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1869
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THE JOURNAL
OF THE
ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE
AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
VOLUME 52 JANUARY, 1981 NO. 1
EDITOR:
IT. H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, AL 36849
ARCHIVIST:
R. G. Eaves, Department of History, Auburn University, AL 36849
EDITORIAL BOARD:
R. T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn
University, AL 36849
E. A. Curl, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849
G. L. Becker, Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294
ADVISORY BOARD:
Curt M. Peterson, Auburn University William Gunther, Univ. Ala., Tuscaloosa
A. Barry Cox, Jacksonville St. Uni \. Richard L. Shoemaker, Univ. Ala., Tuscaloosa
Daniel R. Womochel, Auburn University Harold L. Pastrick, Redstone Arsenal
Frank Himmler, Univ. North Alabama Glen Eaves, Auburn University
James Hawk, Univ. Ala., Tuscaloosa Helen Mabry, Birmingham (Bd. of Educ.)
Ernest Riggsby, Columbus College
The Journal is the official publication of the Alabama Academy of Science, and is
indexed in Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, America: History and Life, and
Historical Abstracts.
Publication and Subscription Policies
Submission of Manuscripts. Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence
to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous reviews. For style
details, follow Instruction to Authors (see inside back cover).
Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.
Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIR¬
MAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD.
Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news releases will not be pub¬
lished in the Journal.
ISSN 002-4112
CONTENTS
ARTICLES
Territorial Behavior--A Means of Population
Regulation in Multiple Habitats
William E . Cooper, Jr .
Natural History of the Black Belt Prairie
Thomas H. Wilson . 10
Notes on the Nesting Biology of the Marbled
Salamander, Ambystoma opaoum, in the Southern
Portion of Its Range
James W. Petranka and John G. Petranka . 20
Patterns of Forest Tent Caterpillar Defoliation
in Southwest Alabama--1973-1979
James D. Harper and James R. Hyland . 25
Noxious Weeds of Alabama
Guy W. Karr, Jr . 32
ABSTRACT (Alabama Science Policy Forum)
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Potable Water Production
from Fission
D. L. Hollis and E. R. VanArtsdalen . . . .
47
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981.
TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOR--A MEANS OF POPULATION
REGULATION IN MULTIPLE HABITATS1’2
William E. Cooper, Jr.
Department of Biology
Auburn University at Montgomery
Montgomery y AL 36117
Abstract. The effects of territorial behavior on regulation of num¬
bers are modeled for a population breeding in multiple habitats and tend¬
ing to grow or decrease exponentially within each habitat. Associated
with each habitat is a distinct intrinsic rate of increase. Since terri¬
torial behavior limits the number of individuals which may breed in each
habitat, the number of individuals in a given habitat reaches a maximum
at some size of overall population and remains constant above that level.
According to the model presented, the overall population growth may be
slowed by territorial behavior or even brought to an equilibria! value
dependent on the intrinsic rates of increase and maximal numbers in the
available habitats.
Although much discussion has been devoted to the proposition that
animal populations may regulate their numbers by territorial behavior,
there have been very few attempts to place the relationship between popu¬
lation density and territorial ity into an analytical framework. Perhaps
the great controversy surrounding the evolutionary origin of territorial¬
ity as a mechanism for regulating density has tended to obscure the very
characteristics of the mechanism's operation.
Studies of density regulation by territorial behavior have focused
largely on birds although the regulation may apply to other organisms such
as iguanid lizards. Two significant papers appeared in 1969. First,
Jerram Brown (1969) argued that the effects of territorial behavior depend
on certain critical density levels. At level 1, density is low enough
that no individuals are excluded from the most preferred habitat by ter¬
ritorial behavior of conspefi fics . At density level 2, some individuals
are displaced from the preferred habitat but are able to breed in some¬
what less productive habitats. At density level 3, all habitats in which
successful breeding could take place are filled to capacity by territory
holders and a group of surplus potential breeders called floaters exist
without territories. Fretwell and Lucas (1969) presented a model of
limitation of bird numbers based on habitat selection. At low densities
^Manuscript received 17 April 1980; accepted 30 October 1980.
2
This work was partially supported by Auburn University at Montgom¬
ery. Discussions with Irvin R. Savidge and Stephen D. Fretwell provided
motivation for the work. Carlton Woods reviewed a portion of the manu¬
script for mathematical accuracy.
1
Territorial Behavior
in this model, all birds select territories in the habitat of highest
suitability, which is the habitat in which reproductive success is great¬
est. However, occupation of territories decreases the suitability of the
best habitat until at some density, the occupied habitat becomes less
suitable for new settlers than some other habitat, which newcomers then
proceed to occupy as density increases without as much interference from
territory holders. This process may continue to include several less
favorable habitats. Savidge (1974) has developed a discrete model for
management of territorial bird populations which behaviorally regulate
population growth.
The current paper presents a simple continuous model of the effects
of territorial behavior on population growth. Growth in natural popula¬
tions is subject to many influences, including vagaries of weather, food
density, predation, and interspecific competition, to name a few. All
these variables must be taken into account in empirical field studies,
but are for analytical purposes considered in the model to assume con¬
stant values. It is assumed that at some population density, N*, no
more territories are available to accommodate potentially breeding
females in the most suitable habitat. At higher densities, the excess
females overflow into the next most suitable habitat.
Conditions of this model are by no means satisfied by animals in
general. They are most likely to be found among species occupying multi¬
purpose feeding-breeding territories. Species maintaining feeding terri¬
tories or breeding territories such as leks would often be subject to
severe constraints making such population regulation highly dubious.
Among vertebrates the most likely groups to be regulated in the manner
described are redwing blackbirds, ecologically similar avian species,
and numerous iguanid and agamid lizards.
First consider the situation with two habitats, butthemodel will
later be extended to any desired number. Population growth is considered
to be exponential, with numbers increasing without limit in the absence
of territorial exclusion. For regulation of numbers to be effective,
territoriality must at some density bring a halt to the unlimited growth.
No implication of group selection is inherent in this process.
Let N be the number of females in the population, r] the intrinsic
rate of increase in the more suitable habitat, and r2 the intrinsic rate
of increase in the less suitable habitat. Note that throughout this
paper, r represents a constant, a rate of increase independent of popu¬
lation fluctuations. Fretwell and Lucas (1969) and MacArthur (1972)
note that increasing densities result in lower values of r in the various
habitats available to a population. Analytical solutions to the equa¬
tions presented below can only be obtained for constant values of r.
However, the theoretical effect of density on r would intensify the limi¬
tation of population growth by territoriality.
At low densities, all females occupy the most suitable habitat. In
that habitat, exponential growth proceeds according to the equation
2
Cooper
territoriality- limited exponential growth
dN .
dt "
r,N, 0 < N < N*
r,N#+ r2(N-N*), N'< N
N* - maximal number of territory holders
in the 1st habitat
N0er'f, 0< N < N*
[r;Np + (r, - r2)N*]er2t - (r, - r2)N* N*< N
r2
continuation of exponential growth
r,N = r,N* + r2(N - N#)
r,(N-N') = r2(N-N*)
equilibrium induced by territoriality
Figure 1. Summary of equations for population growth and equilibrium
when an exponentially growing population in two habitats is
regulated by territorial behavior.
as long as the number of animals remains less than or equal to N*. Thus
at low densities, the size of the population is given by
,, «, r,t
N = N e 1
t o
3
Territorial Behavior
where N0 is the number present initially and N is the number after some
period of time, t, has elapsed.
When the population reaches N*, any new additions to the population
are excluded from the more suitable habitat by territorial behavior of
the residents. The population segment which comes to occupy the less
suitable habitat is characterized by some intrinsic rate of increase
which is presumably less than that in the more suitable habitat. In the
second habitat, the number of individuals in N - N*. Therefore,
Considering the population of both habitats.
dN
dt
r^ N* + r2(N-N*) , N* < N.
Thus, we obtain the total population at any time by,
[r„N + (r, - r„)N*] er2^ - (r. - r?)N*
N. = —^-9 - ! - — - ' - - - , N* < N.
t r0 —
Note that Nq must be greater than or eoual to N*. Otherwise different
initial conditions must be applied in solving the differential equation.
Given this equation, we can examine the effects of terri tori al i ty
on population growth. First, it is possible that terri torial i ty might
have no effect, i.e., population growth might continue at the same rate
when both habitats are occupied as at lower densities when only the more
suitable habitat is occupied. For this to happen, the differential equa¬
tions would have to be equal in both cases:
= ^N* + r2(N-N*) .
Solving for r^ , we have
r-j (N-N*) = r2(N-N*),
This indicates that if and only if the intrinsic rates of increase
are equal in the two habitats will territorial exclusion have no effect
on population growth. Unless the habitats are reproductively identical
(in terms of r values), territorial behavior alters growth.
Although terri torial i ty is thus seen to affect a population's growth
rate, it is not yet clear whether territoriality can slow growth suffi¬
ciently to bring about either a decrease in numbers or an equilibrium
number. To reach an equilibrial size, the population would have to have
a growth rate of zero:
4
Cooper
-- = r N* + r2(N-N*) = 0
r2(N-N*) = -r^N*,
N*
r2 1 N-N*
This equation gives the intrinsic rate of increase in the less favorable
habitat which brings the total population growth to a halt. In the
second habitat there must be a negative growth rate to offset the in¬
crease in the other habitat. If r] is positive, the population increases
without bound if rg is greater than or equal to zero. When r~2 is nega¬
tive, the equil ibrial population size varies with the magnitude of r 2,
with the low equilibria! sizes corresponding to high absolute values of
r2- The size of the population at equilibrium, Ne, is obtained by solv¬
ing the above equation for N instead of
r, N* + r0(N -N*) = 0
1 2 e
r2Ne = (r2"rl ^N*
N
e
(r2-r] )N*
r
2
From this equation it can be seen that when (negative) r2 is infinitely
large, the equilibrium population number is just N*:
N
e
N*( 1
= N*
1
— N*, r„ infinite
r2 *
= N*.
This case corresponds to instantaneous death of immigrants in the less
favorable habitat. Small negative r2 values produce larger equil ibrial
populations. Some of these effects are illustrated in Figure 2, which
shows population growth for several values of r2 for populations with
identical r] , N0, and N* values. For positive and zero ro values, the
population increases infinitely, with large r2 values producing rapid
growth. Note that growth is linear to the right of the dotted vertical
line when r2 = 0. The dotted line indicates the time at which the less
favorable habitat first receives occupants. The growth equation in this
special case is:
dN
dt
r-j N* ,
and the size of the population is
5
Territorial Behavior
N = r] N*t + N*
= N* ( r i t + 1 ) .
Curves for the two lowest negative values rapidly approach equilibria!
population sizes, but the population for rj = -.01 continues to increase
rapidly throughout the first 100 time intervals.
Figure 2. Population number is plotted against time. The various curves
show growth at different values of r£. In each case, NQ = 100,
N* = 300, and r-| = .05. The dotted vertical line indicates
that territoriality first forces individuals into the second
habitat at t = 22.
Further insight may be gained by considering the relationship be¬
tween population size and Each curve in Figure 3 gives the popula¬
tion sizes at a particular time for the indicated range of r£ values.
Since the curves are truncated at N = 3000, curves for the longer elapsed
times show the populations corresponding to high intrinsic rates of in¬
crease.
It may be of interest to determine the proportional effect of ter-
ri torial i ty-1 imi ted population growth compared with unlimited exponential
growth. Assume that the population would grow exponentially in the
absence of territorial behavior and let N = N* at the outset, tQ. The
6
Cooper
Figure 3. Population size is plotted against intrinsic rate of increase
in the second habitat. Separate curves are shown for selected
elapsed times (100, 79, 64, and 50 time intervals). N0 = 100,
N* = 300, and r} = .05.
territorial decrement, D, is the difference between the Ns obtained by
the two forms of growth:
D = N* r. t
e 1
r t
N*e 2 - (r-| -r2)N*
r,N*
2 e
r.t r t
- r-|N*e + (r-j-r^N*
1
Territorial Behavior
r2r
r t
(e 1 - 1) -
r-j N*(e
r^t
1)
The proportional decrease of the population due to terri tori al i ty , d, is
the territorial decrement divided by the size of the population produced
under exponential growth:
= 1 -
r t
rlN*e " (ri'r2^N*
r„N*
2 e
r t
i L
D is discontinuous at r., = 0 and at equilibrium since t is infinite when
- r N*
r2 ^N-N* rl ’
Next consider the effects of terri torial i ty on an exponentially growing
population which has several habitats available to it. There are m habi¬
tats, each of which fills to a maximum number above which individuals
are forced into the next less suitable habitat. Thus, all individuals
occupy the most suitable habitat at low density. As densities increase,
only the two most favorable habitats are occupied, then a third fills,
and further habitats gain occupants in order of decreasing suitability.
Let N-j* be the maximum population size at which only the i most suitable
habitats are inhabited and r^ be the intrinsic rate of increase of the
portion of the population in the i^jl habitat. Then
dN
dt
rlN*l + r2 ^ n*2-N*1 ^ + r3 ^ n*3_n*2_N*1 ) +
m-1
N > N* ,
— m-1
For population growth beginning at or above N*m_] , this differential
equation has the solution:
Nt =
r )N*0 + ... +
m 2
_[(rrr2- ••• - rm)N*] + (r2-r3- ••
r t
(r ,-r )N* . + r N ]e m - (r.-r0- ••• - r )N*
m-1 m m-1 mo '12 m' 1
(r0- ••• -r )N*0
2 m; 2
- (r , -r )N* i
m-1 m m-1
/r„
Cooper
To trace a population's growth as it expands into several habitats, it
is necessary to note the appropriate initial conditions for the most
recently occupied habitat. Different conditions must be used with the
different successively applied equations.
REFERENCES
Brown, J. L. 1969. Territorial behavior and population regulation in
birds: A review and re-evaluation. Wilson Bulletin 81: 293-329.
Fretwell, S. D. & H. L. Lucas, Jr. 1969. On territorial behavior and
other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds. I. Theo¬
retical development. Acta Biotheoretica 19: 16-36.
MacArthur, R. H. 1972. Geographical Ecology: Patterns in the Distri¬
bution of Species. Harper & Row, New York, pp. 152-153.
Savidge, I. R. 1974. A model for management predictions of territorial
bird populations. Ohio Journal of Science 74: 301-312.
9
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BLACK BELT PRAIRIE1
Thomas H. Wilson
Department of Biology
Judson College
Marion, AL 36766
Abstract. The natural history of the Black Belt prairie is dis¬
cussed according to the geological evolution, physical geography, human
invasion, natural vegetation, freshwater resources, and wildlife of the
area. Observations of the prairie were made from automobile, airplane,
and boat in an attempt to compare prairie of past and present. A brief
literature review is presented along with accounts of current environ¬
mental alterations that are damaging the natural heritage of the Black
Belt prairie at an alarming rate.
GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
A warm inland sea covered most of the Gulf Coastal plains during
the Cretaceous period that occurred over 100 million years ago. During
this time the Rocky Mountains were uplifting and the climax of giant
land and marine reptiles was at hand. The Appalachian System with its
Valley and Ridge had long since formed and was slowly being eroded to
its present relief. Living in this warm sea were trillions upon tril¬
lions of microscopic, flagellated algae named coccol i thophores . These
phytopl ankters had discs of calcium carbonate, known as coccol iths, on
the surface of the cell. Through aeons, these coccol iths added to the
marine calcareous sediments that formed into a muddy ooze and settled
to the bottom of the seas. It was a warm water world with only about
18% of the earth's surface above water.
Coccol ithic lime-rich parent material began to accumulate in great
quantity in a unique region of upper coastal plain abutting the fall line
or southern Appalachian boundary. This huge crescent-shaped deposit of
calcareous sediments extends from northeastern Mississippi, southeastward
through central Alabama, across the state to within 30 miles of the
state's eastern border. In Alabama, this geologic formation is named the
Selma chalk and it measures approximately 40 miles in its greatest width
and 200 miles in length for a total of about 4,000 square miles. A
similar blackland prairie exists in central Mississippi and its parent
material is limestone mud of the Eocene epoch of 50 million years ago.
The rotten limestone of the Selma chalk is parent material to a
calcimorphic surface layer of soil called rendzina, a soil order
1
Manuscript received 3 May 1980; accepted 26 November 1980.
10
Wi 1 son
currently classified as mollisol. Rendzina soils are formed from grass¬
land humus which imparts the dark color to the soil and, thus, the name
Black Belt prairie. Blackland prairies of rendzina soils in the United
States also occur in prairies of central and northeastern Texas and
central Oklahoma (Strahler 1967).
The Black Belt peneplain lies in a tilting position that slopes to
the southwest and, according to Harper (1943), coincides with the Selma
chalk formation. Eutaw sand formations along the northern boundary and
red clay along the southern boundary represent different surface soils
that have the Selma chalk as parent material (Rankin 1974).
Giant white bluffs a few miles south of Selma on the Alabama River
reach a height of nearly 100 feet and expose the Selma chalk in a bril¬
liant display of geologic splendor (fig. 1). Smaller but of no less
magnificence are the chalk bluffs on the Tombigbee River at Demopolis.
Erosion from these great rivers displays strata of Eutaw sand, shale,
red clay, soapstone, sandstone, and an array of marine fossil sediments
that reflect on the coastal period of the area.
The rotten limestone of the Selma chalk weathers and erodes at a
much faster rate than the associated deposits and, according to Dixon
and Nash (1968), the central portion of the Black Belt with an elevation
of 200 feet generally is about 100 feet lower than the adjacent Coastal
Plain with an elevation of 200 to 300 feet above sea level.
Figure 1. Black Belt Prairie, Alabama River.
11
Natural History of the Black Belt Prairie
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Black Belt soils exhibit two extremes of pH, representing both the
most alkaline and most highly acidic soils that occur in Alabama (Aiken
1961). These acid and alkaline soils are scattered throughout the
prairie areas. Acid soils tend to occur in higher elevations and support
the forested portion of the prairie and alkaline soils occur in the lower
elevations and give rise to the open tall grass prairie. The Black Belt
soils contain an abundance of montmori 11 oni te clay, which shrinks and
swells with changes in soil moisture. This gray prairie mud makes cul¬
tivation difficult due to the soil baking hard upon drying and then be¬
coming highly adhesive and sticky when wet.
The soil province that makes up the Black Belt has a topography
that is generally rolling with some steep slopes and nearly level areas.
Surface rendzina soil colors include shades of brown, yellow, red, and
gray to black (Hajek et al. 1975).
HUMAN INVASION OF THE BLACK BELT
Native Americans made little impact on the natural vegetation of
the Black Belt prairie even though they routinely burned sections of
forest to maintain forage areas for game. These first settlers of North
America made their homes along riverine environs and, according to DeSoto
(1540), cultivated fields of fruits and vegetables. Native Americans
probably avoided the heavy clay soils of the prairie but used this area
for hunting grounds.
Rankin (1974) presents a brief but informative literature review of
the Black Belt prairie with attention given to early prairie descriptions.
Accounts from the explorations of DeSoto (1540), DeLuna in 1560, Delgado
(1686), Bartram (1771), Hawkins (1799), Stuart (1830), and Smith (1881),
all referred to savannahs, plains, prairie, and treeless tracts in the
Black Belt region. Township plots of the original survey contained
sketches of prairie areas. The prairie was settled about 1317, but the
planters avoided the black prairie land prior to 1830 because they had
not learned to master the sticky soils (Stroud et al . 1930).
Early settlers and pioneers fought Native Americans and blazed a
trail across central Alabama which was later to be known as Federal Road.
The most important passage in early Alabama, Federal Road was the route
by which wagonloads of settlers struggled to reach a crescent of fertile
lands known as the Black Belt. The dark, chalky soil was rumored to
yield cotton in such abundance as to make fortunes and establish dynas¬
ties (Hamilton 1977). The cotton boll weevil arrived in 1914 and later
proved more deadly to the economics of the Black Belt than the Civil War,
in which the Black Belt was called the "grainery of the Confederacy . "
The first full treatment of prairie soils and vegetation was by Mohr
(1901) and this list of natural vegetation mentioned cedar glades, post
oak associations, canebrakes, and open prairies covered with tall grasses
similar to that of the western prairies. Bartram (1777) described the
lowland forests as "magnificent, grand high, and stately." Harper (1913)
12
Wi 1 son
wrote about the Black Belt and cited reports that the prairie contained
many natural treeless areas.
Before the twentieth century, agricultural practices devastated the
natural landscape and canebrakes were reduced to narrow strips covering
stream banks. Mohr (1878) stated that native prairie vegetation could
be found only on wastelands and along the borders of cultivated fields.
But a prairie region in central Alabama did exist even though a few past
references discussed the existence of an ecological prairie with uncer¬
tainty (Rostlund 1957).
Removal of soil material by erosion has tended to reduce the age of
the soils as they now exist. Erosion was severe in many parts of the
Black Belt when the prairie was used extensively for cotton from approxi¬
mately 1850 to 1920 (Dixon and Nash 1968).
PRAIRIE NATURAL VEGETATION
Areas of low tree density occurred naturally on upland alkaline
soils and composed the "true prairie." These areas were described as
"prairie" by the early explorers. High tree densities were associated
primarily with areas outside "prairie" and mostly on acid soils. In the
field notes examined, Quercus , Pinus, Carya, Liquidambar, and Fraxinus
were recorded as the dominant tree genera. Quercus species were by far
the dominant fruit bearing trees and the kinds of trees recorded were
those typical of the southeastern mixed forests (Rankin and Davis 1971).
Clark (1972) classified the Black Belt's vegetation as a prairie-
forest mosaic with typical prairie and prai rie-forest border taxa such
as Andropogon spp., Quercus spp., Juniperus , Liquidambar , litmus , and
Carya spp.
Imhof (1976) described the Black Belt as being the only extensive
natural dry prairie east of the Mississippi River and south of the Ohio.
The natural prairie of the Black Belt, according to Imhof, was the site
of extensive cotton plantations. At present, Alabama grows barely five
percent of the nation's cotton, and the Black Belt is largely pasture
land, with the raising of livestock its major agricultural endeavor.
Vegetation is mostly grass with scattered osage-orange, Madura
pomifera, and pine woodlands. Kiichler (1964) described the Black Belt's
natural vegetation as a Quercus -Liquidambar- Juniperus virginiana grass¬
land and forest combination and included the central prairie of Missis¬
sippi in this association. Strahler (1967) placed the Black Belt and
Northeast Prairie of Mississippi in the tall grass prairie vegetation
type along with the Grand Prairie of midwestern U.S. and the bluestem
prairies of North Dakota and Minnesota southward to Oklahoma and the
dense grasses of the Blackland Prairie of eastern Texas.
FRESHWATER RESOURCES
The Alabama, Warrior, Tombigbee, and Cahaba rivers plus an abun¬
dance of ground water supply the Black Belt with a wealth of freshwater,
which contributes to the agricultural importance of the region.
13
Natural History of the Black Belt Prairie
Throughout the Selma chalk region, deep wells furnish nearly all of
the water used for municipal and domestic purposes. At lower elevations,
artesian wells have flowed constantly for decades but their volume has
been reduced significantly in recent years due to irrigation and indus¬
trialization. Harper (1943) stated that the Black Belt received the
least rainfall of any region in the state, for no apparent reason, except
for the high rate of evaporation.
PRAIRIE OBSERVATIONS
Explorations of the Black Belt prairie by the author lead to few
areas representative of the original prairie. County highway rights-of-
way that aren't sprayed with herbicides occasionally appear as tall
grass prairies. State Highway 183 betewen Marion and Uniontown in south¬
western Perry County harbors grassland patches which abound with wild-
flowers and cedar glades. Soybean fields and pastures occupy most of
the central prairie and the few patches of hardwoods are along creeks
and rivers.
Aerial observations by the author revealed a great expanse of hard¬
wood trees in the area immediately west and north of Demopolis that
extended to the Mississippi state boundary. Several large swamps and
Warrior River backwater areas create important waterfowl habitats and
wildlife refuges. The region between Demopolis and Selma is composed
mainly of farmland and pasture. Severely eroded areas around Uniontown
expose the brilliant white Selma chalk parent material and serve as
warnings of continued abuse of the land (fig. 2).
Figure 2. Black Belt Prairie, Uniontown.
14
Wi 1 son
The Cahaba River basin represents the last densely forested region
of the prairie east of Demopolis. However, conversion of hardwood for¬
ests to soybean fields is rapidly denuding this serpentine shelter-belt
into an ecological desert of fallow fields. Greater erosion can be
expected as the flood plain forests are cleared and the raging Cahaba
sweeps even more tons of topsoil toward the Alabama River and Mobile
Bay.
The environs of Uniontown reflect original prairie conditions more
than any other section in the Black Belt. Perry County Highway 1 south
of Uniontown allows one to travel past exposed chalk formations and
provides opportunities to see expansive fields of sorghum, sunflower,
cotton, and corn. Along Perry County Highway 12 northeast out of Union-
town, tall grasses, Rubeckia hirta, Aster spp., and Eupatorium rugosum
give an ancestral appearance to the landscape. Juniperus virginiana,
Celtis oaaidentalis , and the naturally invading Quercus species dot the
pastures. Clark (1972) cites Madura pomifera as infrequent except in
the Black Belt.
Abandoned cotton gins, warehouses, and homesteads are often covered
with kudzu and the quest of more acres of soybeans is destroying the
fragments of forests that still exist.
Exotic woody plants are invading the prairie and few native plants
remain. Native hardwood trees particularly representative of the Black
Belt prairie are Quercus durandii var. austrina, Quercus falaata, Quercus
falcata var. leucophylla, Quercus durandii, Quercus macrocarpa, Carya
illinoensis , Carya myristicaeformis, Carya ovata, Carya glabra, Myrica
cerifera , Zanthoxulum americanum, Nussa aquatica, and Comus drummondii
(Clark 1972).
Summer and fall blooming wildflowers commonly occurring along
raodsides throughout the prairie are Cassia fasciculata, Rubeckia hirta,
Vemonia spp., Helenium flexuosum, Ipomoea purpurea, Solidago altissima,
Oenothera biennis, Bignonia radicans , Helianthus spp., Eupatorium
rugosum, Bidens spp.. Polygonum lapathi folium , Aster spp., and a variety
of composites. The highway departments routinely spray herbicides along
the rights-of-way and this unnecessary practice destroys much of the
small prairie fragment that remains in the Black Belt.
The Black Belt prairie represents the northern range for central
Alabama of Quercus virginiana and Tillandsia usneoides which has the
common name of Spanish moss. Numerous rural roads, creeks, and riverine
environs are heavily laden with this aerial epiphyte of the pineapple
family. This Spanish moss belt reflects the subtropical climate of the
area and adds to the "Southern image" of the region.
PRAIRIE WILDLIFE
Mount (1975) recognized the Black Belt as a distinct herpetofaunal
region bordered to the south by the transitional zone of the red hills
province and to the north by the fall line hills, which included an area
often called the Upper Coastal Plain or Central Pine Belt. Agkistrodoi
contortrix and Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki are relatively common snakes
15
Natural History of the Black Belt Prairie
in the Black Belt and the salamander Ambystoma texanum seems fairly
well adapted to the prairie. Numerous farm ponds and lakes often sup¬
port an abundance, though not a great variety of water snakes, frogs,
and turtles (Mount 1975).
Mount's (1975) list of native Black Belt reptile and amphibian
species included 17 salamanders, 19 frogs, 14 turtles, 9 lizards, 20
snakes, 1 crocodilian, for a total of 90 native species.
With ever-expanding soybean cultivation, the prairie is fast becom¬
ing the dove capital of the state. The quail population is rebounding
from two decades of continuous decline. Wild turkeys and exploding deer
herds are common sights at the forest edge of the prairie.
Alabama has a great variety of bird habitats that range from bare
ground, to prairie, and through successions to mountainous hardwood
forests. Imhof (1975) found that the natural prairie of the Black Belt
attracted at all seasons more open-country birds, and even some Western
species, than anywhere else in Alabama. Imhof further stated that the
southern edge of the Black Belt formed a natural bird boundary. This
southern edge, with its rolling red clay hills, coincides with the
southern edge of the Upper Coastal Plain and divides the Coastal Plain
into two nearly equal parts. Imhof included the Black Belt in the Upper
Coastal Plain avifauna and stated that much bird information is availa¬
ble from Montgomery.
Large mixed rookeries of Guava alba and Bubuleus ibis individuals
are common to the cedar glades, flatland swamps and oxbows of the prairie.
One of the most spectacular rookeries of this type is in the Uniontown-
Faunsdale area.
In the summer of 1973, I made a personal observation of a road-
runner, Geococcyx califovnianus, at the junction of Perry County High¬
ways 45 and 6. Though unofficial, this is the only record of this
species east of the Mississippi River for the entire nation.
CONCLUSIONS
Field trips on backroads through every county in the Black Belt
failed to reveal any fragment of prairie supporting natural, native
vegetation representati ve of that present before the invasion of Western
man. The Black Belt prairie is basically composed of pastures and soy¬
bean fields with stretches of hardwoods along creeks, streams, and
rivers .
No public land is preserved or restored to natural prairie and the
rural roadsides are being poisoned with herbicides. Industrialization
and population growth are encroaching on the few remaining natural areas.
The failure to include the Cahaba River in the Wild and Scenic River
Act was another blow to the natural quality of the Black Belt prairie
(Kaufmann and Wise 1978). The beauty of the Black Belt prairie is
presently centered more around the open, flat topography and agriculture
rather than natural heritage.
16
Wi 1 son
The limestone bluffs of the Alabama River south of Selma rank high
on the list of scenic natural prairie areas. A small swamp near Marion
on Perry County Highway 6 is very interesting and one of the few such
areas as a result of land drainage programs. The most scenic prairie
area occurs on the backroads between Uniontown and Marion and some of
these roadsides bring back visions of Native Americans and grazing
bison of bygone days.
LITERATURE CITED
Aiken, W. C. 1961. Progress in Soil Conservation in the Black Belt
Since the Start of Soil Conservation Service. J. Ala. Acad. Sci .
32:493-495.
Bartram, William. 1777. The Great Trail Across Alabama, pp. 156-162.
In Helen Gere Cruickshank (ed.) John and William Bartram's America.
The Devin-Adair Co. New York. 1957.
Clark, Ross C. 1972. The Woody Plants of Alabama. Missouri Botanical
Garden Press. St. Louis, Missouri. 242 pp.
Delgado, Marcos. 1686. The Expedition of Marcos Delgado from Appa¬
lachia to the Upper Creek Country in 1686. Translated by Mark F.
Boyd, In the Florida Historical Quarterly. 1937. 16:2032.
DeSoto, Don Ferninado. 1540. The Discovery and Conquest of Terra
Florida. Written by a Gentleman of Elras, translated by Richard
Hakluyt and edited by William B. Rye. Burt Franklin, Publisher.
New York.
Dixon, J. B. and V. E. Nash. 1968. Chemical, Mineralogical and Engi¬
neering Properties of Alabama and Mississippi Black Belt Soils.
USDA. Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. Southern Cooperative
Series No. 130. 69 pp.
Hajek, B. F., F. L. Gilbert and C. A. Steers. 1975. Soil Associations
of Alabama. Agricultural Experiment Station. Auburn, Alabama.
30 pp.
Hamilton, Virginia Van der Veer. 1977.
W. W. Norton & Co. New York, N.Y.
Alabama, A Bicentennial History.
189 pp.
Harper, Roland.
University,
1913. Economic Botany
Alabama. 357 pp.
in Alabama.
Geol . Sur . of Ala .
_ . 1943. Forests
University, Alabama.
of Alabama.
Geol . Sur. of Ala .
Monograph 10.
Hawkins, Benjamin. 1938. A Sketch of the Creek Country in the Years
1798 and 1799. Ga. Hist. Soc. Vol . 3. 1848. Reprint. Americus,
Georgia .
Imhof, Thomas A. 1976. Alabama Birds.
University, Alabama. 445 pp.
The University of Alabama Press.
17
Natural History of the Black Belt Prairie
Kaufmann, T. R. and R. D. Wise. 1978. Cahaba River--Alabama. Wild and
Scenic River Study. Draft Report. State of Alabama Forestry Com¬
mission. 179 pp. and Appendix.
Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Potential Natural Vegetation of the Conterminous
United States. Amer. Geo. Soc. Special Pub. No. 36. 116 pp.
Mohr, Charles. 1878. The Forests of Alabama, and Their Products. In
Handbook of Alabama; a Complete Index to the State. Saffold Berney
( ed . ) . Mobile Register Print.
_ . 1901. Plant Life of Alabama, Alabama Edition. The Brown
Printing Co., Montgomery, Alabama.
Mount, R. H. 1975. The Reptiles and Amphibians of Alabama. Agricul¬
tural Experiment Station. Auburn, Alabama. 347 pp.
Rankin, H. Taylor. 1974. Black Belt Prairie. Montgomery County,
Alabama, and Vicinity. Agricultural Experiment Station. Auburn,
Alabama. 24 pp.
Rankin, H. Taylor and D. E. Davis. 1971. Woody Vegetation in the Black
Belt Prairie of Montgomery County, Alabama, in 1845 and 1846.
Ecology 52(4) : 716-719.
Rostlund, Erhard. 1957. The Myth of the Natural Prairie-Belt in Ala¬
bama; and Interpretation of Historical Records. Ann. of Assoc, of
Amer. Geogr. 47:392-411.
Smith, Eugene A. 1882. Geo. Sur. of Ala. 1881-1882. Agricultural
Features. W. D. Brown and Co. Montgomery, Alabama.
Strahler, Arthur N. 1967. Introduction to Physical Geography. John
Wiley & Sons. New York, N.Y. 453 pp.
Stroud, J. F. 1930. Soil Survey of Perry County, Alabama. USDA.
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 42 pp. and maps.
Stuart, James. 1830. Three Years in North America. (Edinburgh, 1883).
Vol . 2 From the Second London Edition. J. and J. Harper. New
York. pp. 109-124.
Acknowledgements. During the few months of working on this project,
I was given generous help and was supplied numerous references by people
interested and knowledgeable about the Black Belt prairie. I thank the
following people for contributing to this work on the Natural History of
the Black Belt prairie: the Committee for the Humanities in Alabama,
granting agency; Alabama Forest Association; Alabama Forest Commission;
Herbert Boschung, biologist, University of Alabama; Charles Brasfield,
photos of white ibis, Bessemer; Rebecca Culpepper, Demopolis; D. E.
Davis, botanist, Auburn University; Walter Davis, math instructor,
Marion Military Institute, Marion; Fredrick Gabrielson, botanist. Uni¬
versity of Alabama; Larry Hedrick, wildlife biologist, U.S. Forest
18
Wi 1 son
Service, Montgomery; Frank D. Huttlinger, geography department. Uni¬
versity of Alabama; B. F. Flajek, soil scientist, Auburn University; Doug
McGinty, botanist, Huntingdon College, Montgomery; Hillary H. Jeffcoat,
Associate District Chief, Geological Survey, Water Resources Division,
University, Alabama; N. H. McCrummen, President, Judson College, pilot
for aerial photography; William D. Murray, Academic Dean and Director
of Judson's Black Belt grant, Judson College, Marion; Michael Nicalo,
soil conservationist. Auburn University; Larry F. Rattl iff, state soil
scientist. Auburn University; Rachel Stevens Deems, Coordination Direc¬
tor of the Judson College Black Belt Project; Jerry Wisner, soil con¬
servationist, Perry County; George Wood, editor of the Alabama Wild-
flower Society Newsletter, Northport, Alabama; U.S. Forest Service;
and Mildred Yelverton, Librarian, Judson College, Marion.
19
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981.
NOTES ON THE NESTING BIOLOGY OF THE MARBLED SALAMANDER,
AMBYSTOMA OPACUM, IN THE SOUTHERN PORTION
OF ITS RANGE1
James W. Petranka and John G. Petranka
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
The marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum, is a small, fossorial,
woodland carnivore that ranges from southern New England to northern
Florida and west to southern Illinois, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern
Texas (Conant, 1975). The life history of this species is relatively
well known; however, studies other than that of Stewart (1956) in North
Carolina have centered on northern populations. Major life history
accounts include those of Bishop (1941) in New York, Noble and Brady
(1933) in the Washington, D.C. area, Graham (1971), Hassinger et al.
(1970), and Anderson and Graham (1967) in New Jersey, Worthington
(1968, 1969) in Maryland, and Smith (1961) in Illinois.
In 1977 we initiated a comparative life history study of Ambystoma
opacum within the southern portion of its range (east-central Alabama).
The results of this study concerning the larval ecology and evolutionary
significance of nest placement will be published elsewhere. Data which
pertains to other aspects of the nesting biology of the species are
presented here.
STUDY AREA AND METHODS
Field research was restricted to an area about 1 mile south of the
intersection of 1-85 and U.S. Highway 80 in bottomlands that adjoin
Choctafaula Creek, Macon County, Alabama.
Nesting biology data were gathered between 18 December and 1 Janu¬
ary from a large, dry, temporary pool site along William Bartram Trail
in Tuskegee National Forest (pool filling normally begins in late Janu¬
ary or February). The site is located in mature southern hardwood forest.
Soils in the area are mostly sandy loams; however, local clay deposits
occur at the pool site. A 266 m2 section of the pool, containing both
the deepest and shallowest sections, was searched during two consecutive
breeding seasons by carefully removing litter by hand from a small sec¬
tion at a time. In this manner, we were confident that all surface
nests were uncovered.
Data were obtained on clutch sizes (n = 44 nests), egg (jelly coat)
diameters (10 eggs/nest, n = 24 nests), snout-vent and total lengths of
Manuscript received 25 July 1980; accepted 16 September 1980.
20
Petranka and Petranka
females (snout-vent measurements to posterior margin of vent, n = 35),
behavior of females, and the microhabitat, placement, and dimensions of
nests (maximum width * maximum length, n = 25). Egg diameters, body
lengths, and nest dimensions were measured to the nearest .5 mm, 1 mm,
and .5 cm, respectively, using 1 mm graduated rulers. Adults were
straightened and relaxed before measurements were made.
RESULTS
In Alabama, adults of A. opacum gather in the fall in forest floor
depressions to engage in courtship, mating, and ovipositing (Mount,
1975). We initiated our study on 18 December at which time nests with
fully developed embryos were discovered. During the ensuing two years,
field observations were restricted to the winter, spring, and summer
months, and fall breeding activities were not observed.
Forty-four nests were uncovered at the Bartram Trail site during
the study period. Forty-two (96%) nests were located underneath leaf
litter, the remainder were found under decaying logs. Nests were typi¬
cally oblong to ovoid and completely filled with eggs (range =9x3.
10.5 x 7 cm, x = 8.2 x 9.7 cm). Construction occurred in bare mineral
soil such that the uppermost eggs and attending female laid flush with
the lowermost layer of leaf litter. Females actively constructed nests
as evidenced by crumbled soil in the immediate vicinity, and the
presence of exposed rootlets 1-2 cm above the soil surface.
Nest distribution patterns during both breeding seasons were simi¬
lar. Females most often selected sites at intermediate elevations within
the area of future pool formation (based on pool levels when at full
capacity). A detailed treatment of nest placement and its evolutionary
implications will be presented in a later paper, and is not present in
detail here.
Females were often curled on the tops of clutches with their bodies
partially submerged in eggs. They rarely attempted to escape, but,
instead, remained motionless on the nests. In many cases females dis¬
played a characteristic defense posture with the head bent strongly down,
the legs straightened, the body lifted off the substratum, and the tail
either curled forward or extended upward in a slightly curved fashion.
If not initially present when uncovered, a defense posture could be
elicited by gently prodding the animal with a blunt object. In addition,
the production of copious amounts of milky secretions along the dorsal
and dorsolateral surfaces of the tail could be induced by prodding these
areas. The defense posture and behavior was similar to that reported by
Brodie (1977) for this species except that tail lashing was never
observed .
Females were present on 85% of the nests. Unattended nests con¬
tained significantly smaller clutches than attended ones (unattended:
x = 75, n = 7; attended: x = 98, n = 37; Mann Whitney U-test, Us = 200,
p = .012). Mean egg diameters in unattended nests were smaller than
those in attended nests, but the means were not significantly different
(unattended: x = 6.0 mm, n = 5; attended: x = 6.4 111m, n = 19; Mann-
Whitney U-test, Us = 70.5, p = .12). Overall, clutch sizes ranged from
21
Biology of the Marbled Salamander
48-200 and averaged 95 ±29.1 It should be emphasized that clutch sizes
reflect survivorship to the sample period, and are presumably lower than
the average clutch sizes that were initially laid.
Brooding females averaged 62.7 ± 3.5 mm snout-vent length and
108.7 ± 7.1 mm total length. There was no significant correlation
between the body lengths and clutch sizes of brooding females (F = 2.28,
P = .14).
Neither juvenile nor adult male A. opacum were uncovered at the
study site; however, other amphibians were. These included several
species of frogs ( Rana olamitans. R. pipiens, R. catesbeiana, tiyla
versicolor , and H. cinerea) and the mole salamander, Ambystoma tal-
poidewn. Five male A. talpoideum with swollen vents were uncovered
between mid-December and mid-January, but females were never encountered.
DISCUSSION
The nesting biology data for our study population generally agrees
with that for northern populations. The active construction of nests
and brooding of eggs appears to be characteristic of the species through¬
out its range. Average clutch sizes reported for northern populations
vary from 87 (Green, 1956) to 150 eggs (Noble and Brady, 1933). King
and Graham (1971) both reported about 10% mortality of eggs during the
embryonic period in the field. If we apply these data to our population,
the initial average clutch size of our stucy population would be about
105. Mean jelly coat diameters of our population were larger. Lantz
(1930) reported diameters of 4-5 mm and Noble and Brady (op. cit.) 2-5 mm
for northern populations. However, this may reflect differences in sub¬
strate moisture more so than genetic differences in egg size, since eggs
swell considerably in response to changing moisture conditions.
Local populations often show strong preferences for certain micro¬
habitats at breeding sites. For example, Graham (1971) found that 87%
of nests at a breeding site in New Jersey were placed underneath surface
objects ( e . g . , rocks and logs), while Noble and Brady (1933) reported
populations near Washington, D.C. to show strong preferences for leaf
litter microhabitat. Leaf litter was the preferred microhabitat for ovi¬
positing at our study site even though logs which appeared suitable for
egg deposition were present.
Local environmental regimes may possibly influence and explain nest
microhabitat selection. At sites where stressful moisture conditions
normally develop during the brooding season, the use of desiccation
resistant surface objects would be advantageous. However, at sites
where moisture stress is not significant, the use of leaf litter may be
more advantageous since individuals would have greater freedom to posi¬
tion nests along elevational gradients at pool sites. The positioning
of nests with respect to elevation may, in turn, greatly affect the
survivorship of cohorts (Graham, 1971).
1
Variance values throughout this paper equal
± 1
standard deviation.
22
Petranka and Petranka
The advantage of brooding by A. opacum is not fully understood.
Brooding in most species requires an energy cost to the parent(s) that
is offset by the increased survivorship of offspring. Kaplan and Crump
(1978) found that A. opacum females invest essentially no energy in
brooding, since neither brooding nor non-brooding individuals feed dur¬
ing the brooding period. Selection for defense behavior and the produc¬
tion of presumably noxious tail secretions suggest that predators (i.e.,
raccoons, skunks) occasionally discover and destroy nests, although we
have never observed any field evidence of this. Noble and Brady (1933)
reported dusky salamanders ( Desmognathus fuscus) , two-lined salamanders
( Eurycea bislineata) and green frogs ( Rana clamitans ) to prey on A.
opacum eggs in unattended nests.
Bishop (1941) noted that eggs unaccompanied by females were smaller,
and felt that the presence of females helped to reduce desiccation.
Eggs in unattended nests at our study site were smaller (though not sig¬
nificantly so, p = .12) than those in attended nests, and tend to sup¬
port this view. On two occasions nesting females that we were handling
released large volumes of cloacal fluid, the function of which is un¬
known. Eggs that are removed from nests and rinsed often are prone to
fungal attacks (unpublished data). It is possible that cloacal fluids
protect against such attacks in addition to reducing desiccation. In
any regard, the significant difference in average clutch sizes of
attended versus unattended nests at our study site suggest that brood¬
ing effectively increases the survivorship of clutches.
Acknowledgement. We wish to thank James A. Hunt of the National
Forest Service for his cooperation in this project.
LITERATURE CITED
Anderson, J. D. and R. E. Graham. 1967. Vertical migration and strati¬
fication of larval Ambystoma. Copeia 1967: 371-374.
Bishop, C. S. 1941. The salamanders of New York. New York State
Museum Bull. 324: 1-365.
Brodie, E. D. Jr. 1977. Salamander antipredator postures. Copeia
1977(3): 523-535.
Conant, R. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central
North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 429 p.
Graham, R. E. 1971. Envi ronmental effects of deme structure, dynamics,
and breeding strategy of Ambystoma opacum. Unpubl . Ph.D. disserta¬
tion, Rutgers University.
Green, N. B. 1956. The Ambystomatid salamanders of West Virginia.
Proc. West Virginia Acad. Sci. 27: 16-18.
Hassinger, D. D., J. D. Anderson, and G. H. Dalryrnple. 1970. The early
life history and ecology of Ambystoma tigrinum and Ambystoma opacum
in New Jersey. Amer. Midi. Natur. 84: 474-495.
23
Biology of the Marbled Salamander
Kaplan, R. H. and M. L. Crump. 1978. The non-cost of brooding in
Ambystoma opacum. Copeia 1978(1): 99-103.
King, W. 1935. Ecological observations on Ambystoma opacum. Ohio
Jour. Sci . 35(1 ) : 4-1 5.
Lantz. 1930. Notes on the breeding habits and larval development of
Ambystoma opacum, Grav. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (10): 322-325.
Mount, R. H. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of Alabama. Auburn
Printing Co., Auburn, Alabama. 347 p.
Noble, G. K. and M. K. Brady. 1933. Observations of the life history
of the marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum, Gravenhorst. Zoologica
11(8): 89-132.
Smith, P. W. 1961. The amphibians and reptiles of Illinois. Ill. Nat.
Hist. Sur. No. 28. 298 p.
Stewart, M. M. 1956. The separate effects of food and temperature dif¬
ferences on development of the marbled salamander larvae. Jour.
Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 72: 47-56.
Worthington, R. D. 1968. Observations on the relative sizes of three
species of salamander larvae in a Maryland pond. Herpetol ogi ca
24: 242-246.
_ _ . 1969. Additional observations on sympatric species of sala¬
mander larvae in a Maryland pond. Herpetol ogica 25(3): 227-229.
24
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981.
PATTERNS OF FOREST TENT CATERPILLAR DEFOLIATION
IN SOUTHWEST ALABAMA — 1 973-1 979^ >2
James D. Harper
Department of Zoology -Entomology
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn University , AL 36849
James R. Hyland
Alabama Forestry Commission
Montgomery, AL 36104
Abstract. An aerial survey of approximately 100,000 hectares of
bottomland hardwood forest in the Mobi 1 e-Tensaw River basin and the lower
Alabama and Tombigbee River basins of southwest Alabama was conducted
annually from 1973 to 1979 to determine the extent of defoliation of
water tupelo ( Nyssa aquatica L.), sweetgum ( Liquidambar styraciflua L.),
and blackgum ( Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora (Walt.) Sarg.) stands by the
forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria Hlibner. During the 7 year
period, the area of defoliation varied from 11,240 to 36,891 hectares.
Areas of heaviest defoliation alternated biennially within the ecosystem.
A chronically epidemic infestation of forest tent caterpillar, Mala¬
cosoma disstria Hiibner, has existed in the Mobi le-Tensaw River basin,
extending north into the lower Alabama and Tombigbee River basins (Fig.
1), for many years. The preferred hosts in this area are water tupelo
( Nyssa aquatica L.), blackgum ( Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora (Walt.) Sarg.),
and sweetgum ( Liquidambar styraciflua L.). The area of infestation is
normally limited to tupelo ponds within the flood plains of the above
mentioned rivers where these species occur. Ponds are low areas between
the complex, meandering rivers which are surrounded by natural levees,
hold standing water for much of the year, and support dense stands of
water tupelo and blackgum.
The forest tent caterpillar is univoltine, and larvae are normally
active from the second week of March through the first week of May. How¬
ever, this activity period may be advanced or delayed 7-10 days by cli¬
matic conditions in any given year. Defoliated trees normally begin to
refoliate in late May. Surveys of defoliation damage, therefore, must
be conducted during ca. a two-week period following cessation of feeding
in order to observe maximum foliage losses.
^Manuscript received 30 July 1980; accepted 15 October 1980.
2
We wish to thank Larry Abrahamson and Dan Botts for help in making
several of the surveys. We also thank Terry Rodriguez for her artwork.
25
Forest Tent Caterpillar Defoliation
Figure 1. Area of southwest¬
ern Alabama which was aer¬
ially surveyed annually
from 1973-1979 for forest
tent caterpillar defolia¬
tion.
Surveys, with varying degrees of
precision, of the extent and intensity
of this defoliation were conducted by the
U.S. Forest Service from 1960 through
1972 (with the exception of 1968 when no
survey was made). in 1973, responsi¬
bility for the survey was assumed by the
Alabama Forestry Commission and has since
been conducted cooperatively by that
agency and Auburn University. A compen¬
dium of the results of seven years of
annual surveys are presented here.
These and earlier surveys proved valua¬
ble for selection of study sites for
previously reported work (Abrahamson and
Flarper 1973; Harper and Abrahamson 1979)5
and for several projects currently in
progress (Harper, unpublished). In addi¬
tion, they are contributing valuable data
for studies on the population dynamics of
forest tent caterpillar.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Aerial surveys were made from sin¬
gle- or twin-engine airplanes flying at
elevations of 750 to 1200 meters and air¬
speeds of ca. 200 km/hr. Predetermined
flight lines with 3.2 km centers were
drawn on photo index maps (scale 1 cm =
0.63 km). Infested areas were sketched
on the maps by observers seated on each
side of the plane as the flight lines
were followed. In this manner, the
entire area was surveyed in ca. two hours
Forest stands were categorized as
completely, partially, or not defoliated.
Complete defoliation represented ca. 95%
or greater loss of canopy foliage while
3
Cambre, L. A. and W. H. Padgett. 1964. Aerial survey of forest
tent caterpillar defoliation in Alabama. USDA For. Serv., State and
Priv. For., Report No. Zone 2-5-64, 7 pp.
4
Wilmore, D. H. and J. R. Hyland. 1972. Survey of forest tent
caterpillar in southwest Alabama. USDA For. Serv., Southeastern Area,
State and Priv. For., For. Pest Manage. Group Rep. 72-2-17, 3 pp.
5
Abrahamson, L. P., J. D. Harper, I. R. Ragenovich, and J. R. Hyland
1976. Pilot control project using trichlorfon and Bacillus thuringiensis
against forest tent caterpillar in southwest Alabama. USDA For. Serv.,
Southeastern Area, State and Priv. For., For. Ins. and Dis. Manage.
Report No. 77-1-76, 37 pp.
26
Harper and Hyland
partial defoliation was characteri zed by stands with noticeably thinned
foliage or a significant number of scattered trees showing heavy leaf
loss. Damage in areas classed as non-defol iated was either non-existent
or was too slight to be discernable from the air.
Completed survey maps were used to prepare a composite map of in¬
fested areas. Areas of partial and complete defoliation were then deter¬
mined with a planimeter or an LI 3000 portable area meter (Lambda Instru¬
ments Corporation).
The optimum survey date each year was determined by ground observa¬
tions for cessation of larval feeding activity. From 1973 through 1979,
assessments were made on May 9, 13, 23, April 28, May 9, 15, and 9, re¬
spectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The total number of hectares showing either partial or complete
defoliation over the 7 year period varied from 11,241 in 1979 to 36,891
in 1976 with all other years having intermediate infestations (Table 1).
From 1973 to 1976, most areas of susceptible host between the junction
of the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers south to the southern extent of the
host type suffered either partial or complete defoliation (Fig. 2a,b,c,d).
In 1977 and 1979, extensive areas of the southern one-half of this area
were free of detectable defoliation (Fig. 2e,g), while a major portion
of the north-central basin was free of detectable defoliation in 1978
(Fig. 2f ) .
Table 1. Numbers of hectares of forest tent caterpillar defoliation in
southwestern Alabama, 1973-1979
Year
Partial ly
Defol iated
Completely
Defol i ated
Total
1973
9,086
15,464
24,550
1974
12,404
11,364
23,767
1975
6,772
20,980
27,752
1976
20,489
16,402
36,891
1977
8,624
16,693
25,317
1978
20,972
10,472
30,272
1979
9,990
14,740
24,730
Areas north of the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers
(Fig. 1) but not shown in Fig. 2 contain scattered tupelo ponds which
occasionally show partial or complete defoliation. While these areas are
not mapped, their averages are included in the figures in Table 1. From
1973 to 1979, these areas were 0, 538, 0, 6,727, 1,659, 9,176, and 1,025
hectares, respectively. Much of the area included in these values is not
pure tupelo, but rather small, scattered stands in depressions
27
Forest Tent Caterpillar Defoliation
28
Harper and Hyland
Figure 2. Areas of partial and
complete defoliation of tupelo,
blackgum and sweetgum forests
in southwestern Alabama on
(a) May 9, 1973,
(b) May 13, 1974,
(c) May 23, 1975,
(d) April 28, 1976,
(e) May 9, 1977,
(f) May 15, 1978, and
(g) May 9, 1979.
Dashed line on each map indi¬
cates the narrowest point in
the river basin.
29
Forest Tent Caterpillar Defoliation
interspersed among oak and other flood-plain species which are not nor¬
mally defoliated. For survey purposes, it is impossible to precisely
delineate the many small ponds involved. Thus, much of the large north¬
ern areas of infestation recorded for 1976 and 1978 include general
areas of infested host type rather than precise numbers of hectares of
host species defoliated.
A general tendency toward an annual fluctuation in degree of sever¬
ity of defoliation has been noted in ground studies in the basin (Flarper,
unpublished) and has been supported by the defoliation patterns presented
here. The central portion of the basin area appears to sustain alternat¬
ing degrees of defoliation above and below a line drawn approximately
east-west across the basin as indicated on Fig. 2. This is the narrowest
portion of the basin and has been used as the crossing point for two
major power lines and Interstate Route 65 (now under construction).
Above this line, the majority of the infested area was completely defoli¬
ated in 1973 while the majority of the area below this line was partially
defoliated (Fig. 2a). A similar pattern was noted in 1977 and 1979
(Fig. 2e,g). In 1975, heavy defoliation was prevalent in both areas but
was less severe in the southern area. In 1974, 1976, and 1978, however
(Fig. 2b,d,f), most heavy defoliation occurred below this line while the
majority of the susceptible area north of theline was non- to partially
defoliated. Thus, within each portion of the basin, severity of defolia¬
tion alternated annually between light and heavy, and the two portions
were out of phase with each other. Reasons for these area patterns are
unknown but are probably related to factors regulating individual pond
populations.
A few ponds within the basin sustain defoliating populations almost
continuously. Most populations, however, cycle from extreme low to
extreme high levels. These cycles, which may require as few as two or
as many as three to four years to complete in a given pond, are repeated
continuously. It is evident that factors operating to maintain the
species at endemic levels in more northerly and upland populations of
forest tent caterpillar do not operate in this population. In northern
areas of North America, outbreaks normally follow a three to six year
cycle in a given host stand (Flodson 1977; Witter et al . 1975) with
periods of six to sixteen years between outbreak initiation (Batzer and
Morris 1978). Principle among these factors as reviewed by Witter et al.
(1975), appear to be temperature (low winter temperatures , sub-freezing
temperatures following egg hatch, extremely high temperatures during the
moth emergence and oviposition period), starvation, disease, parasitism,
and genetic attributes of the population. In Alabama, only starvation,
as described previously, appears to be operating as a dominant regulatory
factor.
Data gathered in numerous individual ponds (Flarper, unpublished)
suggests that extremely heavy populations are weakened by overcrowding
and starvation following total defoliation of their host trees before
larval development is completed. Egg masses produced by surviving fe¬
males in such populations are low in numbers, size and quality, result¬
ing in greatly reduced populations in the subsequent year. These in turn
only partially defoliate the stands or do undetectable damage (when
30
Harper and Hyland
viewed from the air), but a large percentage of larvae develop normally
and resulting adults have high fecundity. Offspring in the succeeding
year are often sufficiently numerous to defoliate their host trees, al¬
though this population buildup may require several years in some ponds.
In south Alabama, temperature conditions are near optimum for
larval development. Winter temperatures below 0 degrees C are rare while
temperatures during larval, pupal and adult developmental periods rarely
exceed 30 degrees C or fall below 5 degrees C.
While parasitismand disease are present in various stages of host
insect development, levels are not sufficient to permanently reduce popu¬
lations (Stark and Harper, unpublished). Impact of both parasites and
diseases appears to be severely limited by the aquatic environment. The
soil, normally the pupation site for many dipterous and hymenopteran
parasites and the reservoir for certain disease agents as discussed by
Podgewaite et al . (1979), is unavailable for this purpose. Significant
parasitism is thus limited to those species which do not leave their
host to pupate. Disease incidence is presumed to be low because levels
of available inoculum sufficient to initiate epizootics cannot normally
be maintained in the environment, the soil being damp or covered with
water for most of the year.
The net result of these factors is the poorly-moderated, continu¬
ously-cycling population pattern described. Examination of Fig. 2 reveals
that individual ponds or areas may suffer from partial to complete defoli¬
ation for several years, but rarely is a given pond free from detectable
defoliation for more than one year at a time.
REFERENCES CITED
Abrahamson, L. P. and J. D. Harper. 1973. Microbial insecticides con¬
trol forest tent caterpillar in southwestern Alabama. USFS Res.
Note, Southern For. Exp. Sta., SO- 157, 3 pp.
Batzer, H. 0. and R. C. Morris. 1978. Forest tent caterpillar. USDA
Forest Service Forest Insect and Disease leaflet 9, 8 pp.
Harper, J. D. and L. Abrahamson. 1979. Forest tent caterpillar control
with aerially applied formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis and
Dimilin®. Journal of Economic Entomology 72:74-77.
Hodson, A. C. 1977. Some aspects of forest tent caterpillar population
dynamics. University of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station,
Technical Bulletin 310:5-16.
Podgwaite, J. D., K. S. Shields, R. T. Zerillo, and R. B. Bruen. 1979.
Environmental persistence of the nucleopolyhedrosi s virus of the
gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar. Environmental Entomology 8:528-536.
Witter, J. A., W. J. Mattson, and H. M. Kulman. 1975. Numerical analy¬
sis of a forest tent caterpillar ( Lepidoptera : Lasiocampidae) out¬
break in northern Minnesota. Canadian Entomologist 107:837-854.
31
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981.
NOXIOUS WEEDS OF ALABAMA1,2
Guy W. Karr, Jr.
Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries
Plant Industry Section
P.O. Box 3336
Montgomery AL 36193
Abstract. To detect and catal og the noxious weeds of Alabama, a
survey of high hazard areas, state herbaria, and the literature was con¬
ducted during the summer and fall of 1979. A total of 40 species repre¬
senting 19 families was detected. Two of the species detected, Hydrilla
verticillata Royle and Imperata brasiliensis Trin., are listed as noxious
weeds by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION
Few can deny that weeds cause substantial losses to U.S. farmers.
Anderson (1) reports that in the period from 1950-1960 "the estimated
total cost of weeds in croplands, grazing lands, aquatic sites, and non¬
croplands was about $5 billion." Approximately one-half of this was for
weed control. A further indication of the problem comes from Klingman
and Ashton (15) who report that in 1970 the "dollar value of herbicide
sales is now greater than the combined value of insecticide and fungi¬
cide" sales.
Weeds may be dispersed in many ways, but the international spread
of most weeds can be attributed mainly to the activities of man. Some
plants such as water hyacinth ( Eichhomia crassipes ) and Japanese honey¬
suckle ( Lonicera japonica) were introduced as ornamentals but later be¬
came important weed problems (26). Others such as kudzu ( Pueraria lobata )
(30) and cogongrass ( Imperata cylindrica ) (8) were introduced as forage
crops only to become important pests.
Many universities import plants or plant parts for breeding purposes,
use as forage crops or turf, or for research in weed control. Hoveland
et al. (14) mention that more than 160 introductions of Phalaris tuberosa,
mainly from the Mediterranean area, were tested in Alabama as potential
forage crops.
Manuscript received 31 July 1980; accepted 24 November 1980.
2
Supported by funds from Cooperative Agreement No. 12-16-5-2103 be¬
tween the Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries and the United
States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Ser¬
vice, Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs.
32
Karr
Other avenues of entry are areas where foreign
such as docks, airports, and train depots. Many of
by Mohr (22) were collected from ship ballast piles
cargo is unloaded
the plants reported
near Mobile.
Since most of our serious weeds are of foreign origin, there
developed much concern over the possibility of the introduction of addi¬
tional serious weeds into the U.S. In 1966, the National Association of
State Departments of Agriculture adopted a resolution requesting that
the U.S. Congress enact a Federal noxious weed control law and set forth
the guidelines which should be included in such a law. Finally, on Janu¬
ary 4, 1975, President Gerald R. Ford signed into law the Federal Noxious
Weed Act of 1974, Public Law 93-629 (26). The purpose of this law was
"to provide for the control and eradication of noxious weeds, and the
regulation of the movement in interstate or foreign commerce of noxious
weeds and potential carriers thereof (2)." The law defines a noxious
weed as "any living stage (including, but not limited to, seeds and
reproductive parts) of any parasitic or other plant of a kind, or sub¬
division of a kind, which is of foreign origin, is new to or not widely
prevalent in the United States, and can directly or indirectly injure
crops, other useful plants, livestock, or poultry, or other interests
of agriculture, including irrigation, or navigation or the fish or wild¬
life resources of the United States or the public health."
Few manuals (12, 26) devoted to the study of noxious weeds have
been published. In 1977, Reed (26) published a book entitled Economi¬
cally Important Foreign Weeds--Potenti al Problems in the United States.
Reed (26) in writing this book conducted a "survey of the literature"
in order to "determine how many noxious weeds of the world are not known
to occur in the United States or, if present, have very limited distri¬
bution and which if introduced might cause serious problems." This pub¬
lication lists approximately 1200 "foreign species" which "will doubtless
be designated noxious weed species as defined by Public Law 93-629."
The present study was conducted to obtain an inventory of foreign
noxious weeds occurring within the State of Alabama and to determine the
need for a State noxious weed law.
METHODS
An extensive review of the literature was used to compile a list of
weed species which might be classified as noxious by Public Law 93-629
(2). Included were taxa listed by Reed (26) and Holm et al . (12), plus
those mentioned as being important new pests, introduced pests, or pests
of increasing concern, by Auburn University Cooperative Extension Ser¬
vice personnel, weed scientists, plant taxonomists, and numerous other
individuals concerned with crop production and/or weed control. The
list contained approximately 1600 species and was used as a guide for
checking herbaria.
In surveying herbarium collections, note was taken of any plant
which was included on the preliminary list, and also of any additional
plant labeled exotic, noxious, introduced, etc. Standard herbarium
acronyms (13) are available for the two largest herbaria in Alabama;
33
Noxious Weeds of Alabama
others indicated were coined specifically for this study. The herbaria
searched in this study were the Auburn University Herbarium (AUA, 35,000
collections), the University of Alabama Herbarium (UNA, 40,000 collec¬
tions), the Jacksonville State University Herbarium (JS, 15,000 collec¬
tions), the University of South Alabama Herbarium (SA, 7,000 collections),
and the University of North Alabama Herbarium (NA, 2,000 collections).
A field survey of high hazard sites was conducted to detect possible
noxious weeds in the field. High hazard sites are areas at which noxious
weeds (or any pest for that matter) are most likely to be introduced.
High hazard areas surveyed included the State Docks at Mobile and Mont¬
gomery, train depots at Birmingham, Huntsville, Mobile, and Montgomery,
twelve Agricultural Experiment Stations, and numerous plant nurseries
throughout Alabama.
Following these surveys, the list of suspected noxious weeds was
compared with manuals and floras (9, 25, 29) commonly used in the south¬
eastern U.S., and an annotated list was prepared.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Forty Alabama species representing potentially noxious weeds were
detected. Nineteen families were represented by one or more species,
with the grass family (Poaceae) having the largest number, 10 species.
The most common species, as indicated by herbarium records, were Com-
melina evecta and Polygonum cespitosum, which were both represented by
collections from 13 different counties. Four species, Bulbostylis
capillaris , Ipomoea cairica, Lindemia Crustacea, and Rhynchosia minima,
were not observed in herbaria; however, their mention by various authors
(see annotated list) assures their occurrence in Alabama.
The herbarium collections observed appear to come from four general
areas centered around Calhoun, Lee, Mobile, and Tuscaloosa counties.
These areas are associated with universities and could reflect more in¬
tense collecting by taxonomists and students; also some of Alabama's
Agricultural Experiment Stations are also associated with some of these
areas. It is possible that plants being studied for forage escaped or
that weed seed could have been introduced with crop seed and became
established. Twenty-one of the 40 plants listed were collected in Mobile
County. Mobile County would have to be considered the most likely area
for new pest introductions due mainly to the large amount of foreign
cargo brought into the port. A number of plants collected in Mobile
County by Mohr (22) came from ships' ballasts which were dumped prior to
taking on cargo. Dr. M. G. Lelong, University of South Alabama, (per¬
sonal communication) has conducted intense surveys in Baldwin and Mobile
counties and has reported collecting many plants listed by Reed (26).
It is probable that additional collecting in Mobile County will yield
more plants which may be designated as potentially noxious weeds.
All species included in the annotated list were mentioned by Reed
(26), although 6 species, Imperata cylindvica, Lolium temulentum, Setaria
viridis , Polygonum lapathi folium , Portulaca oleracea, and Anagalis arven-
sis, viere not specifically treated. These weeds are included because
34
Karr
the plants actually treated by Reed (26) are similar to..., sometimes
treated under..., considered a variation of..., etc. one of the 6 weeds
noted above. Reed (26) reported that 14 of the 40 weeds did occur in
the U.S., however, of the remaining 26 species, only 5, Brachiaria
eruoiformis , Imperata oylindrioa , Fatoua villosa. Trifolium subterraneum ,
and MyriophylVum propinquum , were not reported as occurring in the U.S.
by Fernald (9), Radford et al . (25), and Small (29).
Dr. Ronald L. Haaland, Auburn University (personal communication)
is presently working with a number of plants including Festuoa arundi-
nacea, Phalaris tuberosa, and Tri folium subterraneum in an attempt to
develop better forage crops. Reed (26) included all three of these as
potential noxious weeds. Hoveland et al . (14) indicated that in 1974
there were 1 million acres of Festuoa arundinacea in Alabama being used
as winter forage for beef brood cow herds. Although these plants are
not presently considered noxious weeds, it is apparent that more aggres¬
sive varieties might exist and could cause problems if introduced. It
is important that new introductions of these plants be closely evaluated
prior to being released because they are known to cause serious problems
in certain areas of the world (see annotated list).
Of the 40 species listed, only 14 (Table 1) appear to fit the defi¬
nition of a noxious weed as defined in Public Law 93-629 (2). These
weeds are known to cause serious problems in some areas of the world
(26) and have rather small distributions within the U.S. Two of the
weeds listed in Table 1, Hydrilla verticillata and Imperata brasiliensis ,
have already been designated as noxious weeds by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (3).
No new specimens were collected during the survey of high hazard
sites, thus the collection records and literature cited form the docu¬
mentation for this report.
Several aquatic weeds not treated here were mentioned by Dr. Robert
R. Haynes, University of Alabama, (personal communication) as probable
recent introductions into Alabama. These include Spirodela punctata,
Miyriophyllum brasiliensis, Myriophyllum spicatum, Ludwigia Uruguay ensi s ,
Ludwigia peploides , and Najas minor. Although aquatic plants are an
integral part of the aquatic ecosystem, the introduction of certain
exotics certainly may lead to severe water-use problems. These weeds
merit close attention in the coming years.
Dr. Robert Krai, Vanderbilt University, (personal communication)
indicated that Phyllanthus tenellus is most probably a recent introduc¬
tion, and reports this weed from Escambia, Geneva, Sumter, and Lee
counties in Alabama. This weed also merits watching in the coming
years .
The results of this survey indicate that Alabama has a number of
weeds which have the potential to develop into serious problems. This
study also indicates the need for additional surveys to detect future
plant introductions and also to monitor the spread of "noxious weeds"
already known to occur within the state. Finally, the need for a State
noxious weed law has been exhibited.
35
Noxious Weeds of Alabama
Table 1. Potentially noxious weeds as defined by the Federal Noxious
Weed Act of 1974, Public Law 93-629.
Brachiaria eruciformis
Cenchrus brownii
Fatoua villosa
Hydrilla verticillata
Imperata brasiliensis
Imperata cylindrica
Ipomoea cairica
Koeleria phleoides
Lindemia Crustacea
Ludwigia peruviana
Lupinus luteus
Muscari comosum
Myriophyllum propinquum
Phyllanthus urinaria
Already designated as noxious weeds by the U.S.D.A.
ANNOTATED LIST OF WEEDS DETECTED
The order of taxonomic treatment of families is that used by Rad¬
ford et al . (25) which is generally accepted. Within each family the
genera and species, respectively, are treated alphabetically.
Common names used are those recommended by the Weed Science Society
of America (31) or when not listed by that agency, those used by Reed
(26). Many of these weeds are not well enough known to have been given
common names.
Within each family each weed is listed by scientific name and,
when available, by common name. Following this is a note concerning
areas in which the weed is known to cause serious problems, and this is
followed by reports from the literature of the weed's occurrence in
Alabama. Finally, herbarium specimens observed are listed by county,
herbarium in which the specimen was observed, and the collection date.
An abbreviated herbarium specimen citation is being used because this
is not a taxonomic study and because we are more interested in collec¬
tion locations and dates.
HYDR0CHAR1TACEAE
Hydrilla verticillata Rcyle hy d r ilia
An aquatic perennial known to cause serious problems in India and
Japan (26). Reed (26) also notes that this weed has spread across the
southern U.S. from FL to TX, and up into CO. Dennis (7) indicates that
this weed was introduced into AL and several other states from FL.
Bayne (unpublished report) reports H. verticillata from Barbour, Choctaw,
and El more cos . , AL .
Choctaw (UNA, 1978)
Clark (UNA, 1978)
H. verticillata is listed as a noxious weed by the U.S.D.A. under
authority of the Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974, Public Law 93-629 (3).
POACEAE
Brachiaria eruciformis (J.E.Sm.) Griseb. signalgrass
An annual herb reported to occur in Mediterranean and Central Asian
countries (26). Rutland (27) reports this weed from Lee Co., AL.
Lee (AUA, 1959)
36
Karr
Cenahrus brownii Roem. & Schult. burrgrass
An annual herb reported to cause serious problems in Australia (26).
Reed (26) also reports C. brownei, an apparent misspelling, as infrequent
in the SE U.S.
Mobile (UNA, 1957)
Festuca arundinacea Schreb. tall fescue
A perennial herb known to cause serious problems in Australia and
New Zealand (26). Freeman and Moore (10) have reported that under some
conditions this grass can cause livestock poisoning. Correlland Johnston
(5) and apparently Radford et al . (25) consider F. arundinacea to be a
synonym of F. elatior. Lelong (20) has reported F . arundinacea from
Mobile Co., and Bostick (4) from St. Clair Co., AL . Lelong (personal
communication) has collected this weed in Baldwin Co., AL .
Lee (AUA, 1968, 1970)
Marshall (AUA, 1960)
Mobile (SA, 1968)
Imperata brasiliensis Trin.
A perennial herb reported to occur in several South American coun¬
tries (26). Hitchcock (11) reports this weed from southern FL and AL.
Lelong (20, 21) reports I. brasiliensis from Mobile Co., AL.
Mobile (SA, 1968, 1969), (UNA, 1965)
I. brasiliensis is listed as a noxious weed by the U.S.D.A. under
authority of the Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974, Public Law 93-629 (3).
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. cogongrass
Reed (26) actually refers to I. cylindrica var. major (Nees) C. B.
Hubb. ex Hubb. & Vaughan and mentions that it causes serious problems in
New South Wales. Hitchcock (11) makes no mention of I. cylindrica var.
major. Holm et al . (12) list I. cylindrica as the world's seventh worst
weed. Dickens (8) reports I. cylindrica from Baldwin, Choctaw, Conecuh,
Escambia, Geneva, Pike, Mobile and Washington cos. of AL.
Mobile (AUA, 1956)
Koeleria phleoides (Vi 11.) Pers.
An annual herb reported to cause serious problems in Russia (26).
Small (29) reports this grass from AL , and Hitchcock (11) and Lelong
(21) have reported it from Mobile Co., AL.
Mobile (SA, 1971)
Lolium temulentum L. darnel
Reed (26) actually refers to L. cuneatum Nevski but indicates that
it is "considered by some as L. temulentum.” Hitchcock (11) makes no
mention of L. cuneatum. L. cuneatum is an annual herb known to cause
serious problems in Russia (26). Freeman and Moore (10) report that
37
Noxious Weeds of Alabama
under some conditions L. temulentum can cause livestock poisoning. Rad¬
ford et al . (25) report L. temulentum from AL and other SE states, and
Rutland (27) and Mohr (22) report it from Lee and Mobile cos., AL, re-
specti vely .
Dallas ( AUA, 1959)
Greene (UNA, 1967)
Hale (UNA, 1966)
Lee (AUA, 1952, 1970)
Mobile (UNA, 1964)
Paspalum vaginatum Swartz salt-water couch
A perennial herb reportedly causing serious problems in Taiwan (26).
Radford et al. (25) report this grass from AL, and Mohr (22) reports it
from Mobile and Baldwin cos., AL .
Baldwin (AUA, 1952)
Mobile (UNA, 1966), (SA, 1967)
Phalaris tuberosa L.
Reed (26) actually refers to P. bulbosa L. and considers P. tuberosa
a synonym of P. bulbosa. Hitchcock (11) on the other hand considers
P. bulbosa to be a synonym of Phleum subulatum (Savi) Asch. & Graebn.
and treats P. tuberosa as a valid species. P. bulbosa is a perennial
herb known to cause serious problems in Lebanon, New Zealand, and Hawaii
(26) . Reed (26) also reports that P. bulbosa is cultivated for forage
in TX and MS. Rutland (27) reports P. tuberosa, also a perennial herb
from Lee Co . , AL .
Elmore (AUA, 1959, 1963)
Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv. green foxtail
Reed (26) actually refers to S. gigantea (Fr. & Sav.) Makino but
suggests that it is "most probably only a variation of S. viridis."
Both are annuals with S. gigantea described as a "slightly harmful
weed" in Japan (26). Hitchcock (11) makes no reference to S. gigantea.
Mohr (22), who indicates that S. viridis is a synonym of bhaetochloa
viridis (L.) Scribner, reports this weed from Mobile Co., AL. Rutland
(27) reports S. viridis from Lee Co., AL.
Calhoun (JS, 1968)
Lee (AUA, 1966)
CYPERACEAE
Bulbostylis barbata (Rottboell) Clarke
An annual herb which causes serious problems in Japan and Taiwan
(26). Radford et al . (25) and Small (29), who calls this weed Stenophyl-
lus barbatus (Rottboell) Britton, both report this weed from AL in addi¬
tion to other SE states. In AL B. barbata has been reported from Elmore,
Lee (27), and Mo bile (20) cos. In addition. Krai (16) has reported this
species from seventeen other AL cos.
Geneva (AUA, 1968)
Henry (AUA, 1968)
38
Karr
Lee (AUA, 1955)
Mobile (SA, 1967)
Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) Clarke
Reed (26) actually refers to B. densa (Wall.) Hand.-Mazz. instead
but mentions that B. capillaris var. trifida Clarke is a synonym of
B. densa. Krai (16) does not mention B. densa or B. capillaris var.
trifida in his treatment of North American species of Bulbostylis , but
does list B. capillaris var. isopoda Fern, among others as a synonym of
B. capillaris. It should be pointed out that, if B. capillaris var.
trifida is segregated from B. capillaris , the remaining varieties of
B. capillaris may not be noxious at all. B. densa is an annual herb
known to cause serious problems in Japan (26). Radford et al . (25)
report B. capillaris from AL and other SE states. Fernald (9) mentions
that B. capillaris var. isopoda occurs in AL. B. capillaris has been
reported from Chambers, Elmore, Randolph, Talladega (27), Clay (22), and
St. Clair (4) cos. of AL, while Krai (16) reports this species from
twenty-four AL cos.
No herbarium specimens observed.
Cyperus polystachyos Rottboel 1
A perennial herb which causes serious problems in India and Taiwan
(26). C. polystachyos var. texensis (Torrey) Fernald is an American
variety which has been reported as occurring throughout the SE U.S.
(25). Radford et al. (25) list C. microdontis Torrey among others as a
synonym of C. polystachyos var. texensis. Mohr (22) reports C. micro¬
dontis from Mobile and Baldwin cos., AL, while Lelong (20) reports C.
polystachyos from Mobile Co., AL.
Mobile (UNA, 1965)
Wilcox (UNA, 1978)
Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vah 1 . grass-like fimbristylis
An annual herb reported to cause serious problems in Taiwan, Japan,
and the Philippine Islands (26). This weed has been reported from AL
and other SE states by Radford et al . (25). Rutland (27) reports this
weed from Lee Co., AL, and Lelong (20) from Mobile Co., AL, while Krai
(16) reports it from twelve other AL cos.
Dallas (UNA, 1977)
Lee (AUA, 1950, 1962)
Mobile (SA, 1969)
Montgomery (UNA, 1977)
Tuscaloosa (UNA, 1977)
COMMELINACEAE
Aneilema nudiflorum (L.) Kunth
An annual herb which causes serious problems in India (26). Lelong
(19, 20) reports this weed as "infrequent in moist, cultivated sites"
of Mobile Co. , AL.
Mobile (AUA, 1956), (SA, 1968)
39
Noxious Weeds of Alabama
Commelina erecta L.
A perennial herb reported to
Although Reed (26) does not menti
U.S. specifically, he does mentio
Radford et al . (25) indicate that
C. erecta has been reported from
(22), Mobile (20, 22), and St. Cl
Cleburne (AUA, 1975)
Coosa (AUA, 1973)
Elmore (AUA, 1975)
Escambia (AUA, 1968)
Lowndes (JS, 1969)
Macon (AUA, 1971 )
Marshall (UNA, 1956)
cause serious problems in Ghana (26).
on the occurrence of this weed in the
n its occurrence in the "New World."
this weed occurs throughout the SE U.S.
Cleburne, Coosa, Randolph (27), Lee
air (4) cos. of AL.
Mobile (SA, 1967), (UNA, 1965)
Montgomery (AUA, 1967)
Perry (AUA, 1976)
Randolph (AUA, 1967)
Tallapoosa (AUA, 1969)
Tuscaloosa (UNA, 1966)
Tradescantia fluminensis Vel 1 .
A perennial herb which reportedly causes serious problems in New
South Wales (26). There are no known reports of the occurrence of this
weed in AL.
Baldwin (SA, 1971)
LILIACEAE
Muscari comosum (L.) Mill. purple grape-hyacinth
A perennial herb which reportedly causes serious problems in Leba¬
non (26). Reed (26) also mentions that M. comosum is often cultivated
as an ornamental in North America. Rutland (27) reports this plant from
Lee Co., AL where it probably escaped from cultivation.
Lee (AUA, 1922)
MORACEAE
Fatoua villosa (Thunb.) Nakai
An annual herb reported to cause serious problems in Japan (26).
Lelong (19, 20) reports this weed from Mobile Co., AL.
Mobile (SA, 1972)
P0LYG0NACEAE
Polygonum cespitosum B1 .
An annual herb noted as being a serious problem in Taiwan (26).
Fernald (9) and Radford et al . (25) make note of P. cespitosum var.
longisetum ( De Bruyn) Stewart rather than the typical variety P. cespito¬
sum. In AL D. cespitosum var. longisetum has been reported from Talla¬
poosa (24, 27), Chambers, Clay, Lee (27), Bibb, Dallas, Jefferson, Perry,
and Shelby cos. (28). Lelong (personal communication) has collected this
weed in Mobi le Co. , AL .
40
Karr
Bibb (UNA, 1976)
Blount (UNA, 1978)
Calhoun (AUA, 1975)
Clay (UNA, 1978)
Cleburne (AUA, 1975)
Coosa (AUA, 1975)
Dallas (AUA, 1976)
Lee (AUA, 1955, 1970)
Montgomery (UNA, 1977)
Shelby (AUA, 1976)
Talladega (AUA, 1975)
Tallapoosa (AUA, 1974)
Tuscaloosa (UNA, 1966)
Polygonum lapathi folium L.
pale smartweed
Reed (26) actually refers to P. linicola Sut. but mentions that it
is "sometimes treated under p. lapathi folium." P. linicola. is an annual
herb known to cause serious problems in Russia (26). Radford et al . (25)
report P. lapathi folium , also an annual herb, from AL and other SE states.
In AL P. lapathi folium has been reported from Bibb (28), Cleburne, Lee
(27), Mobile (20, 22), and St. Clair cos. (4). Lelong (personal communi¬
cation) has collected this weed in Baldwin Co., AL.
Calhoun (JS, 1969)
Dallas (UNA, 1977)
Tuscaloosa (UNA, 1977)
Wilcox (UNA, 1978)
AIZOACEAE
Trianthema portulacastrum L. horse purslane
An annual succulent herb which causes serious problems in India and
Madras (26). Reed (26) has apparently misspelled the genus {"Trianthera") .
Radford et al . (25) report this weed from AL.
Jefferson (UNA, 1944)
PORTULACACEAE
Portulaca oleracea L. common purslane
Reed (26) actually refers to P. quadrifida L. but indicates that it
is "sometimes considered a form of P. oleracea . " Both species are annual
herbs. P. quadrifida is known to cause serious problems in Taiwan and
India (26). Holm et al . (12) list P. oleracea as the world's ninth worst
weed. Radford et al . (25) report P. oleracea as occurring throughout the
SE U.S., and Mohr (22) reports this weed as occurring throughout AL.
Sessler (28) and Lelong (20) have reported P. oleracea from Dallas and
Mobile cos., AL respectively. Lelong (personal communication) has col¬
lected this weed in Baldwin Co., AL.
Dallas (AUA, 1976)
Mobile (UNA, 1965), (SA, 1974)
CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Silene gallica L. English catchfly
Reed (26) indicates that S. gallica is a synonym of S. gallica var.
quinquevulnera (L.) Koch. It has been reported that S. gallica var.
quinquevulnera, an annual herb, causes serious problems in Japan and New
41
Noxious Weeds of Alabama
South Wales, and is known to occur in the U.S. (26). Mohr (22) indicates
that S. galliaa is a synonym of S. anglica L. and reports the latter from
Mobile Co., AL. Krai (17) also reports S. gallioa from Mobile Co., AL.
Macon (AUA, 1967)
RANUNCULACEAE
Ranunculus acris L.
tall buttercup
A perennial herb reported to cause serious problems in Russia,
Germany, and Trinidad (26). Reed (26) also indicates that this weed
occurs in NE America. Mohr (22) reports R. acris as "rare" in Mobile
Co. , AL.
Mobile (UNA, 1885)
FABACEAE
Lupinus luteus L. yellow lupine
An annual herb which causes serious problems in South Africa and
Russia (26). In addition Reed (26) reports L. luteus as occurring in
North America. In AL this weed has been reported from Lee Co. (27).
No herbarium specimens observed.
Medicago polymorpha L. toothed medic
An annual herb reported to cause
Japan and New Zealand (26). Reed (26)
more or less worldwide in distribution
rence in the U.S. Radford et al. (25)
other SE states. Mohr (22) reports M.
M. polymorpha from Mobile Co., AL, and
from Lee Co . , AL .
Green (UNA, 1967)
Lee (JS, 1964)
Marengo (UNA, 1969)
Mobile (UNA, 1974)
Sumter (UNA, 1967)
serious problems in India, Russia,
also indicates that this weed is
but fails to mention its occur-
report M. polymorpha from AL and
denticulata Willd., a synonym of
Rutland (27) reports M. polymorpha
Rhyyichosia minima (L.) DC
An annual herb reportedly causing serious problems in India (26).
Mohr (22) reports the occurrence of this weed from Mobile Co., AL.
No herbarium specimens observed.
Tri folium subterraneum L. subterranean clover
An annual herb which causes serious problems in New
Tasmania (26). Rutland (27) has reported this weed from
AL.
Tallapoosa (NA, 1972)
Zealand and
Tall apoosa Co . ,
42
Karr
EUPHORBIACEAE
Euphorbia heterophylla L.
wild poinsettia
An annual herb which causes serious problems in India and Trinidad
(26). Cornell and Johnston (5) indicate that E. oyathophora Murr. is
often erroneously included under E. heterophylla . Radford et al . (25)
report this weed from AL in addition to other SE states. Lelong (20)
has reported E. heterophylla from Mobile Co., AL.
Elmore (ALIA, 1970)
Houston (AUA, 1969)
Mobile (SA, 1968)
Montgomery (UNA, 1949, 1969)
Phyllanthus urinaria L.
An annual herb reported to cause serious problems in Japan and
Taiwan, and is noted by Reed (26) as occurring in tropical North America.
Lelong (19, 20) reports this weed from Mobile Co., AL, and Krai (personal
communication) reports it from Baldwin, Barbour, Covington, Escambia, Lee
and Mobi 1 e cos . of AL .
Mobile (SA, 1969)
ONAGRACEAE
Ludwigia peruviana (L.) Hara
A perennial shrub known to cause serious problems in Columbia (26).
In addition Reed (26) reports this aquatic weed as occurring in FL. Mohr
(22) reports Jussiaea peruviana L., a synonym of L. peruviana , from
Mobile Co. , AL.
Mobile (SA, 1974)
HALORAGACEAE
Myriophyllum propinquum A. Cunn.
An aquatic perennial herb known to cause serious problems in New
Zealand (26). No known previous reports of this weed occurring in AL.
Lauderdale (UNA, 1978)
PRIMULACEAE
Anagalis arvensis L. scarlet pimpernel
Reed (26) refers here to A. foemina Mill, but indicates that it is
"very similar to A. arvensis A. foemina is an annual or biennial herb
reported to cause serious problems in Russia, Israel and Lebanon (26).
Radford et al . (25) report A. arvensis, an annual herb, from AL, and
Rutland (27) and Mohr (22) report this weed from Lee and Mobile cos., AL,
respectively.
Lee (AUA, 1953)
Mobile (SA, 1974), (UNA, 1950)
43
Noxious Weeds of Alabama
CONVOLVULACEAE
Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet
Cairo morningglory
A perennial herb known to cause serious problems in India (26).
Krai (18) reports this weed from Mobile Co., AL.
No herbarium specimens observed.
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Lindemia orustacea (L.) F. Muell.
An annual herb reportedly causing serious problems in India and
Taiwan (26). Reed (26) does mention the occurrence of this weed in
America. Krai (17) reports L. orustacea from Escambia Co., AL.
No herbarium specimens observed.
Mazus japonicus Mak.
Reed (26) actually refers to M. miquelli Mak. but notes that M.
japonicus is a synonym of M. miquelli. M. miquelli is a perennial herb
wiiich is a "harmful weed throughout" Japan (26). Lelong (19, 20) re¬
ports M. japonicus from Mobile Co., AL.
Mobile (SA, 1969)
ASTERACEAE
Lactuoa virosa L. bitter lettuce
An annual or biennial herb which causes serious problems in France
and S. Australia (26). Reed (26) also reports L. virosa from CA. There
is no previous mention in the literature of the occurrence of this weed
in AL .
Tuscaloosa (UNA, 1957)
Melanthera hastata Michaux
Reed (26) actually refers to M. nivea (L.) Small and indicates that
M. hastata is a synonym of M. nivea, a treatment also followed by Parks
(23) and Cronquist (6). The species is reported by Reed (26) as occur¬
ring along the Coastal Plain from SC to LA. It has been reported from
Bibb (28) and Mobile (22) cos., AL as M. hastata, and from Barbour,
Colbert, Mobile, and Morgan cos., AL (23) as M. nivea.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Anderson, W. P. 1977. Weed Science: Principles. West Publishing
Company, New York. 598 pp.
2. Anonymous. 1974. Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974, Public Law
93-629.
3. Anonymous. 1976. Noxious Weed Regulations. Code of Federal Regu¬
lations Title 7, Chapter 3, Part 360.
44
Karr
4. Bostick, P. E. 1967. A geobotanical investigation of Chandler
Mountain, St. Clair Co., Alabama. Castanea 32:133-154.
5. Correll, D. S. and M. C. Johnston. 1970. Manual of the Vascular
Plants of Texas. Texas Research Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
6. Cronquist, Arthur. 1980. Vascular Flora of the Southeastern United
States. Vol . 1. Asteraceae. The University of North Carolina
Press, Chapel Hill. 261 pp.
7. Dennis, W. M. , T. L. Goldsby, and A. L. Bates. 1977. Selected
Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Tennessee Valley. Tennessee
Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, AL. 154 pp.
8. Dickens, R. 1974. Coaongrass in Alabama after sixty years. Weed
Sci. 22:177-179.
9. Fernald, M. L. 1950. Gray's Manual of Botany. 8th ed. American
Book Company, New York. 1632 pp.
10. Freeman, J. D. and H. D. Moore. 1974. Livestock-Poisoning Vascu¬
lar Plants of Alabama. Auburn Univ. Agr. Exp. Stn. Bull. 460. 79
pp.
11. Hitchcock, A. S. 1950. Manual of the Grasses of the United States.
2nd ed. U.S. Dep. Agric., Miscel. Pub. 200. 1051 pp.
12. Holm, L. G., D. L. Plucknett, J. V. Pancho, and J. P. Herberger.
1977. The World's Worst Weeds: Distribution and Biology. The
University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, HI. 609 pp.
13. Holmgren, P. K. and W. Keuken. 1947. Index Herbariorum Part I
the Herbaria of the World. 6th ed. Oosthoek, Scheltema and Holkema,
Utrecht, Netherlands. 397 pp.
14. Hoveland, C. S., E. M. Evans, and D. A. Mays. 1974. Cool Season
Perennial Grass Species for Forage in Alabama. Auburn Univ. Agr.
Exp. Stn. Bull. 397. 20 pp.
15. Klingman, G. C. and F. M. Ashton. 1975. Weed Science: Principles
& Practices. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 431 pp.
16. Krai, R. 1971. A treatment of Abi ldgaardia, Bulbostylis and Fim-
bristylis (Cyperaceae) for North America. Sida 4:57-227.
17. Krai, R. 1973. Some notes on the flora of the southern states,
particularly Alabama and middle Tennessee. Rhodora 75:366-410.
18. Krai, R. 1976. Additions to some notes on the flora of the
southern states, particularly Alabama and middle Tennessee.
Rhodora 78:438-456.
19. Lelong, M. G. 1976. Noteworthy weedy plants of Mobile County,
Alabama. (Abstr.) J. Alabama Acad. Sci. 47:126-127.
45
Noxious Weeds of Alabama
20. Lelong, M. G. 1977. Annotated list of vascular plants in Mobile,
Alabama. Sida 7:118-146.
21. Lelong, M. G. 1978. Additional noteworthy weedy plants of the
Mobile region. (Abstr.) J. Alabama Acad. Sci . 49:68-69.
22. Mohr, C. 1901. Plant life of Alabama. Contr. U.S. Natl. Herb.
6:1-921 .
23. Parks, J. C. 1973. A revision of North American and Caribbean
Melanthera (Composi tae) . Rhodora 75:169-210.
24. Petranka, J. W., A. Hutto, and J. D. Freeman. 1979. Summer flora
of Horseshoe Bend National Military Park, Alabama. J. Alabama
Acad. Sci. 50:70-86.
25. Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles, and C. R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the
Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. University of North Carolina
Press, Chapel Hill. 1183 pp.
26. Reed, C. F. 1971. Economically Important Foreign Weeds: Poten¬
tial Problems in the United States. U.S. Dep. Agric., Agric. Hand¬
book 498. 746 pp.
27. Rutland, D. W. 1977. Vascular Flora of the Piedmont Plateau of
Alabama. M.S. Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, AL. 117 pp.
28. Sessler, A. H. 1978. Vascular Flora of the Cahaba River Area.
M.S. Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, AL. 94 pp.
29. Small, J. K. 1933. Manual of the Southeastern Flora. The Science
Press Printing Company, Lancaster, PA. 1554 pp.
30. Stevens, L. 1976. King Kong Kudzu, menace to south. Smithsonian
7:93-99.
31. Weed Science Society of America. 1971. Composite list of weeds.
Weed Sci . 19:435-476.
I would like to express my appreciation to Dr. John D. Freeman,
Auburn University; Dr. Robert R. Haynes, University of Alabama; Dr.
Michel G. Lelong, University of South Alabama; Dr. R. David Whetstone,
Jacksonville State University; and Dr. Bob Daly, University of North
Alabama, for allowing me to survey herbaria in their keeping. I am
grateful to Dr. J. A. Bloch, Alabama Department of Agriculture and In¬
dustries, Mr. R. G. Milam, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Dr. John
D. Freeman for their review of this manuscript. Finally, I am espe¬
cially indebted to Miss Beth Pace and Debra Spivey for their typing of
this manuscript.
46
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981.
ABSTRACT
Alabama Science Policy Forum
HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, AND POTABLE WATER PRODUCTION FROM FISSION
D. L. Hollis. Dept, of Electrical Engineering. E. R. VanArtsdal en .
Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Ala., University, AL 35486.
A reexamination is made of producing hydrogen from radiolytic decompo¬
sition of water in an aqueous homogeneous fission reactor. For economi¬
cal reasons the by-product of potable water distilled from salt water is
included, and it is assumed that oxygen is released with the hydrogen.
Based on published data without any attempt to increase production rates
beyond that reported, a 3000 MWt reactor will produce 81 tonnes/d of H£,
648 tonnes/d of O2 , and 148(106) gal/d of potable water.
The hydrogen production rate is too low, but potable water production
is attractive enough to reverse its role of by-product. By keeping the
reactor power density small with a large core, advantages in safety and
corrosion are expected. Inadvertent hydrogen combustion should be con¬
trolled by predominant water vapor concentration. Tritium production,
though little, could result in concentrations greater than the MPCJa.jr
for internal combustion engines in enclosed spaces. Until tritium
removal systems are available, hydrogen from fission should be used in
fuel cells or aircraft. In addition to tritium removal, the main prob¬
lem identified is a need for better understanding of fission product
interaction with water in order to increase hydrogen production from
fission.
47
NOTES
INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS
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THE JOURNAL
OF THE
ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE
AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
VOLUME 52 APRIL, 1981 NO. 2
EDITOR:
W. H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, AL 36849
ARCHIVIST:
R. G. Eaves, Department of History, Auburn University, AL 36849
EDITORIAL BOARD
R. T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn
University, AL 36849
E. A. Curl, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849
G. L. Becker, Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
LIniversity Station, Birmingham, AI. 35294
ADVISORY BOARD:
Curt AI. Peterson, Auburn University William Gunther, Univ Ala., Tuscaloosa
A. Barry Cox, Jacksonville St Univ. Richard L. Shoemaker, Univ. Ala., Tuscaloosa
Daniel R. Womochel, Auburn University Harold L. Pastrick, Redstone Arsenal
Frank Himmler. Univ. North Alabama Glen Eaves, Auburn University
James Hau k, Univ. Ala., Tuscaloosa Helen Mabry, Birmingham (Bd of Educ.)
Ernest Riggsby, Columbus College
The Journal is the official publication of the Alabama Academy of Science, and is
indexed in Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, America: History and Life, and
Historical Abstracts.
Publication and Subscription Policies
Submission of Manuscripts. Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence
to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous reviews. For style
details, follow Instruction to Authors (see inside back cover).
Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.
Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIR¬
MAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD
Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news releases will not be pub
lished in the Journal.
ISSN 002-4112
CONTENTS
ARTICLES
Granulomas in Reptiles: A Report of Four Cases
Charles G. Crispens, Jr. and Ken R. Marion . 48
Fecundity of Largemouth Bass from Pickwick
Reservoir, Tennessee River
Daniel F. Hughes and Wayne A. Hubert . 53
Mimicry and Spatial Occupation in the Mydas
Fly, Mydas clavatus
William E. Cooper, Jr . 58
Predation by the Red Imported Fire Ant, Solenopsis invicta
(Hymenoptera: Formicidae), on Eggs of the Lizard
Cnemidophorus sexlineatus ( Squama ta: Teiidae)
Robert H. Mount, Stanley E. Trauth, and
William H. Mason . 66
The Red Imported Fire Ant, Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera :
Formicidae), as a Possible Serious Predator on Some Native
Southeastern Vertebrates: Direct Observations and
Subjective Impressions
Robert H. Mount . 71
REVISION OF CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS
79
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 2, April, 1981.
GRANULOMAS IN REPTILES: A REPORT OF FOUR CASES1
Charles G. Crispens, Jr. and Ken R. Marion
department of Biology
University of Alabama in Birmingham
University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294
Abstract. Four examples of subcutaneous granulomas were found over
a period of approximately two years in reptiles collected and/or main¬
tained in the southeastern United States. These included a granuloma of
bacterial etiology in a Gulf Coast box turtle and three cases of mycotic
granulomas in a boa constrictor, a panamint rattlesnake and a dusky
pigmy rattlesnake.
Reptiles have been collected and exhibited by zoos for many years,
and their value as laboratory animals has increased considerably during
the past decade. Nonetheless, an understanding of the infectious dis¬
eases of these vertebrates is incomplete.
It would appear that bacterial infections are common in reptiles.
Two reviews list numerous examples of such diseases^*! 1 ; other articles
describe additional cases in various species of reptilesl2, an acid-fast
granuloma in the eye of a box turtle ( Terrapene Carolina )9, and granu¬
lomatous pseudotumors in several specimens of lizards ( Lacerta sicula)
and the iguana ( Cyclura comuta )2. By comparison, there have been few
observations of mycotic diseases. These include descriptions of mycotic
pneumonia in turtles and tortoises^, captive giant tortoises ( Testudo
elephantopus and T. gigantea elephantina)^ , and captive American alli¬
gators ( Alligator mississipiensis)^ , as well as three examples of fungal
infections in the eyes of a rainbow boa ( Epicrates chenchria maurus)^^ ,
the jaw and internal organs of a tropical tortoise ( Testudo radiata ) and
the skin of a reticulated python ( Python reticulatus)^ .
Reports of algal infections in reptiles are rare^. Several years
ago, we described a lesion which developed slowly on the ventro-lateral
surface of the neck of a male corn snake ( Elaphe guttata guttata) and
recurred as a fulminating subcutaneous mass within a few weeks after
surgery!. Microscopic examination allowed for the tentative identifica¬
tion as a chondrosarcoma, but this interpretation was corrected by par¬
ticipants in a National Cancer Institute Pathology Conference who diag¬
nosed the growth as a parasitic granuloma of algal ( Protothecosa sp.)
etiol ogy .
Recently, we were afforded the opportunity to study a series of
subcutaneous lesions which occurred over a period of approximately two
Manuscript received 8 December 1980; accepted 8 May 1981.
48
Granulomas in Reptiles
years in four species of reptiles. These cases now have diagnoses.
They are reported herein to allow for incorporation into the present
knowledge of reptilian diseases.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The methods employed were similar for each specimen. Thus, pieces
of tissue were obtained at necropsy (or removed surgically), fixed in
10% neutral formalin, and embedded in paraffin for sectioning. Some
sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin for examination with
the light microscope and, if warranted, additional sections were stained
with special methods such as Brown and Breen, Gomori methenamine silver,
and periodic acid-Schi ff? . Thereafter, representative slides and the
unused portions of tissue blocks were submitted with pertinent informa¬
tion to the Registry of Tumors in Lower Animals (RTLA), The Smithsonian
Institution.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Bacterial Infections
The only example of a bacterial infection occurred in a female Gulf
Coast box turtle ( Terrapene Carolina major). This animal was collected
in southern Mississippi (Jackson County) on June 16, 1975 and, at the
time of capture, showed a prominent swelling on the dorsal surface of
the neck. Six months later, a single subcutaneous mass was excised by
routine surgical procedures. The lesion measured 13 mm in diameter and
was encapsulated. The capsular portion was reddish-brown; the central
region appeared lighter in coloration and was firm. To date, there has
been no recurrence of the disease process.
Microscopic examination revealed an infectious granuloma of bac¬
terial etiology (RTLA 1380). Further, it was indicative of an old
lesion since only the peripheral granulation tissue had not become
necrotic.
The repeated observation of bacterial granulomas on turtles, snakes,
and lizards has led to the suggestion that reptiles may be stung fre¬
quently and infected mechanically by insects (Harshbarger , J. C., per¬
sonal communication). However, this mechanism has yet to be proved as a
significant means of infection.
Mycotic Infections
Mycotic infections were found in three species of snakes.
One snake, a male boa constrictor ( Boa constrictor), had been in
captivity for eight years. It developed multiple subcutaneous growths
which were variable in size (0.5-1. 5 cm in the greatest dimension) and
of wide distribution over the lateral and dorsal surfaces of the body.
Treatment was attempted by excision of the lesions, but the snake died
within several hours after surgery.
49
Crispens and Marion
The second case involved a female pariamint. rattlesnake ( Cvotalus
rrritchelli ) which was obtained as an adult and maintained in the collec¬
tion of the Birmingham Zoo for approximately five years. The initial
growth was observed after one year. When killed, there were multiple
subcutaneous lesions which varied in size and exhibited a wide distribu¬
tion over the lateral and dorsal surfaces of the body. The largest
growth measured 4.0 x 1.5 x 2.0 cm in length, heighth and width, re¬
spectively. Its surface, as well as the surfaces of many of the smaller
lesions, was marked by extensive ulceration.
The third snake, a female dusky pigmy rattlesnake ( Sistrurus
miliarius) , was collected in Florida (Jackson County) on August 21,
1976. At capture, a small growth was noted behind the angle of the
lower jaw. Thereafter, the lesion exhibited a slight increase in size
and, when removed by routine surgical procedures, it measured approxi¬
mately 5 mm in diameter. To date, there has been no recurrence of the
disease process.
In general, the lesions presented similar macroscopic features.
Each appeared as a firm and encapsulated subcutaneous mass. The capsu¬
lar portion was reddish-brown; the central region varied from pinkish-
white to grayish-white in coloration.
Microscopic examination allowed for a diagnosis of mycotic granu¬
loma in the three snakes: B. constrictor (RTLA 1131), C. mitchelli
(RTLA 1230) and S. miliarius (RTLA 1604). Thus, each lesion was charac¬
terized by multiple foci of necrosis surrounded by large numbers of
granulocytes and macrophages. Fungal hyphae could be seen in sections
stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and these were better demonstrated
by application of the periodic acid-Schiff technique (Figure 1).
Our finding of mycotic granulomas in three of the four cases raises
the question of whether mycotic infections are more common in reptiles
than previous studies have indicated^ 3, jn this regard, the fact that
two of the reptiles were maintained in captivity may be of importance
since it is often difficult to recreate their appropriate environment
and diet. Changes from normal may greatly reduce their resistance to
disease, and fungal infections are known to develop under such condi -
tions^.
We also suspect that geographic location may be a factor. The high
humidity and extended periods of warm temperature characteristic of the
southeastern United States present a favorable environment for most
mycotic forms. Thus, there is a need for further information on reptiles
collected and/or maintained in this region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Dr. John C. Harshbarger, Director, Registry of Tumors in
Lower Animals, for his contributions to the definitive diagnoses of these
cases, and Greg Cameron for his photographic assistance.
50
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Granulomas in Reptiles
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Auburn University, A1 36849.
A method of studying scent marking behavior in the grey squirrel was
identified and developed along with marking techniques. Laboratory
rats were injected subcutaneously and intraperitoneally with various
volumns and concentrations of an industrial dye called Rhodamine B. It
was found that a solution of 10 gms . Rhodamine B and 1000ml H«0 injected
intraperitoneally using various volumns lasted a maximum of 84 hours for
the females and 81 hours for the males. Various methods of marking
individual squirrels are discussed including tail fur clipping, fur
dyeing, ear tagging, and freeze branding.
PREPARATION OF GARDEN SOIL IN NORTHEAST ALABAMA
Thomas Cochis, R. David Whetstone, and Kenneth E. Landers, Dept, of Bi-
ologYi Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265.
A series of 2x2 Kodachrome slides were used to show how a heavy clay
soil in Calhoun County unsuitable for gardening, can be changed to a
loose, friable soil ideally suited for this purpose. Well rotted saw¬
dust, lime and a balanced fertilizer were used. Samples of the soil
before and after preparation were shown. Five years were required for
total preparation with the soil showing steady improvement from the
first year.
114
Abstracts
CULTIVATION OF KIWI (ACTINIDIA CHINENSIS PLANCHON)
IN NORTHEAST ALABAMA
Kenneth E. Landers, Thomas Cochis and R. David Whetstone. Dept, of Bi¬
ology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265.
Kiwi or Chinese gooseberry was grown from seed in 1971 and cultivated
in a garden in Jacksonville. Culture techniques included the applica¬
tion of 8-8-8 fertilizer, chicken manure and cow manure in the spring.
The plants were mulched with leaves in early fall since new growth was
often killed back by late spring frost. One arbor, located in partial
shade on which noth female and male plants are growing, is approximate¬
ly 8 meters long, 2 meters wide and 2 to 3 meters tall. Six to seven
dozen fruit were harvested in 1978.
CULTIVATION OF KIWI (ACTINIDIA CHINENSIS PLANCHON)
IN NORTHEAST ALABAMA
Kenneth E. Landers, Thomas Cochis and R. David Whetstone. Dept, of Bi¬
ology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265.
Kiwi or Chinese gooseberry was grown from seed in 1971 and cultivated
in a garden in Jacksonville. Culture techniques included the applica¬
tion of 8-8-8 fertilizer, chicken manure and cow manure in the spring.
The plants were mulched with leaves in early fall since new growth was
often killed back by late spring frost. One arbor, located in partial
shade on which both female and male plants are growing, is approximate¬
ly 8 meters long, 2 meters wide and 2 to 3 meters tall. Six to seven
dozen fruit were harvested in 1978.
SOME ASPECTS OF DISPERSAL IN THE VASCULAR FLORA
OF THE CUMBERLAND PLATEAU OF ALABAMA
Whetstone, R. David, Kenneth E. Landers, and Thomas Cochis, Dept, of Bi¬
ology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265.
A study of the dispersal spectra represented in the flora of the Cum¬
berland Plateau reveals most taxa are dispersed by wind and animals.
In addition, almost one fourth of the taxa exhibit no specialized dis¬
persal mechanisms. These computer-assisted tabulations and cross tabu¬
lations include almost 98% of the documented flora of the plateau of
Alabama .
115
Abstracts
CHEMISTRY
A NOVEL BACTERICIDAL AGENT FOR TREATMENT OF WATER. D. Burkett, J.
Faison, H. H. Kohl, W. W. Wheatley and S. D. Worley, Department of
Chemistry, Auburn University, Alabama 36849 and N. Bodor, Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
32611.
A. novel bactericidal agent 3- chloro-4 , 4- dimethyl- 2- oxazolidinone ( I)
has been synthesized and purified by an efficient procedure and
tested as a wa ter- treatment agent. The agent has been demonstrated
to be effective against eight types of bacteria which might be present
in a water supply. In fact, the agent appears to be equally effective
as compared to gaseous chlorine. Testing procedures and associated
spectroscopic data for I will be discussed.
A SPECTROSCOPICALLY RESOLVED PULSED C02 LASER. M. R. Colberg, and 0. D.
Krogh, Department of Chemistry, Auburn University, Alabama 36849
A pulsed CO 2 laser has been developed by flash photolysis of C02:
CS2:02:N02 mixtures, involving energy transfer from CO to C02^'^, and
by flash photolysis of C02:Br2 mixtures, involving energy transfer from
Br* to C02-*-. The laser emission in the 10 micron region has been re¬
solved with a 1-meter Jarrell-Ash manochromator and spectroscipically
identified. Experimental parameters like sample composition, flash
energy and total sample pressure have been optimized. Investigation of
emission in the 16 micron region is in progress and data will be pre¬
sented to the extent they are available. As a pulsed laser this repre¬
sents a valuable probe of vibrational excitation of product C02 in gas
phase reactions.
1. A. B. Petersen and C. Wittig, Chem. Phys ■ Lett. , 27 , 442 (1974).
2. D. W. Howgate and T. A. Barr, >J. Chem. Phys ■ , 59 , 2815 (1973).
116
Abstracts
CARBON-METAL BONDS STUDIED BY MATRIX ISOLATION. G. Cook, O. D. Kroqh,
Department of Chemistry, Auburn University, Alabama 36849
The carbon metal bond has been studied for some metal-alkyl radicals
by isolation in inert gas matrices. Metal atoms, both main group and
transition group metals, were deposited with a resistively heated Knud-
sen cell. Methyl radicals were provided by photolysis of the matrix of
azomethane. Reaction during warmup of the matrix was followed by
infrared spectra in absorption and by optical multichannel analyzer
(OMA) spectra in emission. The project is presently in progress and
will include work with the metals Mg, A1 , Ti and Zn.
FORMER PROFESSORS OF CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA
Emmett B. Carmichael, Med. Center, U.A.B., Birmingham, AL .
John William Mallet, b. 10/10/1832, Dublin, Ire., B.A.;
Ph.D.; M.D.; LL.D., Professor of Chemistry, 1855-1860,
d . 11/6/ 1912 .
Jack Percival Montgomery, b. 7/18/1877, Columbus, MS.,
B.A.; M.A.; Ph.D.. Professor of Organic Chemistry, 1918-
1948, d. 5/20/1973.
Stewart Joseph Lloyd, b. 9/12/1881, H amilton, Can., B.A.;
M.S.; Ph.D.; D. Sc., Professor of Chemistry 1909 and Dean
School of Chemistry, Metallurgy, and Ceramics, 1928-1959,
Herty Medalist 1957, d. 8/5/1959-
Ernest Victor Jones, b. 1/7/1882. Bronaugh, MO., B.A.;
M.A.; Ph.D.; D. Sc., Professor of Analytical Chemistry,
1947-1952, d. 7/21/1970.
Hsien Wu, b. 11/2 4/1 89 3 , Foochow , China, B.S.; Ph.D.,
Visiting Professor of Biochemistry, 194Q-1953- d. 8/8/1959.
James Lyle Kassner, b. 11/6/1894, Whitehall, MI., B.A.;
M.S.; Ph.D., Professor of Analytical Chemistry, 1946-1970.
d. 6/24/1970.
117
Abstracts
PHOTOLYSIS OF CYANOGENAZID , CN4 , STUDIED BY MATRIX ISOLATION. J. Hollen¬
beck , O. D. Krogh, Department of Chemistry, Auburn University, Alabama
36849
The photolysis of cyanogen acid, CN4 , has been studied in solid
argon matrices at 10°K. A safe, convenient procedure for synthesis of
CN4 from C1CN and NaN3 has been developed to give a product of high
purity.
The primary photolysis process to N2 molecules and NCN radicals
has been confirmed-*- by infrared spectra and further substantiated by
the blue emission (visible) associated with warm up of photolyzed
smaples to 30-40°K. The assignment of this thermoluminescence is pre¬
sently in progress, as is the investigation of the possibility of secon¬
dary photolysis of NCN radicals to give N2 molecules and C-atoms. This
is done by identification of the products from the reaction between
ethylene and photolyzed CN4 in the argon matrix.
1. D. E. Milligan, M. E. Jacox, and A. M. Bass, ,J. Chem. Phys ■ , 43 ,
3149 (1965).
THE APPLICATION OF HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
TO ANALYSIS OF UREA FERTILIZER IMPURITIES
Robert G. Howard, E. Richard Austin, Robert C. Horn, The International
Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, AL 35660, and Thomas P.
Murray, Department of Chemistry, University of North Alabama, Florence,
AL 35630
Commercial processes for the synthesis of urea from ammonia and
carbon dioxide give rise to impurities such as hexamethy I ene tetra-
amine, biuret and triutet. Biuret, which arises from excessive heat¬
ing, is troublesome due to its phytotoxicity. Triuret can hydrolyze
to biuret and is therefore potentially phytotoxic also. The toxicity
is particularly acute in application to small grain seedlings and
citrus fruits. The currently used wet method for biuret in urea is
a colorometric procedure and no suitable method exists for triuret.
High pressure liquid chromatography has been applied to this prob¬
lem with good results. A C— 1 8 reverse phase column has been used to
separate urea from biuret and triuret. A good separation was achieved
by isocratic elution with a potassium phosphate buffer. An ultra¬
violet detector was used and the effect of buffer pH on elution charac¬
teristics explored. Quantitative results for biuret in several samples
of fertilizer grade urea will be presented.
118
Abstracts
GEOLOGY
GEOLOGY OF THE TERRAPIN CREEK AREA, CLEBURNE CO., ALABAMA
Gregory M. Guthrie, Dept, of Earth Science, The University of Alabama
in Birmingham, University Station, Ala, 35294.
Along the Alabama-Georgia border, Valley and Ridge sedimentary rocks
and Talladega metamorphics are juxtaposed along the Cartersville Fault .
This south to southwest dipping, northwest to west trending, low angle
thrust fault truncates north to northeast trending folds of the Valley
and Ridge Province. Lower Paleozoic sedimentary rocks include Cambrian
and Ordovician Knox and Newala carbonates, the Ordovician Rockmart
Slate and the Devonian Frog Mountain Sandstone. To the west of these
sedimentary rocks is a turbidite sequence of unknown age also over¬
ridden by the Cartersville Fault. Phyllites and Quartzites of the
Talladega belt contain lithologies similar to that of the turbidite
sequence but of a more crystalline nature. In the area of investi¬
gation, dips in the Valley and Ridge rocks are moderate to steep with a
pervasive axial plane cleavage, folds in these rocks are upright to
slightly overturned. Talladega rocks exhibit gentle dips and isoclinal
folding. Structural style of the turbidite sequence is more closely
related to that of the Talladega belt than that of the adjacent Valley
and Ridge rocks. Trend of the turbidite sequence is the same general
trend as the Talladega belt. It is suggested that the contact between
the turbidite sequence and the Valley and Ridge rocks is a thrust
fault rather than stratigraphic.
DAUPHIN ISLAND HUMATES : A RE-EXAMINATION OF THE
OUTCROP AFTER HURRICANE FREDERICK
Norman B. Cranford, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849
The term humate is used geologically by Swanson and Palacas (1965)
in a collective sense to refer to any of a group of very acidic gel¬
like solid humic substances in sediments. Dauphin Island is located
in the humid coastal area of the eastern United States. Humate occurs,
in these humid areas, as the matrix in siliceous sand and is
particularly well developed in coastal deposits of Pleistocene age
(Ervin G. Otvos, Jr. 1972). In 1978, I investigated the outcrop of a
humate deposit located in an eroded area of a low wave-cut terrace on
the Gulf side beach of Dauphin Island, Alabama. This paper describes
the results of a re-examination, in Fe-ruary of 1981, of the Dauphin
Island humate location and takes into consideration the changes in
the outcrop caused by Hurricane Frederick in September of 1979-
119
Abstracts
A MAFIC-ULTRAMAFIC COMPLEX NEAR EASTON, TALLAPOOSA CO., ALABAMA
Calvin Allison and Michael J. Neilson, Dept of Earth Science,
The University of Alabama in Birmingham, University Station, Ala,
35294.
A small (less than 2 sq. km) maf ic-ul t ramaf ic complex situated 2
km southeast of Easton is part of the intrusive mafic rock series
within the Dadeville Complex of Alabama's Inner Piedmont. The
complex consists of a pluton of olivine gabbro and a sill-like body
of orthopyroxenite surrounded, and separated, by a thin (in places
less than 20 m. thick) rim of amphibolite. Both the gneiss/complex
contact and foliations within the amphibolite parallel foliations in
the enclosing Camp Hill Gneiss. Although the plutonic rocks show no
evidence of recrystallization, metamorphic effects are seen in the
growth of secondary amphibole in the gabbro and decussate talc-
anthophyllite-chlorite aggregates in the orthopyroxenite.
Petrographically and geochemically the gabbro and the orthopyroxenite
are typical of the Slaughters and Doss Mountain Suites, respectively.
However, this complex is notable for the lack of rocks of noritic
composition — a feature of the Doss Mountain Suite. The geochemistry
of the amphibolites is transitional between the gabbro and the
orthopyroxenite and is similar to that of the amphibolites surrounding
the Red Ridge Pluton to the south of Dadeville. Collectively, these
amphibolites are representative of a third episode of pre-tectonic
mafic igneous activity in the Dadeville Complex.
THE PALYNOLOGY OF THE MARY LEE GROUP (PENNSYLVANIAN)
OF THE BLACK WARRIOR BASIN, ALABAMA
Eric G. Woerner and Robert A. Gastaldo. Dept, of Geology, Auburn
University, AL 36849.
The Mary Lee coal group has demonstrated its capability as an
economically viable gas producer with an estimated potential of one
trillion cubic feet of recoverable methane. The reason for this high
methane content is questionable. The Mary Lee and Blue Creek coals of
the Warrior Basin were palynologically characterized to help determine
if an unique floral assemblage is responsible for high methane content,
or if the gas content is solely a function of burial depth, or possibly
a combination of both factors. Dominant palynomorphs are representative
of ferns and pteridosperms , which are understory components. The micro¬
floral assemblages within individual seams of the Mary Lee group appear
to be consistent. However, a comparison between the Mary Lee and Blue
Creek microfloras reveals that slight variations exist between the two.
This variation of plant composition, though, probably has little
influence on the high methane content of the deep lying Mary Lee coal
found in the central region of the Black Warrior basin. Microfloral
distribution patterns have been assessed and compared to other
characteristic microfloral assemblages of similar aged coals. On a
time-stratigraphic basis, the Mary Lee coal group correlates with
Appalachian coals of Lower New River age, and European coals of
Westphalian A and B ages.
120
Abstracts
PALYNOLOGY OF AN INDIAN DWELLING SITE ALONG THE ALABAMA
RIVER: AN INTRODUCTION TO PALYNOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES
Cortland F. Eble* and Robert A. Gastaldo. Department of Geology,
Auburn University, AL 36849.
Recent archaeological investigations of Indian dwelling sites along
the Alabama River have documented the dietary habit of the nomadic
tribes through the identification of megascopic remains. It has been
inferred that these Indians were strictly gatherers, but some concern
exists as to whether these tribes may have cultivated maize. In order
to attempt reconciliation of the possible cultivation of domestic
crops, a palynological investigation of a trash heap associated with an
Indian dwelling site on Ivy Creek was conducted. Previously collected
sediment samples were provided by Dr. J. Cottier, Auburn University,
and these were macerated according to standard palynological techni¬
ques. The recovered palyncmorphs were not abundantly preserved, and
this condition is probably related to the ephemeral nature of the
depositional site. Non-arboreal pollen and non-vascular spores
dominate the assemblage, and little arboreal pollen has been recovered.
A reconstruction of the paleoecology of the dwelling site based upon
the pollen spectrum suggests that the vegetation was a mosaic of
bottomland forest, shrub thickets and ephemeral ponds.
THE DADEVILLE COMPLEX - A REVIEW
Michael J. Neilson, Dept, of Earth Science, The University of Alabama
in Birmingham, University Station, Ala, 35294.
The Dadeville Complex of Alabama's Inner Piedmont occupies most of
Tallapoosa and Chambers Counties and is bounded by the Coastal Plain
Onlap, the Brevard Zone and the Stonewall Line. Five lithologic units
are mapped on a regional scale. The metapelitic Agricola Schist-Gneiss
is stratigraphically overlain by the Ropes Creek-Waverly Formation,
a metamorphosed and interlayered volcanic/volcanoclastic series of
mafic to intermediate composition. A metavolcanic-metaclascic sequence
of amphibolites, actinolite-chlorite schists and quartzites, the
Waresville Formation , may correlate with the Ropes Creek. The Mafic
Intrusive Rocks, consisting of the Doss Mountain Suite (orthopyroxenite ,
norite and their metamorphic equivalents) and the Slaughters Suite
(olivine gabbro and gabbro), are younger than the Ropes Creek. Felsic
rocks are represented by the Camp Hill-Rock Mills Gneiss which is
composed of basement (?) granitic gneiss, granitic and tonalitic
gneiss, and post-metamorphic granite. Four episodes of deformation
are recognized. The earliest episode generated macroscopic and
mesoscopic isoclinal folds and was synchronous with prograde regional
metamorphism. Post-metamorphic deformational events formed the
Tallassee and Boyds Creek Synforms as well as mesoscopic cylindrical
folding and caused widespread cataclasis. Major and trace element
concentrations of the amphibolites and the mafic intrusive rocks
indicate that during some part of its history the Dadeville Complex
was an arc.
121
Abstracts
A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE PTERIDOSPERM DOMINATED
TAPHOCENOSES ASSOCIATED WITH THE UPPER CLIFF COALS
(POTTSVILLE) , PLATEAU COAL FIELD, ALABAMA
Robert A. Gastaldo. Department of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849.
Bituminous coal and associated megafloral coalified compression
taphocenoses are present in significant quantities in the Lower
Pennsylvanian Pottsville formation of northeastern Alabama. Detailed
studies concerned with the early Pennsylvanian vegetation in the coal
accumulating environments of the southern Appalachian coal field are
virtually nonexistent. The interval of the Upper Cliff coals in the
Plateau coal field provides an excellent opportunity to assess the
megafloral taphocenoses, the morphological plasticity of taxa within
similar and differing environments of deposition, and the relationship
between biofacies and lithofacies. Preliminary megafloral quantifica¬
tion of selected interdistributary bay deposits in Jackson, Marshall
and Blount counties has documented that these taphocenoses are
pteridosperm (seed fern) dominated. Mariopter ids , Neuropterids and
Lyginopterids are quite abundant in all localities sampled, although in
areas which may have been influenced by brackish water, calamites
appear to have been prolific. Mariopterids and Neuropterids are
ubiquitous throughout the interdistributary bay deposits, whereas
Lyginopterids have been noted to be zoned directly above the coal
horizon. Claystone paleosols are well developed at the cessation of
interdistributary bay fill and autochthonous Stigmaria are abundant.
In at least one locality an autochthonous lycopod dominated forest has
been identified.
FOSSIL WHALES IN ALABAMA
Daniel R. Womochel, Dept, of Geology and James L. Dobie, Dept, of
Zoology and Entomology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.
Whales, the mammalian order Cetacea, first appeared as fossils in
Eocene Age rocks in Africa, Asia, and Alabama. The taxonomic
a mities of these whales, the suborder Archaeoceti, to modern whales
Odontoceti and Mysticeti , or to their terrestrial ancestors is unknown!
Since their initial discovery in Alabama in 1834, few fossil
Archaeocets have been found and no extensive research has been
conducted on them after the publication of R. Kellogg's monograph bv
the United States National Museum in 1936. The Archaeocet whales
ecame extinct during the Miocene. Recent field work in the Eocene
of Alabama has resulted in the discovery of several new Archaeocet
whales in Clarke , Washington and Choctaw Counties. The Clarke County
whale, from the Lisbon Formation, is now being intensively studied at
Auburn University. Preliminary studies of this specimen,' a nearly
complete skeleton, indicate that it may be the Oldest fossil whale
from North America. Comparison of this skeleton with published
escriptions of other whales indicates that it is possibly a new
genus or a genus not previously found on the Gulf Coastal Plain. The
other new specimens, belonging to the genera Zygorhiza and Basilosaurus
remain _ to be excavated. Comparative study of these fossils will yield
significant new data on the morphology, systematices , zoogeography,
and paleoecology of the Archaeocet whales.
122
Abstracts
COAL PETROLOGY AND DEPOSIT IONAL SYSTEMS OF THE LOWER PENNSYLVANIAN
UPPER CLIFF COALS IN A PORTION OF THE PLATEAU COAL FIELD, ALABAMA
Tony D. Gray* and Robert A. Gastaldo. Dept, of Geology, Auburn
University, AL 36849.
Coal petrographic relationships, aerial distribution, and the
depositional history of the Upper Cliff coal seams (Pottsville) within
the Plateau coal field of northeastern Alabama are poorly known because
of a minimum of published data. These coal seams (No. 1 and 2) have
been reported to represent high tonnage, low to medium volatile
bituminous coal reserves. Preliminary coal petrographic analyses were
performed on oriented coal block sections collected from three
exposures along strike on Sand Mountain. Macropetrographic analyses on
a volume percentage basis reveal that vitrain and clarain lithotypes
predominate the coal seams with minor quantities of fusain occurring
within the Upper Cliff No. 2 coal. Microscopically, five microlitho-
types in various quantities are present within the coal seams (vitrite,
argillaceous vitrite, fusite, carbargillite , and minerite). Lithologic
and stratigraphic data gathered from exposures of the Upper Cliff coal
interval have been the basis in an attempt to formulate a rock model
explanation of depositional relationships. Lithologic sedimentary
characters indicate paralic lower deltaic plain depositional environ¬
ments without tidal influence and subsequent fluviatile derived sand¬
stone deposition. Recognized depositional environments within the
three-dimensional rock model include distal bar facies, distributary
channel deposits, interdistributary bayfill sequences, coal forming
marshes and swamps, crevasse splay deposits, and braided fluvial
channel deposits.
FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, AND CONSERVATION
CARTOGRAPHIC LABS; SOLVING COMMON PROBLEMS
Pat A. Tamarin. Dept, of Geology and Geography, Univ. of Ala., Univ.,
Al. 35486
Cartographic labs come in all shapes, sizes and types, but all have
common problems that must be solved. These problems cover all phases of
cartographic work; from the designing of graphics, to the storage of
supplies, to the training of workers. These problems can be solved in
three different ways: 1) Wait, and hope to run into a solution acci¬
dentally, 2) Check books and written material for an answer, or 3) Con¬
tact another cartographic lab. Due to the common nature of many
cartographic problems, and the increasing complexity of the field, an
information exchange between labs is a solution that must be utilized
increasingly today.
123
Abstracts
THE USE OF FARMLAND IN THE TENNESSEE VALLEY
H. A. Henderson, TVA; Noland Williams, TVA; and Billy Headden, SCS
Classifying land for management has advanced during the past few years.
Prime farmland and Land of Statewide Importance are two terms that have
become standard — but not well understood. This report indicates the
relative value of prime farmland in producing inccme and food. Prime
farmland is best suited for crop production and available for that use.
Cost of production varies with class of land: Corn on prime land costs
$1.00 per bushel, additional farmland of Statewide importance $1.13,
other suitable farmland $1.56, and marginal $2.55 ccmpared with long
range price of $2.02 per bushel.
Prime farmland can be kept in continuous grain production with
reasonable care without deterioration due to erosion. Production on
other land must be carefully managed to avoid deterioration over time.
The most intensive economic production within the national tolerance
is :
Land Class
Gross Income/A
Net Inccme/A
Bushels of Grain/A
Prime
212
110
105
Statewide Importance 18L
65
68
Other Suitable
126
26
19
Marginal
113
13
None
These relationships along with the growing scarcity of land, and
increasing population makes prime farmland retention important for the
future of the region and the world.
CASTE, OCCUPATION AND RESIDENTIAL CHOICE
Willian Reese Strong. Dept, of Geography, University of North Alabama,
Florence, Alabama 35632.
The study is concerned with the urban spatial expression of the
Telugu speaking population in residential areas of Bangalore, India.
Bangalore is a polyglot city with Telugu speakers forming the third
largest community. These people are culturally significant and are
an important and sizeable labor force in the economy of the city.
This research examined the degree and extent of adaptation of this
immigrant community to the urban environment of Bangalore. It
identified predominantly Telugu residential areas in the city,
analyzed selected socioeconomic variables such as caste, occupation,
education and income, and compared these socially significant areas
to the residential ecology of Bangalore in particular and of urban
India i n general .
124
Abstracts
FARMLAND CONVERSION IN THE TENNESSEE VALLEY
N. C. Williams, H. A. Henderson and Shelby Smith-Sanclare
Less than one-fifth of the Tennessee Valley is prime farmland. Each
year it loses 1 to 2 percent of its farmland to other uses. Prime
farmland is often used, although over half of the region is suitable
for development without using prime farmland.
The world is approaching limits of its ability to feed a growing
population. Converting prime farmland here reduces that ability.
The United States is one of few countries with a surplus of food.
The Tennessee Valley is one of few regions that still has the option
of preserving prime farmland.
Conversion is influenced by public actions. The National Agricultural
Lands Study identified 90 Federal programs in 9 agencies including
TVA with "major impact" on "the availability of land for agricultural
production." TVA has withdrawn an equivalent of about 10 percent of
the region's prime farmland and in one program alone is considering 21
sites--scme of which consist of more than 2,000 acres of prime farmland
A policy on prime farmland process should include open decision making,
full disclosure, direct inputs frcm many citizens, and sensitivity to
under represented groups like the rural, poor, and minorities. It
should consider future food producing capacity, assume seme costs
private owners could not bear, encourage compatable multiple uses,
and require development projects to pay mitigation costs or seek
alternate locations. TVA has sane good examples of multiple uses in
managing the Kentucky reservoir.
THE ROLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS IN CULTURAL RESOURCE
PRESERVATION IN THE TENNESSEE-TOMBIGBEE WATERWAY IMPACT AREA
David C. Weaver. Dept, of Geology and Geography, Univ. of Ala.,
University, AL 35486
In North American Archeology in recent years there has been an in¬
creasing emphasis on regions rather than on individual sites as the
najor focus of research. This shift is reflected in the General Re¬
search Design developed by archeologists for cultural resource preserva¬
tion in the Tennessee-Tombigbee Multi-Resource District. The research
strategies developed reflect a variety of geographic concepts and tech¬
niques ranging from central place theory, and terrain analysis, to re¬
mote sensing and spatial statistical analysis. Particular emphasis was
placed in the Research Design on the development of predictive models
for site designation and analysis. The utility of geographic techniques
for such model development is evaluated.
125
Abstracts
1836 CONSERVATION FORECAST FOR ALABAMA
Wilbur B. DeVall, President, Proxy Services, Ltd., Auburn, AL 36830
Early explorers of plant and animal life, such as William Bartram in
Alabama, during the years 1773-1778, recorded much about the early plant
associations and people. Little could be done in the name of conserv¬
ation until Alabama was admitted to the Union in 1819. Most legislation
dates from 1854 in the fields of timber and wildlife conservation. The
Southern Literary Journal is a source of many stories pertinent to the
conservation movement. Writers published on "The Pine Woods" in 1837
and "A Day at Chee-Ha" in the same year. The habits of people were des¬
cribed by other writers under titles such as "The Dirt Eaters." One of
the first forecasts of things to come in the general area of conservatior
as it relates to forests is an oration delivered before the Society of
the University of Alabama, at its first anniversary December 17, 1836 by
Alexander B. Meek, a member of the Society. He summarized the situation
as visualized by him as follows: "In the possession of all the natural
resources, which contribute to make a State great and flourishing, Ala¬
bama stands pre-eminent. Her soil is as fertile as any portion of the
Union! Her hills abound in mineral wealth! Her atmosphere is as pure
as the sky of Italy! Her rivers roll in magnificent beauty and grandeur,
through every portion of her territory, stretching their long arms,
wherever the wants of agriculture or of commerce demand! ...These re¬
sources only want cultivation and development, to elevate our State to
i high rank among her surrounding sisters."
METHODOLOGY FOR MODULAR FOREST HARVESTING SIMULATION MODELS
M. P. Padgett, G. S. Hines and D. B. Webster. Dept, of Industrial
Engineering, Auburn University, AL 36849
A methodology is developed for employing statistical analyses to
reduce the level of detail within a module without invalidating output,
Economy in user input and computer requirements is sought by coding
several versions of the module and comparing output. The technique is
illustrated by reference to construction of a felling module, e.g.
reduction in level of detail could mean a change in the method of
estimating time consumed by some phase of the felling. Monte Carlo
methods could be replaced by use of a regression equation to estimate
drop-time and/or a simpler regression equation could be substituted
for one with many terms employed to estimate shear-time. Procedures
are developed for planning the randomization necessary for assuming
independence, calculating the number of runs needed to allow the
assumption of normality and testing homogeneity of variance. Analysis
of variance and tests on means are recommended, if appropriate assump¬
tions can be justified, to compare output of candidate modules to data
gathered when test plots are harvested. Alternative techniques are
proposed for use when various assumptions cannot be met. Results might
suggest adjustments in the level of detail prior to reevaluation of the
module, or might indicate the most economical of any acceptable descrip¬
tion of the module.
126
Abstracts
LEGISLATIVE FORESTRY STUDY COMMITTEE UPDATE NO. 2
Wilbur B. DeVall, President, Proxy Services, Ltd., Auburn, AL 36830
Act. No. 79-711 of the Alabama legislature authorized a continuation
of a study of forestry within the State. Using the recommendations set
forth in the 1979 report, two updates have been prepared. The problems
addressed have been wildfires, forest tree nurseries, energy wood, and
needs of minority forest landowners. Funding for fiscal year 1982 was
established for the Alabama Forestry Commission and the Extension arm,
teaching program in forestry, and forestry research of Auburn University.
Needs were combined for agriculture and forestry using a measure of cur¬
rent and projected productivity in each area. The 15-man committee
utilized subcommittees as fact-finding bodies. Each reported back to
the committee of the whole. Wien findings were approved by the majority,
they were prepared for publication. All reports, including the 1981 up¬
date, were submitted to the Governor, Lt . Governor, and Speaker of the
House along with all members of the legislature. The successive reports
and updates serve the legislature as reference works in the area of for¬
estry. The three senators and three members of the House of Represen-
atives, along with nine appointed by the Governor or named in the Act,
serve as a fact-finding committee of the legislative body in matters
pertaining to forestry. The committee is continuing its work and will
make further needs assessments of the forestry problems and issues as
they pertain to making the forest lands of the State more fully produc-
t ive .
HISTORIC PRESERVATION: SERENDIPITY OR PLANNING ?
KAREN K. CAGLE, So. Cen. Ala. Development Comm., Montgomery , AL 36116
It is safe to assume that over the next decade, unless historic pre¬
servation is made an integral part of some other activity, such as a
downtown revitalization, housing renewal or economic development pro¬
ject, then it will fall to private individuals and groups to preserve
many of our landmarks. Federal funds for preservation are being cut
back now, and this foretells a trend for the 1980s. Therefore, we
must set some policies to govern the selection of significant historic
properties which will be competing for scarce preservation funds. We
may choose to do nothing and leave preservation to serendipity, or we
may choose a "first come, first served" policy. We may institute a
preservation "triage" process, based on an inventory of properties and
sites, which would prioritize items according to three questions: what
do we have that 1) will survive if we do nothing to it; 2) will require
action but may not be of such value to warrant the level of time or
funds expended; and 3) will survive but only if we take direct action
and has significant historic/cultural value? The example of the Hick¬
ory Ground" Indian village site in Wetumpka, Alabama illustrates the
counterclaims of serendipity and planning in the historic preservation
process. The author makes a case for the need for planning and illus¬
trates some methods to implement plans for historic preservation.
12 7
Abstracts
AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION BUSINESSES
IN DEKALB COUNTY, ALABAMA
Steven R. Sax and Barton N. Evans, DeKalb County Energy Management
Program, Post Office Box 775, Fort Payne, Alabama, 359^7 .
In March 1977 the Tennessee Valley Authority initiated its Home
Insulation Program for electrically heated or cooled households.
The program provides interest free money for insulation, weather¬
stripping, storm windows and other conservation measures up to
$2,000 which can be paid back to TVA on customer's utility bills
for a period of up to seven years . This report analyzes the effects
of TVA's Home Insulation Program on the local economy of DeKalb
County, Alabama. Ten firms providing energy conserving products
and services were identified within the county. These firms had
sales in 1980 totalling over $1,000,000 and a combined payroll of
approximately $333,000. The results indicated that most of the
energy saving products were purchased out of the county and that
no training programs exist for individuals interested in insulation
or conservation related employment.
PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS
LAYERED OXIDE GROWTH ON PURE METALS
A. T. Fromhold, Jr., Physics Dept., Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849.
A general formulation for the simultaneous growth of any number of
layered planar oxide phases on a pure metal under diffusion-controlled
conditions has been developed. Four individual situations have been
developed in detail, namely, situations in which the predominant mode o
ion transport is by cation interstitials, cation vacancies, anion inter
stitials, or anion vacancies. The generalized formulation enables the
determination of quasi-steady-state growth kinetics following step func
tion changes in the experimental conditions such as ambient oxygen pres
sure or temperature. Numerical evaluation of the coupled growth equa¬
tions for the individual phases is required to deduce the general pre¬
dictions of the theory. In order to illustrate the type of results to
be expected when utilizing microscopic physical theories for metal oxi¬
dation, specific application of these results is outlined for two dif¬
ferent limiting cases in which the individual phases forming alone on
the metal would grow parabolically under coupled-currents conditions,
namely, the case of homogeneous-field parabolic growth and the case of
parabolic growth under local space-charge-neutral conditions.
128
Abstracts
RATE CONSTANTS FOR THE FORMATION OF ArF* AND Ar*
2
Adila Dodhy , John R. Williams, Jr., and James E. Gaiser.
Dept, of Physics, Auburn UNiversity, A1 . 36849.
Work has been done to experimentally determine the forma¬
tion rate constants for ArF* and Ar*; using pulsed proton ex¬
citation of Ar-NFp and Ar-F2 gas mixtures. The constants
determined appear in the kinetics as follows:
, kl
Ar*(jp2) + NF-j - > ArF(B) + NF2
J k,
Ar*(8p2) + nf^ — > ArF (C ) + NF2
q kp
Ar*(JP2) + 2Ar - 8 - > Ar* + Ar
Similar equations hold if F2 is used instead of NFp . The
analysis used in this experiment allowed the evaluation of
(kp + k2) and kp. For the Ar-NFp system, (k, + k2 ) and
kp have been found to be 1.5 x irl-10 cm3/s and 1.2 x 10~32
cm6/s. The same constants for the Ar-F2 system have been
determined to be 2.7 x 10“10 cm3/s and 1.8 x 10-32 Cm6/s.
EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL NEUTRON CROSS SECTIONS AT 14 MeV
R.C. Harper and W.L. Alford, Dept, of Physics, Auburn Univ.,
Auburn, AL 36849
Activitation techniques have been used to measure partial neutron
cross sections at a neutron energy of 14.2 ± 0.1 MeV. The present
experimental results are 68 ± 6 mb, 23 ± 2 mb, 527 ± 47 mb, 5.8 ± 0.5
mb, and 130 ± 12 mb for the reactions 27A1 (n ,p)27Mg , 58Ni (n ,2n ) 57Ni ,
9 3Nb( n ,2n ) 92mNb , 93Nb(n,a)90mY, and 197Au(n ,2n ) 1 96^Au respectively.
The nuclei studied in this work were chosen due to isotopic abun-
dancies, gamma-ray energies and intensities, half-lives and to allow
a large mass range to be covered for verification of the theoretical
calculations. The absolute cross sections were determined to an
accuracy of 9% using a Ge(Li) gamma-ray spectrometer and the asso¬
ciated particle technique, with corrections for competing reactions,
to determine the neutron flux. Previously measured cross sections
are also given to indicate discrepancies and to allow comparison with
present results.
Theoretical calculations based on the statistical, preequilibrium
and direct reaction models were also performed. The agreement
between the present experimental results and theoretical calculations
indicate that these models are quite successful in predicting the
neutron induced cross sections at 14 MeV.
129
Abstracts
DESIGN OF AN ISOTHERMAL PRIMARY HEAT SHIELD
FOR THE STARPROBE SATELLITE MISSION
Alan Harmon and David L. Shealy, Physics Department, University of
Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
The STARPROBE satellite mission is proposed to pass within four
solar radii from the sun. A system of heat shields is necessary to
prevent severe damage to the spacecraft during the close approach to
the sun. Simple designs such as cones or planes for the primary heat
shield give rise to hot spots with temperatures in excess of 3000°K
at which the carbon-carbon primary heat shield material sublimates at
an unacceptable rate. As an alternative approach, a differential
equation for the surface of the primary heat shield has been formulated
such that each element of area receives and emits the same amount of
energy. The resulting surface temperature profiles are found to be
approximately isothermal at a considerably lower temperature than the
hot spots of the simple designs.
RATE OF ELECTRON HEATING IN A MULTIDIPOLE PLASMA
M. D. Haworth and R. E. Kribel. Dept, of Physics, Auburn University, AL
36849
Leung and Kribel have performed an experiment in which monoenergetic
test electrons are isotropically injected into a multidipole plasma.
Solution of the Fokker-Planck equation shows that explanation of the
experimental results in terms of test particle theory gives misleading
results, and that electron-electron interactions alone cannot totally
account for their results.
■K. N. Leung and R. E. Kribel, Phys. Fluids 23, 1923 (1980).
CONSTRUCTION AND CALIBRATION OF MAGNETIC
PROBES OF HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE
P. Beiersdorfer and E.
Auburn, AL 36849
J. Clothiaux, Dept, of Physics, Auburn University,
The calibration and construction of high frequency magnetic probes,
used to measure rapidly fluctuating fields in a vacuum spark discharge
are discussed. Equivalent circuits are employed to analyze the response
of the probes as a function of frequency and to determine the probe
parameters. The effect of the geometry of the probe and its leads on
the faithful reproduction of the magnetic fields is presented. The
results of this analysis have been used to construct probes that give
optimum response.
130
Abstracts
INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS
MARKETING STRUCTURE OF THE AGRICULTURAL LIME INDUSTRY
Veronica A. Vitelli and W. Joe Free. Agricultural Marketing Resource
Development Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660. William S.
Stewart. University of North Alabama, Florence, Alabama 35630.
Market structure is the organizational characteristic that
influences the nature of competition and pricing within a market. The
market structure of the aglime vendors approaches monopolistic
competition. In most counties, at least four aglime vendors spread lime
and none were found that have a dominant share of customers. Aglime is
a non-dif ferentiated product but vendors can differentiate the spread¬
ing service they provide. Entry into and exit from the business is not
restricted. Even capital requirements are low relative to requirements
to enter in many types of business. Market conduct refers to patterns
of behavior that firms follow within the market in which they operate.
Market performance is the result of market conduct. The market conduct
of most vendors regarding pricing policy is to meet competition and/or
to cover cost plus a profit margin. Prices charged farmers for aglime
spread on the field is near the cost of lime plus the cost of spreading.
Prices that vendors pay for lime is usually about same in a given
county. For example, calcitic lime cost vendors $^.8l in Limestone
County and . 50 - $6.00 in DeKalb County depending upon the quarry
supplying the lime. Dolomite lime cost vendors $11.00 in DeKalb County.
Most vendors charged $U.OO per ton for spreading. They estimated that
gas and oil cost $2.00 per ton. Most did not estimate their total
spreading cost. Fixed cost ranges from $2.00 to $2.50 per ton for
most firms. That means most firms sell their aglime service at cost or
less than full cost.
TOWARD A CONCEPT OF PROFIT ELASTICITY
A. Wayne Lacy and H. Dean Moberly, Department of Economics, Auburn
University at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36193.
The primary thrust of economic theory as it relates to the firm's
profit posture has typically been through the profit maximization
concept. The approach taken to the relationship that exists between
the profit level, whether maximum or not, and the firm's pricing
decisions has been indirect. Price elasticity is related to total
revenue changes and then compared with total cost changes. From a
practical business approach, the firm is interested in what happens to
profits for any pricing decision. This paper attempts to take a more
direct approach to the profit-price relationship by merging these steps
into a concept of profit elasticity. The basic relationships are
explained and equations derived for the concept. A discussion of
potential uses goes beyond the single firm analysis to an examination
of the concept's potential as a possible partial explanation of rela¬
tive market shares by industry.
131
Abstracts
DESIGNING A SYSTEM USING DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS
Rishi R. Chowdhury, Systems Analyst ,Stockham Valves & Fitg.B'ham,AI
Data flow diagram (DFD) is considered to be one of the
most valuable systems analysis and design tool. It can
illustrate not only the present manual or computerized
system by flow of data but also clearly identify the
complicated processes. Data flow diagram is a technique
to illustrate a system by expanding each of the processes
which are at the most general level to its most detailed
level .
A system described by most expanded data flow diagrams
clearly illustrates each of the processes, data stores,
flow of data, source or destination of data and reports or
documents printed.
In this paper, examples are chosen from a Human Resource
'System (example of business systems, in general) and a
Population Genetics System (example of scientific
systems, in general). A DFD is drawn at a most general
level and then the processes are expanded so that each of
the processes could be clearly illustrated and
programmed. In case of more than one possible expansion
of a DFD, one with less complexity and more efficiency is
chosen.
ECONOMICS OF A SMALL WINERY IN ALABAMA
W. Joe Free and Veronica A. Vitelli. Agricultural Marketing Resource
Development Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660.
Wine consumption in the United States doubled during the 1970’s.
About 80 percent of this increased consumption was with wine produced
in the United States. Per capita consumption of wine in the United
States has increased from .89 gallons in 1956 to 1.75 gallons in 1976.
Alabama law gives a tax break to Alabama native wineries producing not
more than 100,000 gallons. Wine produced in Alabama from locally
grown grapes is taxed by the state at $.05 per gallon.. Potential for
development appears great for small cottage type wineries operated as
a part-time enterprise that sells all or part of its production direct
to consumers. The paper identifies investment (excluding vineyard) and
operating costs for several sizes of small wineries. Costs were found
to vary with the size of the operation. Investment and operating costs
per gallon decrease as the size of the winery increase — except for the
200 gallon winery which is basically for home production. Total cost
for producing 5,000 and 50,000 gallons annually was $13-21 and $8.62
per. gallon respectively. Total capital requirements for the first
year ranged from $6,265 for the 200 gallon winery to more than a
million dollars for largest.
132
Abstracts
ECONOMIC GUIDELINES FOR A PROFITABLE AGRICULTURAL LIMESTONE ENTERPRISE
William S. Stewart. University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632.
W. Joe Free. Agricultural Marketing Resource Development Section, TVA,
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660.
A profitable retail lime market depends upon the ability of retail
lime vendors to operate their firms profitably. A 1979 survey of
eighty-seven lime vendors in the Southeast illustrated that most
lime vendors were following poor economic practices in their lime
operations which resulted in low or negative profits. The purpose
of this paper is to show how a profitable agricultural retail lime
enterprise is developed and how volume and good management practices
affect costs.
SCIENCE EDUCATION
MARINE BIOLOGY EDUCATION IN N.AL— YOU'VE GOT TO BE KIDDING!
Joseph C. Thomas, School of Arts & Sciences, Univ. of N.Ala., Florence,
AL 35630
Alabama is a coastal state but the amount of coastline is extremely
limited. Even with the limited coastal area, Alabama has an important
marine related commerce and state dock system. As such the state
should provide marine biology education for all parts of the state.
Marine biology education is provided for the state through the
Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium (MESC) which is located at the
Dauphin Island Sea Lab (DISL) . The DISL is located at the east end of
Dauphin Island in the facilities of the former U.S. Air Force Radar
Base which was declared surplus property in the early 70's.
Membership in the MESC is limited to four-year colleges and univer¬
sities within the State of Alabama. Curently 19 schools hold member¬
ship. Administration of the MESC and the DISL is accomplished through
a Board of Directors (composed of the President from each member
school) , Executive Committee (representative group to carry out the
affairs between board meetings) , Program Committee (composed of the
liaison officer from each member school), and the Executive Director
in residence at the DISL.
A full program of marine biology education and research is provided
at the DISL with summers devoted mainly to undergraduate courses and
the academic year devoted to graduate study and research. Also,
through the Discovery Hall Project, marine biology coursework is pro¬
vided for H.S. biology students ranging from a week-end experience to
a four-week course.
Alabama is not kidding — marine biology education is available
throughout the State through MESC.
133
Abstracts
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENERGY DECISIONS AND PERSONAL
ORIENTATION TO SCIENCE
Ove Jensen and Edith Miller
The issue of attitudes toward science and science related questions
is a somewhat poorly studied area. In instructional planning and
design, it is important to know to what degree the points-of-view and/or
philosophical orientations of students have to do with their interaction
with the instructional process. In this direction, the current study
has been conducted.
Science educators generally classify a person's concept or view of
science in the following categories: (1) factual or body of knowledge,
(2) a process, or (3) technology or manipulation of the environment.
Logically, one's view of science should have an effect on one's opinions
or responses to science related questions. This specific study was
designed to study the relationship of the view of science (as defined
by the above three-part dileniation) on a person's opinions about
energy, a most pressing problem area in a science-related field.
The two instruments used in the study were (1) View of Science,
developed by Henry Hardin and (2) Opinion Poll on Energy, developed
by Marlin Simon and Ove Jensen. These two instruments were administered
to 47 undergraduate college students enrolled in non-science irajors.
The data were then analyzed using multiple regression and discriminant
analysis procedures, resulting in support of the general idea that
view of science is significantly related to one's opinions on science
,related issues.
AREOLOGY: A PLANETARY SCIENCE PROJECT
FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE
Ernest D. Riggsby, Columbus College, Columbus, GA 31993.
The project reported upon in this paper is an effort to
design, test, and revise an in-depth unit on the planet
Mars. The project is now approximately one-half completed.
Ar eo logy is the scientific study of the planet Mars,
excluding its earth-focused astronomy. The thrust of this
emphasis is to assist students in the difficult task of
translating their orientation and thinking to the Mars-
centered point of view. The unit of study is subdivided
into: history, biography, physical sciences, remote
exploration, telemetry, and possible human on-sight
exploration. The historical span of the unit is from
Schiaparelli to beyond Viking 2; a little more than a
century .
134
Abstracts
ENGINEERING/COMPUTER SCIENCE - THE BOUNDARY
William G. Bradley, Dept, of Electrical Engineering, The University
of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899.
The boundary between Electrical Engineering and Computer Science is
an area of considerable concern at most schools that teach both Engi¬
neering and Computer Science. Computer Science, Electrical Engineering
and sometimes other engineering disciplines are rapidly expanding their
course offerings in the area of microprocessors and microcomputers.
All engineers and sci enti sts, regardl ess of discipline, will be involved
with applications of microcomputers in the future. However, some
definition of the boundary between Computer Science and Engineering
is necessary if duplication and competition is to be avoided. The
traditional hardware vs. software distinction is inadequate when dealing
with microcomputers. The hardware designer often must write his own
applications software, and software designers must have a thorough
understanding of the hardware. Computer based design uses the micro¬
computer as a component in digital systems and is an engineering area.
However, applications programming is not clearly specified. Engi¬
neering courses must include some programming, and computer science
courses must include some hardware. The distinction should consider
the audience and ultimate goal of a particular course rather than its
hardware vs. software content. Some overlap is necessary, but the
programs should complement each other.
" FALCON FORCE: A MIDDLE SCHOOL PROGRAM FOR AEROSPACE STUDIES
Eleanor E. Eubanks, Muscogee County (GA) Schools; Dutchie S.
Riggsby, Columbus College; and Ernest D. Riggsby, Columbus
(GA) College.
The project under consideration in this report was a
portion of the pilot study of a new aerospace studies kit
which was designed for use in middle grade programs. This
study was begun in a fourth grade science setting during
the final semester of the 1980 academic year and is being
continued with a fifth grade during the 1981 academic year.
While the principal segment of the program centered in the
science classes, it was also used in mathematics, art,
language arts, and social studies. The design of the Falcon
Force kit extends into these disciplines and more. Learn¬
ing centers, individualized study and whole class envolve-
ment were the major approaches. Future plans include the
use of Falcon Force materials as a regular part of the
fourth and fifth grade programs at the elementary school in
which the initial effort was undertaken.
135
Abstracts
USING PSEUDOSCIENCE IN INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS COURSES
Raiford M. Ball. Auburn High School, Auburn City Schools, Auburn, AL
36830.
Pseudoscience topics such as UFO's, the Bermuda triangle, and the
ancient astronaut theories are often brought up as student questions in
introductory physics courses. By emphasizing certain criteria for
judging any item of supposedly factual literature, the beginning student
can be taught to evaluate claims for himself. The basic criteria are
a logical progression of ideas, internal consistency, documentation of
facts, agreement with previously known facts, agreement with standard
engineering practices, and agreement with known scientific laws. Student
acceptance of the criteria can be evaluated by classroom discussions,
an evaluative paper, a field project, and a laboratory experiment.
SOCIAL SCIENCES
JOHN HERBERT PHILLIPS: EDUCATIONAL PIONEER IN BIRMINGHAM
Mary C. Metzger, Dept, of History, Univ. of Ala., Birmingham, AL 35294
Honored as one of Birmingham's most influential citizens, John Her¬
bert Phillips is recognized as the founder of the city's public school
system. A closer look at his career, however, illuminates both his or¬
ganizational skills and his inability to provide more equality in edu¬
cation than was allowed in Birmingham society as a whole. Fhillips
began his tenure as the city's first superintendent in 1883. Birming¬
ham, only a decade old, possessed two schools, one each for blacks and
whites. Both charged tuition since taxes did not provide sufficient
support. Phillips secured additional financial support sufficient to
supplement tuition, a charge he was able to abolish by 1910. Phillips
built new schools, planned school curricula, hired teachers, and car¬
ried wide the banner of progressive education. As Birmingham grew,
schools of annexed municipalities joined the Birmingham system. New
revenue and personnel enabled programs for mentally retarded students,
summer schools, and adult classes. Through the force of his personal¬
ity and organizational acumen, Phillips forged a system of 53 schools
by the time of his death in 1921. The system might be considered whol¬
ly progressive had it overcome the uneven handling of black students
and female faculty. Equality in school employment policies began to
evolve slowly during Phillips's tenure; however, balanced educational
opportunities and facilities had to be sidetracked. rhillips would not
willingly have jeopardized his position for such an effoit. That the
school system included blacks was, for that time, an immensely positive
step.
136
Abstracts
PRESIDENT GETULIO VARGAS AND THE BRAZILIAN — UNITED STATES
ALLIANCE DURING WORLD WAR II
Linda Williams Shabo. Dept, of History, Auburn University,
Auburn University, AL 36849
The relationship between the United States and the government
of Gutulio Vargas was determined by the changing needs of the
United States. Until the end of 1943 the American Government
pursued a policy which supported Brazilian industrial and mili¬
tary development and guaranteed Brazil's hegonomy in South
America. This policy was designed to assure Brazil's cooper¬
ation in the war-effort. American aid made it possible for
Vargas to maintain the support of the Brazilian military and
other nationalistic elements whose good-will depended upon
Vargas's ability to obtain American money, arms and technolog¬
ical assistance. When allied successes made Brazil less impor¬
tant to American defense plans. United States policy toward the
Vargas Government changed. This change became increasingly evi¬
dent after the summer of 1944. The United States refused to
honor its pledges to Vargas and sought to secure his replace¬
ment by someone who was more amenable to American business in¬
terests. American refusal to support Vargas helped precipitate
the military coup which removed Vargas from office in October,
1945.
BISHOP JOHN HOOPER! ENGLISH REFORMATION MARTYR
Joel L. Alvis, Jr. , Dept, of History, Auburn Univ. , AL 36849
John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, 1551-1553, was active in
the English Reformation under Edward VI. He fled England to
escape the religious conformity demanded by Henry VIII.
After studying on the continent, primarily at Zurich in the
1540' s, Hooper returned to England and assumed a leadership
role in the Protestant faction of London. He was appointed
to the bishopric of Gloucester in 1550 but refused to be
consecrated in the traditional vestments. It was only after
he was coerced that Hooper agreed to the traditional con¬
secration. But later actions by the Church of England
indicated that Hooper's stand had an effect. In the reign
of Queen Mary he was deprived of his bishopric for being
married clergy. Eventually he was exectued for his Protestant
heresies. Hooper's career is a case study in the parameters
of religious change in a society where church and state are
coterminous .
137
Abstracts
ROOT, HOG, OR DIE: THE CONDITION OF BLACK LABOR IN ALABAMA, 1870-1880
John B. Myers, Dept, of History, Columbus College, Columbus, GA 31993
In predominately agricultural Alabama, white economic interests re¬
lied heavily on cheap labor. The emancipation of slaves and governmental
involvement conflicted with white financial interests and their desire to
control black labor. But, employers' bargaining position was substantial¬
ly improved when federal intervention ended. The discontinuation of the
Freedmen's Bureau's role in labor affairs in 1869 reflected a change in
federal policy which conferred the responsibility of maintaining compa¬
tible relations between capital and labor upon state government. This
agency had represented a labor relations liaison between white employers
and black employees who were placed in a position of direct confrontation
after the Bureau withdrew. The U.S. Congress justified this removal by
assuming that the pro-black Republican governments in the south had the
capability to supervise labor relations. But in 1870, the election of a
Democratic governor in Alabama, and increased Democratic representation
in the state legislature reflected the erroneous assumption of the feder¬
al government. By 1874, Alabama Democrats permanently redeemed the state
and embarked on a program based on the political, legal and economic
interests of white Alabamians; frequently at the expense of black labor.
Faced with a dismal political prospect and the federal policy of with¬
drawal, Alabama freedmen sought to improve their condition through black
leadership and organizations. These attempts failed and black labor
interests suffered even further by the nationwide economic adversity
which began in 1873. By 1880 Alabama black laborers' vulnerability and
dependence upon white employers closely parralleled the master-slave
relationship of antebellum days.
THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL THOUGHT OF JUAN DE VALDES
Daniel A. Crews. Dept, of History, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36830
In the first half of the sixteenth century the social, religious and
political structure of Western Europe came under attack from within
just as the Ottoman Turks were making their greatest historical effort
to extend their European conquests. As an imperial agent for Charles V
Juan de Valdes tried to gather support for a general Church Council to
reform and reunite the universal Church. His reform ideas were not
limited strictly to religion. He opposed the trend toward national
centralization and saw it as a threat to the political function of the
Holy Roman Empire. Valdes' emphasis on toleration, personal experience
and humility was part of his attempt to reshape social values. These
doctrines were the connecting threads between his political and
religious life. Valdes believed that Internal reform was essential to
the defense of Western Christendom from the Turks and Islam.
138
Abstracts
HEALTH SCIENCES
Effect of I iposomes containing o-tocopherol on bl astogenesi s in bovine
lymphocytes.
Michael W. Fountain and Ronald D. Schultz, School of Veterinary Medicine
Auburn University, AL 36849.
Bovine peripheral blood lymphocytes were obtained by Fi col 1 -Hypaque
density centrifugation. The effects of a-tocopherol (a-T) (incorporated
into the liposome bilayer) on the response of bovine lymphocytes to
phytohemagglutinin (PHA) were examined using fluid (phosphatidylcholine
(PC) and dimyrostoyl phosphoti dyl chol i ne (DMPC)) and solid (dipalmitoyl-
phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) mul ti 1 amel 1 ar liposomes. Results indicate
that a-tocopherol is able to reverse the suppression exhibited by PC
liposomes and is able to enhance the response exhibited by DMPC and DPPC
liposomes.
The effect of preincubation of lymphocytes with liposomes prior to
the addition of PHA exhibited a time dependent suppression of blasto-
genesis which was reversible for PC:a-T (1:1) liposomes but not for PC
liposomes. The effect of PHA preincubation with lymphocytes prior to
the addition of liposomes exhibited a time dependent, reversible sup¬
pression of blastogenesis for PC:a-T (1:1) liposomes but not reversible
for PC liposomes. The effects of phospholipid concentration on the
blastogenic response to PHA exhibited a concentration dependent sup¬
pression from 1 to 3 pmoles phospholipid/ml which was reversible, at a
concentration of 4 pmoles phospholipid/ml.
A SOLUBILIZABLE GEL FOR THE PURIFICATION OF HISTONES
R.D. Faulkner, R. Carrawayf, and Y.M. Bhatnagar, University of South
Alabama, Department of Anatomy, Mobile, Alabama 36688 and f University
of Massachusetts, Department of Physiology, Worchester, Massachusetts
01605.
Histones from calf thymus and mouse testis have been fractionated on
17% acrylamide gels containing 0.19% bis-acrylylcystamine (BAC) and
2.5M urea at pH 2.7. Polyacrylamide gels which contain BAC, a cross-
linking agent with disulfide bonds, can be solubilized in presence of
2~mercaptoethanol (3.0M) or cysteine (0.8M) at pH 8.3. Polymerization
is carried out at 40°C and in presence of 6. 5-7. 5% tetramethyl ethylene
diamine (TEMED) at pH 8.3. Gels formed at lower pH or TEMED concen¬
trations are not soluble. Pre-electrophoresis with acidic buffers
changes the gel pH to 2.7. Resolution of histones in BAC-acrylamide
gels is comparable to that in bis-acrylamide gels. Preparative isola¬
tion of histones is facilitated with soluble gels. BAC-acrylamide gels
containing detergents can be also solubilized and should prove useful
for the fractionation and subsequent isolation of proteins. (Supported
in part by USPHS NIH Grant HD-12744.)
139
Abstracts
FRACTIONATION OF ACID HYDROLASES ON CIBACRON BLUE-SEPHAROSE
J.T. Conary, J.N. Thompson, and L. Rod£n. Lab. of Med. Genetics, Dpt.
of Biochem., and DRTC, Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
Cibacron Blue 3GA is one of several textile dyes which have proven
useful as ligands in the purification of enzymes by affinity chromato¬
graphy. Elution from the affinity matrix is commonly carried out with
substrates or inhibitors, or by increasing the ionic strength of the
buffer; however, the influence of the pH of the eluting buffer has not
been systematically investigated. In the present study, the effect of
pH on the elution profiles of the following eight lysosomal hydrolases
has been determined: aryl sul fatase A and B, N-acetyl-a-D-glucosamini-
dase, N-acetyl-B-D-hexosaminidase, s-D-galactosidase, ct-L-fucosidase,
6-D-glucuronidase, and heparin N-sulfate sulfatase. A partially puri¬
fied preparation containing these enzymes was obtained from an extract
of bovine testis by precipitation with ammonium sulfate at 40 % satura¬
tion, and this material was applied to a column of Sepharose-bound
Cibacron Blue which was subsequently eluted with 0.1 M citrate-phosphate
buffers increasing stepwise in pH from 4.5 to 8.0. This approach per¬
mitted the separation of the eight enzymes into four groups. Arylsulfa-
tase A and B were eluted at pH 4.5; N-acetyl-a-D-glucosaminidase, N-ace-
tyl -B-D-hexosaminidase, and 8-D-galactosidase were eluted at pH 7.0; a-
L-fucosidase, B-D-gl ucuronidase, and a minor proportion of the N-acetyl-
B-D-hexosaminidase emerged at pH 8.0; and heparin N-sulfate sulfatase
and some of the a-L-fucosidase and B-D-gl ucuronidase were eluted with
pH 8.0 buffer containing 1 M NaCl . These findings demonstrate that
chromatography on Cibacron B1 ue-Sepharose is valuable as an early step
in the purification of lysosomal hydrolases and that selective elution
may be accomplished by varying the pH of the eluting buffer.
Phillip A. Fields, University of South Alabama, Department of Anatomv,
Mobile, Alabama 36688 and Lynn H. Larkin, University of Florida, Depart¬
ment of Anatomy, Gainesville, Florida 32610.
Relaxin was purified from human term placentas by gel filtration
(Sephadex G-50 fine) and isoelectrofocusing. The human relaxin was simi¬
lar to porcine relaxin with a molecular weight of approximately 6000 and
an isoelectric point greater than 10. The purified human relaxin showed
a reaction of identity to porcine relaxin when crossreacted with anti¬
serum to porcine relaxin. Although like porcine relaxin, human relaxin
inhibits spontaneous contractions of the mouse uterus and promotes growth
of the mouse interpubic ligament, the specific activity of human relaxin
was lower than porcine relaxin (15 units/mg versus 3000 units/mg, respec¬
tively) . Immunocytochemical localization of relaxin in the term placenta
demonstrated the hormone to be present in the peripheral cytotrophoblast
cells. Porcine relaxin antiserum was utilized in these studies. There
was no staining of the cells when normal rabbit serum or porcine relaxin
antiserum preincubated with porcine relaxin were utilized. These studies
clearly indicate that human relaxin is present in extraluteal tissue and
is present during the last stage of pregnancy.
140
Abstracts
PHOSPHODIESTERASES OF HUMAN POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES
Janet L. Legendre and Harold P. Jones. Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of
South Alabama College of Medicine, Mobile, AL 36688.
In light of the importance of cyclic nucleotides in the regulation of
many of the bactericidal activities of human polymorphonuclear leuko¬
cytes (PMNs) , we have examined the phosphodiesterase (PDE) composition
of these phagocytic cells. High speed supernatant fractions prepared
from isotonic homogenates of human PMNs were chromotographed on DEAE-
cellulose. This procedure revealed the presence of at least three
separable forms of cyclic nucleotide PDE. When each of the three forms
was tested for stimulation by calcium and calmodulin, no detectable
activation was observed. However, chromatography of each of the three
peaks on calmodulin-Sepharose revealed that Peaks I and II were partially
retained by the column in the presence of calcium. In each of these
cases the PDE not retained by the column as well as that subsequently
eluted with EGTA was found to be activated at least five-fold by calcium
plus calmodulin. Furthermore, the activation was determined to be
sensitive to inhibition by phenothiazine drugs which are potent calmodu¬
lin inhibitors. These results suggested that an inhibitor of calmodulin-
dependent activation of PDE, present in the DEAE-fraction , was removed
by chromatography on calmodulin-Sepharose. Aliquots from Peak II were
examined for their ability to inhibit calmodulin-dependent activation of
bovine brain PDE and were found to potently inhibit this activation.
Therefore, there appears to be both calmodulin-sensitive and insensitive
forms of PDEs in the human PMN and an endogeneous inhibitor of the
calmodulin-sensitive activation of PDE. (Supported in part by an
intramural grant from the Univ. of South Alabama College of Medicine.)
IDENTIFICATION OF A CALCIUM-STIMULATED ALKALINE PROTEASE IN THE NEMATODE
TURBATRIX ACETI
Michael J. McGuire and Roger S. Lane. Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of
South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688.
A new alkaline proteolytic activity that hydrolyzes [methyl- 1 4C]globin
to acid-soluble fragments has been detected in the free-living nematode
Turbatrix aceti . This protease was isolated from the 100,000 x g
supernatant of T. aceti extracts by gel exclusion and DEAE-cellulose
ion exchange chromatography. The partially purified enzyme is most
active between pH 8.5 and 9 and is apparently of high molecular weight
as determined by its elution behavior upon gel filtration on a column
of Sepharose 4B. The hydrolysis reaction is stimulated by Ca^+ ions and
inhibited by excess EGTA or EDTA; the reaction rate is maximal at 4 mM
CaCl0. Mg2+ and Cu"+ also increase proteolysis but less effectively
Z 9 4. 9 i . 9 I . Ox
than Caz . Ba^'*' is ineffective in substituting for Caz while Mn ,
Zn2+, Co^+, Fe^+ and Ni^+ all show an inhibitory effect on protease
activity. No effect of calmodulin (Ca^+-dependent regulator) on the
globin-degrading activity of the enzyme could be demonstrated. The
functional significance of this Ca^+-activated alkaline protease is
unknown. (Supported by NIH grant AG 01002.)
141
Abstracts
INFLUENCES OF INTRARENAL HORMONES ON RENAL HEMODYNAMICS
Margaret L. Till, L. Gabriel Navar, and Phil Youngblood. Dept, of Physi¬
ology and Biophysics, 727 CDLD, University of Alabama, Univ. Station,
Birmingham, Alabama 35294
The roles of the renin-angiotensin system and renal prostaglandins
in mediating the renal vasodilator response to agents which block the
renin-angiotensin system were studied. Clearances were performed in
anesthetized dogs under control conditions and following prostaglandin
synthesis and covering enzyme inhibition. Indomethacin, a prostaglandin
synthetase inhibitor, administered i.v. at a dose of 5 mg/kg BW consis¬
tently and significantly decreased renal blood flow (RBF, 3.93 + .40 vs.
3.11 + .28 ml/min*g kidney weight) while raising mean systemic arterial
pressure (MAP, 117 + 6 vs. 130 + 4) when compared with control values.
The change in RBF in combination with a slight decrease (3%) in glomer¬
ular filtration rate (GFR) resulted in an increase in the filtration
fraction (.372 + .040 vs .471 + .065); indomethacin also tended to lower
sodium and significantly lowered potassium excretion. Captopril (prime:
1 mg/kg BW and infusion: 1 mg/kg BW-hr, i.v.), an inhibitor of convert¬
ing enzyme, when given after indomethacin returned MAP and RBF to con¬
trol levels, while GFR rose significantly above control levels (.802 +
.065 vs. .963 + .061 ml/min-gm). Electrolyte excretion returned to pre-
indomethacin levels following captopril. These results suggest that
under these experimental conditions the renal vasodilator effect of cap¬
topril is associated with if blockade of the renin-angiotensin system or
another of its effects and is not due to prostaglandin- induced vasodila¬
tion.
IS N,N-DIMETHYLTRYPTAM1NE an endogenous hallucinogen?
J.M. Beaton and P.E. Morris, Neurosciences Program, Univ. of Ala.
in Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala. 35294.
Much interest has centered around the search for an endogenous
hallucinogenic agent which might serve as the psychotoxin in schizo¬
phrenia. Many compounds have been suggested as this psychotoxin,
one such compound is N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a very short
acting hallucinogen. Studies in humans have shown that DMT does
occur in cerebrospinal fluid, but not differentially in normal con¬
trol subjects and schizophrenics (Smythies et al., 1979, Biol. Psy¬
ch i at., 549). However, DMT may just serve as a trigger in the
precipitation of the psychosis. In the studies on the rat to be
presented here, we have examined the effects of stress on the brain
DMT levels and have measured the uptake and metabolism of exogenous¬
ly administered deuterated DMT. This deuterated DMT is sequestered
in the synaptosomes of these rats. The exogenously administered
DMT is metabolized to the same products as the endogenous DMT.
Time course studies have shown that the peak brain levels of the
injected deuterated DMT correspond to the behavioral disruption
seen after DMT administration. Stress increases endogenous DMT
levels and DMT may be one of the brain's stress signals. In sum¬
mary, DMT occurs in rat brain, is synthesized and metabolized in
brain and appears to have a function. Thus, although DMT is an
endogenous hallucinogen, its role in schizophrenia has yet to be
defined. Supported in part by the Alabama Consumer Fund.
142
Abstracts
MORAL REASONING OF BACCALAUREATE NURSING STUDENTS
Janet S. Aw+rey, School of Nursing, Univ. of AL in Birmingham, Birming¬
ham, AL 35294
This study assessed the moral reasoning of baccalaureate nursing stu¬
dents and determined if students perceived schoo I -re I ated events or
other life events as affecting moral reasoning. The Defining Issues
Test (DIT) and a Life Experience Questionnaire were used in data collec¬
tion. Kohl berg's theory of cognitive-moral development was the theo¬
retical framework. The study was conducted over a span of 13 months.
Data were collected at three intervals corresponding with the completion
of the first sophomore clinical nursing sequence and the first junior
and senior clinical nursing courses respectively. The DIT was adminis¬
tered at each of the specified periods and Life Experience Questionnaire
at the final period. Thirty-two of the original 74 participants pro¬
gressed uninterruptedly through the curriculum and adequately completed
the DIT. The P percent score and the D score of the DIT were used to
assess moral reasoning. A Life Experience Questionnaire was adminis¬
tered to assess whether students perceived schoo I -re I ated events or
other life events as most affecting their reasoning. Findings from the
study based on P percent scores led to the conclusion that the partici^
pants preferred principled moral reasoning much as do other college stu¬
dents. Respondents as a group did not experience change in moral reason¬
ing as indicated by D scores. They regarded events other than school-
related events as most affecting moral reasoning. Recommendations for
future studies dealt with nursing students, nurse educators, and other
health care providers.
THE COMBINED EFFECTS OF FLURAZEPAM AND NICOTINAMIDE UPON SLEEP
Connie Robinson and G. Vernon Pegram, Neurosciences Program, University
of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, A1 . 35294.
Nicotinamide (Vit. B^) has been reported to bind at the benzodiaze¬
pine receptor site. To ^determine whether nicotinamide (NA) when given
with a benzodiazepine ( FI urazepam) would augment, antagonize or change
in any other way sleep in mice, groups of animals were implanted with
cortical electrodes for monitoring sleep. Both an acute and a chronic
study were undertaken. Baseline data were obtained on animals in the
acute study. Then on days 1-5 following baseline they were given either
Flurazepam (Flu) alone of Flu and NA, 1 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg respectively.
EEGs were recorded on days 1, 3 and 5 of drug injection. Recovery EEG
was obtained 2 days following withdrawal of all drugs. There were no
significant differences between the groups nor within the groups when
experimental days were compared with baseline days. On recovery there
appeared to be a rebound increase in SWS and a decrease in awake. All
animals in the chronic study were injected with NA, 500 mg/kg, for 21
days prior to the implantation of cortical electrodes. After recovery
from surgery they were begun on i.p. injections of Flu, 500 mg/kg while
NA injections, i.p., were continued. Again, data were collected as
above. Awake decreased on day 1 and gradually increased significantly
through day 5. SWS showed the opposite trend. These data demonstrate
no significant augmentation of the effects of NA upon the quality and/or
quantity of sleep.
143
Abstracts
ESSENTIAL CONTENT IN MASTER"S DEGREE PROGRAMS IN NURSING
B. Jeanette Lancaster. School of Nursing, University of Alabama,
Birmingham, Alabama 36830
Master's degree programs accredited by the National League for Nursing in
July, 1978, were asked to respond to the following questions: What is
currently being taught as essential content in your program? What do you
think should be taught? For each of the content areas required of all
students, what cognitive behavior is expected? What cognitive level shoul
be expected for each content area taught? Consistency was examined to
look at differences in what was actually being taught as compared to what
faculty believed ideally should be taught. The study tool was a content
inventory designed to elicit from respondents their perceptions of the rea
and ideal essential content, the extent of congruence between the two, and
the expected cognitive behaviors of students. Data were treated by des¬
criptive interpretations and simple rank order correlation. Results indi¬
cated that over 75% of respondents agreed that research, nursing process,
health care delivery system, nursing theory, individual assessment, health
wellness, illness, evaluation, decision making, accountability and inter¬
personal relationships were actually required in their program. Of these
areas, 75% of the respondents agreed that the first four should ideally be
required. Other ideally required content areas in the upper quartile in¬
cluded: change, communication, group dynamics, both political and legis¬
lative issues, culture-ethnicity, and ethics and health. The content pre¬
ferences move from an individual orientation in actually required to a
system oriented focus on change in the ideal categories.
MARKETING COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH CENTERS SERVICES
I. Wade Lancaster. School of Business, and B. Jeanette Lancaster,
School of Nursing. University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35243
The development of community mental health centers as a significant
contribution to the care of mentally ill people has occurred amidst con¬
troversy and criticism. Legislation providing funds to centers has beer
restrictive in that services were stipulated for all centers regardless
of community needs and characteristics. New legislation in 1980 set up
guidelines for flexibility and creativity in developing community mental
health services. Will centers continue doing "more of the same" or will
new community-oriented programs be developed? The application of a
marketing framework for program development offers a model for developir
programs based on consumer needs. Such an approach determines what the
public perceives as its needs in order to develop plans to meet these
needs. As such, marketing provides a way to examine, predict, plan,
implement, and evaluate the exchange process between provider and con¬
sumers. Marketing uses a problem solving approach which includes:
recognition of need, community analysis (community attitudes, services
and resources available, identification of the target merket and market
segmentation), evaluation of alternatives, decision choice, and eval¬
uation of the decision. Developing the market mix includes four plan¬
ning variables: product, price, promotion, and physical distribution
policies. While these variables are like those in classical business
activities, unique applications are made in the area of community menta'
health.
144
Abstracts
Variables Related to Prinipled Moral Judgment of Nurses
Ann Estes Edgil, Univ. of Al. in B'ham. School of Nursing , B ' ham, A1 . 35294
The research was intended to determine if educational preparation and
selected variables in the environment of senior nursing students and
practicing nurse are related to the principled level of moral judgment.
According to cognitive developmental theory of moral judgment, which
served as the theoretical basis, mental structure results from the pat¬
terning of the interaction between the organism and the environment
rather than a reflection of inate patterns in the organism or patterns
of events in the environment. An investigator constructed profile was
used to collect data that included age, sex, educational preparation, a
course in ethics, professional organization membership, length of prac¬
tice, area of practice, and level of practice. The Definning Issues
Test was used to assess levels of moral judgment. The t-test and multi¬
ple regression were used for data analysis. The overall significance of
the full model as predictor variables for the principled level of moral
judgment was statistically different from a null model with no predictor
variables. A significant difference was found between students and nur¬
ses in the principled level of moral judgment. Stage 5A score (prin¬
cipled) mean was higher for nurses than for students. Since research
has yet to clarify the specific environmental variables related to dev¬
elopment of moral judgment, research is needed on the effect of environ¬
mental stimuli at different periods of development. Also, longitudinal
investigation is necessary to determine the degree of development that
joccurs during educational and subsequent nursing practice experience.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICAL THERAPY STUDENTS DURING AN ACADEMIC
YEAR. K.T. Francis and C. Adams. Division of Physical Therapy.
University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
The process of physical therapy education can be a highly discom¬
forting experience. At no time is this more evident than in the first
year of study in which the student is faced with an intense, concen¬
trated program of study, generally slanted towards the basic sciences
rather than the clinical sciences. The overwhelming amount of material
to be absorbed, lack of free time, the pressures of examinations, and
the discrepancies between expectations and reality all can be antici¬
pated to bring psychological stress (used here as synonymous to feelings
of anxiety, hostility, and depression). The present study was designed
to quantify perceived stress in the various class levels throughout
one academic year (30 weeks). The subjects were 45 UAB physical
therapy students (physical therapy assistant students n = 19; junior
physical therapy students n = 19; and first year master students n = 7).
Assessments of mood and feelings were evaluated weekly using the State-
Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Multiple Affect Ajective Checklist.
Multiple Anthropometric measurements were taken quarterly. Peaks of
anxiety, hostility, and depression and lean body weights were correlated
with routine academic events such as exams, and schedule assignments
throughout the academic year. This study is important in regard to
curriculum planning and revision, especially during these times of
change as programs consider alteration from a baccalaureate curriculum
to a master's curriculum. This data set provides another perspective
in this consideration and evaluative process.
145
Abstracts
1,100 Alabama Runners: Their Addiction to Exercise
Kathleen C. Brown. School of Nursing, University of Alabama in Birming¬
ham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294. Jack Hataway, Glenda Barnes, Helen
Hunter, and Patty Clark. Preventive Medicine. University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.
This study investigated reasons why joggers participate in running.
Research is needed to understand factors which predispose individuals
to pursue vigorous lifestyles. Therefore, the purpose of this research
was to investigate joggers' reasons for involvement in running and
whether they consider themselves addicted to exercise. A sample of more,
than 1,100 Alabama residents who jog completed questionnaires. The
instrument measured participation in jogging, previous participation in
varsity sports, perceived addiction to exercise, estimates of work exer¬
tion and health status, and selected health behaviors. Preliminary
results on 938 subjects, over three-fourths males, are presented in this
report. Frequencies and percentages as well as content analysis were
used to analyze the data. Approximately 90% of the subjects indicated
they jog because of a concern about health and because of feeling good
after exercise. Three-fourths of the group reported concern about
weight and appearance as reasons for jogging while one-half responded
that they jog because of a concern about heart disease. In addition
two-thirds of the subjects indicated they job because they feel good
while exercising. A similar proportion considered themselves addicted
to exercise. Subjects attributed this to (1) a desire for pleasurable
consequences including a good healthy feeling and a sense of accomplish¬
ment, and (2) a desire to avoid unpleasurable consequences of not exer¬
cising such as sluggishness, irritability, and guilt.
PRIMIPARA'S REACTIONS TO USE OF ELECTRONIC FETAL MONITORING
S. Benshoof and N. Keller*, School of Nursing, University of Alabama
in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294
Because of the recently increased use of electronic fetal monitor¬
ing (E.F.M.) during labor, many women may not be receiving adequate
prenatal orientation to its purpose and use. Inadequate orientation
may cause increased anxiety and stress in women during labor. Lack of
adequate research describing women's reactions to E.F.M. in current
literature led the investigators to design a descriptive study of
primipara's reactions to their orientation and use of E.F.M. during
labor, and their suggestions for change. A one phase questionnaire
for data collection was adapted from a prenatal and postpartum tool
used by Brasted, Daley, and Calhoun for unpublished doctoral research.
(1980, W. Va. Univ.) It measures behavioral, situational, cognitive,
and sociodemographic variables. Fifty-three subjects found to meet
criterion measures had participated by January, 1981. Data collected
was partially analyzed, and selected findings reported in simple per¬
centage form. Multiple regression techniques will be used for final
data analysis. Findings could be significant for helping nurses improve
the quality of E.F.M. orientation and implementation. (Supported in
part by the Sigma Theta Tau Seed Grant, Nu Chapter, School of Nursing,
University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294.)
146
Abstracts
ASSOCIATION PATTERNS OF HUMAN NUCLEOLAR ORGANIZER REGIONS
J.L. Smith, W.H. Finley, and S.C. Finley. Dept, of Medical Genetics
Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 15294. W.M. Howell.*
Dept, of Biology, Samford Univ., Birmingham, AL 35209.
The phenomenon of chromosome satellite association may be a causa¬
tive factor in meiotic nondisjunction (Ferguson - Smith and Handmaker
1961). The cytological basis for this observation may actually be with
the stalk which connects the satellite and the p arm. The stalks are
the Nucleolar Organizer Regions (NORs) which stain with AgN03 if ac¬
tively transcribed during interphase. Chromosomes may be connected to
one another at the stalk as evidenced by silver grains deposited on
and between NORs.
The characteristics of chromosome NORs were examined in a control
population of both males and females. An association complex was de¬
fined as any group of two or more chromosomes whose NORs were connec¬
ted with silver grains. The number of NORs per cell ranged from 5-10
with each individual having a characteristic mode. The majority of
cells had 0, 1, or 2 association complexes which usually contained 2
chromosomes. The chromosomes entered into association in a non random
manner both in the individual and in the total sample. In general,
chromosomes 21 and 22 associated more frequently than 13, 14, and 15;
chromosome 15 was found in complexes more often than 13 and 14. The
particular pairings also seemed to be non random as 21-22 and then
15-22 were more common than others.
In the future, these results will be compared to those from par¬
ents of children with Down's Syndrome to determine if there is any
correlation between satellite association and the risk for having a
trisomic child.
EVIDENCE FDR A LEUKOCYTOL YS IN PRODUCED BY VIBRIO VULNIFICUS
(LACTOSE POSITIVE VIBRIO]
C. Dees*, IY1.W. Fountain, and R.D. Schultz, School of Veterinary
Medicine, Auburn University, AL . 36849.
An extracellular Factor produced by V ibrio vulnif icus
(lactose positive vibrio) was Found to lyse mixed populations
oF human and mononuclear cells. Canine macrophages, peripheral
blood leukocytes, and thymus derived cells were non-speciFically
lysed by the leukocytolysin . The leukocytolysin was in¬
activated when heated For 15 minutes at 100 degrees C.. The
leukocytolysin appeared to be a protein with an apparent
molecular weight oF less than 200,000 daltons.
147
Abstracts
PERCEIVED SOURCES OF STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES IN PHYSICAL
THERAPY STUDENTS. K.T. Francis and D.C. Naftel. Division of Physical
Therapy and Department of Biostatistics. University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
The professional educational process can be a psychologically stressful
experience (psychological stress defined as feelings of anxiety, discomfort,
tension, or distress). Academic pressures associated with the study of difficult
material and long hours of classroom and clinical practice combine to intensify
psychological stress associated with pressures of college life. Physical therapy
(PT) is an example of a professional educational process in which the
educational preparation involves an arduous course of study that is intense and
demanding. However, the perception of the sources of stress and coping
strategies of the students enrolled in a PT curriculum has not been delineated.
In order to study stress and coping factors in PT students, two one page
questionnaires that had been field tested for reliability, were administered to
72 PT students (mean age 22'h). One questionnaire assessed "stress factors"
(SF) in the students; the other questionnaire assessed "coping factors" (CF) of
the students. The SF and CF questionnaire contained 27 and 21 items
respectively. Either stress or coping scores were obtained for each item. A
mean stress and coping factor score was calculated and sources of stress and
coping strategies were rank ordered. The four areas perceived as the most
stressful by all the students were related to the environment of PT education.
These included exams and grades, quantity of difficult classwork, long hours of
study, and lacking free time. The least stressful items included drug use, child
care problems, alcohol use, and marriage problems. The primary means these
students coped with stress included talking problems over with friends and
relatives, analyzing the problem, and praying. The least used coping strategies
included use of tranquilizers, sexual comfort, or seeking professional assis¬
tance.
A ROLE FOR SUPEROXIDE IN INTESTINAL ISCHEMIA
Ranjan S. Roy and Joe M. McCord. Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of South
Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688.
Based on our studies, it appears that intestinal xanthine dehydro¬
genase in rats undergoes conversion from one enzymic form to another if
blood flow to the tissue is compromised (ischemia) . Under normal in
vivo conditions the enzyme exists as an NAD~*~-reducing dehydrogenase
(Type D) , incapable of reducing molecular oxygen to the reactive super-
oxide free radical ( O2 - ) - During ischemia it is converted to a form
able to react with O2 as electron acceptor and hence exists as a super¬
oxide-producing oxidase (Type 0) . This conversion from the dehydrogenase
to the oxidase occurs extremely rapidly in the small intestines. Data
indicate that 80-90% Type D to Type O conversion occurs within 5-10 sec.
Proteolysis appears to be the major cause in the modification of this
snzyme . PMSF , an irreversible serine protease inhibitor, partially
prevents this rapid conversion from Type D to Type 0. Dithioerythritol
not only prevents but also reverses this conversion brought about by
reduced blood flow. The substrate for xanthine oxidase, hypoxanthine ,
arises due to catabolism of adenine nucleotides in ischemic tissues.
Thus, upon reperfusion (reoxygenation) of the tissue, xanthine oxidase
(Type 0) is able to reduce molecular oxygen to superoxide radicals which
causes further damage to the ischemic tissues. Allopurinol, an inhibi¬
tor of xanthine oxidase, has been found to protect tissues from ischemic
damage. (Supported in part by NIH grant AM-20527.)
148
Abstracts
EFFECTS OF SALINE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RENAL HYPERTENSION
Cynthia Ann Jackson and L. Gabriel Navar. Dept, of Physiology & Biophy¬
sics, 727 CDLD, Univ. Station, Univ. of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294
Experiments were conducted on two-kidney, one clip Goldblatt Hyper¬
tensive rats to assess the effect of addition salt intake on systolic
blood pressure during the course of renovascular hypertension and to
evaluate the influence of salt intake on renal function in renovascular
hypertensive rats. Eleven days after the animals were clipped and given
0.9% saline or tap water to drink, a significant difference in the blood
pressure was observed between the clipped rats (n = 10, BP = 172.82 +
6.66 mmHg) and the nonclipped rats (n = 10, BP = 119.36 +4.60 mmHg).
However, the addition of 0.9% saline did not increase nor decrease the
blood pressure within each group during the course of the three week
study. The urine flow and sodium excretion were higher in the hyperten¬
sive rats (27.29 +2.9 yl/min and 2.36 + 0.37 yEq/min) than the normoten-
sive rats (14.13 + yl/min and 1.05 + 0.24 yEq/min). The saline-drinking
normotensive rats exhibited greater urine flow and sodium excretion than
the water-drinking normotensive rats. In contrast, the addition of salt
intake in the hypertensive rats reduced the urine flow and sodium excre¬
tion. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of the hypertensive rats
(1.02 + 0.04 ml/min/g of kidney wt) was reduced when compared with the
normotensive rats GFR (1.11 + 0.04 ml/min/g of kidney wt) . However, the
addition of salt intake in the normotensive rats had no effect on GFR;
whereas in the hypertensive rats, the GFR increased and approached val¬
ues of the normotensive rats. These observations are consistent with the
concept that the addition of salt which decreases renin levels may main¬
tain an elevated blood pressure due to an inappropriate high level of
sodium retention; thus insinuating an involvement of a more specific
intrarertal mechanism.
MAPPING VIRULENCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE HERPES SIMPLEX GENOME
Wayne L. Gray, and John E. Oakes,* Dept, of Microbiology and Immunology,
Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688.
Herpes Simplex Viruses (HSV) vary greatly in their neurovirulence
for laboratory animals. The reason is unknown but virulence is known
to be a genetic trait of some HSV strains. Studies are underway in
our laboratory to determine which genes are associated with HSV pathogen¬
icity. Parental HSV-1 and HSV-2 strains and recombinants were tested
for their ability to cause a lethal encephalitis in mice upon inocula¬
tion into the left hind footpad. HSV-1 strain 17 was virulent with an
LD50 of 3 x 105 PFUs. HSV-2 st rain 186 was avirulent even when tested
at 3 x 10^ PFUs. An intertypic recombinant of these parental strains
had virulence characteristics very similar to the HSV-1 parent. The
data indicates that genes located between the 0.2 and 0.8 map site of
the HSV-1 strain 17 genome are associated with virulence. The HSV-2
186 strain was lethal when inoculated into irradiated mice suggesting
that the avirulence of this strain is due to an inability to evade host
defense mechanisms. Further studies using intertypic recombinants
indicate that virulence in irradiated mice is associated with genes
located between map units 0.1 and 0.3 and/or between 0.6 and 0.8 on
the HSV-2 186 genome. The mapping of HSV genes which determine virul¬
ence could be significant in designing anti-viral agents against proteins
coded for by those genes.
149
Abstracts
DIABETOGENIC EFFECTS OF CHL0R0Z0T0CIN
G.L. Wilson, Dept, of Anatomy, Univ. of So. Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
B.T, Mossman and J.E. Craighead. Dept, of Path.,, Univ. of Vermont,
Burlington, VT 05405
Epidemiological evidence indicates that environmental factors, in con¬
junction with genetic and immunological influences, play a critical
pathogenetic role in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, N-nitroso
compounds and their precursors are environmental pollutants and commonly
are present in human food. In this study the N-nitroso compound, chlor-
ozotocin (CLZ) was evaluated for its effects in insulin producing pan¬
creatic beta cell monolayer cultures. CLZ was found to be toxic to beta
cells at equimolar concentrations to those required using the known beta
cell toxin streptozotocin (SZ) , SZ is also a nitrosoamide. To deter¬
mine whether CLZ was diabetogenic, 6-week-old male golden Syrian ham¬
sters and CD-I mice were injected intraperitoneally with CLZ at concen¬
trations from 20 to 100 mg/kg body weight and blood glucose determined
2, 4 and 7 days later. Dosage dependent hyperglycemia (glucose concen¬
trations > 180 mg/dl ) developed after 2 days in hamsters receiving 30 to
60 mg/kg CLZ and mice receiving 50 to 100 mg/kg CLZ. Necrosis and de¬
granulation of beta cells was prominent in hamsters and mice killed at
intervals after inoculation, whereas alpha cells and acinar tissue were
unaffected. Lesions were not observed in the heart, lungs or liver of
these animals but extensive tubular necrosis was found in the kidneys of
animals receiving the larger amounts of the drug. CLZ is currently used
for human cancer chemotherapy. Concentrations of CLZ used in these
studies are comparable to the dosages used in humans. The potential for
a diabetogenic effect of CLZ in man remains to be determined, (This
work was supported bv a arant from the Kroc Foundation )
ALTERATIONS OF CHLORIDE TRANSPORT IN THE FROG GASTRIC
MUCOSA, IN VITRO
Richard L. Shoemaker, Dept. of Physiology and Biophysics,
University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.
Chloride is transported from the serosal to the mucosal side of
the gastric mucosa, in vitro, and the degree of stimulation of the
proton pump alters the chloride transport rate. Anion transport
can be studied under three conditions of acid secretion: no
secretion (inhibited), basal (or spontaneous) or stimulated rate;
compounds that alter chloride transport produce different
electrophysiological responses under different acid secretion
rates. When the mucosa is secreting acid the following compounds
(added to serosal solution) produced these changes: DIDS reversed
the transmucosal potential (P.D.) but there was no significant
change in the resistance. Furosemide produced a slight change in
the P.D. but adding furosemide after the addition of DIDS produced
no furcher changes. After the acid secretion rate was reduced to
zero by Cimetldine (1 mM) , DIDS or furosemide reduced the P.D. by
50% but increased the resistance significantly. Ethaerynic acid
reduced the P.D. to zero and significantly reduced the resistance.
When the stomachs were secreting acid at a spontaneous rate the
effects of the compounds were intermediate to the above responses.
150
Abstracts
REGULATION OF TRIOSE PHOSPHATE ISOMERASE TURNOVER IN
SENESCENT TUB'S ATRIX ACETI
Rajendra D. Ghai . Department of Biochemistry, University of South
Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
The triose phosphate isomerase (TPI) activity of the nematode Tuvba-
trix aceti declines significantly (40-50%) with advancing age. Immuno-
titrations of extracts prepared from nematodes of various ages yield
identical equivalence points, indicating that the obesrved differences
in enzyme activity are due to changes in the amount of enzyme protein.
To elucidate the mechanism by which aging influences the concentration
of this isomerase, the relative rate of de novo TPI synthesis was
examined in young (4-day old) and senescent (24-day old) animals using
rabbit antibodies directed against purified enzyme. The anti-TPI IgG
fraction used gave a single precipitin band in double-diffusion analysis
and completely precipitated TPI activity from T. aceti extracts. Sodium
lodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of radioactive
immunoprecipitates isolated from nematodes maintained in media contain¬
ing | 1 H ] leucine for specified time intervals showed that the immuno¬
precipitates were free of contaminating proteins. The newly-synthesized
enzyme in senescent T. aceti. had the same subunit size as the Mr=26,000
subunit of the "young" isomerase. Incorporation of radioactivity into
immunoprecipitable TPI proceeded at a rate which was 35-50% slower in
24-day old nematodes than in 4-day old animals. The data indicate that
the reduced content of catalytically active TPI molecules found in old
T. aceti results, at least in part, from a decrease in the relative rate
of enzyme synthesis. (Supported by NIH Grant #AG-01002)
INCREASED INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE, SLEEP AND A METABOLITE OF NICOTINAMIDE
Connie R. Robinson, Neurosciences Program, University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, A1 . 35294.
In our labs it had been previously shown that nicotinamide (NA) in¬
jected i.p. over 14 days produced an increase in REM sleep. It was not
known how this effect occurred so the 6-pyrido metabolite of NA, methyl -
O-nicotinamide was chosen for study. Groups of mice were implanted with
cortical electrodes and with a lateral ventricular cannula for intra¬
cerebral ventricular (icv) injections. After recovery from surgery data
were collected on baseline and on experimental day 1 and 2. Approxi¬
mately 7 hours of EEG's were obtained for each condition. One group of
animals was given 1 mg/kg of the 6-pyrido compound, a second group re¬
ceived 2.5 mg/kg and a third group received matched volumes of 0.9%
saline. There was a slight increase in SWS over baseline on both experi¬
mental days and a decrease in awake for those days over baseline. The
changes in sleep were not due to the transient increased intracranial
pressure since there was no change in sleep EEG following saline in¬
jections by the icv route.
151
Abstracts
PARENTAL SELF-CONCEPT, LOCUS OF CONTROL
AND ASSESSMENT OF INFANT TEMPERAMENT
Phyllis Nichols Horns. School of Nursing, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294
The purposes of this study were to determine if parental self-concept
and locus of control are influential in parental perception of infant
temperament and to ascertain whether mothers and fathers differ in per¬
ception of infant temperament. The study sample consisted of 30 moth¬
ers and 30 fathers of 3% to 8% month old infants who were normal,
single births and had no chronic health problems. A demographic pro¬
file was completed for each parent using a structured interview. In
addition, each parent completed the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale,
Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale for Adults, and
Carey-McDevitt Infant Temperament Questionnaire. Frequencies, the chi
square statistic, and multiple regression were used for data analysis.
Mothers and fathers did not differ significantly in perception of in¬
fant temperament as measured by the Temperament Questionnaire. How¬
ever, mothers and fathers were significantly different in their general
ratings of infant temperament. Moreover, the general ratings revealed
that 76% of mothers and 67% of fathers rated the infant as easier than
average. A significant difference was found between the mother's ques¬
tionnaire rating and her general rating of infant temperament. Self-
concept and locus of control were not found to influence parental per¬
ception of infant temperament. However, maternal perception of infant
temperament was found to be related to a multivariate combination of
maternal age, race, socio-economic status, self-concept, locus of con¬
trol; and infant sex, age, and ordinal position.
REVIEW OF VITAMIN C : CHEMISTRY, PROPERTIES AND
MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS
Emmett B. Carmichael, Med. Center, U.A.B. , Birmingham, AL
This is a review of the properties and multiple functions
of vitamin C and includes therapeutic uses of the vitamin
in common colds, whooping cough,, herpes virus, encephaliti
measles, chicken pox, mononucleosis, hepatitis, pressure
sores, back pain, cervical carcinoma of the uterus, cancer-
ocular alkali burns, barbiturate poisoning, lead poisoning
stress, ankylosing spondylitis, insect bite and snake
bite .
152
Abstracts
CHARACTERIZATION OF ACTIVE CHROMATIN RELEASED BY DNAase I ACTION
Jim W. Gaubatz. Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile,
AL 36688.
The most popular method of chromatin fractionation now uses micrococ¬
cal nuclease to shear chromatin prior to the separation of DNA into sub¬
sets of transcriptionally active and inactive sequences. DNAase I, on
the other hand, is most commonly employed to degrade selectively DNA in
an active chromatin structure. By coupling limited enzyme action with
the large transcriptional capacity of mouse brain tissue, we have suc¬
ceeded in isolating an active chromatin fraction following DNAase I
digestion. The concentration of DNA sequences complementary to cyto¬
plasmic poly-A+ RNA are approximately 10-fold more abundant in the
active fraction than in total DNA which is similar to the greatest
enrichment previously achieved with micrococcal nuclease. The DNAase I-
solubilized active fraction contains a significant amount of DNA with a
native chain length greater than 600 base pairs (bp) whereas DNA in
active chromatin generated by micrococcal nuclease is only 140 bp.
Electrophoresis on denaturing gels demonstrated that DNA in the active
fraction was not substantially degraded compared to the other fractions.
This suggests that the spacer DNA between nucleosomes is largely intact.
Since spacer DNA is the primary binding site for histone HI, our obser¬
vation that active chromatin obtained by the DNAase I method lacks his¬
tone HI is direct evidence for protein replacement in gene activation.
Therefore, it appears that chromosomal material derived from DNAase I-
digested nuclei more clearly delineates the association of nuclear pro¬
teins with certain elements of structure. (Supported by an intramural
grant from the College of Medicine, University of South Alabama.)
REGULATION OF INSULIN BINDING TO VARIOUS TISSUES
Joyce F. Haskell, Elias Meezan and Dennis J. Pillion, Dept, of
Pharmacology , U.A.B., Birmingham, Alabama 35294.
The binding of insulin to membrane receptors is the first event in
the process which eventually leads to accelerated sugar uptake and
metabolism, increased protein synthesis and the inhibition or stimula¬
tion of a variety of intracel lul ar enzymes in hormone-sensitive
tissues. Insulin receptors have been studied in a wide variety of
mammalian tissues, with considerable interest focused on adipose, liver
and muscle cells, since these represent the primary site of insulin
action. Recent advances have allowed the isolation of intact brain
microvessels, seminiferous tubules and Leydig cells by selective
sieving without recourse to harsh digestive enzymes. This report
identifies for the first time the presence of specific insulin
receptors in each of these tissues and compares them with adipocytes.
Studies are also in progress to determine whether or not the addition
of physiological levels of insulin to these tissues leads to an
increase in the rate of D-glucose uptake.
153
Abstracts
HYPOPHYSECTOMY, THE OPIATES, AND PAIN IN THE RAT
V.A. Gonzalez*, C.L. Mi 1 1 i can * and J.M. Beaton, Neurosciences Program,
Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala. 35294.
Hypophysectomy has been reported by several groups of investiga¬
tors to produce a dramatic relief of intractable pain in many cases
of patients with widespread metastatic cancer. One possible mecha¬
nism which has been suggested for this relief from pain has been
a change in the level of the endogenous opiate peptides of the pitui¬
tary. The present study was carried out to examine the effects
of intraperitoneal injections of saline, morphine (5, 7.5 or 10
mg/kg), naloxone (5 or 10 mg/kg) or naltrexone (2.5 or 5 mg/kg)
on the flinch-jump test on groups of eight intact or hypophysecto-
mized rats. The shock intensity was begun at 0.05 mA and increased
in 0.05 mA increments at 30 sec intervals until a jump occurred.
The shock was then decreased. The flinch threshold was noted for
both the ascending and descending series. Five such trials were
carried out for each rat with each drug dosage. There were no sig¬
nificant differences seen between the groups with any of the drugs
on the flinch threshold, however, there were significant differences
for the jump threshold. It took a significantly higher level of
shock to elicit a jump in the hypophysectomized rats. This differ¬
ence was potentiated by morphine and blocked by naloxone or naltrex¬
one. These data indicate that hypophysectomy has induced a change
in the endogenous opiate system and this change may help explain
the pain relief observed in cancer patients. Supported in part
by Intramural Faculty Research Grant #82-6733.
"HOW FIRM A FOUNDATION...?" SOME COMMENTS ON MIS0NIDAZ0LE .
Donald E. Herbert, Dept, of Radiology, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile,
Alabama 36688
Some published observations on the efficacy and toxicity of Ro07-
0582 have been reviewed. Our review suggests that these particular
data on efficacy are "soft", perhaps even irrelevant, and that the
published analyses are dubious; the location and shape of the dose-
response curve for efficacy of Ro07-0582 that have been derived from
these observations seem to be guestionable.
The data on toxicity are more germane but because the methods of
analysis that were used are inappropriate, the (published) dose-
response curve is also guestionable. Neither of the published analy¬
ses present confidence limits on the estimated dose-response curve
for either property. (This is unfortunate because these limits are
guite wide. )
The results (including confidence limits) of our analysis of these
data by the standard methods of biological assay are presented. They
do not affirm that consent is always well informed.
154
Abstracts
GLUCOSE DYNAMICS IN PYRIDOXAL-PO4 DEFICIENT RABBITS
Shirley A. Williams, Larry R. Boots and Phillip E. Cornwell, Department
of OB/GYN and Nutrition, University of Alabama in Birmingham.
A deficiency in pyr idoxal-PO^ (PLP) , the active form of vitamin Bg ,
causes altered tryptophan metabolism and increased levels of xanthu¬
renic acid (XA) , a metabolite which reportedly binds to insulin. Ex¬
periments were designed to determine if a deficiency in PLP could alter
glucose metabolism in rabbits and, if so, were increased levels of XA
responsible. Mature female rabbits were given glucose tolerance tests
(GTT) , subsequently fed a vitamin Bj: -deficient diet, determined to be
PLP deficient, and then given repeat GTT's. In normal rabbits, glucose
levels ranged between 90 and 130 mg% prior to injecting a glucose load,
surged to levels above 400 mg% within 15-20 minutes and then decreased
to an average of 213 mg% within 65 minutes. The PLP-def icient rabbits
had similar baseline and peak levels but decreased to only 350 mg% by
65 minutes. It was concluded that PLP-def icient rabbits had altered
glucose metabolism. A series of studies were then initiated to deter¬
mine whether XA might be responsible. Insulin was complexed with XA
and purified by gel-filtration chromatography. Glucose levels were
significantly elevated when rabbits were injected with XA alone, but
equivocal results were obtained when the glucose-lowering action of
XA: insulin complexes were compared to those of native insulin. Further
studies of the XA:insulin complexes occurring in vivo may clarify the
role of PLP in relation to glucose dynamics in the rabbit.
This work supported by DHEW Pub. Health Fellowship 5 F34 GM06777-02.
THE INDUCTION OF ILLUSORY ASSOCIATIONS IN RADIATION ONCOLOGY.
Donald E. Herbert, Dept, of Radiology, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile,
Alabama 36688
The effects of the frequency distributions of the dependent and
independent variables on the concordance of a regression model as well
as their effects on the size, sign, and statistical significance of
its coefficients and the variance of predicted values are familiar.
Apparently they are regularly ignored in analyses of non-experimental
observations on dose-response phenomena and occasionally in the design
and analysis of dose-response experiments in the laboratory as well as
the clinic. Unless these effects are explicitly recognized in an anal¬
ysis of such observations the associations between response and treat¬
ment which may be inferred from a representation of the observations
by a regression equation may be largely illusory. The induction of
some illusory associations between treatment and response by failure
to account for these effects is disclosed in our reevaluation of a
recently published experimental in vivo study. In this study some of
the effects of poor experimental design were masked by the effects of
an incorrect statistical analysis.
155
Abstracts
Myoglobin plasma levels in normal and diabetic subjects. K. S. Yackzan,
F. Shamsa*, R. Thompson--, D. Carter*, and B. R. Boshell*, Diabetes Re¬
search and Training Center, University of Alabama in Birmingham.
This study summarizes the association between plasma and myoglobin
levels in the presence of other covariates (age, sex, race, diabetes).
The report by other workers that hemoglobin condenses with glucose forms
the basis of this investigation. If such a reaction takes place between
nyoglobin (muscle hemoglobin) and glucose it might provide one explana¬
tion for the beneficial aspect of exercise in the athlete and the diabet¬
ic and supply the answer to why the exercising diabetic requires lesser
insulin administration than otherwise needed. It is possible that myo¬
globin helps reduce the glucose level in the circulation and the meta¬
bolizing skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. The small number of partici¬
pating athletes prevents any conclusions. This study, however, reports
only the up-to-date preliminary findings from our on-going study. From
a sample size of 81 subjects, (71 diabetics and 10 nondiabetics) ranging
in age from 14 to 80 years, we have attempted to construct a regression
model for the myoglobin as a dependent variable and all the afore-men¬
tioned variables with their interaction as predictors or independent
variables. In addition, we have obtained figures for two way classifica¬
tions for these variables with chis-test for the association of variable
pairwisely. The analysis indicates that there is (1) a significant as¬
sociation between race and myoglobin (p = 0.0058; chis-test), (2) a sig¬
nificant correlation between age and myoglobin (r = 0.325 and p = 0.003).
However, chis-test showed a borderline association (p = .08), (3) A sig¬
nificant association between sugar and age (p = .0178; chis-test). There
was no indication of a strong correlation between sugar and myoglobin
level (r = .0089, p = .984).
CHILDREN'S LUNG VOLUME MEASUREMENTS BY THE JAEGER PLETHYSMOGRAPH
K.S. Yackzan, R. Ritchey, L.A. Engstrand and B.R. Boshell. Diabetes
Research and Training Center, University of Alabama in Birmingham 35294.
Using a newly designed electronic pulmonary function machine dev¬
eloped by the Jaeger Company, pi ethysmographic lung measurements (PLMs)
were made for a sample of 46 children ages 5 to 12 years. This work
represents the first attempt in this country to use the Jaeger plethys-
mograph to obtain normal values for American children. Their PLMs
were then correlated with the variables height, age and weight. Such
a study allows the development of PLM normals which may then be used
(a) to compare the reliability of measurements on the Jaeger's plethys-
mograph to other machines and (b) as a diagnostic tool to determine a
patient's lung volumes and hence lung function. The small sample
size makes the study preliminary, but we were able to reliably establish
normals for maximum vital capacity, maximum forced vital capacity, total
vital capacity and three other PLMs. This work presents a description
of the Jaeger pi ethysmograph and scatterplots of PLMs correlated with
height. Further, we present data regressing PLMs on height, age and
weight showing the degree to which one may rely on the latter as
predictors of the former. Corresponding to results of other research¬
ers, the height of the sample participants was the best predictor of
almost all the PLMs.
156
Abstracts
ENZYMATIC STUDIES OF DMBA-TREATED PREGNANT RAT UTERI
Mark A. Donahue and Larry R. Boots, Dept, of Obstetrics and Gynecology,
The University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
Rats 11-13 days pregnant were treated with 7 ,12-dimethylbenzanthra-
cene (DMBA) to induce and study trophoblastic and other uterine neo¬
plasia. Wax pellets containing 1 mg DMBA were implanted in four ges¬
tational sacs, two in each uterine horn. The rats were sacrificed at
three and four months post-treatment and the uteri removed for histol¬
ogy and enzyme determinations. No evidence of histologic alteration
was found in 48% of the specimens (subsequently designated as normal) ,
while 43% contained squamous cell metaplasia (SCM) of the endometrium
which could be a precursor of squamous cell carcinoma. The other 8%
of the specimens showed evidence of uterine adenocarcinoma (AC) . No
trophoblastic tumors were observed. Uterine fructose aldolase activ¬
ity (per mg protein) did not differ significantly between the three
groups (normal 16.87 + 2.02, SCM 17.14 + 2.81, AC 19.57 + 4.4 IU/mg
protein) . Uterine glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity was sig¬
nificantly higher (P < 0.05) in the SCM group than in the normal group
(normal 2.00 + 0.42, SCM 4.10 + 0.66, AC 4.30 + 1.90 IU/mg protein X
10^). Malate dehydrogenase activity was lowered in the SCM group
(P < 0.1) and elevated in the AC group (P < 0.05) in relation to the
normals (normal 1.68 + 0.08, SCM 1.34 + 0.12, AC 2.36 + 0.58 IU.mg
protein) . These data may suggest a shift in uterine metabolic pathways
after DMBA treatment and may provide more information about the mechan¬
isms of uterine tumorogenesis .
This work supported by DHEW Pub. Health Serv. Grant #1 R01 CA25974-01.
Dtrirtv iuKAL EFFECTS OF TETRAHYDR0-BETA-CARB0 LINES IN THE RAT
r'.K. Addison, S.A. Barker* and J.M. Beaton, Neurosciences Program,
Hniv. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala. 35294.
Current interest in the pharmacological effects of the benzodiaze¬
pine drugs (valium, librium, etc.) centers around the identification
of an endogenous high affinity binding site for these agents and the
isolation of an endogenous benzodiazepine-like compound. Two com¬
pounds which have been identified endogenously and suggested as pos¬
sible candidates are 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline ( THBC) and
2-methyl-l,2,3,4-tetrahydro-beta-carboli ne (2-MTHBC) . If either of
these compounds has an anti -anxiety action, the behavioral effects
should be similar to those seen with valium. Using a standard para¬
digm for the study of anxiolytics, the conditioned emotional response,
this study reports the effects of valium (1.25, 2.5, 5.0 mg/kg), THBC
(2.5, 5, 10, 15 mg/kg) and 2-MTHBC (2.5, 5.0, 10, 15 mg/kg') on a aroup
of eight Long-Evans rats. Only valium was active in inducing anxio¬
lytic-like behavioral disruption. The two carbolines were virtually
inactive, except at the highest levels, but even then the disruption
was not "valium like". The type of behavioral disruption seen was
more like that found with an anxiety-inducing agent. These findings
suggest that more research is needed to determine the behavioral ac¬
tion of the carbolines and their relationship to the endogenous benzo¬
diazepine system. Supported in part by the Alabama Consumer Fund.
157
Abstracts
REGULATION OF FREE Ca
21-
LEVELS BY HEART MITOCHONDRIA
Gerald L. Becker, Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of Ala. in
Birmingham 35294
The r egu la t
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( [ Ca 2 + ] ) b
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t owar d
s e 1 ec
u pwa r
that m
ond r ia
a inmen
e s t ed
lie [ C
f r e
s of
a t ed
d ed
en t r
and
hig
with
itor
Ca2
o t e i
sh i f
e s e
by
a tme
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d sh
itoc
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t of
that
,2 + 1
2 +
e Ca c one ent r a t
heart muscle mit
intracellular co
in a cytosol-like
a t ions of Ca t r
Pi regulation ex
her or lower valu
in the range 0.5-
ing with a Ca2+-s
+ contents less t
n, this set-point
ted downward. Ev
t-point may preva
experiments on is
nt of the cells w
ocases regulated
stant values of 0
ly increases mito
if t in the Ca2+ b
hondria had maint
content higher
a steady state o
in vivo, heart mitochon-
at values as low as 10-2M.
ion
ochondr ia
nd it ion s .
medium
ansport
tramito-
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elective
han r'J5 0 ng-
for mito-
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.1-0.3 y M .
chondrial
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than zero,
f Ca2 +
AN ATTENTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOME PAVLOVIAN PHENOMENA. John Moore, Edward
U. Rickert, and Joan F. Lorden. Dept, of Psychology, University of
Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham AL 35294.
If an animal learns that stimulus A predicts the occurrence of reinforce¬
ment prior to that stimulus appearing conjointly with another stimulus
(B) which predicts the same outcome, no learning is evidenced to B. Con¬
ditioning is blocked to B. In contrast, if A signals reinforcement and
after conditioning A later follows a new stimulus B, conditioning is
observed to B. B has become a second-order conditioned stimulus. The
oniy procedural variation between blocking and second— order conditioning
lies in the fact that reinforcement is present during the second learn¬
ing phase of blocking, but absence during the second learning phase of
second-order conditioning. Two contemporary learning theories which of¬
fer opposing interpretations of these phenomena were tested by comparun
the performance of 6 groups of 6 rats each in standard and modified
second-order and blocking preparations. The results are consistent with
an attentional theory of these phenomena; animals learn to ignore stim¬
uli which are poorly correlated with biologically significant outcomes.
(Supported by NSF Grant 55-9577).
158
Abstracts
CAFFEINE & OTHER METHYL XANTHINES — SURVIVAL EFFECTS ON RATS
Geraldine M. Emerson, Department of Biochemistry, Medical Center,
University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
Although widely consumed since early antiquity, there are even today
questions concerning undesirable effects of methyl xanthines (MX).
Sporadic reports of research in the literature using large doses of MX
given to diverse animal species such as house flies and mice have shown
decreased survival. A number of untoward effects have also been re¬
ported in the human population. Using the intermittent intake pattern
of human consumption of MX; using survival based on animal studies this
experiment was performed. Findings of this preliminary probe follow:
Rat Group
No. in Group
Approx.
. Dose (mg)
Survival (days)*
Control
21
None
439
Coffee
4
2.4
mg
C
491
Decaffeinated Coffee
2
0.1
mg
C
518
Tea
2
2.4
mg
C
500
Chocolate
4
2.4
mg
C
490
Caffeine (C) Citrate
4
2.5
mg
C
522
Theobromine (TB)
4
2.8
mg
TB
484
Theophylline (TP)
4
2.5
mg
TP
479
*A number of rats are still alive when these data were calculated.
They are treated as surviving to that date.
These preliminary data indicate that the methyl xanthine treated groups
survived longer than the control group.
ENGINEERING
FEATURE MATCHING ALGORITHMS FOR MULTIPLE IMAGE REGISTRATION
H. S. Ranganath and J. S. Boland, III, Dept, of Electrical Engineering,
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849
The problem of multiple image registration is that of finding n
subimages in a larger image which best match the n smaller images ob¬
tained from different sensors, assuming that all smaller images are
completely located within the larger image. Algorithms are considered
which do not require n times the amount of computation for the multiple
registration problem as for the single image registration problem. Two
feature matching digital image registration algorithms, one based on
moments and the other based on intraset and interset distances, which
are computationally more efficient compared to the classical template
matching algorithms, are presented in this paper.
159
Abstracts
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS
William G. Bradley, Dept, of Electrical Engineering, The IJniv. of Ala.
in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899.
Photovol taics (solar cells) are a very promising source of electric
power in the near future. The primary goal of the Photovoltaic Energy
Systems Divsion of the Department of Energy is to make electricity
from photovol taics attractive to utilities, industries and residences.
Specifically, the goal is to reduce cost per peak watt to 708) ,
fs = (1 - e'ps)/ps . (6)
For each
in cm2/q
given (9)
of the three indium betas, the mass
is obatined from Equation (7), with
absorption coefficient p
Em in MeV as previously
(17/Ei-14)
(7)
186
Calibrating Neutron Survey Meters
Figure 2a. Beta self-absorption factor fs as a function of foil mass,
or thickness, where fs = (As/M)/50.
«S/M
in
cps/g
Figure 2b. Specific activities of different foil masses located at the
same place in the neutron field.
187
McCormick, Nomai, Yerby, and Hollis
Table 1. Self-absorption factor empirical data for curve (b) of
Figure 2.
*Foil Nos.
mass, g
counts/20 m
R
A*/M
A>
cps/g
As/M
Cb
B
2
910
352
.355
20.9
0.06560
708
352
.355
17.4
38.3
2 + 4
1181
341
.360
15.4
0.13177
864
341
.360
12.6
28.0
6+8+10
1274
341
.360
11.5
0.19624
866
341
.360
8.5
20.0
★
All foils are bare and are placed at 19.8 cm from the paraffin
source center with vertical orientation.
Foil thickness s is in g/cm2. Thicknesses of the foils are calculated
from measured masses, mass density, and area based on 3/8 inch diameter;
see Table 2. Self-absorption coefficients are computed for each foil
from the following formula,
f1 = 0.51 f\ + 0.28 + 0.21 f1, . (8)
s si s2 s3
The values for each foil are given in Table 2. As computed with this
procedure, fs is approximately half of an empirical value, implying
that the theoretical coefficient corrects for 2it geometry and is, there¬
fore, applied to the activity of one foil surface to get the total satu¬
rated activity. The final flux computations with these two methods for
finding fs are fairly close to each other, and the differences appear to
decrease as foil thickness increases.
Thermal neutron flux at a given distance from the paraffin sphere
containing the PuBe source in neutrons/cm^s is found fromO)
0(r) = n v = 1.128[As(r) - Fcd AsC(r)]/NT oQa ga (T ) (Tq/T ) 1 72 . (9)
The coefficient in this equation, resulting from averaging over the
Maxwel 1 -Bol tzmann distribution, may be questioned, but since there proba¬
bly is randomization of two velocity components its retention is re¬
tained. Correction F^d for epithermal neutron absorption in the 20 mil
thick cadmium covers used with vertically oriented foils is 1.07 for all
but the two thicker foils which have a value of 1 . 09 (10). For the 10
mil thick covers used with horizontal foils, Fqj is reduced by 0.04 in
both cases. Total number of H5in atoms Nj is 0.957 N/\ M/A; where the
188
Calibrating Neutron Survey Meters
Table 2. Self-absorption factor, theoretical.
^In: p-| = 17 cm'Vg, p£ = 19.9 cm'Vg, p^ = 30.4 cm'Vg
Foi 1
No.
Mass
±0.00003 g
si
2
g/cm
'li
f s2
f%
s3
f1
s
1
0.06660
0.093
0.50
0.46
0.33
0.45
2
0.06560
0.092
0.51
0.46
0.34
0.46
3
0.06465
0.091
0.51
0.46
0.34
0.46
4
0.06617
0.093
0.50
0.46
0.33
0.45
5
0.12886
0.181
0.31
0.27
0.18
0.27
6
0.06551
0.092
0.51
0.46
0.34
0.46
7
0.06537
0.092
0.51
0.46
0.34
0.46
8
0.06420
0.090
0.51
0.47
0.34
0.46
9
0.06465
0.091
0.51
0.46
0.34
0.46
10
0.06653
0.093
0.50
0.46
0.33
0.45
11
0.13020
0.183
0.31
0.28
0.18
0.27
12
0.06555
0.092
0.51
0.46
0.34
0.46
13
0.06535
0.092
0.51
0.46
0.34
0.46
14
0.06721
0.094
0.50
0.45
0.33
0.45
15
0.06470
0.091
0.51
0.46
0.34
0.46
numeri c
is natural abundance; N ^ is
Avogardro 1 s
number ,
M is foil
mass
in grams, and A is 114.90388 g. The activation cross section aoa is
161 bid’ll), and the indium non-l/v factor ga(T) at the average room
temperature of 82°F is 1.021(12). with these values the thermal flux in
n/cm2s simplifies to
0 ( r ) = 1.39[As(r) - FCd As(.(r)]/M . (10)
A computer program facilitated the many calculations leading to the flux
values .
Measured data with values for R and empirical fs are listed in
Table 3 along with computed specific activities. Since each foil has a
different mass, best estimates of the foil activities are found from
plots of the specific activities, which are given in Figure 3. Corre¬
sponding to standard deviation of the count rates, error bars for the
curves are equal to the square roots of the specific activities plus an
additional 10% to account for distance measurement errors (±0.2 cm) and
coefficient inaccuracies. The specific activity profiles in Figure 3
are for foils with vertical and horizontal orientations. The vertical
foils, as shown in Figure 1, should provide reasonably accurate thermal
flux measurements close to the neutron source. In a completely therma-
lized system, foil orientation is immaterial, but this is not the case
with the paraffin source surrounded by concrete. At the paraffin sur¬
face, neutrons with energies in the thermal range emana e normally to
189
McCormick, Nomai , Yerby, arid Hollis
r in cm from
Figure 3. Specific activities with and without cadmium covers and their
differences as a function of distance from neutron source cen¬
ter. (a) is for foils with vertical orientation, and (b) is
for foils oriented horizontally.
190
Calibrating Neutron Survey Meters
Table 3. Measured data and computed specific activities.
Foil No.
cm (£_
Orient.
Vert.
Horn .
C/20 m
f t/b
t/b
LCd
B
R
f
s
cps/g
A /M
s
Fr ,A r/M
Cd sC
1
V
1326/1031
456
.354
.77
79
14.8
600/695
349
.362
.77
35
2
19.8
V
910/708
352
.355
.77
50
3
V
693/623
352
.355
.77
35
24.8
427/374
328
.352
.78
8.5
4
29.8
V
609/526
352
.355
.77
24
5
V
644/496
382
.360
.59
13
34.8
410/355
328
.352
.59
4.1
39.8
V
568/478
382
.360
.77
15
7
V
539/470
382
.360
.77
13
44.8
351/362
328
.352
-'-J
3.5
8
49.8
V
508/456
361
.353
.77
14
9
V
447/470
361
.353
.77
11
54.8
346/387
341
.360
.77
3.4
10
59.8
V
462/398
372
.359
.77
5.9
1 i
V
462/463
372
.359
.58
6.6
64 8
383/368
341
.360
.58
2.7
12
69 8
V
413/416
372
.359
.77
4.7
13
74.8
V
440/425
383
.355
.77
5.5
14
79.3
V
446/444
373
.359
.77
7.7
15
84 :
V
'124/369
373
.359
.77
3.8
12
H
599/562
351
. 368
.77
25
24. 8
424/420
370
.359
77
6.0
13
H
462/481
351
.368
77
14
L>4. 8
412/406
370
.355
.77
4.6
! t>
H
468/475
3 b 1
.368
.77
13
49.8
419/385
370
.359
77
3.4
191
McCormick, Nomai, Yerby, and Hollis
Table 3--continued
iil No.
cm (jj_
Orient.
Vert.
Hori z .
C/20 m
rt/b
t/b
LCd
B
R
f
s
cps/g
A /M
s
Fr ,A r/M
Cd sC
14
H
397/437
351
.368
.77
7.3
59.8
353/392
360
.367
.77
1.9
11
H
442/437
367
.367
.58
5.3
69.8
432/393
360
.367
.58
3.8
5
H
387/433
367
.367
.59
3.3
79.8
378/404
360
.367
.59
2.6
the surface, and their relatively large numbers overshadow reflected
neutrons. The flux becomes more complicated away from the source. At
large separations from the paraffin source, the "thermal" neutron flux
consists of the superposition of different current density magnitudes.
This can be represented as a horizontal current density magnitude,
mainly from the paraffin source (measured by the vertical foils), and
as a vertical current density magnitude due to neutrons reflected from
the floor (1.64 m away) and from the ceiling (1.76 m away). Reflections
from the walls are neglected, since the thin cylindrical meter detectors
are oriented perpendicular to them, and the room ends are relatively far
away. The vertical flux component is measured by indium foils supported
as in Figure 1 except for horizontal orientation. It is our judgement
that the reflected flux component becomes important for separation dis¬
tances greater than about 60 cm. Thermal flux, taken as the sum of the
above two components, refers to neutrons with energies in the thermal
range. Table 4 lists the two components and the total thermal flux com¬
puted from equation (10). The curve for 0jh appears in Figure 4 where
comparisons are made for meter calibration purposes. An estimate of the
overall accuracy of the thermal flux as determined here is ±25%.
Table 4. Thermal flux vs separation.
cm (£_
0V
2
n/cm s
0H
0Th
15
96
96
20
53
53
40
15
15
60
6.8
6.3
13
80
4.3
3. 1
7
100
3.8
1.7
5
192
Calibrating Neutron Survey Meters
0 20 40 60 80 100
r in cm from (£_
Figure 4. Neutron flux as a function of distance from neutron source
center for: (a) meter (A), including total flux; and (b)
meter (B).
193
McCormick, Nomai, Yerby, and Hollis
METER CALIBRATION
Readings at varying distances from the source and modes of opera¬
tion are taken with two instruments, (A) and (B), made by different
companies. Counts per minute and flux (nv) are recorded from the lowest
meter scale for best accuracy. For meter (A) the (nv) scale should be
read only with the bare detector to get the approximate thermal flux;
consequently, the cpm values are used here in determining the flux. A
conversion number of (3 n/cm2s)/100 cpm changes the count rates to
thermal flux. After correcting for zero reading, the thermal flux re¬
sponse by meter (A) to the neutron field from the paraffin source is
plotted in Figure 4(a). Plots of (source strength)/4irr2 and mode (3)
from meter (A) are also shown in the same figure. The other instru¬
ment, (B), calibrated with fast neutrons by the manufacturer, does not
have a cpm scale in some ranges, and it can only operate in modes (1)
and (4). Mode (2) was effected, however, with the use of the cadmium
shield from meter (A). The flux readings for this meter are multiplied
by three, as stated in the manual, to get the actual thermal flux. This
was done after subtracting the flux readings of mode (2), as shown in
(b) of Figure 4.
CONCLUSIONS
The neutron source consisting of a known neutron emitter surrounded
by a paraffin sphere provides an adequate supply of thermal neutrons and
a useful number of non-thermal neutrons for purposes of meter calibra¬
tion. Without reflections, thermal flux at a point external to the
paraffin source would be the total number of thermal neutrons leaving
the surface of the paraffin sphere per second divided by the spherical
area concentric to the source center and passing through the given
point. This is true as long as there are no moderation or losses in the
intervening air. The above distribution is complicated in the real case
by the presence of reflecting surfaces which also act to moderate non-
thermal neutrons. The actual thermal flux at an external point from the
source is not completely a thermal flux in the Maxwellian sense. Ther¬
mal flux is considered here as the flux of neutrons with energies in the
thermal range even though there may not be total velocity randomization.
Addition of the horizontal and vertical flux components appears to be
justified after examining the profiles of (a) and (b) in Figure 4.
Comparisons of the measured flux from the foils with meter readings
do provide assurances that the meters are responding to neutrons and
especially to thermal neutrons. The latter assurance is gratifying in
view of the indirect processes by which thermal neutrons are determined
by both instruments. These procedures depend on factory calibration in
terms of non-thermal neutrons and do not require the subtraction of
mode (2), as indicated in the beginning of this paper. It is agreed,
though, that this correction is not large and could be neglected for
survey purposes. Even with mode (2) subtracted from mode (1), as in (a)
and (b) of Figure 4, the thermal fluxes by both meters are greater than
that of the foils, with meter (B) considerably larger. (This may be due
to the enriched ^OB in the B-detector.) Again, for survey purposes it
is better to be conservative (safer). Probably, [mode (1) - mode (2)]
194
Calibrating Neutron Survey Meters
provides the more accurate thermal flux measurement than [mode (3) -
mode (4)], since there is greater absorption and moderation with the
latter combination. The l/r? flux exceeds the total flux of mode (3);
see (a) of Figure 4. This is due to absorption losses in the paraffin
and other materials. The thermal flux from the foils (to a lesser ex¬
tent) and meters tend to flatten at large distances from the source.
This is also true with mode (3) of meter (A). Such a pattern is con¬
sistent with reflections in the closed room, and there also may be a
tendency for the instruments to read constant values for low count
rates.
Appreciation is extended to the reviewers for their constructive
cri ti ci sm.
REFERENCES
1. W. J. Price, "Nuclear Radiation Detection," 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1964.
2. 0. J. C. Runnalls, R. R. Bouches, Can. J. Chem. , 34, 949, 1956.
3. L. Stewart, Phys. Rev., 98, 740, 1955.
4. C. M. Lederer, V. S. Shirley, et al., "Table of Isotopes," 7th ed.
Wiley-Interscience, N.Y., 1978.
5. E. A. Burn'll, A. J. Gale, HVEC Bui., Burlington, MA, July 1960.
6. L. R. Zumwalt, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm. Document AECU-567, 1950.
7. R. T. Overman, H. M. Clark, "Radioisotope Techniques," McGraw-Hill
New York, 1960.
8.
G. I.
1951 .
Gleason
, J. D. Taylor, D. L. Tabern, Nucleonics , 8, 27, May
9.
R. D.
1955.
Evans, 1
'The Atomic Nucleus," 628, McGraw-Hill, New York,
10.
C.
w.
Tittle,
Nucleonics, 9, 60, July 1951.
11 .
N.
E.
Holden ,
BNL, private communication.
12.
C.
H.
Westcott, "Effective Cross-Section Values for Well-Moderated
Thermal Reactor Spectra," AECL-1101, 3rd ed., Jan. 1962.
195
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 4, October, 1981.
RELATIONSHIP OF HIGH AND LOW PSYCHOLOGICAL
STRESS ON SERUM CHOLESTEROL AND SERUM
LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL1 >2
Kennon T. Francis and Cathy Aymen
Division of Physical Therapy
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham , AL 35294
Abstract. The relationship between the two coronary heart disease
risk factors--psychological stress and serum lipoprotein cholesterol —
was investigated in 39 healthy men age 30 to 55. Subjects were divided
into groups of "high" trait psychological stress and "low" trait psycho¬
logical stress. Serum was analyzed for total cholesterol as well as
the various lipoprotein cholesterol levels. There was no significant
difference in any of the serum cholesterol values between the high and
low trait psychological groups. Possible explanations for the contrast¬
ing results of this study with previous reports are included.
INTRODUCTION
Correctly identifying those individuals with a relatively high
probability of developing coronary heart disease (CHD) is crucial in the
attempt to decrease the incidence of mortality and morbidity due to this
disease. Factors found to be associated with an increased incidence of
CHD are hypertension (systolic blood pressure above 140) (17), elevated
total serum cholesterol (above 250 mg/dl) (5, 17), cigarette smoking (5,
17), obesity (5, 17), and a family history of CHD (5, 17). Enthusiasm
in having discovered these CHD risk factors should not obscure the fact
that other CHD risk factors may exist. Psychological stress has often
been implicated as a contributing factor in the development of CHD; how¬
ever, it is not always included in the list of risk factors. The posi¬
tive relationship between psychological stress and CHD has been supported
not only by retrospective but prospective studies as well and is gaining
in its acceptance as a CHD risk factor.
Stress and CHD
Stilten et al. (31) have demonstrated that aggression, anxiety,
defensiveness, and seclusion are common personality characteri sties
identified in human subjects manifesting clinical and electrocardio¬
graphic signs of CHD. Stockmeirer (32) retrospectively studied the
^Manuscript received 30 March 1981; accepted 16 June 1981.
2
This work was supported in part by a Faculty Research Grant from
the University of Alabama in Birmingham Graduate School.
196
Stress and Serum Cholesterol
psychological aspects of subjects with CHD and found them to exhibit
more anxiety, more depression, and less ability to concentrate than
healthy controls. Other studies (16) have found that men with CHD
scored significantly higher than men free of the disease on scales of
anxiety and subjectively ranked themselves much more frequently under
stress than male controls.
Medal ie and Snyder (22) have reported that a three item anxiety
index was prospectively associated with an increased incidence of angina
pectoris. Likewise, coronary angiographic studies of individuals with
atherosclerosis suggest that anxiety and depression may be associated
with the atheroscl eroti c process. Zyzanski et al. (37) found that scores
on anxiety and depression scales were significantly associated with the
degree of the incidence of atherosclerosis in male subjects.
Lipoprotein Cholesterol and CHD
In addition, psychological stress has been linked with an increase
in serum cholesterol. Peterson et al. (25) and Clark et al. (9) have
found that total serum cholesterol levels rose in anticipation of a
stressful event and during the event itself. This response is true for
cardiac patients as well (7).
Recently, evidence was accumulated indicating that, in addition to
the concentration of total cholesterol, the manner in which cholesterol
is distributed or transported in the blood may be associated with the
risk of developing CHD (2, 10, 11). Cholesterol is known to be dis¬
tributed unequally among three lipoprotein fractions: high-density
( HDL ) , low-density (LDL), and very-low density (VLDL) lipoproteins
(12, 20). It has been demonstrated that the cholesterol carried in the
HDL fraction is not harmful but in fact appears to be protective against
the development of CHD (25, 33). The effect of such factors such as
anxiety, depression, and hostility on this fraction of lipoprotein has
not been defined.
Even though the two CHD risk factors--psychological stress and
serum lipoprotein chol esterol --ha ve individually been shown to be re¬
lated to the pathological state of CHD, there is a paucity of informa¬
tion pertaining to the relationship between these two variables. This
is especially true in individuals who have natural high trait anxiety
indexes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was designed to study the
relationship of the various lipoprotein cholesterol levels in subjects
who exhibit high psychological stress as defined as high trait anxiety
hostility and depression or low psychological stress as defined as low
trait anxiety hostility and depression.
METHOD
Subjects
Thirty-nine normal male subjects, 30 to 55 years of age with no
previous history of CHD, were selected from a population of faculty and
employees from the University of Alabama in Birmingham and from
197
Francis and Aymen
businessmen belonging to local organizations in the Birmingham area.
The subjects were selected from a group of 63 volunteers on the basis of
their scores on two written psychological stress examinations. The two
written psychological stress examinations used as a screening device
were the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) developed by Spielberger et
al. (30) and the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL) developed
by Zuckerman et al . (27).
Based on scores obtained on the STAI and the MAACL, subjects were
categorized into a high psychological stress group and a low psychologi¬
cal stress group. Subjects (n = 20) that were selected for the high
psychological stress group had to score higher than one standard devia¬
tion (SD) above normative scores on both the STAI trait scale (30) and
the MAACL trait scales (36). Likewise, subjects (n = 19) selected for
the low psychological stress group had to score one SD below normative
scores on the STAI and MAACL trait scales. The use of one SD insured
assessment of individuals on the ends of the psychological scales.
A brief medical history was obtained from all subjects by use of a
questionnaire seeking information concerning age, race, height, weight,
personal history of CHD , alcohol consumption, dietary habits, cigarette
smoking, physical activity, occupation, and physical activity associated
with occupation.
Lipid Analysis
All subjects reported to the physiology laboratory in the fasted
state between 7 and 9 a.m. of the experimental day. The written tests
were administered and blood samples were drawn. Serum lipoprotein cho¬
lesterol was separated into the various serum HDL cholesterol, LDL cho¬
lesterol, and VLDL cholesterol subtractions according to the procedures
by Chung et al. (8). Total serum cholesterol, the serum lipoprotein cho¬
lesterol subtractions, and the triglycerides were measured by continuous-
flow analysis according to the Lipid Research protocol (19) with the use
of the Libermann-Burchard Reagent for cholesterol and a variation of the
Wahlefeld procedure for triglycerides (3).
Statistics
As most of the demographic variables examined in this study had con¬
tinuous distributions, mean scale scores among persons classified as
high stress were compared with persons classified as low stress by Stu¬
dent's t-test, using the more conservative assumption that the variances
of the group were unequal. The statistical significance of the differ¬
ences between the means for the lipid and lipoproteins were also deter¬
mined by the two tailed Student's t-test. Pearson correlational coef¬
ficients were calculated for comparisons of the two different psychologi¬
cal test measurements of anxiety, hostility, and depression.
RESULTS
Table 1 presents the mean State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and
the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL) scores of the total
198
Stress and Serum Cholesterol
Table 1. The mean psychological stress scores (±S.E.) for the high and
low psychological stress groups.
STAI
MAACL
Trait Anxiety
Anxiety
Depression
Hosti 1 i ty
High Psychological
46.8
10.3
17.2
9.6
Stress Group
±2.0
±0.6
±1.2
±0.7
n = 20
Low Psychological
27.3
2.2
6.1
3.9
Stress Group
±0.6
±0.5
±0.7
±0.5
n = 19
Normative Psychological
38.22
6.30
13.60
7.20
Scores (ref 23, 27)
±0.45
±0.40
±0.69
±0.38
high and low psychological stress groups for the three highly interre¬
lated mood and feeling parameters of trait anxiety, hostility, and de¬
pression. Table 1 reveals that the goal of attaining two distinctly
different psychological stress groups was attained.
The correlational analysis and significance levels between the
psychometric parameters of trait anxiety, depression, and hostility as
measured by the MAACL ranged from 0.741 to 0.877. The parameters of
trait anxiety, depression, and hostility as measured by the MAACL were
significantly (p £ 0.001) correlated with each other as well as signifi¬
cantly (p £ 0.001) correlated with the trait anxiety parameter as
measured by the STAI.
Several factors such as sex (35), weight (15), personal history of
CHD (16), alcohol consumption (1, 23), cigarette smoking (4, 15, 35),
dietary habits (24), and exercise (3, 36, 37) have been shown to influ¬
ence lipid and lipoprotein cholesterol parameters. Because of such a
wide diversity of external influences on lipid and lipoprotein choles¬
terol parameters, it was essential to determine if the two populations
were dissimilar.
Statistically, there was no significant difference in any of the
categories questioned on the medical history form between the high psy¬
chological stress group and low psychological stress group (Figure 1, 2)
The average height was 180.4 cm and the average weight was 85.8 kg for
both groups combined. Ninety percent of the high psychological stress
individuals and 85% of the low psychological stress individuals had some
type of college degree (BA, BS, MA, MS, PhD, or MD). Annual income for
both groups ranged from less than $4,999 to greater than $40,000 with a
mean of $28,000.50 for both groups combined. The mean alcohol consump¬
tion for the high psychological stress group was 6 drinks per week and
for the low psychological stress group, the mean alcohol consumption was
199
Francis and Aymen
□HIGH PSYCHOLOGICAL
STRESS GROUP
INCOME
■ MW1"1
ALCOHOL
Figure 1. Bar graphs showing percent distribution of income, alcohol
consumption, and cigarette smoking in the high and low psy¬
chological stress groups.
5 drinks per week. The majority of the individuals in both groups were
non-smokers and had no unusual dietary habits. Both groups exhibited a
wide range of occupations with the majority being in education or medi¬
cine. Eighty-five percent of the high psychological stress individuals
and 79% of the low psychological stress individuals indicated that their
occupation did not involve a good deal of physical activity.
Table 2 presents the mean (+S.E.) parameters of total serum choles¬
terol, total serum triglycerides, and the various serum lipoprotein cho¬
lesterol parameters in the high psychological stress and the low psycho¬
logical stress groups. There were no significant differences in the
absolute values of total serum cholesterol, total serum triglycerides,
the various lipoprotein cholesterol subfractions, or in the various
200
Stress and Serum Cholesterol
Figure 2. Bar graphs showing percent distribution of dietary habits,
exercise, and occupation in the high and low psychological
stress groups.
ratios of serum lipoprotein cholesterol to HDL cholesterol when the high
psychological stress group was compared to the low psychological stress
group.
DISCUSSION
In an attempt to explore the risk factors associated with coronary
heart disease (CHD), the relationship between psychological stress and
serum lipid and lipoprotein cholesterol absolute levels and the respec¬
tive ratios of serum lipoprotein cholesterol to total serum cholesterol
was examined.
The subjects utilized in this study were very similar in all re¬
spects as evidenced by the demographic data: comparison of the trait
201
Francis and Aymen
Table 2. Mean lipid and lipoprotein parameters (±S,E.) in the high and
low psychological stress groups.
High Stress Group Low Stress Group
LIPID PARAMETERS (mg/dl)
Total Serum Cholesterol
HDL Cholesterol
LDL Cholesterol
VLDL Cholesterol
Triglycerides
RATIO OF LIPID PARAMETERS {%)
HDL Cholesterol/
Total Serum Cholesterol
LDL Cholesterol/
Total Serum Cholesterol
VLDL Cholesterol/
Total Serum Cholesterol
HDL/LDL Cholesterol
194.
.7
+
9.
1
182.
,6
±
7.
.2
48.
.1
+
2.
7
45.
,6
+
3.
,4
108.
.7
±
7.
.3
100.
.4
+
3.
,4
27.
,8
±
4.
,6
24.
,1
+
4.
,0
137.
,6
±
19.
.2
132.
,7
+
29.
,2
25.9
+
2.0
25.0
+
1.6
54.9
+
1.5
54.9
+
2.7
13.9
+
2.2
13.0
+
2.0
44.3
±
3.7
45.4
+
3.7
anxiety, hostility, and depression scores of the high psychological
stress group was clearly delineated from the low psychological stress
group (Table 1). Therefore, the initial goal to study a set of subjects
very similar except in their extremes of trait anxiety, hostility, and
depression was attained. This was essential if these characteristics'
effects on blood lipids was to be ascertained.
Previous studies (9, 10, 21, 26) indicate that an elevated level of
total serum cholesterol is correlated with acute periods of anxiety.
Likewise, the coronary-prone behavior pattern, sometimes called Type A
behavior pattern, has been significantly correlated with an elevated
level of total serum cholesterol (27). However, this relationship was
not reflected in the present study (Table 2). The mean total serum cho¬
lesterol level obtained in the high psychological stress group was not
significantly different from the mean level obtained in the low psycho¬
logical stress group.
The majority of studies that examined the association between psy¬
chological stress and serum lipid cholesterol parameters failed to re¬
cord the various lipoprotein cholesterol subtractions and their relation¬
ship to total serum cholesterol. However, in a previous study (11) the
various lipoprotein cholesterol absolute values and their respective
ratios have been examined in association with psychological stress.
Francis (11) has found that the elevations in total serum cholesterol
coinciding with peak periods of psychological stress were primarily re¬
flected in elevations in LDL cholesterol rather than in the HDL choles¬
terol subtraction. HDL cholesterol to total serum ratio has been sug¬
gested to be one of the most powerful predictors of risk of developing
CHD. Subsequently, Francis (11) found that the ratio of HDL cholesterol
202
Stress and Serum Cholesterol
to total serum cholesterol decreased during periods of psycholgoical
stress. Contrary to the above studies, this study found no significant
differences in the serum lipoprotein cholesterol absolute values, the
serum lipoprotein cholesterol to total serum cholesterol ratios, or the
HDL/LDL cholesterol ratios when comparing the high psychological stress
group to the low psychological stress group.
It must be concluded that, in the present study, psychological
stress or the components of trait anxiety, depression, and hostility as
measured by the STAI and MAACL have no effect upon the various serum
lipid and lipoprotein parameters in this situation of test determined
situation.
The major problem that consistently arises in stress research is
the lack of consensus on a precise definition of stress as well as an
integrative framework which can explain the majority of research results
in a logical theoretical manner. Definitions of stress have focused upon
the stimulus (34), response (29), or interactional elements (18) of the
process wherein an organism encounters a situation and reacts to it.
Traditionally, a "stressor" has been a specific stimulus in the trans¬
action and the "stress response" the organism's relatively non-specific
physiological response. For example, is the response of serum choles¬
terol to anticipation of a possible painful event. Serum cholerterol
has been reported to significantly rise in the anticipation of the ex¬
posure to extreme cold (20) or the anticipation of surgery (28). This
study, however, focused on the "chronic" relationship or trait charac¬
teristics of high and low psychological stress on serum cholesterol
parameters. It appears that it may not be the chronic high or low psy¬
chological stress personality that influences the lipid and lipoprotein
cholesterol parameters, but how these two types of individuals perceive
and react to "acute" stress. Additional studies are needed to ascertain
if differences really exist in perception of stress or reaction to vari¬
ous acute stress conditions between the chronic low psychological stress
individual inJ the chronic high psychological stress individual.
It is also possible that measurements of serum lipid and lipopro¬
tein cholesterol parameters on a random, cross-sectional basis as was
performed in this study may not be reflective of the true physiological
response to psychological stress that occurs in an individual throughout
his daily experiences. External stress imposed upon an individual
varies from hour to hour and from day to day and perhaps since blood
samples were collected between 7:00 a.m. and 9:00 a.m., the peak stress
portion of the work day had not yet begun. Also, because of the popula¬
tion size, these subjects may have or have not, by chance, been influ¬
enced by external stress on this particular day.
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Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 52, No. 4, October, 1981.
ON NORMAL APPROXIMATION OF SIMPLE LINEAR COMBINATIONS1
Saeed Maghsoodloo and James N. Hool
Department of Industrial Engineering
Auburn University , AL 36849
INTRODUCTION
This paper deals with application of the general methodology de¬
veloped by Hool and Maghsoodloo [3] to determine the minimum number of
identically and independently distributed random variables (RV's), nm-jn,
needed in the simple linear combination (SLC) Sn = X] + X2 + ••• + Xn in
order that the distribution of Sn is satisfactorily approximated by a
normal density function. In particular, the methodology is applied
separately to SLC's of the following nine RV's: negative binomial, bi¬
nomial, Poisson, geometric, gamma, uniform, exponential, beta and tri¬
angular. The approach involves determining for each type of RV its
standardized third and fourth moments in terms of its distribution pa¬
rameters, then applying the methodology to determine how nmin varies as
a function of distribution parameters and desired accuracy level of the
normal approximation.
NORMAL APPROXIMATION METHODOLOGY SUMMARY
The kth moment of a discrete RV X about a real number C is defined
as
Mk(X) = E ( X-C ) k (1)
where E denotes the expected value operator. In statistics, the only
moments of interest are those about the origin (C = 0) and about the
mean (C = p), and typically for k = 1,2, 3, 4. The kth moment about the
origin and the mean p are, respectively, denoted by p£ = E(X^) and
Pk = E(X-p)k. (2)
It should be noted that the first moment about the origin is simply the
mean while the second moment about the mean is the variance of X. It
can be shown (through a binomial expansion of (2)) that
= E(X-p) = 0
- 2 _ 2
P2 - E(X ) - p =0
1
Manuscript received 15 October 1981; accepted 15 December 1981.
207
Maghsoodloo and Hool
U3 = E(X3 ) - 3pE(X2) + 2p3
y4 = E(X4) - 4pE(X3) + 6p2E(X2) - 3p4. (3)
Furthermore, the standardized third and fourth moments of X are denoted
by <23 and aq, where
/ 3
a3 'J3//°
and
Both P3 and <13 measure skewness of X. When C13 > 0 the distribution
of X is skewed to the right, and ct3 < 0 implies the distribution is
skewed to the left. For a symmetric distribution (such as the normal),
a3 = 0.
P4 and <14 measure the kurtosis^ of a distribution. Curves, such as
the normal, for which (*4 = 3 are called mesokurtic. Those having 04 > 3
are called leptokurtic; those having 0x4 < 3 are called platykurtic.
Consider now the SLC,
S„-Xl+X2*~. +Xn. n. 2,3,4,... (4)
where X 3 , X2, •••, Xn are identically and independently distributed RV's
with mean p, variance a^, third moment P3, fourth moment P4, standardized
third moment <23, and standardized fourth moment 044. The mean and vari¬
ance of Sn are
E(Sn) = np
and
V(Sn) = no2
respectively.
The third and fourth moments of S are derived [3] to be
n L J
P3 ( Sn ) = ny3
and
P4(sn) = np4 + 3n(n-l)o4.
The standardized third and fourth moments of Sn are, respectively.
Kurtosis of a distribution refers to both the peakedness in the
middle and thickness at the tails.
208
Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations
and
a3(Sn)
°V3
a. ( S ) = — — + 3.
4 n n
(5)
(6)
Convergence of a3(Sn) and cx4(Sn) to their normal equivalents of
zero and three, respectively, is next examined. Given small positive
real numbers £3 and £4(say £3 & £4 _< .15), values of n3 and n4 are
sought such that
|a3(sn3)| 1 c3, (7)
and
l°64(Sn4) - 3' 1 e4' (8)
Then the minimum number of X's for the normal approximation to be satis¬
factory is nm-jn = max(n3,n4). For a SLC, relations (5), (7), (6), and
(8) lead to
n3 - ^a3/e3^
and
I “4- 3 1
It is clear from (9) and (10) that n3, n^ and hence nm-jn are functions
of only a3, CX4, and specified values of £3, £4. The remainder of this
paper deals with the examination of how nm-jn varies as a function of RV
parameters and e3, £4.
ANALYSES OF DISCRETE DISTRIBUTIONS
Four classical discrete RV's are examined, viz. the negative bi¬
nomial (Pascal), the binomial, the Poisson, and the geometric. These
distributions appear in most basic probability texts such as [2], hence
they are not discussed in detail here. Although the expressions for
their a3, 04 are well documented in the literature of statistics, they
are derived, for sake of illustration, in the case of the negative bi¬
nomial distribution using the RV's moment generating function (mgf).
Then, expressions for n3, using (9) and (10) are developed and subse¬
quently examined to determine their behavior as a function of distribu¬
tion parameters. The approach is illustrated in detail for the negative
binomial, and results are summarized in Table 1 for the other discrete
distributions.
(9)
(10)
209
Maghsoodloo and Hool
The Negative Binomial (Pascal) Distribution
The pdf of the negative binomial distribution is
fx-f
p(r,x) =
r-1
r x-r ,
P q , r>l ,
(ID
x=r , r+1 ,
where q = 1-p, p is the probability (pr.) of success for each trial of a
Bernoulli process and p(r,x) is the pr. that the rth success occurs at
the xth trial. Substituting (11) into the definition of mgf
M (6) = l e9xp(r,x)
x R
X
jr* 00
= ^ l
r L
q x=r
x-1
r-1
(qe
0 Nx
gives
Mx(e) = (pe ^ r
X (l-qe°)r
Q
where it is assumed that 0 < qe' < 1.
(12)
The use of
d M (0)
de
leads to
0=0
^ _ r
J1 P
= r(r+q)
P2 2
P
r~^ + (3r^+r)q + rq^
and
4 ? T ? ? T
r + (r+4r +6r )q + (4r+7r )q + rq
(13)
210
Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations
Substitution of (13) into (3) yields
r
P
rq(i+q)
3
P
rq[l+(4+3r)q+q^]
4
P
As a result the standardized third and fourth moments are
P-3 =
and
and
_ y3 _ 1+q
/rq
(15)
a
4
3rq+4q+l
rq
(16)
Inserting 03 and 014 from (15) and (16) into inequalities (9), (10), re¬
spectively, gives
and
n3 >
:i+g)‘
2
rqc-D
n4 >
(1+q) + 2q
(17)
(18)
Therefore, the required number of variates to include in (4) for a sat¬
isfactory normal approximation is nmjn = max(n3,n4). Equations (17),
(18) show that, for fixed values of r and q, the third moment is domi¬
nant in determining the value of nmjn; for example, when 0 < 03 = £4 =
e £ 2/3, n3rq£ >_ (l+q)2/c and n4rq£ >. (1+q)2 + 2q. Since 0 <. q <. 1 ,
( 1 +q ) 2/e > (1+q)2 + 2q so that n3rqe _> n4rqe and hence n3 £ 04.
Similar procedures are used for the other discrete RV's. Table 1
lists (a) the pdf, (b) the mgf, (c) moments p-j, p;?, P3> P4» (d) expres¬
sions for 03, 04, 03 and 04 for the other three discrete RV's studied.
211
Table 1. n, , n. for some discrete random variables.
Maghsoodloo and Hool
212
Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations
The Binomial fr r kribution
Thr bin1
noulli proc
sively disco
ever, mode)
affect the
zero. Thi
binomial di
the pr. of
side of wh
ate.
I R V is essentially a SLC of the RV involved in a Ber-
■ i rid normal approximation of such a SLC has been exten-
in [3] and will not be repeated here. In general, how-
.partures of the fourth moment from 3 do not as seriously
approximation as does that of the third moment from
isistent with the well-known empirical rule that the
n Lion should be approximated by the normal only if p,
in each trial, lies within the range (.10, .90), out-
departure of the third moment from zero is not moder-
The Poisson ' ibution
Express s for 03 and n4 indicate that the third moment, 013, for
the Poisson distribution usually will dominate in determining nmjn. In
particular, ng > n^ whenever £3 < /E4. A satisfactory normal approxima¬
tion of a SLC of Poisson RV's is therefore much more sensitive to any
asymmetry of the Poisson rather than being sensitive to departures from
the mesokurtic condition. For the case £3 = £4, nm-jn = 03 for any A.
In general, nm-jn is a decreasing function of A for any £3, £4.
The Geometric Distribution
Since the geometric distribution is a special case of the negative
binomial (with r = 1), it follows that the third moment is dominant in
determining the value of nml-n. For any skewed distribution, nmin = ng
unless £4 « £3. When £3 = £4 then nm-jn = n3, and for 0 < p < .7 the
value of nm-jn is relatively constant (although an increasing function of
p). For p > .7 when £3 = £4, nm-jn increases rapidly with increasing
values of pT
ANALYSES OF CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
Five continuous random variables are examined, viz. the gamma, uni¬
form, exponential, beta, and triangular. The analytical method is shown
in some detail for the gamma distribution, and results for the other
cases are summarized in Table 2 and discussed separately.
The Gamma Distribution
The gamma pdf is
f(x) = — r— ! - xb ^ e x^a, x, a, b > 0
abr(b)
where F denotes the well-known gamma function.
213
Table 2. n,, n. for some continuous random variables.
Maghsoodloo and Hool
214
3ab(a p+ab‘^+2a‘:+2b -2ab) 6a(a+1 ) (a-2b)+6b( b+1 ) (b-2a)
(a+b)4(a+b+l ) (a+b+2) (a+b+3) |4 ~ ab(a+b+2)
Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations
215
Maghsoodloo and Hool
216
Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations
The mgf is
M (0) =
xv '
abT(b)
1 b-1 -x( l/a-6) ,
- x e ' dx
where 1/a > 0 and the transformation u = (— - 0)x and the fact that
d
’(b)
f b-1 -u
u e
du reduces the integral on the right to
Mx(0) = (1 - a0)
-b
(19)
The first four derivatives of (19) evaluated at 0 = 0 lead to
pj = ab
\i'2 = a2b(b+l)
P3 = a3b(b+l ) (b+2)
P4 = a4b(b+l ) (b+2) (b+3) .
Combining (20) with (3) yields
(20)
‘1
ab ,
and
U2 = a b ,
= 2a3b
P4 = 3aHb(b+2) .
Consequently, the standardized third and fourth moments are
/b
(21)
and
4 _ 3 (b+2 )
4 b
(22)
Inserting 013 and 014 from (21) and (22) into inequalities (9), (10), re¬
spectively, gives
n3 - 2
bc3
(23)
217
Maghsoodloo and Hool
and
_6
be
4
(24)
Examination of the last two equations reveals that because of skewness
of the distribution, the third moment is dominant in determining the
value of nm-jn. For example, through simple algebra it can be shown that
n3 > n4 for 0 < £3 = 64 <_ 2/3, and unless £4 < 1.5eo, nm-jn = n3>
Similar procedures are used for the other continuous RV's. Table 2
lists (a) the pdf, (b) the mgf, (c) moments y-j , 03, P3, P4> (d) expres¬
sions for 013, 04, 03 and 04.
The Uniform Distribution
Since this distribution is symmetrical, nm^„ = n4, and n4 ^ 1 . 2/04 .
For example, if £4 = .15, then n = 8, implying that an 8-fold convolu¬
tion of a uniform distribution over (a, b) has identical first three
moments as those of a normal density with mean (b + a)/2, variance
(b - a ) 2/ 1 2 , and its standardized fourth moment, a4(Sg), is within .15
of the corresponding normal density.
The Exponential Distribution
The exponential is a special case of the gamma distribution for
which b = 1, and the values of (*3 = 2, 014 = 9 indicate that it is posi¬
tively skewed and leptokurti" c - - £4, nm-jn = n3 _> 4/e? and, in
1 1 . i t-v r\ m r\\ir\ v'
general, nml-n = n3 whenever
The Beta Distribution
Since the third and fourth moments of the beta distribution are
complicated expressions of the parameters a and b, the following cases
are considered separately.
The case of a = b. When a = b, then 03 = 0, and 014 = < 3
implies the distribution is platykurtic. Therefore, £3 can be chosen
arbitrarily close to zero and (10) shows n . = n. > Tbvrvi — • As b
v ‘ min 4 - | 2b+3|£a
increases in value, 04 approaches 3 from below and the beta distribution
approaches a normal density with mean 1/2 and variance l/[4(2b+l)].
The case of a > b. In this instance, the beta distribution is
negatively skewed (013 < 0). It is leptokurtic when b _> 1 and a >_
2.85578b, or when 2.618b < a < 2.856b and b is sufficiently large. It
is platykurtic when 0 < b < 1 and a < 2.85578b, or when b < a _< 2.618b.
Due to the skewness of the distribution, nm-jn = n3 unless b £ a £ 1.3b
in which case the distribution has little skewness and nm-j n = n4 for all
£3 and £4.
218
Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations
The case of a < b. For a < b, the beta distribution is positively
skewed (03 > 0). It is leptokurtic when 2.85578a £ b and a _> 1, or when
2.618a < b < 2.856a and a is sufficiently large. When a < b £ 2.618a,
or a < 2.85578b with 0 < b < 1, the distribution is platykurtic. Unless
the values of a and b are fairly close, say a £ b £ 1.3a, in which case
there is little skewness, the value of nm-jn should be based solely on
the magnitude of 03, i.e., nmjn = 03. When a and b are not far apart,
n* = n^ unless £3 « £4.
The Triangular Distribution
When the triangular distribution is symmetrical, nmjn is determined
by the fourth moment, and the right column of Table 2 shows nm1-n _> .6/£4.
Since the right triangular distribution is skewed, the third moment de¬
termines nmjn unless £4 < 1.875e^. The asymmetrical triangular distri¬
bution is always platykurtic. It may be positively or negatively skewed
according to b > a or b < a, respecti vely. Assuming £3 = £4, then
nmin = n3 under the condition b _< .6945a or b > 1.439a. When ,6945a <
b < 1.439a, the fourth moment dominates and nm-jn = n4 unless £3 « £4.
For example, when .6945a < b < 1.439a and £3 = £4 = .05, nm-jn = n4 = 12.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. Generally, if the distribution of X-j, i = l,2,***n, is asymmetrical,
the magnitude of departure of <23 from zero essentially determines
nmin-
2. If the distribution of X 4 1 s is symmetrical, then 0.3 = 0 and only the
magnitude of departure of <14 from 3 determines the adequacy of the
normal approximation.
3. If the distribution of X-j is not highly skewed (i.e., 013 is much
closer to zero than 04 is to the value of 3), then the fourth moment
becomes dominant in determining nm-jn provided £4 is specified suf¬
ficiently small relative to £3.
4. Finally, the subject of how small £3, £4 should be so that the normal
distribution has approximately the same quantiles as those of the
exact (but unknown) distribution of Sn, is an area of research cur¬
rently being investigated.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Bowker, A. H. and G. J. Lieberman. 1972. Engineering Statistics.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
2. Meyer, P. L. 1972. Introductory Probability and Statistical Appli¬
cations. Addison Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.
3. Hool , J. N. and S. Maghsoodloo. 1980. Normal Approximation to
Linear Combinations of Independently Distributed Random Variables.
AIIE Transactions 12(2) : 140-144.
219
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 52, No. 4, October, 1981.
FIRST RECORD OF THE PINK WORMFISH ( Microdesmus longipinnis)
IN ALABAMA WATERS^
Edward Rosa-Molinar and Stephen B. Ruth
Department of Biology
Carver Research Laboratories
Tuskegee Institute , AL 36088
A new distributional record of the pink wormfish Microdesmus longi¬
pinnis (Weymouth) has been found in Alabama waters. The range of M.
longipinnis includes Bermuda and the coast of Georgia westward to Cedar
Bayou, Texas (Dawson, 1969). However, its presence off Alabama so far
only has been assumed.
In sampling the Mobile Bay area on April 21, 1979 we collected a
single specimen 6.4 km south of Dauphin Island, AL, trawled at a depth
of 6.4 m. It is presently deposited in the Auburn University fish col¬
lection (catalog number 19665).
We asked curators at several ichthyological museums to check their
holdings for other pink wormfish records in Alabama. Dr. R. L. Shipp
located 5 specimens from a single sample deposited at the University of
South Alabama collection of fishes (catalog number 06439) captured in
Mobile Bay 200 yards north of Fly Creek mouth, Baldwin County, AL, on
August 8, 1978.
The standard length of our specimen is 196 mm. The standard lengths
of the Mobile Bay fish range from 200 to 232 mm. Counts and measurements
on all specimens fell within limits determined by Dawson (1962).
Extensive sampling of the northern Gulf of Mexico and the Mobile
Bay area is needed to determine the distribution and occurrence of M.
longipinnis .
We thank D. Nestor and R. Shipp for the loan of the additional
specimens and H. T. Boschung and J. S. Ramsey for their helpful sugges¬
tions.
LITERATURE CITED
Dawson, C. E., 1962. A new gobioid fish, Microdesmus lanceolatus , from
the Gulf of Mexico with notes on M. longipinnis , Copeia 1962:330-336.
_ . 1969. Studies on the gobies of Mississippi Sound and adja¬
cent waters. 2. Pascagoula, Mississippi: Gulf Coast Research
Laboratory.
^Manuscript received 19 August 1981; accepted 1 December 1981.
220
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 52, No. 4, October, 1981.
ABSTRACT
TALLADEGA SLATE BELT STRATIGRAPHY IN COOSA COUNTY, ALABAMA
William S. Pendexter. Dept, of Geology, The University of Alabama.
A major carbonate sequence occurs in the lower part of the Talladega
slate belt in Chilton, Coosa and Talladega Counties. The carbonate
units are overlain by a regional unconformity known as the pre-Lay Dam
Formation unconformity. The carbonate sequence below the unconformity
is represented in different areas by the Jumbo Dolomite, the Marble
Valley carbonates, and the Sylacauga marbles. At the type location in
Chilton County the Jumbo is a 67' m thick, predominantly thickly bedded
dolostone. The contact with the underlying slates of the Wash Creek
Slate (Mt. Zion Fm. ) is an interlayered zone of dolostone and fine,
commonly graphitic, clastic rock. This zone grades upward into a dolo¬
stone that contains few pelitic layers. Near the base, the Jumbo con¬
tains intraclasts of laminated and massive carbonate up to 12 cm in
length. The intraclasts are in layers in the lower 15 m of dolostone.
Rounded quartz grains are disseminated in the lower section of the dolo¬
stone. Just below the unconformity at the type section, the Jumbo con¬
tains laminations of fine-grained clastic rock. Along strike the un¬
conformity appears to have erosional relief. Less than 2 km west of the
type location the unconformity cuts the Jumbo Dolomite completely. To
the northeast the unconformity appears to rise in the section in the
Marble Valley carbonates and the Sylacauga marbles, exposing a very
thick carbonate sequence. Stratigraphic and structural relationships of
the Jumbo, Marble Valley, and Sylacauga marbles are not yet resolved.
Initial data indicate that the Jumbo occurs stratigraphical ly below and
to the northwest of the Marble Valley carbonates suggesting that the
Jumbo is the oldest carbonate unit in the sequence.
221
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 52, No. 4, October, 1981.
INDEX
Adams, C . 145
Addison, M. K . 157
Adrenocortical function, effects of thyroid status and age on . . 112
Aerospace studies, "Falcon Force," a middle school program for . 135
Agricultural lime industry, marketing structure of . 131
Alford, W. L. . . . . 129
Allison, Calvin . 120
Alvis, Joel L. , Jr . 137
Anderson, W . 104
Angle, Marlane J . 113
Anthropological setting, behavior, psychology, and sex in ... . 165
Archaeology, high school involvement in Alabama . 164
Areology: a planetary science project for middle school
science . 134
ArF and Ar2, rate constants for the formation of . 129
Arthritis: an ethnoscienti fic approach . 168
Attleberger, Marie H . . . . . 101
Austin, E. Richard . 118
Autographa calif omica NPV, gel electrophoresis of . 105
Awtrey, Janet S . 143
Aymen, Cathy . 196
Balanus trigonus , effects of disturbance on a population of . . . 98
Ball , Raiford M . 136
Ball inger, Diane A . 167
Barker, S. A. ......... . 157
Barnes, Glenda . Ill, 146
Beaton, J. M . 142, 154, 157
Becker, Gerald L . 158
Beiersdorfer , P . 130
Benshoof, S . 146
Berry, D. T . 99, 107
Bhatnagar, Y. M . . 139
Bimeria tunicata, effect of tonicity on transmembrane potential . 96
Bimeria tunicata, significance of regression on survival of . . . 97
Black belt prairie, natural history of . 10
Black labor in Alabama, 1870-1880, root, hog, or die: the
condition of . 138
Blackmore, Mark S . . . 101
Blastogenesis in bovine lymphocytes, effect of liposomes
containing a-tocopherol on . 139
Bodor, N . 116
Boland, J. S. , III . 159, 160
Booker, 0. J . 103
Boots, Larry R . 155, 157
Bordoli, B . 108
Boshel 1 , B. R . 156
Bradley, James T . 103, 105, 106, 109
222
Index
Bradley, William G . 135, 160
Braund, Kyle . 102
Brazil ian--United States alliance during World War II,
President Getulio Vargas . 137
Brody, Jill . 167
Brown, Bonnie . 110
Brown, Kathleen C . 146
Bryant, Douglas Donne , . 168
Bull epididymis, distribution of 5areductase activity in ... . 98
Burkett, D . 116
Cagle, Karen K . 127
Caldwel 1 , Debra K . Ill
Campbel 1 , P. G . 109
Carbon-metal bonds studied by matrix isolation . 117
Carlson, Gerald L . 113
Carmichael, Emmett B . 117, 152
Carraway, R . 139
Carter, D . 156
Carter, Rick . Ill
Cartographic labs; solving common problems . 123
Caste, occupation and residential choice . 124
Catfish, effects of enucleation and pinealectomy on seasonal
changes of plasma testosterone estrogens and gonad
weights in . 110
Chandra, D. V. Satish . 160
Chloromyxum trijugwn in Alabama fishes, ultrastructure of ... . 103
Chlorozotocin, diabetogenic effects of . 150
Chowdhury, Rishi R . 132, 161
Church, Avery G . 165
Cibacron bl ue-sepharose, fractionation of acid hydrolases on . . 140
Clark, E. M . 107
Clark, Patty . 1 11 , 146
Clothiaux, E. J . 130
Clutter, computer representations of environmental . 161
Cnemidophorus sexlineatus , further thyroid function studies
in hibernating . 99
Coal peterology and depositional systems of the lower
Pennsylvanian upper cliff coals in a portion of
the Plateau Coal Field, Alabama . 123
Cochis, Thomas . 114, 115
Cody, R. M . 100
Colberg, M. R . 116
Comerci, Carol . 102
Conary, J. T . 140
Conservation forecast for Alabama, 1836 . 126
Cook, G . 117
Cooper, William E., Jr . 1 , 58
Cornwall, the metal mines of . 163
Cornwell, Phillipe E . 155
Corticosterone binding in adrenal incubation media . 109
Cow, progesterone half-life in the pregnant and nonpregnant . . . 108
Craighead, J. E . 150
Crampton, Carole . 100
223
Index
Cranford, Norman B . . . 119
Creswel 1 , Tom C . 106
Crews, Daniel A . 138
Cricket egg maturation, inhibitory effects of precocene upon . . 106
Crispens, Charles G., Jr . 48
Crockard, Jane . 99
Crockett, Philip A . 105
Cultural resource preservation in the Tennessee-Tombigbee
Waterway impact area, the role of geographical
analysis in . 125
Culture-syntax interface . 167
Cumberland plateau of Alabama, some aspects of dispersal in
the vascular flora of . 115
Curl, E. A . 106
Current, William L . 103, 110, 114
Cyanogenazid, CN4, studied by matrix isolation, photolysis of . . 118
Dadeville complex--a review . 121
Data flow diagrams, designing a system using . 132
Dauphin Island humates: a re-examination of the outcrop after
Hurricane Frederick . 119
Davis, Ken . 110
Dees, C . 147
De Valdes, Juan, the social and political thought of . 138
De Vail, Wilbur B . 126, 127
Dietary calcium deficiency as a cause of water feces in layers . Ill
Disturbance-utilizing control; some recent developments,
theory of . 163
DNAase I action, characterization of active chromatin
released by . 153
Dobie, James L . 122
Dodhy, Adi la . 129
Dog, opiate effects on gastric responses in the . 104
Donahue, Mark A . 157
Eastern chipmunk, home range size and feeding habits of . 101
Eble, Cortland F . 121
Economic guidelines for a profitable agricultural limestone
enterprise . 133
Economics of a small winery in Alabama . 132
Edgi 1 , Ann Estes . 145
Eimeria ropevi in the cotton rat, endogenous stages of . 114
Emerson, Geraldine M . 159
Energy conservation, businesses in Dekalb County, Alabama, an
economic analysis of . 128
Energy conservation in energy-intensive unit operations:
distillation, evaporation and drying . 162
Energy decisions and personal orientation to science,
relationship between . 134
Engineering/computer science--the boundary . 135
Engstrand, L. A . 156
Epiahloe typhina and the tall fescue toxicity problem . 107
Eubanks, Eleanor E . 135
Evans, Barton N. . . 128
Faison, J . 116
224
Index
Farmland conversion in the Tennessee Valley . 125
Farmland in the Tennessee Valley, use of . 124
Faulkner, R. D . 139
Fazell i , M. H . 98, 102
Fecundity of largemouth bass from Pickwick Reservoir,
Tennessee River . 53
Fetal monitoring, primipara's reactions to use of electronic . . 146
Fields, Phi 11 i p A . 140
Finley, S. C . 147
Finley, W. FI . 147
Fission, hydrogen, oxygen, and potable water production from . . 47
Forebrain serotonin and the attenuation of latent inhibition . . 107
Forest tent caterpillar defoliation in Southwest Alabama--
1973-1979, patterns of . 25
Fossil whales in Alabama . 122
Fountain, M. W . 139, 147
Francis, K. T . 145, 148, 196
Free, W. Joe . 131 , 132, 133
Frog gastric mucosa, in vitro, alterations of chloride
transport in the . 150
Fromhold, A. T., Jr . 128
Gaiser, James E . 129
Ganjam, V. K . 98, 102, 108, 1 13
Garden soil in Northeast Alabama, preparation of . 114
Gastal do , Robert A . 120, 121 , 122, 123
Gaubatz, Jim W . 153
Geiger, Dorothy B . 101
Ghai , Rajendra D . 151
Glucose dynamics in pyri doxal -PO4 deficient rabbits . 155
Gonzalez, V. A . 154
Goudie, Cheryl . 110
Graf, E. R . 161
Granulomas in reptiles: a report of four cases . 48
Gray, Bruce W . 99, 1 13
Gray, Tony D . 123
Gray, Wayne L . 149
Green crab predation of mussels, effects of floral density on . . 109
Grey squirrel, scent marking behavior in . 114
Grey squirrel vocalizations, neotenic . 100
Grey squirrel vocalizations, nestling . 96
Gudauskas, R. T . 100, 105, 1 12
Guthrie, Gregory M . 119
Hall, John C . 164
Ha 1 1 uci nogen , is N,N-dimethyl tryptamine an endogenous . 142
Flarmon, Alan . 130
Flarper, J. D . 25, 105
Harper, R. C . 129
Haskel 1 , Joyce F . 153
Hataway , Jack . 1 1 1 , 146
Hatcher, Eddie M . 166
Hawk, Betty M . 113
Haworth, M. D . 130
Hay, W. H . 102, 108
225
Index
Haynes, H. W . 106
Headden, Billy . 124
Heart mitochondria, regulation of free Ca2+ levels by . 158
Hemoglobin, some reactions of the sulfhydryl groups by . 113
Henderson, H. A . 124, 125
Herbert, Donald E . 154, 155
Herpes simplex genome, mapping virulence associated with the . . 149
Hesse, Brian . . 165
Hines, G. S . 126
Histones, a solubi 1 izable gel for the purification of . 139
Historic preservation: serendipity or planning? . 127
Hollenbeck, J . 118
Hollingsworth, Caryn . 166
Hollis, D. L . 47, 182
Holt, W. C . 161
Hool , James N . 207
Hooper, Bishop John: English reformation martyr . 137
Horn, Robert C . 118
Horns, Phyllis Nichols . 152
House cricket, brain neurosecretion and ovarian development
in the . 103
House cricket, precocenes affect yolk protein synthesis and
egg production in the . 105
Howard, Robert G . 118
Howell, W. M . 147
Hubert, Wayne A . 53
Hudson, R. S . 108
Hughes, Daniel F . 53
Hunter, Helen . 146, 219
Hyland, James R . 25
Hypertension, effects of saline on the development of renal . . . 149
Hypophysectomy , the opiates, and the pain in the rat . 154
Ichthyoplankton population of upper Mobile Bay . 100
Image registration, feature matching algorighms for multiple . . 159
Infant temperament, parental self-concept, locus of control
and assessment of . 152
Insulin binding to various tissues, regulation of . 153
Insulin in the dog, immunoassayabl e levels and pharmacokinetics
of: comparison of normal and diabetic dogs . 102
Ischemia, a role for superoxide in intestinal . 148
Isospora suis , endogenous development of the swine coccidium . . 104
Jackson, Cynthia Ann . 149
Jaeger pi ethysmograph, children's lung volume measurements by
the . 156
Jensen, Ove . 134
Joggers, a descriptive analysis, medical and physiological of
Alabama . Ill
Johnson, C. D . 163
Johnson, T. A . 161
Jones, Harold P . 141
Karr, Guy W. , Jr . 32
Keller, N . 146
Kelly, W. C . . . 163
226
Index
Kohl , H. H . 116
Kri bel , R. E . 130
Krogh, 0. D . 116, 117, 118
Kiwi ( Actinidia ohinensis Planchon) in Northeast Alabama,
cultivation of . 115
Lacy, A. Wayne . 131
Lancaster, B. Jeanette . 144
Lancaster, I. Wade . 144
Landers, Kenneth E . 114, 115
Lane, Roger S . 141
Larkin, Lynn H . 140
Laser, spectroscopically resolved pulsed CO2 . 116
Legendre, Janet L . 141
Legislative forestry study committee update no. 2 . 127
Leukocytes, phosphodiesterases of human polymorphonuclear .... 141
Lindsay, David S . 104
Linear combinations, on normal approximation of simple . 207
Lishak, Robert S . 96, 100, 1 14
Lithic scatters at Beaverdam Creek, A1 . , computer analysis . . . 166
Lorden, J. L . 99
Lorden, Joan F . 107, 158
Macaca mulatta, dynamics of male immigration in . 164
MacGregor, Robert . 110
Mafic-ul tramafic complex near Easton, Tallapoosa Co., Alabama . . 120
Maghsoodloo, Saeed . 207
Magnetic probes of high frequency response, construction and
cal ibration of . 130
Maize dwarf mosaic virus, infection of plant protoplasts with . . 112
Marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacvun, in the southern portion of
its range, notes on the nesting biology of . 20
Marine biology education in N. Ala. — you've got to be kidding . . 133
Marion, Ken R . 48
Marple, D. N . 109
Mary Lee group (Pennsylvanian) of the Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama, the palynology of . 120
Mason, Linda Jean . 114
Mason , Wi 11 i am H . 66
McCord, Joe M . 148
McCormick, G. M . 182
McGuire, Michael J . 141
Meezan, Elias . 153
Mental health centers services, marketing community . 144
Methyl xanthines, caffeine and other--survi val effects on
rats . 159
Metzger, Mary C . 136
Miller, Edith . 134
Millican, C. L . 154
Misonidazole, "how firm a foundation...?", some comments on . . . 154
Moberly, H. Dean . 131
Modular forest harvesting simulation models, methodology for . . 126
Molina, E . 104
Moore, John . 158
Morris, P. E . 142
227
Index
Mossman, B. T . 150
Mount, Robert H . 66, 71
Murray, Thomas P . 118
Multidipole plasma, rate of electron heating in . 130
Mydas fly, Mydas alavatus , Mimicry and spatial occupation in . . 58
Myers, John E3 . 138
Myoglobin plasma levels in normal and diabetic subjects . 156
Naftel, D. C . 148
Nancarrow, D. Virginia . 96, 97
Narratives, patriarchal: history or myth . 167
Navar, L. Gabriel . 142, 149
Neilson, Michael J . 120, 121
Neutron cross sections at 14 MeV, experimental and
theoretical . 129
Neutron survey meters, calibrating with a measured thermal
neutron flux . 182
Nicotinamide, increased intracranial pressure, sleep, and a
metabolite of . 151
Nomai , M . 182
Notropis okrysocephalus , annual distribution of two Myxozoan
parasites of . 110
Nucleolar organizer regions, association patterns of human . . . 147
Nurses, variables related to principled moral judgment of ... . 145
Nursing, essential content in master's degree programs in ... . 144
Nursing students, moral reasoning of baccalaureate . 143
Oakes, John E . 149
Oakley, Carey B . 164
Occupation at site !Tal71, botanic implications for seasonal . . 166
Oncology, the induction of illusory associations in radiation . . 155
Ovarian hormones and gl ucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase . 102
Padgett, M. P . 126
Palynology of an indian dwelling site along the Alabama River:
an introduction to palynological techniques . 121
Parsons, Glenn . 108
Pastoralism in the Chilean Andes, the origins of . 165
Pavlovian phenomena, an attentional analysis of some . 158
Pegram, G. Vernon . 143
Pelodytes punctatus (Amphibia: Anura), filter apparatus of
larval . 97
Pendexter, William S . 221
Petranka, James W . 20
Petranka, John G . 20
Phillips, John Herbert: educational pioneer in Birmingham . . . 136
Photovoltaic power systems . 160
Physical therapy students during an academic year, psychological
assessment of . 145
Physical therapy students, perceived sources of stress and
coping strategies in . 148
Physics courses, using pseudoscience in introductory . 136
Pillion, Dennis J . 153
Pink wormfish ( Microdesmus longipinnis) in Alabama waters, first
record of . 220
Pottery manufacture, modern and prehistoric Maya . 168
228
Index
Pritchett, John F . 109, 112
Profit elasticity, toward a concept of . 131
Psychological stress on serum cholesterol and serum lipoprotein
cholesterol, relationship of high and low . 196
Pteridosperm dominated Taphocenoses associated with the upper
cliff coals ( Pottsvi 1 1 e ) , Plateau Coal Field, Alabama, a
preliminary report on the . 122
Pure metals, layered oxide growth on . 128
Ranganath, H. S . 159
Rat uteri, enzymatic studies of DMBA-treated pregnant . 157
Ravis, William R . 102, 108
Reactor system using GASPIV simulation, control pressure of a . . 161
Red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera :
Formicidae), as a possible serious predator on some
native southeastern vertebrates: direct observations and
subjective impressions . 71
Red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera:
Formicidae), on eggs of the lizard Cnemidophorus
sexlineatus (Squamata: Teiidae), predation by . 66
5aReductase in rat caput epididymis maintained in culture .... 113
Renal hemodynamics, influences of intrarenal hormones on .... 142
Rhizosphere: relation to pathogen behavior and root disease . . 106
Rhizopriondon tevvaenovae (Richardson), reproductive biology
of the Atlantic Sharpnose Shark . 108
Rickert, E. J . 99, 107, 1 58
Riggsby, Dutchie S . 135
Riggsby, Ernest D . 134, 135
Ritchey, R . 156
Robinson, Connie R . 143, 151
Roden, L . 140
Roland , David A. , Sr . Ill
Rosa-Mol inar, Edward . 220
Roy, Ranjan S . 148
Ruins, wood: an exercise in archaeological method . 166
Runners, 1,100 Alabama: their addiction to exercise . 146
Ruth, Stephen B . 220
Sax, Steven R . 128
Schultz, Ronald D . 139, 147
Sellers, Jeffrey C . 99
Serotonin depletion, disruption of inhibition following . 99
Shabo, Linda Williams . 137
Shah, Bharat . 162
Shamsa, F . 156
Shealy, David L . 130
Sherrill, Dorothy E . 109
Shoemaker, Richard L . 96, 150
Simco, Bill . 110
Simon, Morris . 168
Simpson, Thomas A . 103, 163
Singh, S. P . 105
Sleep, the combined effects of flurazepam and nicotinamide
upon . 143
Smith, J. L . 147
229
Index
Smith, Tracy . 110
Smith-Sanclare, Shelby . 125
Sokol , 0. M . 97
Spiroplasmas , aminopeptidase and arginine dihydrolase in .... 100
Starprobe satellite mission, design of an isothermal primary
heat shield for . 130
Stevens, C . 100
Stewart, William S . 131, 133
Strong, William Reese . 124
Sutherland, J. P . 98
Swanson, M. W . 103
Talladega slate belt stratigraphy in Coosa County, Alabama ... 221
Tamarin, Pat A . 123
Tanner, Beverly . 162
Target handoff problem, approaches to multiple . 160
Terrapin Creek area, Cheburne Co., Alabama, geology of . 119
Territorial behavior--a means of population regulation in
multiple habitats . 1
Tetrahydro-beta-carbol i nes in the rat, behavioral effects of . . 157
Thomas, Joseph C . 133
Thompson, J. N . 140
Thompson, R . 156
Thye, Cynthia C . 110
Till, M. L . 109, 112, 142
Trauth, Stanley E . 66
T urbatrix aceti, identification of a calcium-stimulated
alkaline protease in the nematode . 141
Turbatrix aceti, regulation of tirose phosphate isomerase
turnover in senescent . 151
Urea fertilizer impurities, application of high pressure liquid
chromatography to analysis of . 118
VanArtsdalen, E. R . 47
Vance, Marilyn . 166
Varner, V. K . 1 . . . . 112
Vibrio vulnificus (latose positive vibrio), evidence for a
leukocytolysin produced by . 147
Vitamin C, review of: chemistry, properties and multiple
functions . 152
Vi tel 1 i , Veronica A . 131, 132
Vittor, Barry A . 97
Wapnish, Paula . 167
Water, a novel bactericidal agent for treatment of . 116
Weaver, David C . 125
Webster, D. B . 126
Wheatley, Bruce P . 164
Wheatley, W. W . 1 . • . 116
Whetstone, R. David . 114, 115
White, James F . 107
Whitlock, Suzanne A . 114
Williams, Ann H . 98
Williams, John R., Jr . 129
Williams, N. C . 125
Williams, Noland . 124
230
Index
Wi 1 1 iams , Shi rley A . 155
Wilson, G. L . 150
Wit, Lawrence C . 99, 105
Woerner, Eric G . 120
Womachel , Daniel R . 122
Woodard, James . 110
Worley, S. D . 116
Wyckoff, James T . 98, 102
Yackzan, K. S . 156
Yeasts isolated and identified from selective animal species . . 101
Yerby, R. N . 182
Young, Diane W . 102, 1 13
Youngblood, Phil . 142
Zoology, mesopotamian: folk knowledge or science . 167
231
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE
AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
VOLUME 53 JAN. - APR., 1982 NOs. 1 & 2
EDITOR:
W. H Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, AL 36849
ARCHIVIST:
R. G Raves, Department of History, Auburn University, AL 36849
EDITORIAL BOARD:
R. T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbi¬
ology, Auburn Lfniversity, AL 36849
J. F. Pritchett, Department of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn University, AL 36849
]. M. Beaton, Department of Neuroscience, University of Alabama in Birmingham,
University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294
Publication and Subscription Policies
Submission of Manuscripts. Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence
to the EDITOR Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous reviews. For style
details, follow Instruction to Authors (see inside back cover).
Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.
Subscriptions and journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIR¬
MAN OE THE EDITORIAL BOARD.
Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news releases will not be pub¬
lished in the Journal.
ISSN 002-4112
CONTENTS
Message from the President . 1
Announcement of Appointment of an Administrative
Officer . 4
ARTICLES
Nest Characteristics of a Yellow-Crowned Night
Heron (Nyctanassa violaaea) Colony
Daniel J. Drennen, Laura Jean Hunt, and
Tommy King . 5
Reassessment of the Distribution of Three
Amphibians in Alabama
Mark S. Davis and Thomas R. Jones . 10
A Two-Headed Shark Fetus, Carcharhinus plumbeus,
(Muller and Henle)
Edward Rosa-Molinar . 17
Journal of the Ala. Academy of Science, Vol. 53 ,Nos . 1&2 , Jan-Apr, 1982
MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT
Charles M. Baugh
College of Medicine
University of South Alabama
1005 Medical Sciences Building
Mobile , AL 56688
Scholarly journals have become standard communicative devices
for learned societies. However, the quality and interest generated
by one issue may impact, not only upon the circulation of subsequent
issues, but also upon the submission, by prospective authors, of man¬
uscripts for future issues. When circulation falls or manuscripts
become scarce, the usual remedy applied by editorial boards is to
become more quality conscious, to review and reject more vigorously
and to generally further decimate the ever shrinking pool of sub¬
mitted manuscripts. Next an issue or two is missed because of lack
of material and circulation declines further. A now classic death
struggle for the journal ensues. Authors will not submit manu¬
scripts because circulation is down and circulation drops precipi¬
tously due to the quality and, at this stage, quantity of manu¬
scripts submitted.
The Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science is presently en¬
meshed in the scenario described above. How can this be possible for
a journal that has survived for fifty-three years? Why should this
journal be in difficulty when new journals are constantly emerging as
successful economic ventures, even in the most narrow and esoteric
specialties? The answers to these questions are complex. The trig¬
gering device which began the decay process is not easy to identify
with certainty. Yet, its identification is crucial if we are to
institute appropriate remedies. A speculated candidate trigger that
has floated around the Academy for several years centers around the
attitude of some academic administrators in higher education across
the state toward the Journal. These administrators, it is said, do
not recognize the legitimacy of publications in the Journal of the
Alabama Academy of Science in making promotion and tenure considera¬
tions for their faculties. This position is puzzling in view of the
facts: 1) that manuscripts submitted for publication in the Journal
of the Alabama Academy of Science are peer reviewed by at least two
reviewers and, in cases of conflicting reviews, a third reviewer is
used; 2) that approximately 50% of the manuscripts submitted are
rejected on the basis of scientific merit; and 3) that the Journal is
abstracted by both Chemical Abstracts and Biological Abstracts. Even
more puzzling is the fact that some of these same administrators have
been known to recognize "letters to the editor" and even privately
published materials as legitimate scholarly contributions. Whatever
1
Message from the President
the underlying causes may be which have created our present dilemma
with the Journal, it is important that we pick up the gauntlet and
engage in a concerted effort to preserve this important part of the
Academy .
What can we do? What needs to be done? How do we begin? In
discussing the Journal problems with the Editor and other members of
the Executive Committee, two ideas have emerged as attractive poten¬
tial solutions to these problems.
The first involves adding major invited reviews by authoritative
Academy members as a regular feature of the Journal. This action has
the potential for greatly enhancing the Journal's national image and,
if the quality were maintained over a protracted period, to increase
circulation. It would be critical that the topics reviewed and the
reviewers be selected with great care, and that reprints of the re¬
view be widely circulated.
A second proposal that has been discussed with a great deal of
enthusiasm involves a consolidation of the Journal of the Alabama
Academy of Science with the publications of academies from the sur¬
rounding southeastern United States. Such action would provide an
instant and very significant increase in circulation for all the
academy publications. One could envision a broad based Proceedings
of the Southeastern Academies of Science that would be similar in
format and subject matter to the Proceedings of the National Academy
of Science.
Inspection of the table on the opposite page will show that such
a coalition of southeastern academies would provide a circulation in
excess of 6,500 when libraries are added. This number would merit
publication assistance by commercial firms. We are in a period when
such specialized Journals as the Neurobiology of Aging, Peptides, and
The Cyclic Nucleotides add to the literature explosion, while con¬
stantly focusing the scientist more and more narrowly in his reading.
Perhaps a consolidated publication such as The Proceedings of the
Southeastern Academies of Science, in its coverage of a wide range of
topics and its major reviews, would be a welcome change in direction.
Furthermore, the potential exists to replace nine relatively weak
publications with a single strong one.
The officers of the Academy are currently exploring these ideas
and avenues to solve the Journal's problems. As a member of the
Academy, your input is of great interest and importance. It is
unthinkable that a major change in direction, such as just described,
would be undertaken without strong support and encouragement from the
Academy members and the Board of Trustees. Please take a few minutes
to express your ideas and attitudes on these critical matters.
2
Baugh
TABLE 1. Membership and Journal Data on Southeastern Academies
of Science
ACADEMY
PUBLICATION
MEMBERSHIP 1981-82
Alabama
Yes
725
Arkansas
Yes
250
Florida
Yes
625
Georgia
Yes
572
Louisiana
Yes
800
Mississippi
Yes
936
New Orleans
No
150
North Carolina
Yes
1200
South Carolina
Yes
568
Tennessee
Yes
700
Totals: 10
9 Yes
5801
3
Journal of the Ala. Academy of Science, Vol.53,Nos.l & 2, Jan-Apr 1982
ANNOUNCEMENT OF APPOINTMENT OF AN ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICER
In a move culminating several years of discussion and delibera¬
tion, the Executive Committee on March 18, 1982, appointed Dr. Wil¬
liam J. Barrett to the new post of Administrative Officer. The
creation of this part-time, paid position resulted, in part, from
recognition of a need to improve the prestige of the Academy and to
make its capabilities more widely known to the scientific and lay
communities. Another important consideration was a need to provide a
continuing level of overall coordination of Academy activities.
The principal duties of the new officer, who is to work under
the direction of the Steering Committee, were defined as follows:
Develop improved public relations, primarily inside
Alabama but extending to interaction with national
organizations ;
Strengthen membership activities;
Raise funds for support of the Academy and the Junior
Academy;
Improve acceptance of the Journal;
Arrange the program for the annual meeting.
Until his recent retirement, Dr. Barrett was Director of Re¬
search in Applied Sciences at Southern Research Institute. For the
present, he will maintain an office at his home, 94 Lucerne Boule¬
vard, Birmingham, AL 35209 (telephone 205-879-3098). He invites
comments and suggestions from the membership.
Journal of the Ala. Academy of Science, Vol.53,Nos.l & 2, Jan-Apr,1982
Nest Characteristics of a Yellow-Crowned Night
Heron (Nyctanassa violaaea) Colony
Daniel J. Drennen, Laura Jean Hunt, and Tommy King
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University
INTRODUCTION
No significant nest characteristics of Yellow-Crowned Night
Herons (Nyctanassa violaaea) have been documented in the literature.
For this reason we are reporting on a colony located at Spring Creek,
Alabama (4.5 miles southwest of Cottonwood, Alabama, T7N, R27E, SE
1/4 Sec. 17; 31°05' latitude, 85°25' longitude).
The section of the creek inhabited by the herons is approximate¬
ly 2400 m long. The area is thickly vegetated with oaks ( Quercus
sp.), red ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) , tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica) ,
swamp dogwood (Comus striata) , cedar ( Juniperus sp . ) , and numerous
shrubs, many of which overhang the creek and support the heron nests.
In the literature, Johnstone (1962) reported vegetation used by
Yellow-Crowned Night Herons on the Dog River, near Mobile, consisting
of huge trees such as pines, magnolias, maples and blackgums. The
nests we studied varied in size and were constructed of interwoven
twigs and small branches. Additional birds seen feeding in the area
included passerines, Little Blue Herons (Florida caerulea) , and White
Ibises (Eudocimus albus).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The heron colony was visited twice after the initial discovery.
On 24 May 1980 the number of nests and nestlings were determined by
direct count. The nestling's age and general feather condition were
noted according to Palmer (1962).
In order to capture a nestling, two canoes were positioned under
a nest. Aim long hook was attached to a 4 m long cane pole (Dusi
1967) and was extended upward to the nest and placed around the
nestling's neck. A shallow wire basket attached to an additional
cane pole was then extended toward the nest. The hooked pole was
pulled gently but firmly, outward and slightly upward. The nestling
was led out of the nest and onto the basket. The hook was removed
and the basket was carefully lowered into the canoe. The heron was
banded and returned by raising it in the basket and allowing it to
step back into the nest.
Manuscript received 11 July 1981; accepted 14 December 1981.
5
Yellow-Crowned Night Heron
Physical data collected during the 16 June 1980 trip included:
(1) nest height above water surface, (2) depth of water below nest,
(3) Diameter at breast height (DBH) and species of tree supporting
nest, and (A) distance between nests. Nest height and water depths
were measured from the canoe by using a tape measure that was at¬
tached to a cane pole. Distances between nests were measured by
planting the end of the cane pole into the creek bottom below a nest
and attaching a tape measure to the pole. The tape measure was let
out as the canoe was slowly paddled to the next nest.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The nests consisted of various size twigs that were attached to
a supporting limb over the water. Contrary to the findings of Bent
(1926), Harrison (1975), and Imhof (1976), there was no evidence of
finer materials lining the nests. A total of 25 nestlings were ob¬
served. Table 1 contains the physical and biological data. The
number per nest ranged from 1 to 4 with an average of 2.5 per nest.
Six of the 17 nests contained no eggs or young. Twelve of the 25
nestlings were successfully caught and banded with Fish and Wildlife
Service aluminum leg bands. The approximate age of the nestlings
varied from 2 to 5 weeks with the majority in the 5-week stage. All
banded nestlings appeared to be healthy. Data for six nests found
destroyed on 21 July 1980 are not presented in Table 1. On 24 May
1980 there had been a total of 9 nestlings (0-3 per nest) at approx¬
imate ages of 3 or 5 weeks old. Seven of these birds were banded
(1187-70106 through 1187-70112).
The horizontal distance between nests ranged from 4.9 to 92.1 m
with an average of 24.2 m. Harrison (1975) reported distances of 3.7
to 7.6 m. As expected, there was never more than one nest per tree
(Bent 1926) .
The height of the nests above the water surface ranged from 2.6
to 11.9 m, with an average of 2.3 m. In other published data Bent
(1926) reported heights of 12.1 to 21.3 m, Harrison (1975) reported
heights of 0.3 to 15.2 m and McVaugh (1975) reported heights of 2.1
to 4.3 m.
Although there was considerable variation in nest heights, the
nests were always built on the limb closest to the water which could
support them. Bent (1926) has suggested that the nests may be built
in this position to give eggs and nestlings the benefit of the shade
of the upper branches. On the day that these measurements were taken
the water depth below the nests ranged from 0.8 to 1.2 m.
Because of the limited accessibility, the dimensions of only one
nest could be measured. The outside diameter was 1.25 m, the inner
diameter was 0.63 m and the depth was 0.06 m. Harrison (1975) re¬
ported the outside diameter as 0.51 m and Bent (1926) described a
nest in Florida as ”20 by 16 inches," (0.51 m by 0.1 m) . Palmer
(1962) stated that sticks may be added to the nest after young hatch.
6
Drennen, Hunt and King
This may be the reason for the apparent large outer diameter of the
nest. Yellow-Crowned nests may be built similarly to Black-Crowned
Night Heron (Nytiaorax nyticovax) nests (Dusi 1966).
Trees supporting the nests (Table 1) were mainly red ash and
tupelo gum. Nests were found less frequently in smooth blackhaw
(Viburnum pruni f 'oleum ) , oak and swamp dogwood. The DBH ranged from
0.32 to 2.2 m.
Dusi (1966) described the behavior of the birds as "slow and
stupid", while Plamer (1962) noted that when disturbed by man there
were "no distraction displays, but adults tended to remain quietly
near the nest..." The adults in our study were observed at times to
call and fly overhead. Audubon (cited in Palmer 1962) found that
many adults seemed to circle around to watch an intruder at the nest.
Johnstone (1965) reported that sudden noises frightened birds from
the trees. When we disturbed the nestlings many defecated or regur¬
gitated food. This may have been a displacement activity resulting
from high-intensity motivation (Van Tyne 1976) and/or a defense
mechanism. When the regurgitated food was analyzed in the field it
consisted mainly of crayfish parts. Similar to what Palmer (1962)
described, some of the inner surfaces of the nests were stained pink
from the exreta of young fed crayfish.
CONCLUSION
The physical nesting and behavioral characteristics of the
Yellow Crowned Night Heron were reported. The herons constructed one
nest per tree with distances between the nests ranging from 5 to 24
m. In some cases the distances were greater than 50 to 90 m. The
significance of these measurements were not clear. On the one hand,
a "loose colony" of herons that does not concentrate their activities
within a specific area are less likely to be noticed by predators.
On the other hand, individuals of a "loose colony" that covers a
large amount of stream bank (2400 m in our case), may not be able to
communicate readily with each other about possible dangers.
The significance of nest height, depth of water, and DBH of nest
tree were also difficult to assess. They are determined by such
environmental variables as microclimate, storm damage, flooding,
density of foliage, nutrition, predation, and others. Many similar
studies have shown variable and conflicting results (Welty 1975).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the following people for their
assistance: Dr. J. L. Dusi and Dr. J. D. Freeman of Auburn Univer¬
sity, James A. Seay and D. C. Neel.
7
Table 1. NEST DATA
Yellow-Crowned Night Heron
i
i
CM
o
I ' — I
I
o
CO
o
I
I
UO
o
03
X
o
u
cl cu
CL oo
< <0
co
cu
cu
UO
CN
CO o
•H ,£3
Q 03
0) 0
u C ^
p 2 = -1.325 (T) + 0.047. The
average body temperature (T) throughout the hibernating season was
determined by continuous measurements of burrow temperature. These
measurements revealed that the "average" temperature experienced by
C. sexlineatus was 15.4° C for males and 15.5° C for females. From
these data it was calculated that the energetic cost of hibernation
is 6.6 kcal/season for males and 7.3 kcal/season for females. Stored
energy in the form of abdominal fat bodies, even if it were all used,
is insufficient to pay the energic cost of hibernation.
PLANT PROPAGATION FOR CLASSROOM USE
FROM SUPERMARKET FRUITS, SEEDS AND VEGETABLES
Thomas Cochis and Kenneth E. Landers. Dept, of Biology, Jacksonville
State Univ. , Jacksonville, AL 36265.
A demonstration was presented on plant propagation for the classroom
using common supermarket fruits, seeds and vegetables. Examples in¬
cluded orange, grapefruit, lemon, avacado and pineapple. The use of
bean, pea, peanuts and watermelon seed was also discussed. Propaga¬
tion with vegetables included the carrot, sweet potato, Irish potato
and onions. The anatomy of the various plant organs was discussed
along with the various propagation techniques. Mature plants of some
species were shown. Some of these also make valuable houseplants.
GROWTH, PROPAGATION, AND PRESERVATION OF FIGS IN NORTH ALABAMA
Kenneth E. Landers, and Thomas Cochis. Dept, of Biology, Jacksonville
State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265.
Figs for home use are frequently grown adjacent to building founda¬
tions in North Alabama. Cold weather damage is apparently reduced by
mulching and using a building or hedge as windbreak. Cuttings are
easily rooted and used as a source of new plants. Fruits may be eaten
fresh, canned as preserves, or dried for use in cakes. Commercial pro¬
duction of figs does occur, but may not be highly successful due to
lack of market and a large home production.
37
Abstracts
CHEMISTRY
THE SYNTHESIS OF NEW DIALKYL DERIVATIVES OF 5-HYDROXYHAEMOPYRROLE
Philip E. Morris and John M. Beaton, Neurosciences Program, Univ.
of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
Various oxidized pyrroles such as 5-hydroxyhaemopyrro le and krvpto-
pyrrole have been implicated in hepatic porphyria and numerous psychi¬
atric disorders. These compounds have also been shown to have be¬
havior disrupting effects on food deprived rats run on a variable
interval schedule of food reinforcement. The dialkylamino deriva¬
tives of haemopyrrole were prepared by the acid catalyzed cycliza-
tion of ch loropyruvic acid and 2-butanone to produce the 3-chloro-
methyl-4, 5-d imethyl -5 -hydroxy-2 -oxo-2, 5 -di hydrofur an. Th is 1 actone
was then treated with either dimethylamine or diethylamine at 0°C
in ether to produce the 3-dialkylaminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-5-hydroxy-
2-oxo-2,5-dihydrofuran as a red oil, which was distilled (short
path) j_n vacuo. The resulting 3-dialkylami nol actone was then reacted
with SOC 1 o at 0°C in a solvent mixture of chloroform and pyridine
to produce 3 -di alky lami nomethyl -4, 5 -dimethyl -5-ch loro-2 -oxo-2, 5-
dihydrofuran. The 5-chloro lactone was finally converted to the
1 actam, 3-dialkylami nomethy 1-4, 5 -dimethyl -5-hydroxyhaemopyrro le,
by the action of a large excess of liquid ammonia under 80 psi for
24 hours. The chemical kinetics of the formation of intermediates
will be discussed as well as the unsuccessful attempts to produce
these compounds by acid catalyzed cyclization of dialkylamino-2-
keto-propanoic acid and 2-butanone. The structures of all inter¬
mediates and products were confirmed by infrared and mass spectro¬
scopy. (Supported in part by the Alabama Consumer Fund.)
THE APPLICATION OF NMR TO PROBLEMS IN INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Charles L. Watkins and Gerald S. Vigee, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of
Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
The general availability of multinuclear Four i er-Transform nmr
spectrometers should provide many new opportunities for the under¬
standing of the structure, bonding, stereochemistry, and mechanisms of
formation of organometa 1 I i c complexes. In addition, dynamical and
thermodynamic information concerning exchange mechanisms in the coordi¬
nation spheres of transition-metal complexes can be easily obtained.
Two examples will be given. A solvent adduct study of 1 ,4 , 8 , 1 1 - te t ra-
azacyc 1 ote t radecane nickel ( I I ) perchlorate with the Lewis bases acetoni¬
trile, N , N-d ime thy 1 f ormam i de , methyl sulfoxide, and water is reported.
The thermodynamic parameters for adduct formation are given for each
solvent system. A chemical dynamics study of substituted 1,3,2 - dio-
xarsol anes will demonstrate how the ^H nmr spectrum is dependent on the
stereochemistry of the f i ve-membe red ring and its interconversion rate
between favored conformers.
38
Abstracts
STUDIES IN THE BIOSYNTHESIS OF PENTOSTATIN
David C. Baker and Jeff C. Hanvey, Department of Chemistry,
The university of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa), AL 35486.
pentostatin (covidarabine , Co-v) is an unusual nucleoside
that is isolated from str eptomyces antibioticus and is an
inhibitor of adenosine deaminase (ADA). Structurally a 2 1 -
deoxy-/3-D-erythropentofuranosyl nucleoside having an unique,
1 , 3-d i a zepi ne ring system in the heterocycle, the compound
has attracted considerable interest in the fields of cancer
chemotherapy because of its unusually potent, tight-binding
properties (K^= 2.2 x 10~12) against ADA. The biosynthesis
of the nucleoside is a scientific curiosity, particularly in
light of the unusual heterocyclic ring system. The studies
described are directed toward elucidating the biochemical
pathway to Co-v. Full descriptions of several possible
biochemical routes, along with details of the incorporation
of radiolabeled intermediates, will be presented.
POTENTIAL TERPENE PRECURSORS FOR RA2DAN SYNTHESIS OF
A- 1 -TETRAHYDROCANNAB I NOL
Robert L. Settine and Jamil Talhouk, Department of Chemistry, University
of Alabama in Birmingham, AL 3 529 4 ,
The Razdan1 synthesis of A- 1 -tetra hydrocan nab i no! has become of recent
interest due to the use of these type compounds as potential medicinal
agents. This laboratory has previously reported2 a synthesis of olivitol,
which can be envisioned as one half of the starting material for the
Razdan procedure. This research effort deals with the synthesis of
various terpene precursors, whose common acid catalyzed intermediate make
them usable for A- 1 -tetrabydrocannab i no! synthesis. Thus, the synthesis
of 3~p i nene-2-ol , 2-ca rene-4-ol , and p-mentha-2 , 8-diene-l-ol are reported
using the decomposition of their tosy 1 hydra zones 3 as a key intermediate
step .
1 R.K. Razdan, H.C. Balzell and G.R. Handrich, J, Am. Chem. Soc. 96:5860,
1974.
2 S.A. Barker and R.L. Settine, Org. Prep, and Proc. Int. _1J : 8 7 , 1 979 -
3 W. Reid and R. Dietrich, Chem. Ber. 94:387, 1961.
39
Abstracts
SYNTHESIS OF SULFUR ANALOGS OF 3 ( R) , 2 ( S) -3 ( ADEN IN-9- YL) -
2-HYDROXYNONANE
David C. Baker, L. D. Hawkins and J. Farrest Taylor,
Department of Chemistry, The university of Alabama,
University (Tuscaloosa), AL 35486.
Sulfur analogs of the semi-tight binding adenosine
deaminase inhibitor ( _L) - ejry_tj2jro - 9 - ( 2 - h y d r o x y - 3 -
nonyl) adenine, wherein the alkyl side-chain is replaced by
the SR function, have been synthesized. The project is
aimed toward examining the effect of side-chain length,
using the allosteric substitution of sulfur for a -CH2-
group, with the idea of developing structure-activity
relationships. Carbohydrate precursors, derived from L-
rhamnose, were employed for the synthesis of (S)-2-
ben zy 1 o xypr o pana 1 (_l ) . _l was converted using RSH to the
respective dialkyl dithioacetal ( 2 ), which was subsequently
brominated and coupled to pe r (TMS) aden i ne to give the 2-0-
benzyl protected acyclic nucleoside. Chemistry carried out
to date will be discussed.
Synthesis and NMR of Spectroscopic Study of N-V i ny 1 aery 1 ami de
Chen Chang and Dr. Thomas L. St. Pierre, Chemistry Department, University
of Alabama in Birmingham, University Station, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.
N- v i ny 1 ac ry 1 ami de may not be prepared for normal vinylation reactions.
It is prepared instead of condensing two moles of acrylamide with one
mole of acetaldehyde followed by pyrolysis. Its synthesis can be
summarized below:
2CH. = CHCONH. + CH,CH0 acid, CH.CH, (NHCOCHCHj „ + Ho0
2 2 5 - 1 3 3 | 2 2 2
heat^ CH2 = CHCONHCH = CH2 + CH2 = CHC0NH2
Compound 1 was prepared in good yield at room temperature and was
pyrolyzed by kugelrohr apparatus to obtain compound 2. Complete
purification could be accomplished by recrysta 1 i zat ion from benzene-
hexane. The 1H NMR spectra of the product at 90 MHZ and at 300 MHZ
is consistant with the structure of N-v i ny 1 aery 1 ami de . At 300 MHZ
selected protons were decoupled in order to understand the N-vinyl
pattern. The cis/trans amide isomerization complicates one of the
N-vinyl peaks.
40
Abstracts
SELECTIVE OXIDATION OF STEROIDAL 7,14-DIENES BY m-CHLOROPERBENZOIC ACID
Edward J. Parish, Dept, of Chemistry, Auburn University, AL 36849
Treatment of 3g-benzoyloxy-cholest-7,14-diene(l ) with m-CPBA under
controlled conditions has been shown to produce 3g-benzoyloxy-14a,15a-
epoxy-cholest-7-ene(ll ) in high yield. Reaction of this product with
alcoholic potassium hydroxide yields cholest-8(14)-ene-3g,7a,15a~
triol (III) by an ring opening mechanism.
These studies have been extended to the 4,4-dimethyl -7-1 4-diene
system(IV). Treatment of IV with m-CPBA results in the direct forma¬
tion of diol V, which may be saponified to the known trio! VI. Inter¬
mediate V is postulated to arise via the acid catalized ring opening
of a labile 14a, 1 5a-epoxide intermediate similar to the isolated
intermediate II.
LEAD SELECTIVE ELECTRODE USE FOR INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
Thomas Pierce. Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of North Alabama, Florence,
Alabama 35632.
During a ten year period ion-selective electrodes (ISES) have
found application to a wide variety of disciplines. Given their
portability and apparent simplicity, lead ISES are attractive for
Industrial Hygienists concerned with inorganic lead measurement.
This paper compares the advantages and drawbacks of ion specific
electrode analysis with the standard atomic absorption procedures for
lead .
The findings indicate that even though the I SE should not be relied
upon as a primary analytical tool for lead, it may be useful for
range finding and independent verification of results obtained in
another manner.
41
Abstracts
PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS AND PESTICIDES IN
WILD LOUISIANA HERON EGGS
Charles D. Duncan, Department of Chemistry, Robert J. Graves and Robert
L. Settine GC/MS Center, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birming¬
ham, AL 3529*4
Eggs from Louisiana Herons, Hydranassa tricolor, were collected from
Cat Island, Alabama, near the mouth of Mobile Bay during April 1978.
We report here the development of computer-assisted gas chromatograph/
mass spectrometry methodology allowing simultaneous analysis, at parts-
per-billion sensitivity, of both pesticide and polychlorinated biphenyl
(PCB) compounds with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons derived from low-
level chronic oil pollution. We also report the analysis of four eggs
from this sample, showing the first known accumulation of hydrocarbon
contaminants in wild bird eggs. Since the study animal is virtually
exclusively piscivorous, we comment on the results as a useful biologi¬
cal monitor of marine pollution.
SYNTHESIS OF METHYL-p- ( 2-BEN Z IMIDAZOLYL) METHYLPHENOXY
CARBOXYLATE
David c. Baker and Patricia A. Goodson, Department of
Chemistry, The University of Alabama, university
(Tuscaloosa), AL 35486.
The title compound (_i) and its corresponding hydrazide
have demonstrated activity against tobacco mosaic virus in
vitro. Since viral and cancer activity occur at about the
same cellular level, and since many benzimidazole
derivatives have been found to exhibit antiviral,
antifungal, antibacterial, and antimalarial activities,
these two compounds along with two derivatives, N-(p-
hydroxybenzylidene) -p- (2-benzimidazolyl) methylphenoxy car¬
boxylic acid hydrazide and N- (2-furf urylidene)-p- (2-
benzimidazolyl) methylphenoxy carboxylic acid hydrazide were
of interest for possible anticancer activity. The synthesis
of these four compounds will be discussed.
an INFRARED STUDY OF THE REACTION OF DIOXYGEN WITH MnBr2PPhMe2
S.D. Worley, W.E. Hill, and V.F. Newberry, Auburn University,
Auburn, AL 36849
The complex MnBr2PPhMe2 is reported to react reversibly with
dioxygen as a function of pressure. The complex has been prepared
as a surface on a KBr window in a vacuum infrared cell by sublima¬
tion of MnBr2 and exposure to phenyldimethylphosphine vapor.
The reaction of the complex with dioxygen was followed by infrared
spectrometry .
42
Abstracts
ALKYL DERIVATIVES OF THE PENTOSTATIN AGLYCONE
David C. Baker and shiv D. Kumar, Department of Chemistry,
The university of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa) at
35486.
A number of N3-alkyl derivatives of the pentostatin
aglycone have been synthesized and their adenosine deaminase
inhibitory properties studied. The potencies of these alkyl
derivatives are significantly lower than either the 3-B-D-
ribof uranosyl (coformycin) or the 3-/3-D-2-deoxyr ibof uranosyl
(pentostatin) analogs, but these are considerably tighter
binding than the free heterocyclic base. Full details of
synthesis and enzymology will be discussed.
OH
R=
K x
i
CH -
73
PhCH -
84
jo-MeOPhCH2-
13
2-ClPhCH2-
6.
HOCH2CH OCH -
H -
10 M.
>100
MICROCOMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN UNDERGRADUATE CHEMISTRY
Charles L. Watkins and Larry K. Krannich, Dept, of Chemistry,
University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
The introduction of microcomputer systems has revolutionized experi¬
ments in the chemistry laboratory. Microprocessor-based systems can use
the experimental data to control an instrument and can be used for real¬
time data analysis. Microprocessor controlled instruments are common in
industrial, clinical, and medical laboratories and graduate programs in
which our former students work. We are integrating microcomputer exper¬
ience into the undergraduate chemistry classrooms and laboratories to
prepare our students to be viable practitioners of their discipline in
their chosen professions. As a co-recipient of a NSF CAUSE grant, our
department has been able to accelerate its efforts in introducing micro¬
computer systems into the undergraduate curriculum. Students are gain¬
ing experience with computer articulated experiments and real-time
interactive computing for problem solving skills. We will discuss
what is being carried out under NSF CAUSE support, availability of
software for microcomputers, and our plans in chemistry. Software
will be demonstrated and time will be available for hands-on use of
the Apple 11+ microcomputer with selected software applications to
chemistry.
43
Abstracts
CELLULOSE HYDROLYSIS IN PHOSPHORIC ACID SOLUTION
Michael B. Moeller and Raymond E. Isbell, Dept, of Chemistry
Univ. North Alabama, Florence, AL 35G32.
Waste cellulosic materials may be converted into
fermentable sugars through the hydrolysis of the cellulose
polymer. It has been suggested that the substitution of
phosphoric acid for the conventional dilute sulfuric acid as
the hydrolysis catalyst could improve the economics of the
production of ethanol from waste cellulose sources. The
expense of the acid would be defrayed by the production of
a co-product, dicalcium phosphate, which would be marketed
as a fertilizer. We have measured the reaction rates in
phosphoric acid solutions and compared the results with
rates achieved with dilute sulfuric acid. Phosphoric acid
was found to be much inferior to sulfuric acid as the
catalytic agent. A solution of 8.0 wt . percent phosphoric
acid had the approximate activity of 0.8 wt . percent
sulfuric acid. The pertinent reaction kinetics for the acid
catalyzed production of glucose from cellulose consist of
consecutive, pseudo-first order reactions. The first
reaction forms glucose from cellulose and a subsequent
reaction decomposes the glucose. Our studies indicate that
the glucose decomposition reactions are similar with the
two acids but that the mechanisn for the cellulose
hydrolysis may be different with phosphoric acid than with
sulfuric acid. This research has been supported by the
Tennessee Valley Authority, Contract No. TV 50532A.
DIAZOHYDROXIDES: REACTIVE INTERMEDIATES AS
ANTICANCER COMPOUNDS
David C. Baker and Carol N. Richmond, Department of
Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university
(Tuscaloosa), AL 35486.
Diazotization of several am inoheterocycl ic compounds (I)
under dry, basic conditions has led to the isolation of the
corresponding diazohydroxides (l_l) (see scheme below), which
are of interest in cancer chemotherapy. The preparation,
isolation and phy s i ochem i ca 1 characteristics of these
compounds will be discussed.
Het-NH2 _ — — > Het-N=N-0- Na+
(I) (II)
a. _i-Amyl 0N0 , NaNH2 , THF
44
Abstracts
THE CATECHOLASE ACTIVITY OF BINUCLEAR COPPER COMPLEXES
Gerald S. Vigee, Dept, of Chemistry, University of Alabama in B'ham,
Birmingham, AL 35294
Spin coupled dicopper moieties are found at the active sites of
copper enzymes and are used more frequently as catalyst is the oxida¬
tive synthesis of new compounds. Both enzymes and industrial type
catalysts are used to oxidize catechols with dioxygen but the oxidase
mechanism(s) is/are unknown. One proposed mechanism utilizes the di¬
copper as a site on which the catechol and oxygen come together for
catechol oxidation:
This mechanism shows no charge in the oxidation state of copper (II)
during catalysis. The second mechanism requires a change in copper
(Cu(II) to Cu(I)).
Cu
By kinetics and electrochemical studies we will test some aspects of
the second mechanism
SILICON AND GERMANIUM ESTERS AND THEIR
REACTION WITH GRIGNARD REAGENTS
McDonald Moore, Sr., Deborah A. Colvin, and Edwina
McMi Ilian. Department of Chemistry, S. D. Bishop State
Junior College, Mobile, Alabama 36690
This report describes the synthesis and properties of
three new silicon esters. Hexapropionoxyd is iloxane and
he x abe nz oxy d i s i 1 oxa ne have been prepared from hexachloro-
disiloxane and the sodium salts of the organic acids.
D i s e b a c oxy s i 1 a ne has also been prepared from tetracholoro-
silane and anhydrous sodium sebacate. These silicon esters
react with water, alchol, and ammonia. They decompose
when heated. Ether solution of he xap r op ionoxy d i s i 1 oxan e
reacts with phenylmagnesium bromide to produce propio-
phenone, e thy Id ipheny lcarb ino 1 , and a silicone.
Te t r abu t y r oxyge r mane also reacts with benzy Imagens ium
bromide to form t e t r ab e nzy 1 ge r man ium and bis (tribenzyl-
germanium) oxide.
45
Abstracts
CROWN ETHER MEDIATED REACTION OF THIOCYANATE WITH A CHLOROSULFURANE
M. Eggers and P. Livant. Department of Chemistry, Auburn University,
Alabama 36849
The reaction of thiocyanate ion and catalyzed by 18-crown-6 with
chlorosulfurane 1 in CH2C12 was explored as a route to thiocyanato-
(on isothiocyanato) sulfurane 2. The reaction proved to be complex,
products 3, 4, 5, and 6 being identified by comparison with authentic
samples, while 1 was identified by microanalysis. At certain levels
of 18-crown-6, llMR evidence of sulfurane 2 was obtained. However, 2
has not yet been isolated. Studies directed at elucidating a mechanism
for the reaction of 1 with SCN will be discussed.
SYNTHESIS OF EHNA AND ITS ISOMERS FROM CHIRAL PRECURSORS
David C. Baker and L . D . Hawkins . Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Alabama,
University, AL 35486
The synthesis of both isomers of EHNA ("ery throhydroxynonyladenine")
from D- and |,-rhamnose is described. The key intermediate (R)~ and (£>)-
2-benzyloxypropanal, derived respectively from 5-0-benzyl-D- and \±-
rhamintol, was condensed with hexylmagnesium bromide to give a 3:1
mixture of threo: ery thro alcohols. Conversion of the threo alcohols to
their mesylates, displacement of the latter with adenyl sodium, followed
by debenzylation, afforded the desired ery thro species in both series.
The 2(S), 3(R)-3- (adenin-9-yl)-2-nonapol isomer ("L-EHNA") was found
>80-fold more tightly bound to adenosine deaminase (Ki = 7.64 X 10-10 m.)
than its 2(R), 3(S)-isomer (Ki = 6.23 X 10-8 M.). In addition, the
ery thro alcohols were converted to the threo derivatives, the 2 (J3) , 3(S)~
and 2(R), 3(R)- isomers, by an identical set of reactions.
46
Abstracts
NEW AND NOVEL HETEROCYCLES RELATED TO THE
PENTOSTATIN AGLYCONE
David C. Baker and L. D. Hawkins, Department of Chemistry,
The university of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa), AL
35486 .
The syntheses of analogs of the potent adenosine
deaminase inhibitor pentostatin, (R) -3- (2-deoxy-ff-D-erythro-
pentof uranosyl-3 ,6 ,7 ,8-tetrahydroimidazo [4,5-
d] [1,3] diazepin-8-ol , are being carried out in these
laboratories. The synthetic approaches toward 6-hetero-
4 , 5 , 6 , 7 - b e n z i m i d a z o 1 e s using methyl l-benzyl-2-
mercaptoimidazo carboxylate as the starting material are to
be discussed.
A NEW ACYCLIC NUCLEOSIDE:
2 ( S) ,3 (R) -1— ( ADENIN-9-YL) -2,3, 5-TRI HYDROXY PENTANE
David C. Baker and Thomas U . Carr II, Department of
Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university
(Tuscaloosa), AL 35486.
A s te r eo spec i f i c synthesis of 2 (5j ,3 (R) -1- (Adenin-9-yl) ~
2,3 ,5-tr ihydroxypentane (j[) from L-arabinose is described.
The key intermediate 2-deoxy-L-erythro-pentose diethyl
dithioacetal ( 1 1 ) was pr epa r ed~by a route involving the
formation and reduction of a ketene dithioacetal. Selective
tosylation of II, followed by acylation, and adeninylation
using adenin-9-yl sodium gave the desired, protected acyclic
sugar nucleoside (ill). Subsequent deacylation, demercap-
talation and borohydride reduction of III gave the title
compound. Full details of the synthesis will be presented.
SOLUTION PROPERTIES OF MOLYBDENUM ( I I ) THIOACETATE AND DITHIOACETATE
Thomas R. Webb, Austin H. Reid, and Billy P, Bradford, Department of
Chemistry, Auburn University, AL 36849
The binuclear molybdenum(II) thioacetate and dithioacetate complexes
form axial adducts with a number of Lewis bases. Spectroscopic studies
indicate that the axial binding is rather weak. The thioacetate exists
in solution as a mixture of isomers. The isomers interconvert on the
nmr time scale at higher temperature; a 1,2-shift is proposed as the
mechanism.
47
Abstracts
3-DEAZACORDYCEPIN : A CHEMICAL APPROACH
David C. Baker, F. Leslie Boyd and L.D. Hawkins, Department
of Chemistry, The university of Alabama, University
(Tuscaloosa) , Al 35486.
An approach to the title nuclesoide involves the
following: (1) the synthesis of 4,6 -dichloroimidazo[4 ,5-
c]pyridine (i_) according to the procedure of Rousseau and
Robins [ J. He t. Chem. 2 , 196 (1965)] ; (2) the synthesis of
1, 2-di-Q-acetyl-5-0- ben zoyl-3-deoxy-p-erythro pentose (II) by
a modification of the procedure of Nair and Sinhababu [ J ,
Ojrg^ Cj}e£Li 12' 5013(1978)]; (3) a nucleoside coupling
reaction between tr imethylsilylated I_ and l_l_ using tin(iv)
chloride as a Lewis acid catalyst. Details of these
reactions will be discussed.
SYNTHESIS AND ANTIVIRAL ACTIVITY OF SOME
5 ' -C- ACETIC ACID DERIVATIVES OF ARA-A
David C. Baker and Richard p. Crews, Department of
Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university
(Tuscaloosa), AL 35486.
The synthesis of l- ( aden i n-9-y 1 ) - 1 »5 ,6- 1 r ideoxy-|3-D-
arabinohepto-l,4-furanose, l-(adenin-9-yl)-l,5,6-trideoxy-/3-
D— a r a b i nohep to- 1 , 4 - f ur an u r ona m i de and related compounds from
N-benzoyl-9-(2, 3-d i-0-benzoyl-j3-D-arabinof uranosyl ) adenine
Ts reported. similar syntheses using other nucleosides as
precursors have resulted in biologically active products.
This work represents the first reporting of antiviral
activity for this group of compounds. Details of the
chemistry will be presented.
DI-TERT-BUTYLDI METHYLS I LYL DERIVATIVES OF ARA-A
David C. Baker and Richard p. Crews, Department of
Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university
(Tuscaloosa) , AL 35486.
9 - ( 2 , 3-Di-O- ter t-butyld imethylsi lyl-fj-p-arabinof uranos-
yl) adenine ( _1 ) is a useful compound "for the specific
der i v i t i za t ion of the 5'-position of 9-/3-D-arabinof uranosyl-
adenine. Synthesis of (_l) and other, related derivatives of
ara-A, including the 2',5'-di-0-, 3',5'-di-0- and 2,,3',5'-
tri-O-TBDMS compounds, further demonstrate the potential of
t_e_r_t-butyld imethylchlorosi lane in specific protection of
nucleosides. Details of the chemistry will be presented.
48
Abstracts
BIVALVES AS INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Robert L. Settine, Robert J. Graves and Ken Marion, Un i vers i ty of
Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 3 52 9 ^ -
A simple and sensitive procedure was developed for determining
aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, EPA priority pollutants, PCB's and
organoch 1 or ine pesticides. The procedure involves cellular disruption,
extraction, column chromatography, and fused silica capillary column
GC/MS analysis. The method is applicable to a wide variety of organisms
and allows the identification of the above mentioned contaminants with
one GC injection. Using this method, Mobile Bay oysters (Crassostrea
virginica) have shown compounds from all five groups listed.
SECOND ORDER KINETICS FROM A BICYCLIC AZO COMPOUND
Charles D. Duncan, Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
The synthesis of bicyclic azo compound, I, reported to yield a cyclic
tetramethyleneethane bi radical is described, as is a convenient method
for monitoring its reaction kinetics. At 0.13 M concentration, unlike
most azo or d i azo compounds, its reactions are not un imol ecu 1 a r . De¬
composition rates at 100.20°C show second order kinetics, and half-life
is dependent on initial azo concentration. A mechanism for this second
order process is considered.
X
GEOLOGY
GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION AIDS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE LOCATION
Philip Stroud. Dept, of Geology and Norman Bayne Cranford, Auburn
University, Auburn, AL 36849.
Wilcox County is in the Gulf Coastal Plain. The Northern tenth,
about 90 square miles, is within the outcrop area of Cretaceous forma¬
tions and the southern nine-tenths is within the outcrop area of Ter¬
tiary formations. Quaternary flood-plain and terrace deposits border
the Alabama River and its larger tributaries. The archaeological site
being investigated is within the Alluvial deposit area of the Alabama
River Quaternary flood-plain, and rock types consist of angular to
rounded quartz, cherts and quartzite gravel. Sedimentol ogi cal
research, grain analysis study, is continuing in the area in an
attempt to locate ancient river meanders. There appears to be a con¬
nection between ancient river meanders and sites of early indian habi¬
tation.
49
Abstracts
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR RAPID DETERMINATION OF BEHAVIOR OF
ELEMENTS IN ELECTRIC UTILITY SOLID WASTES DURING LEACHING
Jim Redwine, Southern Company Services, Inc., Birmingham, AL 35203
Coal-fired boilers use more than 500 million tons of coal per year.
This produces enormous quantities of fly ash. Utility companies must
dispose of the ash. Very little is known about the behavior of fly ash
when exposed to weathering. Laboratory leaching in a Soxhlet extractor
gives an easy and rapid, though not necessarily chemically rigorous,
means of predicting the behavior of elements during the leaching of fly
ash. Known parameters in such experiments include (l) major, minor and
trace element composition of the ash; (2) quantity of ash; (3) composi¬
tion of the leaching agent, especially pH; (U) temperature and
(5) leaching time. A log-log plot of concentration in a lechate versus
time leached, known as a CVTL curve, provides data on how an element
behaves during leaching, and the element's distribution and bonding
within ash particles. A straight-line curve with constant positive
slope points to leaching ideality, that is, uniform distribution of a
particular element within a sample, solubility within a particular
leaching agent, and lack of secondary reactions between the elements
being leached. Departure from ideal conditions causes departure from
the ideal straight line curve. Since the CVTL curve measures rate,
factors which affect rate of removal of an element during Soxhlet
extraction changes the slope of this curve. These leaching experiments
indicate the amount of a particular element in a leachate depends upon
the amount of the element and its mode of bonding in the ash, the
element's solubility in the leaching agents, duration of leaching, and
the element's involvement in secondary reactions.
CHITIN0Z0ANS IN THE FROG MOUNTAIN SANDSTONE
John E. Sebastian, Dept, of Geology, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 368^9
Chitinozoans are reported for the first time in the Frog Mountain
sandstone. The rock samples from which the chitinozoans were obtained
were collected near the base of the Frog Mountain exposure in the Red
Mountain expressway cut at Birmingham, Alabama. The rock samples were
acidified in HC1 and HF. The chitinozoans were concentrated from the
residues by flotation in zinc chloride and mounted on glass slides for
examination. Three genera and seven species of chitinozoans,
Angochitina devonica , Angochitina globasa, Angochil^lna sinica,
Angochitina milanensis , Angochitina mourai , Ancyrochitina spinosa ,
Lagenochitina crassa have been identified. Five species, Angochitina
globosa , Angochitina sinica, Angochitina milanensis , Angochitina mourai,
Lagenochitina crassa, are only known from Devonian age rocks.
Angochitina sinica has only been previously reported from Devonian age
rocks in China. Ancyrochitina spinosa and Angochitina devonica have
been reported from late Silurian and Devonian rocks. The occurrence of
these microfossils indicates that the Frog Mountain sandstone at
Birmingham is middle Devonian in age.
50
Abstracts
THE WINSTON CAVE LOCAL FAUNA AND THE LATE
PLEISTOCENE FAUNAL GRADIENT IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA
Daniel R. Womochel, Dept, of Geology, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 3681*9
A Pleistocene mega- and micro-vertebrate fossil fauna of late
Wisconsin age has been quarried from Winston Cave near Tuscumbia,
Colbert County, in northern Alabama. Eighteen species of mammals,
including five species of bats, have been identified from the cave.
All genera and species are extant and still live in the area except
Equus sp. and Mylohyus sp. The fossils are preserved in debris that
filled a deep sinkhole. Erosion and cave expansion have undercut the
sinkhole fill and exposed the fossils in the ceiling of the cave. The
cave is situated on the boundary between the Appalachian Valley and
Ridge Province and the Gulf Coastal Plain and the associated boundary
between the Austroriparian and Carolinian biotic provinces. These
boundaries are important transitional zones between modern mammalian
faunal assemblages in the southeastern United States. Comparison of
the Winston Cave fauna with other late Pleistocene cave faunas from
this region and from further north in the Valley and Ridge provides
a unique opportunity to assess the occurrence and significance of a
late Pleistocene and postglacial change in the mammalian faunal
composition and distribution in this area. Preliminary studies
indicate that the mammal fauna of this area was either not influenced
significantly by the Wisconsin glaciation or that the mammal fauna
of this region attained a modern distribution and composition by
late Wisconsin time.
A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE INVERTEBRATE
MEGAFAUNA ASSOCIATED WITH THE UPPER CLIFF COALS
(EARLY PENNSYLVANIAN), PLATEAU COAL FIELD,
NORTHERN ALABAMA
Michael A. Gibson, Dept, of Geology, Auburn University, Auburn,
AL 36849.
Abundant invertebrate fossil assemblages associated with the Upper
Cliff Coals in the Early Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation have been
located between Oneonta and Guntersville in Blount, Marshall and
Jackson counties, Alabama. The fossil assemblages include fenestrate
bryozoans, Pentrimites} blastoids, and columnal debris associated with
a bioherm structure in southern Jackson County. This exposure has been
interpreted to represent a distal bar facies. Exposures near Tatter's
Knob and Berry Mountain, Blount County are dominated by productid
brachiopods, pinnaceans, pectinaceans , and abundant trace fossils.
Z oophycus is one of the most abundant genera of trace fossils
encountered in these deposits. Many of the invertebrate fossils are
preserved in living position. These deposits have been interpreted as
interdistributary bayfill facies. The fossils and sediments indicate
a marine to brackish water environment deposition.
51
Abstracts
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN LOWER PALEOZOIC
CARBONATES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN VALLEY AND RIDGE PROVINCE
Christopher John Crow, Dept, of Geology, University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35203
Various structural and age interpretations have been applied to the
dolostone, quartzite and chert terrains in the eastern Valley and Ridge
province adjacent to the Talladega Front in Talladega, Cleburne and
Cherokee Counties, Alabama. Ages ranging from Cambrian to Mississippian
have been assigned to these terrains. Local fossil occurrences in some
of these terrains demonstrate that some are of Lower Cambrian, Weisner
and Shady, age. The purpose of this study is to correlate the trace
element composition of some of these unfossiliferous carbonate terrains
of uncertain age with those from carbonate terrains of known age
containing fossils in this region of Alabama. The analytical method
used is atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Samples from known
carbonate units are prepared according to standard techniques.
Replicate analysis of samples indicates a variance as great as 50% in
iron and strontium. Average variance is found to be on the order of
25%. The variability is extreme and, at present, it appears to result
from a lack of sample homogeneity. More sampling will be required in
the units of known age, both within individual beds and across
intervals involving several beds , to determine if observed ranges of
trace element concentrations in these formations are consistant enough
for comparison with formations of unknown age.
LOCATION OF THE KYANITE-S ILLIMANI TE ISOGRAD IN THE
TALLASSEE SYNFORM, DADEVILLE COMPLEX, ALABAMA
Ian A. Walls and Michael J. Neilson, Dept, of Geology, The University
of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
Within the Tallassee Synform, the widespread and definitive prograde
regional metamorphic assemblage in the Agricola Formation is kyanite-
bio t i te-garne t-muscovi te-plagioc lase-quar tz . Staurolite is absent.
Based on work to date, the kyanite-sillimanite isograd (mapped on the
first appearance of sillimanite in kyanite-bear ing rocks) has an irregu¬
lar and discontinuous pattern. North of Doss Mountain, the isograd ap¬
pears to be folded by an F^ (isoclinal) fold; but a relationship between
the distribution of sillimanite-bearing rocks and the traces of fold
axes of any generation is not evident in other areas. Textural analysis
indicates that metamorphism was broadly synchronous with the first rec¬
ognizable deformation event. It is suggested that these rocks were
subjected to T/P conditions within the kyanite stability field and that
the irregular distribution of sillimanite-bearing rocks represents minor
perturbations in the T/P regime. Conditions of metamorphism are esti¬
mated to have been at least 680°C and 7Kb.
52
Abstracts
STRATIGRAPHIC BREAKS AND VERTICAL CONTINUITY
David T. King, Jr., Dept, of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849.
A stratigraphic break is an interruption in the completeness of the
stratigraphic record. Stratigraphic breaks have a manifest presence in
the stratigraphic record — indeed there are far more gaps than time-
record. Stratigraphic breaks may be significant or insignificant with
respect to time-record lost. Significant breaks, reflecting changes in
environmental and/or tectonic regimen, are unconformities (nonconform¬
ities, angular unconformities, disconformities , or paraconformities) .
Insignificant breaks, reflecting changes in environmental stage, are
diastems (surfaces of erosion, scour, or non-deposition). Breaks may
be recognized on physical, paleontological, and/or structural criteria.
However, their significance is assessed on the basis of paleontological
criteria, especially disconformities and paraconformities. In too many
cases faulty or improperly applied paleontological criteria are used to
ascribe significance to breaks that are diastems. In this way
disconformities and paraconformities are described in stratigraphic
sequences that otherwise display vertical continuity according to
Walther's Law, Uniformitarianism, and the Rule of Simplicity. This
vertical continuity should be a prime consideration in evaluating the
significance of stratigraphic breaks.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURAL FABRICS OF THE ROCKMART SLATE
David M. Sibley, Dept, of Geology, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 36849.
The Ordovician Newala, Lenoir, and Rockmart Formations near Rockmart,
Georgia are situated in a reentrant of the Valley and Ridge Province
into the Talladega Metamorphic Front. In this area these formations
have a penetrative tectonite fabric. Analysis of bedding, bedding fold
axes, cleavage, bedding-cleavage intersections, boudin axes, slate
pencils, crenulation cleavage, crenulation lineations, and pebble
lineations indicates the study area is divided into three fabric
domains. In all domains bedding fold axes and bedding-cleavage
intersections define a great circle, the pole of which plunges steeply
to the northwest. The cleavage is approximately parallel to trend
of the Talladega Front and is gently folded about an axis with a
shallow eastward plunge. One set of crenulation lineations and pebble
lineations are parallel to this axis.
A sandstone lithologically similar to the Devonian Frog Mountain
Sandstone, overlies the Rockmart Slate with angular unconformity and
does not possess a cleavage. At one location, Rockmart Slate is
absent and uncleaved Frog Mountain Sandstone lies directly above
Newala.
53
Abstracts
FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, CONSERVATION, AND PLANNING
A GEOGRAPHIC APPROACH TO RETIREMENT
Wilbur B. DeVall, President, Proxy Services Ltd., Auburn, AL 3683O
Older people progress from the 3 R's of youth - 'readin, 'writin,
and 'rithmetic to the 3 R's of old age - reminiscin', recallin', and
rememberin'. The approach to retirement should be geared to a
geographic base. While active, one should acquire information,
mementos, and other reminders of countries, states, and local scenes
which can then become the basis for reminiscing when confinement
arrives during later years. The years spent in retirement must relate
back to houses in which one lived, the streets and scenes which
surrounded these houses, and the towns, states, and countries in which
these places of abode occured. The farther away from one's birthplace
one enters retirement the more meaningful will be these geographic
references. The country most remembered will be the one in which born.
It could also be one visited as a tourist or military person. After
leaving a country or countries, reflections normally involve the
language of the location, the monetary system, local customs, and
places and buildings of interest. The symbols taken into retirement
vary with the person and his background. Those most common include
post cards, picture prints or slides, souvenirs, currency, brochures
and leaflets, and books. The geographic approach to retirement can
make the expectations of old age and confinement pleasant. Enjoyment
of retirement comes from staying busy, recalling people met in the
more active years and those with whom travel may have been a shared
experience as well as the little incidents which occured and are
remembered in the mind or when viewing pictures and other materials.
PUBLIC LAND LAWS AND SETTLEMENT OF THE MOUNTAINS OF NORTHEAST
ALABAMA
Merilyn Osterlund. Department of Geography, University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, TN 37920
Alabama was a public domain state and as land was opened for sale the
more desirable agricultural land was quickly purchased; the less
desirable mountain land was gradually alienated under the Graduation,
Homestead, and Timber and Stone Acts. As recently as 1957, in
northeast Alabama, there were tracts of unclaimed public land. In
the rugged and isolated mountain areas are numerous abandoned
homesites and only two occupied sites. The homes that occupied the
abandoned sites were built to meet the requirements of alienating
land under the Homestead Act. Currently at least 60% of the mountain
land is owned by out-of-state corporations.
54
Abstracts
ALABAMA'S 1982 LEGISLATIVE FORESTRY STUDY COMMITTEE REPORT
Wilbur B. DeVall, President, Proxy Services, Ltd., Auburn, AL 36830
Five reports of Alabama's Legislative Forestry Study Committee have
been submitted to the State's legislative body. Currently operating
under Act No. 79“ 711, with a membership of fifteen, as defined in the
Act, the Committee emphasizes land productivity, both for agriculture
and forestry, wood residue utilization from logging operations and wood¬
using industries, use of prescribed fire to improve woodlands, getting
non-managing landowners together to discuss their needs, establishment
of a school of forestry at Auburn University, improving stewardship of
lands owned by State agencies, and power generation for sale to utilities
from wood-based industries. The Committee has accomplished several
goals and these are reported on in the 1982 report. Recent budget in¬
creases for the Forestry Commission have permitted phasing in a system
of aerial detection of wildfires in the Commission's ten Districts. The
results of seven meetings held over the State in 1 38 1 were reported to
the Governor in the area of improving and increasing productivity of
forest lands. Periodic studies in Alabama have revealed that the forest
industry has grown since I960 at a compound interest rate of nearly 12%.
The Southern Solar Energy Center has funded five feasibility studies for
potential wood energy installations. Legislation has been drafted
Which, if passed, would encourage improved fire protection, use of pre-
jscribed fire, and increased forest productivity. One new nursery site
near Thorsby came into possession of the Forestry Commission as a result
of the Committee's definition of this need. Other legislation is being
^developed which would enable the Legislative Fiscal Office, which
maintains records on state-owned lands, to improve its system and make
records available to state agencies having access to computer terminals.
RELEVANCE 0 F PR ED ICT I V E MO D E LS TO HISTORIC
SITE ANALYSIS IN THE T.M.R.D.
David C. Weaver, Dept, of Geography, University of Ala., University, AL 35486
In 1978 The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers funded a study of the regional
character of cultural resources in the vicinity of the Tennessee Tombigbee Waterway.
One of the most important of the objectives of the Research Design was the structur¬
ing of analyses of the settlement system to test a variety of settlement models pro¬
posed by social scientists. It was anticipated that formulating and testing such settle¬
ment and economic models could produce a framework for evaluating the signifi¬
cance of the archeological sites, and a foundation for systematically selecting sites
for extensive excavation as well as providing data for references on the operation of
the social and political systems within the region. A number of models were selected
for study in terms of their potential utility to mitigation activities. They Included
a) models of cultural diffusion b) models of ethnic settlement forms c) models of
type of settlement structures and d) models of relative location. The results of test¬
ing these models are discussed.
55
Abstracts
ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
Noland C. Williams, Regional Planner, TVA, Nashville, TN 37203
Richard Holst, Planner, NW Ala. Council of Local Gov't. ,Sheffield,AL 35660
Cities and towns are increasingly recognizing the need for alternative
methods of solid waste disposal. Landfilling, the most traditional
method, is now viewed as an inappropriate method of doing away with munir
cipal waste. Not only are operational costs increasing rapidly, but land
acquisition costs are rising. Capital equipment, compactor trucks and
bulldozers, are more costly and will be more in future years. Diesel
fuel and gasoline will rise to unknown levels and are already straining
the budgets of many municipalities. Land suitable for landfills in met¬
ropolitan areas is scarce and expensive. More importantly, citizens and
public officials alike are beginning to realize that landfills are not a
wise use of a limited natural resource — land. In addition to being a
poor land use, landfills contribute to water pollution, through chemicals
leaching into groundwater, and increasing air pollution from improper
operating incinerators. As technology becomes more widespread, we are
learning that much of the solid waste stream can be reused to generate
income and energy. This is vital to municipalities, especially in light
of the policies of the present administration. For these, and other
reasons, resource recovery is being closely examined by many cities and
towns. In addition to prolonging the life of existing landfills, re¬
source recovery offers other benefits as well. Some are: positive en¬
vironmental effects, potential for competitively priced stable energy
production, which is attractive to industries, decreased waste disposal
costs, reuse of materials, and creation of new jobs.
ISSUES OF WASTE CONVERSION TO ENERGY
Wayne R. Glass. Solid Waste Disposal Authority of the City of Opelika,
Opelika, AL 36802
Many technologies exist for the conversion of wastes to usable forms
of energy, but political, economic and institutional issues hinder the
utilization of such technologies. The effect of these issues is par¬
ticularly apparent in the development of projects using municipal solid
waste to produce energy, which serves to offset the cost of disposal.
While the Southeast has generally been slower than other areas of the
country in the development of these types of projects, several areas in
Alabama have concentrated efforts on the conversion of solid waste to
energy. An examination of several projects within Alabama reveals
problems which impede rapid and smooth implementation of waste -to-
energy technologies, such as developing financing for multi-million
dollar facilities, public or political opposition and securing long
term contracts for waste supply and energy sales. Lessons learned from
existing or past projects can help other planners avoid or overcome
similar problems.
56
Abstracts
THROUGH THE CORRIDORS OF THE PLEISTOCENE WITH HOMO ERECTUS
Mary Katherine Mclnnish and Andrea Priscilla Holland. Department of
Geography, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001.
During the Pleistocene glacial epoch, Homo erectus embarked upon a
tremendous and incredible journey. His migrations began in his East
African homeland. Those migrations covered a millennia, and involved
thousands of miles.
Despite harsh climatic conditions, despite the rigors of existence
in new and sometimes adverse environments, erectus adapted to
different environmental habitats, developed new tools, and diffused
his characteristic culture as he traveled.
Erectus became spatially and temporally dispersed over vast and
differentiated geographical regions upon the completion of his
tremendous and incredible journey. Erectus had explored and settled
much of the Old World.
PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS
FORMATION OF ARMS IN SPIRAL GALAXIES :
NEW EVIDENCE FOR A GRAVITIONAL MECHANISM
Gene G. Byrd, Dept, of Physics arid Astronomy, University of Alabama
University, AL 35486
Spiral galaxies show several varieties of arm patterns in their
disks. Some show two main arms coining out from the nucleus. Others
have a more chaotic pattern of many shorter arms. Galaxies that have
two main arms can also have shorter arms or spurs branching off the
main arms. The two-arm patterns are generally accepted to be a
gravitational density wave traveling around the nucleus. Two mechan¬
isms have been put forward to explain the shorter arms or spurs in
both the chaotic and two-armed spirals. First, the spurs are expanding
fronts of star formation caused by supervovae. These fronts themselves
subsequently have supernovae etc, and are stretched into arms by orbital
motion in the galaxy disk. In the second explanation, the short arms
are localized gravitational disturbances caused by orbiting lumps of
gas and stars in the disk. Previous work on the morphology of the
spurs has not been able to show which of these two mechanisms is
correct. Using computer models, we have studied a spur in the nearest
large spiral galaxy, M31, for which not only are morphological obser¬
vations available but also 21 cm radial velocity data over the disk.
Comparison of the computer model results with the radial velocity and
morphology data shows that this spur is a gravitational disturbance
caused by a large cloud of gas and stars, NGC 206, in M31 ' s disk.
Presumably other galaxies' spurs are caused in the same way.
57
Abstracts
APPLICATION OF RESEARCH ON TEACHING-LEARNING TO TEACHING
INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS
Robert P. Bauman, Dept, of Physics, University of Alabama in Birmingham,
Birmingham, Alabama 35294
Innovations in teaching have been plentiful, but usually based on a
trial and error approach, on a behaviorist model, or centered around
the curricular materials. Only within the last decade has there been
a substantial exploration of the student and the mental processes of the
student, in contrast to the logical arguments of the instructor.
Results have been surprising and are now beginning to yield valuable
information relevant to classroom teaching, especially in physics.
Reproducible results from many investigators have shown a majority of
college students are incapable of grasping the concepts that we con¬
sider fundamental to understanding introductory physics. Less plentiful
but still impressive research results have shown that students can be
changed, with proper techniques, so that they can comprehend the logic
of science and mathematics. It has also been shown by several studies
that conventional courses do little or nothing to accomplish this
important goal. In fact, conventional courses require the typical
student to acquire bad habits in order to pass, thus adding to the
students' difficulties. Effective techniques include practice in pure
problem solving on carefully structured examples, confrontation with
logical difficulties in the context of very elementary subject matter,
and especially the establishment of an active role for the student
learner, in contrast to the conventional passive role of reading,
listening, and repeating.
ANALYSIS OF IMAGE SMEAR IN CRT DISPLAYS
Clarence E. Rash and Jacob Becher*, US Army Aeromedical Research Labo¬
ratory, Fort Rucker, AL 36362
The increase in the use of cathode-ray-tube (CRT) displays for tar¬
get detection and recognition has placed an emphasis on the ability of
these displays to accurately reproduce amplitude and phase information
for dynamic targets. This analysis investigates the theoretical dynam¬
ic image degradation occurring at the display as a result of the inter¬
action between the target/sensor relative velocity, the CRT system scan
rate, and the persistence of the display phosphor. Expressions are de¬
veloped to allow comparison of phosphors on the basis of modulation loss
due to target/sensor motion. A model is developed which equates a tar¬
get having a spatial frequency (S) and moving with a horizontal speed
(V) to a stationary target with a sinusoidal varying intensity of fre¬
quency, ft, equal to SV . The model verifies phosphor persistence as a
major contributor to amplitude modulation loss and predicts several
image artifacts such as "freezing" and apparent motion reversal.
DISCLAIMER:
The views of the authors do not purport to reflect the positions of
the Department of Defense. (Para. 4-3, AR 360-5)
58
Abstracts
FLUORESCENCE STUDIES OF MYOSIN SUBFRAGMENT-1
Robert C. Walton and Herbert C. Cheung*. Dept, of Biomathematics, Univ.
of Ala. in B'ham, B'ham, AL 35294
Myosin ATPase is an energy transducing enzyme which is involved in
the contractile mechanism. Nucleotide binding is known to induce
structural changes at the active site. We have studied such changes
which involve tryptophanyl residues located within the active proteoly¬
tic fragment, subfragment-1 (S-l). Fluorescence spectroscopy was used
to investigate these residues and their accessibility to collisional
quenching by KI . The Stern-Volmer plot displays a downward curvature
indicating the presence of at least two populations of residues. The
quenching results allowed us to construct the emission spectra of the
quenched and unquenched residues. The emission maximum of the
unquenched protein, the exposed residues, and the buried residues was
344, 350, and 335 nm respectively. The quantum yield of the exposed
residues was 46% as compared to the unquenched protein, while the
buried residues exhibited a quantum yield approximately 160-220% of
that displayed by the unquenched protein. MgADP reduced the quenching
by KI and blue-shifted the emission maximum by 4 nm, but had no effect
on the emission maximum of the two populations of residues. These
results are in agreement with the contention that nucleotide binding
shifts the distribution of the two populations of residues toward a
more overall non-polar environment.
COMPUTER MODELING OF ELECTRICAL DISCHARGES
Robert P. Bauman. Dept, of Physics, University of Alabama in Birmingham,
Birmingham, Alabama 35294
Increasing attention to radiofrequency discharges, for etching surfaces,
reaction of molecules, and deposition from plasma, has emphasized the
lack of a good model for the discharge itself. Starting with procedures
previously applied by Phelps and coworkers to study time-dependent
phenomena in dc discharges, a program has been written to look at the
time and space dependence of electrons, ions, and field parameters in
rf discharges. Local field approximations give an equation for
electrons and a similar equation for ions expressing time variation in
terms of sources, sinks, and flux. This is combined with Poisson's
equation for potential. Symmetrical boundary conditions are achieved
with Milne's equation, setting macroscopic flux at the boundary equal
to the kinetic theory expression for flux. An external resistance and
natural tube capacitance are included. Empirical parameters for the
gas properties are employed. The solution technique is Crank-Nicholson ,
time-centered implicit method with predictor-corrector step. The
program allows for a variable spatial grid to increase detail in
regions of maximum interest. The solution step is by matrix inversion
of a tridiagonal matrix.
59
Abstracts
A PARADOX OF CORIOLIS ACCELERATION OF FALLING BODIES
Robert P. Bauman, Dept, of Physics, University of Alabama in Birmingham,
Birmingham, Alabama 35294.
The Coriolis force is often a difficult concept for students to grasp.
Like the centrifugal force it is fictitious, but as usually presented it
is less easily observed directly. Simplified models, such as merry-go-
rounds and spinning dancers, can be helpful. A particularly simple
example is the tall flag pole, at the equator, from which a ball is
dropped. Because the top of the pole is moving faster than the base,
the ball is expected to fall in front of the base (to the east), and
the distance is easily found in terms of the difference in speed and
the time of fall. However, the answer disagrees with other methods of
calculating the same quantity, and is, in fact, 50% greater than the
answer obtained by conservation of angular momentum or by direct
double integration of the Coriolis acceleration. The answer lies in
the direction of the gravitational field (radial, not necessarily
parallel to the initial vertical axis) and the nature of the trajectory.
This is one of the few instances in which the difference between
elliptical and parabolic trajectories has a major effect for objects
close to the surface of the earth.
USING AN APPLE COMPUTER WITH AN ESR SPECTROMETER
Clint Carlisle and Chester Alexander. Dept, of Physics and Astronomy,
Univ. of Ala., University, AL 36486
We have recently acquired an Apple Computer for use in an ESR/ENDOR
research lab, and this talk will describe some of our initial uses of
this computer with the spectrometer. In particular, the computer is
used, through an RS-232 interface, with a signal averager. First and
second derivative ESR spectra can be plotted with high resolution
graphics and the data can be analyzed in many ways with appropriate
programs. Examples of kinetic data will be demonstrated with the com¬
puter .
PLASMA ELECTRON HEATING BY TEST ELECTRONS
M. D. Haworth and R. E. Kribel, Dept, of Physics, Auburn University, AL
36849
Initial results are given for plasma electron heating by istropi-
cally injected monoenergetic test electrons in a DC multidipole plasma
device. The experimental arrangement is described, along with the
conditions under which electron-electron Coulomb collisions alone need
to be considered.
60
Abstracts
VACUUM HIGH PRECISION LASER INTERFERROMETER MEASUREMENTS OF LOW CTE
QUARTZ AND GRAPHITE EPOXY
C. J. Rives,* D. A. Gregory,* and J. H. Davis, Physics Depart., Univ.
of Ala., Huntsville, AL 35899. J. G. Castle,* Sandia Labs, Albuquerque,
NM 87185.
A system for measuring the expansion of low coefficient of thermal
expansion (CTE) materials has been constructed about a H.P. 5526-A laser
measuring system. The vacuum (~ly) CTE measurements in the -150°F to
+120°F range were made over a 6 month period on a 2.3" O.D. x 1/16” wall
by ~.9 m long 59° wrap graphite epoxy (G/E) tube yielding CTE (a) values
of 2,5 to 5 x 10-7/°F above ambient and 2 ± 1 x 10“7/°F below ambient
temperature. To assure that the below ambient, ~10]i high open loop
nature of the AL/L vs. T curves was not apparatus related, similar size
quartz tubes (A and B) were checked and found to have only a 2y (negli-
gable for quartz) open loop component. These two quartz tubes, A and B,
had ambient CTE values 20% and 45% respectively higher than the average
handbook value (.305 x 10-6/°F). The overnight microcreep diminished an
order of magnitude during the first several cycles after the system had
been reopened.
DESIGN OF AN X-RAY MICROSCOPE FOR USE WITH
AN EXTENDED RANGE X-RAY TELESCOPE
Abd Kassim, S. Chao*, and D. L. Shealy*, University of Alabama
in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
This research has been carried out in response to the request from
the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) , National Aeronau¬
tics and Space Administration, for designing an optimal x-ray micro¬
scope (confocal, glancing incidence, hyperboloid-ellipsoid, internally
reflecting mirror system) that will couple with ATM experiment S-056
X-Ray telescope to an x-ray sensitive CCD detector. The desired
result of putting a microscope between the telescope and the detector
is the reduction of the telescope's high resolution. A ray tracing
technique has been developed for computing the RMS spot radius and
the point spread function. Calculations of the RMS spot radius as
a function of the microscope's focal length, magnification, and
mirror length have aided MSFC personnel in arriving at the final
mitror design for optimum resolution of the system over the entire
field of view.
61
Abstracts
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS DUE TO JOULE HEATING
IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
John H. Young, William J. Atkinson, and Ivan A. Brezovich,
University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
A general solution to the heat diffusion equation is
given for the Joule heating of conducting media by steady-
state electrical currents. The solution reduces the
problem of solving the inhomogeneous diffusion equation
to a simple boundary and initial value problem familiar
to all intermediate- level students of physics, mathe¬
matics and engineering and should be useful in supple¬
menting problem material in boundary value and heat
conduction courses. Examples of the method are given
and it is further shown that the general steady-state
temperature solution indicates that, under certain
conditions, the electrical equipotential surfaces will
also be isothermal surfaces .
AXIAL MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENTS IN A VACUUM SPARK PLASMA
Peter Beiersdorfer and Eugene J. Clothiaux, Dept, of Physics, Auburn
University, AL 36849
The axial magnetic field generated by a vacuum spark plasma has
been studied using inductive probes. A correlation between the onset
and the strength of the axial field and the x-ray emission by the
plasma is observed. It is found that the axial field strength is zero
until the last x-ray burst has occurred. This shows that the mechanism
that underlies the x-ray production has to preserve the axisymmetry of
the current flow. The axial field is thought to be caused by a kink
instability that disrupts the axisymmetry of the plasma thereby pre¬
venting any further x-ray production.
METEORITIC SPECTRA
Nicholas Gerontakis and Thomas J. Wdowiak, University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Department of Physics, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
Meteoroid entry into the earth's atmosphere will be simulated.
An examination of meteorite samples will be conducted by subjecting
the samples at low air pressure to a high speed shockwave. A
magnetically driven shock tube has been constructed for this purpose,
allowing for shock wave speeds of up to Mach 22. Light emission
from the samples will be analyzed with a Hilger E 612 F 5.7 2 prism
spectrograph and a modified optronic Czerny - Turner spectrometer.
62
Abstracts
Gravitational Acceleration of an Extended Rigid Body
John H. Young, Department of Physics, University of
Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35924
A derivation is given for the acceleration of the
center of mass of an extended rigid body in a gravita¬
tional field. The lowest order corrections to the
simple expression for the acceleration of a point mass
are shown to involve the coupling of the inertia tensor
of the body to field inhomogeneities. The significance
of the size, structure, and orientation of the body is
illustrated by the example of a spheroid in free fall
in a spherically symmetric field.
CHARACTERIZATION OF EASTERN OIL SHALES BY PROTON NMR
J. W. Harrell, Jr. Dept, of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of Ala.,
University, AL 35486
A study has been made on some Devonian oil shales to determine
the feasibility of using hydrogen pulse NMR to measure the oil yield
potential of raw oil shale samples. Preliminary measurements show
that the hydrogen in the kerogen can be distinguished from other
forms of hydrogen in the oil shale on the basis of relaxation times,
and a simple measurement technique has been adopted which is most
sensitive to the slowly relaxing kerogen. Measurements made on Alabama
oil shale and shale-kaolin mixtures are found to be linearly correlated
with the amount of extractable oil as determined by the Fischer assay
method .
A SIMPLE METHOD FOR SOLVING THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION
S. T. Jones, B. C. Harms, and S. Denham, Dept, of Physics and
Astronomy, The University of Alabama, University, AL 35486.
A simple scheme is described for numerically determining the
eigenvalues of the schrodinger equation. The method applies to poly¬
nomial potentials and can be easily implemented on a microcomputer.
The method of solution involves expansion of the wave function in
terms of harmonic oscillator states. The coefficients of the expan¬
sion are determined, as a function of energy, by a recursion relation.
The correct energy eigenvalue is determined by minimizing the norm
of the wave function. The procedure converges rapidly, as will be
illustrated by specific examples. Application of the procedure to
a non-hermitian hamiltonian of interest in field theory leads to
some unusual results.
63
Abstracts
INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS
TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATING HASHING FUNCTIONS
C. L. Friese, Dept, of Info. Systems, Auburn Univ. at Montg., Montg.,
AL 36193.
Applications in computer science and data processing that utilize
"random access" is of fundamental importance since the search time is
not a function of the number of records to be searched. Quite simply
stated, a hashing function is a rule, or set of rules that converts a
key into an address. Many hashing functions have been described in the
literature, however, the problem of which of these to select for a
particular application depends not only on the distribution of
addresses generated for a particular set of keys, but also very
critically on the techniques utilized for resolving "collisions" or
synonyms. The synonyms occur when different keys generate the same
address, which is an unavoidable property of hashing function. Both
the total number of synonyms and the distribution of the synonyms with
respect to the addresses are thus important parameters to be utilized
in evaluation of candidate hashing functions for a particular
applation. These parameters depend, of course, on the distribution of
the keys and hence each application must be evaluated independently.
Techniques for the evaluation of a candidate hashing function in terms
of the parameters will be presented. This is a critical step since the
search for a "best" hashing function is infinite, when it is only
necessary to find a function that is sufficient. The topic is not
adequately covered without considering the critical influence of the
method of synonym resolution on the criteria for a sufficient function.
The choice of storage for the records also influences the criteria, and
this effect will also be discussed.
THE STATE OF THE STATE IN MIS
Edward H. Kirsch
School of Business, Auburn University at Montgomery; Alabama Medicaid
Agency
The author discusses the need for and current status of manage¬
ment information systems in the state government in eight functional
areas; health and human services, financial, education, planning,
natural resources and agriculture, criminal justice, transportation,
and energy and utility regulation. He indicates that the state is
generally behind industry in MIS development, but that new manage¬
ment is currently accelerating development. In a final statement,
he indicates that the outcome of the forthcoming gubernatorial election
could affect the MIS development.
64
Abstracts
THE LABOR SUPPLY EFFECTS OF NONPECUNIARY CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT
Philip Gregorowicz
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS, Auburn University in Montgomery
The primary purpose of this research is to investigate the
effects of a variety of variables reflecting the nature of the nonperu-
niary conditions of employment on individual hours of work choices.
Included in this set of variables are attitude variables and indices
of worker job satisfaction; also included are such factors as physical
working conditions, the existence of job hazards, and the nature of
work activities. This study will focus on the independent labor supply
affects of such non-monetary variables and their impact on the esti¬
mated coefficients of the more traditional variables used in empirical
labor supply models.
Analysis of the determinants of time allocation between market
and nonmarket uses has focused on the impact of changes in wage rates
and income. The estimated effect of these monetary variables on labor
supply is highly dependent on controlling for individual taste diff¬
erences in the uses of time. This problem is particularly relevant in
explaining the post-World War II stability in individual labor supply
inspite of substantial increases in income. Also, empirical estimates
of the income effect generally are inconsistent with economic theory.
It is a maintained hypothesis in this research that the nonpecu-
niary conditions of employment serve as useful proxies for individual
tastes for work not captured by other variables. Their omission from
labor supply models results in biased parameter estimates for the mone¬
tary variables. This study attempts to verify these beliefs.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BUYERS AND SELLERS
AT FARMER'S MARKETS IN ALABAMA
W. Joe Free and Veronica A. Vitelli. Resource Economics Section, TVA,
Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660.
The marketing systems for many horticultural crops are not well
structured and small farmers not only face wide price variations but
often cannot find buyers willing to handle their crop unless wholesale
prices are severely discounted. For many producers where shipping
buyers or producer's marketing associations are not available, direct
markets to the consumer are an important alternative. As part of a
broader project to identify and analyze impediments to effective market
entry at local, regional, and national levels for southern fruit and
vegetable producers having various resource endowments, TVA and Auburn
University in cooperation with S129, surveyed farmers markets in
Alabama. Survey results indicate that the 113 farmer-sellers at the
markets sold one to six products with three being the average. Average
plot size was 9.3 hectacres (23 acres). Estimated average purchase
by the 118 consumers surveyed was $15.00 per visit. Twenty-four market
managers were also surveyed. Survey results will be jointly published
by the Auburn Experiment Station and as a Southern Regional Cooperative
Bulletin.
65
Abstracts
PRICING AND PRACTICE BEHAVIOR OF SELF-EMPLOYED PHYSICIANS
James R. Seldon. Dept. Economics, AUM, Montgomery, AL 36193
Physician incomes after professional expenses in the
East South Central Census Division in 1978 and 1979 were
significantly above the mean for all U.S. physicians, even
though Division per capita income was less than 82 per cent
of the U.S. level. There were 26 per cent fewer physicians
per capita in the ESC Division than in the U.S. as a whole,
but the case was not simply one of restricted supply leading
to higher prices. Reported ESC fees for standard medical
and surgical services were consistently lower than in other
Divisions. The higher average incomes resulted from those
lower fees combined with twenty per cent more patient visits
per hour of working time, and ten per cent more annual work¬
ing hours. Higher demand per physician combined with sim¬
ilar physician supply conditions could be responsible for
higher incomes, but would also imply higher fees. Lower
fees could result from lower demand levels, but should be
accompanied by lower incomes. Several explanations, none
entirely satisfactory, are suggested for the output-fees-
income pattern. ESC practitioners may have different tastes
and preferences for income versus leisure or may face dif¬
ferent auxiliary input prices. Alternatively they may face
lower demands for their services at given prices but be more
successful in practicing price discrimination. ESC phys¬
icians have adjusted so as to charge higher fees per hour of
time spent in patient care, but unexplained is why phys¬
icians elsewhere have not adopted similar practice styles.
"REINSTATED BY THE ARBITRATOR"
H. Ellsworth Steele, Dept, of Economics, Auburn University, AL 36849
Labor arbitrators frequently order management to reinstate workers
they have discharged, some with and some without back pay.
The return of these workers to their old workplaces may be trau¬
matic for them, their supervisors and others. To explore this process,
51 cases from four manufacturing plants in the upper south were
examined. Of these, 16 were explored through extensive interviews
involving returned workers, supervisors, shop stewards and fellow-
workers.
Of the 51 workers, 43 not only returned to work but stayed long
enough for their supervisors to rate them as "satisfactory" or
"unsatisfactory." In the judgment of their supervisor, 60 percent
of these returning workers became satisfactory employees.
The present report focuses upon the experience of a young man who
had been terminated for fighting with a fellow employee. Through the
worker's eyes and those of his supervisors, shop stewards and fellow
employees, the fairness of the arbitrator's award, the worker's
reception upon return, his treatment by supervision, his work perfor¬
mance and his feelings toward the company and the union are examined.
66
Abstracts
IMPLICATIONS OF THE 1980 RAIL DEREGULATION ACT
ON ALABAMA GRAIN HANDLERS
W. Joe Free. Resource Economics Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals, Alabama
35660.
This paper discusses principles embodied in the rate provisions of the
Staggers Act and the implications of these changes on Alabama grain
handlers as a result of the Staggers Act. Five basic rail rate provi¬
sions of the Staggers Act are: (1) The Interstate Commerce Commission's
(ICC) authority to regulate railroad rates applies only where no other
competition exists, (2) The ICC can intervene if the rail industry is
not earning adequate revenues, (3) Rail carriers have rate flexibility
within limits, (4) A carrier participating in a joint rate movement
that is not receiving an adequate share of the joint revenues may
surcharge the traffic or cancel the joint rate and establish its own
rate, (5) Carriers may enter into contracts for transportation services
without regulation by the ICC. Some guidelines that Alabama grain
handlers should consider in developing rate strategy in light of the
new Act include: (1) Rates in existence on October 1, 1980 could have
been challenged as unreasonable via the "savings-clause" before March
29, 1981, (2) Seek competitive transportation alternatives, (3) Develop
a clear understanding of variable costs for transportation moves and
negotiate, (4) Enter into contract rates for minimum volume shipments
and steady flow of traffic, (5) Consider costs and benefits involved
in purchasing the line.
THE POTENTIAL FOR ELECTRONIC SELLING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
W. Joe Free and Veronica A. Vitelli. Resource Economics Section, TVA,
Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660.
Technological advances in data processing and communications have made
electronic trading possible. Sale by description is necessary for elec¬
tronic trading between parties in different localities. Electronic
selling increased competition in the market place by improving market
knowledge among buyers and sellers and enlarging the trade area by putt¬
ing a large number of sellers and buyers in contact simultaneously. It
maximizes efficiency and competition in negotiated transactions. TVA
is working with Land-Grant Universities, Farmers Cooperative Service,
Eastern Electronic Association, and a number of fresh wholesale vegeta¬
ble markets to develop an electronic market system for fresh fruits and
vegetables. Fresh fruits and vegetables are an important industry in
the South where over one-fourth of the total US supply is produced.
Most is sold by description via a network of telephone brokers from
spatially separated producers to spatially separated wholesale buyers.
The technology to market fresh fruits and vegetables electronically is
available but the trade participants have not been organized. TVA
recognized a need for the system among sellers and established a pilot
program in 1981 with selected packinghouses to develop a computerized
recordkeeping system which will provide the framework for a pilot
electronic marketing program for fresh fruits and vegetables. This is
the first system especially designed for wholesale trading of fruit
and vegetables. The system has wide application throughout the
Tennessee Valley region and the nation once perfected and accepted.
67
Abstracts
THE IMPORTANCE OF "INFLATION ACCOUNTING" FOR AGRIBUSINESS—
A CASE STUDY OF THREE FIRMS
Veronica A. Vitelli. Resource Economics Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals,
Alabama 35660.
The time value of money has never been more important. High interest
rates, new financing arrangements, decisions as to lease or buy, all
accentuate the need for "inflation accounting" among agribusinesses.
Conventional accounting techniques describe the overall asset position
of the firm, as well as past services and use of funds. This data is o
little value for financial planning without modification to incorporate
the changing value of money over time. Inflation accounting refers to
the ability of management to incorporate the changing value of money in
to records of the company so that they be used for making decisions.
Present value analysis is considered the best financial management deci
sion tool in evaluating investment alternatives because cash flows are
"discounted" over 'time. Profit motivated agribusiness firms must incor
porate financial management techniques that include the changing value
of money when estimating future produce prices, wage rates, material
costs, and methods of operation. Replacement Cost Accounting is one
specific tool that agribusiness firms should adopt — even if it means
keeping two sets of records. Management audits with three agribusiness
firms revealed that none used "inflation accounting." All three kept
records primarily for filing taxes. While the tax records revealed tha
these firms were solvent, they did not exploit company data in planning
especially for capital expenditures and in preparing pro forma and cash
flow statements. This could be catastrophic during inflationary periods
HAS KEYNESIAN ECONOMICS REALLY FAILED
A. Wayne Lacy and Katherine M. Graves,
Department of Economics, Auburn University at Montgomery
Montgomery, AL 36193
This paper addresses the question of whether Keynesian economic
methodology as prescribed by theory has given rise to the problems of
the U.S. economy or because of a failure to apply Keynesian theory
appropriately or at all. A year by year analysis for 1960-1980 exa¬
mines economic conditions and the policy applied to determine if the
policy was in fact the Keynesian prescription.
The analysis reveals that while some years provided excellent
examples of Keynesian application, a large percentage did not. Most
notably, in the 1970-1980 decade, the Keynesian anti-inflationary
policies in general were not followed. Much evidence exists in the
data to demonstrate that while Keynesian expansionary policies were
often pursued vigorously, Keynesian contractionary policies were not
except for short periods.
68
Abstracts
TRENDS TOWARD THE CONSERVATION OF ELECTRICITY IN ALABAMA
Jim Coleman, Ala. Power Co., Mkt . Services Dept., Birmingham, AL 35291
The Company administers a residential customer survey biennially to
monitor the changes in appliance saturations, demographics, dwelling
characteristics and energy conservation. The latest survey, which
consisted of a sequential random sample of 1,006 from a total popula¬
tion of residential customers, was conducted in May, 1981. The analysis
of the energy conservation data collected is directed to the quantifi¬
cation of the behavioral aspects of customer conservation. In other
words, what are customers doing to conserve energy? These elements are
examined on the basis of group segmentation. These groups are desig¬
nated as "energy effort profiles," (level of effort to conserve) newer
versus older dwellings, type of air conditioning and type of space
heating. The total sample data is compared to these groups and certain
trend data are examined. From the study, we can make the following
general conclusions: (1) The trend to conserve energy continues to
increase; (2) "Energy effort profiles" tend to substantiate the
customer's personal evaluation of whether he or she is applying a
determined effort or some effort or no effort to conserve energy; (3)
A high percentage of customers with electric water heaters, electric
ranges and electric clothes dryers are making efforts to conserve; (4)
Customers in dwellings, 5 years or less, tend to conserve more energy
than those in older dwellings; (5) Central air conditioning customers
apply more significant measures to conserve than those with window
units; (6) Electric space heating customers make a greater effort to
conserve than those with other fuels.
OPTIMIZING THE COST OF CAPITAL: A SIMULTANEOUS DETERMINATION
Raymond M. Johnson, Dept, of Accounting & Finance, Auburn University at
Montgomery, Montgomery, Alabama 56193.
This paper reconsiders the issue of the firm's optimal capital
structure and the resulting optimal cost of capital within a model
which incorporates a "budget constraint" in the form of the firm's
balance sheet. Optimization is considered both from the standpoint of
assuming the presence and absence of risk in the model. When uncertain¬
ty is present in the model, the paper shows that the optimal capital
structure and consequently the optimal cost of capital are indetermin¬
ate without considering the covariance between the sources of capital.
The paper presents a technique for simultaneously determining the
optimal components of capital which incorporates the covariance
considerations.
69
Abstracts
THE EFFICIENCY OF THE SOYBEAN FUTURES MARKET IN FORECASTING CASH PRICES
Philip Gregorowicz, Gayden Green and Carl McDevitt
School of Business, Auburn University in Montgomery
It is generally argued that organized futures markets improve on
resource allocation and reduce price volatility in cash markets by pro¬
viding market participants mechanisms to: (1) stabilize revenues by
shifting price volatility risks, (2) acquire information about futures
conditions, (3) hold efficient levels of inventories over time. Stan¬
dard theory of price determination in futures markets for continuously
storable commodities stresses the role of futures markets on inventory
adjustments. Futures market prices are viewed as reflecting the cost
of storing such commodities. However, recent research has focused on
the forecasting function of these markets.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the effectiveness of soy¬
bean futures market in providing accurate forward prices or forecasts
of subsequent soybean cash prices. The efficiency of these forecasts
is tested by means of a simple linear regression model. Actual cash
prices are regressed on the earlier futures prices of soybeans. If
futures prices correctly forecast subsequent cash prices then the
intercept of the regression equation will be zero and the slope unity.
Should these results be achieved, futures prices can be argued to be
'unbiased estimates' of cash prices.
The data on which these statistical tests were performed was limi¬
ted to the 35 soybean contracts maturing in 1977 through 1981. This
period reflected high levels of uncertainty and price volatility.
A UTILITY LOOKS AT LIFELINE RATES
Fred Norrell. Energy Services Dept., Ala. Power Co., Birmingham, AL
35291
Cost justification for lifeline rates is explored. Load shapes for
various groups of customers (including the poor, the elderly poor, and
those without air conditioners) are examined. The study concludes that
income and energy use are not reliable predictors of load shape , whereas
appliance mix is. Residential customers without air conditioners and
those with heat pumps have load shapes significantly flatter than
residential customers as a whole. Thus, cost-j ustif ied lifeline rates
may be appropriate for customers with specified appliance mixes, but
these results cannot correctly be extended to particular socioeconomic
groups .
70
Abstracts
INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN SOYBEANS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ALABAMA
James L. Stallings, Dept, of Ag. Economics, Auburn Univ. , Aubum Univ. ,
AL 36849
International trade in soybeans is extremely important to Alabama
farmers and agribusiness in that over 1 out of every 2 acres of har¬
vested cropland is required for Alabama's export share of U.S. exports.
The value of Alabama's export share in terms of prices received by
farmers was $216.5 million in 1980. The U.S. is the world's most im¬
portant soybean producer with nearly 2/3 of world production. Only
Brazil, the People's Republic of China and Argentina are other impor¬
tant producers. The U.S. accounted for 81.7% of the whole soybeans,
37.4% of the soybean meal, and 33.7% of the soybean oil exported in the
world in 1977-1981. The most important customers for U.S. and Alabama
soybeans and products include Netherlands and Japan for whole soybeans;
Netherlands, W. Germany and Italy for soybean meal; and, India and
Pakistan for soybean oil. Trade policies most affecting U.S. and
Alabama, with respect to soybeans, include the various policies of the
European Economic Community, Japan, Brazil, and Argentina, which either
result in trade restrictions or subsidize their own producers and pro¬
cessors in competition with the U.S. Important issues for U.S. and
Alabama farmers and agribusiness include the requirement that a certain
percentage of soybeans and products must be shipped in U.S. vessels, a
possible grain embargo of the U.S.S.R. and Poland, completion of the
Tennessee-Tombigbee waterway, expansion of the facilities of the Port
of Mobile, foreign exchange rates, and the soil mining aspects of in¬
creased production of soybeans for export from the U.S. and Alabama.
SCIENCE EDUCATION
PREPARING PLANETARIUM PROGRAMS
Carole Rutland, Patterson Planetarium, Columbus, GA and
Dutchie S. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College
This presentation develops an approach for the production of
low-priced audiovisual materials for use in planetarium programs.
As more school systems add planetaria to their facilities, the
need to be able to locally produce standard programs as well as
special effects mater ial— increases . Among the variety of media
production described are slides, film loops, panoramic slides,
slides with motion (polarizing techniques to simulate motion),
and a broad range of titling techniques exemplary of which is
Kodalith. A major thrust of the paper is the production of
planetarium materials on minimum budget.
71
Abstracts
A CURRICULUM STRATEGY FOR ENERGY EDUCATION
A. J. Atkins. Dept, of Curriculum and Teaching,
Auburn University 36849
During the last twenty-five years numerous efforts have been made to
effect curriculum changes in the science courses of the secondary
school. The first major effort was associated with the Sputnik era
when considerable sums of money were made available through the Nation¬
al Science Foundation. Since the end of that era, and particularly
during the past decade, numerous efforts have been witnessed to have
such topics as ecology, sex, alcohol abuse, drugs, environmental educa¬
tion, career education, scientific creationism, and others taught in
the science curriculum. Few efforts of this latter era have met with
notable success for numerous reasons. The current topic of energy edu¬
cation may be viewed as but another such topic. There are ways in
which energy education can be incorporated into all science courses
with no great expenditure of time or money. These are (1) to teach
science within a framework of a concept of that energy which is a natu¬
ral and concomitant part of the science being taught; and (2) place
emphasis on teaching for the transfer of what is learned about energy
to everyday practical situations. This proposal is not offered as a
panacea but as a natural and practical way to begin a program of energy
education in secondary schools.
A SIMPLE EXPERIMENT ON TWO-DIMENSIONAL COLLISIONS
S. T. Jones, Dept, of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Alabama,
University, AL 35486.
The collision between two pendulum bobs hanging from a common
point provides an extremely simple experiment in 2-dimensional
collisions. For small angles, the velocity before collision is just
proportional to the linear distance the bob has traveled, so that
measuring velocities is trivial. Both elastic and inelastic collisions
can be studied with ease, and of course, the equipment is cheap. This
provides a much-needed illustration of the vector nature of momentum
for beginning students.
72
Abstracts
THE EDUCATION SERVICES DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL
AIR AND SPACE MUSEUM AND THE REGIONAL RESOURCE PROGRAM-
AVAILABLE ASSISTANCE FOR LOCAL SCIENCE EDUCATION
Ernest D. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College
This paper describes the Regional Resources Program of the
National Air and Space Museum. Begun in 1979, the Regional
Resource Program of the National Air and Space Museum has grown
to a total of 48 trained regional resource persons. Training
for these resource persons is provided at the facilities of the
National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C. Schools and
other organizations interested in utilizing the services of a
regional resource person or one or more of the many science
education programs and facilities of the NASM, should contact
the Smithsonian Institution, Educational Services Division,
National Air and Space Museum, Room P-700, Washington, D.C.
20650 and ask for additional information including the name,
address, and telephone number of the regional contact nearest
the location of the institution making the request for infor¬
mation and services.
TEACHING AIDS AND METHODS UTILIZED BY UNIVERSITIES
AND NONEDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Dr. Marlon C. Rico and Dr. William S. Stewart, Dept, of Marketing and
Management, Univ. of No. Ala., Florence, AL 35632-0001, Dr, Ursin S.
(Pete) Walker, School of Education, Delta State Univ., Cleveland
This paper provides an exploratory analysis of 30 teaching aids and
methods utilized during the Fall of 1981 by two universities, a
military installation, a public utility, and a private business firm.
Within the universities, data was tabulated by individual school, and
it appears that the Schools of Education are using a wider variety of
methods in their teaching efforts. The teaching methods used most
often by all schools in the university setting were lecture and
discussion, and the teaching aid with the greatest frequency of use was
the chalk board. Noneducation institutions made greater use of team
teaching, programmed instructions, games and simulation, and pre¬
packaged learning materials. All organizations, both the universities
and the noneducational institutions used problem solving to a high
degree as a teaching method. This study suggests that university
faculty may not be utilizing, to the fullest extent, the most advanced
teaching aids and methods.
73
Abstracts
THE STS AS A RESOURCE FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE TEACHING:
STUDYING THE SPACE SHUTTLE IN THE CLASSROOM
Eleanor Eubanks, Gentian Elementary School, Columbus, GA
Ernest D. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College and Dutchie S. Riggsby,
Columbus (GA) College
Teacher-made and teacher-edited instructional materials for
science units on the space shuttle and the encounters with the
planetary systems of Jupiter and Saturn by Voyager I and Voyager
II were the thrust of this paper. The authors and presenters
were on site at Cape Kennedy for the launching of STS-I and
STS-II and at the Jet Propulsion Laboratories at California
Institute of Technology for the planetary flyby of both
Voyager I and II. Slides, overhead transparencies, video¬
tapes, motion picture footage, models and posters are among
the media produced. Several examples of student-made teaching
materials were also included. Additionally, photocopying mate¬
rials made available from the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration and integration into suitable format for use
in individual classrooms was presented.
FALCON FORCE: AN UPDATE ON THE REVISED EDITION
OF A MIDDLE SCHOOL AEROSPACE SCIENCE PROGRAM
Eleanor Eubanks, Gentian Elementary School, Columbus, GA
Dutchie S. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College and Ernest D.
Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College
Described and discussed in this paper is the revised edition
of Falcon Force, a multimedia, interdisciplinary program for
middle school science students centered upon space science as a
core of information and skills to be supplemented by art, English,
mathematics, social studies, and other disciplines. Largely
subsidized by the Civil Air Patrol, the Falcon Force kit is
available at less than half the cost of a fully commercially
produced effort. The investigation included in this paper is
the second year of a two-year experimental program using
Falcon Force in fifth and sixth grade classes. The results
of the first year (pilot) study of the program resulted in the
identification and execution of several desirable revisions in
the program. Additionally, the kit has been expanded to include
duplicate copies of several items.
74
Abstracts
SOCIAL SCIENCES
THE FEDERAL ENDEAVOR: THE FREEDMEN'S BUREAU
AND LABOR REORGANIZATION IN ALABAMA, 1865-1869.
John B. Myers, Dept, of History, Columbus College, Columbus, GA 31993
One of the urgent problems which confronted post-war Alabama was
labor reorganization. The transition from slave to free labor touched
every phase of Alabama life. Many whites, skeptical of free black
labor, viewed the future pessimistically, while claiming that the
country was ruined because blacks would not work "without the lash."
Though the freedmen's reluctance to work was exaggerated, they were
hesitant to negotiate with whites due to distrust and a lack of bar¬
gaining experience. The task of resolving the labor problem was as¬
signed to an agency of the Federal government known as the Freedmen's
Bureau. Alabama Bureau Commissioner, Wager Swayne, was ordered to
introduce a practical labor system and to resolve related labor griev¬
ances and abuses. In May, 1865 he published labor regulations for Ala¬
bama; which permitted employers and employees to enter contracts,
provided they were "fair and honest to laborers and approved by a
Bureau agent." Post-war poverty and lack of capital in Alabama encour¬
age utilization of the sharecrop system. This system, although
scrutinized by the Bureau, was a "rather informal affair" with a
variety of arrangements. Crop failures and other economic problems,
combined with white employers' lack of confidence in black labor
brought about widespread abuses of the contract system in 1865, 1866,
1867 and 1868. By the end of 1868, the Federal government decided
that the Freedmen's Bureau was no longer required. Despite the pre¬
vailing unsettled economic, political, and social atmosphere, the Free|-
men's Bureau, black labors' Federal ally departed from Alabama in 1869
SAMUEL ELBERT AND THE EAST FLORIDA CAMPAIGNS, 1777-1778
David S. Heidler, Dept, of History, Auburn University, AL 36849
In the early years of the American Revolution, Georgia patriots
were rankled by provocative and harassing raids along their southern
border. Those raids originated from a small, yet belligerent, garrison
at St. Augustine in East Florida. The patriots in Georgia became
virtually fixated upon the idea of reducing this garrison as a pre¬
requisite of revolutionary participation. Samuel Elbert had the mis¬
fortune to be placed in charge of the 1777 expedition to accomplish
this objective. This expedition was marred by political quarrels and
incautious planning, and it was formidable only in the danger it posed
to Georgia forces. Elbert succeeded in avoiding the destruction of
his command and, in the following year, participated in an equally
quixotic effort against the British. Yet Elbert did manage to inflict
little harm on the patriot cause in 1777; and in 1778 he managed to
deliver it a small triumph. Hence, this is the story of success amidst
futility.
75
Abstracts
INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS: REAL CHANGE OR MORE OF THE SAME?
Barbara M. Giles and Donald E. Hayhurst. Dept, of Political Science,
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849
This paper analyzes trends in intergovernmental realtions fron 1960
to 1980. Specifically it focuses on the attempts of Reagan's Admin¬
istration to restore balance to the intergovernmental structure and
speculates about his chances for achieving real change. Frcm 1960 to
1980 there was an increase in the number and cost of categorical grants
which were accompanied by an increase in federal mandates. An imbalance
resulted within the federal system whereby the federal government be¬
came the center of power. With the introduction of block grants and
revenue sharing, particularly during Nixon's Administration, unsuccess¬
ful attempts were made to return power to state and local governments.
Thus, the decade of the 1970 's ended with categorical grants ranaining
the primary source of financial assistance and real power being main¬
tained at the federal level. With the administration of Ronald Reagan
efforts to restructure the balance of power within the federal systan
are being renewed. During the first year of his berm Reagan focused
on cutting the growth of federal domestic spending and restoring power
to states, both goals being served by more extensive use of block
grants. As he embarked on his second year in office, he has proposed
pursuing these goals further in his "New Federalism" program. In
assessing prospects for change, efforts of Reagan's Administration are
compared with those of Nixon's. Differences in composition of Congress,
personalities of individuals and changes in state government are
addressed. On this basis speculation about real change is made.
SPANISH MEDICAL CARS IN THE MOBILE DISTRICT:
AD V AIT C ED OR RETARDED?
Sir Jack D.L. Holmes, Ph.D., Birmingham, Alabama 35205
Contrary to "black-legend" anti-Spanish writing about medical
care under Carlos III and Carlos IV to 1808, crovm policy was to
provide university-trained surgeons and physicians, medics (prac-
ticantes), orderlies, nurses, and a hospital hierarchy to oversee
equipment. Pharmacists, as other medical personnel, had to be
licensed after an exam by the board of medical examiners. In the
Mobile District, 1730— 1813, The Treasury s fiscal agent or guar da
almac6n, supervised medical care in the Royal Hospital on Dauphin
Street. Port Confederation and Port San Esteban de Tombecbl had
medical care, as did Fort Stoddard under American control in 1799*
Careful records show type of medicines used, size of hospital beds,
payroll for medical personnel, and the pensions provided for mili¬
tary and civilian doctors. Foreign books were translated into
Spanish and made available to surgeons at Mobile. Modern quaran¬
tine methods developed at New Orleans in 1779 were followed by
other colonial powers who used Dr. Gil's 1786 treatise. Brunonian
theory of treatment characterized Spanish medical care.
76
Abstracts
REAGAN'S NEW FEDERALISM: CAN CITIES AND STATES COPE?
David W. Sink. Dept, of Urban Studies, UAB , Birmingham, AL 35294.
David L. Martin. Dept, of Political Science, Auburn Uni v. , AL 36849.
Arthur S. Wilke. Dept, of Sociology and Anthropology, Auburn Uni v . ,
AL 36849.
The theme of this panel discussion rests upon an understanding of
the connectivity between each of the parts of government in the U.S.
--national, state, and local. Since President Johnson's Great So¬
ciety concentration on categorical grants created a strong and di¬
rect link between national and local governments, three Republican
presidents have sought to return decision-making rights to the ci¬
ties as well as interject state governments into that relationship.
For some cities in several states, this alteration poses few major
problems. For many other cities (and urban counties as well) in
states with legislatures and bureaucracies lacking in true govern¬
mental capacity and will, such a decentralization of authority may
create hardship and a new set of intergovernmental challenges. This
tenuous status may be further aggravated in states where locales
lack home rule, enjoy limited taxing authority, and/or suffer from
long-standing opposition from rurally-based legislators and chief
executives. Conversely, proponents of the current administration's
plan argue that important decisions should be made by governments
closest to the people they affect. Opponents are concerned that
most states are unable or unwilling to assume the responsibilities
to be thrust upon them and believe that the net effect of the New
Federalism would be simply fewer services for the needy.
SAVING SLOSS
Sloss Furnace No. 1 went into blast April 12, 1882 as one
of a long line of industrial plants along the railroad res¬
ervation which bisected Birmingham, Alabina. Furnace No. 2
began pouring iron the following year and the two continued
to light up the sky in Birmingham until 1970 when they
were the only downtown furnaces left. However, stringent
requirements of the Environmental Protection Agency caused
U. S. Pipe Company, the 1970 owners, to shut down rather
than meet the heavy investment.
What should be done with acres of historic blast furnaces
in downtown Birminghaun? Conflict arose immediately between
"Tear it down, bring in new business on this prime site and
have jobs" and "Save Sloss! it is the only furnace of this
era still standing in the USA! "
Today the furnaces are a National Landmark, listed on the
National Register of Historic Places and is recorded in
the Historic American Engineering Record, April 12, 1982
will bring the Centennial Celebration as work proceeds to
modify the site for an Iron and Steel Museum--f irst one in
"The Pittsburgh of the South." From scheduled demolition
to Centennial Opening is a testimonial to the power of
private citizens banded together.
77
Helen Mabry
Abstracts
HEALTH SCIENCES
TRANSFERRIN LEVELS IN PATIENTS WITH IgG AND IgA DEFICIENCIES
COMPARED TO NORMAL ADULTS
K.S. Yackzan, B.M. Gray, and P.L. Haber, Diabetes Research and
Training Center, and Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama
in Birmingham, AL 35294
In addition to its established functions in iron transport and
metabolism, transferrin is also thought to play a role in normal host
defense by binding iron and making it unavailable to bacteria, and
thus reduce the growth potential of such iron-requiring pathogens as
Pseudomonas , E. coli , Shigella, Neisseria , and Listeria . A previous
report suggested that transferrin levels were increased in patients
with immunodef icies . We therefore examined transferrin levels in 14
adult patients with acquired agammaglobulinemia. Their mean trans¬
ferrin was 304 mg/dl (SD=81), compared to 253 mg/dl (SD=35) in 22
normal adult laboratory personnel and medical students (P*U0.02).
Nine patients with IgA deficiency had transferrin levels averaging
273 mg/dl (SD=87), and five patients with X-linked agammaglobulinemia
averaged 272 mg/dl (SD= 108), which was not significantly different
from the normal controls. To see if transferrin might be normally
increased in a specific disease state, we measured levels in 11
infants (mean age 13 months) with acute otitis media, using serum
samples from the same infants at well --child visits as controls.
Transferrin levels at the time of illness averaged 369 mg/dl (SD=80,
N=ll) and was not significantly different from levels (mean=401, N=15,
P=NS) when they were healthy. Both infants and the adults with
acquired agammaglobulinemia had transferrin levels elevated with
regard to normal adults. Thus while a host defense role for trans¬
ferrin was not established, our results point in that direction.
Effects of Dietary Fiber on Carbohydrate Metabolism
in Class A (Gestational) Diabetics
Richard 0. Davis, Betty Darnell, and John F. Huddleston, Dept, of Obste¬
trics and Gynecology, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham ,AL 35294
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of dietary fiber
on carbohydrate metabolism in Class A Diabetes in pregnancy. Since glu¬
cose control toward normal levels is associated with decreases in peri¬
natal morbidity and mortality, dietary modifications which offer
increased control of glucose levels toward normal would be clinically
benef icial .
In Class A Diabetes, increased fiber reduced the average postprandial
glucose levels when compared to the standard 2200 calorie ADA diet.
There were no differences in fasting glucose levels. There was a down¬
ward trend in insulin and glucagon levels but this was not statistically
signif icant .
78
Abstracts
TESTICULAR TERATOMAS IN TRANSPLANTED EMBRYONIC MOUSE GONADS
Gregory S. Cameron and C.P. Dagg. Dept, of Biology, University of
Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
Stevens has shown that embryonic genital ridges taken from Fj hybrids
of inbred strains 129/SvSl/+ and A/HeJ mice and transplanted to
histocompatible adult hosts form teratomas in a high precentage of the
grafts that come from male embryos. It has been suggested that these
tumors arise from the germ cells of the graft tissue. Urethane and
cyclophosphamide (cytoxan) are known to damage the germ cells of adults
and to damage DNA. Caffeine is thought to be a DNA repair inhibitor and
has been shown effective in altering the action of urethane on embryos.
In order to determine whether germ cells are responsible for the
formation of these teratomas, embryos were treated In utero with
caffeine at a dose of O.lmg/gm body weight of the pregnant female,
urethane at a dose of either 0.5mg/gm or l.Omg/gm, cytoxan at a dose of
O.Olmg/gm, or a combination of caffeine and urethane or cytoxan. When
given in combination the caffeine was administered at a dose of O.lmg/gm
3 hours prior to and 3 hours after urethane or cytoxan. The embryos
were treated on day 10 of gestation and the ridges transplanted on day
12. When compared to controls(87%) , the caffeine(89%) , cytoxan(82%) , or
the caf feine-cytoxan(80%) had no significant effect on the rate of
teratoma formation. However, there was a linear dose response for the
rate of teratoma formation and the dose of urethane administered. A
dose of 0.5mg/gm of urethane resulted in a rate of 57% and a dose of
l.Omg/gm resulted in a rate of 29%. Caffeine enhanced the effect of the
urethane and further reduced the rate to 8% in the caffeine-urethane
treated ridges. This ■ reduction is the result of a decrease in the
number of germ cells.
INFECTIOUS MEDIASTINITIS IN A UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL
Barbara K. Williams, Div. of Infectious Diseases, and Michael Maetz, School of
Public Health, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
Infectious mediastinitis is an important and life-threatening complication of
many types if cardiac surgical procedures. To elucidate the extent of this problem
and its patterns of occurrence at our institution we reviewed the medical records
of open-heart surgery patients, laboratory culture results, operating room records,
and Infection Control daily surveillance data. We found that the incidence of
mediastinitis has increased from 1.41 cases/1000 in 1975 to a peak of 14.12
cases/1000 in 1980; 9.59 cases/1000 were seen in 1981. The incidence of
mediastinitis increased with the number of cases done (r = 0.72; p < 0.01). The
extremely high rate of mediastinitis seen in 1980 was due to a cluster of cases
caused by Enterobacter aerogenes which occurred in the fall of that year. The
increasing incidence of this problem at our institution underlies the importance of
implementing effective preventive measures.
79
Abstracts
EFFECT OF FLURBIPROFEN ON MYOCARDIAL INFARCT SIZE
David E. Chambers and James M. Downey, Department of Physiology,
University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. D.M. Yellon and
D.J. Hearse, The Rayne Institute, London, U.K.
Flurbiprofen reportedly reduces the extent of myocardial tissue
injury 6 hr. after the onset of ischemia. The present study was
designed to test whether flurbiprofen continues to limit infarct
size 24 hr. after coronary occlusion. A cannula was inserted into
the coronary artery via the carotid artery of a closed chest dog.
A plastic bead was injected through the cannula to cause a coronary
occlusion, followed by labelled microspheres into the left
ventricle. The animals were then divided into 4 groups: Group I,
24 hrs.; Group II, 24 hrs of ischemia plus flurbiprofen (1 mg/kg
every 8 hrs.); Group III, 6 hr. control; and Group IV, 6 hr. ischemia
plus flurbiprofen (1 mg/kg). After 6 or 24 hrs. the animals were
re-anesthetized and the hearts were removed and sectioned. Auto¬
radiography of the microspheres was used to determine the perfusion
field of the occluded artery which was considered to be the region
at risk, and the necrotic zone was determined by staining with
triphenyl tetrazolium. The infarct:risk zone ratio was .84+. 05 for
the 24 hr. treatment group and .91+. 04 for the 24 hr. controls.
These differences were not significant. For the 6 hr. treatment
group, the infarct:risk zone ratio was .21±.07 and for the 6 hr.
controls it was .78+. 13. These values were significantly
different. Thus, although flurbiprofen may delay injury assessed
at 6 hr., all condemned tissue will have died by 24 hr. in spite of
the drug.
SUFFERING REPORTED BY ADULTS WITH LUNG CANCER
Susan Benedict Yu, School of Nursing and Julian Bird, Dept, of
Liaison Psychiatry, The University of Alabama in Birmingham,
Birmingham, Alabama 35294
Many inferences are made about the phenomenon of suffering in
persons who have cancer. Suffering, though frequently discussed,
is difficult to study because of its subjective and unique nature.
In this study, 25 patients participated in interviews and 10 com¬
pleted written questionnaires about personal suffering resulting
from the experience of cancer. Nine of these patients ascribed the
presence of suffering principally to fear of disease recurrence,
anxiety, disability, physical pain, and depression. In contrast,
altered body image, financial problems, family problems, and dif¬
ficulties with physicians and nurses were not reported as major causes
of suffering by this group of patients.
80
Abstracts
AN IMPROVED CYTOGENETIC METHOD FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF FANCONI'S ANEMIA
A.J. Carroll, N.C. Robinson, and W.H. Finley. Laboratory of Medical
Genetics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
Fanconi's anemla(FA) is an autosomal recessive disorder charac¬
terized by pancytopenia, short stature, hypoplasia to aplasia of the
thumb, spontaneous chromosome Instabl lity, and a variety of other
anomalies. Varlabl lity of both phenotype and age of onset of anemia
makes diagnosis difficult, particularly In those patients who manifest
few or no FA clinical features other than bone marrow Insufficiency.
Spontaneous chromosome breakage, ranging from none to high levels, has
been reported to vary from patient to patient as well as within the
same patient over a period of time. We studied the frequency of chro¬
mosome breakage In cultured lymphocytes from FA patients, FA parents
and siblings, patients with Idiopathic aplastic anemia, and controls.
Spontaneous breakage frequencies In FA patients ranged from 0.08 to
0.40 with a mean of 0.24 breaks/cell while In controls the range was
0.00-0.04 with a mean of approximately 0.01 breaks/cell. Following
exposure to O.lpg/ml of d i epoxy but an e ( DEB ) , cultures from FA patients
exhibited an approximately 100-fold Increase In chromosome breakage
compared to that from cultures of the other similarly exposed groups.
A marked Increase In the number of radial figures accompanied this
Increase In FA patients. The use of DEB greatly simplifies the cyto¬
genetic assessment of FA patients by reducing the number of cells
which must be examined and overcoming the problem presented by FA pa¬
tients with an only slightly elevated spontaneous breakage frequency.
We were unable to detect significant differences In chromosome break¬
age between FA family members and controls using this method.
AGE DIFFERENCES IN MEMORY FOR SELF-GENERATED EVENTS
Jane F. Crockard, Div. of Psychology, Spain Rehab. Center, B'ham, AL
35294
In some areas of memory research, old people do show a decrement in
performance when compared to a younger group; while in other areas, the
age differences have been minimal. Recent findings of superior reten¬
tion for self-generated events among young adults raises the question
does this self-generation phenomonon exist for older adults. In young
and old age groups, three experiments compared the retention of events
presented by the experimenter to events generated by the subjects them¬
selves. The results all showed a significant superior retention of
self-generated events.
In a fourth experiment, the number of times subjects in young and old
groups saw and generated words was varied. Half of the subjects in each
age group were asked to judge the frequency of the words they read and
half were asked to judge the frequency of the words they generated.
Subjects in all age groups were more sensitive to the relative frequency
of internally generated, compared with externally generated events.
81
Abstracts
MODIFICATION OF THE ACTION OF DMT BY N,N-DIETHYLCARBOXAMIDES
C. Patrick Lane, A1 Panu and John M. Beaton, Neurosciences Program,
Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala. 35294.
It has been hypothesized that the major hallucinogenic agents,
e.g., mescaline, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD) all may act at the same central receptor in brain
To study this hypothesis we have synthesized and tested the ability
of several agents to prevent or modify the behavior disruption in¬
duced by these hallucinogens. One compound, 1 -methyl-1, 2,5, 6-tetra-
hydropyridine-3-N, N-diethy lcarboxami de (THPC) successfully blocked
the disruptive effects of DMT and LSD. In the present study the
actions of two compounds related to THPC are discussed. These com¬
pounds are l-methyl-4-oxo-3-piperidine-carboxylic acid N,N-diethyl-
amide (AL #1) and 1 -methyl -4-hydroxy-3-piper idine-carboxy 1 i c acid
N,N-diethylamide (AL #2). These compounds were tested on a group
of eight Long-Evans rats trained to bar press on a variable interval
30 sec. schedule of food reinforcement. The compounds were tested
singly at 10 and 20 mg/kg and had no significant effects on behavior
They were then administered at these doses and 30 min. later 5 mg/kg
of DMT was given. Only AL #1 at 20 mg/kg significantly blocked
the disruption normally observed after the administration of 5 mg/kg
of DMT. AL #2 at 20 mg/kg did modify the effects of DMT, but did
not completely block the disruption. Compound AL #1 is currently
being examined on other procedures to confirm its anti -hallucino¬
genic effects. (Supported in part by the Alabama Consumer Fund.)
management of high risk maternity patients and
LOW BIRTH WEIGHT INFANTS IN ALABAMA: A SURVEY
R.L. Dyer, R.L. Goldenberg, K.G. Nelson, and J.B. Wayne. School of
Public Health, Dept, of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Pediatrics,
University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
Since the physician's perception of infant viability affects
management decisions affecting survival, physicians in Alabama were
surveyed to determine their level of knowledge about survival of low
birth weight/early gestational age infants. Two hundred and sixty
nine (269) physicians delivering babies in Alabama In 1979 were
Identified, and one hundred seventy seven (66?) responded to one of
four mailed questionnaires. The study showed that the majority of
physicians underestimated the survival success of the hospitals In
which they deliver and at Regional Perinatal Centers.
A hypothetical case was posed to the delivering physicians and a
series of possible clinical interventions were examined at gestational
ages from 24 to 36 weeks. Analysis revealed considerable variability
in the gestational age at which the interventions would be undertaken.
Demographic characteristics of MDs who deviated from generally
accepted medical practice were highlighted.
82
Abstracts
THE EFFECTS OF TRANSCUTANEOUS ELECTRICAL NERVE STIMULATION IN
ENDORPHIN AND CORTISOL LEVELS IN NORMAL ADULTS
W. Jimenez, J. Clelland, K. Francis, University of Ala. in Birmingham
The recent discovery that the brain and pituitary gland produce
opioid peptides has aroused interest in their physiological functions.
Some evidence shows that they may serve as neurotrdhmitters in the brain
and influence pain perception and behavior. It is becoming increasingly
evident that these peptides may not function tonically but influence
physiological processes on a selective manner only under specific envi¬
ronmental or endogenous conditions. Evidence now indicates that endor¬
phins are released from the pituitary gland in response to stress along
with adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) and relationships exists between the
two classes of peptides. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
(TENS) is widely used in the control of pain and is believed to activate
this system. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects
of the two different forms of TENS on the pitutary hormonal system by
measurements of changes in blood levels of endorphins and cortisol.
26 subjects were randomly assigned to one of three groups: control,
conventional TENS, and acupuncture-like TENS, with treatments lasting 30
minutes. Pre and post treatment blood samples were drawn and analyzed
for endorphin and cortisol levels. There were no significant difference*
in blood serum cortisol valves (pre vs. post) following 30 minutes of
either types of TENS. Comparisons of the two types of TENS to the con¬
trol group likewise elicited no change. Studies have reported analgesia
in patients with pain following the application of TENS. It has been
shown the cerebrospinal fluid endorphins have increased in chronic pain
patients following acupuncturs-like TENS. The present study did not show
an increase in the pituitary endorphin pool, as measured in blood serum,
following acupuncture-like TENS ,
A POSSIBLE ROLE FOR MYOGLOBIN IN THE TRANSPORT OF FATTY ACIDS: ENERGY
IMPLICATION IN FXERCISE.
K. S. Yackzan and W. J. Wingo. Diabetes Research and Training Center
and Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama in Birmingham.
It may be calculated on the bases of known values for various
physical constants and other physiological parameters and a few
assumptions that as much as 2/3 of the maximum total O2 i ntracel 1 ul arly
transportable in myocardium and red skeletal striated muscle may
be carried as oxymyoglobin (Mb02), (This figure may be high).
Evidence exists that myoglobin (Mb) binds fatty acids, (FA).
A possible binding site could comprise a cationic amino acid side chain
to bind the fatty acids (FA) carboxyl group and an associated con¬
stellation of non-polar residues which could noncoval ently bind the
FA chain. On a Corey-Paul ing model of Mb, we have found two sites that
meet this criterion.
It is thus possible that in these two types of tissues, substantial
fractions of a major fuel and its ultimate oxidizer are carried, in-
tracellularly, by the same molecule.
83
Abstracts
GOLD FOCUS TOR -ISOELECTRICFOCUSING : SEPARATION OF
6 -HEXOSAMINIDASE A AND B ISOENZYMES
J. T. Cbnary, B. Budowle, and J. N. Thompson, Lab. of Msd. Genetics,
DRTC, and Dept, of Biochem. , Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham 35294.
Cold focusing, a novel method for performing isoelec tic foe using ms
recently developed (Allen, Electrophoresis, 1:32, 1980). This method
utilizes a beryllium oxide plate electronically cooled by two Peltier
devices to disperse the heat from 160pm thick ultrathin-layer poly¬
acrylamide gels (UTLG) during isoelectricfocusing. Beryllium oxide
dissipates heat with 200 times the efficiency of glass so that field
strengths of 400-500v/cm and run times under 1 h are possible. In the
present investigation the A and B isoenzymes of g -hexosaminidase , an en¬
zyme important in lipid catabolism, were separated using the Gold Focus
apparatus. Mechanical stability was achieved by covalently binding the
UTLG to silanized glass plates. Isoenzymes A (pi 5.0) and B (pi 7.0) of
6 -hexosaminidase were visualized by staining the UTLG with 4-methylum-
belliferyl-N-acetyl-g-D-glucopyranoside and viewing the stained gel with
long wavelength ultraviolet light. The activity of the isoenzymes was
quantified by cutting out the stained region of the gel, placing it in
1.5 mL of glycine-NaOH buffer, and measuring the fluorescence. When the
enzyme was heated at 51°C prior to cold focusing the activity of hexo¬
saminidase A isoenzyme was selectively destroyed, verifying that the
activity found at pi 5.0 was the A isoenzyme. These studies demonstrate
that cold focusing is a rapid and sensitive method for the separation of
6-hexosaminidase isoenzymes A and B. Preliminary studies in our labor¬
atory indicate that this method has application for separating the
isoenzymes of several lysosomal acid hydrolases.
MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES SPECIFIC FOR HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS TYPE ONE MEDIATE
ANTIVIRAL EFFECTS IN VITRO AND IN VIVO.
James Rector, Robert Lausch, and John Oakes. Dept, of Microbiology and
Immunology, U. of South Alabama, Mobile AL 36688.
Ten hybrid lines secreting antibodies specific for HSV-1 infected
cells were derived from four independent fusions. Eight of the ten lines
were able to immunoprecipitate HSV-1 glycoproteins from detergent-
solubilized infected cells. Seven of the eight monoclonal antibodies
tested were effective in passively transferring immunity to mice when
given 4 to 24 hrs. after HSV-1 infection of an abrased cornea. These
results indicate that epitopes irrsent cn HSV-1 glycoproteins can initiate
events leading to resolution of ocular infection. The monoclonal anti¬
bodies were also evaluated for their capacity to neutralize HSV-1 and
to oromote complement-mediated cell lysis or antibody-dependent cellular
cytotoxicity. It was found that none of these in vitro assays correlated
with the protective activity of the monoclones ini vivo . On the basis
of these results, it was concluded that HSV-1 specific glycoproteins
can interact with antibody in vivo to initiate recovery form HSV-1
induced ocular disease and that the effectiveness of a specific mono¬
clonal antibody to mediate recovery from ocular infection does not
correlate with the immunological reactivity of the antibody Gi vitro ■
84
Abstracts
ACID PROTEINASE ACTIVITIES OF THE NEMATODE TURBATRIX ACETI
Rajendra D. Ghai and Roger S. Lane, Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of
South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688
Two acid proteolytic activities, one that hydrolyzes [methyl- iL| c]
hemoglobin to acid-soluble fragments and a second that hydrolyzes
glutaryl-L-phenylalanine p-nitroanilide liberating p-nitroaniline , have
been detected in the free-living nematode, Turbatrix aceti . These two
proteases have been isolated from the 100,000 x g supernatant of T.
aceti extracts by acid precipitation and gel exclusion chromatography,
and separated from one another by affinity chromatography on diamino-
dipropylamine-pepstatin-Sepharose CL-6B. Proteinase B is not adsorbed
to immobilized pepstatin in 0.2 M NaCl at pH 3.5 whereas Proteinase A is
specifically bound under these conditions; elution of Proteinase A is
achieved with 1 M NaCl at pH 9. Proteinase A has an apparent molecular
weight of 70-75,000 (as estimated by gel filtration on a column of
Sephadex G-100) , is optimally active towards hemoglobin as substrate at
pH 3, and is maximally stable at 4°C between pH 6 and pH 9. The enzyme
is unstable in the pH range 2.0 to 4.5, losing 95% of its activity with¬
in 24 h. Pepstatin is a potent and instantaneous inhibitor of Pro¬
teinase A activity; 50% inhibition is obtained with 1.4 ng pepstatin.
Non-denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of Proteinase A
purified by affinity chromatography shows the presence of two active
protease components, indicating the occurrence of isoenzymic forms.
Proteinase B is of Mr 75-80,000 and exhibits an optimum pH of 6.0 with
glutaryl-L-phenylalanine p-nitroanilide as substrate. The enzyme also
catalyzes the hydrolysis of azocasein, with pH opt = 5.0 to 5.5. The
functional significance of these two proteases in intracellular protein
degradation is not yet known.
IN VIVO METABOLISM OF TETRADEUTERO- INDOLEALKYLAMINES IN THE RAT
John M. Beaton, Philip E. Morris and Steven A. Barker, Neurosciences
Program, Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
The uptake and metabolism of alpha, alpha, beta, beta-tetradeutero-
N,N-dimethyltryptamine ( DDMT) in rat brain was examined usinq GC/MS-
isotope dilution techniques. Adult male Long-Evans rats were in¬
jected IP with 2.5, 5.0 or 10.0 mq/kq DDMT. Three rats from each
group were sacrificed at 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 minutes post-iniec-
tion. The brains were prepared for analysis, usinq proteo internal
?QDn\ds’ aS Previously described (Biochem. Pharmacol. 29, 1049,
1980). An inverse relationship between the brain levels and dose
of DDMT was observed at 5 minutes post-injection. The brain level
of DDMT peaked at 5 minutes after 2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg and followed
a dose dependent function while 10 mq/kg DDMT peaked at 20 minutes
™Tdld not correlate with the results seen at 2.5 and 5.0 mg/kq.
DDMT was still detectable in rat brain at 80 minutes Dost-injection .
ihe non-polar metabolites of DDMT were identified as deuterated
tryptamine (TA), N-methyl-TA, tetrahydro-beta-carboline ( THBC) and
2-methy 1 -THBC (2-MTHBC). The formation of NMT was well correlated
with the brain level of DDMT. The TA and THBC were minor metabo¬
lites while 2-MTHBC was formed as a major end-product. (Supported
in part by the Alabama Consumer Fund.)
85
Abstracts
STUDIES ON THE NEUROVIRULENCE OF HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS
Wayne L. Gray and John E. Oakes, Dept, of Microbiology and Immunology,
University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688.
Strains of Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) were found to differ greatly
in their neurovirulence characteristics upon subcutaneous footpad
inoculation into young adult mice. The viral dose required to kill 50%
of infected mice was determined for five HSV-1 strains and two HSV-2
strains. LD 50s ranged from 10^ to greater than 10® pfu. Virulent
strains caused paralysis and a necrotizing encephalitis which resulted
in death of the animals within two weeks. Avirulent HSV strains pro¬
duced no clinically apparent symptoms. All of the HSV strains tested
were virulent when inoculated intracerebrally . A pathogenesis study
showed that a virulent HSV-2 strain replicates in the mouse footpad,
travels to the spinal cord via the sciatic nerve, and then progresses
to the brain. An avirulent HSV-1 strain also replicates in the footpad
but virus was not detected in the spinal cord or brain. This suggests
that the avirulence of some HSV strains is due to an inability to get
from the site of infection to the central nervous system. No differences
were seen in the ability of virulent or avirulent strains to replicate
in mouse embryo fibroblasts in vitro. Since virulence is known to be
a genetic characteristic of some HSV strains, intertypic recombinant
viruses of virulent and avirulent strains are being tested in order to
determine if a particular region of the HSV genome can be associated
with viral pathogenicity. Preliminary studies indicate that the
virulence of an HSV strain is determined by the long unique region of
the genome. The eventual mapping of viral genes which are important
in the enhanced virulence of some HSV strains could lead to a greater
understanding of the pathogenesis of HSV infections.
A MUTATION AFFECTING LIMB DEVELOPMENT AND FERTILITY IN MICE
Kathryn Kartus, David Holladay, J. Russell Lindsey, and C.P. Dagg.
Departments of Biology and Comparative Medicine, University of
Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
An inheritable condition that produces abnormalities of the
appendicular skeleton has been discovered in C57BL mice. Mating
tests support the conclusion that the genetic basis for the
defects is an autoscroal semi-dcminant mutation with incomplete
penetrance. The putative heterozygotes are characterized by pre-
axial polydactyly on the hind feet. The presumed homozygotes
manifest preaxial polydactyly on the forefeet and hind feet,
dislocation of the hip (luxation) , and a markedly shortened and
narrowed tibia (tibial hemimelia) . Male homozygotes appeared to
be sterile in mating tests. Histological sections of the testes
revealed seminiferous tubules that were smaller in cross section
and almost completely devoid of cells. The mutation is provision¬
ally called "swimmer," swm. The swimmer mutant closely resembles
Green's luxoid. This research was supported in part by USPHS Grant
No. RR-00463.
86
Abstracts
VITAMIN C AND THE COMMON COLD
Emmett B. Carmichael, Univ . of AL . in Birmingham
Linus Pauling's book, " Vitamin C and the Common Cold "
which was published in 1970 stimulated scientists in many
countries to test his hypothesis that Vitamin C could cure
the Common Cold. In 1975) M.H.M. Dykes and P. Meier
reported that they believed that there is little convincing
evidence that daily doses of Vitamin C have any effect on
the frequency or severity of the Common Cold.
During the late Sixties, arthritis in my fingers caused
considerable pain and several of the joints were becoming
enlarged. I began to take 500 mgm of Vitamin C twice per
day in addition to a vitamin pill which contained 200 mgm
of Vitamin C . By 1974 the pain in all of my fingers had
been greatly reduced. My regular diet has been fairly rich
in Vitamin C. In 1974 I increased the dose of Vitamin C
to 1,000 mgm twice per day. In 1974 my wife, Marie began
to take 500 mgm of Vitamin C twice per day in addition to
a vitamin pill .
In addition to the fact that there is no arthritic pain
in my fingers, neither my wife nor I have had a Common
Cold since 1974- Our observations seem to refute those
of Dykes and Meier concerning daily doses of Vitamin C
on the frequency of the Common Cold.
ESTROGEN AND PROLACTIN DURING INTERVENTION
FOR POOR LACTATION
Ellen B. Buckner and Larry R. Boots, University of Alabama School of
Nursing and Dept, of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Alabama
in Birmingham.
Nine women with poor lactation were followed to determine if milk
production could be improved. Interventions included use of oxytocin
nasal spray, use of the Lact-Aid NurserQyand adjunct breast pumping.
Intervention used was determined by clinical indications and mothers'
acceptance of intervention. Milk yield increased significantly in
those mothers who worked to improve production but decreased in those
who did not.
Prolactin (PRL) and 17- /^estradiol were measured from blood
samples taken before and after nursing. Prolactin values decreased
as milk yield increased; thus improved milk production was not achieved
by stimulating effect of PRL. Alternately as milk yield increased,
estradiol decreased. This may be clinically significant since phy¬
siological levels of estradiol have been shown to inhibit PRL induced
lactalbumin synthesis.
This research was supported in part by a Nursing Research Emphasis
Grant for doctoral programs 1R21 NU00835 01, DHHS.
87
Abstracts
CHROMOSOME ANALYSIS AND TUMOR I G EN I C I T Y OF THREE ISOLATED CELL LINES
FROM A PRIMARY HUMAN COLON CARCINOMA
Jerome McCombs and Wayne Finley. Dept, of Physiology and Laboratory
of Medical Genetics, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294 and Michael Brattaln.
Dept, of Biochemistry, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294.
Colonic carcinoma (CCA) Is the second most frequent cancer In man
ranking only below breast cancer In women and lung cancer in men.
Some investigators have demonstrated apparent morphological and
functional heterogeneity among cells in and between primary colonic
carcinomas. Successful initiation of CCA cells In culture provides an
opportunity to investigate the relationship between t u mor I g en I c I t y and
karyotypic findings. The primary tumor cells were set In culture on a
feeder layer of an embryonic mouse cell line (C3HI0TI/2). The CCA
cells were removed from the feeder layer, continued in culture and
then separated by density gradient centrifugation to yield 3 cell
types. The cell lines OM, 0 and OFR were grown in culture and tested
for tumorigenlc response In nude mice by Injecting with either 5x10^
cells or IOxIO6 cells. These inoculums from cell lines OM, 0 and
OFR were tumorigenlc In 90?, 53? and 25? of the nude mice respec¬
tively. G-banded chromosomes from 50 cells were analyzed for each
ce 1 1 line. Cell line OM contained a normal karyotype of 46, XY. Cell
line 0 was p s e u do d i p I o I d <46,XY,l8p+) while cell line OFR had a
4 7 , X Y , +8 , I 3q t karyotype. Three cell lines derived by culture of a CCA
biopsy had different karyotypic findings and tumorigenlc capabilities.
This tumor heterogeneity may have Implications in the therapeutic
approaches taken In colon carcinoma treatment.
THE EFFECT OF ANTISTASIS FOOTBOARD EXERCISES ON
SELECTED MEASURES OF EXERTION
William Ahrens* Marguerite Kinney. Univ. of Al. in Birmingham, Birmingham,
Al. , 35294. Rick Carter^ Univ. of Texas at Tyler and Univ. of Texas
Health Center, Tyler, Texas, 75701.
Cautions concerning the adverse consequences of isometric exercise in
cardiac patients are based on prolonged isometric handgrip studies. To
investigate the effects of prophylactic footboard exercises on heart rate
(HR), blood pressure (BP), energy expenditure (EE), and perceived exer¬
tion (RPE) , 15 normal subjects underwent randomly ordered exercise
sequences using 50% of maximum voluntary contraction strength. Three
isometric sequences (varying in contraction length) utilized a rigid
footboard. A dynamic sequence utilized a spring-equipped movable foot¬
board. No significant differences were observed in BP response or EE
between the four activities (p>.05). Significant differences in HR and
RPE were noted only between the dynamic activity and the isometric ac¬
tivity with the longest (60 second) sustained contraction duration
(p<.05). The linear relationship between HR and RPE, previously demon¬
strated for strenuous activity, was not present in this study (p<.05).
The assumption that footboard exercises are excessively stressful in
coronary care patients needs to be re-evaluated. Prevention of thrombo¬
embolic complications in bedridden patients is of major concern to the
practitioner and investigations of energy cost and cardiovascular stress
associated with antistasis exercises assist in providing a rational basis
for acute exercise prescription.
88
Abstracts
AUTORADIOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF L- [ METH YL-3H ] -METH I ON I NE
IN HUMAN CELLS WITH FRAGILE SITE Xq28Q0
Kristin Mihelick. Dept, of Biochemistry, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294.
Patricia N. Howar d-Peeb I es . Dept, of Pathology, Cytogenetics
Laboratory, UTHSCD, Dallas, TX, 75235. Wayne H. Finley. Laboratory
of Medical Genetics, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294.
A fragile site, a chromatid or chromosome gap or break, on the
human X chromosome at Xq2800 has been associated with a form of non-
specific X-IInked mental retardation. Appearance of this site is
dependent upon a culture medium relatively deficient in folic acid and
thymidine and containing at least 5mg/L DL-meth I on I ne . To Investigate
the role of methionine in inducing the fragile site, L-Im©thyl-^Hl-
methionine was introduced at a concentration of Img/L ( I .36yC i/m ! ) to
a modified form of TC 199 lacking folic acid, thymidine, deoxyrlbose
and DL-meth i on I ne . DL-Meth I on i ne was added at a concentration of
4mg/L. Peripheral blood from a mentally retarded male displaying the
fragile site and a control male was cultured in this medium. After 24
hours 80$ of the original medium was replaced with medium containing
5 mg / L unlabeled methionine. Cultures were harvested after a total
incubation time of 72 hours. Chromosome preparations following
standard procedures for autoradiography were analyzed for developed
grains over Xq2800 and a corresponding area op the No. 2 chromosome
which served as a reference chromosome. No difference was detected In
grain counts over the X chromosomes between individuals or In counts
over the X and No. 2 chromosomes within an Individual ( p = 0 . 0 I ) . This
lack of difference suggests that another approach may be necessary to
discern the role of methionine in Inducing the fragile site.
URINARY TRACT CALCULI IN SPINAL CORD INJURY PATIENTS
M.J. DeVivo, A.B. McEachran, K.V. Kuhlemeier and P.R. Fine
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, A1 35294
The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of se¬
lect medical, epidemiologic and demographic variables on the devel¬
opment of urinary tract calculi in spinal cord injury (SCI)
patients. The study was undertaken because SCI patients seem pre¬
disposed to the development of upinary tract calculi. Bladder
Calculi: SCI patients who developed bladder stones were most likely
to be young males with neurological ly complete cervical lesions.
Additionally, patients whose bladder management was either an
indwelling urethral catheter or suprapubic cystostomy and who had a
history of recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) were at highest
risk for the development of bladder calculi. Renal Calculi: Neuro-
level and extent of lesion, history of recurrent UTI, bladder
management via indwelling urethral catheter and a history of bladder
calculi were important predisposing factors for the development of
renal calculi. The predictive model for bladder calculi was 78%
sensitive and 81% specific. The predictive model for renal calculi
was 63% sensitive and 73% specific. While other determinants of
urinary tract calculi development undoubtedly exist, it appears high
risk patients can be identified using a small set of predictor vari¬
ables.
89
Abstracts
INCORPORATION OF I 35 S04 1 INTO GLYCOS AM I NOGLYCANS IN CULTURED
FIBROBLASTS FROM PATIENTS WITH THE ZELLWEGER SYNDROME
E. Pointer Johnson, J.N. Thompson, and W.H. Finley. Laboratory of
Medical Genetics, Unlv. of Ala. In Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
Undersu I fat Ion of g I y cos a m I n og I y c a n s (GAGs) has been reported In
patients with Lowe's syndrome (Fukul et al., J. Biol. Chem. 256:
10313, 1981), a disorder clinically similar to the cerebro-hepato-
renal syndrome (CHRS) of Ze I Iweger. In the present experiments,
cultured skin fibroblasts from controls and two patients with CHRS
were analyzed for sulfation of intracellular GAGs. Cells were grown
In Ham F — 1 2 medium t 10? FCS to deplete the sulfate prior to
Incorporating Inorganic I35S0|1. Labeled GAGs were precipitated
by hot ethanol, solubilized with NaOH, neutralized and measured (Cantz
Qt a I » i Methods Enzymol. 28:884, 1972), Initial studies revealed that
Incorporation of label was proportional to the concentration of
33S04 in the medium. Cultures were labeled for 6h, 1 2 h , 1 8 h and
24h with 4 p C i of 33S04/mL medium (25 x 10^ cpm/f lask).
Activity of 35S04-GAGs In cpm/mg protein at each of those times
for controls was 14,903; 21,189; 30,348 and 29,573; for CHRS the
values were 19,957; 33,290; 35,648 and 40,478. Approximately half the
label Incorporated within 24h was present by 6h. Over 75? of the
35S04-GAGs Incorporated during a 48h pulse was eliminated from
both control and CHRS fibroblasts following a 48h chase with unlabeled
medium. In the present study no differences In the formation or loss
of total 35S04-GAGs between CHRS and control fibroblasts were
apparent.
THE INSULIN RECEPTOR IN BOVINE CEREBRAL MICROVESSELS. Joyce Feh
Haskel 1 , Elias Meezan* and Dennis J. Pillion; University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.
The high incidence of mi crovascul ar disease as a long-tern
coirpl ication of diabetes mellitus may be related to a derangement in
the metabolic control of vascular tissue by insulin. Binding of 1251-
insulin to isolated bovine cerebral microvessels was measured at 22°C
for 75 minutes in the presence and absence of excess unlabelled
hormone. Specific insulin binding has been characterized under various
time, temperature and pH conditions in these isolated microvessels
Inhibition of insulin binding has been observed with various
concentrations of unlabelled insulin, and Scatchard analysis of the
data yields a curvilinear plot similar to that obtained with othe"
tissues. Previous work in this laboratory has shown that incubation o:
cerebral microvessels with physiological doses of insulin cause an
increase in several metabolic effects found to be insulin sensitive in
other tissues. D-glucose oxidation and conversion to lipid and cyclic
AMP phosphodi esterase activity were increased upon addition of insulin
to isolated cerebral mi crovessels, demonstrating an intact hormone
coupling system in vascular tissue. The current data verify the
existence of a high affinity insulin receptor in cerebral mi crovascul a '
tissue and demonstrate that this hormone receptor is similar in it;
binding characteristics to receptors found on other insulin-sensitive
organs.
90
Abstracts
AN EXPERIMENTAL MODEL FOR THE STUDY OF SPINAL MENINGEAL LEUKEMIA
J. C. Kase, W. H. Wilborn, J. N. Varakis, L. B. Cheshire, and R. D. A.
Peterson. Departments of Neurology, Anatomy, Pathology, and Pediatrics,
and The Electron Microscopy Center, University of South Alabama, Mobile,
AL 36688.
Syngeneic mice were injected intravenously with cells of "Line 13" of a
T-cell lymphomia originally induced in C3H mice by Gross murine leukemia
virus. The syngeneic mice developed lower paraparesis and sensory loss
within 2-3 weeks after inoculation. The spinal cord showed an abundance
of leukemic cell infiltrates in a consistent extradural location. The
paravertebral muscles were also heavily infiltrated with leukemic cells.
No leptomeningeal or parenchymal leukemic infiltrates occurred. Marked
proliferation of leukemic cells in the bone marrow was always accompanied
by spinal cord involvement. Visceral involvement tended to parallel the
degree of bone marrow infiltration. The pattern of distribution of extra¬
dural and paravertebral muscular leukemic collections appeared to relate
topographically to the proximity of heavily infiltrated bone marrow.
Sites of communication between bone marrow and extradural infiltrates
were repeatedly identified. There was no involvement of the leptomeninges
or parenchyma, regardless of the severity of the extradural infiltration.
On the other hand, "Line 13" cells injected directly into the brain pro¬
duced diffuse leptomeningeal tumor cell infiltration without extradural
involvement. These findings in the animal model suggest that the primary
mechanism for extradural meningeal infiltration is by direct spread from
the bone marrow. The animal model offers an opportunity to study malig¬
nancies that produce bone destruction as a mechanism for the spread of
the tumor.
REAL VS IDEAL CONTENT IN MSN CURRICULA: PERCEPTIONS OF GRADUATES
Jeanette Lancaster. Sch. of Nursing, UAB, Birmingham, Al. 35294.
This study surveyed MSN graduates one year following graduation to
determine their perceptions of what content was actually essential for
their graduate education and what they believed ideally should have
been required. It was the second study in a sequence in which faculty
was surveyed as to their perceptions of actual and ideal essential
content in their programs. There was considerable variability between
the perceptions of faculty and graduates both about what was and what
should have been inclueed in the program. Additionally, graduates
selected different content items for what was and what should have been
included in their program. Of the top 12 items chosen as actual essen¬
tial content, only five were retained as ideal essential content
(research, methodology, change and nursing theory, and group and family
dynamics). Graduates valued communication-oriented content areas more
highly as ideally required than they perceived as being actually in
their curricula. They ideally would have given high priority to con¬
flict resolution and communication theory. Interestingly, graduates
tended to want almost all items included in the curriculum. This may
reflect their insecurity upon graduation and fear of being unprepared
for work-related events.
91
Abstracts _
CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INFECTION IN A DAY CARE CENTER
Anna M. August and Robert F. Pass, Department of Pediatrics, University
of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.
The prevalence of cytomegalovirus (CMV) excretion among children in a
day care center was assessed in order to determine the effect of grouping
young children upon transmission of CMV and to define the exposure to
CMV experienced by female workers. Seventy of 75 (93%) children atten¬
ding participated. Urine was obtained from 68 and mouth swabs from 33.
Serum was available from 37 mothers and 16 employees. The children's
^ges ranged from 3 to 65 months; 94% were Caucasian. Median age at
entry to day care was 6 months; 59% had been breast fed. The mean
inumber of siblings was 0.5, and parental ages were 29.4 + 3 for mothers
and 31.6 + 4 for fathers. Parents averaged over 16 years of formal
education. CMV shedding was found in 51% of children and was related to
age: _
Age (mo.) 0-12 13-24 25-36 37-48 49-50
+ve (%) 1/11 (9) 15/18 (83) 10/15 (67) 3/14 (21) 7/12 (58)
Nineteen of 37 (51%) mothers were seropositive; 25 (68%) of their chil¬
dren shed CMV. Excretion was not related to maternal serology or to
breast feeding. Four of 36 excreters and 0 of 34 nonexcreters had
experienced serious bacterial infection (2 meningitis, 1 bacteremia, 1
facial cellulitis), p < 0.05. Twelve of 13 (92%) children under 2 with
viruria who were sampled at both sites were also positive in the mouth.
CMV was isolated from 4 plastic toys mouthed by toddlers, suggesting a
possible means of transmission. Ten of 16 workers were seropositive.
Transmission of CMV among children in a day care occurs readily; virus
excreting children may be a source of infection for employees and
mothers .
ENERGY LEVELS IN THE INSTITUTIONALIZED AGED
Sarah Hall Gueldner, School of Nursing, The University of Alabama
in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.
The sample consisted of 42 ambulatory subjects sixty years of age
or older, including persons who lived in a nursing home, unemployed
individuals who resided in a retirement village, and individuals
employed part-time on a regular basis. A survey was made of sleep
patterns, appetite, frequency of family contact, participation in
group activities, and frequency of contact with the outside environ¬
ment, including walks. Additionally, the Pearson-Byars Subjective
Fatigue Checkl ist(PBSFC) was used to evaluate perceived energy levels
in subjects, and electromyography (EMG) was used as a noninvasive
measure of general metabolic activity. Following these initial
measurements, the groups were randomly divided into a control group
of nonwalkers and an experimental group of subjects who walked outdoors
3 mornings each week for a period of three weeks. Pre- and post¬
scores were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance, chi-
square, regression, and student's t procedures. The results showed
that residents of the retirement community walked outside more than
did the residents of the nursing home, while nursing home residents
slept better and reported better appetites ( P= . 05 ) . Nursing home
residents participating in the walking regime reported significantly
increased energy levels (P=.008). These findings suggest inexpensive
yet effective improvements that may be instituted in the care of
elderly individuals living in nursing homes.
92
Abstracts
EXCRETORY UROGRAPHY FOR SPINAL CORD INJURY FOLLOW-UP
K.V. Kuhlemeier, A.B. McEachran, L.K. Lloyd, P.R. Fine and S.L. Stover
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, A1 35294
This study was conducted to determine if excretory urography (EXU) is
essential for follow-up care of spinal cord injured (SCI) patients with
minimal pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s or ureterectas i s . One hundred and fifty four
patients were examined twice, generally 12 months apart. Of 63 kidneys
with minimal pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s at first visit, 19 did not change, 37
improved and 7 worsened at the next exam. When all grades of pyelo-
caliectasis were combined, 218 kidneys did not change between exams, 44
improved and A6 worsened, 11 going from grade 0 (normal) or 1 (minimal
pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s ) to grade 2 (moderate pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s ) or 3 (severe
pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s ) . In each of these 11 cases other evidence, chiefly
that obtained during renal scintigraphy, clearly indicated renal
degeneration. Of 59 kidneys with minimal ureterectas i s , 1A did not
change, Al improved and A worsened between visits. When all grades of
ureterectas i s were combined, 2 1 A did not change, A6 improved and A6
worsened, 9 going from grade 0 or 1 to grade 2 or 3- Again other
measures, chiefly renal scintigraphy, showed declining renal function
in the latter 9 cases. Mean renal plasma flow as well as mean serum
creatinine was the same for patients with normal EXU's and patients
with minimal pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s or ureterectas i s , giving further evidence
of the ephemeral nature of minimal EXU changes in these patients. We
conclude yearly EXU is unnecessary for SCI patients with minimal
pye I oca 1 i ectas i s or ureterectas i s , provided x-rays of the kidneys,
ureters and bladder and renal scintigraphy are used to monitor for
calculi and renal function, respectively. However, any evidence of
deterioration necessitates EXU to determine morphological alterations.
PROXIMITY RELATIONSHIP OF TROPONIN C
C.K. Wang, Frank Garland*, and Herbert C. Cheung . Dept.
Biomathematics, Univ. of Ala. in B'ham, B'ham, AL 35294
of
In vertebrate skeletal muscle Ca^+ regulates the actin-myosin
interaction by binding to troponin C (TNC), which is one of three
subunits of troponin. This Ca^+ interaction induces conformational
changes across the thin filament to bring about contraction. To
investigate the Ca^+ effect we have determined the distance between
two specific residues in TNC by fluorescence energy transfer.
Dansy laziridine (DNZ) attached to Met-25 was used as the energy donor
and 5-Iodoacetoamidoeosin (IAE) attached to Cys-98 as the acceptor.
A transfer efficiency of 66% was obtained for Ca^+ free TNC and 81%
for the fully saturated Ca^+ complex. From these results and depolar¬
ization data a range of donor-acceptor distance (R) was determined:
29-51, 26-51, and 26-51 ^ for Ca^-*" free TNC, half saturated, and fully
saturated Ca^+ complexes, respectively. The lower bound of these
ranges represents a more realistic estimate of the actual donor-
acceptor separation. Ca^+ induces a 10% decrease in R and this small
change suggests that no gross deformation of TNC is induced by
Ca^+ binding. The fact that Ca^+ binding to two of the four sites (site
3 and 4) induces significant spectral changes of DNZ attached to Met-25
suggests that a molecular signal is transmitted over a distance of at
least 29 A. (Supported in part by AM-25193 from the NIH).
93
Abstracts
EFFECTS OF ABSORPTION AND SECRETION ON COLONIC LYMPH FLOW:
A PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL ANALYSIS
W. H. Wilborn, P. R. Kvietys, and D. N. Granger. Electron Microscopy
Center and Departments of Anatomy and Physiology, University of South
Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688.
The effects of net transmucosal fluid flux on lymph flow, lymphatic
protein flux, and lymph oncotic pressure were analyzed in an isolated
autoperfused canine colon preparation (Gastroenterology 111: 1080, 1981).
Active fluid absorption and secretion were induced by intraluminal in¬
stillation of Tyrode's Solution alone and Tyrode's Solution containing
40 mM theophylline, respectively. In contrast to previous observations
on the small bowel, colonic lymph flow, lymph protein flux, and lymph
oncotic pressure were not affected by net transmucosal volume flux
(absorptive or secretory) . Ultrastructural analyses of the lymphatic and
capillary microcirculations of the mucosal regions of the colon and ileum
revealed that, releative to the small intestine, the colonic mucosa con¬
tained (1) lymphatic vessels of smaller caliber that did not extend
beyond the basal one-third of the mucosa and (2) blood capillaries that
were situated much closer to the epithelial cells (average juxtacapillary
space: 1.9 pm, ileum; 1.0 pm, colon). These findings indicate that (1)
the inability of net transmucosal fluid movement to alter colonic lymph
flow is due to the paucity of lymphatic drainage in luminal two-thirds of
the colonic mucosa and (2) blood capillaries are the sole conduits by
which absorbed fluids are removed from the colonic interstitium. The
latter task is facilitated by the close apposition of the fenestrated
capillaries to the absorptive epithelium.
(Supported by NHLBI 15680) .
BLOOD PLASMA LEVELS OF CATECHOLAMINES,
CORTISOL, AND ENDORPHINS IN MALE ATHLETES
BEFORE AND AFTER 26, 6 AND 2 MILE RUNS
3. Dearman and K.T. Francis, Division of Physical Therapy, University of
Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.
There is a growing awareness that opiod peptides called endorphins may
represent a new class of neurotransmitters and modulators common to both
central and somatic divisions of the nervous and endocrine systems.
Endorphins appear not to function tonically but influence physiological
processes selectively under specific environmental or endogenous conditions.
One such condition— exercise— has been implicated as a stimulus for release
of endorphins. The involvement of endorphins in exercise may be related to
their role in the control of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. In order
to further invesitgate this relationship under varying intensities of exercise
stress, plasma endorphin, cortisol, and catecholamines were studied in 9
healthy marthon runners prior to and 15 minutes following a GXT, 26.2, 6, or
2 mile run. With the exception of endorphins during the 2 mile run, all three
blood variables were significantly elevated when post-exercise levels were
compared to pre-exercise levels. The percent increases in endorphins ranged
from a low of 20% (2 mile run) to 132% following the 6 mile run. Percent
increases in cortisol levels ranged from 22% (6 mile run) to 100% following
the 26.2 mile run. Percent increases in catecholamines ranged from 130% (2
mile run) to 198% following the 6 mile run.
94
Abstracts
BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT USING THE UAB SCALE
J.S. Richards, C.S. Nepomuceno, and M. Riles
Department of Rehabi 1 i tati on Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294
Pain as a subjective experience has been notoriously difficult to
assess. However, the visible manifestations of pain, i.e. pain
behavior, present a more feasible goal in terms of assessment. This
abstract describes the conceptualization, design, development and
evaluation of a scale for the quantification of pain behavior. The
scale consists of 10 target behaviors: (1) verbal and (2) non-verbal
complaints of pain, (3) downtime, (4) facial grimaces, (5) standing
posture, (6) mobility, (7) body language, (8) use of visible suppor¬
tive equipment, (9) stationary movement, and (10) medication intake.
The scale has a 0-10 range. As employed in a formal Pain Clinic, it
is quickly administered and has high interrater reliability (r=.95).
A sample of 70 chronic pain patients were studied using the scale.
Average pain behavior in the series was 5.4 on admission and 3.2 at
time of discharge. The correlations between subjective reports of
pain (0-10) and pain behavior scores were .16 at admission and .55
at discharge reflecting the discrepancy frequently observed between
subjectively reported pain and its visible mani festat i ons . Our
experience with this pain behavior scale suggests that it is a
quick, valid and reliable instrument which should prove useful as an
objective measure of outcome in pain treatment programs. This
should prove particularly to be the case in programs based on an
operant model where the emphasis is on modifying pain behavior per
se rather than subjective experience of pain.
EFFECT OF INCREASED EGG CONSUMPTION ON
SERUM PHOSPHOLIPIDS
K. A. Blackwood. School of Arts and Sciences, Sanford University,
Birmingham, AL 35229. J. S. Dover and H. C. Elliott, Dept, of
Clinical laboratories. Baptist Medical Center Montclair,
Birmingham, ILL 35213.
The per cent of phospholipids present in serum was determined
using a modified Folch phospholipid extraction method, thin layer
chromatography, and transmittance densitometry. Twenty-three
individuals were placed on an isocaloric diet, which included 4 eggs
a day in addition to their normal egg intake. Serum samples were
taken prior to and upon completion of the 8^ to 12 week diet. The
results shewed that the mean differences (X + S.D.) between the
initial and final analyses were:
Phosphol ip ids
Lysolecithin
Sphingcmy e 1 in
Lecithin
Phosphatidylinositol
Phosphatidylethanolamine and
Phospha tidy 1 serine
% Phospholipids
Baseline
7.1 + 2.1
23.4 ± 4.0
59.9 ± 3.7
4.7 + 2.4
4.9 + 2.2
Egg Study
7.5 ± 2.0
23.1 + 3.5
59.6 + 2.7
4.5 ± 1.6
5.3 1 2.5
None of these changes were significant at the 5% level. It is
concluded that increased egg consumption does not appear to
significantly change the level of serum phospholipids.
95
Abstracts
EFFECTS OF TESTOSTERONE PROPIONATE ON
REGENERATION OF ACINAR CELLS IN SUBMANDIBULAR GLANDS OF RATS
J. L„ Boshell. School of Dentistry, Medical College of Georgia,
Augusta, GA 30912
This report describes the effect of testosterone propionate (TP) on
the histological appearance of the rat submandibular gland and rate of
acinar cell mitoses following partial extirpation. Mature male Sprague-
Dawley rats were anesthetized and a wedge was removed from the medial
surface of the left submandibular gland. Beginning on the third day
after the operation, the experimental animals were given subcutaneous
injections of TP (lOOpg/animal ) in sesame oil. Control groups were
given subcutaneous injections of 0,1 ml sesame oil. Experimental and
control animals were killed on 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 days post¬
operation. Submandibular glands were removed and processed for light
microscopic examination. To assess the level of mitotic activity, one
thousand acinar cells were counted in two different areas and the number
of mitotic figures was recorded. The histological appearance of the
glands at each time interval was typical except that parenchymal
components on the wound surface were smaller in size and there was
evidence of lobule formation. The mitotic rate of acinar cells on the
wound surface is normally high through 10 days. Flowever following TP,
the mitotic rate declines to near zero except day 10 when there is a rise.
In controls, there is a suppression until day 15 and then a return to
near zero. In the other area, mitotic activity was low at all time
intervals. Thus it appears that these exogenous agents have a suppressive
effect on acinar cell mitoses during the regenerative process in rat
submandibular glands. Supported by NIDR Grant DE 05072.
WORK CAPACITY IN PARAPLEGICS
C.T. Huang, K.V. Kuhlemeier, A.B. McEachran and P.R. Fine
Department of Rehaoi 1 i tat ion Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, A1 35294
Cardiopulmonary response in recently injured paraplegics perform-
g continuous, intermittent and graded exercise was compared. The
^^TaV,°n consisted of 12 males with complete lesions between T-7
4 RQ = d/indQr7 n°rrnf1 ITiale controls. Paraplegics performed 4.93,
.ay and 4.95 watt-hours work; controls performed 4.98, 4.91 and
<;Imn)aWcatt'h0UrS iWOrk f 0 r each exercise respectively. Exhaled air
IndPHP Wer hnd^2ed f0P V°2* Heart rate (HR) was monitored. V0,
■i we,~e hunh / correlated. Paraplegics demonstrated signifi-
tor^ates r6n quotients (RQ),and ventila¬
tory rates (p£0.05). There were no differences between V0, and level
°f .i um°n? ParaPlegics. Graded exercise produced a signifi¬
cantly higher HR (p<0. 001) during the final data collection period
but the mean HR for the total data collection period was lower than
during continuous or intermittent exercise (p<0.01). V0„ durinq
graded exercise was higher (p<0.001) during the last data collection
period; however there was no difference in V0, when compared with
continuous or intermittent exercise. 0 debt wa2s significantly dif¬
ferent (p<0.05) between controls and paraplegics but did not differ
etween types of exercise with the exception of graded exercise
which showed more 0„ debt than did continuous exercise (p<0.05) In
recently injured paraplegics, level of lesion and type of exercise
significantly influence HR but not V0^ response.
96
Abstracts
PERITONITIS ASSOCIATED WITH PERITONEAL DIALYSIS
A MECHANISM FOR SURVEILLANCE
Hala Fawal, Melissa Shelley*, Barbara C. Walker*, Barbara Hubbard*, and
Geraldine W. Key*, University Hospitals, University of Alabama in Bir¬
mingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
Peritoneal dialysis is a form of intracorporeal hemodialysis used to
replace the function of damaged kidneys in certain patients with renal
failure. This intervention requires the placement of an indwelling cath¬
eter into the peritoneal cavity. Peritonitis associated with this form
of dialysis is an important problem which can be prevented. At the Uni¬
versity Hospital, a concern existed as to the incidence of peritoneal
dialysis-associated peritonitis and what could be done to fully assess
the situation. Since incidence data were unavailable, the first priority
was to devise a mechanism whereby an incidence rate could be established.
In cooperation with the Nephrology Service, a form was developed for
documentation and surveillance of peritoneal dialysis-associated peri¬
tonitis and a prospective incidence study initiated. The surveillance
sheet will be completed by the peritoneal dialysis nurse. Information
to be collected includes demographic characteristics, underlying renal
disease and infection factors, as well as other potential risk factors.
At periodic intervals, the data will be reviewed, statistically analyzed
and then compared to non-cases to attempt to identify risk factors.
Once the incidence rate is established, evaluation of procedures and
comparison of experiences with other institutions will be facilitated.
More importantly, this information will aid in the institution of effec¬
tive preventative measures.
PSYCHOSOCIAL PREDICTORS OF DECUBITUS ULCERS IN SPINAL CORD INJURY
J.S. Richards, R. Meredith, P.R. Fine and C.S. Nepomuceno
Department of Rehabi 1 i tation Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, A1 35294
Recurrent decubitus ulcers are one of the most expensive compli¬
cations of spinal cord injury (SCI) in terms of dollars spent for
treatment as well as time lost from a potentially productive life¬
style. Decubitus ulcers are largely preventable, and clinical evi¬
dence and a few recent studies suggest that personality factors are
often associated with their onset. The present study was an attempt
to predict the presence or absence of decubitus ulcers post¬
discharge on the basis of psycho-social and demographic data gather¬
ed during the initial rehabi 1 i tation hospitalization. Data on the
incidence of decubitus ulcers were gathered from SCI outpatients as
part of another study. Four classes of predictor variables were
used: medical, demographic, psychological and fami 1 i al -soci al .
Multiple linear regression techniques were used. The best set of
predictors accounted for 50% of the variance (r=0.71) of the depen¬
dent measure presence or absence of decubitus ulcers. The occur¬
rence of pressure sores was associated with younger age, a larger
number of persons living in the household, higher verbal intelli¬
gence, lower ego strength, and more psychopathology as measuraed by
the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). It was con¬
cluded that personality factors are associated with decubitus ulcer
formation in SCI, and that such measures, gathered during rehabili¬
tation, are helpful in predicting the post-di scharge development of
pressure ulcers.- 97
Abstracts
EFFECTS OF A NEW LONG-ACTING STEROIDAL CONTRACEPTIVE ON BABOON ENDOMETRIUM
W. H. Wilborn, L. R. Beck, B. M. Hyde, and V. Z. Pope. Electron Micros¬
copy Center and Department of Anatomy, University of South Alabama,
Mobile, AL 36688. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University
of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.
A major problem with long-acting injectable contraceptives such as med¬
roxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) and norethindrone (NET) is irregular and
unpredictable menstrual bleeding, varying from frequent bleeding and spot¬
ting to amenorrhea. Norgestimate (NGM) , a new progestin, was studied for
possible use as a long-acting injectable contraceptive. NGM was micro-
encapsulated in a biodegradable polymer of polylactic acid and adminis¬
tered to three groups of normal cycling female baboons as predetermined by
endometrial biopsies and radioimmunoassay of serum hormone levels. Each
animal in a group (3-5 baboons/group) received a single intramuscular in¬
jection of one of the following doses of NGM: 5 mg, Group I; 25 mg, Group
II; 50 mg. Group III. Endometrial biopsies were obtained for study by
light and electron microscopy at intervals of 15-30 days for 8 months.
The 5 mg dose did not inhibit ovulation, but the 25 mg and 50 mg doses
suppressed ovulation for 3 months and 6 months, respectively, and main¬
tained the endometrium in a pseudopregnant state without adverse effects.
In the first month, stromal cells hypertrophied and epithelial cells re¬
gressed until they attained a stable, semiquiescent state which they main¬
tained during the remainder of treatment. Irregular uterine bleeding was
not observed with NGM, but it did occur with MPA and NET. The endometriuir
quickly regained its normal cyclicity and intricate structural-functional
relationships essential for pregnancy following the end of the treatment
period. It was concluded that NGM is a good candidate for use as an in¬
jectable, long-acting contraceptive.
EVALUATION OF TRAINING EFFECT FROM A CARDIAC REHABILITATION PROGRAM
Ann Clotfelter, Howard R. Horn, Baptist Medical Centers' Center for
Health Promotion, Birmingham, Alabama 35209
To determine the effects of an exercise rehabilitation program, the
comparative treadmill results and lipid profiles of 22 men and 2 women
coronary heart patients who had completed a 12 week, 3 times per week,
monitored exercise program under medical supervision were analyzed.
Subjects had myocardial infarction (MI) and/or had coronary artery
bypass grafts (CABG), angina alone or claudication. Ages ranged from
50 to 71 with a mean of 61.
Subjects were given a maximum graded exercise test (GXT) using the
standard Bruce protocol and had a lipid profile before the initation
of the program and at its completion. Objective improvement was
measured by duration of treadmill time and lipid changes.
The average improvement was a 50% increase in treadmill time with
a range of 12 to 163%. HDL levels increased in 19/20 patients.
Triglyceride levels decreased in 15/21 patients. Maximum heart rate
increased ir) 22/24 patients. Submaximal double products (heart rate
X systolic blood pressure) were lower on the second GXT at every stage
in 22 of 24 patients.
The study demonstrated that an exercise program for coronary patients
increases exercise tolerance and work capacity, while decreasing
hemodynamic stress (* double products); decreases triglyceride levels,
and elevates HDL. Subjectively the patients report increased feelings
of well-being and self-confidence.
98
Abstracts
SOYBEAN TRYPSIN INHIBITOR PREVENTS ISCHEMIA-INDUCED
DEHYDROGENASE TO OXIDASE CONVERSION
Ranjan S. Roy and Joe M. McCord. Dept, of Biochemistry , College of
Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688.
It has been shown that xanthine oxidase exists in vivo as an NAD+-
reducing dehydrogenase and may be converted by various treatments in
vitro to a superoxide-producing oxidase. In the rat intestine, this
conversion occurs irreversibly and extremely rapidly in vivo during
ischemia. The resulting burst of superoxide upon reperfusion is
reponsible for extensive post-ischemic tissue damage. Preliminary data
indicate that this conversion occurs in vivo in the liver and heart al¬
though the kinetics in these tissues differ dramatically. No conversion
was detected in rat skeletal muscle. The times required for 50% con¬
version of dehydrogenase to oxidase in vivo in non-perfused tissues of
rats are as follows: intestine-4 sec., heart-300 sec., and liver-3600
sec. 2+
A Ca -calmodulin regulated serine protease appears to be the major
cause of the conversion to oxidase in the rat intestine. Pretreatment
with trifluoperazine (200 mg/kg ip), a calmodulin antagonist, signifi¬
cantly slows the rate of this conversion in vivo. Soybean trypsin in¬
hibitor (25 mg/kg) completely blocks the intracellular dehydrogenase
to oxidase conversion in intestinal cells brought about by ischemia.
Soybean trypsin inhibitor, due to its size, is unlikely to penetrate the
cell membrane. Its mechanism of action is therefore hypothesized to be
mediated via a trypsin-like receptor on the mucosal cell surface which
is activated by ischemia. (Supported by grants AM-20527 and AM-00595
from the NIH.)
EFFECT OF ENZYMATICALLY GENERATED SUPEROXIDE RADICALS ON
INTESTINAL CAPILLARY PERMEABILITY.
Dale A. Parks and D. Neil Granger, Dept, of Physiology, Univ.
South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688.
Recent evidence indicates that superoxide radicals may account
for the increased vascular permeability associated with various
disease states including intestinal ischemia. In order to
determine whether enzymatically generated superoxides were
capable of producing increased capillary permeability, the
steady-state relationship between the lymph to plasma protein
concentration ratio (C /Cp) and lymph flow was used as an
estimate of capillary permeability. Lymph flow and C^/Cp were
measured at various venous pressures and the osmotic coef¬
ficient (cs^) estimated using = 1 - C^/Cp when C^. /Cp is
f iltrationuindependent . Autoperfused segments of cat ileum
were subjected to intra-arterial infusion of hypoxanthine-
xanthine oxidase, a superoxide radical generation system. The
osmotic reflection coefficient obtained (o = 0.65) was in the
range between normal values (o. = 0.92) and estimates following
1 hr. of regional ischemia (o^ = 0.59). These findings , coupled
with results from previous studies from our laboratories,
suggest that superoxide radicals are responsible, at least in
part , for the increased capillary permeability in the ischemic
small bov/el.
99
Abstracts
MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF KERATOHYALIN GRANULES OF MAMMALIAN TONGUES
Baldev Singh, Jerry Boshell, and Dave Steflik. Department of Oral
Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA. Walter Wilborn.
Department of Anatomy, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL.
During the past few years our laboratories have employed a systematic
approach in the study of oral epithelial cell differentiation. One of
the major aspects of these investigations has been to elucidate the
biological composition and role of keratohyalin granules (KHG) during
keratinization. For this purpose we have studied the tongue KHG of
five Orders of mammals including Primates, Rodents, Artiodactyl ia ,
Carnivora, and Lagamorpha. The tissues from the dorsal surface of
tongue were subjected to analysis employing light microscopic histo¬
chemistry, electron microscopy and, in some cases autoradiography.
Based on their staining with hematoxylin and/or eosin, KHG can be
classified as basophilic (BKHG), eosinophilic (EKGH) and amphophilic
(AKHG). All three types of KHG are comprised primarily of protein(s).
The dominant protein component of the various KHG are as follows: the
BKHG, histidine-rich proteins; EKHG, arginine-rich proteins; and AKHG,
both histidine and arginine containing proteins. U1 trastructural ly ,
KHG are dispersed in the differentiating epithelial cells rendering an
electron dense background to the fully keratinized cells. However in
some cases the EKHG were noted at the cell periphery and such epithe¬
lial cells appeared rather electron-lucent in nature. The current
investigations show that KHG are heterogenous in their biological
composition and morphology. Nevertheless they seem to play an impor¬
tant role in the final process of epithelial cell differentiation and
produce different types and/or degrees of keratinization.
THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL CONTRACEPTION ON PLASMA VITAMIN LEVELS AND
SELECTED COENZYME-DEPENDENT ENZYME ACTIVITY IN FEMALE BABOONS
L.R. Boots and P.E. Cornwell*. Dept, of OB/GYN and Nutrition Sciences*,
UAB, University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294
Vitamins A, Bg , Bi2> C, folate, riboflavin, thiamin and B-carotene
were measured in the blood of 10 female baboons during normal menstrual
cycles and while being treated for one year with either Lo-Ovral or
Depo-Provera . During normal menstrual cycles, vitamin C levels were
highest early in the cycle (P<0.01), B-carotene levels were elevated
late in the cycle (P<0.05) and vitamin A was lowest at midcycle
(P<0.05). Plasma levels of folate and vitamin B^2 ar>d the enzyme indi¬
cators of vitamin Bg , riboflavin and thiamin status did not change dur¬
ing the menstrual cycles. Vitamin A and B-carotene levels were signifi¬
cantly lowered by treatment with Depo-Provera while both treatments
increased vitamin C levels. Vitamin Bg , riboflavin and thiamin status
were all altered by contraceptive treatment, showing variously changed
levels and significant cyclical patterns. Supplementation with vita¬
mins Bg , riboflavin and thiamin during the last 16 weeks of treatment
variously affected these latter three vitamins as well as vitamin A, C
and B-carotene levels (P<0.01).
Supported by NICHHD Grant //R01 HD10768.
100
Abstracts
INHIBITORS OF THYMIDYLATE SYNTHASE OF THE COENZYME CLASS.
M. G. Nair, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile,
AL. 36688.
Thymidylate synthase (TS) catalyses the terminal step in tne denovo
synthesis of thymidine nucleotides required exclusively for DNA syn¬
thesis. Because of this unique feature of the enzyme it continues to be
a prime target for cancer chemotherapy. Although potent inhibitors of
TS of the substrate class are well known, inhibitors of TS belonging to
the coenzyme class have not yet been developed with the exception of the
recently reported antileukemic agent, 5 , 8-dideaza-N '-Propargyl folic
acid. Based on this, and a newly proposed mechanism of thymidylate
synthesis [Nair, Fed. Proc. (1982)] the synthesis and antitumor eval¬
uation of N1® Propargyl and N Cyanomethyl derivatives of aminopterin
were undertaken.
H2N
nh2
_CH
;_1 // \\
0 H COOH
B — A — C— H
.COOH
1 R = -C = CH
2 R = -C = N
Alkylation of diethyl p-aminobenzoyl-L-glutamate with Propargyl
bromide and a-bromoacetonilrile gave the corresponding monoalkylation
products, which were reacted with 6-Bromomethyl-2 , 4-diamino pteridine.
The resulting diethyl esters were hydrolyzed to their respective acids
1_ and 2_; and were purified by ionexchange chromatography over DEAE
cellulose. As expected both 1_ and 2_ were good inhibitors of L-Casei
dihydrofolate reductase, and inhibited the growth of folate requiring
microorganisms (L-Casei and S. Faecium) . These activities were com¬
parable to those of methotrexate. The Propargyl derivative 1_ was ten
times more potent an inhibitor of L-Casei TS than methotrexate. How¬
ever compound 2_ was not an effective inhibitor of this enzyme.
Support: CA 27101 from NCI.
ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE (AD) : BIOLOGICAL ENTITY - SOCIAL IMPACT
Geraldine M. Emerson and Elizabeth W. Murray, Center for Aging and
Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama in Birmingham,
University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294
OLV AGE j SENILITY
Demented A meJiicani, 65 ije.a'v 6
Although Dr. Alois Alzheimer described this disease in a 51 year
old patient in 1906 we are still unable to translate the neuropatholog-
ical changes into the manifestations of AD. AD is best recognized by a
sequence of behavioral changes starting with memory impairment and pro¬
gressing to loss of cognitive functions. Women appear to be slightly
more susceptible to the disease than men. It appears that some cases
of AD are genetic; others of environmental etiology. Regardless, on
autopsy all brains show abnormal enlargment of cell bodies densely
packed with neurofibrillary tangles which displace mitochondria and
other organelles. Society has yet to focus on the burden that AD im¬
poses on the patient's family. ^qj
Abstracts
HISTOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE EFFECTS OF ISOPROTERENOL AND/OR
TESTOSTERONE PROPIONATE ON REGENERATION OF
RAT SUBMANDIBULAR GLANDS
Jerry L. Boshell, and Baldev Singh, School of Dentistry, Medical College
of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912.
Studies on regeneration of submandibular glands of rats are ongoing
in our laboratories. The purpose of this report is to compare the
effects of isoproterenol (ISO) and/or testosterone propionate (TP) on
the histological appearance of regenerating tissue following surgical
removal of a portion of the left submandibular gland. Male Sprague-
Dawley rats, 325-350 grams in weight, were anesthetized and a wedge was
surgically removed from the medial surface of the left submandibular
gland. Beginning on the third day after the operation, the animals were
injected with ISO (16 mg/kg) in saline and/or TP ( lOOpg/animal ) in sesame
oil. Control groups were given injections of saline and/or sesame oil.
Appropriate experimental and control animals were killed on 5, 10, 15,
20, 25 and 30 days postoperation. Submandibular glands were removed,
fixed in formalin and processed for light microscopic examination. In
controls, buds of tissue appeared on the cut surface by 5 days, and by
day 15 foci of tissue with the appearance of newly forming lobules was
observed. After ISO, little regenerating tissue was observed and a
pronounced void was present at the surgical site. With TP, the
histological appearance was similar to controls at all time intervals.
With both ISO and TP the differentiation of the regenerating tissue
appeared to be more advanced from 15 days on. Thus, it appears that in
combination ISO and TP enhances the histological differentiation of
regenerating tissue. Supported by NIDR Grant DE05072.
NON-CORRELATION BETWEEN SERUM CREATININE AND RENAL FUNCTION
K. V. Kuhlemeier, A. B. McEachran, L. K. Lloyd, P. R. Fine
and S. L. Stover
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294
This study was conducted to determine (1) if serum creatinine
values in spinal cord injury patients are influenced by neurologic
level of lesion or time since injury and (2) if serum creatinine
values are a sensitive indicator of. renal function (as reflected by
renal plasma flow and parenchyma l^t hickness) in these patients.
Renal plasma flow was measured by 1I-hippurate clearance and mean
parenchymal thickness was determined from excretory urographs. The
overall serum creatinine mean and standard deviation were 0.9 +_ 0.2
mg/dl (n=14). There was no difference in serum creatinine values
with lower injuries (T7 or below) nor was there any difference be¬
tween patients with lesions < three months, 10-14 months or 33-36
months in duration. Age and gender each accounted for less than 5%
of the variation in serum creatinine. There was no significant cor¬
relation between renal plasma flow and serum creatinine (unless the
patient had moderate or severe pyelocal iectasis or ureterectasi s )
nor between change in renal plasma flow (from the previous examina¬
tion, usually 12 months earlier) and change in creatinine. Like¬
wise, there was no significant correlation between parenchymal
thickness and serum creatinine nor between change in parenchymal
thickness and change in serum creatinine. We suggest that serum
creatinine levels are relatively insensitive indicators of renal
function in spinal cord injured patients.
102
Abstracts
ALTERED CHLORIDE TRANSPORT IN THE IN VITRO GASTRIC MUCOSA
Richard L. Shoemaker, Department of Physiology and Biophysics,
University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
The effects of inhibitors (DIDS, Furosemide, and Ethacrynic acid)
on the Cl transport mechanisms were studied using frog gastric
mucosae. The acid secretion rates, Cl flux, potential difference,
resistance and short circuit current were measured. DIDS
(4 ,4 ' -Diisothiocyano-2 , 2 ' -Disulfonate) when added to the serosal
bathing solution (2 mm), reduced the acid secretion rate, reversed
the polarity of the potential (P.D.), reduced the Cl flux froip
serosa to mucosa (but the Cl flux was not reduced as much as the H
rate) and reduced the net Cl flux; the transmembrane resistance was
not changed after DIDS. In mucosae not secreting acid or in antral
mucosae, DIDS reduced the P.D. only to zero. Furosemide had effects
similar to DIDS. Neither the DIDS or Furosemide effects were
reversible. In experiments where DIDS was followed by Ethacrynic
acid (on the mucosal side) the H rate and the P.D. were decreased
to zero, and the resistance also decreased. Ethacrynic acid also
produced a reduction in the resistance of the antral mucosae.
Therefore, the effort of Ethacrynic acid was not restricted to the
oxyntic cells. The reduced H rate after DIDS probably was due to
a change in intracellular pH after the HCO^ - Cl exchange was
inhibited. The reversal of the P.D., after DIDS, could be due to
unmasking of the_ H EMF as the Cl transport rate was reduced. The
reduction in Cl flux without _a change in resistance suggest that
DIDS alters a non-conductive Cl transporting pathway.
MORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE AMPHOPHILIC GRANULES
OF LAGAMORPH TONGUE FILIFORM PAPILLAE
Baldev Singh, Jerry Boshell and Ralph McKinney. Department of Oral
Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912
The objective of this investigation was to characterize morphology of
the filiform papillae and biostructure and biological composition of
keratohyalin granules (KHG) of Lagamorph tongue. For this purpose
tissues from various dorsal sites of the tongues of ten adult rabbits
were studied by 1 ight microscopic histochemistry, scanning and trans¬
mission electron microscopy. The rabbit tongue revealed the presence of
three types of filiform papillae. These have been designated as: type I
(short and thick located anteriorly), type II (long and slender located
in the midzone) and type III (intermediate size located posteriorly).
Each type of papilla was comprised of an anterior and a posterior cell
line. The anterior cell line differentiated in the presence of KHG which
exhibited varied electron morphology. The KHG stained with hematoxylin
as well as eosin, thus denoting their amphophilic character. Histochem-
ically these KHG reacted both with Sakaguchi Oxine reaction (arginine-
rich proteins) and Pauly's reagent (histidine-rich proteins). The tinc¬
torial properties and histochemical characteristics distinguish the
rabbit tongue KHG from the classically described basophilic KHG which con¬
tain histidine-rich protein(s) as the dominant moiety and the recently
described eosinophilic KHG comprised primarily of arginine containing
proteins. A marked regional variation in the morphology as well as elu¬
cidation of amphophilic granules in the rabbit tongue filiform papillae
are the first reported observations in literature to our knowledge.
103
Abstracts
DETERMINANTS OF SATISFACTION IN THE PHYSICIAN-PATIENT RELATIONSHIP
W. H. Fite, University of Alabama School of Nursing, Birmingham, AL
35294 and S. C. Fite, St. Vincent's Hospital, Birmingham, AL 35201
This study explored determinants of patient satisfaction in physician-
patient relationships by soliciting opinions regarding factors affecting
satisfaction and self-assessments of satisfaction from persons engaged
in such relationships. A split sample of 28 student nurses (24 female,
4 male, 23 white, 5 nonwhite, age 25.6 ± 5.5) and 29 lower-middle SES
adults (18 female, 11 male, 29 white, age 35.2 ± 10.8) completed a 60
item questionnaire which assessed satisfaction with present relation¬
ship and rated present and ideal relationships on 10 parameters of sat¬
isfaction. Response differences between subgroups were minimal. Using
all cases, multiple linear regression indicated that 74% of variance in
mean reported satisfaction was explained by variables describing actual
relationships and 68% by those describing ideal relationships. Multiple
discriminant analysis correctly classified 87.3% of subjects as satis¬
fied or unsatisfied using actual descriptors and 96.3% using ideal de¬
scriptors. Of 10 parameters, information-giving, helpfulness, and clin¬
ical progress ranked most important; friendliness, carrying out of med¬
ical orders, and barriers to treatment as least important. Results must
be interpreted with caution but suggest implications for building effec¬
tive therapeutic relationships. Several theories widely applied in
health care including Parsons' social interaction theory and Orem's
self-care model are not supported. Low rankings accorded to compliance
with physicians' orders questions the usefulness of this concept as a
measure of success in therapeutic relationships. Results should be con¬
firmed with randomly-selected subjects.
ANTHROPOLOGY
INDIVIDUALISM AND COOPERATION AMONGST THE SADAMA
John Hamer, Dept, of Anthropology, University of Alabama in Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL, 35294.
This paper suggests that the relationship between individualism
and cooperation has always been a problem amongst the Sadama. A
relative balance has been maintained not simply on the basis of an
altruistic mutuality, ritual, or informal sanctions, but through the
tangible authority and sanctions provided by councils of elders. The
authority of the latter has been reinterpreted to fit the executive
committees of peasant associations in controlling the potential for
individual self-aggrandizement in the cash economy. Such personalized
social control appears to be more effective in providing for
cooperation within associaitons than that provided by impersonal state
controls .
104
Abstracts
AN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO INTERNAL MIGRATION IN THE U.S.
Henry Inman, Dept, of Biostatistics, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL, 35294.
Commonly demographers use estimates of net birth and net migration
rates in their analyses of population growth. Instead consider the
growth in the absolute size of sub-populations defined so that these
populations reflect the results of net natural increase and net
migration. In a given state, the size of the population of persons born
in that state reflects the birth rate, while the size of the population
of persons born outside that state represents the result of migration to
the state of interest. An approach analagous to the ecological analysis
of animal populations permits us to examine simultaneously the
interaction of birth in and migration to a particular state by looking
at the changing sizes of these populations between 1870 and 1970 in the
states of Alabama and Illinois: whites born in the state, nonwhites born
in the state, whites born in another state, nonwhites born in another
state, and those persons born outside the United States. One advantage
of the ecological framework is that we can examine how the migration of
one group, persons of foreign birth, for example, depended on the birth
rates of whites and nonwhites in a given state by determining how the
growth of the foreign-born population in that state was related to the
growth of the population of native whites and native nonwhites.
Furthermore, by comparing the "population ecologies" of states like
Alabama and Illinois, we can trace the different patterns of population
growth in the various regions of the United States during the last
century.
MORPHOLOGICAL VARIABILITY AND DOMESTICATION
Brian Hesse, Dept, of Anthropology, University of Alabama in
Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, 35294.
The domestication of animals has two main cultural facets _
animal taming and animal management. Each facet is usually coupled
with a series of specific criteria, recognizable in the archaeological
record, that permit its documentation in the past. An important one
of these, usually associated with taming, is the size dimunition of
domestic stock compared to their wild ancestors. This criterion is
USin? samPles excavated from the early neolithic site (ca.
8000-7000 B.C.) of Tepe Ganj Dareh in west-central Iran. Three
conclusions are drawn. First, size dimunition is an "old news"
record of taming. Several generations of domestic stock must have
existed bef°re the effects are clearly visible. Second, the size
dimunition often recorded from ancient Near Eastern sheep and goat
samples is more likely due to a shift in the proportions of males and
emales in the saples than species wide size dimunition. Third,
osteometric data can better be used to estimate the relative proportions
o the sexes in the populations of animals slaughtered at different
ages.
105
Abstracts
CLIMATE CHANGE IN ANCIENT COASTAL ISRAEL
Paula Wapnish, Dept, of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C., 20560
It has recently been argued that no significant climate change
affected the occupations of coastal Israel during the second and first
millenia B.C.E. Further, it has been suggested that the remains of
small animals, while species sensitive to environmental changes, are
inaccurate archaeological records of climate because of the multitude
of factors that can account for their presence in an ancient site. The
faunal samples from the site of Tell Jemmeh, a Chalcolithic to
Hellenistic occupation located on the Wadi Besor not far from Gaza,
challenge these conclusions. Remains of birds found at the site (more
than 27 species) indicate a trend toward more arid conditions in the
catchment of the site through the 2nd millenium B.C.E. This record is
corroborated by the relative frequencies of pigs, gazelles, hartebeeste,
fallow deer, and camels, and suggests that climate cannot be ruled out
as a factor in the political instability that marked the end of the
Bronze Age in the region.
CLANS, COURAGE AND COMMERCE: CHEROKEE LEADERSHIP SELECTION
Jaynn Kushner , Dept, of History, University of Alabama in Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL, 35294.
An examination is made of the sequence of leaders and political
forms between 1730 and 1839 in order to discover the changes which
occurred over time in the process of leadership selection. From these
records a conclusion is drawn that the following sequence of phases
developed over the period in question: the Kinship Phase, the Military
Phase, and the Mixed-blood Phase, each with it's distinct set of
leadership criteria. In the Kinship Phase leaders were selected on the
basis of hereditary religious rank. In the Military Phase selected
centered upon leadership ability demonstrated in warfare. In the
Mixed-blood Phse leaders were selected on the basis of commercial and
diplomatic skills. The balance of the paper considers both the nature
of the above changes, and epidemic disease, trade and a diminishing
xand-base as sources of change. It is concluded that the variations
in leadership selection reflect shifts in tribal values and priorities
brought about by changes in the material environment resulting from
white contact
106
Abstracts
PHARMACISTS AND OTC'S IN THE URBAN MEXICAN HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
Kathleen Logan, Dept, of Anthropology, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL, 35294.
The study, done in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico shows the
importance of OTC's (over the counter medications) and pharmacists in
the health care system of urban Mexico. OTC's were found to be the
most widely used form of self-medication. Pharmacists were found to be
the most frequently consulted health care practitioners. Pharmacists
are consultants about OTC's. In particular, pharmacists recommend
particular medications, give cost-benefit analyses of various
medications, and basic information about OTC's, which enable people to
choose among similar products. Pharmacists are also diagnosticians
when physicians are not available. People prefer OTC's and pharmacists
for several reasons. Self-medication with OTC's and pharmacists is
less expensive than using the other health care options and more
convenient. Also it enables individuals to retain control over their
own treatment. The dangers of this kind of health care and future
research about it are also discussed.
ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS AT TELL EL-HAYYAT, JORDAN
Mary C. Metzger, Dept, of History, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham,
Alabama, 35294.
Tell el-Hayyat is a Bronze Age village site located in the Jordan
Valley about 40 km. northwest of Amman. The site is of significant
archaeological interest because evidence suggests that its occupation
spans from the latter stages of the Early Bronze Age to the Middle
Bronze Age (ca. 2300-1700 B.C.). Many researchers have regarded this
period as one which exhibits a gradual transition from pastoral to
urban living patterns. Zooarchaeological analyses play a large role
in determining more closely the nature of subsistence during this
period. Economic conditions are indicated by the relative proportions
of food animals, both wild and domestic. These proportions further
suggest environmental factors which acted to constrain husbandry and
marketing decisions. Climatological shifts are also attested by
microfaunal remains. Rodents and birds are particularly responsive to
such shifts.
107
Abstracts
BOTTLES FROM THE BLUE MUD SITE, BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA
Nancy Boice, Dept, of History, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL, 35294,
The Blue Mud Site is a stratified refuse dump located in
Birmingham, Alabama. The site was in use from the lS90's to the 1950's.
This paper examines bottles from the local dump in order to date the
site and to document the social and economic trends present in
Birmingham around the turn of the century. The earliest bottles are
medicine and panel bottles that contain medicinal products. These
products came to Birmingham primarily from the northeastern United
States. Of younger age and in most abundance are soda water bottles.
These bottles are of local origin.
THE EVOLUTION OF COPULATORY CALLS IN MACACA FASCICULARIS
Bruce Wheatley, Dept, of Anthropology, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham.
Birmingham, AL, 35294.
The theory of sexual selection emphasizes the role of male
dominance in mating success as an important cause in the evolution of
polygyny. A twenty-month study on wild macaques in Indonesian Borneo
revealed that the potential role of females in controlling mate
quality had been overlooked. One way a female may affect the quality
of her mate is to advertise her sexual receptivity by giving an
individually recognizable staccato call unique to copulation. Data are
presented to support the proposed hypothesis that the advertisement
function of these copulatory calles is to incite male-male competition.
Researh was supported by NSF Grant BSM 74-14190; The Explorers Club;
and a Sigm Xi Grant— in— Aid of Research
GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION AIDS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE LOCATION
Philip Stroud. Dept, of Geology and Norman Bayne Cranford, Auburn
University, Auburn, AL 36849.
Wilcox County is in the Gulf Coastal Plain. The Northern tenth,
about 90 square miles, is within the outcrop area of Cretaceous forma¬
tions and the southern nine-tenths is within the outcrop area of Ter¬
tiary formations. Quaternary flood-plain and terrace deposits border
the Alabama River and its larger tributaries. The archaeol ogi cal site
being investigated is within the Alluvial deposit area of the Alabama
River Quaternary flood-plain, and rock types consist of angular to
rounded quartz, cherts and quartzite gravel. Sedimentologi cal
research, grain analysis study, is continuing in the area in an
attempt to locate ancient river meanders. There appears to be a con¬
nection between ancient river meanders and sites of early indian habi¬
tation.
108
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 53, No. 3, July 1982
MINUTES
ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
University of Alabama in Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama
March 19, 1982
Agenda
1. Call to order by the President
2. Report of Counselor to the A.J.A.S.
3. Report of State Coordinator of Science Fairs
4. Report of Gorgas Foundation
5. Report of the Secretary
6. Report of Place of Meeting Committee
7. Report of the Resolutions Committee
8. Report of the Research Committee
9. Report of the Auditing Committee
10. Nominating Committee Report
11. New Business
1) Dr. Kenneth Ottis, President of the Academy, called the meeting
to order at 1:35 p.m. He expressed thanks to the officers,
committees and membership for their services during the past
year. He called upon the membership to look confidently to the
future and to redouble their efforts in moving the Academy
toward its goals. Dr. Ottis then asked for the report of the
Counselor to the AJAS.
2) Dr. Gene O'Masta reported that the Alabama Junior Academy of
Science was still in the midst of its program and that a final
report would be forwarded to the Secretary at a later date.
However, Dr. O'Masta presented the following preliminary
information.
a) Approximately 350 students from across the state have parti¬
cipated in this year's meeting. Approximately 300 of these
students will attend the banquet.
b) Approximately $1800.00 has been raised for the AJAS through
the sale of liquid handsoap.
(Secretary's note: The following final report of the Counselor to
the AJAS has been forwarded to the Secretary for inclusion in the
minutes . )
The 1982 annual meeting was hosted by the University of Alabama
in Birmingham and like all previous symposia, was shared with the
Alabama Academy of Science.
109
Minutes
For the second year in a row, the scientific paper competition
was a part of the annual symposium. Winners were:
Physical Science
1st
Place
Gary Griner
Huntsville High
2nd
Place
Michelle Slay
Huffman High
Biology
1st
Place
Clark Baker
Tuskegee High
2nd
Place
Catrina Leonard
Kinston High
Humanities
1st
Place
Keith Miller
Opp High
2nd
Place
Marsha Worley
Opp High
Engineering
1st
Place
Vachel Loworn
Dothan High
2nd
Place
George McGlammery
Bradshaw High
Mathematics
1st
Place
Ralph Ball
Auburn High
2nd
Place
Greg Mount
Childersburg High
Other awards were:
AAAS - A subscription to Scientific Monthly and Science Newsletter
Mary Madison Escambia County High
David Tinsley Childersburg High
Research - $50 for a research project
Lana Hagel Huffman High
Archaelogical Dig - $100 for summer Dig sponsored by the University
of Alabama
Rachel Pierce Escambia County High
Michael Osborne Bradshaw High
Jamie Bailey Lynn High
Tammy Denise Roberts Mary G. Montgomery High
Liquid Soap - $100 for the school which sold the most liquid soap
Opp High Sponsors Elsie Spencer
Barbara Reynolds
Outstanding Teacher (more than five years) - $100
Jane Nail Escambia County High
Outstanding Region - A Trophy is passed on from last year's recipient
South Region Counselor Dr. Lou Destito
110
Minutes
Newly Elected Officers for 1981-82:
President
Michael Grubbs
Resource Learning Center
Vice President Destry Hardin
Athens High School
Treasurer
Tom Anderson
Athens High School
Secretary
Carl Jones
Resource Learning Center
Many persons deserve a special thanks for their efforts in
support of the symposium, including: Ms. Ellen Buckner for work as
coordinator of AJAS activities in arranging for facilities, tours and
motel space; Ms. Fannie Nelson for coordinating registration, setting
up information packets, and arranging for the dance band and
refreshments; for the support of the state officers, John Alexander
(President), Brad Brown (Vice President), Cassandra Minard
(Treasurer) and Kimberly Staples (Secretary) and also the associate
counselors Ms. Faye Wells and Dr. B. J. Bateman.
We appreciate the continued support of the Senior Academy in
AJAS activities and especially the support of Dr. Ken Ottis
(President) this year.
3) Dr. Ottis then asked for the report of the State Coordinator of
Science Fairs. Mrs. Elsie Spencer indicated that since most
Fairs had not been held, a complete report was not yet
available. She indicated that a report would be submitted at
the Fall Executive Meeting.
4) Dr. Ottis then asked for the Report of the Gorgas Foundation
Coordinator. Dr. Leven Hazlegrove submitted the following:
The Gorgas Scholarship Foundation announced today the rankings
of the finalists in the 1982 Alabama Science Talent Search. The
search was held at the meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science at
the University of Alabama in Birmingham.
The winner of the cash award of $1600 was Reginald Keith Walton,
7703 Rugby Avenue, Birmingham, AL 35206, from Resource Learning
Center, Shades Valley H.S. Annex; Teacher: Sophia Clifford.
Alternates were:
1st William Brown Hawkins, Jr., 301 Roxie Drive, Florence, AL 35630,
from Bradshaw High School; Teacher: Mary Nell Gonce.
2nd Jason Errol Johnston, 2460 Burgundy Drive, Birmingham, AL 35244,
from Resource Learning Center, Shades Valley H.S. Annex;
Teacher: Sophia Clifford.
3rd George Lee McGlamery , 214 Robinhood Drive, Florence, AL 35630,
from Bradshaw High School; Teacher: Mary Nell Gonce.
Ill
Minutes
4th Alasdair Trevoe Downie , 2132 Chickasaw Drive, Florence, AL
35630, from Henry A. Bradshaw High School; Teacher: Mary Nell
Gonce .
5th Marsha Dawn Worley, 707 Brookside Drive, Opp, AL 36467, from Opp
High
School; Teacher:
Elsie S. Spencer.
6 th
Gary
Merle Griner, 411
Zandale Drive, Huntsville, AL 35801,
from
Huntsville High School:
; Teacher: Dorothy E. Dale.
7th
Lisa
Ann Armstead, Rt .
3 Box 231, Opp, AL 36467, from Opp
High
School; Teacher: Elsie S. Spencer.
8th Dorinda Jane Simmons , 2808 Womble Street, Florence, AL 35630,
from Bradshaw High School; Teacher: Mary Nell Gonce.
The rankings were established by a panel of judges consisting of
scientists from many of the leading universities and industries in
Alabama.
Winners and alternates in the Gorgas Contest receive offers of
tuition scholarships to colleges and universities in Alabama for the
study of science. The Gorgas Foundation is named for General William
Crawford Gorgas, the Alabama physician who conquered yellow fever in
the Panama Canal Zone and later became the Surgeon General of the
U.S. Army. The purposes of the Foundation are to promote interest in
science and to aid in the education of promising students.
5) Dr. Ottis then called for the Report of the Secretary. Dr. John
Pritchett, Academy Secretary, summarized the following:
A. Membership
Total Membership (April 1, 1981) . 764
New Members (April 2, 1981 - March 16, 1982) . 124
Members Deceased . ..... . 0
Members Resigned .... . .......... 12
Institutional Members Terminated ........... 77*
Total Membership (March 16, 1982) . 674
Net Change from April 1, 1982 . . -13**
* Category of membership removed from By-Laws by action of
Executive Committee on April 2, 1981. The remainder will be
terminated May 1, 1982.
** This change does not reflect terminated institutional mem¬
berships but rather a change in dues-paying individual
memberships .
112
Minutes
Summary of Membership by Section
Section
April 1, 1981
March 16, 1982
Net Chang<
1
193
182
-11
2
61
61
0
3
28
31
+ 3
4
15
17
+ 2
5
56
62
+ 6
6
38
39
+ 1
7
38
35
- 3
8
41
38
- 3
9
112
112
0
10
46
39
- 7
11
21
27
+ 6
99
30
23
- 7
TOTAL
(679)
(666)
(-13) *
88
85
8
-77
*Reflects individual dues-paying members.
B. Dues Collection for 1982:
Dues Notices (1982) were mailed to all 1981 members with the
"Call for Papers" on November 15, 1981. A second reminder was
sent out to all 1981 members who had not paid their dues by
March 5, 1981. The second reminder was included with the Annual
Meeting Program.
Members Subject to 1982 Total Responses as In Arrears
_ Dues Payment _ of March 15, 1982 _
588 261 327
C. Technical Program for Spring Meeting, 1982
Section
Titles (1981)
Titles (1982)
Net Change
1
49
37
-12
2
24
28
+ 4
3
12
11
- 1
4
14
7
- 7
5
8
22
+14
6
6
20
+14
7
8
7
- 1
8
13
9
- 4
9
47
55
+ 8
10
11
4
- 7
TOTAL
209
211
+ 2
113
Minutes
6) Dr. Ottis then asked for the Report of the Place of Meeting
Committee. Dr. Phil Beasley reported that the 1983 Annual
Meeting will be hosted by the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa
and the 1984 Annual Meeting will be hosted by the University of
South Alabama, Mobile.
7) Dr. Ottis then called for the Report of the Resolutions
Committee.
Dr. Hoyt Kaylor, Chairman, presented the following resolution:
WHEREAS the Alabama Academy of Science has held its 1982 annual
meeting at the University of Alabama in Birmingham, and has enjoyed
the hospitality of the University, now therefore
BE IT RESOLVED that the Academy express its gratitude to Dr. S.
Richardson Hill, Jr., President of the University, and to the
University for hosting this meeting. To Dr. Richard L. Shoemaker,
Chairman of our local hosts, and to the members of his host
committee; to the Faculty and Staff of the University; and to all of
the many others who have contributed to the success of this meeting;
we, the Academy members, express our appreciation for their efforts
on our behalf.
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Academy express its appreciation
to Dr. Sara C. Finley for her presentation to the Joint Academies.
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Academy express its appreciation
to those who retire from leadership in the Academy this year, and
especially to Dr. Kenneth Ottis, our President, and Dr. John
Pritchett, our Secretary, who has performed the duties of his office
so efficiently and effectively over the last three years.
WHEREAS Dr. Glen Eaves has resigned as Archivist of the Academy
due to his forthcoming move to new academic duties in a neighboring
state
BE IT RESOLVED that the Academy express its appreciation to Dr.
Eaves for the service that he has rendered to the Academy over the
years in ordering and preserving the records of the Academy.
WHEREAS Mr. William Hearn, of the School of Agriculture,
Forestry, and Biological Sciences of Auburn University has rendered
such outstanding efforts to the Academy in the area of computer
services for the last six years
BE IT RESOLVED that the entire Academy join the Executive
Committee of the Alabama Academy of Science in expressing its
gratitude to Mr. Hearn for these services.
It is hereby moved by the Committee on Resolutions that the
above be accepted and entered in the Minutes of the Academy.
The motion was seconded and passed unanimously.
114
Minutes
8) Dr. Ottis then asked Dr. Carl Dixon, Chairman of the Research
Committee, for his committee report. Dr. Dixon summarized the
following :
The Research Committee wishes to submit this report to the Joint
Business meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science.
The Committee has selected the four Student Research Awards for
papers presented at the Academy meetings on March 18-19, 1982.
1. Phillip E. Morris, Section II, Chemistry, $50.00
2. Katrina Blackwood, Section IX, Health Sciences, $50.00
3. Rapheal Luccasen, Section VI, Industry Economics, $50.00
4. Mark Blackmore, Section I, Biology, $50.00
The Research Committee has made the following Student Research
Grant Awards for 1982-83.
1. Michael H. Irwin, $250.00. Immunological Ultrastructural
Localization of an Acrosin Inhibitor in Ejaculated Mouse
Spermatozoa. The check was made out to U.A.B. and sent to
Dr. Gary Poirier, the student's research advisor.
2. John L. Hinton, Jr. $250.00. Isozymic Charaderizat ion of
the Slipper Lobster, Scyllarides nodifer . The check was
made out to the U.A.B. and sent to Dr. George Cline, the
student's research advisor.
3. Michael A. Gibson, $250.00. Paleontology of the Inverte¬
brate Megafauna in the Lagoonal Deposits of the Coal Fields
of Northern Alabama. The check was made out to Auburn Univ¬
ersity and sent to Dr. Robert A. Gastaldo, the student's
research advisor.
4. Mary C. Metzger, $250.00. Zooarcheological Investigation at
Tell et - Hayyat . The check was made out to U.A.B. and sent
to Dr. Brian C. Hesse, the student's research advisor.
Twelve Travel Awards of $50.00 each were presented to students
who registered and presented papers during the 1982 Alabama Academy
of Science meetings in Birmingham, Ala.
Broderick C. Jones, Tuskegee
Kirkley Yearwood, Tuskegee
Wm. R. Gates, Auburn
Larry L. Crowell, Auburn
Helen H. Benford, Auburn
Peter Biersdorfer, Auburn
The travel awards were made out
the faculty advisor.
Janet Legendre, U.S.A.
Raj an Roy , U.S.A.
David Chambers, U.S.A.
Dale Parks, U.S.A.
Wayne Gray, U.S.A.
James Rector, U.S.A.
jointly to the student and to
115
Minutes
9) Dr. Ottis then asked Dr. Sam Barker for the Report of the Senior
Academy Auditing committee. Dr. Barker reported that the
accounts and books of the Senior Academy were in good order. He
further stated that Dr. James Bradley, Academy Treasurer, was to
be commended for the outstanding job he has performed since
assuming the position of Treasurer.
10) Dr. Ottis then asked Dr. Urban Diener, Chairman of the
Nominating Committee, for the report of his committee. Dr.
Diener presented the following nominations:
Position
Nominee
Affiliation
President
President-Elect
Vice President
Secretary
Coordinator, AAAS
Charles M. Baugh
Raymond Isbell
John Pritchett
Michael Lisano
H.A. Henderson
University of South Alabama
University of North Alabama
Auburn University
Auburn University
Tennessee Valley Authority
Trustees
Emmett Carmichael
William Barrett
Ed Gentle
Jack Moore
University of Alabama
Southern Research Institute
South Central Bell
University of North Alabama
Dr. Ottis then asked for nominations from the floor. There be¬
ing none, a motion was made, seconded and passed that the nominations
close. Dr. Diener moved that the report of the nominating committee
be accepted. The motion was seconded and passed.
(Secretary's Note: The following individuals were elected to Section-
nal Offices by the individual sections in their business meetings.)
Section I - Biological Sciences
L. C. Wit, Auburn University
Vice-Chairman (Termination Date, 1983)
Section II
?feomal ft^bb. Auburn University
Chairman (Termination Date, 1984);
David Baker, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa
Vice-Chairman (Termination Date, 1984)
Section III - Geology
Michael Neilson, University of Alabama, Birmingham
Chairman (Termination Date, 1984)
Section IV - Forestry, Geography, Conservation and Planning
Steven Sax, Tennessee Valley Authority
Chairman (Termination Date, 1984);
David Weaver, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa
Vice-Chairman (Termination Date, 1984)
116
Minutes
Section V - Physics and Mathematics
Stanley Jones, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa
Chairman (Termination Date, 1984)
Section VII - Science Education
Ann Lucas, University of Alabama, Birmingham
Chairwoman (Termination Date, 1984);
Robert Rasheed, University of South Alabama
Vice-Chairman (Termination Date, 1984)
Section X - Engineering and Computer Science
R. R. Chowdhury, Birmingham
Vice-Chairman (Termination Date, 1983)
Following is a complete listing of all current Academy Officers:
ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Elected Officers 1982-83
(Affiliation and Tenure Termination Follow Names)
Past President - Ken Ottis, AU, '83
President - Charles Baugh, USA, '83
President-Elect, Ray Isbell, UNA, '83
Vice President - John Pritchett, AU, '83
Secretary - Mike Lisano, AU, '85
Treasurer - Jim Bradley, AU, '84
Editor - Bill Mason, AU, '83
Archivist - Position Vacant
Administrative Officer - William Barrett, SRI, '83
Counselor to AJAS - Eugene O'Masta, TSU, '84
Assoc. Counselor to AJAS - Fay Wells, UNA, '83
Assoc. Counselor to AJAS - B. J. Bateman, TSU, '84
Coordinator of Science Fairs - Elsie Spencer, Opp High School, '83
AAS Counselor - H. A. Henderson, TVA, '85
BOARD OF TRUSTEES
James Sulzby, B'ham, '83
Wilbur Devall , AU, '83
Sam Barker, UAB, '84
Ruben Boozer, JSU, '84
Joe Thomas, UNA, '84
Emmett Carmichael, UAB, '85
Ed Gentle, '85
Jack Moore, '85
Walter Baker, B'ham, '84
117
Minutes
SECTION CHAIRMAN & VICE CHAIRMAN
I. Biological Sciences
Sam Campbell, UAH, '83
Bob MacGregor, UAB, '83
L. C. Wit, AU, '83
II. Chemistry
Thomas Webb, AU, '84
David Baker, UAT, '84
III. Geology
Michael Neilson, UAB, '84
IV. Forestry, et al.
Steven Sax, TVA, '84
David Weaver, UAT, '84
V. Physics and Mathematics
Stanley Jones, UAT, '84
VI. Industry & Economics
Bill Stewart, UNA, '83
Dean Moberly, AUM, '83
VII. Science Education
Ann Lucas, UAB, '84
Robert Rasheed, USA, '84
VIII. Social Sciences
Hines Hall, AU, '83
John Dunkelburger , AU, '83
IX. Health Sciences
Walter Wilborn, USA, '83
Ellen Buckner, UAB, '83
X. Engineering & Computer Sci.
John Cain, AU, '83
R. R. Chowdhury, B'ham, '83
XI. Anthropology
Brian Hesse, UAB, '83
John Cottier, AU, '83
11) Dr. Ottis then asked if there were any items of new business.
Dr. Sam Barker announced that the Executive Committee had
elected Dr. William Barrett to the recently established position
of Administrative Officer and stated that the Executive
Committee wishes him every success in his new responsibilities.
(Secretary's Note: Since Dr. Barrett has become Administrative
Officer, he has chosen to resign his position on the Board of
Trustees. Thus a vacancy on the Board now exists. Additionally, Dr.
Glen Eaves has recently resigned as Academy Archivist. This position
is currently unfilled.)
12) There being no further business before the assemblage, Dr. Ottis
thanked everyone in attendance for their participation and
adjourned the meeting at 2:45 p.m.
Submitted by.
John F. Pritchett,
AAS Secretary
118
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE
AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
VOLUME 53 OCTOBER, 1982 NO, 4
EDITOR:
W. H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, AL 36849
ARCHIVIST:
R. G. Eaves, Department of History, Auburn University, AL 36849
EDITORIAL BOARD:
J. F. Pritchett, Chairman, Department of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn Universty,
AL 36849
R. S. Lane, Department of Biochemistry, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL
36688
J. M, Beaton, Department of Neuroscience, University of Alabama in Birmingham,
University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294
Publication and Subscription Policies
Submission of Manuscripts. Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspon¬
dence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript wil! receive two simultaneous reviews. For
style details, follow Instruction to Authors (see inside back cover).
Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.
Subscriptions and journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIR¬
MAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD.
ISSN 002-4112
CONTENTS
LETTERS
ARTICLES
Developmental Changes in Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA
Concentration, Cytoplasmic Distribution and
Utilization in Embryonic Chick Muscle Cell Cultures
Ronald B. Young and Gerald W. Achtymichuk . 119
Insects Associated with Pitcher Plants
(Sarracenia : Sarraceniaceae) , and their Relationship
to Pitcher Plant Conservation: A Review
Debbie E. Rymal and George W. Folkerts . 131
MEMORIAL
Reynolds Q. Shotts . 152
INDEX . 155
COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Pitcher leaves of the white-topped pitcher plant,
Sarracenia leucaphylla that have been girdled and toppled by feeding
of the larva of Exyra semiarocea , one of the pitcher plant moths.
The larva, protected from above by the toppled portion, feeds and
often pupates within the pitcher. Although the damage to the plant
seems severe, there is no evidence that the moth harms pitcher plant
populations (see article p. 131). Photograph courtesy of Debbie E.
Rymal .
LETTERS
A CHANGING FORMAT
FOR THE JOURNAL
Members and readers will un¬
doubtedly notice that this issue
of the Journal is quite differ¬
ent from former issues. Our
most notable change involves the
cover. We plan to use a differ¬
ent cover each time the Journal
is published.
I will accept for considera¬
tion any color photograph,
photomicrograph, or electron
micrograph that interested per¬
sons wish to submit. Candidate
material must have been photo¬
graphed on 35-mm film, developed
for slide viewing, and mounted
in a 2 x 2 slide holder. It
would be best that the subject
be oriented parallel to the long
axis of the slide. Slides not
used will be returned only if a
pre-addressed , stamped envelope
is provided. A short descrip¬
tive paragraph should accompany
each submission.
The, Letters section is, of
course, another new feature of
the Journal. I encourage any
interested reader to submit to
the Editor any letter which they
desire to have published in this
new section. The Editor will
select those that are used. The
Editorial Board is hopeful that
this new medium will promote the
kind of lively commentary that
will spark interest in both the
Journal and the Academy.
The Instructions to Authors
inside the back cover of each
issue states that the Journal
will consider for publication,
"timely review articles of ex¬
ceptional quality and general
readership interest." You will
note that such a review article
appears in this issue. Persons
desiring to prepare a review
article might best discuss the
project beforehand with the Ed¬
itor. The Editorial Board en¬
courages Academy members to con¬
sider the preparation of such
material.
Future issues are also planned
to contain book reviews, espe¬
cially those having Alabama au¬
thors. Anyone desiring to sub¬
mit a book review should contact
the Editor for instructions and
suggestions .
Beginning in this issue we
will also commence publication
of brief memorial articles on
past members of the Academy.
These preparations should in¬
clude a 5 x 7 black and white
photograph of the deceased.
Please submit these directly to
the Editor.
In the near future you will
note two additional features to
be added. One of these will be
development of a News section
dealing with items of general
interest to the Academy member¬
ship. The other will involve
the inclusion of advertising.
Associate Editors will soon be
appointed to handle each of
these activities.
At this time I feel the need
to reassure everyone that the
publication of quality research
articles remains the Journal's
primary goal. Such articles
will continue to receive two
simultaneous peer reviews, and
will be published only on the
basis of scientific merit. All
members of the Academy are en¬
couraged to help our organiza¬
tion grow and develop by using
the Journal as a means of pub¬
lishing their research results.
William H. Mason, Editor
101 Cary Hall
Auburn University, AL 36849
Phone (205) 826-5125
READERS RESPONSES TO
PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE
The following is in response
to the President's "Message" in
the Journal of the Alabama Acad¬
emy of Science (53 (16.2): 1-3).
I will support the Society in
whatever decision is made con¬
cerning the format of the Jour¬
nal. My personal preference,
however, is the combined Pro¬
ceedings of the Southeastern
Academies of Science rather than
the single large review article
format. It seems to me The ASB
Bulletin has opted for the lat¬
ter and I find myself thumbing
through the long review (entire¬
ly out of my area(s) of interest
usually) to the news items and
then onto the pile on the shelf.
I am certain that at least a
few of the Southeastern Soci¬
eties are experiencing problems
similar to ours and would be
willing to join together as a
group. Hopefully, as anticipat¬
ed by the AAS, this will gen¬
erate interest and enthusiasm.
I would also suggest that the
Society initiate a campaign for
new members. I believe there
are many Universities and com-
merical (military, government,
etc.) establishments which are
sorely under-represented. In¬
creasing total numbers within
the Society will provide both
viability and visibility.
I am willing to work with the
Society in its efforts to re¬
vitalize itself and offer my
services. Please feel free to
call upon me.
Carol S. Williams
Dept, of Biology
Tuskegee Institute
Tuskegee Institute, AL 36088
I am writing in response to
the recent message from the AAS
President published in the JAAS.
Dr. Baugh offers two suggestions
for revitalizing the Journal'.
adoption of a dramatically new
format for the existing journal
OR merger with other struggling
journals of Southeastern Acade¬
mies of Science. I favor the
first suggestion at this time
for the following reasons: (1)
Enough high quality research is
being performed in Alabama to
support a quality journal. (2)
I know of many scientists who
wish to see the tradition of a
high quality AAS journal contin¬
ued, and I believe they will
rally to support it with their
manuscripts. (3) I have confi¬
dence in our new Administrative
Officer to initiate a change in
the perception which administra¬
tors of higher education across
the state have of the Journal.
The Journal has nothing to be
ashamed of, and should be recog¬
nized as the high quality publi¬
cation which it is. (4) A revi¬
talized journal could not but
help the image of higher educa¬
tion in Alabama. (5) A merger
with the other Southeastern
Academies' journals presupposes
their willingness to do so and
at best would be a long, arduous
process. The rate of manuscript
submission would probably slow
dramatically during this period
as authors anticipated the new
expanded journal. Thus, if such
a merger attempt were to fail,
the attempt itself could cause
the demise of our own journal.
Finally, I believe that the
Academy Administration should be
commended for maintaining a high
quality journal during the "hard
times" of the recent past. I
look forward to the solicitation
of short, timely reviews and
other new contributions for a
journal on the road to recovery.
James T. Bradley
Department of Zoology-Entomology
Auburn University, AL 36849
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 53, No. 4, Oct, 1982
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN MYOSIN HEAVY CHAIN mRNA
CONCENTRATION, CYTOPLASMIC DISTRIBUTION AND
UTILIZATION IN EMBRYONIC CHICK MUSCLE CELL CULTURES1’
Ronald B. Young and Gerald W. Achtymichuk
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Alabama in Huntsville
Huntsville , AL 35899
ABSTRACT
Key words: Cell Culture, Myosin mRNA, Post transcriptional control
Embryonic chick muscle cell cultures were analyzed for polysomal
and nonpolysomal myosin heavy chain (MHC) mRNA concentration.
Measurements were made during an eight day period so myogenic cells
at all developmental stages, ranging from proliferating myogenic
cells to mature myotubes, could be evaluated. The number of myotube
nuclei and the rate of MHC synthesis were also measured. Thus, as a
function of muscle differentiation, we were able to calculate the
quantity of nonpolysomal MHC mRNA, the quantity of MHC mRNA actively
engaged in MHC synthesis and the rate of MHC mRNA utilization (i. e. ,
molecules MHC synthesized/min/mRNA) . Three conclusions were apparent
from these experiments: 1) Appearance of MHC mRNA as a ribonucleo-
protein particle in the cytoplasm of fusing myoblasts preceded by
several hours the active translation of MHC mRNA. Accumulation of
polysomal MHC mRNA coincided with an increase in MHC synthesis rate.
2) A significant fraction of MHC mRNA (approximately 30%) continued
to be nonpolysomal in fully differentiated muscle cultures exhibiting
a maximum MHC synthesis rate of 30,000 MHC/min/nucleus . 3) Enhance¬
ment of MHC mRNA utilization apparently occurred after the initial
activation of MHC synthesis, since the number of MHC' s produced/min/
polysomal MHC mRNA increased approximately four-fold between days 2
and 8 in culture.
INTRODUCTION
The possibility that myofibrillar myosin heavy chain (MHC)
synthesis is subject to extensive post-transcriptional controls has
been controversial in recent years, and the disagreements focus on
the following central issue: Prior to activation of myofibrillar MHC
synthesis during the early stages of skeletal muscle differentiation,
^Manuscript received 6 September 1982; accepted 20 September 1982.
2
This work was supported in part by research grants from the Upjohn
Company, the Muscular Dystrophy Association and N1H AM 30823.
119
Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle
does some (or all) of MHC mRNA transiently exist in the form of a
non-translated, cytoplasmic messenger ribonucleoprotein (3,4,6,10-12,
18,20)?
The purpose of the present experiments was to evaluate MHC
synthesis in muscle cell cultures at all stages of differentiation
for the extent of transcriptional and post-transcriptional controls.
Specifically, our objectives were: 1) to examine the content and
subcellular distribution of MHC mRNA in cultured muscle cells ranging
from replicating presumptive myoblasts to fully developed, steady-
state myotubes, and 2) to compare the rate of utilization of poly-
somal MHC mRNA in muscle cells during their period of rapid myosin
accretion immediately after fusion with that in mature myotubes where
MHC content and MHC synthesis are at a steady state.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials Avian myeloblastosis virus RNA-dependent DNA poly¬
merase (reverse transcriptase) was^a generous gift of Dr. J. Beard of
the National Cancer Institute. ( H)-labeled leucine, dATP and dCTP
were obtained from Amersham (Arlington Hts., IL) . Aquasol was from
New England Nuclear (Boston, MA) . Fertile white leghorn eggs were
obtained from Reichardt's Hatchery of St. Louis, MI. Acrylamide and
N,N'-diallyltartardiamide were from Bio-Rad Laboratories (Richmond,
CA) . Oligo (dT)-cellulose (type 3) was from Collaborative Research,
Inc. (Waltham, MA) .
Purification of Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA MHC mRNA was purified
from approximately 50 g of 13-day embryonic chick muscle essentially
as described by Heywood et al. (10). Poly (A)-containing RNA was
purified as described by Aviv and Leder (2), except that Type 3
oligo (dT)-cellulose was used and two complete cycles of binding were
carried out. MHC mRNA was subsequently purified by two centrifuga¬
tions on 10-30% sucrose density gradients containing 1% SDS, 5 mM
EDTA and 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4. Purity of RNA was analyzed by
electrophoresis on 1.25% agarose gels containing 2.2 M formaldehyde
(14). Cell-free translation of 2-10 pg of MHC mRNA was carried out
in a wheat germ assay (8). The mRNA migrated as a single band at
32S, and approximately 90% of the radioactivity incorporated in the
cell-free translation assay migrated as a single band with a mol wt
of 200,000 during electrophoresis in the presence of SDS.
Preparation and Analysis of MHC Complementary DNA The cDNA
preparation procedure was patterned after several studies reporting
synthesis of full length reverse transcripts (13,17). The size of
MHC mRNA reverse transcripts was estimated from the distribution of
radioactivity following centrifugation at 300,000 x g for 12 hr on 5
ml 10-30% linear sucrose gradients in 0.1 N NaOH and 0.9 M NaCl.
Each gradient also contained 50 pg of chick mitochondrial^DNA (24 S)
so that cDNA size could be calculated (5). The size of ( H)-labeled
MHC cDNA used here ranged from 1,000-5,800 nucleotides. Since MHC
120
Young and Achtymichuk
mRNA is approximately 6,500 nucleotides, the cDNA ranged from 15-89%,
with an average of 60%.
Musote Cell Cultures Muscle cell cultures were prepared from the
leg muscle of 12-day chick embryos as described by Young et al.
(23). Cells were placed in 15 cm diameter collagen-coated
polystyrene tissue culture dishes at an initial cell density of 1.38
x 10 cells/cm . Complete culture medium (85% Eagle's Minimum
Essential Medium, 10% pre-selected horse serum and 5% chick embryo
extract) was replenished daily; plates for all experiments received
fresh medium during th^ 4 hr period immediately preceding sacrifice.
Fluorodeoxyuridine (10 M) was added on day 3 to inhibit overgrowth
by fibroblasts. The extent of cellular growth and differentiation
was determined in all experiments from Giemsa stained cultures (23).
RNA Extraction from Cell Cultures RNA was extracted from muscle
cell cultures after 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 days for analysis of MHC
mRNA content. In most instances 12-15 15 cm dishes of 0.5-day and
1- day cells were pooled for each experiment, whereas 3-5 dishes were
combined for all other ages. Complete medium was poured from each
plate and quickly replaced with approximately 25 ml of ice-cold
polysome isolation buffer (0.25 M NaCl, 10 mM MgC^, 20 mM Tris-HCl,
pH 7.4) to chill the cultures and to rinse out residual culture
medium. Cells were scraped from the surface into a minimal amount of
polysome isolation buffer containing 0.5% Triton X-100 and lysed as
described by Morse et al. (15). The supernatant remaining after
centrifugation at 12,000 x g was layered onto 36 ml linear 10-40%
sucrose gradients (w/v) in polysome isolation buffer, and gradients
were centrifuged at 120,000 x g for 2 hr in a Beckman SW 27 rotor.
Polysome distribution in the developed gradients was monitored
continuously at 254 mm as described by Young et al. (22) in order to
collect nonpolysomal and polysomal fractions. Following collection
of polysomal and nonpolysomal material at 105,000 x g for 16 hr,
samples were dissolved in 0.5 ml of 50 mM NaCl, 0.1% NaDodSO^, 6 mM
2- mercaptoethanol , 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, and the quantity of
r ibonucleoprotein was established from absorbance at 260 mm (i.e., by
assuming that a solution containing 1 mg ribosomes/ml exhibits an
absorbance of 11.2). A quantity of proteinase K (Boehringer Mannheim
Biochemicals, Indianapolis, IN) equal to one-tenth the quantity of
ribosomal matefial was added, followed by incubation at 37 C for 2
hr. The digest was extracted once with buffer-saturated phenol, RNA
was precipitated two times at -20 C in 67% ethanol, 0.2 M NaOAc, pH
6.0, and dissolved in distilled water. The concentration of RNA was
measured by absorbance at 260 nm.
Hybridization Analysis Hybridization reactions were carried out
in a final volume of 40 pi containing 0.5 M NaCl. 2 mM EDTA, 10 mM
Tris-HCl, pH 7.0, approximately 3,000 cpm of MHC ( H)cDNA and 0.25-50
pg of either nonpolysomal or polysomal RNA. Each hybridization
series consisted of six different levels of RNA, with duplicate
samples at each level. Controls consisted of samples conta ining .no
RNA (to measure the extent of internal hybridization of the ( H)
121
Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle
cDNA) and of samples containing increasing levels of E. coli 23 S
ribosom^l RNA (to measure the extent of nonspecific reassociation of
MHC ( H)cDNA with an RNA species presumably containing no
complementary sequences.
Reactions were terminated by placing the tubes in an ice bath.
Two aliquots were withdrawn from each hybridization. One was placed
in 200 pi of 0.4 M NaCl, 0.2 M NaOAc , 1 mM ZnCl2, pH 4.6, followed by
the addition of 2 ml of 10% TCA. The second aliquot^ was placed in
the same buffer also containing 0.25 Units/ul of S nuclease and,
after incubation at 37 C for 15 min to digest single stranded
regions, 2 ml of 10% TCA was added. Hybrids were collected on
M^llipore filters (Type HA, 0.45 pm pore size). The percentage of
( H)cDNA forming stable hybrids was calculated (after subtracting
control values) and plotted versus log R t (where R = RNA
concentration in mol nucleotide/L and t = hybridization0 time in
seconds). Reassociation with MHC cDNA occurred with a single
transition, and the maximum percentage of reassociation was between
60 and 95%. Double reciprocal plots of these data were employed to
unequivocally establish the maximum percentage of reassociation (19).
Measurement of MHC Content and Synthesis Rate The synthesis rate
of MHC and the quantity of MHC was assessed from the same culture
sample, triplicate 10 cm culture dishes were pulse labeled with 10 p
Ci/ml ( H)Leu for 4 hr, and myosin-containing material was collected
as described by Young et al. (23). Protein samples were electro-
phoresed on diallyltartardiamide cross-linked polyacrylamide gels,
and both the radioactivity and mass of MHC were determined exactly as
described by Young et al. (25). Specific radioactivity of ( H)Leu in
the intracellular pool was quantitated by the dual isotope approach
of Airhart et al. (1).
RESULTS
MHC mRNA distribution during Development Initiation of myoblast
fusion in chick primary muscle cell cultures varies with initial cell
density and culture composition. To evaluate the coordination
between initiation of fusion and appearance of MHC mRNA into active
polysomal complexes, it was necessary to precisely define the time in
cell culture at which fusion and other muscle-specific functions were
initiated. Under the conditions employed for this study, the
appearance of small myotubes occurred after approximately 24-28 hr.
Fusion and accumulation of muscle-specific gene products occurred
shortly thereafter (Fig. 1). Especially important for the ensuing
experiments are the observations that morphological differentiation
was absent prior to 24 hr and that 6-8-day muscle cultures were at a
steady-state with respect to MHC concentration (Fig. 1).
122
Young and Achtymichuk
3
1
CO
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UJ 2
o
3
Z
£T
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CL
Z
5
O '
X
s
X
o
0
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CULTURE AGE, DAYS
Differentiation pattern of embryonic chick skeletal muscle
cell cultures. Myosin heavy chain synthesis rate and con¬
tent were assessed as described in Materials and Methods.
Myotube nuclei were enumerated in 15 cm culture dishes
stained with Giemsa. 0 , Number of myotube nuclei in each
culture dish; 0> pg of myosin heavy chain per myotube
nucleus;.^, MHC synthesis rate in molecules/min/nucleus .
Each point represents the mean + 1 SEM of five experiments
in which all measurements were made in duplicate.
A summary of hybridization analyses for MHC mRNA is shown in
Table 1. MHC mRNA was barely detectable in rapidly dividing, 0.5-day
muscle cells. After 1 day in culture — before significant levels of
fusion were observed (Fig. 1) — mononucleated muscle cells contained
approximately 1,200 copies of MHC mRNA; however, approximately 80% of
these copies were not associated with polysomes (Fig. 2). By day 2-3
in culture, when MHC synthesis and myotube formation are extensive
(Fig. 1), muscle cells exhibited an increase in the total number of
MHC mRNA copies. Moreover, the distribution of MHC mRNA reversed
0
Figure 1.
123
Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle
Table 1. Measurement of myosin heavy chain mRNA transcripts in the
nonpolysomal and polysomal fractions of muscle
3
l±J
O
3
<
Z
a :
E
o
X
2
X
fO
I
o
012345678
CULTURE AGE, DAYS
O
I
k
ui
o
3
Ui
CD
3
O
>-
'r
o
Figure 2. Distribution of MHC mRNA between the polysomal and non¬
polysomal compartments of developing muscle cells.
so that approximately 75% of MHC mRNA was associated with the poly¬
somal fraction (Fig. 2). As myotubes attained a constant quantity of
MHC on day 6-8, the percentage of polysomal MHC mRNA declined to ap¬
proximately 65%. In quantitative terms, the number of polysomal MHC
mRNA copies/cell increased approximately thirty-fold between day 1
and day 6, whereas the quantity of nonpolysomal MHC mRNA copies/cell
increased 50% at most (Fig. 2). Steady-state muscle cultures (days
6-8) contained approximately 3,500 and 1,500 MHC mRNA copies per
nucleus in the polysomal and nonpolysomal compartments, respectively
(Fig. 2).
Changes in MHC Translation Rate During Development In view of
the qualitative changes in MHC mRNA distribution in muscle cells
during the early stages of differentiation (Fig. 2), we measured
whether additional post-transcriptional controls contributed to
125
Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle
regulation of MHC synthesis. Because the number of copies of poly-
somal MHC mRNA per muscle nucleus (Fig. 2) and the rate of MHC pep¬
tide synthesis in molecules MHC/min/nucleus (Fig. 1) were already
known, the translation efficiency of MHC mRNA could be calculated in
terms of molecules of MHC synthesized/min/MHC mRNA (Fig. 3). The
number of peptides synthesized per message copy increased approxi¬
mately four-fold between days 2 and 8, suggesting that additional
translational controls enhance MHC synthesis in post-fusion muscle
cells .
1
<
Z
ct
E
Ct
UJ
CL
2
s
O
1
2
01 2345678
CULTURE AGE, DAYS
?
4
UJ
_J
o
r>
CD
15
H
O
>-
X
I
o
Figure 3. Translational efficiency of polysomal MHC mRNA in muscle
cell cultures during development. Changes in the number
of myotube nuclei/culture are also shown as a reference to
the stage of differentiation. MHC mRNA utilization rate
at each age was calculated by dividing the MHC synthesis
rate (molecules/min/nucleus) by the MHC mRNA concentration
(MHC mRNA/nucleus) to obtain the number of MHC peptides
produced by each MHC mRNA per unit of time.
126
Young and Achtymichuk
DISCUSSION
Direct evidence that a fraction of MHC mRNA is nonpolysomal in
embryonic muscle tissue has been obtained by purification of mRNP
particles containing MHC mRNA (3,10,11). Actin mRNA is also present
in mRNP particles (3,11). Additionally, the distribution of pulse-
labeled MHC and actin mRNA' s between the nonpolysomal and polysomal
was 35:65, respectively, and remained quite constant between days 11
and 17 of embryonic development. This subcellular distribution of
active and inactive MHC mRNA in muscle tissue is consistent with that
reported in muscle cell cultures (Figure 3).
While the above research favors the transient existence of MHC
mRNA as a non-translated , cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein particle,
several investigations disagree with this conclusion. Analyses of
whole cell RNA by cell-free translation experiments indicated that
mononucleated myogenic cells contained approximately thirty-fold less
MHC mRNA than myotubes (20), but the low level of MHC mRNA was attri¬
buted to the small percentage of multinucleated cells that usually
contaminate muscle cultures. In apparent agreement with this conclu¬
sion, hybridization analyses with (JH)cDNA to MHC mRNA failed to de¬
tect a significant quantity of MHC mRNA in mononucleated cultures of
chick muscle cells (12) or myogenic cells (4). Additionally,
others have concluded that the cytoplasmic levels of contractile pro¬
tein mRNA species are predominately responsible for regulating the
rate of myof ibrilar protein synthesis (6,18).
As in the case with all other studies on primary cultures of
chick skeletal muscle cells, the cultures employed for the present
experiments contained 15-25% fibroblasts. That these cells do not
contribute significantly to the total MHC mRNA pool in differentiat¬
ing cultures is suggested by the following observations. Muscle
cultures at 0.5 days of age (which consist primarily of replicating
presumptive myoblasts) contain only 100-200 MHC mRNA transcripts per
cell (Fig. 2). Because fibroblast contamination does not change
drastically between 0.5 and 1 day in culture, and because 1-day cells
already contain approximately 1,200 MHC transcripts per cell (Fig.
2), fibroblasts would cause no more than 10% error even in 1-day
cells. This percentage would be lower in older cultures as total MHC
mRNA accumulates up to approximately 5,000 copies per nuclear equiva¬
lent. It should be pointed out that the MHC mRNA level of 100-200
copies per cell in replicating presumptive myoblasts is likely an
underestimate of the true concentration, because of divergence be¬
tween nonmuscle and myofibrillar MHC sequences (26). Finally, the
percentage of fibroblasts remains relatively constant throughout
development under these conditions (24), especially after f luorcde-
oxyuridine is added on day 3.
The translation efficiency of MHC mRNA in 6-8-day muscle cul¬
tures (8 MHC/min/mRNA, Fig. 3) is reasonable based on the normal
amino acid polymerization rate and the size of MHC. The increase in
translation efficiency observed during the later stages of develop-
127
Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle
ment is less well documented, but has been indirectly inferred by
other approaches (16,23). The cellular alterations permitting more
efficient utilization of MHC mRNA during this period are unknown.
In view of a recent report (16) that radioactively-labeled MHC
mRNA can be inserted into fusing myoblasts and that this mRNA is then
actively translated, the presence of significant nonpolysomal MHC
mRNA prior to fusion can best be explained as a precursor to poly-
somal mRNA (7). This explanation also requires that muscle differen¬
tiation includes other cytoplasmic alterations that allow nonpoly¬
somal MHC mRNA to be recruited into polysomal complexes shortly after
initiation of fusion. The explanation for substantial amounts of
nonpolysomal MHC in 8-day, steady-state muscle cultures is less
clear, but at least three logical possibilities can be suggested.
First, nonpolysomal mRNA could simply be a direct precursor of poly¬
somal MHC mRNA and could be recruited into protein synthesis by the
proper intracellular signals (e.g., innervation, intense contrac¬
tion). Secondly, a fraction of MHC ribonucleoprotein particles might
somehow become irreversibly inactivated or partially degraded during
transport from the nucleus, thus rendering them incapable of partici¬
pating in protein synthesis. Alternatively, these inactive species
may be the products of normal mRNA degradation^. Such species would
still be detected by hybridization against ( H)cDNA. Thirdly, the
nonpolysomal MHC mRNA species could be an isozyme of the polysomal
MHC mRNA species (i.e., they were transcribed from different chromo¬
somal sequences and therefore code for different MHC isozymes). For
example, the primary species of MHC found in cultured rat muscle
cells in an embryonic form, rather than the adult form (21), and both
myofibrillar and constitutive MHC are found within individual myo-
tubes (9). In the third case, unique cytoplasmic conditions would
necessarily dictate preferential translation of one species over the
other .
LITERATURE CITED
1. Airhart, J., J. Kelley, J. E. Brayden, R. B. Low: An ultramicro
method of amino acid analysis: Application to studies of protein
metabolism in cultured cells. Anal. Biochem. 96, 45-55 (1979).
2. Aviv., P. Leder: Purification of biologically active globin
messenger RNA by chromatography on oligothymidylic acid-cellu¬
lose. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 69, 1408-1412 (1972).
3. Bag, J. , S. Sarkar : Studies on a nonpolysomal ribonucleoprotein
coding for myosin heavy chains from chick embryonic muscles. J.
Biol. Chem. 251, 7600-7609 (1976).
4. Benoff, S. , B. Nadal-Ginard : Most myosin heavy chain mRNA in
L.Eq rat myotubes has a short poly(A) tail. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA 76, 1853-1857 (1979).
128
Young and Achtymichuk
5. Dingman, C. W. : A convenient program for the rapid calculation
of sedimentation coefficients in linear salt or sucrose gradi¬
ents. Analyt. Biochem. 49, 124-133 (1972).
6. Devlin, R. B. , C. P. Emerson: Coordinate accumulation of con¬
tractile protein mRNAs during myoblast differentiation. Deve¬
lop. Biol. 69, 202-216 (1979).
7. Doetschman, T. , H. P. Dym, E. J. Siegel, S. M. Heywood :
Myoblast stored myosin heavy chain transcripts are precursors to
the myotube polysomal myosin heavy chain mRNAs. Differentiation
16, 149-162 (1980).
8. Dym, H. P. , D. S. Kennedy, S. M. Heywood: Subcellular distribu¬
tion of the cytoplasmic myosin heavy chain mRNA during myogene-
sis. Differentiation 12, 145-155 (1979).
9. Fallon, J. R. and V. T. Nachmias: Localization of cytoplasmic
and skeletal myosins in developing muscle cells by double-label
immunofluorescence. J. Cell Biol. 87, 237-247 (1980).
10. Heywood, S. M. , D. S. Kennedy, A. J. Bester: Stored myosin
messenger in embryonic chick muscle. FEBS LETTERS 53, 69-72
(1975).
11. Jain, S. K. , S. Sarkar : Poly (riboadenylate)-containing messenger
r ibonucleoprotein particles of chick embryonic muscles. Bio¬
chem. 18, 745-753 (1979).
12. John, H. A., M. Patr inou-Georgoulas , K. W. Jones: Detection of
myosin heavy chain mRNA during myogenesis in tissue culture by
in vitro and in situ hybridization. Cell 12, 501-508 (1977).
13. Kacian, D. L. , J. C. Myers: Synthesis of extensive, possibly
complete, DNA copies of poliovirus RNA in high yields and at
high specific activities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 73,
2191-2195 (1976).
14. Lehrach, H. , D. Diamond, J. J. Wozney, H. Boedtker: RNA molecu¬
lar weight determinations by gel electrophoresis under denatur¬
ing conditions, a critical reexamination. Biochem. 16, 4743-
4751 (1977).
15. Morse, R. K. , H. Herrmann, S. M. Heywood: Extraction with Triton
X-100 of active polysomes from monolayer cultures of embryonic
muscle cells. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 232, 403-409 (1971).
16. Mroczkowski, B. , H. P. Dym, E. J. Siegel, S. M. Heywood: Uptake
and utilization of mRNA by myogenic cells in culture. J. Cell
Biol. 87, 65-71 (1980).
129
Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle
17. Myers, J. C., S. Spiegelman, D. L. Kacian: Synthesis of full
length DNA copies of avian myeloblastosis virus RNA in high
yields. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 74, 2840-2843 (1977).
18. Przybyla, A., R. C. Strohman: Myosin heavy chain messenger RNA
from myogenic cell cultures. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 71,
662-666 (1974).
19. Robbins, J., S. M. Heywood : Quantification of myosin heavy-chain
mRNA during myogenesis. Eur. J. Biochem. 82, 601-608 (1978).
20. Strohman, R. C. , P. S. Moss, J. Micou-Eastwood , D. Spector, A.
Przybyla, B. Paterson: mRNA for myosin polypeptides: Isolation
from single myogenic cell cultures. Cell 10, 265-273 (1977).
21. Whalen, R. G. , K. Schwartz, P. Bouveret, S. M. Sell, F. Gros :
Contractile protein isozymes in muscle development: Identifica¬
tion of an embryonic form of myosin heavy chain. Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. 76, 5197-5201 (1979).
22. Young, R. B. , R. M. Denome , G. W. Achtymichuk: Stimulation of
myosin heavy chain synthesis in steady-state muscle cultures by
the ionophore, A23187, requires transcription of messenger RNA.
Eur. J. Cell Biol. 26, 184-187 (1981).
23. Young, R. B., D. E. Goll, M. H. Stromer: Isolation of myosin-
synthesizing polysomes from cultures of embryonic chicken myo¬
blasts before fusion. Develop. Biol 47, 123-135 (1975).
24. Young, R. B. , T. R. Miller, R. A. Merkel: Clonal analysis of
satellite cells in growing mice. J. Anim. Sci. 46, 1421-1429
(1978).
25. Young, R. B. , M. Orcutt, P. B. Blauwiekel: Quantitative measure¬
ment of protein mass and radioactivity in N, N' -Diallyltartardia-
mide crosslinked polyacrylamide slab gels. Anal. Biochem. 108,
202-206 (1980).
26. Young, R. B. , and R. E. Allen: Transitions in gene activity
during development of muscle fibers. J. Anim. Sci. 48, 837-852
(1979).
130
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 53, No. 4, Oct. 1982.
INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH PITCHER PLANTS
{SARRACENIA : SARRACENIACEAE) , AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP
TO PITCHER PLANT CONSERVATION: A REVIEW1
Debbie E. Rymal and George W. Folkerts
Department of Zoology -Entomology
Auburn University
Auburn University , Alabama 26849
ABSTRACT
Insects and other arthropods associated with pitcher plants
(.Sarracenia: Sarraceniaceae) mainly function as prey for the plants,
serve as pollinators, inhabit the pitchers, or feed on pitcher plant
tissue. Prey scarcity is not a problem in survival of Sarracenia
populations. Pollinators of pitcher plants are mainly bees, and in
the case of the large-flowered species, bumblebees of the genus
Bombus . At least 16 arthropod species are obligate associates of
Sarracenia. These include five moths representing four genera in two
families, seven flies in five genera and four families, three mites
in two genera in two families, and an aphid. A number of other
insects and spiders are casual but frequent associates. None of the
insect herbivores which feed on pitcher plant tissue represent a
threat to Sarracenia populations except under very extraordinary
conditions. Conservation efforts should be oriented toward con¬
serving this entire spectrum of uniquely associated organisms.
INTRODUCTION
The pitcher plants of the genus Sarracenia (Sarraceniaceae) are
among the most unique plants in the world. Their unusual insect¬
trapping leaves and their beauty make them precious biological and
esthetic resources. Although taxonomic opinion varies (Bell 1949,
McDaniel 1971, Case and Case 1976, Schnell 1977), as many as ten
species have been recognized in the genus. The following binomens
appear in the recent literature: S. alabamensis Case and Case, 5.
alata (Wood) Wood, S. flava L. , S. jonesi Wherry, S. leucophylla
Raf., S. minor Walt., S. oreophila (Kearny) Wherry, S. psittacina
Michx., S. purpurea L. , and S. rubra Walt. Nine of these nominal
species range mainly in the southeastern U.S. with one extending west
to eastern Texas. The remaining species, S. purpurea, also occurs in
the southeast but ranges northward to Labrador and Minnesota.
Pitcher plant habitats are being altered and destroyed at an
alarming rate (Folkerts 1977, 1982). One species, S. oreophila, the
green pitcher plant, is federally classified as endangered. A number
Manuscript received 12 August 1982; accepted 15 October 1982.
131
Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants
of other species are categorized as endangered, threatened, or rare
in lists prepared in the various states (e.g.. Ward 1978, Forsythe
and Ezell 1979, Freeman et al. 1980).
Insects and other arthropods associated with pitcher plants
interact with the plants in a number of ways. First, insects
presumably provide a significant nutrient source for the plants.
Second, insects are the pollinators which ensure eventual seed
production. Third, a number of insect species have evolved the
ability to inhabit the pitchers where they may subsist on pitcher
contents for at least a portion of their lives. Fourth, several
insect herbivores feed only on Sarraoenia tissue, and others use it
extensively. Additionally, a number of insects and other arthropods
are casual or rare associates of Sarraoenia but are mentioned here
because they may be encountered by other workers.
Because of the possibility that insect associates will be of
significance in the increasingly intensive efforts to preserve
pitcher plant populations, and because some workers have commented on
possible co-actions detrimental to the plants (Fish 1976, Troup and
McDaniel 1980), we present the following review. Our own information
has been accumulated during a number of years of observation and
investigation at over one hundred sites, mainly in the southeastern
U.S. Our experience in the northern bogs where only S. purpurea
occurs is limited. We have attempted to include most of the perti¬
nent literature although we do not contend that our list of citations
is exhaustive, and we have not included mere locality records, state
lists, or general works. Because of the review format of this arti¬
cle, detailed data are not included. It is our intent to aggregate
and summarize the available information, provide brief descriptions
to facilitate identification and foster understanding of the biologi¬
cal roles of the species, and present our observations and specula¬
tions as a basis for thought and further work by others.
A number of workers have presented general information on pit¬
cher plant insects (Riley 1874, Hubbard 1896, Jones 1893, 1904, 1908,
1935). Much of the effort has been concentrated on species associat¬
ed with S. purpurea which, because of its unusual morphology for the
genus and the amount of water held in the pitcher, possesses a spec¬
trum of associates rather different from that of the southeastern
species. It is also the only species which occurs in the north¬
eastern U.S. where interested entomologists have been numerous.
INSECTS AS PITCHER PLANT PREY
There is little need to dwell on this topic extensively since
there is no indication that absence of insect prey has been a factor
in the reduction of pitcher plant populations. It is possible that
prey insects are scarce at some sites, such as those where S.
oreophila exists in woodland habitats. However as it relates to
survival, prey scarcity would be overshadowed by many other detri¬
mental factors at these sites.
132
Rymal and Folkerts
Most pitcher plant species capture a broad spectrum of insect
types, but some degree of prey resource partitioning seems to occur
(T.C. Gibson, pers. comm., Folkerts 1982). Fish (1976) found that S.
minor in north-central Florida captures mainly ants. Lists of prey
have been provided by a number of workers (Jones 1904, Wray and
Brimley 1943, Judd 1959, Swales 1969, 1972).
Other than the occasional entrapped insect which bores through
the pitcher wall and escapes, prey insects are entirely beneficial in
that they presumably contribute nutrients that would otherwise be
limiting or in short supply.
PITCHER PLANT POLLINATORS
Even though the unique flower structure of Sarracenia is indica¬
tive of a highly evolved mechanism significant in the pollination
process, there has been no definitive study of pitcher plant polli¬
nation. McFarlane (1908) commented on pollination and Jones (1908)
made further comments and provided a list of "habitual visitors" to
the flowers of S. flava. Schnell (1978), and Folkerts (1982) added
comments .
It seems clear that the major pollinators of the large-flowered
species (S. aiata, S. flava , S. leucophylla , S. oreophila, S.
purpurea ) are newly emerged queens of the bumblebee genus Bombus .
Along the Gulf coast common pollinators are Bombus bimaculatus
Cresson, B. frateimus (F. Smith), and B. impatiens Cresson. Farther
north B. pennsylvanicus (Degeer) becomes more important. Although
there is some variation in size, queens of these species are gener¬
ally too large to enter the flowers of the small-flowered species (S.
minor, S. psittaoina, S. rubra complex). Worker bees of the afore¬
mentioned species are small enough to enter small Sarracenia flowers
but are not present in numbers until the Sarracenia flowering peak
is past. Jones (1908) saw small bees of the genera Augochlora
(Halictidae) and Osmia (Melittidae) visiting the flowers of S. minor.
A major factor affecting pollination success, especially with
bumblebees, is patch size of the plant species. When patch size is
small, bees are forced to visit several species in order to secure
sufficient pollen and nectar, consequently decreasing pollination
efficiency for any species involved (Levin 1978). This may be a
factor in the reproductive success of S. alabamensis, S. jonesi, and
S. oreophila, forms for which few or no large populations remain.
Small patches of S. flava and S. leucophylla along the Gulf coast,
which often represent populations decimated by competition resulting
from habitat changes caused by drainage and/or fire suppression, seem
seldom to receive much attention from pollinators.
A critical comparative study of pollination processes in
Sarracenia is needed to determine how they relate to reproduct ive
success and hybridization. We hope to elucidate some of these
phenomena in the near future.
133
Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants
PITCHER INHABITANTS
Under this heading we discuss species which typically complete a
portion of their life cycle within the pitchers but do not feed on
the plant tissue. Although these species have been called inquilines
by various authors, this frequently misused term should apply only to
organisms which share the homes of other species.
Diptera. Perhaps as many as nine species of flies are obligate in¬
habitants of Sarracenia pitchers. Two of these are associated with
only S. purpurea. Wyeomyia smithii (Coquillett 1901) (Culicidae)
(including W. haynei Dodge 1947, see Bradshaw and Lounibos 1977), a
mosquito, completes its larval development in the fluid in S.
purpurea pitchers. Most populations of the plant harbor at least a
small population of the mosquito. Wyeomia larvae feed on micro¬
organisms and suspended particulate matter in the pitcher fluid
(Addicott 1974) and may benefit the plant by conversion of their food
into fecal components and nitrogenous metabolites which can be ab¬
sorbed by the leaf.
Adult W. smithii may be seen resting on the plant and flying
near it. They do not typically bite humans although exceptions are
known (Goins 1977). This mosquito is undoubtedly the most well-
studied of the species associated with Sarracenia (Coquillett 1901,
Dyar 1901, Smith 1902, Mitchell 1905, Dodge 1947, Weathersbee and
Arnold 1948, Haufe 1952, Price 1958 a,b, Coyne and Hagman 1964,
Wallis and Frempoang-Boadu 1967, Barr and Barr 1969, Buffington 1970,
Bradshaw 1971, 1976, 1980, Paterson 1971, Smith and Brust 1971,
Bradshaw and Lounibos 1972, 1977, Evans and Brust 1972, Mclver and
Hudson 1972, Hall and Fish 1973, Addicott 1974, Istock et al. 1975,
1976 a,b, Lounibos and Bradshaw 1975, Goins 1977, Fish and Hall 1978,
Kingsolver 1979, Bradshaw and Phillips 1980, Moeur and Istock 1980).
Larvae of the midge, Metriocnemus knabi Coquillett
(Chironomidae) are also obligate inhabitants of S. purpurea. In
contrast to Wyeomyia larvae, the larvae of this species typically
occur in the lower portion of the pitcher fluid where they feed on
the mass of entrapped prey. Pupae may be found in a gelatinous mass
attached to the pitcher wall above the water surface (Coquillett
1904, Knab 1905, Judd 1959, Buffington 1970, Paterson 1971, Dermott
and Paterson 1974, Donald and Patterson 1977, Cameron et al. 1977,
Fish and Hall 1978).
The remaining fly species, as far as is known, are not specific
to any single Sarracenia species. Five, and perhaps a sixth species
of sarcophagid flies complete larval development by feeding on en¬
trapped prey. Four of these, Blaesoxipha celerata (Aldrich), B.
fletcheri (Aldrich), B. jonesi (Aldrich), and B. rileyi (Aldrich)
form a closely related group comprising the subgenus Fletcherimyia
(Riley 1873, Aldrich 1916, Jones 1935, Judd 1959, Stone et al. 1965,
Forsyth and Robertson 1975, Fish and Hall 1978). Adults of these
four species are nearly impossible to differentiate in the field.
134
Rymal and Folkerts
Accurate identification can only be accomplished by examination of
the male genitalia. All four species occur in several Sarracenia
species, however only B. fletcheri is known from S. ’purpurea.
Saraophaga sarraeeniae Riley is very similar to the Blaesoxipha
species and is often found at the same sites (San Jean 1957).
Aldrich (1916) reported that a variety of Saraophaga utilis Aldrich
also occurs in Sarracenia pitchers and conjectured that it might
represent a distinct species.
Adult sarcophagids , which grossly resemble oversized house
flies, are often abundant in pitcher plant habitats and can fre¬
quently be seen resting on the pitchers. Individuals occasionally
become entrapped. The large (15 - 20mm), white, conspicuous larvae
typically occur singly in pitchers as a result of cannibalism (For¬
syth and Robertson 1975). They are often quite common , occurring in
64% of the functional pitchers of S. minor examined by Fish (1976) in
Alachua Co., Florida.
Since sarcophagid larvae consume Sarracenia prey, their presence
could be considered a detriment to the plant. Fish (1976) thought
that larvae in S. minor, a species with relatively small pitchers,
might consume as much as 50 percent of the prey trapped. However the
wastes of the larvae may be available to the plant and larvae killed
during aggressive encounters with others may also function as prey at
times. Additionally, in Sarracenia species with large pitchers,
larvae would probably consume comparatively insignificant amounts of
prey. At many sites where we have worked in the southeastern U.S.,
sarcophagid larvae have been very abundant. We saw no indication of
damage to plant populations due to their activities.
A sciarid fly, Bradysia macfarlanei (Jones), (previously in¬
cluded in Sciara and Neosciara) is also an obligate associate of
Sarracenia. This small (3.0 - 3.8mm), delicate, blackish species
is found in association with all pitcher plant species except S.
purpurea. The yellowish larvae have prominent dark head capsules and
can be found burrowing among the entrapped prey. Adults can be ob¬
served resting on the inner and outer walls of the pitchers. Al¬
though the larvae probably consume prey components, their small size
and the fact that there are seldom large numbers in a single pitcher
indicate that the species is not detrimental to the plants.
The last dipteran which seems to be an obligate associate of
Sarracenia is a presumably undescribed species of Chloropidae
(Folkerts and Rymal, unpublished data) which seems to be restricted
to Gulf coast pitcher plant populations, being most numerous in S.
leucophylla. The adults (2.3 - 3.0mm) in general, resemble a dark
Drosophila and may be found in numbers resting on the inner walls of
pitchers. The small whitish larvae lack a head capsule and burrow
through the prey mass. Like Bradysia, this species appears to exert
no significant detrimental pressure on the plants.
135
Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants
Jones (1918) reported Dohmiphora comuta (Bigot) (as D. venusta
Coquillett), a phorid, from the pitchers of S. flava in South Caro¬
lina. The short, dorsoventrally flattened, brownish-white larvae may
be found among the prey, and are present mainly in the late summer
after the prey mass has dried. The small (2 - 3mm) dark brownish,
humpbacked adults may be seen in the vicinity of the pitchers. This
species occurs in many habitats outside of the pitchers and ranges
widely in the New World (Stone et al. 1965). We have not found it to
be common.
Hymenoptera. None of the wasps which nest in Savvacenia pitchers are
obligate associates but at least the first species mentioned below
seems to prefer to nest in pitchers where they occur within its
range, and can be most easily found by searching in this micro¬
habitat .
The trap-nesting sphecid wasp, Isodontia (Murrayella) mexicana
(Saussure) commonly nests in the leaves of Savvacenia species (Rau
1935, Brower and Brower 1970, Fish 1976). Earlier reports of pitcher
nesting by Isodontia philadelphica (Hubbard 1896, Jones 1904) and
Chlorion harrisi Fernald (Engelhardt 1928, Rau 1935, Lloyd 1942) also
apply to this species (Bohart and Menke 1963). This black slender-
waisted species has also been reported to nest in folded yucca
leaves, abandoned carpenter bee burrows, hollow stems, bamboo, and
sumac twigs (Engelhardt 1928, Rau 1935, Lin 1962, Medler 1965).
Trap-nesting wasps have been studied in artificial nesting sites
(Krombein 1967) but few natural nests have been found. Pitcher
plant nests seem to be ideal for future studies. Jones (1935) felt
that this species deserved the common name "sarracenia wasp."
Wasps of this type are called grass-carrying wasps because their
nests are built of grass leaves and other fibrous plant materials.
In pitchers, a wad of coiled grass plugs the bottom of the tube,
above which is a bed of loosely compacted grass on which are placed
the prey insects. The eggs are deposited at this site and the larvae
hatch and feed on the paralyzed prey. A bit of loose grass and a
tighter plug of coiled grass are placed over the brood chamber. Oc¬
casionally a tuft of grass can be seen protruding from the pitcher
orifice. Solitary nests, unicellular multilarval chambers, and mul¬
ticellular unilarval chambers partitioned by sections of dry grass
have been observed in pitchers. The latter two types have previously
been reported for this species (Bohart and Menke 1976).
Isodontia mexicana preys primarily on gryllid and tettigoniid
orthopterans . At a single locality all captures seem to be of a
single species. In pitcher plant bogs, Rau (1935) and our study
found the common prey to be nymphs of the tettigoniid genus
Conocephalus , often C. fasciatus (DeGeer). In the Southeast, pitcher
nests are heavily preyed upon by the red imported fire ant,
Solenopsis invicta Buren, which consumes the larvae or pupae and the
prey.
136
Rymal and Folkerts
Construction of a nest within a pitcher prevents further insect
capture. The female wasp may actually clean the site of previously
trapped prey before preparing the nest. Fish (1976) reported its
presence in 2.5 percent of the functional leaves of S. minor at a
site in Alachua Co., Florida. Concentrations higher than this were
never observed during our study. Thus, although individual leaves
may be rendered functionless, this insect presents no threat to the
health of pitcher plant populations.
Two less frequent types of wasps nests have been observed in
pitcher plant leaves. Bernon (1969) found an active nest of the ves-
pid paper wasp Polistes fusoatus pallipes Lepeletier in a pitcher of
S. purpurea in Massachusetts. In a few Gulf coast bogs, dirt-filled
pitchers of S. rubra and S. alata have been noted. Some contained
paralyzed salticid and clubionid spiders with small hymenopteran lar¬
vae attached. Although adult wasps were never obtained for identifi¬
cation, these were probably nests of another sphecid. Some species
are known to prey on spiders and place several prey items in a single
nest (Bohart and Menke 1976).
Acarina. We include mites because workers interested in pitcher
plant insects will also encounter these arthropods. Three species
are known to be specific to Sarracenia pitchers and others may occa¬
sionally occur.
Two of the mites are anoetids which scavenge on the remains of
decomposing prey or on microorganisms associated with prey decomposi¬
tion. Anoetus gibsoni (Nesbitt), originally described as Z wiokia
gibsoni (Nesbitt 1954, Hughes and Jackson 1958), inhabits only S.
purpurea where it occurs on the pitcher walls beneath the surface of
the liquid. Aneotus hughesi Hunter and Hunter has been reported from
S. flava and S. minor (Hunter and Hunter 1964) and seems to occur in
all species except S. purpurea. Individuals may be found among the
mass of entrapped prey or on the pitcher walls above the prey mass.
Both of the Anoetus species are medium-sized (adults .3 - .5mm)
light-colored mites in which the adults appear hairy because of their
long setae.
Maoroseius biscutatus Chant, Denmark, and Baker, is a phytoseiid
mite which occurs abundantly in the pitchers of various Sarracenia
species in the Southeast. It is conspicuously larger than the
Anoetus species (adults .55 - .60mm). Although most phytoseiids are
predaceous. Chant et al. (1959) reported that specimens of M. biscu¬
tatus were found associated with frass of species of the noctuid moth
genus Exyra (see later section). We have found specimens in pitchers
which contained no frass. The trophic relationships of Macroseius
therefore remain unclear.
Judd (1959) and Swales (1969) reported mites of the genus
Histiostoma (Anoetidae) in the leaves of S. purpurea. Species of
this genus occur widely in decaying organic matter (Krantz 1978).
None are specific to Sarracenia. Swales (1972) later stated that the
specimens reported as Histiostoma may have been Anoetus gibsoni.
137
Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants
The mechanisms of dispersal of these mites are not definitely
known. Hunter and Hunter (1964) hypothesized that Anoetus individ¬
uals were phoretic on insects. If this is the case they may use
Exyra moths since no other insects are common to the habitats of both
species. Insects which are attracted to nectar at the pitcher ori¬
fice may be used but the dispersal stage (hypopus) would have to lie
in wait in this area of the pitcher. Hunter and Hunter (1964) re¬
ported that the hypopial stages of Anoetus hughesi occurred on the
wall above the insect remains but did not mention their presence near
the pitcher orifice. None of the mites mentioned seem to be detri¬
mental to the plants.
PITCHER PLANT HERBIVORES
At least five insect species feed only on pitcher plant tissue.
Typically it is the pitcher tissue that is attacked although one
insect species occurs only in the flowers.
The insect herbivores which feed on Sarraoenia seem to be less
diverse and of fewer species than the spectrum of insect herbivores
occurring on a number of other bog species. For instance, no
chrysomelid, scarabaeid, or curculionid beetles feed on Sarraoenia.
Pentatomid or cicadellid bugs are almost never encountered. The
lepidopteran larvae which feed on Sarraoenia include members of only
four genera in two families. These facts suggest that pitcher plants
may have evolved some chemical defenses against insect herbivores.
Cattle do not graze on Sarraoenia leaves (Plummer 1963, Folkerts
1978, 1982) and we have observed that hogs leave them untouched. Low
nutrient quantity and quality characterize some plants that have few
insect herbivores, but ungulates seldom avoid such plants. It is not
known if the tannin content of Sarraoenia leaves is high, but they do
seem to be more highly lignified than the leaves of most other
species in their habitat.
Homoptera. The aphid Macrosiphum jeanae Robinson often occurs in
large numbers in the second-year pitchers of Sarraoenia purpurea.
This green, clear-winged species has been reported only from Canada
(Robinson 1972), and therefore presumably only occurs on S. purpurea.
Its entire life history occurs on the plant. We do not have the
experience to accurately assess the damage done by this species, but
because it only occurs in second-year pitchers whose entrapment
function may have already been lost or reduced in efficiency, the
damage is probably negligible.
Lepidoptera. The larvae of several moth species feed on pitcher
plant tissue. Most intimately associated with Sarraoenia are the
species of the noctuid genus Exyra Grote, all of which are obligate
inhabitants of pitcher plants. All stages of the life cycle occur
within the pitchers. Although they possess no immediately obvious
structural adaptations, they appear to be the only insects which can
successfully locomote on the downward pointing hairs which cover the
inner surface of the pitchers. Four nominal species are assigned to
138
Rymal and Folkerts
the genus: E. semicrocea (Geunee), E. ridingsii (Riley), E.
rolandiana Grote, and E. fax (Grote) (Grote 1879). Only three of
these names are generally considered valid, the epithet fax not
typically being used. Their validity and nomenclatural history is
currently being investigated (Rymal, in manuscript.)
Exyra semicrocea was reported from five Sarracenia species by
Jones (1921). We have found it in all ten nominal species during
this study, most abundantly in S. leucophylla along the Gulf coast
and in S. alata in Texas. Adult E. semicrocea average 11 mm in
length, although size varies considerably, probably reflecting larval
nutrition and pitcher size. The basal ivory colored portion of the
forewings are clearly demarcated from the black distal half. The
hind wings are black or grey. The filiform antennae are yellow.
The head and prothorax are black and the rest of the body and legs
are ivory. An entirely ivory form and a mottled form are occasion-
ly encountered and have been called E. semicrocea var. irmaculata
Benjamin and E. semicrocea var. hubbardiana Dyar, respectively
(Kimball 1965).
The bright coloration of E. semicrocea larvae is unusual for a
noctuid. Larvae are banded with red and white and have four con¬
spicuous pairs of lateral projections, the lappets. The pattern and
color is cryptic on the white, red-veined upper portion of the S.
Zeucophylla leaf.
Exrya ridingsii seems to be the least abundant species and is
known only from S. flava. Adults are somewhat larger than those of
E. semicrocea. The forewings are patterned throughout with black
bands alternating with ivory, the bands becoming broader toward the
outer edge of the wing. Irregular black markings occur on the legs.
The larvae are banded but the bands are duller than in E. semicrocea
and the lappets are less pronounced than those of the latter species.
Exyra rolandiana has been reported to be specifically associated
with S. purpurea (Jones 1921), although adults were found in pitchers
of S. flava by Jones (1904), and during the present study. As far as
is known, the life cycle can only be completed in S. purpurea.
Adult E. rolandiana differ conspicuously in coloration from
adults of the other two species, and considerable variation occurs.
The forewings vary from maroon with black and ivory blotches to
irregularly banded with black and ivory, and at times are entirely
black. The body and wings are covered with an intermixture of ivory
and grey scales. The larvae are not as brightly colored as those of
E. semicrocea and lappets are lacking.
Aspects of the biology of Exyra species have been treated in a
number of works (Riley 1874, Jones 1893, 1904, 1907, 1908, 1921,
Hubbard 1896, Judd 1957, Brower and Brower 1970, Fish 1976, Rvmal
1980). Along the Gulf coast E. semicrocea exhibits four overlapping
generations per year and overwinters as a late instar larva (Rymal
139
Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants
1980). Pupation begins in early spring and adults emerge coincident
with the maturation of the first pitcher plant leaves. From one to
several eggs are laid singly on the inside wall of a pitcher. Newly
hatched larvae typically girdle the pitcher with a narrow feeding
channel, causing the upper portion to wilt and topple, thereby effec¬
tively closing the pitcher opening. Larvae usually occur singly in
leaves and feed only on the inner portion, leaving the outer epider¬
mis intact. Three or four leaves are partially consumed during the
five larval stadia (Rymal 1980). Feeding larvae are nearly always
enclosed in a protective chamber consisting of a ceiling of silken
webbing or toppled leaf tissue above and protected below by their
frass deposits. Pupation generally takes place in an undamaged
pitcher. The orifice is typically closed by a sheet of webbing.
Prior to pupation the larva cuts a tiny drainage hole just below the
position in which the larva will attach itself to the wall by
webbing.
Adults rarely stray from their resting sites within pitchers.
Most flight takes place at dusk when females fly to new pitchers and
males search for females. Copulation occurs within pitchers with the
copulating pair positioned at right angles so that both face par¬
tially upward (Rymal 1980).
The life histories of the other two Exyra species are quite
similar, differing from that of E. semicroaea in features that adapt
them to their specific host plants. E. ridingsii pupates and hiber¬
nates in a chamber of larval frass. Newly hatched larvae remain for
several days, covered by silk and frass, in the groove in the throat
of S. flava, where the eggs are laid. Exyra rotandiana larvae
consistently use webbed orifices and drainage holes, a necessary
adaptation because the pitchers of S. purpurea are open to rain and
usually hold considerable quantities of water.
The damage that Exyra larvae cause to Sarraaenia leaves is con¬
spicuous and can be alarming. However, they rarely consume an entire
leaf and seldom are all of the leaves on a plant attacked. Partially
consumed leaves, although the orifice may be blocked, can probably
continue photosynthesis and absorption of nutrients from prey. The
larval wastes, which are deposited in the pitchers, may return some
nutrients to the plant if components can be absorbed. Cellulose de¬
grading fungi, which are known to grow on insect feces (Schreiber and
Mason 1976), may play a part in liberating substances that can be ab¬
sorbed by the pitchers.
We have found Exyra species present at nearly every pitcher
plant site we have visited. At a few sites virtually every leaf
showed some signs of Exyra damage. Some populations of Sarraaenia in
large, undisturbed bogs have sustained large Exyra populations
without apparent long term damage. Natural control of Exyra popula¬
tions occurs as a result of the actions of avian and spider preda¬
tors, dipteran and hymenopteran parasites, and fungal, bacterial, and
viral pathogens. In our opinion, these moth species do not present a
140
Rymal and Folkerts
significant danger to the continued existence of pitcher plant
populations .
The "Sarracenia root borer", Papaipema appassionato. Harvey, is
another noctuid moth whose larvae feed only on pitcher plant tissue.
The large larvae feed by burrowing in the underground rhizomes.
Their presence can often be detected by the turret of frass left at
the opening of their burrows. Mature larvae are reddish brown with
longitudinal white stripes and reach a length of 3 - 4 cm. Their
burrows can be extensive enough to cause entire clumps of pitcher
plants to wilt and die. Adults average 3.8 mm in wingspan. They are
yellow with maroon flecks and have two groups of small white dots at
the center of each forewing.
Although P. appassionata is potentially very damaging to pitcher
plant populations, it is relatively rare. Bird (1903) reported it
from S. purpurea in New Jersey, and Jones (1908) found it attacking
S. flava in South Carolina. It has also been collected in New York,
Quebec, Ontario (Forbes 1934) and Maine (Brower and Brower 1970). We
have not found it in the southeastern U.S. during this study.
The larvae of two tortricid moths feed on the flowers and
developing fruits of Sarracenia. One of these species, Endothenia
daeckeana (Kearfott) (formerly Olethreutes daeckeana , at times placed
in the family Olethreutidae) seems to be restricted to S. purpurea.
The larvae bore into the ovary base and consume seeds within.
Pupation occurs within the flower stalk down which the larva bores
when mature. Adults emerge in the spring after the pupae push
through the epidermis which covers a pre-chewed exit hole made by the
larva (Hilton 1982). Adults are small (15 - 18 mm wingspan) and of a
mottled grayish-brown color. Hilton (1982) found as high as 71
percent infested stalks at some sites and found other sites where the
moth was absent. He also found that one or more carpels of the
flower usually remain uninfested, so presumably this species never
completely prevents seed production.
Jones (1908) reported the aforementioned species from S. minor
in South Carolina. However, because the life history traits of the
moth he described vary considerably from the habits of E. daeckeana
as described by Hilton (1982) we believe it to be a different
species. Even though Kearfott identified the Jones material, he
may have based his identification mainly on the fact that the
specimens came from Sarracenia. It is possible that this species is
Endothenia hebesana Walker, a species which feeds on a variety of
hosts, and reported from pitcher plants by Forbes (1923). However,
it may be undescribed or may represent a different species. The
greenish white larvae of the species we encountered feed on the
flower parts and bore into the developing fruit and feed on the seeds
and tissue within. Their presence can be detected by frass and
debris which are fastened by silk to the wilting perianth parts.
Pupation takes place in the partially consumed ovary. The adult is
141
Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants
small (15.0 mm wingspread in one specimen we measured) and of a light
brown mottled color. We have found this form in S. leucophylla and
S. rubra.
Troup and McDaniel (1980) mentioned what was probably this spe¬
cies as a factor in curtailing seed production in S. oreophila popu¬
lations. In our experience, however, the larva rarely destroys more
than half of the fruit, which generally produces a quantity of seeds
in excess of that needed for population continuance.
Another tortricid, Choristoneura parallela (Robinson) (called
Archips parallela and Cacoecia parallela in some works), feeds at
times on pitcher plant tissue, although it also occurs on many other
hosts (Freeman 1958). Jones (1908) found it feeding on small leaves
of S. minor in South Carolina. The larva, which has been described
by MacKay (1962), spins an extensive web of silk within the pitcher
tube, feeds on the leaf tissue, and pupates in the angle formed by
the wing of the pitcher and the outer surface of the tube. We have
found a tortricid with similar habits feeding on S. leucophylla and
S. rubra in southern Alabama. Adults were not obtained for positive
identification. Because this species is only occasionally encoun¬
tered it cannot be considered a threat to the survival of Sarracenia
populations .
RARE AND CASUAL ASSOCIATES
In addition to the obligate associates and the frequently en¬
countered more generalized associates mentioned earlier, many arthro¬
pods are occasionally associated with pitcher plants in less obvious
ways. Additionally, a few rare species exist whose relationships to
pitcher plants are yet to be determined.
A number of polyphagous insect herbivores occasionally feed on
Sarracenia tissue. Grasshopper damage to the pitchers can often be
seen but is never extensive enough to warrant concern. Thrips, prob¬
ably of a number of species, are frequently seen on pitchers, but the
damage they cause is very minor. Leaf cutter bees cut round sec¬
tions from the petals when plants are in flower, and occasionally use
old pitchers as nesting sites, but probably harm the plant little.
Some leaf cutter species may be pollinators.
We found a scale insect of the genus Aspidiotus (Diaspididae)
on a pitcher of S. psittacina in southern Alabama. It probably rep¬
resents an undescribed species (Michael L. Williams, pers. comm.).
Whether or not it is specific to Sarracenia cannot be determined
without further investigation.
The fluid in Sarracenia purpurea sometimes harbors organisms
that typically occur in aquatic environments outside pitchers.
Brower and Brower (1970) reported the larva of a caddisfly, Frenesia
difficilis Walker (Limnephilidae) , and a freshwater isopod Asellus
142
Rymal and Folkerts
communis Say from fluid in S. purpurea pitchers. Mather (1981)
collected two alderfly larvae, Sialis joppa, Ross in separate pitchers
of S. purpurea at a site in New Jersey. We have found both isopods
and amphipods in S. purpurea pitchers in southern Mississippi but
attribute their presence to prior flooding of the site which had
completely inundated the pitchers and diluted the fluid within.
Spiders are abundant in pitcher plant habitats and are associa¬
ted with the plants as prey (Wray and Brimley 1943) and as predators
on insects attracted to the pitchers. Although no spider species are
|nown to be restricted to pitcher plant bogs, several are commonly
Encountered in bogs throughout the Southeast. Hubbard (1896) men¬
tioned that a spider of the genus Lycosa (Lycosidae) used pitcher
plants as a site to capture prey and as a retreat for rearing young.
The species that we have commonly encountered use a variety of be¬
havioral adaptations in exploiting the pitcher plants attractiveness
to their insect prey.
Peucetia viridans (Hentz) (Oxyopidae) , the green lynx spider, is
common in many habitats and occurs abundantly in pitcher plant bogs.
These large cryptic hunting spiders rest on the hoods of pitchers and
overcome attracted insects. Although silk is not used in prey en¬
trapment, a small amount of webbing is nearly always present in the
form of a dragline network which keeps the spider from being trapped
in the pitcher. In the fall, females suspend egg cases by silk just
inside the pitcher tubes. Eggs and young are guarded by the female.
Phidippus rimator (Walckenaer ) (Salticidae) is another common
spider which is abundant in southeastern pitcher plant bogs. These
bright red jumping spiders move swiftly about on the pitcher exte¬
riors and leap on prey from considerable distances. They do not
normally enter the pitchers, but since they rarely spin a drag line
they are occasionally entrapped. Like Peucetia, however, they do use
pitcher chambers, especially older ones which have lost some of their
trapping function, as sites for rearing young. Egg cases and young
spiderlings are contained within a thick mass of cotton-like silk
attached to the pitcher walls. A similar site is occupied by over¬
wintering adults.
Strotarchus piscatoria (Hentz) (Clubionidae) is a ubiquitous
species in southeastern bogs. These brownish spiders with large
dark chelicerae attack insects from a thin, silken, sac-like retreat
attached to the wall within the pitchers. Young are reared within
the sac. This species was found to prey heavily on overwintering
larvae of Exyra semicrocea in southern Alabama (Rymal 1980).
Another spider which often uses pitcher interiors as resting
sites is Tibellus duttoni (Hentz) (Philodromidae) . These long-bodied
spiders rest with the four front legs extended anteriorly and the
four hind ones extended posteriorly, making them difficult to see in
the pitchers.
143
Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants
The "flower spiders" ( Misumena , Misumenops, Misumenoides,
Thomisidae) can slowly change color to match their surroundings.
Several species are commonly found on flowers and pitchers.
Pitchers of S. leuaophylla were found incorporated into the webs
of a population of funnel weavers, Agelenopsis sp. (Agelenidae) . The
platform portions of webs were suspended between pitchers and the
funnel portions extended into the pitcher tubes.
Spiders of the genus Dolomedes (Pisauridae) , the fishing spi¬
ders, are common in wetlands and may sometimes be found on the sur¬
face of the fluid in S. purpurea pitchers.
CONCLUSIONS
Most of the arthropod species associated with pitcher plants
cause no significant harm to the plants under any conditions. In
exceptional cases, certain species, e.g. Papaipema appassionato, and
the Endothenia species may apparently cause extensive damage. In our
opinion, the low frequency of occurrence of these types at most sites
precludes their being a source of major concern. Totally, at least
in our experience, there are no reasons to contemplate control of any
of these species in concert with efforts to preserve pitcher plant
populations.
At least 16 of the species associated with Sarracenia seem to be
completely dependent on the plants for their existence. These forms
enhance the uniqueness of the pitcher plant ecosystem and are as
worthy of preservation as the pitcher plants themselves. We suggest
that all species in the ecosystem should be considered valuable in
our efforts to preserve the integrity of sites harboring pitcher
plants .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
For a variety of types of assistance during this study we would
like to thank J. Cely, W. E. Clark, R. Corsby, D.G. Drapalik, T.C.
Gibson, A.E. Goins, J. D. Harper, T.R. Jones, J.R. Jordan, W.H.
Mason, G.R. Mullen, D. Rayner, L. Smith, and M.L. Williams.
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151
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 53, No. 4, Oct. 1982
MEMORIAL
Reynolds Q. Shotts
(1909-1982)
Reynolds Q. Shotts was born in Double Springs, Alabama on
February 1, 1909 and died in Druid City Hospital in Tuscaloosa,
Alabama on July 18, 1982 after a lengthy illness. He is survived by
his wife, Ruth; his daughters, Mrs. Hugh Edmonds of Centreville,
Alabama; Ms. Eleanor Shotts, Birmingham, Alabama; and two grandsons,
Rick and Steve Edmonds, both of Centreville.
He received a B.S. degree in Mining Engineering in 1930 and an
M.S. degree in Mining Engineering in 1931, both from The University
of Alabama. Graduating during the depression years from 1931 to
1936, Rey found work teaching high school mathematics and science and
performing professional services for TVA as a geologist in 1933-34.
His introduction to teaching began when he accepted a position as
152
Simpson
professor at Rabun Gap, Georgia, in 1936. He was made assistant dean
and registrar in 1937 and stayed there until 1941. In the fall of
1941, he accepted a position at The Citadel as professor of chemistry
and mathematics and stayed there until 1942. In the summer of 1942,
he accepted an assignment with the Letroneau Company of Georgia in
Toccoa as metallurgist. He stayed there for one year, and in the
fall was offered a job as assistant fuels technologist at his alma
mater and served in this capacity from 1943-46 when he was made
assistant professor. It was during these years that he started on
the road to becoming an expert on Alabama coal deposits. When the
mining department at The University of Alabama was designated as the
State Mine Experiment Station under the School of Mines, Rey wrote
profusely about the quality of Alabama coals, publishing a number of
technical reports on Alabama coal. In 1947, he was made associate
professor and in 1951 was promoted to professor, a position he held
until his retirement on June 30, 1979, serving for 35 years.
Rey's greatest attribute was his memory; he had a flair for
remembering faces and names of students he taught from years past.
He would recognize former students of 15-20 years, even though the
occasion was a chance meeting underground and the student was garbed
in miner's clothes, his face blackened with coal dust, and the light¬
ing poor. He kept an unofficial record and file of former students
in his office and this file remains as one of the most usable and
accurate sources on former students of the department.
He was a walking history book of people, places, and events in
Alabama and the neighboring states. Taking trips with Rey around the
state brought a detailed story about a place and event that occurred
25 or 30 years ago. He would provide information on the name of the
underlying coal seams in an area, giving the acreage, tonnage, over¬
burden, area of outcrop, and the quality of the coal, as well as who
had mined it, when it was mined, and when mining ceased. He was also
well known for his daily puns both in and out of the classroom. Each
month as statistical data on coal production in the United States was
received, Rey would hasten to show Alabama's status in tonnage and
rank and why this was so. It is not widely known, but Rey was one of
the United States' few foremost experts on lunar mining, a distinc¬
tion he gained while performing research under a NASA contract in the
I960' s.
Rey Shotts loved his fellow man and was unselfish in his devo¬
tion to his church, Trinity Methodist of Tuscaloosa, and all the
activities associated with it. Rey felt no ill will to anyone of
anything. Rarely did he raise his voice in anger; it took an awful
lot to provoke him. He was devoted to his family, church, work, stu¬
dents, and the University, and his efforts in this regard were re¬
lentless and unceasing.
153
Reynolds Q. Shotts
Rey leaves many friends who remember him as a true Christian
gentleman, respected and admired by all who knew him. His willing¬
ness to talk and jocular mannerisms at faculty gatherings will be
missed. I am particularly proud for having had Rey as a friend and
colleague and it is comforting to know that many others feel the
same .
He was an active member of the Society of Mining Engineers of
AIME, Fellow of the Alabama Academy of Arts and Sciences, American
Society of Engineering Education, Alabama Academy of Science, Society
of Sigma Xi, Tau Beta Pi, and Pi Mu Epsilon. Rey did a lot of coal
consulting work for private individuals, companies, and government
agencies because of his extensive and profound knowledge about coal
deposits in Alabama and neighboring states.
Prepared by:
Thomas A. Simpson
Associate Professor
Department of Mineral Engineering
The University of Alabama
154
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 53, No. 4, Oct. 1982
INDEX
5'-C-Acetic acid derivatives of ARA-A, synthesis and
antiviral activity of . 48
Achtymichuk, Gerald W . 119
Acrosin inhibitor from murine seminal vesicle,
immunof luorescent localization of an .... . 29
Acylic nucleoside, a new: 2(S), 3(R)-l-(Adenin-9-yl)-2,3,5-
trihydroxypentane . 47
Ahrens, William . 88
Alabama's 1982 Legislative Forestry Study Committee report . . 55
Alexander, Chester . 60
Alzheimer's Disease (AD): biological entity - social impact . 101
Amphibians in Alabama, reassessment of the distribution of
three . 10, 36
Amphophilic granules of Lagamorph tongue filiform papillae,
morphological observations of . 103
Analytical methods for rapid determination of behavior
of elements in electric utility solid waste during
leaching . 50
Antistasis footboard exercises, the effect of on selected
measures of exertion . 88
Apple computer with an ESR spectrometer, using an . 60
Arbitrator, reinstated by the . 66
Atkins, A. J . 72
Atkinson, William J . 62
August, Anna M . ^ . 92
Autoradiographic analysis of L- (Methyl- H) methionine in
human cells with fragile site Xq2800 . 89
Axial magnetic field measurements in a vacuum spark plasma . . 62
Bailey, W. S . 23
Baker, David C . 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48
Ball, Mary . 35
Barker, Steven A . 85
Bauman, Robert P . 58, 59, 60
Beaton, John M . 38, 82, 85
Becher, Jacob . 58
Beck, L. R . 98
Behavior assessment using UAB scale . ..... 95
Beiersdorfer , Peter . 62
Benford, Helen H . 36
Bicyclic AZO compound, second order kinetics from a . 49
Bird, Julian . 80
Binuclear copper complexes, the catecholase activity of . . . 45
Blackmore, Mark S . 34
Blackwood, K. A . 95
Blarina, variation within and among* two species of . 33
Blood plasma levels of catecholamines, cortisol, and endophins
in male athletes before and after 26, 6 and 2 mile runs . 94
Blue mud site, Birmingham, Alabama, bottles from the . 108
155
Index
Boice, Nancy . 108
Boots, Larry R . 87, 100
Boshell, J. L . 96, 100, 102, 103
Boyd, F. Leslie . 48
Bradford, Billy P . 47
Bradley, James T . 36
Brattain, Michael . 88
Brezovich, Ivan A . 62
Buckner, Ellen B . 87
Budowle, B . 84
Buyers and sellers at farmer's markets in Alabama,
characteristics of . 65
Byrd, Gene G . 57
Cameron, Gregory S . 79
Campbell, P. S . 30
Candida albicans blastospores and phagocytic cells,
interaction between . 34
Capital, optimizing the cost of: a simultaneous
determination . 69
Cardiac rehabilitation program, evaluation of training effect
from a . 98
Carlisle, Clint . 60
Carmichael, Emmett B . 87
Carr, Thomas U. II . 47
Carroll, A. J . 81
Carter, Rick . 88
Castle, J. G . 61
Cathode-ray-tube displays, analysis of image smear in ... . 48
Cellulose hydrolysis in phosphoric acid solution . 44
Chambers, David E . 80
Chambers, G. Cliff . 21
Chang, Chen . 40
Chao, S . 61
Chemical contraception, the effects of, on plasma vitamin
levels and selected coenzyme-dependent enzyme activity
in female baboons . 100
Cherokee leadership selection, clans, courage, and commerce . 106
Cheshire, L. B . 91
Cheung, Herbert C . 59, 93
Chitinozoans in the Frog Mountain sandstone . 50
Chitwood, William . 28
M-Chloroperbenzoic acid, selective oxidation of steroidal
7.14 dienes by . 41
Chromosome analysis and tumorigenicity of three isolated
cell lines from a primary human colon carcinoma . 88
Chukwuocha, R . 35
Chung, Ronald A . 28
Clark, J. M . 34, 35
Clelland, J . 83
Close, David K . 29
Clotfelter, Ann . 98
Clothiaux, Eugene J . 62
156
Index
Cnemidophorus sexlineatus , energetic expense of
hibernation in .
Cochis, Thomas .
Cold focus for isoelectric focusing: separation of
6-hexosaminidase A and B isoenzymes .
Coleman, Jim .
Colonic lymph flow, effects of absorption and secretion on:
a physiological and anatomical analysis .
Colvin, Deborah A . ... .
Conary, J. T .
Congo, R . . .
Conservation of electricity in Alabama, trends toward the . .
Coriolis acceleration of falling bodies, a paradox of ....
Cornwell, P. E .
Cranford, Norman Bayne . 49,
Creationism Controversy, a geneticist's view of the .
Crews, Richard P .
Crockard, Jane F .
Crow, Cristopher John .
Crowell, Larry L . 32,
Cryptomonad algae, light and temperature effect on growth of
Cryptosporidium sp. in mice, endogenous development of calf. .
Current, W. L . 23, 24,
Cytogenetic method, improved for the diagnosis of Fanconis
anemia .
Cytomegalovirus infection in a day care center .
Dagg, C. P . 79,
Darnell, Betty ... . ......... .
Davis, J. H .
Davis, Mark S . 10,
Davis, Richard 0 .
Dearman, J .
3-Deazacordycepin : A chemical approach .
Decubitus ulcers, psychological predictions of a spinal cord
injury .
Denham, S .
DeVall, Wilbur B . 54,
DeVivo, M. J .
Diazohydroxides: reactive intermediates as anticancer
compounds .
2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, effects after long-term use
of in Lake Guntersville .
Dietary fiber, effect of on carbohydrate metabolism in
class A (gestational) Diabetes .
N,N dimethyltrptamine (DMT), modification of the action of
by N,N diethylcarboxamines .
Dioxygen with MmBr2PPhMe2, and infrared study of the
reaction of .
Di-tert-butyldimethylsilyl derivatives of ARA-A .
Dover, J. S .
Downey, James M .
Drennen, Daniel J .
37
37
84
69
94
45
84
27
69
60
100
108
35
48
81
52
33
31
24
25
81
92
86
78
61
36
78
94
48
97
63
55
89
44
27
78
82
42
48
95
80
5
157
Index
Duncan, Charles D . 42, 49
Dusaynski, D. W . 32
Dyer, R. L . 82
Eastern Chipmunks, food availability and the use of space by . 34
Education Services Division of the National Air and Space
Museum and the Regional Resources Program, the — available
assistance for local science education . 73
Eggers, M . 46
Ehna, synthesis of and its isomers from chiral precursors ... 46
Eimeria fundili, development in Fundulus heteroclitus .... 32
Eimeria roperi, the life cycle of in the cotton rat,
Sigmodon hispidus . 23
Elbert, Samuel and the East Florida Campaigns, 1777-1778 ... 75
Electrical discharges, computer modeling of . 59
Electronic selling of fruits and vegetables, the
potential for . 67
Elliott, H. C . 95
Endometrium, effects of a new long-acting steroidal
contraceptive on baboon . 98
Energy Education, a curriculum strategy of . 72
Energy levels in the institutionalized aged . 92
Environmental pollution, bivalves as indicators of . 49
Ernst, J. V . 23, 25
Estrogen and prolactin during intervention for poor
lactation . 87
Eubanks, Eleanor . 74
Evans, Z. A . 34, 35
Excretory urography for spinal cord injury follow-ups .... 93
Falcon Force: an update on the revised edition of a middle
school aerospace science program . 74
Fawal, Hala . 97
Federalism, Reagan's new: can cities and states cope? .... 77
Figs in North Alabama, growth, propagation and
preservation of . 37
Fine, P. R . 89, 93, 96, 97, 102
Finley, W. H . 81, 88, 89, 90
Fite, S. C . 104
Fite, W. H . 104
Floyd, McArthur . 28
Flurbiprofen, effects of on myocardial infarct size . 80
Folkerts, George W. . . 131
Francis, K. T . 83, 94
Frandsen, J. C . 22
Free, W. Joe . 65, 67
Freedman's Bureau and Labor reorganization in Alabama,
1865-1869, the federal endeavor . 75
Friese, C. L . 64
Garland, Frank . 93
Gastric mucosa, altered chloride transport in the in vitro . . 103
Gates, William R . 33
Geological interpretation aids archaeological site location. 49, 108
Gerontakis, Nicholas . 62
158
Index
Ghai, Rajendra D . 85
Gibson, Michael A . 51
Giles, Barbara M . 76
Glass, Wayne R . 56
Glycoaminoglycans in cultured fibroblasts fj^gm patients with
Zellweger Syndrome, incorporation of ( SO =) into ... 90
Goldenberg, R. L . 82
Goodson, Patricia A . 42
Granger, D. Neil . 94, 99
Graves, Katherine M . 68
Graves, Robert J . . . 42, 49
Gravitational acceleration of an extended rigid body ..... 63
Gray, B. M . 78
Gray squirrel mating calls . 33
Gray, Wayne L . 86
Green, Gayden . 70
Gregorowicz, Philip . 65, 70
Gregory, D. A . 61
Gueldner, Sarah Hall . 92
Haber, P. L . '. . . 78
Hamer, John . 104
Hanvey, Jeff C . 39
Harms, B. C . 63
Harrell, J. W, Jr . 63
Harris, J. M . 27
Hashing functions, techniques for evaluating . 64
Haskell, Joyce Fehl . 90
Hawkins, L. D . 40, 46, 47, 48
Haworth, M. D . 60
Hayhurst, Donald E . 76
Hearse, D. J . 80
Heidler, David S . 75
Heliothis Zea, biological studies on an insect pest of
tomato . 21
Heron colony, yellow-crowned night, nest characteristics
of a . 5
Heron eggs, petroleum hydrocarbons and pesticides in . 42
Herpes simplex virus, studies on the neurovirulence of ... . 86
Hesse, Brian . 105
Hill, W. E . 42
Holladay, David . 86
Holland, Andrea Priscilla . 57
Holmes, Jack D. L. , Sir . 76
Holst, Richard . 56
Homo ereatus, through the corridors of the pleistocene with . 57
Horn, Howard R . 98
Howard-Peebles , Patricia N . 89
Hubbard, Barbara . 97
Huddleston, John F . 78
Huang, C. T . 96
Human and calf Cryptosporidia in mice and rats . 23
Hunt, Laura Jean . 5
159
Index
Hyde, B. M . 98
5-hydroxyhaemopyrrole , the synthesis of new dialkyl
derivatives of . 38
Ictalurus punctatus, fine structure of the testicular
spermatozoa from the channel catfish . 26
"Inflation Accounting" for agribusiness, the importance of:
a case study of three firms . 68
Inman, Henry . 105
Insulin receptor in bovine cerebral microvessels . 90
Internal migration in the U.S., an ecological approach to . . 105
Intergovernmental relations: real change or more of the same . 76
Introductory physics, applications of research on teaching¬
learning to teaching . 58
Invertebrate megafauna associated with the upper cliff coals,
plateau coal field, Northern Alabama, a preliminary
study of . 51
Irwin, Michael H . 29
Isbell, Raymond E . 44
Isoproterenol and/or testosterone propionate on regeneration
of rat submandibular glands, histological observations
on . 102
Isospora suis, life cycle of in swine . 25
Israel, climate change in ancient coastal . 106
Jacobs, R. J . 21
Jimenez, W . 83
Johnson, E. Pointer . 90
Johnson, Raymond M . 69
Jones, Broderick C . 28
Jones, S. T . 63, 72
Jones, Thomas R . 10, 24, 36
Jordan, Diann . 28
Jordan, Zooarchaeological investigation at Tell El-Hayy at . . 107
Joule heating in conducting media, temperature distribution
due to . 62
Kartus, Kathryn . 86
Kase, J. C . 91
Kassim, Abd . 61
Keratohylain granules of mammalian tongues, morphological
studies of . 100
Key, Geraldine W . 97
Keynesian Economics, has it really failed . 68
Kidd, W. H . 34
King, David T. Jr. . 53
King, Tommy . 5
Kinney, Marguerite . 88
Kirsh, Edward H . 64
Kouskolekas, C. A . 21
Krannich, Larry R . 43
Kribel, R. E . 60
Kuhlemeier, K. V . 89, 93, 96, 102
Kumar, Shiv D . 43
Kushner, Jaynn . 106
160
Index
Kvietys, P. R . 94
Kyanite-sillimanite isograd in the Tallassee synform,
Dadeville complex, Alabama, location of ........ . 52
Lacy, A. Wayne . .................. 68
Lancaster, Jeanette ........ . ..... 91
Landers, Kenneth E. ........ . ........ 37
Lane, C. Patrick ....................... 82
Lane, Roger S. . . ................. 85
Laser interf errometer measurements of low GTE quartz and
graphite epoxy with vacuum high precision ........ 61
Lausch, Robert ............. 1 ......... . 84
Lawton, R. 0 . 32
Lead selective electrode use for industrial hygiene ..... 41
Leucine pools in normal and dystrophic cultured muscle cells . 26
Lifeline rates, a utility looks at ............. . 70
Limb development and fertility in mice, a mutation affecting . 86
Limestone springs, aspects of flora and fauna in the ridge
and valley physiographic province in Alabama ...... 24
Lindsay, David S. ...................... 25
Lindsey, J. Russell ..................... 86
Lishak, Robert S. .................... 28 , 33 , 34
Llvant, P. ......................... . 46
Lloyd, L. K. ....................... . 93, 102
Logan, Kathleen ................. . 107
Loveless, G. C. ....................... 30
Lung cancer, suffering reported by adults with . . 80
Mabry, Helen .... . ........ 77
Macaco, fascicularis , the evolution of copulatory calls in . . 108
Mack, T. P. ...................... 25, 30, 31
Maetz, Michael ........................ 79
Management information services, the state of the state in . . 64
Marion, Ken R. ...................... . 29, 49
Martin, David L. ............. . . .... 77
Mason, Linda Jean ...................... 30
Maternity patients and low birth weight infants in Alabama,
management of high risk: a survey . . . ..... 82
McCombs, Jerome ....................... 88
McCord, Joe M. .................. . . 99
McDevitt, Carl .......... . ....... 70
McEachran, A. B. ................. . 89, 93, 96, 102
Mclnnish, Mary Katherine ................... 57
McKinney, Ralph ... . ............... 103
McMillian, Edwina .... . ............. 45
Mediastinitis , Infections in a university hospital ...... 79
Mediterranean geckos at Eufala, Alabama, behavioral
aspects of ....................... 33
Meezan, Elias ................. . 90
Memory, age differences in for self-generated events . 81
Meredith, R . ..................... 97
Meteoritic spectra ................. . 02
Methyl-p- (2-Benzimidazolyl) methylphenoxy carboxylate,
synthesis of ............. . 42
161
Index
Metzger, Mary C . 107
Mexican urban health care system, pharmacists and OTC's
in the . 107
Microcomputer applications in undergraduate chemistry .... 43
Middle school science teaching: the sts a resource for,
studying the space shuttle in the classroom . 74
Mihelick, Kristen . 89
Miller, Margaret . 31
Modlin, R. F . 27
Molybdenum (II) Thioacetate and dithioacetate , solution
properties of . 47
Moeller, Michael B . 44
Monoclonal antibodies specific for herpes simplex virus type
one mediate antiviral effects in vitro and in vivo ... 84
Moore, McDonald, Sr . 45
Morphological variability and domestication . 105
Morris, Philip E . 38, 85
MSN curricula, real vs. ideal content in: preception of
graduates . 91
Municipal solid waste disposal, alternative methods of ... . 56
Myers, John B . 75
Myoglobin, a possible role for in the transport of fatty
acids: energy implication in exercise . 83
Myosin heavy chain mRNA concentration, cytoplasmic
distribution and utilization in embryonic chick
muscle cell cultures, developmental changes in . 119
Myosin subfragment- 1 , fluorescence studies of . 59
Nair, M. G . 101
Neilson, Michael J . 52
Nelson, K. G . 82
Nepomuceno, C. S . 95, 97
Newberry, V. F . 42
Newman, G. A . 30
Nicholson, Nanette . 26
NMR, the application of to problems in inorganic chemistry . . 38
Nonpecuniary conditions of employment, the labor supply
effects of . 65
Norrell, Fred . 70
Oakes, John E . 84, 86
Oil Shales (Eastern), characterization of by proton NMR ... 63
Ophion flavidus , food consumed by fall armyworm
parasitized by . 25
Osterlund, Merilyn . 54
Pace, R. D . 22
Panu, A1 . 82
Paraplegics, work capacity in . 96
Parish, Edward J . 41
Parks, Dale A . 99
Pass, Robert F . 92
Pentostatin Aglycone, alkyl derivatives of the . 43
Pentostatin Aglycone, new and novel heterocycles related
to the . 47
162
Index
Pentostatin, studies in the biosynthesis of . 39
Peritonitis associated with peritoneal dialysis: a mechanism
for surveillance . 97
Peterson, R. D. A . 91
Phycomyces sporangiophore , avoidance response of . 28
Physician-patient relationship, determinations of
satisfaction in . 104
Pierce, Thomas . 41
Pillion, Dennis J . 90
Pitcher plants ( Sarraaenia : Sarraceniaceae) , and their
relationship to pitcher plant conservation, insects
associated with: a review . 131
Planetarium programs, planning . 71
Plant propagation for classroom use from supermarket fruits,
seeds, and vegetables . 37
Plasma electron heating by test electrons . 60
Poikilotherms , temperature dependence in . 31
Poirier, Gary R . 26, 29
Polychloronated biphenyls, ultrastructural damage in tissue
exposed to . 28
Pope, V. Z . 98
Predictive models to historic site analysis in the T.M.R.D.,
relevance of . 55
Pseupoplusia ineludens (Lepidoptera Noctuidae), ovipositional
rates of as a function of temperature . 30
Public land laws and settlement of the mountains of
northeast Alabama . 54
Rabbits, diet and stomachworm infections in . 22
Ragland, Isabel M . 37
1980 Rail deregulation act, implications of on the Alabama
grain handlers . 67
Rash, Clarence E. . . 58
Rats, effects of Nematodes and Coccidia in . 22
Rector, James . 84
Redwine, Jim . 50
Reese, N. C . 23, 24
Reid, Austin H . . . 47
Retirement, a geographic approach to . 54
Richards, J. S . 95, 97
Richmond, Carol N . 44
Rico, Marlon C. , Dr. . . 73
Riggsby, Dutchie S . 71, 74
Riggsby, Ernest . 73, 74
Riles, M . . . 95
Rives, C.J . 61
Robinson, N.C . 81
Rockmart slate, an analysis of the structural fabrics of . . . 53
Rohlfs, W. Mitchell . 25
Rosa-Molinar , Edward . 17
Roy, Ran j an S . 99
Rutland, Carole . 71
Rymal, Debbie E . 131
163
Index
Sadama, individualism and cooperation amongst the . 104
St. Pierre, Thomas L . 40
Schneible, Peter A . 26
Schrodinger equation, a simple method for solving the .... 63
Sebastian, John E . 50
Seldon, James R . 66
Self-employed physicians, pricing and practicing behavior of . 66
Sellers, Jeffrey C . 37
Serum creatinine and renal function, non-correlation between . 102
Serum phospholipids, effect on increased egg consumption on . 95
Settine, Robert L . 39, 42, 49
Shark fetus, a two-headed . 17
Shealy, D. L . 61
Shelley, Melissa . 97
Sherrill, Dorothy E . 28
Shoemaker, Richard L . 103
Shotts, Reynold Q . 152
Sibley, David M . 53
Silicon and germanium esters and their reaction with
grignard reagents . 45
Singh, Baldev . 100, 102, 103
Sink, David W . 77
Skeletal muscle fibers, comparative microscopy . 27
Sloss, saving . 77
Soybean cyst nematode and rhizobium japonicum on soybean
yield, the interaction of . 28
Soybean futures market in forecasting cash prices, the
efficiency of the . 70
Soybean trypsin inhibitor prevents ischemia-induced
dehydrogenase to oxidase conversion . 99
Soybeans, international trade in: implications for Alabama . . 71
Spanish medical care in the Mobile District: advanced
or retarded? . 76
Spinal meningeal leukemia, an experimental model for the
study of . 91
Spiral galaxies, formation of arms in: new evidence for a
gravitional mechanism . 57
Stallings, James L . 71
Stanley, Cherly . 31
Steele, H. Ellsworth . 66
Steflik, Dave . 100
Stemotherus minor depressus: female reproductive cycle of . . 29
Stewart, William S. , Dr . 73
Stover, S. L . 93, 102
Stratigraphic breaks and vertical continuity . 53
Streptococci, immune status of mice chronically infected
with Group A . 35
Stroud, Philip . 49, 108
Sulfur analogs of 3(R), 2 (S) -3 (Adenin-9-y 1 )-2-hydroxynonane ,
a synthesis of . 40
Superoxide radicals on intestinal capillary permeability,
effect of enzymatically generated . 99
164
Index
Talhouk, Jamil . 39
Taylor, J. Farrest . 40
Teaching aids and methods utilized by universities and
noneducational institutions . 73
Teratomas, testicular in transplanted embryonic mouse gonads . 79
Testosterone propinate, effects of on regeneration of
acinar cells in submandibular glands of rats . 96
Tetradeutero-indolealkylamines , in vivo metabolism of in
the rat . 85
A -1-Tetrahydrocannabinol, potential terpene precursors for
razdan synthesis of . 39
Thiocyanate, crown ether mediated reaction of with a
chlorosulf urane . 46
Thompson, J. N . 84, 90
Thymidylate synthase of the coenzyme class, inhibitors of . . 101
Trace elements in lower paleozoic carbonates of the southern
Appalachian valley and ridge province, preliminary
investigation of . 52
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, the effects of
in endorphin and cortisol levels in normal adults .... 83
Transferrin levels in patients with IgG and IgA deficiencies
compared to normal adults . 78
Tropical rain forest, wind stress and wood density in a . . . 32
Troponin C, proximity relationship of . 93
Turpatrix aceti, acid proteinase activities of the nematode . 85
Two-dimensional collisions, a simple experiment on . 72
Upton, S. J . . 32
Urinary tract calculi in spinal cord injury patients . 89
Uterine responsivity , receptor interaction and . 30
Varakis, J. N . 91
Vegetable Leafminer : population fluctuations and parasitism . 21
Vigee, Gerald S . 38, 45
N-Vinylacrylamide , synthesis and NMR of spectroscopic
study of . 40
Vitamin C and the common cold . 87
Vitelli, Veronica A . 65, 67, 68
Vitellogenin synthesis, juvenile hormone induction of
cricket . 36
Walker, Barbara C . 97
Walker, Ursin S., Dr . 73
Walls, Ian A . 52
Walton, Robert C . 59
Wang, C.K . 93
Wapnish, Paula . 106
Waste conversion to energy, issues of . 56
Watkins, Charles L . 38, 43
Wayne, J.B . 82
Wdowiak, Thomas J . 62
Weaver, David C . 55
Webb, Thomas R . 47
Wheatly, Bruce . 108
Whitlock, Suzanne A . 23
165
Index
Wilborn, W. H . 91, 94, 98, 100
Wilke, Arthur S . 77
Williams, Barbara K . 79
Williams, Carol S . 27, 28
Williams, John W. , III . 27
Williams, Noland C . 56
Wingo, W. J . 83
Winston Cave local fauna and the late pleistocene faunal
gradient in eastern North America . 51
Wit, Lawrence C . 37
Womochel, Daniel R . 51
Worley, S. D . 42
X-ray microscope, design of for use with an extended range
X-ray telescope . 61
Yackzan, K. S . 78, 83
Yearwood, Kirtley . 27
Yellon, D. M . 80
Young, John H . 62, 63
Young, Ronald B . 26, 119
Yu, Susan Benedict . 80
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