
essentially involved determination of the difference in expected lifetime
earnings prior to and after the occurrence of impairment or death and
discounting this difference to a present value.

THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY

H. Dean Moberly and A. Wayne Lacy
Department of Economics
Auburn University at Montgomery
Montgomery, Alabama

The purpose of this paper is to present the findings of a study to
determine the economic impact of Auburn University at Montgomery on the
City of Montgomery and Montgomery County. The study was designed to
measure both the direct and indirect impacts of additional spending in
the Mongtomery area as a result of the establishment of AUM. The period
of the study covered five fiscal years beginning with 1972 and ending
with 1976.

Three basic types of expenditures were analyzed: operations and
salary expenditures, construction expenditures, and spending by out-of¬
county students. To determine their pattern of spending and the poten¬
tial indirect or multiplier effect of their spending, a survey was con¬
ducted of the faculty and staff. Additionally, a simpler survey was con¬
ducted of non-Montgomery County students to determine the level and
breakdown of their Montgomery County expenditures as a result of their
student activity.

The basic methodology of the study involved the development of a
spending multiplier to measure the impact of spending beyond the first
injection of spending from direct university funds. Basically, the con¬
cept of an economic multiplier is as follows: when additional injec¬
tions of spending occur in the economy, the funds spent become addi¬
tional income to other individuals, who re-spend it, generating addi¬
tional income for others. In the course of a year, the impact of adding
spending will be some multiple of the initial injection of spending. To
calculate the value of the multiplier, the "leakage" from the spending
flow must be known. A leakage is non-spending. Savings and tax pay¬
ments are the principal leakages normally considered. In the case of
computing regional multipliers, as in this study, any spending outside
the region is also a leakage and must be considered.

The multiplier for each income class was then calculated by the
formula :

(1-D

95

Abstracts

, _ total leakage in each income class

where L - percent leakage t0ta] income in each class

The aggregate weighted multiplier was calculated by the formula:

Aggregate K = E • P(K^) (1-2)

where P(K.) = the probability of a faculty member falling into a
1 specific income class as represented by the percent
of total AUM personnel in each class.

The solution to equation (1-2) above was found to be 2.36. AUM and
its personnel can therefore generate $2.36 worth of economic activity by
each dollar they spend in Montgomery County.

A STATISTICAL ESTIMATION OF FARMERS' DEMAND FOR SOYBEAN
LOANS FROM THE COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION, UNITED
STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 1954-74

Venkareddy Chennareddy
Talladega College
Talladega, Alabama
Lloyd I. Holmes

Former Director, Budget Division, A.S.C.S.

The commodity credit corporation makes loans available to farmers
as necessary and uses the commodity as collateral. The purpose of this
article is to identify a structure and to estimate that model of that
structure. The estimated econometric model can be used for projecting
loan volume of soybeans. Projecting loan volume is useful in estimating
the work load of staff of Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation
Service in the counties and in State offices.

The demand analysis of the volume of soybeans under loan, to the
Commodity Credit Corporation, indicates that there are only three inde¬
pendent variables significantly affecting the loan volume of soybeans.
The three variables are: soybean production, foreign shipments of soy¬
beans, and the ratio of market price to support price of soybeans. The
difference between the actual and the estimated volume of soybeans under
the loan program, especially in the last three years of the period 1954-
74 is fairly narrow and therefore, the model can be said to be fairly
reliable for projecting the loan volume of soybeans if the price support
program is in effect in the future. The two independent variables, soy¬
bean production and foreign shipments, are one year lagged variables.

The elasticities of soybeans volume under loan with respect to the ratio
of market price to support price and with respect to other independent
variables were estimated. The elasticities are the coefficients of the
independent variables in the regression estimated because all the origi¬
nal variables, both dependent and independent, are transformed into
logarithmic values to the base 10 and included in the regression. The
regression equation with six independent variables included in the model

96

Abstracts

explains about eighty-eight percent of the variation in the loan volume
of soybeans under loan.

CONFLICTING GOALS IN IMPROVING THE FISH MARKET
INFRASTRUCTURE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Donald R. Street
Department of Economics
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Economic development agencies have goals of aiding the poor through
improved fisheries operations. Programs to aid the sellers often harm
the consumers. The poorest element of the society may be damaged by im¬
provements in market infrastructures since prices are raised above their
"reservation" level by such actions. The poor are sometimes dependent
upon mistakes being made in the market which assure a quantity of lower
quality fish within their market domain. The present paper suggests al¬
ternatives to fill a low-quality, high-volume fish demand at levels to
meet the needs of the poorer classes. Fish culture operations have the
flexibility to be directed towards different segments of the market
without damaging efficiency of operations.

GUIDES TO COMPATIBLE RURAL AND INDUSTRIAL GROWTH

James M. Price
Director of Planning

Northwest Alabama Council of Local Governments

The Southeast in general and TVA region in particular is certain to
be subjected to increased growth pressures over the next decades. Qual¬
ity industrial development is needed to raise the standard of living of
many of our citizens.

The region served by the Northwest Alabama Council of Local Govern¬
ments is predominantly rural but contains the Florence, Alabama metro
area. There is increased competition between industry and agricultural
sectors over lands within the region.

America is losing approximately 2.4 million acres of agricultural
lands per year. We are not insuring that industrial and other urban
developments occur so as to retain our best farmland for agriculture.

Coupled with the loss of our agricultural lands, we are facing an
increasingly hungry world. This problem could become critical involving
our future national security.

Land economics and life style consequences of uncontrolled growth
are discussed. Strategies are offered for dealing with our unique situ¬
ation as well as factors for public decision-making relating to growth.

97

Abstracts

The planning process is frequently not viewed as useful in compli¬
menting the political process in rural areas. It can be a useful com-
pl iment.

Rural citizens have responsibilities to insure that they remain
compatible neighbors to industrial and other urban activities. Commun¬
ity actions are outlined for promoting a desirable future life style
within rural areas.

A LAND USE PLANNING CONCEPT IN NORTHWEST ALABAMA
Steven R. Sax

Senior Planner, Northwest Alabama Council of Local Governments
Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660

Land use planning has been a concern of planners, land developers,
governmental officials, and citizens for the past several decades. This
paper discusses land use planning in rural northwest Alabama. The North¬
west Alabama Council of Local Governments undertook the responsibility
of producing a regional land use plan in order to allow for compatible
growth within the region. The land use planning methodology was devel¬
oped to be sensitive to natural areas, provide accurate information, and
stress citizen participation. U.S. Geological Survey maps were used to
record a nineteen category land use classification list. Current land
use data was identified on USDA Soil Conservation Service air photographs
for the entire region. Citizen input was determined from a project no¬
tification list. Working papers and a land use task force were used to
educate the region's elected officials on land use planning. Future
land use projections were determined by calculating development ratios
for residential, commercial, and industrial land uses for each county
within the region. During the next two years, the planning staff will
continue to educate the region's citizens on land use planning by using
workshops, lecture programs, issue papers, grade school lesson plans,
and a technical information center.

TOWARD LOCAL CHURCH SELF-SUFFICIENCY

H. Ellsworth Steele
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Many United Methodist churches are small and are located in rural
areas. Often these congregations are not able to properly support a
well -trained minister. In this situation, the conferences of the church
have developed programs of salary supplementation.

As the burden of this aid has grown, the conferences have sought
ways of encouraging local self-sufficiency. The measures used include:
gentle urging, requirement of every member visitations and annual in¬
creases, limitations on the amount of aid granted or the time period
over which it may be given, publication of "welfare rolls," incentive

98

Abstracts

programs to encourage greater effort by allowing pastors to share in any
raises given, formation of multi-church circuits, consolidation of
neighboring churches, establishment of "cooperative parishes," and even
closing of the weakest units.

Another method which shows much promise in "growth situations," is
to significantly increase the supplement temporarily to attract and re¬
tain a well-qualified pastor who can expand the congregation, raise mem¬
bership giving, and place the church on a sound footing, economically as
well as spiritually.

THEORY AS A TOOL

Jerry W. DeFoor
Samford University
Birmingham, Alabama

A common complaint levied against academia is that what is taught
in the classroom does not resemble what the student will later experi¬
ence "out in the real world." The classroom should not purport to be a
trial-run of the real world. Its primary purpose is to teach the stu¬
dent how to think independently. It is disturbing how quickly the stu¬
dent will abandon his textbook knowledge on becoming a practitioner.
Apparently such a student is unable to make a connected transition be¬
tween the theoretical world of the classroom to the more complicated
world in which he will work.

Theory consists of concepts and terminology that enables us to dis¬
sect quite complex phenomena into a few rudimentary patterns of motiva¬
tion and interaction. The student should force himself to employ theory
by consciously interpreting the observable real world in terms of theory.
Theory then should be what the student knows best. The purpose of this
paper is to reexamine the role of theory in the business school class¬
room. Emphasis is placed not as much upon its pedagogical role as its
role as a kind of "standard of reference." Illustrations are drawn from
the business school curriculum, namely, Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the
theory of demand and supply, and the capital asset pricing model.

99

Abstracts

SCIENCE EDUCATION

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CONSUMABLE AND NON-CONSUMABLE
USE OF MATHEMATICS COMPUTATIONAL SKILLS MATERIAL
AT THE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL

Anne M. Kestle
Huntsville High School
Huntsville, Alabama
Jerry R. Shipman

Department of Physics & Mathematics
Alabama A&M University
Huntsville, Alabama

The purpose of the study was to determine if the use of the Indi¬
vidualized Computational Skills Program (ICSP) material by not writing
on it compared favorably with the use of the material by writing on it
in terms of student progress in computational skills.

The subjects of this study were 112 students in one teacher's
seventh grade mathematics classes at Stone Middle School, Huntsville,
Alabama, during the 1974-1975 school year. The ICSP material was used
for one-fourth to one-fifth of the total class time. One group of the
students wrote on the material (consumable use) and the other group did
not write on the material (non-consumable use). The progress, as mea¬
sured by post test scores of the two groups, was compared statistically.

Four of the null hypotheses comparing pretest and post test scores
of the two groups were accepted indicating that writing or not writing
on the computational skills material had no significant effect on stu¬
dent progress at the 5 % level of significance using the t-test. The
fifth hypothesis could not be tested using the statistical procedures
of this study because there was a significant difference at the 5 % level
between the scores of the consumable and non-consumable groups at the
beginning of the study. Both the consumable and the non-consumable
groups made almost a year's progress in computational skills during the
five months of the study, which indicates that the ICSP material is an
effective tool for teaching computational skills, and the results of
this study indicate that the material could be used non-consumably or
consumably with the expectation of equally good results.

Non-consumable
cost-effective mode

use of the ICSP material would be recommended as a
of use.

100

Abstracts

"BLAST-OFF"— AN EXCITING TOTAL INVOLVEMENT PROJECT

Loyce D. Whitson
Winston County High School
Double Springs, Alabama

An exciting and inexpensive way to motivate and involve 9th grade
physical science students in a hands-on learning experience is with the
use of model rockets.

Each student ordered the type rocket he wanted, at his own expense.
Some physics students were used as helpers but generally the work was
done by the 9th graders.

The class was divided into groups. Each group organized into a
Space Ship Company, electing a president, vice-president, secretary,
treasurer, sales manager, and production manager. Contracts were drawn
up by which the projects were evaluated. When the unit ended a panel of
judges came in to judge the displays. The displays included bulletin
boards and advertising, the finished rockets, and general organization.
Excitement was enhanced by awarding prize ribbons.

In addition to the display the final evaluation included: class
work and conduct, launching, obeying safety rules, reports on research,
and tests on vocabulary.

Among other things this project required, of the student, skills in
the following areas: reading, art, math and measurement, physical sci¬
ence, English, research, economics, and weather. The success of the
students and the pride the students took in the finished products were
certainly rewarding.

THE RED MOUNTAIN MUSEUM: A NEW EDUCATIONAL HORIZON

Trudy S. Anderson
Red Mountain Museum
Birmingham, Alabama

Breaking the skyline along Birmingham's Southeast boundary is the
Red Mountain Expressway Cut-one of the most spectacular engineering and
geological phenomena in the Southeast United States. During the Cut's
construction, approximately 190 million years of earth history were ex¬
posed containing scientific evidence from the Ordovician to the Missis-
sippian Paleozoic Periods in geologic time.

On September 15, 1977, the Red Mountain Museum was officially
opened as an educational and research facility offering a walkway along
the Cut and housing numerous exhibits pertaining to historical and
physical geology. A museum education office was formed to cooperate
with area schools in designing a comprehensive educational curriculum
for both students and the general public.

101

Abstracts

As part of the education program, a preparatory study guide has
been developed to ready prospective visitors for a museum tour through
geologic time. Training seminars and earth science workshops have been
planned in addition to audio-visual and outside speaker presentations.

A growing resource center containing geological publications and audio¬
visual materials has been made available to museum participants.

The museum educational program has been aimed primarily toward the
development of scientifically literate citizens. The major goal through¬
out the process of curriculum design, implementation, and evaluation, has
been to nurture cognitive skills as well as basic knowledge. The major¬
ity of instructional objectives reflected by the Red Mountain Museum
have best been achieved through a process approach to education with
emphasis upon a comprehensive presentation of the behaviors which char¬
acterize the understanding and use of the scientific method.

THE ZOO— TO STIMULATE PROSPECTIVE SCIENCE STUDENTS

Dan Whitson
Austin High School
Decatur, Alabama

In order to stimulate an interest in science in later school years
a program was developed to oring more science experiences to the elemen¬
tary school student.

With elementary school teachers already hard pressed with several
preparations a day and in many cases a limited background in science, an
effort was made to relieve them of some of the load and at the same time
give the students a good experience in science.

Using senior students, who had a good background in science and a
personal interest in the subject, as aides, the services and facilities
of the Austin High School science department were volunterred for the
use of the elementary teachers.

In addition to the typical laboratory equipment and apparatus, as
well as the expertise of the faculty, that was made available, an in¬
school zoo was established. An effort was made to collect and maintain
animals that were easy to maintain and worked well with students in kin¬
dergarten through senior high school. At the present the zoo includes:
amphibians (frogs, toads, and salamanders), reptiles (snakes, lizards,
and turtles), and mammals (mice, gerbils, hampsters, guinea pigs, and
rabbits) as permanent residents with various birds, fish, and inverte¬
brates added to the collection as they are available.

Benefits are already being reaped with an average of 25 elementary
classrooms visited each year, a few middle school visits, and adding
live specimens to the high school biology classes at Austin.

With a minimum amount of work great profits can be realized in
years to come by almost any high school science teacher who is willing

102

Abstracts

to do something other than complain about the lack of interest their
students exhibit.

INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION AND
TEACHING STYLE ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN
EIGHTH-GRADE SCIENCE CLASSES

Trudy S. Anderson
Red Mountain Museum
Birmingham, Alabama

The purpose of this study was to assess the existence of interac¬
tive effects of achievement motivation and teaching style with eighth-
grade academic science achievement in (1) a conforming, and (2) an in¬
dependent classroom setting. The significance of this interaction ef¬
fect was examined within the context of a total multiple regression
model including additional interrelated control and independent regres¬
sion variables.

Pretest and posttest data were collected from a criterion-refer¬
enced ISCS science achievement instrument. Achievement motivation data
were collected from the Achievement via Conformance (Ac) and the
Achievement via Independence (Ai) scales of the California Psychological
Inventory (CPI). IQ and sex were also used as independent regression
variables in the total regression model. Data collected from a Likert-
scale teacher selection questionnaire were also observed.

The major findings were: (a) Concerning the total regression
model, there was a significant relationship between the values predicted
with the model and the values observed for eighth-grade science achieve¬
ment. (b) Concerning the control variables, the science achievement
pretest and IQ accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in
the eighth-grade academic science achievement posttest, (c) Concerning
the pertinent variable, there was no statistical significance of the
variance increment added to the regression by the Ac-Ai -treatment inter¬
action variable, (d) Concerning the background variables, there was
statistical significance of the variance increment added to the regres¬
sion by the treatment variable. However, no significant relationship
existed between the remaining independent regression variables (Ac, Ai,
Ac-Ai interaction, sex, and treatment-sex interaction) and eighth-grade
academic science achievement.

PHARMACY CBE--A STRATEGY FOR RENEWAL

Wil 1 iam B. Shel 1
School of Pharmacy
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

In 1973, a review of the pharmacy needs of our society and how
these needs were being met was initiated by the Auburn University School

103

Abstracts

of Pharmacy. Societal needs in pharmacy were translated to educational
needs of the school's students. A traditional curriculum had served
well in the past, but it was found to be inadequate to meet the needs of
today's student and particularly those for the pharmacist of the future.
The school systematically analyzed the role of the pharmacist and the
projected needs of the pharmacist of the future for the performance ex¬
pected of the competent pharmacist. The classic method of competency
development was utilized to identify and validate the competencies upon
which the school would establish the reorganization of its curriculum.
Content areas were then generated from the validated competencies. The
essential concepts and subconcepts were formulated from the content.
Behavioral objectives were developed for the concepts and subconcepts
selected and sequenced in sets. These sets of behavioral objectives
were then utilized to develop sequences and relationships of the various
courses. The assessment of the competencies of the students provides
the evaluation for the student and the competency based pharmacy educa¬
tion program.

COMMUNICATION SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION THROUGH WORKSHOPS

Victor H. Gray and H. A. Henderson
Division of Agricultural Development
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama

In 1973 TVA was asked by the regional project technical committee
(S-66) to assist in solving problems in housing for rural low-income
families. They recognized a problem of communicating research informa¬
tion to decisionmakers. A communication model was adapted to include a
workshop as the transmitting device.

Thus, communicating results of research information to those who
should be using them became a major part of the new regional project
(S-95) beginning in 1973. In 1975 the Quality Housing for Rural Low-
Income Families Workshop was held in Atlanta, Georgia. At the workshop:
(1) 21 major research-oriented papers were presented, (2) 152 persons
attended, (3) six work groups, including researchers, program-oriented
personnel, and information-using specialists, produced many recommenda¬
tions for new policies and programs. Since the workshop: (1) more than
5,000 copies of the proceedings have been put to use, (2) many recommen¬
dations have been expanded into other communications activities, and (3)
a second regional workshop has been developed.

A survey of the participants was made at the conclusion of the 1975
workshop and again in the fall of 1977 to elicit participant reaction to
the workshop and its followup activities as an information disseminator.

Respondents in 1975 indicated that they: (1) "made useful contacts"
(84 percent), (2) "gained useful general information" (79 percent), and
(3) "received helpful specific information" (59 percent). The responses
to the 1977 followup survey indicate that many participants actually had
made use of the information gained and the contacts made at the first

104

Abstracts

workshop. In fact, responses to both instruments indicate a great deal
of interest in future workshops on housing for the rural poor.

An evaluation of the workshop showed that the program objective had
been met. The goals of the S-95 research group had been satisfied to
some degree. And participant goal satisfaction coincided with the over¬
all goals of the workshop.

Workshops of this type may warrant some measure of success if the
basic components of good workshop planning are adhered to. Some of
these are:

1. Assessing the needs of the participants.

2. Developing meaningful objectives.

3. Planning activities to coincide with the objectives.

4. Engaging in continuous feedback.

5. Ensuring followup activities.

THE PRESERVICE PREPARATION OF SCIENCE TEACHERS AT
THE UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA

James D. Welker
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, Alabama

The preservice science teacher education program at The University
of Alabama consists of a four-semester sequence of classroom, laboratory
and field experiences designed to acquaint the students with a variety
of skills believed to be necessary to successful teaching; to provide
the students with opportunities to develop these skills to an acceptable
level of competency, to observe these demonstrated by experienced
teachers, and to demonstrate his or her own proficiency in a classroom
setting.

The first semester of the four-semester sequence is planned to ac¬
quaint the prospective teacher with the realities of teaching. The
course is divided into four four-week blocks of time, with the students
alternating between four weeks of classroom instruction and four weeks
of observing and assisting a practicing teacher in the public school.
Specific teaching skills of questioning, positive reinforcement, class¬
room management, silence and nonverbal cues, stimulus variation, set
induction, closure, and the preparation and use of audiovisual aides are
studied in the classroom phase of the program. Students are provided
frequent opportunities to demonstrate their level of competency in the
various skills through microteaching situations. Four weeks assisting a
teacher in a junior high school, followed by four weeks assisting a
teacher in a senior high school provide opportunities to work with
secondary school students having a broad range of maturity, abilities
and interests, and to observe experienced teachers functioning in two
totally different learning environments. At the completion of the
semester each student will have decided: (1) whether he or she wishes

105

Abstracts

to pursue a career in teaching, and (2) the grade level at which he or
she wishes to teach.

It is assumed that when the students enroll in the science methods
class the decision has already been made to pursue a career in teaching;
therefore, the focus of the class is on those problems to be encountered
by beginning teachers. Questions are posed and answers to these ques¬
tions are sought through a variety of classroom activities and assign¬
ments .

Having already demonstrated an acceptable level of competency in a
variety of teaching skills, the students now focus their attention on
understanding other aspects of science teaching. Attention is given to
numerous areas of special concern to the science teacher, including les¬
son planning; designing classroom and laboratory activities; sources of
supplies and equipment, films, and free and inexpensive materials; stu¬
dent investigations and science fairs. Certain areas of concern are re¬
quired study for all members of the class; others are to be selected on
the basis of the student's particular interest or need. Observation in
the public schools, field trips and microteaching complement the more
structured classroom activities.

Questionnaires distributed to students who have followed the four-
semester sequence indicate a level of competency considerably higher
than that attained by students prior to the implementation of the pro¬
gram. There also appears to be evidence of a greater commitment to
teaching and increased self confidence as a result of participation in
the program.

A U PHYSICS DEMONSTRATION, THE EGG AND THE PIE PAN, AND
"KITCHEN" INDICATORS FOR ACIDS AND BASES

Helen C. Knight
Physics Department
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Two inexpensive and dramatic physics demonstrations are presented.
The first illustrates centripetal force by twirling a penny on a coat
hanger. The second, an impressive inertia demonstration, allows you to
"shoot" an aluminum pie pan out from under a raw egg without horizontally
displacing or cracking the egg.

The "kitchen" indicators presented in the third demonstration are
tea, red cabbage, blueberry and blackberry juice. The red cabbage and
the tea are good with both acids and bases while the berry juices are
most dramatic with bases.

106

Abstracts

SPEECH COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION: AN APPROACH TO THE
TEACHING OF AEROSPACE SCIENCE CONCEPTS

Ernest D. Riggsby and Dutchie S. Riggsby
Columbus College
Carole Rutland
Muscogee County Schools

Based upon the knowledge that students are able to listen to the
spoken word at rates considerably faster than most persons normally
speak, and upon the knowledge that there is a very wide variation in
the comfortable "listening rate" of students, this project was under¬
taken. Threg different narrators (lecturers) were utilized for the
project. A male voice speaking at a rate of 125 w.p.m., a female voice
reading at 130 w.p.m., and a second female speaking at 134 w.p.m.

Through the use of the Varispeech I speech compressor/expander, we were
able to vary the delivery rate from as slow as 63 w.p.m. to as rapid as
268 w.p.m. A full range of different speeds were used with the students
in the project. Tests to measure comprehension and retention were ap¬
plied. Students were also asked to tell the teacher when they were
"comfortable" with the speed of the materials being monitored. With no
listening training, students were able to receive, comprehend, and re¬
tain information with no losses (compared to normal speaking rate). At
speeds of up to 15% increases, students improved slightly in comprehen¬
sion. At speeds of 35% increase, students began to suffer losses in
comprehension. The equipment used in this presentation/demonstration
is the equipment which was used in the project.

SOCIAL SCIENCES

UP THE TOMBIGBEE WITH THE SPANIARDS: JUAN DE LA VILLEBEUVRE
AND THE TREATY OF BOUCFOUCA (1793)

Jack D. L. Holmes
Department of History
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

Although previous histories of Alabama have portrayed Spain as in¬
effective in blocking American expansion into the Old Southwest, the
documentary history of the land cession signed at Boucfouca (near pres¬
ent-day Jackson, Mississippi) on May 10, 1793, indicates otherwise.

With the payment of about $1,000, Spain obtained from the 26 chiefs and
captains of the Small District division of the Choctaws about 25 1/2
acres in northern Alabama. There, on the site of Old French Fort Tom-
becb£, where the Americans would subsequently build Fort York of the
British ruined fort (1764-1780), in 1794 the Spaniards built Fort Con¬
federation, named for the alliance signed at Nogales (October, 1793)

107

Abstracts

between the Spaniards and the Southeastern Indians. Juan de la Vi 11 e-
beuvre, a native of Rennes in Brittany, not only solidified the Choctaw
alliance which he had helped create during the American Revolution, but
he went on to serve as the commandant of Fort Confederation just before
its evacuation in March, 1797, in keeping with the terms of the Treaty
of San Lorenzo. For several years during critical times Spain had
checked the westward expansion of the United States, and the Tombigbee-
Tennessee dreams of westerners would have to wait almost two centuries.

THE FORK IN THE ROAD OF THE NEW SOUTH:

HENRY W. GRADY v. GEORGE W. CABLE

Edward C. Williamson f

Department of History
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Both Henry W. Grady and George W. Cable were irrepressible young
men on the make in the New South. Each in his way was a reformer, each
was most interested in changing the pattern of the South. Today, with¬
out doubt, Grady, the Atlanta Constitution editor, is the best known;
however, Cable, the New Orleans novelist, is more in step with todays'
times.

The approach for change of Grady was primarily economic with diver¬
sification and industrialization replacing King Cotton. The American
Creed was modified by a Southern Creed whereby with the inherent in¬
feriority of the blacks there was a need for white supremacy. At the
same time Grady stated that it was impossible for the people of the
South to get along without the blacks. Northerners were to understand,
according to the Atlanta editor that Southerners while revering the Lost
Cause, were very much on the outlook for Northern capital and factory
sites.

George Washington Cable maintained that he spoke for "a silent but
intelligent majority of the Southern people, whose views were not repre¬
sented by newspapers and politicians, yet who could be expected to act
fairly and justly if given the chance." Class rule to him was un-
American. He rebutted Grady's contention that neither race wanted civil
rights by the assertion that the blacks had been praying for twenty
years for them. The views of Cable would largely be accepted in the
South following the Civil Rights Revolt of the 1 960 ' s .

REASONS FOR RAPPROCHEMENT AND REACTION: A LOOK AT JAY'S TREATY

David B. Franklin
Department of History
University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa
University, Alabama

John Jay's mission to Great Britain in 1794 was a curious one.
Federalists, such as he and Alexander Hamilton, feared war with England

108

Abstracts

and were anxious to ease deteriorating relations with the mother country.
War, they knew, would mean the total collapse of Hamilton's financial
system. Certainly a negotiating table seemed more desirous than a bat¬
tleground in settling a fledgling nation's major grievances with a domi¬
nant world power. Jay's Treaty succeeded in that it brought a temporary
peace. Many Americans, however, felt the price was too high. Upon ex¬
amining the treaty, one finds that the concessions to the British far
outweighed those made to the Americans. The reasons are not difficult
to discern.

From the British standpoint. Jay was an excellent choice as chief
negotiator. Not only was he easy to manipulate, but his bargaining
positions were unknowingly undermined by the actual architect of the
treaty, Hamilton. The latter's confidential relationship with the
British minister, George Hammond, was responsible for this fact. For
example, Hamilton made it clear that under no political conditions would
the United States’ entry into the League of Armed Neutrality aimed
against Britain be expedient. As such, some Americans saw the treaty as
a trap artfully designed by the British and impudently accepted by Jay,
who strove to be as accommodating as possible by seeking only peace. At
the end of the negotiations. Jay wrote, "... may the hatchet be hence¬
forth buried for ever, and with it all the animosities which sharpened,
and which threatened to redden it." If he thought this to be the out¬
come of his efforts, the year 1812 was a staggering disappointment.

JEWISH LIFE IN EARLY MIAMI 1896-1906

Marsha Kass Marks
Department of History
Alabama A. and M. University
Normal, Alabama

A study of the beginnings of Jewish life in Miami is especially
important because there are few, if any, instances among other American
cities where Jewish people were present at the incorporation of a com¬
munity and pioneered in its growth and development. Miami's modern or
incorporated era began in 1896 with the coming of the Florida East Coast
Railroad. Although few in number (originally 12, in 1896) and faced
with life in a rough frontier community, early Jewish pioneers of the
area always tried to maintain religious services. By 1899 only three of
the original Jewish pioneers remained--Mrs. Frank, Isidor Cohen and
Jacob Schneidman. Jewish people of Miami suffered little disadvantage
because of their religion during the first ten years of Miami's history.
Although there were as many as twenty-two Jews in the community during
Miami's early days, only one was to participate actively in local civic
and political affairs. Isidor Cohen projected himself into local poli¬
tics immediately after his arrival in Miami. Civic affairs played an
increasingly important part in his life, especially after 1903. By the
time of his death in 1951 he had been secretary of the first Community
Chest, secretary of the American Red Cross, a member of the State Demo¬
cratic Executive Committee and a member of the charter board that drew
up the city manager form of government used by Miami for many years. In

109

Abstracts

addition, he was one of the organizers of Temple Beth David, oldest
Jewish congregation in the Miami area. Isidor Cohen, for many, Jew and
non-Jew, became "the" Jew of early Miami. However, it was during the
second decade of the century that the Jewish population of Miami began
to grow. The initial stage of Jewish development was consummated.

LEGISLATOR PERCEPTION OF EDUCATIONAL NEEDS
AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY MAKING

Emily A. Melvin

Department of Secondary Education
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

A major purpose of this study was to determine what perceptions
Virginia legislators had regarding educational needs and educational
policy making in the Commonwealth of Virginia. A second purpose of this
study was to determine whether regional differences existed in the Com¬
monwealth of Virginia with respect to legislator perceptions regarding
educational needs and educational policy making. A third purpose of
this study was to determine if legislator biographical variables and
legislator congressional district domicile group demographic variables
correlated with legislator responses regarding their perceptions.

The population investigated in this study was the membership of the
1975 Virginia General Assembly. All senators and delegates were included
as subjects. The number of useable responses was 103, or 74 percent of
the population. For purposes of determining whether differences existed
in legislator perception on a regional basis, these legislator respond¬
ents were assigned to groups according to their residency in the ten U.S.
Congressional Districts in Virginia. Two procedures were used in col¬
lecting data for this study. Through the use of the survey, data were
collected regarding legislator perceptions of educational needs and edu¬
cational policy making. Additional information regarding legislator
biographical variables and legislator congressional district domicile
group demographic variables was collected through the use of state and
federal public documents.

The data were analyzed in two different ways. Findings with respect
to individual legislator perception and perceptions were reported de¬
scriptively in terms of response to all items on the questionnaire. Ad¬
ditionally, correlations between legislator questionnaire responses and
a selection of biographical and demographical variables were reported.

The alpha level selected for determination of statistical significance
was p = <.05.

No great differences in legislator response, in general, existed
with respect to most of the perceptions regarding educational needs and
educational policy making. While legislators perceived educational
needs of the Commonwealth to be of a major priority and while they con¬
sidered themselves to have as much educational experties as other legis¬
lators, most did not reply to the question regarding a solution which

110

Abstracts

would best satisfy the educational needs of the Commonwealth. Addi¬
tionally, the legislators were satisfied to maintain taxes as they were
for educational needs.

Response variance among Congressional District groups was not emi¬
nent. Those perceptions having the most significant response difference
among district groups were related to legislator opinions regarding a
choice of solutions which would satisfy most educational needs of the
Commonwealth; educational expertise of constituents when compared to ed¬
ucational expertise of legislators; the engagement of Virginia public
school teachers in collective bargaining procedures; the value of the
Standards of Quality in helping improve education in home districts;
educational lobby effectiveness; and educational lobby influence on the
accuracy of legislator opinion regarding educational needs.

Of the twenty legislator perceptions investigated, ten were signif¬
icantly related to at least one of the selected biographical/demographic
variables employed in the study. The variable of respondent age had a
statistically significant positive relationship with the legislator per¬
ceptions of agreement with party position; constituent educational ex¬
pertise; the value of the Standards of Quality; and educational lobby
influence on legislator needs perceptions. The variable of respondent
education level had a statistically significant positive relationship
with the legislator perceptions of personal educational expertise, and
the degree of Commonwealth taxation for education. This variable had a
statistically significant negative relationship with the perception of
constituent educational expertise. The district degree of urbanization
had a statistically significant negative relationship with the legisla¬
tor perception of educational expertise of Education Committee members.
No apparent pattern was noted among the significant correlations.

The findings of this study may be utilized by a variety of people.
Educational planners at the state level, for example, might use them as
guidelines in their dealings with General Assembly members. Planners
could explore with the legislators the topic of why a majority of the
study respondents did not select any solution offered on the question¬
naire to satisfy most of the state's educational needs. Additionally,
lobbyists might employ findings related to the amount of legislator re¬
gard for Education Committee member expertise reported by the respond¬
ents. Constituent-parents might use data related to fiscal issues and
teachers might use data related to the collective bargaining issue to
generate discussion with legislators, especially during election periods.
Legislators, themselves, might use this data in determining budgetary
policies and party strategies.

Ill

Abstracts

THE AMERICAN PRESS AND THE JAPANESE SUBJUGATION
OF KOREA 1894-1905

Henry S. Marks
Department of History
Northeast State Junior College
Rainsville, Alabama

During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 Japan took control of
Korea, formally annexing her on August 22, 1910. She did not relinquish
control until forced to at the conclusion of the Second World War in
1945. But the United States had both the most extensive holdings and
the most nationals of any western government in Korea for a ten-year
period before the Russo-Japaness War. In addition, the United States
was instrumental in maintaining Korean independence during this period.
The American government, however, was not interested in exploiting this
advantage for a number of reasons.

The American people generally pride themselves on being well-in¬
formed on international matters. Unfortunately, the American public
was completely unaware of the situation in Korea from 1894 to 1905.

They knew only that Korea was involved in two wars: the Sino-Japanese
War of 1894 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. They did not know
why these conflicts had occurred, who were the aggressor nations, or the
extent of America's involvement in Korea. There are two reasons why the
American people were unaware--the complete failure of the American press
to perceive the economic, political and social life of the East, and the
pro-Japanese bias of the presidential administrations from the opening
of Japan in 1853 untilthe final phases of the Russo-Japanese War, cou¬
pled with the United States State Department's repression of both
printed and oral expressions by American nationals in Korea and the De¬
partment's representatives at its Seoul legation. But the reason the
American people were not aware of the situation in Korea is primarily
the responsibility of the American press, for this press molded and set
American public opinion.

THE FAILURE OF CONCILIATORY DIPLOMACY: A SURVEY OF THE CAREER
OF DON BERNARDINO DE MENDOZA IN ENGLAND

Ellen A. Evans
Department of History
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

In 1570 Pope Pius V excommunicated Queen Elizabeth of England and
began urging the undertaking of the "Enterprise of England." By this
scheme Catholic forces would invade England, placing the Catholic Mary
Stuart on the throne. The pope looked to Philip II of Spain, the most
powerful of his coreligionists in terms of influence and resources, as
the natural leader of such an invasion. Philip, however, plagued by
rebellion in the Netherlands and fearful of French domination in England
should Mary become queen, withstood papal pressure until 1588. In the

112

Abstracts

meanwhile, he made serious attempts to keep peace with England, the
last of which was the reopening of the Spanish embassy in London (1578)
with Don Bernardino de Mendoza as resident ambassador. Though Mendoza's
initial instructions were to placate Elizabeth, by 1581 he was conspir¬
ing against her with disaffected English and Scottish Catholics. In
1584 Mendoza was expelled from England for complicity in the Throgmorton
conspiracy. The post he vacated was not filled again until after Phil¬
ip's death. This study recounts Mendoza's mission in England, focusing
on the causes of the abandonment of conciliation and tracing the growth
of the Throgmorton plot.

HEALTH SCIENCES

ALTERATIONS IN PIG PLATELETS AFTER A SHOCK-INDUCING PROCEDURE

Gesina L. Longenecker and Thomas M. Glenn
Department of Pharmacology
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

Blood platelets are thought to be involved in much of the tissue
damage in shock, or low flow, states. The involvement may occur for
several reasons: (1) platelets release a number of vasoactive com¬
pounds (e.g. serotonin, prostaglandins (PG), endoperoxides (EP), and
thromboxanes (Tx)) which may contribute to continuance of low flow by
virtue of vasoconstriction, and (2) platelets may respond to other com¬
pounds or exposed surfaces with formation of aggregates, which can then
lodge in the microcirculation of, e.g., lung, and thus promote continu¬
ance of low flow and its damage. We have thus examined the aggregation
responses of platelets from splanchnic artery occlusion shock pigs and
compared them with responses from sham shocked pigs.

Platelet rich plasma (PRP) was prepared from freshly drawn citrated
whole pig blood by low speed (500 rpm) room temperature centrifugation
for 15 minutes. After removal of the PRP, the plasma was again centri¬
fuged (5000 rpm, room temperature, 45 minutes) to prepare platelet poor
plasma. Response of the platelets to stimuli was followed by recording
light transmission changes with time (aggregometry) , using a Payton dual
channel instrument (PRP = 0%, PPP = 100%). Stimulation by ADP, added in
5 pi to a 500 pi PRP sample, was determined at multiple ADP concentra¬
tions, and the maximum response and initial slope of the aggregation
curve calculated as percent of pre-treatment control for each animal at
each concentration; the data were averaged within groups.

We find that there is no significant difference between platelet
responses in the sham shocked animals, for either maximums or initial
slopes. However, there are definite decreases in both for the true
shock animals. These decreases were significant at the P <. .05 level

113

Abstracts

for 5, 2.5, and 1.25 pM ADP for the maximum, and for 100, 2.5 and 1.25
pM ADP for initial slope. There were no significant differences in the
number of circulating platelets, or size, for either group. Decreases
in reactivity may be the result of prior exposure to stimulating agents,
rendering the platelets relatively non-reactive for a period of time.

The discrepancy between our data and that of others who report increases
in reactivity may be due to differences in time of sampling after re¬
lease of the occlusion, which here was very early (15 minutes), and
also to utilization of different species. Similar explanation for the
lack of decrease in numbers of platelets is also given.

THE DIFFERENCE IN PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
BETWEEN ARM AND LEG EXERCISE

James W. Hawk
Department of Physics
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

Measurements of heart rate (HR), oxygen utilization (VO2), and car¬
bon dioxide production (VCO2) as a function of load were made on seven
normal physical education graduate students during both arm and leg ex¬
ercise. The mean values of these metabolic parameters plus the respira¬
tory quotient (RQ = VCO2/VO2) and the oxygen pulse (OP = VO2/HR) are
presented in tabular and graphical form to show how the metabolic de¬
mands of arm exercise increase much more rapidly than the metabolic de¬
mands of leg exercise. However, the fact that all these metabolic pa¬
rameters plateau for arm exercise at maxima which are well below the
maxima for leg exercise indicates that arm exercise alone does not fully
utilize the cardiopulmonary capacity of the body. It is speculated that
there is some critical muscle mass, greater than the mass of the upper
torso muscles brought into play during arm exercise alone, which must be
utilized in order to fully tax the cardiopulmonary capacity of a normal,
healthy individual. (D. Boatwright, B. Carr, S. Dodd, E. Roberts, C.
Rosemond, and K. Winther cooperated in the data collection and analysis.)

NERVE FIBER SIZE SPECTRUM AND ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY
IN THE BRAINSTEM AUDITORY PATHWAY

Chi-ming Huang
Department of Physiology
College of Medicine
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

Fiber diameter distribution of the trapezoid body (TB) in the rat
was studied. Brainstem tissues were fixed with 1% formaldehyde and
1.25% glutaraldehyde and subsequently with 4% formaldehyde and 5% glu-
taraldehyde and embedded in EPON. Semi-thin sections of 1 micron thick¬
ness were stained with toluidine blue and examined under light micro¬
scope. Recordings of single neurons were also carried out in the

114

Abstracts

cochlear nucleus (CN) and the superior olivary complex (SOC). Results
are (1) The fiber size spectrum of TB was bimodal . (2) TB was organized

into 3 layers, a. ventral small fiber layer, b. intermediate mixed
fiber layer, and c. dorsal small fiber layer. (3) Short-latency single
cells in the CN and SOC were recorded but the latency distribution did
not appear to be bimodal. The implications of these results will be
discussed.

ANTIEPILEPSY DRUGS: INTERACTIONS WITH BRAIN CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDES

Gene C. Palmer and S. Jo Palmer
Department of Pharmacology
University of South Alabama College of Medicine
Mobile, Alabama

Adenylate cyclase functions as a postsynaptic receptor within the
central nervous system and may be involved in the mediation of specific
types of neurotransmission- and depolarization-induced events. This
suggests a relationship between the enzyme and the relative instability
seen with respect to neurons within epileptogenic foci. The investiga¬
tion was designed to determine whether different classes of antiepilepsy
drugs might act via a common molecular pathway to influence the adeny¬
late cyclase-cyclic AMP system within the brain. Two approaches were
employed. The first utilized incubated tissue slices of the cerebral
cortex in vitro to test the action of the drugs on cyclic AMP accumula¬
tion elicited by norepinephrine, adenosine, ouabain and KC1 . In this
study carbamazepi ne > phenobarbi tal > phenytoin toward the action of
norepinephrine, while phenobarbi tal > carbamazepine > phenytoin acted to
inhibit the adenosine response. Similarly, the effects of ouabain were
antagonized by carbamazepine, phenytoin > clonazepam > phenobarbital .

The action of KC1 was not inhibited by the drugs. Diazepam and clonaze¬
pam elevated basal levels of cyclic AMP. The second study involved pre¬
injections of the anticonvulsants followed by administration of a con-
vulsant agent (pentylenetetrazol) 1 hr. later, with sacrifice occuring
within 5 min. thereafter using focussed microwave irradiation, and ulti¬
mate measurement of brain cyclic AMP content. Injections of pentylene¬
tetrazol alone increased the steady-state content of cyclic AMP in the
cerebral cortex and the cerebellum. Preinjection of the anticonvulsants
prevented for the most part both the convulsant action of and the eleva¬
tion of cyclic AMP by pentylenetetrazol. (Supported by a grant from the
Epilepsy Foundation of America.)

THE EFFECTS OF TACTILE STIMULATION ON MUSCLE
RELAXATION IN THE IRRITABLE NEONATE

Joan Burttram and Nancy Robinson
School of Nursing
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama

The primary and most fundamental method of human communication oc¬
curs through some form of touch. Tactile experiences initially shape

115

Abstracts

the neonate's perceptions of the world around him. Furthermore, the
individual's early experiences with touch affect his later growth and
development. Denial of tactile stimulation can impair the infant's
future ability for learning, intimacy, and affection.

The element of touch is a critical experience in alleviating pain
and discomfort of the neonate. Manual massage can be utilized to
achieve relaxation of the voluntary muscles. Unfortunately, many care¬
takers seek to relieve their infant's discomfort through mechanical
means, i.e., the pacifier, without first employing methods that incor¬
porate tactile stimuli. The purpose of the study was to determine the
effects of tactile stimulation on muscle relaxation in the irritable
neonate.

A sample of twenty neonates, each serving as his own control, were
utilized in two research sessions. The intervention session consisted
of tactile stimulation (massage) while the non-intervention session con¬
sisted of observation only. The infant's relaxation state was directly
correlated with changes in muscular activity. The change in muscular
activity was denoted by an increase or decrease in action potentials of
the neonate's frontalis muscle. The action potentials were measured by
electromyograph recordings.

The findings of the research sessions were compared statistically
by a two-tailed t-test for matched pairs. The results supported the
idea that tactile stimulation can achieve muscle relaxation in the ir¬
ritable neonate. The study, therefore, discloses that touch can be an
effective means of soothing irritable infants.

STUDIES OF NEUROACTIVE AGENTS BY ANALYSIS
OF THE ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM

Larry J. Bearden, G. Vernon Pegram, and 0. Carter Snead
Neurosciences Program and Department of Pediatrics
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

Many studies have described methods for extracting data from the
EEG of experimental subjects. This report describes an analytical
method and some typical results obtained from its application to studies
of the effects of a convulsant (y-hydroxybutyric acid), and anticonvul¬
sant (clonazepam) and an endogenous hallucinogen (N,N‘ -dimethyl trypta-
mine) on the EEG of laboratory animals. The EEG from rodents implanted
with unipolar cortical electrodes was amplified, recorded graphically
and passed into a zero crossing detector. Such preprocessing permitted
a digital frequency band analysis to be performed on-line by a minicom¬
puter. Frequency band analysis data was output from the minicomputer on
paper tape and then formatted and plotted through the use of a program¬
mable calculator interfaced with an X-Y plotter.

Rats given y-hydroxybutyrate (300 pg/g, i.p.) were found to exhibit
increased electrical activity in the 2-5 Hz band. This increase in 2-5

116

Abstracts

Hz activity could be observed within five minutes after administering
the convulsant, and reached maximum intensity within an additional 10
minutes. This increased low frequency activity induced by y-hydroxy-
butyrate was antagonized by clonazepam (1 pg/g, i.p.). When mice were
given 0, 10 or 20 pg dimethyl tryptamine/g i.p., there was no detectable
abnormal shift in the EEG frequency bands studied (i.e. the 0.5-2 Hz,

2-5 Hz, 5-8 Hz, 8-12 Hz, 12-15 Hz, 15-25 Hz). However, peaks in the 5-8
Hz band were found to coincide with episodes of rapid eye movement sleep.
Dimethyl tryptami ne (at 20 pg/g) produced a generalized alerting effect
in mice. The frequency band analysis utilized seems to offer the advan¬
tages of simplicity and speed for studies of the time course effects of
neuroactive agents on the EEG.

SUPPRESSION OF AMPHETAMINE-INDUCED CIRCLING
IN RATS WITH SUBSTANTIA-NIGRAL LESIONS

Robert H. Bradley and John M. Beaton
Neurosciences Program

Departments of Pharmacology and Psychiatry
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

It has been shown that following unilateral lesions of the sub¬
stantia nigra, rats will turn to the side of the lesion when they are
given amphetamine. One of the ways in which amphetamine acts is by re¬
leasing pre-synaptic stores of dopamine and norepinephrine. L-valine
has been reported to block the hypothermic response of rats given am¬
phetamine and placed in a 4°C environment. The present study was car¬
ried out to study the effects of L-valine on rats with unilateral sub¬
stantia nigral lesions and administered various doses of amphetamine.
Adult, male Long-Evans rats were anesthetized and placed in a rat ster¬
eotaxic and electrolytical ly lesioned in the right substantia nigra.
After recovering from surgery the rats were tested with amphetamine at
2, 4 or 6 mg/kg either singly or 30 minutes after 250 mg/kg L-valine.

The number of turns, to the left or right, made during one minute were
recorded at 0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes after the administration of
amphetamine. Amphetamine induced marked turning to the side of the
lesion, which was suppressed by the pre-treatment with L-valine. The
mode of action of this suppression is thought to be via the lowering of
brain tyrosine levels.

This study was supported in part by funds from the Alabama Consumer

Fund.

117

Abstracts

EFFECTS OF RAPHE LESIONS ON CONDITIONED AVERSIONS IN THE RAT

Michael F. Callahan, Ralph Dawson, Jr., and Joan Lorden
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

If an animal becomes ill following the ingestion of a novel sub¬
stance, intake of that substance will be diminished on subsequent pres¬
entations. This phenomenon is known as conditioned taste aversion
(CTA). Lesions in many areas of the brain have been shown to impair CTA
learning. Recently, however, research has suggested that electrolytic
and chemical ( 5, 7-di hydroxy try ptamine) lesions in the area of the raphe
nuclei which result in substantial depletions of forebrain serotonin en¬
hance the learned suppression of drinking a novel fluid paired with
toxicosis. Many drugs can be used to produce CTA's. Enhancement of CTA
learning by serotonin depletion has been investigated only with lithium
chloride as the aversion-inducing agent. The generality of the effect
has not been studied.

The experiment reported here examined the effects of midbrain raphe
lesions on the development of CTA's induced by injections of fenflura¬
mine, an anorexic agent which has been shown to be effective in the CTA
paradigm. Previous research has demonstrated that fenfluramine can
cause damage to midbrain raphe neurons and that the anorexic properties
of the compound depend on the integrity of these midbrain serotonergic
neurons. It is possible that the effectiveness of fenfluramine in the
CTA paradigm is due to its action on central serotonergic neurons. If
so, raphe lesions would be expected to impair rather than enhance fen¬
fluramine induced CTA's. The data from this experiment show that lesions
of the raphe nuclei, which deplete telencephal ic serotonin, enhance CTA's
produced by fenfluramine. This suggests that while serotonergic mechan¬
isms may play a role in the development of CTA's induced by fenfluramine,
these mechanisms are not necessary for the development of taste aversions
induced by either lithium chloride or fenfluramine.

EFFECTS OF MIDBRAIN LESIONS ON THE NICOTINIC
ACETYLCHOLINE RECEPTOR IN RAT BRAIN

Ralph Dawson, Jr., Michael Callahan,

Barbara J. Morley, and Joan F. Lorden
Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Program
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

The snake venom protein «-bungarotoxin binds with specificity and
high affinity to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) of striated
muscle, the electric organ of certain fish, and mammalian brain. 1 25 j
tagged ^-bungarotoxin was used to evaluate the effects of midbrain les¬
ions on nAChR concentrations in rat brain. In the periphery, denerva¬
tion has been shown to cause large increases in extrajunctional receptor
concentrations. Previous experiments have failed to detect lesion

118

Abstracts

induced increases in muscarinic cholinergic receptor binding in brain.
This was the first attempt to evaluate the effects of central nervous
system lesions on nAChR concentration in brain. It was found that les¬
ions in the area of the raphe nuclei produced an increase in nAChR con¬
centration in the olfactory bulbs. The increase in olfactory bulb
nAChR after midbrain lesions implies a direct cholinergic projection
from the midbrain to the olfactory bulbs. Previous anatomical investi¬
gations utilizing autoradiography and horseradish peroxidase histo¬
chemistry have demonstrated direct projections from the dorsal raphe
nucleus to the olfactory bulbs. These projections were assumed to be
serotonergic, based on the high concentration of serotonergic cell bod¬
ies in the dorsal raphe. The dorsal raphe does, however, show light
staining for acetylcholinesterase. The increased nAChR concentration
in the olfactory bulbs due to midbrain lesions suggest that perhaps some
of these projections from the dorsal raphe are cholinergic rather than
serotonergic. No comparable increases in nAChR concentrations were
found in other brain areas examined. These included the hypothalamus,
hippocampus, and cortex, regions known to receive serotonergic projec¬
tions from the raphe nuclei.

THE ROLE OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS IN THE SUBSTRATE-INHIBITOR
SPECIFICITIES OF THE MULTIPLE FORMS OF
MONOAMINE OXIDASE

Rosa H. Huang

Department of Biochemistry
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama 36688

Substrate-inhibitor specificities of the multiple forms of monoamine
oxidase (MAO) may depend in part on the chemical structure of the bound
membrane lipids. Treatment of the enzyme(s), both MAO-membrane and puri¬
fied MAO-A type preparations, with phospholipase A from Naja naja venom
removed almost all phosphatides with concomitant loss of both MAO-A and
MAO-B type activities at three different assaying temperatures. Diges¬
tion with phospholipase C from Cl. Wei chi i attached mainly on phospha¬
tidylcholine, sphingomyelin and phosphatidylethanolamine but none of
phosphatidylserine or cardiolipin. MAO-A type activity was almost
abolished whereas MAO-B type activity was greatly enhanced by phospho¬
lipase C treatment. On the other hand, digestion with phospholipase D
from cabbage hydrolyzed phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine
and phosphatidylserine. MAO-B activity was depressed and MAO-A activity
was stimulated moderately. It was concluded that phosphatidylserine
and cardiolipin are required for MAO-B enzyme, whereas sphingomyelin but
not phosphatidylserine is specific to MAO-A enzyme. Phosphatidychol ine
and phosphatidylethanolamine were found to have little or no effect.

119

Abstracts

ACARDIA, ANENCEPHALY , AND OTHER DEFECTS IN A HUMAN FETUS
James W. Ward

Department of Pharmacology
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama 36688

A case of an acardius acephalus fetus is reported. One digit is
absent from each hand. Two digits are lacking from the right foot and
one from the left foot. The thoracic viscera are absent. The aorata
bifurcates into two innominate arteries, each of which gives rise to a
carotid artery and a subclavian artery. The divisions of the alimentary
canal and other abdominal organs are grossly identifiable except the
liver, pancreas, and spleen. The entire spinal cord and a short cepha¬
lic extension of the cervical cord designated as "the medulla" represent
the brain. The brachial plexus and the lumbar plexus appear normal.
Microscopically, some of the tracts and nuclei are present in the cord.
The "medulla" lacks recognizable areas. Although clumps of cells and
strands of fibers are evident, there is no organized pattern. Micro¬
scopic structures of all tissues appear to be normal except some of the
nerve tissue.

NICHE— A COMMUNITY SERVICE FOCUSED ON
HEALTH AND HEALTH EDUCATION

Ann Sirles
School of Nursing

University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

NICHE— Nurses Involved in the Community for Health Evaluation and
Education— is a health facility jointly sponsored by the University of
Alabama School of Nursing at UAB and two churches in a suburban commun¬
ity south of Birmingham for the purpose of providing that community
with an alternative in health care.

Nursing clinics are not new— what is new is for these services to
be offered to an upper middle income population who utilize private med¬
ical care for health care.

Health care as practiced and defined by NICHE is: health evalua¬
tion and health education to guide the individual and the family in
maintaining their highest degree of physical and emotional well being,
and the early detection of medical problems with prompt consultation and
referral .

NICHE is staffed by nurses educationally prepared to provide health
care in ambulatory settings. Services include a comprehensive family
history, selected laboratory tests, hearing and vision screening, and
physical examination. Problems are identified, appropriate counseling
is done and management is mutally planned by the client and the nurse.

120

Abstracts

Concerns about success of the NICHE project centered around: 1)
patient acceptance, 2) quality of care, and 3) maintenance of the pa¬
tient/doctor relationship.

NICHE is providing a dimension of health care which this population
has not received from other sources. The question yet to be answered
is, "Does the service NICHE provides make a difference in the health
status of the individuals and families who utilize this alternative?"

THE PELLAGRA STORY IN ALABAMA

Emmett B. Carmichael
Professor Emeritus of Biochemistry
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

The story of pellagra in the United States began at the Mount Ver¬
non Hospital which was a branch of the Bryce Hospital for the mentally
ill at Tuscaloosa. Dr. George H. Searcy observed an epidemic of pel¬
lagra in 1906 in his ward which contained 88 patients. As soon as he
determined the nature of the disease he took all of them off a diet of
corn bread and grits and substituted white bread and potatoes.

Then Dr. Searcy put eight patients on the original diet which had
produced pellagra. One of the patients developed pellagra and the other
seven patients were in such poor health that he changed their diets.

This was the first experimental production of pellagra. None of the
nurses had pellagra since their diets were different from the diets
given to the original patients. The results were published in Trans.
Med. Assn. State of Ala. 1907. The complete paper was also published
in the J. Am. Med. Assn. July 6, 1907.

The Federal Government conducted a lawsuit against the Coca Cola
Company for adding caffeine to their syrup at Chattanooga, Tennessee in
1911. Dr. H. W. Wiley, Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, was the leader
in the suit. The federal government had ten scientists who testified
that Coca Cola was harmful while the company had fifteen nationally
recognized chemists and biological scientists who were for the defense.
Judge E. T. Sanford was in charge of the federal court. The company won
and the judge advised that in the future the government should be cer¬
tain of evidence. It is the thesis of this author that the Coca Cola
trial had a definite bearing on the pellagra story.

The U.S. Public Health Service took the advice of Judge Sanford.

Dr. Joseph Goldberger earned the M.D. degree at Bellevue Hospital Medi¬
cal College in 1895 and joined the USPHS in 1899. Goldberger planned
studies on pellagra so that he would not fail to obtain results similar
to those of Searcy. Goldberger obtained permission to experiment on
convicts at the Mississippi Penitentiary Farm just east of Jackson,
which was located at approximately the same latitude and longitude as
is Mount Vernon. He fed eleven convicts on a diet of corn bread, wheat
flour, rice, pork fat with some green vegetables and sweet potatoes from

121

Abstracts

4 February to 1 November 1915. Six of the convicts developed pellagra
while the controls on a different diet showed no signs of pellagra. He
reported that the diet had a controlling influence on the prevention and
causation of pellagra. In other words, Goldberger had confirmed Searcy's
experimental production of pellagra. Goldberger continued to report on
pellagra studies for the next twenty years but never referred in print
to Searcy's publications. Also, USPHS investigators avoided mentioning
Searcy in their published reports. Since Goldberger and his associates
did confirm Searcy's research on pellagra but did not discover any new
information, the Goldberger Award which was established by the AMA in
1949, and is controlled by the AMA, seems to have a bit of tarnish on it
when the above facts are evaluated. If the award is continued, it seems
logical to change the name to the Searcy-Goldberger Award.

RECOVERY FROM SUBCUTANEOUS HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS TYPE 2
INFECTION FOLLOWING PASSIVE TRANSFER OF
SPECIFIC ANTIBODY

John E. Oakes and H. Rosemond-Hornbeak
Department of Microbiology/Immunology
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

Young adult mice infected with 3 * 106 pfu of herpes simplex virus
type 2 (HSV-2) died within 9-12 days following spread of virus from
sites of infection to the spinal cord and brain. Administration of
HSV-2 neutralizing antisera prepared in syngeneic mice, or in rabbits,
inhibited spread of virus from the footpad of infected animals and pre¬
vented death. A single intraperi toneal inoculum of antiserum (virus
neutralizing titer of 1:128) was effective in protecting mice when given
8 hours after virus inoculation. If the mice were given a sublethal
dose of irradiation (390 R) 24 hrs. before antibody transfer, protection
was no longer obtained. This suggested that the mechanism of protection
probably was not solely due to in vivo neutralization of virus, but re¬
quired the participation of a radio-sensitive component which has not
yet been defined.

SPECIFIC CYTOTOXICITY OF HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS TYPE 1 -SENSITIZED
LYMPH NODE CELLS FOR VIRUS-INFECTED CELLS

Kathleen A. Hay
Department of Microbiology

The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine
Hershey, Pennsylvania
Robert N. Lausch

Department of Microbiology/Immunology
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

Immunization of hamsters with rabbit kidney-grown herpes simplex
virus type 1 (HSV-1) resulted in the generation of lymphocytes from

122

Abstracts

draining lymph nodes that were cytotoxic for HSV-1 -i nfected syngeneic
hamster embryo fibroblasts (HEF) in an 18-hour but not a 6-hour Slchrom-
ium releast test. This cytotoxic activity was virus-specific since the
HSV-1 -immune effector cells did not react with uninfected HEF or HEF in¬
fected with vaccinia virus. The latter were readily lysed by homologous
immune cells. Histocompatibility between target cells and effector
cells was not obligatory as significant cytotoxicity was also observed
against allogeneic and xenogeneic HSV-l-infected target cells. The ef¬
fector cells did not appear to be adherent cells since passage through
a nylon wool column did not diminish kill. However, treatment of the
immune lymphocytes with rabbit anti-hamster gamma globulin serum plus
complement or inclusion of cyclohexamide in the incubation medium de¬
creased or abolished cytotoxic reactivity. The results suggest that the
mechanism of killing was principally that of antibody-dependent cellular
cytoxic ity.

TREATMENT OF HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS ENCEPHALITIS IN MICE
WITH 5-ETHYL-2- DEOX YURI DINE

William B. Davis, John E. Oakes, and John A. Taylor
Department of Microbiology/Immunology
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

Studies on the antiviral activity of the thymidine analog 5-ethyl-
2-deoxyuridine (5-EDU) showed that the drug is virostatic for herpes
simplex virus (HSV) types 1 and 2. The concentration of 5-EDU which
gave 50% inhibition of plaque formation in Vero cells was in the range
of 6 and 9 pg/ml for HSV-1 and HSV-2 respectively. The compound was
not toxic for cells since at levels 14 fold in excess of the ED50 for
HSV-2 inhibition of Vero cell division was not observed.

In vivo work showed that following subcutaneous infection 5-EDU was
effective in significantly increasing survival rates of HSV-2 nonimmuno-
suppressed SJL mice (60%) and mean survival times (4.8 days) for immuno-
suppressed animals. Determination of the level of virus in the central
nervous system tissue of infected drug-treated animals showed that in
the nonimmunosuppressed group virus was not present. Immunosuppressed
animals treated with 5-EDU had virus present in the sciatic nerve,
spinal cord, and brain but at significantly lower levels than untreated
controls.

These results indicate that 5-EDU may be considered as a potential
agent for treatment of systemic herpesvirus infection in humans; how¬
ever, an uncompromised host defense mechanism must be present for mani¬
festation of its full antiviral activity.

123

Abstracts

IN VITRO SYNTHESIS OF MAMMALIAN MESSENGER RNA
David Laycock

Department of Biochemistry
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama 36688

An in vitro RNA synthesizing system has been developed in which the
template chromatin has no detected endogenous RNA polymerizing enzymes
and/or RNA fragments which fulfill criteria of an eukaryotic messenger
RNA. The endogenous RNA polymerizing enzymes and nascent RNA have been
removed from the rabbit marrow chromatin by treatment of purified chrom¬
atin solutions with buffered urea/guanidine hydrochloride. This treat¬
ment does not appear to affect the sizes of the relative amounts of the
transcribed RNA products as determined by sucrose density gradient
centrifugation. De novo transcript RNA can stimulate amino acid poly¬
merization in the wheat germ in vitro protein synthesis system, and the
kinetics of this activity suggest a requirement for post-transcriptional
modification. A lag in the rate of amino acid polymerization is ob¬
served when the transcript RNA is translated. By contrast no lag is
observed in the translation rate of cytoplasmic mRNA. (Supported by NIH
grant GM-21243 and by intramural funds from the College of Medicine,
University of South Alabama.)

STEROID INHIBITION OF CAT PANCREATIC
cAMP PHOSPHODIESTERASE ACTIVITY

Yumi Sakane and Thomas M. Glenn
Department of Pharmacology
College of Medicine
Univeristy of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama 36688

Cellular changes in the pancreas play an important role in the
pathophysiology of shock or low flow state. Since steroid administra¬
tion increases survival time in shocked animals and maintains cyclic AMP
(cAMP) levels in the ischemic pancreas, the inhibitory effect of steroids
on cAMP phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity was studied in normal cat pan¬
creas and 1 i ver .

Crude homogenates of cat pancreas and liver were incubated with or
without steroid or theophylline and PDE activity was measured by conver¬
sion of cAMP to ATP.

At 400 pM of substrate concentration methyl predni sol one sodium suc¬
cinate (MPSS) and hydrocortisone sodium succinate (HCSS) significantly
inhibited PDE activity in both pancreatic and hepatic tissues in concen¬
trations ranging from 10-2 to lO'^M (5-100%). No significant differ¬
ences in inhibitory activity of the two steroids were seen.

In order to obtain a Lineweaver-Burk plot, cat pancreatic tissues
were incubated with 2mM of MPSS, 2mM of HCSS, ImM of theophylline, and

124

Abstracts

with vehicle, respectively. In these incubations Vmaxs were 2.51, 2.59,
2.22 and 2.16 nmol cAMP hydrolyzed per mg of protein per min. and Kms
were 36.7, 16.5, 21.6 and 7.11 pM, respectively. No significant differ¬
ences were seen between the Vmaxs, however, significant differences were
observed between Kms. These results suggest that both MPSS and HCSS in¬
hibit cat pancreatic PDE activity competitively.

A Dixon plot showed a pure competitive type of inhibition and a
partially competitive type of inhibition. Three different substrate
concentrations were employed in each inhibition study. The lines were
all curved with MPSS or HCSS. Therefore, MPSS and HCSS appear to be
partially competitive inhibitors of cat pancreatic cAMP PDE.

A SIMPLE SOLID PHASE SYNTHESIS OF N3-METHYLTHYROTROPIN
RELEASING HORMONE

M. G. Nair, J. M. Hershman, and C. M. Baugh
Department of Biochemistry
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama
and

Department of Medicine
UCLA, Los Angeles, CA

Pyroglutamyl-N3lm-methlyhistidylprol ineamide (methyl-TRH) is a
synthetic analog of the natural hormone (TRH) and has been found to be
a more potent releaser of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in the
mouse bioassay. We recently reported that methyl-TRH is a more potent
thyrotropin and prolactin releaser than TRH in euthyroid subjects. 1 The
synthesis of methyl-TRH has been done by Rivier and coworkers by a solid
phase procedure utilizing a benzhydrylamine resin, and HF cleavage, in
about 30% yield. 2 In our laboratory, methyl-TRH was synthesized using
the Merrifield chloromethyl resin and HBr cleavage by an analogous solid
phase procedure which was originally developed for the synthesis of TRH.

t-Butyloxycarbonyl-L-proline resin ester (1.0 mmole of proline) was
deprotected with 20% CF3COOH in CH2CI 2 for 40 minutes, washed and neu¬
tralized. N3-methylhistidine was converted to the corresponding t-butyl-
oxycarbonyl derivative by reacting with t-butyloxycarbonylazide and MgO
and was isolated as the magnesium salt. Treatment of this salt with iso-
butylchloroformate in DMF in the presence of N-methylmorphol ine gave the
mixed anhydride which was coupled with the resin-bound proline to pro¬
duce the resin-bound dipeptide. The untreated proline was protected at
this stage by acetylation. The t-BOC-group of methylhistidine was then
deprotected with CF3COOH. The mixed anhydride of L-pyroglutamic acid
with isobutylchloroformate was reacted with the resin-bound dipeptide;
and the product was cleaved from the resin by gaseous HBr in CF3COOH.

The product was purified by Dowex-50 chromatography. The free carboxyl
group of the tripeptide was then activated with isobutylchloroformate
and the amide functionality was introduced by its reaction with gaseous
ammonia. Repurification was accomplished by chromatography on Dowex-50
using a linear HC1 gradient. The NMR spectrum of the material was

125

Abstracts

identical to the reported spectrum and the compound showed the consis¬
tently higher levels of biological activity in several systems compared
to the natural hormone.

^ J . R. Sowers, J. M. Hershman, A. E. Pekary, M. G. Nair, and C. M.
Baugh, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metabl. 43_, 471 (1976).

2

J. Rivier, W. Vale, M. Monahan, N. Ling, and R. Burgus, J. Med. Chem.
15, 479 (1972).

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH OF WEANLING RATS IN RESPONSE TO DAILY
INTAKES OF LABORATORY CHOW ALLOCATED ACCORDING
TO FIXED INTAKE/WEIGHT RATIOS

Paul H. Morgan
Department of Biochemistry
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama 36688

Parks [J. Theor. Biol. 55: 371, 380, 1975) has proposed that the
dynamics of growth can be described by the differential equation:

dW/dt = ks (dl/dt) = kdW (1)

where dW/dt is the rate of weight gain, dl/dt is the rate of nutrient
intake, W is body weight, ks is a unitless efficiency constant and kd is
a decay constant with units of inverse time. The applicability of equa¬
tion (1) to short-term growth studies was tested by feeding weanling
male rats daily rations of a standard laboratory chow in proportion to
body weight (i.e., dl/dt was maintained proportional to W). Equation
(1) predicts that animals subjected to the foregoing constraint will
either gain or lose weight exponentially with respect to time. This
prediction was tested in a three-week experiment involving nine groups
of rats containing six individuals per group. Intake levels for each
group varied from 0-16% with increments of 2%. Upon initiation of pro¬
portional feeding and following a lag phase of 4-5 days, each group en¬
tered into a period of exponential weight change as predicted by the
model. (Supported by a grant from the South Alabama Chapter of the
Arthritis Foundation and by an intramural grant from the University of
South Alabama . )

SUBCELLULAR PROTEIN DEGRADATION IN
VARIOUS TISSUES OF AGED RATS

Roger S. Lane

Department of Biochemistry
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

A double-isotope labeling technique has been used to evaluate rela¬
tive rates of protein turnover in subcellular fractions of liver, kidney

126

Abstracts

and heart tissue during aging of the male Fischer 344 rat. The cellular
fractions investigated included mitochondrial, microsomal and lysosomal
proteins as well as soluble cytoplasmic proteins. No significant alter¬
ations in half-life were observed in any fraction obtained from kidney
throughout the lifespan of the Fischer 344 rat. In liver, statistically
significant (p < 0.01) increases in half-life were observed for mito¬
chondrial and microsomal proteins, but not for lysosomal and cytoplasmic
proteins. These differences were observed to occur between young (9-12
mo.) and middle-aged (24 mo.) animals; no further reduction in turnover
rates occurred between 24 and 34 months of age. Similar age-related de¬
creases in turnover rates were observed with microsomal and mitochondrial
proteins of heart tissue. However, the physiological significance of
these results was obscured by a slow rate of turnover of heart proteins
which approached the theoretical limit of the methodology employed.

A STUDY OF THE METABOLISM OF GENTIAN
VIOLET AFTER ORAL ADMINISTRATION

James P. Vacik
Department of Pharmacology
College of Medicine
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama
James F. Stiver
KMS Fussion
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Harold R. Borchert

Radiological Health Office, Kansas PHS
Topeka, Kansas

This work studied the possibility of metabolism of gentian violet
when fed orally to chickens.

Blood was analyzed spectrophotometrical ly for increased methejno-
globin levels as an indication of absorption of gentian violet. Analy¬
sis showed no increase in methemoglobin levels thus the probability of
no absorption.

Daily collection of excreta indicated the gentian violet adminis¬
tered was also being excreted. On sacrifice it was observed that there
was staining of the gastrointestinal tract by gentian violet 48 hours
after administration.

Spectrophotometric analysis of excreta indicated only 11.75% of the
dose was recovered. All gentian violet was not being extracted from the
excreta as evidenced by the violet color of the residue remaining after
fi 1 tration.

The position of maximum absorbance of gentian violet was not af¬
fected in the pH range of 2. 5-6. 8. Above pH 7 carbinol formation occurs
and below pH 1 there is a decrease in the spread of resonance.

127

Abstracts

In vitro study of gentian violet, incubated with control excreta at
pH 4.5, the average pH of the first portion of the gastrointestinal
tract, and at 41 °C, normal body temperature of the chicken, produced the
same results as seen in vivo.

Thin layer chromatographic analysis of excreta extract did not de¬
tect any metabolites. When samples of excreta extract were overspotted
with gentian violet standard, the corresponding components increased in
size indicating no change occurred in gentian violet fed.

The evidence indicated that gentian violet was not absorbed or me¬
tabolized when fed orally to chickens.

A CYTOLOGICAL AND ULTRASTRUCTURAL STUDY OF THE PIGMENT
EPITHELIUM OF THE OPOSSUM EYE ( Didelphis virginiana )

J. D. Gottsch and W. H. Wilborn
Department of Anatomy
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama 36688

The retinal tapetum of the common opossum is responsible for the
phenomenon of eyeshine in this species and was first described by Walls
(1939). To further elucidate the cytological features responsible for
this phenomenon, retinas from 17 adult opossums were studied by modern
techniques of histochemistry and transmission and scanning electron
microscopy (TEM and SEM).

Histochemical results showed that the supranuclear regions of
tapetal cells were filled with cholesterol-rich, reflecting spheres. By
SEM, the average diameter of the spheres was found to be about 0.4 pm;
the cells were 70 ym in length. TEM revealed that the genesis of the
spheres was associated with the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and meto-
chondria with tubular cristae located in the basal one-third of the cell.
Apices of tapetal cells were lined by long microvilli which enmeshed the
outer segments of the photoreceptor cells. Only rods were present in
the tapetal area and their outer segments were nourished by microvilli
of the tapetal cells since this portion of the retina was avascular.
Extensive and highly specialized junctions with abundant microfilaments
attached adjacent apices of tapetal cells and maintained the structural-
functional relationship between tapetal and photoreceptor cells.

This study shows that the opossum can be included among animals
with a retinal tapetum containing reflecting lipid spheres which are re¬
sponsible for the phenomenon of eyeshine. It also appears that the op-
posum retina might be a good model to study cholesterol synthesis.

128

Abstracts

TRANSPORT AND ANTIFOLATE ACTIVITY OF ISOAMINOPTERIN

Flortencia Rosemond-Hornbeak and M. G. Nair
Departments of Microbiology/Immunology and Biochemistry
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

The antifolate activity and the transport characteristics of iso-
aminopterin (IA) in HeLa cells were studied and compared to those of
methotrexate (MTX). Both IA and MTX inhibited the incorporation of
(2-14c}deoxyuridine into HeLa cell DNA by 50% at a concentration of 0.1
pM. Unlike MTX, the inhibition of DNA synthesis by IA was time depend¬
ent and reached a maximum at 40 hours post-addition of the compound. IA
induced inhibition of DNA synthesis was completely reversed by N^ formyl
tetrahydrofolate at a concentration of 100 pM. At this concentration,

40% of the DNA synthesis was restored in MTX treated cells. These re¬
sults indicate that IA induced inhibition of DNA synthesis is due to
interference with folate metabolism rather than toxicity by other mechan¬
isms. Competitive transport experiments between IA and either radio-
labeled MTX or folate showed that IA preferentially uses the reduced
folate/MTX transport system. Comparison of the ID50 values of MTX trans¬
port by IA (8.6 pM) and two other classical analogs of aminopterin, 10-
oxaaminopterin (0.74 pM) and 10-thioaminopterin (2.7 pM) indicate that
IA is transported into the cells with a lesser affinity than MTX and this
may be responsible for the time dependent effect of IA on HeLa cell DNA
synthesis .

OVARIAN UTERINE TRANSPLANTATION: A MODEL FOR
STUDYING TUBAL FUNCTION IN THE BABOON

Suzanne L. Lowry, Lee R. Beck, and G. Eric Knox
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology
Laboratory of Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology
University of Alabama in Birmingham
University Station
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

Five healthy female baboons with histories of normal ovulating men¬
strual cycles were subjected to surgical procedures in which both ovi¬
ducts and one ovary were removed. The remaining ovary was transplanted
into the fundrus of the uterus in a position that would allow eggs to be
released directly into the uterine lumen. The hilus of the ovary and
its attachment to the broader ligament was left intact in order to pre¬
serve normal ovarian blood circulation. Function of the transplanted
ovary was evaluated by observing the daily cyclic changes in sex skin
turgescence and color and by the determination of normal blood values
for estrogen and progesterone by radioimmunoassay. The females were
placed with the males for eight hours daily throughout the period of
maximum sex skin turgescence (i.e., ovulator phase of the menstrual cy¬
cle) for mating. Normal cyclic ovarian function continued in all five
baboons in which the surgical procedure was performed. This was evident
from the finding that the surgical procedure had no discernable effect

129

Abstracts

on: the cyclic changes in the sex skin turgescence; the length of the
menstrual cycles; the pattern of menstrual bleeding; the behavioral re¬
sponse of the female and male at the time of mating; or the blood levels
of estradiol and progesterone. Fertility was evaluated over an 18-month
period during 62 separate menstrual cycles in which copulation was con¬
firmed; no pregnancies resulted.

COMBINATION OF STIMULI TO OBTAIN INCREASED ACID SECRETION RATES
USING RAM PIPIENS GASTRIC MUCOSA IN VITRO

Richard Shugerman, Beverly D. Corbitt, and Richard L. Shoemaker
Department of Physiology and Biophysics
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

The average published in vitro acid secretion rate for Rana pipiens
is approximately 4 yEq/hr cm2. This rate is only a small percentage of
the maximum rate that can be obtained in vivo. The objective of this
project was to establish in vitro conditions that would allow an iso¬
lated gastric mucosa to achieve secretion rates approaching those ob¬
tained in vivo. A combination of histamine (10_4 M), butyrate (5 mM),
dibutyryl cAMP (5 mM) and aminophylline (10 mM) was added simultaneously
to the nutrient (serosal) bathing solutions in the presence of 95% 02-
5% C02 which elicited an increased response. By altering the gas con¬
centrations to 90% 02-10% CO2 an additional significant increase in rate
was observed. Along with the stimulation of acid secretion rate there
was a decline both in transmucosal PD and in tissue electrical resist¬
ance. Initially, varying concentrations of pentagastrin and serotonin
were added along with those stimuli listed above, but after experimenta¬
tion were found to elicit no additional response. The secretory rate
could be inhibited by 10 mM SCN" when added to either nutrient or secre¬
tory solutions. This inhibition occurred within 8 min after SCN" addi¬
tion, and was accompanied by an increase both in PD and in tissue re¬
sistance. Rates of secretion could also be inhibited by either DNP or
anoxia. Metiamide (10_2 M), an H2 inhibitor, reduced the rate by 80%.

We feel that by obtaining in vitro acid secretion rates approaching in
vivo rate the parameters set forth here more closely model a physiologi¬
cal preparation. (NSF support)

CARBOHYDRATE AND ION REQUIREMENTS FOR PH0SPHATIDYLIN0SIT0L
HYDROLYSIS (PiH) DURING THE FIRST PHASE
OF INSULIN SECRETION

M. E. Horton and R. S. Clements, Jr.

Department of Physiology and Biophysics
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

Since a rapid breakdown of islet phosphatidyl inositol accompanies
carbohydrate-stimulated insulin release (IR) from the isolated rat pan¬
creatic islet, we have studied the carbohydrate and ionic requirements

130

Abstracts

for PiH during the first phase of insulin secretion. Using a novel in¬
cubation system, batches of 20 islets were incubated with 2-3H-myoinosi -
tol for 60 minutes, repeatedly washed, exposed to the test substances
for 10 minutes and IR and PiH determined. When glucose was the stimu¬
lant, recovery of lipid-bound radioacti vity was inversely related to IR
(r = 0.94, p < 0.001). Those carbohydrates which stimulated IR (D-glu-
cose, D-mannose, D-glucuronolactone, and D,L-glyceraldehyde) also caused
PiH. Non-stimulatory carbohydrates (myoinositol, L-glucose, D-fructose,
D-galactose, D-ribose, and pyruvate) did not cause PiH. Tolbutamide,
ouabain and isoproterenol provoked both IR and PiH. In contrast, amino
acid secretagogues (leucine, isoleucine, a-ketoisocaproate) did not
cause PiH. Extracellular Ca++ was required for both IR and PiH and
equimolar replacement of Ca++ and Ni++ blocked both processes. Eleva¬
tion of cytosolic [Ca++] by ionophores caused IR without concomitant
PiH. Elevation of cytosolic [Na+] with ouabain or veratridine provoked
Ca++-dependent IR and PiH. We conclude that the PiH associated with
carbohydrate-stimulated IR is the consequence of either reverse Na+-Ca++
exchange, an increase in the concentration of a glycolytic intermediate
(between the trioses and pyruvate) or a combination of these two phenom¬
ena .

ISSUES IN HUMAN SUBJECTS' USE IN NURSING RESEARCH

Ellen B. Buckner and Velma Denson
School of Nursing

University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama

In the last few years, guidelines and approvals necessary for re¬
search involving human subjects have become increasingly strict. Nurs¬
ing research, because of its clinical nature, involves use of human sub¬
jects and many safeguards for the protection of those subjects' rights
are incorporated into research protocols.

Assessment of risk is of primary consideration. In nursing re¬
search the actual induced risk of interventions is usually very low, but
significant potential psychological risk is often present. For example,
a simple procedure such as administering a questionnaire to new parents
may introduce doubts in their mind as to their own or their baby's well¬
being. Such risks must be carefully and professionally dealt with by
the investigator, both in the research protocol and in implementation of
the project.

Many other safeguards are required in human subject's protocols.
Precautions are included to minimize risk and to determine when an indi¬
vidual's participation would be terminated or when the study itself
would be terminated. High risk groups such as minors or institutional¬
ized persons (e.g. hospitalized patients) must be used di scriminantly.
Measures to maintain confidentiality must be described but may include
exceptions which anticipate the dual role of practitioner and researcher.
Of course, informed consent must be obtained.

131

Abstracts

These issues will continue to be explored within clinical nursing
practice but an understanding of them is valuable to all researchers.

RESPONSE SURFACES FOR BINARY EVENTS--AN EMPIRICAL
BASIS FOR RADIATION ONCOLOGY

Donald Herbert
Department of Radiology
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

Congent and clinically useful answers to the insistent questions of
radiation oncology may be derived from clinical data (obtained by either
observation or experiment) through the application of multivariate pro¬
bit and logistic methods to these data.

The methods provide a statistically adequate representation, a re¬
sponse surface, of the basic concerns of the oncologist and his patient
which are the binary events (Ei/Ei) or irradiation and the conditions
which fix the likelihood of their occurrence. These are the primary,
simple, events by which the status of the neoplastic and normal tissues
of the target volume are evaluated; that is, ablation, E i / E q , and compli¬
cation, E2/E2* respectively, and the joint events derived from success,

S = El and E2, or a failure, S = E] or E2- The conditions for the oc¬
currence of these primary and derivative events are, of course, the ad¬
justable variables of treatment described by the vector X with elements
dose, time, etc., the fixed prognostic features of the patient which are
subsumed into the vector Y with elements size of target volume, stage of
disease, etc. and the time at risk, t.

The response surface method was chosen over alternative statistical
reductions because it is simple, empirical and provides a representation
of clinical events in which may be readily discerned the entire repetoire
of those concepts and precepts of radiation oncology which are both fa¬
miliar and useful to its practice: curves of dose-response, iso effect
and treatment characteristic, score function, probability of uncompli¬
cated control, tolerance dose, optimization of treatment, design of
clinical trials etcetera.

THE CONTROLLED CHEMICAL DEGRADATION OF
N5-METHYLTETRAHYDR0F0LIC ACID

Charles M. Baugh, Eleanor B. Braverman, and M. G. Nair
Department of Biochemistry
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama 36688

The vitamin folic acid is rapidly converted in vivo to a large fam¬
ily of closely related structures which serve the various coenzymatic
functions of one-carbon metabolism. These coenzymes exist in several
states of reduction and may possess a number of different single carbon

132

Abstracts

substituents at positions N^ and/or N^O. In addition they may have from
one to seven or more additional glutamic acid residues in y-peptide
linkage. Studies aimed at understanding the biological role of these
y-glutamyl peptides of folic acid are presently inhibited by the absence
of effective procedures for their determination.

We report here a rapid quantitative procedure for the cleavage of
N^-methyl tetrahydrofol ate at the C^-N^O bridge, generating p-amino-
benzoylglutamate and an unidentified pteridine. This method employs
peracid treatment and is nondestructive of y-peptide bonds.

Briefly, pmole quantities of N^-methyl tetrahydrofol i c acid in 5.0
ml 50% trifluoroacetic acid are reacted with a 10-fold excess of pera¬
cetic acid at room temperature for 30 minutes. The reaction mixture is
taken to dryness in vacuo at 35° and the residue taken up in 10 ml H2O
and adjusted to pH 7.0. The sample is then purified by DEAE cellulose
column chromatography. The quantitative recovery of p-ami nobenzoul gl u-
tamate is reproducibly obtained.

ENGINEERING

DIGITAL PROCESSION OF SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR (SAR) DATA

W. H. Land, Jr.

IBM Federal Systems Division

The purpose of this presentation is to describe an overview of the
digital procession of SAR data. Covered are the following topics: dig¬
ital procession functions, motion compensation, sidelobe control, and
correlation of reference and received signals. More specifically, the
objectives of motion compensation and sidelobe control (or apodization)
are discussed in addition to the resultant degredation of image quality
provided these processing algorithms are not employed. Also covered is
the formulation of the correlation surfaces by use of Fourier transfor¬
mation techniques. Finally, digital processing advantages and disad¬
vantages are discussed.

RADAR POINTING ERRORS DUE TO AERODYNAMIC RADOMES

D. G. Burks, J. C. Brand, and E. R. Graf
Department of Electrical Engineering
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

A radome is a protective covering for an antenna and is intended to
leave the performance of the antenna unaffected. There are considerable
trade-offs in the design of missile radomes which must be highly stream¬
lined for good flight characteristics while at the same time not reducing

133

Abstracts

radar performance significantly. The radar performance of primary in¬
terest in this study is pointing error which is the difference in the
angle to the target and the angle the radar indicates to the target.
Pointing error is due to distortion of the radar wavefront as it passes
through the radome.

The radome considered is a dielectric shell in the shape of an
ogive. The fields incident on the antenna are obtained by a ray tracing
technique and the response of the antenna is calculated using aperture
integration. Radar pointing error is shown to be a function of the
radome material as well as the polarization of the incident wave.

SCATTERING BY A PERFECTLY CONDUCTING SPHERICAL
SHELL WITH A CIRCULAR APERTURE

T. H. Shumpert and R. K. Jones
Department of Electrical Engineering
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The electromagnetic scattering behavior of a perfectly conducting,
infinitesimally thin, spherical shell with a circular aperture is stud¬
ied. A time-harmonic plane wave is symmetrically incident upon the
aperture. The E field integral equation is used to produce coupled in¬
tegral equations for the tangential components of currents on the shell
The equations are cast into matrix form by application of the method of
moments and numerical solution techniques are discussed.

DETERMINATION OF THE DRIVING-POINT IMPEDANCE FOR A POST-MOUNTED
DEVICE IN A RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE

J. C. Brand, D. G. Burks, and E. R. Graf
Department of Electrical Engineering
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

The availability of low cost microwave semiconductor devices has
made the method of post-mounting devices in waveguides increasingly
important in recent years. The most common of these devices is the
microwave diode which is used as a source of microwave oscillations or
amplification. The post and device present an impedance to a propagat¬
ing disturbance in the waveguide. The device is also presented a driv¬
ing-point impedance that is critical to its operation.

The driving-point impedance of the device is determined by two
methods. The first method utilizes a dyadic Green's function for the
rectangular waveguide and an assumed current distribution for the post.
These are then used to determine the electric field distributions for
the post and associated gap. The driving-point impedance is then cal¬
culated using this electric field and current distribution. The second
method utilizes experimental data to find the driving-point impedance.

134

Abstracts

This method determines the driving-point impedance by finding an equiva¬
lent circuit of the post-mounted device centered in a matched waveguide.
Each method yields acceptable results and either can be used to achieve
the same degree of accuracy.

MAGNETIC CORE AND SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORIES

Rishi Raj Chowdhury
Department of Physics
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

In this paper I have tried to enumerate and compare the two widely
used computer memory systems--the Magnetic Core and Semiconductor Memor¬
ies.

The basis of Core Memory System is the availability of a Hysteresis
loop (the B-H curve). We use magnetic core for reading and writing in¬
formation in 3 ways--3D, 2D or 2 1/2D systems. They can be used for
several logic circuits. There are some engineering problems due to non-
rectangul ari ty of Hysteresis loop ena energy loss per cycle which can be
subdued by strobing techniques. Magnetic Core has the property that it
depends upon siortching time, temperature (up to Ceinetemp.) and also on
high frequencies.

The Semiconductor Memories use IC's and memory chips called memory
cells. The types of Semiconductor Memories are Random Access Memory
(RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), Control Memory (CM), Programmable Read
Only Memory (PROM), Bipolar and n,p MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductors) and
Charge Coupled Device. RAM is used for sequence of instructions called
by CM and ROM is used for library routines to store the functions or sub¬
routines permanently on the memory having nondestructive readout.

The Semiconductor Memories and Magnetic Cores are compared on the
basis of Memory Access Time, Cycle Time Cost per Bit, Readout, Reliabil¬
ity, Capability, Volatility and there is a "Trade Off" between certain
parameters. The comparison is based on Figure of Merit also. Forecast
is made for better future of S. C. Memories in 1980 by one to three mag¬
nitude. Hope CCDS and Bubble Tech, will also play a role.

Thus Semiconductor Memories in general can be more useful due to
low access time, cost per bit, nondestructive readout etc. and hope by
1980 it will be more extensively used.

135

Abstracts

OPTIMAL NONLINEAR STRUCTURE PRESERVING FEATURE EXTRACTION
Scott A. Starks

Department of Electrical Engineering
Auburn Uni versi ty
Auburn, Alabama 36830

In real world situations, quite often the dimensionality of the
measurement space is high, while the number of training vectors availa¬
ble is small. In such a case, many feature extraction techniques are
virtually useless for they are based upon class conditional statistics
and such statistics cannot be estimated accurately. Other techniques
such as those based on the Karhunen-L5eve expansion require knowledge
of the lumped data covariance matrix, which again is difficult to esti¬
mate accurately under real world constraints.

As a result, this study was undertaken to develop a method for non¬
linear feature extraction based upon structural (graph theoretical and
topological) attributes as well as other structures from cluster analy¬
sis.

IMPROVED ACQUISITION IN OPERATIONAL GAMING MODELS
Kosta John Taras

US Army Missile Research and Development Command

This paper describes the model incorporated into the como simula¬
tion to measure radar acquisition more accurately in a hostile (electro¬
magnetic) environment. The model permits the analyst to set up realis¬
tic scenarios using standoff, escort, and self screening jammers and to
measure dynamically their impact on the acquisition radar sidelobes.

DETERMINATION OF OPTIMAL CONTROL PARAMETERS:

AN APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICAL PROGRAMMING

D. C. St. Clair and R. J. York
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
Western Kentucky University

The implementation of control laws in simulation studies often re¬
quire the apriori estimation of one or more control parameters. Further¬
more, these parameters are usually unknown functions of such exogeneous
system parameters as distance, time, height, etc. The usual approach
for obtaining parameter values is to make an estimate and then to run
the simulation to determine the success or failure of this estimate.

This paper presents a review of several nonlinear programming techniques
which can be used to refine initial parameter estimates. An example is
given where the authors used the Hooke and Jeeves algorithm to determine
a set of system control parameters in the implementation of a missile
control law.

136

Abstracts

ON THE ECONOMICS OF SIMULATION

Donald W. Sutherlin and Harold L. Pastrick
Technology Laboratory

US Army Missile Research and Development Command
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama

Unquestionably the original impetus to the massive permeation of
simulation technology into our society was through the aerospace indus¬
try. The period following World War II was marked by an accelerated
trend toward automation where computers, themselves a high expression of
automation, played an important role in the control process and automa¬
tion. Much of the activity was sparked by wartime efforts in develop¬
ment of sophisticated staff planning on a massive scale. The extension
from computer programmed staff planning such as evidenced in models of
linear programming and game theory within the military structure to
modeling of specific aerospace systems evolved with the widespread in¬
flux of high speed analog and digital computers into the nation's indus¬
trial capital equipment inventory. The degree to which simulation of
aerospace and defense oriented systems is funded is an elusive figure.
However, in this paper an attempt is made to quantify the investment
and savings accrued in missile simulation activity.

ON THE DETERMINATION OF UNSPECIFIED tf IN A GUIDED MISSILE
OPTIMAL CONTROL LAW APPLICATION

Randy J. York

Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
Western Kentucky University
Harold L. Pastrick
Guidance and Control Directorate
US Army Missile Research and Development Command

The performance of any realistic optimal control law in a missile
application is dependent on the estimation of final time, or equiva¬
lently, on time-to-go. Typically, an estimate of the range between the
target and missile and the rate of change of this range is obtained from
radar or other ranging devices; the time-to-go estimate is then calcu¬
lated. This estimate works quite well as long as the range and range-
rate information are accurate. In many instances, however, the data are
contaminated by noise either covertly, as in the case of radar jamming
devices, or by the processing electronics. This adversely impacts the
estimate of time-to-go and the optimal control law; and missile perform¬
ance suffers. This paper presents a discussion of several aspects of
the problem in the context of a realistic application and provides ana¬
lytic computer algorithms for its solution, as well as a closed-form re¬
sult.

137

Abstracts

MULTI-TARGET CHARACTERISTICS OF A DUAL MODE
SPIRAL MONOPULSE SYSTEM

R. E. Daniels and E. K. Jackson
Computer Sciences Corporation

The logarithmic spiral antenna is of special interest for direction
finding because of its braod beamwidth, compact size and "almost" fre¬
quency independent characteristics. The multi-signal characterisitcs of
a particular log-spiral direction-finding system is examined and con¬
trasted with the characteristics of better known phase- and amplitude-
comparison systems. Simulation results for a variety of dual-source
cases are presented for various separation angles and relative powers.
The affects of these variations on the average indicated angle and error
variance are presented.

NEW TECHNIQUES FOR STUDIES IN ORBIT TRANSFER
J. W. Crenshaw

Computer Sciences Corporation

Deyst's method for solving the Lambert problem has proven to be a
much more efficient approach to studies of orbit transfer than classical
methods. However, an iterative solution to the unified equivalent of
Kepler's equation is still required. For problems in which time is free,
an alternative approach is presented using Deyst's intermediate parame¬
ter y as the independent variable. The resulting method gives very ra¬
pid solution for the velocity impulses required.

EVALUATION OF RANDOM INPUT DESCRIBING FUNCTIONS

Charles L. Phillips
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830
Donald W. Sutherl in
U.S. Army, MIRADCOM
Redstone Arsenal
Huntsville, Alabama

In this paper various techniques of covariance analysis are dis¬
cussed. Particular emphasis is placed on the calculation of the covari¬
ance matrix of a nonlinear system using describing functions for linear¬
ization. A problem in the use of these random input describing func¬
tions is the calculation of the describing functions. It is shown that,
in general, this technique of covariance analysis is practical only if
the random input describing function can be derived in closed form.

138

Abstracts

PREPROCESSING ALGORITHMS APPLIED TO IMAGE REGISTRATION

Edward G. Peters and Joseph S. Boland, III
Department of Electrical Engineering
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

Digital image registration systems that operate in real time require
a number of preprocessing steps. The preprocessing algorithms presented
in this study reduce the vast amount of data to a workable size. The
study reported on here presents a block diagram of the registration sys¬
tem and the algorithms necessary to reduce the image data from a multi¬
bit to a few bit representation. Two image matching functions are given
and the results of a signal -to-noise ratio analysis for few bit quanti¬
zation applied to these functions is summarized.

Methods used to select quantization thresholds are outlined. For
the case in which the signals are quantized to one-bit, the degradation
of the mean square signal-to-noise ratio for small errors in the thres¬
hold is given. The results of a computer simulation of the image regis¬
tration system are presented and briefly explained.

A VARIABLE STEP, SELF-STARTING MULTISTEP
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION METHOD

J. W. Crenshaw

Computer Sciences Corporation

Classical multistep integration methods such as Adams-Moul ton offer
advantages over single-step methods in the areas of execution time and
accuracy. However, such methods are not self-starting, and are designed
for a fixed integration step. In this paper, w-transform techniques are
used to permit alteration of the step size without restarting. It is
shown that the same technique can be used to build the initial differ¬
ence table, thus permitting a self-starting method.

HARDWARE- I N-THE-L00P SIMULATION APPLIED TO
MISSILE GUIDANCE STUDIES

Alexander C. Jolly
Technolgoy Laboratory

US Army Missile Research and Development Command
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35809

The technique of using actual missile guidance hardware components
combined with mathematical models in a closed loop dynamic real-time
simulation is described for a particular system configuration. The use
of a modern radio frequency target environmental simulator is also in¬
cluded in the description. Some results are presented for a series of
studies whose objectives were the investigation of missile performance
boundaries in scenarios which contained multiple and intermittently

139

Abstracts

operating guidance information sources. Use of such results in deriving
an overall system mathematical model is also discussed.

STABILITY AND CONTROL OF A HYPOTHETICAL CAPITALIST ECONOMY
C. M. Bishop

Computer Sciences Corporation

Dynamic modeling and control theory techniques are used to analyze
the adequacy of the process by which capital goods are accumulated in a
hypothetical capitalist economy. The accumulation process is modeled by
mathematical equations which are compatible with the assertions of Karl
Marx. Adequacy is then defined in terms of stability of the mathemati¬
cal model and is shown to be dependent on initial conditions and certain
parameters in the model. Moreover, the accumulation process is shown to
have undesirable features, such as inability to select an operating
point and poor response to disturbances.

Techniques of modern optimization theory are next used to derive on
economic "control policy" which removes some of the undesirable features
of the accumulation process. The control policy is derived in the form
of a "redirection of investment" and a closed-loop implementation of
that policy is found. The proposed control policy permits the selection
of a stable operating point, provides rapid recovery from disturbances,
and allows for orderly economic growth as the population grows.

FINITE CYLINDRICAL SCATTERER NEAR
IMPERFECTLY CONDUCTING GROUND

T. H. Shumpert and L. S. Riggs
Department of Electrical Engineering
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

A pocklington type integro-differential equation is formulated for
the current induced on a cylindrical scatterer near a finitely conduct¬
ing ground. The reflection coefficient method is employed to relate the
current on the image cylinder to that on the object cylinder. The
formulation is reduced to a system of algebraic matrix equations suita¬
ble for numerical evaluation through application of the method of mo¬
ments. The singularity expansion method is used to obtain the transient
response of the induced currents. Numerical results will be presented
in the form of graphs and tables.

140

Abstracts

ANTHROPOLOGY

PARENTAL REACTIONS TO THE LOSS OF A CHILD

Donald W. Green and Jerry J. Waxnian
Department of Sociology
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

The loss of a child in today's society is thought by many people to
be a very infrequent occurrence. However, each year between 10,000 and
15,000 infants in the United States die of "sudden infant death syn¬
drome," and thousands more from the result of accidents, illnesses and
other causes.

The effects of such an experience as child loss leads to a painful
period of re-adjustment for parents. Many times one or both parents are
unable to make proper adjustments, which in many cases leads to the de¬
struction of the family.

Twenty-five parents in the metropolitan Mobile area which lost
children between the years 1965 and 1976 were intensively interviewed.
There was considerable variation in the ages, incomes, education, and
occupations of the parents. The ages of the children at time of death
ranged from stillbirth to eighteen. Causes of child's death included:
premature birth, SIDS, spinal meningitis, leukemia, cancer, caritis,
toxsemia, and accidents.

The death of a child evokes generalizable as well as unique reac¬
tions by parents. Reactions such as shock, a feeling of helplessness,
and guilt cross all social -demographic categories. Extremes in certain
behavioral patterns are the norm and should be expected after the loss
of a child. A gradual return to normal patterns of behavior is experi¬
enced by most parents. However, the death of a child is forever a liv¬
ing part in the lives of the parents. The key to recovery in most cases
is acceptance of the death as a finality.

DIET AND DEVELOPMENT IN BELIZE

Mary Kenyon Bullard and Charles Wesley Moorehead
Office of Archaeological Research
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama

Belizean food habits are presented in historical perspective. The
Belizean diet is traced from colonial times to the present day; and,
historical data are presented which illustrate that other variables may
influence diet besides the local environment. The kinds of foods and
their methods of preparation are discussed in terms of how colonial rule

141

Abstracts

has influenced the present day Belizean diet. Furthermore, to maintain
the national diet requires the importation of large quantities of foods
not locally produced in sufficient quantities to meet demand, and this
situation has a negative effect on national economic development plans.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE ANCIENT QUMRAN COMMUNITY
Avery G. Church

Department of Sociology and Anthropology
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

A description is presented of the social structure of the Qumran
community (cira 125 B.C.-68 A.D.) as depicted in key ancient manuscripts,
especially those forming part of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some attention
is given to archaeological evidence and to writings from the first cen¬
tury A.D. pertaining to the Essenes of Pliny the Elder, Josephus, and
Philo of Alexandria; but statements concerning economic organization,
political organization, social ranking, law, and religion reflect prin¬
cipally the contents of the Z adokite Document, Manual of Discipline , and
War of the Sons of Light and the Sons of Darkness .

The aforementioned community was awaiting the Final Age and the
coming of a priestly and a lay Messiah. The organizational procedures
and rules set forth in the Zadokite Document and the Manual of Disci¬
pline were meant to apply as interim measures. There were other rules
for the era to follow the battle portrayed in the War scroll.

The Qumran sectarians were participating in a revitalization move¬
ment that failed to realize its ultimate goals; for their community was
brought to an end by the Tenth Roman Legion which had been sent to crush
the First Jewish Revolt. Some of their ideas, however, may have had
some influence on the development of Christianity. The Qumran community
was characterized by rigid organizational patterns, stringent rules to
close the ideal-real gap, and several mechanisms for maintaining bound¬
aries between insiders and outsiders.

THE NARROW LANE SITE

David W. Chase
Department of Sociology
Auburn University at Montgomery
Montgomery, Alabama

The Narrow Lane Site 1 Mt 231 (renamed Harrington Site) located
along the north bank of the Catoma Creek about 12 miles south of Mont¬
gomery, Alabama, was discovered during a pipeline survey being conducted
for the city of Montgomery Sanitary Water and Sewer Board. Adverse im¬
pact upon this site being unavoidable, a contract to conduct excavation
as a mitigative action was drawn up between the Alabama Historical Com¬
mission and Auburn University at Montgomery. This exploration began in
October, 1977.

142

Abstracts

Subsurface evidence reflected two major components. The earlier
being of a late Archaic provenience (Millbrook Phase) specifically
identified through the recovery of large stemmed projectile points, bowl
sherds of steatite, fiber tempered pottery and various heavy chopping
and scraping tools. The later occupation indicated through the uncover¬
ing of many mica-tempered pottery fragments, small stemmed projectile
points of the Bradley Spike, Swan Lake and Baker's Creek types a larger
campsite of the Calloway Phase, a Middle Woodland period.

Of considerable interest were the 37 features uncovered. Of these,
eight were human burial pits containing skeletons of six adults, one
preadolescent child and one infant. Bone, both human as well as animal,
was in excellent condition owing to the proximity of quantities of mus¬
sel shells and concentrations of wood ashes, both combining to lower the
pH of the soil environment. Both flexed and extended positions were
seen in burials. One burial contained an antler baton--possi bly a chip¬
ping tool. Otherwise, no burial furniture was seen. Other features ap¬
peared to be pits of one type or another. Many of these contained high
concentrations of wood ashes. From these pits were recovered extensive
ecofact materials reflecting subsistence activities. Field identifica¬
tions were made of hickory nuts, acorns and walnuts, as well as a number
of small seeds. Faunal remains were common; with deer bone being most
frequently found followed by turkey, turtle, fish and a number of other
small mammal remains. One pit contained a disarticulated dog.

In view of the paucity of Middle Woodland data of this type in
Central Alabama, the Harrington Site may be considered to be one of con¬
siderable archaeological significance.

AN OUTPUT ANALYSIS OF JUDICIAL FAIRNESS: ABSENCE OFFENSES
AND MILITARY JUSTICE IN THE VIETNAM ERA

G. David Curry, Leverne Westry, and Caroline Jumper
University of South Alabama
Center for Civil Rights
University of Notre Dame

This paper attempts to evaluate the fairness of the military jus¬
tice system in its processing of absence offenders during the Vietnam
War by analyzing system outputs. Fairness is measured in two ways, the
first of which is the degree to which extraneous factors such as social
background and conditions of military service are uncorrelated with
military justice outcomes. Second, a fair system is assumed to be re¬
flected by the degree to which factors reasonably associated with the
severity of the offense are correlated with outcomes. The samples used
in this analysis are the absence offenders from the Notre Dame Survey of
the Vietnam Generation (n = 147) and the military offenders from a stra¬
tified random sample of the cases processed by the Presidential Clemancy
Board (n = 1009). Some indications of non-fairness are found. Draftees
received more severe punishments than volunteers. While length of ab¬
sence was significantly related to severity of punishment, frequency of
offense was not. Army personnel received especially light sentences.

143

Abstracts

while the punishment of marines was especially harsh. Offenses commit¬
ted early in the war were more severely punished than those committed
later in the war.

THE PHOENICIAN THEORY OF NEW WORLD ORIGINS

Charles H. Ainsworth
University of Montevallo
Montevallo, Alabama

Several theories have been developed concerning the origins of the
native Americans. The Phoenician explanation was probably not the most
popular of the theories, but it prevailed to some extent during the
Seventeenth Century. Thereafter it lost its importance and was not re¬
vived until the Twentieth Century.

At the turn of the century, Zelia Nuttall, an Americanist deline¬
ated several parallels between the ancient cultures of the New World and
those of the eastern Mediterranean area. She suggested that the Phoe¬
nicians were the principal agents for this diffusion.

In 1963, Constance Irwin, a professor of library science at the
University of Iowa published a book in which she proposed a Phoenician
explanation of Near Eastern traits in the high rise civilizations of
ancient America, such as infant sacrifice, serpent symbolism, and belief
in the Fair God.

Testing of the Phoenician theory of New World origins would require
at least five categories of evidence: (1) textual studies, (2) geo¬
graphical analyses, (3) somatic comparisons, (4) culture-trait compari¬
sons, and (5) linguistic and paleographic studies. Developments in re¬
cent years have already provided certain kinds of information for these
categories.

Most, if not all of the Phoenician-like inscriptions found thus far
are located on the Atlantic Seaboard. Thus, it appears that we may not
find any close connections between the semitic-type inscriptions found
on the eastern coast of our Western Hemisphere and those found in the
major culture areas of Mesoamerica.

MIGRANT WORKERS IN BALDWIN COUNTY: A CASE STUDY OF ONE FAMILY

Deane Chapman

College of Arts and Sciences
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama

Migrant farm laborers have been important in the United States
agriculture for most of its history. Today, the migrant workers are
mainly Mexican-American. These people have been here since the Spanish
colonization of the West, and now form a major sub-culture in the United

144

Abstracts

States. They have never joined the mainstream of American life, and to¬
day their numbers are growing. This paper is an attempt to bring an
understanding of this sub-culture to others.

WE'RE STILL HERE: THE CREEK INDIAN COMMUNITY OF POARCH, ALABAMA

Deborah Hicks

Department of Anthropology
University of Alabama

Poarch is a rural Escambia county community seven miles northwest
of Atmore, Alabama. The approximately 500 inhabitants are descendants
of Creek Indians remaining in south Alabama despite the 1830* s federal
policy of forced resettlement in Indian Territory (Oklahoma). The
Poarch Creek are the largest contemporary population of self-identified
Indians in the state.

The Poarch Creek maintain a third socioracial identity class dis¬
tinct from the dominant society normally divisible in terms of a bi-
racial (Negro-White) structure. Despite the inherent difficulties in
continuing this identity, the Poarch Creek have insisted on recognition
as Indians. Several factors including geographical isolation and de
facto segregation have influenced continuity of Indian identity.

This paper will discuss factors affecting the continuity of Indian
identity within the Poarch community and characteristics reflecting
their Indian self-concept.

THE DISINTEGRATION OF THE CREEK CONFEDERACY
BEFORE THE ADVANCING FRONTIER

Stephen Lau

Archaeological Research Laboratory
The University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

Creek society in its natural setting was strong, flexible, and suc¬
cessful within the environment it had grown to respond to. With the in¬
troduction of a dominant white culture, however. Creek culture began a
rapid deterioration due to the lack of a comparable resource capability
to maintain its essential integrity.

The conscious policy to relieve the Indian of his land proceeded on
several fronts and manifested itself in the reduction of the Indian to
dependence upon the new civilization. Disintegration of the Creek way
of life began at the first contact period. Increasing white influence
was directly related to the demoralization of Creek society. The accul¬
turation process accelerated and intensified with the introduction of
direct restructuring of Creek society after the American Revolution.

The inability to communi cate the needs of this policy necessitated
the ultimate use of military force.

145

Abstracts

THE BLAKELEY SHELLMOUNDS: EVIDENCE OF CERAMIC EVOLUTION
IN THE SOUTH ALABAMA WOODLAND

Richard S. Fuller

Archaeological Research Laboratory
The University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

During the summer of 1977, University of South Alabama personnel
surveyed and tested site Ba229, the Blakeley shellmounds. A five foot
by ten foot test excavation (Ba229-A) was conducted in order to provide
a data base for future investigations of the mound/midden complex.

The artifact assemblage produced by this excavation indicates a
rather long, continuous occupation by Bayou La Batre peoples beginning
in the Early Woodland period. That this occupation extended well into
the Middle Woodland is evidenced by the presence of the distinctive
shell-stamped ceramics in the upper levels along with Porter Marksville
pottery types. An examination of the Bayou La Batre material reveals an
interesting change in tempering which appears to correspond to this as¬
sociation.

This paper consists of a brief history of previous archaeological
research at Ba229 plus a description of the 1977 field work and recov¬
ered artifacts. Also included is a discussion of the evolution in
ceramic temper in relation to neighboring culture areas.

THE ROLE OF LITHIC TYPOLOGY IN RESEARCH
DESIGN OF THE MOBILE DELTA

Oscar W. Brock, Jr.

Archaeological Research Laboratory
The University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

The objective of this study is to outline a strategy by which
analysis of material culture contributes to our understanding of cul¬
tural processes and systems. The appropriate universe of study is the
region, analysis of which is made feasible by recent developments in
computer technology and systems theory and is necessitated by the
spectre of industrial and commercial expansion in South Alabama.

Certain basic guidelines are proposed by which lithic typology in
the Mobile Delta may be meaningfully integrated into the holistic re¬
gional model. Field methodology must incorporate valid sampling theory.
This entails the random selection of investigative units from gridded
surfaces of the entire region and from individual sites.

Lithic classification must embody analysis of function and multiple
stylistic traits. Thus typology is concerned with implied "use" of ar¬
tifacts and with "ideal types" based on such attributes as form, length,
width, weight and manufacturing technique.

146

Abstracts

Research should focus on the techni co-economic subsystem and in
particular problems of subsistence base and settlement patterns. It is
expected that such a rigorous and comprehensive investigation of the
Mobile Delta will contribute substantially to Southeastern regional pre¬
history.

CHEMISTRY

GC/MASS SPECTROSCOPY: SOME NEW INSTRUMENTATION

Mark Cheplan and William W. Paudler
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

The conversion of an RMU-6M instrument, in conjunction with a Tek-
tronics computer system and a gas chromatograph capable of handling
capillary columns was described. One of the major features of this new
combination system involves the utilization of a newly developed com¬
puter program, which has the following capabilities:

1. Corrects raw data to 100% corrected spectra.

2. Calculates the 11 most intense peaks for comparison with liter¬
ature and computerized known mass spectral data.

3. Is capable of subtracting the spectral background or any other
spectrum from a given one.

4. Calculates probable molecular formulae based upon isotope dis¬
tributions.

5. Calculates possible molecular ion fragments lost.

6. Calculates possible molecular ion fragments formed.

A silicon membrane separator is utilized to split the gas chromato¬
graphic affluent between the flame ionization detector of the gas chro¬
matograph and the mass spectrometer. The total residency time of mate¬
rial in the ion chamber is, for molecular weight compounds of approxi¬
mately 300, a total of 0.5 seconds.

Transfer of the raw data from the mass spectrometer to the random
access memory of the computer is approximately 0.6 seconds. The system
is capable of handling 5 nonogram amounts routinely.

An example of the use of the system was presented showing the anal¬
ysis of nutmeg oil extract and the identification of 19 of the 22 com¬
ponents eluted from a 150 ft. metal capillary column coated with emul-
phor .

Minimum peak separations necessary for a complete mass spectral
analysis are estimated at 2 seconds.

147

Abstracts

The computer program utilized in this system can be employed for
any of the inlet modes and is available either from the authors or Tek-
tronics Incorporated.

SOME NEW AND GENERAL CORRELATIONS IN 13C NMR SPECTROSCOPY

William W. Paudler
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

A new and general set of Carbon-13 correlation constants was de¬
veloped. Past attempts by numerous authors to correlate Carbon-13 chem¬
ical shifts in benzenoid systems with those of various heterocyclic aro¬
matics has led exclusively to failure. The best coefficients of corre¬
lation obtainable have been approximately 0.65.

Recognition that a given substituent on an aromatic system will ef¬
fect the charge distribution at the substituted carbon differently, de¬
pending upon the total electron availability of the ring system , prompted
us to develop a set of constants which takes this into account.

The equation: log

[6het'x]

^’het-x^

PC aC

has been developed and is utilized in a fashion whereby a series of sub¬
stituent constants for benzenoid substituents is developed. The sigma
values, thus obtained, with rho = 1.0, are then utilized in determining
the value of rho in the above equation.

As anticipated pc is larger than 1 in Tr-excessi ve heterocyclic sys¬
tems, and is smaller than 1 in ir-deficient system. Thus, not only can
C i 3 chemical shifts now be predicted, based upon the substituent con¬
stants and an understanding of the nature of the aromatic ring, but a
quantitative measure for the evaluation of ir-deficiency and Tr-excessi ve-
ness of heteroaromatic ring systems has now been made available. The
coefficient of correlation for these relationships, in all instances, is
better than 0.95.

HYDRODYNAMIC STUDIES OF SOME NOVEL METAL CONTAINING POLYMERS--
CORRELATION OF CHAIN FLEXIBILITY WITH MONOMER VOLUME

Edwin A. Lewis, Robert Dimick, and Thane Rounsefell
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

Sedimentation equilibrium and sedimentation velocity experiments
have been done on the following polymers:

148

Abstracts

*1'

polystyrene Fe

&

All of the metal containing polymers appear to be stiffer and have ex¬
tended conformations relative to polystyrene. The radius of gyration
for the metal containing polymers is proportional to the molecular
weight to the 0.7 to 0.8 power in THF at 20°C. Polystyrene under these
same conditions has a Rq a m0.55 which is typical for random coils. The
rod-like nature of the metallocene polymers may be either steric or
electronic in origin. At present studies of styrene copolymers are
underway with the hope of establishing the predominant contributor to
the expansion.

This work was supported in part by Research Corporation and in part
by the University of Alabama Research Grants Committee.

PROTON IONIZATION FROM FLEXIBLE P0LYMERS--A COMPARISON
OF POLYVINYLAMINE AND POLYACRYLIC ACID

Edwin A. Lewis, Reginald Anderson, Kenneth Jaffe, and Thomas St. Pierre

Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

Calorimetric and potentiometric titration experiments have been
done on pol y v i ny 1 amine (PVA) and on polyacrylic acid (PAA). The thermo¬
dynamic parameters AG, AH, and AS for proton ionization from these poly¬
mers have been obtained. These data for PVA appear quite anomalous in
that a plot of the apparent pK versus degree of protonation is essen¬
tially linear. Classical interpretation of this plot would suggest that
the solution conformation of PVA is not influenced by electronic charge
or charge distribution. An alternative explanation based on nearest
neighbor interactions and on polymer backbone configuration is proposed.

This work was supported in part by Research Corporation and in part
by the University of Alabama Research Grants Committee.

149

Abstracts

PREPARATION AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF Cp2ZrClMe

R. Vann Bynum, John T. Malito, and Jerry L. Atwood
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

( C5H5 ) 2ZrCl (CH3) was prepared by the reaction of ( CH3 ) 3AI with
[ ( C5H5 ) 2ZrCl ] 2O . The compound crystallizes in the monoclinic space
group P2]/n with cell parameters a = 6.810(6), b^ = 11.821(5), £ =
13.818(6)$, and J3 = 92.30(4). The final R factor was 0.044 based on
1709 independent observed reflections. The chlorine atom and the methyl
group are disordered in a statistical fashion. The Zr-Cl lengths are
2.43A, and the Zr-C, 2.35$.

REACTION OF ALUMINUM ALKYLS WITH CROWN ETHERS

Cindy Gilbert and Jerry L. Atwood
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

Trimethylaluminum reacts with 18-crown-6, di benzo-18-crown-6 , and
15-crown-5 to form weak donor-acceptor complexes. In the case of
dibenzo-18-crown-6, the stoichiometry is approximately 3:1. These com¬
plexes may be reacted with salts such as KN3 to give new compounds of
the form [K*crown ethers][Al 2 ( CH3 ) 6N3] • The weakness of the Al-0 bond
in the initial complex is attributed to the inaccessibility of the oxy¬
gen atom in the planar framework.

SYNTHESIS AND X-RAY STRUCTURE DETERMINATION OF
N-LITHIOHEXAMETHYLDISILAZANE-BULKY
LIGAND EFFECTS

Robin D. Rogers, Jerry L. Atwood, and Rainer GrLining
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

The crystal structure of [ L i N ( S i Me 3 ) 2 1 3 was determined from single¬
crystal X-ray diffraction data collected by counter methods. N-lithio-
hexamethyldisilazane crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P2 1 / c
with unit cell parameters a_ = 8.848(4), b = 31.868(9), c = 1 2 . 325 (4 ) A ,

B = 104.93(3)°, and pcalc = 0.99 g cm_3 for Z = 4 trimeric units.
Ueast-squares refinement gave a final conventional R value of 0.050 for
2449 independent observed reflections. In the solid state the compound
exists in a trimeric configuration with a planar Li 3 N 3 ring. The aver¬
age Li-N length is 2.00(2)$, and the ring angles are N-Li-N = 147(3)°,
and Li-N-Li = 92(2)°. A greater degree of covalency in the title com¬
pound compared to Na[N(SiMe3)2] and K [ N ( S i Me 3)2] - 2 C 4 1 1 £ can tv interred

from the Si-N bond length of 1.729(4)$.

150

Abstracts

THE EFFECTS OF STRUCTURAL DISTORTION ON THE LIGAND EXCHANGE
REACTIONS OF COPPER( 1 1 ) -SCH IFF BASE COMPLEXES

Gary R. Dukes and Steve R. Lovelady
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

The kinetics of the ligand exchange reactions of a variety of
bis(N-substituted-salicylaldimine)copper(II) complexes were examined to
determine the effects of structural distortion on the rates of these
reactions. The reactions are second order overal 1 -f i rst order each in
copper complex and ethylenediamine concentration--and evidence is pre¬
sented which indicates that the rate determining step involves the open¬
ing of a Schiff base chelate ring. The proposed mechanism involves co¬
ordination of one end of ethylenediamine to one of the axial positions
of copper in the Schiff base complex in a rapidly established pre—
equilibrium with the rate step being a concerted ethylenediamine-ring-
closing, Schiff base--ring-opening step. The rate of the ligand ex¬
change reactions of the distorted complexes is faster than those of
their isomerically related square planar complexes. It has been postu¬
lated previously that in the absence of Jahn-Teller effects the rates of
ligand substitution reactions of metal complexes should decrease. How¬
ever, the faster rates of ligand exchange exhibited by the distorted
complexes in which the influence of Jahn-Teller effects should be sig¬
nificantly reduced compared to the square planar complexes suggests that
Jahn-Teller effects may be relatively unimportant factors affecting the
rates of substitution reactions at metal centers.

TITRATION CALORIMETRIC STUDIES OF POLYMER BOUND REAGENTS—
INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATIONS

Edwin A. Lewis and Andrew Meyers
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

Two different flow through columns designed for packing with poly¬
mer supported reactive groups have been inserted into the 3 ml reaction
vessel of a TRONAC 450 isoperibol calorimeter. Both columns were con¬
structed from thin wall stainless tubing with the first coiled from ap¬
proximately 15 cm of .8 mm I.D. tubing and the second a straight length
(■^0.8 cm) of 3 mm I.D. tubing. A plexiglass spacer between the header
plate and reaction vessel top was used to bring the reagent lines in and
out of the dewar. Trial systems using columns packed with Dowex AG 1
(an anion exchange resin) and anions; OH", F”, Cl', Br', and I' and with
Dowex AG 50 W (a cation exchanger) and cations; Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+, and
NH4+ proved the feasibility of this flow through thermal analysis sys¬
tem. The measured heats for these exchange reactions were in good agree¬
ment with the best literature data. The thermograms for these titrations
show a continuous increase (or decrease) in temperature until the reac¬
tive sites on the column are saturated followed by a relatively sharp

151

Abstracts

end-point and a decay back to the bath temperature. This novel tech¬
nique may prove to be a new analytical method of significance particu¬
larly if columns employing polymer bound enzymes work as well as the
systems tested in this study.

This work was supported in part by Research Corporation and in part
by the University of Alabama Research Grants Committee.

DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS OF FUSED SALTS

Wayne Patterson and Ervin R. VanArtsdalen
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

The dielectric constant is an important property in understanding
structure and behavior of molten salts. In particular, it may be used
in helping to elucidate the mechani sms and kinetics of ionic reactions
in melts. However, until now, only guessed-at values have been availa¬
ble. We report here the first reliable measurements of the dielectric
constants of fused salts.

The dielectric constant of highly conducting liquids such as fused
salts cannot be determined by the customary methods which may use con¬
denser plates or electrodes immersed in the liquid. Rather, some method
which obviates conductance through the liquid must be used. Our tech¬
nique employed cylindrical quartz or pyrex cells with a small-bore co¬
axial insulating tube of the same material. One electrode was a bright
platinum coat on the outside of the cell while the other electrode was a
heavy platinum wire fixed firmly inside the small coaxial tube. Pyrex
cells appear to be limited to a maximum temperature near 170°C, above
which some relaxation of the glass may occur. The capacitance of the
cell was measured with a precision capacitance bridge. Several liquids
including benzene, aniline, ethanol and water, whose dielectric constants
lie between 2.3 and 78.5 and are known accurately as a function of tem¬
perature, were used to calibrate the cells.

The dielectric constants for several molten nitrates lie in the
range of 12 to 20 and show the expected decrease with rising temperature.

CLEAVAGE SPECIFICITY OF THE ENDOGENOUS Mg+2 DEPENDENT NUCLEASE FROM
RABBIT THYMUS--SUBUNIT STRUCTURE OF COMPACT NUCLEOHISTONE

Edwin A. Lewis and Ronald Stephens
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

The endogenous nuclease exploited by Lewis et al . (1976) and earlier
by Rees et al . (1974) to degrade rabbit thymus chromatin to a soluble
compact nucleohistone has been examined with respect to its site of

152

Abstracts

cleavage. ECoRI and Hind III restriction endonuclease digestion frag¬
ments of A phage DNA were used to establish approximate molecular
weights of the DNA fragments isolated from the rabbit nucleohistone
particles using standard agarose gel electrophoresis techniques. The
observation of discreet bands for the nucleohistone DNAs, with molecular
weights appearing to be integral multiples of from 100 to 150 base pairs
indicates that the specificity of the endogenous enzyme is similar to
that of micrococcal nuclease A, and further it substantiates the subunit
structure of the nucleohistone described earlier by Lewis et al . and by
Rees et al .

Lewis, E. A., DeBuysere, M. S., and Rees, A. W., Biochemistry 15,

186-192 (1976).

Rees, A. W., DeBuysere, M. S., and Lewis, E. A., Biochim. Biophys.

Acta 361, 97-108 (1974) .

This work was supported in part by Research Corporation and in part
by the University of Alabama Research Grants Committee.

DIFFERENTIAL RECOGNITION OF AMIDE AND ESTER BONDS BY
PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES: HYDROLYSIS OF PEPTIDE AND
ESTER SUBSTRATE: CATALYZED BY THERMOLYSIN

Roger Rowlett and Joe Murphy
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

Thermolysin (TLN) is a thermostable nuetral protease isolated from
the thermophilic bacterium Bacillus thermoproteolyticus . It is mechan¬
istically similar to carboxypeptidase A (CPA), and both enzymes exhibit
both esterase and peptidase activity. For CPA there is substantial evi¬
dence that structurally analogous ester and peptide substrates bind to
separate sites; most notably peptide substrates are noncompetitive in¬
hibitors of ester hydrolysis. In addition, inhibitors that are competi¬
tive towards peptides are noncompetitive towards esters, and vice versa.

The peptide substrate chosen for TLN is carbobenzyloxyglycyl -L-l eucyl -L-
alanine (CGLA) and the structurally similar ester used is hippuryl-L-
mandelyl -L^-alanine (L-HMAla). In contrast to CPA, peptides are generally
hydrolyzed much faster than esters by TLN, and it is observed that the
above ester substrate is a noncompetitive inhibitor of CGLA hydrolysis.
Furthermore, the Kj for inhibition is close to for L-HMAla.

The modes of inhibition observed for several peptide and ester sub¬
strate fragments are not as easy to interpret as for CPA. In general,
four modes of inhibition are seen: uncompetitive (UC), mixed noncompe¬
titive (M), competitive (C), and no inhibition (N). Some results are
summarized below:

153

Abstracts

Inhi bi tor

L-HMAla CGLA

K. (mode) KT (mode)

(c6h5)2c(oh)co2h

l-c6h5conhch(ch3)co2h

-"C6H5CH20C0NHCH^CH2C6H5^C02H

l-c6h5conhch2co2ch(c6h5)co2h

llmM (M)
24mM (C)

. 37mM (C)
6.4mM (UC)

52mM (C)

(N)

2 . 3mM (C)
18mM (C)

Although the above data does not lend itself to a simple interpretation,
it nevertheless suggests a fundamental difference in the recognition of
ester and peptide substrates by TLN. This work was supported by the Re¬
search Grants Committee and the Graduate School of the University of Ala¬
bama .

EVIDENCE FOR RACEMIZATION IN THE NITROUS ACID
DEAMINATION OF L-LEUCINE

Richard Linton, Karen Harrell, and Joe Murphy
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

The reaction of a-amino acids with dilute aqueous nitrous acid is
commonly believed to proceed with complete retention of configuration at
the ct-carbon. The evidence presented below demonstrates that, in the
case of L-leucine [I :X-CH(CH2CH(CH3)2)C02H, X = “NH2] the reaction with
dilute aqueous nitrous acid or with nitrous acid in 6M HC1 yields 2-
hydroxy or 2- chloro-4-methylvaleric acid [I:X = -OH or -CL] in which
the degree of retention is quite small, and substantial racemization has
occurred. Treatment of the optically active hydroxy-acid I:X = OH with
hippuryl chloride in the presence of pyridine yielded the ester, I:X =
C6H5C0NHCH2C02-, only 60% of which could be hydrolyzed by the enzyme
carboxypeptidase A at pH 7.5, although all of the ester was susceptible
to base hydrolysis at pH 11.0. Since esters of this type will be hydro¬
lyzed by carboxypeptidase A only if they have the L configuration, one
must infer that the ester is a mixture of 60% L and 40% D isomers, sug¬
gesting that the original a-hydroxy-acid, I = X = OH, is 80% racemic by
weight. The ^C-nmr spectrum of the methyl ester of the a-hydroxy-acid
in CDC1 3 solution contained a sharp peak for the a-carbon at 75 ppm,
which was shifted downfield and split into two broad peaks of relative
area 60:40 when saturating concentrations of the chiral lanthanide shift
reagent, tris-[3-(trifluoromethylhydroxymethylene)-d-comphorato]europium
(III) were present. Similar behavior was observed for the analogous
racemic methyl ester, although here the relative peak area was 1:1. The
^H-nmr of the methyl ester of the a-chloro acid (I:X = Cl) contained a
sharp singlet for the OCH3 methyl group which, upon addition of the same
chiral shift reagent, was shifted downfield and separated into two sing¬
lets of relative area 60:40.

This work was supported by the Research Grants Committee and the
Graduate School of The University of Alabama.

154

Abstracts

STUDIES OF THE STRUCTURAL STABILITY OF THE THERMOSTABLE
PROTEOLYTIC ENZYME THERMOLYSIN

James Hoeferlin, Edwin Brown, and Joe Murphy
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

In aqueous solution, the enzyme thermolysin requires temperatures
in excess of 80°C for denaturation. Our evidence indicates that this
remarkable structural stability is due, at least partly, to hydrophobic
bonding and, to some extent, hydrogen bonding within the enzyme mole¬
cule. We have examined the effects of water-miscible organic solvents
(methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol 2-methoxyethanol , acetonitrile, dimethyl
sulfoxide) on the stability of the enzyme and on its thermal denatura¬
tion profile, using ultraviolet difference and fluorescence spectroscopy.
In general, very high concentrations of organic solvents appear to be
required for denaturation. For example, the native structure is appar¬
ently preserved in 90 °/ acetonitrile. The minimum concentration of
methanol, ethanol and 1 -propanol required for denaturation shows a
linear correlation with the hydrophobici ty substituent constants, u,
for the alkyl groups in these alcohols. Denaturation of the enzyme in
D2O occurs at 85°C, compared to 80°C in H2O, suggesting that hydrogen
bonds may also have some influence on the stability of the structure of
thermolysin.

This work was supported by the Research Grants Committee and the
Graduate School of The University of Alabama.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF Rb[Al (CH3)3N3]

James M. Cummings and Jerry L. Atwood
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

The crystal structure of rubidium azidotrimethyl-aluminate was
determined from three-dimensional counter data, and refined by full-
matrix least-squares techniques. The crystals belong to the monoclinic
space group P2i/n, with a^ = 10.003(5), b^ - 7.497(4), c^ = 11.806(5)8,

8 = 108.70(3)°, and Dc = 1.58 g cm_3 for Z = 4. The final R factor for
7F22 observed reflections is 0.049. The compound is not isostructural
with CsN3*A1 (083)3. The aluminum atom is coordinated in a tetrahedral
fashion, and the Al-N bond length is 1.944(8)8.

155

Abstracts

THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF (CgHgBr)Mn(C0)3

Michael Honan and Jerry L. Atwood
Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

The crystal structure of the title compound has been determined and
refined to an R value of 0.056. The configuration of the indenyl
ligand is

The manganese atom is pi bonded to the f ive-membered portion of the
ring at an average distance of 2.16(4)$. The range is 2.13 to 2.22$.

The three carbonyl ligands are arranged in the "piano stool" configura¬
tion.

PHOTOCATALYSIS USING MATRIX-ATTACHED METAL CARBONYLS

Charles U. Pittman, Jr.

Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

We wish to utilize photochemical catalyst generation to produce a
series of active catalysts at low temperatures. Normally, catalysts
such as metal carbonyls must be heated to high temperatures to generate
catalytically active species (ie Fe(C05 + Fe ( CO ) 3 + 2C0, where Fe(C0)3
is the active catalyst). By using light energy, the same catalysts can
be used but now the active species (ie Fe(C0)3) ma-Y be generated at low
temperatures. The catalytic reaction to be studied can now be run at
low temperature. This may allow greater selectivity and, indeed, the
observation of different products than were ever observed previously.

To increase the quantum efficiency of such processes, we plan to attach
the metal carbonyl catalysts into the three-dimensional network of sup¬
ports, such as Si02 or polymers. Thus, we hope to prevent certain re¬
combination reactions that destroy the photogenerated catalyst. We are
cooperating now on this project with Professor Mark Wrighton of MIT and
a student exchange is in process.

156

Abstracts

METHANOL HOMOLOGATION

Charles U. Pittman, Jr.

Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

As we switch from petroleum to coal as the source for liquid fuels,
coal gasification and liquefaction will compete for preeminence. Gasi¬
fication will generate syn-gas (i.e., H2 and CO) as a raw material, from
which methanol (CH3OH) will be prepared. Mobile Research Corp. has re¬
cently developed a methanol to gasoline process. The second possibility
involves methanol to ethanol. Ethanol has a higher energy per weight

ratio than methanol. We wish to study the homologation of methanol to

ethanol (i.e., CH3OH + H2 + CO CH3CH2OH). In this process methanol
(from syn-gas) is reacted with syn-gas so that the entire feedstock is

syn-gas. We plan to study a series of catalytic processes in order to

develop the most selective route possible. To date, we have achieved
only 35% yields but very little work has gone on in our laboratories.

The Pittsburgh Energy Center of ERDA has looked at Co2(C0)g as a cata¬
lyst, but we feel a series of Ru, Rh, or Ir catalysts have more promise.

The availability of chemical routes from syn-gas to liquid fuels
(other than the Fischer Tropsch process) is necessary to fully evaluate
the coal gasification route for coal to fuels.

APPLICATION OF IMMOBILIZED HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSTS
TO SYNTHESIS OF PETROCHEMICALS

Charles U. Pittman, Jr.

Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

Homogeneous transition metal compounds catalyze a huge variety of
chemical reactions at lower temperatures and with greater selectivity
than heterogeneous catalysts . However, heterogeneous catalysts are more
widely used in industry due to their ease of separation from the products
and for engineering advantages. We are currently studying the attachment
of homogeneous catalysts to polymeric resin supports so that they are
"heterogenized" from the chemical processing standpoint, but "homogene¬
ous" in terms of their high selectivity and the ability to use them at
low temperatures. Their use will, in some cases, permit the synthesis
of petrochemicals with (a) lower energy consumption and (b) in a greater
yield with less loss of chemical feed. Currently, we are among the
leading research groups in this area, and about 15-20 publications from
our group have already appeared. Support is needed to permit us to un¬
dertake the anchoring of two different catalysts to resins to allow mul¬
tistep reactions to be carried out in the same reactor. Reactions of
importance include olefin dimerizations and oligomerizations, olefin
hydroformyl ati on, and both hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of petro¬
chemicals .

157

Abstracts

METAL CLUSTERS AS "HOMOGENEOUS" METAL SURFACES

Charles U. Pittman, Jr.

Department of Chemistry
The University of Alabama
University, Alabama 35486

Metal cluster compounds are discrete molecular compounds with three
or more metal atoms. They frequently are polyhedral with triangular
faces. Thus, multiple metal sties are available to catalyze reactions
just as are available on metal surfaces. However, these cluster com¬
plexes are soluble and can be employed as homogeneous systems. Many
reactions catalyzed by metal surfaces have never been achieved homo¬
geneously (dehydrosul furization, C-H activation, cracking, hydrocracking
etc.). However, the use of metal cluster complexes, with more than one
metal site available and with metal-metal bonds transmitting electronic
effects, just may be a way to homogeneously catalyze these reactions.

If this is achieved it will be a major basic research breakthrough. It
would allow the usual tailoring of reactivity and selectivity (via
choice of ligands and solvents) that is characteristic of homogeneous
catalysis. Key goals include: (1) production of methane, ethane, or
ethylene from H2/CO, (2) production of propylene, alcohols, and a-
olefins from naptha.

158

Journal of the Ala. Acad, of Science, Vol. 49, No. 2/3, Apr. /July, 1978.

MINUTES

ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
Troy State University
Montgomery Civic Center
Montgomery, Alabama
April 8, 1978

President James C. Wilkes called the meeting to order and asked the past
president of the AJAS to come to the rostrum and introduce the newly
elected officers of the AJAS. Cliff Hindman introduced President Michael
Brummitt, Bradshaw High School; Vice-president Danny Milas, Gardendale
High School; Secretary, Anne Smith, Robert E. Lee High School; and Treas¬
urer, Lynda Ward, Cottonwood High School.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY: Dr. Ken Ottis

Membership as of 3/30/78: New Members 84

Members Dropped 18

Total Membership 607

Members Deceased in 1977: Prof. R. V. Miles, past member of Board of

Trustees

Dr. Walter B. Jones, past president, 1936-
1937

Dr. Ralph Chermock, past president, 1955-1956

A motion was made and seconded to accept the Report of the Secretary.

This motion was passed.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER: Dr. W. J. Wingo

Bank Balance Oct. 22, 1977 . $ 5,684.75

Deposits End Oct. 1977 552.50

Dues ('77 & '78) . 3,990.00

Journal . 140.00

Jr. Symposium . 1,000.00

Jr. Academy . 5,960.00

$17,327.75

Checks Cleared 4/4/78 . $ 896.75

Bank Balance 4/4/78 . 16,431.00

Checks Outstanding . - 7,252.53

$ 9,178.47

Other Holdings:

1. Central Bank certificate of deposit will be worth,

at maturity (April 15, 1978) . $ 8,811.84

2. Passbook savings account (April 6, 1978) . $ 4,449.10

159

Minutes

A motion was made and seconded for the acceptance of the Treasurer's re¬
port. Motion was passed.

REPORT OF PLACE OF MEETING COMMITTEE : Jack Brown, Chairman

The University of North Alabama has confirmed the invitation to the
Academy to have the 1979 annual meeting on the campus. President Guillot
selected the dates of 29, 30, and 31 March 1979 and has asked Dr. Frank
McArthur, Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences to serve as the chair¬
man of the local arrangements committee.

Samford University has agreed to host the 1980 annual meeting. Dr.

Ruric Wheeler, Vice-President for Academic Affairs, has indicated dates
will be determined later.

REPORT OF THE RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE: Hoyt M. Kay lor

WHEREAS the Alabama Academy of Science has held its 1978 annual meeting
in Montgomery at the Montgomery Civic Center with Troy State University
as our host, and has enjoyed the hospitality of the University, now
therefore

BE IT RESOLVED that the Academy express its gratitude to Dr. Ralph Adams,
President of Troy State University, and to the University for hosting
this meeting. To Dr. Danice Costes, Chairman of our local hosts, and to
the members of the local host committee, Mr. Eugene O'Masta, Miss Mar¬
garet Browder and Miss Susan Lockwood; to the faculty and staff of the
Montgomery Civic Center; and to all of the many others who contributed
to the success of this meeting, we, the members of the Academy, express
our appreciation for their efforts on our behalf.

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Academy express its appreciation to our
distinguished speaker of Friday evening. Dr. Edward Teller, and to Dr.
Kenneth R. Turner for their presentations to the Academy.

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Academy express its appreciation to
those who retire from leadership in the Academy this year, and especially
to Dr. James C. Wilkes, President, and to Dr. William J. Wingo, Treasurer.

WHEREAS the Alabama Academy of Science has lost one of its distinguished
members through the death of Dr. Walter B. Jones and

WHEREAS Dr. Jones served the Academy as President and as a member of the
Board of Trustees and

WHEREAS Dr. Jones directed the Alabama State Geological Survey for many
years, now therefore

BE IT RESOLVED that the Academy extend its sympathy to the family of Dr.
Jones and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that an appropriate letter together with a copy
of this resolution be sent by the Secretary of the Academy to the family
of Dr. Jones.

160

Mi nutes

WHEREAS the Academy has lost one of its past presidents through the deat
of Dr. Ralph Chermock and

WHEREAS Dr. Chermock was a capable educator and a developer of young
scientists in Alabama during his tenure at the University of Alabama
where he served as Chairman of the Department of Biology, now therefore

BE IT RESOLVED that the Academy extend its sympathy to the family of Dr.
Chermock and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Secretary transmit an appropriate letter
with a copy of this resolution to Dr. Chermock' s family.

WHEREAS the Academy has lost one of its long-time members through the
death of Dr. R. V. Miles, Jr. and

WHEREAS Dr. Miles, in addition to his dedicated membership, served the
Academy as a member of its Board of Trustees, now therefore

BE IT RESOLVED that the Academy extend its sympathy to the family of Dr.
Miles and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that an appropriate letter with a copy of this
resolution be sent to the family of Dr. Miles by the Secretary of the
Academy.

It is hereby moved by the Committee on Resolutions that the above be ac¬
cepted and entered in the Minutes of the Academy.

The motion was seconded and passed.

REPORT OF THE AUDITORS: Senior Academy, Dan C. Holliman and Paul C.

Bailey

RE: Audit 1977-78

On this date we have examined the records of the Treasurer of the Ala¬
bama Academy of Science and have found them to be in order.

This is in accordance with the By-Laws of the Alabama Academy of Science
and pursuant to the request from the Chairman of the Executive Committee

Paul C. Bailey
Birmingham-Southern College

Dan C. Holliman
Birmingham-Southern College

A motion was made and seconded to accept the auditor's report. Motion
was passed.

161

Minutes

REPORT OF THE AUDITORS : Junior Academy, Thomas Cochis

No report.

REPORT OF THE RESEARCH COMMITTEE: Jack H. Moore

Two research grants were awarded to undergraduate students:

Jeffrey Donnell an
Department of Geology
Auburn University

"Fossil Cycadeoi lalean Fructifications from the Cretaceous of
Alabama." $200.00. Supervising Professor: Dr. Ruth Stockey.

Ellen Evans
Department of History
Auburn University

"The Diplomatic Career of Bernardino de Mendoza in England 1 578-
1584." $200.00. Supervising Professor: Dr. R. Glenn Eaves.

The Senior Academy annually gives $150.00 to the Junior Academy for re¬
search grants to secondary school students. This year $277.00 was
available from AAAS for Junior Academy research grants. Secondary
school students receiving research grants from these funds were:

Stephen Heimburg

Randolph School

Huntsville, Alabama

Supervising Teacher: Julia Snyder

Title: Hydrogen, Fuel of the Future

Amount of Grant: $100.00 from AAAS

John Pippin
Selma High School

Supervising Teacher: John Johnson Jr.

Title: Acoustic Efficiency of Phase Inversion Enclosures
Amount of Grant: $75.00 from Senior Academy

Kim Rachmeler

Randolph School

Huntsville, Alabama

Supervising Teacher: Julia Snyder

Title: Analysis & Growth of Crystals

Amount of Grant: $100.00 ($50.00 Senior Academy, $50.00 AAAS)

Dale Schultz

Randolph School

Huntsville, Alabama

Supervising Teacher: Julia Snyder

Title: Design & Construction of a Gamma Ray Photo Cell

Amount of Grant: $25.00 for Literature Search from Senior Academy

A. Tillotson

Robert E. Lee High School
Montgomery, Alabama

162

Minutes

Supervising Teacher: Billy Sanders

Title: Radiation Field Photography and the Kirlian Effect
Amount of Grant: $127.00 from AAAS

In addition to research grants, the Senior Academy provided funds to
five graduate students to attend this meeting to present papers. Each
student received a grant of $50.00 for this purpose from the Senior
Academy.

A motion was made and seconded to accept the report of the Research
Committee. Motion was passed.

REPORT OF THE NOMINATING COMMITTEE: Reuben B. Boozer

Nominations :

President--Wi 1 1 iam F. Arendale, UAH
First Vice-president--Jack H. Moore, UNA
Second Vice-president--Geraldine Emerson, UAB
Treasurer--Bi 1 ly Helms UAT ('81)

Board of Trustees:

Samuel Barker, UAB ('81)

Joe C. Thomas, UNA ('81)

H. A. Henderson, TVA (’81)

Elroy Curl , AU ( '81 )

Dr. Carmichael moved that nominations be closed. The motion was se¬
conded and passed.

President Wilkes declared the report of the Nominating Committee be ac¬
cepted and the nominees elected by unanimous consent.

REPORT OF THE COORDINATOR, REGIONAL SCIENCE FAIRS: Rosemary Crawford

The Finalists attending the International Science and Engineering Fair
from their respective regions are:

Central Region
Samford University

Eastern Region
Auburn University

Mobile Region
Spring Hill College

Northeastern Region
Jacksonville St. Univ.

Tammi Tidwell
Glenn Brock

Mike B. Halpin
John C. Pippin

Stephanie Pierce
Mark Delfunt

James Thomas Duke
Scott Paul Schablow

North Region Janine Askins

Univ. of Ala., Huntsville Carl Powe, III

Western Region
Univ. of Alabama

Scott Cross
Scott W. Blume

163

Minutes

Congratulations to all of you for winning in your regions.

A motion was made to accept Mrs. Crawford's report. The motion was se¬
conded. Motion was passed.

REPORT OF TEE GORGAS SCHOLARSHIP FOUNDATION: L. S. Hazelgrove

The rankings were established by a panel of judges consisting of depart¬
ment heads, deans, and professors from many of the leading Universities
and Industries in Alabama.

Dr. Levin S. Hazelgrove, Professor of Chemistry, Samford University, was
Chairman of the Judges Committee.

Winners and alternates in the Gorgas Contests receive offers of tuition
scholarships to colleges and universities in Alabama for the study of
science. The Gorgas Foundation is named for General William Crawford
Gorgas, the Alabama physician who conquered yellow fever in the Panama
Canal Zone while serving as Surgeon General in the U.S. Army. The pur¬
poses of the Foundation are to promote interest in science and to aid
in the education of promising students.

The Gorgas Foundation announced today the rankings of the finalists in
the 1978 Alabama Science Talent Search. The search was held at the
meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science at the Civic Center, Montgom¬
ery, Alabama.

The winner of the cash award was Karen J. Askins, 11209 Woodcrest Drive,
Huntsville, Alabama from V. I. Grissom High School. Teacher: Mrs.
Roberta A. Hill.

Alternates are:

1st. James F. Byrd, 1538 Marlowe Drive, Montgomery, Ala. from
G. W. Carver High School. Teacher: Mrs. Mildred M. Hardy.

2nd. Amelia A. Morris, Rt. 1, Box 94C, Chi Idersburg , Ala. from
Childersburg High School. Teacher: Miss Dean Ingram.

3rd. Marvin M. Smith, 1713 3rd Place S.W., Birmingham, Ala. from
West End High School. Teacher: Miss Mary E. Haffing.

4th. Edward M. Holliday, 2001 Willis Road. Huntsville, Ala. from
Huntsville High School. Teacher: Mrs. Dorothy Dale.

5th. Teresa A. McDonald, 2220 Circle Drive, Birmingham, Ala. from
Minor High School. Teacher: Charlotte Hamilton and Anna Vacca.

6th: Yvonne M. Wood, 9 Hedgewood Drive, Birmingham, Ala. from
Minor High School. Teacher: Charlotte Hamilton and Anna Vacca.

REPORT OF AJAS & JSHS: James D. Walker

The activities of the year officially began with the Fall Planning Meet¬
ing, which was held in Birmingham in early October, with all regions re¬
presented. Business was focused on discussions of the proposed budget,
and details of the paper competitions and annual meeting.

164

Mi nutes

The next major event for AJAS was the state-wide paper competition held
at UBA, February 18, in which thirty-six papers were presented. The
winners, listed below, will participate in an all-expense paid trip to
the National Junior Science and Humanities Symposium to be held at Mon¬
mouth College in New Jersey, May 17-20, 1978.

Scott Blume (Tuscaloosa High School)

"Detection of Chemical Mutagens and Potential Carcinogens Using
Salmonella typhimurium as Test Organisms and Liver Microsomes for
Metabolic Activation"

Hyung Mi Kim (Bradshaw High School, Florence)

"Jensen's Controversial Theories"

Amy Morris (Chi ldersburg High School)

"The Generation and Analysis of Alterations of the Snowflake Curve
and Their Projections in N Dimensions"

Amy's paper was selected to be presented at the National Symposium.

Carl Walker (Donoho High School, Anniston)

"Photochemistry of Vision"

Lynda Ward (Cottonwood High School)

"Deactivation of a Bacterial Virus"

Orrin Carr (Randolph High School, Huntsville) — Alternate
"Compression of Soils"

Carl Powe (Randolph High School)

"Holography Microscopy"

Selected to be the recipient of the free trip to tour the Bell
Telephone Labs in New Jersey, also scheduled for late May.

The official representative of the Alabama Region of JSHS will be Mr.
Joseph Smitn of Jacksonville State University, and Counselor of the
Northeast Region. Other adults to attend the National Symposium are:

The Outstanding Region in 757F-75--Northeast Region; Mr. Joseph
Smith, Counselor

The Oustanding Science Teacher in 1977-78-- Mrs. Mabel Phillips,
Parker High School, Birmingham

The Henry Walker Memorial Scholarship-- Thomas James of Tuskeegee
Institute High School was selected to receive this $500.00
scholarship; Canh Viet Le, also of Tuskeegee, and Charles Barnett,
Phillips High School, near Bear Creek, Alabama, were second and
third choices. Following the selection of Thomas James as the
recipient, the selection committee was informed that he had just
recently been admitted to MIT, so the scholarship award will be
given to Canh Viet Le upon his enrollment in a college or uni¬
versity in Alabama.

165

Mi nutes

AAAS Subscription Award-- Tim Bassett, Childersburg High School.

Student Research Grants

Dale Schultz (Randolph High School). $100.00 from AAAS funds.

John Pippin (Selma High School). $75.00.

Kim Rachmeler (Randolph High School). $50.00 from AAS funds and
$50.00 from AAAS funds.

Stephen Heimburg (Randolph High School). $100.00 from AAAS funds.

Antwane A. Tillotson (Robert E. Lee, Montgomery). $127.00 from
AAAS funds.

Mrs. Mable Phillips (Parker High School, Birmingham), who was
selected to be the recipient of a special invitation from the Na¬
tional Office to minority teachers in inner-city schools;

Miss Dean Ingram (Childersburg High School), who was invited to
atten at her own expense; and,

Mrs. Phyllis Walch (Cottonwood High School). Mrs. Walch, a highly
successful teacher and enthusiastic supporter of the AJAS program
during her six years at Cottonwood, is retiring from active teach¬
ing at the end of this year. In recognition of her work in AJAS,
and the outstanding achievements of her students, funds to support
her participation in the National Symposium were solicited from
businesses in the Cottonwood-Dothan area.

The awards recognized publicly represent only a very few of the students
and teachers in Alabama who have earned reputations of being outstanding
in science. The vast majority of science teachers, although known lo¬
cally to be unusually effective in the classroom, laboratory or field,
have yet to become recognized across the state. A new AJAS project to
start immediately will be an effort to bring together in a bound volume,
the most effective classroom, laboratory, and field activities, methods
and techniques, practiced by teachers in all regions in the state. The
monies from the sale of this book or manual will be used to provide ad¬
ditional support of the AJAS program.

All AJAS officers, counselors and interested science teachers will be
invited to participate in a brain-storming session to be scheduled in
early May for the purpose of making plans to expand the AJAS-JSHS pro¬
gram next year. On the basis of the discussions generated a proposal
for the expanded program, and its financial support, will be submitted
to the National JSHS office in June. All officers and counselors will
be notified of the exact time and place of the meeting.

AJAS AWARDS: Faye Wells

A $50.00 research award to Michael Brummitt, Bradshaw High School.

Given in memory of Mrs. Myrtle Alexander. Title: "Some Observed Ef¬
fects of Sulphur Dioxide on Soybeans."

166

Mi nutes

A one year subscription to Scientific Monthly and Science Newsletter to
Tim Bassett, Childersburg High School from AAAS.

$ 500.00 Walker Scholarship: 1st Place: Cahn Viet Le, Tuskeegee

Inst. High School
1st Place Alternate: Charles E.
Barnett, Phillips High School, Bear
Creek, Alabama

Outstanding Region Award: Northeast Region, Joe Smith, Regional

Counselor

Oustanding Teacher Award: Mrs. Mabel Phillips, Parker High School,

Birmingham, Alabama

A motion was made to accept the report. The motion was seconded and
passed.

OLD BUSINESS:

President Wilkes reported that Dr. Donald Davis of the Botany Department
at Auburn University has been elected a Fellow in the American Associa¬
tion for Advancement of Sciences. Dr. Davis hereby becomes, also, a
Fellow of the Alabama Academy of Science.

Eugene Omasta, in charge of Local Arrangements for the Junior Academy,
reported that 325 members of AJAS attended the River Boat Banquet and
Dance. He added that a total of 340 Junior Academy members were in at¬
tendance at this Annual Meeting and that 315 attended the joint banquet
with the Senior Academy.

Gene tendered his appreciation for the excellent cooperation he received
from the group throughout this annual meeting.

NEW BUSINESS:

Dr. Wilkes introduced the new President, Dr. William Arendale and thanked
all of his officers for their loyal support during his year in office.

Dr. Arendale complimented Dr. Wilkes on the good work his administration
had done the past year. Bill said he was aware that his administration
was following some past progressive leadership and he hoped that we could
now keep the momentum rolling and have another good year for the Alabama
Academy of Science.

There being no further business to conduct, the 55th Annual Meeting of
the Alabama Academy of Science was adjourned.

167

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 49 OCTOBER, 1978 NO .4

EDITOR:

W. H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36(830
ARCHIVIST:

R. G. Eaves, Department of History, Auburn University, Auburn AL 36830
EDITORIAL BOARD:

R. T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany and Microbiology,
Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830

E. A. Curl, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn Llniversity,
Auburn, AL .36830

W. W. Patilder, Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama, Uni¬
versity, AL 35486

ADVISORY BOARD:

W. L. Alford, Auburn Lhriversity
Charles Baugh, Univ. South Alabama
G. F. Brockman, Llniv. Ala., B’ham
R. ]. Fornaro, Univ. South Alabama
A. Wayne Lacy, Auburn Univ., Mtgy.

Walker II. Land, ]r., IBM
//. S. Marks, N.E. St. Jr. Col.
M. Miller, Lhiiv. South Alabama
W. W. Paudler, UA, Tuscaloosa
Dan Whitson, Decatur

E. M. Wilson, L^niv. South Alabama

The Journal is the official publication of the Alabama Academy of Science,
and is indexed in Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, America: History
and Life, and Historical Abstracts

Publication and Subscription Policies

Submission of Manuscripts. Submit all manuscripts and pertinent cor¬
respondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two
simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow Instruction to Authors, | . Ala.
Acad. Sci. 48:42-43, 1977.

Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.

Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the
CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD.

Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news release's will not be
published in the Journal.

CONTENTS

ARTICLES

Orbits, the Calculator, and the Non-Calculus
Physics Laboratory

David R. Curott . 168

Current Status of the Red Hills Salamander,

Phaeognathus hubriahti Highton, and
Factors Affecting Its Distribution
Thomas W. French and Robert H. Mount . 172

A Precision Beta Irradiator

C. G. Hudson, P. A. Plato, H. C. Cobb,

and K. M. Hornsby . 180

Determination of the Ecological Threshold
and Thermal Constant of the Larval Stage

of Heliothis zea

Baldev S. Mangat and Curtis H. Adams . 195

Vertebrates of Interest from Horseshoe Bend
Military Park

Hugh G. Hanlin, J. Robin Russell, and

John D. Freeman . 200

The Active Center of Invertase from Candida
utilis: A Kinetic Study

David Edmonds, Jesse Ezzell, and Jonathan Ford . 204

ABSTRACT

Chemistry . 219

AAS COMMITTEES 1978-1979 . 220

INDEX

221

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 4, October, 1978.

ORBITS, THE CALCULATOR, AND THE NON-CALCULUS
PHYSICS LABORATORY

David R. Curott

Department of Physios and General Science
University of North Alabama
Florence, Alabama 25630

Abstract. Students in a non-calculus based physics laboratory
"solve" the problem of a satellite in orbit about the earth, using their
pocket calculators. In order to increase the speed of computation, the
same computational steps are then programmed on a full size computer and
the printouts of position are plotted in laboratory for a visual presen¬
tation. This "Play Houston Control" project strengthens their confidence
in being able to handle involved dynamical situations, and it fosters a
much needed understanding of the usefulness and limitations of the digi¬
tal computer. Colleagues are encouraged to exploit the recent popula¬
tion explosion of pocket calculators.

INTRODUCTION

Pocket calculators are not required for our non-calculus based Gen¬
eral Physics course; however, this year all 42 students had them! The
stage was thus set for a pedagogical use of these ubiquitous devices to
counter the off-held impression of these students that interesting "real
life" situations with non-constant forces were solvable only by the
technical (calculus based) physics students. I submit that a more im¬
portant result was an understanding gained regarding the operation and
limitations of large scale computers.

SYLLABUS

Using the calculation of the orbit of an artificial satellite as
our nominal objective, the students helped me break the dynamical prob¬
lem into computational steps amenable to pocket calculator solution.

Once the cal culational algorithm (see Appendix I) was developed, the
students, in groups of about three, calculated the approximate position
and velocity at At seconds after the initial (given) position and veloc¬
ity. They realized the approximation would be better for smaller At's.
Each group began with a different set of initial conditions. Once the
second position and velocity were determined, the process was repeated
(iteration) to obtain the position At seconds later, i.e.: at t = 2At;
then again at t = 3At, and so forth.

The groups took from 15 to 45 minutes to complete each iteration
cycle (that is, obtain one new position and velocity) so it became ap¬
parent to them that only a small segment of the orbit would be obtained

168

David R. Curott

after many hours of computation. They were impressed that they could
"in principle" complete such an interesting problem; however, a graph of
a complete orbit seemed outside their grasp due to time limitations. At
this point it was very appropriate to introduce the large scale digital
computer to them, translate their manual computation steps into FORTRAN
instructions (Appendix II), and run the orbit calculation for them to
obtain "complete" solutions in a fraction of a minute of machine compu¬
tation time. Each person received a hard copy of the results (positions,
etc.) and they plotted each orbit.

ADVANTAGES

(1) Non-calculus students realize that "real" problems with varying
forces are amenable to their analysis.

(2) They are introduced to computer analysis and the elements of a
computer language (Fortran), and observe first hand the tremendous speed
of the computer vs manual calculation. Most of these students would
never otherwise have an occasion to familiarize themselves with a com¬
puter and experience its strengths and weaknesses. This is pathetic
when one realizes many of them go on to positions of power and influence
as doctors, lawyers, politicians, architects, etc.

(3) Of course the students have a better acquaintance with orbital
dynamics; however, that is not a major objective, only a minor spinoff
benefit.

Acknowledgement. I wish to acknowledge the support and encourage¬
ment of my department chairman, D. Lee Allison; and thank the UNA com¬
puter facility for its help. Most of all the interest and enthusiasm of
my students have made teaching a joy!

APPENDIX I

Orbit Algorithm Algebra: Given the initial position coordinates xi
and y-| and the initial velocities vxl and vyi and the geologic constant
GM = 3.084 x 1014 m3s_2; the satellite moves to (x2,y2) after time At.

If At is small, then the change in velocity and position components is
to first order:

Av = a At
x x

a = F ,
y y/m

<P

Ax = vx At + (1/2) ax (At)2
Ay = vy At + (1/2) ay (At)2

Thus we can find the second position and speed:

x^ = x-j + Ax

y2 = y] + Ay

169

Non-Calculus Physics Laboratory

+ Av

x

^2

v + Av

*i y

Iteration produces successive positions.

y

i

TABULAR ALGORITHM for pocket calculator computation: (using At = 100.
sec) .

The student fills in the first column, then the second, and so forth.

. - ITERATIONS -

Variable

(Units)

ALGORITHM

First

Second

Third

Fourth

f

(sec)

t + At

0.*

100.

200.

300.

X

( 1 06m)

x + Ax

0.*

1 .00

1 .99

2.97

y

( 1 O^m)

y + Ay

7.41*

7.37

7.34

7.22

V

X

(m/s)

v + Av

X X

10000.*

9904.

9902.

9722.

V

(m/s)

v + Av

0.*

-714.

-894.

-1558.

y

r

( 1 06m)

(ft+ y2)1'2

7.41

7.44

7.61

7.81

<P

(degrees)

tan'1 (y/x)

90.

82.

75.

68.

g

(ms-2)

GM/r2

7.25

7.20

6.88

ETC.

a

x

(ms'2)

-gx/r

0.

-.10

-1 .80

a

y

Av

X

(ms'2)
(ms"1 )
(ms'1 )

-gy/r

-7.25

-7.14

-6.64

a At

X

0.

-96.5

-180.

Av

ayAt

-725.

-714.

-664.

y

Ax

Ay

( 1 06m)
(106m)

v At+(.5)a At2
v At+(.5)a At2

1.00

-.036

0.990

-.035

0.981

-.123

★

initial conditions

170

David R. Curott

APPENDIX II

A portion of the FORTRAN programt to illustrate the parallel with
the calculator algorithm:

AX = - GM * X(K) / (R(K)**3)

AY = - GM * Y ( K) / (R(K)**3)

DVX = AX * DT

DVY = AY * DT

DX = VX(K) * DT + AX * DT*DT/ 2.

DY = V Y ( K ) * DT + AY * DT*DT/ 2.

L = K + 1

X ( L ) = X ( K) + KX

Y(L) = Y(K) + DY

VX(L) = VX(K) + DVX

VY(L) = VY ( K) + DVY

T(L) = T ( K) + DT

R(L) = SQRT(X(L)**2 + Y(L)**2)

G ( L ) = GM/ (R(L)**2)
etc .

^The full program is available from the author.

171

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 4, October, 1978

CURRENT STATUS OF THE RED HILLS SALAMANDER,

Phaeognathus hubrichti HIGHTON, AND
FACTORS AFFECTING ITS DISTRIBUTION^

2

Thomas W. French and Robert H, Mount

Department of Zoology-Entomology
School of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830

INTRODUCTION

The Red Hills salamander, Phaeognathus hubrichti Highton, was de¬
scribed in 1961. It occurs only in a relatively small area in southern
Alabama. Based on a study of the salamander and its habitats conducted
between November, 1970 and April, 1972, Jordan and Mount (4) stated that
certain forestry practices were damaging or destroying the habitats of
P. hubrichti. They stated further that the species "should be placed on
the national list of threatened wildlife, and that measures should be
taken to insure its continued survival."

On March 6 and 7, 1975, participants at a symposium held in Tusca¬
loosa, Alabama, under the co-sponsorship of the Alabama Department of
Conservation and Natural Resources and the University of Alabama Museum
of Natural History, compiled a list of threatened and endangered plants
and animals of Alabama. The list included P. hubrichti as an endangered
species (5). On October 1, 1975, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service pro
posed that the species be considered for endangered status under the En¬
dangered Species Conservation Act of 1973 {Fed. Regist. 40:191:45175).

Following a period of public comment and a meeting of federal and
state officials and concerned citizens, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv¬
ice employed the senior author to undertake a detailed investigation of
P. hubrichti to acquire information that would assist the Secretary of
the Interior in making a final judgement in the case. Specifically, the
study was to provide the following information: 1) the range of the
animal, 2) the distribution of the form within its range, 3) the limit¬
ing factors associated with its distribution, 4) the effects of various
forestry practices on the animal, 5) the total acreage of suitable habi¬
tat remaining, and, if applicable, 6) a delineation of areas that might
be considered "critical habitat," as defined in the Federal Register 40:
78:17764-17765.

^Manuscript received 2 March 1978; accepted 31 May 1978.

2

Current Address: Dept, of Life Sciences, Indiana State Univer¬
sity, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809.

172

French and Mount

The results of the investigation, conducted between January 19 and
April 2, 1976, and the actions that followed are reported herein. Spe¬
cific locality data, for the most part, are not included because of the
possibility of their being misused. Persons or agencies having a legit¬
imate need for such data should contact the Southeastern Regional Endan¬
gered Species Office, U.S.F.W.S., 17 Executive Park Dr., Atlanta,

Georgia 30329.

The success of this investigation was due in considerable measure
to the excellent cooperation received from virtually all of the owners,
or representatives of the owners, of large tracts of land within the
range of P. hubriahti. The authors gratefully acknowledge this coopera¬
tion along with the assistance of Drs. James L. Dobie and George W.
Folkerts, who kindly read the manuscript and offered numerous sugges¬
tions for improving it.

METHODS

Intensive field investigations were conducted during the first
eight weeks of the study (19 January-12 March, 1976). With the aid of
information published previously, 7 1/2 min. U.S.G.S. quadrangle maps,
county geological maps, and landowners, habitats within the known range
of P. hubriahti that were believed to be capable of supporting healthy
populations of the animal were located and visited. Also located and
visited were seemingly suitable habitats situated outside the known
range and habitats within the known range that apparently had been sub¬
stantially damaged or rendered unsuitable by clear-cutting of forests,
mechanical site-preparation, or other forestry practices (4).

Altogether, 145 sites were visited. At each site, notes were made
on the conditions of the habitat, and a search was made for evidence of
the presence of P. hubriahti. Most observations were made during day¬
light, when the salamander is usually underground. The animal's pres¬
ence is revealed, however, by its burrows, the openings of which are
characteristic (6, 7). On some occasions, burrows apparently belonging
to P. hubriahti were excavated in an attempt to determine the occupant
with certainty. These excavations were made when burrows were scarce,
were located in apparently marginal habitat, or were near the periphery
of the known range.

The burrows of the salamander could usually be located within a few
minutes when the animals were present. The time spent at each site
ranged from 5 to 240 minutes per visit, and averaged about 50 minutes.
The sites visited were plotted precisely in the field, and notes were
made on relative population densities of the salamander, as nearly as
could be determined by the numbers of burrows found per unit of area.

After the field work was completed, the areas inhabited by P.
hubriahti were outlined, with aid of contour intervals, as accurately
as possible on the quadrangle maps. The size of the inhabited areas was
then determined using a polar planimeter.

173

Red Hills Salamander

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Geographic Range and General Nature
of Optimal Habitat

Of the 145 sites visited, 73 were definitely inhabited by P.
hubriahti. Schwaner and Mount (6) contended that P. hubriahti is re¬
stricted to the Tallahatta and Hatchetigbee formations between the
Conecuh and Alabama rivers, in a 5-county area of central southern Ala¬
bama. They and others (1, 3, 7) noted that optimum habitat consists of
wooded mesic ravines dominated by hardwood trees. Jordan (3) emphasized
the importance of an outcropping or an underlying layer of siltstone as
a habitat requisite, noting that the material is remarkable in its ca¬
pacity to retain moisture, and that burrows of P. hubriahti, or branches
of the burrows, invariably extend into natural cavities within the silt-
stone.

The present study confirmed, for the most part, the contentions of
earlier workers relative to optimum habitat constitution and supported
that of Schwaner and Mount (6) with respect to range limits. The Talla-
hatta and Hatchetigbee formations both extend east of the Conecuh River
and west of the Alabama River. Visits to eight sites with seemingly
optimal habitat in the easterly extensions and to seven such sites in
the westerly extensions revealed no evidence of P. hubriahti.

In general, the greatest population densities of P. hubriahti, and,
in relatively undisturbed situations, the most favorable habitat condi¬
tions for the salamander are associated with the sides of high bluffs
and slopes of deep ravines in the Tallahatta Formation. The bluffs tend
to be associated with rivers, large creeks, and their major tributaries.
The streams include Three Mile Creek, Patsaliga Creek, Pigeon Creek,
Persimmon Creek, Sepulga River, Big Flat Creek, and Alabama River. The
hardwood-forested bluffsides and ravine slopes along the northern edge
of the Tallahatta provide particularly favorable habitat and support
correspondingly dense populations. The salamander is usually absent
along the less mature drainages on the southern periphery of the forma¬
tion. These drainages have cut into the Tallahatta Formation, but in
most cases the formation is not well exposed on the bordering slopes.
Also, such drainages have not worked their way into the formation suf¬
ficiently far northward to intersect the older drainages, whose border¬
ing slopes support P. hubrichti populations. Exceptional are the bluffs
along Brushy Creek, one of the headwaters of Limestone Creek in Monroe
County, where an isolated group occurs.

Along the southern side of Big Flat Creek in Monroe County are
three isolated exposures of the Tallahatta Formation which seemingly af¬
ford good habitat for P. hubrichti. The westernmost of these supports a
population of the salamander, but the other two, despite the apparent
suitability of their character, do not.

On the Covington and Crenshaw county geologic maps, the Hatchetig¬
bee and Tallahatta formations are undifferentiated, whereas on the But¬
ler, Conecuh, and Monroe county maps, they are differentiated. Our

174

French and Mount

observations indicate that P. hubrichti is much less likely to occur in
the Hatchetigbee Formation than in the Tallahatta. In fact, in every
instance where the salamander was clearly found within the former, ex¬
posures of the latter occurred in relatively close proximity.

Along the eastern sides of Patsaliga Creek in Covington County and
Pigeon Creek in Butler County north of State Hwy. 106, are slopes that
support P. hubrichti populations. These slopes are not included within
either the Tallahatta or Flatchetigbee formations on the maps, but they
are, as nearly as we could determine, indistinguishable from many in the
Tallahatta Formation and probably represent isolated exposures thereof.

In one area, P. hubrichti populations were associated with a soil
type that may not belong to either the Tallahatta or Hatchetigbee forma¬
tion. These were found at the mouths of each of two adjacent ravines on
Brushy Creek, in Monroe County. The uppermost stratum of mineral soil
at the sites is a reddish clay containing large gravel. The stratum
immediately beneath, in which the salamander's burrows were found, is a
reddish clay loam with no gravel. Gray clay, more nearly typical of the
Tallahatta Formation, occurs in the nearby stream bed. The reddish soils
may belong to the Lisbon Formation, which overlays the Tallahatta in that
area .

Distribution in Relation to Slope and Moisture

Valentine (7) noted that the most obvious burrows of P. hubrichti
were on earthen banks too steep to collect litter. However, Schwaner
and Mount (6) found that in some instances, burrow openings were on
nearly level ground. The most favorable situations for the occurrence
of P. hubrichti , as evidenced by their burrows, are sides of bluffs and
ravines that have generally moderate slopes but variable microtopography.

High, vertical to near-vertical bluffs occur throughout the range
of the species, especially along the Alabama River, with some rising as
high as 30-35 m above their bases. The upper portions of these bluffs
are constantly sloughing off, however, tending to prevent the salamanders
from establishing and maintaining their burrow systems. This sloughing
contributes to the buildup of a talus layer at the bases of the bluffs,
burying the otherwise suitable habitat at the lower levels. Thus, at
such sites, population densities are often lower than might be antici¬
pated.

Some sites with relatively gentle relief support Red Hills sala¬
mander populations, but densities are generally low. In such places,
the burrow openings are found most frequently on the few spots that have
at least some slope. Such sites occur around the bases of large trees,
or consist of mounds of soil that have persisted and weathered after
having been pulled up by an uprooted tree.

In some cases P. hubrichti may be absent on south-facing slopes
having seemingly adequate forest cover. This may be the result of in¬
adequate moisture near the surface. The salamander may also be absent,
or present in low population densities, near the ends of long, narrow.

175

Red Hills Salamander

finger-like ridges that project from major ridge systems. Ridges such
as these are especially common east and west of the upper reaches of Big
Flat Creek in Monroe County. Low population levels are also found on
the narrow, isolated ridges in the "Potato Hills" region in Monroe
County, southwest of Vredenburgh . In this area the slopes of the ridges
are relatively dry. When burrows are found on these sites in dry
weather, the first few centimeters of the burrow may be hard and dry,
but the inner recesses are always moist. The entrances of burrows in
these dry situations still show the typical smooth, oval characteris¬
tics. A close examination of the entrance reveals that the soil has
been dampened and rubbed slick, but latpr has dried and hardened.

Effects of Various Forestry Practices on
Populations of P. hubriahti

Jordan and Mount (4) stated that populations of P. hubriahti often
survive selective cutting of the forests, but that clear-cutting elimi¬
nates populations "on most, if not all of the clear-cut sites." They
also stated that mechanical site-preparation preparatory to planting
pines magnifies the adverse effect of clear-cutting on the forest floor
fauna .

The findings of the present study agree generally with those of
Jordan and Mount (4). In no instance where 100% of the forest cover
had been removed were any P. hubriahti found. The effects of selective
cutting depended on the amount of the canopy removed, the slope, and on
moisture conditions. On several south-facing slopes, populations had
been completely eliminated by heavy cutting. Conversely, most heavily
cut north-facing slopes continued to support some salamanders. These
slopes were typically those that featured distinct rock bluffs, even
low ones. Along the bases of such bluffs, occasional seepages often
provided sufficient moisture to support small, isolated remnants of the
population. On some heavily cut north-facing slopes, no more than one
active burrow per 30 m of linear distance was found.

The question arises as to whether a species that produces only four
to nine eggs per year (Brandon, 1; pers. observation) and is as limited
in its vagility as is P. hubriahti (3) can successfully repopulate an
area when its numbers have been reduced to extremely low levels. In
this regard, the following observations may be elucidative. Small, iso¬
lated populations were found on several slopes that had been intensively
cut, but not clear-cut, as long as ten years ago. In most such cases,
the population levels remain low. An exception is the case of a se¬
verely cut, north-facing slope in Monroe County on which the population
is relatively dense. The site is a moist, terraced slope which lacks a
distinct rock bluff. In 1973 the forests above and below the slope were
clear-cut, and at least 90% of the canopy was removed from the slope it¬
self. The soil on the slope was not severely disturbed, and moisture
conditions seemed favorable. At the time of the observation, hardwood
stumps had sprouted, supplying some protective shade.

East of Interstate Hwy. 65, the majority of the habitat of P.
hubriahti has been damaged or destroyed by foresty operations. Some
areas, not contiguous with areas presently inhabited by the salamander.

176

French and Mount

may have supported populations in the recent past but are no longer
suitable. Examples are the slopes around Pigeon Creek Fire Tower, But¬
ler Co., T8N, R15E, portions of secs. 10, 14, 15, and 16, and the ridge
slopes north of Butler County Rt. 45 (T7N, RUE, portions of secs. 20
and 29). Habitats remaining suitable for P. hubrichti east of 1-65 in¬
clude the type locality and some sites along the same slope east and
west of the type locality, an area immediately east of Pigeon Creek,
Butler Co., and a slope on the southern border of a small stream south
of Oaky Streak Church, Covington County. Also situated east of 1-65,
and adjacent to some of the clear-cut areas, are some small, relatively
undisturbed patches of suitable habitat having relatively dense P.
hubrichti populations. West of 1-65 are several large tracts in which
P. hubrichti habitat has been destroyed or heavily damaged, but the ma¬
jority of the habitat there remains suitable at the time of this study.

Erosion caused by forestry operations above the slopes inhabited by
P. hubrichti , and on the slopes themselves, was observed occasionally
and apparently is detrimental to the salamander. Such erosion, however,
seemed no more detrimental than the natural sloughing that occurs on the
steeper bluffs within the animal's range.

Current Status, Trends, and Projections

Jordan and Mount (4) estimated that 63,000 acres (ca. 25,500 ha) of
suitable habitat remained within the range of P. hubrichti. Our esti¬
mate is 54,900 acres (22,200 ha). Of the latter, 3,075 acres (ca. 1,245
ha) has been affected detrimentally by forestry operations during the
past decade, and the salamander populations thereon are small and irregu¬
larly distributed. At least 3,670 acres (1,485 ha), not included above,
have supported populations of P. hubrichti that have been eliminated
during the decade prior to January, 1976.

Jordan and Mount (4) estimated that paper companies own or control
about 44% of the remaining habitat of P. hubrichti and "that a large por¬
tion, if not most of this habitat will be altered to the extent that it
will be incapable of supporting the salamander if current trends con¬
tinue." In the present study we noted that both corporate and individual
landowners are increasingly reluctant to clear-cut ravine slopes and
bluff-sides. Instead, most owners now tend to "mark-out" the steep to
moderately steep hardwood dominated slopes, which include a substantial
portion, if not a majority, of the salamander's suitable habitat. These
are either selectively cut, or in some cases, left uncut. The extent of
canopy removal where cutting is done varies considerably. Because of
this and the variables already mentioned, the effects on resident popula¬
tions of P. hubrichti on the "marked-out" slopes are correspondi ngly
vari able .

Several corporations holding substantial amounts of the available
P. hubrichti habitat have indicated privately, or informally, that they
will attempt to preserve the integrity of the habitat on their lands,
and one corporation. International Paper Company, has issued a formal
policy statement to that effect. The statement, issued in October,

1976, includes the following: (1) Clearcutting and mechanical site pre¬
paration will be prohibited on areas identified as supporting, or having
the potential to support, colonies of the Red Hills salamander on Com¬
pany land. (2) An appropriate buffer zone will be left on each side of
the identified salamander habitat and only selective harvesting will be

177

Red Hills Salamander

allowed in the buffer zone. (3) Road construction will be avoided on
sites where the existence of the salamander is known. (4) Periodically,
knowledgeable zoologists will be called on to "define the habitat and
determine the population of the salamander" on Company land.

This policy has been implemented. In December, 1976, the junior
author visited I.P.C.'s holdings in Monroe County and, together with
company representatives, decided on areas to be marked-out and protected
that were within the limits of the 1977-1978 cutting budget. It is an¬
ticipated that this procedure will be followed each time a new cutting
budget is mapped. The actions of the I.P.C. are especially important as
a contribution to the welfare of P. hubriohti. The company owns approx¬
imately 6,930 acres (ca. 2,810 ha), or 12.6% of the total habitat re¬
maining. This is probably more than is owned by any other single land-
owner.

Jordan and Mount (4) indicated that all of the habitat of P.
hubriohti was privately owned. The present survey revealed three sites
with suitable habitat that are publicly owned. These are a bluff on the
Lookout Hill Fire Tower property owned by the Alabama Forestry Commis¬
sion; a small series of slopes at McDuffie's Landing, along the Alabama
River; and a section of steep bluff at Haines Island Park, also along
the Alabama River. All three are in Monroe County. The last two are
managed by the U.S. Corps of Engineers. The total area of suitable habi¬
tat in these three places is about 150 acres (ca. 61 ha), some of which
supports relatively dense populations of the salamander.

On April 10, 1976, the information reported herein was submitted to
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. On December 3, 1976, P. hubriohti
was officially designated a threatened species at the federal level
[Fed. Regist. , 41:234:53032-53034), and is thus protected under the pro¬
visions of the Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1973. Designation
as "threatened" rather than "endangered," as had been proposed earlier,
was based on a determination that the threat to the salamander is less
severe than was earlier believed to be the case. With continuing coop¬
eration among federal and state authorities and landowners in the area,
there is good reason to believe that p. hubriohti will survive indefi¬
nitely as a member of Alabama's fascinating herpetofauna .

LITERATURE CITED

1. Brandon, R. A. 1965. Morphological Variation and Ecology of the
Salamander Phaeognatkus hubriohti. Copeia, 1965:67-71.

2. Highton, R. 1961. A New Genus of Lungless Salamander from the
Coastal Plain of Alabama. Copeia, 1961:65-68.

3. Jordan, J. R., Jr. 1975. Observations on the Natural History and
Ecology of the Red Hills Salamander, Phaeognatkus hubriohti Highton
(Caudata :Plethodontidae) . M.S. Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn,
Alabama. 59 pp.

4. Jordan, J. R., Jr. and Robert H. Mount. 1975. The Status of the Red
Hills Salamander, Phaeognatkus hubriohti. J. Herpetol . 9:211-215.

178

French and Mount

5. Mount, R. H. 1976. Amphibians and Repti 1 es in^ Endangered and
Threatened Plants and Animals of Alabama, H. Boschung, Ed. Bull.
Alabama Mus. Nat. Hist. No. 2:66-79.

6. Schwaner, T. S. and R. H. Mount. 1970. Notes on the Distribution
and Ecology of the Salamander Phaeognathus hubriahti Highton.
Copeia, 1970:571-573.

7. Valentine, B. D. 1963. The Plethodontid Salamander Phaeognathus:
Collecting Techniques and Habits. J. Ohio Herpetol . Soc. 4:49-54.

179

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 4, October, 1978.

A PRECISION BETA IRRADIATOR1,2

C. G. Hudson and P. A. Plato

School of Public Health, The University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
H. C. Cobb and K. M. Hornsby
Department of Electrical Engineering
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36830

Abstract. A Lucite container and lead shield was designed and con¬
structed to enclose an encapsulated strontium-90 source for use as an
irradiator. A timing power driver was also designed and constructed to
control and measure irradiation times. Specifications of the container
and the theory of the timer and associated electronics are given. Total
error of irradiation time is also given.

INTRODUCTION

It is common to observe commercial Co-60 and some neutron irradia¬
tors in nuclear studies, however specific information on the design of
beta irradiators is not easily accessible. Since 1950 when Fridell et
al J’2) applied Sr-90 for eye disorders, beta sources in the form of Sr-
90 have been used for many various applications.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission has issued a contract to The Uni¬
versity of Michigan for a two-year pilot study of the Health Physics
Society's Standard, "Criteria for Testing Personnel Dosimetry Perform¬
ance." The Health Physics standard requires, in addition to other x-ray,
gamma and neutron sources, the use of a Sr-90 irradiator of film badges
and thermoluminescent devices. Strontium-90 was chosen mainly due to
the low dose rates of the other beta emitters such as uranium. The need
for precisely reproducible dose rates (<1% variation) from a Sr-90 ir¬
radiator is required so that dosimetry can be performed accurately, and
so that an operator of this irradiator is adequately protected. In de¬
signing and constructing the irradiator factors considered were: (1)
precision electronic and mechanical systems, (2) reliability, and (3)
ease of construction.

The Lucite container used to encapsulate the Sr-90 source was de¬
signed and constructed for rigidity, easy movement, radiation tightness,
and relatively small dimensions. The size of the box was controlled by
the type of Sr-90 source. The particular 40 mCi source was manufactured

Manuscript received 25 April 1978; accepted 16 June 1978.
2This work supported by NRC contract NRC-01 -77-180.

180

Hudson, Plato, Cobb, and Hornsby

by New England Nuclear, model NB-1 therapy source. The therapy source
was accurately calibrated by the National Bureau of Standards utilizing
an extrapolation chamber. This measurement was duplicated at The Uni¬
versity of Michigan with the source in the container. The error between
the two measurements was < 0.1%.

The timing power driver was designed and constructed compatible
with TTL parameters. A hybrid relay and power solenoid were chosen so
that delay time was small and maximum movement by the solenoid was ob¬
tained .

DISCUSSION OF COMPONENTS
Lucite Container

In order to establish parameters of the Lucite container the beta-
ray energies from Sr-90 and Y-90 were considered. The average energy of
the Sr-90 betas was 0.200 MeV and the maximum was 0.544 MeV. The average
energy of the Y-90 betas was 0.931 MeV and the maximum was 2.245 MeV^).
From beta spectroscopy, range relationships for betas in Lucite can be
obtained. The amount of Lucite necessary to stop all of the most ener¬
getic betas is approximately 0.89 cm. This results in the usage of a
standard Lucite plate 1.27 cm thick. Figure 1 illustrates the Lucite
container.

As the betas slow down in traversing the Lucite bremsstrahl ung oc¬
curs; consequently, the number of X rays produced must also be reduced.

To accomplish this a 0.318 cm thick lead plate completely covered the
container. The surface dose rate of the exposed source was 1.4 x 10^
Gy/hr (1.4 x 10^ rads/hr). The dose rate at the door when the source
was not exposed was 35.2 mGy/hr (35 mrad/hr). For this particular ex¬
periment the dosimeters were placed at 35 cm from the irradiator. The
dose rates at this distance with and without the source exposed are
9.3 x 10~2 Gy/hr (9.3 rads/hr) and 1.6 x 1 0-2 mGy/hr (1.6 mrad/hr), re-
specti vely .

The irradiator is operated by automatically opening, with timing
power driver, a radiation protection door in front of the Sr-90 source.
The Lucite radiation door, 1.27 cm thick, was lined with 0.318 cm thick
lead shielding. The door is raised very rapidly by solenoid action, and
then free falls back to its protective position after the irradiation.
Machined and polished surfaces were used to allow the door to free fall.
The angle subtended by the door guide was measured to be 34° with respect
to the center of the Sr-90 source.

Timing Power Driver

To provide drive to the radiation door position solenoid, a timing
power driver was designed and constructed. Table 1 gives the parts list¬
ing for the driver. Overall design characteristics included the follow¬
ing:

(1) The timing section should be accurate to ± 2% of the least sig¬
nificant time increment.

181

A Precision Beta Irradiator

h

182

Figure 1. The Lucite container, lead shield, and Sr-90 source

Hudson, Plato, Cobb, and Hornsby

Table 1. Parts listing — timing power driver

Part Designation

Part Function

Part Number

CR1

Transient Suppressor

1 N 9 1 4

CR2-CR3

Power Supply Rectifier

GE512

D1-D4

Display, 7 segment

MAN- 71

IC1

Osci 1 1 ator

MX0-40

IC2-IC4

Binary Counter

7493

IC5-IC9

Decade Counter

7490

IC10

Divide by 12 Counter

7492

I Cl 1 - 1 Cl 4

Decade Counter

7490

I Cl 5

4 to 10 Decoder

7445

IC16-IC19

Comparator

7485

IC20-IC23

Inverter

7400

IC24

NAND/ Inverter

7400

IC25-IC26

Display Digit Multiplexer

74153

IC27

BCD to 7 Segment Decoder

7447

K1

Lockout Relay

MR106-C

K2

Hybrid Relay

221A3-5D

LED1

Run/Stop Indicator

521-2942

LED2

Power-on Indicator

MV5054

Ql-Q4

Display Digit Driver

2N3906

Q5

Relay Driver

2N3906

R1-R4

Base Current Limit

330Q1/4W

R5-R8

Pul 1 -up

1200Q1/4W

R9-R15

Segment Current Limit

LDP14-01

R16

Base Current Limit

560F21 / 4W

R17

LED! Current Limit

ioom/4w

R18

LED2 Current Limit

ioom/4w

T1

Power Transformer

21F83

TS1-TS4

Thumbwheel Switch

SF-21

(2) The driver portion should be capable of delivering sufficient
power to drive the door position solenoid and at least one
auxiliary power relay.

(3) It is desired that the exposure time be operator selectable
from minimum of 0.01 min. to maximum of 99.99 min.

(4) The controls and displays of the timer should be easily acces¬
sible and easily understood by the operator.

(5) The entire unit should be reliable and easily serviced.

Having laid the ground work, it is now possible to proceed with
a discussion of the block diagram of the timing power driver design.
Figure 2 illustrates a timing power design broken into functional blocks.
A brief description of each block follows.

183

A Precision Beta Irradiator

184

Figure 2. The timing power driver block diagram

Hudson, Plato, Cobb, and Hornsby

Osci llator

The oscillator, shown in Fig. 3, is a high precision, free running,
crystal controlled unit which is contained in a 14 pin DIP style package
The unit chosen provides a 1 MHz (± 0.01%) square wave of approximately
50% duty cycle and requires only a few milliseconds to start after power
application. The output is fully TTL compatible and is rated for a fan¬
out of 10.

Frequency Divider

Since the specifications at The University of Michigan call for a
minimum time increment of 0.01 min., the frequencies divider (IC5-IC10)
must accept the 1 MHz input from the oscillator stage and output a 1 2/3

Hz signal. The period of a 1 2/3 Hz signal is given by

T = 1/f = ~ 0.6 sec = 0.01 min. (1)

In order to obtain a 1 2/3 Hz output from a 1 MHz input the frequency
divider must divide by a constant D, such that

1 ,000,000

1 2/3

600,000.

(2)

Timing Decades

The timing decades section (IC11-IC14), shown in Fig. 4, is the
actual "workhorse" of the circuit, in that it provides elapsed time in¬
formation to both the display drivers and the comparator sections. The
least significant digit in this section increments every 0.01 min.

Display Drivers and Display

The display drivers (IC2-IC4, I Cl 5 , IC25-IC27, Q1-Q4), shown in Fig
5, accept information from the timing decades, which is BCD encoded, and
provides the decoding necessary to drive the seven segment LED displays
(D1-D4). This is schematically shown in Fig. 6. In addition, the cir¬
cuit provides for digit multiplexing which reduces component count and,
more importantly, power consumption.

Comparator

The comparator (IC16-IC19) accepts the elapsed time input from the
timing decades (IC11-IC14) and compares that input with the preset time
input from the thumbwheels (TS1-TS4, IC20-IC23). When the two inputs
become equal, the comparator outputs a time out signal to the time out
transient suppressor section.

Time Out Transient Suppressor

This section ( IC24 ( 1 ) , I C24 ( 2 ) ) , shown in Fig. 7, is merely an
added precaution to deal with the possibility of erroneous transients in

185

Vcc

A Precision Beta Irradiator

186

Figure 3. Oscillator and frequency divider

1C 24 (4)

Hudson

Plato

Cobb

and Hornsby

O

CN

U

<N

rr

(N

U

187

Figure 4. Timing decades and comparator

C 14

A Precision Beta Irradiator

nfN^-TrmrMT-rj-ro<N'-^rrnfM^

U'JUOUUUOUUUUUUU

188

Figure 5. Display drivers

Hudson, Plato, Cobb, and Hornsby

Typical

D1-D4

Display

Figure 6. LED displays

189

1C 24

A Precision Beta Irradiator

CN

in

U

190

Figure 7. Lockout and time out transient suppressor

Hudson, Plato, Cobb, and Hornsby

the timeout signal line. These transients might occur when the timing
decades increment. It should be noted here, however, that the timing
decades are "ripple counters" and, as such, should pass through binary
values less than the previous values as the counter ripples to the next
value. Consider, for example, a four bit counter whose present binary
value is 0111. Upon receipt of the next clock pulse, the counter might
go to the next value as follows:

0111 0110 0100 0000 1000.

That is, the counter would ripple through decimal values of 6, 4,
and 0 before the new value 8 is reached (the reader should bear in mind
that the ripple occurs in about 70 nsec). Under normal conditions, this
action would serve to suppress any transients. It was determined, how¬
ever, that because the transient suppressor would not introduce a severe
hardware penalty (in fact, the transient suppressor in the final design
would not add to the component count), it should be included. The cir¬
cuit, by its design nature, necessarily adds 50 nsec delay to the time
out signal as seen by the lockout and relay driver section.

Lockout and Relay Driver

This section (IC24(3), K1 , Q5) provides the drive to the power re¬
lay during timed operations and insures relay turn off and lockout upon
receipt of a time out signal. The lockout portion of the circuit dic¬
tates that the power relay will always be inactive when power is first
applied to the system. Further, when the circuit is in the locked out
state, the first stage of the frequency divider circuit is disabled,
thereby holding the timing decades section in its present state. There¬
fore, when the preset time is reached, the power relay is disabled and
the elapsed time display halts.

Power Relay

The power relay (K2), shown in Fig. 8, is a hybrid design, in that
the isolation section is a reed relay and the power section is composed
of solid state circuitry. At 60 Hz, the relay exhibits a maximum operate
time of 2 msec and a maximum release time of 9 msec. The output section
of the relay is rated for 120 VAC and 10 A maximum.

Preset Time Thumbwheels

The thumbwheels (TS1-TS4) provide an interface between the operator
and the timer. A preset time is entered using the thumbwheels and the
system will time out when this preset value is reached.

RESULTS

The overall timing error of the system is comprised of several
smaller errors which occur at different locations within the system.

The crystal controller time base is, by specification, accurate to ± 0.01%
at 25°C and has extremely low time and temperature frequency drift coef¬
ficients. The timing decades and comparator sections collectively add a

191

A Precision Beta Irradiator

-H

192

Figure 8. Power supply and power relay

Hudson, Plato, Cobb, and Hornsby

1 ysec maximum delay. Tht-s delay, however, is coexistent with a 50 ysec
delay introduced by the time out transient suppressor and, as a result,
the larger of the two errors dominates. The lockout and relay driver
section adds another 10 ysec delay in addition to that introduced previ¬
ously. Finally, the power relay introduces an additional 9 msec maximum
delay. If all delays occur in worst case quantities, the total delay is
9.06 msec, which is just slightly greater than 1.5% of the least signifi¬
cant time increment. This worst case time delay is absolute and will not
increase as preset time increases. Including the 0.01% maximum error
which might be introduced by the time base, the total worst case timing
error becomes

= 0.0151 + P(0,01)

where P is the preset time as set on the thumbwheels and E-^ is the error
expressed in percent.

For example, if the preset time selected is 0.1 min., then the max¬
imum error would be

t , Q-0151 Mo.iHo.oi) , 0J6„

(4)

There will be an additional timing delay introduced by the mechani¬
cal system, which is comprised of the radiation door and the radiation
door position solenoid. To obtain an approximation of the magnitude of
this delay, it would be beneficial to assume a frictionless system (ma¬
chined and polished door and guide), a 3.81 cm radiation door travel, a
radiation door-solenoid arm weight of 2.22 N and a constant solenoid
force of 11.12 N.

Upon opening, the acceleration of the door due to the solenoid
force is given by

Ad = ^ = 9-82(22J2) = 49.09 m/sec2. (5)

d

The time required for the door to open 3.81 cm may be written as

t2 (0.0381) „

39 msec.

-o / (49.09)

When the door closes, the time required is determined by evaluating

/2 (0.0381
9.8

msec .

(6)

(7)

Because both door timing errors are delays, the two times will add alge¬
braically so that the net error is 49 msec. Due to the foregoing assump¬
tions, this figure is only approximate. The assumption that the solenoid
force is constant will partially offset the frictionless assumption. In
other words, the solenoid force starts at 11.12 N at the full stroke

193

A Precision Beta Irradiator

(door closed) and increases proportionally to the square of the travel.
This would actually result in shorter opening times. Of course, when
the door closes there is no soleroid force, only frictional force, which
means that the door closes slightly slower than calculated. In summary,
for radiation exposure times greater than 0.1 min the entire system in¬
troduces an error less than 1 l. This error is compatible for any present
usages in beta dosimetry or therapy.

The irradiator has been proven to deliver precisely reproducible
dose rates of beta radiation for TLD's and film badges of all standard
configurations. Although this particular apparatus must be oriented so
that the radiation door is operated in a vertical plane (the reader
should remember that the radiation door free falls to the closed posi¬
tion), the addition of a push-pull solenoid arrangement would allow the
device to be used in any plane. The timing error would then be further
reduced since the time required for the door to close is the largest
error. The system allows the operator to be absent for the duration of
long irradiations. Operator error in reading the times will also be re¬
duced due to the presence of easily readable LED's and thumbwheels.

Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank The University
of Michigan Physics Machine Shop for precision machine work.

REFERENCES

1. H. L. Fridell, C. I. Thomas, and J. S. Krohmer, Am. J. Ophth. 33
(1950) 525.

2. H. L. Fridell, C. I. Thomas, and J. S. Krohmer, Am. J. Roent. and
Rad. Therapy 65 (1951) 232.

3. Radiological Health Handbook: U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, Washington, D.C. (1970) 92.

194

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 4, October, 1978.

DETERMINATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL THRESHOLD AND THERMAL
CONSTANT OF THE LARVAL STAGE OF Heliothis zea^ . 2

Baldev S. Mangat

Department of Biology
Alabama A. & M. University
Normal, Alabama
Curtis H. Adams
Department of Biology
University of Alabama at Huntsville
Huntsville, Alabama

Abstract. The ecological threshold of development and the thermal
constant for the larval stage of Heliothis zea (Boddie) were determined
by exposing larvae from a laboratory colony to a constant temperature
from the first larval instar until pupation occurred. Each representa¬
tive sample of the larvae was exposed to one of the following constant
temperature levels: 64, 70, 75, 80, 86 and 91 degrees Fahrenheit. The
ecological temperature threshold of development for the larval stage was
found to be 56°F, and the thermal constant for this stage was determined
to be 361 day-degrees.

INTRODUCTION

The use of thermal summation to express the relationship between
temperature and the rate of biological processes is not new. It is re¬
ported that Reaumer as early as 1735 suggested that the sum of average
daily temperatures during the growing season influences the time at
which fruit ripens (All ee et al . 1950). This concept has been more ex¬
tensively utilized in the 20th century as biologists sought to find an
index to represent the heat energy required for the completion of the
life cycle of an organism or the stages thereof. The concept is based
upon the law of constant heat summation of thermochemistry which states
that the quantity of heat involved in a chemical process is the same
whether it takes place in one or several increments (Getman and Daniels
1931). The application of this principle to biological reactions is con¬
tingent upon establishing the thermal threshold of development or eco¬
logical zero for the function under consideration. This threshold is
ascertained experimentally by determining the temperature level which
must be exceeded for the successful completion of a given stage or proc¬
ess. Extensive experience of phenologists has shown that the rate of

^Manuscript received 26 April 1978; accepted 19 June 1978.

2

This work was supported in part by a research grant from the U.S.
Dept, of Agriculture under CSRS grant no. 216-15-02.

195

Heliothis zea

accumulation of a daily thermal excess above this base level will
closely coincide with the rate of completion of a given biological
process. The cumulative thermal excess is expressed in units of day-
degrees, this unit being one degree of mean temperature above the eco¬
logical zero level for one day. The number of day-degrees required to
complete a given process is referred to as the thermal constant for that
process or stage. Each of the various developmental stages of a locally
adapted population is likely to have its own unique ecological zero and
thermal constant.

With knowledge of the ecological zero and thermal constant, it is
possible to predict with reasonable accuracy both the inception and
duration of the destructive stage and thus prepare to initiate appro¬
priate control measures. This study involves a determination of these
two critical points for the destructive stage of an important cotton
pest, Heliothis zea (Boddie).

The various aspects of the life cycle of the cotton bollworm Helio¬
this zea (also known as the corn/ear worm) have been known for some time
(Quaintance and Brues 1905, Ditman and Cory 1931). However, a search of
the literature discloses no attempt prior to 1963 by these or other in¬
vestigators to relate thermal summation to the growth characteristics
of this species. At that time Luckmann (1963) ascertained the incuba¬
tion period for the cotton bollworm eggs at several temperatures and re¬
ported a temperature threshold of 54°F for that life stage. An accumu¬
lation of 72 day-degrees above this base temperature was required for
egg hatching. Mangat and Apple (1966) applied this principle along with
the temperature threshold of development to determine the cumulative
heat energy requirement for the development of Heliothis zea from egg to
adult. These investigators determined the ecological zero point to be
54.7°F, and the temperature constant for development (from newly ovi¬
posited eggs to 75% adult emergence) to be 690.2 day-degrees above this
base temperature.

In an investigation of the life cycle of another insect pest,
Matteson and Decker (1965) determined the threshold of development for
the various stages of the European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalus to be
57.3°F for the egg stage, about 52°F for the larval stage and approxi¬
mately 45.5°F for the pupal stage.

Since temperature thresholds of development for the different stages
in an insect life cycle may differ among species, the aim of this inves¬
tigation was to determine the temperature threshold for the larvae of a
locally adapted strain of H. zea. After establishing the temperature
threshold, calculations were made to determine the mean day-degrees
above this base temperature required to complete the larval stage, the
destructive and probably the most vulnerable stage of the life cycle.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The study was conducted in the biology laboratory of Alabama A. & M.
University during 1972. The cotton bollworm moths employed to initiate
the laboratory culture were derived from a natural population occurring

196

Mangat and Adams

near Huntsville, Alabama. Moths were attracted from the field with a
fluorescent blacklight and deflected into a walk-in cage. These field
collected moths were confined in an oviposition cage containing 10 males
and 10 females. The oviposition cage was identical to that described
for the black cutworm by Mangat (1970). The cage was put in a constant
temperature growth chamber set at 75°F (±1°) with a relative humidity of
85-90 percent. Adults were fed a 10% honey solution.

Strips of cheesecloth were placed inside the cage to serve as a
surface for oviposition. Eggs of comparable age were obtained by expos¬
ing these strips for only 2 hours. The eggs were disinfected by soaking
for five minutes in a freshly prepared 0.15% sodium hypochlorite solu¬
tion and washed with sterile distilled water. The eggs were transferred
with a sterilized brush to a vial (95 x 25 mm) of rearing medium (Mangat
1970) with one egg per vial. These vials were kept in an incubator
maintained at 75°F and were checked frequently to determine exact ex¬
posure time. Vials containing newly hatched larva were exposed to one
of six test temperature levels. These test levels were 64, 70, 75, 80,
86, and 91 degrees Fahrenheit. Prior to the experiment, the thermostat
of each control 1 ed-temperature cabinet was set at the appropriate level
and time was allowed for the temperature to equilibrate. No attempts
were made to maintain constant relative humidity in the cabinets. At
least 1 daily reading of the temperature of each cabinet was recorded
throughout the period of the experiment. The records showed no varia¬
tion beyond ±1°F. The vials were checked twice daily for the appearance
of pupae.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Data on the time required for larval development and percent of
development per day at six constant temperatures are presented in Table
1. The mean length of the larval stage ranged from 9.6 (±0.8) days at
91°F to 48.2 (±2.9) days at 64°F. Figure 1 shows the percent develop¬
ment of larvae per day ranging from 2.7 to 10.4 and the linear regres¬
sion line fitted to the data. The point at which the regression line
intersects the X axis, 56°F, was used as the temperature threshold of

Table 1. Time (days) required and mean percent development per day by
cotton bollworm larvae reared at constant temperature

Temp

(°F)

Number

Reared

Mean

Duration
(Days, X±SD)

Mean Percent
Range Development

per Day

64

25

48.2±2.9

43-53

2.7

70

21

26 . 6±1 .9

24-29

3.8

75

27

20.0+1.5

18-22

5.0

80

26

14.2±0.8

13-16

7.0

86

22

1 1 ,8±0. 9

10-13

8.5

91

24

9.6±0.8

8-11

10.4

197

Percent Development Per Day

Heliothis zea

Figure 1. Regression of percent development of cotton bollworm larvae
per day on temperatures (°F)

development or a base temperature to calculate the day-degrees for each
experimental temperature. The mean day-degrees accumulated above base
56°F for each temperature is presented in Table 2. The day-degree ac¬
cumulations for the test larvae ranged from 336 to 385 among the experi¬
mental groups and the overall average time required for larval develop¬
ment was 361 day-degrees above 56°F.

198

Mangat and Adams

Table 2. Mean day-degrees required to complete larval development above
56°F at each of 6 constant temperatures

Temp
( °F )

Mean

Day-Degrees

64

385

70

372

75

380

80

340

86

354

91

336

Overall Mean 361

LITERATURE CITED

Allee, W. C., 0. Park, A. E. Emerson, T. Park, and K. P. Schmidt. 1950.
Principles of Animal Ecology. W. B. Saunders. 837 pp.

Ditman, L. P. and E. N. Cory. 1931. The Corn Earworm: Biology and
Control. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 328:443-482.

Getman, F. H. and F. Daniels. 1931. Outlines of Theoretical Chemistry.
5th Ed. New York. Wiley. Ill pp.

Luckmann, W. H. 1963. Measurements of the Incubation Period of Corn
Earworm Eggs. J. Econ. Entomol . 56:60-62.

Mangat, B. S. 1970. Rearing the Black Cutworm in the Laboratory. Ibid.
63:1325-1326.

Mangat, B. S. and J. W. Apple. 1966. Corn Earworm Development in Rela¬
tion to Temperature. Ibid. 59:1005-1006.

Matteson, J. W. and G. C. Decker. 1965. Development of the European

Corn Borer at Controlled Constant and Variable Temperatures. Ibid.
58:344-349.

Quaintance, A. L. and C. T. Brues. 1905. The Cotton Bollworm. U.S.
Dept. Agr. Bur. Entomol. Bull. 50. 155 pp.

199

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 4, October, 1978.

VERTEBRATES OF INTEREST FROM HORSESHOE BEND
NATIONAL MILITARY PARK1

2

Hugh G. Hanlin and J. Robin Russell

_ Department of Zoology -Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

John D. Freeman

Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn, Alabama 36830

From mid-June to mid-September, 1974, an inventory was made of the
vertebrate fauna and the available habitats in Horseshoe Bend National
Military Park. The primary intent of the study was to provide park
personnel with information needed for future park management. The
majority of the animals encountered were vertebrates common in the
Piedmont region or throughout Alabama (Smith-Vaniz, 1968; Mount, 1975;
Imhof, 1977; Hall and Kelson, 1959). However, certain species recorded
in the study represented range extensions or, for various other reasons,
were of special interest. Only these species are discussed in this
paper.

The 2,040-acre park is located approximately 12.0 miles north of
Dadeville in Tallapoosa County, Alabama. It is situated above the Fall
Line on the Piedmont Plateau (Fenneman, 1938) and is bisected by the
Tallapoosa River. Much of the park is maintained for tourist and his¬
torical reasons and consists of regularly mowed fields or even-aged pine
forests. However, most of the park, particularly that portion south of
the Tallapoosa River, consists of a variety of habitats which supports
diverse vertebrate life (see Fig. 1).

Waterfalls along the Fall Line act as natural barriers, restricting
the distribution of fishes between the Coastal Plain and upland areas of
the Piedmont Plateau. All fishes collected in this study were known to
occur in the Tallapoosa River, but some were thought to have been
strictly Coastal Plain forms. For instance, the white crappie, Pomoxis
annularis, was considered to be a Coastal Plain species with isolated
populations above the Fall Line (Williams, 1965). This species has be¬
come established in Lake Martin about 10 miles downstream from the park

^Manuscript received 12 April 1978; accepted 25 September 1978.

2

Present address: Department of Zoology, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, Oregon 97331.

200

Hanlin, Russell, and Freeman

VEGETATIONAl MAP OF
HORSESHOE BEND NATIONAL MILITARY PARK

E3 Regularly Mowed Field*

IF1,'! Aster - Gold®F>r«?d - 9room»«dge
□ Shrubs - Smell Pines
BBS Pine Dom - Little Hardwood Understory
Pine Dom - Much Hardwood Understory
E3 Bottomland Hardwoods
V//A Transition Hardwoods
Upland Hardwoods
E2 Beaver Swamp

Fig. 1. Vegetational map illustrating the available habitats for verte¬
brate species and the location of these habitats in the park in
relation to the Tallapoosa River. The numerous plant communi¬
ties support a wide variety of vertebrates.

which may account for its presence in the Tallapoosa River within the
park.

Another species collected, the pretty shiner, Notropis bellus , was
considered rare above the Fall Line by Smith-Vaniz (1968). Two other
species collected, the golden shiner, Notemigonus chry soleuous , and the
rough shiner, Notropis baileyi, were considered by Williams (1965) to be
uncommon above the Fall Line.

Williams (1965) found the mosqui tof i sh , Gambusia affinis, at only
one station above the Fall Line in the Tallapoosa River system, and
speculated that this species was introduced into the Piedmont, because

201

Vertebrates of Horseshoe Bend

t was collected in a stream flowing from a stocked pond. We found G.

Inis to be well established in a beaver swamp near the southern
roundary of the park (Fig. 1).

; green treefrog, Eyla oinerea., is absent from most of the upland
areas of Alabama. A specimen collected in the beaver swamp represents
the northernmost known locality for this species on the Piedmont Plateau
(Mount, 1975).

Prior to our study, the southern distribution of the midwest worm
snake, Carphophis amoenus helenae, was thought to be restricted by the
Tallapoosa River. A specimen collected in the transition hardwood for¬
ests near the southwestern corner of the park (see Fig. 1) represents
the only known record of this species south of the Tallapoosa River on
the Piedmont Plateau (Mount, 1975).

A Cooper's hawk, Aoaipiter eooperi, was sighted in the transition
hardwood forest near the southwestern corner of the park in mid-August.
Resident populations of this species are now thought to be rare in Ala¬
bama (Keeler, 1962), although they were once common throughout the state

Small mammals were collected with snap traps and pitfall traps. On
the basis of 12 trapped specimens, the survey revealed the southeastern
shrew, Sorex lengirostris , to be one of the most abundant small mammals
in the park. Until recently this species was considered rare in Alabama
(Dusi, 1962), but it appears now that this may have been due to ineffec¬
tive sampling methods. As French (1975) demonstrated, the use of pit-
fall traps is a highly effective technique for collecting shrews.

The woodchuck, Marmota monaxc, is a wide-ranging North American
species that is abundant throughout much of its range. The Piedmont
Plateau represents the eastern periphery of its range in Alabama (Hall
and Kelson, 1959), and the woodchuck is generally uncommon in this
region. We found, however, that this species is established in the park
on both sides of the river.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

An inventory of the biota of any given area very rarely yields all
possible forms that may exist, especially, when the study is conducted
in only one season of the year. We feel, however, that the area within
the present boundaries of Horseshoe Bend National Military Park was as
carefully studied as any other area of comparable size in Alabama during
a short study period. Although most of the animals encountered were
common forms, we believe that these records of vertebrate species are
significant to our understanding of their distributions:

Fi shes

Pomoxis annularis, white crappie
Notropis bellus, pretty shiner
Notropis baileyi , rough shiner
Notemigonus ahrysoleuaus , golden shiner
Gambusia affinis, mosquitofish

202

Hanlin, Russell, and Freeman

Amphi bi ans

Hyla oinerea, green treefrog
Reptiles

Carphophis amoenus helenae, midwest worm snake
Birds

Aaaipiter coopevi. Cooper's hawk
Mamma 1 s

Sorex longirostris , southeastern shrew

Marmota monax, woodchuck

LITERATURE CITED

Dusi , J. L. 1962. Rare and endangered species of mammals. In: Rare
and Endangered Vertebrates of Alabama. Alabama Department of Con¬
servation and Natural Resources, Division of Game and Fish, Mont¬
gomery, Alabama. 92 pp.

Fenneman, N. M. 1938. Physiography of Eastern United States. McGraw
Hill Co., Inc., New York. 689 pp.

French, T. 1975. Natural history of the southeastern shrew, Sorex

longirostris Bachman. M.S. Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, Ala¬
bama. 95 pp.

Hall, E. R. and K. R. Kelson. 1959. The Mammals of North America. The
Ronald Press Company, New York. 1083 pp.

Imhof, T. A. 1976. Alabama Birds, 2nd Ed. The University of Alabama
Press, University, Alabama. 556 pp.

Keeler, J. E. 1962. Rare and endangered birds of Alabama. In: Rare
and Endangered Vertebrates of Alabama. Alabama Department of Con¬
servation and Natural Resources, Division of Game and Fish, Mont¬
gomery, Alabama. 92 pp.

Mount, R. H. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of Alabama. Agricul¬
tural Experiment Station, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. 347

pp.

Smith-Vaniz, W. F. 1968. Freshwater fishes of Alabama. Agricultural
Experiment Station, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. 211 pp.

Williams, J. D. 1965. Studies on the fishes of the Tallapoosa River
System in Alabama and Georgia. M.S. Thesis, University of Alabama,
University, Alabama. 135 pp.

203

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 4, October, 1978.

THE ACTIVE CENTER OF INVERTASE FROM
CANDIDA UTILIS: A KINETIC STUDY 1

?

David Edmonds, Jesse Ezzell , and Jonathan Ford

Department of Chemistry
Birmingham-Southern College
Birmingham , Alabama 35204

Abstract. The ionizing functional groups of amino acids at the
active center of Candida utilis invertase were determined by kinetic
methods using sucrose and raffinose as substrates. Dixon plots of -log
Michaelis constant against pH at 30° for sucrose hydrolysis showed ion¬
izing groups in the free enzyme with apparent pKa 4.4, and in the enzyme-
substrate complex with pKa 3.8. Similar plots for raffinose at 25° gave
pKa values of 4.3 and 3.5 for groups in the free enzyme and enzyme-sub¬
strate complex, respectively. There was little evidence for a second
ionizing group with pKa 6-7 shown by other authors for Saccharomyces
cerevisiae invertase. Redetermination at 50° of the pKa in the free
enzyme seen in raffinose hydrolysis allowed calculation of the heat of
ionization, which was found to be -810 cal/mole. This group was identi¬
fied as carboxyl. The heat of ionization for both groups in the free
enzyme and enzyme-substrate complex seen in sucrose hydrolysis was 8900
cal/mole. It is suggested that this relatively high value could be due
to a carboxyl group whose ionization was altered by local protein effects
at the active center, possibly related to strong binding of sucrose to
the enzyme. Functional groups thought to participate at the active cen¬
ter of invertases from different sources were discussed. These studies
also showed that sucrose hydrolysis exhibited substrate inhibition at
pH's above 4.5 and, with both sucrose and raffinose as substrates, there
was some apparent cooperative substrate binding.

INTRODUCTION

Both direct chemical modification and indirect kinetic methods have
been used to determine chemical functional groups at the active center
of invertases (8-D-fructofuranosidase fructohydrolyase, EC 3.2.1.26) from
a number of sources. A knowledge of such groups is important for under¬
standing their role in catalysis and in control of enzyme activity.

Thus, inhibition of invertase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae by mercury
and other heavy metal ions has suggested the presence of cysteinyl sulf-
hydryl and histidyl imidazole at the active center (Myrback, I960; Kidby,

^Manuscript received 19 July 1978; accepted 16 August 1978.

2

To whom inquiries concerning this article should be addressed.

204

Edmonds, Ezzell , and Ford

1974). The latter group has also been implicated by inhibition studies
using diazonium tetrazole (Leskovac et al., 1975) and by extensive
kinetic studies (Myrback, 1960; Shall and Waheed, 1969; Fedorov and
Malinovskii, 1973). Iodine inhibition of this enzyme has suggested the
presence of the thiomethyl side chain of methionine (Waheed and Shall,
1971) while inhibition by N-bromosuccinimide has shown a requirement for
tryptophanyl indole at the active center (Leskovac et al., 1975). The
carboxyl group of aspartic acid has been definitely shown to be at the
active center of rabbit small intestine invertase-isomaltase, which ap¬
parently possesses two active centers (Quaroni and Semenza, 1976; Brawn
et al., 1977). This group, from either aspartic or glutamic acid, is
also probably necessary for the catalytic function of Saccharomyces
aerevisiae invertase (Myrback, 1960; Shall and Waheed, 1969; Waheed and
Shall, 1971).

One would expect that invertases from a wide variety of sources
would possess the same or very similar functional groups which bind the
substrate and catalyze the chemical reaction, although different groups
would be expected to participate in allosteric or other control of
enzyme activity (Dixon and Webb, 1964). However, the literature has
shown significant inconsistency with respect to both experimental re¬
sults pertaining to active-site functional groups from the same enzyme
(Myrback, 1960; Leskovac et al . , 1975; Dixon and Webb, 1964) and from
different enzymes (Bigger and Braymer, 1975). -0 that it becomes impor¬
tant to find which groups directly function in substrate binding and
catalysis and to ascertain the degree to which results obtained from one
invertase may be applied to another. Accordingly, we have examined the
kinetics of invertase from Candida utilis, using sucrose and raffinose
as substrates, as a function of pH and have found the apparent pKa's of
groups ionizing in the free enzyme and enzyme-substrate complex These
were determined at several temperatures and the results plotted accord¬
ing to the method of Dixon (Dixon, 1953; Dixon and Webb, 1964) which al¬
lowed calculation of the heats of ionization. From both the pKa 1 s and
heats of ionization the groups were identified. This study also better
characterizes invertase from Candida utilis and shows that there is con¬
siderable substrate inhibition for sucrose hydrolysis at pH's above 4.5,
while for both sucrose and raffinose as substrates there is evidence of
cooperative substrate binding.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sucrose, D-glucose, D-fructose, 3,5-dinitrosal icyl ic acid, bovine
serum albumin, Sephadex G-200, and highly purified invertase from Co
dida utilis (grade X) were purchased from Sigma Chemical Company. Raf¬
finose was purchased from P-L Biochemicals Company. All other chemicals
were reagent grade obtained from commercial sources. Citrate-phosphate
buffers at the several pH's were prepared according to Dawson et al.
(1969). Enzyme was further purified by column chromatography on Sephadex
G-200 using 0.05 M citrate-phosphate, pH 4.8, as elution buffer. Enzyme
activity was assayed by the method of Clark (1964). At each pH and tem¬
perature the assay contained 0.05 M citrate-phosphate, enzyme, and either
sucrose or raffinose in a final volume of 3.0 ml. Molar concentrations
of sucrose were 0.0033, 0.010, 0.020, 0.033, 0.050, 0.066, 0.0833, or
0.100. Molar concentrations of raffinose were 0.0166, 0.0266, 0.033,

205

Invertase from Candida utilis

0.0433, 0.050, or as indicated in the Results section. Assay time was
five minutes. Assay pH was routinely checked using a Corning Model 12
pH meter, corrected for temperature. Temperature was maintained using a
water bath circulator-heater unit equipped with a cooler (Sargent Welch
Company). Absorbance in the developed assays was determined at 540 nm
using either a Chem-Anal spectrophotometer (Sargent Welch Company) or a
Perkin-Elmer Coleman 124 double beam spectrophotometer. One unit of
enzyme activity is defined as the amount of enzyme that catalyzes the
hydrolysis of one pmole of sucrose or raffinose per minute. Specific
activity is expressed as units per milligram protein. Protein was
determined by the method of Lowry et al . (1951), using bovine serum
albumin as standard. Assays were linear with time and the enzyme con¬
centration used. Michael is constants and maximal velocities were deter¬
mined by the method of Lineweaver and Burk (1934). In the studies with
sucrose as substrate, points which showed substrate inhibition of the
enzyme were not used in calculating the Michael is constants or maximal
velocities. At a given pH and temperature quadruplicate sets of assays
used in determining the initial velocity as a function of substrate con¬
centration gave variabilities in the resultant Michaelis constants and
maximal velocities of five percent or less. With raffinose as substrate,
it was found that Li neweaver-Burk plots were not linear at 0.0033,

0.0066, and 0.010 molar raffinose and these concentrations were not rou¬
tinely used in determining the kinetic constants. Ionization constants
for enzyme functional groups were determined by the double logarithmic
method of Dixon (Dixon and Webb, 1964), with abscissa and ordinate of
equal unit length. Such ionization constants are considered reliable in
the range ±0.3 pK units.

RESULTS

Invertase from Candida utilis is stable in the range pH 3-6 (Figure
1A). The enzyme is unstable below pH 2.0. The optimal pH with sucrose
as substrate is 5.2 at low substrate concentration (10 mM sucrose); this
shifted to pH 4.9 at high substrate concentration (66 mM sucrose) and
was accompanied by increased enzyme activity in the range pH 3-5 (Figure
IB, 1C). With raffinose as substrate the optimal pH was 5.4 and was un¬
affected by substrate concentration (Figure 2). The enzyme was unstable
above pH 7.5 with either substrate. The specific activity of our pre¬
paration of C. utilis invertase was 159 ymoles sucrose hydrolysed per
minute per milligram protein (0.066 M sucrose, pH 4.9, 30°) and 34.2
ymoles raffinose hydrolysed per minute per milligram protein (0.050 M
raffinose, pH 5.3, 25°).

The effect of sucrose concentration on the initial velocity of
sucrose hydrolysis at 30° is shown in Figure 3. At pH's below approxi¬
mately 4 essentially Michaelis kinetics (hyperbolic) were found at su¬
crose concentrations above 0.020 molar. However, below this substrate
concentration some sigmoidicity was found in the curves (Figure 3A, 3B),
which could indicate cooperative substrate binding. At pH's greater
than 4.5 increasing sucrose concentration inhibited the enzyme (Figure
3C, 3D). Increasing the pH from 3.2 to 5.7 results in approximately
three-fold lowering of the Michaelis constant (Figure 3B, 3D). Sub¬
strate inhibition was not apparent with raffinose as reactant (Figure 4).

206

UIUU/S0IOLUT/

Edmonds, Ezzell, and Ford

Figure 1. The effect of pH on the stability and initial velocity of

sucrose hydrolysis by Candida utilis invertase. In examining
stability (curve A), enzyme (61 pg) was incubated at the indi¬
cated pH for 30 minutes, then diluted ten-fold with 0.05 M
ci trate-phosphate buffer, pH 4.9. A 1.0 ml portion was as¬
sayed at pH 4.9 and 30° at 83.3 mM sucrose. Curves B and C
show initial velocities at 30° as a function of pH at 66 mM
and 10 mM sucrose, respectively. Quantity of enzyme per as¬
say was 6.0 pg. Other assay conditions are given in the
Methods section.

207

Invertase from Candida utilis

Figure 2. The effect of pH on the initial velocity of raffinose hydroly¬
sis by Candida utilis invertase at 25°. In curve A, raffin¬
ose concentration was 0.050 M; in curve B, 0.0166 M. Quan¬
tity of enzyme per assay was 25 pg.

Sigmoidicity of substrate concentration-initial velocity curves was found
at low raffinose concentrations over the entire pH range of the study;
again, cooperative substrate binding may be present. In accordance with
early work with Saccharomyces cerevisiae invertase (Myrback, 1960), su¬
crose was found to be a better substrate than raffinose.

With sucrose as substrate, maximal velocity rises to a maximum at
pH 4.9, followed by a steep decline on the alkaline side of the maximum
(Figure 5A). The maximal velocity for raffinose hydrolysis is found at
pH 4.0. However, the enzyme retains considerable activity at pH's above
4 with this substrate (Figure 6A). Apparent affinity of the enzyme for
sucrose and raffinose, as measured by the Michael is constant. Km, in¬
creases in the range pH 2-5, above which it attains a limiting value for

208

( uiw/S0|Oujt/) °n (uiLU/sajOLur/)

Edmonds, Ezzell, and Ford

Molarity xIO'2

Molarity xIO

(Molarity)"1 xIO2

Figure 3. The effect of sucrose concentration and pH on the initial
reaction velocity at 30°. Assay enzyme concentration was
2.0 yg/ml . Specific activity at pH 3.2 was 103 units/mg;
at pH 5.7, 135 units/mg. In graphs B and D the data of
graphs A and C, respectively, are plotted by the method of
Lineweaver and Burk. Substrate inhibition is evident at the
higher pH.

209

Invertase from Candida utilis

Figure 4. The effect of raffinose concentration on the initial velocity
of raffinose hydrolysis at pH 4.6 and 25°. The data of part
A are regraphed in part B according to the method of Line-
weaver and Burk. Enzyme concentration was 8.3 pg/ml . Spe¬
cific activity was 80 units/mg. At lower raffinose concen¬
trations (0.0033, 0.0066, and 0.010 molar), Michael i s-Menton
kinetics were not followed.

210

Edmonds, Ezzell, and Ford

both substrates (Figures 5B and 6B). Km Sucrose also appears to reach a
limiting value at pH's below 2.5. Km Raffinose is approximately ten¬
fold higher than Km sucrose over most of the pH range studied.

In order to identify ionizing groups in the free enzyme and enzyme-
substrate complex, the data on the effect of pH on Km sucrose and Km
raffinose were regraphed according to the method proposed by Dixon and
extended by Laidler (Dixon, 1953; Dixon and Webb, 1964; Laidler, 1958).
The graph for Km sucrose at 30° (Figure 7A, 30°) shows ionizing groups
in the free enzyme (curve concave downward) and enzyme-substrate complex
(curve concave upward) with apparent pKa values of 4.4 and 3.8, respec¬
tively. At 25°, pKm (-log Km) raffinose as a function of pH follows a
pattern similar to that of pKm sucrose, with pKa's of 4.3 and 3.5 for
free enzyme and enzyme-substrate complex, respectively (Figure 7B, 25°).
However, the pKm values at pH's below 4.5 approach limiting values very
gradually, if at all, so that assignment of an apparent pKa 3.5 for the
enzyme-substrate complex must be somewhat tentative. Similar trends for
pKm sucrose and pKm raffinose were found at 50° (Figure 7A, 7B).

At maximal velocity all of the enzyme is in the form of enzyme-
substrate complex; graphs of log maximal velocity against pH give ap¬
parent pKa values for ionizing groups in the enzyme-substrate complex
only (Laidler, 1958; Dixon and Webb, 1964). We have found that such
graphs for C. utilis invertase catalysis of sucrose hydrolysis show an
ionizing group with pKa 3.5, which confirms the finding of such a group
in the enzyme-substrate complex in the graphs of pKm as a function of
pH.

Apparent heats of ionization, AH-j , of groups in the free enzyme and
enzyme-substrate complex may be obtained by determining the effect of pH
on the Michael is constant at several temperatures (Dixon and Webb, 1964).
Logarithmic plots of data obtained on the effect of Km sucrose for c.
utilis invertase at 15°, 30°, and 50° are presented in Figure 7A. The
effect of increasing temperature is to lower the pKa of both groups in
the free enzyme and enzyme-substrate complex by 0.022 pKa units per de¬
gree. This temperature coefficient corresponds to a heat of ionization
of 8900 cal/mole at 25° (Figure 8). Temperature has little effect on
the pKa for free enzyme seen in raffinose hydrolysis, which had a heat
of ionization of -810 cal/mole at 25° (Figure 7B and 8).

DISCUSSION

Kinetic studies of enzyme catalysis as a function of pH and temper¬
ature, in the range of inherent enzyme stability, indicate the presence
of only ionizing functional groups directly involved in substrate bind¬
ing and catalysis; all other groups remain 'silent' by this method, which
is thus highly selective (Laidler, 1958; Dixon and Webb, 1964; Bray and
White, 1966). Such excluded groups could be either those removed from
the active center or those ionizing outside the pH range of the study.
With this is mi nd it is apparent that a side-chain carboxyl group of
aspartic or glutamic acid participates in both the free enzyme and
enzyme-substrate complex of Candida utilis invertase. This is shown by
the low pKa values for sucrose and raffinose hydrolysis (Figure 7A, 7B)

211

(mM) Vmax (/xmoles/min)

Invertase from Candida utilis

_i _ _ i _ i _ i _ i _ i _ i _ i _ l _ i - 1

2 3 4 5 6 7

pH

Figure 5. The effect of pH on the maximal velocity (Vmax) and Michaelis
constant (Km) for sucrose hydrolysis at 30°. Vmax and K,,, were
determined from Lineweaver-Burk plots at each pH. Enzyme con¬
centration was 2.0 pg/ml .

212

(mM) VmQX (fjL moles/m in)

Edmonds, Ezzell, and Ford

3 00

B

_ 1 _ I _ 1 _ I _ L

2 3 4 5 6 7

pH

Figure 6. (A) The effect of pH on the maximal velocity (Vmax) of raf-

finose hydrolysis at 50°. (B) The effect of pH on the

Michaelis constant for raffinose. Solid triangles are data
taken at 25°; solid circles, at 50°. Except for the data at
pH 3.6, the temperature has little effect on Km.

213

Invertase from Candida utilis

J _ i I 1 i i _ i i _ i _ !

2 3 4 5 6 7

pH

Figure 7A. The effect of pH and temperature on the Michael is constant
for sucrose hydrolysis. Data for Km are graphed by the
method of Dixon and Webb, where pKni = -log Km. Data indi¬
cated by solid triangles at 50° were obtained in a second
series of experiments. The arrow at lower pH at each tem¬
perature indicates a pKa of an ionizing functional group in
the enzyme-substrate complex; the arrow at the higher pH
indicates the pKa of a group in or near the free enzyme
active center. The effect of increasing temperature is
seen to decrease the pKa of both groups.

214

Edmonds, Ezzell , and Ford

Figure 7B. The effect of pH and temperature on the Michael is constant
for raffinose hydrolysis. Data at 25° (solid triangles) and
50° (solid circles) are plotted as in Figure 7A. Increase
in temperature has little effect on the group seen ionizing
in the free enzyme with pKa 4.3. The data were insufficient
to allow determination of the effect of temperature on the
group ionizing in the enzyme-substrate complex.

and by the low heat of ionization obtained for the group ionizing in the
free enzyme in raffinose hydrolysis (Figures 7B and 8) (Cohn and Ed sa 11,
1943; Dixon and Webb, 1964). Further evidence that the functional group
seen in free enzyme is that seen in the enzyme-substrate complex is that
their heats of ionization in sucrose hydrolysis are identical (Figure 8).
Binding of either substrate causes a decrease in the apparent pKa of the
active center carboxyl group by approximately 0.6-0. 8 pKa units. The
relatively high heat of ionization (8900 cal/mole) found for groups of
pKa 4.4 and 3.8 seen for sucrose hydrolysis in the free enzyme and
enzyme-substrate complex, respectively, may be due to effects of other
amino acid side chain residues (possibly tryptophanyl indole; see
Leskovac et al. (1975)) at or near the enzyme active center. Tighter
binding of sucrose to enzyme, reflected in the ten fold lower Michael is
constant, could change the local protein environment of the active site
carboxyl (Koshland, 1970) and effectively alter its heat of ionization.
Carboxyl groups have been shown to participate in catalysis of sucrose
and isomaltose hydrolysis by sucrase-isomaltase from rabbit small in¬
testine (Brawn et al., 1977) and in sucrose and raffinose hydrolysis
catalyzed by Saooharomyces oerevisiae invertase (Myrback, 1960; Waheed
and Shall, 1971; Shall et al., 1971).

We find little evidence for direct participation of histidyl
imidazole in substrate binding or catalysis. This group would have been
reflected in an additional bend centered at approximately pH 6-7 in the
pKm against pH curves (Figure 7). Such curves show the presence of
ionizing groups in both free enzyme and substrate-complex. Even allow¬
ing for decreased enzyme activity at pH's above 6, the graphs at 30° and
50° for sucrose, and at 25° and 50° for raffinose show a smooth transi¬
tion from lower to higher pKm as pH is increased, with no evidence of
change near pH 7. These results are different from the results of
kinetic studies of S. oerevisiae invertase which suggest the participa¬
tion of an imidazole group at the active center (Myrback, 1960; Dixon

215

Invertase from Candida utilis

280 290 300 310 320 330

°K

Figure 8. The effect of temperature on the pKa of ionizing groups in
free enzyme (solid circles) and enzyme-substrate complex
(solid triangles) for sucrose hydrolysis, and, in the free
enzyme (open circles), for raffinose hydrolysis. The slope
of both lines determined for sucrose as substrate is -0.022
pKa units per degree while the slope of the line for raf¬
finose is 0.002 units per degree. Heats of ionization ( AH i ) o
were calculated at 25° using the expression AH i = -2.303 R T"
(dpKa/d.T ) , where the quantity in parenthesis is the rate of
change of pKa with temperature (Cohn and Edsal , 1943; Dixon
and Webb, 1964) .

216

Edmonds, Ezzell, and Ford

and Webb, 1964, Fedorov and Malinovskii, 1973). It is possible, although
somewhat unlikely, that in c. utilis invertase the apparent pKa for imid¬
azole is shifted to a higher pH. Log Vmax against pH graphs which indi¬
cate the presence of ionizing groups in the enzyme-substrate complex are
made difficult to interpret in this case by increasing enzyme instability
at pH's above 7. In any event, a general mechanism for invertase cataly¬
sis may have to do without an imidazole group.

Functional groups ionizing outside the pH range of our study in¬
clude a-amino, lysyl e-amino, tyrosyl phenolic hydroxyl, cysteinyl
sulfhydryl, and argininyl guanidinium. Of these, only the sulfhydryl
group has been suggested to participate in catalysis, principally from
the results of heavy metal and iodine inhibition studies (Myrback,

1960). However, additional work has shown that some of these results
could be explained by postulating a reversible oxidation of the thio-
methyl side chain of protein-bound methionine (Shall et al . , 1971).

Also, invertase from Neurospora erassa is not inhibited by iodoaceta-
mide (Bigger and Braymer, 1975), nor is invertase from S. eerevisiae in¬
hibited by 5,5-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoate) (Leskovac et al . , 1975), so
that a catalytic function for the sulfhydryl group is in doubt. Of the
nonionizing side-chain groups, tryptophanyl indole is probably directly
involved in catalysis by S. eerevisiae invertase (Leskovac et al., 1975)
and work should be directed to see whether this group is required in
other invertases. Thus, a general mechanism of invertase catalysis
might include both protein carboxyl and indole residues.

With sucrose as substrate, our preparation of Candida utilis in¬
vertase showed significant substrate inhibition, particularly at pH's
above 4.5. Substrate inhibition of yeast invertase has also been re¬
ported by Dickensheets et al. (1977). The slight sigmoidicity seen in
the sucrose concentration-initial velocity curves below pH 4, and the
more pronounced sigmoidicity seen in similar curves for raffinose over
the entire pH range of our study, is indicative of cooperative substrate
binding. However, the hysical basis for this action awaits investiga-
ti on .

REFERENCES

Bigger, C. H. and H. D. Braymer. 1975. Biochim. Bi^nhys. Acta 397:418.

Brawn, H., A. Cogoli, and G. Semenza. 1977. Eur. J. Biochem. 73:437.

Bray, H. G. and K. White. 1966. Kinetics and thermodynamics in bio¬
chemistry, New York, N.Y., Academic Press, pp. 264-324.

Clark, J. M. 1964. Experimental biochemistry, San Francisco, Calif.,

W. H. Freeman and Company, pp. 101-1 06

Cohn, E. J. and J. T. Edsall. 1943. Proteins, amino acids, and pep¬
tides, New York, N.Y., Hafner Publishing Company, pp. 75-90 .

Dawson, R. M. C., D. C. Elliott, W. H. Elliot, and K. M. Jones. 1969.
Data for biochemical research. New York, N.Y., Oxford University
Press, pp. 484-485.

217

Invertase from Candida utilis

Di ckensheets , P. A., L. F
Bioeng. 19:365.

. Chen,

and G. T.

Tsao. 1977.

Biotechnol .

Dixon, M. 1953. Biochem

. J. 55:

: 161 .

Dixon, M. and E. C. Webb.
Academic Press, pp.

1964.

116-166.

Enzymes,

2nd edition.

New York, N.Y

Fedorov, A. F. and V. 6. Mai i novski i . 1973. Fiz-Khim. Osn. Pishch.

Teckhnol . 103.

Kidby, D. K. 1974. J. Gen. Microbiol. 84:343.

Koshland, D. E. 1970. The enzymes, 4th edition, vol . 1, New York, N.Y.,
341 .

Laidler, K. J. 1958. Chemical kinetics of enzyme action, London,
England, Oxford University Press, pp. 117-162.

Leskovac, V., S. Trivic, and D. Pavkov-Pericin. 1975. Biochim. Bio-
phys. Acta 405:482.

Lineweaver, H. and D. Burk. 1934. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 56:658.

Lowry, 0. H., H. J. Rosebrough, A. L. Farr, and R. J. Randall. 1951.

J. Biol . Chem. 193:265.

Myrback, K. 1960. The enzymes, 2nd edition, vol. 4, New York, N.Y.,
Academic Press, pp. 379-396.

Quaroni , A. and G. Semenza. 1976. J. Biol. Chem. 251:3250.

Shall, S., A. Baseer, and A. Waheed. 1971. Biochem. J. 122:19.

Shall, S. and A. Waheed. 1969. Biochem. J. 111:33.

Waheed, A. and S. Shall. 1971. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 242:172.

218

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 4, October, 1978.

ABSTRACT

Paper Presented at the 55th Annual Meeting
Troy State University
Montgomery Civic Center
Montgomery, Alabama
April 6-9, 1978

KINETIC STUDIES ON RAT LIVER KYNURENINASE

Jonathan Ford, Kristine Haglund, Michael Marks, and Steven Zachow

Department of Chemistry
Birmingham-Southern College
Birmingham , Alabama 35204

The pyridoxal -phosphate-requiri ng enzyme kynureninase participates
in liver catabolism of L-tryptophan , mediating the pathway which leads
to the synthesis of NAD+. Kynureninase cleaves L-kynurenine or L-3-
hydroxykynurenine to give anthranilate or 3-hydroxyanthranilate, respec¬
tively. The enzyme was partially purified from rat liver and the Mi¬
chael is constants for L-kynurenine and L-3-hydroxykynurenine were deter¬
mined to be 2.3 x 10-4 M and 6.8 x 10_5 M, respectively, at pH 8.41 and
37°. With L-kynurenine as substrate, the enzyme was competitively in¬
hibited by several compounds which contained structural features of
either amino acid or aryl portions of the substrate. The enzyme was
also strongly inhibited by several inhibitors which combined structural
features of both amino acid substrate and pyridoxal cofactor. The ef¬
fect of pH on the initial velocity, maximal velocity, and Michaelis con¬
stant, using L-kynurenine as substrate, was studied. The Michaelis con¬
stant decreased from 11.4 x 10-4 Mat pH 7.1 to 1.3 x 10-4 Mat pH 9.0.
Logarithmic plots of these data showed pKa's for functional groups ioniz¬
ing in the enzyme-substrate complex and free enzyme active center of 7.6
and 8.5, respectively. The molecular weight of the enzyme was deter¬
mined by gel filtration to be 59,000 ± 5000. Paper chromatography of
purified enzyme reaction mixtures confirmed the presence of aryl cleavage
products of the kynureninase reaction but gave no evidence for L-alanine
as the three-carbon product. Current studies in this laboratory appear
to indicate that this enzyme is a typical pyridoxal phosphate-requiring
el iminase.

219

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 4, October, 1978.

APPOINTED COMMITTEES OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
1978-1979

Auditing Committee, Senior Academy
George D. Cole, UAT, Chmn, '79

Local Arrangements for 1979
Dean W. F. McArthur, Liason
Officer, UNA-AAS
Committee Chairman
Joseph C. Thomas
AAS Program Coordinator
Raymond E. Isbell
AJAS-JSHS Program Coordinator
John W. Holland Jr.

Gorgas Coordinator
Charles E. Keyes

Membership Committee

Kenneth Ottis, Chmn. '80
Section Chairman (11)

Nominating Committee

Reuben B. Boozer, JSU, Chmn. '80
Robert T. Gudauskas, AU, '79
Tom Denton, SU, '80
James C. Wilkes, TSU, '81

Public Relations
Henry S. Marks '79

Resolutions Committee
Hoyt M. Kaylor, BSU, '79

Regional Science Fair Committee
R. L. Crawford, Chmn. '80
Mobile Region

Ben B. Chastain, SU, Central
Region

Marlin Simon, AU, Eastern Region
Jim Pollard, UAH, North Region
C. J. McSpadden, JSU, Northeast
Region

Billy Norman, TSU, South Region
J. L. Nisbitt, UAT, Western
Regi on

Auditing Committee, Junior Academy
Donna Bentley, Montgomery,

Chmn. '79

Long Range Planning Committee
Joseph C. Thomas, UNA, '79
William J. Barrett, SRI, '80
G. 0. Spencer, TSU, '81
Urban Diener, AU, '82

Newsletter Committee (Editor)

Place of Meeting Committee

Ellen McLaughlin, SU, Chmn. '80
Jack S. Brown, UNA, '79
Bill Alford, AU, '81

Research Committee

Jack S. Moore, UNA, Chmn. '79
J. C. Jackson, USA, '79
Albert A. Belmonte, AU, '80

Committee on Science and Public
Pol i cy

Urban Diener, AU, Chmn. '80
Carl Grafton, AUM, '79
John L. Cain, AU, '79
Thomas Denton, SU, '81
W. F. Arendale, Ex-officio
Kenneth Ottis, Ex-officio
Jack S. Moore, Ex-officio

History of the Alabama Academy of
Science Committee

James F. Sulzby, Birmingham,

Chmn .

Emmett B. Carmichael, UAB
Charles G. Summersell, UA

220

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 49, No. 4, October, 1978.

INDEX

AAS Committees 1978-1979 220

ACTH, aging and in vitro adrenal cortical responsiveness to . . . 71

Acardia, anencephaly, and other defects in human fetus . 120

Adams, Curtis H . 195

Adrenocortical responsiveness to ACTH in aging rats, effect

of preincubation upon subsequent in vitro . 72

Ainsworth, Charles H . 144

Alabama's wiregrass, implications of the region for growth

and administration . 83

Alford, W. L . 86, 86

Algorithms applied to image registration, preprocessing . 139

Aluminum alkyls with crown ethers, reaction of . 150

American press and the Japanese subjugation of Korea

1894-1905 112

Amide and ester bonds by proteolytic enzymes, differential
recognition of: hydrolysis of peptide and ester

substrate: catalyzed by thermolysis . 153

Amphetamine-induced circling in rats with substantia-nigal

lesions, suppression of . 117

Anderson, Reginald . 149

Anderson, Trudy S . 101, 103

Antibacterial activity of 3-(l ,2-epoxypropyl )-5,

6-dihydroxy-6-methylpyran-2-one . 65

Antiepilepsy drugs: interactions with brain cyclic

nucleotides . 115

Askins, Barbara S . 88

Atwood, Jerry L . 150, 1 50, 1 50, 155, 156

Audio-tutorial biology at Auburn University . 67

Barnah, A . 89

Baugh, Charles M . 125, 132

Bearden, Larry J . 116

Beaton, John M . 117

Beck, Lee R . 129

Beta irradiator, a precision . 180

Beta radiation autoradiography as a technique for restoring

faded photographic images . 88

Bishop, C. M . 140

Blakeley shellmounds: evidence of ceramic evolution in the

South Alabama woodland . 146

"Blast-off "--an exciting total involvement project . 101

Boland, Joseph S. Ill . 139

Borchert, Harold R . 127

Bradley, Robert H . 117

Brand, J. C . 133, 134

Braverman, Eleanor B . 132

Brock, Oscar W. Jr . 146

Brockman, George F . 77

221

Index

Brown, Edwin . 155

Brown, Lawrence A . 83

Buckner, Ellen B . 131

Budenstein, P. P . 89

Bullard, Mary Kenyon . 141

Buphthalmia in chickens, effects of aspirin on the development

of darkness-induced . 70

Burks, D. C . 133, 134

Bynum, R. Vann . 150

Callahan, Michael F . 118, 118

Carbohydrate and ion requirements for phosphatidyl inositol
hydrolysis ( Pi H ) during the first phase of insulin

secretion . 130

Carmichael, Emmett B . 121

Causey, M. Keith . 58

Chapman, David W . 142

Chen, An-Ban . 89

Chennareddy, Venkareddy . 96

Cheplin, Mark . 147

Chilcutt, Debra . 73

Chinese archaeology and the creation of "peoples' history" ... 51

Chiu, Chao-Hon . 71

Chowdhury, Rishi Raj . 90, 135

Chr i stenberry , Dierdre . 70

Church, Avery G . 142

Clements, R. S. Jr . 130

Cline, George B . 73, 74, 75

Cobb, H. C . 93, 180

Cody, R. M . 64

Collembola-microflora interactions in the rhizosphere

of cotton . 64

Combination of stimuli to obtain increased acid secretion

rates using Rana pipiens gastric mucosa in vitro . 130

Computer model for current f i 1 amentation in silicon-on-

sapphire devices . 89

Conciliatory diplomacy, the failure of: a survey of the

career of Don Bernardino de Mendoza in England . 112

Consumable and non-consumable use of mathematics computational
skills material at the middle school level, a comparative

study of . 100

Controlled chemical degradation of N5-methyl tetrahydrofol ic

acid . 132

Cooper, W. E . 40

Corbitt, Beverly D . 130

Correlations in 13c NMR spectroscopy, some new and general . . . 148

Cotton, Joseph E. Jr . 78

Creek Confederacy before the advancing frontier,

disintegration of the . 145

Creek Indian community of Poarch, Alabama: We're still here . . 145

Crenshaw, J. W . 138, 139

Cretaceous conifer cone from Great Britain, structure and

affinities . 79

Cross section measurement for the 6Li(d,n)?Be reaction, total . . 87

222

Index

Crystal structure of (CgH6Br)Mn(C0)3 . 156

Crystal structure of Cp2ZrClMe, preparation and . 150

Crystal structure of Rb[Al ( CH3) 3N3] . 155

Cummings, James . 155

Curl , E . A . 64

Curott, David R . 168

Curry, David G . 143

Curtis, Wayne C . 94

Cytological and ul trastructural study of the pigment

epithelium of the opossum eye ( Didelphis virginiana) .... 128

Dalrymple, Larry W . 63

Daniels, R. E . 138

Davis, Norman D . 68

Davis , Wi 1 1 iam B . 123

Dawson, Ralph Jr . 118, 118

Decline in school mathematics . 91

DeFoor, Jerry W . 99

Degree days and solar energy for heating in Huntsville,

Alabama . 92

Denson, Velma . 131

Dielectric constants of fused salts . 152

Diener, Urban L . 68

Diet and development in Belize . 141

Digital procession of synthetic aperature radar (SAR) data . . . 133

Dimick, Robert . 148

Dinger, James S . 81

Doss mountain complex . 79

Driving-point impedance for a post-mounted device in a

rectangular waveguide, determination of the . 134

Dukes, Gary R . 151

Dunn, Mary E . 94

Dupr£, Keith . 66

Ecological threshold and thermal constant of the larval stage

of Heliothis zea, determination of the . 195

Economic impact of Auburn University at Montgomery . 95

Edmonds, David . 204

Edwards, J. M . 71 , 72

Endogenous Mg+2 dependent nuclease from rabbit thymus--subunit
structure of compact nucleohistone, cleavage specificity

of the . 152

Engebretson, Jo . 69

Essenwanger, Oskar M . 92

Evans, Ellen A . 112

Explosive instabilities in a bean plasma . 88

Exponential growth of weanling rats in response to daily intakes
of laboratory chow allocated according to fixed intake/

weight ratios . 126

Ezzel 1 , Jesse . 204

Fence lizard, food habits of the . 66

Finite cylindrical scatterer near imperfectly conducting

ground . 140

Fish market infrastructure in developing countries, conflicting

goals in improving . 97

223

Index

Flippo, Jack L . 74, 75

Ford, Jonathan B . 16, 204

Forestry at Auburn Uni versi ty--over half a century . 84

Fork in the road of the New South: Fienry W. Grady v.

George W. Cable . 108

Fornaro, Robert J . 51

Forte, Aldo . 91

Franklin, David B . . . 108

Freedman, D. Jay . 92

Freeman, John D . 76, 76, 200

French, Thomas W . 172

Fukai , J . 88

Fuller, Richard S . 146

Fungi isolated from grain sorghum, toxigenicity of . 68

Fungi of Alabama VII dematiaceous hyphomycetes . 1

Furman, W. L . 91

GC/Mass spectroscopy: some new instrumentation . 147

Gaiser, J. E . 86

Genetic sources of wing length variations in Drosophila

melanogaster . 66

Ghorai, S. K . 86

Gilbert, Cindy . 150

Glenn, Thomas M . 113, 124

Gottsch, J. D . 128

Graf, E. R . 134

Grant, Mary . 69

Gray, Dennis J . 63

Gray, Victor H . 104

Greater siren, reproduction and activity . 31

Green, Donald W . 141

Griming, Rainer . 150

Gudauskas, Robert T . 64

Guided missle optimal control law application, determination

of unspecified tf in a . 137

Guides to compatible rural and industrial growth . 97

Hanlin, Hugh G . 31 , 200

Harden, Jim . 81

Hardware-in-the-loop simulation applied to missile guidance

studies . 139

Harrell, Karen . 154

Hawk, James W . 114

Hay, Kathleen A . 122

Heavy ion research and experiment designed to create super

heavy element Z = 114 . 87

Heavy metal distribution in a selected South Alabama river ... 81

Helms, Lynn . 82

Henderson, H. A . 104

Herbert, Donald . 132

Herpes simplex virus encephalitis in mice with 5-ethyl-

2-deoxyuridine, treatment of . 123

Herpes simplex virus type 1-sensitized lymph node cells for

virus-infected cells, specificity cytotoxicity of . 122

Hersham, J. M . 125

224

Index

Hicks, Deborah . 14J5

Histological studies and rearing of phyllosomes of the slipper

lobster, Scyllarides nodifer . 73

Historical overview and geologic facilities of Alabama's Red

Mountain Museum . 80

Hoeferlin, James . 155

Holmes, Lloyd I . 96

Honan, Michael . 156

Hornsby, K. M . 93, 180

Horton, M. E . 130

Huang, Chi-ming . 114

Huang, Rosa H . 119

Hudson, C. G . 86, 93, 180

Huttlinger, Frank 0 . 84

Hydrodynamic studies of some novel metal containing polymers--

correlation of chain flexibility with monomer volume .... 148

Hyphomycetes from Alabama, some aquatic . 62

Hyphomycetes, some mycoparasi tic . 63

Immobilized homogenous catalysts to synthesis of petro¬
chemicals, application of . 157

Interaction of in vitro ACTH stimulation with adrenal cortical

function in noise-stressed rats . 72

Interaction of 13-17 MeV neutrons with 58^1 . 86

Interactive effects of achievement motivation and teaching
style on academic achievement in eighth-grade science

classes . 103

Invertase from Candida utilis, the active center of:

a kinetic study . 204

Isoaminopterin, transportation and antifoliate activity of ... 129

Ivey, W. D . 70

Jackson, E. K . 138

Jaffe, Kenneth . 148

Jenkins, R. L . 70

Jewish life in early Miami 1896-1906 109

Johnson, W. F . 72

Jolly, Alexander C . 139

Jones, Michael E . 88

Jones, R. K . 134

Jumper, Caroline . 143

Kaganich, Lynn . 65

Kestle, Anne M . 100

Key, J. F . 87

Kinetic parameters of pyridoxami ne-pyruvate transaminase,

effect of pH and temperature . 16

Kinetic studies on rat liver kynureninase . 219

Kistler, Wallace G . 89

Knight, Helen C . 106

Knox, Eric G . 129

Koch, Walter F . 85

Kouskolekas, C. A . 71

Lacy, Wayne A . 95

Land use planning concept in northwest Alabama . 98

Land, W. H. Jr . 133

225

Index

Lane, Roger S . 126

Lau, Stephen . 145

Lauch, Robert N . 122

Lawrence, F. B . 67, 68

Laycock, David . 124

Legislator perception of educational needs and educational

pol icy making . 110

Lelong, Michael G . . . . . 68

Leptogramma pilosa in Alabama, rediscovery of . 76

Leptospirosis and tularemia in Alabama feral and free

ranging dogs . 58

Lewis, Edwin A . 148, 149, 151 , 152

Linton, Richard . 154

Lishak, R. S . 68

Lithic typology in research design of the Mobile delta . 146

Local church self-sufficiency . 98

Longenecker, Gesina L . 113

Lorden, Joan F . 118, 118

Loss of a child, parental reactions to the . 141

Lovelady, Steve R . 151

Lowry, Suzanne L . 129

Magnetic core and semiconductor memories . 124

Malito, John T . 150

Mammalian messenger RNA, in vitro synthesis of . 124

Mangat, Balder S . 195

Mann, Steve . 80

Marion, Ken . 65, 66

Marks, Henry S . 112

Marks, Marsh Kass . 109

Marple, D. N . 71 , 72, 72

Marshall , N. L . 68

Martin, Nowak . 65

Mason, W. H . 67, 68, 69, 69

McCaleb, L. C . 90

McDaniel , G. R . 70

McLaughlin, Roy E . 74, 75

Melvin, Emily A . 110

Meng, Martha Margaret . 82

Metabolism of gentian violet after oral administration, a

study of the . 127

Metal clusters as "homogeneous" metal surfaces . 158

Metamorphic rock exposure in the Waverly Quadrangle, Lee

County, Alabama, preliminary structural analysis . 78

Methanol homologation . 157

Meyers, Andrew . 151

Midbrain lesions on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

in rat brain, effects of . 118

Miller, Thomas G . 87

Minutes of the annual business meeting, April 8, 1978 . 159

Moberly, H. Dean . 95

Model to project loss of earnings from impaired or destroyed

capacity . 94

Monaham, Michael J . 91

226

Index

Moore, Jack H . 65

Moorehead, Charles Wesley . 141

Morgan-Jones , G . 1 , 62, 63, 68

Morgan, Paul H . 126

Morley, Barbara J . 118

Mount, Robert H . 31, 172

Multichannel analyzer recording of single photon counting

monochrometer data . 91

Multi-target characteri sties of a dual mode spiral monopulse

system . 138

Murphy, Joe . 153, 154, 1 55

Murray, Thomas P . 65

Myers, Genne . 78

Nair, M. G . 125, 129, 132

Narrow Lane site . 142

Neison, Michael J . 79

Nerve fiber size spectrum and electrophysiology in the

brainstem auditory pathway . 114

Neuroactive agents by analysis of the electroencephalogram,

studies of . 116

Neutron cross sections for 93|\)b(n ja)90my anc| 80se(n,2n)79mse

at 14.1 MeV . 86

NICHE--a community service focused on health and health

education . 120

Nuclear polyhedrosis virus of Autographa aalifomioa,

isolation and biographical characterization of . 74

Nuclear polyhedrosis virus of Autographa aalifomioa,
particle sizing and electron microscopy of

zonal ly purified . 75

Nursing research, issues in human subjects' use . 131

Oakes, John E . 122, 123

O'Hare, J. M . 90

One-cent physics demonstration, the egg and the pie pan, and

"kitchen" indicators for acids and bases . 106

Operational gaming models, improved acquisition in . 136

Optimal control parameters, determination of: an application

of mathematical preprogramming . 136

Optimal nonlinear structure preserving feature extraction .... 136

Orbit transfer, new techniques for studies in . 138

Orbits, the calculator, and the non-calculus physics

laboratory . 168

Output analysis of judicial fairness: absence offenses and

military justice in the Vietnam era . 143

Ovarian uterine transplantation: a model for studying tubal

function in the baboon . 129

Owens, J. R . 40

Palmer, Gene C . 115

Palmer, S. Jo . 115

Pastrick, Harold L . 137, 137

Patterson, Wayne . 152

Paudler, William W . 147, 148

Pegram, G. Vernon . 116

Pellagra story in Alabama . 121

227

Index

Peters, Edward G . 139

Peterson, Curt M . 63

Petrographic study of a biotite gneiss, Waverly Quadrangle,

Lee County, Alabama . 78

Pharmacy CBE--a strategy for renewal . 103

Phillips, Charles L . 138

Phoenician theory of New World origins . 144

Phospholipids in the substrate--inhibitor specificities of the

multiple forms of monoamine oxidase, the role of . 119

Photocatalysis using matrix-attached metal carbonyls . 156

Phylogenetic status of Hexapodibius (Tardigrada) ........ 70

Physiological effects between arm and leg exercise, the

difference in . 113

Pig platelets after shock-inducing procedure, alterations in . . 113
Pistil development as related to floral abcission in soybean . . 63

Pittman, Charles U. Jr . 156, 1 57, 1 57, 1 58

Plant species and habitats in the Cahaba River valley . 76

Plato, P. A . 180

Political geography and philately: examples from Latin

America . 84

Potential and electric field distribution inside semi¬
conductor p - n junctions . 90

Preservice preparation of science teachers at the University

of Alabama . 105

Price, James M . 97

Pritchett, J. F . 71, 72, 72

Proton ionization from flexible polymers--a comparison of

polyvinylamine and polyacrylic acid . 149

QlO in crickets, indirect measurement of . 69

Racemization in the nitrous acid deamination of L-leucine,

evidence for . 154

Radar pointing errors due to aerodynamic radomes . 133

Random input describing functions, evaluation of . 138

Raphe lesions on conditioned aversions in the rat, effects of . . 118

Rapproachment and reaction, reasons for: a look at Jay's

Treaty . 108

Red Hills salamander, Phaeognathus hubrichti Highton, and

factors affecting its distribution . 172

Red Mountain Museum: a new educational horizon . 101

Response surfaces for binary events — an empirical basis for

radiation oncology . 132

Riggs, L. S . 140

Riggsby, Ernest D . 107

Riggsby, Dutchie S . 107

Robinson, Nancy . 115

Rogers, Robin D . 150

Rosemond-Hornbeak , H . 122, 129

Rounsefell, Thane . 148

Rowlett, Roger . 153

Russel 1 , J . Robin . 200

Rutland, Carole . 107

St. Clair, D. C . 136

St. Pierre, Thomas . 149

228

Index

Sakane, Yumi . 124

Sax, Steven R . 98

Scattering by a perfectly conducting spherical shell with a

circular aperture . 134

Scientific information through workshops, communicating . 104

Scott, M. Douglas . 58

Sessler, Ann H . 78

Shel 1, William B . 103

Shipman, Jerry R . 100

Shoemaker, Richard L . 130

Shoreline changes on the Mobile Bay coast of Little Dauphin

Island . 82

Shoreline changes at the west end of Dauphin Island, Alabama . . 82

Short, John W . 76

Shugerman, Richard . 130

Shumpert, T. H . 134, 140

Simon, Marcia . 80

Simulation, on the economics of . 137

Sinclair, Robert C . 1 , 62

Sirles, Ann . 120

Snead, 0. Carter . 116

Social security and labor force participation of older males

1947-1976 94

Social structure of the ancient Qumran community . 142

Sosienski , Theresa . 81

Spatial strategies in railroad planning in Georgia and the

Carolinas, 1830-1860 . 85

Speech compression and expansion: an approach to the teaching

of aerospace science techniques . 107

Sperm as an embryonic source of zinc in Heliothis viresoens ... 69

Spiroplasmas, some growth characteri sti cs of two plant

pathogenic . 64

Stability and control of a hypothetical capitalist economy ... 140

Starks, Scott A . 136

Statistical estimation of farmers' demand for soybean loans
from the Commodity Credit Corporation, United States

Department of Agriculture 1954-1974 96

Steele, H. Ellsworth . 98

Stephens, Ronald . 152

Steroid inhibition of cat pancreatic cAMP phosphodiesterase

activity . 124

Stevens, Clauzell . 64

Stiver, James F . 127

Stockley, Ruth A . 79

Street, Donald R . 97

Stronthium-90 irradiator, a precision . 93

Structural distortion on the ligand exchange reactions of

copper( 1 1 )-Schiff base complexes . 151

Student selection between traditional and audio-tutorial

instructional modes in biology . 68

Subcellular protein degradation in various tissues of aged

rats . 126

Subcutaneous herpes simplex virus type 2 infection following

passive transfer of specific antibody, recovery from .... 122

229

Index

Sutherlin, Donald W . 137, 138

Synthesis of N^-methyl thyrotropin releasing hormone, a simple

solid phase . 125

Synthesis and X-ray structure determination of N-l i thiohexa-

methyldi si 1 azane-bul ky ligand effects . 150

Tactile stimulation on muscle relaxation in the irritable

neonate, the effects of . 115

Taras, Kosta John . 136

Taylor, John A . 123

Tea scale, mating and fecundity in . 71

Ternary algebraic system, a . 91

Theory as a tool . 99

Thermolysin, studies of the structural stability of the

thermostable proteolytic enzyme . 155

Thermo-therapy I, problems in . 92

Thermotherapy II, problems in . 92

Till, M. L . 71 , 72

Titration calorimetric studies of polymer bound reagents--

instrument development and applications . 151

Tombigbee with the Spaniards: Juan de la Villebeuvre and the

Treaty of Boucfouca (1793) . 107

Uranium concentration and illite orientation in the

Chattanooga shale--a re-examination . 77

Valence-band structures of the binary compounds and ternary

alloys of ZnS, ZnSe and ZnTe . 89

Van Artsdalen, Ervin R . 152

Variable step, self-starting multistep numerical integration

method . 139

Vertebrates of interest from Horseshoe Bend Military Park .... 200

Ward, James W . 120

Water quality of Catoma Creek and other selected waters in

northern Montgomery County . 40

Waters, Laura A . 83

Watson, Jack E . 66

Waxman, Jerry J . 141

Weaver, David C . 85

Weedy Plants of the Mobile region, additional noteworthy .... 68

Wells, Joy . 65

Westry, Leverne . 143

Whitson, Dan . 102

Whitson, Loyce D . 101

Wilborn, W. H . 128

Wilkins, Paul Douglas . 82

Williams, J. R . 87

Williamson, Edward C . 108

Wit, L. C . 69

York, Randy J . 136, 137

Young, Maria . 81

Young, Robert S . 66

Young, Roger . 81

Zoo--to stimulate prospective science students . 102

230

NOTES

NOTES

NOTES

Q

UJ

Z

on

=)

r<

O

w

w

00

X

Q

H

<c

u

1

txH

<

O

ON

<t?

W

' — ^

hJ

CJ

<

<J

s

r\

s

pq

w

04

cy'.

3

Q 1 1 JOURNAL OF THE
. J68 ALABAMA ACADEMY OF
* SCIENCE

VOL. 48-49, 1977-78