‘l.Ob 1869 THE LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from IMLS LG-70-15-0138-15 https://archive.org/details/journalofalabama5253alab THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE VOLUME 52 JANUARY, 1981 NO. 1 EDITOR: IT. H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, AL 36849 ARCHIVIST: R. G. Eaves, Department of History, Auburn University, AL 36849 EDITORIAL BOARD: R. T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849 E. A. Curl, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849 G. L. Becker, Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294 ADVISORY BOARD: Curt M. Peterson, Auburn University William Gunther, Univ. Ala., Tuscaloosa A. Barry Cox, Jacksonville St. Uni \. Richard L. Shoemaker, Univ. Ala., Tuscaloosa Daniel R. Womochel, Auburn University Harold L. Pastrick, Redstone Arsenal Frank Himmler, Univ. North Alabama Glen Eaves, Auburn University James Hawk, Univ. Ala., Tuscaloosa Helen Mabry, Birmingham (Bd. of Educ.) Ernest Riggsby, Columbus College The Journal is the official publication of the Alabama Academy of Science, and is indexed in Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, America: History and Life, and Historical Abstracts. Publication and Subscription Policies Submission of Manuscripts. Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow Instruction to Authors (see inside back cover). Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors. Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIR¬ MAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD. Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news releases will not be pub¬ lished in the Journal. ISSN 002-4112 CONTENTS ARTICLES Territorial Behavior--A Means of Population Regulation in Multiple Habitats William E . Cooper, Jr . Natural History of the Black Belt Prairie Thomas H. Wilson . 10 Notes on the Nesting Biology of the Marbled Salamander, Ambystoma opaoum, in the Southern Portion of Its Range James W. Petranka and John G. Petranka . 20 Patterns of Forest Tent Caterpillar Defoliation in Southwest Alabama--1973-1979 James D. Harper and James R. Hyland . 25 Noxious Weeds of Alabama Guy W. Karr, Jr . 32 ABSTRACT (Alabama Science Policy Forum) Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Potable Water Production from Fission D. L. Hollis and E. R. VanArtsdalen . . . . 47 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981. TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOR--A MEANS OF POPULATION REGULATION IN MULTIPLE HABITATS1’2 William E. Cooper, Jr. Department of Biology Auburn University at Montgomery Montgomery y AL 36117 Abstract. The effects of territorial behavior on regulation of num¬ bers are modeled for a population breeding in multiple habitats and tend¬ ing to grow or decrease exponentially within each habitat. Associated with each habitat is a distinct intrinsic rate of increase. Since terri¬ torial behavior limits the number of individuals which may breed in each habitat, the number of individuals in a given habitat reaches a maximum at some size of overall population and remains constant above that level. According to the model presented, the overall population growth may be slowed by territorial behavior or even brought to an equilibria! value dependent on the intrinsic rates of increase and maximal numbers in the available habitats. Although much discussion has been devoted to the proposition that animal populations may regulate their numbers by territorial behavior, there have been very few attempts to place the relationship between popu¬ lation density and territorial ity into an analytical framework. Perhaps the great controversy surrounding the evolutionary origin of territorial¬ ity as a mechanism for regulating density has tended to obscure the very characteristics of the mechanism's operation. Studies of density regulation by territorial behavior have focused largely on birds although the regulation may apply to other organisms such as iguanid lizards. Two significant papers appeared in 1969. First, Jerram Brown (1969) argued that the effects of territorial behavior depend on certain critical density levels. At level 1, density is low enough that no individuals are excluded from the most preferred habitat by ter¬ ritorial behavior of conspefi fics . At density level 2, some individuals are displaced from the preferred habitat but are able to breed in some¬ what less productive habitats. At density level 3, all habitats in which successful breeding could take place are filled to capacity by territory holders and a group of surplus potential breeders called floaters exist without territories. Fretwell and Lucas (1969) presented a model of limitation of bird numbers based on habitat selection. At low densities ^Manuscript received 17 April 1980; accepted 30 October 1980. 2 This work was partially supported by Auburn University at Montgom¬ ery. Discussions with Irvin R. Savidge and Stephen D. Fretwell provided motivation for the work. Carlton Woods reviewed a portion of the manu¬ script for mathematical accuracy. 1 Territorial Behavior in this model, all birds select territories in the habitat of highest suitability, which is the habitat in which reproductive success is great¬ est. However, occupation of territories decreases the suitability of the best habitat until at some density, the occupied habitat becomes less suitable for new settlers than some other habitat, which newcomers then proceed to occupy as density increases without as much interference from territory holders. This process may continue to include several less favorable habitats. Savidge (1974) has developed a discrete model for management of territorial bird populations which behaviorally regulate population growth. The current paper presents a simple continuous model of the effects of territorial behavior on population growth. Growth in natural popula¬ tions is subject to many influences, including vagaries of weather, food density, predation, and interspecific competition, to name a few. All these variables must be taken into account in empirical field studies, but are for analytical purposes considered in the model to assume con¬ stant values. It is assumed that at some population density, N*, no more territories are available to accommodate potentially breeding females in the most suitable habitat. At higher densities, the excess females overflow into the next most suitable habitat. Conditions of this model are by no means satisfied by animals in general. They are most likely to be found among species occupying multi¬ purpose feeding-breeding territories. Species maintaining feeding terri¬ tories or breeding territories such as leks would often be subject to severe constraints making such population regulation highly dubious. Among vertebrates the most likely groups to be regulated in the manner described are redwing blackbirds, ecologically similar avian species, and numerous iguanid and agamid lizards. First consider the situation with two habitats, butthemodel will later be extended to any desired number. Population growth is considered to be exponential, with numbers increasing without limit in the absence of territorial exclusion. For regulation of numbers to be effective, territoriality must at some density bring a halt to the unlimited growth. No implication of group selection is inherent in this process. Let N be the number of females in the population, r] the intrinsic rate of increase in the more suitable habitat, and r2 the intrinsic rate of increase in the less suitable habitat. Note that throughout this paper, r represents a constant, a rate of increase independent of popu¬ lation fluctuations. Fretwell and Lucas (1969) and MacArthur (1972) note that increasing densities result in lower values of r in the various habitats available to a population. Analytical solutions to the equa¬ tions presented below can only be obtained for constant values of r. However, the theoretical effect of density on r would intensify the limi¬ tation of population growth by territoriality. At low densities, all females occupy the most suitable habitat. In that habitat, exponential growth proceeds according to the equation 2 Cooper territoriality- limited exponential growth dN . dt " r,N, 0 < N < N* r,N#+ r2(N-N*), N'< N N* - maximal number of territory holders in the 1st habitat N0er'f, 0< N < N* [r;Np + (r, - r2)N*]er2t - (r, - r2)N* N*< N r2 continuation of exponential growth r,N = r,N* + r2(N - N#) r,(N-N') = r2(N-N*) equilibrium induced by territoriality Figure 1. Summary of equations for population growth and equilibrium when an exponentially growing population in two habitats is regulated by territorial behavior. as long as the number of animals remains less than or equal to N*. Thus at low densities, the size of the population is given by ,, «, r,t N = N e 1 t o 3 Territorial Behavior where N0 is the number present initially and N is the number after some period of time, t, has elapsed. When the population reaches N*, any new additions to the population are excluded from the more suitable habitat by territorial behavior of the residents. The population segment which comes to occupy the less suitable habitat is characterized by some intrinsic rate of increase which is presumably less than that in the more suitable habitat. In the second habitat, the number of individuals in N - N*. Therefore, Considering the population of both habitats. dN dt r^ N* + r2(N-N*) , N* < N. Thus, we obtain the total population at any time by, [r„N + (r, - r„)N*] er2^ - (r. - r?)N* N. = —^-9 - ! - — - ' - - - , N* < N. t r0 — Note that Nq must be greater than or eoual to N*. Otherwise different initial conditions must be applied in solving the differential equation. Given this equation, we can examine the effects of terri tori al i ty on population growth. First, it is possible that terri torial i ty might have no effect, i.e., population growth might continue at the same rate when both habitats are occupied as at lower densities when only the more suitable habitat is occupied. For this to happen, the differential equa¬ tions would have to be equal in both cases: = ^N* + r2(N-N*) . Solving for r^ , we have r-j (N-N*) = r2(N-N*), This indicates that if and only if the intrinsic rates of increase are equal in the two habitats will territorial exclusion have no effect on population growth. Unless the habitats are reproductively identical (in terms of r values), territorial behavior alters growth. Although terri torial i ty is thus seen to affect a population's growth rate, it is not yet clear whether territoriality can slow growth suffi¬ ciently to bring about either a decrease in numbers or an equilibrium number. To reach an equilibrial size, the population would have to have a growth rate of zero: 4 Cooper -- = r N* + r2(N-N*) = 0 r2(N-N*) = -r^N*, N* r2 1 N-N* This equation gives the intrinsic rate of increase in the less favorable habitat which brings the total population growth to a halt. In the second habitat there must be a negative growth rate to offset the in¬ crease in the other habitat. If r] is positive, the population increases without bound if rg is greater than or equal to zero. When r~2 is nega¬ tive, the equil ibrial population size varies with the magnitude of r 2, with the low equilibria! sizes corresponding to high absolute values of r2- The size of the population at equilibrium, Ne, is obtained by solv¬ ing the above equation for N instead of r, N* + r0(N -N*) = 0 1 2 e r2Ne = (r2"rl ^N* N e (r2-r] )N* r 2 From this equation it can be seen that when (negative) r2 is infinitely large, the equilibrium population number is just N*: N e N*( 1 = N* 1 — N*, r„ infinite r2 * = N*. This case corresponds to instantaneous death of immigrants in the less favorable habitat. Small negative r2 values produce larger equil ibrial populations. Some of these effects are illustrated in Figure 2, which shows population growth for several values of r2 for populations with identical r] , N0, and N* values. For positive and zero ro values, the population increases infinitely, with large r2 values producing rapid growth. Note that growth is linear to the right of the dotted vertical line when r2 = 0. The dotted line indicates the time at which the less favorable habitat first receives occupants. The growth equation in this special case is: dN dt r-j N* , and the size of the population is 5 Territorial Behavior N = r] N*t + N* = N* ( r i t + 1 ) . Curves for the two lowest negative values rapidly approach equilibria! population sizes, but the population for rj = -.01 continues to increase rapidly throughout the first 100 time intervals. Figure 2. Population number is plotted against time. The various curves show growth at different values of r£. In each case, NQ = 100, N* = 300, and r-| = .05. The dotted vertical line indicates that territoriality first forces individuals into the second habitat at t = 22. Further insight may be gained by considering the relationship be¬ tween population size and Each curve in Figure 3 gives the popula¬ tion sizes at a particular time for the indicated range of r£ values. Since the curves are truncated at N = 3000, curves for the longer elapsed times show the populations corresponding to high intrinsic rates of in¬ crease. It may be of interest to determine the proportional effect of ter- ri torial i ty-1 imi ted population growth compared with unlimited exponential growth. Assume that the population would grow exponentially in the absence of territorial behavior and let N = N* at the outset, tQ. The 6 Cooper Figure 3. Population size is plotted against intrinsic rate of increase in the second habitat. Separate curves are shown for selected elapsed times (100, 79, 64, and 50 time intervals). N0 = 100, N* = 300, and r} = .05. territorial decrement, D, is the difference between the Ns obtained by the two forms of growth: D = N* r. t e 1 r t N*e 2 - (r-| -r2)N* r,N* 2 e r.t r t - r-|N*e + (r-j-r^N* 1 Territorial Behavior r2r r t (e 1 - 1) - r-j N*(e r^t 1) The proportional decrease of the population due to terri tori al i ty , d, is the territorial decrement divided by the size of the population produced under exponential growth: = 1 - r t rlN*e " (ri'r2^N* r„N* 2 e r t i L D is discontinuous at r., = 0 and at equilibrium since t is infinite when - r N* r2 ^N-N* rl ’ Next consider the effects of terri torial i ty on an exponentially growing population which has several habitats available to it. There are m habi¬ tats, each of which fills to a maximum number above which individuals are forced into the next less suitable habitat. Thus, all individuals occupy the most suitable habitat at low density. As densities increase, only the two most favorable habitats are occupied, then a third fills, and further habitats gain occupants in order of decreasing suitability. Let N-j* be the maximum population size at which only the i most suitable habitats are inhabited and r^ be the intrinsic rate of increase of the portion of the population in the i^jl habitat. Then dN dt rlN*l + r2 ^ n*2-N*1 ^ + r3 ^ n*3_n*2_N*1 ) + m-1 N > N* , — m-1 For population growth beginning at or above N*m_] , this differential equation has the solution: Nt = r )N*0 + ... + m 2 _[(rrr2- ••• - rm)N*] + (r2-r3- •• r t (r ,-r )N* . + r N ]e m - (r.-r0- ••• - r )N* m-1 m m-1 mo '12 m' 1 (r0- ••• -r )N*0 2 m; 2 - (r , -r )N* i m-1 m m-1 /r„ Cooper To trace a population's growth as it expands into several habitats, it is necessary to note the appropriate initial conditions for the most recently occupied habitat. Different conditions must be used with the different successively applied equations. REFERENCES Brown, J. L. 1969. Territorial behavior and population regulation in birds: A review and re-evaluation. Wilson Bulletin 81: 293-329. Fretwell, S. D. & H. L. Lucas, Jr. 1969. On territorial behavior and other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds. I. Theo¬ retical development. Acta Biotheoretica 19: 16-36. MacArthur, R. H. 1972. Geographical Ecology: Patterns in the Distri¬ bution of Species. Harper & Row, New York, pp. 152-153. Savidge, I. R. 1974. A model for management predictions of territorial bird populations. Ohio Journal of Science 74: 301-312. 9 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BLACK BELT PRAIRIE1 Thomas H. Wilson Department of Biology Judson College Marion, AL 36766 Abstract. The natural history of the Black Belt prairie is dis¬ cussed according to the geological evolution, physical geography, human invasion, natural vegetation, freshwater resources, and wildlife of the area. Observations of the prairie were made from automobile, airplane, and boat in an attempt to compare prairie of past and present. A brief literature review is presented along with accounts of current environ¬ mental alterations that are damaging the natural heritage of the Black Belt prairie at an alarming rate. GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION A warm inland sea covered most of the Gulf Coastal plains during the Cretaceous period that occurred over 100 million years ago. During this time the Rocky Mountains were uplifting and the climax of giant land and marine reptiles was at hand. The Appalachian System with its Valley and Ridge had long since formed and was slowly being eroded to its present relief. Living in this warm sea were trillions upon tril¬ lions of microscopic, flagellated algae named coccol i thophores . These phytopl ankters had discs of calcium carbonate, known as coccol iths, on the surface of the cell. Through aeons, these coccol iths added to the marine calcareous sediments that formed into a muddy ooze and settled to the bottom of the seas. It was a warm water world with only about 18% of the earth's surface above water. Coccol ithic lime-rich parent material began to accumulate in great quantity in a unique region of upper coastal plain abutting the fall line or southern Appalachian boundary. This huge crescent-shaped deposit of calcareous sediments extends from northeastern Mississippi, southeastward through central Alabama, across the state to within 30 miles of the state's eastern border. In Alabama, this geologic formation is named the Selma chalk and it measures approximately 40 miles in its greatest width and 200 miles in length for a total of about 4,000 square miles. A similar blackland prairie exists in central Mississippi and its parent material is limestone mud of the Eocene epoch of 50 million years ago. The rotten limestone of the Selma chalk is parent material to a calcimorphic surface layer of soil called rendzina, a soil order 1 Manuscript received 3 May 1980; accepted 26 November 1980. 10 Wi 1 son currently classified as mollisol. Rendzina soils are formed from grass¬ land humus which imparts the dark color to the soil and, thus, the name Black Belt prairie. Blackland prairies of rendzina soils in the United States also occur in prairies of central and northeastern Texas and central Oklahoma (Strahler 1967). The Black Belt peneplain lies in a tilting position that slopes to the southwest and, according to Harper (1943), coincides with the Selma chalk formation. Eutaw sand formations along the northern boundary and red clay along the southern boundary represent different surface soils that have the Selma chalk as parent material (Rankin 1974). Giant white bluffs a few miles south of Selma on the Alabama River reach a height of nearly 100 feet and expose the Selma chalk in a bril¬ liant display of geologic splendor (fig. 1). Smaller but of no less magnificence are the chalk bluffs on the Tombigbee River at Demopolis. Erosion from these great rivers displays strata of Eutaw sand, shale, red clay, soapstone, sandstone, and an array of marine fossil sediments that reflect on the coastal period of the area. The rotten limestone of the Selma chalk weathers and erodes at a much faster rate than the associated deposits and, according to Dixon and Nash (1968), the central portion of the Black Belt with an elevation of 200 feet generally is about 100 feet lower than the adjacent Coastal Plain with an elevation of 200 to 300 feet above sea level. Figure 1. Black Belt Prairie, Alabama River. 11 Natural History of the Black Belt Prairie PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Black Belt soils exhibit two extremes of pH, representing both the most alkaline and most highly acidic soils that occur in Alabama (Aiken 1961). These acid and alkaline soils are scattered throughout the prairie areas. Acid soils tend to occur in higher elevations and support the forested portion of the prairie and alkaline soils occur in the lower elevations and give rise to the open tall grass prairie. The Black Belt soils contain an abundance of montmori 11 oni te clay, which shrinks and swells with changes in soil moisture. This gray prairie mud makes cul¬ tivation difficult due to the soil baking hard upon drying and then be¬ coming highly adhesive and sticky when wet. The soil province that makes up the Black Belt has a topography that is generally rolling with some steep slopes and nearly level areas. Surface rendzina soil colors include shades of brown, yellow, red, and gray to black (Hajek et al. 1975). HUMAN INVASION OF THE BLACK BELT Native Americans made little impact on the natural vegetation of the Black Belt prairie even though they routinely burned sections of forest to maintain forage areas for game. These first settlers of North America made their homes along riverine environs and, according to DeSoto (1540), cultivated fields of fruits and vegetables. Native Americans probably avoided the heavy clay soils of the prairie but used this area for hunting grounds. Rankin (1974) presents a brief but informative literature review of the Black Belt prairie with attention given to early prairie descriptions. Accounts from the explorations of DeSoto (1540), DeLuna in 1560, Delgado (1686), Bartram (1771), Hawkins (1799), Stuart (1830), and Smith (1881), all referred to savannahs, plains, prairie, and treeless tracts in the Black Belt region. Township plots of the original survey contained sketches of prairie areas. The prairie was settled about 1317, but the planters avoided the black prairie land prior to 1830 because they had not learned to master the sticky soils (Stroud et al . 1930). Early settlers and pioneers fought Native Americans and blazed a trail across central Alabama which was later to be known as Federal Road. The most important passage in early Alabama, Federal Road was the route by which wagonloads of settlers struggled to reach a crescent of fertile lands known as the Black Belt. The dark, chalky soil was rumored to yield cotton in such abundance as to make fortunes and establish dynas¬ ties (Hamilton 1977). The cotton boll weevil arrived in 1914 and later proved more deadly to the economics of the Black Belt than the Civil War, in which the Black Belt was called the "grainery of the Confederacy . " The first full treatment of prairie soils and vegetation was by Mohr (1901) and this list of natural vegetation mentioned cedar glades, post oak associations, canebrakes, and open prairies covered with tall grasses similar to that of the western prairies. Bartram (1777) described the lowland forests as "magnificent, grand high, and stately." Harper (1913) 12 Wi 1 son wrote about the Black Belt and cited reports that the prairie contained many natural treeless areas. Before the twentieth century, agricultural practices devastated the natural landscape and canebrakes were reduced to narrow strips covering stream banks. Mohr (1878) stated that native prairie vegetation could be found only on wastelands and along the borders of cultivated fields. But a prairie region in central Alabama did exist even though a few past references discussed the existence of an ecological prairie with uncer¬ tainty (Rostlund 1957). Removal of soil material by erosion has tended to reduce the age of the soils as they now exist. Erosion was severe in many parts of the Black Belt when the prairie was used extensively for cotton from approxi¬ mately 1850 to 1920 (Dixon and Nash 1968). PRAIRIE NATURAL VEGETATION Areas of low tree density occurred naturally on upland alkaline soils and composed the "true prairie." These areas were described as "prairie" by the early explorers. High tree densities were associated primarily with areas outside "prairie" and mostly on acid soils. In the field notes examined, Quercus , Pinus, Carya, Liquidambar, and Fraxinus were recorded as the dominant tree genera. Quercus species were by far the dominant fruit bearing trees and the kinds of trees recorded were those typical of the southeastern mixed forests (Rankin and Davis 1971). Clark (1972) classified the Black Belt's vegetation as a prairie- forest mosaic with typical prairie and prai rie-forest border taxa such as Andropogon spp., Quercus spp., Juniperus , Liquidambar , litmus , and Carya spp. Imhof (1976) described the Black Belt as being the only extensive natural dry prairie east of the Mississippi River and south of the Ohio. The natural prairie of the Black Belt, according to Imhof, was the site of extensive cotton plantations. At present, Alabama grows barely five percent of the nation's cotton, and the Black Belt is largely pasture land, with the raising of livestock its major agricultural endeavor. Vegetation is mostly grass with scattered osage-orange, Madura pomifera, and pine woodlands. Kiichler (1964) described the Black Belt's natural vegetation as a Quercus -Liquidambar- Juniperus virginiana grass¬ land and forest combination and included the central prairie of Missis¬ sippi in this association. Strahler (1967) placed the Black Belt and Northeast Prairie of Mississippi in the tall grass prairie vegetation type along with the Grand Prairie of midwestern U.S. and the bluestem prairies of North Dakota and Minnesota southward to Oklahoma and the dense grasses of the Blackland Prairie of eastern Texas. FRESHWATER RESOURCES The Alabama, Warrior, Tombigbee, and Cahaba rivers plus an abun¬ dance of ground water supply the Black Belt with a wealth of freshwater, which contributes to the agricultural importance of the region. 13 Natural History of the Black Belt Prairie Throughout the Selma chalk region, deep wells furnish nearly all of the water used for municipal and domestic purposes. At lower elevations, artesian wells have flowed constantly for decades but their volume has been reduced significantly in recent years due to irrigation and indus¬ trialization. Harper (1943) stated that the Black Belt received the least rainfall of any region in the state, for no apparent reason, except for the high rate of evaporation. PRAIRIE OBSERVATIONS Explorations of the Black Belt prairie by the author lead to few areas representative of the original prairie. County highway rights-of- way that aren't sprayed with herbicides occasionally appear as tall grass prairies. State Highway 183 betewen Marion and Uniontown in south¬ western Perry County harbors grassland patches which abound with wild- flowers and cedar glades. Soybean fields and pastures occupy most of the central prairie and the few patches of hardwoods are along creeks and rivers. Aerial observations by the author revealed a great expanse of hard¬ wood trees in the area immediately west and north of Demopolis that extended to the Mississippi state boundary. Several large swamps and Warrior River backwater areas create important waterfowl habitats and wildlife refuges. The region between Demopolis and Selma is composed mainly of farmland and pasture. Severely eroded areas around Uniontown expose the brilliant white Selma chalk parent material and serve as warnings of continued abuse of the land (fig. 2). Figure 2. Black Belt Prairie, Uniontown. 14 Wi 1 son The Cahaba River basin represents the last densely forested region of the prairie east of Demopolis. However, conversion of hardwood for¬ ests to soybean fields is rapidly denuding this serpentine shelter-belt into an ecological desert of fallow fields. Greater erosion can be expected as the flood plain forests are cleared and the raging Cahaba sweeps even more tons of topsoil toward the Alabama River and Mobile Bay. The environs of Uniontown reflect original prairie conditions more than any other section in the Black Belt. Perry County Highway 1 south of Uniontown allows one to travel past exposed chalk formations and provides opportunities to see expansive fields of sorghum, sunflower, cotton, and corn. Along Perry County Highway 12 northeast out of Union- town, tall grasses, Rubeckia hirta, Aster spp., and Eupatorium rugosum give an ancestral appearance to the landscape. Juniperus virginiana, Celtis oaaidentalis , and the naturally invading Quercus species dot the pastures. Clark (1972) cites Madura pomifera as infrequent except in the Black Belt. Abandoned cotton gins, warehouses, and homesteads are often covered with kudzu and the quest of more acres of soybeans is destroying the fragments of forests that still exist. Exotic woody plants are invading the prairie and few native plants remain. Native hardwood trees particularly representative of the Black Belt prairie are Quercus durandii var. austrina, Quercus falaata, Quercus falcata var. leucophylla, Quercus durandii, Quercus macrocarpa, Carya illinoensis , Carya myristicaeformis, Carya ovata, Carya glabra, Myrica cerifera , Zanthoxulum americanum, Nussa aquatica, and Comus drummondii (Clark 1972). Summer and fall blooming wildflowers commonly occurring along raodsides throughout the prairie are Cassia fasciculata, Rubeckia hirta, Vemonia spp., Helenium flexuosum, Ipomoea purpurea, Solidago altissima, Oenothera biennis, Bignonia radicans , Helianthus spp., Eupatorium rugosum, Bidens spp.. Polygonum lapathi folium , Aster spp., and a variety of composites. The highway departments routinely spray herbicides along the rights-of-way and this unnecessary practice destroys much of the small prairie fragment that remains in the Black Belt. The Black Belt prairie represents the northern range for central Alabama of Quercus virginiana and Tillandsia usneoides which has the common name of Spanish moss. Numerous rural roads, creeks, and riverine environs are heavily laden with this aerial epiphyte of the pineapple family. This Spanish moss belt reflects the subtropical climate of the area and adds to the "Southern image" of the region. PRAIRIE WILDLIFE Mount (1975) recognized the Black Belt as a distinct herpetofaunal region bordered to the south by the transitional zone of the red hills province and to the north by the fall line hills, which included an area often called the Upper Coastal Plain or Central Pine Belt. Agkistrodoi contortrix and Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki are relatively common snakes 15 Natural History of the Black Belt Prairie in the Black Belt and the salamander Ambystoma texanum seems fairly well adapted to the prairie. Numerous farm ponds and lakes often sup¬ port an abundance, though not a great variety of water snakes, frogs, and turtles (Mount 1975). Mount's (1975) list of native Black Belt reptile and amphibian species included 17 salamanders, 19 frogs, 14 turtles, 9 lizards, 20 snakes, 1 crocodilian, for a total of 90 native species. With ever-expanding soybean cultivation, the prairie is fast becom¬ ing the dove capital of the state. The quail population is rebounding from two decades of continuous decline. Wild turkeys and exploding deer herds are common sights at the forest edge of the prairie. Alabama has a great variety of bird habitats that range from bare ground, to prairie, and through successions to mountainous hardwood forests. Imhof (1975) found that the natural prairie of the Black Belt attracted at all seasons more open-country birds, and even some Western species, than anywhere else in Alabama. Imhof further stated that the southern edge of the Black Belt formed a natural bird boundary. This southern edge, with its rolling red clay hills, coincides with the southern edge of the Upper Coastal Plain and divides the Coastal Plain into two nearly equal parts. Imhof included the Black Belt in the Upper Coastal Plain avifauna and stated that much bird information is availa¬ ble from Montgomery. Large mixed rookeries of Guava alba and Bubuleus ibis individuals are common to the cedar glades, flatland swamps and oxbows of the prairie. One of the most spectacular rookeries of this type is in the Uniontown- Faunsdale area. In the summer of 1973, I made a personal observation of a road- runner, Geococcyx califovnianus, at the junction of Perry County High¬ ways 45 and 6. Though unofficial, this is the only record of this species east of the Mississippi River for the entire nation. CONCLUSIONS Field trips on backroads through every county in the Black Belt failed to reveal any fragment of prairie supporting natural, native vegetation representati ve of that present before the invasion of Western man. The Black Belt prairie is basically composed of pastures and soy¬ bean fields with stretches of hardwoods along creeks, streams, and rivers . No public land is preserved or restored to natural prairie and the rural roadsides are being poisoned with herbicides. Industrialization and population growth are encroaching on the few remaining natural areas. The failure to include the Cahaba River in the Wild and Scenic River Act was another blow to the natural quality of the Black Belt prairie (Kaufmann and Wise 1978). The beauty of the Black Belt prairie is presently centered more around the open, flat topography and agriculture rather than natural heritage. 16 Wi 1 son The limestone bluffs of the Alabama River south of Selma rank high on the list of scenic natural prairie areas. A small swamp near Marion on Perry County Highway 6 is very interesting and one of the few such areas as a result of land drainage programs. The most scenic prairie area occurs on the backroads between Uniontown and Marion and some of these roadsides bring back visions of Native Americans and grazing bison of bygone days. LITERATURE CITED Aiken, W. C. 1961. Progress in Soil Conservation in the Black Belt Since the Start of Soil Conservation Service. J. Ala. Acad. Sci . 32:493-495. Bartram, William. 1777. The Great Trail Across Alabama, pp. 156-162. In Helen Gere Cruickshank (ed.) John and William Bartram's America. The Devin-Adair Co. New York. 1957. Clark, Ross C. 1972. The Woody Plants of Alabama. Missouri Botanical Garden Press. St. Louis, Missouri. 242 pp. Delgado, Marcos. 1686. The Expedition of Marcos Delgado from Appa¬ lachia to the Upper Creek Country in 1686. Translated by Mark F. Boyd, In the Florida Historical Quarterly. 1937. 16:2032. DeSoto, Don Ferninado. 1540. The Discovery and Conquest of Terra Florida. Written by a Gentleman of Elras, translated by Richard Hakluyt and edited by William B. Rye. Burt Franklin, Publisher. New York. Dixon, J. B. and V. E. Nash. 1968. Chemical, Mineralogical and Engi¬ neering Properties of Alabama and Mississippi Black Belt Soils. USDA. Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. Southern Cooperative Series No. 130. 69 pp. Hajek, B. F., F. L. Gilbert and C. A. Steers. 1975. Soil Associations of Alabama. Agricultural Experiment Station. Auburn, Alabama. 30 pp. Hamilton, Virginia Van der Veer. 1977. W. W. Norton & Co. New York, N.Y. Alabama, A Bicentennial History. 189 pp. Harper, Roland. University, 1913. Economic Botany Alabama. 357 pp. in Alabama. Geol . Sur . of Ala . _ . 1943. Forests University, Alabama. of Alabama. Geol . Sur. of Ala . Monograph 10. Hawkins, Benjamin. 1938. A Sketch of the Creek Country in the Years 1798 and 1799. Ga. Hist. Soc. Vol . 3. 1848. Reprint. Americus, Georgia . Imhof, Thomas A. 1976. Alabama Birds. University, Alabama. 445 pp. The University of Alabama Press. 17 Natural History of the Black Belt Prairie Kaufmann, T. R. and R. D. Wise. 1978. Cahaba River--Alabama. Wild and Scenic River Study. Draft Report. State of Alabama Forestry Com¬ mission. 179 pp. and Appendix. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Potential Natural Vegetation of the Conterminous United States. Amer. Geo. Soc. Special Pub. No. 36. 116 pp. Mohr, Charles. 1878. The Forests of Alabama, and Their Products. In Handbook of Alabama; a Complete Index to the State. Saffold Berney ( ed . ) . Mobile Register Print. _ . 1901. Plant Life of Alabama, Alabama Edition. The Brown Printing Co., Montgomery, Alabama. Mount, R. H. 1975. The Reptiles and Amphibians of Alabama. Agricul¬ tural Experiment Station. Auburn, Alabama. 347 pp. Rankin, H. Taylor. 1974. Black Belt Prairie. Montgomery County, Alabama, and Vicinity. Agricultural Experiment Station. Auburn, Alabama. 24 pp. Rankin, H. Taylor and D. E. Davis. 1971. Woody Vegetation in the Black Belt Prairie of Montgomery County, Alabama, in 1845 and 1846. Ecology 52(4) : 716-719. Rostlund, Erhard. 1957. The Myth of the Natural Prairie-Belt in Ala¬ bama; and Interpretation of Historical Records. Ann. of Assoc, of Amer. Geogr. 47:392-411. Smith, Eugene A. 1882. Geo. Sur. of Ala. 1881-1882. Agricultural Features. W. D. Brown and Co. Montgomery, Alabama. Strahler, Arthur N. 1967. Introduction to Physical Geography. John Wiley & Sons. New York, N.Y. 453 pp. Stroud, J. F. 1930. Soil Survey of Perry County, Alabama. USDA. Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 42 pp. and maps. Stuart, James. 1830. Three Years in North America. (Edinburgh, 1883). Vol . 2 From the Second London Edition. J. and J. Harper. New York. pp. 109-124. Acknowledgements. During the few months of working on this project, I was given generous help and was supplied numerous references by people interested and knowledgeable about the Black Belt prairie. I thank the following people for contributing to this work on the Natural History of the Black Belt prairie: the Committee for the Humanities in Alabama, granting agency; Alabama Forest Association; Alabama Forest Commission; Herbert Boschung, biologist, University of Alabama; Charles Brasfield, photos of white ibis, Bessemer; Rebecca Culpepper, Demopolis; D. E. Davis, botanist, Auburn University; Walter Davis, math instructor, Marion Military Institute, Marion; Fredrick Gabrielson, botanist. Uni¬ versity of Alabama; Larry Hedrick, wildlife biologist, U.S. Forest 18 Wi 1 son Service, Montgomery; Frank D. Huttlinger, geography department. Uni¬ versity of Alabama; B. F. Flajek, soil scientist, Auburn University; Doug McGinty, botanist, Huntingdon College, Montgomery; Hillary H. Jeffcoat, Associate District Chief, Geological Survey, Water Resources Division, University, Alabama; N. H. McCrummen, President, Judson College, pilot for aerial photography; William D. Murray, Academic Dean and Director of Judson's Black Belt grant, Judson College, Marion; Michael Nicalo, soil conservationist. Auburn University; Larry F. Rattl iff, state soil scientist. Auburn University; Rachel Stevens Deems, Coordination Direc¬ tor of the Judson College Black Belt Project; Jerry Wisner, soil con¬ servationist, Perry County; George Wood, editor of the Alabama Wild- flower Society Newsletter, Northport, Alabama; U.S. Forest Service; and Mildred Yelverton, Librarian, Judson College, Marion. 19 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981. NOTES ON THE NESTING BIOLOGY OF THE MARBLED SALAMANDER, AMBYSTOMA OPACUM, IN THE SOUTHERN PORTION OF ITS RANGE1 James W. Petranka and John G. Petranka Department of Biological Sciences University of Kentucky Lexington, KY 40506 The marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum, is a small, fossorial, woodland carnivore that ranges from southern New England to northern Florida and west to southern Illinois, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas (Conant, 1975). The life history of this species is relatively well known; however, studies other than that of Stewart (1956) in North Carolina have centered on northern populations. Major life history accounts include those of Bishop (1941) in New York, Noble and Brady (1933) in the Washington, D.C. area, Graham (1971), Hassinger et al. (1970), and Anderson and Graham (1967) in New Jersey, Worthington (1968, 1969) in Maryland, and Smith (1961) in Illinois. In 1977 we initiated a comparative life history study of Ambystoma opacum within the southern portion of its range (east-central Alabama). The results of this study concerning the larval ecology and evolutionary significance of nest placement will be published elsewhere. Data which pertains to other aspects of the nesting biology of the species are presented here. STUDY AREA AND METHODS Field research was restricted to an area about 1 mile south of the intersection of 1-85 and U.S. Highway 80 in bottomlands that adjoin Choctafaula Creek, Macon County, Alabama. Nesting biology data were gathered between 18 December and 1 Janu¬ ary from a large, dry, temporary pool site along William Bartram Trail in Tuskegee National Forest (pool filling normally begins in late Janu¬ ary or February). The site is located in mature southern hardwood forest. Soils in the area are mostly sandy loams; however, local clay deposits occur at the pool site. A 266 m2 section of the pool, containing both the deepest and shallowest sections, was searched during two consecutive breeding seasons by carefully removing litter by hand from a small sec¬ tion at a time. In this manner, we were confident that all surface nests were uncovered. Data were obtained on clutch sizes (n = 44 nests), egg (jelly coat) diameters (10 eggs/nest, n = 24 nests), snout-vent and total lengths of Manuscript received 25 July 1980; accepted 16 September 1980. 20 Petranka and Petranka females (snout-vent measurements to posterior margin of vent, n = 35), behavior of females, and the microhabitat, placement, and dimensions of nests (maximum width * maximum length, n = 25). Egg diameters, body lengths, and nest dimensions were measured to the nearest .5 mm, 1 mm, and .5 cm, respectively, using 1 mm graduated rulers. Adults were straightened and relaxed before measurements were made. RESULTS In Alabama, adults of A. opacum gather in the fall in forest floor depressions to engage in courtship, mating, and ovipositing (Mount, 1975). We initiated our study on 18 December at which time nests with fully developed embryos were discovered. During the ensuing two years, field observations were restricted to the winter, spring, and summer months, and fall breeding activities were not observed. Forty-four nests were uncovered at the Bartram Trail site during the study period. Forty-two (96%) nests were located underneath leaf litter, the remainder were found under decaying logs. Nests were typi¬ cally oblong to ovoid and completely filled with eggs (range =9x3. 10.5 x 7 cm, x = 8.2 x 9.7 cm). Construction occurred in bare mineral soil such that the uppermost eggs and attending female laid flush with the lowermost layer of leaf litter. Females actively constructed nests as evidenced by crumbled soil in the immediate vicinity, and the presence of exposed rootlets 1-2 cm above the soil surface. Nest distribution patterns during both breeding seasons were simi¬ lar. Females most often selected sites at intermediate elevations within the area of future pool formation (based on pool levels when at full capacity). A detailed treatment of nest placement and its evolutionary implications will be presented in a later paper, and is not present in detail here. Females were often curled on the tops of clutches with their bodies partially submerged in eggs. They rarely attempted to escape, but, instead, remained motionless on the nests. In many cases females dis¬ played a characteristic defense posture with the head bent strongly down, the legs straightened, the body lifted off the substratum, and the tail either curled forward or extended upward in a slightly curved fashion. If not initially present when uncovered, a defense posture could be elicited by gently prodding the animal with a blunt object. In addition, the production of copious amounts of milky secretions along the dorsal and dorsolateral surfaces of the tail could be induced by prodding these areas. The defense posture and behavior was similar to that reported by Brodie (1977) for this species except that tail lashing was never observed . Females were present on 85% of the nests. Unattended nests con¬ tained significantly smaller clutches than attended ones (unattended: x = 75, n = 7; attended: x = 98, n = 37; Mann Whitney U-test, Us = 200, p = .012). Mean egg diameters in unattended nests were smaller than those in attended nests, but the means were not significantly different (unattended: x = 6.0 mm, n = 5; attended: x = 6.4 111m, n = 19; Mann- Whitney U-test, Us = 70.5, p = .12). Overall, clutch sizes ranged from 21 Biology of the Marbled Salamander 48-200 and averaged 95 ±29.1 It should be emphasized that clutch sizes reflect survivorship to the sample period, and are presumably lower than the average clutch sizes that were initially laid. Brooding females averaged 62.7 ± 3.5 mm snout-vent length and 108.7 ± 7.1 mm total length. There was no significant correlation between the body lengths and clutch sizes of brooding females (F = 2.28, P = .14). Neither juvenile nor adult male A. opacum were uncovered at the study site; however, other amphibians were. These included several species of frogs ( Rana olamitans. R. pipiens, R. catesbeiana, tiyla versicolor , and H. cinerea) and the mole salamander, Ambystoma tal- poidewn. Five male A. talpoideum with swollen vents were uncovered between mid-December and mid-January, but females were never encountered. DISCUSSION The nesting biology data for our study population generally agrees with that for northern populations. The active construction of nests and brooding of eggs appears to be characteristic of the species through¬ out its range. Average clutch sizes reported for northern populations vary from 87 (Green, 1956) to 150 eggs (Noble and Brady, 1933). King and Graham (1971) both reported about 10% mortality of eggs during the embryonic period in the field. If we apply these data to our population, the initial average clutch size of our stucy population would be about 105. Mean jelly coat diameters of our population were larger. Lantz (1930) reported diameters of 4-5 mm and Noble and Brady (op. cit.) 2-5 mm for northern populations. However, this may reflect differences in sub¬ strate moisture more so than genetic differences in egg size, since eggs swell considerably in response to changing moisture conditions. Local populations often show strong preferences for certain micro¬ habitats at breeding sites. For example, Graham (1971) found that 87% of nests at a breeding site in New Jersey were placed underneath surface objects ( e . g . , rocks and logs), while Noble and Brady (1933) reported populations near Washington, D.C. to show strong preferences for leaf litter microhabitat. Leaf litter was the preferred microhabitat for ovi¬ positing at our study site even though logs which appeared suitable for egg deposition were present. Local environmental regimes may possibly influence and explain nest microhabitat selection. At sites where stressful moisture conditions normally develop during the brooding season, the use of desiccation resistant surface objects would be advantageous. However, at sites where moisture stress is not significant, the use of leaf litter may be more advantageous since individuals would have greater freedom to posi¬ tion nests along elevational gradients at pool sites. The positioning of nests with respect to elevation may, in turn, greatly affect the survivorship of cohorts (Graham, 1971). 1 Variance values throughout this paper equal ± 1 standard deviation. 22 Petranka and Petranka The advantage of brooding by A. opacum is not fully understood. Brooding in most species requires an energy cost to the parent(s) that is offset by the increased survivorship of offspring. Kaplan and Crump (1978) found that A. opacum females invest essentially no energy in brooding, since neither brooding nor non-brooding individuals feed dur¬ ing the brooding period. Selection for defense behavior and the produc¬ tion of presumably noxious tail secretions suggest that predators (i.e., raccoons, skunks) occasionally discover and destroy nests, although we have never observed any field evidence of this. Noble and Brady (1933) reported dusky salamanders ( Desmognathus fuscus) , two-lined salamanders ( Eurycea bislineata) and green frogs ( Rana clamitans ) to prey on A. opacum eggs in unattended nests. Bishop (1941) noted that eggs unaccompanied by females were smaller, and felt that the presence of females helped to reduce desiccation. Eggs in unattended nests at our study site were smaller (though not sig¬ nificantly so, p = .12) than those in attended nests, and tend to sup¬ port this view. On two occasions nesting females that we were handling released large volumes of cloacal fluid, the function of which is un¬ known. Eggs that are removed from nests and rinsed often are prone to fungal attacks (unpublished data). It is possible that cloacal fluids protect against such attacks in addition to reducing desiccation. In any regard, the significant difference in average clutch sizes of attended versus unattended nests at our study site suggest that brood¬ ing effectively increases the survivorship of clutches. Acknowledgement. We wish to thank James A. Hunt of the National Forest Service for his cooperation in this project. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, J. D. and R. E. Graham. 1967. Vertical migration and strati¬ fication of larval Ambystoma. Copeia 1967: 371-374. Bishop, C. S. 1941. The salamanders of New York. New York State Museum Bull. 324: 1-365. Brodie, E. D. Jr. 1977. Salamander antipredator postures. Copeia 1977(3): 523-535. Conant, R. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 429 p. Graham, R. E. 1971. Envi ronmental effects of deme structure, dynamics, and breeding strategy of Ambystoma opacum. Unpubl . Ph.D. disserta¬ tion, Rutgers University. Green, N. B. 1956. The Ambystomatid salamanders of West Virginia. Proc. West Virginia Acad. Sci. 27: 16-18. Hassinger, D. D., J. D. Anderson, and G. H. Dalryrnple. 1970. The early life history and ecology of Ambystoma tigrinum and Ambystoma opacum in New Jersey. Amer. Midi. Natur. 84: 474-495. 23 Biology of the Marbled Salamander Kaplan, R. H. and M. L. Crump. 1978. The non-cost of brooding in Ambystoma opacum. Copeia 1978(1): 99-103. King, W. 1935. Ecological observations on Ambystoma opacum. Ohio Jour. Sci . 35(1 ) : 4-1 5. Lantz. 1930. Notes on the breeding habits and larval development of Ambystoma opacum, Grav. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (10): 322-325. Mount, R. H. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of Alabama. Auburn Printing Co., Auburn, Alabama. 347 p. Noble, G. K. and M. K. Brady. 1933. Observations of the life history of the marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum, Gravenhorst. Zoologica 11(8): 89-132. Smith, P. W. 1961. The amphibians and reptiles of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Sur. No. 28. 298 p. Stewart, M. M. 1956. The separate effects of food and temperature dif¬ ferences on development of the marbled salamander larvae. Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 72: 47-56. Worthington, R. D. 1968. Observations on the relative sizes of three species of salamander larvae in a Maryland pond. Herpetol ogi ca 24: 242-246. _ _ . 1969. Additional observations on sympatric species of sala¬ mander larvae in a Maryland pond. Herpetol ogica 25(3): 227-229. 24 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981. PATTERNS OF FOREST TENT CATERPILLAR DEFOLIATION IN SOUTHWEST ALABAMA — 1 973-1 979^ >2 James D. Harper Department of Zoology -Entomology Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station Auburn University , AL 36849 James R. Hyland Alabama Forestry Commission Montgomery, AL 36104 Abstract. An aerial survey of approximately 100,000 hectares of bottomland hardwood forest in the Mobi 1 e-Tensaw River basin and the lower Alabama and Tombigbee River basins of southwest Alabama was conducted annually from 1973 to 1979 to determine the extent of defoliation of water tupelo ( Nyssa aquatica L.), sweetgum ( Liquidambar styraciflua L.), and blackgum ( Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora (Walt.) Sarg.) stands by the forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria Hlibner. During the 7 year period, the area of defoliation varied from 11,240 to 36,891 hectares. Areas of heaviest defoliation alternated biennially within the ecosystem. A chronically epidemic infestation of forest tent caterpillar, Mala¬ cosoma disstria Hiibner, has existed in the Mobi le-Tensaw River basin, extending north into the lower Alabama and Tombigbee River basins (Fig. 1), for many years. The preferred hosts in this area are water tupelo ( Nyssa aquatica L.), blackgum ( Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora (Walt.) Sarg.), and sweetgum ( Liquidambar styraciflua L.). The area of infestation is normally limited to tupelo ponds within the flood plains of the above mentioned rivers where these species occur. Ponds are low areas between the complex, meandering rivers which are surrounded by natural levees, hold standing water for much of the year, and support dense stands of water tupelo and blackgum. The forest tent caterpillar is univoltine, and larvae are normally active from the second week of March through the first week of May. How¬ ever, this activity period may be advanced or delayed 7-10 days by cli¬ matic conditions in any given year. Defoliated trees normally begin to refoliate in late May. Surveys of defoliation damage, therefore, must be conducted during ca. a two-week period following cessation of feeding in order to observe maximum foliage losses. ^Manuscript received 30 July 1980; accepted 15 October 1980. 2 We wish to thank Larry Abrahamson and Dan Botts for help in making several of the surveys. We also thank Terry Rodriguez for her artwork. 25 Forest Tent Caterpillar Defoliation Figure 1. Area of southwest¬ ern Alabama which was aer¬ ially surveyed annually from 1973-1979 for forest tent caterpillar defolia¬ tion. Surveys, with varying degrees of precision, of the extent and intensity of this defoliation were conducted by the U.S. Forest Service from 1960 through 1972 (with the exception of 1968 when no survey was made). in 1973, responsi¬ bility for the survey was assumed by the Alabama Forestry Commission and has since been conducted cooperatively by that agency and Auburn University. A compen¬ dium of the results of seven years of annual surveys are presented here. These and earlier surveys proved valua¬ ble for selection of study sites for previously reported work (Abrahamson and Flarper 1973; Harper and Abrahamson 1979)5 and for several projects currently in progress (Harper, unpublished). In addi¬ tion, they are contributing valuable data for studies on the population dynamics of forest tent caterpillar. MATERIALS AND METHODS Aerial surveys were made from sin¬ gle- or twin-engine airplanes flying at elevations of 750 to 1200 meters and air¬ speeds of ca. 200 km/hr. Predetermined flight lines with 3.2 km centers were drawn on photo index maps (scale 1 cm = 0.63 km). Infested areas were sketched on the maps by observers seated on each side of the plane as the flight lines were followed. In this manner, the entire area was surveyed in ca. two hours Forest stands were categorized as completely, partially, or not defoliated. Complete defoliation represented ca. 95% or greater loss of canopy foliage while 3 Cambre, L. A. and W. H. Padgett. 1964. Aerial survey of forest tent caterpillar defoliation in Alabama. USDA For. Serv., State and Priv. For., Report No. Zone 2-5-64, 7 pp. 4 Wilmore, D. H. and J. R. Hyland. 1972. Survey of forest tent caterpillar in southwest Alabama. USDA For. Serv., Southeastern Area, State and Priv. For., For. Pest Manage. Group Rep. 72-2-17, 3 pp. 5 Abrahamson, L. P., J. D. Harper, I. R. Ragenovich, and J. R. Hyland 1976. Pilot control project using trichlorfon and Bacillus thuringiensis against forest tent caterpillar in southwest Alabama. USDA For. Serv., Southeastern Area, State and Priv. For., For. Ins. and Dis. Manage. Report No. 77-1-76, 37 pp. 26 Harper and Hyland partial defoliation was characteri zed by stands with noticeably thinned foliage or a significant number of scattered trees showing heavy leaf loss. Damage in areas classed as non-defol iated was either non-existent or was too slight to be discernable from the air. Completed survey maps were used to prepare a composite map of in¬ fested areas. Areas of partial and complete defoliation were then deter¬ mined with a planimeter or an LI 3000 portable area meter (Lambda Instru¬ ments Corporation). The optimum survey date each year was determined by ground observa¬ tions for cessation of larval feeding activity. From 1973 through 1979, assessments were made on May 9, 13, 23, April 28, May 9, 15, and 9, re¬ spectively. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The total number of hectares showing either partial or complete defoliation over the 7 year period varied from 11,241 in 1979 to 36,891 in 1976 with all other years having intermediate infestations (Table 1). From 1973 to 1976, most areas of susceptible host between the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers south to the southern extent of the host type suffered either partial or complete defoliation (Fig. 2a,b,c,d). In 1977 and 1979, extensive areas of the southern one-half of this area were free of detectable defoliation (Fig. 2e,g), while a major portion of the north-central basin was free of detectable defoliation in 1978 (Fig. 2f ) . Table 1. Numbers of hectares of forest tent caterpillar defoliation in southwestern Alabama, 1973-1979 Year Partial ly Defol iated Completely Defol i ated Total 1973 9,086 15,464 24,550 1974 12,404 11,364 23,767 1975 6,772 20,980 27,752 1976 20,489 16,402 36,891 1977 8,624 16,693 25,317 1978 20,972 10,472 30,272 1979 9,990 14,740 24,730 Areas north of the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers (Fig. 1) but not shown in Fig. 2 contain scattered tupelo ponds which occasionally show partial or complete defoliation. While these areas are not mapped, their averages are included in the figures in Table 1. From 1973 to 1979, these areas were 0, 538, 0, 6,727, 1,659, 9,176, and 1,025 hectares, respectively. Much of the area included in these values is not pure tupelo, but rather small, scattered stands in depressions 27 Forest Tent Caterpillar Defoliation 28 Harper and Hyland Figure 2. Areas of partial and complete defoliation of tupelo, blackgum and sweetgum forests in southwestern Alabama on (a) May 9, 1973, (b) May 13, 1974, (c) May 23, 1975, (d) April 28, 1976, (e) May 9, 1977, (f) May 15, 1978, and (g) May 9, 1979. Dashed line on each map indi¬ cates the narrowest point in the river basin. 29 Forest Tent Caterpillar Defoliation interspersed among oak and other flood-plain species which are not nor¬ mally defoliated. For survey purposes, it is impossible to precisely delineate the many small ponds involved. Thus, much of the large north¬ ern areas of infestation recorded for 1976 and 1978 include general areas of infested host type rather than precise numbers of hectares of host species defoliated. A general tendency toward an annual fluctuation in degree of sever¬ ity of defoliation has been noted in ground studies in the basin (Flarper, unpublished) and has been supported by the defoliation patterns presented here. The central portion of the basin area appears to sustain alternat¬ ing degrees of defoliation above and below a line drawn approximately east-west across the basin as indicated on Fig. 2. This is the narrowest portion of the basin and has been used as the crossing point for two major power lines and Interstate Route 65 (now under construction). Above this line, the majority of the infested area was completely defoli¬ ated in 1973 while the majority of the area below this line was partially defoliated (Fig. 2a). A similar pattern was noted in 1977 and 1979 (Fig. 2e,g). In 1975, heavy defoliation was prevalent in both areas but was less severe in the southern area. In 1974, 1976, and 1978, however (Fig. 2b,d,f), most heavy defoliation occurred below this line while the majority of the susceptible area north of theline was non- to partially defoliated. Thus, within each portion of the basin, severity of defolia¬ tion alternated annually between light and heavy, and the two portions were out of phase with each other. Reasons for these area patterns are unknown but are probably related to factors regulating individual pond populations. A few ponds within the basin sustain defoliating populations almost continuously. Most populations, however, cycle from extreme low to extreme high levels. These cycles, which may require as few as two or as many as three to four years to complete in a given pond, are repeated continuously. It is evident that factors operating to maintain the species at endemic levels in more northerly and upland populations of forest tent caterpillar do not operate in this population. In northern areas of North America, outbreaks normally follow a three to six year cycle in a given host stand (Flodson 1977; Witter et al . 1975) with periods of six to sixteen years between outbreak initiation (Batzer and Morris 1978). Principle among these factors as reviewed by Witter et al. (1975), appear to be temperature (low winter temperatures , sub-freezing temperatures following egg hatch, extremely high temperatures during the moth emergence and oviposition period), starvation, disease, parasitism, and genetic attributes of the population. In Alabama, only starvation, as described previously, appears to be operating as a dominant regulatory factor. Data gathered in numerous individual ponds (Flarper, unpublished) suggests that extremely heavy populations are weakened by overcrowding and starvation following total defoliation of their host trees before larval development is completed. Egg masses produced by surviving fe¬ males in such populations are low in numbers, size and quality, result¬ ing in greatly reduced populations in the subsequent year. These in turn only partially defoliate the stands or do undetectable damage (when 30 Harper and Hyland viewed from the air), but a large percentage of larvae develop normally and resulting adults have high fecundity. Offspring in the succeeding year are often sufficiently numerous to defoliate their host trees, al¬ though this population buildup may require several years in some ponds. In south Alabama, temperature conditions are near optimum for larval development. Winter temperatures below 0 degrees C are rare while temperatures during larval, pupal and adult developmental periods rarely exceed 30 degrees C or fall below 5 degrees C. While parasitismand disease are present in various stages of host insect development, levels are not sufficient to permanently reduce popu¬ lations (Stark and Harper, unpublished). Impact of both parasites and diseases appears to be severely limited by the aquatic environment. The soil, normally the pupation site for many dipterous and hymenopteran parasites and the reservoir for certain disease agents as discussed by Podgewaite et al . (1979), is unavailable for this purpose. Significant parasitism is thus limited to those species which do not leave their host to pupate. Disease incidence is presumed to be low because levels of available inoculum sufficient to initiate epizootics cannot normally be maintained in the environment, the soil being damp or covered with water for most of the year. The net result of these factors is the poorly-moderated, continu¬ ously-cycling population pattern described. Examination of Fig. 2 reveals that individual ponds or areas may suffer from partial to complete defoli¬ ation for several years, but rarely is a given pond free from detectable defoliation for more than one year at a time. REFERENCES CITED Abrahamson, L. P. and J. D. Harper. 1973. Microbial insecticides con¬ trol forest tent caterpillar in southwestern Alabama. USFS Res. Note, Southern For. Exp. Sta., SO- 157, 3 pp. Batzer, H. 0. and R. C. Morris. 1978. Forest tent caterpillar. USDA Forest Service Forest Insect and Disease leaflet 9, 8 pp. Harper, J. D. and L. Abrahamson. 1979. Forest tent caterpillar control with aerially applied formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis and Dimilin®. Journal of Economic Entomology 72:74-77. Hodson, A. C. 1977. Some aspects of forest tent caterpillar population dynamics. University of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin 310:5-16. Podgwaite, J. D., K. S. Shields, R. T. Zerillo, and R. B. Bruen. 1979. Environmental persistence of the nucleopolyhedrosi s virus of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar. Environmental Entomology 8:528-536. Witter, J. A., W. J. Mattson, and H. M. Kulman. 1975. Numerical analy¬ sis of a forest tent caterpillar ( Lepidoptera : Lasiocampidae) out¬ break in northern Minnesota. Canadian Entomologist 107:837-854. 31 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981. NOXIOUS WEEDS OF ALABAMA1,2 Guy W. Karr, Jr. Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries Plant Industry Section P.O. Box 3336 Montgomery AL 36193 Abstract. To detect and catal og the noxious weeds of Alabama, a survey of high hazard areas, state herbaria, and the literature was con¬ ducted during the summer and fall of 1979. A total of 40 species repre¬ senting 19 families was detected. Two of the species detected, Hydrilla verticillata Royle and Imperata brasiliensis Trin., are listed as noxious weeds by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. INTRODUCTION Few can deny that weeds cause substantial losses to U.S. farmers. Anderson (1) reports that in the period from 1950-1960 "the estimated total cost of weeds in croplands, grazing lands, aquatic sites, and non¬ croplands was about $5 billion." Approximately one-half of this was for weed control. A further indication of the problem comes from Klingman and Ashton (15) who report that in 1970 the "dollar value of herbicide sales is now greater than the combined value of insecticide and fungi¬ cide" sales. Weeds may be dispersed in many ways, but the international spread of most weeds can be attributed mainly to the activities of man. Some plants such as water hyacinth ( Eichhomia crassipes ) and Japanese honey¬ suckle ( Lonicera japonica) were introduced as ornamentals but later be¬ came important weed problems (26). Others such as kudzu ( Pueraria lobata ) (30) and cogongrass ( Imperata cylindrica ) (8) were introduced as forage crops only to become important pests. Many universities import plants or plant parts for breeding purposes, use as forage crops or turf, or for research in weed control. Hoveland et al. (14) mention that more than 160 introductions of Phalaris tuberosa, mainly from the Mediterranean area, were tested in Alabama as potential forage crops. Manuscript received 31 July 1980; accepted 24 November 1980. 2 Supported by funds from Cooperative Agreement No. 12-16-5-2103 be¬ tween the Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries and the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Ser¬ vice, Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs. 32 Karr Other avenues of entry are areas where foreign such as docks, airports, and train depots. Many of by Mohr (22) were collected from ship ballast piles cargo is unloaded the plants reported near Mobile. Since most of our serious weeds are of foreign origin, there developed much concern over the possibility of the introduction of addi¬ tional serious weeds into the U.S. In 1966, the National Association of State Departments of Agriculture adopted a resolution requesting that the U.S. Congress enact a Federal noxious weed control law and set forth the guidelines which should be included in such a law. Finally, on Janu¬ ary 4, 1975, President Gerald R. Ford signed into law the Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974, Public Law 93-629 (26). The purpose of this law was "to provide for the control and eradication of noxious weeds, and the regulation of the movement in interstate or foreign commerce of noxious weeds and potential carriers thereof (2)." The law defines a noxious weed as "any living stage (including, but not limited to, seeds and reproductive parts) of any parasitic or other plant of a kind, or sub¬ division of a kind, which is of foreign origin, is new to or not widely prevalent in the United States, and can directly or indirectly injure crops, other useful plants, livestock, or poultry, or other interests of agriculture, including irrigation, or navigation or the fish or wild¬ life resources of the United States or the public health." Few manuals (12, 26) devoted to the study of noxious weeds have been published. In 1977, Reed (26) published a book entitled Economi¬ cally Important Foreign Weeds--Potenti al Problems in the United States. Reed (26) in writing this book conducted a "survey of the literature" in order to "determine how many noxious weeds of the world are not known to occur in the United States or, if present, have very limited distri¬ bution and which if introduced might cause serious problems." This pub¬ lication lists approximately 1200 "foreign species" which "will doubtless be designated noxious weed species as defined by Public Law 93-629." The present study was conducted to obtain an inventory of foreign noxious weeds occurring within the State of Alabama and to determine the need for a State noxious weed law. METHODS An extensive review of the literature was used to compile a list of weed species which might be classified as noxious by Public Law 93-629 (2). Included were taxa listed by Reed (26) and Holm et al . (12), plus those mentioned as being important new pests, introduced pests, or pests of increasing concern, by Auburn University Cooperative Extension Ser¬ vice personnel, weed scientists, plant taxonomists, and numerous other individuals concerned with crop production and/or weed control. The list contained approximately 1600 species and was used as a guide for checking herbaria. In surveying herbarium collections, note was taken of any plant which was included on the preliminary list, and also of any additional plant labeled exotic, noxious, introduced, etc. Standard herbarium acronyms (13) are available for the two largest herbaria in Alabama; 33 Noxious Weeds of Alabama others indicated were coined specifically for this study. The herbaria searched in this study were the Auburn University Herbarium (AUA, 35,000 collections), the University of Alabama Herbarium (UNA, 40,000 collec¬ tions), the Jacksonville State University Herbarium (JS, 15,000 collec¬ tions), the University of South Alabama Herbarium (SA, 7,000 collections), and the University of North Alabama Herbarium (NA, 2,000 collections). A field survey of high hazard sites was conducted to detect possible noxious weeds in the field. High hazard sites are areas at which noxious weeds (or any pest for that matter) are most likely to be introduced. High hazard areas surveyed included the State Docks at Mobile and Mont¬ gomery, train depots at Birmingham, Huntsville, Mobile, and Montgomery, twelve Agricultural Experiment Stations, and numerous plant nurseries throughout Alabama. Following these surveys, the list of suspected noxious weeds was compared with manuals and floras (9, 25, 29) commonly used in the south¬ eastern U.S., and an annotated list was prepared. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Forty Alabama species representing potentially noxious weeds were detected. Nineteen families were represented by one or more species, with the grass family (Poaceae) having the largest number, 10 species. The most common species, as indicated by herbarium records, were Com- melina evecta and Polygonum cespitosum, which were both represented by collections from 13 different counties. Four species, Bulbostylis capillaris , Ipomoea cairica, Lindemia Crustacea, and Rhynchosia minima, were not observed in herbaria; however, their mention by various authors (see annotated list) assures their occurrence in Alabama. The herbarium collections observed appear to come from four general areas centered around Calhoun, Lee, Mobile, and Tuscaloosa counties. These areas are associated with universities and could reflect more in¬ tense collecting by taxonomists and students; also some of Alabama's Agricultural Experiment Stations are also associated with some of these areas. It is possible that plants being studied for forage escaped or that weed seed could have been introduced with crop seed and became established. Twenty-one of the 40 plants listed were collected in Mobile County. Mobile County would have to be considered the most likely area for new pest introductions due mainly to the large amount of foreign cargo brought into the port. A number of plants collected in Mobile County by Mohr (22) came from ships' ballasts which were dumped prior to taking on cargo. Dr. M. G. Lelong, University of South Alabama, (per¬ sonal communication) has conducted intense surveys in Baldwin and Mobile counties and has reported collecting many plants listed by Reed (26). It is probable that additional collecting in Mobile County will yield more plants which may be designated as potentially noxious weeds. All species included in the annotated list were mentioned by Reed (26), although 6 species, Imperata cylindvica, Lolium temulentum, Setaria viridis , Polygonum lapathi folium , Portulaca oleracea, and Anagalis arven- sis, viere not specifically treated. These weeds are included because 34 Karr the plants actually treated by Reed (26) are similar to..., sometimes treated under..., considered a variation of..., etc. one of the 6 weeds noted above. Reed (26) reported that 14 of the 40 weeds did occur in the U.S., however, of the remaining 26 species, only 5, Brachiaria eruoiformis , Imperata oylindrioa , Fatoua villosa. Trifolium subterraneum , and MyriophylVum propinquum , were not reported as occurring in the U.S. by Fernald (9), Radford et al . (25), and Small (29). Dr. Ronald L. Haaland, Auburn University (personal communication) is presently working with a number of plants including Festuoa arundi- nacea, Phalaris tuberosa, and Tri folium subterraneum in an attempt to develop better forage crops. Reed (26) included all three of these as potential noxious weeds. Hoveland et al . (14) indicated that in 1974 there were 1 million acres of Festuoa arundinacea in Alabama being used as winter forage for beef brood cow herds. Although these plants are not presently considered noxious weeds, it is apparent that more aggres¬ sive varieties might exist and could cause problems if introduced. It is important that new introductions of these plants be closely evaluated prior to being released because they are known to cause serious problems in certain areas of the world (see annotated list). Of the 40 species listed, only 14 (Table 1) appear to fit the defi¬ nition of a noxious weed as defined in Public Law 93-629 (2). These weeds are known to cause serious problems in some areas of the world (26) and have rather small distributions within the U.S. Two of the weeds listed in Table 1, Hydrilla verticillata and Imperata brasiliensis , have already been designated as noxious weeds by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (3). No new specimens were collected during the survey of high hazard sites, thus the collection records and literature cited form the docu¬ mentation for this report. Several aquatic weeds not treated here were mentioned by Dr. Robert R. Haynes, University of Alabama, (personal communication) as probable recent introductions into Alabama. These include Spirodela punctata, Miyriophyllum brasiliensis, Myriophyllum spicatum, Ludwigia Uruguay ensi s , Ludwigia peploides , and Najas minor. Although aquatic plants are an integral part of the aquatic ecosystem, the introduction of certain exotics certainly may lead to severe water-use problems. These weeds merit close attention in the coming years. Dr. Robert Krai, Vanderbilt University, (personal communication) indicated that Phyllanthus tenellus is most probably a recent introduc¬ tion, and reports this weed from Escambia, Geneva, Sumter, and Lee counties in Alabama. This weed also merits watching in the coming years . The results of this survey indicate that Alabama has a number of weeds which have the potential to develop into serious problems. This study also indicates the need for additional surveys to detect future plant introductions and also to monitor the spread of "noxious weeds" already known to occur within the state. Finally, the need for a State noxious weed law has been exhibited. 35 Noxious Weeds of Alabama Table 1. Potentially noxious weeds as defined by the Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974, Public Law 93-629. Brachiaria eruciformis Cenchrus brownii Fatoua villosa Hydrilla verticillata Imperata brasiliensis Imperata cylindrica Ipomoea cairica Koeleria phleoides Lindemia Crustacea Ludwigia peruviana Lupinus luteus Muscari comosum Myriophyllum propinquum Phyllanthus urinaria Already designated as noxious weeds by the U.S.D.A. ANNOTATED LIST OF WEEDS DETECTED The order of taxonomic treatment of families is that used by Rad¬ ford et al . (25) which is generally accepted. Within each family the genera and species, respectively, are treated alphabetically. Common names used are those recommended by the Weed Science Society of America (31) or when not listed by that agency, those used by Reed (26). Many of these weeds are not well enough known to have been given common names. Within each family each weed is listed by scientific name and, when available, by common name. Following this is a note concerning areas in which the weed is known to cause serious problems, and this is followed by reports from the literature of the weed's occurrence in Alabama. Finally, herbarium specimens observed are listed by county, herbarium in which the specimen was observed, and the collection date. An abbreviated herbarium specimen citation is being used because this is not a taxonomic study and because we are more interested in collec¬ tion locations and dates. HYDR0CHAR1TACEAE Hydrilla verticillata Rcyle hy d r ilia An aquatic perennial known to cause serious problems in India and Japan (26). Reed (26) also notes that this weed has spread across the southern U.S. from FL to TX, and up into CO. Dennis (7) indicates that this weed was introduced into AL and several other states from FL. Bayne (unpublished report) reports H. verticillata from Barbour, Choctaw, and El more cos . , AL . Choctaw (UNA, 1978) Clark (UNA, 1978) H. verticillata is listed as a noxious weed by the U.S.D.A. under authority of the Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974, Public Law 93-629 (3). POACEAE Brachiaria eruciformis (J.E.Sm.) Griseb. signalgrass An annual herb reported to occur in Mediterranean and Central Asian countries (26). Rutland (27) reports this weed from Lee Co., AL. Lee (AUA, 1959) 36 Karr Cenahrus brownii Roem. & Schult. burrgrass An annual herb reported to cause serious problems in Australia (26). Reed (26) also reports C. brownei, an apparent misspelling, as infrequent in the SE U.S. Mobile (UNA, 1957) Festuca arundinacea Schreb. tall fescue A perennial herb known to cause serious problems in Australia and New Zealand (26). Freeman and Moore (10) have reported that under some conditions this grass can cause livestock poisoning. Correlland Johnston (5) and apparently Radford et al . (25) consider F. arundinacea to be a synonym of F. elatior. Lelong (20) has reported F . arundinacea from Mobile Co., and Bostick (4) from St. Clair Co., AL . Lelong (personal communication) has collected this weed in Baldwin Co., AL . Lee (AUA, 1968, 1970) Marshall (AUA, 1960) Mobile (SA, 1968) Imperata brasiliensis Trin. A perennial herb reported to occur in several South American coun¬ tries (26). Hitchcock (11) reports this weed from southern FL and AL. Lelong (20, 21) reports I. brasiliensis from Mobile Co., AL. Mobile (SA, 1968, 1969), (UNA, 1965) I. brasiliensis is listed as a noxious weed by the U.S.D.A. under authority of the Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974, Public Law 93-629 (3). Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. cogongrass Reed (26) actually refers to I. cylindrica var. major (Nees) C. B. Hubb. ex Hubb. & Vaughan and mentions that it causes serious problems in New South Wales. Hitchcock (11) makes no mention of I. cylindrica var. major. Holm et al . (12) list I. cylindrica as the world's seventh worst weed. Dickens (8) reports I. cylindrica from Baldwin, Choctaw, Conecuh, Escambia, Geneva, Pike, Mobile and Washington cos. of AL. Mobile (AUA, 1956) Koeleria phleoides (Vi 11.) Pers. An annual herb reported to cause serious problems in Russia (26). Small (29) reports this grass from AL , and Hitchcock (11) and Lelong (21) have reported it from Mobile Co., AL. Mobile (SA, 1971) Lolium temulentum L. darnel Reed (26) actually refers to L. cuneatum Nevski but indicates that it is "considered by some as L. temulentum.” Hitchcock (11) makes no mention of L. cuneatum. L. cuneatum is an annual herb known to cause serious problems in Russia (26). Freeman and Moore (10) report that 37 Noxious Weeds of Alabama under some conditions L. temulentum can cause livestock poisoning. Rad¬ ford et al . (25) report L. temulentum from AL and other SE states, and Rutland (27) and Mohr (22) report it from Lee and Mobile cos., AL, re- specti vely . Dallas ( AUA, 1959) Greene (UNA, 1967) Hale (UNA, 1966) Lee (AUA, 1952, 1970) Mobile (UNA, 1964) Paspalum vaginatum Swartz salt-water couch A perennial herb reportedly causing serious problems in Taiwan (26). Radford et al. (25) report this grass from AL, and Mohr (22) reports it from Mobile and Baldwin cos., AL . Baldwin (AUA, 1952) Mobile (UNA, 1966), (SA, 1967) Phalaris tuberosa L. Reed (26) actually refers to P. bulbosa L. and considers P. tuberosa a synonym of P. bulbosa. Hitchcock (11) on the other hand considers P. bulbosa to be a synonym of Phleum subulatum (Savi) Asch. & Graebn. and treats P. tuberosa as a valid species. P. bulbosa is a perennial herb known to cause serious problems in Lebanon, New Zealand, and Hawaii (26) . Reed (26) also reports that P. bulbosa is cultivated for forage in TX and MS. Rutland (27) reports P. tuberosa, also a perennial herb from Lee Co . , AL . Elmore (AUA, 1959, 1963) Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv. green foxtail Reed (26) actually refers to S. gigantea (Fr. & Sav.) Makino but suggests that it is "most probably only a variation of S. viridis." Both are annuals with S. gigantea described as a "slightly harmful weed" in Japan (26). Hitchcock (11) makes no reference to S. gigantea. Mohr (22), who indicates that S. viridis is a synonym of bhaetochloa viridis (L.) Scribner, reports this weed from Mobile Co., AL. Rutland (27) reports S. viridis from Lee Co., AL. Calhoun (JS, 1968) Lee (AUA, 1966) CYPERACEAE Bulbostylis barbata (Rottboell) Clarke An annual herb which causes serious problems in Japan and Taiwan (26). Radford et al . (25) and Small (29), who calls this weed Stenophyl- lus barbatus (Rottboell) Britton, both report this weed from AL in addi¬ tion to other SE states. In AL B. barbata has been reported from Elmore, Lee (27), and Mo bile (20) cos. In addition. Krai (16) has reported this species from seventeen other AL cos. Geneva (AUA, 1968) Henry (AUA, 1968) 38 Karr Lee (AUA, 1955) Mobile (SA, 1967) Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) Clarke Reed (26) actually refers to B. densa (Wall.) Hand.-Mazz. instead but mentions that B. capillaris var. trifida Clarke is a synonym of B. densa. Krai (16) does not mention B. densa or B. capillaris var. trifida in his treatment of North American species of Bulbostylis , but does list B. capillaris var. isopoda Fern, among others as a synonym of B. capillaris. It should be pointed out that, if B. capillaris var. trifida is segregated from B. capillaris , the remaining varieties of B. capillaris may not be noxious at all. B. densa is an annual herb known to cause serious problems in Japan (26). Radford et al . (25) report B. capillaris from AL and other SE states. Fernald (9) mentions that B. capillaris var. isopoda occurs in AL. B. capillaris has been reported from Chambers, Elmore, Randolph, Talladega (27), Clay (22), and St. Clair (4) cos. of AL, while Krai (16) reports this species from twenty-four AL cos. No herbarium specimens observed. Cyperus polystachyos Rottboel 1 A perennial herb which causes serious problems in India and Taiwan (26). C. polystachyos var. texensis (Torrey) Fernald is an American variety which has been reported as occurring throughout the SE U.S. (25). Radford et al. (25) list C. microdontis Torrey among others as a synonym of C. polystachyos var. texensis. Mohr (22) reports C. micro¬ dontis from Mobile and Baldwin cos., AL, while Lelong (20) reports C. polystachyos from Mobile Co., AL. Mobile (UNA, 1965) Wilcox (UNA, 1978) Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vah 1 . grass-like fimbristylis An annual herb reported to cause serious problems in Taiwan, Japan, and the Philippine Islands (26). This weed has been reported from AL and other SE states by Radford et al . (25). Rutland (27) reports this weed from Lee Co., AL, and Lelong (20) from Mobile Co., AL, while Krai (16) reports it from twelve other AL cos. Dallas (UNA, 1977) Lee (AUA, 1950, 1962) Mobile (SA, 1969) Montgomery (UNA, 1977) Tuscaloosa (UNA, 1977) COMMELINACEAE Aneilema nudiflorum (L.) Kunth An annual herb which causes serious problems in India (26). Lelong (19, 20) reports this weed as "infrequent in moist, cultivated sites" of Mobile Co. , AL. Mobile (AUA, 1956), (SA, 1968) 39 Noxious Weeds of Alabama Commelina erecta L. A perennial herb reported to Although Reed (26) does not menti U.S. specifically, he does mentio Radford et al . (25) indicate that C. erecta has been reported from (22), Mobile (20, 22), and St. Cl Cleburne (AUA, 1975) Coosa (AUA, 1973) Elmore (AUA, 1975) Escambia (AUA, 1968) Lowndes (JS, 1969) Macon (AUA, 1971 ) Marshall (UNA, 1956) cause serious problems in Ghana (26). on the occurrence of this weed in the n its occurrence in the "New World." this weed occurs throughout the SE U.S. Cleburne, Coosa, Randolph (27), Lee air (4) cos. of AL. Mobile (SA, 1967), (UNA, 1965) Montgomery (AUA, 1967) Perry (AUA, 1976) Randolph (AUA, 1967) Tallapoosa (AUA, 1969) Tuscaloosa (UNA, 1966) Tradescantia fluminensis Vel 1 . A perennial herb which reportedly causes serious problems in New South Wales (26). There are no known reports of the occurrence of this weed in AL. Baldwin (SA, 1971) LILIACEAE Muscari comosum (L.) Mill. purple grape-hyacinth A perennial herb which reportedly causes serious problems in Leba¬ non (26). Reed (26) also mentions that M. comosum is often cultivated as an ornamental in North America. Rutland (27) reports this plant from Lee Co., AL where it probably escaped from cultivation. Lee (AUA, 1922) MORACEAE Fatoua villosa (Thunb.) Nakai An annual herb reported to cause serious problems in Japan (26). Lelong (19, 20) reports this weed from Mobile Co., AL. Mobile (SA, 1972) P0LYG0NACEAE Polygonum cespitosum B1 . An annual herb noted as being a serious problem in Taiwan (26). Fernald (9) and Radford et al . (25) make note of P. cespitosum var. longisetum ( De Bruyn) Stewart rather than the typical variety P. cespito¬ sum. In AL D. cespitosum var. longisetum has been reported from Talla¬ poosa (24, 27), Chambers, Clay, Lee (27), Bibb, Dallas, Jefferson, Perry, and Shelby cos. (28). Lelong (personal communication) has collected this weed in Mobi le Co. , AL . 40 Karr Bibb (UNA, 1976) Blount (UNA, 1978) Calhoun (AUA, 1975) Clay (UNA, 1978) Cleburne (AUA, 1975) Coosa (AUA, 1975) Dallas (AUA, 1976) Lee (AUA, 1955, 1970) Montgomery (UNA, 1977) Shelby (AUA, 1976) Talladega (AUA, 1975) Tallapoosa (AUA, 1974) Tuscaloosa (UNA, 1966) Polygonum lapathi folium L. pale smartweed Reed (26) actually refers to P. linicola Sut. but mentions that it is "sometimes treated under p. lapathi folium." P. linicola. is an annual herb known to cause serious problems in Russia (26). Radford et al . (25) report P. lapathi folium , also an annual herb, from AL and other SE states. In AL P. lapathi folium has been reported from Bibb (28), Cleburne, Lee (27), Mobile (20, 22), and St. Clair cos. (4). Lelong (personal communi¬ cation) has collected this weed in Baldwin Co., AL. Calhoun (JS, 1969) Dallas (UNA, 1977) Tuscaloosa (UNA, 1977) Wilcox (UNA, 1978) AIZOACEAE Trianthema portulacastrum L. horse purslane An annual succulent herb which causes serious problems in India and Madras (26). Reed (26) has apparently misspelled the genus {"Trianthera") . Radford et al . (25) report this weed from AL. Jefferson (UNA, 1944) PORTULACACEAE Portulaca oleracea L. common purslane Reed (26) actually refers to P. quadrifida L. but indicates that it is "sometimes considered a form of P. oleracea . " Both species are annual herbs. P. quadrifida is known to cause serious problems in Taiwan and India (26). Holm et al . (12) list P. oleracea as the world's ninth worst weed. Radford et al . (25) report P. oleracea as occurring throughout the SE U.S., and Mohr (22) reports this weed as occurring throughout AL. Sessler (28) and Lelong (20) have reported P. oleracea from Dallas and Mobile cos., AL respectively. Lelong (personal communication) has col¬ lected this weed in Baldwin Co., AL. Dallas (AUA, 1976) Mobile (UNA, 1965), (SA, 1974) CARYOPHYLLACEAE Silene gallica L. English catchfly Reed (26) indicates that S. gallica is a synonym of S. gallica var. quinquevulnera (L.) Koch. It has been reported that S. gallica var. quinquevulnera, an annual herb, causes serious problems in Japan and New 41 Noxious Weeds of Alabama South Wales, and is known to occur in the U.S. (26). Mohr (22) indicates that S. galliaa is a synonym of S. anglica L. and reports the latter from Mobile Co., AL. Krai (17) also reports S. gallioa from Mobile Co., AL. Macon (AUA, 1967) RANUNCULACEAE Ranunculus acris L. tall buttercup A perennial herb reported to cause serious problems in Russia, Germany, and Trinidad (26). Reed (26) also indicates that this weed occurs in NE America. Mohr (22) reports R. acris as "rare" in Mobile Co. , AL. Mobile (UNA, 1885) FABACEAE Lupinus luteus L. yellow lupine An annual herb which causes serious problems in South Africa and Russia (26). In addition Reed (26) reports L. luteus as occurring in North America. In AL this weed has been reported from Lee Co. (27). No herbarium specimens observed. Medicago polymorpha L. toothed medic An annual herb reported to cause Japan and New Zealand (26). Reed (26) more or less worldwide in distribution rence in the U.S. Radford et al. (25) other SE states. Mohr (22) reports M. M. polymorpha from Mobile Co., AL, and from Lee Co . , AL . Green (UNA, 1967) Lee (JS, 1964) Marengo (UNA, 1969) Mobile (UNA, 1974) Sumter (UNA, 1967) serious problems in India, Russia, also indicates that this weed is but fails to mention its occur- report M. polymorpha from AL and denticulata Willd., a synonym of Rutland (27) reports M. polymorpha Rhyyichosia minima (L.) DC An annual herb reportedly causing serious problems in India (26). Mohr (22) reports the occurrence of this weed from Mobile Co., AL. No herbarium specimens observed. Tri folium subterraneum L. subterranean clover An annual herb which causes serious problems in New Tasmania (26). Rutland (27) has reported this weed from AL. Tallapoosa (NA, 1972) Zealand and Tall apoosa Co . , 42 Karr EUPHORBIACEAE Euphorbia heterophylla L. wild poinsettia An annual herb which causes serious problems in India and Trinidad (26). Cornell and Johnston (5) indicate that E. oyathophora Murr. is often erroneously included under E. heterophylla . Radford et al . (25) report this weed from AL in addition to other SE states. Lelong (20) has reported E. heterophylla from Mobile Co., AL. Elmore (ALIA, 1970) Houston (AUA, 1969) Mobile (SA, 1968) Montgomery (UNA, 1949, 1969) Phyllanthus urinaria L. An annual herb reported to cause serious problems in Japan and Taiwan, and is noted by Reed (26) as occurring in tropical North America. Lelong (19, 20) reports this weed from Mobile Co., AL, and Krai (personal communication) reports it from Baldwin, Barbour, Covington, Escambia, Lee and Mobi 1 e cos . of AL . Mobile (SA, 1969) ONAGRACEAE Ludwigia peruviana (L.) Hara A perennial shrub known to cause serious problems in Columbia (26). In addition Reed (26) reports this aquatic weed as occurring in FL. Mohr (22) reports Jussiaea peruviana L., a synonym of L. peruviana , from Mobile Co. , AL. Mobile (SA, 1974) HALORAGACEAE Myriophyllum propinquum A. Cunn. An aquatic perennial herb known to cause serious problems in New Zealand (26). No known previous reports of this weed occurring in AL. Lauderdale (UNA, 1978) PRIMULACEAE Anagalis arvensis L. scarlet pimpernel Reed (26) refers here to A. foemina Mill, but indicates that it is "very similar to A. arvensis A. foemina is an annual or biennial herb reported to cause serious problems in Russia, Israel and Lebanon (26). Radford et al . (25) report A. arvensis, an annual herb, from AL, and Rutland (27) and Mohr (22) report this weed from Lee and Mobile cos., AL, respectively. Lee (AUA, 1953) Mobile (SA, 1974), (UNA, 1950) 43 Noxious Weeds of Alabama CONVOLVULACEAE Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet Cairo morningglory A perennial herb known to cause serious problems in India (26). Krai (18) reports this weed from Mobile Co., AL. No herbarium specimens observed. SCROPHULARIACEAE Lindemia orustacea (L.) F. Muell. An annual herb reportedly causing serious problems in India and Taiwan (26). Reed (26) does mention the occurrence of this weed in America. Krai (17) reports L. orustacea from Escambia Co., AL. No herbarium specimens observed. Mazus japonicus Mak. Reed (26) actually refers to M. miquelli Mak. but notes that M. japonicus is a synonym of M. miquelli. M. miquelli is a perennial herb wiiich is a "harmful weed throughout" Japan (26). Lelong (19, 20) re¬ ports M. japonicus from Mobile Co., AL. Mobile (SA, 1969) ASTERACEAE Lactuoa virosa L. bitter lettuce An annual or biennial herb which causes serious problems in France and S. Australia (26). Reed (26) also reports L. virosa from CA. There is no previous mention in the literature of the occurrence of this weed in AL . Tuscaloosa (UNA, 1957) Melanthera hastata Michaux Reed (26) actually refers to M. nivea (L.) Small and indicates that M. hastata is a synonym of M. nivea, a treatment also followed by Parks (23) and Cronquist (6). The species is reported by Reed (26) as occur¬ ring along the Coastal Plain from SC to LA. It has been reported from Bibb (28) and Mobile (22) cos., AL as M. hastata, and from Barbour, Colbert, Mobile, and Morgan cos., AL (23) as M. nivea. LITERATURE CITED 1. Anderson, W. P. 1977. Weed Science: Principles. West Publishing Company, New York. 598 pp. 2. Anonymous. 1974. Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974, Public Law 93-629. 3. Anonymous. 1976. Noxious Weed Regulations. Code of Federal Regu¬ lations Title 7, Chapter 3, Part 360. 44 Karr 4. Bostick, P. E. 1967. A geobotanical investigation of Chandler Mountain, St. Clair Co., Alabama. Castanea 32:133-154. 5. Correll, D. S. and M. C. Johnston. 1970. Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas. Texas Research Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp. 6. Cronquist, Arthur. 1980. Vascular Flora of the Southeastern United States. Vol . 1. Asteraceae. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. 261 pp. 7. Dennis, W. M. , T. L. Goldsby, and A. L. Bates. 1977. Selected Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Tennessee Valley. Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, AL. 154 pp. 8. Dickens, R. 1974. Coaongrass in Alabama after sixty years. Weed Sci. 22:177-179. 9. Fernald, M. L. 1950. Gray's Manual of Botany. 8th ed. American Book Company, New York. 1632 pp. 10. Freeman, J. D. and H. D. Moore. 1974. Livestock-Poisoning Vascu¬ lar Plants of Alabama. Auburn Univ. Agr. Exp. Stn. Bull. 460. 79 pp. 11. Hitchcock, A. S. 1950. Manual of the Grasses of the United States. 2nd ed. U.S. Dep. Agric., Miscel. Pub. 200. 1051 pp. 12. Holm, L. G., D. L. Plucknett, J. V. Pancho, and J. P. Herberger. 1977. The World's Worst Weeds: Distribution and Biology. The University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, HI. 609 pp. 13. Holmgren, P. K. and W. Keuken. 1947. Index Herbariorum Part I the Herbaria of the World. 6th ed. Oosthoek, Scheltema and Holkema, Utrecht, Netherlands. 397 pp. 14. Hoveland, C. S., E. M. Evans, and D. A. Mays. 1974. Cool Season Perennial Grass Species for Forage in Alabama. Auburn Univ. Agr. Exp. Stn. Bull. 397. 20 pp. 15. Klingman, G. C. and F. M. Ashton. 1975. Weed Science: Principles & Practices. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 431 pp. 16. Krai, R. 1971. A treatment of Abi ldgaardia, Bulbostylis and Fim- bristylis (Cyperaceae) for North America. Sida 4:57-227. 17. Krai, R. 1973. Some notes on the flora of the southern states, particularly Alabama and middle Tennessee. Rhodora 75:366-410. 18. Krai, R. 1976. Additions to some notes on the flora of the southern states, particularly Alabama and middle Tennessee. Rhodora 78:438-456. 19. Lelong, M. G. 1976. Noteworthy weedy plants of Mobile County, Alabama. (Abstr.) J. Alabama Acad. Sci. 47:126-127. 45 Noxious Weeds of Alabama 20. Lelong, M. G. 1977. Annotated list of vascular plants in Mobile, Alabama. Sida 7:118-146. 21. Lelong, M. G. 1978. Additional noteworthy weedy plants of the Mobile region. (Abstr.) J. Alabama Acad. Sci . 49:68-69. 22. Mohr, C. 1901. Plant life of Alabama. Contr. U.S. Natl. Herb. 6:1-921 . 23. Parks, J. C. 1973. A revision of North American and Caribbean Melanthera (Composi tae) . Rhodora 75:169-210. 24. Petranka, J. W., A. Hutto, and J. D. Freeman. 1979. Summer flora of Horseshoe Bend National Military Park, Alabama. J. Alabama Acad. Sci. 50:70-86. 25. Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles, and C. R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. 1183 pp. 26. Reed, C. F. 1971. Economically Important Foreign Weeds: Poten¬ tial Problems in the United States. U.S. Dep. Agric., Agric. Hand¬ book 498. 746 pp. 27. Rutland, D. W. 1977. Vascular Flora of the Piedmont Plateau of Alabama. M.S. Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, AL. 117 pp. 28. Sessler, A. H. 1978. Vascular Flora of the Cahaba River Area. M.S. Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, AL. 94 pp. 29. Small, J. K. 1933. Manual of the Southeastern Flora. The Science Press Printing Company, Lancaster, PA. 1554 pp. 30. Stevens, L. 1976. King Kong Kudzu, menace to south. Smithsonian 7:93-99. 31. Weed Science Society of America. 1971. Composite list of weeds. Weed Sci . 19:435-476. I would like to express my appreciation to Dr. John D. Freeman, Auburn University; Dr. Robert R. Haynes, University of Alabama; Dr. Michel G. Lelong, University of South Alabama; Dr. R. David Whetstone, Jacksonville State University; and Dr. Bob Daly, University of North Alabama, for allowing me to survey herbaria in their keeping. I am grateful to Dr. J. A. Bloch, Alabama Department of Agriculture and In¬ dustries, Mr. R. G. Milam, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Dr. John D. Freeman for their review of this manuscript. Finally, I am espe¬ cially indebted to Miss Beth Pace and Debra Spivey for their typing of this manuscript. 46 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 1, January, 1981. ABSTRACT Alabama Science Policy Forum HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, AND POTABLE WATER PRODUCTION FROM FISSION D. L. Hollis. Dept, of Electrical Engineering. E. R. VanArtsdal en . Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Ala., University, AL 35486. A reexamination is made of producing hydrogen from radiolytic decompo¬ sition of water in an aqueous homogeneous fission reactor. For economi¬ cal reasons the by-product of potable water distilled from salt water is included, and it is assumed that oxygen is released with the hydrogen. Based on published data without any attempt to increase production rates beyond that reported, a 3000 MWt reactor will produce 81 tonnes/d of H£, 648 tonnes/d of O2 , and 148(106) gal/d of potable water. The hydrogen production rate is too low, but potable water production is attractive enough to reverse its role of by-product. By keeping the reactor power density small with a large core, advantages in safety and corrosion are expected. Inadvertent hydrogen combustion should be con¬ trolled by predominant water vapor concentration. Tritium production, though little, could result in concentrations greater than the MPCJa.jr for internal combustion engines in enclosed spaces. Until tritium removal systems are available, hydrogen from fission should be used in fuel cells or aircraft. In addition to tritium removal, the main prob¬ lem identified is a need for better understanding of fission product interaction with water in order to increase hydrogen production from fission. 47 NOTES INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Editorial Policy: Publication in the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms can be obtained from Dr. John Pritchett, Dept, of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn University, AL 36849. Subject matter should represent original research in one of the discipline sections of the Academy: Biological Sciences; Chemistry; Geology; Forestry, Geography, and Conservation; Physics and Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education; Social Sciences; Health Sciences; Engineering; Anthropology. Timely review articles of exceptional quality and general readership interest will be considered. Manuscripts are published in order of acceptance. Each manuscript receives two simultaneous reviews. Manuscripts: Consult recent issues of the Journal for format. Double¬ Space manuscripts throughout, allowing 1-inch margins. Number all pages. Submit the original and two copies to the Editor. Papers which are un¬ reasonably long and verbose, e.g., uncut theses or reviews, will be re¬ turned. The title page should contain the author's name, affiliation, and address, including zip code. An abstract not exceeding 200 words will be published if the author so desires. Use headings and subdivi¬ sions where necessary for clarity. Common headings are: INTRODUCTION (including a literature review), PROCEDURES (or MATERIALS AND METHODS), RESULTS, DISCUSSION, and LITERATURE CITED. Other formats may be more appropriate for certain subject matter areas. Headings should be in all -caps and centered on the typed page; subheadings should be itali¬ cized (underlined) and placed at the margin. Avoid excessive use of footnotes. Where few are used, number consecutively at the bottom of page where cited. Where large numbers are necessary, list them consecu¬ tively at the end of the manuscript under the heading, FOOTNOTES. Illustrations: Submit original inked drawings (graphs and diagrams) or clear black and white glossy photographs. Width must be 14-15 cm and height must not exceed 20 cm. Illustrations not conforming to these dimensions will be returned to the author. Use lettering that will still be legible after a 30% reduction. Designate all illustrations as figures, number consecutively, and cite all figures in text. Type fig¬ ure captions on a separate sheet of paper. Send two extra sets of il¬ lustrations; xeroxed photographs are satisfactory for review purposes. Tables: Place each table on a separate sheet and type the title directly above it. Number tables consecutively. Use symbols or letters, not numerals, for table footnotes. Cite all tables in the text. Literature Cited: Only references cited in the text should be listed under LITERATURE CITED. Do not group references according to source (books, periodicals, newspapers, etc.). List in alphabetical order of senior author names. Cite references in the text by number or by author-date . THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE VOLUME 52 APRIL, 1981 NO. 2 EDITOR: W. H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, AL 36849 ARCHIVIST: R. G. Eaves, Department of History, Auburn University, AL 36849 EDITORIAL BOARD R. T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849 E. A. Curl, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849 G. L. Becker, Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, LIniversity Station, Birmingham, AI. 35294 ADVISORY BOARD: Curt AI. Peterson, Auburn University William Gunther, Univ Ala., Tuscaloosa A. Barry Cox, Jacksonville St Univ. Richard L. Shoemaker, Univ. Ala., Tuscaloosa Daniel R. Womochel, Auburn University Harold L. Pastrick, Redstone Arsenal Frank Himmler. Univ. North Alabama Glen Eaves, Auburn University James Hau k, Univ. Ala., Tuscaloosa Helen Mabry, Birmingham (Bd of Educ.) Ernest Riggsby, Columbus College The Journal is the official publication of the Alabama Academy of Science, and is indexed in Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, America: History and Life, and Historical Abstracts. Publication and Subscription Policies Submission of Manuscripts. Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow Instruction to Authors (see inside back cover). Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors. Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIR¬ MAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news releases will not be pub lished in the Journal. ISSN 002-4112 CONTENTS ARTICLES Granulomas in Reptiles: A Report of Four Cases Charles G. Crispens, Jr. and Ken R. Marion . 48 Fecundity of Largemouth Bass from Pickwick Reservoir, Tennessee River Daniel F. Hughes and Wayne A. Hubert . 53 Mimicry and Spatial Occupation in the Mydas Fly, Mydas clavatus William E. Cooper, Jr . 58 Predation by the Red Imported Fire Ant, Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), on Eggs of the Lizard Cnemidophorus sexlineatus ( Squama ta: Teiidae) Robert H. Mount, Stanley E. Trauth, and William H. Mason . 66 The Red Imported Fire Ant, Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera : Formicidae), as a Possible Serious Predator on Some Native Southeastern Vertebrates: Direct Observations and Subjective Impressions Robert H. Mount . 71 REVISION OF CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 79 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 2, April, 1981. GRANULOMAS IN REPTILES: A REPORT OF FOUR CASES1 Charles G. Crispens, Jr. and Ken R. Marion department of Biology University of Alabama in Birmingham University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294 Abstract. Four examples of subcutaneous granulomas were found over a period of approximately two years in reptiles collected and/or main¬ tained in the southeastern United States. These included a granuloma of bacterial etiology in a Gulf Coast box turtle and three cases of mycotic granulomas in a boa constrictor, a panamint rattlesnake and a dusky pigmy rattlesnake. Reptiles have been collected and exhibited by zoos for many years, and their value as laboratory animals has increased considerably during the past decade. Nonetheless, an understanding of the infectious dis¬ eases of these vertebrates is incomplete. It would appear that bacterial infections are common in reptiles. Two reviews list numerous examples of such diseases^*! 1 ; other articles describe additional cases in various species of reptilesl2, an acid-fast granuloma in the eye of a box turtle ( Terrapene Carolina )9, and granu¬ lomatous pseudotumors in several specimens of lizards ( Lacerta sicula) and the iguana ( Cyclura comuta )2. By comparison, there have been few observations of mycotic diseases. These include descriptions of mycotic pneumonia in turtles and tortoises^, captive giant tortoises ( Testudo elephantopus and T. gigantea elephantina)^ , and captive American alli¬ gators ( Alligator mississipiensis)^ , as well as three examples of fungal infections in the eyes of a rainbow boa ( Epicrates chenchria maurus)^^ , the jaw and internal organs of a tropical tortoise ( Testudo radiata ) and the skin of a reticulated python ( Python reticulatus)^ . Reports of algal infections in reptiles are rare^. Several years ago, we described a lesion which developed slowly on the ventro-lateral surface of the neck of a male corn snake ( Elaphe guttata guttata) and recurred as a fulminating subcutaneous mass within a few weeks after surgery!. Microscopic examination allowed for the tentative identifica¬ tion as a chondrosarcoma, but this interpretation was corrected by par¬ ticipants in a National Cancer Institute Pathology Conference who diag¬ nosed the growth as a parasitic granuloma of algal ( Protothecosa sp.) etiol ogy . Recently, we were afforded the opportunity to study a series of subcutaneous lesions which occurred over a period of approximately two Manuscript received 8 December 1980; accepted 8 May 1981. 48 Granulomas in Reptiles years in four species of reptiles. These cases now have diagnoses. They are reported herein to allow for incorporation into the present knowledge of reptilian diseases. MATERIALS AND METHODS The methods employed were similar for each specimen. Thus, pieces of tissue were obtained at necropsy (or removed surgically), fixed in 10% neutral formalin, and embedded in paraffin for sectioning. Some sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin for examination with the light microscope and, if warranted, additional sections were stained with special methods such as Brown and Breen, Gomori methenamine silver, and periodic acid-Schi ff? . Thereafter, representative slides and the unused portions of tissue blocks were submitted with pertinent informa¬ tion to the Registry of Tumors in Lower Animals (RTLA), The Smithsonian Institution. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bacterial Infections The only example of a bacterial infection occurred in a female Gulf Coast box turtle ( Terrapene Carolina major). This animal was collected in southern Mississippi (Jackson County) on June 16, 1975 and, at the time of capture, showed a prominent swelling on the dorsal surface of the neck. Six months later, a single subcutaneous mass was excised by routine surgical procedures. The lesion measured 13 mm in diameter and was encapsulated. The capsular portion was reddish-brown; the central region appeared lighter in coloration and was firm. To date, there has been no recurrence of the disease process. Microscopic examination revealed an infectious granuloma of bac¬ terial etiology (RTLA 1380). Further, it was indicative of an old lesion since only the peripheral granulation tissue had not become necrotic. The repeated observation of bacterial granulomas on turtles, snakes, and lizards has led to the suggestion that reptiles may be stung fre¬ quently and infected mechanically by insects (Harshbarger , J. C., per¬ sonal communication). However, this mechanism has yet to be proved as a significant means of infection. Mycotic Infections Mycotic infections were found in three species of snakes. One snake, a male boa constrictor ( Boa constrictor), had been in captivity for eight years. It developed multiple subcutaneous growths which were variable in size (0.5-1. 5 cm in the greatest dimension) and of wide distribution over the lateral and dorsal surfaces of the body. Treatment was attempted by excision of the lesions, but the snake died within several hours after surgery. 49 Crispens and Marion The second case involved a female pariamint. rattlesnake ( Cvotalus rrritchelli ) which was obtained as an adult and maintained in the collec¬ tion of the Birmingham Zoo for approximately five years. The initial growth was observed after one year. When killed, there were multiple subcutaneous lesions which varied in size and exhibited a wide distribu¬ tion over the lateral and dorsal surfaces of the body. The largest growth measured 4.0 x 1.5 x 2.0 cm in length, heighth and width, re¬ spectively. Its surface, as well as the surfaces of many of the smaller lesions, was marked by extensive ulceration. The third snake, a female dusky pigmy rattlesnake ( Sistrurus miliarius) , was collected in Florida (Jackson County) on August 21, 1976. At capture, a small growth was noted behind the angle of the lower jaw. Thereafter, the lesion exhibited a slight increase in size and, when removed by routine surgical procedures, it measured approxi¬ mately 5 mm in diameter. To date, there has been no recurrence of the disease process. In general, the lesions presented similar macroscopic features. Each appeared as a firm and encapsulated subcutaneous mass. The capsu¬ lar portion was reddish-brown; the central region varied from pinkish- white to grayish-white in coloration. Microscopic examination allowed for a diagnosis of mycotic granu¬ loma in the three snakes: B. constrictor (RTLA 1131), C. mitchelli (RTLA 1230) and S. miliarius (RTLA 1604). Thus, each lesion was charac¬ terized by multiple foci of necrosis surrounded by large numbers of granulocytes and macrophages. Fungal hyphae could be seen in sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and these were better demonstrated by application of the periodic acid-Schiff technique (Figure 1). Our finding of mycotic granulomas in three of the four cases raises the question of whether mycotic infections are more common in reptiles than previous studies have indicated^ 3, jn this regard, the fact that two of the reptiles were maintained in captivity may be of importance since it is often difficult to recreate their appropriate environment and diet. Changes from normal may greatly reduce their resistance to disease, and fungal infections are known to develop under such condi - tions^. We also suspect that geographic location may be a factor. The high humidity and extended periods of warm temperature characteristic of the southeastern United States present a favorable environment for most mycotic forms. Thus, there is a need for further information on reptiles collected and/or maintained in this region. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Dr. John C. Harshbarger, Director, Registry of Tumors in Lower Animals, for his contributions to the definitive diagnoses of these cases, and Greg Cameron for his photographic assistance. 50 /V Granulomas in Reptiles * <«* 1 m 4 f f * _ . f * % ' m"'* M •/' * ’ , > / *\ ' 'p|5 W & ' - * <*> ;♦ ^ , p m~v’ <•> ^ ^ v . «* ‘ - -£* 1 * \„A t 4 , 4* V t *> *<► »* * <6. * . (T • *» 4MP» — -fljp' \ ta ^ ' f 1 * *, / \ VA \ r „ >4 > > * - V 1 Jp «■% /■ < 3 ■ * if* f «.* % / V| > f _ 12. ft ^ % ^7% 1 ,® x- R * % "v «■ > ;*\, V. - (J f ■ , x /jO '

• •v *N -'*■ *%*. f * % ,5*» ~""W, * ^ * r * .„. * < Auburn University, A1 36849. A method of studying scent marking behavior in the grey squirrel was identified and developed along with marking techniques. Laboratory rats were injected subcutaneously and intraperitoneally with various volumns and concentrations of an industrial dye called Rhodamine B. It was found that a solution of 10 gms . Rhodamine B and 1000ml H«0 injected intraperitoneally using various volumns lasted a maximum of 84 hours for the females and 81 hours for the males. Various methods of marking individual squirrels are discussed including tail fur clipping, fur dyeing, ear tagging, and freeze branding. PREPARATION OF GARDEN SOIL IN NORTHEAST ALABAMA Thomas Cochis, R. David Whetstone, and Kenneth E. Landers, Dept, of Bi- ologYi Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. A series of 2x2 Kodachrome slides were used to show how a heavy clay soil in Calhoun County unsuitable for gardening, can be changed to a loose, friable soil ideally suited for this purpose. Well rotted saw¬ dust, lime and a balanced fertilizer were used. Samples of the soil before and after preparation were shown. Five years were required for total preparation with the soil showing steady improvement from the first year. 114 Abstracts CULTIVATION OF KIWI (ACTINIDIA CHINENSIS PLANCHON) IN NORTHEAST ALABAMA Kenneth E. Landers, Thomas Cochis and R. David Whetstone. Dept, of Bi¬ ology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Kiwi or Chinese gooseberry was grown from seed in 1971 and cultivated in a garden in Jacksonville. Culture techniques included the applica¬ tion of 8-8-8 fertilizer, chicken manure and cow manure in the spring. The plants were mulched with leaves in early fall since new growth was often killed back by late spring frost. One arbor, located in partial shade on which noth female and male plants are growing, is approximate¬ ly 8 meters long, 2 meters wide and 2 to 3 meters tall. Six to seven dozen fruit were harvested in 1978. CULTIVATION OF KIWI (ACTINIDIA CHINENSIS PLANCHON) IN NORTHEAST ALABAMA Kenneth E. Landers, Thomas Cochis and R. David Whetstone. Dept, of Bi¬ ology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Kiwi or Chinese gooseberry was grown from seed in 1971 and cultivated in a garden in Jacksonville. Culture techniques included the applica¬ tion of 8-8-8 fertilizer, chicken manure and cow manure in the spring. The plants were mulched with leaves in early fall since new growth was often killed back by late spring frost. One arbor, located in partial shade on which both female and male plants are growing, is approximate¬ ly 8 meters long, 2 meters wide and 2 to 3 meters tall. Six to seven dozen fruit were harvested in 1978. SOME ASPECTS OF DISPERSAL IN THE VASCULAR FLORA OF THE CUMBERLAND PLATEAU OF ALABAMA Whetstone, R. David, Kenneth E. Landers, and Thomas Cochis, Dept, of Bi¬ ology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. A study of the dispersal spectra represented in the flora of the Cum¬ berland Plateau reveals most taxa are dispersed by wind and animals. In addition, almost one fourth of the taxa exhibit no specialized dis¬ persal mechanisms. These computer-assisted tabulations and cross tabu¬ lations include almost 98% of the documented flora of the plateau of Alabama . 115 Abstracts CHEMISTRY A NOVEL BACTERICIDAL AGENT FOR TREATMENT OF WATER. D. Burkett, J. Faison, H. H. Kohl, W. W. Wheatley and S. D. Worley, Department of Chemistry, Auburn University, Alabama 36849 and N. Bodor, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611. A. novel bactericidal agent 3- chloro-4 , 4- dimethyl- 2- oxazolidinone ( I) has been synthesized and purified by an efficient procedure and tested as a wa ter- treatment agent. The agent has been demonstrated to be effective against eight types of bacteria which might be present in a water supply. In fact, the agent appears to be equally effective as compared to gaseous chlorine. Testing procedures and associated spectroscopic data for I will be discussed. A SPECTROSCOPICALLY RESOLVED PULSED C02 LASER. M. R. Colberg, and 0. D. Krogh, Department of Chemistry, Auburn University, Alabama 36849 A pulsed CO 2 laser has been developed by flash photolysis of C02: CS2:02:N02 mixtures, involving energy transfer from CO to C02^'^, and by flash photolysis of C02:Br2 mixtures, involving energy transfer from Br* to C02-*-. The laser emission in the 10 micron region has been re¬ solved with a 1-meter Jarrell-Ash manochromator and spectroscipically identified. Experimental parameters like sample composition, flash energy and total sample pressure have been optimized. Investigation of emission in the 16 micron region is in progress and data will be pre¬ sented to the extent they are available. As a pulsed laser this repre¬ sents a valuable probe of vibrational excitation of product C02 in gas phase reactions. 1. A. B. Petersen and C. Wittig, Chem. Phys ■ Lett. , 27 , 442 (1974). 2. D. W. Howgate and T. A. Barr, >J. Chem. Phys ■ , 59 , 2815 (1973). 116 Abstracts CARBON-METAL BONDS STUDIED BY MATRIX ISOLATION. G. Cook, O. D. Kroqh, Department of Chemistry, Auburn University, Alabama 36849 The carbon metal bond has been studied for some metal-alkyl radicals by isolation in inert gas matrices. Metal atoms, both main group and transition group metals, were deposited with a resistively heated Knud- sen cell. Methyl radicals were provided by photolysis of the matrix of azomethane. Reaction during warmup of the matrix was followed by infrared spectra in absorption and by optical multichannel analyzer (OMA) spectra in emission. The project is presently in progress and will include work with the metals Mg, A1 , Ti and Zn. FORMER PROFESSORS OF CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA Emmett B. Carmichael, Med. Center, U.A.B., Birmingham, AL . John William Mallet, b. 10/10/1832, Dublin, Ire., B.A.; Ph.D.; M.D.; LL.D., Professor of Chemistry, 1855-1860, d . 11/6/ 1912 . Jack Percival Montgomery, b. 7/18/1877, Columbus, MS., B.A.; M.A.; Ph.D.. Professor of Organic Chemistry, 1918- 1948, d. 5/20/1973. Stewart Joseph Lloyd, b. 9/12/1881, H amilton, Can., B.A.; M.S.; Ph.D.; D. Sc., Professor of Chemistry 1909 and Dean School of Chemistry, Metallurgy, and Ceramics, 1928-1959, Herty Medalist 1957, d. 8/5/1959- Ernest Victor Jones, b. 1/7/1882. Bronaugh, MO., B.A.; M.A.; Ph.D.; D. Sc., Professor of Analytical Chemistry, 1947-1952, d. 7/21/1970. Hsien Wu, b. 11/2 4/1 89 3 , Foochow , China, B.S.; Ph.D., Visiting Professor of Biochemistry, 194Q-1953- d. 8/8/1959. James Lyle Kassner, b. 11/6/1894, Whitehall, MI., B.A.; M.S.; Ph.D., Professor of Analytical Chemistry, 1946-1970. d. 6/24/1970. 117 Abstracts PHOTOLYSIS OF CYANOGENAZID , CN4 , STUDIED BY MATRIX ISOLATION. J. Hollen¬ beck , O. D. Krogh, Department of Chemistry, Auburn University, Alabama 36849 The photolysis of cyanogen acid, CN4 , has been studied in solid argon matrices at 10°K. A safe, convenient procedure for synthesis of CN4 from C1CN and NaN3 has been developed to give a product of high purity. The primary photolysis process to N2 molecules and NCN radicals has been confirmed-*- by infrared spectra and further substantiated by the blue emission (visible) associated with warm up of photolyzed smaples to 30-40°K. The assignment of this thermoluminescence is pre¬ sently in progress, as is the investigation of the possibility of secon¬ dary photolysis of NCN radicals to give N2 molecules and C-atoms. This is done by identification of the products from the reaction between ethylene and photolyzed CN4 in the argon matrix. 1. D. E. Milligan, M. E. Jacox, and A. M. Bass, ,J. Chem. Phys ■ , 43 , 3149 (1965). THE APPLICATION OF HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY TO ANALYSIS OF UREA FERTILIZER IMPURITIES Robert G. Howard, E. Richard Austin, Robert C. Horn, The International Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, AL 35660, and Thomas P. Murray, Department of Chemistry, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35630 Commercial processes for the synthesis of urea from ammonia and carbon dioxide give rise to impurities such as hexamethy I ene tetra- amine, biuret and triutet. Biuret, which arises from excessive heat¬ ing, is troublesome due to its phytotoxicity. Triuret can hydrolyze to biuret and is therefore potentially phytotoxic also. The toxicity is particularly acute in application to small grain seedlings and citrus fruits. The currently used wet method for biuret in urea is a colorometric procedure and no suitable method exists for triuret. High pressure liquid chromatography has been applied to this prob¬ lem with good results. A C— 1 8 reverse phase column has been used to separate urea from biuret and triuret. A good separation was achieved by isocratic elution with a potassium phosphate buffer. An ultra¬ violet detector was used and the effect of buffer pH on elution charac¬ teristics explored. Quantitative results for biuret in several samples of fertilizer grade urea will be presented. 118 Abstracts GEOLOGY GEOLOGY OF THE TERRAPIN CREEK AREA, CLEBURNE CO., ALABAMA Gregory M. Guthrie, Dept, of Earth Science, The University of Alabama in Birmingham, University Station, Ala, 35294. Along the Alabama-Georgia border, Valley and Ridge sedimentary rocks and Talladega metamorphics are juxtaposed along the Cartersville Fault . This south to southwest dipping, northwest to west trending, low angle thrust fault truncates north to northeast trending folds of the Valley and Ridge Province. Lower Paleozoic sedimentary rocks include Cambrian and Ordovician Knox and Newala carbonates, the Ordovician Rockmart Slate and the Devonian Frog Mountain Sandstone. To the west of these sedimentary rocks is a turbidite sequence of unknown age also over¬ ridden by the Cartersville Fault. Phyllites and Quartzites of the Talladega belt contain lithologies similar to that of the turbidite sequence but of a more crystalline nature. In the area of investi¬ gation, dips in the Valley and Ridge rocks are moderate to steep with a pervasive axial plane cleavage, folds in these rocks are upright to slightly overturned. Talladega rocks exhibit gentle dips and isoclinal folding. Structural style of the turbidite sequence is more closely related to that of the Talladega belt than that of the adjacent Valley and Ridge rocks. Trend of the turbidite sequence is the same general trend as the Talladega belt. It is suggested that the contact between the turbidite sequence and the Valley and Ridge rocks is a thrust fault rather than stratigraphic. DAUPHIN ISLAND HUMATES : A RE-EXAMINATION OF THE OUTCROP AFTER HURRICANE FREDERICK Norman B. Cranford, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849 The term humate is used geologically by Swanson and Palacas (1965) in a collective sense to refer to any of a group of very acidic gel¬ like solid humic substances in sediments. Dauphin Island is located in the humid coastal area of the eastern United States. Humate occurs, in these humid areas, as the matrix in siliceous sand and is particularly well developed in coastal deposits of Pleistocene age (Ervin G. Otvos, Jr. 1972). In 1978, I investigated the outcrop of a humate deposit located in an eroded area of a low wave-cut terrace on the Gulf side beach of Dauphin Island, Alabama. This paper describes the results of a re-examination, in Fe-ruary of 1981, of the Dauphin Island humate location and takes into consideration the changes in the outcrop caused by Hurricane Frederick in September of 1979- 119 Abstracts A MAFIC-ULTRAMAFIC COMPLEX NEAR EASTON, TALLAPOOSA CO., ALABAMA Calvin Allison and Michael J. Neilson, Dept of Earth Science, The University of Alabama in Birmingham, University Station, Ala, 35294. A small (less than 2 sq. km) maf ic-ul t ramaf ic complex situated 2 km southeast of Easton is part of the intrusive mafic rock series within the Dadeville Complex of Alabama's Inner Piedmont. The complex consists of a pluton of olivine gabbro and a sill-like body of orthopyroxenite surrounded, and separated, by a thin (in places less than 20 m. thick) rim of amphibolite. Both the gneiss/complex contact and foliations within the amphibolite parallel foliations in the enclosing Camp Hill Gneiss. Although the plutonic rocks show no evidence of recrystallization, metamorphic effects are seen in the growth of secondary amphibole in the gabbro and decussate talc- anthophyllite-chlorite aggregates in the orthopyroxenite. Petrographically and geochemically the gabbro and the orthopyroxenite are typical of the Slaughters and Doss Mountain Suites, respectively. However, this complex is notable for the lack of rocks of noritic composition — a feature of the Doss Mountain Suite. The geochemistry of the amphibolites is transitional between the gabbro and the orthopyroxenite and is similar to that of the amphibolites surrounding the Red Ridge Pluton to the south of Dadeville. Collectively, these amphibolites are representative of a third episode of pre-tectonic mafic igneous activity in the Dadeville Complex. THE PALYNOLOGY OF THE MARY LEE GROUP (PENNSYLVANIAN) OF THE BLACK WARRIOR BASIN, ALABAMA Eric G. Woerner and Robert A. Gastaldo. Dept, of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849. The Mary Lee coal group has demonstrated its capability as an economically viable gas producer with an estimated potential of one trillion cubic feet of recoverable methane. The reason for this high methane content is questionable. The Mary Lee and Blue Creek coals of the Warrior Basin were palynologically characterized to help determine if an unique floral assemblage is responsible for high methane content, or if the gas content is solely a function of burial depth, or possibly a combination of both factors. Dominant palynomorphs are representative of ferns and pteridosperms , which are understory components. The micro¬ floral assemblages within individual seams of the Mary Lee group appear to be consistent. However, a comparison between the Mary Lee and Blue Creek microfloras reveals that slight variations exist between the two. This variation of plant composition, though, probably has little influence on the high methane content of the deep lying Mary Lee coal found in the central region of the Black Warrior basin. Microfloral distribution patterns have been assessed and compared to other characteristic microfloral assemblages of similar aged coals. On a time-stratigraphic basis, the Mary Lee coal group correlates with Appalachian coals of Lower New River age, and European coals of Westphalian A and B ages. 120 Abstracts PALYNOLOGY OF AN INDIAN DWELLING SITE ALONG THE ALABAMA RIVER: AN INTRODUCTION TO PALYNOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES Cortland F. Eble* and Robert A. Gastaldo. Department of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849. Recent archaeological investigations of Indian dwelling sites along the Alabama River have documented the dietary habit of the nomadic tribes through the identification of megascopic remains. It has been inferred that these Indians were strictly gatherers, but some concern exists as to whether these tribes may have cultivated maize. In order to attempt reconciliation of the possible cultivation of domestic crops, a palynological investigation of a trash heap associated with an Indian dwelling site on Ivy Creek was conducted. Previously collected sediment samples were provided by Dr. J. Cottier, Auburn University, and these were macerated according to standard palynological techni¬ ques. The recovered palyncmorphs were not abundantly preserved, and this condition is probably related to the ephemeral nature of the depositional site. Non-arboreal pollen and non-vascular spores dominate the assemblage, and little arboreal pollen has been recovered. A reconstruction of the paleoecology of the dwelling site based upon the pollen spectrum suggests that the vegetation was a mosaic of bottomland forest, shrub thickets and ephemeral ponds. THE DADEVILLE COMPLEX - A REVIEW Michael J. Neilson, Dept, of Earth Science, The University of Alabama in Birmingham, University Station, Ala, 35294. The Dadeville Complex of Alabama's Inner Piedmont occupies most of Tallapoosa and Chambers Counties and is bounded by the Coastal Plain Onlap, the Brevard Zone and the Stonewall Line. Five lithologic units are mapped on a regional scale. The metapelitic Agricola Schist-Gneiss is stratigraphically overlain by the Ropes Creek-Waverly Formation, a metamorphosed and interlayered volcanic/volcanoclastic series of mafic to intermediate composition. A metavolcanic-metaclascic sequence of amphibolites, actinolite-chlorite schists and quartzites, the Waresville Formation , may correlate with the Ropes Creek. The Mafic Intrusive Rocks, consisting of the Doss Mountain Suite (orthopyroxenite , norite and their metamorphic equivalents) and the Slaughters Suite (olivine gabbro and gabbro), are younger than the Ropes Creek. Felsic rocks are represented by the Camp Hill-Rock Mills Gneiss which is composed of basement (?) granitic gneiss, granitic and tonalitic gneiss, and post-metamorphic granite. Four episodes of deformation are recognized. The earliest episode generated macroscopic and mesoscopic isoclinal folds and was synchronous with prograde regional metamorphism. Post-metamorphic deformational events formed the Tallassee and Boyds Creek Synforms as well as mesoscopic cylindrical folding and caused widespread cataclasis. Major and trace element concentrations of the amphibolites and the mafic intrusive rocks indicate that during some part of its history the Dadeville Complex was an arc. 121 Abstracts A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE PTERIDOSPERM DOMINATED TAPHOCENOSES ASSOCIATED WITH THE UPPER CLIFF COALS (POTTSVILLE) , PLATEAU COAL FIELD, ALABAMA Robert A. Gastaldo. Department of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849. Bituminous coal and associated megafloral coalified compression taphocenoses are present in significant quantities in the Lower Pennsylvanian Pottsville formation of northeastern Alabama. Detailed studies concerned with the early Pennsylvanian vegetation in the coal accumulating environments of the southern Appalachian coal field are virtually nonexistent. The interval of the Upper Cliff coals in the Plateau coal field provides an excellent opportunity to assess the megafloral taphocenoses, the morphological plasticity of taxa within similar and differing environments of deposition, and the relationship between biofacies and lithofacies. Preliminary megafloral quantifica¬ tion of selected interdistributary bay deposits in Jackson, Marshall and Blount counties has documented that these taphocenoses are pteridosperm (seed fern) dominated. Mariopter ids , Neuropterids and Lyginopterids are quite abundant in all localities sampled, although in areas which may have been influenced by brackish water, calamites appear to have been prolific. Mariopterids and Neuropterids are ubiquitous throughout the interdistributary bay deposits, whereas Lyginopterids have been noted to be zoned directly above the coal horizon. Claystone paleosols are well developed at the cessation of interdistributary bay fill and autochthonous Stigmaria are abundant. In at least one locality an autochthonous lycopod dominated forest has been identified. FOSSIL WHALES IN ALABAMA Daniel R. Womochel, Dept, of Geology and James L. Dobie, Dept, of Zoology and Entomology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849. Whales, the mammalian order Cetacea, first appeared as fossils in Eocene Age rocks in Africa, Asia, and Alabama. The taxonomic a mities of these whales, the suborder Archaeoceti, to modern whales Odontoceti and Mysticeti , or to their terrestrial ancestors is unknown! Since their initial discovery in Alabama in 1834, few fossil Archaeocets have been found and no extensive research has been conducted on them after the publication of R. Kellogg's monograph bv the United States National Museum in 1936. The Archaeocet whales ecame extinct during the Miocene. Recent field work in the Eocene of Alabama has resulted in the discovery of several new Archaeocet whales in Clarke , Washington and Choctaw Counties. The Clarke County whale, from the Lisbon Formation, is now being intensively studied at Auburn University. Preliminary studies of this specimen,' a nearly complete skeleton, indicate that it may be the Oldest fossil whale from North America. Comparison of this skeleton with published escriptions of other whales indicates that it is possibly a new genus or a genus not previously found on the Gulf Coastal Plain. The other new specimens, belonging to the genera Zygorhiza and Basilosaurus remain _ to be excavated. Comparative study of these fossils will yield significant new data on the morphology, systematices , zoogeography, and paleoecology of the Archaeocet whales. 122 Abstracts COAL PETROLOGY AND DEPOSIT IONAL SYSTEMS OF THE LOWER PENNSYLVANIAN UPPER CLIFF COALS IN A PORTION OF THE PLATEAU COAL FIELD, ALABAMA Tony D. Gray* and Robert A. Gastaldo. Dept, of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849. Coal petrographic relationships, aerial distribution, and the depositional history of the Upper Cliff coal seams (Pottsville) within the Plateau coal field of northeastern Alabama are poorly known because of a minimum of published data. These coal seams (No. 1 and 2) have been reported to represent high tonnage, low to medium volatile bituminous coal reserves. Preliminary coal petrographic analyses were performed on oriented coal block sections collected from three exposures along strike on Sand Mountain. Macropetrographic analyses on a volume percentage basis reveal that vitrain and clarain lithotypes predominate the coal seams with minor quantities of fusain occurring within the Upper Cliff No. 2 coal. Microscopically, five microlitho- types in various quantities are present within the coal seams (vitrite, argillaceous vitrite, fusite, carbargillite , and minerite). Lithologic and stratigraphic data gathered from exposures of the Upper Cliff coal interval have been the basis in an attempt to formulate a rock model explanation of depositional relationships. Lithologic sedimentary characters indicate paralic lower deltaic plain depositional environ¬ ments without tidal influence and subsequent fluviatile derived sand¬ stone deposition. Recognized depositional environments within the three-dimensional rock model include distal bar facies, distributary channel deposits, interdistributary bayfill sequences, coal forming marshes and swamps, crevasse splay deposits, and braided fluvial channel deposits. FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, AND CONSERVATION CARTOGRAPHIC LABS; SOLVING COMMON PROBLEMS Pat A. Tamarin. Dept, of Geology and Geography, Univ. of Ala., Univ., Al. 35486 Cartographic labs come in all shapes, sizes and types, but all have common problems that must be solved. These problems cover all phases of cartographic work; from the designing of graphics, to the storage of supplies, to the training of workers. These problems can be solved in three different ways: 1) Wait, and hope to run into a solution acci¬ dentally, 2) Check books and written material for an answer, or 3) Con¬ tact another cartographic lab. Due to the common nature of many cartographic problems, and the increasing complexity of the field, an information exchange between labs is a solution that must be utilized increasingly today. 123 Abstracts THE USE OF FARMLAND IN THE TENNESSEE VALLEY H. A. Henderson, TVA; Noland Williams, TVA; and Billy Headden, SCS Classifying land for management has advanced during the past few years. Prime farmland and Land of Statewide Importance are two terms that have become standard — but not well understood. This report indicates the relative value of prime farmland in producing inccme and food. Prime farmland is best suited for crop production and available for that use. Cost of production varies with class of land: Corn on prime land costs $1.00 per bushel, additional farmland of Statewide importance $1.13, other suitable farmland $1.56, and marginal $2.55 ccmpared with long range price of $2.02 per bushel. Prime farmland can be kept in continuous grain production with reasonable care without deterioration due to erosion. Production on other land must be carefully managed to avoid deterioration over time. The most intensive economic production within the national tolerance is : Land Class Gross Income/A Net Inccme/A Bushels of Grain/A Prime 212 110 105 Statewide Importance 18L 65 68 Other Suitable 126 26 19 Marginal 113 13 None These relationships along with the growing scarcity of land, and increasing population makes prime farmland retention important for the future of the region and the world. CASTE, OCCUPATION AND RESIDENTIAL CHOICE Willian Reese Strong. Dept, of Geography, University of North Alabama, Florence, Alabama 35632. The study is concerned with the urban spatial expression of the Telugu speaking population in residential areas of Bangalore, India. Bangalore is a polyglot city with Telugu speakers forming the third largest community. These people are culturally significant and are an important and sizeable labor force in the economy of the city. This research examined the degree and extent of adaptation of this immigrant community to the urban environment of Bangalore. It identified predominantly Telugu residential areas in the city, analyzed selected socioeconomic variables such as caste, occupation, education and income, and compared these socially significant areas to the residential ecology of Bangalore in particular and of urban India i n general . 124 Abstracts FARMLAND CONVERSION IN THE TENNESSEE VALLEY N. C. Williams, H. A. Henderson and Shelby Smith-Sanclare Less than one-fifth of the Tennessee Valley is prime farmland. Each year it loses 1 to 2 percent of its farmland to other uses. Prime farmland is often used, although over half of the region is suitable for development without using prime farmland. The world is approaching limits of its ability to feed a growing population. Converting prime farmland here reduces that ability. The United States is one of few countries with a surplus of food. The Tennessee Valley is one of few regions that still has the option of preserving prime farmland. Conversion is influenced by public actions. The National Agricultural Lands Study identified 90 Federal programs in 9 agencies including TVA with "major impact" on "the availability of land for agricultural production." TVA has withdrawn an equivalent of about 10 percent of the region's prime farmland and in one program alone is considering 21 sites--scme of which consist of more than 2,000 acres of prime farmland A policy on prime farmland process should include open decision making, full disclosure, direct inputs frcm many citizens, and sensitivity to under represented groups like the rural, poor, and minorities. It should consider future food producing capacity, assume seme costs private owners could not bear, encourage compatable multiple uses, and require development projects to pay mitigation costs or seek alternate locations. TVA has sane good examples of multiple uses in managing the Kentucky reservoir. THE ROLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS IN CULTURAL RESOURCE PRESERVATION IN THE TENNESSEE-TOMBIGBEE WATERWAY IMPACT AREA David C. Weaver. Dept, of Geology and Geography, Univ. of Ala., University, AL 35486 In North American Archeology in recent years there has been an in¬ creasing emphasis on regions rather than on individual sites as the najor focus of research. This shift is reflected in the General Re¬ search Design developed by archeologists for cultural resource preserva¬ tion in the Tennessee-Tombigbee Multi-Resource District. The research strategies developed reflect a variety of geographic concepts and tech¬ niques ranging from central place theory, and terrain analysis, to re¬ mote sensing and spatial statistical analysis. Particular emphasis was placed in the Research Design on the development of predictive models for site designation and analysis. The utility of geographic techniques for such model development is evaluated. 125 Abstracts 1836 CONSERVATION FORECAST FOR ALABAMA Wilbur B. DeVall, President, Proxy Services, Ltd., Auburn, AL 36830 Early explorers of plant and animal life, such as William Bartram in Alabama, during the years 1773-1778, recorded much about the early plant associations and people. Little could be done in the name of conserv¬ ation until Alabama was admitted to the Union in 1819. Most legislation dates from 1854 in the fields of timber and wildlife conservation. The Southern Literary Journal is a source of many stories pertinent to the conservation movement. Writers published on "The Pine Woods" in 1837 and "A Day at Chee-Ha" in the same year. The habits of people were des¬ cribed by other writers under titles such as "The Dirt Eaters." One of the first forecasts of things to come in the general area of conservatior as it relates to forests is an oration delivered before the Society of the University of Alabama, at its first anniversary December 17, 1836 by Alexander B. Meek, a member of the Society. He summarized the situation as visualized by him as follows: "In the possession of all the natural resources, which contribute to make a State great and flourishing, Ala¬ bama stands pre-eminent. Her soil is as fertile as any portion of the Union! Her hills abound in mineral wealth! Her atmosphere is as pure as the sky of Italy! Her rivers roll in magnificent beauty and grandeur, through every portion of her territory, stretching their long arms, wherever the wants of agriculture or of commerce demand! ...These re¬ sources only want cultivation and development, to elevate our State to i high rank among her surrounding sisters." METHODOLOGY FOR MODULAR FOREST HARVESTING SIMULATION MODELS M. P. Padgett, G. S. Hines and D. B. Webster. Dept, of Industrial Engineering, Auburn University, AL 36849 A methodology is developed for employing statistical analyses to reduce the level of detail within a module without invalidating output, Economy in user input and computer requirements is sought by coding several versions of the module and comparing output. The technique is illustrated by reference to construction of a felling module, e.g. reduction in level of detail could mean a change in the method of estimating time consumed by some phase of the felling. Monte Carlo methods could be replaced by use of a regression equation to estimate drop-time and/or a simpler regression equation could be substituted for one with many terms employed to estimate shear-time. Procedures are developed for planning the randomization necessary for assuming independence, calculating the number of runs needed to allow the assumption of normality and testing homogeneity of variance. Analysis of variance and tests on means are recommended, if appropriate assump¬ tions can be justified, to compare output of candidate modules to data gathered when test plots are harvested. Alternative techniques are proposed for use when various assumptions cannot be met. Results might suggest adjustments in the level of detail prior to reevaluation of the module, or might indicate the most economical of any acceptable descrip¬ tion of the module. 126 Abstracts LEGISLATIVE FORESTRY STUDY COMMITTEE UPDATE NO. 2 Wilbur B. DeVall, President, Proxy Services, Ltd., Auburn, AL 36830 Act. No. 79-711 of the Alabama legislature authorized a continuation of a study of forestry within the State. Using the recommendations set forth in the 1979 report, two updates have been prepared. The problems addressed have been wildfires, forest tree nurseries, energy wood, and needs of minority forest landowners. Funding for fiscal year 1982 was established for the Alabama Forestry Commission and the Extension arm, teaching program in forestry, and forestry research of Auburn University. Needs were combined for agriculture and forestry using a measure of cur¬ rent and projected productivity in each area. The 15-man committee utilized subcommittees as fact-finding bodies. Each reported back to the committee of the whole. Wien findings were approved by the majority, they were prepared for publication. All reports, including the 1981 up¬ date, were submitted to the Governor, Lt . Governor, and Speaker of the House along with all members of the legislature. The successive reports and updates serve the legislature as reference works in the area of for¬ estry. The three senators and three members of the House of Represen- atives, along with nine appointed by the Governor or named in the Act, serve as a fact-finding committee of the legislative body in matters pertaining to forestry. The committee is continuing its work and will make further needs assessments of the forestry problems and issues as they pertain to making the forest lands of the State more fully produc- t ive . HISTORIC PRESERVATION: SERENDIPITY OR PLANNING ? KAREN K. CAGLE, So. Cen. Ala. Development Comm., Montgomery , AL 36116 It is safe to assume that over the next decade, unless historic pre¬ servation is made an integral part of some other activity, such as a downtown revitalization, housing renewal or economic development pro¬ ject, then it will fall to private individuals and groups to preserve many of our landmarks. Federal funds for preservation are being cut back now, and this foretells a trend for the 1980s. Therefore, we must set some policies to govern the selection of significant historic properties which will be competing for scarce preservation funds. We may choose to do nothing and leave preservation to serendipity, or we may choose a "first come, first served" policy. We may institute a preservation "triage" process, based on an inventory of properties and sites, which would prioritize items according to three questions: what do we have that 1) will survive if we do nothing to it; 2) will require action but may not be of such value to warrant the level of time or funds expended; and 3) will survive but only if we take direct action and has significant historic/cultural value? The example of the Hick¬ ory Ground" Indian village site in Wetumpka, Alabama illustrates the counterclaims of serendipity and planning in the historic preservation process. The author makes a case for the need for planning and illus¬ trates some methods to implement plans for historic preservation. 12 7 Abstracts AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION BUSINESSES IN DEKALB COUNTY, ALABAMA Steven R. Sax and Barton N. Evans, DeKalb County Energy Management Program, Post Office Box 775, Fort Payne, Alabama, 359^7 . In March 1977 the Tennessee Valley Authority initiated its Home Insulation Program for electrically heated or cooled households. The program provides interest free money for insulation, weather¬ stripping, storm windows and other conservation measures up to $2,000 which can be paid back to TVA on customer's utility bills for a period of up to seven years . This report analyzes the effects of TVA's Home Insulation Program on the local economy of DeKalb County, Alabama. Ten firms providing energy conserving products and services were identified within the county. These firms had sales in 1980 totalling over $1,000,000 and a combined payroll of approximately $333,000. The results indicated that most of the energy saving products were purchased out of the county and that no training programs exist for individuals interested in insulation or conservation related employment. PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS LAYERED OXIDE GROWTH ON PURE METALS A. T. Fromhold, Jr., Physics Dept., Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849. A general formulation for the simultaneous growth of any number of layered planar oxide phases on a pure metal under diffusion-controlled conditions has been developed. Four individual situations have been developed in detail, namely, situations in which the predominant mode o ion transport is by cation interstitials, cation vacancies, anion inter stitials, or anion vacancies. The generalized formulation enables the determination of quasi-steady-state growth kinetics following step func tion changes in the experimental conditions such as ambient oxygen pres sure or temperature. Numerical evaluation of the coupled growth equa¬ tions for the individual phases is required to deduce the general pre¬ dictions of the theory. In order to illustrate the type of results to be expected when utilizing microscopic physical theories for metal oxi¬ dation, specific application of these results is outlined for two dif¬ ferent limiting cases in which the individual phases forming alone on the metal would grow parabolically under coupled-currents conditions, namely, the case of homogeneous-field parabolic growth and the case of parabolic growth under local space-charge-neutral conditions. 128 Abstracts RATE CONSTANTS FOR THE FORMATION OF ArF* AND Ar* 2 Adila Dodhy , John R. Williams, Jr., and James E. Gaiser. Dept, of Physics, Auburn UNiversity, A1 . 36849. Work has been done to experimentally determine the forma¬ tion rate constants for ArF* and Ar*; using pulsed proton ex¬ citation of Ar-NFp and Ar-F2 gas mixtures. The constants determined appear in the kinetics as follows: , kl Ar*(jp2) + NF-j - > ArF(B) + NF2 J k, Ar*(8p2) + nf^ — > ArF (C ) + NF2 q kp Ar*(JP2) + 2Ar - 8 - > Ar* + Ar Similar equations hold if F2 is used instead of NFp . The analysis used in this experiment allowed the evaluation of (kp + k2) and kp. For the Ar-NFp system, (k, + k2 ) and kp have been found to be 1.5 x irl-10 cm3/s and 1.2 x 10~32 cm6/s. The same constants for the Ar-F2 system have been determined to be 2.7 x 10“10 cm3/s and 1.8 x 10-32 Cm6/s. EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL NEUTRON CROSS SECTIONS AT 14 MeV R.C. Harper and W.L. Alford, Dept, of Physics, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849 Activitation techniques have been used to measure partial neutron cross sections at a neutron energy of 14.2 ± 0.1 MeV. The present experimental results are 68 ± 6 mb, 23 ± 2 mb, 527 ± 47 mb, 5.8 ± 0.5 mb, and 130 ± 12 mb for the reactions 27A1 (n ,p)27Mg , 58Ni (n ,2n ) 57Ni , 9 3Nb( n ,2n ) 92mNb , 93Nb(n,a)90mY, and 197Au(n ,2n ) 1 96^Au respectively. The nuclei studied in this work were chosen due to isotopic abun- dancies, gamma-ray energies and intensities, half-lives and to allow a large mass range to be covered for verification of the theoretical calculations. The absolute cross sections were determined to an accuracy of 9% using a Ge(Li) gamma-ray spectrometer and the asso¬ ciated particle technique, with corrections for competing reactions, to determine the neutron flux. Previously measured cross sections are also given to indicate discrepancies and to allow comparison with present results. Theoretical calculations based on the statistical, preequilibrium and direct reaction models were also performed. The agreement between the present experimental results and theoretical calculations indicate that these models are quite successful in predicting the neutron induced cross sections at 14 MeV. 129 Abstracts DESIGN OF AN ISOTHERMAL PRIMARY HEAT SHIELD FOR THE STARPROBE SATELLITE MISSION Alan Harmon and David L. Shealy, Physics Department, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 The STARPROBE satellite mission is proposed to pass within four solar radii from the sun. A system of heat shields is necessary to prevent severe damage to the spacecraft during the close approach to the sun. Simple designs such as cones or planes for the primary heat shield give rise to hot spots with temperatures in excess of 3000°K at which the carbon-carbon primary heat shield material sublimates at an unacceptable rate. As an alternative approach, a differential equation for the surface of the primary heat shield has been formulated such that each element of area receives and emits the same amount of energy. The resulting surface temperature profiles are found to be approximately isothermal at a considerably lower temperature than the hot spots of the simple designs. RATE OF ELECTRON HEATING IN A MULTIDIPOLE PLASMA M. D. Haworth and R. E. Kribel. Dept, of Physics, Auburn University, AL 36849 Leung and Kribel have performed an experiment in which monoenergetic test electrons are isotropically injected into a multidipole plasma. Solution of the Fokker-Planck equation shows that explanation of the experimental results in terms of test particle theory gives misleading results, and that electron-electron interactions alone cannot totally account for their results. ■K. N. Leung and R. E. Kribel, Phys. Fluids 23, 1923 (1980). CONSTRUCTION AND CALIBRATION OF MAGNETIC PROBES OF HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE P. Beiersdorfer and E. Auburn, AL 36849 J. Clothiaux, Dept, of Physics, Auburn University, The calibration and construction of high frequency magnetic probes, used to measure rapidly fluctuating fields in a vacuum spark discharge are discussed. Equivalent circuits are employed to analyze the response of the probes as a function of frequency and to determine the probe parameters. The effect of the geometry of the probe and its leads on the faithful reproduction of the magnetic fields is presented. The results of this analysis have been used to construct probes that give optimum response. 130 Abstracts INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS MARKETING STRUCTURE OF THE AGRICULTURAL LIME INDUSTRY Veronica A. Vitelli and W. Joe Free. Agricultural Marketing Resource Development Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660. William S. Stewart. University of North Alabama, Florence, Alabama 35630. Market structure is the organizational characteristic that influences the nature of competition and pricing within a market. The market structure of the aglime vendors approaches monopolistic competition. In most counties, at least four aglime vendors spread lime and none were found that have a dominant share of customers. Aglime is a non-dif ferentiated product but vendors can differentiate the spread¬ ing service they provide. Entry into and exit from the business is not restricted. Even capital requirements are low relative to requirements to enter in many types of business. Market conduct refers to patterns of behavior that firms follow within the market in which they operate. Market performance is the result of market conduct. The market conduct of most vendors regarding pricing policy is to meet competition and/or to cover cost plus a profit margin. Prices charged farmers for aglime spread on the field is near the cost of lime plus the cost of spreading. Prices that vendors pay for lime is usually about same in a given county. For example, calcitic lime cost vendors $^.8l in Limestone County and . 50 - $6.00 in DeKalb County depending upon the quarry supplying the lime. Dolomite lime cost vendors $11.00 in DeKalb County. Most vendors charged $U.OO per ton for spreading. They estimated that gas and oil cost $2.00 per ton. Most did not estimate their total spreading cost. Fixed cost ranges from $2.00 to $2.50 per ton for most firms. That means most firms sell their aglime service at cost or less than full cost. TOWARD A CONCEPT OF PROFIT ELASTICITY A. Wayne Lacy and H. Dean Moberly, Department of Economics, Auburn University at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36193. The primary thrust of economic theory as it relates to the firm's profit posture has typically been through the profit maximization concept. The approach taken to the relationship that exists between the profit level, whether maximum or not, and the firm's pricing decisions has been indirect. Price elasticity is related to total revenue changes and then compared with total cost changes. From a practical business approach, the firm is interested in what happens to profits for any pricing decision. This paper attempts to take a more direct approach to the profit-price relationship by merging these steps into a concept of profit elasticity. The basic relationships are explained and equations derived for the concept. A discussion of potential uses goes beyond the single firm analysis to an examination of the concept's potential as a possible partial explanation of rela¬ tive market shares by industry. 131 Abstracts DESIGNING A SYSTEM USING DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS Rishi R. Chowdhury, Systems Analyst ,Stockham Valves & Fitg.B'ham,AI Data flow diagram (DFD) is considered to be one of the most valuable systems analysis and design tool. It can illustrate not only the present manual or computerized system by flow of data but also clearly identify the complicated processes. Data flow diagram is a technique to illustrate a system by expanding each of the processes which are at the most general level to its most detailed level . A system described by most expanded data flow diagrams clearly illustrates each of the processes, data stores, flow of data, source or destination of data and reports or documents printed. In this paper, examples are chosen from a Human Resource 'System (example of business systems, in general) and a Population Genetics System (example of scientific systems, in general). A DFD is drawn at a most general level and then the processes are expanded so that each of the processes could be clearly illustrated and programmed. In case of more than one possible expansion of a DFD, one with less complexity and more efficiency is chosen. ECONOMICS OF A SMALL WINERY IN ALABAMA W. Joe Free and Veronica A. Vitelli. Agricultural Marketing Resource Development Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660. Wine consumption in the United States doubled during the 1970’s. About 80 percent of this increased consumption was with wine produced in the United States. Per capita consumption of wine in the United States has increased from .89 gallons in 1956 to 1.75 gallons in 1976. Alabama law gives a tax break to Alabama native wineries producing not more than 100,000 gallons. Wine produced in Alabama from locally grown grapes is taxed by the state at $.05 per gallon.. Potential for development appears great for small cottage type wineries operated as a part-time enterprise that sells all or part of its production direct to consumers. The paper identifies investment (excluding vineyard) and operating costs for several sizes of small wineries. Costs were found to vary with the size of the operation. Investment and operating costs per gallon decrease as the size of the winery increase — except for the 200 gallon winery which is basically for home production. Total cost for producing 5,000 and 50,000 gallons annually was $13-21 and $8.62 per. gallon respectively. Total capital requirements for the first year ranged from $6,265 for the 200 gallon winery to more than a million dollars for largest. 132 Abstracts ECONOMIC GUIDELINES FOR A PROFITABLE AGRICULTURAL LIMESTONE ENTERPRISE William S. Stewart. University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. W. Joe Free. Agricultural Marketing Resource Development Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals, AL 35660. A profitable retail lime market depends upon the ability of retail lime vendors to operate their firms profitably. A 1979 survey of eighty-seven lime vendors in the Southeast illustrated that most lime vendors were following poor economic practices in their lime operations which resulted in low or negative profits. The purpose of this paper is to show how a profitable agricultural retail lime enterprise is developed and how volume and good management practices affect costs. SCIENCE EDUCATION MARINE BIOLOGY EDUCATION IN N.AL— YOU'VE GOT TO BE KIDDING! Joseph C. Thomas, School of Arts & Sciences, Univ. of N.Ala., Florence, AL 35630 Alabama is a coastal state but the amount of coastline is extremely limited. Even with the limited coastal area, Alabama has an important marine related commerce and state dock system. As such the state should provide marine biology education for all parts of the state. Marine biology education is provided for the state through the Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium (MESC) which is located at the Dauphin Island Sea Lab (DISL) . The DISL is located at the east end of Dauphin Island in the facilities of the former U.S. Air Force Radar Base which was declared surplus property in the early 70's. Membership in the MESC is limited to four-year colleges and univer¬ sities within the State of Alabama. Curently 19 schools hold member¬ ship. Administration of the MESC and the DISL is accomplished through a Board of Directors (composed of the President from each member school) , Executive Committee (representative group to carry out the affairs between board meetings) , Program Committee (composed of the liaison officer from each member school), and the Executive Director in residence at the DISL. A full program of marine biology education and research is provided at the DISL with summers devoted mainly to undergraduate courses and the academic year devoted to graduate study and research. Also, through the Discovery Hall Project, marine biology coursework is pro¬ vided for H.S. biology students ranging from a week-end experience to a four-week course. Alabama is not kidding — marine biology education is available throughout the State through MESC. 133 Abstracts RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENERGY DECISIONS AND PERSONAL ORIENTATION TO SCIENCE Ove Jensen and Edith Miller The issue of attitudes toward science and science related questions is a somewhat poorly studied area. In instructional planning and design, it is important to know to what degree the points-of-view and/or philosophical orientations of students have to do with their interaction with the instructional process. In this direction, the current study has been conducted. Science educators generally classify a person's concept or view of science in the following categories: (1) factual or body of knowledge, (2) a process, or (3) technology or manipulation of the environment. Logically, one's view of science should have an effect on one's opinions or responses to science related questions. This specific study was designed to study the relationship of the view of science (as defined by the above three-part dileniation) on a person's opinions about energy, a most pressing problem area in a science-related field. The two instruments used in the study were (1) View of Science, developed by Henry Hardin and (2) Opinion Poll on Energy, developed by Marlin Simon and Ove Jensen. These two instruments were administered to 47 undergraduate college students enrolled in non-science irajors. The data were then analyzed using multiple regression and discriminant analysis procedures, resulting in support of the general idea that view of science is significantly related to one's opinions on science ,related issues. AREOLOGY: A PLANETARY SCIENCE PROJECT FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE Ernest D. Riggsby, Columbus College, Columbus, GA 31993. The project reported upon in this paper is an effort to design, test, and revise an in-depth unit on the planet Mars. The project is now approximately one-half completed. Ar eo logy is the scientific study of the planet Mars, excluding its earth-focused astronomy. The thrust of this emphasis is to assist students in the difficult task of translating their orientation and thinking to the Mars- centered point of view. The unit of study is subdivided into: history, biography, physical sciences, remote exploration, telemetry, and possible human on-sight exploration. The historical span of the unit is from Schiaparelli to beyond Viking 2; a little more than a century . 134 Abstracts ENGINEERING/COMPUTER SCIENCE - THE BOUNDARY William G. Bradley, Dept, of Electrical Engineering, The University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899. The boundary between Electrical Engineering and Computer Science is an area of considerable concern at most schools that teach both Engi¬ neering and Computer Science. Computer Science, Electrical Engineering and sometimes other engineering disciplines are rapidly expanding their course offerings in the area of microprocessors and microcomputers. All engineers and sci enti sts, regardl ess of discipline, will be involved with applications of microcomputers in the future. However, some definition of the boundary between Computer Science and Engineering is necessary if duplication and competition is to be avoided. The traditional hardware vs. software distinction is inadequate when dealing with microcomputers. The hardware designer often must write his own applications software, and software designers must have a thorough understanding of the hardware. Computer based design uses the micro¬ computer as a component in digital systems and is an engineering area. However, applications programming is not clearly specified. Engi¬ neering courses must include some programming, and computer science courses must include some hardware. The distinction should consider the audience and ultimate goal of a particular course rather than its hardware vs. software content. Some overlap is necessary, but the programs should complement each other. " FALCON FORCE: A MIDDLE SCHOOL PROGRAM FOR AEROSPACE STUDIES Eleanor E. Eubanks, Muscogee County (GA) Schools; Dutchie S. Riggsby, Columbus College; and Ernest D. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College. The project under consideration in this report was a portion of the pilot study of a new aerospace studies kit which was designed for use in middle grade programs. This study was begun in a fourth grade science setting during the final semester of the 1980 academic year and is being continued with a fifth grade during the 1981 academic year. While the principal segment of the program centered in the science classes, it was also used in mathematics, art, language arts, and social studies. The design of the Falcon Force kit extends into these disciplines and more. Learn¬ ing centers, individualized study and whole class envolve- ment were the major approaches. Future plans include the use of Falcon Force materials as a regular part of the fourth and fifth grade programs at the elementary school in which the initial effort was undertaken. 135 Abstracts USING PSEUDOSCIENCE IN INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS COURSES Raiford M. Ball. Auburn High School, Auburn City Schools, Auburn, AL 36830. Pseudoscience topics such as UFO's, the Bermuda triangle, and the ancient astronaut theories are often brought up as student questions in introductory physics courses. By emphasizing certain criteria for judging any item of supposedly factual literature, the beginning student can be taught to evaluate claims for himself. The basic criteria are a logical progression of ideas, internal consistency, documentation of facts, agreement with previously known facts, agreement with standard engineering practices, and agreement with known scientific laws. Student acceptance of the criteria can be evaluated by classroom discussions, an evaluative paper, a field project, and a laboratory experiment. SOCIAL SCIENCES JOHN HERBERT PHILLIPS: EDUCATIONAL PIONEER IN BIRMINGHAM Mary C. Metzger, Dept, of History, Univ. of Ala., Birmingham, AL 35294 Honored as one of Birmingham's most influential citizens, John Her¬ bert Phillips is recognized as the founder of the city's public school system. A closer look at his career, however, illuminates both his or¬ ganizational skills and his inability to provide more equality in edu¬ cation than was allowed in Birmingham society as a whole. Fhillips began his tenure as the city's first superintendent in 1883. Birming¬ ham, only a decade old, possessed two schools, one each for blacks and whites. Both charged tuition since taxes did not provide sufficient support. Phillips secured additional financial support sufficient to supplement tuition, a charge he was able to abolish by 1910. Phillips built new schools, planned school curricula, hired teachers, and car¬ ried wide the banner of progressive education. As Birmingham grew, schools of annexed municipalities joined the Birmingham system. New revenue and personnel enabled programs for mentally retarded students, summer schools, and adult classes. Through the force of his personal¬ ity and organizational acumen, Phillips forged a system of 53 schools by the time of his death in 1921. The system might be considered whol¬ ly progressive had it overcome the uneven handling of black students and female faculty. Equality in school employment policies began to evolve slowly during Phillips's tenure; however, balanced educational opportunities and facilities had to be sidetracked. rhillips would not willingly have jeopardized his position for such an effoit. That the school system included blacks was, for that time, an immensely positive step. 136 Abstracts PRESIDENT GETULIO VARGAS AND THE BRAZILIAN — UNITED STATES ALLIANCE DURING WORLD WAR II Linda Williams Shabo. Dept, of History, Auburn University, Auburn University, AL 36849 The relationship between the United States and the government of Gutulio Vargas was determined by the changing needs of the United States. Until the end of 1943 the American Government pursued a policy which supported Brazilian industrial and mili¬ tary development and guaranteed Brazil's hegonomy in South America. This policy was designed to assure Brazil's cooper¬ ation in the war-effort. American aid made it possible for Vargas to maintain the support of the Brazilian military and other nationalistic elements whose good-will depended upon Vargas's ability to obtain American money, arms and technolog¬ ical assistance. When allied successes made Brazil less impor¬ tant to American defense plans. United States policy toward the Vargas Government changed. This change became increasingly evi¬ dent after the summer of 1944. The United States refused to honor its pledges to Vargas and sought to secure his replace¬ ment by someone who was more amenable to American business in¬ terests. American refusal to support Vargas helped precipitate the military coup which removed Vargas from office in October, 1945. BISHOP JOHN HOOPER! ENGLISH REFORMATION MARTYR Joel L. Alvis, Jr. , Dept, of History, Auburn Univ. , AL 36849 John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, 1551-1553, was active in the English Reformation under Edward VI. He fled England to escape the religious conformity demanded by Henry VIII. After studying on the continent, primarily at Zurich in the 1540' s, Hooper returned to England and assumed a leadership role in the Protestant faction of London. He was appointed to the bishopric of Gloucester in 1550 but refused to be consecrated in the traditional vestments. It was only after he was coerced that Hooper agreed to the traditional con¬ secration. But later actions by the Church of England indicated that Hooper's stand had an effect. In the reign of Queen Mary he was deprived of his bishopric for being married clergy. Eventually he was exectued for his Protestant heresies. Hooper's career is a case study in the parameters of religious change in a society where church and state are coterminous . 137 Abstracts ROOT, HOG, OR DIE: THE CONDITION OF BLACK LABOR IN ALABAMA, 1870-1880 John B. Myers, Dept, of History, Columbus College, Columbus, GA 31993 In predominately agricultural Alabama, white economic interests re¬ lied heavily on cheap labor. The emancipation of slaves and governmental involvement conflicted with white financial interests and their desire to control black labor. But, employers' bargaining position was substantial¬ ly improved when federal intervention ended. The discontinuation of the Freedmen's Bureau's role in labor affairs in 1869 reflected a change in federal policy which conferred the responsibility of maintaining compa¬ tible relations between capital and labor upon state government. This agency had represented a labor relations liaison between white employers and black employees who were placed in a position of direct confrontation after the Bureau withdrew. The U.S. Congress justified this removal by assuming that the pro-black Republican governments in the south had the capability to supervise labor relations. But in 1870, the election of a Democratic governor in Alabama, and increased Democratic representation in the state legislature reflected the erroneous assumption of the feder¬ al government. By 1874, Alabama Democrats permanently redeemed the state and embarked on a program based on the political, legal and economic interests of white Alabamians; frequently at the expense of black labor. Faced with a dismal political prospect and the federal policy of with¬ drawal, Alabama freedmen sought to improve their condition through black leadership and organizations. These attempts failed and black labor interests suffered even further by the nationwide economic adversity which began in 1873. By 1880 Alabama black laborers' vulnerability and dependence upon white employers closely parralleled the master-slave relationship of antebellum days. THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL THOUGHT OF JUAN DE VALDES Daniel A. Crews. Dept, of History, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36830 In the first half of the sixteenth century the social, religious and political structure of Western Europe came under attack from within just as the Ottoman Turks were making their greatest historical effort to extend their European conquests. As an imperial agent for Charles V Juan de Valdes tried to gather support for a general Church Council to reform and reunite the universal Church. His reform ideas were not limited strictly to religion. He opposed the trend toward national centralization and saw it as a threat to the political function of the Holy Roman Empire. Valdes' emphasis on toleration, personal experience and humility was part of his attempt to reshape social values. These doctrines were the connecting threads between his political and religious life. Valdes believed that Internal reform was essential to the defense of Western Christendom from the Turks and Islam. 138 Abstracts HEALTH SCIENCES Effect of I iposomes containing o-tocopherol on bl astogenesi s in bovine lymphocytes. Michael W. Fountain and Ronald D. Schultz, School of Veterinary Medicine Auburn University, AL 36849. Bovine peripheral blood lymphocytes were obtained by Fi col 1 -Hypaque density centrifugation. The effects of a-tocopherol (a-T) (incorporated into the liposome bilayer) on the response of bovine lymphocytes to phytohemagglutinin (PHA) were examined using fluid (phosphatidylcholine (PC) and dimyrostoyl phosphoti dyl chol i ne (DMPC)) and solid (dipalmitoyl- phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) mul ti 1 amel 1 ar liposomes. Results indicate that a-tocopherol is able to reverse the suppression exhibited by PC liposomes and is able to enhance the response exhibited by DMPC and DPPC liposomes. The effect of preincubation of lymphocytes with liposomes prior to the addition of PHA exhibited a time dependent suppression of blasto- genesis which was reversible for PC:a-T (1:1) liposomes but not for PC liposomes. The effect of PHA preincubation with lymphocytes prior to the addition of liposomes exhibited a time dependent, reversible sup¬ pression of blastogenesis for PC:a-T (1:1) liposomes but not reversible for PC liposomes. The effects of phospholipid concentration on the blastogenic response to PHA exhibited a concentration dependent sup¬ pression from 1 to 3 pmoles phospholipid/ml which was reversible, at a concentration of 4 pmoles phospholipid/ml. A SOLUBILIZABLE GEL FOR THE PURIFICATION OF HISTONES R.D. Faulkner, R. Carrawayf, and Y.M. Bhatnagar, University of South Alabama, Department of Anatomy, Mobile, Alabama 36688 and f University of Massachusetts, Department of Physiology, Worchester, Massachusetts 01605. Histones from calf thymus and mouse testis have been fractionated on 17% acrylamide gels containing 0.19% bis-acrylylcystamine (BAC) and 2.5M urea at pH 2.7. Polyacrylamide gels which contain BAC, a cross- linking agent with disulfide bonds, can be solubilized in presence of 2~mercaptoethanol (3.0M) or cysteine (0.8M) at pH 8.3. Polymerization is carried out at 40°C and in presence of 6. 5-7. 5% tetramethyl ethylene diamine (TEMED) at pH 8.3. Gels formed at lower pH or TEMED concen¬ trations are not soluble. Pre-electrophoresis with acidic buffers changes the gel pH to 2.7. Resolution of histones in BAC-acrylamide gels is comparable to that in bis-acrylamide gels. Preparative isola¬ tion of histones is facilitated with soluble gels. BAC-acrylamide gels containing detergents can be also solubilized and should prove useful for the fractionation and subsequent isolation of proteins. (Supported in part by USPHS NIH Grant HD-12744.) 139 Abstracts FRACTIONATION OF ACID HYDROLASES ON CIBACRON BLUE-SEPHAROSE J.T. Conary, J.N. Thompson, and L. Rod£n. Lab. of Med. Genetics, Dpt. of Biochem., and DRTC, Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Cibacron Blue 3GA is one of several textile dyes which have proven useful as ligands in the purification of enzymes by affinity chromato¬ graphy. Elution from the affinity matrix is commonly carried out with substrates or inhibitors, or by increasing the ionic strength of the buffer; however, the influence of the pH of the eluting buffer has not been systematically investigated. In the present study, the effect of pH on the elution profiles of the following eight lysosomal hydrolases has been determined: aryl sul fatase A and B, N-acetyl-a-D-glucosamini- dase, N-acetyl-B-D-hexosaminidase, s-D-galactosidase, ct-L-fucosidase, 6-D-glucuronidase, and heparin N-sulfate sulfatase. A partially puri¬ fied preparation containing these enzymes was obtained from an extract of bovine testis by precipitation with ammonium sulfate at 40 % satura¬ tion, and this material was applied to a column of Sepharose-bound Cibacron Blue which was subsequently eluted with 0.1 M citrate-phosphate buffers increasing stepwise in pH from 4.5 to 8.0. This approach per¬ mitted the separation of the eight enzymes into four groups. Arylsulfa- tase A and B were eluted at pH 4.5; N-acetyl-a-D-glucosaminidase, N-ace- tyl -B-D-hexosaminidase, and 8-D-galactosidase were eluted at pH 7.0; a- L-fucosidase, B-D-gl ucuronidase, and a minor proportion of the N-acetyl- B-D-hexosaminidase emerged at pH 8.0; and heparin N-sulfate sulfatase and some of the a-L-fucosidase and B-D-gl ucuronidase were eluted with pH 8.0 buffer containing 1 M NaCl . These findings demonstrate that chromatography on Cibacron B1 ue-Sepharose is valuable as an early step in the purification of lysosomal hydrolases and that selective elution may be accomplished by varying the pH of the eluting buffer. Phillip A. Fields, University of South Alabama, Department of Anatomv, Mobile, Alabama 36688 and Lynn H. Larkin, University of Florida, Depart¬ ment of Anatomy, Gainesville, Florida 32610. Relaxin was purified from human term placentas by gel filtration (Sephadex G-50 fine) and isoelectrofocusing. The human relaxin was simi¬ lar to porcine relaxin with a molecular weight of approximately 6000 and an isoelectric point greater than 10. The purified human relaxin showed a reaction of identity to porcine relaxin when crossreacted with anti¬ serum to porcine relaxin. Although like porcine relaxin, human relaxin inhibits spontaneous contractions of the mouse uterus and promotes growth of the mouse interpubic ligament, the specific activity of human relaxin was lower than porcine relaxin (15 units/mg versus 3000 units/mg, respec¬ tively) . Immunocytochemical localization of relaxin in the term placenta demonstrated the hormone to be present in the peripheral cytotrophoblast cells. Porcine relaxin antiserum was utilized in these studies. There was no staining of the cells when normal rabbit serum or porcine relaxin antiserum preincubated with porcine relaxin were utilized. These studies clearly indicate that human relaxin is present in extraluteal tissue and is present during the last stage of pregnancy. 140 Abstracts PHOSPHODIESTERASES OF HUMAN POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES Janet L. Legendre and Harold P. Jones. Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of South Alabama College of Medicine, Mobile, AL 36688. In light of the importance of cyclic nucleotides in the regulation of many of the bactericidal activities of human polymorphonuclear leuko¬ cytes (PMNs) , we have examined the phosphodiesterase (PDE) composition of these phagocytic cells. High speed supernatant fractions prepared from isotonic homogenates of human PMNs were chromotographed on DEAE- cellulose. This procedure revealed the presence of at least three separable forms of cyclic nucleotide PDE. When each of the three forms was tested for stimulation by calcium and calmodulin, no detectable activation was observed. However, chromatography of each of the three peaks on calmodulin-Sepharose revealed that Peaks I and II were partially retained by the column in the presence of calcium. In each of these cases the PDE not retained by the column as well as that subsequently eluted with EGTA was found to be activated at least five-fold by calcium plus calmodulin. Furthermore, the activation was determined to be sensitive to inhibition by phenothiazine drugs which are potent calmodu¬ lin inhibitors. These results suggested that an inhibitor of calmodulin- dependent activation of PDE, present in the DEAE-fraction , was removed by chromatography on calmodulin-Sepharose. Aliquots from Peak II were examined for their ability to inhibit calmodulin-dependent activation of bovine brain PDE and were found to potently inhibit this activation. Therefore, there appears to be both calmodulin-sensitive and insensitive forms of PDEs in the human PMN and an endogeneous inhibitor of the calmodulin-sensitive activation of PDE. (Supported in part by an intramural grant from the Univ. of South Alabama College of Medicine.) IDENTIFICATION OF A CALCIUM-STIMULATED ALKALINE PROTEASE IN THE NEMATODE TURBATRIX ACETI Michael J. McGuire and Roger S. Lane. Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. A new alkaline proteolytic activity that hydrolyzes [methyl- 1 4C]globin to acid-soluble fragments has been detected in the free-living nematode Turbatrix aceti . This protease was isolated from the 100,000 x g supernatant of T. aceti extracts by gel exclusion and DEAE-cellulose ion exchange chromatography. The partially purified enzyme is most active between pH 8.5 and 9 and is apparently of high molecular weight as determined by its elution behavior upon gel filtration on a column of Sepharose 4B. The hydrolysis reaction is stimulated by Ca^+ ions and inhibited by excess EGTA or EDTA; the reaction rate is maximal at 4 mM CaCl0. Mg2+ and Cu"+ also increase proteolysis but less effectively Z 9 4. 9 i . 9 I . Ox than Caz . Ba^'*' is ineffective in substituting for Caz while Mn , Zn2+, Co^+, Fe^+ and Ni^+ all show an inhibitory effect on protease activity. No effect of calmodulin (Ca^+-dependent regulator) on the globin-degrading activity of the enzyme could be demonstrated. The functional significance of this Ca^+-activated alkaline protease is unknown. (Supported by NIH grant AG 01002.) 141 Abstracts INFLUENCES OF INTRARENAL HORMONES ON RENAL HEMODYNAMICS Margaret L. Till, L. Gabriel Navar, and Phil Youngblood. Dept, of Physi¬ ology and Biophysics, 727 CDLD, University of Alabama, Univ. Station, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 The roles of the renin-angiotensin system and renal prostaglandins in mediating the renal vasodilator response to agents which block the renin-angiotensin system were studied. Clearances were performed in anesthetized dogs under control conditions and following prostaglandin synthesis and covering enzyme inhibition. Indomethacin, a prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor, administered i.v. at a dose of 5 mg/kg BW consis¬ tently and significantly decreased renal blood flow (RBF, 3.93 + .40 vs. 3.11 + .28 ml/min*g kidney weight) while raising mean systemic arterial pressure (MAP, 117 + 6 vs. 130 + 4) when compared with control values. The change in RBF in combination with a slight decrease (3%) in glomer¬ ular filtration rate (GFR) resulted in an increase in the filtration fraction (.372 + .040 vs .471 + .065); indomethacin also tended to lower sodium and significantly lowered potassium excretion. Captopril (prime: 1 mg/kg BW and infusion: 1 mg/kg BW-hr, i.v.), an inhibitor of convert¬ ing enzyme, when given after indomethacin returned MAP and RBF to con¬ trol levels, while GFR rose significantly above control levels (.802 + .065 vs. .963 + .061 ml/min-gm). Electrolyte excretion returned to pre- indomethacin levels following captopril. These results suggest that under these experimental conditions the renal vasodilator effect of cap¬ topril is associated with if blockade of the renin-angiotensin system or another of its effects and is not due to prostaglandin- induced vasodila¬ tion. IS N,N-DIMETHYLTRYPTAM1NE an endogenous hallucinogen? J.M. Beaton and P.E. Morris, Neurosciences Program, Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala. 35294. Much interest has centered around the search for an endogenous hallucinogenic agent which might serve as the psychotoxin in schizo¬ phrenia. Many compounds have been suggested as this psychotoxin, one such compound is N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a very short acting hallucinogen. Studies in humans have shown that DMT does occur in cerebrospinal fluid, but not differentially in normal con¬ trol subjects and schizophrenics (Smythies et al., 1979, Biol. Psy¬ ch i at., 549). However, DMT may just serve as a trigger in the precipitation of the psychosis. In the studies on the rat to be presented here, we have examined the effects of stress on the brain DMT levels and have measured the uptake and metabolism of exogenous¬ ly administered deuterated DMT. This deuterated DMT is sequestered in the synaptosomes of these rats. The exogenously administered DMT is metabolized to the same products as the endogenous DMT. Time course studies have shown that the peak brain levels of the injected deuterated DMT correspond to the behavioral disruption seen after DMT administration. Stress increases endogenous DMT levels and DMT may be one of the brain's stress signals. In sum¬ mary, DMT occurs in rat brain, is synthesized and metabolized in brain and appears to have a function. Thus, although DMT is an endogenous hallucinogen, its role in schizophrenia has yet to be defined. Supported in part by the Alabama Consumer Fund. 142 Abstracts MORAL REASONING OF BACCALAUREATE NURSING STUDENTS Janet S. Aw+rey, School of Nursing, Univ. of AL in Birmingham, Birming¬ ham, AL 35294 This study assessed the moral reasoning of baccalaureate nursing stu¬ dents and determined if students perceived schoo I -re I ated events or other life events as affecting moral reasoning. The Defining Issues Test (DIT) and a Life Experience Questionnaire were used in data collec¬ tion. Kohl berg's theory of cognitive-moral development was the theo¬ retical framework. The study was conducted over a span of 13 months. Data were collected at three intervals corresponding with the completion of the first sophomore clinical nursing sequence and the first junior and senior clinical nursing courses respectively. The DIT was adminis¬ tered at each of the specified periods and Life Experience Questionnaire at the final period. Thirty-two of the original 74 participants pro¬ gressed uninterruptedly through the curriculum and adequately completed the DIT. The P percent score and the D score of the DIT were used to assess moral reasoning. A Life Experience Questionnaire was adminis¬ tered to assess whether students perceived schoo I -re I ated events or other life events as most affecting their reasoning. Findings from the study based on P percent scores led to the conclusion that the partici^ pants preferred principled moral reasoning much as do other college stu¬ dents. Respondents as a group did not experience change in moral reason¬ ing as indicated by D scores. They regarded events other than school- related events as most affecting moral reasoning. Recommendations for future studies dealt with nursing students, nurse educators, and other health care providers. THE COMBINED EFFECTS OF FLURAZEPAM AND NICOTINAMIDE UPON SLEEP Connie Robinson and G. Vernon Pegram, Neurosciences Program, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, A1 . 35294. Nicotinamide (Vit. B^) has been reported to bind at the benzodiaze¬ pine receptor site. To ^determine whether nicotinamide (NA) when given with a benzodiazepine ( FI urazepam) would augment, antagonize or change in any other way sleep in mice, groups of animals were implanted with cortical electrodes for monitoring sleep. Both an acute and a chronic study were undertaken. Baseline data were obtained on animals in the acute study. Then on days 1-5 following baseline they were given either Flurazepam (Flu) alone of Flu and NA, 1 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg respectively. EEGs were recorded on days 1, 3 and 5 of drug injection. Recovery EEG was obtained 2 days following withdrawal of all drugs. There were no significant differences between the groups nor within the groups when experimental days were compared with baseline days. On recovery there appeared to be a rebound increase in SWS and a decrease in awake. All animals in the chronic study were injected with NA, 500 mg/kg, for 21 days prior to the implantation of cortical electrodes. After recovery from surgery they were begun on i.p. injections of Flu, 500 mg/kg while NA injections, i.p., were continued. Again, data were collected as above. Awake decreased on day 1 and gradually increased significantly through day 5. SWS showed the opposite trend. These data demonstrate no significant augmentation of the effects of NA upon the quality and/or quantity of sleep. 143 Abstracts ESSENTIAL CONTENT IN MASTER"S DEGREE PROGRAMS IN NURSING B. Jeanette Lancaster. School of Nursing, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 36830 Master's degree programs accredited by the National League for Nursing in July, 1978, were asked to respond to the following questions: What is currently being taught as essential content in your program? What do you think should be taught? For each of the content areas required of all students, what cognitive behavior is expected? What cognitive level shoul be expected for each content area taught? Consistency was examined to look at differences in what was actually being taught as compared to what faculty believed ideally should be taught. The study tool was a content inventory designed to elicit from respondents their perceptions of the rea and ideal essential content, the extent of congruence between the two, and the expected cognitive behaviors of students. Data were treated by des¬ criptive interpretations and simple rank order correlation. Results indi¬ cated that over 75% of respondents agreed that research, nursing process, health care delivery system, nursing theory, individual assessment, health wellness, illness, evaluation, decision making, accountability and inter¬ personal relationships were actually required in their program. Of these areas, 75% of the respondents agreed that the first four should ideally be required. Other ideally required content areas in the upper quartile in¬ cluded: change, communication, group dynamics, both political and legis¬ lative issues, culture-ethnicity, and ethics and health. The content pre¬ ferences move from an individual orientation in actually required to a system oriented focus on change in the ideal categories. MARKETING COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH CENTERS SERVICES I. Wade Lancaster. School of Business, and B. Jeanette Lancaster, School of Nursing. University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35243 The development of community mental health centers as a significant contribution to the care of mentally ill people has occurred amidst con¬ troversy and criticism. Legislation providing funds to centers has beer restrictive in that services were stipulated for all centers regardless of community needs and characteristics. New legislation in 1980 set up guidelines for flexibility and creativity in developing community mental health services. Will centers continue doing "more of the same" or will new community-oriented programs be developed? The application of a marketing framework for program development offers a model for developir programs based on consumer needs. Such an approach determines what the public perceives as its needs in order to develop plans to meet these needs. As such, marketing provides a way to examine, predict, plan, implement, and evaluate the exchange process between provider and con¬ sumers. Marketing uses a problem solving approach which includes: recognition of need, community analysis (community attitudes, services and resources available, identification of the target merket and market segmentation), evaluation of alternatives, decision choice, and eval¬ uation of the decision. Developing the market mix includes four plan¬ ning variables: product, price, promotion, and physical distribution policies. While these variables are like those in classical business activities, unique applications are made in the area of community menta' health. 144 Abstracts Variables Related to Prinipled Moral Judgment of Nurses Ann Estes Edgil, Univ. of Al. in B'ham. School of Nursing , B ' ham, A1 . 35294 The research was intended to determine if educational preparation and selected variables in the environment of senior nursing students and practicing nurse are related to the principled level of moral judgment. According to cognitive developmental theory of moral judgment, which served as the theoretical basis, mental structure results from the pat¬ terning of the interaction between the organism and the environment rather than a reflection of inate patterns in the organism or patterns of events in the environment. An investigator constructed profile was used to collect data that included age, sex, educational preparation, a course in ethics, professional organization membership, length of prac¬ tice, area of practice, and level of practice. The Definning Issues Test was used to assess levels of moral judgment. The t-test and multi¬ ple regression were used for data analysis. The overall significance of the full model as predictor variables for the principled level of moral judgment was statistically different from a null model with no predictor variables. A significant difference was found between students and nur¬ ses in the principled level of moral judgment. Stage 5A score (prin¬ cipled) mean was higher for nurses than for students. Since research has yet to clarify the specific environmental variables related to dev¬ elopment of moral judgment, research is needed on the effect of environ¬ mental stimuli at different periods of development. Also, longitudinal investigation is necessary to determine the degree of development that joccurs during educational and subsequent nursing practice experience. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICAL THERAPY STUDENTS DURING AN ACADEMIC YEAR. K.T. Francis and C. Adams. Division of Physical Therapy. University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 The process of physical therapy education can be a highly discom¬ forting experience. At no time is this more evident than in the first year of study in which the student is faced with an intense, concen¬ trated program of study, generally slanted towards the basic sciences rather than the clinical sciences. The overwhelming amount of material to be absorbed, lack of free time, the pressures of examinations, and the discrepancies between expectations and reality all can be antici¬ pated to bring psychological stress (used here as synonymous to feelings of anxiety, hostility, and depression). The present study was designed to quantify perceived stress in the various class levels throughout one academic year (30 weeks). The subjects were 45 UAB physical therapy students (physical therapy assistant students n = 19; junior physical therapy students n = 19; and first year master students n = 7). Assessments of mood and feelings were evaluated weekly using the State- Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Multiple Affect Ajective Checklist. Multiple Anthropometric measurements were taken quarterly. Peaks of anxiety, hostility, and depression and lean body weights were correlated with routine academic events such as exams, and schedule assignments throughout the academic year. This study is important in regard to curriculum planning and revision, especially during these times of change as programs consider alteration from a baccalaureate curriculum to a master's curriculum. This data set provides another perspective in this consideration and evaluative process. 145 Abstracts 1,100 Alabama Runners: Their Addiction to Exercise Kathleen C. Brown. School of Nursing, University of Alabama in Birming¬ ham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294. Jack Hataway, Glenda Barnes, Helen Hunter, and Patty Clark. Preventive Medicine. University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294. This study investigated reasons why joggers participate in running. Research is needed to understand factors which predispose individuals to pursue vigorous lifestyles. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to investigate joggers' reasons for involvement in running and whether they consider themselves addicted to exercise. A sample of more, than 1,100 Alabama residents who jog completed questionnaires. The instrument measured participation in jogging, previous participation in varsity sports, perceived addiction to exercise, estimates of work exer¬ tion and health status, and selected health behaviors. Preliminary results on 938 subjects, over three-fourths males, are presented in this report. Frequencies and percentages as well as content analysis were used to analyze the data. Approximately 90% of the subjects indicated they jog because of a concern about health and because of feeling good after exercise. Three-fourths of the group reported concern about weight and appearance as reasons for jogging while one-half responded that they jog because of a concern about heart disease. In addition two-thirds of the subjects indicated they job because they feel good while exercising. A similar proportion considered themselves addicted to exercise. Subjects attributed this to (1) a desire for pleasurable consequences including a good healthy feeling and a sense of accomplish¬ ment, and (2) a desire to avoid unpleasurable consequences of not exer¬ cising such as sluggishness, irritability, and guilt. PRIMIPARA'S REACTIONS TO USE OF ELECTRONIC FETAL MONITORING S. Benshoof and N. Keller*, School of Nursing, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294 Because of the recently increased use of electronic fetal monitor¬ ing (E.F.M.) during labor, many women may not be receiving adequate prenatal orientation to its purpose and use. Inadequate orientation may cause increased anxiety and stress in women during labor. Lack of adequate research describing women's reactions to E.F.M. in current literature led the investigators to design a descriptive study of primipara's reactions to their orientation and use of E.F.M. during labor, and their suggestions for change. A one phase questionnaire for data collection was adapted from a prenatal and postpartum tool used by Brasted, Daley, and Calhoun for unpublished doctoral research. (1980, W. Va. Univ.) It measures behavioral, situational, cognitive, and sociodemographic variables. Fifty-three subjects found to meet criterion measures had participated by January, 1981. Data collected was partially analyzed, and selected findings reported in simple per¬ centage form. Multiple regression techniques will be used for final data analysis. Findings could be significant for helping nurses improve the quality of E.F.M. orientation and implementation. (Supported in part by the Sigma Theta Tau Seed Grant, Nu Chapter, School of Nursing, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294.) 146 Abstracts ASSOCIATION PATTERNS OF HUMAN NUCLEOLAR ORGANIZER REGIONS J.L. Smith, W.H. Finley, and S.C. Finley. Dept, of Medical Genetics Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 15294. W.M. Howell.* Dept, of Biology, Samford Univ., Birmingham, AL 35209. The phenomenon of chromosome satellite association may be a causa¬ tive factor in meiotic nondisjunction (Ferguson - Smith and Handmaker 1961). The cytological basis for this observation may actually be with the stalk which connects the satellite and the p arm. The stalks are the Nucleolar Organizer Regions (NORs) which stain with AgN03 if ac¬ tively transcribed during interphase. Chromosomes may be connected to one another at the stalk as evidenced by silver grains deposited on and between NORs. The characteristics of chromosome NORs were examined in a control population of both males and females. An association complex was de¬ fined as any group of two or more chromosomes whose NORs were connec¬ ted with silver grains. The number of NORs per cell ranged from 5-10 with each individual having a characteristic mode. The majority of cells had 0, 1, or 2 association complexes which usually contained 2 chromosomes. The chromosomes entered into association in a non random manner both in the individual and in the total sample. In general, chromosomes 21 and 22 associated more frequently than 13, 14, and 15; chromosome 15 was found in complexes more often than 13 and 14. The particular pairings also seemed to be non random as 21-22 and then 15-22 were more common than others. In the future, these results will be compared to those from par¬ ents of children with Down's Syndrome to determine if there is any correlation between satellite association and the risk for having a trisomic child. EVIDENCE FDR A LEUKOCYTOL YS IN PRODUCED BY VIBRIO VULNIFICUS (LACTOSE POSITIVE VIBRIO] C. Dees*, IY1.W. Fountain, and R.D. Schultz, School of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, AL . 36849. An extracellular Factor produced by V ibrio vulnif icus (lactose positive vibrio) was Found to lyse mixed populations oF human and mononuclear cells. Canine macrophages, peripheral blood leukocytes, and thymus derived cells were non-speciFically lysed by the leukocytolysin . The leukocytolysin was in¬ activated when heated For 15 minutes at 100 degrees C.. The leukocytolysin appeared to be a protein with an apparent molecular weight oF less than 200,000 daltons. 147 Abstracts PERCEIVED SOURCES OF STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES IN PHYSICAL THERAPY STUDENTS. K.T. Francis and D.C. Naftel. Division of Physical Therapy and Department of Biostatistics. University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 The professional educational process can be a psychologically stressful experience (psychological stress defined as feelings of anxiety, discomfort, tension, or distress). Academic pressures associated with the study of difficult material and long hours of classroom and clinical practice combine to intensify psychological stress associated with pressures of college life. Physical therapy (PT) is an example of a professional educational process in which the educational preparation involves an arduous course of study that is intense and demanding. However, the perception of the sources of stress and coping strategies of the students enrolled in a PT curriculum has not been delineated. In order to study stress and coping factors in PT students, two one page questionnaires that had been field tested for reliability, were administered to 72 PT students (mean age 22'h). One questionnaire assessed "stress factors" (SF) in the students; the other questionnaire assessed "coping factors" (CF) of the students. The SF and CF questionnaire contained 27 and 21 items respectively. Either stress or coping scores were obtained for each item. A mean stress and coping factor score was calculated and sources of stress and coping strategies were rank ordered. The four areas perceived as the most stressful by all the students were related to the environment of PT education. These included exams and grades, quantity of difficult classwork, long hours of study, and lacking free time. The least stressful items included drug use, child care problems, alcohol use, and marriage problems. The primary means these students coped with stress included talking problems over with friends and relatives, analyzing the problem, and praying. The least used coping strategies included use of tranquilizers, sexual comfort, or seeking professional assis¬ tance. A ROLE FOR SUPEROXIDE IN INTESTINAL ISCHEMIA Ranjan S. Roy and Joe M. McCord. Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Based on our studies, it appears that intestinal xanthine dehydro¬ genase in rats undergoes conversion from one enzymic form to another if blood flow to the tissue is compromised (ischemia) . Under normal in vivo conditions the enzyme exists as an NAD~*~-reducing dehydrogenase (Type D) , incapable of reducing molecular oxygen to the reactive super- oxide free radical ( O2 - ) - During ischemia it is converted to a form able to react with O2 as electron acceptor and hence exists as a super¬ oxide-producing oxidase (Type 0) . This conversion from the dehydrogenase to the oxidase occurs extremely rapidly in the small intestines. Data indicate that 80-90% Type D to Type O conversion occurs within 5-10 sec. Proteolysis appears to be the major cause in the modification of this snzyme . PMSF , an irreversible serine protease inhibitor, partially prevents this rapid conversion from Type D to Type 0. Dithioerythritol not only prevents but also reverses this conversion brought about by reduced blood flow. The substrate for xanthine oxidase, hypoxanthine , arises due to catabolism of adenine nucleotides in ischemic tissues. Thus, upon reperfusion (reoxygenation) of the tissue, xanthine oxidase (Type 0) is able to reduce molecular oxygen to superoxide radicals which causes further damage to the ischemic tissues. Allopurinol, an inhibi¬ tor of xanthine oxidase, has been found to protect tissues from ischemic damage. (Supported in part by NIH grant AM-20527.) 148 Abstracts EFFECTS OF SALINE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RENAL HYPERTENSION Cynthia Ann Jackson and L. Gabriel Navar. Dept, of Physiology & Biophy¬ sics, 727 CDLD, Univ. Station, Univ. of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294 Experiments were conducted on two-kidney, one clip Goldblatt Hyper¬ tensive rats to assess the effect of addition salt intake on systolic blood pressure during the course of renovascular hypertension and to evaluate the influence of salt intake on renal function in renovascular hypertensive rats. Eleven days after the animals were clipped and given 0.9% saline or tap water to drink, a significant difference in the blood pressure was observed between the clipped rats (n = 10, BP = 172.82 + 6.66 mmHg) and the nonclipped rats (n = 10, BP = 119.36 +4.60 mmHg). However, the addition of 0.9% saline did not increase nor decrease the blood pressure within each group during the course of the three week study. The urine flow and sodium excretion were higher in the hyperten¬ sive rats (27.29 +2.9 yl/min and 2.36 + 0.37 yEq/min) than the normoten- sive rats (14.13 + yl/min and 1.05 + 0.24 yEq/min). The saline-drinking normotensive rats exhibited greater urine flow and sodium excretion than the water-drinking normotensive rats. In contrast, the addition of salt intake in the hypertensive rats reduced the urine flow and sodium excre¬ tion. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of the hypertensive rats (1.02 + 0.04 ml/min/g of kidney wt) was reduced when compared with the normotensive rats GFR (1.11 + 0.04 ml/min/g of kidney wt) . However, the addition of salt intake in the normotensive rats had no effect on GFR; whereas in the hypertensive rats, the GFR increased and approached val¬ ues of the normotensive rats. These observations are consistent with the concept that the addition of salt which decreases renin levels may main¬ tain an elevated blood pressure due to an inappropriate high level of sodium retention; thus insinuating an involvement of a more specific intrarertal mechanism. MAPPING VIRULENCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE HERPES SIMPLEX GENOME Wayne L. Gray, and John E. Oakes,* Dept, of Microbiology and Immunology, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Herpes Simplex Viruses (HSV) vary greatly in their neurovirulence for laboratory animals. The reason is unknown but virulence is known to be a genetic trait of some HSV strains. Studies are underway in our laboratory to determine which genes are associated with HSV pathogen¬ icity. Parental HSV-1 and HSV-2 strains and recombinants were tested for their ability to cause a lethal encephalitis in mice upon inocula¬ tion into the left hind footpad. HSV-1 strain 17 was virulent with an LD50 of 3 x 105 PFUs. HSV-2 st rain 186 was avirulent even when tested at 3 x 10^ PFUs. An intertypic recombinant of these parental strains had virulence characteristics very similar to the HSV-1 parent. The data indicates that genes located between the 0.2 and 0.8 map site of the HSV-1 strain 17 genome are associated with virulence. The HSV-2 186 strain was lethal when inoculated into irradiated mice suggesting that the avirulence of this strain is due to an inability to evade host defense mechanisms. Further studies using intertypic recombinants indicate that virulence in irradiated mice is associated with genes located between map units 0.1 and 0.3 and/or between 0.6 and 0.8 on the HSV-2 186 genome. The mapping of HSV genes which determine virul¬ ence could be significant in designing anti-viral agents against proteins coded for by those genes. 149 Abstracts DIABETOGENIC EFFECTS OF CHL0R0Z0T0CIN G.L. Wilson, Dept, of Anatomy, Univ. of So. Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688 B.T, Mossman and J.E. Craighead. Dept, of Path.,, Univ. of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405 Epidemiological evidence indicates that environmental factors, in con¬ junction with genetic and immunological influences, play a critical pathogenetic role in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, N-nitroso compounds and their precursors are environmental pollutants and commonly are present in human food. In this study the N-nitroso compound, chlor- ozotocin (CLZ) was evaluated for its effects in insulin producing pan¬ creatic beta cell monolayer cultures. CLZ was found to be toxic to beta cells at equimolar concentrations to those required using the known beta cell toxin streptozotocin (SZ) , SZ is also a nitrosoamide. To deter¬ mine whether CLZ was diabetogenic, 6-week-old male golden Syrian ham¬ sters and CD-I mice were injected intraperitoneally with CLZ at concen¬ trations from 20 to 100 mg/kg body weight and blood glucose determined 2, 4 and 7 days later. Dosage dependent hyperglycemia (glucose concen¬ trations > 180 mg/dl ) developed after 2 days in hamsters receiving 30 to 60 mg/kg CLZ and mice receiving 50 to 100 mg/kg CLZ. Necrosis and de¬ granulation of beta cells was prominent in hamsters and mice killed at intervals after inoculation, whereas alpha cells and acinar tissue were unaffected. Lesions were not observed in the heart, lungs or liver of these animals but extensive tubular necrosis was found in the kidneys of animals receiving the larger amounts of the drug. CLZ is currently used for human cancer chemotherapy. Concentrations of CLZ used in these studies are comparable to the dosages used in humans. The potential for a diabetogenic effect of CLZ in man remains to be determined, (This work was supported bv a arant from the Kroc Foundation ) ALTERATIONS OF CHLORIDE TRANSPORT IN THE FROG GASTRIC MUCOSA, IN VITRO Richard L. Shoemaker, Dept. of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294. Chloride is transported from the serosal to the mucosal side of the gastric mucosa, in vitro, and the degree of stimulation of the proton pump alters the chloride transport rate. Anion transport can be studied under three conditions of acid secretion: no secretion (inhibited), basal (or spontaneous) or stimulated rate; compounds that alter chloride transport produce different electrophysiological responses under different acid secretion rates. When the mucosa is secreting acid the following compounds (added to serosal solution) produced these changes: DIDS reversed the transmucosal potential (P.D.) but there was no significant change in the resistance. Furosemide produced a slight change in the P.D. but adding furosemide after the addition of DIDS produced no furcher changes. After the acid secretion rate was reduced to zero by Cimetldine (1 mM) , DIDS or furosemide reduced the P.D. by 50% but increased the resistance significantly. Ethaerynic acid reduced the P.D. to zero and significantly reduced the resistance. When the stomachs were secreting acid at a spontaneous rate the effects of the compounds were intermediate to the above responses. 150 Abstracts REGULATION OF TRIOSE PHOSPHATE ISOMERASE TURNOVER IN SENESCENT TUB'S ATRIX ACETI Rajendra D. Ghai . Department of Biochemistry, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688 The triose phosphate isomerase (TPI) activity of the nematode Tuvba- trix aceti declines significantly (40-50%) with advancing age. Immuno- titrations of extracts prepared from nematodes of various ages yield identical equivalence points, indicating that the obesrved differences in enzyme activity are due to changes in the amount of enzyme protein. To elucidate the mechanism by which aging influences the concentration of this isomerase, the relative rate of de novo TPI synthesis was examined in young (4-day old) and senescent (24-day old) animals using rabbit antibodies directed against purified enzyme. The anti-TPI IgG fraction used gave a single precipitin band in double-diffusion analysis and completely precipitated TPI activity from T. aceti extracts. Sodium lodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of radioactive immunoprecipitates isolated from nematodes maintained in media contain¬ ing | 1 H ] leucine for specified time intervals showed that the immuno¬ precipitates were free of contaminating proteins. The newly-synthesized enzyme in senescent T. aceti. had the same subunit size as the Mr=26,000 subunit of the "young" isomerase. Incorporation of radioactivity into immunoprecipitable TPI proceeded at a rate which was 35-50% slower in 24-day old nematodes than in 4-day old animals. The data indicate that the reduced content of catalytically active TPI molecules found in old T. aceti results, at least in part, from a decrease in the relative rate of enzyme synthesis. (Supported by NIH Grant #AG-01002) INCREASED INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE, SLEEP AND A METABOLITE OF NICOTINAMIDE Connie R. Robinson, Neurosciences Program, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, A1 . 35294. In our labs it had been previously shown that nicotinamide (NA) in¬ jected i.p. over 14 days produced an increase in REM sleep. It was not known how this effect occurred so the 6-pyrido metabolite of NA, methyl - O-nicotinamide was chosen for study. Groups of mice were implanted with cortical electrodes and with a lateral ventricular cannula for intra¬ cerebral ventricular (icv) injections. After recovery from surgery data were collected on baseline and on experimental day 1 and 2. Approxi¬ mately 7 hours of EEG's were obtained for each condition. One group of animals was given 1 mg/kg of the 6-pyrido compound, a second group re¬ ceived 2.5 mg/kg and a third group received matched volumes of 0.9% saline. There was a slight increase in SWS over baseline on both experi¬ mental days and a decrease in awake for those days over baseline. The changes in sleep were not due to the transient increased intracranial pressure since there was no change in sleep EEG following saline in¬ jections by the icv route. 151 Abstracts PARENTAL SELF-CONCEPT, LOCUS OF CONTROL AND ASSESSMENT OF INFANT TEMPERAMENT Phyllis Nichols Horns. School of Nursing, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294 The purposes of this study were to determine if parental self-concept and locus of control are influential in parental perception of infant temperament and to ascertain whether mothers and fathers differ in per¬ ception of infant temperament. The study sample consisted of 30 moth¬ ers and 30 fathers of 3% to 8% month old infants who were normal, single births and had no chronic health problems. A demographic pro¬ file was completed for each parent using a structured interview. In addition, each parent completed the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale for Adults, and Carey-McDevitt Infant Temperament Questionnaire. Frequencies, the chi square statistic, and multiple regression were used for data analysis. Mothers and fathers did not differ significantly in perception of in¬ fant temperament as measured by the Temperament Questionnaire. How¬ ever, mothers and fathers were significantly different in their general ratings of infant temperament. Moreover, the general ratings revealed that 76% of mothers and 67% of fathers rated the infant as easier than average. A significant difference was found between the mother's ques¬ tionnaire rating and her general rating of infant temperament. Self- concept and locus of control were not found to influence parental per¬ ception of infant temperament. However, maternal perception of infant temperament was found to be related to a multivariate combination of maternal age, race, socio-economic status, self-concept, locus of con¬ trol; and infant sex, age, and ordinal position. REVIEW OF VITAMIN C : CHEMISTRY, PROPERTIES AND MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS Emmett B. Carmichael, Med. Center, U.A.B. , Birmingham, AL This is a review of the properties and multiple functions of vitamin C and includes therapeutic uses of the vitamin in common colds, whooping cough,, herpes virus, encephaliti measles, chicken pox, mononucleosis, hepatitis, pressure sores, back pain, cervical carcinoma of the uterus, cancer- ocular alkali burns, barbiturate poisoning, lead poisoning stress, ankylosing spondylitis, insect bite and snake bite . 152 Abstracts CHARACTERIZATION OF ACTIVE CHROMATIN RELEASED BY DNAase I ACTION Jim W. Gaubatz. Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. The most popular method of chromatin fractionation now uses micrococ¬ cal nuclease to shear chromatin prior to the separation of DNA into sub¬ sets of transcriptionally active and inactive sequences. DNAase I, on the other hand, is most commonly employed to degrade selectively DNA in an active chromatin structure. By coupling limited enzyme action with the large transcriptional capacity of mouse brain tissue, we have suc¬ ceeded in isolating an active chromatin fraction following DNAase I digestion. The concentration of DNA sequences complementary to cyto¬ plasmic poly-A+ RNA are approximately 10-fold more abundant in the active fraction than in total DNA which is similar to the greatest enrichment previously achieved with micrococcal nuclease. The DNAase I- solubilized active fraction contains a significant amount of DNA with a native chain length greater than 600 base pairs (bp) whereas DNA in active chromatin generated by micrococcal nuclease is only 140 bp. Electrophoresis on denaturing gels demonstrated that DNA in the active fraction was not substantially degraded compared to the other fractions. This suggests that the spacer DNA between nucleosomes is largely intact. Since spacer DNA is the primary binding site for histone HI, our obser¬ vation that active chromatin obtained by the DNAase I method lacks his¬ tone HI is direct evidence for protein replacement in gene activation. Therefore, it appears that chromosomal material derived from DNAase I- digested nuclei more clearly delineates the association of nuclear pro¬ teins with certain elements of structure. (Supported by an intramural grant from the College of Medicine, University of South Alabama.) REGULATION OF INSULIN BINDING TO VARIOUS TISSUES Joyce F. Haskell, Elias Meezan and Dennis J. Pillion, Dept, of Pharmacology , U.A.B., Birmingham, Alabama 35294. The binding of insulin to membrane receptors is the first event in the process which eventually leads to accelerated sugar uptake and metabolism, increased protein synthesis and the inhibition or stimula¬ tion of a variety of intracel lul ar enzymes in hormone-sensitive tissues. Insulin receptors have been studied in a wide variety of mammalian tissues, with considerable interest focused on adipose, liver and muscle cells, since these represent the primary site of insulin action. Recent advances have allowed the isolation of intact brain microvessels, seminiferous tubules and Leydig cells by selective sieving without recourse to harsh digestive enzymes. This report identifies for the first time the presence of specific insulin receptors in each of these tissues and compares them with adipocytes. Studies are also in progress to determine whether or not the addition of physiological levels of insulin to these tissues leads to an increase in the rate of D-glucose uptake. 153 Abstracts HYPOPHYSECTOMY, THE OPIATES, AND PAIN IN THE RAT V.A. Gonzalez*, C.L. Mi 1 1 i can * and J.M. Beaton, Neurosciences Program, Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala. 35294. Hypophysectomy has been reported by several groups of investiga¬ tors to produce a dramatic relief of intractable pain in many cases of patients with widespread metastatic cancer. One possible mecha¬ nism which has been suggested for this relief from pain has been a change in the level of the endogenous opiate peptides of the pitui¬ tary. The present study was carried out to examine the effects of intraperitoneal injections of saline, morphine (5, 7.5 or 10 mg/kg), naloxone (5 or 10 mg/kg) or naltrexone (2.5 or 5 mg/kg) on the flinch-jump test on groups of eight intact or hypophysecto- mized rats. The shock intensity was begun at 0.05 mA and increased in 0.05 mA increments at 30 sec intervals until a jump occurred. The shock was then decreased. The flinch threshold was noted for both the ascending and descending series. Five such trials were carried out for each rat with each drug dosage. There were no sig¬ nificant differences seen between the groups with any of the drugs on the flinch threshold, however, there were significant differences for the jump threshold. It took a significantly higher level of shock to elicit a jump in the hypophysectomized rats. This differ¬ ence was potentiated by morphine and blocked by naloxone or naltrex¬ one. These data indicate that hypophysectomy has induced a change in the endogenous opiate system and this change may help explain the pain relief observed in cancer patients. Supported in part by Intramural Faculty Research Grant #82-6733. "HOW FIRM A FOUNDATION...?" SOME COMMENTS ON MIS0NIDAZ0LE . Donald E. Herbert, Dept, of Radiology, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688 Some published observations on the efficacy and toxicity of Ro07- 0582 have been reviewed. Our review suggests that these particular data on efficacy are "soft", perhaps even irrelevant, and that the published analyses are dubious; the location and shape of the dose- response curve for efficacy of Ro07-0582 that have been derived from these observations seem to be guestionable. The data on toxicity are more germane but because the methods of analysis that were used are inappropriate, the (published) dose- response curve is also guestionable. Neither of the published analy¬ ses present confidence limits on the estimated dose-response curve for either property. (This is unfortunate because these limits are guite wide. ) The results (including confidence limits) of our analysis of these data by the standard methods of biological assay are presented. They do not affirm that consent is always well informed. 154 Abstracts GLUCOSE DYNAMICS IN PYRIDOXAL-PO4 DEFICIENT RABBITS Shirley A. Williams, Larry R. Boots and Phillip E. Cornwell, Department of OB/GYN and Nutrition, University of Alabama in Birmingham. A deficiency in pyr idoxal-PO^ (PLP) , the active form of vitamin Bg , causes altered tryptophan metabolism and increased levels of xanthu¬ renic acid (XA) , a metabolite which reportedly binds to insulin. Ex¬ periments were designed to determine if a deficiency in PLP could alter glucose metabolism in rabbits and, if so, were increased levels of XA responsible. Mature female rabbits were given glucose tolerance tests (GTT) , subsequently fed a vitamin Bj: -deficient diet, determined to be PLP deficient, and then given repeat GTT's. In normal rabbits, glucose levels ranged between 90 and 130 mg% prior to injecting a glucose load, surged to levels above 400 mg% within 15-20 minutes and then decreased to an average of 213 mg% within 65 minutes. The PLP-def icient rabbits had similar baseline and peak levels but decreased to only 350 mg% by 65 minutes. It was concluded that PLP-def icient rabbits had altered glucose metabolism. A series of studies were then initiated to deter¬ mine whether XA might be responsible. Insulin was complexed with XA and purified by gel-filtration chromatography. Glucose levels were significantly elevated when rabbits were injected with XA alone, but equivocal results were obtained when the glucose-lowering action of XA: insulin complexes were compared to those of native insulin. Further studies of the XA:insulin complexes occurring in vivo may clarify the role of PLP in relation to glucose dynamics in the rabbit. This work supported by DHEW Pub. Health Fellowship 5 F34 GM06777-02. THE INDUCTION OF ILLUSORY ASSOCIATIONS IN RADIATION ONCOLOGY. Donald E. Herbert, Dept, of Radiology, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688 The effects of the frequency distributions of the dependent and independent variables on the concordance of a regression model as well as their effects on the size, sign, and statistical significance of its coefficients and the variance of predicted values are familiar. Apparently they are regularly ignored in analyses of non-experimental observations on dose-response phenomena and occasionally in the design and analysis of dose-response experiments in the laboratory as well as the clinic. Unless these effects are explicitly recognized in an anal¬ ysis of such observations the associations between response and treat¬ ment which may be inferred from a representation of the observations by a regression equation may be largely illusory. The induction of some illusory associations between treatment and response by failure to account for these effects is disclosed in our reevaluation of a recently published experimental in vivo study. In this study some of the effects of poor experimental design were masked by the effects of an incorrect statistical analysis. 155 Abstracts Myoglobin plasma levels in normal and diabetic subjects. K. S. Yackzan, F. Shamsa*, R. Thompson--, D. Carter*, and B. R. Boshell*, Diabetes Re¬ search and Training Center, University of Alabama in Birmingham. This study summarizes the association between plasma and myoglobin levels in the presence of other covariates (age, sex, race, diabetes). The report by other workers that hemoglobin condenses with glucose forms the basis of this investigation. If such a reaction takes place between nyoglobin (muscle hemoglobin) and glucose it might provide one explana¬ tion for the beneficial aspect of exercise in the athlete and the diabet¬ ic and supply the answer to why the exercising diabetic requires lesser insulin administration than otherwise needed. It is possible that myo¬ globin helps reduce the glucose level in the circulation and the meta¬ bolizing skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. The small number of partici¬ pating athletes prevents any conclusions. This study, however, reports only the up-to-date preliminary findings from our on-going study. From a sample size of 81 subjects, (71 diabetics and 10 nondiabetics) ranging in age from 14 to 80 years, we have attempted to construct a regression model for the myoglobin as a dependent variable and all the afore-men¬ tioned variables with their interaction as predictors or independent variables. In addition, we have obtained figures for two way classifica¬ tions for these variables with chis-test for the association of variable pairwisely. The analysis indicates that there is (1) a significant as¬ sociation between race and myoglobin (p = 0.0058; chis-test), (2) a sig¬ nificant correlation between age and myoglobin (r = 0.325 and p = 0.003). However, chis-test showed a borderline association (p = .08), (3) A sig¬ nificant association between sugar and age (p = .0178; chis-test). There was no indication of a strong correlation between sugar and myoglobin level (r = .0089, p = .984). CHILDREN'S LUNG VOLUME MEASUREMENTS BY THE JAEGER PLETHYSMOGRAPH K.S. Yackzan, R. Ritchey, L.A. Engstrand and B.R. Boshell. Diabetes Research and Training Center, University of Alabama in Birmingham 35294. Using a newly designed electronic pulmonary function machine dev¬ eloped by the Jaeger Company, pi ethysmographic lung measurements (PLMs) were made for a sample of 46 children ages 5 to 12 years. This work represents the first attempt in this country to use the Jaeger plethys- mograph to obtain normal values for American children. Their PLMs were then correlated with the variables height, age and weight. Such a study allows the development of PLM normals which may then be used (a) to compare the reliability of measurements on the Jaeger's plethys- mograph to other machines and (b) as a diagnostic tool to determine a patient's lung volumes and hence lung function. The small sample size makes the study preliminary, but we were able to reliably establish normals for maximum vital capacity, maximum forced vital capacity, total vital capacity and three other PLMs. This work presents a description of the Jaeger pi ethysmograph and scatterplots of PLMs correlated with height. Further, we present data regressing PLMs on height, age and weight showing the degree to which one may rely on the latter as predictors of the former. Corresponding to results of other research¬ ers, the height of the sample participants was the best predictor of almost all the PLMs. 156 Abstracts ENZYMATIC STUDIES OF DMBA-TREATED PREGNANT RAT UTERI Mark A. Donahue and Larry R. Boots, Dept, of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Rats 11-13 days pregnant were treated with 7 ,12-dimethylbenzanthra- cene (DMBA) to induce and study trophoblastic and other uterine neo¬ plasia. Wax pellets containing 1 mg DMBA were implanted in four ges¬ tational sacs, two in each uterine horn. The rats were sacrificed at three and four months post-treatment and the uteri removed for histol¬ ogy and enzyme determinations. No evidence of histologic alteration was found in 48% of the specimens (subsequently designated as normal) , while 43% contained squamous cell metaplasia (SCM) of the endometrium which could be a precursor of squamous cell carcinoma. The other 8% of the specimens showed evidence of uterine adenocarcinoma (AC) . No trophoblastic tumors were observed. Uterine fructose aldolase activ¬ ity (per mg protein) did not differ significantly between the three groups (normal 16.87 + 2.02, SCM 17.14 + 2.81, AC 19.57 + 4.4 IU/mg protein) . Uterine glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity was sig¬ nificantly higher (P < 0.05) in the SCM group than in the normal group (normal 2.00 + 0.42, SCM 4.10 + 0.66, AC 4.30 + 1.90 IU/mg protein X 10^). Malate dehydrogenase activity was lowered in the SCM group (P < 0.1) and elevated in the AC group (P < 0.05) in relation to the normals (normal 1.68 + 0.08, SCM 1.34 + 0.12, AC 2.36 + 0.58 IU.mg protein) . These data may suggest a shift in uterine metabolic pathways after DMBA treatment and may provide more information about the mechan¬ isms of uterine tumorogenesis . This work supported by DHEW Pub. Health Serv. Grant #1 R01 CA25974-01. Dtrirtv iuKAL EFFECTS OF TETRAHYDR0-BETA-CARB0 LINES IN THE RAT r'.K. Addison, S.A. Barker* and J.M. Beaton, Neurosciences Program, Hniv. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala. 35294. Current interest in the pharmacological effects of the benzodiaze¬ pine drugs (valium, librium, etc.) centers around the identification of an endogenous high affinity binding site for these agents and the isolation of an endogenous benzodiazepine-like compound. Two com¬ pounds which have been identified endogenously and suggested as pos¬ sible candidates are 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline ( THBC) and 2-methyl-l,2,3,4-tetrahydro-beta-carboli ne (2-MTHBC) . If either of these compounds has an anti -anxiety action, the behavioral effects should be similar to those seen with valium. Using a standard para¬ digm for the study of anxiolytics, the conditioned emotional response, this study reports the effects of valium (1.25, 2.5, 5.0 mg/kg), THBC (2.5, 5, 10, 15 mg/kg) and 2-MTHBC (2.5, 5.0, 10, 15 mg/kg') on a aroup of eight Long-Evans rats. Only valium was active in inducing anxio¬ lytic-like behavioral disruption. The two carbolines were virtually inactive, except at the highest levels, but even then the disruption was not "valium like". The type of behavioral disruption seen was more like that found with an anxiety-inducing agent. These findings suggest that more research is needed to determine the behavioral ac¬ tion of the carbolines and their relationship to the endogenous benzo¬ diazepine system. Supported in part by the Alabama Consumer Fund. 157 Abstracts REGULATION OF FREE Ca 21- LEVELS BY HEART MITOCHONDRIA Gerald L. Becker, Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham 35294 The r egu la t y Ca ( [ Ca 2 + ] ) b has b een s Isolated m inc lud ing modulators chondr ial a unique a determined electrode . ion Ca 2 + chondr ial that such my o car d ial cardiac my t on in , in t the suspen Add it ion o Ca2+ efflu set-point , value of ( presumably transport . d r ia may b tudi itoc p hy s sue [ Ca2 nd c by At g mi Ca2 + 1 owe cel ocy t race d ing f Na x , 1 ind int r t hr It u f f e ion 2+ t ed u hond i o 1 o h as + ] f on s t c on t m i t t och buf r va 1 wa es . llul med + > w ed t ic at a ) m i ough i s cy of a r an s nd er r ia g ica Mg2 r om ant inu o o c ho ond r f er i lues s pr Aft ar C ium h ich o an ing t o c h a 1 1 sugg t o s o mb i en t locase s imu 1 suspen 1 cone + , ATP either value u s mon nd r ia 1 ial pr ng is of t h ov id ed er tre a2+ tr t owar d s e 1 ec u pwa r that m ond r ia a inmen e s t ed lie [ C f r e s of a t ed d ed en t r and hig with itor Ca2 o t e i sh i f e s e by a tme ansi con t ive d sh itoc 1 Ca t of that ,2 + 1 2 + e Ca c one ent r a t heart muscle mit intracellular co in a cytosol-like a t ions of Ca t r Pi regulation ex her or lower valu in the range 0.5- ing with a Ca2+-s + contents less t n, this set-point ted downward. Ev t-point may preva experiments on is nt of the cells w ocases regulated stant values of 0 ly increases mito if t in the Ca2+ b hondria had maint content higher a steady state o in vivo, heart mitochon- at values as low as 10-2M. ion ochondr ia nd it ion s . medium ansport tramito- es toward 0.7 yM , as elective han r'J5 0 ng- for mito- id en c e i 1 in the o la t ed ithd igi- [Ca2+] of .1-0.3 y M . chondrial u f f er ing a in ed a than zero, f Ca2 + AN ATTENTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOME PAVLOVIAN PHENOMENA. John Moore, Edward U. Rickert, and Joan F. Lorden. Dept, of Psychology, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham AL 35294. If an animal learns that stimulus A predicts the occurrence of reinforce¬ ment prior to that stimulus appearing conjointly with another stimulus (B) which predicts the same outcome, no learning is evidenced to B. Con¬ ditioning is blocked to B. In contrast, if A signals reinforcement and after conditioning A later follows a new stimulus B, conditioning is observed to B. B has become a second-order conditioned stimulus. The oniy procedural variation between blocking and second— order conditioning lies in the fact that reinforcement is present during the second learn¬ ing phase of blocking, but absence during the second learning phase of second-order conditioning. Two contemporary learning theories which of¬ fer opposing interpretations of these phenomena were tested by comparun the performance of 6 groups of 6 rats each in standard and modified second-order and blocking preparations. The results are consistent with an attentional theory of these phenomena; animals learn to ignore stim¬ uli which are poorly correlated with biologically significant outcomes. (Supported by NSF Grant 55-9577). 158 Abstracts CAFFEINE & OTHER METHYL XANTHINES — SURVIVAL EFFECTS ON RATS Geraldine M. Emerson, Department of Biochemistry, Medical Center, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Although widely consumed since early antiquity, there are even today questions concerning undesirable effects of methyl xanthines (MX). Sporadic reports of research in the literature using large doses of MX given to diverse animal species such as house flies and mice have shown decreased survival. A number of untoward effects have also been re¬ ported in the human population. Using the intermittent intake pattern of human consumption of MX; using survival based on animal studies this experiment was performed. Findings of this preliminary probe follow: Rat Group No. in Group Approx. . Dose (mg) Survival (days)* Control 21 None 439 Coffee 4 2.4 mg C 491 Decaffeinated Coffee 2 0.1 mg C 518 Tea 2 2.4 mg C 500 Chocolate 4 2.4 mg C 490 Caffeine (C) Citrate 4 2.5 mg C 522 Theobromine (TB) 4 2.8 mg TB 484 Theophylline (TP) 4 2.5 mg TP 479 *A number of rats are still alive when these data were calculated. They are treated as surviving to that date. These preliminary data indicate that the methyl xanthine treated groups survived longer than the control group. ENGINEERING FEATURE MATCHING ALGORITHMS FOR MULTIPLE IMAGE REGISTRATION H. S. Ranganath and J. S. Boland, III, Dept, of Electrical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849 The problem of multiple image registration is that of finding n subimages in a larger image which best match the n smaller images ob¬ tained from different sensors, assuming that all smaller images are completely located within the larger image. Algorithms are considered which do not require n times the amount of computation for the multiple registration problem as for the single image registration problem. Two feature matching digital image registration algorithms, one based on moments and the other based on intraset and interset distances, which are computationally more efficient compared to the classical template matching algorithms, are presented in this paper. 159 Abstracts PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS William G. Bradley, Dept, of Electrical Engineering, The IJniv. of Ala. in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899. Photovol taics (solar cells) are a very promising source of electric power in the near future. The primary goal of the Photovoltaic Energy Systems Divsion of the Department of Energy is to make electricity from photovol taics attractive to utilities, industries and residences. Specifically, the goal is to reduce cost per peak watt to 708) , fs = (1 - e'ps)/ps . (6) For each in cm2/q given (9) of the three indium betas, the mass is obatined from Equation (7), with absorption coefficient p Em in MeV as previously (17/Ei-14) (7) 186 Calibrating Neutron Survey Meters Figure 2a. Beta self-absorption factor fs as a function of foil mass, or thickness, where fs = (As/M)/50. «S/M in cps/g Figure 2b. Specific activities of different foil masses located at the same place in the neutron field. 187 McCormick, Nomai, Yerby, and Hollis Table 1. Self-absorption factor empirical data for curve (b) of Figure 2. *Foil Nos. mass, g counts/20 m R A*/M A> cps/g As/M Cb B 2 910 352 .355 20.9 0.06560 708 352 .355 17.4 38.3 2 + 4 1181 341 .360 15.4 0.13177 864 341 .360 12.6 28.0 6+8+10 1274 341 .360 11.5 0.19624 866 341 .360 8.5 20.0 ★ All foils are bare and are placed at 19.8 cm from the paraffin source center with vertical orientation. Foil thickness s is in g/cm2. Thicknesses of the foils are calculated from measured masses, mass density, and area based on 3/8 inch diameter; see Table 2. Self-absorption coefficients are computed for each foil from the following formula, f1 = 0.51 f\ + 0.28 + 0.21 f1, . (8) s si s2 s3 The values for each foil are given in Table 2. As computed with this procedure, fs is approximately half of an empirical value, implying that the theoretical coefficient corrects for 2it geometry and is, there¬ fore, applied to the activity of one foil surface to get the total satu¬ rated activity. The final flux computations with these two methods for finding fs are fairly close to each other, and the differences appear to decrease as foil thickness increases. Thermal neutron flux at a given distance from the paraffin sphere containing the PuBe source in neutrons/cm^s is found fromO) 0(r) = n v = 1.128[As(r) - Fcd AsC(r)]/NT oQa ga (T ) (Tq/T ) 1 72 . (9) The coefficient in this equation, resulting from averaging over the Maxwel 1 -Bol tzmann distribution, may be questioned, but since there proba¬ bly is randomization of two velocity components its retention is re¬ tained. Correction F^d for epithermal neutron absorption in the 20 mil thick cadmium covers used with vertically oriented foils is 1.07 for all but the two thicker foils which have a value of 1 . 09 (10). For the 10 mil thick covers used with horizontal foils, Fqj is reduced by 0.04 in both cases. Total number of H5in atoms Nj is 0.957 N/\ M/A; where the 188 Calibrating Neutron Survey Meters Table 2. Self-absorption factor, theoretical. ^In: p-| = 17 cm'Vg, p£ = 19.9 cm'Vg, p^ = 30.4 cm'Vg Foi 1 No. Mass ±0.00003 g si 2 g/cm 'li f s2 f% s3 f1 s 1 0.06660 0.093 0.50 0.46 0.33 0.45 2 0.06560 0.092 0.51 0.46 0.34 0.46 3 0.06465 0.091 0.51 0.46 0.34 0.46 4 0.06617 0.093 0.50 0.46 0.33 0.45 5 0.12886 0.181 0.31 0.27 0.18 0.27 6 0.06551 0.092 0.51 0.46 0.34 0.46 7 0.06537 0.092 0.51 0.46 0.34 0.46 8 0.06420 0.090 0.51 0.47 0.34 0.46 9 0.06465 0.091 0.51 0.46 0.34 0.46 10 0.06653 0.093 0.50 0.46 0.33 0.45 11 0.13020 0.183 0.31 0.28 0.18 0.27 12 0.06555 0.092 0.51 0.46 0.34 0.46 13 0.06535 0.092 0.51 0.46 0.34 0.46 14 0.06721 0.094 0.50 0.45 0.33 0.45 15 0.06470 0.091 0.51 0.46 0.34 0.46 numeri c is natural abundance; N ^ is Avogardro 1 s number , M is foil mass in grams, and A is 114.90388 g. The activation cross section aoa is 161 bid’ll), and the indium non-l/v factor ga(T) at the average room temperature of 82°F is 1.021(12). with these values the thermal flux in n/cm2s simplifies to 0 ( r ) = 1.39[As(r) - FCd As(.(r)]/M . (10) A computer program facilitated the many calculations leading to the flux values . Measured data with values for R and empirical fs are listed in Table 3 along with computed specific activities. Since each foil has a different mass, best estimates of the foil activities are found from plots of the specific activities, which are given in Figure 3. Corre¬ sponding to standard deviation of the count rates, error bars for the curves are equal to the square roots of the specific activities plus an additional 10% to account for distance measurement errors (±0.2 cm) and coefficient inaccuracies. The specific activity profiles in Figure 3 are for foils with vertical and horizontal orientations. The vertical foils, as shown in Figure 1, should provide reasonably accurate thermal flux measurements close to the neutron source. In a completely therma- lized system, foil orientation is immaterial, but this is not the case with the paraffin source surrounded by concrete. At the paraffin sur¬ face, neutrons with energies in the thermal range emana e normally to 189 McCormick, Nomai , Yerby, arid Hollis r in cm from Figure 3. Specific activities with and without cadmium covers and their differences as a function of distance from neutron source cen¬ ter. (a) is for foils with vertical orientation, and (b) is for foils oriented horizontally. 190 Calibrating Neutron Survey Meters Table 3. Measured data and computed specific activities. Foil No. cm (£_ Orient. Vert. Horn . C/20 m f t/b t/b LCd B R f s cps/g A /M s Fr ,A r/M Cd sC 1 V 1326/1031 456 .354 .77 79 14.8 600/695 349 .362 .77 35 2 19.8 V 910/708 352 .355 .77 50 3 V 693/623 352 .355 .77 35 24.8 427/374 328 .352 .78 8.5 4 29.8 V 609/526 352 .355 .77 24 5 V 644/496 382 .360 .59 13 34.8 410/355 328 .352 .59 4.1 39.8 V 568/478 382 .360 .77 15 7 V 539/470 382 .360 .77 13 44.8 351/362 328 .352 -'-J 3.5 8 49.8 V 508/456 361 .353 .77 14 9 V 447/470 361 .353 .77 11 54.8 346/387 341 .360 .77 3.4 10 59.8 V 462/398 372 .359 .77 5.9 1 i V 462/463 372 .359 .58 6.6 64 8 383/368 341 .360 .58 2.7 12 69 8 V 413/416 372 .359 .77 4.7 13 74.8 V 440/425 383 .355 .77 5.5 14 79.3 V 446/444 373 .359 .77 7.7 15 84 : V '124/369 373 .359 .77 3.8 12 H 599/562 351 . 368 .77 25 24. 8 424/420 370 .359 77 6.0 13 H 462/481 351 .368 77 14 L>4. 8 412/406 370 .355 .77 4.6 ! t> H 468/475 3 b 1 .368 .77 13 49.8 419/385 370 .359 77 3.4 191 McCormick, Nomai, Yerby, and Hollis Table 3--continued iil No. cm (jj_ Orient. Vert. Hori z . C/20 m rt/b t/b LCd B R f s cps/g A /M s Fr ,A r/M Cd sC 14 H 397/437 351 .368 .77 7.3 59.8 353/392 360 .367 .77 1.9 11 H 442/437 367 .367 .58 5.3 69.8 432/393 360 .367 .58 3.8 5 H 387/433 367 .367 .59 3.3 79.8 378/404 360 .367 .59 2.6 the surface, and their relatively large numbers overshadow reflected neutrons. The flux becomes more complicated away from the source. At large separations from the paraffin source, the "thermal" neutron flux consists of the superposition of different current density magnitudes. This can be represented as a horizontal current density magnitude, mainly from the paraffin source (measured by the vertical foils), and as a vertical current density magnitude due to neutrons reflected from the floor (1.64 m away) and from the ceiling (1.76 m away). Reflections from the walls are neglected, since the thin cylindrical meter detectors are oriented perpendicular to them, and the room ends are relatively far away. The vertical flux component is measured by indium foils supported as in Figure 1 except for horizontal orientation. It is our judgement that the reflected flux component becomes important for separation dis¬ tances greater than about 60 cm. Thermal flux, taken as the sum of the above two components, refers to neutrons with energies in the thermal range. Table 4 lists the two components and the total thermal flux com¬ puted from equation (10). The curve for 0jh appears in Figure 4 where comparisons are made for meter calibration purposes. An estimate of the overall accuracy of the thermal flux as determined here is ±25%. Table 4. Thermal flux vs separation. cm (£_ 0V 2 n/cm s 0H 0Th 15 96 96 20 53 53 40 15 15 60 6.8 6.3 13 80 4.3 3. 1 7 100 3.8 1.7 5 192 Calibrating Neutron Survey Meters 0 20 40 60 80 100 r in cm from (£_ Figure 4. Neutron flux as a function of distance from neutron source center for: (a) meter (A), including total flux; and (b) meter (B). 193 McCormick, Nomai, Yerby, and Hollis METER CALIBRATION Readings at varying distances from the source and modes of opera¬ tion are taken with two instruments, (A) and (B), made by different companies. Counts per minute and flux (nv) are recorded from the lowest meter scale for best accuracy. For meter (A) the (nv) scale should be read only with the bare detector to get the approximate thermal flux; consequently, the cpm values are used here in determining the flux. A conversion number of (3 n/cm2s)/100 cpm changes the count rates to thermal flux. After correcting for zero reading, the thermal flux re¬ sponse by meter (A) to the neutron field from the paraffin source is plotted in Figure 4(a). Plots of (source strength)/4irr2 and mode (3) from meter (A) are also shown in the same figure. The other instru¬ ment, (B), calibrated with fast neutrons by the manufacturer, does not have a cpm scale in some ranges, and it can only operate in modes (1) and (4). Mode (2) was effected, however, with the use of the cadmium shield from meter (A). The flux readings for this meter are multiplied by three, as stated in the manual, to get the actual thermal flux. This was done after subtracting the flux readings of mode (2), as shown in (b) of Figure 4. CONCLUSIONS The neutron source consisting of a known neutron emitter surrounded by a paraffin sphere provides an adequate supply of thermal neutrons and a useful number of non-thermal neutrons for purposes of meter calibra¬ tion. Without reflections, thermal flux at a point external to the paraffin source would be the total number of thermal neutrons leaving the surface of the paraffin sphere per second divided by the spherical area concentric to the source center and passing through the given point. This is true as long as there are no moderation or losses in the intervening air. The above distribution is complicated in the real case by the presence of reflecting surfaces which also act to moderate non- thermal neutrons. The actual thermal flux at an external point from the source is not completely a thermal flux in the Maxwellian sense. Ther¬ mal flux is considered here as the flux of neutrons with energies in the thermal range even though there may not be total velocity randomization. Addition of the horizontal and vertical flux components appears to be justified after examining the profiles of (a) and (b) in Figure 4. Comparisons of the measured flux from the foils with meter readings do provide assurances that the meters are responding to neutrons and especially to thermal neutrons. The latter assurance is gratifying in view of the indirect processes by which thermal neutrons are determined by both instruments. These procedures depend on factory calibration in terms of non-thermal neutrons and do not require the subtraction of mode (2), as indicated in the beginning of this paper. It is agreed, though, that this correction is not large and could be neglected for survey purposes. Even with mode (2) subtracted from mode (1), as in (a) and (b) of Figure 4, the thermal fluxes by both meters are greater than that of the foils, with meter (B) considerably larger. (This may be due to the enriched ^OB in the B-detector.) Again, for survey purposes it is better to be conservative (safer). Probably, [mode (1) - mode (2)] 194 Calibrating Neutron Survey Meters provides the more accurate thermal flux measurement than [mode (3) - mode (4)], since there is greater absorption and moderation with the latter combination. The l/r? flux exceeds the total flux of mode (3); see (a) of Figure 4. This is due to absorption losses in the paraffin and other materials. The thermal flux from the foils (to a lesser ex¬ tent) and meters tend to flatten at large distances from the source. This is also true with mode (3) of meter (A). Such a pattern is con¬ sistent with reflections in the closed room, and there also may be a tendency for the instruments to read constant values for low count rates. Appreciation is extended to the reviewers for their constructive cri ti ci sm. REFERENCES 1. W. J. Price, "Nuclear Radiation Detection," 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964. 2. 0. J. C. Runnalls, R. R. Bouches, Can. J. Chem. , 34, 949, 1956. 3. L. Stewart, Phys. Rev., 98, 740, 1955. 4. C. M. Lederer, V. S. Shirley, et al., "Table of Isotopes," 7th ed. Wiley-Interscience, N.Y., 1978. 5. E. A. Burn'll, A. J. Gale, HVEC Bui., Burlington, MA, July 1960. 6. L. R. Zumwalt, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm. Document AECU-567, 1950. 7. R. T. Overman, H. M. Clark, "Radioisotope Techniques," McGraw-Hill New York, 1960. 8. G. I. 1951 . Gleason , J. D. Taylor, D. L. Tabern, Nucleonics , 8, 27, May 9. R. D. 1955. Evans, 1 'The Atomic Nucleus," 628, McGraw-Hill, New York, 10. C. w. Tittle, Nucleonics, 9, 60, July 1951. 11 . N. E. Holden , BNL, private communication. 12. C. H. Westcott, "Effective Cross-Section Values for Well-Moderated Thermal Reactor Spectra," AECL-1101, 3rd ed., Jan. 1962. 195 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 52, No. 4, October, 1981. RELATIONSHIP OF HIGH AND LOW PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS ON SERUM CHOLESTEROL AND SERUM LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL1 >2 Kennon T. Francis and Cathy Aymen Division of Physical Therapy University of Alabama in Birmingham Birmingham , AL 35294 Abstract. The relationship between the two coronary heart disease risk factors--psychological stress and serum lipoprotein cholesterol — was investigated in 39 healthy men age 30 to 55. Subjects were divided into groups of "high" trait psychological stress and "low" trait psycho¬ logical stress. Serum was analyzed for total cholesterol as well as the various lipoprotein cholesterol levels. There was no significant difference in any of the serum cholesterol values between the high and low trait psychological groups. Possible explanations for the contrast¬ ing results of this study with previous reports are included. INTRODUCTION Correctly identifying those individuals with a relatively high probability of developing coronary heart disease (CHD) is crucial in the attempt to decrease the incidence of mortality and morbidity due to this disease. Factors found to be associated with an increased incidence of CHD are hypertension (systolic blood pressure above 140) (17), elevated total serum cholesterol (above 250 mg/dl) (5, 17), cigarette smoking (5, 17), obesity (5, 17), and a family history of CHD (5, 17). Enthusiasm in having discovered these CHD risk factors should not obscure the fact that other CHD risk factors may exist. Psychological stress has often been implicated as a contributing factor in the development of CHD; how¬ ever, it is not always included in the list of risk factors. The posi¬ tive relationship between psychological stress and CHD has been supported not only by retrospective but prospective studies as well and is gaining in its acceptance as a CHD risk factor. Stress and CHD Stilten et al. (31) have demonstrated that aggression, anxiety, defensiveness, and seclusion are common personality characteri sties identified in human subjects manifesting clinical and electrocardio¬ graphic signs of CHD. Stockmeirer (32) retrospectively studied the ^Manuscript received 30 March 1981; accepted 16 June 1981. 2 This work was supported in part by a Faculty Research Grant from the University of Alabama in Birmingham Graduate School. 196 Stress and Serum Cholesterol psychological aspects of subjects with CHD and found them to exhibit more anxiety, more depression, and less ability to concentrate than healthy controls. Other studies (16) have found that men with CHD scored significantly higher than men free of the disease on scales of anxiety and subjectively ranked themselves much more frequently under stress than male controls. Medal ie and Snyder (22) have reported that a three item anxiety index was prospectively associated with an increased incidence of angina pectoris. Likewise, coronary angiographic studies of individuals with atherosclerosis suggest that anxiety and depression may be associated with the atheroscl eroti c process. Zyzanski et al. (37) found that scores on anxiety and depression scales were significantly associated with the degree of the incidence of atherosclerosis in male subjects. Lipoprotein Cholesterol and CHD In addition, psychological stress has been linked with an increase in serum cholesterol. Peterson et al. (25) and Clark et al. (9) have found that total serum cholesterol levels rose in anticipation of a stressful event and during the event itself. This response is true for cardiac patients as well (7). Recently, evidence was accumulated indicating that, in addition to the concentration of total cholesterol, the manner in which cholesterol is distributed or transported in the blood may be associated with the risk of developing CHD (2, 10, 11). Cholesterol is known to be dis¬ tributed unequally among three lipoprotein fractions: high-density ( HDL ) , low-density (LDL), and very-low density (VLDL) lipoproteins (12, 20). It has been demonstrated that the cholesterol carried in the HDL fraction is not harmful but in fact appears to be protective against the development of CHD (25, 33). The effect of such factors such as anxiety, depression, and hostility on this fraction of lipoprotein has not been defined. Even though the two CHD risk factors--psychological stress and serum lipoprotein chol esterol --ha ve individually been shown to be re¬ lated to the pathological state of CHD, there is a paucity of informa¬ tion pertaining to the relationship between these two variables. This is especially true in individuals who have natural high trait anxiety indexes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was designed to study the relationship of the various lipoprotein cholesterol levels in subjects who exhibit high psychological stress as defined as high trait anxiety hostility and depression or low psychological stress as defined as low trait anxiety hostility and depression. METHOD Subjects Thirty-nine normal male subjects, 30 to 55 years of age with no previous history of CHD, were selected from a population of faculty and employees from the University of Alabama in Birmingham and from 197 Francis and Aymen businessmen belonging to local organizations in the Birmingham area. The subjects were selected from a group of 63 volunteers on the basis of their scores on two written psychological stress examinations. The two written psychological stress examinations used as a screening device were the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) developed by Spielberger et al. (30) and the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL) developed by Zuckerman et al . (27). Based on scores obtained on the STAI and the MAACL, subjects were categorized into a high psychological stress group and a low psychologi¬ cal stress group. Subjects (n = 20) that were selected for the high psychological stress group had to score higher than one standard devia¬ tion (SD) above normative scores on both the STAI trait scale (30) and the MAACL trait scales (36). Likewise, subjects (n = 19) selected for the low psychological stress group had to score one SD below normative scores on the STAI and MAACL trait scales. The use of one SD insured assessment of individuals on the ends of the psychological scales. A brief medical history was obtained from all subjects by use of a questionnaire seeking information concerning age, race, height, weight, personal history of CHD , alcohol consumption, dietary habits, cigarette smoking, physical activity, occupation, and physical activity associated with occupation. Lipid Analysis All subjects reported to the physiology laboratory in the fasted state between 7 and 9 a.m. of the experimental day. The written tests were administered and blood samples were drawn. Serum lipoprotein cho¬ lesterol was separated into the various serum HDL cholesterol, LDL cho¬ lesterol, and VLDL cholesterol subtractions according to the procedures by Chung et al. (8). Total serum cholesterol, the serum lipoprotein cho¬ lesterol subtractions, and the triglycerides were measured by continuous- flow analysis according to the Lipid Research protocol (19) with the use of the Libermann-Burchard Reagent for cholesterol and a variation of the Wahlefeld procedure for triglycerides (3). Statistics As most of the demographic variables examined in this study had con¬ tinuous distributions, mean scale scores among persons classified as high stress were compared with persons classified as low stress by Stu¬ dent's t-test, using the more conservative assumption that the variances of the group were unequal. The statistical significance of the differ¬ ences between the means for the lipid and lipoproteins were also deter¬ mined by the two tailed Student's t-test. Pearson correlational coef¬ ficients were calculated for comparisons of the two different psychologi¬ cal test measurements of anxiety, hostility, and depression. RESULTS Table 1 presents the mean State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL) scores of the total 198 Stress and Serum Cholesterol Table 1. The mean psychological stress scores (±S.E.) for the high and low psychological stress groups. STAI MAACL Trait Anxiety Anxiety Depression Hosti 1 i ty High Psychological 46.8 10.3 17.2 9.6 Stress Group ±2.0 ±0.6 ±1.2 ±0.7 n = 20 Low Psychological 27.3 2.2 6.1 3.9 Stress Group ±0.6 ±0.5 ±0.7 ±0.5 n = 19 Normative Psychological 38.22 6.30 13.60 7.20 Scores (ref 23, 27) ±0.45 ±0.40 ±0.69 ±0.38 high and low psychological stress groups for the three highly interre¬ lated mood and feeling parameters of trait anxiety, hostility, and de¬ pression. Table 1 reveals that the goal of attaining two distinctly different psychological stress groups was attained. The correlational analysis and significance levels between the psychometric parameters of trait anxiety, depression, and hostility as measured by the MAACL ranged from 0.741 to 0.877. The parameters of trait anxiety, depression, and hostility as measured by the MAACL were significantly (p £ 0.001) correlated with each other as well as signifi¬ cantly (p £ 0.001) correlated with the trait anxiety parameter as measured by the STAI. Several factors such as sex (35), weight (15), personal history of CHD (16), alcohol consumption (1, 23), cigarette smoking (4, 15, 35), dietary habits (24), and exercise (3, 36, 37) have been shown to influ¬ ence lipid and lipoprotein cholesterol parameters. Because of such a wide diversity of external influences on lipid and lipoprotein choles¬ terol parameters, it was essential to determine if the two populations were dissimilar. Statistically, there was no significant difference in any of the categories questioned on the medical history form between the high psy¬ chological stress group and low psychological stress group (Figure 1, 2) The average height was 180.4 cm and the average weight was 85.8 kg for both groups combined. Ninety percent of the high psychological stress individuals and 85% of the low psychological stress individuals had some type of college degree (BA, BS, MA, MS, PhD, or MD). Annual income for both groups ranged from less than $4,999 to greater than $40,000 with a mean of $28,000.50 for both groups combined. The mean alcohol consump¬ tion for the high psychological stress group was 6 drinks per week and for the low psychological stress group, the mean alcohol consumption was 199 Francis and Aymen □HIGH PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS GROUP INCOME ■ MW1"1 ALCOHOL Figure 1. Bar graphs showing percent distribution of income, alcohol consumption, and cigarette smoking in the high and low psy¬ chological stress groups. 5 drinks per week. The majority of the individuals in both groups were non-smokers and had no unusual dietary habits. Both groups exhibited a wide range of occupations with the majority being in education or medi¬ cine. Eighty-five percent of the high psychological stress individuals and 79% of the low psychological stress individuals indicated that their occupation did not involve a good deal of physical activity. Table 2 presents the mean (+S.E.) parameters of total serum choles¬ terol, total serum triglycerides, and the various serum lipoprotein cho¬ lesterol parameters in the high psychological stress and the low psycho¬ logical stress groups. There were no significant differences in the absolute values of total serum cholesterol, total serum triglycerides, the various lipoprotein cholesterol subfractions, or in the various 200 Stress and Serum Cholesterol Figure 2. Bar graphs showing percent distribution of dietary habits, exercise, and occupation in the high and low psychological stress groups. ratios of serum lipoprotein cholesterol to HDL cholesterol when the high psychological stress group was compared to the low psychological stress group. DISCUSSION In an attempt to explore the risk factors associated with coronary heart disease (CHD), the relationship between psychological stress and serum lipid and lipoprotein cholesterol absolute levels and the respec¬ tive ratios of serum lipoprotein cholesterol to total serum cholesterol was examined. The subjects utilized in this study were very similar in all re¬ spects as evidenced by the demographic data: comparison of the trait 201 Francis and Aymen Table 2. Mean lipid and lipoprotein parameters (±S,E.) in the high and low psychological stress groups. High Stress Group Low Stress Group LIPID PARAMETERS (mg/dl) Total Serum Cholesterol HDL Cholesterol LDL Cholesterol VLDL Cholesterol Triglycerides RATIO OF LIPID PARAMETERS {%) HDL Cholesterol/ Total Serum Cholesterol LDL Cholesterol/ Total Serum Cholesterol VLDL Cholesterol/ Total Serum Cholesterol HDL/LDL Cholesterol 194. .7 + 9. 1 182. ,6 ± 7. .2 48. .1 + 2. 7 45. ,6 + 3. ,4 108. .7 ± 7. .3 100. .4 + 3. ,4 27. ,8 ± 4. ,6 24. ,1 + 4. ,0 137. ,6 ± 19. .2 132. ,7 + 29. ,2 25.9 + 2.0 25.0 + 1.6 54.9 + 1.5 54.9 + 2.7 13.9 + 2.2 13.0 + 2.0 44.3 ± 3.7 45.4 + 3.7 anxiety, hostility, and depression scores of the high psychological stress group was clearly delineated from the low psychological stress group (Table 1). Therefore, the initial goal to study a set of subjects very similar except in their extremes of trait anxiety, hostility, and depression was attained. This was essential if these characteristics' effects on blood lipids was to be ascertained. Previous studies (9, 10, 21, 26) indicate that an elevated level of total serum cholesterol is correlated with acute periods of anxiety. Likewise, the coronary-prone behavior pattern, sometimes called Type A behavior pattern, has been significantly correlated with an elevated level of total serum cholesterol (27). However, this relationship was not reflected in the present study (Table 2). The mean total serum cho¬ lesterol level obtained in the high psychological stress group was not significantly different from the mean level obtained in the low psycho¬ logical stress group. The majority of studies that examined the association between psy¬ chological stress and serum lipid cholesterol parameters failed to re¬ cord the various lipoprotein cholesterol subtractions and their relation¬ ship to total serum cholesterol. However, in a previous study (11) the various lipoprotein cholesterol absolute values and their respective ratios have been examined in association with psychological stress. Francis (11) has found that the elevations in total serum cholesterol coinciding with peak periods of psychological stress were primarily re¬ flected in elevations in LDL cholesterol rather than in the HDL choles¬ terol subtraction. HDL cholesterol to total serum ratio has been sug¬ gested to be one of the most powerful predictors of risk of developing CHD. Subsequently, Francis (11) found that the ratio of HDL cholesterol 202 Stress and Serum Cholesterol to total serum cholesterol decreased during periods of psycholgoical stress. Contrary to the above studies, this study found no significant differences in the serum lipoprotein cholesterol absolute values, the serum lipoprotein cholesterol to total serum cholesterol ratios, or the HDL/LDL cholesterol ratios when comparing the high psychological stress group to the low psychological stress group. It must be concluded that, in the present study, psychological stress or the components of trait anxiety, depression, and hostility as measured by the STAI and MAACL have no effect upon the various serum lipid and lipoprotein parameters in this situation of test determined situation. The major problem that consistently arises in stress research is the lack of consensus on a precise definition of stress as well as an integrative framework which can explain the majority of research results in a logical theoretical manner. Definitions of stress have focused upon the stimulus (34), response (29), or interactional elements (18) of the process wherein an organism encounters a situation and reacts to it. Traditionally, a "stressor" has been a specific stimulus in the trans¬ action and the "stress response" the organism's relatively non-specific physiological response. For example, is the response of serum choles¬ terol to anticipation of a possible painful event. Serum cholerterol has been reported to significantly rise in the anticipation of the ex¬ posure to extreme cold (20) or the anticipation of surgery (28). This study, however, focused on the "chronic" relationship or trait charac¬ teristics of high and low psychological stress on serum cholesterol parameters. It appears that it may not be the chronic high or low psy¬ chological stress personality that influences the lipid and lipoprotein cholesterol parameters, but how these two types of individuals perceive and react to "acute" stress. Additional studies are needed to ascertain if differences really exist in perception of stress or reaction to vari¬ ous acute stress conditions between the chronic low psychological stress individual inJ the chronic high psychological stress individual. It is also possible that measurements of serum lipid and lipopro¬ tein cholesterol parameters on a random, cross-sectional basis as was performed in this study may not be reflective of the true physiological response to psychological stress that occurs in an individual throughout his daily experiences. External stress imposed upon an individual varies from hour to hour and from day to day and perhaps since blood samples were collected between 7:00 a.m. and 9:00 a.m., the peak stress portion of the work day had not yet begun. Also, because of the popula¬ tion size, these subjects may have or have not, by chance, been influ¬ enced by external stress on this particular day. REFERENCES 1. Barboriak JJ, Anderson AJ, Hoffman RG: Interrelationship between coronary artery occlusion, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and alcohol intake. J Lab Clin Med 94:348-353, 1979 2. Berger GM: High-density lipoproteins in the prevention of athero¬ sclerotic heart disease. SA Med J 54:689-693, 1978 203 Francis and Aymen 3. Bergmeyer HU: Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, 2nd English edition. New York Academic Press Inc, 1974, p 1831 4. Billimoria JD, Pozner H, Metselaar B, Best FW, James DC: Effect of cigarette smoking on lipids, lipoproteins, blood coagulation, fibri¬ nolysis, and cellular components of human blood. Atherosclerosis 21 (1 ): 61-76 , 1975 5. Burch PRJ: Coronary disease: Risk factors, age and time. Am Heart J 97:415-419, 1979 6. Burchfield SR: The stress response: A new perspective. Psychosom Med 41:661-672, 1979 7. Cathey CW, Redmond RF, Wolf S: Serum cholesterol, diet and stress in patients with coronary artery disease. J Clin Invest 36:897-901, 1957 8. Chung BH, Wilkinson T, Geer JC, Segrest JP: Preparation and quanti¬ tative isolation of plasma lipoproteins: rapid, single discontinu¬ ous density gradient ultracentrifugation in a vertical rotor. J Lipid Res 21(3): 284-291 , 1980 9. Clark DA, Arnold EL, Foulds EL, Braun DM, Eastmed DR, Parry EM: Serum urate and cholesterol levels in Air Force Academy cadets. Aviat Space Environ Med 46(8) : 1044-1 048, 1975 10. Dreyfuss F, Czaczkes JW: Blood cholesterol and uric acid of healthy medical students under stress of an examination. Arch Intern Med 103:708-711 , 1959 11. Francis KT: Psychological correlates of serum indicators of stress in man: a longitudinal study. Psychosom Med 41 (8) :^J^-527, 1979 12. Grundy SM: High density lipoproteins and atherosclerosis. Med Times 107(5) :87-96, 1979 13. Gulbrandsen CL, Morton NE, Rhoads GG, Kagan A, Lew R: Behavioral, social, and physiological determinants of lipoprotein concentra¬ tions. Social Biology 24(4) -.289-293, 1977 14. Havel RJ: High-density lipoproteins, cholesterol transport, and coronary heart disease. Circulation 60 (1 ) : 1 -3 , 1979 15. Hjermann I, Helgeland A, Holme I, Lung-Larson G, Leren P: The intercorrelation of serum cholesterol, cigarette smoking, and body weight. Acta Med Scand 200(6) :479-485, 1976 16. Jenkins CD: Recent evidence supporting psychologic and social risk factors for coronary disease. First of two parts. N Eng J Med 294(18) : 987-994, 1976 17. Kannel WB, McGee D, and Gordon T: A general cardiovascular risk profile: The Framingham Study. Am J Cardiol 38:46-51, 1976 204 Stress and Serum Cholesterol 18. Lazurus RS, Launier R: Stress-related transcations between persons and environment. In Internal and External Determinants of Behavior. Edited by LA Pervin, New York, Plenum, 1978 19. Lipid Research Clinics Program: Manual of Laboratory Operations, Vol . I, Lipid and Lipid Analysis, DHEW Publication No. ( NI H ) 75- 628, 1974 20. Marx JL: The HDL: The good cholesterol carrier. Science 205: 677-679, 1979 21. Medalie JH, Goldbourt U: Angina pectoris among 10,000 men. Am J Med 60:910-921 , 1976 22. Medalie JH, Snyder M, Groen JJ, Neufeld HN, Golbourt U, Riss E: Angina pectoris among 10,000 men: 5 year incidence and univariate analysis. Am J Med 55:583-594, 1973 23. Myrhed M: Alcohol consumption in relation to factors associated with ischemic heart disease: A co-twin control study. Acta Med Scan (suppl) 56:1-93, 1974 24. Nichols, AB, Ravenscraft C, Lamphiear DE, Ostrander LD Jr: Inde¬ pendence of serum lipid levels and dietary habits: The Tecunseh Study. JAMA 236( 1 7 ) : 1 948-1958, 1976 25. Peterson, JE, Keith RA, Wilcox AA: Hourly changes in serum cho¬ lesterol concentrations: Effects of the anticipation of stress. Circulation 25:798-803, 1962 26. Rahe RH: Life crisis and health changes. In May PRA, Whittenborn JK (eds): Psychotrophi c Drug Response. Springfield, Illinois, Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1969, pp 92-125 27. Rosenman RH, Friedman M: Behavior patterns, blood lipids, and coronary heart disease. JAMA 1 84 ( 1 2) : 1 1 2-1 1 6 , 1963 28. Sane AS and Kukreti SC: Effect of preoperative stress on serum cholesterol level in humans. Experientia 342:213-214, 1977 29. Selye H: Stress without distress. New York, Lippincott, 1974 30. Spielberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene RE: Manual for the State- Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, California, Consulting Psycho¬ logist Press, 1970 31. Stilten A, Lauroma J: Psychological characteristics related to coronary heart disease. J Psychosom Res 19:183-195, 1975 32. Stockmeier U: Psychological approach to rehabilitation of coronary patients : International Society of Cardiology Patients. Berlin, New York, Springer-Verlag, 1976 205 Francis and Aymen 33. Tall AR and Small DM: Plasma high density lipoproteins. N Eng J Med 299:1232-1236, 1978 34. Wolff HG: Stress and disease. Springfield, Ill., Charles C. Thomas, 1953, p 72 35. Yeung DL: Relationships between cigarette smoking, oral contracep¬ tives, and plasma vitamins A, E, C, and plasma triglycerides and cholesterol. Am J Clin Nutr 29(11): 1216-1221 , 1976 36. Zuckerman M, Lubin B: Manual for the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List. San Diego, Education and Industrial testing service, 92107 37. Zyzanski SJ, Jenkins CD, Ryan TJ: Emotions , behavior pattern and atherosclerosis . American Psychosomatic Society, New Orleans, 1975 206 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 52, No. 4, October, 1981. ON NORMAL APPROXIMATION OF SIMPLE LINEAR COMBINATIONS1 Saeed Maghsoodloo and James N. Hool Department of Industrial Engineering Auburn University , AL 36849 INTRODUCTION This paper deals with application of the general methodology de¬ veloped by Hool and Maghsoodloo [3] to determine the minimum number of identically and independently distributed random variables (RV's), nm-jn, needed in the simple linear combination (SLC) Sn = X] + X2 + ••• + Xn in order that the distribution of Sn is satisfactorily approximated by a normal density function. In particular, the methodology is applied separately to SLC's of the following nine RV's: negative binomial, bi¬ nomial, Poisson, geometric, gamma, uniform, exponential, beta and tri¬ angular. The approach involves determining for each type of RV its standardized third and fourth moments in terms of its distribution pa¬ rameters, then applying the methodology to determine how nmin varies as a function of distribution parameters and desired accuracy level of the normal approximation. NORMAL APPROXIMATION METHODOLOGY SUMMARY The kth moment of a discrete RV X about a real number C is defined as Mk(X) = E ( X-C ) k (1) where E denotes the expected value operator. In statistics, the only moments of interest are those about the origin (C = 0) and about the mean (C = p), and typically for k = 1,2, 3, 4. The kth moment about the origin and the mean p are, respectively, denoted by p£ = E(X^) and Pk = E(X-p)k. (2) It should be noted that the first moment about the origin is simply the mean while the second moment about the mean is the variance of X. It can be shown (through a binomial expansion of (2)) that = E(X-p) = 0 - 2 _ 2 P2 - E(X ) - p =0 1 Manuscript received 15 October 1981; accepted 15 December 1981. 207 Maghsoodloo and Hool U3 = E(X3 ) - 3pE(X2) + 2p3 y4 = E(X4) - 4pE(X3) + 6p2E(X2) - 3p4. (3) Furthermore, the standardized third and fourth moments of X are denoted by <23 and aq, where / 3 a3 'J3//° and Both P3 and <13 measure skewness of X. When C13 > 0 the distribution of X is skewed to the right, and ct3 < 0 implies the distribution is skewed to the left. For a symmetric distribution (such as the normal), a3 = 0. P4 and <14 measure the kurtosis^ of a distribution. Curves, such as the normal, for which (*4 = 3 are called mesokurtic. Those having 04 > 3 are called leptokurtic; those having 0x4 < 3 are called platykurtic. Consider now the SLC, S„-Xl+X2*~. +Xn. n. 2,3,4,... (4) where X 3 , X2, •••, Xn are identically and independently distributed RV's with mean p, variance a^, third moment P3, fourth moment P4, standardized third moment <23, and standardized fourth moment 044. The mean and vari¬ ance of Sn are E(Sn) = np and V(Sn) = no2 respectively. The third and fourth moments of S are derived [3] to be n L J P3 ( Sn ) = ny3 and P4(sn) = np4 + 3n(n-l)o4. The standardized third and fourth moments of Sn are, respectively. Kurtosis of a distribution refers to both the peakedness in the middle and thickness at the tails. 208 Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations and a3(Sn) °V3 a. ( S ) = — — + 3. 4 n n (5) (6) Convergence of a3(Sn) and cx4(Sn) to their normal equivalents of zero and three, respectively, is next examined. Given small positive real numbers £3 and £4(say £3 & £4 _< .15), values of n3 and n4 are sought such that |a3(sn3)| 1 c3, (7) and l°64(Sn4) - 3' 1 e4' (8) Then the minimum number of X's for the normal approximation to be satis¬ factory is nm-jn = max(n3,n4). For a SLC, relations (5), (7), (6), and (8) lead to n3 - ^a3/e3^ and I “4- 3 1 It is clear from (9) and (10) that n3, n^ and hence nm-jn are functions of only a3, CX4, and specified values of £3, £4. The remainder of this paper deals with the examination of how nm-jn varies as a function of RV parameters and e3, £4. ANALYSES OF DISCRETE DISTRIBUTIONS Four classical discrete RV's are examined, viz. the negative bi¬ nomial (Pascal), the binomial, the Poisson, and the geometric. These distributions appear in most basic probability texts such as [2], hence they are not discussed in detail here. Although the expressions for their a3, 04 are well documented in the literature of statistics, they are derived, for sake of illustration, in the case of the negative bi¬ nomial distribution using the RV's moment generating function (mgf). Then, expressions for n3, using (9) and (10) are developed and subse¬ quently examined to determine their behavior as a function of distribu¬ tion parameters. The approach is illustrated in detail for the negative binomial, and results are summarized in Table 1 for the other discrete distributions. (9) (10) 209 Maghsoodloo and Hool The Negative Binomial (Pascal) Distribution The pdf of the negative binomial distribution is fx-f p(r,x) = r-1 r x-r , P q , r>l , (ID x=r , r+1 , where q = 1-p, p is the probability (pr.) of success for each trial of a Bernoulli process and p(r,x) is the pr. that the rth success occurs at the xth trial. Substituting (11) into the definition of mgf M (6) = l e9xp(r,x) x R X jr* 00 = ^ l r L q x=r x-1 r-1 (qe 0 Nx gives Mx(e) = (pe ^ r X (l-qe°)r Q where it is assumed that 0 < qe' < 1. (12) The use of d M (0) de leads to 0=0 ^ _ r J1 P = r(r+q) P2 2 P r~^ + (3r^+r)q + rq^ and 4 ? T ? ? T r + (r+4r +6r )q + (4r+7r )q + rq (13) 210 Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations Substitution of (13) into (3) yields r P rq(i+q) 3 P rq[l+(4+3r)q+q^] 4 P As a result the standardized third and fourth moments are P-3 = and and _ y3 _ 1+q /rq (15) a 4 3rq+4q+l rq (16) Inserting 03 and 014 from (15) and (16) into inequalities (9), (10), re¬ spectively, gives and n3 > :i+g)‘ 2 rqc-D n4 > (1+q) + 2q (17) (18) Therefore, the required number of variates to include in (4) for a sat¬ isfactory normal approximation is nmjn = max(n3,n4). Equations (17), (18) show that, for fixed values of r and q, the third moment is domi¬ nant in determining the value of nmjn; for example, when 0 < 03 = £4 = e £ 2/3, n3rq£ >_ (l+q)2/c and n4rq£ >. (1+q)2 + 2q. Since 0 <. q <. 1 , ( 1 +q ) 2/e > (1+q)2 + 2q so that n3rqe _> n4rqe and hence n3 £ 04. Similar procedures are used for the other discrete RV's. Table 1 lists (a) the pdf, (b) the mgf, (c) moments p-j, p;?, P3> P4» (d) expres¬ sions for 03, 04, 03 and 04 for the other three discrete RV's studied. 211 Table 1. n, , n. for some discrete random variables. Maghsoodloo and Hool 212 Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations The Binomial fr r kribution Thr bin1 noulli proc sively disco ever, mode) affect the zero. Thi binomial di the pr. of side of wh ate. I R V is essentially a SLC of the RV involved in a Ber- ■ i rid normal approximation of such a SLC has been exten- in [3] and will not be repeated here. In general, how- .partures of the fourth moment from 3 do not as seriously approximation as does that of the third moment from isistent with the well-known empirical rule that the n Lion should be approximated by the normal only if p, in each trial, lies within the range (.10, .90), out- departure of the third moment from zero is not moder- The Poisson ' ibution Express s for 03 and n4 indicate that the third moment, 013, for the Poisson distribution usually will dominate in determining nmjn. In particular, ng > n^ whenever £3 < /E4. A satisfactory normal approxima¬ tion of a SLC of Poisson RV's is therefore much more sensitive to any asymmetry of the Poisson rather than being sensitive to departures from the mesokurtic condition. For the case £3 = £4, nm-jn = 03 for any A. In general, nm-jn is a decreasing function of A for any £3, £4. The Geometric Distribution Since the geometric distribution is a special case of the negative binomial (with r = 1), it follows that the third moment is dominant in determining the value of nml-n. For any skewed distribution, nmin = ng unless £4 « £3. When £3 = £4 then nm-jn = n3, and for 0 < p < .7 the value of nm-jn is relatively constant (although an increasing function of p). For p > .7 when £3 = £4, nm-jn increases rapidly with increasing values of pT ANALYSES OF CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS Five continuous random variables are examined, viz. the gamma, uni¬ form, exponential, beta, and triangular. The analytical method is shown in some detail for the gamma distribution, and results for the other cases are summarized in Table 2 and discussed separately. The Gamma Distribution The gamma pdf is f(x) = — r— ! - xb ^ e x^a, x, a, b > 0 abr(b) where F denotes the well-known gamma function. 213 Table 2. n,, n. for some continuous random variables. Maghsoodloo and Hool 214 3ab(a p+ab‘^+2a‘:+2b -2ab) 6a(a+1 ) (a-2b)+6b( b+1 ) (b-2a) (a+b)4(a+b+l ) (a+b+2) (a+b+3) |4 ~ ab(a+b+2) Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations 215 Maghsoodloo and Hool 216 Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations The mgf is M (0) = xv ' abT(b) 1 b-1 -x( l/a-6) , - x e ' dx where 1/a > 0 and the transformation u = (— - 0)x and the fact that d ’(b) f b-1 -u u e du reduces the integral on the right to Mx(0) = (1 - a0) -b (19) The first four derivatives of (19) evaluated at 0 = 0 lead to pj = ab \i'2 = a2b(b+l) P3 = a3b(b+l ) (b+2) P4 = a4b(b+l ) (b+2) (b+3) . Combining (20) with (3) yields (20) ‘1 ab , and U2 = a b , = 2a3b P4 = 3aHb(b+2) . Consequently, the standardized third and fourth moments are /b (21) and 4 _ 3 (b+2 ) 4 b (22) Inserting 013 and 014 from (21) and (22) into inequalities (9), (10), re¬ spectively, gives n3 - 2 bc3 (23) 217 Maghsoodloo and Hool and _6 be 4 (24) Examination of the last two equations reveals that because of skewness of the distribution, the third moment is dominant in determining the value of nm-jn. For example, through simple algebra it can be shown that n3 > n4 for 0 < £3 = 64 <_ 2/3, and unless £4 < 1.5eo, nm-jn = n3> Similar procedures are used for the other continuous RV's. Table 2 lists (a) the pdf, (b) the mgf, (c) moments y-j , 03, P3, P4> (d) expres¬ sions for 013, 04, 03 and 04. The Uniform Distribution Since this distribution is symmetrical, nm^„ = n4, and n4 ^ 1 . 2/04 . For example, if £4 = .15, then n = 8, implying that an 8-fold convolu¬ tion of a uniform distribution over (a, b) has identical first three moments as those of a normal density with mean (b + a)/2, variance (b - a ) 2/ 1 2 , and its standardized fourth moment, a4(Sg), is within .15 of the corresponding normal density. The Exponential Distribution The exponential is a special case of the gamma distribution for which b = 1, and the values of (*3 = 2, 014 = 9 indicate that it is posi¬ tively skewed and leptokurti" c - - £4, nm-jn = n3 _> 4/e? and, in 1 1 . i t-v r\ m r\\ir\ v' general, nml-n = n3 whenever The Beta Distribution Since the third and fourth moments of the beta distribution are complicated expressions of the parameters a and b, the following cases are considered separately. The case of a = b. When a = b, then 03 = 0, and 014 = < 3 implies the distribution is platykurtic. Therefore, £3 can be chosen arbitrarily close to zero and (10) shows n . = n. > Tbvrvi — • As b v ‘ min 4 - | 2b+3|£a increases in value, 04 approaches 3 from below and the beta distribution approaches a normal density with mean 1/2 and variance l/[4(2b+l)]. The case of a > b. In this instance, the beta distribution is negatively skewed (013 < 0). It is leptokurtic when b _> 1 and a >_ 2.85578b, or when 2.618b < a < 2.856b and b is sufficiently large. It is platykurtic when 0 < b < 1 and a < 2.85578b, or when b < a _< 2.618b. Due to the skewness of the distribution, nm-jn = n3 unless b £ a £ 1.3b in which case the distribution has little skewness and nm-j n = n4 for all £3 and £4. 218 Normal Approximation of Simple Linear Combinations The case of a < b. For a < b, the beta distribution is positively skewed (03 > 0). It is leptokurtic when 2.85578a £ b and a _> 1, or when 2.618a < b < 2.856a and a is sufficiently large. When a < b £ 2.618a, or a < 2.85578b with 0 < b < 1, the distribution is platykurtic. Unless the values of a and b are fairly close, say a £ b £ 1.3a, in which case there is little skewness, the value of nm-jn should be based solely on the magnitude of 03, i.e., nmjn = 03. When a and b are not far apart, n* = n^ unless £3 « £4. The Triangular Distribution When the triangular distribution is symmetrical, nmjn is determined by the fourth moment, and the right column of Table 2 shows nm1-n _> .6/£4. Since the right triangular distribution is skewed, the third moment de¬ termines nmjn unless £4 < 1.875e^. The asymmetrical triangular distri¬ bution is always platykurtic. It may be positively or negatively skewed according to b > a or b < a, respecti vely. Assuming £3 = £4, then nmin = n3 under the condition b _< .6945a or b > 1.439a. When ,6945a < b < 1.439a, the fourth moment dominates and nm-jn = n4 unless £3 « £4. For example, when .6945a < b < 1.439a and £3 = £4 = .05, nm-jn = n4 = 12. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. Generally, if the distribution of X-j, i = l,2,***n, is asymmetrical, the magnitude of departure of <23 from zero essentially determines nmin- 2. If the distribution of X 4 1 s is symmetrical, then 0.3 = 0 and only the magnitude of departure of <14 from 3 determines the adequacy of the normal approximation. 3. If the distribution of X-j is not highly skewed (i.e., 013 is much closer to zero than 04 is to the value of 3), then the fourth moment becomes dominant in determining nm-jn provided £4 is specified suf¬ ficiently small relative to £3. 4. Finally, the subject of how small £3, £4 should be so that the normal distribution has approximately the same quantiles as those of the exact (but unknown) distribution of Sn, is an area of research cur¬ rently being investigated. LITERATURE CITED 1. Bowker, A. H. and G. J. Lieberman. 1972. Engineering Statistics. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 2. Meyer, P. L. 1972. Introductory Probability and Statistical Appli¬ cations. Addison Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts. 3. Hool , J. N. and S. Maghsoodloo. 1980. Normal Approximation to Linear Combinations of Independently Distributed Random Variables. AIIE Transactions 12(2) : 140-144. 219 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 52, No. 4, October, 1981. FIRST RECORD OF THE PINK WORMFISH ( Microdesmus longipinnis) IN ALABAMA WATERS^ Edward Rosa-Molinar and Stephen B. Ruth Department of Biology Carver Research Laboratories Tuskegee Institute , AL 36088 A new distributional record of the pink wormfish Microdesmus longi¬ pinnis (Weymouth) has been found in Alabama waters. The range of M. longipinnis includes Bermuda and the coast of Georgia westward to Cedar Bayou, Texas (Dawson, 1969). However, its presence off Alabama so far only has been assumed. In sampling the Mobile Bay area on April 21, 1979 we collected a single specimen 6.4 km south of Dauphin Island, AL, trawled at a depth of 6.4 m. It is presently deposited in the Auburn University fish col¬ lection (catalog number 19665). We asked curators at several ichthyological museums to check their holdings for other pink wormfish records in Alabama. Dr. R. L. Shipp located 5 specimens from a single sample deposited at the University of South Alabama collection of fishes (catalog number 06439) captured in Mobile Bay 200 yards north of Fly Creek mouth, Baldwin County, AL, on August 8, 1978. The standard length of our specimen is 196 mm. The standard lengths of the Mobile Bay fish range from 200 to 232 mm. Counts and measurements on all specimens fell within limits determined by Dawson (1962). Extensive sampling of the northern Gulf of Mexico and the Mobile Bay area is needed to determine the distribution and occurrence of M. longipinnis . We thank D. Nestor and R. Shipp for the loan of the additional specimens and H. T. Boschung and J. S. Ramsey for their helpful sugges¬ tions. LITERATURE CITED Dawson, C. E., 1962. A new gobioid fish, Microdesmus lanceolatus , from the Gulf of Mexico with notes on M. longipinnis , Copeia 1962:330-336. _ . 1969. Studies on the gobies of Mississippi Sound and adja¬ cent waters. 2. Pascagoula, Mississippi: Gulf Coast Research Laboratory. ^Manuscript received 19 August 1981; accepted 1 December 1981. 220 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 52, No. 4, October, 1981. ABSTRACT TALLADEGA SLATE BELT STRATIGRAPHY IN COOSA COUNTY, ALABAMA William S. Pendexter. Dept, of Geology, The University of Alabama. A major carbonate sequence occurs in the lower part of the Talladega slate belt in Chilton, Coosa and Talladega Counties. The carbonate units are overlain by a regional unconformity known as the pre-Lay Dam Formation unconformity. The carbonate sequence below the unconformity is represented in different areas by the Jumbo Dolomite, the Marble Valley carbonates, and the Sylacauga marbles. At the type location in Chilton County the Jumbo is a 67' m thick, predominantly thickly bedded dolostone. The contact with the underlying slates of the Wash Creek Slate (Mt. Zion Fm. ) is an interlayered zone of dolostone and fine, commonly graphitic, clastic rock. This zone grades upward into a dolo¬ stone that contains few pelitic layers. Near the base, the Jumbo con¬ tains intraclasts of laminated and massive carbonate up to 12 cm in length. The intraclasts are in layers in the lower 15 m of dolostone. Rounded quartz grains are disseminated in the lower section of the dolo¬ stone. Just below the unconformity at the type section, the Jumbo con¬ tains laminations of fine-grained clastic rock. Along strike the un¬ conformity appears to have erosional relief. Less than 2 km west of the type location the unconformity cuts the Jumbo Dolomite completely. To the northeast the unconformity appears to rise in the section in the Marble Valley carbonates and the Sylacauga marbles, exposing a very thick carbonate sequence. Stratigraphic and structural relationships of the Jumbo, Marble Valley, and Sylacauga marbles are not yet resolved. Initial data indicate that the Jumbo occurs stratigraphical ly below and to the northwest of the Marble Valley carbonates suggesting that the Jumbo is the oldest carbonate unit in the sequence. 221 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 52, No. 4, October, 1981. INDEX Adams, C . 145 Addison, M. K . 157 Adrenocortical function, effects of thyroid status and age on . . 112 Aerospace studies, "Falcon Force," a middle school program for . 135 Agricultural lime industry, marketing structure of . 131 Alford, W. L. . . . . 129 Allison, Calvin . 120 Alvis, Joel L. , Jr . 137 Anderson, W . 104 Angle, Marlane J . 113 Anthropological setting, behavior, psychology, and sex in ... . 165 Archaeology, high school involvement in Alabama . 164 Areology: a planetary science project for middle school science . 134 ArF and Ar2, rate constants for the formation of . 129 Arthritis: an ethnoscienti fic approach . 168 Attleberger, Marie H . . . . . 101 Austin, E. Richard . 118 Autographa calif omica NPV, gel electrophoresis of . 105 Awtrey, Janet S . 143 Aymen, Cathy . 196 Balanus trigonus , effects of disturbance on a population of . . . 98 Ball , Raiford M . 136 Ball inger, Diane A . 167 Barker, S. A. ......... . 157 Barnes, Glenda . Ill, 146 Beaton, J. M . 142, 154, 157 Becker, Gerald L . 158 Beiersdorfer , P . 130 Benshoof, S . 146 Berry, D. T . 99, 107 Bhatnagar, Y. M . . 139 Bimeria tunicata, effect of tonicity on transmembrane potential . 96 Bimeria tunicata, significance of regression on survival of . . . 97 Black belt prairie, natural history of . 10 Black labor in Alabama, 1870-1880, root, hog, or die: the condition of . 138 Blackmore, Mark S . . . 101 Blastogenesis in bovine lymphocytes, effect of liposomes containing a-tocopherol on . 139 Bodor, N . 116 Boland, J. S. , III . 159, 160 Booker, 0. J . 103 Boots, Larry R . 155, 157 Bordoli, B . 108 Boshel 1 , B. R . 156 Bradley, James T . 103, 105, 106, 109 222 Index Bradley, William G . 135, 160 Braund, Kyle . 102 Brazil ian--United States alliance during World War II, President Getulio Vargas . 137 Brody, Jill . 167 Brown, Bonnie . 110 Brown, Kathleen C . 146 Bryant, Douglas Donne , . 168 Bull epididymis, distribution of 5areductase activity in ... . 98 Burkett, D . 116 Cagle, Karen K . 127 Caldwel 1 , Debra K . Ill Campbel 1 , P. G . 109 Carbon-metal bonds studied by matrix isolation . 117 Carlson, Gerald L . 113 Carmichael, Emmett B . 117, 152 Carraway, R . 139 Carter, D . 156 Carter, Rick . Ill Cartographic labs; solving common problems . 123 Caste, occupation and residential choice . 124 Catfish, effects of enucleation and pinealectomy on seasonal changes of plasma testosterone estrogens and gonad weights in . 110 Chandra, D. V. Satish . 160 Chloromyxum trijugwn in Alabama fishes, ultrastructure of ... . 103 Chlorozotocin, diabetogenic effects of . 150 Chowdhury, Rishi R . 132, 161 Church, Avery G . 165 Cibacron bl ue-sepharose, fractionation of acid hydrolases on . . 140 Clark, E. M . 107 Clark, Patty . 1 11 , 146 Clothiaux, E. J . 130 Clutter, computer representations of environmental . 161 Cnemidophorus sexlineatus , further thyroid function studies in hibernating . 99 Coal peterology and depositional systems of the lower Pennsylvanian upper cliff coals in a portion of the Plateau Coal Field, Alabama . 123 Cochis, Thomas . 114, 115 Cody, R. M . 100 Colberg, M. R . 116 Comerci, Carol . 102 Conary, J. T . 140 Conservation forecast for Alabama, 1836 . 126 Cook, G . 117 Cooper, William E., Jr . 1 , 58 Cornwall, the metal mines of . 163 Cornwell, Phillipe E . 155 Corticosterone binding in adrenal incubation media . 109 Cow, progesterone half-life in the pregnant and nonpregnant . . . 108 Craighead, J. E . 150 Crampton, Carole . 100 223 Index Cranford, Norman B . . . 119 Creswel 1 , Tom C . 106 Crews, Daniel A . 138 Cricket egg maturation, inhibitory effects of precocene upon . . 106 Crispens, Charles G., Jr . 48 Crockard, Jane . 99 Crockett, Philip A . 105 Cultural resource preservation in the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway impact area, the role of geographical analysis in . 125 Culture-syntax interface . 167 Cumberland plateau of Alabama, some aspects of dispersal in the vascular flora of . 115 Curl, E. A . 106 Current, William L . 103, 110, 114 Cyanogenazid, CN4, studied by matrix isolation, photolysis of . . 118 Dadeville complex--a review . 121 Data flow diagrams, designing a system using . 132 Dauphin Island humates: a re-examination of the outcrop after Hurricane Frederick . 119 Davis, Ken . 110 Dees, C . 147 De Valdes, Juan, the social and political thought of . 138 De Vail, Wilbur B . 126, 127 Dietary calcium deficiency as a cause of water feces in layers . Ill Disturbance-utilizing control; some recent developments, theory of . 163 DNAase I action, characterization of active chromatin released by . 153 Dobie, James L . 122 Dodhy, Adi la . 129 Dog, opiate effects on gastric responses in the . 104 Donahue, Mark A . 157 Eastern chipmunk, home range size and feeding habits of . 101 Eble, Cortland F . 121 Economic guidelines for a profitable agricultural limestone enterprise . 133 Economics of a small winery in Alabama . 132 Edgi 1 , Ann Estes . 145 Eimeria ropevi in the cotton rat, endogenous stages of . 114 Emerson, Geraldine M . 159 Energy conservation, businesses in Dekalb County, Alabama, an economic analysis of . 128 Energy conservation in energy-intensive unit operations: distillation, evaporation and drying . 162 Energy decisions and personal orientation to science, relationship between . 134 Engineering/computer science--the boundary . 135 Engstrand, L. A . 156 Epiahloe typhina and the tall fescue toxicity problem . 107 Eubanks, Eleanor E . 135 Evans, Barton N. . . 128 Faison, J . 116 224 Index Farmland conversion in the Tennessee Valley . 125 Farmland in the Tennessee Valley, use of . 124 Faulkner, R. D . 139 Fazell i , M. H . 98, 102 Fecundity of largemouth bass from Pickwick Reservoir, Tennessee River . 53 Fetal monitoring, primipara's reactions to use of electronic . . 146 Fields, Phi 11 i p A . 140 Finley, S. C . 147 Finley, W. FI . 147 Fission, hydrogen, oxygen, and potable water production from . . 47 Forebrain serotonin and the attenuation of latent inhibition . . 107 Forest tent caterpillar defoliation in Southwest Alabama-- 1973-1979, patterns of . 25 Fossil whales in Alabama . 122 Fountain, M. W . 139, 147 Francis, K. T . 145, 148, 196 Free, W. Joe . 131 , 132, 133 Frog gastric mucosa, in vitro, alterations of chloride transport in the . 150 Fromhold, A. T., Jr . 128 Gaiser, James E . 129 Ganjam, V. K . 98, 102, 108, 1 13 Garden soil in Northeast Alabama, preparation of . 114 Gastal do , Robert A . 120, 121 , 122, 123 Gaubatz, Jim W . 153 Geiger, Dorothy B . 101 Ghai , Rajendra D . 151 Glucose dynamics in pyri doxal -PO4 deficient rabbits . 155 Gonzalez, V. A . 154 Goudie, Cheryl . 110 Graf, E. R . 161 Granulomas in reptiles: a report of four cases . 48 Gray, Bruce W . 99, 1 13 Gray, Tony D . 123 Gray, Wayne L . 149 Green crab predation of mussels, effects of floral density on . . 109 Grey squirrel, scent marking behavior in . 114 Grey squirrel vocalizations, neotenic . 100 Grey squirrel vocalizations, nestling . 96 Gudauskas, R. T . 100, 105, 1 12 Guthrie, Gregory M . 119 Hall, John C . 164 Ha 1 1 uci nogen , is N,N-dimethyl tryptamine an endogenous . 142 Flarmon, Alan . 130 Flarper, J. D . 25, 105 Harper, R. C . 129 Haskel 1 , Joyce F . 153 Hataway , Jack . 1 1 1 , 146 Hatcher, Eddie M . 166 Hawk, Betty M . 113 Haworth, M. D . 130 Hay, W. H . 102, 108 225 Index Haynes, H. W . 106 Headden, Billy . 124 Heart mitochondria, regulation of free Ca2+ levels by . 158 Hemoglobin, some reactions of the sulfhydryl groups by . 113 Henderson, H. A . 124, 125 Herbert, Donald E . 154, 155 Herpes simplex genome, mapping virulence associated with the . . 149 Hesse, Brian . . 165 Hines, G. S . 126 Histones, a solubi 1 izable gel for the purification of . 139 Historic preservation: serendipity or planning? . 127 Hollenbeck, J . 118 Hollingsworth, Caryn . 166 Hollis, D. L . 47, 182 Holt, W. C . 161 Hool , James N . 207 Hooper, Bishop John: English reformation martyr . 137 Horn, Robert C . 118 Horns, Phyllis Nichols . 152 House cricket, brain neurosecretion and ovarian development in the . 103 House cricket, precocenes affect yolk protein synthesis and egg production in the . 105 Howard, Robert G . 118 Howell, W. M . 147 Hubert, Wayne A . 53 Hudson, R. S . 108 Hughes, Daniel F . 53 Hunter, Helen . 146, 219 Hyland, James R . 25 Hypertension, effects of saline on the development of renal . . . 149 Hypophysectomy , the opiates, and the pain in the rat . 154 Ichthyoplankton population of upper Mobile Bay . 100 Image registration, feature matching algorighms for multiple . . 159 Infant temperament, parental self-concept, locus of control and assessment of . 152 Insulin binding to various tissues, regulation of . 153 Insulin in the dog, immunoassayabl e levels and pharmacokinetics of: comparison of normal and diabetic dogs . 102 Ischemia, a role for superoxide in intestinal . 148 Isospora suis , endogenous development of the swine coccidium . . 104 Jackson, Cynthia Ann . 149 Jaeger pi ethysmograph, children's lung volume measurements by the . 156 Jensen, Ove . 134 Joggers, a descriptive analysis, medical and physiological of Alabama . Ill Johnson, C. D . 163 Johnson, T. A . 161 Jones, Harold P . 141 Karr, Guy W. , Jr . 32 Keller, N . 146 Kelly, W. C . . . 163 226 Index Kohl , H. H . 116 Kri bel , R. E . 130 Krogh, 0. D . 116, 117, 118 Kiwi ( Actinidia ohinensis Planchon) in Northeast Alabama, cultivation of . 115 Lacy, A. Wayne . 131 Lancaster, B. Jeanette . 144 Lancaster, I. Wade . 144 Landers, Kenneth E . 114, 115 Lane, Roger S . 141 Larkin, Lynn H . 140 Laser, spectroscopically resolved pulsed CO2 . 116 Legendre, Janet L . 141 Legislative forestry study committee update no. 2 . 127 Leukocytes, phosphodiesterases of human polymorphonuclear .... 141 Lindsay, David S . 104 Linear combinations, on normal approximation of simple . 207 Lishak, Robert S . 96, 100, 1 14 Lithic scatters at Beaverdam Creek, A1 . , computer analysis . . . 166 Lorden, J. L . 99 Lorden, Joan F . 107, 158 Macaca mulatta, dynamics of male immigration in . 164 MacGregor, Robert . 110 Mafic-ul tramafic complex near Easton, Tallapoosa Co., Alabama . . 120 Maghsoodloo, Saeed . 207 Magnetic probes of high frequency response, construction and cal ibration of . 130 Maize dwarf mosaic virus, infection of plant protoplasts with . . 112 Marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacvun, in the southern portion of its range, notes on the nesting biology of . 20 Marine biology education in N. Ala. — you've got to be kidding . . 133 Marion, Ken R . 48 Marple, D. N . 109 Mary Lee group (Pennsylvanian) of the Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, the palynology of . 120 Mason, Linda Jean . 114 Mason , Wi 11 i am H . 66 McCord, Joe M . 148 McCormick, G. M . 182 McGuire, Michael J . 141 Meezan, Elias . 153 Mental health centers services, marketing community . 144 Methyl xanthines, caffeine and other--survi val effects on rats . 159 Metzger, Mary C . 136 Miller, Edith . 134 Millican, C. L . 154 Misonidazole, "how firm a foundation...?", some comments on . . . 154 Moberly, H. Dean . 131 Modular forest harvesting simulation models, methodology for . . 126 Molina, E . 104 Moore, John . 158 Morris, P. E . 142 227 Index Mossman, B. T . 150 Mount, Robert H . 66, 71 Murray, Thomas P . 118 Multidipole plasma, rate of electron heating in . 130 Mydas fly, Mydas alavatus , Mimicry and spatial occupation in . . 58 Myers, John E3 . 138 Myoglobin plasma levels in normal and diabetic subjects . 156 Naftel, D. C . 148 Nancarrow, D. Virginia . 96, 97 Narratives, patriarchal: history or myth . 167 Navar, L. Gabriel . 142, 149 Neilson, Michael J . 120, 121 Neutron cross sections at 14 MeV, experimental and theoretical . 129 Neutron survey meters, calibrating with a measured thermal neutron flux . 182 Nicotinamide, increased intracranial pressure, sleep, and a metabolite of . 151 Nomai , M . 182 Notropis okrysocephalus , annual distribution of two Myxozoan parasites of . 110 Nucleolar organizer regions, association patterns of human . . . 147 Nurses, variables related to principled moral judgment of ... . 145 Nursing, essential content in master's degree programs in ... . 144 Nursing students, moral reasoning of baccalaureate . 143 Oakes, John E . 149 Oakley, Carey B . 164 Occupation at site !Tal71, botanic implications for seasonal . . 166 Oncology, the induction of illusory associations in radiation . . 155 Ovarian hormones and gl ucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase . 102 Padgett, M. P . 126 Palynology of an indian dwelling site along the Alabama River: an introduction to palynological techniques . 121 Parsons, Glenn . 108 Pastoralism in the Chilean Andes, the origins of . 165 Pavlovian phenomena, an attentional analysis of some . 158 Pegram, G. Vernon . 143 Pelodytes punctatus (Amphibia: Anura), filter apparatus of larval . 97 Pendexter, William S . 221 Petranka, James W . 20 Petranka, John G . 20 Phillips, John Herbert: educational pioneer in Birmingham . . . 136 Photovoltaic power systems . 160 Physical therapy students during an academic year, psychological assessment of . 145 Physical therapy students, perceived sources of stress and coping strategies in . 148 Physics courses, using pseudoscience in introductory . 136 Pillion, Dennis J . 153 Pink wormfish ( Microdesmus longipinnis) in Alabama waters, first record of . 220 Pottery manufacture, modern and prehistoric Maya . 168 228 Index Pritchett, John F . 109, 112 Profit elasticity, toward a concept of . 131 Psychological stress on serum cholesterol and serum lipoprotein cholesterol, relationship of high and low . 196 Pteridosperm dominated Taphocenoses associated with the upper cliff coals ( Pottsvi 1 1 e ) , Plateau Coal Field, Alabama, a preliminary report on the . 122 Pure metals, layered oxide growth on . 128 Ranganath, H. S . 159 Rat uteri, enzymatic studies of DMBA-treated pregnant . 157 Ravis, William R . 102, 108 Reactor system using GASPIV simulation, control pressure of a . . 161 Red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera : Formicidae), as a possible serious predator on some native southeastern vertebrates: direct observations and subjective impressions . 71 Red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), on eggs of the lizard Cnemidophorus sexlineatus (Squamata: Teiidae), predation by . 66 5aReductase in rat caput epididymis maintained in culture .... 113 Renal hemodynamics, influences of intrarenal hormones on .... 142 Rhizosphere: relation to pathogen behavior and root disease . . 106 Rhizopriondon tevvaenovae (Richardson), reproductive biology of the Atlantic Sharpnose Shark . 108 Rickert, E. J . 99, 107, 1 58 Riggsby, Dutchie S . 135 Riggsby, Ernest D . 134, 135 Ritchey, R . 156 Robinson, Connie R . 143, 151 Roden, L . 140 Roland , David A. , Sr . Ill Rosa-Mol inar, Edward . 220 Roy, Ranjan S . 148 Ruins, wood: an exercise in archaeological method . 166 Runners, 1,100 Alabama: their addiction to exercise . 146 Ruth, Stephen B . 220 Sax, Steven R . 128 Schultz, Ronald D . 139, 147 Sellers, Jeffrey C . 99 Serotonin depletion, disruption of inhibition following . 99 Shabo, Linda Williams . 137 Shah, Bharat . 162 Shamsa, F . 156 Shealy, David L . 130 Sherrill, Dorothy E . 109 Shoemaker, Richard L . 96, 150 Simco, Bill . 110 Simon, Morris . 168 Simpson, Thomas A . 103, 163 Singh, S. P . 105 Sleep, the combined effects of flurazepam and nicotinamide upon . 143 Smith, J. L . 147 229 Index Smith, Tracy . 110 Smith-Sanclare, Shelby . 125 Sokol , 0. M . 97 Spiroplasmas , aminopeptidase and arginine dihydrolase in .... 100 Starprobe satellite mission, design of an isothermal primary heat shield for . 130 Stevens, C . 100 Stewart, William S . 131, 133 Strong, William Reese . 124 Sutherland, J. P . 98 Swanson, M. W . 103 Talladega slate belt stratigraphy in Coosa County, Alabama ... 221 Tamarin, Pat A . 123 Tanner, Beverly . 162 Target handoff problem, approaches to multiple . 160 Terrapin Creek area, Cheburne Co., Alabama, geology of . 119 Territorial behavior--a means of population regulation in multiple habitats . 1 Tetrahydro-beta-carbol i nes in the rat, behavioral effects of . . 157 Thomas, Joseph C . 133 Thompson, J. N . 140 Thompson, R . 156 Thye, Cynthia C . 110 Till, M. L . 109, 112, 142 Trauth, Stanley E . 66 T urbatrix aceti, identification of a calcium-stimulated alkaline protease in the nematode . 141 Turbatrix aceti, regulation of tirose phosphate isomerase turnover in senescent . 151 Urea fertilizer impurities, application of high pressure liquid chromatography to analysis of . 118 VanArtsdalen, E. R . 47 Vance, Marilyn . 166 Varner, V. K . 1 . . . . 112 Vibrio vulnificus (latose positive vibrio), evidence for a leukocytolysin produced by . 147 Vitamin C, review of: chemistry, properties and multiple functions . 152 Vi tel 1 i , Veronica A . 131, 132 Vittor, Barry A . 97 Wapnish, Paula . 167 Water, a novel bactericidal agent for treatment of . 116 Weaver, David C . 125 Webster, D. B . 126 Wheatley, Bruce P . 164 Wheatley, W. W . 1 . • . 116 Whetstone, R. David . 114, 115 White, James F . 107 Whitlock, Suzanne A . 114 Williams, Ann H . 98 Williams, John R., Jr . 129 Williams, N. C . 125 Williams, Noland . 124 230 Index Wi 1 1 iams , Shi rley A . 155 Wilson, G. L . 150 Wit, Lawrence C . 99, 105 Woerner, Eric G . 120 Womachel , Daniel R . 122 Woodard, James . 110 Worley, S. D . 116 Wyckoff, James T . 98, 102 Yackzan, K. S . 156 Yeasts isolated and identified from selective animal species . . 101 Yerby, R. N . 182 Young, Diane W . 102, 1 13 Youngblood, Phil . 142 Zoology, mesopotamian: folk knowledge or science . 167 231 THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE VOLUME 53 JAN. - APR., 1982 NOs. 1 & 2 EDITOR: W. H Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, AL 36849 ARCHIVIST: R. G Raves, Department of History, Auburn University, AL 36849 EDITORIAL BOARD: R. T. Gudauskas, Chairman, Department of Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbi¬ ology, Auburn Lfniversity, AL 36849 J. F. Pritchett, Department of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn University, AL 36849 ]. M. Beaton, Department of Neuroscience, University of Alabama in Birmingham, University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294 Publication and Subscription Policies Submission of Manuscripts. Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence to the EDITOR Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow Instruction to Authors (see inside back cover). Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors. Subscriptions and journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIR¬ MAN OE THE EDITORIAL BOARD. Advertising, News Releases: Advertisements and news releases will not be pub¬ lished in the Journal. ISSN 002-4112 CONTENTS Message from the President . 1 Announcement of Appointment of an Administrative Officer . 4 ARTICLES Nest Characteristics of a Yellow-Crowned Night Heron (Nyctanassa violaaea) Colony Daniel J. Drennen, Laura Jean Hunt, and Tommy King . 5 Reassessment of the Distribution of Three Amphibians in Alabama Mark S. Davis and Thomas R. Jones . 10 A Two-Headed Shark Fetus, Carcharhinus plumbeus, (Muller and Henle) Edward Rosa-Molinar . 17 Journal of the Ala. Academy of Science, Vol. 53 ,Nos . 1&2 , Jan-Apr, 1982 MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT Charles M. Baugh College of Medicine University of South Alabama 1005 Medical Sciences Building Mobile , AL 56688 Scholarly journals have become standard communicative devices for learned societies. However, the quality and interest generated by one issue may impact, not only upon the circulation of subsequent issues, but also upon the submission, by prospective authors, of man¬ uscripts for future issues. When circulation falls or manuscripts become scarce, the usual remedy applied by editorial boards is to become more quality conscious, to review and reject more vigorously and to generally further decimate the ever shrinking pool of sub¬ mitted manuscripts. Next an issue or two is missed because of lack of material and circulation declines further. A now classic death struggle for the journal ensues. Authors will not submit manu¬ scripts because circulation is down and circulation drops precipi¬ tously due to the quality and, at this stage, quantity of manu¬ scripts submitted. The Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science is presently en¬ meshed in the scenario described above. How can this be possible for a journal that has survived for fifty-three years? Why should this journal be in difficulty when new journals are constantly emerging as successful economic ventures, even in the most narrow and esoteric specialties? The answers to these questions are complex. The trig¬ gering device which began the decay process is not easy to identify with certainty. Yet, its identification is crucial if we are to institute appropriate remedies. A speculated candidate trigger that has floated around the Academy for several years centers around the attitude of some academic administrators in higher education across the state toward the Journal. These administrators, it is said, do not recognize the legitimacy of publications in the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science in making promotion and tenure considera¬ tions for their faculties. This position is puzzling in view of the facts: 1) that manuscripts submitted for publication in the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science are peer reviewed by at least two reviewers and, in cases of conflicting reviews, a third reviewer is used; 2) that approximately 50% of the manuscripts submitted are rejected on the basis of scientific merit; and 3) that the Journal is abstracted by both Chemical Abstracts and Biological Abstracts. Even more puzzling is the fact that some of these same administrators have been known to recognize "letters to the editor" and even privately published materials as legitimate scholarly contributions. Whatever 1 Message from the President the underlying causes may be which have created our present dilemma with the Journal, it is important that we pick up the gauntlet and engage in a concerted effort to preserve this important part of the Academy . What can we do? What needs to be done? How do we begin? In discussing the Journal problems with the Editor and other members of the Executive Committee, two ideas have emerged as attractive poten¬ tial solutions to these problems. The first involves adding major invited reviews by authoritative Academy members as a regular feature of the Journal. This action has the potential for greatly enhancing the Journal's national image and, if the quality were maintained over a protracted period, to increase circulation. It would be critical that the topics reviewed and the reviewers be selected with great care, and that reprints of the re¬ view be widely circulated. A second proposal that has been discussed with a great deal of enthusiasm involves a consolidation of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science with the publications of academies from the sur¬ rounding southeastern United States. Such action would provide an instant and very significant increase in circulation for all the academy publications. One could envision a broad based Proceedings of the Southeastern Academies of Science that would be similar in format and subject matter to the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. Inspection of the table on the opposite page will show that such a coalition of southeastern academies would provide a circulation in excess of 6,500 when libraries are added. This number would merit publication assistance by commercial firms. We are in a period when such specialized Journals as the Neurobiology of Aging, Peptides, and The Cyclic Nucleotides add to the literature explosion, while con¬ stantly focusing the scientist more and more narrowly in his reading. Perhaps a consolidated publication such as The Proceedings of the Southeastern Academies of Science, in its coverage of a wide range of topics and its major reviews, would be a welcome change in direction. Furthermore, the potential exists to replace nine relatively weak publications with a single strong one. The officers of the Academy are currently exploring these ideas and avenues to solve the Journal's problems. As a member of the Academy, your input is of great interest and importance. It is unthinkable that a major change in direction, such as just described, would be undertaken without strong support and encouragement from the Academy members and the Board of Trustees. Please take a few minutes to express your ideas and attitudes on these critical matters. 2 Baugh TABLE 1. Membership and Journal Data on Southeastern Academies of Science ACADEMY PUBLICATION MEMBERSHIP 1981-82 Alabama Yes 725 Arkansas Yes 250 Florida Yes 625 Georgia Yes 572 Louisiana Yes 800 Mississippi Yes 936 New Orleans No 150 North Carolina Yes 1200 South Carolina Yes 568 Tennessee Yes 700 Totals: 10 9 Yes 5801 3 Journal of the Ala. Academy of Science, Vol.53,Nos.l & 2, Jan-Apr 1982 ANNOUNCEMENT OF APPOINTMENT OF AN ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICER In a move culminating several years of discussion and delibera¬ tion, the Executive Committee on March 18, 1982, appointed Dr. Wil¬ liam J. Barrett to the new post of Administrative Officer. The creation of this part-time, paid position resulted, in part, from recognition of a need to improve the prestige of the Academy and to make its capabilities more widely known to the scientific and lay communities. Another important consideration was a need to provide a continuing level of overall coordination of Academy activities. The principal duties of the new officer, who is to work under the direction of the Steering Committee, were defined as follows: Develop improved public relations, primarily inside Alabama but extending to interaction with national organizations ; Strengthen membership activities; Raise funds for support of the Academy and the Junior Academy; Improve acceptance of the Journal; Arrange the program for the annual meeting. Until his recent retirement, Dr. Barrett was Director of Re¬ search in Applied Sciences at Southern Research Institute. For the present, he will maintain an office at his home, 94 Lucerne Boule¬ vard, Birmingham, AL 35209 (telephone 205-879-3098). He invites comments and suggestions from the membership. Journal of the Ala. Academy of Science, Vol.53,Nos.l & 2, Jan-Apr,1982 Nest Characteristics of a Yellow-Crowned Night Heron (Nyctanassa violaaea) Colony Daniel J. Drennen, Laura Jean Hunt, and Tommy King Department of Zoology-Entomology Auburn University INTRODUCTION No significant nest characteristics of Yellow-Crowned Night Herons (Nyctanassa violaaea) have been documented in the literature. For this reason we are reporting on a colony located at Spring Creek, Alabama (4.5 miles southwest of Cottonwood, Alabama, T7N, R27E, SE 1/4 Sec. 17; 31°05' latitude, 85°25' longitude). The section of the creek inhabited by the herons is approximate¬ ly 2400 m long. The area is thickly vegetated with oaks ( Quercus sp.), red ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) , tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica) , swamp dogwood (Comus striata) , cedar ( Juniperus sp . ) , and numerous shrubs, many of which overhang the creek and support the heron nests. In the literature, Johnstone (1962) reported vegetation used by Yellow-Crowned Night Herons on the Dog River, near Mobile, consisting of huge trees such as pines, magnolias, maples and blackgums. The nests we studied varied in size and were constructed of interwoven twigs and small branches. Additional birds seen feeding in the area included passerines, Little Blue Herons (Florida caerulea) , and White Ibises (Eudocimus albus). MATERIALS AND METHODS The heron colony was visited twice after the initial discovery. On 24 May 1980 the number of nests and nestlings were determined by direct count. The nestling's age and general feather condition were noted according to Palmer (1962). In order to capture a nestling, two canoes were positioned under a nest. Aim long hook was attached to a 4 m long cane pole (Dusi 1967) and was extended upward to the nest and placed around the nestling's neck. A shallow wire basket attached to an additional cane pole was then extended toward the nest. The hooked pole was pulled gently but firmly, outward and slightly upward. The nestling was led out of the nest and onto the basket. The hook was removed and the basket was carefully lowered into the canoe. The heron was banded and returned by raising it in the basket and allowing it to step back into the nest. Manuscript received 11 July 1981; accepted 14 December 1981. 5 Yellow-Crowned Night Heron Physical data collected during the 16 June 1980 trip included: (1) nest height above water surface, (2) depth of water below nest, (3) Diameter at breast height (DBH) and species of tree supporting nest, and (A) distance between nests. Nest height and water depths were measured from the canoe by using a tape measure that was at¬ tached to a cane pole. Distances between nests were measured by planting the end of the cane pole into the creek bottom below a nest and attaching a tape measure to the pole. The tape measure was let out as the canoe was slowly paddled to the next nest. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The nests consisted of various size twigs that were attached to a supporting limb over the water. Contrary to the findings of Bent (1926), Harrison (1975), and Imhof (1976), there was no evidence of finer materials lining the nests. A total of 25 nestlings were ob¬ served. Table 1 contains the physical and biological data. The number per nest ranged from 1 to 4 with an average of 2.5 per nest. Six of the 17 nests contained no eggs or young. Twelve of the 25 nestlings were successfully caught and banded with Fish and Wildlife Service aluminum leg bands. The approximate age of the nestlings varied from 2 to 5 weeks with the majority in the 5-week stage. All banded nestlings appeared to be healthy. Data for six nests found destroyed on 21 July 1980 are not presented in Table 1. On 24 May 1980 there had been a total of 9 nestlings (0-3 per nest) at approx¬ imate ages of 3 or 5 weeks old. Seven of these birds were banded (1187-70106 through 1187-70112). The horizontal distance between nests ranged from 4.9 to 92.1 m with an average of 24.2 m. Harrison (1975) reported distances of 3.7 to 7.6 m. As expected, there was never more than one nest per tree (Bent 1926) . The height of the nests above the water surface ranged from 2.6 to 11.9 m, with an average of 2.3 m. In other published data Bent (1926) reported heights of 12.1 to 21.3 m, Harrison (1975) reported heights of 0.3 to 15.2 m and McVaugh (1975) reported heights of 2.1 to 4.3 m. Although there was considerable variation in nest heights, the nests were always built on the limb closest to the water which could support them. Bent (1926) has suggested that the nests may be built in this position to give eggs and nestlings the benefit of the shade of the upper branches. On the day that these measurements were taken the water depth below the nests ranged from 0.8 to 1.2 m. Because of the limited accessibility, the dimensions of only one nest could be measured. The outside diameter was 1.25 m, the inner diameter was 0.63 m and the depth was 0.06 m. Harrison (1975) re¬ ported the outside diameter as 0.51 m and Bent (1926) described a nest in Florida as ”20 by 16 inches," (0.51 m by 0.1 m) . Palmer (1962) stated that sticks may be added to the nest after young hatch. 6 Drennen, Hunt and King This may be the reason for the apparent large outer diameter of the nest. Yellow-Crowned nests may be built similarly to Black-Crowned Night Heron (Nytiaorax nyticovax) nests (Dusi 1966). Trees supporting the nests (Table 1) were mainly red ash and tupelo gum. Nests were found less frequently in smooth blackhaw (Viburnum pruni f 'oleum ) , oak and swamp dogwood. The DBH ranged from 0.32 to 2.2 m. Dusi (1966) described the behavior of the birds as "slow and stupid", while Plamer (1962) noted that when disturbed by man there were "no distraction displays, but adults tended to remain quietly near the nest..." The adults in our study were observed at times to call and fly overhead. Audubon (cited in Palmer 1962) found that many adults seemed to circle around to watch an intruder at the nest. Johnstone (1965) reported that sudden noises frightened birds from the trees. When we disturbed the nestlings many defecated or regur¬ gitated food. This may have been a displacement activity resulting from high-intensity motivation (Van Tyne 1976) and/or a defense mechanism. When the regurgitated food was analyzed in the field it consisted mainly of crayfish parts. Similar to what Palmer (1962) described, some of the inner surfaces of the nests were stained pink from the exreta of young fed crayfish. CONCLUSION The physical nesting and behavioral characteristics of the Yellow Crowned Night Heron were reported. The herons constructed one nest per tree with distances between the nests ranging from 5 to 24 m. In some cases the distances were greater than 50 to 90 m. The significance of these measurements were not clear. On the one hand, a "loose colony" of herons that does not concentrate their activities within a specific area are less likely to be noticed by predators. On the other hand, individuals of a "loose colony" that covers a large amount of stream bank (2400 m in our case), may not be able to communicate readily with each other about possible dangers. The significance of nest height, depth of water, and DBH of nest tree were also difficult to assess. They are determined by such environmental variables as microclimate, storm damage, flooding, density of foliage, nutrition, predation, and others. Many similar studies have shown variable and conflicting results (Welty 1975). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the following people for their assistance: Dr. J. L. Dusi and Dr. J. D. Freeman of Auburn Univer¬ sity, James A. Seay and D. C. Neel. 7 Table 1. NEST DATA Yellow-Crowned Night Heron i i CM o I ' — I I o CO o I I UO o 03 X o u cl cu CL oo < <0 co cu cu UO CN CO o •H ,£3 Q 03 0) 0 u C ^ p 2 = -1.325 (T) + 0.047. The average body temperature (T) throughout the hibernating season was determined by continuous measurements of burrow temperature. These measurements revealed that the "average" temperature experienced by C. sexlineatus was 15.4° C for males and 15.5° C for females. From these data it was calculated that the energetic cost of hibernation is 6.6 kcal/season for males and 7.3 kcal/season for females. Stored energy in the form of abdominal fat bodies, even if it were all used, is insufficient to pay the energic cost of hibernation. PLANT PROPAGATION FOR CLASSROOM USE FROM SUPERMARKET FRUITS, SEEDS AND VEGETABLES Thomas Cochis and Kenneth E. Landers. Dept, of Biology, Jacksonville State Univ. , Jacksonville, AL 36265. A demonstration was presented on plant propagation for the classroom using common supermarket fruits, seeds and vegetables. Examples in¬ cluded orange, grapefruit, lemon, avacado and pineapple. The use of bean, pea, peanuts and watermelon seed was also discussed. Propaga¬ tion with vegetables included the carrot, sweet potato, Irish potato and onions. The anatomy of the various plant organs was discussed along with the various propagation techniques. Mature plants of some species were shown. Some of these also make valuable houseplants. GROWTH, PROPAGATION, AND PRESERVATION OF FIGS IN NORTH ALABAMA Kenneth E. Landers, and Thomas Cochis. Dept, of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Figs for home use are frequently grown adjacent to building founda¬ tions in North Alabama. Cold weather damage is apparently reduced by mulching and using a building or hedge as windbreak. Cuttings are easily rooted and used as a source of new plants. Fruits may be eaten fresh, canned as preserves, or dried for use in cakes. Commercial pro¬ duction of figs does occur, but may not be highly successful due to lack of market and a large home production. 37 Abstracts CHEMISTRY THE SYNTHESIS OF NEW DIALKYL DERIVATIVES OF 5-HYDROXYHAEMOPYRROLE Philip E. Morris and John M. Beaton, Neurosciences Program, Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Various oxidized pyrroles such as 5-hydroxyhaemopyrro le and krvpto- pyrrole have been implicated in hepatic porphyria and numerous psychi¬ atric disorders. These compounds have also been shown to have be¬ havior disrupting effects on food deprived rats run on a variable interval schedule of food reinforcement. The dialkylamino deriva¬ tives of haemopyrrole were prepared by the acid catalyzed cycliza- tion of ch loropyruvic acid and 2-butanone to produce the 3-chloro- methyl-4, 5-d imethyl -5 -hydroxy-2 -oxo-2, 5 -di hydrofur an. Th is 1 actone was then treated with either dimethylamine or diethylamine at 0°C in ether to produce the 3-dialkylaminomethyl-4,5-dimethyl-5-hydroxy- 2-oxo-2,5-dihydrofuran as a red oil, which was distilled (short path) j_n vacuo. The resulting 3-dialkylami nol actone was then reacted with SOC 1 o at 0°C in a solvent mixture of chloroform and pyridine to produce 3 -di alky lami nomethyl -4, 5 -dimethyl -5-ch loro-2 -oxo-2, 5- dihydrofuran. The 5-chloro lactone was finally converted to the 1 actam, 3-dialkylami nomethy 1-4, 5 -dimethyl -5-hydroxyhaemopyrro le, by the action of a large excess of liquid ammonia under 80 psi for 24 hours. The chemical kinetics of the formation of intermediates will be discussed as well as the unsuccessful attempts to produce these compounds by acid catalyzed cyclization of dialkylamino-2- keto-propanoic acid and 2-butanone. The structures of all inter¬ mediates and products were confirmed by infrared and mass spectro¬ scopy. (Supported in part by the Alabama Consumer Fund.) THE APPLICATION OF NMR TO PROBLEMS IN INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Charles L. Watkins and Gerald S. Vigee, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. The general availability of multinuclear Four i er-Transform nmr spectrometers should provide many new opportunities for the under¬ standing of the structure, bonding, stereochemistry, and mechanisms of formation of organometa 1 I i c complexes. In addition, dynamical and thermodynamic information concerning exchange mechanisms in the coordi¬ nation spheres of transition-metal complexes can be easily obtained. Two examples will be given. A solvent adduct study of 1 ,4 , 8 , 1 1 - te t ra- azacyc 1 ote t radecane nickel ( I I ) perchlorate with the Lewis bases acetoni¬ trile, N , N-d ime thy 1 f ormam i de , methyl sulfoxide, and water is reported. The thermodynamic parameters for adduct formation are given for each solvent system. A chemical dynamics study of substituted 1,3,2 - dio- xarsol anes will demonstrate how the ^H nmr spectrum is dependent on the stereochemistry of the f i ve-membe red ring and its interconversion rate between favored conformers. 38 Abstracts STUDIES IN THE BIOSYNTHESIS OF PENTOSTATIN David C. Baker and Jeff C. Hanvey, Department of Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa), AL 35486. pentostatin (covidarabine , Co-v) is an unusual nucleoside that is isolated from str eptomyces antibioticus and is an inhibitor of adenosine deaminase (ADA). Structurally a 2 1 - deoxy-/3-D-erythropentofuranosyl nucleoside having an unique, 1 , 3-d i a zepi ne ring system in the heterocycle, the compound has attracted considerable interest in the fields of cancer chemotherapy because of its unusually potent, tight-binding properties (K^= 2.2 x 10~12) against ADA. The biosynthesis of the nucleoside is a scientific curiosity, particularly in light of the unusual heterocyclic ring system. The studies described are directed toward elucidating the biochemical pathway to Co-v. Full descriptions of several possible biochemical routes, along with details of the incorporation of radiolabeled intermediates, will be presented. POTENTIAL TERPENE PRECURSORS FOR RA2DAN SYNTHESIS OF A- 1 -TETRAHYDROCANNAB I NOL Robert L. Settine and Jamil Talhouk, Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama in Birmingham, AL 3 529 4 , The Razdan1 synthesis of A- 1 -tetra hydrocan nab i no! has become of recent interest due to the use of these type compounds as potential medicinal agents. This laboratory has previously reported2 a synthesis of olivitol, which can be envisioned as one half of the starting material for the Razdan procedure. This research effort deals with the synthesis of various terpene precursors, whose common acid catalyzed intermediate make them usable for A- 1 -tetrabydrocannab i no! synthesis. Thus, the synthesis of 3~p i nene-2-ol , 2-ca rene-4-ol , and p-mentha-2 , 8-diene-l-ol are reported using the decomposition of their tosy 1 hydra zones 3 as a key intermediate step . 1 R.K. Razdan, H.C. Balzell and G.R. Handrich, J, Am. Chem. Soc. 96:5860, 1974. 2 S.A. Barker and R.L. Settine, Org. Prep, and Proc. Int. _1J : 8 7 , 1 979 - 3 W. Reid and R. Dietrich, Chem. Ber. 94:387, 1961. 39 Abstracts SYNTHESIS OF SULFUR ANALOGS OF 3 ( R) , 2 ( S) -3 ( ADEN IN-9- YL) - 2-HYDROXYNONANE David C. Baker, L. D. Hawkins and J. Farrest Taylor, Department of Chemistry, The university of Alabama, University (Tuscaloosa), AL 35486. Sulfur analogs of the semi-tight binding adenosine deaminase inhibitor ( _L) - ejry_tj2jro - 9 - ( 2 - h y d r o x y - 3 - nonyl) adenine, wherein the alkyl side-chain is replaced by the SR function, have been synthesized. The project is aimed toward examining the effect of side-chain length, using the allosteric substitution of sulfur for a -CH2- group, with the idea of developing structure-activity relationships. Carbohydrate precursors, derived from L- rhamnose, were employed for the synthesis of (S)-2- ben zy 1 o xypr o pana 1 (_l ) . _l was converted using RSH to the respective dialkyl dithioacetal ( 2 ), which was subsequently brominated and coupled to pe r (TMS) aden i ne to give the 2-0- benzyl protected acyclic nucleoside. Chemistry carried out to date will be discussed. Synthesis and NMR of Spectroscopic Study of N-V i ny 1 aery 1 ami de Chen Chang and Dr. Thomas L. St. Pierre, Chemistry Department, University of Alabama in Birmingham, University Station, Birmingham, Alabama 35294. N- v i ny 1 ac ry 1 ami de may not be prepared for normal vinylation reactions. It is prepared instead of condensing two moles of acrylamide with one mole of acetaldehyde followed by pyrolysis. Its synthesis can be summarized below: 2CH. = CHCONH. + CH,CH0 acid, CH.CH, (NHCOCHCHj „ + Ho0 2 2 5 - 1 3 3 | 2 2 2 heat^ CH2 = CHCONHCH = CH2 + CH2 = CHC0NH2 Compound 1 was prepared in good yield at room temperature and was pyrolyzed by kugelrohr apparatus to obtain compound 2. Complete purification could be accomplished by recrysta 1 i zat ion from benzene- hexane. The 1H NMR spectra of the product at 90 MHZ and at 300 MHZ is consistant with the structure of N-v i ny 1 aery 1 ami de . At 300 MHZ selected protons were decoupled in order to understand the N-vinyl pattern. The cis/trans amide isomerization complicates one of the N-vinyl peaks. 40 Abstracts SELECTIVE OXIDATION OF STEROIDAL 7,14-DIENES BY m-CHLOROPERBENZOIC ACID Edward J. Parish, Dept, of Chemistry, Auburn University, AL 36849 Treatment of 3g-benzoyloxy-cholest-7,14-diene(l ) with m-CPBA under controlled conditions has been shown to produce 3g-benzoyloxy-14a,15a- epoxy-cholest-7-ene(ll ) in high yield. Reaction of this product with alcoholic potassium hydroxide yields cholest-8(14)-ene-3g,7a,15a~ triol (III) by an ring opening mechanism. These studies have been extended to the 4,4-dimethyl -7-1 4-diene system(IV). Treatment of IV with m-CPBA results in the direct forma¬ tion of diol V, which may be saponified to the known trio! VI. Inter¬ mediate V is postulated to arise via the acid catalized ring opening of a labile 14a, 1 5a-epoxide intermediate similar to the isolated intermediate II. LEAD SELECTIVE ELECTRODE USE FOR INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE Thomas Pierce. Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of North Alabama, Florence, Alabama 35632. During a ten year period ion-selective electrodes (ISES) have found application to a wide variety of disciplines. Given their portability and apparent simplicity, lead ISES are attractive for Industrial Hygienists concerned with inorganic lead measurement. This paper compares the advantages and drawbacks of ion specific electrode analysis with the standard atomic absorption procedures for lead . The findings indicate that even though the I SE should not be relied upon as a primary analytical tool for lead, it may be useful for range finding and independent verification of results obtained in another manner. 41 Abstracts PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS AND PESTICIDES IN WILD LOUISIANA HERON EGGS Charles D. Duncan, Department of Chemistry, Robert J. Graves and Robert L. Settine GC/MS Center, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birming¬ ham, AL 3529*4 Eggs from Louisiana Herons, Hydranassa tricolor, were collected from Cat Island, Alabama, near the mouth of Mobile Bay during April 1978. We report here the development of computer-assisted gas chromatograph/ mass spectrometry methodology allowing simultaneous analysis, at parts- per-billion sensitivity, of both pesticide and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) compounds with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons derived from low- level chronic oil pollution. We also report the analysis of four eggs from this sample, showing the first known accumulation of hydrocarbon contaminants in wild bird eggs. Since the study animal is virtually exclusively piscivorous, we comment on the results as a useful biologi¬ cal monitor of marine pollution. SYNTHESIS OF METHYL-p- ( 2-BEN Z IMIDAZOLYL) METHYLPHENOXY CARBOXYLATE David c. Baker and Patricia A. Goodson, Department of Chemistry, The University of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa), AL 35486. The title compound (_i) and its corresponding hydrazide have demonstrated activity against tobacco mosaic virus in vitro. Since viral and cancer activity occur at about the same cellular level, and since many benzimidazole derivatives have been found to exhibit antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial, and antimalarial activities, these two compounds along with two derivatives, N-(p- hydroxybenzylidene) -p- (2-benzimidazolyl) methylphenoxy car¬ boxylic acid hydrazide and N- (2-furf urylidene)-p- (2- benzimidazolyl) methylphenoxy carboxylic acid hydrazide were of interest for possible anticancer activity. The synthesis of these four compounds will be discussed. an INFRARED STUDY OF THE REACTION OF DIOXYGEN WITH MnBr2PPhMe2 S.D. Worley, W.E. Hill, and V.F. Newberry, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 The complex MnBr2PPhMe2 is reported to react reversibly with dioxygen as a function of pressure. The complex has been prepared as a surface on a KBr window in a vacuum infrared cell by sublima¬ tion of MnBr2 and exposure to phenyldimethylphosphine vapor. The reaction of the complex with dioxygen was followed by infrared spectrometry . 42 Abstracts ALKYL DERIVATIVES OF THE PENTOSTATIN AGLYCONE David C. Baker and shiv D. Kumar, Department of Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa) at 35486. A number of N3-alkyl derivatives of the pentostatin aglycone have been synthesized and their adenosine deaminase inhibitory properties studied. The potencies of these alkyl derivatives are significantly lower than either the 3-B-D- ribof uranosyl (coformycin) or the 3-/3-D-2-deoxyr ibof uranosyl (pentostatin) analogs, but these are considerably tighter binding than the free heterocyclic base. Full details of synthesis and enzymology will be discussed. OH R= K x i CH - 73 PhCH - 84 jo-MeOPhCH2- 13 2-ClPhCH2- 6. HOCH2CH OCH - H - 10 M. >100 MICROCOMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN UNDERGRADUATE CHEMISTRY Charles L. Watkins and Larry K. Krannich, Dept, of Chemistry, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 The introduction of microcomputer systems has revolutionized experi¬ ments in the chemistry laboratory. Microprocessor-based systems can use the experimental data to control an instrument and can be used for real¬ time data analysis. Microprocessor controlled instruments are common in industrial, clinical, and medical laboratories and graduate programs in which our former students work. We are integrating microcomputer exper¬ ience into the undergraduate chemistry classrooms and laboratories to prepare our students to be viable practitioners of their discipline in their chosen professions. As a co-recipient of a NSF CAUSE grant, our department has been able to accelerate its efforts in introducing micro¬ computer systems into the undergraduate curriculum. Students are gain¬ ing experience with computer articulated experiments and real-time interactive computing for problem solving skills. We will discuss what is being carried out under NSF CAUSE support, availability of software for microcomputers, and our plans in chemistry. Software will be demonstrated and time will be available for hands-on use of the Apple 11+ microcomputer with selected software applications to chemistry. 43 Abstracts CELLULOSE HYDROLYSIS IN PHOSPHORIC ACID SOLUTION Michael B. Moeller and Raymond E. Isbell, Dept, of Chemistry Univ. North Alabama, Florence, AL 35G32. Waste cellulosic materials may be converted into fermentable sugars through the hydrolysis of the cellulose polymer. It has been suggested that the substitution of phosphoric acid for the conventional dilute sulfuric acid as the hydrolysis catalyst could improve the economics of the production of ethanol from waste cellulose sources. The expense of the acid would be defrayed by the production of a co-product, dicalcium phosphate, which would be marketed as a fertilizer. We have measured the reaction rates in phosphoric acid solutions and compared the results with rates achieved with dilute sulfuric acid. Phosphoric acid was found to be much inferior to sulfuric acid as the catalytic agent. A solution of 8.0 wt . percent phosphoric acid had the approximate activity of 0.8 wt . percent sulfuric acid. The pertinent reaction kinetics for the acid catalyzed production of glucose from cellulose consist of consecutive, pseudo-first order reactions. The first reaction forms glucose from cellulose and a subsequent reaction decomposes the glucose. Our studies indicate that the glucose decomposition reactions are similar with the two acids but that the mechanisn for the cellulose hydrolysis may be different with phosphoric acid than with sulfuric acid. This research has been supported by the Tennessee Valley Authority, Contract No. TV 50532A. DIAZOHYDROXIDES: REACTIVE INTERMEDIATES AS ANTICANCER COMPOUNDS David C. Baker and Carol N. Richmond, Department of Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa), AL 35486. Diazotization of several am inoheterocycl ic compounds (I) under dry, basic conditions has led to the isolation of the corresponding diazohydroxides (l_l) (see scheme below), which are of interest in cancer chemotherapy. The preparation, isolation and phy s i ochem i ca 1 characteristics of these compounds will be discussed. Het-NH2 _ — — > Het-N=N-0- Na+ (I) (II) a. _i-Amyl 0N0 , NaNH2 , THF 44 Abstracts THE CATECHOLASE ACTIVITY OF BINUCLEAR COPPER COMPLEXES Gerald S. Vigee, Dept, of Chemistry, University of Alabama in B'ham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Spin coupled dicopper moieties are found at the active sites of copper enzymes and are used more frequently as catalyst is the oxida¬ tive synthesis of new compounds. Both enzymes and industrial type catalysts are used to oxidize catechols with dioxygen but the oxidase mechanism(s) is/are unknown. One proposed mechanism utilizes the di¬ copper as a site on which the catechol and oxygen come together for catechol oxidation: This mechanism shows no charge in the oxidation state of copper (II) during catalysis. The second mechanism requires a change in copper (Cu(II) to Cu(I)). Cu By kinetics and electrochemical studies we will test some aspects of the second mechanism SILICON AND GERMANIUM ESTERS AND THEIR REACTION WITH GRIGNARD REAGENTS McDonald Moore, Sr., Deborah A. Colvin, and Edwina McMi Ilian. Department of Chemistry, S. D. Bishop State Junior College, Mobile, Alabama 36690 This report describes the synthesis and properties of three new silicon esters. Hexapropionoxyd is iloxane and he x abe nz oxy d i s i 1 oxa ne have been prepared from hexachloro- disiloxane and the sodium salts of the organic acids. D i s e b a c oxy s i 1 a ne has also been prepared from tetracholoro- silane and anhydrous sodium sebacate. These silicon esters react with water, alchol, and ammonia. They decompose when heated. Ether solution of he xap r op ionoxy d i s i 1 oxan e reacts with phenylmagnesium bromide to produce propio- phenone, e thy Id ipheny lcarb ino 1 , and a silicone. Te t r abu t y r oxyge r mane also reacts with benzy Imagens ium bromide to form t e t r ab e nzy 1 ge r man ium and bis (tribenzyl- germanium) oxide. 45 Abstracts CROWN ETHER MEDIATED REACTION OF THIOCYANATE WITH A CHLOROSULFURANE M. Eggers and P. Livant. Department of Chemistry, Auburn University, Alabama 36849 The reaction of thiocyanate ion and catalyzed by 18-crown-6 with chlorosulfurane 1 in CH2C12 was explored as a route to thiocyanato- (on isothiocyanato) sulfurane 2. The reaction proved to be complex, products 3, 4, 5, and 6 being identified by comparison with authentic samples, while 1 was identified by microanalysis. At certain levels of 18-crown-6, llMR evidence of sulfurane 2 was obtained. However, 2 has not yet been isolated. Studies directed at elucidating a mechanism for the reaction of 1 with SCN will be discussed. SYNTHESIS OF EHNA AND ITS ISOMERS FROM CHIRAL PRECURSORS David C. Baker and L . D . Hawkins . Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Alabama, University, AL 35486 The synthesis of both isomers of EHNA ("ery throhydroxynonyladenine") from D- and |,-rhamnose is described. The key intermediate (R)~ and (£>)- 2-benzyloxypropanal, derived respectively from 5-0-benzyl-D- and \±- rhamintol, was condensed with hexylmagnesium bromide to give a 3:1 mixture of threo: ery thro alcohols. Conversion of the threo alcohols to their mesylates, displacement of the latter with adenyl sodium, followed by debenzylation, afforded the desired ery thro species in both series. The 2(S), 3(R)-3- (adenin-9-yl)-2-nonapol isomer ("L-EHNA") was found >80-fold more tightly bound to adenosine deaminase (Ki = 7.64 X 10-10 m.) than its 2(R), 3(S)-isomer (Ki = 6.23 X 10-8 M.). In addition, the ery thro alcohols were converted to the threo derivatives, the 2 (J3) , 3(S)~ and 2(R), 3(R)- isomers, by an identical set of reactions. 46 Abstracts NEW AND NOVEL HETEROCYCLES RELATED TO THE PENTOSTATIN AGLYCONE David C. Baker and L. D. Hawkins, Department of Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa), AL 35486 . The syntheses of analogs of the potent adenosine deaminase inhibitor pentostatin, (R) -3- (2-deoxy-ff-D-erythro- pentof uranosyl-3 ,6 ,7 ,8-tetrahydroimidazo [4,5- d] [1,3] diazepin-8-ol , are being carried out in these laboratories. The synthetic approaches toward 6-hetero- 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 - b e n z i m i d a z o 1 e s using methyl l-benzyl-2- mercaptoimidazo carboxylate as the starting material are to be discussed. A NEW ACYCLIC NUCLEOSIDE: 2 ( S) ,3 (R) -1— ( ADENIN-9-YL) -2,3, 5-TRI HYDROXY PENTANE David C. Baker and Thomas U . Carr II, Department of Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa), AL 35486. A s te r eo spec i f i c synthesis of 2 (5j ,3 (R) -1- (Adenin-9-yl) ~ 2,3 ,5-tr ihydroxypentane (j[) from L-arabinose is described. The key intermediate 2-deoxy-L-erythro-pentose diethyl dithioacetal ( 1 1 ) was pr epa r ed~by a route involving the formation and reduction of a ketene dithioacetal. Selective tosylation of II, followed by acylation, and adeninylation using adenin-9-yl sodium gave the desired, protected acyclic sugar nucleoside (ill). Subsequent deacylation, demercap- talation and borohydride reduction of III gave the title compound. Full details of the synthesis will be presented. SOLUTION PROPERTIES OF MOLYBDENUM ( I I ) THIOACETATE AND DITHIOACETATE Thomas R. Webb, Austin H. Reid, and Billy P, Bradford, Department of Chemistry, Auburn University, AL 36849 The binuclear molybdenum(II) thioacetate and dithioacetate complexes form axial adducts with a number of Lewis bases. Spectroscopic studies indicate that the axial binding is rather weak. The thioacetate exists in solution as a mixture of isomers. The isomers interconvert on the nmr time scale at higher temperature; a 1,2-shift is proposed as the mechanism. 47 Abstracts 3-DEAZACORDYCEPIN : A CHEMICAL APPROACH David C. Baker, F. Leslie Boyd and L.D. Hawkins, Department of Chemistry, The university of Alabama, University (Tuscaloosa) , Al 35486. An approach to the title nuclesoide involves the following: (1) the synthesis of 4,6 -dichloroimidazo[4 ,5- c]pyridine (i_) according to the procedure of Rousseau and Robins [ J. He t. Chem. 2 , 196 (1965)] ; (2) the synthesis of 1, 2-di-Q-acetyl-5-0- ben zoyl-3-deoxy-p-erythro pentose (II) by a modification of the procedure of Nair and Sinhababu [ J , Ojrg^ Cj}e£Li 12' 5013(1978)]; (3) a nucleoside coupling reaction between tr imethylsilylated I_ and l_l_ using tin(iv) chloride as a Lewis acid catalyst. Details of these reactions will be discussed. SYNTHESIS AND ANTIVIRAL ACTIVITY OF SOME 5 ' -C- ACETIC ACID DERIVATIVES OF ARA-A David C. Baker and Richard p. Crews, Department of Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa), AL 35486. The synthesis of l- ( aden i n-9-y 1 ) - 1 »5 ,6- 1 r ideoxy-|3-D- arabinohepto-l,4-furanose, l-(adenin-9-yl)-l,5,6-trideoxy-/3- D— a r a b i nohep to- 1 , 4 - f ur an u r ona m i de and related compounds from N-benzoyl-9-(2, 3-d i-0-benzoyl-j3-D-arabinof uranosyl ) adenine Ts reported. similar syntheses using other nucleosides as precursors have resulted in biologically active products. This work represents the first reporting of antiviral activity for this group of compounds. Details of the chemistry will be presented. DI-TERT-BUTYLDI METHYLS I LYL DERIVATIVES OF ARA-A David C. Baker and Richard p. Crews, Department of Chemistry, The university of Alabama, university (Tuscaloosa) , AL 35486. 9 - ( 2 , 3-Di-O- ter t-butyld imethylsi lyl-fj-p-arabinof uranos- yl) adenine ( _1 ) is a useful compound "for the specific der i v i t i za t ion of the 5'-position of 9-/3-D-arabinof uranosyl- adenine. Synthesis of (_l) and other, related derivatives of ara-A, including the 2',5'-di-0-, 3',5'-di-0- and 2,,3',5'- tri-O-TBDMS compounds, further demonstrate the potential of t_e_r_t-butyld imethylchlorosi lane in specific protection of nucleosides. Details of the chemistry will be presented. 48 Abstracts BIVALVES AS INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Robert L. Settine, Robert J. Graves and Ken Marion, Un i vers i ty of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 3 52 9 ^ - A simple and sensitive procedure was developed for determining aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, EPA priority pollutants, PCB's and organoch 1 or ine pesticides. The procedure involves cellular disruption, extraction, column chromatography, and fused silica capillary column GC/MS analysis. The method is applicable to a wide variety of organisms and allows the identification of the above mentioned contaminants with one GC injection. Using this method, Mobile Bay oysters (Crassostrea virginica) have shown compounds from all five groups listed. SECOND ORDER KINETICS FROM A BICYCLIC AZO COMPOUND Charles D. Duncan, Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 The synthesis of bicyclic azo compound, I, reported to yield a cyclic tetramethyleneethane bi radical is described, as is a convenient method for monitoring its reaction kinetics. At 0.13 M concentration, unlike most azo or d i azo compounds, its reactions are not un imol ecu 1 a r . De¬ composition rates at 100.20°C show second order kinetics, and half-life is dependent on initial azo concentration. A mechanism for this second order process is considered. X GEOLOGY GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION AIDS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE LOCATION Philip Stroud. Dept, of Geology and Norman Bayne Cranford, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849. Wilcox County is in the Gulf Coastal Plain. The Northern tenth, about 90 square miles, is within the outcrop area of Cretaceous forma¬ tions and the southern nine-tenths is within the outcrop area of Ter¬ tiary formations. Quaternary flood-plain and terrace deposits border the Alabama River and its larger tributaries. The archaeological site being investigated is within the Alluvial deposit area of the Alabama River Quaternary flood-plain, and rock types consist of angular to rounded quartz, cherts and quartzite gravel. Sedimentol ogi cal research, grain analysis study, is continuing in the area in an attempt to locate ancient river meanders. There appears to be a con¬ nection between ancient river meanders and sites of early indian habi¬ tation. 49 Abstracts ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR RAPID DETERMINATION OF BEHAVIOR OF ELEMENTS IN ELECTRIC UTILITY SOLID WASTES DURING LEACHING Jim Redwine, Southern Company Services, Inc., Birmingham, AL 35203 Coal-fired boilers use more than 500 million tons of coal per year. This produces enormous quantities of fly ash. Utility companies must dispose of the ash. Very little is known about the behavior of fly ash when exposed to weathering. Laboratory leaching in a Soxhlet extractor gives an easy and rapid, though not necessarily chemically rigorous, means of predicting the behavior of elements during the leaching of fly ash. Known parameters in such experiments include (l) major, minor and trace element composition of the ash; (2) quantity of ash; (3) composi¬ tion of the leaching agent, especially pH; (U) temperature and (5) leaching time. A log-log plot of concentration in a lechate versus time leached, known as a CVTL curve, provides data on how an element behaves during leaching, and the element's distribution and bonding within ash particles. A straight-line curve with constant positive slope points to leaching ideality, that is, uniform distribution of a particular element within a sample, solubility within a particular leaching agent, and lack of secondary reactions between the elements being leached. Departure from ideal conditions causes departure from the ideal straight line curve. Since the CVTL curve measures rate, factors which affect rate of removal of an element during Soxhlet extraction changes the slope of this curve. These leaching experiments indicate the amount of a particular element in a leachate depends upon the amount of the element and its mode of bonding in the ash, the element's solubility in the leaching agents, duration of leaching, and the element's involvement in secondary reactions. CHITIN0Z0ANS IN THE FROG MOUNTAIN SANDSTONE John E. Sebastian, Dept, of Geology, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 368^9 Chitinozoans are reported for the first time in the Frog Mountain sandstone. The rock samples from which the chitinozoans were obtained were collected near the base of the Frog Mountain exposure in the Red Mountain expressway cut at Birmingham, Alabama. The rock samples were acidified in HC1 and HF. The chitinozoans were concentrated from the residues by flotation in zinc chloride and mounted on glass slides for examination. Three genera and seven species of chitinozoans, Angochitina devonica , Angochitina globasa, Angochil^lna sinica, Angochitina milanensis , Angochitina mourai , Ancyrochitina spinosa , Lagenochitina crassa have been identified. Five species, Angochitina globosa , Angochitina sinica, Angochitina milanensis , Angochitina mourai, Lagenochitina crassa, are only known from Devonian age rocks. Angochitina sinica has only been previously reported from Devonian age rocks in China. Ancyrochitina spinosa and Angochitina devonica have been reported from late Silurian and Devonian rocks. The occurrence of these microfossils indicates that the Frog Mountain sandstone at Birmingham is middle Devonian in age. 50 Abstracts THE WINSTON CAVE LOCAL FAUNA AND THE LATE PLEISTOCENE FAUNAL GRADIENT IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA Daniel R. Womochel, Dept, of Geology, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 3681*9 A Pleistocene mega- and micro-vertebrate fossil fauna of late Wisconsin age has been quarried from Winston Cave near Tuscumbia, Colbert County, in northern Alabama. Eighteen species of mammals, including five species of bats, have been identified from the cave. All genera and species are extant and still live in the area except Equus sp. and Mylohyus sp. The fossils are preserved in debris that filled a deep sinkhole. Erosion and cave expansion have undercut the sinkhole fill and exposed the fossils in the ceiling of the cave. The cave is situated on the boundary between the Appalachian Valley and Ridge Province and the Gulf Coastal Plain and the associated boundary between the Austroriparian and Carolinian biotic provinces. These boundaries are important transitional zones between modern mammalian faunal assemblages in the southeastern United States. Comparison of the Winston Cave fauna with other late Pleistocene cave faunas from this region and from further north in the Valley and Ridge provides a unique opportunity to assess the occurrence and significance of a late Pleistocene and postglacial change in the mammalian faunal composition and distribution in this area. Preliminary studies indicate that the mammal fauna of this area was either not influenced significantly by the Wisconsin glaciation or that the mammal fauna of this region attained a modern distribution and composition by late Wisconsin time. A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE INVERTEBRATE MEGAFAUNA ASSOCIATED WITH THE UPPER CLIFF COALS (EARLY PENNSYLVANIAN), PLATEAU COAL FIELD, NORTHERN ALABAMA Michael A. Gibson, Dept, of Geology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849. Abundant invertebrate fossil assemblages associated with the Upper Cliff Coals in the Early Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation have been located between Oneonta and Guntersville in Blount, Marshall and Jackson counties, Alabama. The fossil assemblages include fenestrate bryozoans, Pentrimites} blastoids, and columnal debris associated with a bioherm structure in southern Jackson County. This exposure has been interpreted to represent a distal bar facies. Exposures near Tatter's Knob and Berry Mountain, Blount County are dominated by productid brachiopods, pinnaceans, pectinaceans , and abundant trace fossils. Z oophycus is one of the most abundant genera of trace fossils encountered in these deposits. Many of the invertebrate fossils are preserved in living position. These deposits have been interpreted as interdistributary bayfill facies. The fossils and sediments indicate a marine to brackish water environment deposition. 51 Abstracts PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN LOWER PALEOZOIC CARBONATES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN VALLEY AND RIDGE PROVINCE Christopher John Crow, Dept, of Geology, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35203 Various structural and age interpretations have been applied to the dolostone, quartzite and chert terrains in the eastern Valley and Ridge province adjacent to the Talladega Front in Talladega, Cleburne and Cherokee Counties, Alabama. Ages ranging from Cambrian to Mississippian have been assigned to these terrains. Local fossil occurrences in some of these terrains demonstrate that some are of Lower Cambrian, Weisner and Shady, age. The purpose of this study is to correlate the trace element composition of some of these unfossiliferous carbonate terrains of uncertain age with those from carbonate terrains of known age containing fossils in this region of Alabama. The analytical method used is atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Samples from known carbonate units are prepared according to standard techniques. Replicate analysis of samples indicates a variance as great as 50% in iron and strontium. Average variance is found to be on the order of 25%. The variability is extreme and, at present, it appears to result from a lack of sample homogeneity. More sampling will be required in the units of known age, both within individual beds and across intervals involving several beds , to determine if observed ranges of trace element concentrations in these formations are consistant enough for comparison with formations of unknown age. LOCATION OF THE KYANITE-S ILLIMANI TE ISOGRAD IN THE TALLASSEE SYNFORM, DADEVILLE COMPLEX, ALABAMA Ian A. Walls and Michael J. Neilson, Dept, of Geology, The University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Within the Tallassee Synform, the widespread and definitive prograde regional metamorphic assemblage in the Agricola Formation is kyanite- bio t i te-garne t-muscovi te-plagioc lase-quar tz . Staurolite is absent. Based on work to date, the kyanite-sillimanite isograd (mapped on the first appearance of sillimanite in kyanite-bear ing rocks) has an irregu¬ lar and discontinuous pattern. North of Doss Mountain, the isograd ap¬ pears to be folded by an F^ (isoclinal) fold; but a relationship between the distribution of sillimanite-bearing rocks and the traces of fold axes of any generation is not evident in other areas. Textural analysis indicates that metamorphism was broadly synchronous with the first rec¬ ognizable deformation event. It is suggested that these rocks were subjected to T/P conditions within the kyanite stability field and that the irregular distribution of sillimanite-bearing rocks represents minor perturbations in the T/P regime. Conditions of metamorphism are esti¬ mated to have been at least 680°C and 7Kb. 52 Abstracts STRATIGRAPHIC BREAKS AND VERTICAL CONTINUITY David T. King, Jr., Dept, of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849. A stratigraphic break is an interruption in the completeness of the stratigraphic record. Stratigraphic breaks have a manifest presence in the stratigraphic record — indeed there are far more gaps than time- record. Stratigraphic breaks may be significant or insignificant with respect to time-record lost. Significant breaks, reflecting changes in environmental and/or tectonic regimen, are unconformities (nonconform¬ ities, angular unconformities, disconformities , or paraconformities) . Insignificant breaks, reflecting changes in environmental stage, are diastems (surfaces of erosion, scour, or non-deposition). Breaks may be recognized on physical, paleontological, and/or structural criteria. However, their significance is assessed on the basis of paleontological criteria, especially disconformities and paraconformities. In too many cases faulty or improperly applied paleontological criteria are used to ascribe significance to breaks that are diastems. In this way disconformities and paraconformities are described in stratigraphic sequences that otherwise display vertical continuity according to Walther's Law, Uniformitarianism, and the Rule of Simplicity. This vertical continuity should be a prime consideration in evaluating the significance of stratigraphic breaks. AN ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURAL FABRICS OF THE ROCKMART SLATE David M. Sibley, Dept, of Geology, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 36849. The Ordovician Newala, Lenoir, and Rockmart Formations near Rockmart, Georgia are situated in a reentrant of the Valley and Ridge Province into the Talladega Metamorphic Front. In this area these formations have a penetrative tectonite fabric. Analysis of bedding, bedding fold axes, cleavage, bedding-cleavage intersections, boudin axes, slate pencils, crenulation cleavage, crenulation lineations, and pebble lineations indicates the study area is divided into three fabric domains. In all domains bedding fold axes and bedding-cleavage intersections define a great circle, the pole of which plunges steeply to the northwest. The cleavage is approximately parallel to trend of the Talladega Front and is gently folded about an axis with a shallow eastward plunge. One set of crenulation lineations and pebble lineations are parallel to this axis. A sandstone lithologically similar to the Devonian Frog Mountain Sandstone, overlies the Rockmart Slate with angular unconformity and does not possess a cleavage. At one location, Rockmart Slate is absent and uncleaved Frog Mountain Sandstone lies directly above Newala. 53 Abstracts FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, CONSERVATION, AND PLANNING A GEOGRAPHIC APPROACH TO RETIREMENT Wilbur B. DeVall, President, Proxy Services Ltd., Auburn, AL 3683O Older people progress from the 3 R's of youth - 'readin, 'writin, and 'rithmetic to the 3 R's of old age - reminiscin', recallin', and rememberin'. The approach to retirement should be geared to a geographic base. While active, one should acquire information, mementos, and other reminders of countries, states, and local scenes which can then become the basis for reminiscing when confinement arrives during later years. The years spent in retirement must relate back to houses in which one lived, the streets and scenes which surrounded these houses, and the towns, states, and countries in which these places of abode occured. The farther away from one's birthplace one enters retirement the more meaningful will be these geographic references. The country most remembered will be the one in which born. It could also be one visited as a tourist or military person. After leaving a country or countries, reflections normally involve the language of the location, the monetary system, local customs, and places and buildings of interest. The symbols taken into retirement vary with the person and his background. Those most common include post cards, picture prints or slides, souvenirs, currency, brochures and leaflets, and books. The geographic approach to retirement can make the expectations of old age and confinement pleasant. Enjoyment of retirement comes from staying busy, recalling people met in the more active years and those with whom travel may have been a shared experience as well as the little incidents which occured and are remembered in the mind or when viewing pictures and other materials. PUBLIC LAND LAWS AND SETTLEMENT OF THE MOUNTAINS OF NORTHEAST ALABAMA Merilyn Osterlund. Department of Geography, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37920 Alabama was a public domain state and as land was opened for sale the more desirable agricultural land was quickly purchased; the less desirable mountain land was gradually alienated under the Graduation, Homestead, and Timber and Stone Acts. As recently as 1957, in northeast Alabama, there were tracts of unclaimed public land. In the rugged and isolated mountain areas are numerous abandoned homesites and only two occupied sites. The homes that occupied the abandoned sites were built to meet the requirements of alienating land under the Homestead Act. Currently at least 60% of the mountain land is owned by out-of-state corporations. 54 Abstracts ALABAMA'S 1982 LEGISLATIVE FORESTRY STUDY COMMITTEE REPORT Wilbur B. DeVall, President, Proxy Services, Ltd., Auburn, AL 36830 Five reports of Alabama's Legislative Forestry Study Committee have been submitted to the State's legislative body. Currently operating under Act No. 79“ 711, with a membership of fifteen, as defined in the Act, the Committee emphasizes land productivity, both for agriculture and forestry, wood residue utilization from logging operations and wood¬ using industries, use of prescribed fire to improve woodlands, getting non-managing landowners together to discuss their needs, establishment of a school of forestry at Auburn University, improving stewardship of lands owned by State agencies, and power generation for sale to utilities from wood-based industries. The Committee has accomplished several goals and these are reported on in the 1982 report. Recent budget in¬ creases for the Forestry Commission have permitted phasing in a system of aerial detection of wildfires in the Commission's ten Districts. The results of seven meetings held over the State in 1 38 1 were reported to the Governor in the area of improving and increasing productivity of forest lands. Periodic studies in Alabama have revealed that the forest industry has grown since I960 at a compound interest rate of nearly 12%. The Southern Solar Energy Center has funded five feasibility studies for potential wood energy installations. Legislation has been drafted Which, if passed, would encourage improved fire protection, use of pre- jscribed fire, and increased forest productivity. One new nursery site near Thorsby came into possession of the Forestry Commission as a result of the Committee's definition of this need. Other legislation is being ^developed which would enable the Legislative Fiscal Office, which maintains records on state-owned lands, to improve its system and make records available to state agencies having access to computer terminals. RELEVANCE 0 F PR ED ICT I V E MO D E LS TO HISTORIC SITE ANALYSIS IN THE T.M.R.D. David C. Weaver, Dept, of Geography, University of Ala., University, AL 35486 In 1978 The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers funded a study of the regional character of cultural resources in the vicinity of the Tennessee Tombigbee Waterway. One of the most important of the objectives of the Research Design was the structur¬ ing of analyses of the settlement system to test a variety of settlement models pro¬ posed by social scientists. It was anticipated that formulating and testing such settle¬ ment and economic models could produce a framework for evaluating the signifi¬ cance of the archeological sites, and a foundation for systematically selecting sites for extensive excavation as well as providing data for references on the operation of the social and political systems within the region. A number of models were selected for study in terms of their potential utility to mitigation activities. They Included a) models of cultural diffusion b) models of ethnic settlement forms c) models of type of settlement structures and d) models of relative location. The results of test¬ ing these models are discussed. 55 Abstracts ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL Noland C. Williams, Regional Planner, TVA, Nashville, TN 37203 Richard Holst, Planner, NW Ala. Council of Local Gov't. ,Sheffield,AL 35660 Cities and towns are increasingly recognizing the need for alternative methods of solid waste disposal. Landfilling, the most traditional method, is now viewed as an inappropriate method of doing away with munir cipal waste. Not only are operational costs increasing rapidly, but land acquisition costs are rising. Capital equipment, compactor trucks and bulldozers, are more costly and will be more in future years. Diesel fuel and gasoline will rise to unknown levels and are already straining the budgets of many municipalities. Land suitable for landfills in met¬ ropolitan areas is scarce and expensive. More importantly, citizens and public officials alike are beginning to realize that landfills are not a wise use of a limited natural resource — land. In addition to being a poor land use, landfills contribute to water pollution, through chemicals leaching into groundwater, and increasing air pollution from improper operating incinerators. As technology becomes more widespread, we are learning that much of the solid waste stream can be reused to generate income and energy. This is vital to municipalities, especially in light of the policies of the present administration. For these, and other reasons, resource recovery is being closely examined by many cities and towns. In addition to prolonging the life of existing landfills, re¬ source recovery offers other benefits as well. Some are: positive en¬ vironmental effects, potential for competitively priced stable energy production, which is attractive to industries, decreased waste disposal costs, reuse of materials, and creation of new jobs. ISSUES OF WASTE CONVERSION TO ENERGY Wayne R. Glass. Solid Waste Disposal Authority of the City of Opelika, Opelika, AL 36802 Many technologies exist for the conversion of wastes to usable forms of energy, but political, economic and institutional issues hinder the utilization of such technologies. The effect of these issues is par¬ ticularly apparent in the development of projects using municipal solid waste to produce energy, which serves to offset the cost of disposal. While the Southeast has generally been slower than other areas of the country in the development of these types of projects, several areas in Alabama have concentrated efforts on the conversion of solid waste to energy. An examination of several projects within Alabama reveals problems which impede rapid and smooth implementation of waste -to- energy technologies, such as developing financing for multi-million dollar facilities, public or political opposition and securing long term contracts for waste supply and energy sales. Lessons learned from existing or past projects can help other planners avoid or overcome similar problems. 56 Abstracts THROUGH THE CORRIDORS OF THE PLEISTOCENE WITH HOMO ERECTUS Mary Katherine Mclnnish and Andrea Priscilla Holland. Department of Geography, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001. During the Pleistocene glacial epoch, Homo erectus embarked upon a tremendous and incredible journey. His migrations began in his East African homeland. Those migrations covered a millennia, and involved thousands of miles. Despite harsh climatic conditions, despite the rigors of existence in new and sometimes adverse environments, erectus adapted to different environmental habitats, developed new tools, and diffused his characteristic culture as he traveled. Erectus became spatially and temporally dispersed over vast and differentiated geographical regions upon the completion of his tremendous and incredible journey. Erectus had explored and settled much of the Old World. PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS FORMATION OF ARMS IN SPIRAL GALAXIES : NEW EVIDENCE FOR A GRAVITIONAL MECHANISM Gene G. Byrd, Dept, of Physics arid Astronomy, University of Alabama University, AL 35486 Spiral galaxies show several varieties of arm patterns in their disks. Some show two main arms coining out from the nucleus. Others have a more chaotic pattern of many shorter arms. Galaxies that have two main arms can also have shorter arms or spurs branching off the main arms. The two-arm patterns are generally accepted to be a gravitational density wave traveling around the nucleus. Two mechan¬ isms have been put forward to explain the shorter arms or spurs in both the chaotic and two-armed spirals. First, the spurs are expanding fronts of star formation caused by supervovae. These fronts themselves subsequently have supernovae etc, and are stretched into arms by orbital motion in the galaxy disk. In the second explanation, the short arms are localized gravitational disturbances caused by orbiting lumps of gas and stars in the disk. Previous work on the morphology of the spurs has not been able to show which of these two mechanisms is correct. Using computer models, we have studied a spur in the nearest large spiral galaxy, M31, for which not only are morphological obser¬ vations available but also 21 cm radial velocity data over the disk. Comparison of the computer model results with the radial velocity and morphology data shows that this spur is a gravitational disturbance caused by a large cloud of gas and stars, NGC 206, in M31 ' s disk. Presumably other galaxies' spurs are caused in the same way. 57 Abstracts APPLICATION OF RESEARCH ON TEACHING-LEARNING TO TEACHING INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS Robert P. Bauman, Dept, of Physics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 Innovations in teaching have been plentiful, but usually based on a trial and error approach, on a behaviorist model, or centered around the curricular materials. Only within the last decade has there been a substantial exploration of the student and the mental processes of the student, in contrast to the logical arguments of the instructor. Results have been surprising and are now beginning to yield valuable information relevant to classroom teaching, especially in physics. Reproducible results from many investigators have shown a majority of college students are incapable of grasping the concepts that we con¬ sider fundamental to understanding introductory physics. Less plentiful but still impressive research results have shown that students can be changed, with proper techniques, so that they can comprehend the logic of science and mathematics. It has also been shown by several studies that conventional courses do little or nothing to accomplish this important goal. In fact, conventional courses require the typical student to acquire bad habits in order to pass, thus adding to the students' difficulties. Effective techniques include practice in pure problem solving on carefully structured examples, confrontation with logical difficulties in the context of very elementary subject matter, and especially the establishment of an active role for the student learner, in contrast to the conventional passive role of reading, listening, and repeating. ANALYSIS OF IMAGE SMEAR IN CRT DISPLAYS Clarence E. Rash and Jacob Becher*, US Army Aeromedical Research Labo¬ ratory, Fort Rucker, AL 36362 The increase in the use of cathode-ray-tube (CRT) displays for tar¬ get detection and recognition has placed an emphasis on the ability of these displays to accurately reproduce amplitude and phase information for dynamic targets. This analysis investigates the theoretical dynam¬ ic image degradation occurring at the display as a result of the inter¬ action between the target/sensor relative velocity, the CRT system scan rate, and the persistence of the display phosphor. Expressions are de¬ veloped to allow comparison of phosphors on the basis of modulation loss due to target/sensor motion. A model is developed which equates a tar¬ get having a spatial frequency (S) and moving with a horizontal speed (V) to a stationary target with a sinusoidal varying intensity of fre¬ quency, ft, equal to SV . The model verifies phosphor persistence as a major contributor to amplitude modulation loss and predicts several image artifacts such as "freezing" and apparent motion reversal. DISCLAIMER: The views of the authors do not purport to reflect the positions of the Department of Defense. (Para. 4-3, AR 360-5) 58 Abstracts FLUORESCENCE STUDIES OF MYOSIN SUBFRAGMENT-1 Robert C. Walton and Herbert C. Cheung*. Dept, of Biomathematics, Univ. of Ala. in B'ham, B'ham, AL 35294 Myosin ATPase is an energy transducing enzyme which is involved in the contractile mechanism. Nucleotide binding is known to induce structural changes at the active site. We have studied such changes which involve tryptophanyl residues located within the active proteoly¬ tic fragment, subfragment-1 (S-l). Fluorescence spectroscopy was used to investigate these residues and their accessibility to collisional quenching by KI . The Stern-Volmer plot displays a downward curvature indicating the presence of at least two populations of residues. The quenching results allowed us to construct the emission spectra of the quenched and unquenched residues. The emission maximum of the unquenched protein, the exposed residues, and the buried residues was 344, 350, and 335 nm respectively. The quantum yield of the exposed residues was 46% as compared to the unquenched protein, while the buried residues exhibited a quantum yield approximately 160-220% of that displayed by the unquenched protein. MgADP reduced the quenching by KI and blue-shifted the emission maximum by 4 nm, but had no effect on the emission maximum of the two populations of residues. These results are in agreement with the contention that nucleotide binding shifts the distribution of the two populations of residues toward a more overall non-polar environment. COMPUTER MODELING OF ELECTRICAL DISCHARGES Robert P. Bauman. Dept, of Physics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 Increasing attention to radiofrequency discharges, for etching surfaces, reaction of molecules, and deposition from plasma, has emphasized the lack of a good model for the discharge itself. Starting with procedures previously applied by Phelps and coworkers to study time-dependent phenomena in dc discharges, a program has been written to look at the time and space dependence of electrons, ions, and field parameters in rf discharges. Local field approximations give an equation for electrons and a similar equation for ions expressing time variation in terms of sources, sinks, and flux. This is combined with Poisson's equation for potential. Symmetrical boundary conditions are achieved with Milne's equation, setting macroscopic flux at the boundary equal to the kinetic theory expression for flux. An external resistance and natural tube capacitance are included. Empirical parameters for the gas properties are employed. The solution technique is Crank-Nicholson , time-centered implicit method with predictor-corrector step. The program allows for a variable spatial grid to increase detail in regions of maximum interest. The solution step is by matrix inversion of a tridiagonal matrix. 59 Abstracts A PARADOX OF CORIOLIS ACCELERATION OF FALLING BODIES Robert P. Bauman, Dept, of Physics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294. The Coriolis force is often a difficult concept for students to grasp. Like the centrifugal force it is fictitious, but as usually presented it is less easily observed directly. Simplified models, such as merry-go- rounds and spinning dancers, can be helpful. A particularly simple example is the tall flag pole, at the equator, from which a ball is dropped. Because the top of the pole is moving faster than the base, the ball is expected to fall in front of the base (to the east), and the distance is easily found in terms of the difference in speed and the time of fall. However, the answer disagrees with other methods of calculating the same quantity, and is, in fact, 50% greater than the answer obtained by conservation of angular momentum or by direct double integration of the Coriolis acceleration. The answer lies in the direction of the gravitational field (radial, not necessarily parallel to the initial vertical axis) and the nature of the trajectory. This is one of the few instances in which the difference between elliptical and parabolic trajectories has a major effect for objects close to the surface of the earth. USING AN APPLE COMPUTER WITH AN ESR SPECTROMETER Clint Carlisle and Chester Alexander. Dept, of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of Ala., University, AL 36486 We have recently acquired an Apple Computer for use in an ESR/ENDOR research lab, and this talk will describe some of our initial uses of this computer with the spectrometer. In particular, the computer is used, through an RS-232 interface, with a signal averager. First and second derivative ESR spectra can be plotted with high resolution graphics and the data can be analyzed in many ways with appropriate programs. Examples of kinetic data will be demonstrated with the com¬ puter . PLASMA ELECTRON HEATING BY TEST ELECTRONS M. D. Haworth and R. E. Kribel, Dept, of Physics, Auburn University, AL 36849 Initial results are given for plasma electron heating by istropi- cally injected monoenergetic test electrons in a DC multidipole plasma device. The experimental arrangement is described, along with the conditions under which electron-electron Coulomb collisions alone need to be considered. 60 Abstracts VACUUM HIGH PRECISION LASER INTERFERROMETER MEASUREMENTS OF LOW CTE QUARTZ AND GRAPHITE EPOXY C. J. Rives,* D. A. Gregory,* and J. H. Davis, Physics Depart., Univ. of Ala., Huntsville, AL 35899. J. G. Castle,* Sandia Labs, Albuquerque, NM 87185. A system for measuring the expansion of low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) materials has been constructed about a H.P. 5526-A laser measuring system. The vacuum (~ly) CTE measurements in the -150°F to +120°F range were made over a 6 month period on a 2.3" O.D. x 1/16” wall by ~.9 m long 59° wrap graphite epoxy (G/E) tube yielding CTE (a) values of 2,5 to 5 x 10-7/°F above ambient and 2 ± 1 x 10“7/°F below ambient temperature. To assure that the below ambient, ~10]i high open loop nature of the AL/L vs. T curves was not apparatus related, similar size quartz tubes (A and B) were checked and found to have only a 2y (negli- gable for quartz) open loop component. These two quartz tubes, A and B, had ambient CTE values 20% and 45% respectively higher than the average handbook value (.305 x 10-6/°F). The overnight microcreep diminished an order of magnitude during the first several cycles after the system had been reopened. DESIGN OF AN X-RAY MICROSCOPE FOR USE WITH AN EXTENDED RANGE X-RAY TELESCOPE Abd Kassim, S. Chao*, and D. L. Shealy*, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 This research has been carried out in response to the request from the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) , National Aeronau¬ tics and Space Administration, for designing an optimal x-ray micro¬ scope (confocal, glancing incidence, hyperboloid-ellipsoid, internally reflecting mirror system) that will couple with ATM experiment S-056 X-Ray telescope to an x-ray sensitive CCD detector. The desired result of putting a microscope between the telescope and the detector is the reduction of the telescope's high resolution. A ray tracing technique has been developed for computing the RMS spot radius and the point spread function. Calculations of the RMS spot radius as a function of the microscope's focal length, magnification, and mirror length have aided MSFC personnel in arriving at the final mitror design for optimum resolution of the system over the entire field of view. 61 Abstracts TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS DUE TO JOULE HEATING IN CONDUCTING MEDIA John H. Young, William J. Atkinson, and Ivan A. Brezovich, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 A general solution to the heat diffusion equation is given for the Joule heating of conducting media by steady- state electrical currents. The solution reduces the problem of solving the inhomogeneous diffusion equation to a simple boundary and initial value problem familiar to all intermediate- level students of physics, mathe¬ matics and engineering and should be useful in supple¬ menting problem material in boundary value and heat conduction courses. Examples of the method are given and it is further shown that the general steady-state temperature solution indicates that, under certain conditions, the electrical equipotential surfaces will also be isothermal surfaces . AXIAL MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENTS IN A VACUUM SPARK PLASMA Peter Beiersdorfer and Eugene J. Clothiaux, Dept, of Physics, Auburn University, AL 36849 The axial magnetic field generated by a vacuum spark plasma has been studied using inductive probes. A correlation between the onset and the strength of the axial field and the x-ray emission by the plasma is observed. It is found that the axial field strength is zero until the last x-ray burst has occurred. This shows that the mechanism that underlies the x-ray production has to preserve the axisymmetry of the current flow. The axial field is thought to be caused by a kink instability that disrupts the axisymmetry of the plasma thereby pre¬ venting any further x-ray production. METEORITIC SPECTRA Nicholas Gerontakis and Thomas J. Wdowiak, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Department of Physics, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 Meteoroid entry into the earth's atmosphere will be simulated. An examination of meteorite samples will be conducted by subjecting the samples at low air pressure to a high speed shockwave. A magnetically driven shock tube has been constructed for this purpose, allowing for shock wave speeds of up to Mach 22. Light emission from the samples will be analyzed with a Hilger E 612 F 5.7 2 prism spectrograph and a modified optronic Czerny - Turner spectrometer. 62 Abstracts Gravitational Acceleration of an Extended Rigid Body John H. Young, Department of Physics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35924 A derivation is given for the acceleration of the center of mass of an extended rigid body in a gravita¬ tional field. The lowest order corrections to the simple expression for the acceleration of a point mass are shown to involve the coupling of the inertia tensor of the body to field inhomogeneities. The significance of the size, structure, and orientation of the body is illustrated by the example of a spheroid in free fall in a spherically symmetric field. CHARACTERIZATION OF EASTERN OIL SHALES BY PROTON NMR J. W. Harrell, Jr. Dept, of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of Ala., University, AL 35486 A study has been made on some Devonian oil shales to determine the feasibility of using hydrogen pulse NMR to measure the oil yield potential of raw oil shale samples. Preliminary measurements show that the hydrogen in the kerogen can be distinguished from other forms of hydrogen in the oil shale on the basis of relaxation times, and a simple measurement technique has been adopted which is most sensitive to the slowly relaxing kerogen. Measurements made on Alabama oil shale and shale-kaolin mixtures are found to be linearly correlated with the amount of extractable oil as determined by the Fischer assay method . A SIMPLE METHOD FOR SOLVING THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION S. T. Jones, B. C. Harms, and S. Denham, Dept, of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Alabama, University, AL 35486. A simple scheme is described for numerically determining the eigenvalues of the schrodinger equation. The method applies to poly¬ nomial potentials and can be easily implemented on a microcomputer. The method of solution involves expansion of the wave function in terms of harmonic oscillator states. The coefficients of the expan¬ sion are determined, as a function of energy, by a recursion relation. The correct energy eigenvalue is determined by minimizing the norm of the wave function. The procedure converges rapidly, as will be illustrated by specific examples. Application of the procedure to a non-hermitian hamiltonian of interest in field theory leads to some unusual results. 63 Abstracts INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATING HASHING FUNCTIONS C. L. Friese, Dept, of Info. Systems, Auburn Univ. at Montg., Montg., AL 36193. Applications in computer science and data processing that utilize "random access" is of fundamental importance since the search time is not a function of the number of records to be searched. Quite simply stated, a hashing function is a rule, or set of rules that converts a key into an address. Many hashing functions have been described in the literature, however, the problem of which of these to select for a particular application depends not only on the distribution of addresses generated for a particular set of keys, but also very critically on the techniques utilized for resolving "collisions" or synonyms. The synonyms occur when different keys generate the same address, which is an unavoidable property of hashing function. Both the total number of synonyms and the distribution of the synonyms with respect to the addresses are thus important parameters to be utilized in evaluation of candidate hashing functions for a particular applation. These parameters depend, of course, on the distribution of the keys and hence each application must be evaluated independently. Techniques for the evaluation of a candidate hashing function in terms of the parameters will be presented. This is a critical step since the search for a "best" hashing function is infinite, when it is only necessary to find a function that is sufficient. The topic is not adequately covered without considering the critical influence of the method of synonym resolution on the criteria for a sufficient function. The choice of storage for the records also influences the criteria, and this effect will also be discussed. THE STATE OF THE STATE IN MIS Edward H. Kirsch School of Business, Auburn University at Montgomery; Alabama Medicaid Agency The author discusses the need for and current status of manage¬ ment information systems in the state government in eight functional areas; health and human services, financial, education, planning, natural resources and agriculture, criminal justice, transportation, and energy and utility regulation. He indicates that the state is generally behind industry in MIS development, but that new manage¬ ment is currently accelerating development. In a final statement, he indicates that the outcome of the forthcoming gubernatorial election could affect the MIS development. 64 Abstracts THE LABOR SUPPLY EFFECTS OF NONPECUNIARY CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT Philip Gregorowicz DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS, Auburn University in Montgomery The primary purpose of this research is to investigate the effects of a variety of variables reflecting the nature of the nonperu- niary conditions of employment on individual hours of work choices. Included in this set of variables are attitude variables and indices of worker job satisfaction; also included are such factors as physical working conditions, the existence of job hazards, and the nature of work activities. This study will focus on the independent labor supply affects of such non-monetary variables and their impact on the esti¬ mated coefficients of the more traditional variables used in empirical labor supply models. Analysis of the determinants of time allocation between market and nonmarket uses has focused on the impact of changes in wage rates and income. The estimated effect of these monetary variables on labor supply is highly dependent on controlling for individual taste diff¬ erences in the uses of time. This problem is particularly relevant in explaining the post-World War II stability in individual labor supply inspite of substantial increases in income. Also, empirical estimates of the income effect generally are inconsistent with economic theory. It is a maintained hypothesis in this research that the nonpecu- niary conditions of employment serve as useful proxies for individual tastes for work not captured by other variables. Their omission from labor supply models results in biased parameter estimates for the mone¬ tary variables. This study attempts to verify these beliefs. CHARACTERISTICS OF BUYERS AND SELLERS AT FARMER'S MARKETS IN ALABAMA W. Joe Free and Veronica A. Vitelli. Resource Economics Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660. The marketing systems for many horticultural crops are not well structured and small farmers not only face wide price variations but often cannot find buyers willing to handle their crop unless wholesale prices are severely discounted. For many producers where shipping buyers or producer's marketing associations are not available, direct markets to the consumer are an important alternative. As part of a broader project to identify and analyze impediments to effective market entry at local, regional, and national levels for southern fruit and vegetable producers having various resource endowments, TVA and Auburn University in cooperation with S129, surveyed farmers markets in Alabama. Survey results indicate that the 113 farmer-sellers at the markets sold one to six products with three being the average. Average plot size was 9.3 hectacres (23 acres). Estimated average purchase by the 118 consumers surveyed was $15.00 per visit. Twenty-four market managers were also surveyed. Survey results will be jointly published by the Auburn Experiment Station and as a Southern Regional Cooperative Bulletin. 65 Abstracts PRICING AND PRACTICE BEHAVIOR OF SELF-EMPLOYED PHYSICIANS James R. Seldon. Dept. Economics, AUM, Montgomery, AL 36193 Physician incomes after professional expenses in the East South Central Census Division in 1978 and 1979 were significantly above the mean for all U.S. physicians, even though Division per capita income was less than 82 per cent of the U.S. level. There were 26 per cent fewer physicians per capita in the ESC Division than in the U.S. as a whole, but the case was not simply one of restricted supply leading to higher prices. Reported ESC fees for standard medical and surgical services were consistently lower than in other Divisions. The higher average incomes resulted from those lower fees combined with twenty per cent more patient visits per hour of working time, and ten per cent more annual work¬ ing hours. Higher demand per physician combined with sim¬ ilar physician supply conditions could be responsible for higher incomes, but would also imply higher fees. Lower fees could result from lower demand levels, but should be accompanied by lower incomes. Several explanations, none entirely satisfactory, are suggested for the output-fees- income pattern. ESC practitioners may have different tastes and preferences for income versus leisure or may face dif¬ ferent auxiliary input prices. Alternatively they may face lower demands for their services at given prices but be more successful in practicing price discrimination. ESC phys¬ icians have adjusted so as to charge higher fees per hour of time spent in patient care, but unexplained is why phys¬ icians elsewhere have not adopted similar practice styles. "REINSTATED BY THE ARBITRATOR" H. Ellsworth Steele, Dept, of Economics, Auburn University, AL 36849 Labor arbitrators frequently order management to reinstate workers they have discharged, some with and some without back pay. The return of these workers to their old workplaces may be trau¬ matic for them, their supervisors and others. To explore this process, 51 cases from four manufacturing plants in the upper south were examined. Of these, 16 were explored through extensive interviews involving returned workers, supervisors, shop stewards and fellow- workers. Of the 51 workers, 43 not only returned to work but stayed long enough for their supervisors to rate them as "satisfactory" or "unsatisfactory." In the judgment of their supervisor, 60 percent of these returning workers became satisfactory employees. The present report focuses upon the experience of a young man who had been terminated for fighting with a fellow employee. Through the worker's eyes and those of his supervisors, shop stewards and fellow employees, the fairness of the arbitrator's award, the worker's reception upon return, his treatment by supervision, his work perfor¬ mance and his feelings toward the company and the union are examined. 66 Abstracts IMPLICATIONS OF THE 1980 RAIL DEREGULATION ACT ON ALABAMA GRAIN HANDLERS W. Joe Free. Resource Economics Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660. This paper discusses principles embodied in the rate provisions of the Staggers Act and the implications of these changes on Alabama grain handlers as a result of the Staggers Act. Five basic rail rate provi¬ sions of the Staggers Act are: (1) The Interstate Commerce Commission's (ICC) authority to regulate railroad rates applies only where no other competition exists, (2) The ICC can intervene if the rail industry is not earning adequate revenues, (3) Rail carriers have rate flexibility within limits, (4) A carrier participating in a joint rate movement that is not receiving an adequate share of the joint revenues may surcharge the traffic or cancel the joint rate and establish its own rate, (5) Carriers may enter into contracts for transportation services without regulation by the ICC. Some guidelines that Alabama grain handlers should consider in developing rate strategy in light of the new Act include: (1) Rates in existence on October 1, 1980 could have been challenged as unreasonable via the "savings-clause" before March 29, 1981, (2) Seek competitive transportation alternatives, (3) Develop a clear understanding of variable costs for transportation moves and negotiate, (4) Enter into contract rates for minimum volume shipments and steady flow of traffic, (5) Consider costs and benefits involved in purchasing the line. THE POTENTIAL FOR ELECTRONIC SELLING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES W. Joe Free and Veronica A. Vitelli. Resource Economics Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660. Technological advances in data processing and communications have made electronic trading possible. Sale by description is necessary for elec¬ tronic trading between parties in different localities. Electronic selling increased competition in the market place by improving market knowledge among buyers and sellers and enlarging the trade area by putt¬ ing a large number of sellers and buyers in contact simultaneously. It maximizes efficiency and competition in negotiated transactions. TVA is working with Land-Grant Universities, Farmers Cooperative Service, Eastern Electronic Association, and a number of fresh wholesale vegeta¬ ble markets to develop an electronic market system for fresh fruits and vegetables. Fresh fruits and vegetables are an important industry in the South where over one-fourth of the total US supply is produced. Most is sold by description via a network of telephone brokers from spatially separated producers to spatially separated wholesale buyers. The technology to market fresh fruits and vegetables electronically is available but the trade participants have not been organized. TVA recognized a need for the system among sellers and established a pilot program in 1981 with selected packinghouses to develop a computerized recordkeeping system which will provide the framework for a pilot electronic marketing program for fresh fruits and vegetables. This is the first system especially designed for wholesale trading of fruit and vegetables. The system has wide application throughout the Tennessee Valley region and the nation once perfected and accepted. 67 Abstracts THE IMPORTANCE OF "INFLATION ACCOUNTING" FOR AGRIBUSINESS— A CASE STUDY OF THREE FIRMS Veronica A. Vitelli. Resource Economics Section, TVA, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660. The time value of money has never been more important. High interest rates, new financing arrangements, decisions as to lease or buy, all accentuate the need for "inflation accounting" among agribusinesses. Conventional accounting techniques describe the overall asset position of the firm, as well as past services and use of funds. This data is o little value for financial planning without modification to incorporate the changing value of money over time. Inflation accounting refers to the ability of management to incorporate the changing value of money in to records of the company so that they be used for making decisions. Present value analysis is considered the best financial management deci sion tool in evaluating investment alternatives because cash flows are "discounted" over 'time. Profit motivated agribusiness firms must incor porate financial management techniques that include the changing value of money when estimating future produce prices, wage rates, material costs, and methods of operation. Replacement Cost Accounting is one specific tool that agribusiness firms should adopt — even if it means keeping two sets of records. Management audits with three agribusiness firms revealed that none used "inflation accounting." All three kept records primarily for filing taxes. While the tax records revealed tha these firms were solvent, they did not exploit company data in planning especially for capital expenditures and in preparing pro forma and cash flow statements. This could be catastrophic during inflationary periods HAS KEYNESIAN ECONOMICS REALLY FAILED A. Wayne Lacy and Katherine M. Graves, Department of Economics, Auburn University at Montgomery Montgomery, AL 36193 This paper addresses the question of whether Keynesian economic methodology as prescribed by theory has given rise to the problems of the U.S. economy or because of a failure to apply Keynesian theory appropriately or at all. A year by year analysis for 1960-1980 exa¬ mines economic conditions and the policy applied to determine if the policy was in fact the Keynesian prescription. The analysis reveals that while some years provided excellent examples of Keynesian application, a large percentage did not. Most notably, in the 1970-1980 decade, the Keynesian anti-inflationary policies in general were not followed. Much evidence exists in the data to demonstrate that while Keynesian expansionary policies were often pursued vigorously, Keynesian contractionary policies were not except for short periods. 68 Abstracts TRENDS TOWARD THE CONSERVATION OF ELECTRICITY IN ALABAMA Jim Coleman, Ala. Power Co., Mkt . Services Dept., Birmingham, AL 35291 The Company administers a residential customer survey biennially to monitor the changes in appliance saturations, demographics, dwelling characteristics and energy conservation. The latest survey, which consisted of a sequential random sample of 1,006 from a total popula¬ tion of residential customers, was conducted in May, 1981. The analysis of the energy conservation data collected is directed to the quantifi¬ cation of the behavioral aspects of customer conservation. In other words, what are customers doing to conserve energy? These elements are examined on the basis of group segmentation. These groups are desig¬ nated as "energy effort profiles," (level of effort to conserve) newer versus older dwellings, type of air conditioning and type of space heating. The total sample data is compared to these groups and certain trend data are examined. From the study, we can make the following general conclusions: (1) The trend to conserve energy continues to increase; (2) "Energy effort profiles" tend to substantiate the customer's personal evaluation of whether he or she is applying a determined effort or some effort or no effort to conserve energy; (3) A high percentage of customers with electric water heaters, electric ranges and electric clothes dryers are making efforts to conserve; (4) Customers in dwellings, 5 years or less, tend to conserve more energy than those in older dwellings; (5) Central air conditioning customers apply more significant measures to conserve than those with window units; (6) Electric space heating customers make a greater effort to conserve than those with other fuels. OPTIMIZING THE COST OF CAPITAL: A SIMULTANEOUS DETERMINATION Raymond M. Johnson, Dept, of Accounting & Finance, Auburn University at Montgomery, Montgomery, Alabama 56193. This paper reconsiders the issue of the firm's optimal capital structure and the resulting optimal cost of capital within a model which incorporates a "budget constraint" in the form of the firm's balance sheet. Optimization is considered both from the standpoint of assuming the presence and absence of risk in the model. When uncertain¬ ty is present in the model, the paper shows that the optimal capital structure and consequently the optimal cost of capital are indetermin¬ ate without considering the covariance between the sources of capital. The paper presents a technique for simultaneously determining the optimal components of capital which incorporates the covariance considerations. 69 Abstracts THE EFFICIENCY OF THE SOYBEAN FUTURES MARKET IN FORECASTING CASH PRICES Philip Gregorowicz, Gayden Green and Carl McDevitt School of Business, Auburn University in Montgomery It is generally argued that organized futures markets improve on resource allocation and reduce price volatility in cash markets by pro¬ viding market participants mechanisms to: (1) stabilize revenues by shifting price volatility risks, (2) acquire information about futures conditions, (3) hold efficient levels of inventories over time. Stan¬ dard theory of price determination in futures markets for continuously storable commodities stresses the role of futures markets on inventory adjustments. Futures market prices are viewed as reflecting the cost of storing such commodities. However, recent research has focused on the forecasting function of these markets. The purpose of this paper is to examine the effectiveness of soy¬ bean futures market in providing accurate forward prices or forecasts of subsequent soybean cash prices. The efficiency of these forecasts is tested by means of a simple linear regression model. Actual cash prices are regressed on the earlier futures prices of soybeans. If futures prices correctly forecast subsequent cash prices then the intercept of the regression equation will be zero and the slope unity. Should these results be achieved, futures prices can be argued to be 'unbiased estimates' of cash prices. The data on which these statistical tests were performed was limi¬ ted to the 35 soybean contracts maturing in 1977 through 1981. This period reflected high levels of uncertainty and price volatility. A UTILITY LOOKS AT LIFELINE RATES Fred Norrell. Energy Services Dept., Ala. Power Co., Birmingham, AL 35291 Cost justification for lifeline rates is explored. Load shapes for various groups of customers (including the poor, the elderly poor, and those without air conditioners) are examined. The study concludes that income and energy use are not reliable predictors of load shape , whereas appliance mix is. Residential customers without air conditioners and those with heat pumps have load shapes significantly flatter than residential customers as a whole. Thus, cost-j ustif ied lifeline rates may be appropriate for customers with specified appliance mixes, but these results cannot correctly be extended to particular socioeconomic groups . 70 Abstracts INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN SOYBEANS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ALABAMA James L. Stallings, Dept, of Ag. Economics, Auburn Univ. , Aubum Univ. , AL 36849 International trade in soybeans is extremely important to Alabama farmers and agribusiness in that over 1 out of every 2 acres of har¬ vested cropland is required for Alabama's export share of U.S. exports. The value of Alabama's export share in terms of prices received by farmers was $216.5 million in 1980. The U.S. is the world's most im¬ portant soybean producer with nearly 2/3 of world production. Only Brazil, the People's Republic of China and Argentina are other impor¬ tant producers. The U.S. accounted for 81.7% of the whole soybeans, 37.4% of the soybean meal, and 33.7% of the soybean oil exported in the world in 1977-1981. The most important customers for U.S. and Alabama soybeans and products include Netherlands and Japan for whole soybeans; Netherlands, W. Germany and Italy for soybean meal; and, India and Pakistan for soybean oil. Trade policies most affecting U.S. and Alabama, with respect to soybeans, include the various policies of the European Economic Community, Japan, Brazil, and Argentina, which either result in trade restrictions or subsidize their own producers and pro¬ cessors in competition with the U.S. Important issues for U.S. and Alabama farmers and agribusiness include the requirement that a certain percentage of soybeans and products must be shipped in U.S. vessels, a possible grain embargo of the U.S.S.R. and Poland, completion of the Tennessee-Tombigbee waterway, expansion of the facilities of the Port of Mobile, foreign exchange rates, and the soil mining aspects of in¬ creased production of soybeans for export from the U.S. and Alabama. SCIENCE EDUCATION PREPARING PLANETARIUM PROGRAMS Carole Rutland, Patterson Planetarium, Columbus, GA and Dutchie S. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College This presentation develops an approach for the production of low-priced audiovisual materials for use in planetarium programs. As more school systems add planetaria to their facilities, the need to be able to locally produce standard programs as well as special effects mater ial— increases . Among the variety of media production described are slides, film loops, panoramic slides, slides with motion (polarizing techniques to simulate motion), and a broad range of titling techniques exemplary of which is Kodalith. A major thrust of the paper is the production of planetarium materials on minimum budget. 71 Abstracts A CURRICULUM STRATEGY FOR ENERGY EDUCATION A. J. Atkins. Dept, of Curriculum and Teaching, Auburn University 36849 During the last twenty-five years numerous efforts have been made to effect curriculum changes in the science courses of the secondary school. The first major effort was associated with the Sputnik era when considerable sums of money were made available through the Nation¬ al Science Foundation. Since the end of that era, and particularly during the past decade, numerous efforts have been witnessed to have such topics as ecology, sex, alcohol abuse, drugs, environmental educa¬ tion, career education, scientific creationism, and others taught in the science curriculum. Few efforts of this latter era have met with notable success for numerous reasons. The current topic of energy edu¬ cation may be viewed as but another such topic. There are ways in which energy education can be incorporated into all science courses with no great expenditure of time or money. These are (1) to teach science within a framework of a concept of that energy which is a natu¬ ral and concomitant part of the science being taught; and (2) place emphasis on teaching for the transfer of what is learned about energy to everyday practical situations. This proposal is not offered as a panacea but as a natural and practical way to begin a program of energy education in secondary schools. A SIMPLE EXPERIMENT ON TWO-DIMENSIONAL COLLISIONS S. T. Jones, Dept, of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Alabama, University, AL 35486. The collision between two pendulum bobs hanging from a common point provides an extremely simple experiment in 2-dimensional collisions. For small angles, the velocity before collision is just proportional to the linear distance the bob has traveled, so that measuring velocities is trivial. Both elastic and inelastic collisions can be studied with ease, and of course, the equipment is cheap. This provides a much-needed illustration of the vector nature of momentum for beginning students. 72 Abstracts THE EDUCATION SERVICES DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL AIR AND SPACE MUSEUM AND THE REGIONAL RESOURCE PROGRAM- AVAILABLE ASSISTANCE FOR LOCAL SCIENCE EDUCATION Ernest D. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College This paper describes the Regional Resources Program of the National Air and Space Museum. Begun in 1979, the Regional Resource Program of the National Air and Space Museum has grown to a total of 48 trained regional resource persons. Training for these resource persons is provided at the facilities of the National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C. Schools and other organizations interested in utilizing the services of a regional resource person or one or more of the many science education programs and facilities of the NASM, should contact the Smithsonian Institution, Educational Services Division, National Air and Space Museum, Room P-700, Washington, D.C. 20650 and ask for additional information including the name, address, and telephone number of the regional contact nearest the location of the institution making the request for infor¬ mation and services. TEACHING AIDS AND METHODS UTILIZED BY UNIVERSITIES AND NONEDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS Dr. Marlon C. Rico and Dr. William S. Stewart, Dept, of Marketing and Management, Univ. of No. Ala., Florence, AL 35632-0001, Dr, Ursin S. (Pete) Walker, School of Education, Delta State Univ., Cleveland This paper provides an exploratory analysis of 30 teaching aids and methods utilized during the Fall of 1981 by two universities, a military installation, a public utility, and a private business firm. Within the universities, data was tabulated by individual school, and it appears that the Schools of Education are using a wider variety of methods in their teaching efforts. The teaching methods used most often by all schools in the university setting were lecture and discussion, and the teaching aid with the greatest frequency of use was the chalk board. Noneducation institutions made greater use of team teaching, programmed instructions, games and simulation, and pre¬ packaged learning materials. All organizations, both the universities and the noneducational institutions used problem solving to a high degree as a teaching method. This study suggests that university faculty may not be utilizing, to the fullest extent, the most advanced teaching aids and methods. 73 Abstracts THE STS AS A RESOURCE FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE TEACHING: STUDYING THE SPACE SHUTTLE IN THE CLASSROOM Eleanor Eubanks, Gentian Elementary School, Columbus, GA Ernest D. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College and Dutchie S. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College Teacher-made and teacher-edited instructional materials for science units on the space shuttle and the encounters with the planetary systems of Jupiter and Saturn by Voyager I and Voyager II were the thrust of this paper. The authors and presenters were on site at Cape Kennedy for the launching of STS-I and STS-II and at the Jet Propulsion Laboratories at California Institute of Technology for the planetary flyby of both Voyager I and II. Slides, overhead transparencies, video¬ tapes, motion picture footage, models and posters are among the media produced. Several examples of student-made teaching materials were also included. Additionally, photocopying mate¬ rials made available from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and integration into suitable format for use in individual classrooms was presented. FALCON FORCE: AN UPDATE ON THE REVISED EDITION OF A MIDDLE SCHOOL AEROSPACE SCIENCE PROGRAM Eleanor Eubanks, Gentian Elementary School, Columbus, GA Dutchie S. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College and Ernest D. Riggsby, Columbus (GA) College Described and discussed in this paper is the revised edition of Falcon Force, a multimedia, interdisciplinary program for middle school science students centered upon space science as a core of information and skills to be supplemented by art, English, mathematics, social studies, and other disciplines. Largely subsidized by the Civil Air Patrol, the Falcon Force kit is available at less than half the cost of a fully commercially produced effort. The investigation included in this paper is the second year of a two-year experimental program using Falcon Force in fifth and sixth grade classes. The results of the first year (pilot) study of the program resulted in the identification and execution of several desirable revisions in the program. Additionally, the kit has been expanded to include duplicate copies of several items. 74 Abstracts SOCIAL SCIENCES THE FEDERAL ENDEAVOR: THE FREEDMEN'S BUREAU AND LABOR REORGANIZATION IN ALABAMA, 1865-1869. John B. Myers, Dept, of History, Columbus College, Columbus, GA 31993 One of the urgent problems which confronted post-war Alabama was labor reorganization. The transition from slave to free labor touched every phase of Alabama life. Many whites, skeptical of free black labor, viewed the future pessimistically, while claiming that the country was ruined because blacks would not work "without the lash." Though the freedmen's reluctance to work was exaggerated, they were hesitant to negotiate with whites due to distrust and a lack of bar¬ gaining experience. The task of resolving the labor problem was as¬ signed to an agency of the Federal government known as the Freedmen's Bureau. Alabama Bureau Commissioner, Wager Swayne, was ordered to introduce a practical labor system and to resolve related labor griev¬ ances and abuses. In May, 1865 he published labor regulations for Ala¬ bama; which permitted employers and employees to enter contracts, provided they were "fair and honest to laborers and approved by a Bureau agent." Post-war poverty and lack of capital in Alabama encour¬ age utilization of the sharecrop system. This system, although scrutinized by the Bureau, was a "rather informal affair" with a variety of arrangements. Crop failures and other economic problems, combined with white employers' lack of confidence in black labor brought about widespread abuses of the contract system in 1865, 1866, 1867 and 1868. By the end of 1868, the Federal government decided that the Freedmen's Bureau was no longer required. Despite the pre¬ vailing unsettled economic, political, and social atmosphere, the Free|- men's Bureau, black labors' Federal ally departed from Alabama in 1869 SAMUEL ELBERT AND THE EAST FLORIDA CAMPAIGNS, 1777-1778 David S. Heidler, Dept, of History, Auburn University, AL 36849 In the early years of the American Revolution, Georgia patriots were rankled by provocative and harassing raids along their southern border. Those raids originated from a small, yet belligerent, garrison at St. Augustine in East Florida. The patriots in Georgia became virtually fixated upon the idea of reducing this garrison as a pre¬ requisite of revolutionary participation. Samuel Elbert had the mis¬ fortune to be placed in charge of the 1777 expedition to accomplish this objective. This expedition was marred by political quarrels and incautious planning, and it was formidable only in the danger it posed to Georgia forces. Elbert succeeded in avoiding the destruction of his command and, in the following year, participated in an equally quixotic effort against the British. Yet Elbert did manage to inflict little harm on the patriot cause in 1777; and in 1778 he managed to deliver it a small triumph. Hence, this is the story of success amidst futility. 75 Abstracts INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS: REAL CHANGE OR MORE OF THE SAME? Barbara M. Giles and Donald E. Hayhurst. Dept, of Political Science, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849 This paper analyzes trends in intergovernmental realtions fron 1960 to 1980. Specifically it focuses on the attempts of Reagan's Admin¬ istration to restore balance to the intergovernmental structure and speculates about his chances for achieving real change. Frcm 1960 to 1980 there was an increase in the number and cost of categorical grants which were accompanied by an increase in federal mandates. An imbalance resulted within the federal system whereby the federal government be¬ came the center of power. With the introduction of block grants and revenue sharing, particularly during Nixon's Administration, unsuccess¬ ful attempts were made to return power to state and local governments. Thus, the decade of the 1970 's ended with categorical grants ranaining the primary source of financial assistance and real power being main¬ tained at the federal level. With the administration of Ronald Reagan efforts to restructure the balance of power within the federal systan are being renewed. During the first year of his berm Reagan focused on cutting the growth of federal domestic spending and restoring power to states, both goals being served by more extensive use of block grants. As he embarked on his second year in office, he has proposed pursuing these goals further in his "New Federalism" program. In assessing prospects for change, efforts of Reagan's Administration are compared with those of Nixon's. Differences in composition of Congress, personalities of individuals and changes in state government are addressed. On this basis speculation about real change is made. SPANISH MEDICAL CARS IN THE MOBILE DISTRICT: AD V AIT C ED OR RETARDED? Sir Jack D.L. Holmes, Ph.D., Birmingham, Alabama 35205 Contrary to "black-legend" anti-Spanish writing about medical care under Carlos III and Carlos IV to 1808, crovm policy was to provide university-trained surgeons and physicians, medics (prac- ticantes), orderlies, nurses, and a hospital hierarchy to oversee equipment. Pharmacists, as other medical personnel, had to be licensed after an exam by the board of medical examiners. In the Mobile District, 1730— 1813, The Treasury s fiscal agent or guar da almac6n, supervised medical care in the Royal Hospital on Dauphin Street. Port Confederation and Port San Esteban de Tombecbl had medical care, as did Fort Stoddard under American control in 1799* Careful records show type of medicines used, size of hospital beds, payroll for medical personnel, and the pensions provided for mili¬ tary and civilian doctors. Foreign books were translated into Spanish and made available to surgeons at Mobile. Modern quaran¬ tine methods developed at New Orleans in 1779 were followed by other colonial powers who used Dr. Gil's 1786 treatise. Brunonian theory of treatment characterized Spanish medical care. 76 Abstracts REAGAN'S NEW FEDERALISM: CAN CITIES AND STATES COPE? David W. Sink. Dept, of Urban Studies, UAB , Birmingham, AL 35294. David L. Martin. Dept, of Political Science, Auburn Uni v. , AL 36849. Arthur S. Wilke. Dept, of Sociology and Anthropology, Auburn Uni v . , AL 36849. The theme of this panel discussion rests upon an understanding of the connectivity between each of the parts of government in the U.S. --national, state, and local. Since President Johnson's Great So¬ ciety concentration on categorical grants created a strong and di¬ rect link between national and local governments, three Republican presidents have sought to return decision-making rights to the ci¬ ties as well as interject state governments into that relationship. For some cities in several states, this alteration poses few major problems. For many other cities (and urban counties as well) in states with legislatures and bureaucracies lacking in true govern¬ mental capacity and will, such a decentralization of authority may create hardship and a new set of intergovernmental challenges. This tenuous status may be further aggravated in states where locales lack home rule, enjoy limited taxing authority, and/or suffer from long-standing opposition from rurally-based legislators and chief executives. Conversely, proponents of the current administration's plan argue that important decisions should be made by governments closest to the people they affect. Opponents are concerned that most states are unable or unwilling to assume the responsibilities to be thrust upon them and believe that the net effect of the New Federalism would be simply fewer services for the needy. SAVING SLOSS Sloss Furnace No. 1 went into blast April 12, 1882 as one of a long line of industrial plants along the railroad res¬ ervation which bisected Birmingham, Alabina. Furnace No. 2 began pouring iron the following year and the two continued to light up the sky in Birmingham until 1970 when they were the only downtown furnaces left. However, stringent requirements of the Environmental Protection Agency caused U. S. Pipe Company, the 1970 owners, to shut down rather than meet the heavy investment. What should be done with acres of historic blast furnaces in downtown Birminghaun? Conflict arose immediately between "Tear it down, bring in new business on this prime site and have jobs" and "Save Sloss! it is the only furnace of this era still standing in the USA! " Today the furnaces are a National Landmark, listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is recorded in the Historic American Engineering Record, April 12, 1982 will bring the Centennial Celebration as work proceeds to modify the site for an Iron and Steel Museum--f irst one in "The Pittsburgh of the South." From scheduled demolition to Centennial Opening is a testimonial to the power of private citizens banded together. 77 Helen Mabry Abstracts HEALTH SCIENCES TRANSFERRIN LEVELS IN PATIENTS WITH IgG AND IgA DEFICIENCIES COMPARED TO NORMAL ADULTS K.S. Yackzan, B.M. Gray, and P.L. Haber, Diabetes Research and Training Center, and Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, AL 35294 In addition to its established functions in iron transport and metabolism, transferrin is also thought to play a role in normal host defense by binding iron and making it unavailable to bacteria, and thus reduce the growth potential of such iron-requiring pathogens as Pseudomonas , E. coli , Shigella, Neisseria , and Listeria . A previous report suggested that transferrin levels were increased in patients with immunodef icies . We therefore examined transferrin levels in 14 adult patients with acquired agammaglobulinemia. Their mean trans¬ ferrin was 304 mg/dl (SD=81), compared to 253 mg/dl (SD=35) in 22 normal adult laboratory personnel and medical students (P*U0.02). Nine patients with IgA deficiency had transferrin levels averaging 273 mg/dl (SD=87), and five patients with X-linked agammaglobulinemia averaged 272 mg/dl (SD= 108), which was not significantly different from the normal controls. To see if transferrin might be normally increased in a specific disease state, we measured levels in 11 infants (mean age 13 months) with acute otitis media, using serum samples from the same infants at well --child visits as controls. Transferrin levels at the time of illness averaged 369 mg/dl (SD=80, N=ll) and was not significantly different from levels (mean=401, N=15, P=NS) when they were healthy. Both infants and the adults with acquired agammaglobulinemia had transferrin levels elevated with regard to normal adults. Thus while a host defense role for trans¬ ferrin was not established, our results point in that direction. Effects of Dietary Fiber on Carbohydrate Metabolism in Class A (Gestational) Diabetics Richard 0. Davis, Betty Darnell, and John F. Huddleston, Dept, of Obste¬ trics and Gynecology, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham ,AL 35294 The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of dietary fiber on carbohydrate metabolism in Class A Diabetes in pregnancy. Since glu¬ cose control toward normal levels is associated with decreases in peri¬ natal morbidity and mortality, dietary modifications which offer increased control of glucose levels toward normal would be clinically benef icial . In Class A Diabetes, increased fiber reduced the average postprandial glucose levels when compared to the standard 2200 calorie ADA diet. There were no differences in fasting glucose levels. There was a down¬ ward trend in insulin and glucagon levels but this was not statistically signif icant . 78 Abstracts TESTICULAR TERATOMAS IN TRANSPLANTED EMBRYONIC MOUSE GONADS Gregory S. Cameron and C.P. Dagg. Dept, of Biology, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Stevens has shown that embryonic genital ridges taken from Fj hybrids of inbred strains 129/SvSl/+ and A/HeJ mice and transplanted to histocompatible adult hosts form teratomas in a high precentage of the grafts that come from male embryos. It has been suggested that these tumors arise from the germ cells of the graft tissue. Urethane and cyclophosphamide (cytoxan) are known to damage the germ cells of adults and to damage DNA. Caffeine is thought to be a DNA repair inhibitor and has been shown effective in altering the action of urethane on embryos. In order to determine whether germ cells are responsible for the formation of these teratomas, embryos were treated In utero with caffeine at a dose of O.lmg/gm body weight of the pregnant female, urethane at a dose of either 0.5mg/gm or l.Omg/gm, cytoxan at a dose of O.Olmg/gm, or a combination of caffeine and urethane or cytoxan. When given in combination the caffeine was administered at a dose of O.lmg/gm 3 hours prior to and 3 hours after urethane or cytoxan. The embryos were treated on day 10 of gestation and the ridges transplanted on day 12. When compared to controls(87%) , the caffeine(89%) , cytoxan(82%) , or the caf feine-cytoxan(80%) had no significant effect on the rate of teratoma formation. However, there was a linear dose response for the rate of teratoma formation and the dose of urethane administered. A dose of 0.5mg/gm of urethane resulted in a rate of 57% and a dose of l.Omg/gm resulted in a rate of 29%. Caffeine enhanced the effect of the urethane and further reduced the rate to 8% in the caffeine-urethane treated ridges. This ■ reduction is the result of a decrease in the number of germ cells. INFECTIOUS MEDIASTINITIS IN A UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL Barbara K. Williams, Div. of Infectious Diseases, and Michael Maetz, School of Public Health, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Infectious mediastinitis is an important and life-threatening complication of many types if cardiac surgical procedures. To elucidate the extent of this problem and its patterns of occurrence at our institution we reviewed the medical records of open-heart surgery patients, laboratory culture results, operating room records, and Infection Control daily surveillance data. We found that the incidence of mediastinitis has increased from 1.41 cases/1000 in 1975 to a peak of 14.12 cases/1000 in 1980; 9.59 cases/1000 were seen in 1981. The incidence of mediastinitis increased with the number of cases done (r = 0.72; p < 0.01). The extremely high rate of mediastinitis seen in 1980 was due to a cluster of cases caused by Enterobacter aerogenes which occurred in the fall of that year. The increasing incidence of this problem at our institution underlies the importance of implementing effective preventive measures. 79 Abstracts EFFECT OF FLURBIPROFEN ON MYOCARDIAL INFARCT SIZE David E. Chambers and James M. Downey, Department of Physiology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. D.M. Yellon and D.J. Hearse, The Rayne Institute, London, U.K. Flurbiprofen reportedly reduces the extent of myocardial tissue injury 6 hr. after the onset of ischemia. The present study was designed to test whether flurbiprofen continues to limit infarct size 24 hr. after coronary occlusion. A cannula was inserted into the coronary artery via the carotid artery of a closed chest dog. A plastic bead was injected through the cannula to cause a coronary occlusion, followed by labelled microspheres into the left ventricle. The animals were then divided into 4 groups: Group I, 24 hrs.; Group II, 24 hrs of ischemia plus flurbiprofen (1 mg/kg every 8 hrs.); Group III, 6 hr. control; and Group IV, 6 hr. ischemia plus flurbiprofen (1 mg/kg). After 6 or 24 hrs. the animals were re-anesthetized and the hearts were removed and sectioned. Auto¬ radiography of the microspheres was used to determine the perfusion field of the occluded artery which was considered to be the region at risk, and the necrotic zone was determined by staining with triphenyl tetrazolium. The infarct:risk zone ratio was .84+. 05 for the 24 hr. treatment group and .91+. 04 for the 24 hr. controls. These differences were not significant. For the 6 hr. treatment group, the infarct:risk zone ratio was .21±.07 and for the 6 hr. controls it was .78+. 13. These values were significantly different. Thus, although flurbiprofen may delay injury assessed at 6 hr., all condemned tissue will have died by 24 hr. in spite of the drug. SUFFERING REPORTED BY ADULTS WITH LUNG CANCER Susan Benedict Yu, School of Nursing and Julian Bird, Dept, of Liaison Psychiatry, The University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 Many inferences are made about the phenomenon of suffering in persons who have cancer. Suffering, though frequently discussed, is difficult to study because of its subjective and unique nature. In this study, 25 patients participated in interviews and 10 com¬ pleted written questionnaires about personal suffering resulting from the experience of cancer. Nine of these patients ascribed the presence of suffering principally to fear of disease recurrence, anxiety, disability, physical pain, and depression. In contrast, altered body image, financial problems, family problems, and dif¬ ficulties with physicians and nurses were not reported as major causes of suffering by this group of patients. 80 Abstracts AN IMPROVED CYTOGENETIC METHOD FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF FANCONI'S ANEMIA A.J. Carroll, N.C. Robinson, and W.H. Finley. Laboratory of Medical Genetics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Fanconi's anemla(FA) is an autosomal recessive disorder charac¬ terized by pancytopenia, short stature, hypoplasia to aplasia of the thumb, spontaneous chromosome Instabl lity, and a variety of other anomalies. Varlabl lity of both phenotype and age of onset of anemia makes diagnosis difficult, particularly In those patients who manifest few or no FA clinical features other than bone marrow Insufficiency. Spontaneous chromosome breakage, ranging from none to high levels, has been reported to vary from patient to patient as well as within the same patient over a period of time. We studied the frequency of chro¬ mosome breakage In cultured lymphocytes from FA patients, FA parents and siblings, patients with Idiopathic aplastic anemia, and controls. Spontaneous breakage frequencies In FA patients ranged from 0.08 to 0.40 with a mean of 0.24 breaks/cell while In controls the range was 0.00-0.04 with a mean of approximately 0.01 breaks/cell. Following exposure to O.lpg/ml of d i epoxy but an e ( DEB ) , cultures from FA patients exhibited an approximately 100-fold Increase In chromosome breakage compared to that from cultures of the other similarly exposed groups. A marked Increase In the number of radial figures accompanied this Increase In FA patients. The use of DEB greatly simplifies the cyto¬ genetic assessment of FA patients by reducing the number of cells which must be examined and overcoming the problem presented by FA pa¬ tients with an only slightly elevated spontaneous breakage frequency. We were unable to detect significant differences In chromosome break¬ age between FA family members and controls using this method. AGE DIFFERENCES IN MEMORY FOR SELF-GENERATED EVENTS Jane F. Crockard, Div. of Psychology, Spain Rehab. Center, B'ham, AL 35294 In some areas of memory research, old people do show a decrement in performance when compared to a younger group; while in other areas, the age differences have been minimal. Recent findings of superior reten¬ tion for self-generated events among young adults raises the question does this self-generation phenomonon exist for older adults. In young and old age groups, three experiments compared the retention of events presented by the experimenter to events generated by the subjects them¬ selves. The results all showed a significant superior retention of self-generated events. In a fourth experiment, the number of times subjects in young and old groups saw and generated words was varied. Half of the subjects in each age group were asked to judge the frequency of the words they read and half were asked to judge the frequency of the words they generated. Subjects in all age groups were more sensitive to the relative frequency of internally generated, compared with externally generated events. 81 Abstracts MODIFICATION OF THE ACTION OF DMT BY N,N-DIETHYLCARBOXAMIDES C. Patrick Lane, A1 Panu and John M. Beaton, Neurosciences Program, Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala. 35294. It has been hypothesized that the major hallucinogenic agents, e.g., mescaline, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) all may act at the same central receptor in brain To study this hypothesis we have synthesized and tested the ability of several agents to prevent or modify the behavior disruption in¬ duced by these hallucinogens. One compound, 1 -methyl-1, 2,5, 6-tetra- hydropyridine-3-N, N-diethy lcarboxami de (THPC) successfully blocked the disruptive effects of DMT and LSD. In the present study the actions of two compounds related to THPC are discussed. These com¬ pounds are l-methyl-4-oxo-3-piperidine-carboxylic acid N,N-diethyl- amide (AL #1) and 1 -methyl -4-hydroxy-3-piper idine-carboxy 1 i c acid N,N-diethylamide (AL #2). These compounds were tested on a group of eight Long-Evans rats trained to bar press on a variable interval 30 sec. schedule of food reinforcement. The compounds were tested singly at 10 and 20 mg/kg and had no significant effects on behavior They were then administered at these doses and 30 min. later 5 mg/kg of DMT was given. Only AL #1 at 20 mg/kg significantly blocked the disruption normally observed after the administration of 5 mg/kg of DMT. AL #2 at 20 mg/kg did modify the effects of DMT, but did not completely block the disruption. Compound AL #1 is currently being examined on other procedures to confirm its anti -hallucino¬ genic effects. (Supported in part by the Alabama Consumer Fund.) management of high risk maternity patients and LOW BIRTH WEIGHT INFANTS IN ALABAMA: A SURVEY R.L. Dyer, R.L. Goldenberg, K.G. Nelson, and J.B. Wayne. School of Public Health, Dept, of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Pediatrics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Since the physician's perception of infant viability affects management decisions affecting survival, physicians in Alabama were surveyed to determine their level of knowledge about survival of low birth weight/early gestational age infants. Two hundred and sixty nine (269) physicians delivering babies in Alabama In 1979 were Identified, and one hundred seventy seven (66?) responded to one of four mailed questionnaires. The study showed that the majority of physicians underestimated the survival success of the hospitals In which they deliver and at Regional Perinatal Centers. A hypothetical case was posed to the delivering physicians and a series of possible clinical interventions were examined at gestational ages from 24 to 36 weeks. Analysis revealed considerable variability in the gestational age at which the interventions would be undertaken. Demographic characteristics of MDs who deviated from generally accepted medical practice were highlighted. 82 Abstracts THE EFFECTS OF TRANSCUTANEOUS ELECTRICAL NERVE STIMULATION IN ENDORPHIN AND CORTISOL LEVELS IN NORMAL ADULTS W. Jimenez, J. Clelland, K. Francis, University of Ala. in Birmingham The recent discovery that the brain and pituitary gland produce opioid peptides has aroused interest in their physiological functions. Some evidence shows that they may serve as neurotrdhmitters in the brain and influence pain perception and behavior. It is becoming increasingly evident that these peptides may not function tonically but influence physiological processes on a selective manner only under specific envi¬ ronmental or endogenous conditions. Evidence now indicates that endor¬ phins are released from the pituitary gland in response to stress along with adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) and relationships exists between the two classes of peptides. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is widely used in the control of pain and is believed to activate this system. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the two different forms of TENS on the pitutary hormonal system by measurements of changes in blood levels of endorphins and cortisol. 26 subjects were randomly assigned to one of three groups: control, conventional TENS, and acupuncture-like TENS, with treatments lasting 30 minutes. Pre and post treatment blood samples were drawn and analyzed for endorphin and cortisol levels. There were no significant difference* in blood serum cortisol valves (pre vs. post) following 30 minutes of either types of TENS. Comparisons of the two types of TENS to the con¬ trol group likewise elicited no change. Studies have reported analgesia in patients with pain following the application of TENS. It has been shown the cerebrospinal fluid endorphins have increased in chronic pain patients following acupuncturs-like TENS. The present study did not show an increase in the pituitary endorphin pool, as measured in blood serum, following acupuncture-like TENS , A POSSIBLE ROLE FOR MYOGLOBIN IN THE TRANSPORT OF FATTY ACIDS: ENERGY IMPLICATION IN FXERCISE. K. S. Yackzan and W. J. Wingo. Diabetes Research and Training Center and Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama in Birmingham. It may be calculated on the bases of known values for various physical constants and other physiological parameters and a few assumptions that as much as 2/3 of the maximum total O2 i ntracel 1 ul arly transportable in myocardium and red skeletal striated muscle may be carried as oxymyoglobin (Mb02), (This figure may be high). Evidence exists that myoglobin (Mb) binds fatty acids, (FA). A possible binding site could comprise a cationic amino acid side chain to bind the fatty acids (FA) carboxyl group and an associated con¬ stellation of non-polar residues which could noncoval ently bind the FA chain. On a Corey-Paul ing model of Mb, we have found two sites that meet this criterion. It is thus possible that in these two types of tissues, substantial fractions of a major fuel and its ultimate oxidizer are carried, in- tracellularly, by the same molecule. 83 Abstracts GOLD FOCUS TOR -ISOELECTRICFOCUSING : SEPARATION OF 6 -HEXOSAMINIDASE A AND B ISOENZYMES J. T. Cbnary, B. Budowle, and J. N. Thompson, Lab. of Msd. Genetics, DRTC, and Dept, of Biochem. , Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham 35294. Cold focusing, a novel method for performing isoelec tic foe using ms recently developed (Allen, Electrophoresis, 1:32, 1980). This method utilizes a beryllium oxide plate electronically cooled by two Peltier devices to disperse the heat from 160pm thick ultrathin-layer poly¬ acrylamide gels (UTLG) during isoelectricfocusing. Beryllium oxide dissipates heat with 200 times the efficiency of glass so that field strengths of 400-500v/cm and run times under 1 h are possible. In the present investigation the A and B isoenzymes of g -hexosaminidase , an en¬ zyme important in lipid catabolism, were separated using the Gold Focus apparatus. Mechanical stability was achieved by covalently binding the UTLG to silanized glass plates. Isoenzymes A (pi 5.0) and B (pi 7.0) of 6 -hexosaminidase were visualized by staining the UTLG with 4-methylum- belliferyl-N-acetyl-g-D-glucopyranoside and viewing the stained gel with long wavelength ultraviolet light. The activity of the isoenzymes was quantified by cutting out the stained region of the gel, placing it in 1.5 mL of glycine-NaOH buffer, and measuring the fluorescence. When the enzyme was heated at 51°C prior to cold focusing the activity of hexo¬ saminidase A isoenzyme was selectively destroyed, verifying that the activity found at pi 5.0 was the A isoenzyme. These studies demonstrate that cold focusing is a rapid and sensitive method for the separation of 6-hexosaminidase isoenzymes A and B. Preliminary studies in our labor¬ atory indicate that this method has application for separating the isoenzymes of several lysosomal acid hydrolases. MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES SPECIFIC FOR HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS TYPE ONE MEDIATE ANTIVIRAL EFFECTS IN VITRO AND IN VIVO. James Rector, Robert Lausch, and John Oakes. Dept, of Microbiology and Immunology, U. of South Alabama, Mobile AL 36688. Ten hybrid lines secreting antibodies specific for HSV-1 infected cells were derived from four independent fusions. Eight of the ten lines were able to immunoprecipitate HSV-1 glycoproteins from detergent- solubilized infected cells. Seven of the eight monoclonal antibodies tested were effective in passively transferring immunity to mice when given 4 to 24 hrs. after HSV-1 infection of an abrased cornea. These results indicate that epitopes irrsent cn HSV-1 glycoproteins can initiate events leading to resolution of ocular infection. The monoclonal anti¬ bodies were also evaluated for their capacity to neutralize HSV-1 and to oromote complement-mediated cell lysis or antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. It was found that none of these in vitro assays correlated with the protective activity of the monoclones ini vivo . On the basis of these results, it was concluded that HSV-1 specific glycoproteins can interact with antibody in vivo to initiate recovery form HSV-1 induced ocular disease and that the effectiveness of a specific mono¬ clonal antibody to mediate recovery from ocular infection does not correlate with the immunological reactivity of the antibody Gi vitro ■ 84 Abstracts ACID PROTEINASE ACTIVITIES OF THE NEMATODE TURBATRIX ACETI Rajendra D. Ghai and Roger S. Lane, Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688 Two acid proteolytic activities, one that hydrolyzes [methyl- iL| c] hemoglobin to acid-soluble fragments and a second that hydrolyzes glutaryl-L-phenylalanine p-nitroanilide liberating p-nitroaniline , have been detected in the free-living nematode, Turbatrix aceti . These two proteases have been isolated from the 100,000 x g supernatant of T. aceti extracts by acid precipitation and gel exclusion chromatography, and separated from one another by affinity chromatography on diamino- dipropylamine-pepstatin-Sepharose CL-6B. Proteinase B is not adsorbed to immobilized pepstatin in 0.2 M NaCl at pH 3.5 whereas Proteinase A is specifically bound under these conditions; elution of Proteinase A is achieved with 1 M NaCl at pH 9. Proteinase A has an apparent molecular weight of 70-75,000 (as estimated by gel filtration on a column of Sephadex G-100) , is optimally active towards hemoglobin as substrate at pH 3, and is maximally stable at 4°C between pH 6 and pH 9. The enzyme is unstable in the pH range 2.0 to 4.5, losing 95% of its activity with¬ in 24 h. Pepstatin is a potent and instantaneous inhibitor of Pro¬ teinase A activity; 50% inhibition is obtained with 1.4 ng pepstatin. Non-denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of Proteinase A purified by affinity chromatography shows the presence of two active protease components, indicating the occurrence of isoenzymic forms. Proteinase B is of Mr 75-80,000 and exhibits an optimum pH of 6.0 with glutaryl-L-phenylalanine p-nitroanilide as substrate. The enzyme also catalyzes the hydrolysis of azocasein, with pH opt = 5.0 to 5.5. The functional significance of these two proteases in intracellular protein degradation is not yet known. IN VIVO METABOLISM OF TETRADEUTERO- INDOLEALKYLAMINES IN THE RAT John M. Beaton, Philip E. Morris and Steven A. Barker, Neurosciences Program, Univ. of Ala. in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. The uptake and metabolism of alpha, alpha, beta, beta-tetradeutero- N,N-dimethyltryptamine ( DDMT) in rat brain was examined usinq GC/MS- isotope dilution techniques. Adult male Long-Evans rats were in¬ jected IP with 2.5, 5.0 or 10.0 mq/kq DDMT. Three rats from each group were sacrificed at 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 minutes post-iniec- tion. The brains were prepared for analysis, usinq proteo internal ?QDn\ds’ aS Previously described (Biochem. Pharmacol. 29, 1049, 1980). An inverse relationship between the brain levels and dose of DDMT was observed at 5 minutes post-injection. The brain level of DDMT peaked at 5 minutes after 2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg and followed a dose dependent function while 10 mq/kg DDMT peaked at 20 minutes ™Tdld not correlate with the results seen at 2.5 and 5.0 mg/kq. DDMT was still detectable in rat brain at 80 minutes Dost-injection . ihe non-polar metabolites of DDMT were identified as deuterated tryptamine (TA), N-methyl-TA, tetrahydro-beta-carboline ( THBC) and 2-methy 1 -THBC (2-MTHBC). The formation of NMT was well correlated with the brain level of DDMT. The TA and THBC were minor metabo¬ lites while 2-MTHBC was formed as a major end-product. (Supported in part by the Alabama Consumer Fund.) 85 Abstracts STUDIES ON THE NEUROVIRULENCE OF HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS Wayne L. Gray and John E. Oakes, Dept, of Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688. Strains of Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) were found to differ greatly in their neurovirulence characteristics upon subcutaneous footpad inoculation into young adult mice. The viral dose required to kill 50% of infected mice was determined for five HSV-1 strains and two HSV-2 strains. LD 50s ranged from 10^ to greater than 10® pfu. Virulent strains caused paralysis and a necrotizing encephalitis which resulted in death of the animals within two weeks. Avirulent HSV strains pro¬ duced no clinically apparent symptoms. All of the HSV strains tested were virulent when inoculated intracerebrally . A pathogenesis study showed that a virulent HSV-2 strain replicates in the mouse footpad, travels to the spinal cord via the sciatic nerve, and then progresses to the brain. An avirulent HSV-1 strain also replicates in the footpad but virus was not detected in the spinal cord or brain. This suggests that the avirulence of some HSV strains is due to an inability to get from the site of infection to the central nervous system. No differences were seen in the ability of virulent or avirulent strains to replicate in mouse embryo fibroblasts in vitro. Since virulence is known to be a genetic characteristic of some HSV strains, intertypic recombinant viruses of virulent and avirulent strains are being tested in order to determine if a particular region of the HSV genome can be associated with viral pathogenicity. Preliminary studies indicate that the virulence of an HSV strain is determined by the long unique region of the genome. The eventual mapping of viral genes which are important in the enhanced virulence of some HSV strains could lead to a greater understanding of the pathogenesis of HSV infections. A MUTATION AFFECTING LIMB DEVELOPMENT AND FERTILITY IN MICE Kathryn Kartus, David Holladay, J. Russell Lindsey, and C.P. Dagg. Departments of Biology and Comparative Medicine, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. An inheritable condition that produces abnormalities of the appendicular skeleton has been discovered in C57BL mice. Mating tests support the conclusion that the genetic basis for the defects is an autoscroal semi-dcminant mutation with incomplete penetrance. The putative heterozygotes are characterized by pre- axial polydactyly on the hind feet. The presumed homozygotes manifest preaxial polydactyly on the forefeet and hind feet, dislocation of the hip (luxation) , and a markedly shortened and narrowed tibia (tibial hemimelia) . Male homozygotes appeared to be sterile in mating tests. Histological sections of the testes revealed seminiferous tubules that were smaller in cross section and almost completely devoid of cells. The mutation is provision¬ ally called "swimmer," swm. The swimmer mutant closely resembles Green's luxoid. This research was supported in part by USPHS Grant No. RR-00463. 86 Abstracts VITAMIN C AND THE COMMON COLD Emmett B. Carmichael, Univ . of AL . in Birmingham Linus Pauling's book, " Vitamin C and the Common Cold " which was published in 1970 stimulated scientists in many countries to test his hypothesis that Vitamin C could cure the Common Cold. In 1975) M.H.M. Dykes and P. Meier reported that they believed that there is little convincing evidence that daily doses of Vitamin C have any effect on the frequency or severity of the Common Cold. During the late Sixties, arthritis in my fingers caused considerable pain and several of the joints were becoming enlarged. I began to take 500 mgm of Vitamin C twice per day in addition to a vitamin pill which contained 200 mgm of Vitamin C . By 1974 the pain in all of my fingers had been greatly reduced. My regular diet has been fairly rich in Vitamin C. In 1974 I increased the dose of Vitamin C to 1,000 mgm twice per day. In 1974 my wife, Marie began to take 500 mgm of Vitamin C twice per day in addition to a vitamin pill . In addition to the fact that there is no arthritic pain in my fingers, neither my wife nor I have had a Common Cold since 1974- Our observations seem to refute those of Dykes and Meier concerning daily doses of Vitamin C on the frequency of the Common Cold. ESTROGEN AND PROLACTIN DURING INTERVENTION FOR POOR LACTATION Ellen B. Buckner and Larry R. Boots, University of Alabama School of Nursing and Dept, of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Alabama in Birmingham. Nine women with poor lactation were followed to determine if milk production could be improved. Interventions included use of oxytocin nasal spray, use of the Lact-Aid NurserQyand adjunct breast pumping. Intervention used was determined by clinical indications and mothers' acceptance of intervention. Milk yield increased significantly in those mothers who worked to improve production but decreased in those who did not. Prolactin (PRL) and 17- /^estradiol were measured from blood samples taken before and after nursing. Prolactin values decreased as milk yield increased; thus improved milk production was not achieved by stimulating effect of PRL. Alternately as milk yield increased, estradiol decreased. This may be clinically significant since phy¬ siological levels of estradiol have been shown to inhibit PRL induced lactalbumin synthesis. This research was supported in part by a Nursing Research Emphasis Grant for doctoral programs 1R21 NU00835 01, DHHS. 87 Abstracts CHROMOSOME ANALYSIS AND TUMOR I G EN I C I T Y OF THREE ISOLATED CELL LINES FROM A PRIMARY HUMAN COLON CARCINOMA Jerome McCombs and Wayne Finley. Dept, of Physiology and Laboratory of Medical Genetics, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294 and Michael Brattaln. Dept, of Biochemistry, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294. Colonic carcinoma (CCA) Is the second most frequent cancer In man ranking only below breast cancer In women and lung cancer in men. Some investigators have demonstrated apparent morphological and functional heterogeneity among cells in and between primary colonic carcinomas. Successful initiation of CCA cells In culture provides an opportunity to investigate the relationship between t u mor I g en I c I t y and karyotypic findings. The primary tumor cells were set In culture on a feeder layer of an embryonic mouse cell line (C3HI0TI/2). The CCA cells were removed from the feeder layer, continued in culture and then separated by density gradient centrifugation to yield 3 cell types. The cell lines OM, 0 and OFR were grown in culture and tested for tumorigenlc response In nude mice by Injecting with either 5x10^ cells or IOxIO6 cells. These inoculums from cell lines OM, 0 and OFR were tumorigenlc In 90?, 53? and 25? of the nude mice respec¬ tively. G-banded chromosomes from 50 cells were analyzed for each ce 1 1 line. Cell line OM contained a normal karyotype of 46, XY. Cell line 0 was p s e u do d i p I o I d <46,XY,l8p+) while cell line OFR had a 4 7 , X Y , +8 , I 3q t karyotype. Three cell lines derived by culture of a CCA biopsy had different karyotypic findings and tumorigenlc capabilities. This tumor heterogeneity may have Implications in the therapeutic approaches taken In colon carcinoma treatment. THE EFFECT OF ANTISTASIS FOOTBOARD EXERCISES ON SELECTED MEASURES OF EXERTION William Ahrens* Marguerite Kinney. Univ. of Al. in Birmingham, Birmingham, Al. , 35294. Rick Carter^ Univ. of Texas at Tyler and Univ. of Texas Health Center, Tyler, Texas, 75701. Cautions concerning the adverse consequences of isometric exercise in cardiac patients are based on prolonged isometric handgrip studies. To investigate the effects of prophylactic footboard exercises on heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), energy expenditure (EE), and perceived exer¬ tion (RPE) , 15 normal subjects underwent randomly ordered exercise sequences using 50% of maximum voluntary contraction strength. Three isometric sequences (varying in contraction length) utilized a rigid footboard. A dynamic sequence utilized a spring-equipped movable foot¬ board. No significant differences were observed in BP response or EE between the four activities (p>.05). Significant differences in HR and RPE were noted only between the dynamic activity and the isometric ac¬ tivity with the longest (60 second) sustained contraction duration (p<.05). The linear relationship between HR and RPE, previously demon¬ strated for strenuous activity, was not present in this study (p<.05). The assumption that footboard exercises are excessively stressful in coronary care patients needs to be re-evaluated. Prevention of thrombo¬ embolic complications in bedridden patients is of major concern to the practitioner and investigations of energy cost and cardiovascular stress associated with antistasis exercises assist in providing a rational basis for acute exercise prescription. 88 Abstracts AUTORADIOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF L- [ METH YL-3H ] -METH I ON I NE IN HUMAN CELLS WITH FRAGILE SITE Xq28Q0 Kristin Mihelick. Dept, of Biochemistry, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294. Patricia N. Howar d-Peeb I es . Dept, of Pathology, Cytogenetics Laboratory, UTHSCD, Dallas, TX, 75235. Wayne H. Finley. Laboratory of Medical Genetics, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294. A fragile site, a chromatid or chromosome gap or break, on the human X chromosome at Xq2800 has been associated with a form of non- specific X-IInked mental retardation. Appearance of this site is dependent upon a culture medium relatively deficient in folic acid and thymidine and containing at least 5mg/L DL-meth I on I ne . To Investigate the role of methionine in inducing the fragile site, L-Im©thyl-^Hl- methionine was introduced at a concentration of Img/L ( I .36yC i/m ! ) to a modified form of TC 199 lacking folic acid, thymidine, deoxyrlbose and DL-meth i on I ne . DL-Meth I on i ne was added at a concentration of 4mg/L. Peripheral blood from a mentally retarded male displaying the fragile site and a control male was cultured in this medium. After 24 hours 80$ of the original medium was replaced with medium containing 5 mg / L unlabeled methionine. Cultures were harvested after a total incubation time of 72 hours. Chromosome preparations following standard procedures for autoradiography were analyzed for developed grains over Xq2800 and a corresponding area op the No. 2 chromosome which served as a reference chromosome. No difference was detected In grain counts over the X chromosomes between individuals or In counts over the X and No. 2 chromosomes within an Individual ( p = 0 . 0 I ) . This lack of difference suggests that another approach may be necessary to discern the role of methionine in Inducing the fragile site. URINARY TRACT CALCULI IN SPINAL CORD INJURY PATIENTS M.J. DeVivo, A.B. McEachran, K.V. Kuhlemeier and P.R. Fine Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, A1 35294 The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of se¬ lect medical, epidemiologic and demographic variables on the devel¬ opment of urinary tract calculi in spinal cord injury (SCI) patients. The study was undertaken because SCI patients seem pre¬ disposed to the development of upinary tract calculi. Bladder Calculi: SCI patients who developed bladder stones were most likely to be young males with neurological ly complete cervical lesions. Additionally, patients whose bladder management was either an indwelling urethral catheter or suprapubic cystostomy and who had a history of recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) were at highest risk for the development of bladder calculi. Renal Calculi: Neuro- level and extent of lesion, history of recurrent UTI, bladder management via indwelling urethral catheter and a history of bladder calculi were important predisposing factors for the development of renal calculi. The predictive model for bladder calculi was 78% sensitive and 81% specific. The predictive model for renal calculi was 63% sensitive and 73% specific. While other determinants of urinary tract calculi development undoubtedly exist, it appears high risk patients can be identified using a small set of predictor vari¬ ables. 89 Abstracts INCORPORATION OF I 35 S04 1 INTO GLYCOS AM I NOGLYCANS IN CULTURED FIBROBLASTS FROM PATIENTS WITH THE ZELLWEGER SYNDROME E. Pointer Johnson, J.N. Thompson, and W.H. Finley. Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Unlv. of Ala. In Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Undersu I fat Ion of g I y cos a m I n og I y c a n s (GAGs) has been reported In patients with Lowe's syndrome (Fukul et al., J. Biol. Chem. 256: 10313, 1981), a disorder clinically similar to the cerebro-hepato- renal syndrome (CHRS) of Ze I Iweger. In the present experiments, cultured skin fibroblasts from controls and two patients with CHRS were analyzed for sulfation of intracellular GAGs. Cells were grown In Ham F — 1 2 medium t 10? FCS to deplete the sulfate prior to Incorporating Inorganic I35S0|1. Labeled GAGs were precipitated by hot ethanol, solubilized with NaOH, neutralized and measured (Cantz Qt a I » i Methods Enzymol. 28:884, 1972), Initial studies revealed that Incorporation of label was proportional to the concentration of 33S04 in the medium. Cultures were labeled for 6h, 1 2 h , 1 8 h and 24h with 4 p C i of 33S04/mL medium (25 x 10^ cpm/f lask). Activity of 35S04-GAGs In cpm/mg protein at each of those times for controls was 14,903; 21,189; 30,348 and 29,573; for CHRS the values were 19,957; 33,290; 35,648 and 40,478. Approximately half the label Incorporated within 24h was present by 6h. Over 75? of the 35S04-GAGs Incorporated during a 48h pulse was eliminated from both control and CHRS fibroblasts following a 48h chase with unlabeled medium. In the present study no differences In the formation or loss of total 35S04-GAGs between CHRS and control fibroblasts were apparent. THE INSULIN RECEPTOR IN BOVINE CEREBRAL MICROVESSELS. Joyce Feh Haskel 1 , Elias Meezan* and Dennis J. Pillion; University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294. The high incidence of mi crovascul ar disease as a long-tern coirpl ication of diabetes mellitus may be related to a derangement in the metabolic control of vascular tissue by insulin. Binding of 1251- insulin to isolated bovine cerebral microvessels was measured at 22°C for 75 minutes in the presence and absence of excess unlabelled hormone. Specific insulin binding has been characterized under various time, temperature and pH conditions in these isolated microvessels Inhibition of insulin binding has been observed with various concentrations of unlabelled insulin, and Scatchard analysis of the data yields a curvilinear plot similar to that obtained with othe" tissues. Previous work in this laboratory has shown that incubation o: cerebral microvessels with physiological doses of insulin cause an increase in several metabolic effects found to be insulin sensitive in other tissues. D-glucose oxidation and conversion to lipid and cyclic AMP phosphodi esterase activity were increased upon addition of insulin to isolated cerebral mi crovessels, demonstrating an intact hormone coupling system in vascular tissue. The current data verify the existence of a high affinity insulin receptor in cerebral mi crovascul a ' tissue and demonstrate that this hormone receptor is similar in it; binding characteristics to receptors found on other insulin-sensitive organs. 90 Abstracts AN EXPERIMENTAL MODEL FOR THE STUDY OF SPINAL MENINGEAL LEUKEMIA J. C. Kase, W. H. Wilborn, J. N. Varakis, L. B. Cheshire, and R. D. A. Peterson. Departments of Neurology, Anatomy, Pathology, and Pediatrics, and The Electron Microscopy Center, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Syngeneic mice were injected intravenously with cells of "Line 13" of a T-cell lymphomia originally induced in C3H mice by Gross murine leukemia virus. The syngeneic mice developed lower paraparesis and sensory loss within 2-3 weeks after inoculation. The spinal cord showed an abundance of leukemic cell infiltrates in a consistent extradural location. The paravertebral muscles were also heavily infiltrated with leukemic cells. No leptomeningeal or parenchymal leukemic infiltrates occurred. Marked proliferation of leukemic cells in the bone marrow was always accompanied by spinal cord involvement. Visceral involvement tended to parallel the degree of bone marrow infiltration. The pattern of distribution of extra¬ dural and paravertebral muscular leukemic collections appeared to relate topographically to the proximity of heavily infiltrated bone marrow. Sites of communication between bone marrow and extradural infiltrates were repeatedly identified. There was no involvement of the leptomeninges or parenchyma, regardless of the severity of the extradural infiltration. On the other hand, "Line 13" cells injected directly into the brain pro¬ duced diffuse leptomeningeal tumor cell infiltration without extradural involvement. These findings in the animal model suggest that the primary mechanism for extradural meningeal infiltration is by direct spread from the bone marrow. The animal model offers an opportunity to study malig¬ nancies that produce bone destruction as a mechanism for the spread of the tumor. REAL VS IDEAL CONTENT IN MSN CURRICULA: PERCEPTIONS OF GRADUATES Jeanette Lancaster. Sch. of Nursing, UAB, Birmingham, Al. 35294. This study surveyed MSN graduates one year following graduation to determine their perceptions of what content was actually essential for their graduate education and what they believed ideally should have been required. It was the second study in a sequence in which faculty was surveyed as to their perceptions of actual and ideal essential content in their programs. There was considerable variability between the perceptions of faculty and graduates both about what was and what should have been inclueed in the program. Additionally, graduates selected different content items for what was and what should have been included in their program. Of the top 12 items chosen as actual essen¬ tial content, only five were retained as ideal essential content (research, methodology, change and nursing theory, and group and family dynamics). Graduates valued communication-oriented content areas more highly as ideally required than they perceived as being actually in their curricula. They ideally would have given high priority to con¬ flict resolution and communication theory. Interestingly, graduates tended to want almost all items included in the curriculum. This may reflect their insecurity upon graduation and fear of being unprepared for work-related events. 91 Abstracts _ CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INFECTION IN A DAY CARE CENTER Anna M. August and Robert F. Pass, Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294. The prevalence of cytomegalovirus (CMV) excretion among children in a day care center was assessed in order to determine the effect of grouping young children upon transmission of CMV and to define the exposure to CMV experienced by female workers. Seventy of 75 (93%) children atten¬ ding participated. Urine was obtained from 68 and mouth swabs from 33. Serum was available from 37 mothers and 16 employees. The children's ^ges ranged from 3 to 65 months; 94% were Caucasian. Median age at entry to day care was 6 months; 59% had been breast fed. The mean inumber of siblings was 0.5, and parental ages were 29.4 + 3 for mothers and 31.6 + 4 for fathers. Parents averaged over 16 years of formal education. CMV shedding was found in 51% of children and was related to age: _ Age (mo.) 0-12 13-24 25-36 37-48 49-50 +ve (%) 1/11 (9) 15/18 (83) 10/15 (67) 3/14 (21) 7/12 (58) Nineteen of 37 (51%) mothers were seropositive; 25 (68%) of their chil¬ dren shed CMV. Excretion was not related to maternal serology or to breast feeding. Four of 36 excreters and 0 of 34 nonexcreters had experienced serious bacterial infection (2 meningitis, 1 bacteremia, 1 facial cellulitis), p < 0.05. Twelve of 13 (92%) children under 2 with viruria who were sampled at both sites were also positive in the mouth. CMV was isolated from 4 plastic toys mouthed by toddlers, suggesting a possible means of transmission. Ten of 16 workers were seropositive. Transmission of CMV among children in a day care occurs readily; virus excreting children may be a source of infection for employees and mothers . ENERGY LEVELS IN THE INSTITUTIONALIZED AGED Sarah Hall Gueldner, School of Nursing, The University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294. The sample consisted of 42 ambulatory subjects sixty years of age or older, including persons who lived in a nursing home, unemployed individuals who resided in a retirement village, and individuals employed part-time on a regular basis. A survey was made of sleep patterns, appetite, frequency of family contact, participation in group activities, and frequency of contact with the outside environ¬ ment, including walks. Additionally, the Pearson-Byars Subjective Fatigue Checkl ist(PBSFC) was used to evaluate perceived energy levels in subjects, and electromyography (EMG) was used as a noninvasive measure of general metabolic activity. Following these initial measurements, the groups were randomly divided into a control group of nonwalkers and an experimental group of subjects who walked outdoors 3 mornings each week for a period of three weeks. Pre- and post¬ scores were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance, chi- square, regression, and student's t procedures. The results showed that residents of the retirement community walked outside more than did the residents of the nursing home, while nursing home residents slept better and reported better appetites ( P= . 05 ) . Nursing home residents participating in the walking regime reported significantly increased energy levels (P=.008). These findings suggest inexpensive yet effective improvements that may be instituted in the care of elderly individuals living in nursing homes. 92 Abstracts EXCRETORY UROGRAPHY FOR SPINAL CORD INJURY FOLLOW-UP K.V. Kuhlemeier, A.B. McEachran, L.K. Lloyd, P.R. Fine and S.L. Stover Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, A1 35294 This study was conducted to determine if excretory urography (EXU) is essential for follow-up care of spinal cord injured (SCI) patients with minimal pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s or ureterectas i s . One hundred and fifty four patients were examined twice, generally 12 months apart. Of 63 kidneys with minimal pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s at first visit, 19 did not change, 37 improved and 7 worsened at the next exam. When all grades of pyelo- caliectasis were combined, 218 kidneys did not change between exams, 44 improved and A6 worsened, 11 going from grade 0 (normal) or 1 (minimal pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s ) to grade 2 (moderate pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s ) or 3 (severe pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s ) . In each of these 11 cases other evidence, chiefly that obtained during renal scintigraphy, clearly indicated renal degeneration. Of 59 kidneys with minimal ureterectas i s , 1A did not change, Al improved and A worsened between visits. When all grades of ureterectas i s were combined, 2 1 A did not change, A6 improved and A6 worsened, 9 going from grade 0 or 1 to grade 2 or 3- Again other measures, chiefly renal scintigraphy, showed declining renal function in the latter 9 cases. Mean renal plasma flow as well as mean serum creatinine was the same for patients with normal EXU's and patients with minimal pye 1 oca 1 i ectas i s or ureterectas i s , giving further evidence of the ephemeral nature of minimal EXU changes in these patients. We conclude yearly EXU is unnecessary for SCI patients with minimal pye I oca 1 i ectas i s or ureterectas i s , provided x-rays of the kidneys, ureters and bladder and renal scintigraphy are used to monitor for calculi and renal function, respectively. However, any evidence of deterioration necessitates EXU to determine morphological alterations. PROXIMITY RELATIONSHIP OF TROPONIN C C.K. Wang, Frank Garland*, and Herbert C. Cheung . Dept. Biomathematics, Univ. of Ala. in B'ham, B'ham, AL 35294 of In vertebrate skeletal muscle Ca^+ regulates the actin-myosin interaction by binding to troponin C (TNC), which is one of three subunits of troponin. This Ca^+ interaction induces conformational changes across the thin filament to bring about contraction. To investigate the Ca^+ effect we have determined the distance between two specific residues in TNC by fluorescence energy transfer. Dansy laziridine (DNZ) attached to Met-25 was used as the energy donor and 5-Iodoacetoamidoeosin (IAE) attached to Cys-98 as the acceptor. A transfer efficiency of 66% was obtained for Ca^+ free TNC and 81% for the fully saturated Ca^+ complex. From these results and depolar¬ ization data a range of donor-acceptor distance (R) was determined: 29-51, 26-51, and 26-51 ^ for Ca^-*" free TNC, half saturated, and fully saturated Ca^+ complexes, respectively. The lower bound of these ranges represents a more realistic estimate of the actual donor- acceptor separation. Ca^+ induces a 10% decrease in R and this small change suggests that no gross deformation of TNC is induced by Ca^+ binding. The fact that Ca^+ binding to two of the four sites (site 3 and 4) induces significant spectral changes of DNZ attached to Met-25 suggests that a molecular signal is transmitted over a distance of at least 29 A. (Supported in part by AM-25193 from the NIH). 93 Abstracts EFFECTS OF ABSORPTION AND SECRETION ON COLONIC LYMPH FLOW: A PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL ANALYSIS W. H. Wilborn, P. R. Kvietys, and D. N. Granger. Electron Microscopy Center and Departments of Anatomy and Physiology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688. The effects of net transmucosal fluid flux on lymph flow, lymphatic protein flux, and lymph oncotic pressure were analyzed in an isolated autoperfused canine colon preparation (Gastroenterology 111: 1080, 1981). Active fluid absorption and secretion were induced by intraluminal in¬ stillation of Tyrode's Solution alone and Tyrode's Solution containing 40 mM theophylline, respectively. In contrast to previous observations on the small bowel, colonic lymph flow, lymph protein flux, and lymph oncotic pressure were not affected by net transmucosal volume flux (absorptive or secretory) . Ultrastructural analyses of the lymphatic and capillary microcirculations of the mucosal regions of the colon and ileum revealed that, releative to the small intestine, the colonic mucosa con¬ tained (1) lymphatic vessels of smaller caliber that did not extend beyond the basal one-third of the mucosa and (2) blood capillaries that were situated much closer to the epithelial cells (average juxtacapillary space: 1.9 pm, ileum; 1.0 pm, colon). These findings indicate that (1) the inability of net transmucosal fluid movement to alter colonic lymph flow is due to the paucity of lymphatic drainage in luminal two-thirds of the colonic mucosa and (2) blood capillaries are the sole conduits by which absorbed fluids are removed from the colonic interstitium. The latter task is facilitated by the close apposition of the fenestrated capillaries to the absorptive epithelium. (Supported by NHLBI 15680) . BLOOD PLASMA LEVELS OF CATECHOLAMINES, CORTISOL, AND ENDORPHINS IN MALE ATHLETES BEFORE AND AFTER 26, 6 AND 2 MILE RUNS 3. Dearman and K.T. Francis, Division of Physical Therapy, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294. There is a growing awareness that opiod peptides called endorphins may represent a new class of neurotransmitters and modulators common to both central and somatic divisions of the nervous and endocrine systems. Endorphins appear not to function tonically but influence physiological processes selectively under specific environmental or endogenous conditions. One such condition— exercise— has been implicated as a stimulus for release of endorphins. The involvement of endorphins in exercise may be related to their role in the control of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. In order to further invesitgate this relationship under varying intensities of exercise stress, plasma endorphin, cortisol, and catecholamines were studied in 9 healthy marthon runners prior to and 15 minutes following a GXT, 26.2, 6, or 2 mile run. With the exception of endorphins during the 2 mile run, all three blood variables were significantly elevated when post-exercise levels were compared to pre-exercise levels. The percent increases in endorphins ranged from a low of 20% (2 mile run) to 132% following the 6 mile run. Percent increases in cortisol levels ranged from 22% (6 mile run) to 100% following the 26.2 mile run. Percent increases in catecholamines ranged from 130% (2 mile run) to 198% following the 6 mile run. 94 Abstracts BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT USING THE UAB SCALE J.S. Richards, C.S. Nepomuceno, and M. Riles Department of Rehabi 1 i tati on Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294 Pain as a subjective experience has been notoriously difficult to assess. However, the visible manifestations of pain, i.e. pain behavior, present a more feasible goal in terms of assessment. This abstract describes the conceptualization, design, development and evaluation of a scale for the quantification of pain behavior. The scale consists of 10 target behaviors: (1) verbal and (2) non-verbal complaints of pain, (3) downtime, (4) facial grimaces, (5) standing posture, (6) mobility, (7) body language, (8) use of visible suppor¬ tive equipment, (9) stationary movement, and (10) medication intake. The scale has a 0-10 range. As employed in a formal Pain Clinic, it is quickly administered and has high interrater reliability (r=.95). A sample of 70 chronic pain patients were studied using the scale. Average pain behavior in the series was 5.4 on admission and 3.2 at time of discharge. The correlations between subjective reports of pain (0-10) and pain behavior scores were .16 at admission and .55 at discharge reflecting the discrepancy frequently observed between subjectively reported pain and its visible mani festat i ons . Our experience with this pain behavior scale suggests that it is a quick, valid and reliable instrument which should prove useful as an objective measure of outcome in pain treatment programs. This should prove particularly to be the case in programs based on an operant model where the emphasis is on modifying pain behavior per se rather than subjective experience of pain. EFFECT OF INCREASED EGG CONSUMPTION ON SERUM PHOSPHOLIPIDS K. A. Blackwood. School of Arts and Sciences, Sanford University, Birmingham, AL 35229. J. S. Dover and H. C. Elliott, Dept, of Clinical laboratories. Baptist Medical Center Montclair, Birmingham, ILL 35213. The per cent of phospholipids present in serum was determined using a modified Folch phospholipid extraction method, thin layer chromatography, and transmittance densitometry. Twenty-three individuals were placed on an isocaloric diet, which included 4 eggs a day in addition to their normal egg intake. Serum samples were taken prior to and upon completion of the 8^ to 12 week diet. The results shewed that the mean differences (X + S.D.) between the initial and final analyses were: Phosphol ip ids Lysolecithin Sphingcmy e 1 in Lecithin Phosphatidylinositol Phosphatidylethanolamine and Phospha tidy 1 serine % Phospholipids Baseline 7.1 + 2.1 23.4 ± 4.0 59.9 ± 3.7 4.7 + 2.4 4.9 + 2.2 Egg Study 7.5 ± 2.0 23.1 + 3.5 59.6 + 2.7 4.5 ± 1.6 5.3 1 2.5 None of these changes were significant at the 5% level. It is concluded that increased egg consumption does not appear to significantly change the level of serum phospholipids. 95 Abstracts EFFECTS OF TESTOSTERONE PROPIONATE ON REGENERATION OF ACINAR CELLS IN SUBMANDIBULAR GLANDS OF RATS J. L„ Boshell. School of Dentistry, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912 This report describes the effect of testosterone propionate (TP) on the histological appearance of the rat submandibular gland and rate of acinar cell mitoses following partial extirpation. Mature male Sprague- Dawley rats were anesthetized and a wedge was removed from the medial surface of the left submandibular gland. Beginning on the third day after the operation, the experimental animals were given subcutaneous injections of TP (lOOpg/animal ) in sesame oil. Control groups were given subcutaneous injections of 0,1 ml sesame oil. Experimental and control animals were killed on 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 days post¬ operation. Submandibular glands were removed and processed for light microscopic examination. To assess the level of mitotic activity, one thousand acinar cells were counted in two different areas and the number of mitotic figures was recorded. The histological appearance of the glands at each time interval was typical except that parenchymal components on the wound surface were smaller in size and there was evidence of lobule formation. The mitotic rate of acinar cells on the wound surface is normally high through 10 days. Flowever following TP, the mitotic rate declines to near zero except day 10 when there is a rise. In controls, there is a suppression until day 15 and then a return to near zero. In the other area, mitotic activity was low at all time intervals. Thus it appears that these exogenous agents have a suppressive effect on acinar cell mitoses during the regenerative process in rat submandibular glands. Supported by NIDR Grant DE 05072. WORK CAPACITY IN PARAPLEGICS C.T. Huang, K.V. Kuhlemeier, A.B. McEachran and P.R. Fine Department of Rehaoi 1 i tat ion Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, A1 35294 Cardiopulmonary response in recently injured paraplegics perform- g continuous, intermittent and graded exercise was compared. The ^^TaV,°n consisted of 12 males with complete lesions between T-7 4 RQ = d/indQr7 n°rrnf1 ITiale controls. Paraplegics performed 4.93, .ay and 4.95 watt-hours work; controls performed 4.98, 4.91 and <;Imn)aWcatt'h0UrS iWOrk f 0 r each exercise respectively. Exhaled air IndPHP Wer quotients (RQ),and ventila¬ tory rates (p£0.05). There were no differences between V0, and level °f .i um°n? ParaPlegics. Graded exercise produced a signifi¬ cantly higher HR (p<0. 001) during the final data collection period but the mean HR for the total data collection period was lower than during continuous or intermittent exercise (p<0.01). V0„ durinq graded exercise was higher (p<0.001) during the last data collection period; however there was no difference in V0, when compared with continuous or intermittent exercise. 0 debt wa2s significantly dif¬ ferent (p<0.05) between controls and paraplegics but did not differ etween types of exercise with the exception of graded exercise which showed more 0„ debt than did continuous exercise (p<0.05) In recently injured paraplegics, level of lesion and type of exercise significantly influence HR but not V0^ response. 96 Abstracts PERITONITIS ASSOCIATED WITH PERITONEAL DIALYSIS A MECHANISM FOR SURVEILLANCE Hala Fawal, Melissa Shelley*, Barbara C. Walker*, Barbara Hubbard*, and Geraldine W. Key*, University Hospitals, University of Alabama in Bir¬ mingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Peritoneal dialysis is a form of intracorporeal hemodialysis used to replace the function of damaged kidneys in certain patients with renal failure. This intervention requires the placement of an indwelling cath¬ eter into the peritoneal cavity. Peritonitis associated with this form of dialysis is an important problem which can be prevented. At the Uni¬ versity Hospital, a concern existed as to the incidence of peritoneal dialysis-associated peritonitis and what could be done to fully assess the situation. Since incidence data were unavailable, the first priority was to devise a mechanism whereby an incidence rate could be established. In cooperation with the Nephrology Service, a form was developed for documentation and surveillance of peritoneal dialysis-associated peri¬ tonitis and a prospective incidence study initiated. The surveillance sheet will be completed by the peritoneal dialysis nurse. Information to be collected includes demographic characteristics, underlying renal disease and infection factors, as well as other potential risk factors. At periodic intervals, the data will be reviewed, statistically analyzed and then compared to non-cases to attempt to identify risk factors. Once the incidence rate is established, evaluation of procedures and comparison of experiences with other institutions will be facilitated. More importantly, this information will aid in the institution of effec¬ tive preventative measures. PSYCHOSOCIAL PREDICTORS OF DECUBITUS ULCERS IN SPINAL CORD INJURY J.S. Richards, R. Meredith, P.R. Fine and C.S. Nepomuceno Department of Rehabi 1 i tation Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, A1 35294 Recurrent decubitus ulcers are one of the most expensive compli¬ cations of spinal cord injury (SCI) in terms of dollars spent for treatment as well as time lost from a potentially productive life¬ style. Decubitus ulcers are largely preventable, and clinical evi¬ dence and a few recent studies suggest that personality factors are often associated with their onset. The present study was an attempt to predict the presence or absence of decubitus ulcers post¬ discharge on the basis of psycho-social and demographic data gather¬ ed during the initial rehabi 1 i tation hospitalization. Data on the incidence of decubitus ulcers were gathered from SCI outpatients as part of another study. Four classes of predictor variables were used: medical, demographic, psychological and fami 1 i al -soci al . Multiple linear regression techniques were used. The best set of predictors accounted for 50% of the variance (r=0.71) of the depen¬ dent measure presence or absence of decubitus ulcers. The occur¬ rence of pressure sores was associated with younger age, a larger number of persons living in the household, higher verbal intelli¬ gence, lower ego strength, and more psychopathology as measuraed by the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). It was con¬ cluded that personality factors are associated with decubitus ulcer formation in SCI, and that such measures, gathered during rehabili¬ tation, are helpful in predicting the post-di scharge development of pressure ulcers.- 97 Abstracts EFFECTS OF A NEW LONG-ACTING STEROIDAL CONTRACEPTIVE ON BABOON ENDOMETRIUM W. H. Wilborn, L. R. Beck, B. M. Hyde, and V. Z. Pope. Electron Micros¬ copy Center and Department of Anatomy, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. A major problem with long-acting injectable contraceptives such as med¬ roxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) and norethindrone (NET) is irregular and unpredictable menstrual bleeding, varying from frequent bleeding and spot¬ ting to amenorrhea. Norgestimate (NGM) , a new progestin, was studied for possible use as a long-acting injectable contraceptive. NGM was micro- encapsulated in a biodegradable polymer of polylactic acid and adminis¬ tered to three groups of normal cycling female baboons as predetermined by endometrial biopsies and radioimmunoassay of serum hormone levels. Each animal in a group (3-5 baboons/group) received a single intramuscular in¬ jection of one of the following doses of NGM: 5 mg, Group I; 25 mg, Group II; 50 mg. Group III. Endometrial biopsies were obtained for study by light and electron microscopy at intervals of 15-30 days for 8 months. The 5 mg dose did not inhibit ovulation, but the 25 mg and 50 mg doses suppressed ovulation for 3 months and 6 months, respectively, and main¬ tained the endometrium in a pseudopregnant state without adverse effects. In the first month, stromal cells hypertrophied and epithelial cells re¬ gressed until they attained a stable, semiquiescent state which they main¬ tained during the remainder of treatment. Irregular uterine bleeding was not observed with NGM, but it did occur with MPA and NET. The endometriuir quickly regained its normal cyclicity and intricate structural-functional relationships essential for pregnancy following the end of the treatment period. It was concluded that NGM is a good candidate for use as an in¬ jectable, long-acting contraceptive. EVALUATION OF TRAINING EFFECT FROM A CARDIAC REHABILITATION PROGRAM Ann Clotfelter, Howard R. Horn, Baptist Medical Centers' Center for Health Promotion, Birmingham, Alabama 35209 To determine the effects of an exercise rehabilitation program, the comparative treadmill results and lipid profiles of 22 men and 2 women coronary heart patients who had completed a 12 week, 3 times per week, monitored exercise program under medical supervision were analyzed. Subjects had myocardial infarction (MI) and/or had coronary artery bypass grafts (CABG), angina alone or claudication. Ages ranged from 50 to 71 with a mean of 61. Subjects were given a maximum graded exercise test (GXT) using the standard Bruce protocol and had a lipid profile before the initation of the program and at its completion. Objective improvement was measured by duration of treadmill time and lipid changes. The average improvement was a 50% increase in treadmill time with a range of 12 to 163%. HDL levels increased in 19/20 patients. Triglyceride levels decreased in 15/21 patients. Maximum heart rate increased ir) 22/24 patients. Submaximal double products (heart rate X systolic blood pressure) were lower on the second GXT at every stage in 22 of 24 patients. The study demonstrated that an exercise program for coronary patients increases exercise tolerance and work capacity, while decreasing hemodynamic stress (* double products); decreases triglyceride levels, and elevates HDL. Subjectively the patients report increased feelings of well-being and self-confidence. 98 Abstracts SOYBEAN TRYPSIN INHIBITOR PREVENTS ISCHEMIA-INDUCED DEHYDROGENASE TO OXIDASE CONVERSION Ranjan S. Roy and Joe M. McCord. Dept, of Biochemistry , College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. It has been shown that xanthine oxidase exists in vivo as an NAD+- reducing dehydrogenase and may be converted by various treatments in vitro to a superoxide-producing oxidase. In the rat intestine, this conversion occurs irreversibly and extremely rapidly in vivo during ischemia. The resulting burst of superoxide upon reperfusion is reponsible for extensive post-ischemic tissue damage. Preliminary data indicate that this conversion occurs in vivo in the liver and heart al¬ though the kinetics in these tissues differ dramatically. No conversion was detected in rat skeletal muscle. The times required for 50% con¬ version of dehydrogenase to oxidase in vivo in non-perfused tissues of rats are as follows: intestine-4 sec., heart-300 sec., and liver-3600 sec. 2+ A Ca -calmodulin regulated serine protease appears to be the major cause of the conversion to oxidase in the rat intestine. Pretreatment with trifluoperazine (200 mg/kg ip), a calmodulin antagonist, signifi¬ cantly slows the rate of this conversion in vivo. Soybean trypsin in¬ hibitor (25 mg/kg) completely blocks the intracellular dehydrogenase to oxidase conversion in intestinal cells brought about by ischemia. Soybean trypsin inhibitor, due to its size, is unlikely to penetrate the cell membrane. Its mechanism of action is therefore hypothesized to be mediated via a trypsin-like receptor on the mucosal cell surface which is activated by ischemia. (Supported by grants AM-20527 and AM-00595 from the NIH.) EFFECT OF ENZYMATICALLY GENERATED SUPEROXIDE RADICALS ON INTESTINAL CAPILLARY PERMEABILITY. Dale A. Parks and D. Neil Granger, Dept, of Physiology, Univ. South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Recent evidence indicates that superoxide radicals may account for the increased vascular permeability associated with various disease states including intestinal ischemia. In order to determine whether enzymatically generated superoxides were capable of producing increased capillary permeability, the steady-state relationship between the lymph to plasma protein concentration ratio (C /Cp) and lymph flow was used as an estimate of capillary permeability. Lymph flow and C^/Cp were measured at various venous pressures and the osmotic coef¬ ficient (cs^) estimated using = 1 - C^/Cp when C^. /Cp is f iltrationuindependent . Autoperfused segments of cat ileum were subjected to intra-arterial infusion of hypoxanthine- xanthine oxidase, a superoxide radical generation system. The osmotic reflection coefficient obtained (o = 0.65) was in the range between normal values (o. = 0.92) and estimates following 1 hr. of regional ischemia (o^ = 0.59). These findings , coupled with results from previous studies from our laboratories, suggest that superoxide radicals are responsible, at least in part , for the increased capillary permeability in the ischemic small bov/el. 99 Abstracts MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF KERATOHYALIN GRANULES OF MAMMALIAN TONGUES Baldev Singh, Jerry Boshell, and Dave Steflik. Department of Oral Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA. Walter Wilborn. Department of Anatomy, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL. During the past few years our laboratories have employed a systematic approach in the study of oral epithelial cell differentiation. One of the major aspects of these investigations has been to elucidate the biological composition and role of keratohyalin granules (KHG) during keratinization. For this purpose we have studied the tongue KHG of five Orders of mammals including Primates, Rodents, Artiodactyl ia , Carnivora, and Lagamorpha. The tissues from the dorsal surface of tongue were subjected to analysis employing light microscopic histo¬ chemistry, electron microscopy and, in some cases autoradiography. Based on their staining with hematoxylin and/or eosin, KHG can be classified as basophilic (BKHG), eosinophilic (EKGH) and amphophilic (AKHG). All three types of KHG are comprised primarily of protein(s). The dominant protein component of the various KHG are as follows: the BKHG, histidine-rich proteins; EKHG, arginine-rich proteins; and AKHG, both histidine and arginine containing proteins. U1 trastructural ly , KHG are dispersed in the differentiating epithelial cells rendering an electron dense background to the fully keratinized cells. However in some cases the EKHG were noted at the cell periphery and such epithe¬ lial cells appeared rather electron-lucent in nature. The current investigations show that KHG are heterogenous in their biological composition and morphology. Nevertheless they seem to play an impor¬ tant role in the final process of epithelial cell differentiation and produce different types and/or degrees of keratinization. THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL CONTRACEPTION ON PLASMA VITAMIN LEVELS AND SELECTED COENZYME-DEPENDENT ENZYME ACTIVITY IN FEMALE BABOONS L.R. Boots and P.E. Cornwell*. Dept, of OB/GYN and Nutrition Sciences*, UAB, University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294 Vitamins A, Bg , Bi2> C, folate, riboflavin, thiamin and B-carotene were measured in the blood of 10 female baboons during normal menstrual cycles and while being treated for one year with either Lo-Ovral or Depo-Provera . During normal menstrual cycles, vitamin C levels were highest early in the cycle (P<0.01), B-carotene levels were elevated late in the cycle (P<0.05) and vitamin A was lowest at midcycle (P<0.05). Plasma levels of folate and vitamin B^2 ar>d the enzyme indi¬ cators of vitamin Bg , riboflavin and thiamin status did not change dur¬ ing the menstrual cycles. Vitamin A and B-carotene levels were signifi¬ cantly lowered by treatment with Depo-Provera while both treatments increased vitamin C levels. Vitamin Bg , riboflavin and thiamin status were all altered by contraceptive treatment, showing variously changed levels and significant cyclical patterns. Supplementation with vita¬ mins Bg , riboflavin and thiamin during the last 16 weeks of treatment variously affected these latter three vitamins as well as vitamin A, C and B-carotene levels (P<0.01). Supported by NICHHD Grant //R01 HD10768. 100 Abstracts INHIBITORS OF THYMIDYLATE SYNTHASE OF THE COENZYME CLASS. M. G. Nair, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL. 36688. Thymidylate synthase (TS) catalyses the terminal step in tne denovo synthesis of thymidine nucleotides required exclusively for DNA syn¬ thesis. Because of this unique feature of the enzyme it continues to be a prime target for cancer chemotherapy. Although potent inhibitors of TS of the substrate class are well known, inhibitors of TS belonging to the coenzyme class have not yet been developed with the exception of the recently reported antileukemic agent, 5 , 8-dideaza-N '-Propargyl folic acid. Based on this, and a newly proposed mechanism of thymidylate synthesis [Nair, Fed. Proc. (1982)] the synthesis and antitumor eval¬ uation of N1® Propargyl and N Cyanomethyl derivatives of aminopterin were undertaken. H2N nh2 _CH ;_1 // \\ 0 H COOH B — A — C— H .COOH 1 R = -C = CH 2 R = -C = N Alkylation of diethyl p-aminobenzoyl-L-glutamate with Propargyl bromide and a-bromoacetonilrile gave the corresponding monoalkylation products, which were reacted with 6-Bromomethyl-2 , 4-diamino pteridine. The resulting diethyl esters were hydrolyzed to their respective acids 1_ and 2_; and were purified by ionexchange chromatography over DEAE cellulose. As expected both 1_ and 2_ were good inhibitors of L-Casei dihydrofolate reductase, and inhibited the growth of folate requiring microorganisms (L-Casei and S. Faecium) . These activities were com¬ parable to those of methotrexate. The Propargyl derivative 1_ was ten times more potent an inhibitor of L-Casei TS than methotrexate. How¬ ever compound 2_ was not an effective inhibitor of this enzyme. Support: CA 27101 from NCI. ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE (AD) : BIOLOGICAL ENTITY - SOCIAL IMPACT Geraldine M. Emerson and Elizabeth W. Murray, Center for Aging and Department of Biochemistry, University of Alabama in Birmingham, University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294 OLV AGE j SENILITY Demented A meJiicani, 65 ije.a'v 6 Although Dr. Alois Alzheimer described this disease in a 51 year old patient in 1906 we are still unable to translate the neuropatholog- ical changes into the manifestations of AD. AD is best recognized by a sequence of behavioral changes starting with memory impairment and pro¬ gressing to loss of cognitive functions. Women appear to be slightly more susceptible to the disease than men. It appears that some cases of AD are genetic; others of environmental etiology. Regardless, on autopsy all brains show abnormal enlargment of cell bodies densely packed with neurofibrillary tangles which displace mitochondria and other organelles. Society has yet to focus on the burden that AD im¬ poses on the patient's family. ^qj Abstracts HISTOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE EFFECTS OF ISOPROTERENOL AND/OR TESTOSTERONE PROPIONATE ON REGENERATION OF RAT SUBMANDIBULAR GLANDS Jerry L. Boshell, and Baldev Singh, School of Dentistry, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912. Studies on regeneration of submandibular glands of rats are ongoing in our laboratories. The purpose of this report is to compare the effects of isoproterenol (ISO) and/or testosterone propionate (TP) on the histological appearance of regenerating tissue following surgical removal of a portion of the left submandibular gland. Male Sprague- Dawley rats, 325-350 grams in weight, were anesthetized and a wedge was surgically removed from the medial surface of the left submandibular gland. Beginning on the third day after the operation, the animals were injected with ISO (16 mg/kg) in saline and/or TP ( lOOpg/animal ) in sesame oil. Control groups were given injections of saline and/or sesame oil. Appropriate experimental and control animals were killed on 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 days postoperation. Submandibular glands were removed, fixed in formalin and processed for light microscopic examination. In controls, buds of tissue appeared on the cut surface by 5 days, and by day 15 foci of tissue with the appearance of newly forming lobules was observed. After ISO, little regenerating tissue was observed and a pronounced void was present at the surgical site. With TP, the histological appearance was similar to controls at all time intervals. With both ISO and TP the differentiation of the regenerating tissue appeared to be more advanced from 15 days on. Thus, it appears that in combination ISO and TP enhances the histological differentiation of regenerating tissue. Supported by NIDR Grant DE05072. NON-CORRELATION BETWEEN SERUM CREATININE AND RENAL FUNCTION K. V. Kuhlemeier, A. B. McEachran, L. K. Lloyd, P. R. Fine and S. L. Stover Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294 This study was conducted to determine (1) if serum creatinine values in spinal cord injury patients are influenced by neurologic level of lesion or time since injury and (2) if serum creatinine values are a sensitive indicator of. renal function (as reflected by renal plasma flow and parenchyma l^t hickness) in these patients. Renal plasma flow was measured by 1I-hippurate clearance and mean parenchymal thickness was determined from excretory urographs. The overall serum creatinine mean and standard deviation were 0.9 +_ 0.2 mg/dl (n=14). There was no difference in serum creatinine values with lower injuries (T7 or below) nor was there any difference be¬ tween patients with lesions < three months, 10-14 months or 33-36 months in duration. Age and gender each accounted for less than 5% of the variation in serum creatinine. There was no significant cor¬ relation between renal plasma flow and serum creatinine (unless the patient had moderate or severe pyelocal iectasis or ureterectasi s ) nor between change in renal plasma flow (from the previous examina¬ tion, usually 12 months earlier) and change in creatinine. Like¬ wise, there was no significant correlation between parenchymal thickness and serum creatinine nor between change in parenchymal thickness and change in serum creatinine. We suggest that serum creatinine levels are relatively insensitive indicators of renal function in spinal cord injured patients. 102 Abstracts ALTERED CHLORIDE TRANSPORT IN THE IN VITRO GASTRIC MUCOSA Richard L. Shoemaker, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 The effects of inhibitors (DIDS, Furosemide, and Ethacrynic acid) on the Cl transport mechanisms were studied using frog gastric mucosae. The acid secretion rates, Cl flux, potential difference, resistance and short circuit current were measured. DIDS (4 ,4 ' -Diisothiocyano-2 , 2 ' -Disulfonate) when added to the serosal bathing solution (2 mm), reduced the acid secretion rate, reversed the polarity of the potential (P.D.), reduced the Cl flux froip serosa to mucosa (but the Cl flux was not reduced as much as the H rate) and reduced the net Cl flux; the transmembrane resistance was not changed after DIDS. In mucosae not secreting acid or in antral mucosae, DIDS reduced the P.D. only to zero. Furosemide had effects similar to DIDS. Neither the DIDS or Furosemide effects were reversible. In experiments where DIDS was followed by Ethacrynic acid (on the mucosal side) the H rate and the P.D. were decreased to zero, and the resistance also decreased. Ethacrynic acid also produced a reduction in the resistance of the antral mucosae. Therefore, the effort of Ethacrynic acid was not restricted to the oxyntic cells. The reduced H rate after DIDS probably was due to a change in intracellular pH after the HCO^ - Cl exchange was inhibited. The reversal of the P.D., after DIDS, could be due to unmasking of the_ H EMF as the Cl transport rate was reduced. The reduction in Cl flux without _a change in resistance suggest that DIDS alters a non-conductive Cl transporting pathway. MORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE AMPHOPHILIC GRANULES OF LAGAMORPH TONGUE FILIFORM PAPILLAE Baldev Singh, Jerry Boshell and Ralph McKinney. Department of Oral Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912 The objective of this investigation was to characterize morphology of the filiform papillae and biostructure and biological composition of keratohyalin granules (KHG) of Lagamorph tongue. For this purpose tissues from various dorsal sites of the tongues of ten adult rabbits were studied by 1 ight microscopic histochemistry, scanning and trans¬ mission electron microscopy. The rabbit tongue revealed the presence of three types of filiform papillae. These have been designated as: type I (short and thick located anteriorly), type II (long and slender located in the midzone) and type III (intermediate size located posteriorly). Each type of papilla was comprised of an anterior and a posterior cell line. The anterior cell line differentiated in the presence of KHG which exhibited varied electron morphology. The KHG stained with hematoxylin as well as eosin, thus denoting their amphophilic character. Histochem- ically these KHG reacted both with Sakaguchi Oxine reaction (arginine- rich proteins) and Pauly's reagent (histidine-rich proteins). The tinc¬ torial properties and histochemical characteristics distinguish the rabbit tongue KHG from the classically described basophilic KHG which con¬ tain histidine-rich protein(s) as the dominant moiety and the recently described eosinophilic KHG comprised primarily of arginine containing proteins. A marked regional variation in the morphology as well as elu¬ cidation of amphophilic granules in the rabbit tongue filiform papillae are the first reported observations in literature to our knowledge. 103 Abstracts DETERMINANTS OF SATISFACTION IN THE PHYSICIAN-PATIENT RELATIONSHIP W. H. Fite, University of Alabama School of Nursing, Birmingham, AL 35294 and S. C. Fite, St. Vincent's Hospital, Birmingham, AL 35201 This study explored determinants of patient satisfaction in physician- patient relationships by soliciting opinions regarding factors affecting satisfaction and self-assessments of satisfaction from persons engaged in such relationships. A split sample of 28 student nurses (24 female, 4 male, 23 white, 5 nonwhite, age 25.6 ± 5.5) and 29 lower-middle SES adults (18 female, 11 male, 29 white, age 35.2 ± 10.8) completed a 60 item questionnaire which assessed satisfaction with present relation¬ ship and rated present and ideal relationships on 10 parameters of sat¬ isfaction. Response differences between subgroups were minimal. Using all cases, multiple linear regression indicated that 74% of variance in mean reported satisfaction was explained by variables describing actual relationships and 68% by those describing ideal relationships. Multiple discriminant analysis correctly classified 87.3% of subjects as satis¬ fied or unsatisfied using actual descriptors and 96.3% using ideal de¬ scriptors. Of 10 parameters, information-giving, helpfulness, and clin¬ ical progress ranked most important; friendliness, carrying out of med¬ ical orders, and barriers to treatment as least important. Results must be interpreted with caution but suggest implications for building effec¬ tive therapeutic relationships. Several theories widely applied in health care including Parsons' social interaction theory and Orem's self-care model are not supported. Low rankings accorded to compliance with physicians' orders questions the usefulness of this concept as a measure of success in therapeutic relationships. Results should be con¬ firmed with randomly-selected subjects. ANTHROPOLOGY INDIVIDUALISM AND COOPERATION AMONGST THE SADAMA John Hamer, Dept, of Anthropology, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294. This paper suggests that the relationship between individualism and cooperation has always been a problem amongst the Sadama. A relative balance has been maintained not simply on the basis of an altruistic mutuality, ritual, or informal sanctions, but through the tangible authority and sanctions provided by councils of elders. The authority of the latter has been reinterpreted to fit the executive committees of peasant associations in controlling the potential for individual self-aggrandizement in the cash economy. Such personalized social control appears to be more effective in providing for cooperation within associaitons than that provided by impersonal state controls . 104 Abstracts AN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO INTERNAL MIGRATION IN THE U.S. Henry Inman, Dept, of Biostatistics, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294. Commonly demographers use estimates of net birth and net migration rates in their analyses of population growth. Instead consider the growth in the absolute size of sub-populations defined so that these populations reflect the results of net natural increase and net migration. In a given state, the size of the population of persons born in that state reflects the birth rate, while the size of the population of persons born outside that state represents the result of migration to the state of interest. An approach analagous to the ecological analysis of animal populations permits us to examine simultaneously the interaction of birth in and migration to a particular state by looking at the changing sizes of these populations between 1870 and 1970 in the states of Alabama and Illinois: whites born in the state, nonwhites born in the state, whites born in another state, nonwhites born in another state, and those persons born outside the United States. One advantage of the ecological framework is that we can examine how the migration of one group, persons of foreign birth, for example, depended on the birth rates of whites and nonwhites in a given state by determining how the growth of the foreign-born population in that state was related to the growth of the population of native whites and native nonwhites. Furthermore, by comparing the "population ecologies" of states like Alabama and Illinois, we can trace the different patterns of population growth in the various regions of the United States during the last century. MORPHOLOGICAL VARIABILITY AND DOMESTICATION Brian Hesse, Dept, of Anthropology, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, 35294. The domestication of animals has two main cultural facets _ animal taming and animal management. Each facet is usually coupled with a series of specific criteria, recognizable in the archaeological record, that permit its documentation in the past. An important one of these, usually associated with taming, is the size dimunition of domestic stock compared to their wild ancestors. This criterion is USin? samPles excavated from the early neolithic site (ca. 8000-7000 B.C.) of Tepe Ganj Dareh in west-central Iran. Three conclusions are drawn. First, size dimunition is an "old news" record of taming. Several generations of domestic stock must have existed bef°re the effects are clearly visible. Second, the size dimunition often recorded from ancient Near Eastern sheep and goat samples is more likely due to a shift in the proportions of males and emales in the saples than species wide size dimunition. Third, osteometric data can better be used to estimate the relative proportions o the sexes in the populations of animals slaughtered at different ages. 105 Abstracts CLIMATE CHANGE IN ANCIENT COASTAL ISRAEL Paula Wapnish, Dept, of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 20560 It has recently been argued that no significant climate change affected the occupations of coastal Israel during the second and first millenia B.C.E. Further, it has been suggested that the remains of small animals, while species sensitive to environmental changes, are inaccurate archaeological records of climate because of the multitude of factors that can account for their presence in an ancient site. The faunal samples from the site of Tell Jemmeh, a Chalcolithic to Hellenistic occupation located on the Wadi Besor not far from Gaza, challenge these conclusions. Remains of birds found at the site (more than 27 species) indicate a trend toward more arid conditions in the catchment of the site through the 2nd millenium B.C.E. This record is corroborated by the relative frequencies of pigs, gazelles, hartebeeste, fallow deer, and camels, and suggests that climate cannot be ruled out as a factor in the political instability that marked the end of the Bronze Age in the region. CLANS, COURAGE AND COMMERCE: CHEROKEE LEADERSHIP SELECTION Jaynn Kushner , Dept, of History, University of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294. An examination is made of the sequence of leaders and political forms between 1730 and 1839 in order to discover the changes which occurred over time in the process of leadership selection. From these records a conclusion is drawn that the following sequence of phases developed over the period in question: the Kinship Phase, the Military Phase, and the Mixed-blood Phase, each with it's distinct set of leadership criteria. In the Kinship Phase leaders were selected on the basis of hereditary religious rank. In the Military Phase selected centered upon leadership ability demonstrated in warfare. In the Mixed-blood Phse leaders were selected on the basis of commercial and diplomatic skills. The balance of the paper considers both the nature of the above changes, and epidemic disease, trade and a diminishing xand-base as sources of change. It is concluded that the variations in leadership selection reflect shifts in tribal values and priorities brought about by changes in the material environment resulting from white contact 106 Abstracts PHARMACISTS AND OTC'S IN THE URBAN MEXICAN HEALTH CARE SYSTEM Kathleen Logan, Dept, of Anthropology, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294. The study, done in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico shows the importance of OTC's (over the counter medications) and pharmacists in the health care system of urban Mexico. OTC's were found to be the most widely used form of self-medication. Pharmacists were found to be the most frequently consulted health care practitioners. Pharmacists are consultants about OTC's. In particular, pharmacists recommend particular medications, give cost-benefit analyses of various medications, and basic information about OTC's, which enable people to choose among similar products. Pharmacists are also diagnosticians when physicians are not available. People prefer OTC's and pharmacists for several reasons. Self-medication with OTC's and pharmacists is less expensive than using the other health care options and more convenient. Also it enables individuals to retain control over their own treatment. The dangers of this kind of health care and future research about it are also discussed. ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS AT TELL EL-HAYYAT, JORDAN Mary C. Metzger, Dept, of History, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham, Alabama, 35294. Tell el-Hayyat is a Bronze Age village site located in the Jordan Valley about 40 km. northwest of Amman. The site is of significant archaeological interest because evidence suggests that its occupation spans from the latter stages of the Early Bronze Age to the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2300-1700 B.C.). Many researchers have regarded this period as one which exhibits a gradual transition from pastoral to urban living patterns. Zooarchaeological analyses play a large role in determining more closely the nature of subsistence during this period. Economic conditions are indicated by the relative proportions of food animals, both wild and domestic. These proportions further suggest environmental factors which acted to constrain husbandry and marketing decisions. Climatological shifts are also attested by microfaunal remains. Rodents and birds are particularly responsive to such shifts. 107 Abstracts BOTTLES FROM THE BLUE MUD SITE, BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA Nancy Boice, Dept, of History, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, The Blue Mud Site is a stratified refuse dump located in Birmingham, Alabama. The site was in use from the lS90's to the 1950's. This paper examines bottles from the local dump in order to date the site and to document the social and economic trends present in Birmingham around the turn of the century. The earliest bottles are medicine and panel bottles that contain medicinal products. These products came to Birmingham primarily from the northeastern United States. Of younger age and in most abundance are soda water bottles. These bottles are of local origin. THE EVOLUTION OF COPULATORY CALLS IN MACACA FASCICULARIS Bruce Wheatley, Dept, of Anthropology, Univ. of Alabama in Birmingham. Birmingham, AL, 35294. The theory of sexual selection emphasizes the role of male dominance in mating success as an important cause in the evolution of polygyny. A twenty-month study on wild macaques in Indonesian Borneo revealed that the potential role of females in controlling mate quality had been overlooked. One way a female may affect the quality of her mate is to advertise her sexual receptivity by giving an individually recognizable staccato call unique to copulation. Data are presented to support the proposed hypothesis that the advertisement function of these copulatory calles is to incite male-male competition. Researh was supported by NSF Grant BSM 74-14190; The Explorers Club; and a Sigm Xi Grant— in— Aid of Research GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION AIDS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE LOCATION Philip Stroud. Dept, of Geology and Norman Bayne Cranford, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849. Wilcox County is in the Gulf Coastal Plain. The Northern tenth, about 90 square miles, is within the outcrop area of Cretaceous forma¬ tions and the southern nine-tenths is within the outcrop area of Ter¬ tiary formations. Quaternary flood-plain and terrace deposits border the Alabama River and its larger tributaries. The archaeol ogi cal site being investigated is within the Alluvial deposit area of the Alabama River Quaternary flood-plain, and rock types consist of angular to rounded quartz, cherts and quartzite gravel. Sedimentologi cal research, grain analysis study, is continuing in the area in an attempt to locate ancient river meanders. There appears to be a con¬ nection between ancient river meanders and sites of early indian habi¬ tation. 108 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 53, No. 3, July 1982 MINUTES ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING University of Alabama in Birmingham Birmingham, Alabama March 19, 1982 Agenda 1. Call to order by the President 2. Report of Counselor to the A.J.A.S. 3. Report of State Coordinator of Science Fairs 4. Report of Gorgas Foundation 5. Report of the Secretary 6. Report of Place of Meeting Committee 7. Report of the Resolutions Committee 8. Report of the Research Committee 9. Report of the Auditing Committee 10. Nominating Committee Report 11. New Business 1) Dr. Kenneth Ottis, President of the Academy, called the meeting to order at 1:35 p.m. He expressed thanks to the officers, committees and membership for their services during the past year. He called upon the membership to look confidently to the future and to redouble their efforts in moving the Academy toward its goals. Dr. Ottis then asked for the report of the Counselor to the AJAS. 2) Dr. Gene O'Masta reported that the Alabama Junior Academy of Science was still in the midst of its program and that a final report would be forwarded to the Secretary at a later date. However, Dr. O'Masta presented the following preliminary information. a) Approximately 350 students from across the state have parti¬ cipated in this year's meeting. Approximately 300 of these students will attend the banquet. b) Approximately $1800.00 has been raised for the AJAS through the sale of liquid handsoap. (Secretary's note: The following final report of the Counselor to the AJAS has been forwarded to the Secretary for inclusion in the minutes . ) The 1982 annual meeting was hosted by the University of Alabama in Birmingham and like all previous symposia, was shared with the Alabama Academy of Science. 109 Minutes For the second year in a row, the scientific paper competition was a part of the annual symposium. Winners were: Physical Science 1st Place Gary Griner Huntsville High 2nd Place Michelle Slay Huffman High Biology 1st Place Clark Baker Tuskegee High 2nd Place Catrina Leonard Kinston High Humanities 1st Place Keith Miller Opp High 2nd Place Marsha Worley Opp High Engineering 1st Place Vachel Loworn Dothan High 2nd Place George McGlammery Bradshaw High Mathematics 1st Place Ralph Ball Auburn High 2nd Place Greg Mount Childersburg High Other awards were: AAAS - A subscription to Scientific Monthly and Science Newsletter Mary Madison Escambia County High David Tinsley Childersburg High Research - $50 for a research project Lana Hagel Huffman High Archaelogical Dig - $100 for summer Dig sponsored by the University of Alabama Rachel Pierce Escambia County High Michael Osborne Bradshaw High Jamie Bailey Lynn High Tammy Denise Roberts Mary G. Montgomery High Liquid Soap - $100 for the school which sold the most liquid soap Opp High Sponsors Elsie Spencer Barbara Reynolds Outstanding Teacher (more than five years) - $100 Jane Nail Escambia County High Outstanding Region - A Trophy is passed on from last year's recipient South Region Counselor Dr. Lou Destito 110 Minutes Newly Elected Officers for 1981-82: President Michael Grubbs Resource Learning Center Vice President Destry Hardin Athens High School Treasurer Tom Anderson Athens High School Secretary Carl Jones Resource Learning Center Many persons deserve a special thanks for their efforts in support of the symposium, including: Ms. Ellen Buckner for work as coordinator of AJAS activities in arranging for facilities, tours and motel space; Ms. Fannie Nelson for coordinating registration, setting up information packets, and arranging for the dance band and refreshments; for the support of the state officers, John Alexander (President), Brad Brown (Vice President), Cassandra Minard (Treasurer) and Kimberly Staples (Secretary) and also the associate counselors Ms. Faye Wells and Dr. B. J. Bateman. We appreciate the continued support of the Senior Academy in AJAS activities and especially the support of Dr. Ken Ottis (President) this year. 3) Dr. Ottis then asked for the report of the State Coordinator of Science Fairs. Mrs. Elsie Spencer indicated that since most Fairs had not been held, a complete report was not yet available. She indicated that a report would be submitted at the Fall Executive Meeting. 4) Dr. Ottis then asked for the Report of the Gorgas Foundation Coordinator. Dr. Leven Hazlegrove submitted the following: The Gorgas Scholarship Foundation announced today the rankings of the finalists in the 1982 Alabama Science Talent Search. The search was held at the meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science at the University of Alabama in Birmingham. The winner of the cash award of $1600 was Reginald Keith Walton, 7703 Rugby Avenue, Birmingham, AL 35206, from Resource Learning Center, Shades Valley H.S. Annex; Teacher: Sophia Clifford. Alternates were: 1st William Brown Hawkins, Jr., 301 Roxie Drive, Florence, AL 35630, from Bradshaw High School; Teacher: Mary Nell Gonce. 2nd Jason Errol Johnston, 2460 Burgundy Drive, Birmingham, AL 35244, from Resource Learning Center, Shades Valley H.S. Annex; Teacher: Sophia Clifford. 3rd George Lee McGlamery , 214 Robinhood Drive, Florence, AL 35630, from Bradshaw High School; Teacher: Mary Nell Gonce. Ill Minutes 4th Alasdair Trevoe Downie , 2132 Chickasaw Drive, Florence, AL 35630, from Henry A. Bradshaw High School; Teacher: Mary Nell Gonce . 5th Marsha Dawn Worley, 707 Brookside Drive, Opp, AL 36467, from Opp High School; Teacher: Elsie S. Spencer. 6 th Gary Merle Griner, 411 Zandale Drive, Huntsville, AL 35801, from Huntsville High School: ; Teacher: Dorothy E. Dale. 7th Lisa Ann Armstead, Rt . 3 Box 231, Opp, AL 36467, from Opp High School; Teacher: Elsie S. Spencer. 8th Dorinda Jane Simmons , 2808 Womble Street, Florence, AL 35630, from Bradshaw High School; Teacher: Mary Nell Gonce. The rankings were established by a panel of judges consisting of scientists from many of the leading universities and industries in Alabama. Winners and alternates in the Gorgas Contest receive offers of tuition scholarships to colleges and universities in Alabama for the study of science. The Gorgas Foundation is named for General William Crawford Gorgas, the Alabama physician who conquered yellow fever in the Panama Canal Zone and later became the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army. The purposes of the Foundation are to promote interest in science and to aid in the education of promising students. 5) Dr. Ottis then called for the Report of the Secretary. Dr. John Pritchett, Academy Secretary, summarized the following: A. Membership Total Membership (April 1, 1981) . 764 New Members (April 2, 1981 - March 16, 1982) . 124 Members Deceased . ..... . 0 Members Resigned .... . .......... 12 Institutional Members Terminated ........... 77* Total Membership (March 16, 1982) . 674 Net Change from April 1, 1982 . . -13** * Category of membership removed from By-Laws by action of Executive Committee on April 2, 1981. The remainder will be terminated May 1, 1982. ** This change does not reflect terminated institutional mem¬ berships but rather a change in dues-paying individual memberships . 112 Minutes Summary of Membership by Section Section April 1, 1981 March 16, 1982 Net Chang< 1 193 182 -11 2 61 61 0 3 28 31 + 3 4 15 17 + 2 5 56 62 + 6 6 38 39 + 1 7 38 35 - 3 8 41 38 - 3 9 112 112 0 10 46 39 - 7 11 21 27 + 6 99 30 23 - 7 TOTAL (679) (666) (-13) * 88 85 8 -77 *Reflects individual dues-paying members. B. Dues Collection for 1982: Dues Notices (1982) were mailed to all 1981 members with the "Call for Papers" on November 15, 1981. A second reminder was sent out to all 1981 members who had not paid their dues by March 5, 1981. The second reminder was included with the Annual Meeting Program. Members Subject to 1982 Total Responses as In Arrears _ Dues Payment _ of March 15, 1982 _ 588 261 327 C. Technical Program for Spring Meeting, 1982 Section Titles (1981) Titles (1982) Net Change 1 49 37 -12 2 24 28 + 4 3 12 11 - 1 4 14 7 - 7 5 8 22 +14 6 6 20 +14 7 8 7 - 1 8 13 9 - 4 9 47 55 + 8 10 11 4 - 7 TOTAL 209 211 + 2 113 Minutes 6) Dr. Ottis then asked for the Report of the Place of Meeting Committee. Dr. Phil Beasley reported that the 1983 Annual Meeting will be hosted by the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa and the 1984 Annual Meeting will be hosted by the University of South Alabama, Mobile. 7) Dr. Ottis then called for the Report of the Resolutions Committee. Dr. Hoyt Kaylor, Chairman, presented the following resolution: WHEREAS the Alabama Academy of Science has held its 1982 annual meeting at the University of Alabama in Birmingham, and has enjoyed the hospitality of the University, now therefore BE IT RESOLVED that the Academy express its gratitude to Dr. S. Richardson Hill, Jr., President of the University, and to the University for hosting this meeting. To Dr. Richard L. Shoemaker, Chairman of our local hosts, and to the members of his host committee; to the Faculty and Staff of the University; and to all of the many others who have contributed to the success of this meeting; we, the Academy members, express our appreciation for their efforts on our behalf. BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Academy express its appreciation to Dr. Sara C. Finley for her presentation to the Joint Academies. BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Academy express its appreciation to those who retire from leadership in the Academy this year, and especially to Dr. Kenneth Ottis, our President, and Dr. John Pritchett, our Secretary, who has performed the duties of his office so efficiently and effectively over the last three years. WHEREAS Dr. Glen Eaves has resigned as Archivist of the Academy due to his forthcoming move to new academic duties in a neighboring state BE IT RESOLVED that the Academy express its appreciation to Dr. Eaves for the service that he has rendered to the Academy over the years in ordering and preserving the records of the Academy. WHEREAS Mr. William Hearn, of the School of Agriculture, Forestry, and Biological Sciences of Auburn University has rendered such outstanding efforts to the Academy in the area of computer services for the last six years BE IT RESOLVED that the entire Academy join the Executive Committee of the Alabama Academy of Science in expressing its gratitude to Mr. Hearn for these services. It is hereby moved by the Committee on Resolutions that the above be accepted and entered in the Minutes of the Academy. The motion was seconded and passed unanimously. 114 Minutes 8) Dr. Ottis then asked Dr. Carl Dixon, Chairman of the Research Committee, for his committee report. Dr. Dixon summarized the following : The Research Committee wishes to submit this report to the Joint Business meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science. The Committee has selected the four Student Research Awards for papers presented at the Academy meetings on March 18-19, 1982. 1. Phillip E. Morris, Section II, Chemistry, $50.00 2. Katrina Blackwood, Section IX, Health Sciences, $50.00 3. Rapheal Luccasen, Section VI, Industry Economics, $50.00 4. Mark Blackmore, Section I, Biology, $50.00 The Research Committee has made the following Student Research Grant Awards for 1982-83. 1. Michael H. Irwin, $250.00. Immunological Ultrastructural Localization of an Acrosin Inhibitor in Ejaculated Mouse Spermatozoa. The check was made out to U.A.B. and sent to Dr. Gary Poirier, the student's research advisor. 2. John L. Hinton, Jr. $250.00. Isozymic Charaderizat ion of the Slipper Lobster, Scyllarides nodifer . The check was made out to the U.A.B. and sent to Dr. George Cline, the student's research advisor. 3. Michael A. Gibson, $250.00. Paleontology of the Inverte¬ brate Megafauna in the Lagoonal Deposits of the Coal Fields of Northern Alabama. The check was made out to Auburn Univ¬ ersity and sent to Dr. Robert A. Gastaldo, the student's research advisor. 4. Mary C. Metzger, $250.00. Zooarcheological Investigation at Tell et - Hayyat . The check was made out to U.A.B. and sent to Dr. Brian C. Hesse, the student's research advisor. Twelve Travel Awards of $50.00 each were presented to students who registered and presented papers during the 1982 Alabama Academy of Science meetings in Birmingham, Ala. Broderick C. Jones, Tuskegee Kirkley Yearwood, Tuskegee Wm. R. Gates, Auburn Larry L. Crowell, Auburn Helen H. Benford, Auburn Peter Biersdorfer, Auburn The travel awards were made out the faculty advisor. Janet Legendre, U.S.A. Raj an Roy , U.S.A. David Chambers, U.S.A. Dale Parks, U.S.A. Wayne Gray, U.S.A. James Rector, U.S.A. jointly to the student and to 115 Minutes 9) Dr. Ottis then asked Dr. Sam Barker for the Report of the Senior Academy Auditing committee. Dr. Barker reported that the accounts and books of the Senior Academy were in good order. He further stated that Dr. James Bradley, Academy Treasurer, was to be commended for the outstanding job he has performed since assuming the position of Treasurer. 10) Dr. Ottis then asked Dr. Urban Diener, Chairman of the Nominating Committee, for the report of his committee. Dr. Diener presented the following nominations: Position Nominee Affiliation President President-Elect Vice President Secretary Coordinator, AAAS Charles M. Baugh Raymond Isbell John Pritchett Michael Lisano H.A. Henderson University of South Alabama University of North Alabama Auburn University Auburn University Tennessee Valley Authority Trustees Emmett Carmichael William Barrett Ed Gentle Jack Moore University of Alabama Southern Research Institute South Central Bell University of North Alabama Dr. Ottis then asked for nominations from the floor. There be¬ ing none, a motion was made, seconded and passed that the nominations close. Dr. Diener moved that the report of the nominating committee be accepted. The motion was seconded and passed. (Secretary's Note: The following individuals were elected to Section- nal Offices by the individual sections in their business meetings.) Section I - Biological Sciences L. C. Wit, Auburn University Vice-Chairman (Termination Date, 1983) Section II ?feomal ft^bb. Auburn University Chairman (Termination Date, 1984); David Baker, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Vice-Chairman (Termination Date, 1984) Section III - Geology Michael Neilson, University of Alabama, Birmingham Chairman (Termination Date, 1984) Section IV - Forestry, Geography, Conservation and Planning Steven Sax, Tennessee Valley Authority Chairman (Termination Date, 1984); David Weaver, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Vice-Chairman (Termination Date, 1984) 116 Minutes Section V - Physics and Mathematics Stanley Jones, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Chairman (Termination Date, 1984) Section VII - Science Education Ann Lucas, University of Alabama, Birmingham Chairwoman (Termination Date, 1984); Robert Rasheed, University of South Alabama Vice-Chairman (Termination Date, 1984) Section X - Engineering and Computer Science R. R. Chowdhury, Birmingham Vice-Chairman (Termination Date, 1983) Following is a complete listing of all current Academy Officers: ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Elected Officers 1982-83 (Affiliation and Tenure Termination Follow Names) Past President - Ken Ottis, AU, '83 President - Charles Baugh, USA, '83 President-Elect, Ray Isbell, UNA, '83 Vice President - John Pritchett, AU, '83 Secretary - Mike Lisano, AU, '85 Treasurer - Jim Bradley, AU, '84 Editor - Bill Mason, AU, '83 Archivist - Position Vacant Administrative Officer - William Barrett, SRI, '83 Counselor to AJAS - Eugene O'Masta, TSU, '84 Assoc. Counselor to AJAS - Fay Wells, UNA, '83 Assoc. Counselor to AJAS - B. J. Bateman, TSU, '84 Coordinator of Science Fairs - Elsie Spencer, Opp High School, '83 AAS Counselor - H. A. Henderson, TVA, '85 BOARD OF TRUSTEES James Sulzby, B'ham, '83 Wilbur Devall , AU, '83 Sam Barker, UAB, '84 Ruben Boozer, JSU, '84 Joe Thomas, UNA, '84 Emmett Carmichael, UAB, '85 Ed Gentle, '85 Jack Moore, '85 Walter Baker, B'ham, '84 117 Minutes SECTION CHAIRMAN & VICE CHAIRMAN I. Biological Sciences Sam Campbell, UAH, '83 Bob MacGregor, UAB, '83 L. C. Wit, AU, '83 II. Chemistry Thomas Webb, AU, '84 David Baker, UAT, '84 III. Geology Michael Neilson, UAB, '84 IV. Forestry, et al. Steven Sax, TVA, '84 David Weaver, UAT, '84 V. Physics and Mathematics Stanley Jones, UAT, '84 VI. Industry & Economics Bill Stewart, UNA, '83 Dean Moberly, AUM, '83 VII. Science Education Ann Lucas, UAB, '84 Robert Rasheed, USA, '84 VIII. Social Sciences Hines Hall, AU, '83 John Dunkelburger , AU, '83 IX. Health Sciences Walter Wilborn, USA, '83 Ellen Buckner, UAB, '83 X. Engineering & Computer Sci. John Cain, AU, '83 R. R. Chowdhury, B'ham, '83 XI. Anthropology Brian Hesse, UAB, '83 John Cottier, AU, '83 11) Dr. Ottis then asked if there were any items of new business. Dr. Sam Barker announced that the Executive Committee had elected Dr. William Barrett to the recently established position of Administrative Officer and stated that the Executive Committee wishes him every success in his new responsibilities. (Secretary's Note: Since Dr. Barrett has become Administrative Officer, he has chosen to resign his position on the Board of Trustees. Thus a vacancy on the Board now exists. Additionally, Dr. Glen Eaves has recently resigned as Academy Archivist. This position is currently unfilled.) 12) There being no further business before the assemblage, Dr. Ottis thanked everyone in attendance for their participation and adjourned the meeting at 2:45 p.m. Submitted by. John F. Pritchett, AAS Secretary 118 THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE VOLUME 53 OCTOBER, 1982 NO, 4 EDITOR: W. H. Mason, General Biology, Auburn University, AL 36849 ARCHIVIST: R. G. Eaves, Department of History, Auburn University, AL 36849 EDITORIAL BOARD: J. F. Pritchett, Chairman, Department of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn Universty, AL 36849 R. S. Lane, Department of Biochemistry, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688 J. M, Beaton, Department of Neuroscience, University of Alabama in Birmingham, University Station, Birmingham, AL 35294 Publication and Subscription Policies Submission of Manuscripts. Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspon¬ dence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript wil! receive two simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow Instruction to Authors (see inside back cover). Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors. Subscriptions and journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIR¬ MAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD. ISSN 002-4112 CONTENTS LETTERS ARTICLES Developmental Changes in Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA Concentration, Cytoplasmic Distribution and Utilization in Embryonic Chick Muscle Cell Cultures Ronald B. Young and Gerald W. Achtymichuk . 119 Insects Associated with Pitcher Plants (Sarracenia : Sarraceniaceae) , and their Relationship to Pitcher Plant Conservation: A Review Debbie E. Rymal and George W. Folkerts . 131 MEMORIAL Reynolds Q. Shotts . 152 INDEX . 155 COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Pitcher leaves of the white-topped pitcher plant, Sarracenia leucaphylla that have been girdled and toppled by feeding of the larva of Exyra semiarocea , one of the pitcher plant moths. The larva, protected from above by the toppled portion, feeds and often pupates within the pitcher. Although the damage to the plant seems severe, there is no evidence that the moth harms pitcher plant populations (see article p. 131). Photograph courtesy of Debbie E. Rymal . LETTERS A CHANGING FORMAT FOR THE JOURNAL Members and readers will un¬ doubtedly notice that this issue of the Journal is quite differ¬ ent from former issues. Our most notable change involves the cover. We plan to use a differ¬ ent cover each time the Journal is published. I will accept for considera¬ tion any color photograph, photomicrograph, or electron micrograph that interested per¬ sons wish to submit. Candidate material must have been photo¬ graphed on 35-mm film, developed for slide viewing, and mounted in a 2 x 2 slide holder. It would be best that the subject be oriented parallel to the long axis of the slide. Slides not used will be returned only if a pre-addressed , stamped envelope is provided. A short descrip¬ tive paragraph should accompany each submission. The, Letters section is, of course, another new feature of the Journal. I encourage any interested reader to submit to the Editor any letter which they desire to have published in this new section. The Editor will select those that are used. The Editorial Board is hopeful that this new medium will promote the kind of lively commentary that will spark interest in both the Journal and the Academy. The Instructions to Authors inside the back cover of each issue states that the Journal will consider for publication, "timely review articles of ex¬ ceptional quality and general readership interest." You will note that such a review article appears in this issue. Persons desiring to prepare a review article might best discuss the project beforehand with the Ed¬ itor. The Editorial Board en¬ courages Academy members to con¬ sider the preparation of such material. Future issues are also planned to contain book reviews, espe¬ cially those having Alabama au¬ thors. Anyone desiring to sub¬ mit a book review should contact the Editor for instructions and suggestions . Beginning in this issue we will also commence publication of brief memorial articles on past members of the Academy. These preparations should in¬ clude a 5 x 7 black and white photograph of the deceased. Please submit these directly to the Editor. In the near future you will note two additional features to be added. One of these will be development of a News section dealing with items of general interest to the Academy member¬ ship. The other will involve the inclusion of advertising. Associate Editors will soon be appointed to handle each of these activities. At this time I feel the need to reassure everyone that the publication of quality research articles remains the Journal's primary goal. Such articles will continue to receive two simultaneous peer reviews, and will be published only on the basis of scientific merit. All members of the Academy are en¬ couraged to help our organiza¬ tion grow and develop by using the Journal as a means of pub¬ lishing their research results. William H. Mason, Editor 101 Cary Hall Auburn University, AL 36849 Phone (205) 826-5125 READERS RESPONSES TO PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE The following is in response to the President's "Message" in the Journal of the Alabama Acad¬ emy of Science (53 (16.2): 1-3). I will support the Society in whatever decision is made con¬ cerning the format of the Jour¬ nal. My personal preference, however, is the combined Pro¬ ceedings of the Southeastern Academies of Science rather than the single large review article format. It seems to me The ASB Bulletin has opted for the lat¬ ter and I find myself thumbing through the long review (entire¬ ly out of my area(s) of interest usually) to the news items and then onto the pile on the shelf. I am certain that at least a few of the Southeastern Soci¬ eties are experiencing problems similar to ours and would be willing to join together as a group. Hopefully, as anticipat¬ ed by the AAS, this will gen¬ erate interest and enthusiasm. I would also suggest that the Society initiate a campaign for new members. I believe there are many Universities and com- merical (military, government, etc.) establishments which are sorely under-represented. In¬ creasing total numbers within the Society will provide both viability and visibility. I am willing to work with the Society in its efforts to re¬ vitalize itself and offer my services. Please feel free to call upon me. Carol S. Williams Dept, of Biology Tuskegee Institute Tuskegee Institute, AL 36088 I am writing in response to the recent message from the AAS President published in the JAAS. Dr. Baugh offers two suggestions for revitalizing the Journal'. adoption of a dramatically new format for the existing journal OR merger with other struggling journals of Southeastern Acade¬ mies of Science. I favor the first suggestion at this time for the following reasons: (1) Enough high quality research is being performed in Alabama to support a quality journal. (2) I know of many scientists who wish to see the tradition of a high quality AAS journal contin¬ ued, and I believe they will rally to support it with their manuscripts. (3) I have confi¬ dence in our new Administrative Officer to initiate a change in the perception which administra¬ tors of higher education across the state have of the Journal. The Journal has nothing to be ashamed of, and should be recog¬ nized as the high quality publi¬ cation which it is. (4) A revi¬ talized journal could not but help the image of higher educa¬ tion in Alabama. (5) A merger with the other Southeastern Academies' journals presupposes their willingness to do so and at best would be a long, arduous process. The rate of manuscript submission would probably slow dramatically during this period as authors anticipated the new expanded journal. Thus, if such a merger attempt were to fail, the attempt itself could cause the demise of our own journal. Finally, I believe that the Academy Administration should be commended for maintaining a high quality journal during the "hard times" of the recent past. I look forward to the solicitation of short, timely reviews and other new contributions for a journal on the road to recovery. James T. Bradley Department of Zoology-Entomology Auburn University, AL 36849 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 53, No. 4, Oct, 1982 DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN MYOSIN HEAVY CHAIN mRNA CONCENTRATION, CYTOPLASMIC DISTRIBUTION AND UTILIZATION IN EMBRYONIC CHICK MUSCLE CELL CULTURES1’ Ronald B. Young and Gerald W. Achtymichuk Department of Biological Sciences University of Alabama in Huntsville Huntsville , AL 35899 ABSTRACT Key words: Cell Culture, Myosin mRNA, Post transcriptional control Embryonic chick muscle cell cultures were analyzed for polysomal and nonpolysomal myosin heavy chain (MHC) mRNA concentration. Measurements were made during an eight day period so myogenic cells at all developmental stages, ranging from proliferating myogenic cells to mature myotubes, could be evaluated. The number of myotube nuclei and the rate of MHC synthesis were also measured. Thus, as a function of muscle differentiation, we were able to calculate the quantity of nonpolysomal MHC mRNA, the quantity of MHC mRNA actively engaged in MHC synthesis and the rate of MHC mRNA utilization (i. e. , molecules MHC synthesized/min/mRNA) . Three conclusions were apparent from these experiments: 1) Appearance of MHC mRNA as a ribonucleo- protein particle in the cytoplasm of fusing myoblasts preceded by several hours the active translation of MHC mRNA. Accumulation of polysomal MHC mRNA coincided with an increase in MHC synthesis rate. 2) A significant fraction of MHC mRNA (approximately 30%) continued to be nonpolysomal in fully differentiated muscle cultures exhibiting a maximum MHC synthesis rate of 30,000 MHC/min/nucleus . 3) Enhance¬ ment of MHC mRNA utilization apparently occurred after the initial activation of MHC synthesis, since the number of MHC' s produced/min/ polysomal MHC mRNA increased approximately four-fold between days 2 and 8 in culture. INTRODUCTION The possibility that myofibrillar myosin heavy chain (MHC) synthesis is subject to extensive post-transcriptional controls has been controversial in recent years, and the disagreements focus on the following central issue: Prior to activation of myofibrillar MHC synthesis during the early stages of skeletal muscle differentiation, ^Manuscript received 6 September 1982; accepted 20 September 1982. 2 This work was supported in part by research grants from the Upjohn Company, the Muscular Dystrophy Association and N1H AM 30823. 119 Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle does some (or all) of MHC mRNA transiently exist in the form of a non-translated, cytoplasmic messenger ribonucleoprotein (3,4,6,10-12, 18,20)? The purpose of the present experiments was to evaluate MHC synthesis in muscle cell cultures at all stages of differentiation for the extent of transcriptional and post-transcriptional controls. Specifically, our objectives were: 1) to examine the content and subcellular distribution of MHC mRNA in cultured muscle cells ranging from replicating presumptive myoblasts to fully developed, steady- state myotubes, and 2) to compare the rate of utilization of poly- somal MHC mRNA in muscle cells during their period of rapid myosin accretion immediately after fusion with that in mature myotubes where MHC content and MHC synthesis are at a steady state. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Avian myeloblastosis virus RNA-dependent DNA poly¬ merase (reverse transcriptase) was^a generous gift of Dr. J. Beard of the National Cancer Institute. ( H)-labeled leucine, dATP and dCTP were obtained from Amersham (Arlington Hts., IL) . Aquasol was from New England Nuclear (Boston, MA) . Fertile white leghorn eggs were obtained from Reichardt's Hatchery of St. Louis, MI. Acrylamide and N,N'-diallyltartardiamide were from Bio-Rad Laboratories (Richmond, CA) . Oligo (dT)-cellulose (type 3) was from Collaborative Research, Inc. (Waltham, MA) . Purification of Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA MHC mRNA was purified from approximately 50 g of 13-day embryonic chick muscle essentially as described by Heywood et al. (10). Poly (A)-containing RNA was purified as described by Aviv and Leder (2), except that Type 3 oligo (dT)-cellulose was used and two complete cycles of binding were carried out. MHC mRNA was subsequently purified by two centrifuga¬ tions on 10-30% sucrose density gradients containing 1% SDS, 5 mM EDTA and 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4. Purity of RNA was analyzed by electrophoresis on 1.25% agarose gels containing 2.2 M formaldehyde (14). Cell-free translation of 2-10 pg of MHC mRNA was carried out in a wheat germ assay (8). The mRNA migrated as a single band at 32S, and approximately 90% of the radioactivity incorporated in the cell-free translation assay migrated as a single band with a mol wt of 200,000 during electrophoresis in the presence of SDS. Preparation and Analysis of MHC Complementary DNA The cDNA preparation procedure was patterned after several studies reporting synthesis of full length reverse transcripts (13,17). The size of MHC mRNA reverse transcripts was estimated from the distribution of radioactivity following centrifugation at 300,000 x g for 12 hr on 5 ml 10-30% linear sucrose gradients in 0.1 N NaOH and 0.9 M NaCl. Each gradient also contained 50 pg of chick mitochondrial^DNA (24 S) so that cDNA size could be calculated (5). The size of ( H)-labeled MHC cDNA used here ranged from 1,000-5,800 nucleotides. Since MHC 120 Young and Achtymichuk mRNA is approximately 6,500 nucleotides, the cDNA ranged from 15-89%, with an average of 60%. Musote Cell Cultures Muscle cell cultures were prepared from the leg muscle of 12-day chick embryos as described by Young et al. (23). Cells were placed in 15 cm diameter collagen-coated polystyrene tissue culture dishes at an initial cell density of 1.38 x 10 cells/cm . Complete culture medium (85% Eagle's Minimum Essential Medium, 10% pre-selected horse serum and 5% chick embryo extract) was replenished daily; plates for all experiments received fresh medium during th^ 4 hr period immediately preceding sacrifice. Fluorodeoxyuridine (10 M) was added on day 3 to inhibit overgrowth by fibroblasts. The extent of cellular growth and differentiation was determined in all experiments from Giemsa stained cultures (23). RNA Extraction from Cell Cultures RNA was extracted from muscle cell cultures after 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 days for analysis of MHC mRNA content. In most instances 12-15 15 cm dishes of 0.5-day and 1- day cells were pooled for each experiment, whereas 3-5 dishes were combined for all other ages. Complete medium was poured from each plate and quickly replaced with approximately 25 ml of ice-cold polysome isolation buffer (0.25 M NaCl, 10 mM MgC^, 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4) to chill the cultures and to rinse out residual culture medium. Cells were scraped from the surface into a minimal amount of polysome isolation buffer containing 0.5% Triton X-100 and lysed as described by Morse et al. (15). The supernatant remaining after centrifugation at 12,000 x g was layered onto 36 ml linear 10-40% sucrose gradients (w/v) in polysome isolation buffer, and gradients were centrifuged at 120,000 x g for 2 hr in a Beckman SW 27 rotor. Polysome distribution in the developed gradients was monitored continuously at 254 mm as described by Young et al. (22) in order to collect nonpolysomal and polysomal fractions. Following collection of polysomal and nonpolysomal material at 105,000 x g for 16 hr, samples were dissolved in 0.5 ml of 50 mM NaCl, 0.1% NaDodSO^, 6 mM 2- mercaptoethanol , 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, and the quantity of r ibonucleoprotein was established from absorbance at 260 mm (i.e., by assuming that a solution containing 1 mg ribosomes/ml exhibits an absorbance of 11.2). A quantity of proteinase K (Boehringer Mannheim Biochemicals, Indianapolis, IN) equal to one-tenth the quantity of ribosomal matefial was added, followed by incubation at 37 C for 2 hr. The digest was extracted once with buffer-saturated phenol, RNA was precipitated two times at -20 C in 67% ethanol, 0.2 M NaOAc, pH 6.0, and dissolved in distilled water. The concentration of RNA was measured by absorbance at 260 nm. Hybridization Analysis Hybridization reactions were carried out in a final volume of 40 pi containing 0.5 M NaCl. 2 mM EDTA, 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.0, approximately 3,000 cpm of MHC ( H)cDNA and 0.25-50 pg of either nonpolysomal or polysomal RNA. Each hybridization series consisted of six different levels of RNA, with duplicate samples at each level. Controls consisted of samples conta ining .no RNA (to measure the extent of internal hybridization of the ( H) 121 Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle cDNA) and of samples containing increasing levels of E. coli 23 S ribosom^l RNA (to measure the extent of nonspecific reassociation of MHC ( H)cDNA with an RNA species presumably containing no complementary sequences. Reactions were terminated by placing the tubes in an ice bath. Two aliquots were withdrawn from each hybridization. One was placed in 200 pi of 0.4 M NaCl, 0.2 M NaOAc , 1 mM ZnCl2, pH 4.6, followed by the addition of 2 ml of 10% TCA. The second aliquot^ was placed in the same buffer also containing 0.25 Units/ul of S nuclease and, after incubation at 37 C for 15 min to digest single stranded regions, 2 ml of 10% TCA was added. Hybrids were collected on M^llipore filters (Type HA, 0.45 pm pore size). The percentage of ( H)cDNA forming stable hybrids was calculated (after subtracting control values) and plotted versus log R t (where R = RNA concentration in mol nucleotide/L and t = hybridization0 time in seconds). Reassociation with MHC cDNA occurred with a single transition, and the maximum percentage of reassociation was between 60 and 95%. Double reciprocal plots of these data were employed to unequivocally establish the maximum percentage of reassociation (19). Measurement of MHC Content and Synthesis Rate The synthesis rate of MHC and the quantity of MHC was assessed from the same culture sample, triplicate 10 cm culture dishes were pulse labeled with 10 p Ci/ml ( H)Leu for 4 hr, and myosin-containing material was collected as described by Young et al. (23). Protein samples were electro- phoresed on diallyltartardiamide cross-linked polyacrylamide gels, and both the radioactivity and mass of MHC were determined exactly as described by Young et al. (25). Specific radioactivity of ( H)Leu in the intracellular pool was quantitated by the dual isotope approach of Airhart et al. (1). RESULTS MHC mRNA distribution during Development Initiation of myoblast fusion in chick primary muscle cell cultures varies with initial cell density and culture composition. To evaluate the coordination between initiation of fusion and appearance of MHC mRNA into active polysomal complexes, it was necessary to precisely define the time in cell culture at which fusion and other muscle-specific functions were initiated. Under the conditions employed for this study, the appearance of small myotubes occurred after approximately 24-28 hr. Fusion and accumulation of muscle-specific gene products occurred shortly thereafter (Fig. 1). Especially important for the ensuing experiments are the observations that morphological differentiation was absent prior to 24 hr and that 6-8-day muscle cultures were at a steady-state with respect to MHC concentration (Fig. 1). 122 Young and Achtymichuk 3 1 CO 3 UJ 2 o 3 Z £T UJ CL Z 5 O ' X s X o 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 CULTURE AGE, DAYS Differentiation pattern of embryonic chick skeletal muscle cell cultures. Myosin heavy chain synthesis rate and con¬ tent were assessed as described in Materials and Methods. Myotube nuclei were enumerated in 15 cm culture dishes stained with Giemsa. 0 , Number of myotube nuclei in each culture dish; 0> pg of myosin heavy chain per myotube nucleus;.^, MHC synthesis rate in molecules/min/nucleus . Each point represents the mean + 1 SEM of five experiments in which all measurements were made in duplicate. A summary of hybridization analyses for MHC mRNA is shown in Table 1. MHC mRNA was barely detectable in rapidly dividing, 0.5-day muscle cells. After 1 day in culture — before significant levels of fusion were observed (Fig. 1) — mononucleated muscle cells contained approximately 1,200 copies of MHC mRNA; however, approximately 80% of these copies were not associated with polysomes (Fig. 2). By day 2-3 in culture, when MHC synthesis and myotube formation are extensive (Fig. 1), muscle cells exhibited an increase in the total number of MHC mRNA copies. Moreover, the distribution of MHC mRNA reversed 0 Figure 1. 123 Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle Table 1. Measurement of myosin heavy chain mRNA transcripts in the nonpolysomal and polysomal fractions of muscle 3 l±J O 3 < Z a : E o X 2 X fO I o 012345678 CULTURE AGE, DAYS O I k ui o 3 Ui CD 3 O >- 'r o Figure 2. Distribution of MHC mRNA between the polysomal and non¬ polysomal compartments of developing muscle cells. so that approximately 75% of MHC mRNA was associated with the poly¬ somal fraction (Fig. 2). As myotubes attained a constant quantity of MHC on day 6-8, the percentage of polysomal MHC mRNA declined to ap¬ proximately 65%. In quantitative terms, the number of polysomal MHC mRNA copies/cell increased approximately thirty-fold between day 1 and day 6, whereas the quantity of nonpolysomal MHC mRNA copies/cell increased 50% at most (Fig. 2). Steady-state muscle cultures (days 6-8) contained approximately 3,500 and 1,500 MHC mRNA copies per nucleus in the polysomal and nonpolysomal compartments, respectively (Fig. 2). Changes in MHC Translation Rate During Development In view of the qualitative changes in MHC mRNA distribution in muscle cells during the early stages of differentiation (Fig. 2), we measured whether additional post-transcriptional controls contributed to 125 Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle regulation of MHC synthesis. Because the number of copies of poly- somal MHC mRNA per muscle nucleus (Fig. 2) and the rate of MHC pep¬ tide synthesis in molecules MHC/min/nucleus (Fig. 1) were already known, the translation efficiency of MHC mRNA could be calculated in terms of molecules of MHC synthesized/min/MHC mRNA (Fig. 3). The number of peptides synthesized per message copy increased approxi¬ mately four-fold between days 2 and 8, suggesting that additional translational controls enhance MHC synthesis in post-fusion muscle cells . 1 < Z ct E Ct UJ CL 2 s O 1 2 01 2345678 CULTURE AGE, DAYS ? 4 UJ _J o r> CD 15 H O >- X I o Figure 3. Translational efficiency of polysomal MHC mRNA in muscle cell cultures during development. Changes in the number of myotube nuclei/culture are also shown as a reference to the stage of differentiation. MHC mRNA utilization rate at each age was calculated by dividing the MHC synthesis rate (molecules/min/nucleus) by the MHC mRNA concentration (MHC mRNA/nucleus) to obtain the number of MHC peptides produced by each MHC mRNA per unit of time. 126 Young and Achtymichuk DISCUSSION Direct evidence that a fraction of MHC mRNA is nonpolysomal in embryonic muscle tissue has been obtained by purification of mRNP particles containing MHC mRNA (3,10,11). Actin mRNA is also present in mRNP particles (3,11). Additionally, the distribution of pulse- labeled MHC and actin mRNA' s between the nonpolysomal and polysomal was 35:65, respectively, and remained quite constant between days 11 and 17 of embryonic development. This subcellular distribution of active and inactive MHC mRNA in muscle tissue is consistent with that reported in muscle cell cultures (Figure 3). While the above research favors the transient existence of MHC mRNA as a non-translated , cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein particle, several investigations disagree with this conclusion. Analyses of whole cell RNA by cell-free translation experiments indicated that mononucleated myogenic cells contained approximately thirty-fold less MHC mRNA than myotubes (20), but the low level of MHC mRNA was attri¬ buted to the small percentage of multinucleated cells that usually contaminate muscle cultures. In apparent agreement with this conclu¬ sion, hybridization analyses with (JH)cDNA to MHC mRNA failed to de¬ tect a significant quantity of MHC mRNA in mononucleated cultures of chick muscle cells (12) or myogenic cells (4). Additionally, others have concluded that the cytoplasmic levels of contractile pro¬ tein mRNA species are predominately responsible for regulating the rate of myof ibrilar protein synthesis (6,18). As in the case with all other studies on primary cultures of chick skeletal muscle cells, the cultures employed for the present experiments contained 15-25% fibroblasts. That these cells do not contribute significantly to the total MHC mRNA pool in differentiat¬ ing cultures is suggested by the following observations. Muscle cultures at 0.5 days of age (which consist primarily of replicating presumptive myoblasts) contain only 100-200 MHC mRNA transcripts per cell (Fig. 2). Because fibroblast contamination does not change drastically between 0.5 and 1 day in culture, and because 1-day cells already contain approximately 1,200 MHC transcripts per cell (Fig. 2), fibroblasts would cause no more than 10% error even in 1-day cells. This percentage would be lower in older cultures as total MHC mRNA accumulates up to approximately 5,000 copies per nuclear equiva¬ lent. It should be pointed out that the MHC mRNA level of 100-200 copies per cell in replicating presumptive myoblasts is likely an underestimate of the true concentration, because of divergence be¬ tween nonmuscle and myofibrillar MHC sequences (26). Finally, the percentage of fibroblasts remains relatively constant throughout development under these conditions (24), especially after f luorcde- oxyuridine is added on day 3. The translation efficiency of MHC mRNA in 6-8-day muscle cul¬ tures (8 MHC/min/mRNA, Fig. 3) is reasonable based on the normal amino acid polymerization rate and the size of MHC. The increase in translation efficiency observed during the later stages of develop- 127 Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle ment is less well documented, but has been indirectly inferred by other approaches (16,23). The cellular alterations permitting more efficient utilization of MHC mRNA during this period are unknown. In view of a recent report (16) that radioactively-labeled MHC mRNA can be inserted into fusing myoblasts and that this mRNA is then actively translated, the presence of significant nonpolysomal MHC mRNA prior to fusion can best be explained as a precursor to poly- somal mRNA (7). This explanation also requires that muscle differen¬ tiation includes other cytoplasmic alterations that allow nonpoly¬ somal MHC mRNA to be recruited into polysomal complexes shortly after initiation of fusion. The explanation for substantial amounts of nonpolysomal MHC in 8-day, steady-state muscle cultures is less clear, but at least three logical possibilities can be suggested. First, nonpolysomal mRNA could simply be a direct precursor of poly¬ somal MHC mRNA and could be recruited into protein synthesis by the proper intracellular signals (e.g., innervation, intense contrac¬ tion). Secondly, a fraction of MHC ribonucleoprotein particles might somehow become irreversibly inactivated or partially degraded during transport from the nucleus, thus rendering them incapable of partici¬ pating in protein synthesis. Alternatively, these inactive species may be the products of normal mRNA degradation^. Such species would still be detected by hybridization against ( H)cDNA. Thirdly, the nonpolysomal MHC mRNA species could be an isozyme of the polysomal MHC mRNA species (i.e., they were transcribed from different chromo¬ somal sequences and therefore code for different MHC isozymes). For example, the primary species of MHC found in cultured rat muscle cells in an embryonic form, rather than the adult form (21), and both myofibrillar and constitutive MHC are found within individual myo- tubes (9). In the third case, unique cytoplasmic conditions would necessarily dictate preferential translation of one species over the other . LITERATURE CITED 1. Airhart, J., J. Kelley, J. E. Brayden, R. B. Low: An ultramicro method of amino acid analysis: Application to studies of protein metabolism in cultured cells. Anal. Biochem. 96, 45-55 (1979). 2. Aviv., P. Leder: Purification of biologically active globin messenger RNA by chromatography on oligothymidylic acid-cellu¬ lose. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 69, 1408-1412 (1972). 3. Bag, J. , S. Sarkar : Studies on a nonpolysomal ribonucleoprotein coding for myosin heavy chains from chick embryonic muscles. J. Biol. Chem. 251, 7600-7609 (1976). 4. Benoff, S. , B. Nadal-Ginard : Most myosin heavy chain mRNA in L.Eq rat myotubes has a short poly(A) tail. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76, 1853-1857 (1979). 128 Young and Achtymichuk 5. Dingman, C. W. : A convenient program for the rapid calculation of sedimentation coefficients in linear salt or sucrose gradi¬ ents. Analyt. Biochem. 49, 124-133 (1972). 6. Devlin, R. B. , C. P. Emerson: Coordinate accumulation of con¬ tractile protein mRNAs during myoblast differentiation. Deve¬ lop. Biol. 69, 202-216 (1979). 7. Doetschman, T. , H. P. Dym, E. J. Siegel, S. M. Heywood : Myoblast stored myosin heavy chain transcripts are precursors to the myotube polysomal myosin heavy chain mRNAs. Differentiation 16, 149-162 (1980). 8. Dym, H. P. , D. S. Kennedy, S. M. Heywood: Subcellular distribu¬ tion of the cytoplasmic myosin heavy chain mRNA during myogene- sis. Differentiation 12, 145-155 (1979). 9. Fallon, J. R. and V. T. Nachmias: Localization of cytoplasmic and skeletal myosins in developing muscle cells by double-label immunofluorescence. J. Cell Biol. 87, 237-247 (1980). 10. Heywood, S. M. , D. S. Kennedy, A. J. Bester: Stored myosin messenger in embryonic chick muscle. FEBS LETTERS 53, 69-72 (1975). 11. Jain, S. K. , S. Sarkar : Poly (riboadenylate)-containing messenger r ibonucleoprotein particles of chick embryonic muscles. Bio¬ chem. 18, 745-753 (1979). 12. John, H. A., M. Patr inou-Georgoulas , K. W. Jones: Detection of myosin heavy chain mRNA during myogenesis in tissue culture by in vitro and in situ hybridization. Cell 12, 501-508 (1977). 13. Kacian, D. L. , J. C. Myers: Synthesis of extensive, possibly complete, DNA copies of poliovirus RNA in high yields and at high specific activities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 73, 2191-2195 (1976). 14. Lehrach, H. , D. Diamond, J. J. Wozney, H. Boedtker: RNA molecu¬ lar weight determinations by gel electrophoresis under denatur¬ ing conditions, a critical reexamination. Biochem. 16, 4743- 4751 (1977). 15. Morse, R. K. , H. Herrmann, S. M. Heywood: Extraction with Triton X-100 of active polysomes from monolayer cultures of embryonic muscle cells. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 232, 403-409 (1971). 16. Mroczkowski, B. , H. P. Dym, E. J. Siegel, S. M. Heywood: Uptake and utilization of mRNA by myogenic cells in culture. J. Cell Biol. 87, 65-71 (1980). 129 Myosin Heavy Chain mRNA in Embryonic Chick Muscle 17. Myers, J. C., S. Spiegelman, D. L. Kacian: Synthesis of full length DNA copies of avian myeloblastosis virus RNA in high yields. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 74, 2840-2843 (1977). 18. Przybyla, A., R. C. Strohman: Myosin heavy chain messenger RNA from myogenic cell cultures. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 71, 662-666 (1974). 19. Robbins, J., S. M. Heywood : Quantification of myosin heavy-chain mRNA during myogenesis. Eur. J. Biochem. 82, 601-608 (1978). 20. Strohman, R. C. , P. S. Moss, J. Micou-Eastwood , D. Spector, A. Przybyla, B. Paterson: mRNA for myosin polypeptides: Isolation from single myogenic cell cultures. Cell 10, 265-273 (1977). 21. Whalen, R. G. , K. Schwartz, P. Bouveret, S. M. Sell, F. Gros : Contractile protein isozymes in muscle development: Identifica¬ tion of an embryonic form of myosin heavy chain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 76, 5197-5201 (1979). 22. Young, R. B. , R. M. Denome , G. W. Achtymichuk: Stimulation of myosin heavy chain synthesis in steady-state muscle cultures by the ionophore, A23187, requires transcription of messenger RNA. Eur. J. Cell Biol. 26, 184-187 (1981). 23. Young, R. B., D. E. Goll, M. H. Stromer: Isolation of myosin- synthesizing polysomes from cultures of embryonic chicken myo¬ blasts before fusion. Develop. Biol 47, 123-135 (1975). 24. Young, R. B. , T. R. Miller, R. A. Merkel: Clonal analysis of satellite cells in growing mice. J. Anim. Sci. 46, 1421-1429 (1978). 25. Young, R. B. , M. Orcutt, P. B. Blauwiekel: Quantitative measure¬ ment of protein mass and radioactivity in N, N' -Diallyltartardia- mide crosslinked polyacrylamide slab gels. Anal. Biochem. 108, 202-206 (1980). 26. Young, R. B. , and R. E. Allen: Transitions in gene activity during development of muscle fibers. J. Anim. Sci. 48, 837-852 (1979). 130 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 53, No. 4, Oct. 1982. INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH PITCHER PLANTS {SARRACENIA : SARRACENIACEAE) , AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO PITCHER PLANT CONSERVATION: A REVIEW1 Debbie E. Rymal and George W. Folkerts Department of Zoology -Entomology Auburn University Auburn University , Alabama 26849 ABSTRACT Insects and other arthropods associated with pitcher plants (.Sarracenia: Sarraceniaceae) mainly function as prey for the plants, serve as pollinators, inhabit the pitchers, or feed on pitcher plant tissue. Prey scarcity is not a problem in survival of Sarracenia populations. Pollinators of pitcher plants are mainly bees, and in the case of the large-flowered species, bumblebees of the genus Bombus . At least 16 arthropod species are obligate associates of Sarracenia. These include five moths representing four genera in two families, seven flies in five genera and four families, three mites in two genera in two families, and an aphid. A number of other insects and spiders are casual but frequent associates. None of the insect herbivores which feed on pitcher plant tissue represent a threat to Sarracenia populations except under very extraordinary conditions. Conservation efforts should be oriented toward con¬ serving this entire spectrum of uniquely associated organisms. INTRODUCTION The pitcher plants of the genus Sarracenia (Sarraceniaceae) are among the most unique plants in the world. Their unusual insect¬ trapping leaves and their beauty make them precious biological and esthetic resources. Although taxonomic opinion varies (Bell 1949, McDaniel 1971, Case and Case 1976, Schnell 1977), as many as ten species have been recognized in the genus. The following binomens appear in the recent literature: S. alabamensis Case and Case, 5. alata (Wood) Wood, S. flava L. , S. jonesi Wherry, S. leucophylla Raf., S. minor Walt., S. oreophila (Kearny) Wherry, S. psittacina Michx., S. purpurea L. , and S. rubra Walt. Nine of these nominal species range mainly in the southeastern U.S. with one extending west to eastern Texas. The remaining species, S. purpurea, also occurs in the southeast but ranges northward to Labrador and Minnesota. Pitcher plant habitats are being altered and destroyed at an alarming rate (Folkerts 1977, 1982). One species, S. oreophila, the green pitcher plant, is federally classified as endangered. A number Manuscript received 12 August 1982; accepted 15 October 1982. 131 Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants of other species are categorized as endangered, threatened, or rare in lists prepared in the various states (e.g.. Ward 1978, Forsythe and Ezell 1979, Freeman et al. 1980). Insects and other arthropods associated with pitcher plants interact with the plants in a number of ways. First, insects presumably provide a significant nutrient source for the plants. Second, insects are the pollinators which ensure eventual seed production. Third, a number of insect species have evolved the ability to inhabit the pitchers where they may subsist on pitcher contents for at least a portion of their lives. Fourth, several insect herbivores feed only on Sarraoenia tissue, and others use it extensively. Additionally, a number of insects and other arthropods are casual or rare associates of Sarraoenia but are mentioned here because they may be encountered by other workers. Because of the possibility that insect associates will be of significance in the increasingly intensive efforts to preserve pitcher plant populations, and because some workers have commented on possible co-actions detrimental to the plants (Fish 1976, Troup and McDaniel 1980), we present the following review. Our own information has been accumulated during a number of years of observation and investigation at over one hundred sites, mainly in the southeastern U.S. Our experience in the northern bogs where only S. purpurea occurs is limited. We have attempted to include most of the perti¬ nent literature although we do not contend that our list of citations is exhaustive, and we have not included mere locality records, state lists, or general works. Because of the review format of this arti¬ cle, detailed data are not included. It is our intent to aggregate and summarize the available information, provide brief descriptions to facilitate identification and foster understanding of the biologi¬ cal roles of the species, and present our observations and specula¬ tions as a basis for thought and further work by others. A number of workers have presented general information on pit¬ cher plant insects (Riley 1874, Hubbard 1896, Jones 1893, 1904, 1908, 1935). Much of the effort has been concentrated on species associat¬ ed with S. purpurea which, because of its unusual morphology for the genus and the amount of water held in the pitcher, possesses a spec¬ trum of associates rather different from that of the southeastern species. It is also the only species which occurs in the north¬ eastern U.S. where interested entomologists have been numerous. INSECTS AS PITCHER PLANT PREY There is little need to dwell on this topic extensively since there is no indication that absence of insect prey has been a factor in the reduction of pitcher plant populations. It is possible that prey insects are scarce at some sites, such as those where S. oreophila exists in woodland habitats. However as it relates to survival, prey scarcity would be overshadowed by many other detri¬ mental factors at these sites. 132 Rymal and Folkerts Most pitcher plant species capture a broad spectrum of insect types, but some degree of prey resource partitioning seems to occur (T.C. Gibson, pers. comm., Folkerts 1982). Fish (1976) found that S. minor in north-central Florida captures mainly ants. Lists of prey have been provided by a number of workers (Jones 1904, Wray and Brimley 1943, Judd 1959, Swales 1969, 1972). Other than the occasional entrapped insect which bores through the pitcher wall and escapes, prey insects are entirely beneficial in that they presumably contribute nutrients that would otherwise be limiting or in short supply. PITCHER PLANT POLLINATORS Even though the unique flower structure of Sarracenia is indica¬ tive of a highly evolved mechanism significant in the pollination process, there has been no definitive study of pitcher plant polli¬ nation. McFarlane (1908) commented on pollination and Jones (1908) made further comments and provided a list of "habitual visitors" to the flowers of S. flava. Schnell (1978), and Folkerts (1982) added comments . It seems clear that the major pollinators of the large-flowered species (S. aiata, S. flava , S. leucophylla , S. oreophila, S. purpurea ) are newly emerged queens of the bumblebee genus Bombus . Along the Gulf coast common pollinators are Bombus bimaculatus Cresson, B. frateimus (F. Smith), and B. impatiens Cresson. Farther north B. pennsylvanicus (Degeer) becomes more important. Although there is some variation in size, queens of these species are gener¬ ally too large to enter the flowers of the small-flowered species (S. minor, S. psittaoina, S. rubra complex). Worker bees of the afore¬ mentioned species are small enough to enter small Sarracenia flowers but are not present in numbers until the Sarracenia flowering peak is past. Jones (1908) saw small bees of the genera Augochlora (Halictidae) and Osmia (Melittidae) visiting the flowers of S. minor. A major factor affecting pollination success, especially with bumblebees, is patch size of the plant species. When patch size is small, bees are forced to visit several species in order to secure sufficient pollen and nectar, consequently decreasing pollination efficiency for any species involved (Levin 1978). This may be a factor in the reproductive success of S. alabamensis, S. jonesi, and S. oreophila, forms for which few or no large populations remain. Small patches of S. flava and S. leucophylla along the Gulf coast, which often represent populations decimated by competition resulting from habitat changes caused by drainage and/or fire suppression, seem seldom to receive much attention from pollinators. A critical comparative study of pollination processes in Sarracenia is needed to determine how they relate to reproduct ive success and hybridization. We hope to elucidate some of these phenomena in the near future. 133 Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants PITCHER INHABITANTS Under this heading we discuss species which typically complete a portion of their life cycle within the pitchers but do not feed on the plant tissue. Although these species have been called inquilines by various authors, this frequently misused term should apply only to organisms which share the homes of other species. Diptera. Perhaps as many as nine species of flies are obligate in¬ habitants of Sarracenia pitchers. Two of these are associated with only S. purpurea. Wyeomyia smithii (Coquillett 1901) (Culicidae) (including W. haynei Dodge 1947, see Bradshaw and Lounibos 1977), a mosquito, completes its larval development in the fluid in S. purpurea pitchers. Most populations of the plant harbor at least a small population of the mosquito. Wyeomia larvae feed on micro¬ organisms and suspended particulate matter in the pitcher fluid (Addicott 1974) and may benefit the plant by conversion of their food into fecal components and nitrogenous metabolites which can be ab¬ sorbed by the leaf. Adult W. smithii may be seen resting on the plant and flying near it. They do not typically bite humans although exceptions are known (Goins 1977). This mosquito is undoubtedly the most well- studied of the species associated with Sarracenia (Coquillett 1901, Dyar 1901, Smith 1902, Mitchell 1905, Dodge 1947, Weathersbee and Arnold 1948, Haufe 1952, Price 1958 a,b, Coyne and Hagman 1964, Wallis and Frempoang-Boadu 1967, Barr and Barr 1969, Buffington 1970, Bradshaw 1971, 1976, 1980, Paterson 1971, Smith and Brust 1971, Bradshaw and Lounibos 1972, 1977, Evans and Brust 1972, Mclver and Hudson 1972, Hall and Fish 1973, Addicott 1974, Istock et al. 1975, 1976 a,b, Lounibos and Bradshaw 1975, Goins 1977, Fish and Hall 1978, Kingsolver 1979, Bradshaw and Phillips 1980, Moeur and Istock 1980). Larvae of the midge, Metriocnemus knabi Coquillett (Chironomidae) are also obligate inhabitants of S. purpurea. In contrast to Wyeomyia larvae, the larvae of this species typically occur in the lower portion of the pitcher fluid where they feed on the mass of entrapped prey. Pupae may be found in a gelatinous mass attached to the pitcher wall above the water surface (Coquillett 1904, Knab 1905, Judd 1959, Buffington 1970, Paterson 1971, Dermott and Paterson 1974, Donald and Patterson 1977, Cameron et al. 1977, Fish and Hall 1978). The remaining fly species, as far as is known, are not specific to any single Sarracenia species. Five, and perhaps a sixth species of sarcophagid flies complete larval development by feeding on en¬ trapped prey. Four of these, Blaesoxipha celerata (Aldrich), B. fletcheri (Aldrich), B. jonesi (Aldrich), and B. rileyi (Aldrich) form a closely related group comprising the subgenus Fletcherimyia (Riley 1873, Aldrich 1916, Jones 1935, Judd 1959, Stone et al. 1965, Forsyth and Robertson 1975, Fish and Hall 1978). Adults of these four species are nearly impossible to differentiate in the field. 134 Rymal and Folkerts Accurate identification can only be accomplished by examination of the male genitalia. All four species occur in several Sarracenia species, however only B. fletcheri is known from S. ’purpurea. Saraophaga sarraeeniae Riley is very similar to the Blaesoxipha species and is often found at the same sites (San Jean 1957). Aldrich (1916) reported that a variety of Saraophaga utilis Aldrich also occurs in Sarracenia pitchers and conjectured that it might represent a distinct species. Adult sarcophagids , which grossly resemble oversized house flies, are often abundant in pitcher plant habitats and can fre¬ quently be seen resting on the pitchers. Individuals occasionally become entrapped. The large (15 - 20mm), white, conspicuous larvae typically occur singly in pitchers as a result of cannibalism (For¬ syth and Robertson 1975). They are often quite common , occurring in 64% of the functional pitchers of S. minor examined by Fish (1976) in Alachua Co., Florida. Since sarcophagid larvae consume Sarracenia prey, their presence could be considered a detriment to the plant. Fish (1976) thought that larvae in S. minor, a species with relatively small pitchers, might consume as much as 50 percent of the prey trapped. However the wastes of the larvae may be available to the plant and larvae killed during aggressive encounters with others may also function as prey at times. Additionally, in Sarracenia species with large pitchers, larvae would probably consume comparatively insignificant amounts of prey. At many sites where we have worked in the southeastern U.S., sarcophagid larvae have been very abundant. We saw no indication of damage to plant populations due to their activities. A sciarid fly, Bradysia macfarlanei (Jones), (previously in¬ cluded in Sciara and Neosciara) is also an obligate associate of Sarracenia. This small (3.0 - 3.8mm), delicate, blackish species is found in association with all pitcher plant species except S. purpurea. The yellowish larvae have prominent dark head capsules and can be found burrowing among the entrapped prey. Adults can be ob¬ served resting on the inner and outer walls of the pitchers. Al¬ though the larvae probably consume prey components, their small size and the fact that there are seldom large numbers in a single pitcher indicate that the species is not detrimental to the plants. The last dipteran which seems to be an obligate associate of Sarracenia is a presumably undescribed species of Chloropidae (Folkerts and Rymal, unpublished data) which seems to be restricted to Gulf coast pitcher plant populations, being most numerous in S. leucophylla. The adults (2.3 - 3.0mm) in general, resemble a dark Drosophila and may be found in numbers resting on the inner walls of pitchers. The small whitish larvae lack a head capsule and burrow through the prey mass. Like Bradysia, this species appears to exert no significant detrimental pressure on the plants. 135 Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants Jones (1918) reported Dohmiphora comuta (Bigot) (as D. venusta Coquillett), a phorid, from the pitchers of S. flava in South Caro¬ lina. The short, dorsoventrally flattened, brownish-white larvae may be found among the prey, and are present mainly in the late summer after the prey mass has dried. The small (2 - 3mm) dark brownish, humpbacked adults may be seen in the vicinity of the pitchers. This species occurs in many habitats outside of the pitchers and ranges widely in the New World (Stone et al. 1965). We have not found it to be common. Hymenoptera. None of the wasps which nest in Savvacenia pitchers are obligate associates but at least the first species mentioned below seems to prefer to nest in pitchers where they occur within its range, and can be most easily found by searching in this micro¬ habitat . The trap-nesting sphecid wasp, Isodontia (Murrayella) mexicana (Saussure) commonly nests in the leaves of Savvacenia species (Rau 1935, Brower and Brower 1970, Fish 1976). Earlier reports of pitcher nesting by Isodontia philadelphica (Hubbard 1896, Jones 1904) and Chlorion harrisi Fernald (Engelhardt 1928, Rau 1935, Lloyd 1942) also apply to this species (Bohart and Menke 1963). This black slender- waisted species has also been reported to nest in folded yucca leaves, abandoned carpenter bee burrows, hollow stems, bamboo, and sumac twigs (Engelhardt 1928, Rau 1935, Lin 1962, Medler 1965). Trap-nesting wasps have been studied in artificial nesting sites (Krombein 1967) but few natural nests have been found. Pitcher plant nests seem to be ideal for future studies. Jones (1935) felt that this species deserved the common name "sarracenia wasp." Wasps of this type are called grass-carrying wasps because their nests are built of grass leaves and other fibrous plant materials. In pitchers, a wad of coiled grass plugs the bottom of the tube, above which is a bed of loosely compacted grass on which are placed the prey insects. The eggs are deposited at this site and the larvae hatch and feed on the paralyzed prey. A bit of loose grass and a tighter plug of coiled grass are placed over the brood chamber. Oc¬ casionally a tuft of grass can be seen protruding from the pitcher orifice. Solitary nests, unicellular multilarval chambers, and mul¬ ticellular unilarval chambers partitioned by sections of dry grass have been observed in pitchers. The latter two types have previously been reported for this species (Bohart and Menke 1976). Isodontia mexicana preys primarily on gryllid and tettigoniid orthopterans . At a single locality all captures seem to be of a single species. In pitcher plant bogs, Rau (1935) and our study found the common prey to be nymphs of the tettigoniid genus Conocephalus , often C. fasciatus (DeGeer). In the Southeast, pitcher nests are heavily preyed upon by the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren, which consumes the larvae or pupae and the prey. 136 Rymal and Folkerts Construction of a nest within a pitcher prevents further insect capture. The female wasp may actually clean the site of previously trapped prey before preparing the nest. Fish (1976) reported its presence in 2.5 percent of the functional leaves of S. minor at a site in Alachua Co., Florida. Concentrations higher than this were never observed during our study. Thus, although individual leaves may be rendered functionless, this insect presents no threat to the health of pitcher plant populations. Two less frequent types of wasps nests have been observed in pitcher plant leaves. Bernon (1969) found an active nest of the ves- pid paper wasp Polistes fusoatus pallipes Lepeletier in a pitcher of S. purpurea in Massachusetts. In a few Gulf coast bogs, dirt-filled pitchers of S. rubra and S. alata have been noted. Some contained paralyzed salticid and clubionid spiders with small hymenopteran lar¬ vae attached. Although adult wasps were never obtained for identifi¬ cation, these were probably nests of another sphecid. Some species are known to prey on spiders and place several prey items in a single nest (Bohart and Menke 1976). Acarina. We include mites because workers interested in pitcher plant insects will also encounter these arthropods. Three species are known to be specific to Sarracenia pitchers and others may occa¬ sionally occur. Two of the mites are anoetids which scavenge on the remains of decomposing prey or on microorganisms associated with prey decomposi¬ tion. Anoetus gibsoni (Nesbitt), originally described as Z wiokia gibsoni (Nesbitt 1954, Hughes and Jackson 1958), inhabits only S. purpurea where it occurs on the pitcher walls beneath the surface of the liquid. Aneotus hughesi Hunter and Hunter has been reported from S. flava and S. minor (Hunter and Hunter 1964) and seems to occur in all species except S. purpurea. Individuals may be found among the mass of entrapped prey or on the pitcher walls above the prey mass. Both of the Anoetus species are medium-sized (adults .3 - .5mm) light-colored mites in which the adults appear hairy because of their long setae. Maoroseius biscutatus Chant, Denmark, and Baker, is a phytoseiid mite which occurs abundantly in the pitchers of various Sarracenia species in the Southeast. It is conspicuously larger than the Anoetus species (adults .55 - .60mm). Although most phytoseiids are predaceous. Chant et al. (1959) reported that specimens of M. biscu¬ tatus were found associated with frass of species of the noctuid moth genus Exyra (see later section). We have found specimens in pitchers which contained no frass. The trophic relationships of Macroseius therefore remain unclear. Judd (1959) and Swales (1969) reported mites of the genus Histiostoma (Anoetidae) in the leaves of S. purpurea. Species of this genus occur widely in decaying organic matter (Krantz 1978). None are specific to Sarracenia. Swales (1972) later stated that the specimens reported as Histiostoma may have been Anoetus gibsoni. 137 Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants The mechanisms of dispersal of these mites are not definitely known. Hunter and Hunter (1964) hypothesized that Anoetus individ¬ uals were phoretic on insects. If this is the case they may use Exyra moths since no other insects are common to the habitats of both species. Insects which are attracted to nectar at the pitcher ori¬ fice may be used but the dispersal stage (hypopus) would have to lie in wait in this area of the pitcher. Hunter and Hunter (1964) re¬ ported that the hypopial stages of Anoetus hughesi occurred on the wall above the insect remains but did not mention their presence near the pitcher orifice. None of the mites mentioned seem to be detri¬ mental to the plants. PITCHER PLANT HERBIVORES At least five insect species feed only on pitcher plant tissue. Typically it is the pitcher tissue that is attacked although one insect species occurs only in the flowers. The insect herbivores which feed on Sarraoenia seem to be less diverse and of fewer species than the spectrum of insect herbivores occurring on a number of other bog species. For instance, no chrysomelid, scarabaeid, or curculionid beetles feed on Sarraoenia. Pentatomid or cicadellid bugs are almost never encountered. The lepidopteran larvae which feed on Sarraoenia include members of only four genera in two families. These facts suggest that pitcher plants may have evolved some chemical defenses against insect herbivores. Cattle do not graze on Sarraoenia leaves (Plummer 1963, Folkerts 1978, 1982) and we have observed that hogs leave them untouched. Low nutrient quantity and quality characterize some plants that have few insect herbivores, but ungulates seldom avoid such plants. It is not known if the tannin content of Sarraoenia leaves is high, but they do seem to be more highly lignified than the leaves of most other species in their habitat. Homoptera. The aphid Macrosiphum jeanae Robinson often occurs in large numbers in the second-year pitchers of Sarraoenia purpurea. This green, clear-winged species has been reported only from Canada (Robinson 1972), and therefore presumably only occurs on S. purpurea. Its entire life history occurs on the plant. We do not have the experience to accurately assess the damage done by this species, but because it only occurs in second-year pitchers whose entrapment function may have already been lost or reduced in efficiency, the damage is probably negligible. Lepidoptera. The larvae of several moth species feed on pitcher plant tissue. Most intimately associated with Sarraoenia are the species of the noctuid genus Exyra Grote, all of which are obligate inhabitants of pitcher plants. All stages of the life cycle occur within the pitchers. Although they possess no immediately obvious structural adaptations, they appear to be the only insects which can successfully locomote on the downward pointing hairs which cover the inner surface of the pitchers. Four nominal species are assigned to 138 Rymal and Folkerts the genus: E. semicrocea (Geunee), E. ridingsii (Riley), E. rolandiana Grote, and E. fax (Grote) (Grote 1879). Only three of these names are generally considered valid, the epithet fax not typically being used. Their validity and nomenclatural history is currently being investigated (Rymal, in manuscript.) Exyra semicrocea was reported from five Sarracenia species by Jones (1921). We have found it in all ten nominal species during this study, most abundantly in S. leucophylla along the Gulf coast and in S. alata in Texas. Adult E. semicrocea average 11 mm in length, although size varies considerably, probably reflecting larval nutrition and pitcher size. The basal ivory colored portion of the forewings are clearly demarcated from the black distal half. The hind wings are black or grey. The filiform antennae are yellow. The head and prothorax are black and the rest of the body and legs are ivory. An entirely ivory form and a mottled form are occasion- ly encountered and have been called E. semicrocea var. irmaculata Benjamin and E. semicrocea var. hubbardiana Dyar, respectively (Kimball 1965). The bright coloration of E. semicrocea larvae is unusual for a noctuid. Larvae are banded with red and white and have four con¬ spicuous pairs of lateral projections, the lappets. The pattern and color is cryptic on the white, red-veined upper portion of the S. Zeucophylla leaf. Exrya ridingsii seems to be the least abundant species and is known only from S. flava. Adults are somewhat larger than those of E. semicrocea. The forewings are patterned throughout with black bands alternating with ivory, the bands becoming broader toward the outer edge of the wing. Irregular black markings occur on the legs. The larvae are banded but the bands are duller than in E. semicrocea and the lappets are less pronounced than those of the latter species. Exyra rolandiana has been reported to be specifically associated with S. purpurea (Jones 1921), although adults were found in pitchers of S. flava by Jones (1904), and during the present study. As far as is known, the life cycle can only be completed in S. purpurea. Adult E. rolandiana differ conspicuously in coloration from adults of the other two species, and considerable variation occurs. The forewings vary from maroon with black and ivory blotches to irregularly banded with black and ivory, and at times are entirely black. The body and wings are covered with an intermixture of ivory and grey scales. The larvae are not as brightly colored as those of E. semicrocea and lappets are lacking. Aspects of the biology of Exyra species have been treated in a number of works (Riley 1874, Jones 1893, 1904, 1907, 1908, 1921, Hubbard 1896, Judd 1957, Brower and Brower 1970, Fish 1976, Rvmal 1980). Along the Gulf coast E. semicrocea exhibits four overlapping generations per year and overwinters as a late instar larva (Rymal 139 Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants 1980). Pupation begins in early spring and adults emerge coincident with the maturation of the first pitcher plant leaves. From one to several eggs are laid singly on the inside wall of a pitcher. Newly hatched larvae typically girdle the pitcher with a narrow feeding channel, causing the upper portion to wilt and topple, thereby effec¬ tively closing the pitcher opening. Larvae usually occur singly in leaves and feed only on the inner portion, leaving the outer epider¬ mis intact. Three or four leaves are partially consumed during the five larval stadia (Rymal 1980). Feeding larvae are nearly always enclosed in a protective chamber consisting of a ceiling of silken webbing or toppled leaf tissue above and protected below by their frass deposits. Pupation generally takes place in an undamaged pitcher. The orifice is typically closed by a sheet of webbing. Prior to pupation the larva cuts a tiny drainage hole just below the position in which the larva will attach itself to the wall by webbing. Adults rarely stray from their resting sites within pitchers. Most flight takes place at dusk when females fly to new pitchers and males search for females. Copulation occurs within pitchers with the copulating pair positioned at right angles so that both face par¬ tially upward (Rymal 1980). The life histories of the other two Exyra species are quite similar, differing from that of E. semicroaea in features that adapt them to their specific host plants. E. ridingsii pupates and hiber¬ nates in a chamber of larval frass. Newly hatched larvae remain for several days, covered by silk and frass, in the groove in the throat of S. flava, where the eggs are laid. Exyra rotandiana larvae consistently use webbed orifices and drainage holes, a necessary adaptation because the pitchers of S. purpurea are open to rain and usually hold considerable quantities of water. The damage that Exyra larvae cause to Sarraaenia leaves is con¬ spicuous and can be alarming. However, they rarely consume an entire leaf and seldom are all of the leaves on a plant attacked. Partially consumed leaves, although the orifice may be blocked, can probably continue photosynthesis and absorption of nutrients from prey. The larval wastes, which are deposited in the pitchers, may return some nutrients to the plant if components can be absorbed. Cellulose de¬ grading fungi, which are known to grow on insect feces (Schreiber and Mason 1976), may play a part in liberating substances that can be ab¬ sorbed by the pitchers. We have found Exyra species present at nearly every pitcher plant site we have visited. At a few sites virtually every leaf showed some signs of Exyra damage. Some populations of Sarraaenia in large, undisturbed bogs have sustained large Exyra populations without apparent long term damage. Natural control of Exyra popula¬ tions occurs as a result of the actions of avian and spider preda¬ tors, dipteran and hymenopteran parasites, and fungal, bacterial, and viral pathogens. In our opinion, these moth species do not present a 140 Rymal and Folkerts significant danger to the continued existence of pitcher plant populations . The "Sarracenia root borer", Papaipema appassionato. Harvey, is another noctuid moth whose larvae feed only on pitcher plant tissue. The large larvae feed by burrowing in the underground rhizomes. Their presence can often be detected by the turret of frass left at the opening of their burrows. Mature larvae are reddish brown with longitudinal white stripes and reach a length of 3 - 4 cm. Their burrows can be extensive enough to cause entire clumps of pitcher plants to wilt and die. Adults average 3.8 mm in wingspan. They are yellow with maroon flecks and have two groups of small white dots at the center of each forewing. Although P. appassionata is potentially very damaging to pitcher plant populations, it is relatively rare. Bird (1903) reported it from S. purpurea in New Jersey, and Jones (1908) found it attacking S. flava in South Carolina. It has also been collected in New York, Quebec, Ontario (Forbes 1934) and Maine (Brower and Brower 1970). We have not found it in the southeastern U.S. during this study. The larvae of two tortricid moths feed on the flowers and developing fruits of Sarracenia. One of these species, Endothenia daeckeana (Kearfott) (formerly Olethreutes daeckeana , at times placed in the family Olethreutidae) seems to be restricted to S. purpurea. The larvae bore into the ovary base and consume seeds within. Pupation occurs within the flower stalk down which the larva bores when mature. Adults emerge in the spring after the pupae push through the epidermis which covers a pre-chewed exit hole made by the larva (Hilton 1982). Adults are small (15 - 18 mm wingspan) and of a mottled grayish-brown color. Hilton (1982) found as high as 71 percent infested stalks at some sites and found other sites where the moth was absent. He also found that one or more carpels of the flower usually remain uninfested, so presumably this species never completely prevents seed production. Jones (1908) reported the aforementioned species from S. minor in South Carolina. However, because the life history traits of the moth he described vary considerably from the habits of E. daeckeana as described by Hilton (1982) we believe it to be a different species. Even though Kearfott identified the Jones material, he may have based his identification mainly on the fact that the specimens came from Sarracenia. It is possible that this species is Endothenia hebesana Walker, a species which feeds on a variety of hosts, and reported from pitcher plants by Forbes (1923). However, it may be undescribed or may represent a different species. The greenish white larvae of the species we encountered feed on the flower parts and bore into the developing fruit and feed on the seeds and tissue within. Their presence can be detected by frass and debris which are fastened by silk to the wilting perianth parts. Pupation takes place in the partially consumed ovary. The adult is 141 Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants small (15.0 mm wingspread in one specimen we measured) and of a light brown mottled color. We have found this form in S. leucophylla and S. rubra. Troup and McDaniel (1980) mentioned what was probably this spe¬ cies as a factor in curtailing seed production in S. oreophila popu¬ lations. In our experience, however, the larva rarely destroys more than half of the fruit, which generally produces a quantity of seeds in excess of that needed for population continuance. Another tortricid, Choristoneura parallela (Robinson) (called Archips parallela and Cacoecia parallela in some works), feeds at times on pitcher plant tissue, although it also occurs on many other hosts (Freeman 1958). Jones (1908) found it feeding on small leaves of S. minor in South Carolina. The larva, which has been described by MacKay (1962), spins an extensive web of silk within the pitcher tube, feeds on the leaf tissue, and pupates in the angle formed by the wing of the pitcher and the outer surface of the tube. We have found a tortricid with similar habits feeding on S. leucophylla and S. rubra in southern Alabama. Adults were not obtained for positive identification. Because this species is only occasionally encoun¬ tered it cannot be considered a threat to the survival of Sarracenia populations . RARE AND CASUAL ASSOCIATES In addition to the obligate associates and the frequently en¬ countered more generalized associates mentioned earlier, many arthro¬ pods are occasionally associated with pitcher plants in less obvious ways. Additionally, a few rare species exist whose relationships to pitcher plants are yet to be determined. A number of polyphagous insect herbivores occasionally feed on Sarracenia tissue. Grasshopper damage to the pitchers can often be seen but is never extensive enough to warrant concern. Thrips, prob¬ ably of a number of species, are frequently seen on pitchers, but the damage they cause is very minor. Leaf cutter bees cut round sec¬ tions from the petals when plants are in flower, and occasionally use old pitchers as nesting sites, but probably harm the plant little. Some leaf cutter species may be pollinators. We found a scale insect of the genus Aspidiotus (Diaspididae) on a pitcher of S. psittacina in southern Alabama. It probably rep¬ resents an undescribed species (Michael L. Williams, pers. comm.). Whether or not it is specific to Sarracenia cannot be determined without further investigation. The fluid in Sarracenia purpurea sometimes harbors organisms that typically occur in aquatic environments outside pitchers. Brower and Brower (1970) reported the larva of a caddisfly, Frenesia difficilis Walker (Limnephilidae) , and a freshwater isopod Asellus 142 Rymal and Folkerts communis Say from fluid in S. purpurea pitchers. Mather (1981) collected two alderfly larvae, Sialis joppa, Ross in separate pitchers of S. purpurea at a site in New Jersey. We have found both isopods and amphipods in S. purpurea pitchers in southern Mississippi but attribute their presence to prior flooding of the site which had completely inundated the pitchers and diluted the fluid within. Spiders are abundant in pitcher plant habitats and are associa¬ ted with the plants as prey (Wray and Brimley 1943) and as predators on insects attracted to the pitchers. Although no spider species are |nown to be restricted to pitcher plant bogs, several are commonly Encountered in bogs throughout the Southeast. Hubbard (1896) men¬ tioned that a spider of the genus Lycosa (Lycosidae) used pitcher plants as a site to capture prey and as a retreat for rearing young. The species that we have commonly encountered use a variety of be¬ havioral adaptations in exploiting the pitcher plants attractiveness to their insect prey. Peucetia viridans (Hentz) (Oxyopidae) , the green lynx spider, is common in many habitats and occurs abundantly in pitcher plant bogs. These large cryptic hunting spiders rest on the hoods of pitchers and overcome attracted insects. Although silk is not used in prey en¬ trapment, a small amount of webbing is nearly always present in the form of a dragline network which keeps the spider from being trapped in the pitcher. In the fall, females suspend egg cases by silk just inside the pitcher tubes. Eggs and young are guarded by the female. Phidippus rimator (Walckenaer ) (Salticidae) is another common spider which is abundant in southeastern pitcher plant bogs. These bright red jumping spiders move swiftly about on the pitcher exte¬ riors and leap on prey from considerable distances. They do not normally enter the pitchers, but since they rarely spin a drag line they are occasionally entrapped. Like Peucetia, however, they do use pitcher chambers, especially older ones which have lost some of their trapping function, as sites for rearing young. Egg cases and young spiderlings are contained within a thick mass of cotton-like silk attached to the pitcher walls. A similar site is occupied by over¬ wintering adults. Strotarchus piscatoria (Hentz) (Clubionidae) is a ubiquitous species in southeastern bogs. These brownish spiders with large dark chelicerae attack insects from a thin, silken, sac-like retreat attached to the wall within the pitchers. Young are reared within the sac. This species was found to prey heavily on overwintering larvae of Exyra semicrocea in southern Alabama (Rymal 1980). Another spider which often uses pitcher interiors as resting sites is Tibellus duttoni (Hentz) (Philodromidae) . These long-bodied spiders rest with the four front legs extended anteriorly and the four hind ones extended posteriorly, making them difficult to see in the pitchers. 143 Insects Associated With Pitcher Plants The "flower spiders" ( Misumena , Misumenops, Misumenoides, Thomisidae) can slowly change color to match their surroundings. Several species are commonly found on flowers and pitchers. Pitchers of S. leuaophylla were found incorporated into the webs of a population of funnel weavers, Agelenopsis sp. (Agelenidae) . The platform portions of webs were suspended between pitchers and the funnel portions extended into the pitcher tubes. Spiders of the genus Dolomedes (Pisauridae) , the fishing spi¬ ders, are common in wetlands and may sometimes be found on the sur¬ face of the fluid in S. purpurea pitchers. CONCLUSIONS Most of the arthropod species associated with pitcher plants cause no significant harm to the plants under any conditions. In exceptional cases, certain species, e.g. Papaipema appassionato, and the Endothenia species may apparently cause extensive damage. In our opinion, the low frequency of occurrence of these types at most sites precludes their being a source of major concern. Totally, at least in our experience, there are no reasons to contemplate control of any of these species in concert with efforts to preserve pitcher plant populations. At least 16 of the species associated with Sarracenia seem to be completely dependent on the plants for their existence. These forms enhance the uniqueness of the pitcher plant ecosystem and are as worthy of preservation as the pitcher plants themselves. We suggest that all species in the ecosystem should be considered valuable in our efforts to preserve the integrity of sites harboring pitcher plants . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For a variety of types of assistance during this study we would like to thank J. Cely, W. E. Clark, R. Corsby, D.G. Drapalik, T.C. Gibson, A.E. Goins, J. D. Harper, T.R. Jones, J.R. Jordan, W.H. Mason, G.R. Mullen, D. Rayner, L. Smith, and M.L. Williams. LITERATURE CITED Addicott, J.F. 1974. Predation and prey community structure: an experimental study of the effect of mosquito larvae on the protozoan communities of pitcher plants. Ecology 55: 475-492. Aldrich, J.M. 1916. Sarcophaga and allies in North America. Entomol. Soc. Am. Lafayette, Indiana. Barr, A.R., and S. 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Photoper iodi c control of the maintenance and termination of larval diapause in Wyeomyia smithii (Coq.) (Diptera: Culicidae) with notes on oogenesis in the adult female. Can. J. Zool. 49: 1065-1073. Swales, D.E. 1969. Sarracenia purpurea as host and carnivore at Lac Carre, Terrebonne Co., Quebec. Part I. Naturaliste Can. 96: 759-763. 150 Rymal and Folkerts Swales, D.E. 1972. Sarracenia purpurea as host and carnivore at Lac Carre, Terrebonne Co., Quebec. Part II. Naturaliste Can. 99: 41-47. Troup, R. and S. McDaniel. 1980. Status report on Sarracenia oreo- phila. Report submitted to office of Endangered Species. U. S. Dept, of Interior, Washington, D.C. Wallis, R.C., and J. Frempoang-Boadu. 1967. Colonization of Wyeo- myia smithii (Coq). from Connecticut. Mosq. News: 27: 9-11. Ward, D.B. 1978. Sarracenia leucophylla and Sarracenia rubra in Ward, D.B., ed. Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida. 5. Plants. Univ. Presses of Florida. Weathersbee, A., and F.T. Arnold. 1948. A revision of the genus Wyeomyia in South Carolina. J. Tenn. Acad. Si. 23: 249. Wray, D.L., and C.S. Brimley . 1943. The insect inquilines and vic¬ tims of pitcher plants in North Carolina. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer, 36: 128-137. 151 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 53, No. 4, Oct. 1982 MEMORIAL Reynolds Q. Shotts (1909-1982) Reynolds Q. Shotts was born in Double Springs, Alabama on February 1, 1909 and died in Druid City Hospital in Tuscaloosa, Alabama on July 18, 1982 after a lengthy illness. He is survived by his wife, Ruth; his daughters, Mrs. Hugh Edmonds of Centreville, Alabama; Ms. Eleanor Shotts, Birmingham, Alabama; and two grandsons, Rick and Steve Edmonds, both of Centreville. He received a B.S. degree in Mining Engineering in 1930 and an M.S. degree in Mining Engineering in 1931, both from The University of Alabama. Graduating during the depression years from 1931 to 1936, Rey found work teaching high school mathematics and science and performing professional services for TVA as a geologist in 1933-34. His introduction to teaching began when he accepted a position as 152 Simpson professor at Rabun Gap, Georgia, in 1936. He was made assistant dean and registrar in 1937 and stayed there until 1941. In the fall of 1941, he accepted a position at The Citadel as professor of chemistry and mathematics and stayed there until 1942. In the summer of 1942, he accepted an assignment with the Letroneau Company of Georgia in Toccoa as metallurgist. He stayed there for one year, and in the fall was offered a job as assistant fuels technologist at his alma mater and served in this capacity from 1943-46 when he was made assistant professor. It was during these years that he started on the road to becoming an expert on Alabama coal deposits. When the mining department at The University of Alabama was designated as the State Mine Experiment Station under the School of Mines, Rey wrote profusely about the quality of Alabama coals, publishing a number of technical reports on Alabama coal. In 1947, he was made associate professor and in 1951 was promoted to professor, a position he held until his retirement on June 30, 1979, serving for 35 years. Rey's greatest attribute was his memory; he had a flair for remembering faces and names of students he taught from years past. He would recognize former students of 15-20 years, even though the occasion was a chance meeting underground and the student was garbed in miner's clothes, his face blackened with coal dust, and the light¬ ing poor. He kept an unofficial record and file of former students in his office and this file remains as one of the most usable and accurate sources on former students of the department. He was a walking history book of people, places, and events in Alabama and the neighboring states. Taking trips with Rey around the state brought a detailed story about a place and event that occurred 25 or 30 years ago. He would provide information on the name of the underlying coal seams in an area, giving the acreage, tonnage, over¬ burden, area of outcrop, and the quality of the coal, as well as who had mined it, when it was mined, and when mining ceased. He was also well known for his daily puns both in and out of the classroom. Each month as statistical data on coal production in the United States was received, Rey would hasten to show Alabama's status in tonnage and rank and why this was so. It is not widely known, but Rey was one of the United States' few foremost experts on lunar mining, a distinc¬ tion he gained while performing research under a NASA contract in the I960' s. Rey Shotts loved his fellow man and was unselfish in his devo¬ tion to his church, Trinity Methodist of Tuscaloosa, and all the activities associated with it. Rey felt no ill will to anyone of anything. Rarely did he raise his voice in anger; it took an awful lot to provoke him. He was devoted to his family, church, work, stu¬ dents, and the University, and his efforts in this regard were re¬ lentless and unceasing. 153 Reynolds Q. Shotts Rey leaves many friends who remember him as a true Christian gentleman, respected and admired by all who knew him. His willing¬ ness to talk and jocular mannerisms at faculty gatherings will be missed. I am particularly proud for having had Rey as a friend and colleague and it is comforting to know that many others feel the same . He was an active member of the Society of Mining Engineers of AIME, Fellow of the Alabama Academy of Arts and Sciences, American Society of Engineering Education, Alabama Academy of Science, Society of Sigma Xi, Tau Beta Pi, and Pi Mu Epsilon. Rey did a lot of coal consulting work for private individuals, companies, and government agencies because of his extensive and profound knowledge about coal deposits in Alabama and neighboring states. Prepared by: Thomas A. Simpson Associate Professor Department of Mineral Engineering The University of Alabama 154 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 53, No. 4, Oct. 1982 INDEX 5'-C-Acetic acid derivatives of ARA-A, synthesis and antiviral activity of . 48 Achtymichuk, Gerald W . 119 Acrosin inhibitor from murine seminal vesicle, immunof luorescent localization of an .... . 29 Acylic nucleoside, a new: 2(S), 3(R)-l-(Adenin-9-yl)-2,3,5- trihydroxypentane . 47 Ahrens, William . 88 Alabama's 1982 Legislative Forestry Study Committee report . . 55 Alexander, Chester . 60 Alzheimer's Disease (AD): biological entity - social impact . 101 Amphibians in Alabama, reassessment of the distribution of three . 10, 36 Amphophilic granules of Lagamorph tongue filiform papillae, morphological observations of . 103 Analytical methods for rapid determination of behavior of elements in electric utility solid waste during leaching . 50 Antistasis footboard exercises, the effect of on selected measures of exertion . 88 Apple computer with an ESR spectrometer, using an . 60 Arbitrator, reinstated by the . 66 Atkins, A. J . 72 Atkinson, William J . 62 August, Anna M . ^ . 92 Autoradiographic analysis of L- (Methyl- H) methionine in human cells with fragile site Xq2800 . 89 Axial magnetic field measurements in a vacuum spark plasma . . 62 Bailey, W. S . 23 Baker, David C . 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48 Ball, Mary . 35 Barker, Steven A . 85 Bauman, Robert P . 58, 59, 60 Beaton, John M . 38, 82, 85 Becher, Jacob . 58 Beck, L. R . 98 Behavior assessment using UAB scale . ..... 95 Beiersdorfer , Peter . 62 Benford, Helen H . 36 Bicyclic AZO compound, second order kinetics from a . 49 Bird, Julian . 80 Binuclear copper complexes, the catecholase activity of . . . 45 Blackmore, Mark S . 34 Blackwood, K. A . 95 Blarina, variation within and among* two species of . 33 Blood plasma levels of catecholamines, cortisol, and endophins in male athletes before and after 26, 6 and 2 mile runs . 94 Blue mud site, Birmingham, Alabama, bottles from the . 108 155 Index Boice, Nancy . 108 Boots, Larry R . 87, 100 Boshell, J. L . 96, 100, 102, 103 Boyd, F. Leslie . 48 Bradford, Billy P . 47 Bradley, James T . 36 Brattain, Michael . 88 Brezovich, Ivan A . 62 Buckner, Ellen B . 87 Budowle, B . 84 Buyers and sellers at farmer's markets in Alabama, characteristics of . 65 Byrd, Gene G . 57 Cameron, Gregory S . 79 Campbell, P. S . 30 Candida albicans blastospores and phagocytic cells, interaction between . 34 Capital, optimizing the cost of: a simultaneous determination . 69 Cardiac rehabilitation program, evaluation of training effect from a . 98 Carlisle, Clint . 60 Carmichael, Emmett B . 87 Carr, Thomas U. II . 47 Carroll, A. J . 81 Carter, Rick . 88 Castle, J. G . 61 Cathode-ray-tube displays, analysis of image smear in ... . 48 Cellulose hydrolysis in phosphoric acid solution . 44 Chambers, David E . 80 Chambers, G. Cliff . 21 Chang, Chen . 40 Chao, S . 61 Chemical contraception, the effects of, on plasma vitamin levels and selected coenzyme-dependent enzyme activity in female baboons . 100 Cherokee leadership selection, clans, courage, and commerce . 106 Cheshire, L. B . 91 Cheung, Herbert C . 59, 93 Chitinozoans in the Frog Mountain sandstone . 50 Chitwood, William . 28 M-Chloroperbenzoic acid, selective oxidation of steroidal 7.14 dienes by . 41 Chromosome analysis and tumorigenicity of three isolated cell lines from a primary human colon carcinoma . 88 Chukwuocha, R . 35 Chung, Ronald A . 28 Clark, J. M . 34, 35 Clelland, J . 83 Close, David K . 29 Clotfelter, Ann . 98 Clothiaux, Eugene J . 62 156 Index Cnemidophorus sexlineatus , energetic expense of hibernation in . Cochis, Thomas . Cold focus for isoelectric focusing: separation of 6-hexosaminidase A and B isoenzymes . Coleman, Jim . Colonic lymph flow, effects of absorption and secretion on: a physiological and anatomical analysis . Colvin, Deborah A . ... . Conary, J. T . Congo, R . . . Conservation of electricity in Alabama, trends toward the . . Coriolis acceleration of falling bodies, a paradox of .... Cornwell, P. E . Cranford, Norman Bayne . 49, Creationism Controversy, a geneticist's view of the . Crews, Richard P . Crockard, Jane F . Crow, Cristopher John . Crowell, Larry L . 32, Cryptomonad algae, light and temperature effect on growth of Cryptosporidium sp. in mice, endogenous development of calf. . Current, W. L . 23, 24, Cytogenetic method, improved for the diagnosis of Fanconis anemia . Cytomegalovirus infection in a day care center . Dagg, C. P . 79, Darnell, Betty ... . ......... . Davis, J. H . Davis, Mark S . 10, Davis, Richard 0 . Dearman, J . 3-Deazacordycepin : A chemical approach . Decubitus ulcers, psychological predictions of a spinal cord injury . Denham, S . DeVall, Wilbur B . 54, DeVivo, M. J . Diazohydroxides: reactive intermediates as anticancer compounds . 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, effects after long-term use of in Lake Guntersville . Dietary fiber, effect of on carbohydrate metabolism in class A (gestational) Diabetes . N,N dimethyltrptamine (DMT), modification of the action of by N,N diethylcarboxamines . Dioxygen with MmBr2PPhMe2, and infrared study of the reaction of . Di-tert-butyldimethylsilyl derivatives of ARA-A . Dover, J. S . Downey, James M . Drennen, Daniel J . 37 37 84 69 94 45 84 27 69 60 100 108 35 48 81 52 33 31 24 25 81 92 86 78 61 36 78 94 48 97 63 55 89 44 27 78 82 42 48 95 80 5 157 Index Duncan, Charles D . 42, 49 Dusaynski, D. W . 32 Dyer, R. L . 82 Eastern Chipmunks, food availability and the use of space by . 34 Education Services Division of the National Air and Space Museum and the Regional Resources Program, the — available assistance for local science education . 73 Eggers, M . 46 Ehna, synthesis of and its isomers from chiral precursors ... 46 Eimeria fundili, development in Fundulus heteroclitus .... 32 Eimeria roperi, the life cycle of in the cotton rat, Sigmodon hispidus . 23 Elbert, Samuel and the East Florida Campaigns, 1777-1778 ... 75 Electrical discharges, computer modeling of . 59 Electronic selling of fruits and vegetables, the potential for . 67 Elliott, H. C . 95 Endometrium, effects of a new long-acting steroidal contraceptive on baboon . 98 Energy Education, a curriculum strategy of . 72 Energy levels in the institutionalized aged . 92 Environmental pollution, bivalves as indicators of . 49 Ernst, J. V . 23, 25 Estrogen and prolactin during intervention for poor lactation . 87 Eubanks, Eleanor . 74 Evans, Z. A . 34, 35 Excretory urography for spinal cord injury follow-ups .... 93 Falcon Force: an update on the revised edition of a middle school aerospace science program . 74 Fawal, Hala . 97 Federalism, Reagan's new: can cities and states cope? .... 77 Figs in North Alabama, growth, propagation and preservation of . 37 Fine, P. R . 89, 93, 96, 97, 102 Finley, W. H . 81, 88, 89, 90 Fite, S. C . 104 Fite, W. H . 104 Floyd, McArthur . 28 Flurbiprofen, effects of on myocardial infarct size . 80 Folkerts, George W. . . 131 Francis, K. T . 83, 94 Frandsen, J. C . 22 Free, W. Joe . 65, 67 Freedman's Bureau and Labor reorganization in Alabama, 1865-1869, the federal endeavor . 75 Friese, C. L . 64 Garland, Frank . 93 Gastric mucosa, altered chloride transport in the in vitro . . 103 Gates, William R . 33 Geological interpretation aids archaeological site location. 49, 108 Gerontakis, Nicholas . 62 158 Index Ghai, Rajendra D . 85 Gibson, Michael A . 51 Giles, Barbara M . 76 Glass, Wayne R . 56 Glycoaminoglycans in cultured fibroblasts fj^gm patients with Zellweger Syndrome, incorporation of ( SO =) into ... 90 Goldenberg, R. L . 82 Goodson, Patricia A . 42 Granger, D. Neil . 94, 99 Graves, Katherine M . 68 Graves, Robert J . . . 42, 49 Gravitational acceleration of an extended rigid body ..... 63 Gray, B. M . 78 Gray squirrel mating calls . 33 Gray, Wayne L . 86 Green, Gayden . 70 Gregorowicz, Philip . 65, 70 Gregory, D. A . 61 Gueldner, Sarah Hall . 92 Haber, P. L . '. . . 78 Hamer, John . 104 Hanvey, Jeff C . 39 Harms, B. C . 63 Harrell, J. W, Jr . 63 Harris, J. M . 27 Hashing functions, techniques for evaluating . 64 Haskell, Joyce Fehl . 90 Hawkins, L. D . 40, 46, 47, 48 Haworth, M. D . 60 Hayhurst, Donald E . 76 Hearse, D. J . 80 Heidler, David S . 75 Heliothis Zea, biological studies on an insect pest of tomato . 21 Heron colony, yellow-crowned night, nest characteristics of a . 5 Heron eggs, petroleum hydrocarbons and pesticides in . 42 Herpes simplex virus, studies on the neurovirulence of ... . 86 Hesse, Brian . 105 Hill, W. E . 42 Holladay, David . 86 Holland, Andrea Priscilla . 57 Holmes, Jack D. L. , Sir . 76 Holst, Richard . 56 Homo ereatus, through the corridors of the pleistocene with . 57 Horn, Howard R . 98 Howard-Peebles , Patricia N . 89 Hubbard, Barbara . 97 Huddleston, John F . 78 Huang, C. T . 96 Human and calf Cryptosporidia in mice and rats . 23 Hunt, Laura Jean . 5 159 Index Hyde, B. M . 98 5-hydroxyhaemopyrrole , the synthesis of new dialkyl derivatives of . 38 Ictalurus punctatus, fine structure of the testicular spermatozoa from the channel catfish . 26 "Inflation Accounting" for agribusiness, the importance of: a case study of three firms . 68 Inman, Henry . 105 Insulin receptor in bovine cerebral microvessels . 90 Internal migration in the U.S., an ecological approach to . . 105 Intergovernmental relations: real change or more of the same . 76 Introductory physics, applications of research on teaching¬ learning to teaching . 58 Invertebrate megafauna associated with the upper cliff coals, plateau coal field, Northern Alabama, a preliminary study of . 51 Irwin, Michael H . 29 Isbell, Raymond E . 44 Isoproterenol and/or testosterone propionate on regeneration of rat submandibular glands, histological observations on . 102 Isospora suis, life cycle of in swine . 25 Israel, climate change in ancient coastal . 106 Jacobs, R. J . 21 Jimenez, W . 83 Johnson, E. Pointer . 90 Johnson, Raymond M . 69 Jones, Broderick C . 28 Jones, S. T . 63, 72 Jones, Thomas R . 10, 24, 36 Jordan, Diann . 28 Jordan, Zooarchaeological investigation at Tell El-Hayy at . . 107 Joule heating in conducting media, temperature distribution due to . 62 Kartus, Kathryn . 86 Kase, J. C . 91 Kassim, Abd . 61 Keratohylain granules of mammalian tongues, morphological studies of . 100 Key, Geraldine W . 97 Keynesian Economics, has it really failed . 68 Kidd, W. H . 34 King, David T. Jr. . 53 King, Tommy . 5 Kinney, Marguerite . 88 Kirsh, Edward H . 64 Kouskolekas, C. A . 21 Krannich, Larry R . 43 Kribel, R. E . 60 Kuhlemeier, K. V . 89, 93, 96, 102 Kumar, Shiv D . 43 Kushner, Jaynn . 106 160 Index Kvietys, P. R . 94 Kyanite-sillimanite isograd in the Tallassee synform, Dadeville complex, Alabama, location of ........ . 52 Lacy, A. Wayne . .................. 68 Lancaster, Jeanette ........ . ..... 91 Landers, Kenneth E. ........ . ........ 37 Lane, C. Patrick ....................... 82 Lane, Roger S. . . ................. 85 Laser interf errometer measurements of low GTE quartz and graphite epoxy with vacuum high precision ........ 61 Lausch, Robert ............. 1 ......... . 84 Lawton, R. 0 . 32 Lead selective electrode use for industrial hygiene ..... 41 Leucine pools in normal and dystrophic cultured muscle cells . 26 Lifeline rates, a utility looks at ............. . 70 Limb development and fertility in mice, a mutation affecting . 86 Limestone springs, aspects of flora and fauna in the ridge and valley physiographic province in Alabama ...... 24 Lindsay, David S. ...................... 25 Lindsey, J. Russell ..................... 86 Lishak, Robert S. .................... 28 , 33 , 34 Llvant, P. ......................... . 46 Lloyd, L. K. ....................... . 93, 102 Logan, Kathleen ................. . 107 Loveless, G. C. ....................... 30 Lung cancer, suffering reported by adults with . . 80 Mabry, Helen .... . ........ 77 Macaco, fascicularis , the evolution of copulatory calls in . . 108 Mack, T. P. ...................... 25, 30, 31 Maetz, Michael ........................ 79 Management information services, the state of the state in . . 64 Marion, Ken R. ...................... . 29, 49 Martin, David L. ............. . . .... 77 Mason, Linda Jean ...................... 30 Maternity patients and low birth weight infants in Alabama, management of high risk: a survey . . . ..... 82 McCombs, Jerome ....................... 88 McCord, Joe M. .................. . . 99 McDevitt, Carl .......... . ....... 70 McEachran, A. B. ................. . 89, 93, 96, 102 Mclnnish, Mary Katherine ................... 57 McKinney, Ralph ... . ............... 103 McMillian, Edwina .... . ............. 45 Mediastinitis , Infections in a university hospital ...... 79 Mediterranean geckos at Eufala, Alabama, behavioral aspects of ....................... 33 Meezan, Elias ................. . 90 Memory, age differences in for self-generated events . 81 Meredith, R . ..................... 97 Meteoritic spectra ................. . 02 Methyl-p- (2-Benzimidazolyl) methylphenoxy carboxylate, synthesis of ............. . 42 161 Index Metzger, Mary C . 107 Mexican urban health care system, pharmacists and OTC's in the . 107 Microcomputer applications in undergraduate chemistry .... 43 Middle school science teaching: the sts a resource for, studying the space shuttle in the classroom . 74 Mihelick, Kristen . 89 Miller, Margaret . 31 Modlin, R. F . 27 Molybdenum (II) Thioacetate and dithioacetate , solution properties of . 47 Moeller, Michael B . 44 Monoclonal antibodies specific for herpes simplex virus type one mediate antiviral effects in vitro and in vivo ... 84 Moore, McDonald, Sr . 45 Morphological variability and domestication . 105 Morris, Philip E . 38, 85 MSN curricula, real vs. ideal content in: preception of graduates . 91 Municipal solid waste disposal, alternative methods of ... . 56 Myers, John B . 75 Myoglobin, a possible role for in the transport of fatty acids: energy implication in exercise . 83 Myosin heavy chain mRNA concentration, cytoplasmic distribution and utilization in embryonic chick muscle cell cultures, developmental changes in . 119 Myosin subfragment- 1 , fluorescence studies of . 59 Nair, M. G . 101 Neilson, Michael J . 52 Nelson, K. G . 82 Nepomuceno, C. S . 95, 97 Newberry, V. F . 42 Newman, G. A . 30 Nicholson, Nanette . 26 NMR, the application of to problems in inorganic chemistry . . 38 Nonpecuniary conditions of employment, the labor supply effects of . 65 Norrell, Fred . 70 Oakes, John E . 84, 86 Oil Shales (Eastern), characterization of by proton NMR ... 63 Ophion flavidus , food consumed by fall armyworm parasitized by . 25 Osterlund, Merilyn . 54 Pace, R. D . 22 Panu, A1 . 82 Paraplegics, work capacity in . 96 Parish, Edward J . 41 Parks, Dale A . 99 Pass, Robert F . 92 Pentostatin Aglycone, alkyl derivatives of the . 43 Pentostatin Aglycone, new and novel heterocycles related to the . 47 162 Index Pentostatin, studies in the biosynthesis of . 39 Peritonitis associated with peritoneal dialysis: a mechanism for surveillance . 97 Peterson, R. D. A . 91 Phycomyces sporangiophore , avoidance response of . 28 Physician-patient relationship, determinations of satisfaction in . 104 Pierce, Thomas . 41 Pillion, Dennis J . 90 Pitcher plants ( Sarraaenia : Sarraceniaceae) , and their relationship to pitcher plant conservation, insects associated with: a review . 131 Planetarium programs, planning . 71 Plant propagation for classroom use from supermarket fruits, seeds, and vegetables . 37 Plasma electron heating by test electrons . 60 Poikilotherms , temperature dependence in . 31 Poirier, Gary R . 26, 29 Polychloronated biphenyls, ultrastructural damage in tissue exposed to . 28 Pope, V. Z . 98 Predictive models to historic site analysis in the T.M.R.D., relevance of . 55 Pseupoplusia ineludens (Lepidoptera Noctuidae), ovipositional rates of as a function of temperature . 30 Public land laws and settlement of the mountains of northeast Alabama . 54 Rabbits, diet and stomachworm infections in . 22 Ragland, Isabel M . 37 1980 Rail deregulation act, implications of on the Alabama grain handlers . 67 Rash, Clarence E. . . 58 Rats, effects of Nematodes and Coccidia in . 22 Rector, James . 84 Redwine, Jim . 50 Reese, N. C . 23, 24 Reid, Austin H . . . 47 Retirement, a geographic approach to . 54 Richards, J. S . 95, 97 Richmond, Carol N . 44 Rico, Marlon C. , Dr. . . 73 Riggsby, Dutchie S . 71, 74 Riggsby, Ernest . 73, 74 Riles, M . . . 95 Rives, C.J . 61 Robinson, N.C . 81 Rockmart slate, an analysis of the structural fabrics of . . . 53 Rohlfs, W. Mitchell . 25 Rosa-Molinar , Edward . 17 Roy, Ran j an S . 99 Rutland, Carole . 71 Rymal, Debbie E . 131 163 Index Sadama, individualism and cooperation amongst the . 104 St. Pierre, Thomas L . 40 Schneible, Peter A . 26 Schrodinger equation, a simple method for solving the .... 63 Sebastian, John E . 50 Seldon, James R . 66 Self-employed physicians, pricing and practicing behavior of . 66 Sellers, Jeffrey C . 37 Serum creatinine and renal function, non-correlation between . 102 Serum phospholipids, effect on increased egg consumption on . 95 Settine, Robert L . 39, 42, 49 Shark fetus, a two-headed . 17 Shealy, D. L . 61 Shelley, Melissa . 97 Sherrill, Dorothy E . 28 Shoemaker, Richard L . 103 Shotts, Reynold Q . 152 Sibley, David M . 53 Silicon and germanium esters and their reaction with grignard reagents . 45 Singh, Baldev . 100, 102, 103 Sink, David W . 77 Skeletal muscle fibers, comparative microscopy . 27 Sloss, saving . 77 Soybean cyst nematode and rhizobium japonicum on soybean yield, the interaction of . 28 Soybean futures market in forecasting cash prices, the efficiency of the . 70 Soybean trypsin inhibitor prevents ischemia-induced dehydrogenase to oxidase conversion . 99 Soybeans, international trade in: implications for Alabama . . 71 Spanish medical care in the Mobile District: advanced or retarded? . 76 Spinal meningeal leukemia, an experimental model for the study of . 91 Spiral galaxies, formation of arms in: new evidence for a gravitional mechanism . 57 Stallings, James L . 71 Stanley, Cherly . 31 Steele, H. Ellsworth . 66 Steflik, Dave . 100 Stemotherus minor depressus: female reproductive cycle of . . 29 Stewart, William S. , Dr . 73 Stover, S. L . 93, 102 Stratigraphic breaks and vertical continuity . 53 Streptococci, immune status of mice chronically infected with Group A . 35 Stroud, Philip . 49, 108 Sulfur analogs of 3(R), 2 (S) -3 (Adenin-9-y 1 )-2-hydroxynonane , a synthesis of . 40 Superoxide radicals on intestinal capillary permeability, effect of enzymatically generated . 99 164 Index Talhouk, Jamil . 39 Taylor, J. Farrest . 40 Teaching aids and methods utilized by universities and noneducational institutions . 73 Teratomas, testicular in transplanted embryonic mouse gonads . 79 Testosterone propinate, effects of on regeneration of acinar cells in submandibular glands of rats . 96 Tetradeutero-indolealkylamines , in vivo metabolism of in the rat . 85 A -1-Tetrahydrocannabinol, potential terpene precursors for razdan synthesis of . 39 Thiocyanate, crown ether mediated reaction of with a chlorosulf urane . 46 Thompson, J. N . 84, 90 Thymidylate synthase of the coenzyme class, inhibitors of . . 101 Trace elements in lower paleozoic carbonates of the southern Appalachian valley and ridge province, preliminary investigation of . 52 Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, the effects of in endorphin and cortisol levels in normal adults .... 83 Transferrin levels in patients with IgG and IgA deficiencies compared to normal adults . 78 Tropical rain forest, wind stress and wood density in a . . . 32 Troponin C, proximity relationship of . 93 Turpatrix aceti, acid proteinase activities of the nematode . 85 Two-dimensional collisions, a simple experiment on . 72 Upton, S. J . . 32 Urinary tract calculi in spinal cord injury patients . 89 Uterine responsivity , receptor interaction and . 30 Varakis, J. N . 91 Vegetable Leafminer : population fluctuations and parasitism . 21 Vigee, Gerald S . 38, 45 N-Vinylacrylamide , synthesis and NMR of spectroscopic study of . 40 Vitamin C and the common cold . 87 Vitelli, Veronica A . 65, 67, 68 Vitellogenin synthesis, juvenile hormone induction of cricket . 36 Walker, Barbara C . 97 Walker, Ursin S., Dr . 73 Walls, Ian A . 52 Walton, Robert C . 59 Wang, C.K . 93 Wapnish, Paula . 106 Waste conversion to energy, issues of . 56 Watkins, Charles L . 38, 43 Wayne, J.B . 82 Wdowiak, Thomas J . 62 Weaver, David C . 55 Webb, Thomas R . 47 Wheatly, Bruce . 108 Whitlock, Suzanne A . 23 165 Index Wilborn, W. H . 91, 94, 98, 100 Wilke, Arthur S . 77 Williams, Barbara K . 79 Williams, Carol S . 27, 28 Williams, John W. , III . 27 Williams, Noland C . 56 Wingo, W. J . 83 Winston Cave local fauna and the late pleistocene faunal gradient in eastern North America . 51 Wit, Lawrence C . 37 Womochel, Daniel R . 51 Worley, S. D . 42 X-ray microscope, design of for use with an extended range X-ray telescope . 61 Yackzan, K. S . 78, 83 Yearwood, Kirtley . 27 Yellon, D. M . 80 Young, John H . 62, 63 Young, Ronald B . 26, 119 Yu, Susan Benedict . 80 41: ifcfc *~9 166 f-M o g w w CM EC H 3 00 1 u r* — 1 [3-1 < 00 O ON *<1 w r-H ►J js o