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ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

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VOLUME

JANUARY, '198.9

COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Hydraulic powered ichthoplankton trawl used by the
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) to collect larval fishes on main¬
stream Tennessee River reservoirs. This gear was one of several used
to collect early life phases of skipjack herring, Alosa chrysoahlovis
(Rafinesque) in Alabama and Tennessee waters. For further informa¬
tion see article on page 39. Photograph courtesy of TVA.

Robert Wallus is a fisheries biologist for TVA's Aquatic Biology
Department. Larry Kay is a radiochemical analyst at TVA's Western
Area Radiological Laboratory in Muscle Shoals, Alabama.

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE

LIBRARY

AM Y 2 4 jg&y

A ° m* N. H.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 60 JANUARY, 1 989 NO. 1

EDITOR:

W. H. Mason, Extension Cottage, Auburn University, AL 36849
ARCHIVIST:

C. M. Peterson, Department of Botany, and Microbiology, Auburn University,
AL 36849

EDITORIAL BOARD:

J. T. Bradley, Chairman, Department of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn
University, AL 36849

Charles Baugh, 1 005 Medical Science Building, University of South Alabama,
Mobile, AL 36688

J. W. Sulentic, P.O. Box 1921, University of Alabama, University, AL 35486
Publication and Subscription Policies

Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent
correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous
reviews. For style details, follow instructions to Authors (see inside back cover).

Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.

Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the
CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD

ISSN 002-4112

BENEFACTORS OF THE
JOURNAL OF THE
ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The following have provided financial support
to partially defray publication costs of the Journal.

AUBURN UNIVERSITY
BIRMINGHAM - SOUTHERN COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO
AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA
TROY STATE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM
JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT HUNTSVILLE
TUSKEGEE UNIVERSITY
MOBILE COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA

CONTENTS

ARTICLES

Distribution and Status of Rare or Environmentally
Sensitive Fishes in the Lower Cahaba River, Alabama
J. Malcolm Pierson, R. Stephen Krotzer,

and Stephanie G. Puleo . . . 1

Spiroplasma floriaola Isolated from Flowers in Alabama

Clauzell Stevens, Algem Patterson, Reynolds M. Cody,

and Robert T. Gudauskas . 11

Alabama's Grain Marketing System in the 1980 's

James L. Stallings . . 16

Strategic Planning as a Management Development Tool

William I. Sauser, Jr . 29

Descriptions of Young Skipjack Herring, with Notes on
Early Life Ecology

Robert Wallus and Larry K. Kay . 39

REVIEW

Davenport Larry J., 1988. Charles Mohr } Botanist in Alabama
Heritage .

Reviewed by: Norton L. Marshall . 48

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 1, January 1989.

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF RARE OR ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE
FISHES IN THE LOWER CAHABA RIVER, ALABAMA1

J. Malcolm Pierson, R. Stephen Krotzer, and Stephanie G. Puleo2
Department of Environmental Affairs
Alabama Power Company
P.O. Box 2641
Birmingham , AL 35291

ABSTRACT

Eighty-four collections were made in the lower Cahaba River drain¬
age, a major tributary of the Alabama River in central Alabama, with
seine, gill nets, and electrofishing equipment from May 1981 to June
1986. Over 32,000 specimens were collected representing 20 families and
104 species. Distribution records are presented for 13 rare or environ¬
mentally sensitive fishes that occupy the main channel Cahaba River or a
few of its larger tributaries; five of the species have been assigned
some form of conservation status. Range extensions were discovered for
Notropis sp. cf. voluoellus (undescribed Cahaba shiner), Percina auro-
lineata (goldline darter), and Percina sp. cf. copelandi (undescribed
channel darter) . Notropis candidus (silverside shiner) is reported from
the Cahaba River for the first time. Many Alabama rivers have undergone
various degrees of environmental stress; populations of many species
have been reduced or eliminated in these systems. While the upper
Cahaba River has apparently been impacted by some of these same
stresses, it appears that the lower section of the Cahaba River could be
serving as a refugium for several vulnerable riverine species.

INTRODUCTION

The Cahaba River, located within the Mobile Bay Drainage, is a ma¬
jor tributary of the Alabama River in central Alabama. The headwaters
of the Cahaba are located northeast of Birmingham in St. Clair County,
within the Ridge and Valley physiographic region. The river flows for
307 kilometers in a southwestern and then southern direction through the
Fall Line Hills and the Black Belt, respectively, before it joins the
Alabama River in Dallas County near Selma. Above the Fall Line, the
Cahaba River can be classified as a small to medium stream consisting of
long pools interrupted by whitewater shoals of varying lengths. These
shoals are made up of bedrock, vertical rock slabs, boulders, cobble,
and some gravel and sand. Below the drops of the Fall Line, near Cen-
treville, the river deepens and begins to meander. Shoals in this sec¬
tion consist of large gravel bars or islands that constrict the flow of
the river, creating gravel and cobble riffles and swift runs. Further
downstream the coarse gravel and cobble substrate is replaced by fine

1Manuscript received 14 September 1988; accepted 21 October 1988.

2Address: Route 2, Box 722, Calera, AL 35040

1

Pierson, Krotzer, and Puleo

gravel, sand, and silt. In this lower section the current slows, ex¬
posed sand or gravel bars become less frequent, and pools increase in
length. The river is noticeably deeper and more entrenched in this
section .

The first report of fishes from the Gahaba system was based on an
1889 seine sample at Helena by Gilbert (1891). The next was a study of
the genus Notropis in Alabama by Howell (1957). Notropis uranoscopus
(skygazer shiner) was described from the Cahaba by Suttkus in 1959, and
Peraina lentiaula (freckled darter) was described by Richards and Knapp
in 1964. The first faunal survey of Cahaba fishes was accomplished in
1963 by May; she reported on 36 collections from the Cahaba drainage.
Hackney et al. (1968) studied the life history of Moxostoma carinatum
(river redhorse) in the Cahaba River. Suttkus and Ramsey (1967), in
their description of Peraina aurolineata, the goldline darter, reported
on collections of main channel fishes between Helena and Centreville.
Freeman (1974) conducted a survey of fishes in the Little Cahaba system.
Seehorn (1976) included collection data from the Cahaba system provided
by Boschung and Mettee (1974). Ramsey compiled a list of Cahaba
drainage fishes for a U.S. Forest Service Report by Kaufmann and Wise
(1978). Ramsey (1978) also compiled a list of unusual fishes and their
distribution in the Cahaba. In the same year, Stiles reported on the
status of the goldline darter and Notropis sp. cf. volucellus
(undescribed Cahaba shiner) in the Cahaba and Little Cahaba rivers.
Ramsey et al. (1980) reported on sampling rare fishes in the Cahaba.
Howell et al. (1982) and Ramsey (1982) conducted independent surveys in
the Cahaba to determine the status, distribution, and habitat
requirements of the Cahaba shiner and the goldline darter.

Most of the upper Cahaba River, from just above the Fall Line in
Bibb County (River Bend) to Trussville in northeastern Jefferson County,
has been heavily collected; the lower Cahaba River ichthyofauna, how¬
ever, has not been well documented. This study adds substantially to
the existing knowledge of the occurrence, distribution, and abundance of
rare or environmentally sensitive fishes in the lower Cahaba River.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Eighty-four collections were made in the lower Cahaba drainage with
seines, gill nets, backpack electrofisher, and boat-mounted electrofish¬
ing equipment. Collections were made from May 1981 to June 1986 in the
main channel and major tributaries from approximately 20 kilometers
above the Fall Line to the confluence with the Alabama River, a distance
of about 150 river kilometers (Figure 1). This is a remote section of
the Cahaba River; collection sites suitable for seining were usually not
accessible by state highway or county road crossings. Canoes or small
johnboats were often used on day trips or overnight floats in an attempt
to access and sample all habitat types.

RESULTS

Over 32,000 fishes were collected representing 20 families and 104
species. Several of the riverine species collected have been assigned

2

Environmentally Sensitive Fishes in the Lower Cahaba River

Figure 1. Sample stations from the lower
Cahaba River system, Alabama.

some form of conservation status. The Cahaba shiner, the goldline dar¬
ter, Scaphirhynehus sp. cf. platorynahus (undescribed Alabama shovelnose
sturgeon), Noturus munitus (frecklebelly madtom) , and the freckled dar¬
ter are currently under status review by the United States Fish and
Wildlife Service Office of Endangered Species. The State of Alabama

3

Pierson, Krotzer, and Puleo

lists the Alabama shovelnose sturgeon and the frecklebelly madtom as
endangered and Ammocrypta asprella (crystal darter) and the freckled
darter as threatened (Ramsey 1976). The American Fisheries Society
Endangered Species Committee lists the Alabama shovelnose sturgeon and
the Cahaba shiner as endangered; the frecklebelly madtom, goldline
darter, and freckled darter are listed as threatened and the crystal
darter as of special concern (Deacon et al.. 1979). In a recent publica¬
tion (Mount 1986), the Cahaba shiner was considered endangered, the
goldline darter threatened, and the frecklebelly madtom and crystal
darter of special concern; the Alabama shovelnose sturgeon was listed as
status poorly known.

One Alabama shovelnose sturgeon was sighted while boat electrofish¬
ing in the lower reach of the Cahaba River (station 5) . An additional
confirmed specimen was caught by trotline fishermen at station 7. A
status survey report by Burke and Ramsey (1985) documents seven occur¬
rences of this sturgeon in the Cahaba River since 1969; the authors
indicated that the shovelnose sturgeon has occurred in much reduced
numbers since the closing of Miller's Ferry Dam on the Alabama River in
1969. Sixty specimens of Noturus munitus were collected from 11 main
channel sites in a 57 km section of the Cahaba (stations 23, 29, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 40, 41, 42, and 45). This madtom was usually collected in
low numbers over stable gravel or sand/gravel riffles. Seventy speci¬
mens of Ammocrypta asprella were collected from 9 main channel locations
in a 79 km stretch of the Cahaba (stations 5, 7, 19, 24, 26, 29, 34, 36,
and 41). Crystal darters were usually collected at night over stable
gravel in moderate to fast current. At the lower collection sites,
crystal darters were occasional to common over sand or a sand/gravel
combination. Eight specimens of Percina lenticula were collected from
four widely separated sites (stations 20, 31, 48, and 54). Two sites
were above the Fall Line in the lower reaches of major tributaries, and
two sites were well below the Fall Line in the main channel of the
river. The freckled darter was always collected in heavy cover such as
Justicia beds, treetops, or logs in moderate to fast current.

Range extensions are noted for four species. Eleven specimens of
Notropis candidus (silverside shiner) were collected at three locations
in the main channel of the Cahaba River as far as 40 km upstream from
its confluence with the Alabama River (stations 3, 4, and 24). This is
the first report of N. candidus from the Cahaba. This Mobile Basin
endemic was collected in slow to moderate current over a substrate of
sand with scattered patches of silt and leaf litter. Fifty-six speci¬
mens of the undescribed Cahaba shiner were collected at seven locations
(stations 32, 36, 40, 42, 45, 50, and 51); four of these sites were well
below the Fall Line. These records extend the known range of the Cahaba
shiner 37 km downstream of the Fall Line. Cahaba shiners were most of¬
ten collected over a sand substrate in slow current, but specimens were
occasionally taken in shallow gravel riffles. Fifteen specimens of Per¬
cina aurolineata were collected from seven stations in a 14 km section
of the main channel of the Cahaba River above the Fall Line and in the
lower 12 km of the Little Cahaba River (stations 45, 46, 48, 49, 51, 54,
and 55) . One individual was collected from Schultz Creek 3 km upstream
from its confluence with the Cahaba (station 48). The goldline darter

4

Environmentally Sensitive Fishes in the Lower Cahaba River

was previously thought to be restricted to the main channel of the Caha¬
ba and Little Cahaba rivers . Adults and juveniles were usually found in
moderate to fast current over small boulders , cobble, or coarse gravel,
but were also observed in patches of Justiaia in moderate current. Sev¬
en specimens of Pereina sp, cf. copelandi (undescribed channel darter)
were collected at seven locations (stations 33 , 34, 36 , 45, 47 , 49 , and
58) . These collections extend the range of this undescribed form 28 km
downstream onto the Coastal Plain. This darter was collected over sand
or fine gravel in moderate current.

Several other riverine forms that were collected are being impacted
over much of their historical range. Suttkus and Clemmer (1968) report¬
ed Notropis edwardraneyi (fluvial shiner) from the main channel of the
river upstream as far as 14 km above the Fall Line and from the lower
section of Oakmulgee Creek. During the present study, N. edwardraneyi
was collected only at stations 3, 4, 5, and 19. This represents a con¬
siderable reduction of its former range in the Cahaba drainage. Notrop¬
is uranoscopus was commonly collected in the main channel of the Cahaba
River (33 of 36 stations) , and it occurred in low numbers in several
large tributaries (stations 8, 52, 54, and 55). Moxo stoma earinatum was
collected from seven stations in the main channel of the Cahaba, from
its confluence with the Alabama River upstream to the first Fall Line
shoals (stations 1, 5, 24, 26, 34, 36, and 45); one adult was collected
in Schultz Creek, a medium-sized tributary, 3 km upstream from its con¬
fluence with the Cahaba (station 48) . Etheostoma histrio (harlequin
darter) was collected at two main channel sites, one above and one below
the Fall Line (stations 36 and 45); this species is mentioned because
the Cahaba River is near the eastern limit of its range. Pereina vigil
(saddleback darter) occupies approximately the same range and habitat in
the Cahaba as Noturus munitus . The saddleback darter was collected at
13 locations in stable cobble or gravel runs and riffles (stations 24,
26, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 41, 42, 45, 46, and 51).

Fishes that were documented prior to this study in the lower Cahaba
River but were not collected in the present study include: Acipenser
oxyrhynchus (Atlantic sturgeon), Alosa alabamae (Alabama shad), Hybo-
gnatkus nuahalis (Mississippi silvery minnow) , Notropis oaeruleus (blue
shiner), Cycleptus elongatus (blue sucker), Fundulus stellifer (southern
studf ish) , and Mugil aephalus (striped mullet). Acipenser oxyrhynchus
was last documented from the Cahaba River at Centreville in Bibb County
in 1941 by newspaper accounts and photographs. Alosa alabamae, Hybo-
gnathus nuahalis t Fundulus stellifer 3 and Mugil aephalus were last col¬
lected from the Cahaba in 1969. Notropis oaeruleus was last collected
in the Cahaba by Suttkus in 1971.

Miller’s Ferry Dam, on the Alabama River near Camden, was closed in
1969, creating Dannelly Reservoir. This impoundment affects flows in
the lower 20 km of the Cahaba River, creating a lentic habitat with mud
and silt substrate. The dam presents a physical barrier to upstream
movement from the Alabama River Into the Cahaba, which could explain the
absence of the Atlantic sturgeon, Alabama shad , and striped mullet. In¬
creased siltation and organic enrichment from upstream development in
Jefferson and Shelby counties could account for the apparent extirpation

5

Pierson, Krotzer, and Puleo

of the blue shiner from the Cahaba River. The Mississippi silvery min¬
now possibly depended on a free-flowing Alabama River for some portion
of its life history. This hypothesis was first presented by Etnier et
al. (1979) with regard to the disappearance of the Mississippi silvery
minnow from the Tennessee River system since the early 1940's. Cyclep-
tus elongatus was taken from the Cahaba River by Burke and Ramsey (1985)
during their Alabama shovelnose sturgeon survey.

In summary, the Cahaba system has been stressed by a variety of
upstream disturbances that have apparently contributed to the reduction
and/or absence of several forms that historically occurred here. Other
obligate riverine species have, however, maintained stable populations
in the lower section of the main channel of the Cahaba River, which
continues to support a diverse and unique assemblage of Mobile Basin
freshwater fishes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Others contributing to this study were John Burke, Frank Crane,
Jr., Jack Turner, Jim Williams, Werner Wieland, David Nieland, Bob
Stiles, Mike Paessun, Ed Tyberghein, Larry Overstreet, and several
members of the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.
David Etnier provided University of Tennessee field collection data from
the lower Cahaba River at U.S. Highway 80. Herbert Boschung and John
Ramsey allowed us to examine records at the University of Alabama
Ichthyological Collection and the Auburn University fish collection,
respectively.

LOCATION OF COLLECTION SITES IN THE
LOWER CAHABA RIVER SYSTEM, ALABAMA

1. Cahaba River near confluence with the Alabama River, Dallas County,
T16N R10E sec29

2. Cahaba River 11.2 km WSW of Selma, Dallas County, T16N R9E secll

3. Cahaba River 11.0 km WSW of Selma, Dallas County, T16N R9E sec02

4. Cahaba River 5.1 km ESE of Marion Junction, Dallas County, T17N R9E

sec28

5. Cahaba River 7.2 km ENE of Marion Junction, Dallas County, T17N R9E
seclO

6. Cahaba River 8.0 km ENE of Marion Junction, Dallas County, T17N R9E
seclO

7. Cahaba River 9.1 km NE of Marion Junction, Dallas County, T17N R9E
sec03

8. Oakmulgee Creek at the confluence with the Cahaba River, 8.3 km ENE
of Marion Junction, Dallas County, T17N R9E seclO

6

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.
21.
22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

Environmentally Sensitive Fishes in the Lower Cahaba River

Oakmulgee Creek 10.9 km NW of Selma, Alabama Highway 14, Dallas
County, T17N R9E secOl

Oakmulgee Creek 7.7 km SE of Suttle, Perry County, T18N R10E sec30
Oakmulgee Creek 4.8 km W of Summerfield, Dallas County, T18N R10E
sec20

Oakmulgee Creek 8.3 km E of Suttle, Alabama Highway 219, Perry/
Dallas County, T18N R10E secl7

Little Oakmulgee Creek 8.0 km N of Summerfield, Dallas County, T19N
R10E sec26

Oakmulgee Creek 8.8 km NNE of Perryville, Perry County, T20N R10E
sec20

Unnamed tributary to Beaverdam Creek at the confluence with
Beaverdam Creek, Alabama Highway 219, Perry County, T21N R10E sec07
Silver Creek 8.0 km SSE of Radford, Alabama Highway 14, Perry
County, T18N R9E sec21

Cahaba River 11.8 km SE of Marion, Perry County, T18N R8E secl2

Cahaba River 10.7 km SE of Marion, Perry County, T18N R8E sec02

Cahaba River 3.7 km SW of Radford, Perry County, T18N R8E secOl

Cahaba River 2.6 km WSW of Radford, Perry County, T19N R8E sec36
Cahaba River 5.4 km SSW of Sprott, Perry County, T19N R8E secll

Waters Creek 8.3 km SE of Sprott, County Route 10, Perry County,

T19N R9E secl5

Cahaba River 3.4 km SW of Sprott, Perry County, T19N R8E sec02

Cahaba River 1.9 km SW of Sprott, Perry County, T20N R8E sec35

Goose Creek 1.4 km SSE of Sprott, Perry County, T20N R9E sec31
Cahaba River 10.4 km NE of Marion, Perry County, T20N R8E sec23
Cahaba River 5.4 km NNW of Sprott, Perry County, T20N R8E seclO
Cahaba River 11.2 km NNE of Marion, Perry County, T20N R8E seclO
Cahaba River 11.0 km NNE of Marion, Perry County, T20N R8E seclO
Cahaba River 3.2 km SE of Heiberger, Perry County, T21N R8E sec34

Cahaba River 2.1 km NE of Heiberger, Perry County, T21N R8E sec28

Cahaba River 4.8 km NE of Heiberger, Perry County, T21N R8E sec!5

Cahaba River 6.9 km SSW of Harrisburg, Perry County, T21N R8E secll

7

Pierson, Krotzer, and Puleo

34. Cahaba River 13.3 km SW of Centreville, Bibb County, T22N R9E sec31

35. Cahaba River 12.6 km SW of Centreville, Bibb County, T22N R9E sec31

36. Cahaba River at the confluence with Affonee Creek 11.7 km SW of
Centreville, Bibb County, T22N R9E sec29

37. Cahaba River 12.0 km SW of Centreville, Bibb County, T22N R9E sec29

38. Blue Girth Creek and unnamed tributary to Blue Girth Creek 1.8 km
SE of Pondville, Bibb County, T22N R8E sec08

39. Affonee Creek 8.3 km WSW of Brent, unpaved county road, Bibb
County, T23N R8E sec35

40. Cahaba River 9.6 km SSW of Centreville, Bibb County, T22N R9E sec21

41. Cahaba River 8.0 km SSW of Centreville, Bibb County, T22N R9E sec22

42. Cahaba River 4.8 km S of Centreville, Bibb County, T22N R9E secll

43. Haysop Creek and tributary to Haysop Creek 1.6 km SW of Brent,
Alabama Highway 5, Bibb County, T23N R9E sec33

44. Cahaba River 1.1 km S of Centreville, Bibb County, T23N R9E sec35

45. Cahaba River at Centreville, upstream of U.S. Highway 82, Bibb
County, T23N R9E sec26

46. Cahaba River 2.4 km N of Centreville, Bibb County, T23N R9E secl4

47. Schultz Creek at confluence with Cahaba River 8.8 km NNE of
Centreville, Bibb County, T24N R9E secl2

48. Schultz Creek 6.4 km NNW of Centreville, Alabama Highway 219, Bibb
County, T23N R9E sec02

49. Cahaba River 7.2 km NNE of Centreville, Bibb County, T24N R10E
sec32

50. Cahaba River 9.3 km NE of Centreville, Bibb County, T24N R10E sec33

51. Cahaba River 9.9 km NE of Centreville, County Road 27, Bibb County,
T24N R10E sec33

52. Sixmile Creek 6.1 km NW of Sixmile, near confluence with Little
Cahaba River, Bibb County, T24N R10E sec23

53. Sixmile Creek 4.0 km NW of Sixmile, Bibb County, T24N R10E sec25

54. Little Cahaba River 10.4 km SE of West Blocton, Bibb County, T24N
R10E sec23

55. Little Cahaba River 11.7 km SE of West Blocton, County Road 65
(Bulldog Bend), Bibb County, T24N R10E secl3

56. Copperas Creek 4.2 km SE of Sixmile, unnumbered county road, Bibb
County, T23N R11E secl6

8

Enviromentally Sensitive Fishes in the Lower Cahaba River

57. Sixmile Creek 6.4 km N of Randolph, Alabama Highway 139, Bibb
County, T23N R12E secl9

58. Cahaba River 6.7 km SE of West Blocton, Bibb County, T24N R10E
secl6

LITERATURE CITED

Boschung, H. T. and M. F. Mettee. 1974. A study of the fishes of the
national forests of Alabama: U.S. Forest Service Contract No.
38-2568, 358 pp.

Burke, J. S. and J. S. Ramsey. 1985. Status survey on the Alabama

shovelnose sturgeon ( Scaphirhynchus sp. cf. platorynchus ) in the
Mobile Bay drainage. Report to U.S. Fish and Wild. Serv. , Jackson,
MS. 61 pp.

Deacon, J. E., G. Kobetich, J. D. Williams and S. Contreras. 1979.
Fishes of North America endangered, threatened, or of special
concern: 1979. Fisheries 4(2):29-44.

Etnier, D. A., W. C. Starnes and B. H. Bauer. 1979. Whatever happened
to the silvery minnow ( Hybognathus nuchalis ) in the Tennessee
River? Southeastern Fishes Council Proc. 2(3): 1-3.

Freeman, B. J. 1974. Studies on the fishes of the Little Cahaba River
system in Alabama. M.S. thesis, Samford University, Birmingham,
Alabama. 41 pp.

Gilbert, C. H. 1891. Report of explorations made in Alabama during
1889, with notes on the fishes of the Tennessee, Alabama, and
Escambia rivers. Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. 9 ( 1889) : 143-159 , pi. XLIII.

Hackney, P. A., W. M. Tatum and S. L. Spencer. 1968. Life history
study of the river redhorse, Moxostoma carinatum (Cope), in the
Cahaba River, Alabama, with notes on the management of the species
as a sport fish. Southeast. Game and Fish Comm. 21st Ann. Proc.,
pp. 324-332.

I Howell, H. H. 1957. A taxonomic and distributional study of the genus
Notropis in Alabama. M.S. thesis, University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa. 288 pp.

Howell, W. M.t R. A. Stiles and J. S. Brown. 1982. Status survey of
the Cahaba shiner ( Notropis sp.) and the goldline darter (Percina
auvolineata) in the Cahaba River from Trussville to Booth Ford,
Alabama. Report to U.S. Fish and Wild. Serv., Jackson, MS.

148 pp.

Kaufmann, T. R. and R. D. Wise. 1978. Wild and scenic river report,

Cahaba River, Alabama. U. S. Forest Service, Atlanta, GA. 209 pp.

9

Pierson, Krotzer, and Puleo

May, M. M. 1963. A study of the fishes of the Cahaba River drainage
system. M.S. thesis, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa. 47 pp.

Mount, R. H. (ed.). 1986. Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of
special attention. Ala. Agr. Expt. Sta. , Auburn Univ. 124 pp.

Ramsey, J. S. 1976. Freshwater fishes. Pages 53-71 in H. Boschung,

ed. Endangered and threatened plants and animals of Alabama. Bull.
Alabama Mus . Nat. Hist. 2.

Ramsey, J. S. 1978. Unusual fishes and their distribution in the

Cahaba River, Alabama. Pages 22-30 in J. Randolph, ed. Citizens'
study for a national wild and scenic Cahaba River. Alabama
Conservancy, Birmingham.

Ramsey, J. S. 1982. Habitat and distribution of the Cahaba shiner and
appraisal of methods for its capture. Report to U.S. Fish and
Wild. Serv. Division of Federal Assistance, Atlanta, GA. 75 pp.

Ramsey, J. S., W. Wieland, R. K. Wallace and T. J. Timmons. 1980.
Sampling rare fishes in the Cahaba River, Alabama. Assoc.
Southeast. Biol. Bull. 27(2) : 58 .

Richards, W. J. and L. W. Knapp. 1964. Peraina lenticula, a new percid
fish, with a redescription of the subgenus Hadropterus . Copeia
(4) : 690-701 .

Seehorn, M. E. 1976. Fishes of the southeastern national forests.

Proc. Southeast. Assoc. Game Fish Comm. 29 ( 1975) : 10-27 .

Stiles, R. A. 1978. A report on the status of the goldline darter,
Peraina aurolineata, and the Cahaba shiner, Notropis sp., in the
Cahaba River system of Alabama. Birmingham Area Chamber of
Commerce, Birmingham. 6 pp., 2 maps + Appendix.

Suttkus, R. D. 1959. Notropis urano saopus , a new cyprinid fish from
the Alabama River system. Copeia ( 1 ) : 7—1 1 .

Suttkus, R. D. and G. H. Clemmer. 1968. Notropis edwardraneyi , a new
cyprinid fish from the Alabama and Tombigbee River systems and a
discussion of related species. Tulane Stud, in Zool. 15(1): 18-39.

Suttkus, R. D. and J. S. Ramsey. 1967. Percina aurolineata, a new
percid fish from the Alabama River system and a discussion of
ecology, distribution, and hybridization of darters of the subgenus
Hadropterus. Tulane Stud, in Zool. 13 (4) : 129-145 .

10

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 1, January 1989.

SPIROPLASMA FLORICOLA ISOLATED FROM FLOWERS IN ALABAMA1

Clauzell Stevens and Algem Patterson
Department of Agricultural Sciences
Tuskegee University _, AL 26088

Reynolds M. Cody

Department of Botany and Microbiology
Ala. Agric. Exp. Sta.

Auburn University , AL 26849

and

Robert T. Gudauskas

Department of Plant Pathology
Ala. Agric. Exp. Sta.

Auburn University } AL 26849

ABSTRACT

Spiroplasma floricola was isolated from surfaces of flowers col¬
lected from Prunus angustifolia in Autauga County and from P. persica
and Magnolia soulangeana in Lee County, Alabama.

INTRODUCTION

Spiroplasmas are helical, motile, wall-less prokaryotes in the fam¬
ily Spiroplasmataceae of the class Mollicutes (13, 16). Some spiroplas¬
mas are pathogens of plants (1, 7, 19), others are lethal to honeybees
(2), and one isolated from ticks is lethal to chick embryos and causes
cataracts and death in suckling rats (14). Recently, spiroplasmas have
been isolated from surfaces of flowers of several plants in the United
States and southern Europe (3, 5, 9, 10, 15, 18), and evidence suggests
that these spiroplasmas may be deposited on flowers by insects (4) .

In this paper, we report the isolation of Spiroplasma floricola
from flowers collected in Alabama. A preliminary report, the first of
an isolation of spiroplasmas in this state (12), has been published.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Flowers were collected during May and June from plum trees ( Prunus
angustifolia Marsh.) in Autauga County and from peach (P. persica (L.)
Batsch.) and Japanese magnolia ( Magnolia soulangeana Soul.) trees on the
campus of Auburn University in Lee County. Spiroplasmas were isolated
from floral surfaces according to the procedures outlined by Davis et
al. (6). Growth of the organisms was indicated by a change from red to
yellow of the phenol red indicator in the DMS4 isolation medium (6) , and

Manuscript received 10 June 1988; accepted 29 August 1988.

11

Stevens, Cody, Gudauskas, and Patterson

confirmed by darkfield microscopy. Uninoculated medium was used as a
control in all isolations.

T

Isolated spiroplasmas were compared with 5. floricola strain 23-6
for substrate (arginine, urea, and sugars) utilization in D187C medium,
reversion to bacterial forms, cellular and colonial morphology, and
temperature requirements for growth (6) . Serological relationships of
the isolated spiroplasmas to groups I-VIII spiroplasmas were determined
by R. F. Whitcomb, USDA, AR, Beltsville, MD 20705, using the deforma¬
tion test (20) .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Spiroplasmas isolated from flowers of plum, peach, and magnolia
were triply filter-cloned on DMS4 medium containing agar, and the resul¬
tant cultures were filtered through a 0.45 ym pore size filter and
designated as DPRCL3 (plum) , PEA60 (peach) , and AUCL3 (magnolia) . All
three isolates were readily subcultured in DMS4 medium, producing an
acid reaction (yellow color) in the medium in 18-20 hr. On DMS4 medium
with 1% agar, colonies of all the isolates were spreading and diffuse,
resembling those of S. floricola (5) but larger than those of S. citri
(7). On medium with 2% agar, the three isolates produced colonies that
were distinct with granular centers surrounded by small surface satel¬
lite colonies. No reversion to bacterial forms occurred in the three
isolates after five passages on penicillin-free medium, nor did any of
them grow on agar medium without serum. Broth cultures of all three
isolates developed marked turbidity and produced large numbers of
helical, motile cells after several passages; generation time for the
three isolates was 1.9 hr.

The three isolates grew at temperatures ranging from 25 to 37°C,
with maximal growth occurring at 34°C. No growth occurred at 40°C, as
has been observed with most floral spiroplasmas (5, 9, 10, 15).

All three isolates utilized all sugars tested except galactose, and
none utilized urea (Table 1). The utilization of trehalose, which is
the principal sugar in most insects (11), supports the possibility that
the isolates were deposited on the flowers by insects. The isolates
closely resembled S. floricola strain 23-6 in substrate utilization.

The three isolates were typed serologically by the deformation test
against representative strains of groups and subgroups recognized by
Junca et al. (8) and in the revised classification of Whitcomb et al.
(17). The isolates did not react with any representatives of groups
I-VIII, except group III (S’, floricola strain OBMG) (R. F. Whitcomb,
personal communication) .

Based on these results, isolates DPRCL3, PEA60, and AUCL3 were
identified as S. floricola. The three isolates have been deposited in
the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) as ATCC 35006 (AUCL3) , ATCC
35007 (DPRCL3) , and ATCC 35008 (PEA60) .

I:

Spiroplasma florioola Isolated from Flowers in Alabama

Table 1. Substrate Utilization2 by Spiroplasmas 3

Substrate* 1 2 3 4 5*

5. floricola 23-6T

DPRCL3

PEA60

AUCL3

Sucrose

+

+

+

+

Galactose

-

-

-

-

Glucose

+

+

+

+

Mannose

+

+

+

+

Fructose

+

+

+

+

Trehalose

+

+

+

+

Arginine

+

+

+

+

Urea

—

—

—

—

2For sugars + = an acid (yellow) reaction of the phenol
red indicator in the medium, - = no acid reaction. For
arginine and urea, 4- = purple red (darker than control)
change in phenol red indicator in the medium, - = no
change .

3DPRCL3, PEA60, and AUCL3 were isolated from flowers of
plum, peach, and jjjagnolia, respectively, in Alabama;

S. floricola 23-6 is a known reference strain.

4At a final concentration of 1% in the test medium.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to Dr. R. F. Whitcomb for conducting the
serological tests on the spiroplasmas isolated in Alabama.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Chen, T. A., and Liao, C. H. 1975. Corn stunt spiroplasma:
isolation, cultivation and proof of pathogenicity. Science
188:1015-1017.

2. Clark, T. B. 1977. Spiroplasma sp., a new pathogen in honey bees.
J. Invertebr. Pathol. 29:112-113.

3. Clark, T. B. 1978. Honey bee spiroplasmosis . A new problem for
beekeepers. Am. Bee J. 118:18,19,23.

4. Clark, T. B. 1982. Spiroplasmas: diversity of arthropod
reservoirs and host-parasite relationships. Science 217:57-59.

5. Davis, R. E. 1978. Spiroplasma associated with flowers of the
tulip tree ( Liriodendron tulipifera L.). Can. J. Microbiol.
24:954-959.

13

Stevens, Cody, Gudauskas , and Patterson

6. Davis, R. E. , Lee, I. M., and Worley, J. F. 1981. Spiroplasma
flovicola, a new species isolated from surfaces of flowers of the
tulip tree. Liriodendron tulipifera L. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol.

3 1 : 456-464 .

7. Fudl-Allah, A. E.-S. E., Calavan, E. C., and Igwegbe, E. C. K.

1972. Culture of a mycoplasmalike organism associated with
stubborn disease of citrus. Phytopathology 62:729-731.

8. Junca, P., Saillard, C. , Tully, J. , Garcia-Jurado , 0., Degorce-
Dumas, J. , Mouches, C., Vignault, J. C., Vogel, R. , McCoy, R. ,
Whitcomb, R. , Williamson, D., Latrille, J., and Bove, J. M. 1980.
Characterisation de spiroplasmes isoles d'insectes et de fleurs de
France Continentale , de Corse et du Maroc . Proposition pour une
classification des spiroplasmes. C. R. Acad. Sci. Ser. D
290:1209-1212.

9. McCoy, R. E., Williams, D. S., and Thomas, D. L. 1979. Isolation
of mycoplasmas from flowers. Pages 75-80 in: Proc. R. 0. C.-U. S.
CoopScience Seminar. Mycoplasma Diseases of Plants. NSC Symposium
Series I. Taipai: National Science Council.

10. Raju, B. C. , Nyland, G. , Meikle, T., and Purcell, A. H. 1981.
Helical, motile mycoplasmas associated with flowers and honey bees
in California. Can. J. Microbiol. 27:249-253.

11. Saglio, P. H. M. , and Whitcomb, R. F. 1979. Diversity of wall¬
less prokaryotes in plant vascular tissue, fungi, and invertebrate
animals. Pages 1-36 in: The Mycoplasmas III. Plant and Insect
Mycoplasmas. R. F. Whitcomb and J. G. Tully, eds . Academic Press,
New York.

12. Stevens, C., Cody, R. M. , Gudauskas, R. T. , and Patterson, A.

1984. Isolation of Spiroplasma flovicola from flowers in Alabama
(Abstr.). J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 55:143.

13. Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of Mollicutes . 1979. Proposal of

minimal standards for description of new species of the class
Mollicutes. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 29:172-180.

14. Tully, J. G. , Whitcomb, R. F, Clark, H. F., and Williamson, D. L.
1977. Pathogenic mycoplasmas: Cultivation and vertebrate
pathogenicity of a new spiroplasma. Science 195:892-894.

15. Vignault, J. C., Bove, J. M., Saillard, C., Vogel, R. , Farro, A.,
Venegas, L. , Stemmer, W. , Aoiki, S., McCoy, R. , AlBeldawi, A. S.,
Larue, M., Tuzcu, 0., Ozsan, M. , Nhami, A., Abassi, M. , Bonfils,

J., Moutous, G. , Fos, A., Poutiers, F. , and Viennot-Bourgin , G.
1980. Mise en culture de spiroplasmes a partir de materiel vegetal
et d'insectes provenant de pays circum-mediterraneens et du
Proche-Orient . C. R. Acad. Sci. Ser. D. 290:775-778.

14

Spiroplasma floricola Isolated from Flowers in Alabama

16. Whitcomb, R. F. 1980. The genus Spiroplasma. Annu. Rev.
Microbiol. 34:677-709.

17. Whitcomb, R. F., Tully, J. G., Clark, T. B., Williamson, D. L., and
Bove , J. M. 1982. Revised serological classification of
spiroplasmas , new provisional groups and recommendations for
serotyping of isolates. Curr. Microbiol. 7:291-296.

18. Whitcomb, R. F., Tully, J. G. , Rose, D. L., Stephens, E. B.,

Barile, M. F. , Smith, A., and McCoy, R. E. 1982. Wall-less
prokaryotes from fall flowers in Central United States and
Maryland. Curr. Microbiol. 7:285-290.

19. Williamson, D. L. , and Whitcomb, R. F. 1975. Plant mycoplasmas.

A cultivable spiroplasma causes corn stunt disease. Science
188:1018-1020.

20. Williamson, D. L., Whitcomb, R. F., and Tully, J. G. 1978. The
spiroplasma deformation test, a new serological method. Curr.
Microbiol. 1:203-207.

15

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 1, January 1989.

1

ALABAMA'S GRAIN MARKETING SYSTEM IN THE 1980’S
James L. Stallings

Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
Auburn University , AL 36849-5406

INTRODUCTION

History of Alabama's Grain Marketing System

Over the last 20 years or more the grain marketing system of Ala¬
bama has changed from mostly family-owned country elevators and feed
mills to collection stations and feed manufacturers for large vertically
integrated poultry and other operations (4,5,6). Two large soybean pro¬
cessing plants in the northern part of the State provide the protein
ingredient for poultry operations. These two soybean processors recent¬
ly have processed more soybeans than are currently produced in Alabama,
necessitating importing soybeans into the State. In addition, a corn
processing plant was established in Decatur in 1976, necessitating im¬
porting more corn than would have been the case for only grain-consuming
animals and a few other minor uses for corn. A comparison of numbers of
grain-handling firms in Alabama, by type, in 1970, 1977, and 1985 is
given in Table 1 . Note that the biggest changes have been an increase
in country elevators, especially from 1970 to 1977, and a decrease in
feed mills or processors over the whole period. The country elevator
increase was due partly from new river elevators constructed by the
State of Alabama and by an increase in satellite elevators to collect
grain from large vertically integrated firms. The decrease in feed
mills and processors was due mainly to the going out of business of
small family feed mills.

Even without the corn processing plant, Alabama has been a deficit
state for most grains for many years, especially with the advent of the
poultry industry which uses large amounts of feed grains. Research on
production and utilization of different grains has indicated that Ala¬
bama has averaged producing about 30 percent of the feed grains, mostly
corn, needed in recent years (3). Most of the imported feed grains came
from Illinois and Indiana, with lesser amounts from other areas.

The Public Grain Elevator in Mobile, owned by the State of Alabama,
has played a part in the Alabama grain marketing system during this time
also. However, even though providing an additional market for Alabama
grains, it has mostly exported grain coming in from outside Alabama.
Alabama grains exported through Mobile mostly come from the southern
half of the State, necessitating replacing it, and more, with imported
grains for local processing and other uses from out-of-state. The
northern half of Alabama typically exports little grain through Mobile
and requires large imports of feed grains and soybeans to supply its
poultry industry and the soybean and corn processing plants which are

^Manuscript received 5 July 1988; accepted 20 October 1988.

16

^ Stallings

Table 1, Number of Grain-Handling Firms in Alabama by
Type of Firm and Selected Years

Type of Firm

1970a

b

1977

198.

Country Elevators

26

51

55

Feed Mills or Processors

182

100

80

Terminal Elevators

10

13

8

Processors (S.B., corn, etc.)

3

5

3

Integrated Poultry Operations

25

25

24

Public Grain Elevator

1

1

1

247

195

180

3

Cavanaugh, Jon E. and James L. Stalling, 1972. The Feed
Market for Alabama. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta . , Auburn Univ. ,
b Auburn, AL, Bulletin 425, January.

Headley, Leo M. and James L. Stallings. 1980. Grain Firms
and Grain Movements in Alabama in 1977. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta.,
Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL, Bulletin 523, October.

located in the northern part of the State. So far, the newly completed
Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway has played little part in the grain market¬
ing system of Alabama or in the volume of grain business through the

Port of Mobile.

Procedure

The nature of Alabama’s grain marketing system in the 1980 ' s was
mostly determined from responses to a two-page questionnaire mailed to
grain firms in Alabama as required by a regional project in which Ala¬
bama participated. This questionnaire covered the calendar year 1985
and included such information as the type of firm, some measures of firm
size, grains received by mode of transportation and origin, and other
information .

Three criteria were used in selecting the sample: storage capaci¬
ty, total grains handled, and tons of feed produced. A current directo¬
ry of grain-handling firms, in which these three characteristics are
kept up-to-date, provided a basis for choosing a sample. Firms were
first arrayed from largest to smallest based on those criteria, and
cumulative percentages were computed for each. Firms representing 50
percent of each criteria were chosen as a mandatory 100 percent sample,
which included 17 of the 180 firms In Alabama that handled grain (cer¬
tain other firms such as brokers and home offices were not included) .
This indicated a concentration of 50 percent of the grain handling
activity in less than 10 percent of the firms. Information from these
17 firms was considered absolutely essential and was obtained by several

17

Alabama's Grain Marketing System

means including mailed questionnaires, phone contacts, and personal
contacts. Some data were estimated from previous surveys and other
grain industry contacts when answers to certain questions were not
given. All other firms were mailed questionnaires, with the remainder
of the sample consisting of whatever number was returned. The multi¬
plier (expansion factor to estimate State totals) for the 17 large firms
representing over 50 percent of the activity. was 1 (100 percent) while
the multiplier for the remainder of firms was 4 (25% of the remaining
firms were returned). Table 2 indicates the total number of firms
included in the sample by type of firm.

Table 2. Number of Grain Handling Firms in Alabama
and Sample by Types, 1985

Type of Firm

Est. No.

In Ala.

No. In
Sample

Feed Manufacturer or

Feed Mill

80

20

Country Elevators

55

20

Integrated Poultry or

Livestock

24

8

Terminal Elevators

8

4

Soybean Processors

2

2

State Docks

1

1

Other or Misc.

10

_4

Total

180

59

Source: 1985 Survey

PRODUCTION-UTILIZATION BALANCES

Of interest to users and to those in the marketing system over time
is how much of each type of grain can be obtained locally and how much
will have to be imported form out-of-state. Except for soybeans during
the later 1970 's and early 1980' s, and grain sorghum in recent years,
Alabama has been in the past, is now, and will probably continue to be a
deficit state in almost all the grains used within the State (3). Ex¬
cept for describing trends, no attempt will be made in this paper to
explore the reasons for this continued deficit situation. Table 3 pre¬
sents some detail of Alabama's 1985 deficit situation for five major
grains .

Com

Note that for 1985, domestic production of 24.4 million bushels of
corn in Alabama represented only 27.0 percent of domestic use for feed
manufacturing and use, seed use, and processing. This is very close to
the 29-30 percent average over a recent 20 years period reported in

18

Stallings

Table 3. Production and Utilization of Corn, Soybeans, Wheat,
Grain Sorghum, and Oats, Alabama, 1985

Item

Corn

Wheat

Soybeans

Grain

Sorghum

Oats

(000 Bu.)

Carry-In Jan. 1, 1 9 85 a

9,864

3,350

15,787

2,543

414

Production, 1 985 a

24,375

12,800

27,810

12,650

1,435

Imports From Out-of-State

72,947

8,180

31 ,560

2,213

1,873

Total Supply, 1985

107,186

24,330

75,157

17,406

3,722

Feed Mfg^ and Useb

76,350

10,342

_

11,270

2,025

Seed Use

84

635

1,090

87

224

Processing

13,642

5,869

40,931

141

82

Shipments to Ports

3,118

3,382

10,181

485

—

Shipments to Other States

3,314

2,178

4,590

176

635

Estimated Disappearance 1985

96,508

22,406

56,792

12,159

2,966

Carry-Out, Jan. 1, 1986a

10,678

1,924

18,365

5,247

756

Production/domestic use

27.1

76.0

66.2

110.0

61.6

*USDA figures (1) (2) (7)

Estimated from Auburn University Survey and USDA figures (1) (2) (7)

previous 5-year projects. While feed for the poultry industry accounts
for a large part of domestic use, a corn processing plant in Decatur in
recent years has also taken an increasing amount (13.6 million bushels
or 14.1% in 1985) of corn, causing the deficit to be larger than it
would be for livestock and poultry use alone. Shipment of Alabama
produced corn to ports for foreign export amounted to only 3.1 million
bushels (3.2%) of the total 96.7 million bushel disappearance in 1985
and some of this represents trans-shipments of out-of-state corn which
is difficult to identify. Also, shipments to out-of-state points from
Alabama was only 3.3 million bushels (3.4%) of total disappearance and
this is more than offset by similar amounts coming in from these same
states .

Wheat

While wheat production in Alabama in 1985 was down from its peak of
15.2 million bushels in 1983, it still represented a large increase from
the 1 to 2 million bushel annual production figures of the 1960 's and
1970 ' s . This is soft red winter wheat, which is often used as a feed
ingredient. In spite of increased production in recent years, produc¬
tion in 1985 still represented only 76 percent of domestic use, with
over 8 million bushels imported from out-of-state.

19

Alabama's Grain Marketing System

Soybeans

Like wheat production in Alabama, soybean production was down in
1985 to 27.8 million bushels from its peak year of 53.75 million bushels
in 1979. Production has dropped even further since the 1985 survey year
to 14.5 and 11.5 million bushels in 1986 and 1987 (estimated), respec¬
tively (2). The major use of soybeans is for crushing into meal (a feed
ingredient) and oil. In 1985, almost 41 million bushels were crushed, a
quantity greater than the State's total production (Table 3). The meal
is used in an expanding poultry industry, especially broilers, thus, the
deficit is likely to continue and expand.

Shipments of soybeans to ports for export in 1985 were 10.2 million
bushels or 17.9% of the estimated disappearance of 56.8 million bushels
in 1985. However, these mostly came from south Alabama and, as with
corn, some of these could represent trans-shipments which came from
out-of-state .

As with wheat, grain sorghum production has increased dramatically
in the last 20 years from 0.3 million bushels in 1965 to 12.6 million in
1985. Unlike other grains, however, domestic use has virtually equaled
production, with most of it utilized locally in Alabama as a substitute
for corn in feed manufacturing.

Oats

Oats are primarily required as an ingredient in certain kinds of
feed manufacturing, especially horse feed, and have not been an impor¬
tant crop produced in Alabama. While 1.4 million bushels were produced
in Alabama in 1985 and 1.9 million imported from out-of-state, much of
the domestic production was used locally while that used by feed manu¬
facturers was mainly imported from out-of-state. Alabama is a deficit
state in oats and will probably continue to be.

ORIGIN-DESTINATION PATTERNS

Because the Southeast, including Alabama, is generally a deficit
area in most grains, especially feed grains, there has always been a
concern with the origin of needed imports of the different grains. Most
previous surveys in Alabama have attempted to identify the origins of
each grain by state and mode of transportation. Some studies have even
tried to detail out-of-state receipts by month and by sub-regions of
specific Corn Belt states. The 1985 two-page survey, on which the data
in this article are based, was relatively simple, involving mostly ori¬
gin by states and mode of transportation. However, it was also possible
to provide receipts by type of firm within Alabama for different states
of origin and destination and by mode of transportation.

General Origins

Because of the unique relationship between the Southeastern deficit
states and the surplus "Corn Belt" states, the several five-year region¬
al projects previous to this one usually included two or three of the

20

Table 4. Grain Receipts by Alabama Firms, By Kind of Grain and Origin, 1985

Stallings

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21

Alabama's Grain Marketing System

Corn Belt states (Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio) and seven to nine of the
Southeastern states which includes Alabama.

As can be seen from Table 4, 67.1 million bushels (54.5%) of the
total of five out-of-state grains coming to Alabama in 1985 came from
Illinois and Indiana. Corn comprised 54.7 million bushels or 81.5 per¬
cent of this 67.1 million bushels. Soybeans were the primary import
into Alabama from the surrounding states of Mississippi, Tennessee,
Kentucky, and Georgia, accounting for 19.7 million bushels or 62.3 per¬
cent of the 31.6 million bushels of soybeans imported. Minnesota was an
important oats supplier, accounting for 1.2 million bushels or 63.0
percent of all oats imported.

The Public Grain Elevator at Mobile

To this point, neither receipts by nor shipments from the Port of
Mobile have been included. For analysis purposes, the Port was not con¬
sidered part of the Alabama grain marketing system. This was adopted
for all participants in the regional project which had exported over¬
seas. This makes sense for analysis purposes for Alabama, as only 16.0
million bushels or 35.0 percent of the 45.8 million bushels of the five
grains shipped through Mobile in 1985 came from Alabama, Table 5.

Table 5.

Grain Receipts By Public Grain Elevator,
By Kind of Grain and Origin, 1985

Port of

Mobile ,

Origin

Corn

Soybeans

Grain Receipt

Wheat

s

Grain

Sorghum

Total

(000 Bu.)

Alabama

3,118

9,029

3,382

485

16,014

Illinois

8,650

2,819

—

—

11,469

Indiana

4,326

2,256

—

—

6,582

Missouri

691

3,945

—

—

4,636

Kentucky

1,730

—

—

—

1,730

Iowa

1,039

1,126

—

—

2,165

Kansas

—

—

807

—

807

Minnesota

865

—

—

—

865

Nebraska

—

—

403

—

403

Ohio

—

1,126

—

1,126

Total 20,419

20,301

4,592

485

45,797

Source: 1985 Survey.

22

Stallings

Some of the 16.0 million bushels of grain listed as coming from
Alabama could have been trans-shipped to the Port from at least one
Alabama firm after coming from out-of-state. Therefore, it is difficult
to estimate accurately just how much grain shipped to the Port from
Alabama firms was actually grown in Alabama.

Corn and soybeans were the primary grains shipped from the Port in
1985, along with minor amounts of wheat and grain sorghum. Other than
Alabama, Illinois and Indiana were the primary suppliers of grain to
Mobile for export overseas. These two Corn Belt states accounted for
13.0 million bushels or 63.5 percent of the corn and 5.1 million bushels
or 25.0 percent of the soybeans shipped out of the Port.

Receipts By Mode of Transportation and Origin

Truck transport was the main mode of transportation for interfirm
transfers within the State and for collection of grain from farmers,
Table 6. Only minor amounts moved by rail and water between firms in
Alabama. From out-of-state, however, rail and water were about equally
important and together accounted for nearly 87 percent of all receipts.
Truck receipts were mostly from surrounding states. Differences in
modes of transportation by kind of grain were also calculated but the
details were too extensive for this article. These details can be found
in a recent Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station publication (7) .
However, some excerpts from these data by kind of grain are presented as
follows .

Firm-to-firm transfers of corn within Alabama and receipts from
Alabama farmers by firms were virtually all by truck. Corn coming from
out-of-state was about equally distributed between rail and water with
92.7 percent of the truck receipts from the surrounding states. Rail
and water receipts came mostly to northern Alabama, the water receipts
by way of the Tennessee River to firms in either Decatur or Gunters-
ville. About 93.6 percent of all the rail and water receipts from the
Corn Belt states of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Wis¬
consin, and Ohio were received by northern Alabama firms.

Firm-to-firm transfers of soybeans within Alabama were mostly by
truck. However there were some rail transfers within Alabama, mostly to
the crushing plants in Decatur and Guntersville . Also, there were some
firm-to-firm movements by water on the Tennessee River in northern Ala¬
bama. Alabama receipts from farmers were all by truck.

As with corn, soybean receipts from out-of-state by truck were
mostly from surrounding states (91.3%) and by water from the Corn Belt
states of Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Minnesota, and Iowa (88.0%).
However, unlike with corn, there were considerable receipts by rail from
the surrounding states (92.0%). Rail movements were mostly to the
crushing plants in northern Alabama.

Wheat movements within Alabama between firms and from farmers were
all by truck in 1985. However, there was a definite pattern of rail re¬
ceipts from the central and western corn belt (78.8%) and by water from

23

Alabama's Grain Marketing System

Table 6. All Grain Receipts, By Mode of Transportation, and Origin,
Alabama, 1985

Mode of Transportation

Origin

Truck

Rail

Water

Total

(000

Bu.)

Firm-to-Firm Transfers

(19,026)

(4,164)

(724)

(23,914)

S . Alabama

4,123

320

—

4,443

N. Alabama

14,903

3,844

724

19,471

Receipts from Farmers

(67,126)

—

—

(67,126)

S. Alabama

32,494

—

—

32,494

N. Alabama

34,632

—

—

34,632

From Out-of-State

(16,395)

(54,125)

(53,024)

(123,544)

Illinois

269

19,540

21,785

41,594

Indiana

227

14,982

10,328

25,537

Georgia

4,583

1,414

—

5,997

Florida

949

—

—

949

Tennessee

6,717

6,302

999

14,018

Kentucky

2,250

4,996

2,739

9,985

Iowa

—

91

1,896

1,987

Minnesota

—

—

9,500

9,500

Missouri

776

593

1,113

2,482

Wisconsin

—

—

629

629

Ohio

—

179

3,963

4,142

South Carolina

47

—

—

47

Mississippi

577

2,478

—

3,055

Oklahoma

—

1,420

—

1,420

Kansas

—

710

—

710

Nebraska

- -

1,420

72

1,492

Source: 1985 Survey.

Minnesota (84.0%). All wheat imported into the State by truck was from
surrounding states.

Most in-state movements of grain sorghum also were by truck with a
smaller amount by rail to southern Alabama. With the exception of a
little from Missouri, all truck receipts from out-of-state were from the

24

s'

Stallings

surrounding states. Rail receipts consisted of 77.8 percent from one
corn belt state, Illinois, and the rest, 22.2 percent, from surrounding
states. Water receipts were mostly from corn belt states (87.1%).

Oats receipts were relative unimportant. Within-state receipts and
transfers were all by truck and out-of-state receipts were mostly from
Minnesota by water.

Receipts by Type of Firm and Origin

Most within-state receipts in Alabama were from farmers by country
elevators. Table 7. Most of this will show up as further f irm-to-f irm
transfers within the State to processors. Some of the rest will show up
as receipts by the Public Grain Elevator of the State Docks in Mobile.
About 73 percent of the corn used in Alabama came from out-of-state in
1985. Most of this was received by one corn products processor in Deca¬
tur and the rest by feed processors and poultry operations in northern
Alabama through terminal and subterminal elevators.

Most of the corn shipped from the Port of Mobile to overseas (17.3
million bushels or 84.7%) came from out-of-state. And, it is highly
likely that some of the 3.1 million bushels listed as coming from within
Alabama was trans-shipped through at least one Alabama firm from out-of-
state also.

Table 7.' All Grain Receipts, By Type of Firm and Origin, Alabama, 1985

Type of Firm

Within

State

Out-

of-State

Total

From

Farmers

Other

Firms

From

Farmers

Other

Firms

(000 Bu

.)

Country Elevators

52,764

84

280

—

53,128

Sub-Terminal Elevators

850

217

4,663

5,730

Terminal Elevators

3,002

3,082

350

10,454

16,888

Export Elevators

4,371

767

54

526

5,718

S.B. Processors

1,231

9,797

30,280

41,308

Corn Processors

—

—

—

12,024

12,024

Feed Processors

2,600

5,005

360

12,356

20,321

Poultry Operations

1,865

5,042

40,377

47,284

Other Misc.

443

20

240

11,178

11,881

Sub Totals

67,126

24,014

1,284

121,858

214,282

State Docks-Mobile

—

16,014

—

29,693

45,707

Totals

67,126

40,028

1,284

151,551

259,989

Source: 1985 Survey,

25

Alabama's Grain Marketing System

Receipts of soybeans from farmers within Alabama were mostly by
country elevators who listed themselves as a subsidiary of some larger
parent organization. Some went directly to the Port of Mobile for ex¬
port or to terminal elevators. Some from terminal elevators were then
tran-shipped to the Port with the rest going to processing plants. The
largest amount, however, came directly from out-of-state to soybean
processors .

Of the 7.5 million bushels of wheat received by country elevators
from Alabama farmers in 1985, nearly half (3.4 million bushels), went to
the Port of Mobile for export. Most of this was from south Alabama.
Wheat needs in northern Alabama came mostly from out-of-state for use as
feed ingredients for the poultry industry. Wheat production in Alabama
is declining after a peak of 24.9 million bushels in 1981 to 12.0 mil¬
lion bushels in 1985 and an indicated 5.7 and 5.3 million bushels in
1986 and 1987 (preliminary) , respectively.

Grain sorghum receipts from within the State, as with other crops,
came mostly first to country elevators from farmers, then to terminal
elevators of feed processors or poultry operations for eventual use as a
substitute for corn in poultry feed. Only a minor amount was exported
through the Port of Mobile in 1985. In addition to Alabama-produced
grain sorghum, there was about an equal amount imported from out-of-
state, mostly by terminal elevators and poultry operations. Virtually
all was destined to be used as a poultry feed ingredient.

While 1.4 million bushels of oats were listed as produced in Ala¬
bama in 1985, only a small amount of this is received by firms in
Alabama from Alabama farmers, indicating that much is used on farms
where produced. Oats that enter the Alabama marketing system primarily
came from out-of-state to terminal elevators in North Alabama and were
distributed from there to processors and to other users.

SHIPMENTS

Most firm-to-firm transfers in Alabama were of two types. One type
resulted from transfer to the parent institution by satellite country
elevators after collection from farmers. These were primarily to feed
manufacturing firms, poultry operations, and to the soybean processing
plants. Another type of firm-to-firm transfer resulted from the impor¬
tation of out-of-state grains by terminal elevators and the subsequent
transfer of that grain to various users. Firm-to-firm transfers within
Alabama represented 45.5 million bushels of grain movement in 1985,
mostly by truck. Table 8. Shipments to farmers were relatively unimpor¬
tant and consisted mostly of 3.3 million bushels of corn in 1985.

Shipments by Alabama firms to ports for export overseas were only
17.2 million bushels in 1985, composed of 10.2 million bushels of soy¬
beans, 3.4 of wheat, 3.2 of corn, and less than 0.5 of grain sorghum.
This compares with a total domestic use of 100.2 million for feed manu¬
facture, 60.7 million for processing, and 2.1 million for seed, for a
total of 163.0 million bushels for domestic use, Table 3.

26

Stallings

Table 8.

Grain Shipments by Alabama Firms,
Destination, 1985

by Kind of Grain

and

Grain

Shipments

Destination

Corn

Soybeans

Wheat

Grain

Sorghum

Oats

Total

(000 Bu.)

Firm-to-Firm

Transfers

(17,640)

(14,128)

(4,451)

(8,452)

(870)

(45,541)

S . Alabama

3,365

2,170

1,192

978

44

7,749

N. Alabama

14,275

11,958

3,259

7,474

826

37,792

Shipments to

Farmers

(3,327)

—

—

—

(12)

(3,339)

S . Alabama

644

—

—

—

12

656

N. Alabama

2,683

—

—

—

—

2,683

Shipments to

Ports

(3,118)

(10,181)

(3,382)

(485)

(17,166)

Mobile

3,118

9,029

3,382

485

—

16,014

New Orleans

—

1,152

—

—

—

1,152

Out-of-State

Shipments

(3,314)

(7,096)

(2,178)

(176) (1

,098)

(13,862)

Georgia

1,714

5,300

371

112

624

8,141

Tennessee

1,100

424

1,552

—

54

3,130

Mississippi

480

220

—

—

25

725

Florida

—

—

255

64

261

580

North Carolina

—

—

—

97

97

South Carolina

—

—

—

28

28

Kentucky

—

—

—

—

9

9

Source: 1985 Survey.

As with shipments to ports, the out-of-state shipments of 13.9
million bushels also represented a relatively small amount compared with
domestic use. These shipments were almost exclusively to surrounding
states, unlike out-of-state receipts, which were frequently from several
states away.

SUMMARY

Alabama was a deficit state in all the five major grains studied in
1985, except for grain sorghum, and it is expected to continue to be a

27

Alabama's Grain Marketing System

deficit state in the near future. The 73 percent deficit in corn is
largely the result of the feed grain needs of a large poultry industry
and the requirements of one large corn products processing plant. The
33.8 percent deficit in soybeans is largely due to the needs of two
soybean processing plants in northern Alabama which processed over 40
million bushels in 1985 while Alabama production was only 27.8 million
bushels. In addition, 10.2 million bushels of soybeans were shipped to
ports for export. Recent trends in the production of all the five
grains have been downward since the 1985 survey on which the above
figures are based, while use continues approximately the same level to
upward .

REFERENCES

(1) Alabama Agricultural Statistics Service. 1985 and previous.

Alabama Agricultural Statistics, Montgomery, AL.

(2) Alabama Agricultural Statistics Service. 1987 and previous.

Alabama Farm Facts, Montgomery, AL.

(3) Bedri, 0. A. K. 1979. Feed Grain Production and Utilization
Balances for Alabama, Past, Present, and Future. Unpublished M.S.
Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.

(4) Cavanaugh, Jon E. and James L. Stallings. 1972. The Feed Grain
Market for Alabama. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL,
Bulletin 425, January.

(5) Headley, Leo M. and James L. Stallings. 1980. Grain Firms and
Grain Movements in Alabama in 1977. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Auburn
Univ., Auburn, AL, Bulletin 523, October.

(6) Hurst, James R. and Morris White. 1968. Feed Grain Situation in
Alabama. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL, Bulletin
379, June.

(7) Stallings, J. L. 1988. Alabama's Grain Marketing System in the
1980's, Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ., AL, Bulletin 590, March.

(8) USDA. 1987 and previous. Crop Production. USDA, Agr. Statistics
Board, National Agr. Statistics Service, Washington, D.C.

28

V

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 60, No. 1, January 1989.

STRATEGIC PLANNING AS A MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT TOOL1

William I. Sauser, Jr.

Office of the Vice President for Extension
Auburn University , AL 36849-5638

ABSTRACT

Managers at all levels of an organization perform four essential
functions. They anticipate the future and plan courses of action; they
organize resources and direct their use to accomplish established ob¬
jectives; and they compare accomplishments against objectives to control
organizational functioning.

Each level of management has its own planning horizon, with top
management having the broadest horizon. As managers move through the
organizational hierarchy, the mix of skills necessary to succeed shifts.
While human relations skills remain important at all levels, conceptual
skills become relatively more important than technical skills at the
higher levels of management.

When lower- level managers move into higher levels of authority, it
is often necessary for them to improve their conceptual skills. One
technique for developing conceptual skills is participating in strategic
planning exercises. Strategic planning -- the construction of a road map
for the future of an organization -- requires such actions as environmen¬
tal scanning, analysis of external opportunities and threats and internal
strengths and weaknesses, and production of plans, objectives, and pri¬
orities .

The author recently used strategic planning exercises to develop the
analytical and conceptual skills of managers in two organizations , a
higher-education unit and a state agency. In both cases the strategic
planning process proved beneficial as a management development tool.

INTRODUCTION

One of the primary functions of management is to plan -- to anti¬
cipate the future, set organizational objectives, and determine the best
courses of action to achieve these objectives (Boone & Kurtz, 1985, p.
107) . Once plans have been formulated, managers can then organize the
resources at their disposal and direct their use to accomplish es¬
tablished objectives. Managers perform their fourth major function when
they compare accomplishments against established objectives. This
control function allows the manager to revise either plans and objectives
themselves or methods for accomplishing objectives if the desired results
are not being attained.

^Manuscript received 11 August 1988; accepted 31 October 1988.

29

Sauser

While managers at all levels of the organizational hierarchy perform
these four essential functions, the mix of functions varies across levels
(Boone & Kurtz, 1985, p. 100). For example, top managers develop long-
range plans for the organization and make broad decisions about policy.
Members of the organization's middle level of management are typically
charged with developing and implementing detailed plans, organizational
structures, and control procedures to carry out the general plans of top
management. First- line supervisors put into action the plans developed
by middle management. They assign specific tasks to the operating em¬
ployees, maintain direct and continuing contact with these employees, and
evaluate their performance in terms of task accomplishment.

Just as the mix of functions differs across organizational levels,
so does the mix of skills necessary to succeed as a manager (Donnelly,
Gibson, & Ivancevich, 1987, pp. 27-28; Katz, 1974). Robert Katz iden¬
tified three essential managerial skills: (a) Technical -- the ability

to use the tools, procedures, or techniques of a specialized field; (b)
Human Relations -- the ability to work with and understand people; and
(c) Conceptual -- the ability to comprehend all activities and interests
of an organization and to understand how all of its parts relate to one
another .

Figure One shows how the essential mix of these skills varies across
organizational levels. While human relations skills remain important at
all levels, conceptual skills become relatively more important than tech¬
nical skills at the higher levels of management.

M

A

N S
A K
G I
E L
ML
E S
N
T

SUPERVISORY MIDDLE TOP

MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT

Figure 1. The Change in the Essential Mix of Managerial
Skills Across Levels of Management

THE IMPORTANCE OF CONCEPTUAL SKILLS

The well-known "Peter Principle" -- each person rises to his level
of incompetence in an organization (Peter & Hull, 1969) -- is a reflec¬
tion of the relationship depicted in Figure One. An outstanding tech-

I

30

f

:

Strategic Planning

nician who has no human relations skills will most likely fail when
promoted to a supervisory position -- unless he or she receives training
in the development of these skills. Likewise, a successful first- line
supervisor or middle manager must develop his or her conceptual skills in
order to succeed in the higher levels of management.

The American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB)
recognizes the importance of developing conceptual skills when preparing
candidates for managerial positions. Area (e) of the required "common
body of knowledge" curriculum for business administration degrees is "a
study of administrative processes under conditions of uncertainty in¬
cluding integrating analysis and policy determination at the overall
management level" (AACSB, 1986-87, p. 29). Thus graduates of BSBA and
MBA programs are typically exposed to course work -- generally labeled
"Business Policy," "Strategic Management," "Strategy and Policy," and the
like -- which is designed primarily to develop conceptual skills.

But what about working men and women who desire to progress through
the organizational hierarchy, yet do not possess a business administra¬
tion degree or the skills such a degree implies? How are they to acquire
the conceptual skills they need to complement their technical and human
relations skills? This is the question addressed in the remainder of
this paper.

MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT THROUGH
STRATEGIC PLANNING EXERCISES

The experts in executive development (e.g., Kellogg, 1979; Kirkpat¬
rick, 1985; Tracey, 1983) suggest that in-service training programs for
managers should include a variety of procedures, such as job rotation,
coaching, professional reading, role playing, and group planning. For
example, Marion Kellogg (1979) makes the following observation regarding
the use of group planning as an executive development technique:

The setting of organization objectives and development of
plans for meeting them can frequently be improved by use of
group or team planning. If all managers in a given or¬
ganization work out the mission of the organization, its
objectives for the year, and their individual contributions
toward their achievement, there is a far greater understand¬
ing of the problems each faces, the interdependence which
exists among them, the coordination each must undertake, and
the level of expectation of associates as well as of the
manager. This provides a growth experience in teamwork,
interpersonal communication, and the fundamental meaning of
organization. It also ultimately results in a substantial
time savings for the higher level manager. (p. 5-122)

The author has recently conducted management development programs
for two organizations --a higher-education unit and a state agency. In
both cases the inclusion of a strategic planning exercise, as described
below, proved beneficial as a management development tool.

31

Sauser

THE CONCEPT OF STRATEGIC PLANNING

Strategic planning, described thoroughly in modern textbooks for
aspiring top managers (e.g., Pearce & Robinson, 1985; Thompson & Strick¬
land, 1987; Wheelen & Hunger, 1986), is a process for developing a road
map for the future of an organization. The plans resulting from this
process are used to guide organizational efforts and day-to-day decisions
regarding deployment of the organization's resources. The plans also
serve as the standard against which accomplishments are evaluated during
the control process.

The strategic planning process is diagrammed in Figure Two. The
first step in the process is to gather pertinent information which is
then used to project an image of the organization's environment of the
future. Next a sense of the organization's mission in that future en¬
vironment is created, and valuable goods and services the organization
can provide are determined. The next step is to take a hard look at the
organization's internal strengths and weaknesses as they relate to ex-

Figure 2. The Strategic Planning Process

32

s'

Strategic Planning

Figure 3. A Schematic for Developing Action Plans

ternal opportunities and threats. Strategic alternatives are generated
and choices are made. Finally, the organization develops policies and
procedures to translate strategic plans into action (see Figure Three) .

CASE ONE: A HIGHER- EDUCATION UNIT

In 1985, the Director of the Alabama Cooperative Extension Service,
Dr. Ann Thompson, decided to employ the strategic planning process as the
first step in the production of a federally-mandated five-year plan. She
retained the author as a consultant for this project, and appointed an
eight-person strategic planning task team of representatives from the
three universities which make up the Alabama Cooperative Extension System
(Alabama A&M University, Auburn University, and Tuskegee University).
This task team received assistance from several technical advisors and
committees, and drew upon advice and assistance from individuals located
in every county in Alabama.

The primary purpose of this project was, of course, to produce the
written strategic plan. However, a secondary purpose was to develop
within the members of the task team higher levels of conceptual and

33

Sauser

creative skills . The development of these skills would better prepare
members of the task team for leadership roles within the organization.

The task team began its work by studying a monograph on creative
planning (Bandrowski, 1985) and reports and articles projecting future
trends for the State of Alabama and for the mission of extension or¬
ganizations nationwide. In a series of meetings the task team projected
the future for cooperative extension in Alabama and analyzed the streng¬
ths and weaknesses of the current organization in light of the external
opportunities and threats they identified. The team's next step was to
adopt the following statement of mission, which resulted from several
rounds of drafts, reviews, and revisions:

The Alabama Cooperative Extension System is a statewide
continuing education network that links the land-grant
universities' knowledge base to the people and communities
of Alabama and, subsequently, to national and international
audiences. The system extends and encourages the applica¬
tion of research-generated knowledge in cooperation with
public and private partners through local county offices.

The Alabama Cooperative Extension System provides educa¬
tional opportunities to enable individuals to make sound
decisions about their lives, families, businesses, and com¬
munities; to develop and strengthen the state's economy with
emphasis on agriculture and related industries and busi¬
nesses; and to enable youth, adults, families, and com¬
munities to develop economically, socially, and culturally.

The task force then undertook a massive effort to gather information
from persons throughout the state; in all, over 3,200 persons were sur¬
veyed or interviewed to provide suggestions for extension programming.
Analysis of these data led to the establishment of the following five
priority areas for the development and implementation of cooperative
extension projects:

* Regain agricultural and forestry profitability with emphasis on
business management skills, production systems, alternative enter¬
prises, and marketing strategies.

* Develop, conserve, and manage natural resources with emphasis on
water quality and quantity, soil preservation and productivity, and
human and cultural uses.

* Enhance family and individual well-being with emphasis on resource
and financial management, family stability, wellness, diet and
nutrition, home food production and preservation, and homes and home
grounds .

* Develop human resources with emphasis on leadership and volun-
teerism.

34

Strategic Planning

* Revitalize rural Alabama with emphasis on economic viability,
community services and facilities , public policy , and rural -urban
relationships .

The results of the strategic planning process were reported in
Priorities for People: A Strategic Plan for the Alabama Cooperative

Extension System (1987). Excerpts from the report were produced in
circular and videotape versions for wide distribution throughout the
state. Although the strategic planning process was completed at this
point, the work toward implementation had only begun. Efforts to produce
long-range plans, specific plans of work, and organizational structures
and budgetary mechanisms to put these priority programs into effect were
begun immediately and are continuing at present.

This strategic planning project proved to be a very effective man¬
agement development tool. All of the members of the task team reported a
much better appreciation of the "big picture" following their participa¬
tion in this effort. Several of the team members have become involved in
other, similar projects -- such as the development of management training
programs and the redesign of the organization's structure. All of the
team members have exhibited leadership skills in their ongoing assign¬
ments .

CASE TWO: A STATE AGENCY

This second management development program was conducted by the
author and Dr. Raymond B. Wells, Director of the Center for Government
and Public Affairs at Auburn University at Montgomery. Participants in
the program were the management team of the Data Systems Management Divi¬
sion (DSMD) of the Alabama Department of Finance. The program was de¬
signed to fulfill one of the recommendations of the Alabama Management
Improvement Program (AMIP) ; specifically it was designed to prepare the
participants to design a plan to implement the remainder of the AMIP
recommendations regarding DSMD. These remaining recommendations per¬
tained to reorganizing DSMD and orienting it more toward managing infor¬
mation systems and servicing client needs rather than simply "processing
data . "

Whereas the program described in Case One took place in meetings
scheduled across an entire year, the Case Two program was an intensive
session accomplished in five days -- four consecutive days of off-site
training followed two weeks later by an implementation session. The
training program progressed as follows:

Day One. Following introductions of the participants and the work¬
shop leaders, a discussion was held regarding DSMD and its role within
the State of Alabama. Attention then shifted to a guided discussion of
the characteristics of effective teams and group dynamics within a team
atmosphere .

Day Two. Using the Personal Profile System (Performax Systems
International, 1977), a paper-and-pencil inventory designed to encourage

35

Sauser

a broader view of human behavior, workshop participants explored their
own and each others' personal work styles, then discussed how these
individual styles could be blended into an effective team. Later ses¬
sions focused on leadership, communication, and conflict management
strategies .

Day Three. Guided by "Service Excellence," a video workshop hosted
by Ron Zemke and designed to develop the concept of client service as an
operational philosophy (Performance Research Associates and Nathan/Tyler
Productions, 1986), the participants examined the service mission of

DSMD. They then began drafting a mission statement for the organization.

Day Four. The strategic planning concept, as described above, was

the focus for this day's work. The participants completed drafting a

mission statement, then systematically explored, in small groups, the
external opportunities and threats and internal strengths and weaknesses
of DSMD. They were instructed at the end of the session to reflect upon
their work during the next two weeks and formulate individual plans to
organize DSMD to better meet its service mission.

Day Five. On this day, held two weeks after Day Four, the par¬

ticipants reassembled to review their organizational plans in light of
AMIP's recommendations for DSMD. Specific action plans were then made to
begin implementing these recommendations.

Results. This management development program was an intensive
preparatory session for the management team of DSMD. During the evalua¬
tion session which followed the program, the managers reported a greatly
heightened sense of the mission of their organization, their roles in
meeting this mission, and their importance as proactive leaders. The
implementation of the AMIP recommendations is now underway.

CONCLUSION

Developing strong conceptual skills is essential if one is to suc¬
ceed in the upper levels of management. Business school curricula are
typically designed to develop these skills, particularly by means of such
"capstone" courses as Business Policy and Strategy. Organizational mana¬
gers who have not been formally educated in business schools must also
have opportunities to develop these essential skills.

This paper describes two management development programs which in¬
cluded strategic planning exercises. One program took place in sessions
scheduled across an entire year; the other was an intensive five-day
program. Participants in both programs were managers and specialists who
had not typically been educated in business schools. All participants in
both programs reported an increased understanding of the "big picture" of
their respective organizations following the programs, and expressed a
heightened awareness of their roles as leaders in their respective
organizations .

36

Strategic Planning

Top managers who are interested in developing their future succes¬
sors should consider involving their employees in strategic planning
exercises such as the ones described in this paper. These exercises are
effective in developing essential conceptual skills, and are useful
management development tools.

LITERATURE CITED

American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (1986-87) . Ac¬
creditation council policies , procedures , and standards . St. Louis,
MO : Author .

Bandrowski, J. F. (1985). Creative planning throughout the organization.
New York: American Management Association.

Boone, L. E. , 6c Kurtz, D. L. (1985). Contemporary business (4th ed.).
Chicago: Dryden.

Donnelly, J. H. , Jr., Gibson, J. L. , & Ivancevich, J. M. (1987). Funda¬
mentals of management (6th ed.). Plano, TX: Business Publications,
Inc .

Katz, R. L. (1974). Skills of an effective administrator. Harvard
Business Review, September-October , 90-102.

Kellogg, M. (1979). Executive development. In D. Yoder & H. G. Heneman,
Jr. (Eds.), ASPA handbook of personnel and industrial relations.
Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Affairs, pp. 5:105-5:135.

Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1985). Development and training, management. In L.
R. Bittel & J. E. Ramsey (Eds.), Handbook for professional managers.
New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 238-243.

Pearce, J. A., II, 6c Robinson, R. B. , Jr. (1985). Strategic management:
Strategy formulation and implementation (2nd ed.). Homewood, IL:
Richard D. Irwin.

Performance Research Associates and Nathan/Tyler Productions (1986).

Service excellence: A video workshop hosted by Ron Zemke (2nd ed.).
Boston: Author.

Performax Systems International (1977). Personal profile system: A plan
to understand self and others . Minneapolis: Author.

Peter, L, J., 6c Hull, R. (1969). The Peter principle. New York:

Morrow.

Priorities for people: A strategic plan for the Alabama Cooperative

Extension System (1987). Auburn, AL: Alabama Cooperative Extension
Service .

37

Sauser

Thompson, A. A., Jr., & Strickland, A. J., III. (1987). Strategic

management: Concepts and cases (4th ed.). Plano, TX: Business
Publications, Inc.

Tracey, W. R. (1983). Career development and training. In W. K. Fallon
(Ed.), AMA management handbook (2nd ed.). New York: AMACOM.

Wheelen, T. L. , & Hunger, J. D. (1986). Strategic management and
business policy (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley .

38

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 1, January 1989.

DESCRIPTIONS OF YOUNG SKIPJACK HERRING, WITH NOTES ON
EARLY LIFE ECOLOGY1

Robert Wallus

Tennessee Valley Authority
Fisheries Laboratory
Norris, Tennessee 37828

and

Larry K. Kay

Tennessee Valley Authority
Western Area Radiological Laboratory
Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660

INTRODUCTION

Little information has been published on the life history and
biology of the skipjack herring, Alosa chrysochloris (Rafinesque) . A
general summary of existing information was provided by Hildebrand
(1963). Wolfe (1969) studied the species in the Apalachicola River of
Florida and commented on its reproductive biology, as did Coker (1929)
for populations in the upper Mississippi River. Hogue et al. (1976)
provided a photograph of a 5.0 mm TL yolk-sac larva. Trautman's (1981)
illustration of a 160 mm total length juvenile is the only other de¬
scriptive information available for young of the species.

Skipjack herring commonly occur in the open waters of the Tennessee
River and its major tributaries. Fisheries staff of the Tennessee Val¬
ley Authority (TVA) often encounter the species in gill netting, elec¬
trofishing, chemical collections, and, occasionally, in ichthyoplankton
samples. In this paper, we present the first detailed descriptions and
illustrations of skipjack herring larvae using specimens collected from
the Tennessee and Ohio Rivers. We also present information on the early
life ecology of the species in the Tennessee River.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The Tennessee River flows through Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi,
and Kentucky before entering the Ohio River near Paducah, Kentucky (Fig.
1). The system has 9 mainstream dams and 37 tributary dams. Nine TVA
steam-electric plants (seven fossil and two nuclear) are located on the
Tennessee River and its tributaries. Waters surrounding plant sites
have been sampled extensively and are the sources of most of the early
life ecology information presented.

Various collection methods were used to capture early life phases
of skipjack herring during the period 1973-1980. Active collection
techniques included one-meter (mouth diameter) conical nets which were

Manuscript received 5 August 1988; accepted 14 November 1988.

39

K Y r v A

Wallus and Kay

40

Fig. 1. Tennessee river collection localities (arrows) for larval and juvenile skipjack herring. Dam
abbreviations are: KD = Kentucky; PD = Pickwick; WD = Wilson; WHD = Wheeler; GD = Guntersville ; ND =
Nickajack; CMD = Chickamauga; WBD = Watts Bar; and FLD = Fort Loudoun.

y

Descriptions of Young Skipjack Herring

pushed, towed, or lifted vertically through the water column, and a
half-meter-square net (0.25 square meter opening) towed obliquely
through the water column. Passive collection techniques included 0.5-
meter conical and 0.5-meter square stationary nets. All nets were
equipped with flow meters mounted in the center of the net mouth for
determining volumes of water filtered. Mesh size of the nylon netting
was 0.79 mm until 1975; thereafter, it was 0.505 mm.

Yolk-sac larval descriptions were completed from specimens collect¬
ed in 1975 from Wheeler Reservoir, a mainstream impoundment in northern
Alabama. At the time of these collections, only two other clupeids,
gizzard and threadfin shad, Dorosoma cepedianum and D. petenense , re¬
spectively, were present in mainstream reservoirs of the Tennessee Riv¬
er. Both of these species have distinct oil globules present in the
yolk sac; these are lacking in skipjack herring. Identification of post
yolk-sac larval skipjack herring was possible only after adult comple¬
ments of dorsal and anal fin rays or pterygiophores were present at
approximately 17.0-18.0 mm. Post yolk-sac larval and juvenile descrip¬
tions were developed from Wheeler Reservoir specimens collected from
1973-1980 and from Ohio River specimens borrowed from the University of
Tennessee research collection of fishes (catalog numbers: 29.81 and
29.82) that were collected in 1987.

Specimens were examined with a stereo-microscope equipped with an
ocular micrometer and polarizers. Morphometric and meristic characters
examined were: total length (TL) , distance from tip of snout to end of
caudal fin or finfold; standard length (SL) , distance from tip of snout
to the posterior tip of the notochord or the hypural complex once it was
completely formed; preanal length, distance from posterior margin of
anus to tip of snout; predorsal length, distance from tip of snout to
anterior margin of the base of the first dorsal pterygiophore ; snout
length, distance from tip of snout to anterior margin of eye; greatest
head depth; greatest body depth (excluding finfold); head length, dis¬
tance from tip of snout to origin of pectoral fin or posterior margin of
opercle; eye diameter; number of complete preanal myomeres, those from
posterior margin of anus to nape including any bisected by an imaginary
vertical line at the posterior margin of the anus; number of complete
postanal myomeres; and number of complete predorsal myomeres, those
anterior to the base of the first dorsal pterygiphore . Morphometries
are presented as percent total length or as percent of head length.
Lengths given in the text are total length unless stated otherwise.
Illustrations were made with the aid of a camera lucida. The following
terminology is used to describe early life phases of skipjack herring:

Yolk-sac larvae — young from hatching to complete absorption of the
yolk.

Post yolk-sac larvae — phase beginning with complete absorption of
the yolk and ending when an adult complement of rays is present in
all fins and the median finfold is completely absorbed.

Larvae — term encompassing both yolk-sac and post yolk-sac larval
phases .

Juvenile — phase beginning with complete absorption of median
finfold and ending with maturity.

41

Wallus and Kay

DESCRIPTIONS OF YOUNG

Yolk-Sac Larvae

The following descriptions are based on two specimens, 5.5 and 5.8
mm TL and apply to both except where noted. Total myomeres were 49 and
50 respectively; 42 preanal and 7 postanal myomeres for the smaller
specimen; and 43 preanal and 8 postanal myomeres for the larger spec¬
imen.

The smaller specimen appeared newly hatched and lacked any orbital
or body pigment. The 5.8 mm specimen's eyes were pigmented and several
small melanophores were present at the posterior margin of the yolk sac
(Fig. 2a). The yolk sac was large and oval, clear to slightly opaque,
and without distinct oil globules, although small quantities of oil
appeared visible along the periphery of the yolk sac of the 5.5 mm spec¬
imen. The head was in line with the body axis and the notochord was
straight. The eyes were large, about 46 percent of the head length
(Table 1) . The mouth was poorly developed with no evidence of a lower
jaw, and auditory vesicles were visible.

The median finfold originated dorsally, immediately posterior to
the head, extended around the urostyle, and forward ventrally to the
posterior margin of the yolk sac. The finfold was wide, approximately
0.2 mm wide along the gut, and on the larger specimen appeared paddle¬
shaped at the end of the notochord with radial striations visible in the
caudal finfold (Fig. 2a). Pectoral fin buds were not visible at 5.5 mm
and were barely discernible at 5.8 mm.

Post Yolk-Sac Larvae

Sixteen specimens examined ranged from 18.0-29.0 mm (Table 1) .
Total myomeres were 49-54 with 38-41 preanals, 9-14 postanals, and 16-21
predorsals. Nine prepelvic scutes were present by 28.0 mm. The morph¬
ology of the body was generally more elongate than juveniles (Fig. 2) or
adults. Clay (1975) reported that squamation had begun but was not
complete on skipjack specimens 21.0-30.0 mm SL and that the smaller
individuals in this size range had 20-21 gill rakers on the lower limb
of the first gill arch.

By 18.0-20.0 mm, adult complements of rays were present in dorsal
(15-17), anal (17), and caudal (18-19) fins. Incipient rays were
visible in pelvic (5-6) and pectoral (7-11) fins with adult counts of
8-9 and 13-16, respectively, by 22.0-24.0 mm. The ventral finfold was
still present between the pelvic fins and anus at 29.0 mm (Fig. 2c), but
was completely absorbed by 32.0 mm.

Between 18.0-21.0 mm, rows of melanophores were present ventrally
on either side of the gut between the pectoral fins and midgut, some¬
times converging near the base of the pectoral fins; melanophores, scat¬
tered or sometimes in a double row, were present dorsally from about
midcaudal peduncle to the caudal fin; and a few melanophores were
present ventrally along the base of the anal fin and between the anal

42

Descriptions of Young Skipjack Herring

c. Late post yoik-sac larva, 29.0 mmTL

d. Juvenile, 67.0mmTL

Figure 2. Illustrations of young skipjack herring from the

Tennessee River, Alabama. Illustrations by Murrie V.
Graser .

and caudal fins (Fig. 2b). Between 22.0 and 28.0 mm, melanophores ap¬
peared on the tip of the lower jaw and on the cranium near the occiput;
pigmentation increased dorsally between dorsal and caudal fins, appear¬
ing as a dense double row of melanophores on the posterior 8-10 myo¬
meres; pigmentation was scattered between rays in the caudal fin; and
melanophores were present ventrally, as before, along base of anal fin
and posteriorly (Fig. 2c).

43

Table I. Selected morphometries and meri sties for early life phases of skipjack herring from the Tennessee and Ohio River Systems.

Morphometries are presented as mean percent total length (TL) ; eye diameter is also presented as mean percent head length.

Wallus and Kay

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44

Descriptions of Young Skipjack Herring

Juveniles

This phase of development begins between 29.0 and 32.0 mm when the
remnant of median finfold between pelvic fins and anus is completely
absorbed. The end of the juvenile phase is marked by attainment of
sexual maturity, somewhere betwen 254 and 305 mm (Becker, 1983).

Juvenile skipjack herring are not as elongate as larvae and appear
more adultlike with the characteristic projecting lower jaw and scutes
visible (Fig. 2d). Morphometries for specimens 32.0-76.0 mm are pre¬
sented in Table 1. At 32.0 mm, 19 prepelvic and 14 postpelvic scutes
were visible; the adult complement of 19 and 16 was fully present at
42.0 mm.

Pigmentation on specimens between 32.0 and 42.0 mm was similar to
late larval pigmentation except that ventral pigment between the anal
and caudal fins became a scattered double row with up to eight melano-
phores along the base of the anal fin. By 76.0 mm, pigment was present
on the tip of snout, below and immediately posterior to the eye, and on
the operculum; pigmentation was scattered above the midline, becoming
more dense dorsally; and both dorsal and caudal fins had pigment scat¬
tered along their base and outlining rays.

ECOLOGY OF YOUNG

The yolk-sac larva pictured in Hogue et al. (1976) and those de¬
scribed in this paper from Wheeler Reservoir are the only documented
records of this life phase known to the authors. Unfortunately, exact
spatial and temporal collection data for these specimens is not avail¬
able. Pestrak (1977) reported collection of probable yolk-sac larval
skipjack herring from the lower Coosa River, Alabama, in early May.

TVA biologists collected post yolk-sac larvae in mainstream reser¬
voirs from late April through most of August, with peak densities usual¬
ly occurring in late May or early June. Most collections were from
surface waters in littoral habitats (Table 2), usually at night. Mundy
(1973) reported similar occurrences in collections from Wheeler Reser¬
voir, Alabama. Walker (1975) collected post yolk-sac larvae from mid¬
channel surface waters at night in late June in Nickajack Reservoir,
Tennessee. Simon (1986) reported skipjack herring larvae in Ohio River
ichthyoplankton samples during June, with peak densities June 25; most
(74 percent) were collected in surface waters.

Juvenile skipjack herring were more abundant in mainstream ichthyo¬
plankton samples than in cove rotenone samples collected by TVA. The
juveniles in ichthyoplankton samples from Wheeler Reservoir were widely
distributed horizontally and vertically (Table 2) , and occurred more
often in pelagic open water areas than larvae.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr. David Etnier for loan of larval and
juvenile skipjack herring used for morphometric and meristic analysis.

45

Wallus and Kay

Table 2. Spatial distribution of post yolk-sac larvae and juvenile
skipjack herring from Wheeler Reservoir, Tennessee River,
Alabama, during the period 1973-1977 and 1980.

3. b

Post Yolk-sac Larvae Juveniles

Relative Abundance (%) Relative Abundance (%)

Habitat

1973-1977

N=754

1980

N=40

1973-1977

N=14

1980

N=14

Littoral (2. 4-4. 5 m
Surface

depth)

95.9

57.2

Full Strata0

-

95.0

-

28.6

Channel (7.0-10.0 m
Surface

depth)

2.5

7.1

Upper Strata

-

5.0

-

21.4

Mid-Depth

1.6

-

35.7

-

Lower Strata

-

0.0

-

50.0

a. Total Length Range 20-32 mm

b. Total Length Range 33-69 mm

c. 1980 data only: upper strata = surface to 3.0 m, lower strata = 3.0
m to bottom, station depth = 8.0 m

LITERATURE CITED

Becker, G. C. 1983. Fishes of Wisconsin. The University of Wisconsin
Press, Madison, WI .

Clay, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky. Dept. Fish and Wildl.
Res., Frankfort, KY.

Coker, R. E. 1929. Studies of the common fishes of the Mississippi
River at Keokuk. U.S. Bur. Fish. Bull. 45:141-225.

Hildebrand, S. F. 1963. Pomolobus chrysochloris Rafinesque 1820

skipjack herring. Pages 315-319. In Fishes of the western north
Atlantic. Mem. Sears Found. Mar. Res. 1 (Pt. 3).

Hogue, J. J. Jr., R. Wallus, and L. K. Kay. 1976. Preliminary guide to
the identification of larval fishes in the Tennessee River.
Tennessee Valley Authority Tech. Note B19.

Mundy, P. R. 1973. The occurrence, abundance and distribution of
populations of larval fishes in Wheeler Reservoir, Alabama.

Masters Thesis. Univ. of Alabama, University, AL.

Pestrak, J. M. 1977. Fish eggs and larvae collected from the lower
Coosa River, Alabama. Masters Thesis. Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL.

46

Descriptions of Young Skipjack Herring

Simon T. P. 1986. Variation in seasonal, spatial and species

composition of main channel ichthyoplankton abundance, Ohio River
miles 569 to 572. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 47(1-2): 19-26.

Trautman, M. B. 1981. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Press,
Columbus, OH.

Walker, R. B. 1975. A study of fish eggs and larvae in Nickajack

Reservoir, Tennessee during 1973-1974. Masters Thesis. Tennessee
Tech. Univ., Cookeville, TN.

Wolfe, J. C. 1969. Biological studies of the skipjack herring, Alosa
ahrysochloris , in the Apalachicola River, Florida. Master Thesis.
Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, FL.

47

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 1, January 1989.

REVIEW

Davenport Larry J., 1988. Charles Mohr , Botanist in Alabama Heritage.
No. 10. Fall 1988. Pp. 32-45.

Readers of the Journal may be interested in knowing more about
Alabama Heritage, a fairly new quarterly publication of the University
of Alabama. The Fall 1988 issue is its tenth number. Its articles.
Remembering Tallulah , Alabama at Gettysburg y and Charles Mohr, Botanist,
suggest the broad range of the magazine's coverage, and this is
substantiated by features in previous issues, listed in the index to
issues 1-10. The layout and presentation of the magazine are thoroughly
professional and most attractive, with photographs and illustrations on
nearly every page, many in color. If you are unfamiliar with Alabama
Heritage , it certainly deserves a careful looking over the next time you
visit your library. Subscription is $12 per year (4 issues) plus 4%
sales tax in Alabama, from Alabama Heritage , University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0342.

Charles Mohr was born in Germany in 1824 and was educated there
principally as a chemist. Following graduation, the adventurous young
man accompanied a botanist-acquaintance on an expedition to Dutch Guiana
(present-day Surinam) , worked for a time as a chemist in Austria, made
his way to Britain, and subsequently emigrated to the United States,
arriving in New York in 1848 at age 23. The following year he set out
by wagon trek for the gold fields of California, and after perils and
adventures there and on his return journey via Panama sufficient for
several lifetimes, a brief try at farming in Indiana, and travels in
Louisiana and Mexico, he settled in Mobile in 1857. He established
himself there in a pharmaceutical supply business and prospered during
the following years until his death in 1901.

Thus it was as a hobby only, and during the later years of his
life, that Mohr undertook the botanical exploration, collection, study,
and publication that established him as an authority of international
stature on the southern forest flora, and specifically the plants of
Alabama. In his fine article Dr. Davenport chronicles this monumental
body of work, leading eventually to Mohr's publication of Plant Life of
Alabama in 1901, but in the telling there shines through much of the
character and personality of Charles Mohr, a scientist of distinction
surely, but also a delightful and admirable human being whom one would
like very much to know and enjoy. Dr. Davenport, I feel, has given me a
warm, personal introduction to one of his best friends, and I am
grateful for that. His article is highly recommended to anyone
interested in Alabama's natural history.

Norton Marshall

Department of Botany and Microbiology
Auburn University , AL 36849

48

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Editorial Policy: Publication in the Journal of the Alabama Academy
of Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms
can be obtained from Dr. Ann Williams, 101 Cary Hall, Auburn Univer¬
sity, AL 36849. Subject matter should address original research in
one of the discipline sections of the Academy; Biological Sciences;
Chemistry; Geology; Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning;
Physics and Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education;
Social Sciences; Health Sciences; Engineering and Computer Science;
and Anthropology. Timely review articles of exceptional quality and
general readership interest will also be considered. Invited arti¬
cles dealing with Science Activities in Alabama are occasionally
published. Book reviews of Alabama authors are also solicited.

Reviews'. Each manuscript will receive at least two simultaneous peer
reviews. Include in your letter of transmittal the names, addresses,
and telephone numbers of at least four qualified referees. Do not
include names of individuals from your present institution.

Manuscripts : Consult recent issues of the Journal for format. Dou¬
ble-space manuscripts throughout, allowing 1-inch margins. Number
all pages. Submit the original and two copies to the Editor. Papers
which are unreasonably long and verbose, such as uncut theses, will
be returned. The title page should contain the author's name, affil¬
iation, and address, including zip code. An abstract not exceeding
200 words will be published if the author so desires. Use headings
and subdivisions where necessary for clarity. Common headings are:
INTRODUCTION (including a literature review), PROCEDURES (or MATE¬
RIALS AND METHODS), RESULTS, DISCUSSION, and LITERATURE CITED. Other
formats may be more appropriate for certain subject matter areas.
Headings should be in all-caps and centered on the typed page; sub¬
headings should be italicized (underlined) and placed at the margin.
Avoid excessive use of footnotes . Do not use the number 1 for foot¬
notes ; begin with 2. Skip additional footnote numbers if one or more
authors must have their present address footnoted.

Illustrations : Submit original inked drawings (graphs and diagrams)
or clear black and white glossy photographs . Width must be 14-15 cm
and height must not exceed 20 cm. Illustrations not conforming to
these dimensions will be returned to the author. Use lettering that
will still be legible after a 30% reduction. Designate all illustra¬
tions as figures, number consecutively, and cite all figures in the
text . Type figure captions on a separate sheet of paper . Send two
extra sets of illustrations; xeroxed photographs are satisfactory for
review purposes .

Tables: Place each table on a separate sheet . Place a table title
directly above each table . Number tables consecutively. Use symbols
or letters, not numerals, for table footnotes . Cite all tables in
the text .

Literature Cited: Only references cited in the text should be listed
under LITERATURE CITED. Do not group references according to source
(books , periodicals, newspapers, etc . ) . List in alphabetical order
of senior author names . Cite references in the text by number or by
author-date .

:-$PP

VOLUME

COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Hatchling of a gopher tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus) .
The gopher tortoise has declined prodigiously in recent years to the point
that all populations west of the Tombigbee and Mobile Rivers are
considered endangered. This decline is attributed to habitat alteration,
loss of habitat, and predation by fire ants ( Soleonopsis sp.), armadillos
( Dasypus novemcincCus ) , and humans ( Homo sapiens ) , particularly on eggs
and juveniles (see abstract Vol. 60, No. 3, July, 1989). Gopher tortoise
hatchlings are rarely found in the wild; this particular hatchling was one
of ten found in DeSoto National Park, Mississippi. Gopher tortoises are
an important aspect of the sandhills of Southeastern US because of their
'•.habit; *of digging large burrows. These burrows are often used by
threatened or special concern species such as the eastern indigo snake
( Drymarchon corais) , the Florida pine snake ( PiCuophis melanoleucus ) , the
gopher frog ( Rana areolata) , and the Florida mouse ( Podomys floridanus).
Photograph courtesy of Emmett Blankenship, Ty W. Bryan, and Dr. Craig
Guyer .

Emmett Blankenship and Ty W. Bryan are graduate students and Dr. Craig
Guyer is an assistant professor in the Department of Zoology and Wildlife
Science at Auburn University.

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 2, April 1989.

OUTSTANDING ALABAMA SCIENTISTS:

PROFILES OF FIVE YEARS' RECIPIENTS
OF THE WRIGHT A. GARDNER AWARD1

Ellen B. Buckner
School of Nursing

University of Alabama at Birmingham

Birmingham } AL 25294

The Wright A. Gardner Award was established by the Alabama Academy
of Science to honor individuals whose work during residence in Alabama
has been outstanding. Persons nominated for this award have included
researchers, teachers, industrialists, clinicians and scholars. This
report reviews the many contributions and ongoing work of the first five
recipients of the Gardner Award 1984-1988. These scientists are Dr.
Robert P. Bauman, Professor of Physics, University of Alabama at Bir¬
mingham (1984); Dr. Nolan E. Richards, Research Scientist and Manager of
Manufacturing Technology Laboratory, Reynolds Metals Company, Sheffield
(1985); Dr. S. T. Wu, Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Director,
Center for Space Plasma and Aeronautic Research, University of Alabama
in Huntsville (1986); Dr. Herbert H. Winkler, Professor of Microbiology
and Immunology, University of South Alabama College of Medicine (1987);
and Dr. Richard W. Compans, Professor of Microbiology and Senior Scien¬
tist, Cancer Center, Diabetes Center, and Arthritis Center, University
of Alabama at Birmingham (1988).

Dr. Wright A. Gardner was the principal founder and first President
of the Alabama Academy of Science. Born in 1878 on a farm in the Tyrone
Community, Michigan, he entered Albion College, Albion, Michigan plan¬
ning to enter the Methodist ministry, but his interests in plants led
him to complete his studies in botany. He came to Alabama in 1917 as
Professor of Botany and Plant Physiology at then Alabama Polytechnic
Institute (Auburn University) . From his graduate studies at the Univer¬
sities of Michigan and Chicago he realized the intellectual stimulation
which could result from meetings of scientists to discuss mutual teach¬
ing and research interests. By the early 1920 's, Gardner was carrying
on extensive correspondence about organizing a state scientific society:
With the encouragement of the Alabama Education Association (AEA) lead¬
ership he organized a meeting as the Science Section at the April 1924
annual AEA meeting in Montgomery. The program of 26 papers was attended
by some 30-40 persons. Dr. Gardner's scientific training and research
interests included: (1) the effect of light on the gemination of
light-sensitive seeds, (2) decomposition of organic toxins by soil
organisms, (3) the decomposition of chlorophyll, (4) an enzyme in the
rinds of oranges, and (5) black resistance in sweet potatoes.

Dr. and Mrs. Gardner (Mabel Anna Anderson) were parents of four
children, Hannon Austin, Louis Wright , Mabel Grace, and Donald Anderson,

Manuscript received 28 September 1988, accepted 31 October 1988.

49

Buckner

each of whom rose to distinguished positions in their chosen field of
endeavor. Dr. Gardner had the ability and insight to be both an inno¬
vator and a motivator for the better-than-average student. From a
humble background he prepared himself to be a leader among scientists.
We of the Academy continue to honor his accomplishments through the
Gardner Award. The recipients listed below further the tradition of
scientific excellence today and are both leaders and role models for
those who would follow.

Robert P. Bauman

Robert P. Bauman was born in Jackson, Michigan in 1928. He at¬
tended Purdue University, receiving a B.S. in Chemistry and Physics and
an M.S. in Physical Chemistry. In 1954 he completed the Ph.D. in Phy¬
sics at the University of Pittsburgh. He is married to Edith Gerkin
Bauman and they are the parents of four children: Katherine B. Griffis,
David G. Bauman, Jefferey A. Bauman and Alice B. Morris. Dr. Bauman
currently serves as Professor of Physics at the University of Alabama at
Birmingham.

Bauman's professional interests have spanned areas of science,
education, and community work. He has also demonstrated a long-standing
and continuing commitment to the Alabama Academy of Science and the

Alabama Junior Academy of Sci-

Bauman

ence through active involvement
in its programs for over 20
years, and serving as Vice-
president of the Physics sec¬
tion and Associate Counselor of
the Junior Academy. From 1967—
1973 he served as Chairman of
the Department of Physics at
the University of Alabama at
Birmingham.

Dr. Bauman's professional
activities have included par¬
ticipation in the Coblentz
Society and its Board of Mana¬
gers; the American Association
of Physics Teachers, of which
he was national President in
1983-84; and the American In¬
stitute of Physics, Governing
Board. His principal pub¬
lications include Absorption
Spectroscopy , John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, 1962; An
Introduction to Equilibrium
Thermodynamics , Prentice- Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
1966, translated into Japanese

50

Gardner Award

and Portuguese; and A First Course in Physical Science , John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, 1987. He has over 60 publications in journals,
including the Journal of Chemical Physics , American Journal of Physics,
Physical Reviews, The Physics Teacher, Journal of Chemical Education ,
and others.

Dr. Bauman has also been active in physics and science education.
From 1975-78 he directed a "Project on Teaching and Learning in Univer¬
sity College" at the University of Alabama at Birmingham designed to
apply Piagetian theory to college teaching. Many of his publications
speak to the imperative of working with students to increase their
understanding of difficult content.

In addition to scholarly endeavors in his chosen field of physics.
Dr. Bauman has demonstrated commitment to the community. From 1972-78
he served on the Comprehensive Community Mental Health Advisory Board,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, and was its chairman for one year.
He continues as a member of the Board of Directors of the Red Mountain
Museum and its Society as well as being active in other associations in
the Birmingham area.

Dr. Bauman's research interests continue in areas of 1) molecular
physics: infrared and Raman spectroscopy , valence theory, computer model¬
ing of electric discharges; 2)
teaching-learning theory: sci¬
ence museums as educational
centers, teaching for cognitive
development; and 3) applica¬
tions of physics to accident
reconstruction .

Richards

Dr. Richards' principal
contributions have been in the
area of metallurgy and he has

Nolan Earle Richards

Nolan Richards was born in
Kaitaia, New Zealand in 1930
and completed his Ph.D. at the
University of Auckland in 1956.
Following that degree he
studied at the University of
Pennsylvania in the School of
Molten Salts and was Stanley
Elmore Fellow in Extractive
Metallurgy at the Imperial
College of Science and
Technology in London. He is
married to the former Helen
Margaret Mackenzie and they are
the parents of two children,
Bruce Earle and Robin Lynnette
Garibay .

51

Buckner

been active in resource processing and development in Alabama for over
25 years. He was Research Scientist and Department Manager at the
Reynolds Metals Company Reduction Laboratory in Sheffield, Alabama from
1957-1973. He has written numerous articles in technical journals and
books and holds several patents in the fields of metal and material
science. He is a Fellow of the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry, a
member of the Electrochemical Society, the American Institute of Mining
and Metallurgical Engineers, the American Chemical Society, and the
Chemical Society of London.

Dr. Richards serves Reynolds Metal Company as Manager of the Manu¬
facturing Technology Laboratory. His primary interests are 1) process
metallurgy, 2) material science of refractories and aluminum, 3) re¬
cycling, and 4) automation.

S. T. Wu

Shi Tsan Wu was born in Nanchang, Kiangsi, China. He received his
B.S. in Mechanical Engineering from National Taiwan University, Taipei,
Taiwan. He then studied Mechanical Engineering at the Illinois Insti¬
tute of Technology and completed the Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering
Science at the University of Colorado in 1967. He is married to the
former Mai Kao and they are the parents of three children: Cheyenne,
Rosalind, and Patricia.

Dr. Wu has a distinguished
record of teaching, publica¬
tions, and professional activi¬
ties in a number of areas of
physics and engineering. His
publications have involved (1)
basic theory, kinetic theory,
fluid dynamics, heat transfer,
plasma dynamics, radiative gas
dynamics, and magnetic-hydro-
dynamics; (2) solar and inter¬
planetary physics; (3) atmos¬
pheric physics; (4) application
of numerical methods; and (5)
solar energy. He has edited
nine books. Dr. Wu has pre¬
sented over 200 talks since
1963 at international and na¬
tional meetings, including
presentations in 23 countries.
He has received the Martin
Schilling Award from the Ala-
bama-Mississippi Section of the
American Institute of Aeronau¬
tics and Astronautics (AIAA) ,
1987, Group Achievement Award
for Skylab-ATM Data Analysis
from the National Aeronautics

52

Gardner Award

Space Administration (NASA) (1979), and over 12 other awards of scien¬
tific recognition. He has directed graduate students in the production
of twenty-seven theses and dissertations in mechanical engineering and
physics.

Dr. Wu ' s professional activities are numerous and extensive. At
the national level he was Co-Chairman of the Conference on Advanced
Earth-to-Orbit Propulsion Technology at the NASA/ Marshall Space Flight
Center in 1986. He was Chairman of the Session on Plasma at the AIAA
Fluid Dynamics Conference in 1985, and was Co-Chairman of the Advanced
High Pressure 02/H2 Technology Conference at the NASA/ Marshall Space
Flight Center in 1984. He has been Secretary of the NASA Solar Beacon
Scientific Study Team. Internationally, he has been a member of the
Scientific Organizing Committee on Study of Traveling Interplanetary
Phenomena, and a member of advisory committees in China, Japan, Ireland,
Siberia, and Australia on the Solar Maximum Year. Locally, he has been
the director of the Alabama-Mississippi Section of the AIAA since 1980.

Dr. Wu continues his many efforts in the training of scientists in
space and solar study and engineering. He is currently Professor of
Mechanical Engineering and Adjunct Professor of Physics at the Univer¬
sity of Alabama in Huntsville and Director of the Center for Space
Plasma and Aeronautic Research. He is a visiting Professor at Wu-Han
University and a Consultant for the Battelle Memorial Institute Research
Laboratory (U.S. Army), Space Environment Laboratory, and Environmental
Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) . Current committee involvements include the following: AIAA
Technical Committee on Plasma and Lasers; NASA Advanced Solar Observa¬
tory Working Group; American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Modeling
and Simulation Committee; and the International Council of Scientific
Unions, Scientific Committee on Solar Terrestrial Physics. He is a
reviewer for grant proposals for NASA, NOAA and the National Science
Foundation and a member of editorial review boards of the J. of Geo¬
physical Research , Astrophysics J., Solar Physics _, and Applied Mechanics
Review.

Herbert H. Winkler

Herbert Winkler was born in Highland Park, Michigan in 1939. He
attended Kenyon College receiving the B.A. in biology, magna cum laude.
He completed the Ph.D. in physiology in 1966 at Harvard University and a
post-doctorate in physiological chemistry in 1968 at Johns Hopkins
University. He is married to the former Sue Schuler and they are
parents of one daughter, Elizabeth.

Dr. Winkler is considered one of the premier microbiologists in
America. The work he has conducted for the past ten years in Alabama
has been exemplary of fundamental understandings and pioneering new ef¬
forts. With the aid of colleagues at the University of South Alabama,
he was the first to clone a gene from an obligate intracellular procary¬
ote and achieve gene expression. This remarkable discovery made feasi¬
ble the possibility of describing every gene and concomitant protein

53

Buckner

present in the rickettsial organism which can be produced in the eucary-
otic cells which the microbe parasitizes causing cell death and fatal
outcome for the patient. This revolutionary approach to attacking the
genetic and biochemical basis of a procaryotic mediated human disease
represents ingenious perspective, undergirded by a solid understanding
of biochemistry and cell physiology. His ongoing work has resulted in
over 80 publications in scientific journals and books and he has active¬
ly directed nineteen theses, dissertations, and post-doctoral fellow¬
ships .

Dr. Winkler continues in
his work as Professor and Vice-
Chairman of Microbiology and
Immunology at the University of
South Alabama College of Medi¬
cine. He is a member of the
Winkler Editorial Board of Infection

and Immunity. His current re¬
search is in the areas of 1) permeability properties of rickettsiae, 2)
lymphokine and antibody: host defense against rickettsiae, and 3) gene¬
tic analysis of Rickettsia prowazekii .

Dr. Winkler has been hon¬
ored many times for his work
and professional activities.
From 1983-85 he was national
President of the American So¬
ciety for Rickettsiology and
Rickettsial Diseases. In 1987
he was an invited speaker at
the Centennial Celebration of
the Institute Pasteur in Paris,
France. He has served as con¬
vener for symposia of the Amer¬
ican Society for Microbiology
on topics including procaryotic
cellular parasite adaptation,
diseases caused by leukocytic
rickettsiae, microbial viru¬
lence, and molecular biology of
rickettsiae. Nationally, he
has received an award- for dis¬
tinguished faculty service.

Richard W. Compans

Richard W. Compans was born in 1940 at Syracuse, New York. He
attended Kalamazoo College receiving the B.A. in 1963, magna. cum laude .
He completed the Ph.D. at Rockefeller University in 1968 and was an
American Cancer Society Postdoctoral Fellow at the Australian National
University the following year. He is married to the former Marian
Merly .

54

Gardner Award

Dr, Compans has demonstrated broad interest and application of
microbiology and specifically virology to various disease states. He
has authored over 180 research papers and review articles and four
books: The Replication of Negative Strand Viruses and Double-Stranded
RNA Viruses (both with David H.L. Bishop, published by Elsevier North-
Holland, 1981 and 1983, respectively) and Segmented Negative Strand
Viruses and Non-segmented Negative Strand Viruses (with David H. L.
Bishop, Academic Press, New York, 1984). He has directed the work of 36
graduate students and post-doctoral fellows. He has been the primary
organizer of three international symposia on negative strand viruses and

double stranded RNA viruses and
one on the cell biology of vir¬
al entry, replication, and
pathogenesis. He has been a
member of the Viral Study Sec¬
tion of the U. S. Public Health
Service and Special Review Com¬
mittees for Retrovirus Vaccines
of the National Institute of
Health (NIH) , National Cancer
Institute (NCI) , Breast Cancer
Task Force, and the Frederick
Cancer Research Facility. In
1987 he was elected Chairman of
the RNA Viruses Section of the
American Society for Microbiol¬
ogy.

His current research work
is extensive and includes the
following projects: (1) influ¬
enza virus structure, biosyn¬
thesis, and assembly (NIH Merit
Award) ; (2) directional trans¬

port of MuLV glycoproteins; (3)
basic mechanisms in virology;
and (4) HTLV-III/LAV antigen
Compans variation and cell biology. He

continues supervising both ba¬
sic training grants and an Electron Microscope Core Facility support
grant. Dr. Compans is Professor of Microbiology at the University of
Alabama in Birmingham. He is active in several research centers in the
University as Senior Scientist in the Cancer Research and Training
Center, the Diabetes Research and Training Center, the Multipurpose
Arthritis Center, and the Cystic Fibrosis Center. He is editor of Virus
Research and is a member of editorial boards of Intervirology 3 J. of
Biological Chemistry _» and Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology ,

NOTE: Sources for this report were curricula vitae obtained from the

award recipients; "Wright A Gardner" by Emmett B. Carmichael,
Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 51(4), pp . 308-14,
1980; personal communications and prepared citations.

55

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 2, April 1989.

AIR FLOW DISTRIBUTION IN AN UNDERFEED RESIDENTIAL
STOKER COMBUSTOR USING BITUMINOUS COALS1

N. L. Mukherjee

Department of Chemical Engineering
Tuskegee University
Tuskegee , AL 36088

and

0. J. Hahn

Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Kentucky
Lexington , KY 40506

ABSTRACT

Bituminous coals used in residential space and water stoker heaters
emit significant amounts of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocar¬
bons, and non-uniform air flow distribution in the retort and in the
coal bed causes incomplete combustion of polycyclic aromatic hydrocar¬
bons produced during coal pyrolysis. Investigations were carried out in
a Will-Burt automatic underfeed residential stoker combustor to deter¬
mine air flow distribution from the tuyeres to the retort and the coal
bed. Air flow from the inside, bottom tuyeres was higher than that from
the outside tuyeres, and was lowest at the coal bed center.

INTRODUCTION

The cost of natural petroleum oil and gas in the United States of
America is increasing and deposits are dwindling. It is quite possible
in the near future that bituminous coal, which is plentiful as well as
readily available, will be a potential fuel source for the residential
stoker combustor. Bituminous coal in the state of Alabama has low
percentages of sulfur and ash; moreover, in 1982, Alabama was ranked
eleventh in coal production among coal-producing states in the United
States. Table 1 (Tolson et al. 1982) shows the typical ranges in
Alabama bituminous steam coal quality on as as-received basis. Alabama
steam coal, because of its good quality and enormous reserves, has an
excellent potential market for residential combustors.

Bituminous coal, due to coking characteristics, agglomerates and
causes blowhole, gas channels in the coal bed; in addition, coal crushes
partly and fines segregate in the coal bed during screwfeeding. As a
result, air flow distribution is irregular and bed temperature is non-
uniform, conditions which inhibit complete combustion of volatile matter
and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) .

Manuscript received 19 August 1988; accepted 16 November 1988.

56

Mukherjee and Hahn

Table 1. Analysis of Alabama Steam Coal as
Received Basis.

Moisture, (%)

7-13

(max)

Ash, (%)

13-15

(max)

MJ/kg

26.62

(max)

Sulfur, (%)

0.6-3.

,3 (max)

Fixed carbon, (%)

45-65

Volatile matter, (%)

20-27

Ash softening temperature, (°C)

1,065

(min)

Ash fusion temperature, (°C)

1,315

(min)

With minor modifications in tuyere design, PAH emissions can be
significantly reduced. Effective air velocity and uniform air flow
distribution in the retort and coal bed can be improved if rows have the
proper number of tuyeres and are of the correct size and position. Due
to ash softening, agglomerates, clinkers, and segregated coal fines
increase air flow resistance; restricting the area of the tuyeres' air
outlet will create a higher fan capacity but will also increase cost.
Restricting the air outlet area, however, is advantageous in that it
tends to equalize air flow to the different portions of the retort.

Investigations were carried out at Pittsburgh Energy Technology
Center, Department of Energy, in a Will-Burt type underfeed stroker
residential combustor; bituminous coal was used in order to achieve an
overview of the air flow distribution in the retort and in the coal bed
so that investigators could determine how to. modify tuyere design.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The Will-Burt type residential underfeed stoker combustor (Figure
1) in which investigations were conducted had a capacity of 153 mj/hr, a
warm air furnace, a stoker, warm air controls, and a barometric damper.
Air from the windbox flowed into the retort through rows of tuyeres.
Three tuyere rows were located outside, inside top, and inside bottom of
the retort wall. Each row consisted of sixteen tuyeres of the same size
with the following dimensions: 7.94 x 10 3m diameter — _outside; (2.06
x 10 2m) x (8.73 x 10 3m) — inside top; and (1.75 x 10 2m) x (1.03 x
10 2m) — inside bottom. Coal rose vertically in the retort through the
stoker system. Volatile matter from the coal mixed with air and ignited
as it passed through the incandescent layer of the bed and thus effecti¬
vely controlled smoke emission.

The investigation determined air flow distribution at variable
conditions through the front and rear tuyeres. A pitot tube connected
to a differential manometer measured the velocity head.

57

Air Flow Distribution in an Underfeed Residential Stoker

TURN DAMPER
■SLIDE IN FIRE DOOR

hr—

BAROMETRIC

DAMPER

FEED SCREW WINO DUCT

.-LIVE FUEL BED
^IGNITION LINE

-LOOSE ASH
-CLINKER

-REFRACTORY

HEARTH

-TUYERES

-WINO BOX
-RETORT

—GREEN FUEL

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of Will-Burt type residential
stoker combustor.

Air flow rates were calculated from the following equations:

1

velocity, m/sec = 20.71 (P ) 2 (1)

where P = velocity pressure meter of waterflow, m3/sec in tuyere =
tuyere surface, m2 x velocity, m/sec (2)

To measure the air flow rate and distribution through the tuyeres
in the retort, the first test [Figure 2] was conducted without a coal
bed. Flow was measured at four different points in each tuyere row and
for three different air flow rates. Table 2 shows average flow distri¬
bution through three tuyere rows.

The second test [Figure 3] was performed to determine air flow
distribution on the coal bed surface at variable air flow and coal feed
rates. As is illustrated in Table 3, the air flow was measured on the

basis of the height of the water column in the pitot tube; it was

measured at three different sections and in the center of the bed, and
was calculated at four different points in each section. To determine
the degree of fines produced in screwf eedings , as well as their distri¬
bution in the coal bed, the third test was conducted at various coal

feed and air flow rates [Table 4],

58

Mukherjee and Hahn

Tuyeres location

outside tuyeres A * 0.203m (dla.i
Inside tuyeres, top B * 0.165m (dia.)
Inside tuyeres, bottom C * 0.127m (dia.)

Figure 2. Tuyere location of air flow measurement in empty
coal bed.

Table 2. Average Air Flow Distribution through Tuyere Rows in Empty
Coal Bed.

Flow Type

Air

Flow Distribution

Test 1

Test 2

Test 3

Outside tuyeres, f low%

9.7

8.6

9.1

Inside top tuyeres, flow %

43.8

44.3

46.0

Inside bottom tuyeres, flow%

46.5

47.0

45.0

Measured total air flow, m3/s

1 7 . 83xl0~3

25.25xl0~3

35 . 39xl0~3

Calculated total air flow, m?/s

18.97x10" 3

24 . 59xl0~3

33. 17xl0“3

1

Location of air flow measurement
on bed surface

Section A - 0.102m (dia.)
Section 3 - 0.178m (dlaJ
Section C - Q.254m (dia.)

Figure 3. Location of air flow measurement on coal bed surface.

59

Table 3. Air Flow Distribution (Basis Water Columin in Pitot Tube) on Coal Bed Surface.

Air Flow Distribution in an Underfeed Residential Stoker

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60

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Table 4. Screw Feeder Coal Size Distribution in Coal Bed.

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61

Rear No. 1 31.9 68.1 44.0 56.0 43.0 57.

4 31.7 68.3 42.3 57.7 38.3 61.

Front 2 44.1 55.9 58.4 41.6 54.3 45.

3 45.0 55.0 63.4 36.6 63.7 36.

Air Flow Distribution in an Underfeed Residential Stoker

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 2 shows the average air flow distribution through three
tuyere rows without a coal bed: inside bottom air flow was high [46%];
inside top was slightly low [44%]; outside was low [9%]. These results
were most likely attributable to high bottom bed temperatures and low
temperatures near the wall.

Table 3 shows the air flow distribution on the fuel bed surface at
variable air and coal feed rates. Air flow was clearly non-uniform at
the sides and decreased towards the center, probably because of fines,
bed resistance, irregular bed height, design characteristics of tuyeres
and retort, and an irregular distribution of coal sizes. The average
air flow distribution on the bed surface in Test B was relatively higher
than that in Test A. The continued air flow through coal fines caused
larger channel sizes and showed increased air flow.

Table 4 illustrates the segregation and distribution of coal fines
due to coal crushing in the screwfeeder. Coal fines produced at low
coal feed rates in the screwfeeder were relatively higher than those
produced at high coal feed rates, but the amount of fines produced at
the two high coal feed rates was almost the same. Small sizes and fines
tended to accumulate toward the rear, the part of the bed which was less
permeable to air. Because more air passed through the front of the
retort since the bed was more open, there was rapid combustion in the
front section of the retort and channels and blow holes formed because
of the presence of clinkers.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Air flow is high through inside bottom tuyeres, and low through
outside tuyeres.

2. Coal fines produced in the screwfeeder at low coal feed rates are
relatively higher than those produced at high coal feed rates, but
coal fines produced at high coal feed rates are almost the same.

3. Accumulation of coal fines in the rear bed is higher than that in
the front bed.

4. Air flow at the center of the coal bed is lower than that in other
sections .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to personnel of the U. S. Department of
Energy-Pittsburgh Energy Technology Center, Combustion Laboratory for
their assistance and cooperation in performing the experiment.

LITERATURE CITED

Tolson, S. J.; Musgrove , C. G. ; and Sokolo, P. K. 1982. Alabama Coal
Data for 1982, p. 16.

62

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 2, April 1989.

HUMAN TWINNING AS A COMPENSATORY MECHANISM:
A UNIFYING HYPOTHESIS1

Janet P. Abbott -King
144 Fuller Street
Auburn, AL 36830

ABSTRACT

Problematic demography of human twinning includes elevated postwar
twinning rates (PTRs) and high twinning rates (HTRs) among individuals
whose social-cultural environment encourages large family-size. This
paper suggests an original hypothesis to account, in part, for some
unexplained patterns of twinning observed in human populations and to
serve as an alternative focal-point for research into a biosocial, com¬
pensatory mechanism which might regulate human reproductive potential,
via neuroendocrine pathways. The common denominator of a reproductive
imperative conferred by social or cultural parameters is discussed with
regard to Yoruba, Hispanic, Mormon, and Catholic HTRs and elevated PTRs
associated with World War I and II. Elevated twinning rates in Gorlitz
Germany, 1651-1660 and 1761-1770 and in the U.S. (1970s) are related to
postwar periods and are discussed accordingly. A hypothetical schema of
stress-related hormonal conditions which would favor twinning is present¬
ed accommodating existing neuroendocrinological data and twin data. Al¬
ternative lines of inquiry are proposed therefrom.

INTRODUCTION

Although two types of twinning, monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) ,
are generally recognized in studies of twinning rates (TRs) in humans,
evidence for other mechanisms of twinning exists but is addressed much
less frequently in the literature. These other twinning phenomena in¬
clude: polar-body twinning [15, 31]; superfetation (double pregnancy)
[1, 8, 14, 33, 34, 49, 53, 83, 100, 102, 127, 137, 155]; whole-body
chimerism or fused fraternal twins (" twin- in- one" ) [12, 24, 31]; and
ovular reabsorption ("blighted twin") [42, 55, 78, 113, 129, 133, 149,
163] . The latter two types are also known as "vanishing twin" phenomena,
resulting in singleton births. In addition to providing a source of
variability in data on TRs, these other types of twinning phenomena also
indicate that twin conceptions occur more frequently than the generally
recognized figure of 1:80 [13].

Literature on twin studies also contains demographic data on vari¬
ations in TRs within and between countries for which existing environmen¬
tal and genetical models do not adequately account. This paper develops
an hypothesis to account for these problematic demographics and in so
doing advances twinning as a focal -point for investigation into compen¬
satory reproductive strategies in human populations, in relation to
social-environmental parameters. It is hoped that the multifarious

Manuscript received 27 July 1988; accepted 16 November 1988.

63

Abbott-King

observations offered in this paper and the postulates arising therefrom
will stimulate experimental work useful to both twin research and popula¬
tion biology.

Genetic and Environmental Bases for Twinning

From the early 1900 's to the present a number of authors have at¬
tempted to identify a mode of inheritance for twinning. To date, a
variety of interpretations exist. Some workers have described DZ and MZ
twinning as genetic and others as non-genetic. Different interpretations
exist for other hereditary aspects such as paternal vs. maternal influ¬
ence, polygenic vs. monohybrid characters, and whether or not all forms
of twinning are expressions of the same tendency toward multiple¬
birthing .

The incidence of twinning in humans is not adequately explained on
the basis of genetics alone, however, and twin studies could be made more
valuable by investigation into environmental components. Developmental
processes of identical traits (e.g., multiple ovulation resulting in
dizygotic twinning) are the same, whether or not their origin is genetic.
For instance, several authors have concluded that DZ twinning and its
frequency variations depend on multiple genes whose traits are influenced
by environmental interactions [65, 146]. They further concluded that
phenotypic expression of the DZ twinning tendency is a "threshold char¬
acter" whereby the cumulative effect of multiple genes must exceed a
certain value or environmentally influenced hormone production has to
exceed a certain value before twinning can occur. A number of authors
have postulated a major role for the pituitary gonadotropic hormones,
luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) , in
regulating the incidence of DZ twinning [4, 16, 17, 27, 44, 60, 77, 78,
92, 93, 95, 97, 102, 109-112, 129, 133, 135, 136, 142, 153, 157]. Sup¬
porting evidence comes from numerous studies on patients treated for
anovulation (and other ovarian dysfunctions) with gonadotropins or agents
such as clomiphene, which stimulate release of the pituitary gonadotropic
hormones. These studies indicate that polyovulation is dose-related
[157].

Zahdlkova [162] mathematically established the existence of environ¬
mental influence on twinning incidence through analysis of twin-birth
clustering in space and time. The study focused on a population of about
2,000 individuals in Southern Moravia, Czechoslovakia (an area comprising
15,029 square km) inhabiting the region between 1960 and 1979 inclusive.
The study showed highly significant statistical results involving a
"relatively short interval of action and quick change in place" [162]
leading Zahalkovd to suggest that "the twinning rate is influenced by
environmental factors which are present or active in varying degrees in
different places at different times" [162].

Problematic Twinning Demographics

A number of twin studies support the argument that changes in TRs do
not necessarily indicate a change in the genetic structure of a popula¬
tion, but may be the result of changes in social habits or other environ-

64

Human Twinning

mental factors [7, 39, 62, 31, 86, 117, 146, 153, 161] and variations in

DZ TRs are commonly used as a reference point for discussion of TR

changes because MZ TRs tend to be uniform throughout human populations,
with few exceptions. The frequency of MZ twinning is generally about 3.5
maternities per thousand [12, 18]. Maternal age, parity, and nutritional
factors are commonly shown to influence DZ twinning frequencies. How¬
ever, these factors have not been shown to account for elevated TRs

reported in the following categories:

I. Large families [3, 4, 17, 21]

a. Yorubas of Western Nigeria [80, 104-112, 114]

b. Catholics: U.S. [158] & Bolas of New Britain [135, 136]

c. Hispanics: Mexican-American [47] & Chilean [135]

d. Mormons: U.S. [21]

II. Postwar Births

a. WWI : Italy [5, 117]

b. WWII : U.S. [7] & Norway [146]

c. Vietnam Conflict: U.S. [61, 62, 64]

d. Thirty Years War, 1618-1648: Gorlitz, Germany [128]

e. Seven Years War, 1756-1763: Gorlitz, Germany [128]

The remaining sections of this paper address these problematic data from
a heuristic perspective, offering alternative, and, it is hoped, more
fruitful lines of inquiry.

TWINNING, FAMILY SIZE, AND REPRODUCTIVE IMPERATIVE

The characteristic occurrence of twinning in large families [3, 4,
17, 21] can be argued to result from maternal-age and parity-effects or
simple numerical odds; the more children a twin-prone mother has, the
more likely she is to express the twinning tendency [4]. However, this
argument does not account for the high frequency of twinning observed
among early conceptions in legitimate first maternities of twin-prone
couples [4, 17, 119] and the high frequency of twinning observed among

primiparae of illegitimate maternities [38]. It has been proposed that
these twinning phenomena might have resulted from a maternal psychologi¬
cal state affecting the pituitary gland thereby precipitating double
ovulation [4] . Other authors have proposed that levels of pituitary
gonadotropins, in turn influenced by emotional stress, may be responsible
for observed variations in rates of double ovulation [5, 7, 39, 63, 99,
117, 146, 153] but detailed neurohormonal pathways whereby such a mecha¬
nism might operate have not been postulated. Nevertheless, information
generated from twin studies, regarding a possible connection between the
pituitary gonadotropic hormones and DZ twinning, offers a framework in
which to reconsider classically problematic twinning phenomena.

Consider, for instance, the highest TR in the world, 62 per 1,000
maternities, reported in the Yoruba population of Western Nigeria [104,
106, 111, 112]. Nylander [104-112] extensively studied the occurrence of
twinning (and higher multiple births) in Nigeria and reported a high
incidence of DZ twinning among West Nigerian mothers four times the
incidence found in Great Britain and the U.S. [104, 107, 111]. When

typically influential factors such as maternal age and parity are taken
into account in comparing West Nigerian and Great Britain populations,
West Nigerian women still showed much higher TRs than European women

65

Abbott-King

[111]. In comparing serum- gonadotropin hormone levels in West Nigerian
mothers of twins and mothers of singletons, Nylander reported much higher
FSH levels in mothers of twins than in mothers of singletons [109-111].
Nylander speculated that some as -yet-unidentif ied dietary factor may be
responsible for the high gonadotropin levels, and hence high DZ TR in
Yoruba women [111-112]. However, the cause of this twinning phenomenon
remains obscure.

Previous investigations have not explored social structures as re-
productively influential components of the Yoruba environment. However,
a cultural study of the Yoruba by Oruene [114] revealed deeply rooted,
emotional attitudes toward twinning. This information coupled with that
provided by other studies discussed herein lead me to consider that the
sociocultural environment of the Yoruba may intermittently provide a
source of psychological/emotional stimuli, subsequently resulting in
altered neurophysiological states favorable to twinning. For example, in
a study of the traditional religious beliefs of the Yoruba and their
attitudes and practices toward twins, Oruene [114] reported that earlier
in Yoruba history, twins were regarded as omens and were killed or
banished, along with their mothers, in efforts to rid the community of
the evil they were believed to foreshadow, and that "elaborate rituals of
purification" were carried out to benefit the mother and community.
Reasons for the negative attitude toward twins as observed in cultural
and traditional Yoruba beliefs were that 1) twin conception implied
defilement of the mother, which would result in a paternity dispute
disturbing "the peace and stability of the whole society" and 2) "the
social structure of the community would be threatened if two people of
similar age were accepted into a society where the principle of seniority
was of great importance" [114]. This practice of ritual killing
persisted at least until the 1600s. Therefore, twinning was selected
against in the Yoruba population until religious and cultural attitudes
toward twinning changed. According to Oruene, killing of twins was
replaced by ritual homage of twins due to the belief that twins were
divine in origin, possessing supernatural powers, and because "with the
high incidence of infant mortality, it appeared prudent to accept the
birth of two infants in the hope that at least one would survive infancy"
[114],

Among the powers attributed to Yoruba twins are those of fertility,
prosperity, rainmaking, healing, and avenger and detector of thieves.
Because the birth of twins brings joy and prosperity to parents through
remuneration derived from the occupation decreed to a mother of twins
[114], it is socially, emotionally, and biologically advantageous for a
Yoruba woman to give birth to twins. It is believed so strongly that
twins possess the power of fertility, that previously barren women
associating with twins or their mothers are reported to have conceived
and given birth to twins [114]. A likely explanation for this observa¬
tion is that women who are infertile due to stress - induced anovulation
may be relieved from their anxiety (through their faith in twins) upon
association with twins, and upon relief from this stress, ovulation may
then resume. (Neurohormonal conditions which favor anovulation are
discussed further in a later section of the present paper.) Although
rituals using the twins' powers are primarily practiced within the

66

Human Twinning

family, they are also performed for individuals in the community and when
believed needed to benefit the community itself [114],

The socioreligious tradition of twinning appears to be a powerful
reproductive force in Yoruba society. As such, I propose that this tra¬
dition might provide a psychological stimulus, a reproductive imperative
to conceive and to give birth to twins, in the neurophysiology of Yoruba
women. This stimulus may periodically result in increased fertility and
perhaps follicular recruitment, maturation, and ovulatioi of more than
one oocyte per menstrual cycle.

An alternative reproductive imperative could be postulated to origi¬
nate from the culture of tropical Africa as a whole for high fertility is
almost universally desired there [20]. Socioeconomic fertility differen¬
tials are nearly absent and a large number of children, six or more, is
favored by both males and females in much of tropical Africa. Barren
women are sometimes regarded as witches. The total fertility rate in
African populations is 6.5 or more [20], An exception is the "low-
fertility zone" in central Africa which includes two areas in Sudan, the
Central African Republic, Cameroon, Zaire, and Gabon. Caldwell and
Caldwell [20] concluded the sterility in these regions to be the result
of a long- lasting gonorrhea epidemic introduced by colonizers in the
1870s. Because coastal populations were in frequent contact with Arabs
and Europeans they were able to build immunological resistance through
the centuries, whereas natives living in the interior region of the
continent remained more vulnerable. The low fertility zone is comprised
of the former Congo Free State and French Congo, the last c>f the colonial
states to have been established. Traditionally, economic systems in
tropical Africa have rewarded those populations with large numbers of
offspring, thus partly accounting for the desire for very high fertility
among individuals in these populations [19].

The common denominator of a reproductive imperative, grounded, at
least in part, in social or religious tradition, can be identified in
other populations also reported to have relatively high TRs . For ex¬
ample, in a study of multiple births among individuals in the Bola tribe
of the island of New Britain, Scragg and Walsh [135] reported a multiple-
birth incidence of 3.17%, a rate two to three times greater than the
observed rates among four local control populations (two communities on
New Ireland and two on Bougainville Island) . The incidence of multiple
births in these two communities is 1.15% or 1 in 87 births, a figure that
approximates most Caucasian groups [135].

The main component of the multiple -birthing phenomenon among the
Bolas of New Britain is attributed to DZ twinning. Scragg and Walsh
[136] reported that during the time-period which was encompassed by this
study (the years between 1954 and 1966, inclusive), the Bola area com¬
prised about 400 square miles with a population ranging from 3,063 to
4,609 individuals. They also reported that the area has been under the
influence of a Roman Catholic mission for over 40 years [136] and de¬
scribed the Bola people as "entirely Roman Catholic" [135]. The authors
concluded that some as-yet-unidentified environmental factor might be
influencing pituitary gonadotropin levels in Bola women causing the

67

Abbott -King

observed multiple-birthing phenomenon. In comparing nutritional factors,
the authors concluded no significant difference existed between the diet
of the Bolas and the diet of the individuals in the New Ireland and
Bougainville populations. They noted this incidence of multiple-birthing
to have been a local phenomenon not found anywhere else in Papua or New
Guinea .

Comparatively, the religion factor seems significant also in a study
by Wyshak [158] regarding the reproductive and menstrual characteristics
of mothers of multiple births and mothers of singletons in the United
States. Wyshak [158] reported Catholic women as having a greater number
of live births, pregnancies, and maternities than women of other reli¬
gions. The twinning incidence in Chile, a predominantly Roman Catholic
country, is reported to be high at 57 per 1,000 births [135] and a study
of twinning in Mexican-Americans [ 4-7 ] , a predominantly Roman Catholic
population, showed Mexican-Americans as having a higher TR when compared
with U.S. populations of Blacks, Anglos, and Asians. In a study of twin¬
ning in the Utah Mormon population, Carmelli and others [21] reported
that when compared to other U.S. Caucasian populations, Mormons consis¬
tently showed higher twinning rates. Both Mormon and Catholic religions
encourage large family size as do the Yoruba and Bola cultures.

Based on inference from the examples discussed above, it seems
likely that investigation of the possibility that religious culture might
provide a proximal stimulus for neurohormonal conditions, which would
favor multiple ovulation, appears warranted. And, assuming that such an
apparently causative mechanism exists, the question thus arises: through
what neurohormonal pathways might it conceivably operate to produce the
final outcome of multiple ovulation? This line of inquiry may also shed
light on another unexplained phenomenon reported in twin literature:
elevated TRs among postwar births.

TWINNING, POSTWAR BIRTHS, AND REPRODUCTIVE IMPERATIVE

As if to compensate for war mortality or delayed reproduction, the
frequency of twin births tends to increase during postwar periods. Allen
and Schachter [7] reported an increase in TR in the United States after
World War II. Allen [4, 5] has suggested that the psychological state of
the female, influenced by the pituitary, may have enhanced production of
pituitary gonadotropins during this time period, thereby enhancing the
probability of double ovulation. However, no characteri- zation of the
hormonal pathway (s) whereby such a mechanism might operate has been
offered. Torgersen [146] reported a postwar increase in triplet births
greater than that of any earlier period in Norway after World War II.
Parisi and Caperna [117] reported a sudden increase in DZ TRs in Italy
associated with the end of World War I. The authors of these latter two
studies have been unable to account for these phenomena in terms of
factors usually associated with such variation (namely, maternal age,
parity, and nutritional effects). Parisi and Caperna [117] have
suggested that psychosocial factors may influence rates of double ovula¬
tion and that this may account for some variations in TRs, but like other
studies, details of the neurohormonal pathways whereby such a mechanism
might influence multiple ovulation have not been proposed.

68

Human Twinning

A postwar peak in TR is also reported to have occurred in the United
States in 1919 [5], Similarly, in a series of studies on worldwide
secular trends in TRs over the two decades 1957-1978 [61, 62, 64] James
[64] reported an unexplained increase in twin births in the United States
during the 1970s, while TRs in other developed countries showed a de¬
crease or stabilization during these years. Allen [6] further examined
this increase in U.S. TRs between 1964 and 1983, standardizing for mater¬
nal age and parity. His analysis approximated 1964 as the low point for
U.S. TRs, showed a 10% drop in TRs among both Blacks and Whites for 1969-
70 (which may be an artifact of a 2-year reporting hiatus encompassing
these years) with continuous increase in White TRs thereafter, and showed
increased TRs among Blacks beginning in 1972, following a stable rate for
earlier years (the 1969-70 drop being an exception) . Allen ruled out
medical ovulation stimulants as a causative factor because of the distri¬
bution of increased TRs with respect to race, maternal age, and year.

In light of these data and the aforementioned postwar twinning
studies, I suggest it noteworthy that the 1970s represent a postwar
period in the United States. Military discharges were ongoing throughout
the Vietnam Conflict period; the highest number totalling in the millions
occurred from 1969-1971, and complete withdrawal of all U.S. forces was
attained by January 1973 [147], While battle deaths reported for 1968
were the highest reported for any ye~r during this war period at 14,589,
those of the adjacent years 1967 and 1969 were reported to be 9,377 and
9,414, respectively [147]. Approximately 75% of the total casualties
incurred through battle deaths in Vietnam from 1961-1972, occurred during
the period 1967-1969 [147].

Relatedly, examination of data presented in a decadal study of TRs
in Gorlitz, Germany, during 1611 to 1860 [128] shows coincident occur¬
rence of twinning peaks in postwar years. The authors of the Gorlitz
study did not take postwar relationship into account and supposed that
some seasonally epidemic factor may have played a role in causing the
twinning peaks. The authors reported Gorlitz as "an important medieval
town on the main road between Eastern and Western Europe." They also
reported a nearly constant population of about 10,000 and a birth rate of
about 250/year during the years encompassed by this study, except for
increases in TRs observed in the decades under study. It is noteworthy
that the highest TR (2.04%) of the decades encompassed by this study
occurred in the decade 1651-1660 following the Thirty Year War (1618-
1648) . Also noteworthy is the fact that this war has been described as
frightful in terms of the population losses Germany suffered as a result
of military action and disease. The TR increase is followed by decades
of medium (defined by the authors as 1.00-1.50%) to low (less than 1.00%)
TRs until the decade 1761-1770 following the Seven Years War (1756-1763)
when the TR increased to over 1.50%. The TR for the preceding decade was
less than 1.00%. Thereafter, the TR remained high-to-medium in alternat¬
ing decades until it dropped to low levels beginning with the decade
1811-1820 [128]. This low level alternated with medium levels in sub¬
sequent decades until 1860, the last year encompassed by this study.

The stress of war manifests itself in humans through anxiety, chron¬
ic depression, and certain disease states characteristic of chronic

69

Abbott-King

tension [103], Elevated TRs appear to have coincided with the cessation
of wartime, and therefore, perhaps, with the cessation of a proximate
stress stimulus. From this observation, it can tentatively be supposed
that examination of physiological changes associated with stress and
post- stress conditions would provide supporting or refuting evidence for
twinning incidence as a stress-related phenomenon. Existing data on the
relationship between stress and reproductive physiology does provide
supporting lines of evidence which are discussed in the following sec¬
tions. However, studies utilizing contemporary assaying techniques on
mothers of DZ twins are necessary to more fully evaluate this possible
interaction and to ascertain a direct correlation.

NEUROHORMONAL PATHWAYS FOR MULTIPLE FOLLICULAR RECRUITMENT,
MATURATION, AND OVULATION

Several lines of evidence indicate that pituitary gonadotropin
hormones, FSH and LH, play a regulatory role in dizygotic twinning.
Numerous studies on human infertility and its treatment indicate that
poly- ovulation is related to levels of the pituitary gonadotropic
hormones [157]. In a study by Shaw and others [138], twin pregnancy
occurred following desensitization of the pituitary using an LHRH
analogue, and administration of FSH in conjunction with down- regulation
of the hypothalamopituitary axis. Suppressed levels of LH thus attained
indicate that LH is not as important as FSH for follicular recruitment
and maturation, requisite events for double ovulation. Direct evidence
for elevated pituitary gonadotropin levels associated with twinning comes
from Nylander's studies on Yoruba mothers of twins [109-112] discussed
previously, and from studies by Martin and others [92, 93] where a study
of mothers of twins in an Australian population showed higher serum FSH
levels in mothers of twins when compared with mothers of singletons [92].
Conversely, serum gonadotropin levels in a Japanese population studied by
Soma and others [142] showed very low levels and Japanese populations are
reported to have the lowest TRs.

It is expected that if more than one follicle were recruited and
matured for ovulation, follicular estradiol levels would be elevated
during the midfollicular phase [92, 93, 164] and investigations show
results consistent with this expectation [92, 93]. A number of studies
have described binovular human ovarian follicles [48, 54, 66, 70, 115,
116, 139] and it has been suggested that these follicles may contribute
to the incidence of DZ twinning [54, 66]. Zeilmaker and others [163]
reported recovery of viable oocytes from a- human binovular follicle
subsequent to gonadotropin and clomiphene treatment for in vitro fertili¬
zation. Although it is likely that these binovular follicles were the
result of hormonal treatment, the natural occurrence of binovular fol¬
licles is not ruled out [164], Clomiphene treatment accompanied by
temporary estrogenic hormone withdrawal induces multiple follicular
maturation via increased secretion of gonadotropins [164], Gonadotropin
stimulation has been closely linked to the incidence of human binovular
follicles [66, 70, 116].

70

Human Twinning

Gonadotropin- Releasing Hormone and Pituitary Gonadotropins

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) , a hypothalamic decapeptide ,
is reported to regulate gonadotropin secretion from the anterior pitui¬
tary [91]. Several lines of evidence support pulsatile mode of GnRH
release as being essential for gonadotropin secretion and frequency of
GnRH secretion as important in altering gonadotropin secretion. Pre¬
sumably, alterations in GnRH frequency affect recruitment and maturation
of more than one follicle via alteration of FSH/LH ratios at critical
phases of the menstrual cycle. Pulses of GnRH have been shown to re¬
instate secretion of LH and FSH in GnRH- deficient humans and monkeys and
continuous infusions of GnRH have been shown to desensitize the release
of gonadotropins [11, 57, 80, 90, 91, 148]. Frequency of GnRH stimulus
has also been shown to regulate secretion of FSH and LH in the following:
in humans, sheep, and monkeys one GnRH pulse/hour maintains FSH- and LH-
release [91, 154]; one GnQH pulse every 3-4 hours results in elevation of
FSH and reduction in LH-release [25, 91, 118, 154]; three GnRH pulses/
hour result in reduced LH- and FSH-release in plasma (reduction of LH
being due to its 90-100 minute half-life) [91, 154], Therefore, slow
GnRH-pulse frequency may favor FSH-release from the anterior pituitary
[91] . With regard to GnRH control of amount of LH released, it has been
shown in sheep that amplitude of LH-release decreases with frequent GnRH
pulses and increases with slowed GnRH pulses [25, 91],

Pituitary Gonadotropins and Gonadal Steroids

LH stimulates secretion of gonadal steroids and secretion of pro¬
gesterone and prostaglandins, substances necessary for ovulation [145],
FSH regulates follicular growth and maturation. Figure 1 illustrates
generalized hormonal pathways through which gonadotropin secretion is
thought to be regulated in the human female . GnRH secretion frequency is
reported to be inhibited by the gonadal steroid estradiol [91], Con¬
versely, LH pulse frequency is increased by estradiol [68] . Estrogen
effects may be dependent on the duration or magnitude of hypothalamic
exposure to estradiol [91], Supporting data show LH-pulse-frequency
increases with increased plasma estradiol during the late follicular
phase of the menstrual cycle [10, 124], Estrogen is produced by the
maturing follicle and is the stimulus for the LH-FSH-peak associated with
ovulation [2, 145]. Progesterone's inhibitory effect on LH has been
observed in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle [10, 41, 124, 160],
In other studies, the gonadal steroid progesterone has been shown to
inhibit LH pulse frequency [94, 143].

Both estradiol and progesterone can modify GnRH secretion amplitude
and frequency patterns, altering the differential secretions of FSH and
LH during the menstrual cycle. Further, progesterone has been shown to
enhance the response of LH to GnRH after exposure to estradiol [75, 91]
and the combined effect of these steroids are thought to be responsible
for the LH and FSH peak at midcycle [84] usually associated with ovula¬
tion. While estradiol has been shown to positively influence LH levels,
it has also been shown to inhibit FSH secretion [88, 91,96]. It is
thought that gonadal steroids affect pituitary gonadotropin secretion by
changing levels of endogenous opioids and hypothalamic catecholamines

[91].

71

Abbott-King

o a.

s A

a.

t

STIMULATORY
-► INHIBITORY

/A

/V — >L

H FSH< - ^

s. \

/ \

/ 7

OVARY

GRANULOSA CELLS

\1/

FOLLICULAR RECRUITMENT.
GROWTH. 8. MATURATION

G-CELLS

PRODUCE PROGESTERONE
IN THE

LATE FOLLICULAR

PHASE

I

PROGESTERONE

OVULATION^-

-<

ESTROGEN

>

CORPUS LUTEUM
(G-CELLS » THECAL CELLS)

PROGESTERONE

- 7 -

ESTROGEN

- 7—

5 7

(D CD

A

W
^ /~\

W

Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing regulation of gonadotropin
secretion in the female. Secretory structures and
products are shown in boxes and regulatory influences
are indicated with arrows (see text for references) .

Opioids, Catecholamines , GnRH , and Gonadotropin Secretion

The hypothalamus contains high concentrations of opioids and their
receptors [56, 58]. Beta-endorphin is also contained in the cortico-
trophs of the anterior pituitary and there is some evidence for met-
enkaphalin in pituitary somatotrophs [58, 150]. Co-release of beta-
endorphin and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is reported to occur in
plasma following stressful stimuli [58, 140]. Opioids are reported to
suppress FSH and LH in humans [29, 50, 58, 125, 144] and to have an
inhibitory effect on GnRH pulse frequency [91]. Opioids are also thought
to mediate inhibitory effects of ovarian steroids [82, 91], Figure 2
schematically summarizes regulatory pathways reported for opioids, GnRH,
and gonadotropins.

72

Human Twinning

Figure 2. Schematic diagram schowing inhibitory action of
opioids on GnRH, and stress - induced secretion of
pituitary peptides (see text for references) .
Secretory structures and products are shown in
boxes and regulatory influences are indicated with
arrows .

Increased activity of opioids and consequent inhibition of GnRH
secretion has been implicated in hypothalamic amenorrhea and anovulation
[22, 23, 51, 71, 72, 91, 121, 132], Physical and psychological stress as
well as self-imposed loss of weight are reported to result in increased
hypothalamic opioid activity and consequent reduction of GnRH pulse fre¬
quency, producing amenorrhea, and anovulation [74, 89, 91, 134], Opioids
are thought to operate by modifying firing patterns of neurons that
secrete GnRH causing alteration in GnRH pulse- frequency [91],

Various forms of stress are reported to release corticotropin re¬
leasing factor (CRF) from the hypothalamus and experimental data on human
pituitaries demonstrate increased release of both adrenocorticotropic
hormone (AGTH) and beta- endorphin in response to CRF [40] . In their
hypothesis on the role of endogenous opioids in ovarian function, Ferin
and others [40] postulated that amenorrhea .may be caused by abnormal
activity of hypothalamic beta- endorphin characterized by continuously low
or sustained high activity, rather than the normal sequence of high and
low periods of activity characteristic of the normal menstrual cycle
(beta-endorphins increase during the luteal phase [40], for instance).
Such abnormal opioid activity would lead to "sustained high or continu¬
ously low GnRH oscillator frequency" and improper ratios of gonadotropins
necessary for morphological ovarian changes in the normal menstrual cycle
[40] . Subsequent studies have produced results consistent with this
hypothesis [71, 72, 123], Observations on chronic opioid treatment have
shown loss of responsiveness to opioid stimulation and massive increase
of LH upon withdrawal of the treatment [82] (Table 1).

73

Abbott-King

Table 1. Stress - related neurohormonal conditions which could contribute
to multiple ovulation.

Cessation of Stress

Stressed Condition

Favors decreases in:

Beta- Endorphin

CRF

ACTH

*Dopamine

^Epinephrine

*NE

Favors increases in:

Beta- Endorphin

CRF

ACTH

*Dopamine

*Epinephrine

*NE

Favors increases in :

Favors decreases in:

GnRH pulse frequency
Gonadotropins to "over¬
shoot" levels [79, 82, 145]

Possible reproductive consequences :

Quickened GnRH-pulse frequency
resulting in excessively high
FSH-LH levels or disproportionate
FSH-LH ratios during "rebound
period" (overshoot of gonadotro¬
pins above pre-stress baseline
levels) ; favoring multiple
follicular recruitment,
maturation and ovulation,
or binovulation; followed by
stabilization of GnRH-pulse
frequency and FSH/LH ratios
to normal pre-stress levels.

GnRH pulse frequency
Gonadotropin levels

Tonically- slowed GnRH-
pulse frequency resulting
in low FSH-LH levels or
disproportionate FSH/LH
ratios favoring anovula¬
tion/amenorrhea .

*Opioids are thought to prevent excessive release of catecholamines
[30, 52, 59, 73, 87] and may, therefore, alter NE/E ratios producing
a net effect on GnRH-pulse frequency. Increased release of catechol¬
amines may result in increased release of opioids that modulate ex¬
cessive release of catecholamines through autofeedback [59].

Like opioids, catecholamines such as epinephrine (E) and norepi¬
nephrine (NE) are thought to change the firing pattern of GnRH- secreting
neurons, consequently altering GnRH pulse frequency [91]. E and NE have
been shown to affect the frequency of GnRH pulses in rats [67] and in
primates, and catecholamine blocking agents have been shown to slow LH
pulse frequency [69]. These data imply a stimulatory role for catechol¬
amines on hypothalamic GnRH-release . Dopamine, a precursor in the bio¬
synthetic pathway of NE and E, is reported to cause a decrease in
circulating levels of LH in humans, when orally infused [145]. It has

74

Human Twinning

been suggested that norepinephrine exerts a stimulatory effect on GnRH
while dopamine exerts an inhibitory effect on GnRH [145, 159] . However,
while continuous administration of dopamine in humans causes a decrease
in circulating gonadotropin concentrations, withdrawal of treatment
results in a rebound effect causing circulating concentrations of gonad¬
otropins to overshoot original baseline levels [145] (Table 1).

The sympathomedullary- adrenocortical system responds to physical
and psychological stress in a number of ways including NE- release from
sympathetic nerves, E-release from the adrenal medulla, ACTH from the
anterior pituitary, and glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex. Ca¬
techolamines also are reported to stimulate release of ACTH from the
anterior pituitary and are in turn regulated by glucocorticoids [9]. E
is reported to sensitize the anterior pituitary to the action of CRF on
ACTH-release [9], Stress has been shown to activate the sympathetic
adrenomedullary system to produce elevated plasma levels of catechol¬
amines. Social stresses such as public speaking [9, 76] and harassment
[9, 32] have been shown to raise E levels. A rise in NE levels is also
reported to result from public speaking stress [9, 76] though to a lesser
extent than those of E. Basal levels of E and NE have been shown to
increase in relation to level of anxiety in depressed subjects [9, 85].
Other forms of stress such as hypoglycemia, physical stress, and thermal
stress are also reported to increase plasma levels of catecholamines [9],

Studies support a modulatory role for opioids in excessive release
of catecholamines [30, 52, 59, 73, 87] and the human sympathoadrenal
system characteristically contains high concentrations of the opioids
beta-endorphin and met-enkaphalin [59], Opioid peptides may be released
from splanchnic nerve endings to modulate catecholamine - release from
adrenal chromaffin cells or may be released from chromaffin cells in the
adrenal medulla to exert catecholamine -modulating autofeedback on the
cells [59],

STRESS -RELATED NEUROHORMONAL CONDITIONS FAVORING MULTIPLE
FOLLICULAR RECRUITMENT AND MATURATION: . A HYPOTHETICAL SCHEMA

Observations on the suggested role of pulsatile, hypothalamic GnRH-
release in regulating FSH/LH release from the anterior pituitary, the
modulatory roles suggested for catecholamines and opioids on GnRH- re¬
lease, the modulatory role suggested for opioid peptides in preventing
excessive release of catecholamines, and the release of opioids and
catecholamines in response to stressful stimuli provide a valuable con¬
struct in which to examine a possible role for psychosocial stimuli in
twinning incidence. In Table 1, I propose tentative pathways accom¬
modating existing data, whereby stress - induced alterations of opioids and
catecholamines might contribute to physiological conditions favoring
twinning. According to this hypothetical schema, the stressed condition
sets up antecedents for a rebound effect favoring relatively high FSH and
LH levels. These elevated gonadotropin levels might in turn favor re¬
cruitment and maturation of more than one follicle, or perhaps, binovular
follicular development. It is significant that Nylander [111, 112] and
Martin and others [92] found elevated FSH levels in DZ twinning mothers
during the follicular phase. Existing data indicate a finely tuned

75

Abbott-King

regulatory role for GnRH pulse -frequency variation in controlling gonad¬
otropin ratios during various phases of the menstrual cycle to maintain
normal menstrual and ovulatory cyclicity. Disturbances in hypothalamic
GnRH- release have been shown to result in varied FSH/LH ratios and can
therefore be presumed capable of disturbing the normal events of the
ovulatory cycle.

This hypothetical schema is highly simplified and does not preclude
the possible interaction of other neurohormones and gonadal steroids
within the system. Further studies using specific agonists, antagonists,
radioimmunoassays, and sufficiently sensitive radioenzymatic techniques
to evaluate the possibility of these and other interactions, are clearly
necessary. It is an objective of this synthesis to underline the impor¬
tance of this line of inquiry to present and future research on twinning.

Several falsifiable predictions derive from the synthesis put forth
in this paper and the hypothetical schema postulated therefrom. The main
tenets of my hypothesis are summarized as follows, and unless otherwise
noted, are referenced in previous sections.

A. Demographic and physiologic studies of twinning have produced
the following observations:

1. Twinning tends to occur in large families.

2. The frequency of twinning increases after wartime.

3. Levels of FSH and LH are higher in mothers of twins than in
mothers of singletons.

4. Twinning incidence increases with increased maternal age [17,
18, 35, 99, 122, 156].

B. Studies on pituitary gonadotropin regulation of follicular
recruitment, maturation, and ovulation show results compatible with the
above findings on twinning incidence, assuming a neuroendocrine relation:

1. Pituitary gonadotropins, FSH in particular, are important in
follicular recruitment, maturation and ovulation, and at high
levels promote multiple ovulation.

2. GnRH pulse frequency and amplitude are postulated to regulate
gonadotropin levels.

3. Catecholamine and opioid peptide neurotransmitters stimulate or
inhibit GnRH pulse frequency and are thereby postulated to play
a regulatory role in gonadotropin secretion.

4. Catecholamines and opioid levels co-vary with emotional state
and excess hypothalamic opioid-release is implicated in amenor¬
rhea and anovulation.

C. If levels of these neurotransmitters are consistently correlated
with stressed emotional/psychological states of twin mothers, then
certain heretofore unexplained twinning phenomena might be correlated
with stress - related events affecting female neurophysiology. Demographic
and physiologic findings are consistent with this hypothesis and the
following predictions should hold in order to confirm it:

1. Variations in levels of catecholamines and opioid peptides in
mothers of twins should show consistency with GnRH-pulse

76

Human Twinning

frequency variations and variations in gonadotropin levels which
would favor multiple ovulation.

2. Populations whose traditional culture, religion, or social
structures do not encourage large family size should show
comparatively low twinning incidence .

3. Within a cohort of women of increased maternal age, twinning
rate should be higher among primaparous mothers than multiparous
mothers; the ending of a woman's reproductive years signalling a
"reproductive imperative" in the neurophysiology of older
mothers who have not yet successfully born children. Results of
at least one study [122] support this prediction.

4. Twinning rates should increase after stressful man-made or
natural events which result in high mortality, e . g . , plague,
famine, war (supported, in part, by postwar studies cited in a
previous section) .

5. Twinning incidence should increase with increased migration from
urban to rural areas , urban areas representing chronically high-
stress environments and rural areas representing environments of
intermittent stress (see Discussion for supporting studies) .

6. Twinning incidence should be higher among native inhabitants of
island populations (see Discussion for supporting studies) when
compared with the mainland inhabitants of their ancestral
lineage; islands representing colonization sites and less
stable, intermittently stressful environments when compared with
mainland environments .

DISCUSSION

Confirmation of the predictions derived from the hypothesis proposed
in this paper would support a related hypothesis proposed by Rushton
[131] that: 1) DZ twinning is a r-selected reproductive strategy in the
human species characteristic of individuals living in unstable environ¬
ments and the degree to which an individual is K- selected manifests
itself in social behavior and physiology and 2) the process of sociali¬
zation itself may cause humans to adopt an r- or K-strategy based upon
how predictable they perceive their environment to be [126, 151, 152].

The twinning phenomena described in this paper show relationships
predicted by population regulation theory, although anomalies do exist.
(Deviations at the empirical level are expected of the hypothetical
schema postulated in this paper and therefore, it is expected to be
refined necessarily, through further experimentation. However, existing
data merits its investigation.) Although population regulation is most
commonly discussed in terms of mechanisms which reduce the population
from a high level in relation to resources and space, a phenomenon known
as "population limitation" [28], it is also supposed that such a mecha¬
nism could operate to increase the population in response to a low
population level [43], thus maintaining an optimal density in relation to
environmental limits. Human twinning phenomena discussed in this paper
collectively manifest some of the characteristics of a dens ity- dependent ,
self -regulating mechanism and as such, perception of population density
would be expected to play an integral role in limiting or expanding the
human populations discussed. Human reactions to population density are

77

Abbott-King

highly variable [26, 43] and if human twinning is part of a self-
regulating system in humans, then mothers of twins would be expected to
show cor- relates of perceptual reactions to density accordingly, when
compared with mothers of singletons. This assumption is readily
falsifiable through appropriate experimental manipulations.

The line of reasoning being developed here considers the possibility
that the sensory-perceptual systems of some humans is part of a complex
of feedback loops involving their reproductive system and cognitive
functions in such a way as to confer them the ability to compensate for
prenatal or postnatal familial mortality. Any one human's response to
density is mediated by many processes including interpretation of a
situation and its consequences for him/herself, and social organization
affects density-sensitivity [43], Further, it is expected that the
extent to which self-regulation characterizes species as a by-product of
individual selection, the regulatory mechanisms and systems of regulation
would be expected to be specific to populations and closely adapted to
their particular environment [26], Twinning phenomena discussed herein
appear consistent with this expectation.

Such a self -regulating mechanism may account for high TRs observed
in rural vs. urban populations [36-39, 45, 46, 101, 130, 146] and in
island populations [36, 92, 98, 119, 120, 135, 136]; rural environments
representing optimal density/resource situations and islands repre¬
senting sites of optimal density/resource conditions upon initial
colonization. Similarly, with regard to postwar increases in TR,
perception of optimal density/resource conditions during postwar periods
may operate through neurohormonal pathways to increase reproductive
potential via twinning. Perception of optimal density/resource condi¬
tions might contribute to relief from stress characteristic of the
postwar period. Finally, such a density-dependent mechanism operating,
in. part, through perceptual systems in humans, may account for the
association of twinning with individuals of specific religions. Self-
perception of whether or not one has fulfilled one's social, religious,
or personal obligation to successfully reproduce, may result in neuro¬
hormonal conditions which favor twinning. This may account for the
relatively high twinning incidence observed among individuals in the
Yoruba, Catholic, and Mormon populations previously described. It would
be informative to investigate postwar TRs in terms of the religious
components of the populations studied, to see if the observed high TR is
not predominantly due to TR in individuals of religious groups which
encourage large family-size. This possibility is as yet unexplored.

The premise of this paper has been that human twinning incidence can
be observed to vary in a seemingly compensatory manner, in response to
changes in the physical or cultural environment. This premise supports
selection at the individual level, and any collective advantage to the
group (e.g., Catholics, Yorubas , and Mormons) is viewed as a fortuitous
result of advantage to the individual (as it is viewed of other species
exhibiting compensatory mechanisms [141]). The relative paucity of
information on neurohormonal pathways involved in DZ twinning could, I
be- lieve, be mitigated by study of the relationships postulated in this
synthesis and a greater understanding of the enigmatic variations ob-

78

Human Twinning

served in human twinning rates gained, through the lines of inquiry
herein proposed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge ray former population ecology professor, Dr.
Gary R. Mullen, Auburn University, whose graduate course provided the
stimulus for this study.

This study is dedicated to my co-twin, Jeffrey P. Abbott, to our
parents, Anne J. Stabryla Abbott and Richard Merrill Abbott, and to my
husband, David T. King, Jr., for his technical assistance and encourage¬
ment .

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91

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 2, April 1989.

VITELLOGENIC PROTEIN SYNTHESIS BY THE CRICKET OVARY1

James T. Bradley, H.-C. Chang and, Theresa G. Dawkins
Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science and
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn University , AL 36849

ABSTRACT

As in other insects, vitellogenin (VG) is synthesized and secreted by
the fat body of adult female crickets during vitellogenesis. In some
species, notably certain dipterans , the ovary also produces VG. This
study examined the ovary of Acheta domesticus for VG- synthesizing activi¬
ty. Isolated ovarian and fat body tissue from 48 to 60-hour-old adult
females was cultured in vitro with uC-leucine or 35S -methionine for 2-4
h at 30°C. Tissues and media were assayed for labeled VG polypeptides
by immunoprecipitation and by autoradiography after SDS -polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis. The results indicated that the cricket ovary produces
VG. Evidence was also obtained for the synthesis of two high molecular
weight intracellular VG precursor polypeptides by the fat body and ovary
of adult females. The factors regulating ovarian VG synthesis and the
relative contributions of fat body- and ovary-derived VG to the total egg
yolk protein in the cricket are not yet known.

INTRODUCTION

Vitellogenin is the blood borne precursor protein for the major egg
yolk protein(s) for animals with lecithal eggs. Insect VG is produced by
the fat body, secreted into the hemolymph, and sequestered by vitellogenic
follicles via receptor-mediated endocytosis (Engelmann, 1979, Telfer et
al., 1982). Immunoreactive VG is first detectable in the hemolymph of
virgin female Acheta domesticus between 14 and 24 hours after ecdysis to
the adult (Benford and Bradley, 1986). By 38 hours, terminal follicles
are vitellogenic, and fully grown chorionated oocytes appear in the
lateral oviducts on the 5th day of adult life (Bradley and Edwards, 1978).
As in other insects (Wyatt and Pan, 1978) , the fat body is a major source
of VG in the cricket (Cox, 1988).

In a few insects, VG also appears to be synthesized by the ovary.
Previtellogenic ovaries from several Drosophila species produce fully-
developed oocytes after being transplanted into adult male or even larval
hosts (Bodenstein, 1947; Srdic et al . , 1979), suggesting autonomous VG
synthesis by the ovary, and immunoprecipitable VG is synthesized by the
ovaries of Sarcophaga bullata (Huybrechts et al . , 1983), D. melanogaster
(Brennan et al., 1982), and Mu sea domestica (de Bianchi et al . , 1985),
So far there has been no direct demonstration of extra- fat body VG syn-

^anuscript received 25 October 1988; accepted 30 January 1989.

92

Bradley, Chang, and Dawkins

thesis in crickets. The possibility of ovary-derived cricket VG is
suggested by the facts that the appearance of newly made hemo lymph VG in
A. domesticus is juvenile hormone (JH) -dependent (Benford and Bradley,
1986) and that a few normal -appearing oocytes are produced in some (12%)
adult A. domesticus females allatectomized during their last nymphal
instar ( Chudakova et al . , 1967). The latter study was done prior to
identification of cricket VG polypeptides (Bradley and Edwards, 1978) and
so did not rule out the possible uptake of nonVG hemolymph proteins by
developing follicles in the allatectomized animals. The present study
provides immunological and electrophoretic evidence for VG synthesis in
the ovary of A. domesticus . Also reported is the tentative identification
of unprocessed VG polypeptide precursors in the fat body and ovary of
females during vitellogenesis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Animals

Acheta domesticus (L.) was purchased in mixed (females and males)
batches of 1000 last instar nymphs from Monroe Cricket and Grub Farm
(Monroe, GA) , and stock populations of these were maintained as previously
described (Bradley and Edwards, 1978). Newly molted adults were isolated
from the stock population, placed in individual plastic petri dishes (90
mm diameter x 13 mm deep) , supplied with food (Pulverized Little Friskies ,
Carnation, Ca. , Los Angeles, CA) and water ad libitum, and maintained in
a ventilated incubator (Percival, Boone, IA) at 27 - 30°C (70% r.h.) on a
12 : 12L/D photoperiod until used in the experiments described below. The
time of ecdysis of the adult was estimated on the basis of cuticle
coloration and degree of wing inflation (Bradley, 1976) to within 5
minutes for animals used in the ligation experiment and to within 2 hours
for those used in all other experiments.

In vitro labeling of polypeptides

Tissues were cultured in plastic tissue culture plates (Ace Scientif¬
ic, Model S-MRG-90) or 10 mm diameter glass shell vials. These and all
dissecting equipment were sterilized by a 1-2 hour exposure to UV light
(Sylvania bulb G30T8) inside a benchtop culture hood (Lab Con Co.). Prior
to dissection, crickets were rinsed briefly in deionized water, surface
sterilized by immersing 45-60 seconds in 0.2% HgCl2 , and then rinsed twice
in sterile deionized water. Ovaries and fat body were removed from the
dorsal side of the abdomen, and muscle tissue was collected from hind
femurs. Each organ or tissue piece was placed directly into a shallow
glass dish containing sterile Grace's unmodified insect medium (Gibco)i
All visible fat body adhering to the ovaries was removed with the aid of
a dissecting microscope. Tissues were then transferred to individual
culture wells or vials containing measured amounts of Grace's unmodified
culture medium. For each experiment, label previously diluted to an
appropriate activity with culture medium was added to each culture vessel
within a 60 second period. The wells (or vials) were then covered with
parafilm, and the plates were wrapped in cellophane and incubated with
gentle shaking at 30° in a shallow water bath.

93

Vitellogenic Protein Synthesis

Tissues for which VG- synthesizing activity was quantitated by immuno-
precipitation were incubated for 4 hours in 350 ^Ci of 1AC-leucine (342
mCi/mmol, New England Nuclear). Tissue from four crickets was incubated
in each vial which contained either four ovaries, fat body approximating
that in two whole abdomens, or leg muscle approximating that in two hind
femurs. After the incubation period, the tissue and culture medium in
each vial were homogenized at 0°C in the presence of 0.1 mM phenylmethyl-
sulfonyl fluoride (Sigma), and aliquots of the homogenate were stored at
90°C for later estimation of labeled VG, TCA precipitable label, and total
protein.

For the electrophoretic analysis tissues were incubated for 2 h in 27
pi of culture medium containing 10 pCi of 35S -methionine . Ovary pairs
and/or about 50% of the abdominal fat body from each individual were
cultured separately. After the incubation period, tissue from each
culture well was rinsed twice in culture medium and then homogenized in
35 pi of fresh medium. These homogenates and the original culture medium
for each tissue sample were stored at -90°C until electrophoresis.

Antiserum preparation and immunoprecipitation assay for newly synthesized
vitellogenin

Antiserum was raised in rabbits as previously described (Chang and
Bradley, 1982) using a protein extract from fully grown cricket oocytes
as the antigen. The antiserum was exhaustively absorbed with hemolymph
from adult males and last nymphal instar males and females, and its
specificity was tested by Ouchterlony immunodiffusion. The absorbed
antiserum reacted only with adult female hemolymph and egg yolk protein
extracts, forming a single fused precipitin band opposite these antigen
sources. Labeled VG in tissue homogenates was estimated using the
immunoassay described by Chang and Bradley (1982) .

Estimation of 14C- leucine incorporation and total protein

^C-labeled protein was precipitated in 10% TCA, transferred to glass
filters (GF/A, VWR Scientific) , washed, and counted by liquid scintilla¬
tion as previously described (Chang and Bradley, 1982). Total protein in
tissue homogenates was estimated according to Lowry et al . (1951) using
bovine serum albumin in 0.4 M NaCl as a standard, and samples were read
at 560 nm against 0.4 H NaCl blanks.

Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis

Samples to be electrophoresed were thawed, and a half volume of
solution containing 0.186 M Tris-HCL pH 6 . 8 , 6% sodium dodecyl sulfate
(SDS) , 30% glycerol, and 15% 2 -mercaptoethanol was mixed with each tissue
homogenate and culture medium sample. The samples were then heated for
2 min. at 100°C after which the tissue homogenates were microfuged for 3
min. in order to sediment insoluble material. SDS -polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis was performed at room temperature according to Laemmli
(1970) in a 15-lane, 180 x 160 x 1.5-mm, 6-8% acrylamide gradient slab
gel. Ten to 30 p\ samples of either pooled or individual tissue homoge¬
nates or culture media were applied to each sample well. A constant 85

94

Bradley, Chang, and Dawkins

V were applied until the bromophenol blue tracking dye reached the
stacking gel-running gel interface; thereafter, electrophoresis was at
110-125 V until the dye reached the bottom of the running gel. After
electrophoresis, the separate polypeptides were fixed and stained with
Coomassie brilliant blue according to Laemmli (1970). The destained gels
were photographed and dried onto filter paper with a Bio-Rad gel slab
dryer .

Autoradiography and photography

Autoradiographs of dried polyacrylamide gels containing 35S-
methionine- labeled polypeptides were produced using Kodak XAR-5 film
exposed for varying periods of time at -90°C. The film was developed by
standard procedures with Kodak x-ray developer. Autoradiographs were
photographed over a light box using Kodak Technical Pan Film 2415 and a
deep orange filter. The film was developed for high contrast.

Statistical procedures

Each mean + standard error reported in Table 1 was derived from three
samples, each containing tissue from four animals. The means were com¬
pared using Student's one-tailed t-test.

RESULTS

Tissue-specificity of in vitro vitellogenin synthesis

To quantitate in vitro VG- synthesizing activity of the fat body and
ovary, an immunoprecipitation assay for newly synthesized VG was used.
In two separate experiments, VG- synthesizing activity, expressed as the
amount of label incorporated into immunoprec ip i table VG per unit of tissue
protein, was about three times greater in the fat body than in the ovary
(P<.05) of 48 to 60-hour-old virgins (Table 1). Nevertheless, the amount
of immunoreactive , labeled protein produced by the ovary was significantly
greater than that from either the ovaries or fat body of last instar
nymphs, or from leg muscle tissue from adult females (P<.05; Table 1).

Vitellogenin represented 18-20% and 4-5%, respectively, of the TCA
precipitable 14C- leucine incorporated by the fat body and ovary of adult
females during the culture period. Since both ovaries and as much abdomi¬
nal fat body as possible were collected and cultured from each experimen¬
tal animal, the relative contributions of the ovary and the fat body to
the total vitellogenin- synthesizing activity per animal could be estimated
from the in vitro activities of these tissues. Assuming that the fat body
and ovary are the only sites of VG synthesis, it was estimated that the
ovaries were producing 16-21% of the newly synthesized VG in the abdomens
of 48 to 60-hour-old females.

Electrophoretic identification of vitellogenin precursor polypeptides

Patterns of in vitro protein synthesis were examined in various
tissues by autoradiography of 35S- labeled polypeptides separated electro-
phoretically in SDS -polyacrylamide gels. Fat body from 48-hour-old adult

95

Table 1. Tissue-specificity of in vitro synthesis of cricket vitellogenin

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Bradley, Chang, and Dawkins

Figure 1. Autoradiographs of SDS -polyacrylamide gels containing 35S-
methionine labeled vitellogenin precursor polypeptides (long
arrows) synthesized in vitro by fat body or ovaries from 47-
hour-old adult females. All tissues were homogenized in their
respective incubation media. Lane 1, adult female fat body; 2,
last nymphal instar female fat body; 3, adult male fat body; 4,
immunoprecipitated fat body polypeptides; 5 and 6, adult female
hemo lymph polypeptides labeled in vivo with 35S -methionine (short
arrows show positions of the four processed VG polypeptides of
A. domesticus) ; 7, adult female fat body; 8, ovary; 9,

incubation medium from ovary of lane 8. Exposure times for
images in lanes 6-9 and for lanes 8' and 9' were 5 days and 24
days, respectively. Note that labeled ovarian polypeptides
which comigrate with fat body VG precursor polypeptides are
detectable only after long exposure.

females with vitellogenic follicles synthesized two high molecular weight
polypeptides which were precipitated specifically by an antiserum for
cricket VG and vitellin (VN) (Fig. 1). Neither polypeptide was produced
by fat body from adult males or last nymphal instar females at levels
sufficiently high for detection by autoradiography. Therefore, these two
female-specific fat body polypeptides were tentatively identified as
precursors of the processed VG polypeptides previously identified in the
hemolymph of A. domesticus (Bradley and Edwards, 1978). Autoradiographs
produced by extending the exposure period beyond three weeks revealed two
minor 35S-labeled polypeptide products of vitellogenic ovaries which co¬
migrate with the putative fat body VG precursors (Fig. 1).

97

Vitellogenic Protein Synthesis

DISCUSSION

Evidence for VG synthesis in the ovary of the cricket, A. domes t icus ,
was obtained by two methods: liquid scintillation of immunoprecipitates
and autoradiography of labeled polypeptides separated in polyacrylamide
gels. Evidence for ovarian production of VG has been reported for only
one other orthopteran (Wyss-Huber and Luscher, 1975). These authors
presented electrophoretic and immunological evidence that the female -
specific vitellogenic protein of Leucophaea maderae is synthesized by
isolated ovarioles and the ovarian connective tissue sheath, as well as
by the fat body. Moreover, it appeared that the rate of ovarian VG
synthesis was highest during a period of follicle growth when the corpora
allata are active, suggesting that JH may regulate ovarian as well as fat
body (Brookes, 1969) VG synthesis in L. maderae. Although the whole ovary
did produce VG in vitro, fat body tissue within the ovary or the ovarian
sheath was suggested to be responsible for this activity.

Ovarian VG synthesis is well documented in the Diptera. In D. me-
lanogaster , the follicular epithelium of vitellogenic oocytes synthesizes
all three VG polypeptides and produces 10-35% of the total messenger RNA
in the animal for each of these (Brennan et al., 1982). The ovaries of
M. domestica synthesize and secrete VG in vitro (de Bianchi et al . , 1985),
and ultrastructural studies suggest that some yolk protein synthesis also
occurs in the follicle cells of this species (Chia and Morrison, 1972) .
Ovary transplantation experiments gave evidence for VG synthesis by the
ovary in D. mercatorum and D. hydei (Srdic et al., 1979), and in S.
bullata both the fat body and ovary contain VG messenger RNAs and syn¬
thesize and secrete all three corresponding yolk polypeptides (Huybrechts
et al., 1983). By contrast, none of the three VG polypeptides synthesized
and secreted by the fat body of Calliphora erythrocephala appear to be
produced by the ovary (Fourney et al., 1982).

Ovarian VG synthesis in A. domesticus may be significant in the
context of ooplasmic localization of VN in the fully grown oocyte.
Nicolaro and Bradley (1980) reported that the two native VNs of A.
domesticus are nonrandomly distributed in the fully grown oocyte, VN II
predominating in the anterior end and VN I in the posterior end of the
oocyte. How these gradient-like VN distributions are established is
unknown, but one possibility is that preferential uptake of the corre¬
sponding VGs occurs at opposite poles of VG follicles. Vitellogenin
synthesis of each VG within developing follicles could also contribute to
the final VN distribution in the oocyte.

The existence of two high molecular weight, VG precursor polypeptides
in A. domesticus was predicted by Harnish and White (1982) who have
proposed an evolutionary model for insect VNs based on the number and size
of the processed VG polypeptides in insects representing eight orders.
In A. domesticus four VG polypeptides are resolved in denaturing poly¬
acrylamide gels (Bradley and Edwards, 1978). The molecular weight for
two of these is about 100 kDa and for the other two is about 50 kDa.
According to the model of Harnish and White (1982) , these large (> 100

98

kDa) and small (50 kDa) VG polypeptides are derived from larger (approx.
200 kDa) precursor polypeptides by proteolytic processing, each precursor
yielding a large and a small VG polypeptide. A precursor-product
relationship between the high molecular weight female-specific fat body
polypeptides reported here and the four hemolymph VG polypeptides in A.
domesticus (Bradley and Edwards, 1978) has been established, and the
relationship between each precursor and its proteolytic products is being
investigated.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by the Alabama NSF/EPSCoR Program in Molecu¬
lar, Cellular and Developmental Biology (Grant 3R11-8610669) , HATCH

Project ALA 665, and by state funds to the Alabama Agricultural Experiment

Station (Journal Series No. 15-881891P) , Auburn University.

LITERATURE CITED

Benford H. H. and Bradley J. T. (1986) Early detection and juvenile hor¬
mone dependence of cricket vitellogenin. J. Insect Physiol. 32, 109-
116.

de Bianchi A. G., Coutinho M. , Pereira S. D. , Marinotti 0. and Targa H.
J. (1985) Vitellogenin and vitellin of Musca domestica: Quantifica¬
tion and synthesis by fat body and ovaries. Insect Biochem. 15, 77-
84.

Bodenstein D. (1947) Investigations on the reproductive system of
Drosophila. J. Exp. Zool. 104, 101-152.

Bradley J. T. (1976) Aspects of vitellogenesis in the house cricket
Acheta domesticus . Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington,
Seattle. 171 pp .

Bradley J. T. and Edwards J. S. (1978) Yolk proteins in the house

cricket, Acheta domesticus : Identification, characterization, and
effect of ovariectomy upon their synthesis. J. Exp. Zool. 204, 239-
248.

Brennan M. D. , Weiner A. J. , Goralski T. J. and Mahowald A. P. (1982) The
follicle cells are a major site of vitellogenin synthesis in
Drosophila melanogaster . Develop. Biol. 89, 225-236.

Brookes, V. J. (1969) The induction of yolk protein synthesis in the fat
body of an insect, Leucophaea maderae, by an analog of the juvenile
hormone. Develop. Biol. 20, 459-471.

Chang H.-C. and Bradley J. T. (1983) Vitellogenin synthesis and secretion
in ovariectomized crickets. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 75B, 733-737.

Chia W. K. and Morrison P. E. (1972) Autoradiographic and ultrastructural
studies on the origin of yolk proteins in the housefly, Musca
domestica L. Can. J. Zool. 50, 1569-1582.

99

Vitellogenic Protein Synthesis

Chudakova, I. V., Bocharova-Messner , 0. M. and Romashkin M. P. (1975)
Morphofunctional state of principal organ systems, life span, and
fertility in the domestic cricket Acheta domesCicus during normal
imaginal development and after allatectomy. Ontogenez 6(1), 20-30.

Cox M. G. (1988) Vitellogenin Synthesis and Processing by the Fat Body
of the House Cricket Acheta domes ticus . M. S. Thesis, Auburn
University, Auburn, Ala.

Engelmann F. (1979) Insect vitellogenin: Identification, biosynthesis and
role in vitellogenesis. Adv. Insect Physiol. 14:49-108.

Fourney R. M, Pratt G. F, Harnish D. G., Wyatt G. R. and White B. N.
(1982) Structure and synthesis of vitellogenin and vitellin form
Calliphora erythroceophala . Insect Biochem. 12, 311-321.

Harnish D. G. and White B. N. (1982) An evolutionary model for the insect
vitellins. J. Mol. Evol. 28, 405-413.

Huybrechts R. , Cardoen J. and De Loof A. (1983) In vitro secretion of
yolk polypeptides by fat body and ovaries of Sarcophaga bullata
(Diptera, Calliphoridae) . Annls . Soc. R. Zool. Belg. T. 113 (suppl.
1), 309-317.

Laemmli U. K. (1970) Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly
of the head of bacteriphage T4. Nature (London) 227, 680-685.

Lowry 0. H. , Rosebrough H. J., Farr A. L. and Randall R. J. (1951)
Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chem.
193, 265-275.

Nicolaro M.-L. and Bradley J. T. (1980) Yolk proteins in developing
follicles of the house cricket, Acheta domesticus (L.). J. Exp. Zool.
212, 225-232.

Srdic Z. , Reinhardt C., Beck H. and Gloor H. (1979) Autonomous yolk

protein synthesis in ovaries of Drosophila cultured in vivo. Roux's
Arch. Dev. Biol. 187, 255-266.

Telfer W. H. , Heubner E. and Smith D. S. (1982) The cell biology of

vitellogenic follicles in Hyalophora and Rhodnius . In: Insect
Ultrastructure Vol. 1. King R. C. and Akai H. , eds . Plenum Press, New
York, pp. 118-149.

Wyatt G. R. and Pan M. L. (1978) Insect plasma proteins. Ann. Rev.
Biochem. 47, 779-817.

Wyss-Huber M. and Luscher M. (1975) In vitro synthesis and release of
proteins by fat body and ovarian tissues of Leucophaea maderae during
the sexual cycle. J. Insect Physiol. 18, 689-710.

100

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol . 60, No. 2, April 1989.

INCOME DISTRIBUTION IN ALABAMA:
AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE1

A . Wayne Lacy
Department of Economics
Auburn University at Montgomery
Montgomery , AL 36193

I. Introduction

This paper examines the long term trend of income distribution in
Alabama and compares it with that of the U.S. in general. A widespread
impression is growing that income is once again becoming more unequally
distributed in the United States, after many years of movement toward more
equality. Although most references in the news tend to talk about changes
in the 1980s, the reversal in the trend toward equality began much earlier
for the U.S. as a whole. This paper examines the data available for Ala¬
bama from the Census of 1960, 1970, and 1980 to see if the state differs
from the U.S. and to what degree.

The basic measure of income used in this study is earned income. It
is not adjusted for any income transfers received or for taxes paid; nor
is it adjusted for differences in the income life cycle of the population.
The life cycle considers the age structure of the population and the
relative differences in earnings expected at different ages in the life
span of individuals. This was not treated in this paper, although some
mention will be made of the factors that possibly affect the degree of
equality of income.

II. Lorenz Curves and Gini Concentration Ratios

The most widely used measure of income distribution is the Lorenz
Curve and the Gini Concentration coefficient or rate derived from that
curve. In Figure 1, the 45° line OA shows the line of equal distribution
of income where 1 percent of the units have 1 percent of the income , 5
percent have 5 percent, and so on. The curved line OXA is the Lorenz
curve showing the actual distribution of income. The gini coefficient is
measured by comparing the shaded area OAX to the triangle OAB . That is:

Gini - Area OAX
Area OAB

Thus, as area OAX approaches 0, gini approaches 0, a perfectly equal
income distribution. As the gini coefficient grows larger (maximum value
of 1) income grows more unequal.

The gini formula used for computation was:

k

G “ 1 i ? i (fi+1 -fi) (Yt +Yi .,)

Manuscript received 11 April 1988; accepted 10 March 1989

101

Lacy

FIGURE 1

O

where the ft represent the cumulative percent of total units (families or
households in this study) at points measured on a Lorenz curve, and the
Yt represent the respective cumulative percent of aggregate income for
those units [ Bronfenbrenner , p. 221].

Great care should be taken in the use and interpretation of gini
coefficients. Bronfenbrenner [1971, pp. 49-50] points out several
problems exhibited by the measure. First, the measure's sensitivity to
change is low as compared to the possibility of sampling error. Simply
stated, this means that differences in measures that are close together
could be of no significance and sampling error could easily have resulted
in the respective placements. This holds for any reasonably close values.

Secondly, the gini coefficient does not recognize any differences
between the locations of the points used in the income distribution data.
For example, it is quite possible to have the same gini coefficient for
very different types of income distributions. This can be seen in Figure
2. In Figure 2, the two Lorenz curves OABC and ODEC would have the same
gini coefficient if the area bounded by OAXDO were the same as the area
bounded by XECBX. Yet a humanitarian argument might well be made that
OABC is more "equitable" if not more equal distribution of income than

102

Income Distribution in Alabama

FIGURE 2
O

ODEC since there is a smaller percent who would fall into the poor cate¬
gory. However, this also implies that while a smaller percent would be
very rich, they would be much richer than in the ODEC case.

A third concern arises because the fewer the number of points availa¬
ble for analysis on the Lorenz curve, the stronger a bias exists in
computing the gini coefficient as too low. The more points, the better
the estimate.

These considerations raise some concern over the interpretation of the
results of this study. The gini coefficient ratios computed or used
herein are not strictly comparable since they are computed from different
Censuses with differing number of income groups and different cumulative
levels of income. As such they must be treated only as general indicators
for fairly large changes in values. Extreme caution must be used in their
interpretation .

III. Income Distribution in the U.S.

An examination of the index of income concentration presented in the
Current Population Reports indicates that since World War II the United

103

Lacy

States has gone through two phases - one in which the distribution of
income trended towards greater equality (from 1950 until the later 1960's)
and another in which a reversal of the trend toward equality has taken
place (from the late 1960 's to the present). This can be seen in Table
1. In 1947 the gini coefficient of income distribution for the U.S. (for
families and unrelated individuals) was .376. From that time until 1967-
68 the distribution of income in the U.S. tended to become more equal, as
indicated by the gini decrease to .348. Since then, the trend has re¬
versed with the gini rising to .365 in 1980 and accelerating since then
to .389 in 1985. Thus the distribution of income in 1985 was more unequal
than it was in 1947.

Table 1. U.S. Gini Coefficients for Selected Years
(Families and Unrelated Individuals) .

Year

Gini

1947

.376

1950

.379

1955

.363

1960

.364

1965

.356

1967

.348

1968

.348

1970

.354

1975

.358

1980

.365

1984

.383

1985

.389

SOURCE: Current Population Reports, Series p. 60

"Consumer Income"

Especially interesting to note is that the reversal of the trend
toward income equality in the U.S. began at the very time when the growth
of social programs were at their height. The turning point coincides
roughly with the beginnings of Lyndon Johnson's "Great Society" program,
which was supposed to reduce the inequality of income. It would be hasty
to assume that the growth of welfare programs contributed to income in¬
equality, although such arguments might be made. Other factors, such as
the enormous growth of the labor force in the late 1960 's and 1970' s,
that strongly influenced the age composition of the work force, could be
a more pertinent factor, as could changes in the tax structure of the
economy over time .

104

Income Distribution in Alabama

Alabama Income Distribution

Typically, the income distribution of Alabama families has been
characterized as among the most unequal of the states in the U.S. A study
by Al-Samarrie and Miller (1967) ranked the state 47th out of 50 in 1949
and tied for 45th in 1959. The movement from 47th to 45th was accompanied
by a significant increase in equality as the gini coefficient fell from
.475 in 1949 to .424 in 1959, as compared to a national drop from .405 to
.371.

A later study by Sale (1974), showed Alabama ranked 47th of the 48
conterminous states in 1949 and 45th in 1959 with his gini calculations
dropping from .4778 to .4390 over the same period. From 1959 to 1969,
however, Sale's study shows Alabama slipping to 46th place, even though
the gini continued to fall to .3983 over the period. Thus it would appear
that great progress in equalizing income occurred in Alabama, as well as
the rest of the U.S. in the two decades prior to 1970.

To present a picture of the movement in income distribution, Figure 3
was constructed showing the Lorenz curve for Alabama families for the
years 1959, 1969, and 1979 based on the data from the 1960, 1970 and, 1980
Censuses .

O

FIGURE 3. Actual Alabama Lorenz Curves.

105

Lacy

The movement toward more equality over the decade of the 60 's can be
clearly seen as the Lorenz curve shifted left toward the line of equal
distribution. However, the curve for 1979 almost overlaps that of 1969,
showing only a minute shift towards more equality. Thus the long term
trend towards a more equal distribution of income in Alabama slowed almost
to a halt in the 1970' s.

As will be shown below, these results will be borne out by the Gini
coefficients. The data for the Lorenz curve are presented in Appendix
Tables A, B, and C.

The question remains as to how different areas of the state fared
during this period and how they compared to the state overall. To answer
these questions, data from the three past Censuses were utilized to
examine the income distribution of families in the SMSA's of Alabama for
which data is available for those years. The results are shown in Table
2. The 1969 ginis were published directly in the 1970 Census. However,
that was the only Census to pre-calculate these data. The 1979 ginis were
calculated by the author using the income data of the 1980 Census and the
formula given above .

Unfortunately, for the purposes of this study neither the mean family
incomes nor the total family incomes for SMSA's were available in the 1960
census data. All that is given is the total number of families. The
distribution of income is given but the final category of $25,000 and over
is open ended, thus the total family income needed to compute the gini
coefficient is not available.

To get around this problem a method was devised to estimate the total
and also mean family incomes for the SMSA's in Alabama for 1960. This was

Table 2.

Gini Coefficients

for Alabama

SMSA's

SMSA

1959a

1969b

1979°

Birmingham

.4041

.378

.3842

Gadsden

.4076

.361

.3825

Huntsville

.3433

.342

.3763

Mobile

.3664

.398

.3834

Montgomery

.4081

.398

.3831

Tuscaloosa

.4014

.405

.3784

Alabama

.4370

.393

.3897

NOTES :

a .

b.

c .

Estimated by author
Values published in
Calculated from 1980

from 1960 Census Data
1970 Census.

Census Data.

106

Income Distribution in Alabama

achieved by taking the total income for the SMSA, dividing it by the pop¬
ulation to get per capita income for the SMSA. This was then multiplied
by 3.91, the figure for the average number of persons per family in the
State of Alabama (the number of persons per family was not given for
SMSA's). Table 3 shows the relationship between the estimated mean family
income and the stated median family incomes of the Census. As can be
seen, they follow the pattern usually exhibited in such a relationship,
that is , the means exceed the medians .

Table 3. Comparison of Actual Median Family Income To Estimated
Mean Family Income for Alabama SMSA's, 1954.

ALABAMA

SMSA

ESTIMATED MEAN
FAMILY INCOME
(1)

ACTUAL MEDIAN
FAMILY INCOME
(2)

RATIO
(1) (2

Birmingham

$6125

$5103

1.20

Gadsden

5201

4387

1.19

Huntsville

5794

5426

1.07

Mobile

5797

5132

1.13

Montgomery

5755

4777

1.20

Tuscaloosa

4912

4274

1.15

SOURCE: 1960 Census of Population, and calculations

therefore.

Although these figures seem reasonable, they make the computed SMSA
ginis for 1960 somewhat more suspect and should be used only as approxi¬
mations. Because of the very small number of families in the upper income
category of $25,000 and over, the estimate should be reasonably close
however. Birmingham had the largest percent in this group, a small 1.3
percent, followed by Montgomery (1.2 percent), Tuscaloosa and Mobile (0.8
percent), Huntsville (0.6 percent), and Gadsden (0.4 percent).

With these considerations in mind, the computed ginis for 1959 should
be reasonably reliable. For 1959 Huntsville had the most equal distribu¬
tion of income, followed by Mobile, with Montgomery having the most
unequal distribution, but closely followed by Gadsden, Birmingham, and
Tuscaloosa. All of the metropolitan areas had more equal incomes than the
state as a whole. This means that the income distribution between metro¬
politan areas and non-metropolitan areas must have been even more unequal.

From 1959 to 1969, Alabama followed the national trend toward more
equality of income, although gains in this decade were modest in most of
the SMSA's. Gadsden made the largest gains in the decade and significant
gains were made by Birmingham. Mobile made a significant shift away from
equality and Tuscaloosa possibly made a minor move toward inequality.

107

Lacy

Montgomery made a small move toward equality while Huntsville's move in
that direction was minute.

With the growth of these six SMSA's, the disparities of income rela¬
tive to the state as a whole grew. Mobile, Montgomery, and Tuscaloosa
had income distributions that were more unequal than the state average
while Birmingham, Gadsden, and Huntsville had more equal distribution than
the state average.

From 1969 to 1979, the distribution of income in the state became only
slightly more equal. In 1979 the state ranked 46th of the 50 states in
income equality, ahead of only Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and
Florida, but just behind several other southern states [Lacy, 1988],
Nevertheless, Alabama did considerably better than the U.S. as a whole as
can be seen in Table 1. Nationally, income became more unequal.

By 1979, there was much less disparity of income distribution within
the SMSA's than in the previous two decades. Huntsville, Gadsden, and
Birmingham, the three SMSA's with the most equal income distribution in
1969, all followed the national trend toward more inequality. Tuscaloosa,
Montgomery, and Mobile, the three SMSA's with the most unequal incomes in
1969 did not follow the national trend and moved towards a more equal
distribution of income. Consequently the range of ginis of the six SMSA's
was only .079 from .3763 to .3842. All of the SMSA's had ginis lower, but
not far removed from, the state average.

Thus over the twenty year period, the state of Alabama saw a consider-
ble movement towards a more equal distribution of income. Although the
movement slowed during the decade of the 1970' s, the progress made is not
altogether insignificant when viewed in the context of the national trend
to greater inequality. The question remains as to what has happened since
1979. Using the national figures of Table 1, the trend for greater in¬
equality has not only continued but has accelerated. Whether Alabama has
been able to move against this trend will not be known until data from the
1990 census becomes available.

LITERATURE CITED

Al-Samarrie, A. and Miller, H.P. 1967. State Differentials in Income
Concentration, American Economic Review, 57, 59-71.

Bronfenbrenner , M. 1971. Income Distribution Theory, Aldine Atherton,
Inc., Chicago, 1971.

Lacy, A. 1988. The Relative Income Inequality Between States.

Unpublished Manuscript, under revision. Copy available from the
author .

Miller, P. and U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1966. Income Distribution
in the United States (a 1960 Census Monograph) U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

Sale, T. 1974. Interstate Analysis of the Size Distribution of Family
Income, 1950-1970. Southern Economic Journal 40, 434-41.

108

Income Distribution in Alabama

APPENDIX

Table A. 1959

Lorenz Curve

Data for Families in

Alabama .

Income

Class

Percent

Families

Cumulative

Percent

Families

Percent

Income

Cumulative

Percent

Income

Under $1000

12.7

12.7

1.3

1.3

$1000 to 1999

13.9

26.8

4.3

5.6

$2000 to 2999

12.5

39.3

6.4

12.0

$3000 to 3999

11.7

51.0

8.4

20.4

$4000 to 4999

10.9

61.9

10.1

30.5

$5000 to 5999

10.0

71.9

11.3

41.8

$6000 to 6999

7.8

79.7

10.4

52.2

$7000 to 7999

5.7

85.4

8.7

60.9

$8000 to 8999

4.1

89.5

7.2

68.1

$9000 to 9999

2.8

92.3

5.5

73.6

$10000 to 14999

5.7

98.0

14.6

88.2

$15000 to 24999

1.6

99.6

6.6

94.8

$25000 and Over

0.6

100.2*

5.2

100.0

*Rounding Error

Source: 1960 Census of Population

Table

B. 1969

Lorenz Curve

Data for 'Families in

Alabama .

Income

Class

Percent

Families

Cumulative

Percent

Families

Percent

Income

Cumulative

Percent

Income

Under $1000

4.6

4.6

.3

.3

$1000 to

1999

6.8

11.4

1.2

1.5

$2000 to

2999

7.1

18.5

2.1

3.6

$3000 to

3999

7.3

25.8

3.0

6.6

$4000 to

4999

7.1

32.9

3.8

10.4

$5000 to

5999

7.6

40.5

5.0

15.4

$6000 to

6999

7.5

48.0

5.8

21.2

$7000 to

7999

7.6

55.6

6.7

27.9

(continued)

109

Lacy

(Table B continued)

$8000 to 8999

7.0

62.6

7.1

35.0

$9000 to 9999

6.2

68.8

7.0

42.0

$10000 to 11999

10.5

79.3

13.7

55.7

$12000 to 14999

9.5

88.8

15.3

71.0

$14999 to 24999

8.9

97.7

21.1

92.1

$25000 and Over

2.4

100.1*

7.9

100.0

*Rounding Error

Source: 1970 Census of Population

Table C. 1979

Lorenz Curve

Data for Families in

Alabama .

Cumulative

Cumulative

Income

Percent

Percent

Percent

Percent

Class

Families

Families

Income

Income

Less than $5000

11.4

11.4

1.5

1.5

$5000 - 7499

8.7

20.1

2.8

4.3

$7500 - 9999

8.6

28.7

3.9

8.2

$10000 - 14999

16.8

45.5

11.0

19.2

$15000 - 19999

15.6

61.1

14.2

33.4

$20000 - 24999

13.1

74.2

15.4

48.8

$25000 - 34999

15.5

89.7

24.2

73.0

$35000 - 49999

7.1

96.8

15.7

88.7

$50000 - Over

3.2

100.0

11.3

100.0

*Rounding Error

Source: 1980 Census of Population

110

••

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Editorial Policy: Publication in the Journal of the Alabama Academy
of Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms
can be obtained from Dr. Ann Williams, 101 Cary Hall, Auburn Univer¬
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will still be legible after a 30% reduction. Designate all illustra¬
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Tables: Place each table on a separate sheet. Place a table title
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ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Dr. James McClintock and his colleagues preparing a
dive site on sea ice in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Thirty meters below
a 3-m hKick 'tatyer of sea ice, the benthos are covered with a rich carpet
i of marine invertebrates, particularly sponges, soft corals, sea anemones,
and echinoderms. One of the commonest antarctic echinoderms is the sea
star Odontaster validus which occurs in great abundance, has a free
swimming feeding larva, and as a juvenile and adult preys on a wide
variety of plants and animals. This common sea star is an important
determinant of community structure, and serves as an indicator of primary
production in shallow antarctic communities (see abstract, Vol. 60, No.
3, p. 121, July, 1989). Photography courtesy of James B. McClintock.

James B. McClintock is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Biology
at the University of Alabama in Birmingham. His research interests
encompass aspects of the reproduction, nutrition, and ecology of marine
invertebrates. His work has taken him frequently to Antarctica.

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

OCT 1 1 1989

M« ill* tt,.

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 60 JULY 1 989 NO. 3

EDITOR:

W. H. Mason, Extension Cottage, Auburn University, AL 36849
ARCHIVIST:

C. M. Peterson, Department of Botany, and Microbiology, Auburn University,

AL 36849

EDITORIAL BOARD:

J. T. Bradley, Chairman, Department of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn
University, AL 36849

Charles Baugh, 1005 Medical Science Building, University of South Alabama,
Mobile, AL 36688

j. W. Sulentic, P.O. Box 1921, University of Alabama, University, AL 35486
Publication and Subscription Policies

Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent
correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous
reviews. For style details, follow instructions to Authors (see inside back cover).

Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to authors.

Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the
CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD ~

ISSN 002-4112

BENEFACTORS OF THE
JOURNAL OF THE
ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The following have provided financial support
to partially defray publication costs of the Journal.

AUBURN UNIVERSITY
BIRMINGHAM - SOUTHERN COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO
AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA
TROY STATE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM
JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT HUNTSVILLE
TUSKEGEE UNIVERSITY
MOBILE COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA

CONTENTS

ABSTRACTS

Biological Sciences . Ill

Chemistry . 132

Geology ........ . 143

Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning . 148

Physics and Mathematics . 152

Industry and Economics . 162

Science Education . 169

Social Sciences . . . . . 173

Health Sciences . 180

Engineering and Computer Science . 205

Anthropology . 211

MINUTES OF ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING . 215

•• < '

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 3, July, 1989.

ABSTRACTS

Papers presented at the 66th Annual Meeting
Birmingham- Southern College
Birmingham, Alabama
March 22-25, 1989

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Characterization of Monoclonal Antibodies Against Cricket
Vitellogenin. Holley L. Handley, Barbara Esteridge and
James T. Bradley, Auburn University, AL 36849.

Insect vitellogenins are multisubunit phospholipoglycoproteins
presumed to serve as a source of nutrients during embryogenesis .

The mechanisms whereby these molecules are metabolized by the
developing egg are poorely understood. Two monoclonal antibodies
have been produced with specificity for two of the cricket
vitellogins, one MAb (2D-1) having specificity for only one of the
yolk polypeptiedes (YP-2b) , and the other MAb (IE-10) having
specificity for two of the polypeptides (YP-1 and YP-2b) . The
antibodies were screened by a Bio-Dot assay (Bio-Rad) and the selected
positive cell lines cloned twice. The specificity was determined
using Western Blotting. The subclass of immunoglobulin was determined
to be IgG by agar gel immodif fusion. The antibodies were shown to
react in different locations in the egg by the immunohistochemical
staining using avidine-biotin horseradish peroxidase system. Further
studies using Western Blotting have shown that the antibodies react
with different degradation products which form during embryogenesis.
These studies support the idea that the degradation of vitellogenins
during embryogenesis results in smaller peptide fragments derived
directly from the original vitellin present in the egg. By producing
a family of monoclonal antibodies specific for different degradation
products, a precursor-product relationship can be established. This
information can then be used to determine the developmental/
physiological significance of vitellin and the role the embryo's
genome might play in their utilization. (Supported by the Al. NSF/
EPSCoR Program in Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Grant
RII-8610669 and HATCH Project 665 - Al.Agr.Ex.St. , Auburn University).

VARIATION IN ACREMONIUM COENOPHIALUM - THE TALL FESCUE ENDOPHYTE.
Edward M. Clark and Richard A. Shelby, Dept, of Plant Pathology,
Auburn University, Auburn University, AL 36849

Isolates of Acremonium coenophialum grown on medium #13A
varied considerably in colony characteristics-morphology, diameter,
dry weight and sporulation. Grown for 5 weeks at 23°C there was a
range in colony diameter from 13.5 mm to 36.5 mm. Dry wt. of
mycelium varied from .Q45g to . 124g per colony. Sporulation ranged
from profuse to very little. Some colonies were mounded; others
were spread. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed differences
between isolates.

Ill

Abstracts

REDISTRIBUTION OF A ZONA PELLUCIDA BINDING COMPONENT ON MURINE SPERM.
Donna A. Free, Holly Boettger, Teresa Battle, and Gary R. Poirier,
Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala., Birmingham, AL 35294.

The exposure and distribution of an epitope of a 15,000 molecular
weight component on the head of murine spermatozoa was monitored with
a monoclonal antibody during in vitro incubation. The component,
termed the acceptor, binds a proteinase inhibitor of seminal vesicle
origin at ejaculation and functions in zona binding (Irwin, et al.,
1983; Poirier et al., 1986). The epitope is not visible on undiluted
cauda epididymal sperm, but can be localized on the plasma membrane
over the acrosomal cap region on 70 to 100 percent of washed sperm. In
some samples approximately 10 percent of the sperm express the epitope
in the equatorial region of the sperm head. With incubation at 37°
for 90 minutes, the percentage of sperm with equatorial expression
increased to 70 percent while the percentage with exclusively acro¬
somal cap expression decreased to 10 percent. These changes are
temperature dependent but not medium or Ca++ dependent. They will
occur in the presence of metabolic poisons. Prelabeling the epitope
with the monoclonal antibody has no effect on the changing patterns.
Pre-labeling, followed by washing at room temperature, results in a
30 percent increase in equatorial expression. The seminal inhibitor
binds only in the acrosomal cap region of incubated sperm. Acrosomal
cap and equatorial expression can be detected on sperm retrieved from
the uterus after natural insemination. The data suggest that the
epitope is first visible with dilutions of the epididymal fluids. The
second step, exposure in the equatorial region, is due to a tempera¬
ture sensitive step which may involve an unmasking and/or a migration.

TAXONOMIC POTENTIAL OF PALATAL SENSILLA OF BITING MIDGE LARVAE
(DIPTERA: CERATOPOGONIDAE). Lawrence J. Hribar, C. Steven Murphree,
and Gary R. Mullen, Department of Entomology, Auburn University, AL,
36849-5413.

The sensilla located on the labral palatum have been neglected as
taxonomic characters for biting midge larvae. Studies of larvae of

2 Dasyhelea spp., 4 Culicoides spp., and 6 Bezzia spp. have revealed
that the number, position, and relative size of sensilla vary among
the taxa examined. Dasyhel ea sp. A: 6 pairs; 2 flat, round; 3 seti-
form; 1 trifurcate. Dasyhelea sp. B: 7 pairs; 4 flat, round; 2 seti-
form; 1 trifurcate. Culicoides travisi: 6 pairs; 2 flat; 4 elongate.
Culicoides melleus: 6 pairs; 5 round; 1 setiform. Culicoides
obsoletus: 5 pairs; 4 round; 1 setiform. Culicoides sanquisuga: 10
pairs; 5 elongate; 5 rounded. Bezzia bivittata: 5 pairs; 4 setiform;

1 round. Bezzia nobilis: 7 pairs; 3 elongate; 4 round. Bezzia sp. A:

7 pairs; 4 round; 3 elongate. Bezzia sp. B: 4 pairs; 3 round; 1 ovoid.
Bezzia sp. C: 5 pairs; 4 round; 1 elongate. Bezzia sp. D: 7 pairs;

3 elongate; 4 round. The results of this study indicate that the
sensilla on the palatum can be used as a taxonomic character among the
taxa examined. Further study is required to determine whether this is
true for the Ceratopogonidae as a whole.

112

Abstracts

INDUCTION OF ORNITHINE DECARBOXYLASE AND POLYAMINE SYNTHESIS IN
EMBRYOS OF THE BRINE SHRIMP Ar temia spp. Stephen A. Watts and George
B. Cline, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham,

AL 35294.

Reproductively active Artemia respond to environmental stress by
encysting their embryos. These cysts are able to survive long-term
dehydration but will begin to develop when rehydrated in >5 ppt sea
water. Specific mechanisms regulating intracyst (gastrula)
development are of considerable interest since it is not known what
signals initiate metabolic and synthetic pathways after rehydration
begins. We examined both dehydrated and rehydrated cysts (20 ppt
seawater, 28°C) during development for ornithine decarboxylase (ODC)
activity and polyamine production, important regulators (indicators)
of embryonic development in vertebrate systems. We found significant
levels of ODC activity in dehydrated cysts (3.34 nmol/hr/g wet
weight) . These residual levels decreased within one hour of
hydration but then increased significantly within 2 hours, suggesting
de novo synthesis of protein. Activity increased to 164 nmol/hr/g
wet weight within 7 hours of hydration. Putrescine, spermidine and
spermine levels increased rapidly during the first 4 hours of
rehydration with highest levels (1.35, 1.34 and 0.06 uM/ g wet weight,
respectively) observed after 12 hours. Spermidine/ spermine ratios
reached 20 , reflecting high rates of biosynthetic activity. Polyamine
levels decreased prior to hatching at 18 hours. Significant levels of
characteristically labile ODC are apparently stored/stabilized in
dehydrated cysts over long periods and are available to initiate
development with rehydration. Apparent <ie novo synthesis of ODC after
rehydration and the resulting synthesis of polyamines stimulate
further embryonic development.

PRESENCE OF VIBRIOS IN OYSTER SHELLSTOCK SHIPPED INLAND.
Robin Spoon, Gesa Capers, Cherie Holland and Linda Hopkins,
Biology Dept., Jacksonville State Univ., Jacksonville, A1 .
36265.

Vibrio vulnificus, a naturally occurring marine
bacterium, has been implicated in recent years as being a
virulent human pathogen capable of causing death after the
consumption of raw oysters in coastal areas. The objective of
this study was to determine the presence of V .vulnificus in
oyster shellstock after being harvested then shipped inland.
Oysters used in this study had been harvested in coastal waters
of Virginia, Florida, Alabama or Louisiana and shipped inland
to local restaurants and food stores in Gadsden, Anniston and
Birmingham. Purchased oysters were shucked and analyzed for
fecal coliforms, aerobic plate count and Vibrio species using
enriched and nonenriched procedures. Coliforra and total
aerobic plate counts were low or zero on all samples but one.

V. vulnificus was recovered in all oyster samples from
Louisiana. Other predominating bacteria included species of
Vibrio, Pseudomonas , and Aeromonas .

113

Abstracts

REGULATION OF STEROIDOGENESIS IN INSECT (MANDUCA SEXTA) PROTHORACIC
GLANDS. R. Douglas Watson, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at
Birmingham, AL 35294. Walter E. Bollenbacher , Dept, of Biology, Univ.
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599.

Insect prothoracic glands synthesize and secrete the steroid
hormones ( ecdysteroids) that control molting and metamorphosis. In
the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta , ecdysteroid synthesis is
regulated by the prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), a protein factor
present in hemolymph, and the biosynthetic competence of the
prothoracic glands. The competence of prothoracic glands to synthesize
ecdysteroids changes during development. Early in the last larval
stadium, the basal rate of synthesis is low and the glands are
unresponsive to PTTH and the hemolymph factor. By about day 3, the
glands are fully competent: Basal and effector-stimulated rates of
synthesis are significantly higher. The acquisition of competence
occurs after a drop in the juvenile hormone (JH) titer. Current
results indicate that the drop in the JH titer is permissive for
steroidogenic competence. Topical treatment of larvae with JH
suppresses the acquisition of competence. That effect is specific to
biologically active juvenoids, and is dependent on the dose of JH
applied. Further, JH is effective in head-ligated larvae, suggesting
the hormone acts directly on the glands. The cellular and molecular
events that underlie the acquisition of competence are not known, but
electrophoretic (SDS-PAGE) analyses reveal protein differences between
incompetent and competent glands. Supported by NRSA (HD-06700) and
UAB Faculty Research Grant to RDW, and NSF Grant DCB-8512699 to WEB.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COMMON PULMONATE GASTROPOD PHYSELLA
CUBENSIS WITH AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON
EMBRYONIC AND JUVENILE GROWTH. Donald L- Thomas and James B.
McClintock, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. B'ham, AL. 35294.

The general distribution, abundance and feeding habits of
Phvsella cubensis were examined. Eggs laid by individuals collected
from Shades Creek, Birmingham, Alabama were placed into three
temperature treatments of 10, 20, and 30°C in the laboratory and
developmental stages documented through hatching. P. cubensis
hatched in 36, 13, and 9 days, respectively. The hatched juveniles
were raised at their respective temperatures to sexual maturation
(onset of egg laying) . Juveniles raised at 30°C reached maturity in
35 days attaining a mean shell length of 4.4 mm. Juveniles raised
at 20°C reached maturity in 65 days attaining a mean shell length
of 6.2 mm. Juveniles raised at 10°C did not reach maturity after 95
days and attained a mean shell length of only 1.7 mm. These
laboratory investigations indicate that temperature has a
pronounced effect on rates of embryogenesis , juvenile growth, and
the onset of sexual maturation in 2. cubensis. Given the dramatic
daily and seasonal fluctuations of temperature in the field where
populations of £. cubensis are known to occur, it is hypothesized
that reproductive activity and population dynamics of this species
are influenced by temperature.

114

Abstracts

SYNTHESIS OF HIGH LEVELS OF HUMAN SICKLE HEMOGLOBIN (Hb S) IN
TRANSGENIC MICE. Thomas M. Ryan. Dept, of Microbiology, Univ. of
Ala., Birmingham, AL 35294. Richard R. Behringer and Ralph L.
Brinster, Laboratory of Reproductive Physiology, Univ. of Penn.,
Philadelphia, PA 19104. Richard D. Palmiter, Dept, of Biochemistry,
Univ. of Wash., Seattle, WA 98195. Tim M. Townes, Dept, of
Biochemistry, Univ. of Ala., Birmingham, AL 35294.

The human P-globin locus spans over 45-kilobase of DNA encoding
five functional p-like globin genes which are sequentially expressed
at precise developmental stages. Flanking the entire locus are six
erythroid specific, developmentally stable DNase I super¬
hypersensitive (HS) sites. When all six of these HS sites (HS I-VI)
or just a single HS site (HS II) are fused directly to the adult human
p-globin gene and microin jected into fertilized mouse eggs, high-level
erythroid-specif ic expression of the human P-globin gene occurs in the
developing transgenic embryos. Similarly, when fertilized mouse eggs
are injected with the adult human al-globin gene fused downstream of
the HS sites from the P-locus, high-level erythroid expression of the
human al-globin gene is obtained in the resulting transgenic animals.
The coexpression of both human al- and P-globin genes in transgenic
mice produces mice which synthesize complete and functional adult
human hemoglobin (Hb A) . By substituting the sickle P-globin gene (ps)
for the wild type allele in the HS construct, transgenic mice which
make high levels of human sickle hemoglobin (Hb S) are generated. A
line of Hb S producing transgenic mice which faithfully pass the
transgenes on to progeny is a step toward the development of a mouse
model for sickle cell disease. T.M.R. is a predoctoral trainee
supported by NIH grant T32 CA-09467.

AOUATXC AND AERIAL RESPIRATORY GAS EXCHANGE IN SOFTSHELL, MUD, AND
MUSK TURTLES. Paul A. Stone, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife Science,
Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5414

Fourteen turtles, representing three species, Trionyx spinif erus
(n=3) , Kinosternon sub rub rum (n=6) , and Sternotherus odoratus (n=5) ,
were individually placed in respiratory chambers and aerial and
aquatic oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production were
measured. T. spinif erus averaged 29.03 + 4.90 mL/Kg x hr total oxygen
consumption, of which 66% was from the water, and 27.4J8 + 8,61 mL/Kg x
hr total carbon dioxide production, of which 86% was into the water.
K. sub rub rum averaged 30.90 + 3.47 mL/Kg x hr total oxygen
consumption, of which 5% was from the water, and 20.96 + 4.97 mL/Kg x
hr total carbon dioxide production, of which 50% was into the water.
S^. odoratus averaged 31.81 + 3.80 mL/Kg x hr total oxygen consumption,
of which 13% was from the water, and 27.43 +' 6.83 mL/Kg x hr total
carbon dioxide production, of which 50% was into the water. An ANOVA
revealed that aquatic oxygen consumption differed (P<.05) in all three
species while aerial gas exchange and aquatic carbon dioxide
production did not differ (P<.05) in any of the species. This study
was supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Academy of Science.

115

Abstracts

HABITATS IN NEED OF ATTENTION. George W. Folkerts. Dept,
of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn Univ. , AL 36849-5414

Most of the habitats present in Alabama in pre-
Columbian times have been destroyed or drastically altered.
Although a perfunctory assessment would reveal that much of
the state is forested, few remnants of original forest
habitats remain. Aquatic habitats, especially those of
large rivers, have been severely decimated. The few nearly
natural coastal habitats that remain are isolated and
probably doomed to early disappearance. Among the habitat
types which have been reduced to very small remnants are:
rocky shoals in large upland rivers, maritime forest,
coastal dune systems. Red Hills ravines, sand pine scrub,
cedar glades, and Appalachian Plateau longleaf pine forests.
Other habitats that have become restricted include: granite
outcrops of the Piedmont, calcareous prairies, sandhill
habitats, pitcher plant habitats, sinkhole ponds, Atlantic
white cedar communities, floodplain forests, and coastal
marshes of all types. Cave systems, springs, and mountain
rivers all face imminent threats. The major factors
currently responsible for habitat destruction relate to:
conversion of forests to pine monoculture, surface mining,
damming of rivers, and coastal development. Habitat damage
from off-road vehicles and the accumulation of toxic
substances are impending problems. The aforementioned
examples highlight the fact that habitat destruction is
pervasive throughout the state. Currently, Alabama lags far
behind most other states in both habitat inventory and
habitat preservation.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF ALABAMA— STATUS UPDATE. Robert
H. Mount, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn University,
AL 36848-5414

Since the last comprehensive report on the status of Alabama
amphibians and reptiles, in 1986, only 7 of the 39 non-marine
"priority forms" have received any research attention worthy
of note. These are: 1. the Red Hills salamandei — status update;

2. gopher tortoise-dispersion and population densities; 3.
flattened musk turtle — effects of mining siltation and disease
problems; 4. eastern indigo snake — continued monitoring of
results of restocking efforts; 5. Alabama red-bellied
turtle — conservati on; 6. dusky gopher frog — population size,
structure, and breeding activity and 7. Black Warrior
waterdog— taxonomic studies. Additions to and changes in federal
list have been: 1. Alabama red-bellied turtle (endangered);

2. gopher tortoise (threatened in Mobile, Washington and Choctaw
counties); 3. alligator (from endangered to "threatened due
to similarity of appearance"). Decline of most terrestrial
snakes and of some lizards continues to be a problem needing
attention.

116

Abstracts

NEMATODE- INDUCED DAMAGE TO COTTON ROOTS AS MONITORED BY SUDAN BLACK B.
Roland R. Dute, Dept, of Botany and Microbiology and the Alabama Agri¬
cultural Experiment Station, Auburn University, AL 36849-5407

Nematode gall development in cotton roots was studied to determine
whether physical damage induced by root-knot nematodes could expose
vascular tissue to potential fungal infections. Root damage is associ¬
ated with the development of protective, suberized, wound periderms. A
suberized periderm also forms during normal ontogeny as the replacement
dermal layer. Paraffin sections of infected roots from cotton varie¬
ties M8 (root-knot susceptible) and 634 RNR (root-knot resistant) were
stained with Sudan Black B, a suberin stain. The latter variety is not
immune as some galling occurs. In both varieties, gall development is
caused by proliferation of stelar parenchyma cells near the nematode.
The resulting increase in stelar diameter causes splits in epidermis and
cortex. In such instances, a wound periderm protects the stele from
exposure. Also a wound periderm is formed where the nematode enters
the stele. Galls of both varieties initially have multinucleate giant
cells. In roots of M8, the nematode continues to enlarge and eventu¬
ally forms an egg mass. This enlargement splits open the surface peri¬
derm and the stelar tissues within. This damage provides a direct
pathway from rhizosphere to stele for fungi, provided the hyphae can
grow between the nematode and the damaged root cells. In older galls
of 634 RNR, nematodes generally are small and immature or degenerate.
Thus, the surface periderm often remains intact, and stelar cells are
seldom exposed. Lack of nematode development is associated with de¬
generate and crushed giant cells. Degenerate nematodes and crushed
giant cells may be surrounded by wound periderms. These results with
Sudan Black B provide confirmation of a previous study done without
histochemical stain.

STATUS OF FISHES IN ALABAMA IN NEED OF SPECIAL ATTENTION.

J. Malcolm Pierson, Department of Environmental Affairs, Alabama
Power Company, P. 0. Box 2641, Birmingham, AL 35291.

Approximately 300 species of freshwater fishes have been
documented from the State of Alabama. Ten of these fishes are
found only in Alabama, and an additional 37 species utilize
Alabama waters for over 60 percent of their total range. In a
recent publication; "Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in Need of
Special Attention" Mount (1986), 18 species of freshwater fishes
were assigned some level of conservation status. The Cahaba
shiner, Alabama cavefish, spring pygmy sunfish, and watercress
darter were given endangered status, and the paleband shiner,
slackwater darter, goldline darter, snail darter, and pygmy
sculpin were assigned threatened status. An additional nine
species were designated as either of special concern or poorly
known. This report updates the status of these 18 species and
suggests studies to assess the current status of these and other
sensitive fishes in Alabama.

117

Abstracts

DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPUTER LIBRARY OF IEF PROFILES OF SINGLE
AQUACULTURED LARVAL STAGES OF STONE CRABS, Menippe adina, M.
mercenar ia , and their hybrid. George B. Cline and Mark E. Meade.,

Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Same stage zoeae of stone crabs resemble each other and are
difficult to identify by species or by population using morphological
features alone. Every zoeae, however, possesses all of the adult genes
and begins to express some during larval development. These gene
products can be useful markers (fingerprints) for stocks and species
as well as biochemical indicators of growth and development. We
analyzed individual zoeae and megalopae from known broodstock by
isoelectric focusing (IEF) on Immobiline-^ gels. Ovigerous M. adina
was obtained from Mississippi Sound, M. mercenar ia from south Florida
and their hybrid from Apalachee Bay, northeastern Gulf of Mexico.
Aquacultured zoeae were prepared for analysis by our procedure
reported elsewhere. Immobiline™ gels with identical pH ranges gave
routine and reproducible separations which were readily scanned and
analyzed by an LKB laser densitometer system. Gel uniformity makes it
practical to set up computer libraries for lab to lab comparisons. We
found quantitative changes in total protein profiles of individual
Z1-Z5 of M. adina in pH 4-7 gels as growth and development occurs.

M. adina profiles were different from M. mercenaria or their hybrid
for the Z-stages examined. There were few differences among cohorts
of the same stage. Graphics software permits editing, integration,
overlaying, subtraction and/or other analysis of computer-stored IEF
profiles. Part of this research was supported by Mississippi-Alabama
Sea Grant Consortium project R/LR-22.

STATUS OF INVERTEBRATES WITH RESTRICTED DISTRIBUTIONS
IN ALABAMA. S.C. Harris, Biological Resources Division, Geological
Survey of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486-9780.

Invertebrates were not included in the most recent compilations
of rare and endangered animals in Alabama, although as a group they
constitute about 95% of all species. Their exclusion stems in part
from insufficient collecting in the state and also reflects the diffi¬
culties in assigning protected status to invertebrates. While those
invertebrates with limited mobility, such as mollusks and crayfishes,
can be placed with some assurance into such categories as endangered,
threatened or special concern, insects are not easily categorized.
With the winged insects particularly, which constitute the vast majority
of the class, a category of rare or of limited distribution is probably
a more applicable characterization. Specialists in individual taxa
have been organized and efforts are underway to compile a list of
invertebrates either rare or of limited distribution in Alabama, be¬
ginning with the aquatic forms. This list will be at best preliminary
as much of the invertebrate fauna of Alabama remains unknown or
poorly studied.

118

Abstracts

WOMEN AND THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ZOOLOGISTS. Ellen W.
McLaughlin , Dept, of Biology, Samford University,
Birmingham, AL 35229. Elizabeth Conant, Dept, of
Biology, Canisius College, Buffalo, NY 14208.

The American Society of Zoologists (ASZ) traces its
origin back to 1890 in Boston. Active members were
elected by the Society and at one time a Ph.D. or the
equivalent was required. Two women were elected in 1892
and by 1906, 17 women (9.7%) were members. Although the
number of women added to the rolls increased, the
percentage did not and fluctuated between 10% and 13%
until the early 1970 's. From that time the percentage
of women members increased reaching a peak of 23% in
1988. The first woman serving in an official capacity
in the ASZ was appointed to a 3-year term on the
Editorial Board in 1924. In the 98 year history of ASZ
there have been only nine different women elected as
General Officers. They are: President (4) 1973, 1978,
1979, 1985; Vice-President (2) 1937, 1953; Secretary (1)
1985 and Treasurer (3) 1957, 1974, 1986. Data show that
whenever a woman served as a General Officer, there was
a noticeable increase in the number of women serving in
other elective or appointed positions in the ASZ. Prior
to 1915 almost all women had Ph.D. degrees, mainly from
northern Universities, women's colleges or European
Universities. Very few had academic appointments
leading to professorships. They were employed as
Demonstrators, Lecturers and Research Associates.

HISTONES OF THE SEA STAR ASTERIAS VULGARIS: A CHARACTERIZATION OF
BASIC NUCLEOPROTEINS ISOLATED FROM PYROLIC CAECA. Carl B. Massey and
Stephen A. Watts, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

Histones were acid extracted/ethanol precipitated from the lipid-
rich pyloric caeca of the sea star Aster ias vulgaris . Extracted
samples were electrophoresed , with calf thymus histone (Sigma) as the
standard, on acidic 15% polyacryamide gels. Gel system I contained
6mM Triton X-100 and 6M urea. Gel system II contained 2.5M urea and
no detergent. Proteins were stained with 0.27. amido black for
visualization. In gel system I, nucleosomal histones (H2A,H2B,H3 and
H4) from pyloric caeca exhibited mobilities similar to calf thymus
histones. Subfraction HI was not apparent in this system. Gel
system II provided a more conclusive assessment of the mobilities of
subfraction HI. This subfraction migrated with calf thymus HI in gel
system II. In this system, dye-binding properties suggest significant
levels of HI were present in the pyloric caeca. These preliminary
results are consistent with the conservative nature of histone
proteins and studies of histones from other sea star species. Studies
of minor variations in histone composition and comparisons of somatic
and gametic histone protein populations are currently in progress.

119

Abstracts

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE HEMOCYTES OF THE SLIPPER LOBSTER,
Scyl larides nodif er (Stimpson). George B. Cline, Dept, of Biology,
Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

The slipper lobster Scyl larides nodifer inhabits the waters of
the Gulf of Mexico and the Florida Keys. Details about its behavior,
biochemistry and physiology are reported infrequently. We examined
its circulating hemocytes and report here the first morphological
description for this species. Hemolymph was withdrawn from the dorsal
sinus into heparinized syringes to inhibit clotting for phase
microscopy studies. Other samples were withdrawn into cold 10Yo
formalin (in lobster balanced salt solution) for Giemsa staining.

Cells were also stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Criteria for
classification included: 1) relative morphology, specifically nuclear
to cytoplasmic ratios, 2) presence or absence of refractile
cytoplasmic granules, 3) relative size, shape and density of the
granules, and, 4) staining characteristics with specific stains. Four
cell types were present and closely resembled cells from Homarus
amer icanus . Type 1 was a prohyalocyte or spherical lymphoid-like cell
with large, highly-condensed nucleus and little cytoplasm with no
granules. Type 2 was a spindle- or ovoid-shaped halocyte with dark-
staining nucleus and fine basophilic cytoplasmic granules. Type 3 was
a spindle- or ovoid-shaped granulocyte with many cytoplasmic
eosinophilic granules. Type 4 was an eosinophilic granulocyte with
pink cytoplasmic granules and light blue-staining nucleus. This cell
undergoes an "explosive" change on contact and is associated with the
hemolymph clotting reaction. Functions of the other cells are unknown
at this time.

Production and Characterization of Antibodies to Protein Kinase C
Isoforms. Angela L. Wooten and Marie W. Wooten, Dept, of Zoology
and Wildlife Science, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 36849

Brain protein kinase C (PKC) is composed of several discrete
isoforms as resolved by HAP column chromatography. Together these
isoforms comprise a gene family consisting of alpha, beta and gamma.
Using cDNA sequence information we have synthesized peptides to the
third variable region of the gene family in which the greatest
sequence divergence exists. These peptides were coupled to KLH and
used as a source of antigen for immunizing rabbits. To test the
specificity of the peptide antisera PKC isoforms alpha (Type 111=

Peak III), beta (Type II=PeakII) and gamma (Type I=PeakI) were purified
to homogenity and used as a reference to test for immunological
reactivity by Western Blotting. Various cell lines were also tested
for their reactivity with the peptide antisera. Serum IgG fraction was
isolated and coupled to phenyl-sepharose; these affinity matrices were
shown to bind respective PKC isoforms in their native form which
displayed calcium/phospholipid sensitive acitvity. The isolation and
characterization of specific antibodies will allow further study of
the biological role these isoforms play in cellular responses,

Supported by Auburn University Grant-in-Aid and The Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station.

120

Abstracts

THE ECOLOGY OF THE COMMON SEA STAR ODONTASTER VALIDUS: AN
INDICATOR OF PRIMARY PRODUCTION IN THE SHALLOW WATERS OF
ANTARCTICA. James B. McClintock. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of
Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham AL 35294. John S. Pearse,

Inst. Marine Sciences, Univ. of Calif., Santa Cruz, CA 95064.
Isidro Bosch, Harbor Branch Oceanogr. Inst., Fort Pierce, FL
33450.

The sea star Odontaster validus is one of the most abundant
benthic macro invertebrates in shallow antarctic waters. Mature
females release large numbers of eggs which develop as
planktotrophic larvae in the early spring and settle as juveniles
in the austral summer. Size frequency distributions followed
over 15 months at different sites and depths in McMurdo Sound
revealed low levels of temporal variability in growth,
recruitment, migration and mortality. Sea stars at shallow (10-
20 m) sites were in superior nutritional condition, and had
greater biomass and reproductive output than animals at deeper
sites (30 m) . Higher levels of chlorophyll in the nutrient
storage organs of shallow animals indicated direct exploitation
of primary production. Therefore, it may be possible to use this
species as an indicator of levels of benthic primary production.
Depth-specific differences in population structure reflect the
mosaic nature of benthic habitats, with deeper sites constituting
"sink habitats" (little of no contribution of gametes to the
population) and shallow sites constituting "source habitats"
(significant contribution of gametes to the population) . It is
hypothesized that the greatest proportion of the overall
population of 0. validus occurs at depths greater than 20 m,
implying that nearby shallow sites must provide enough recruits
to balance annual mortality. Supported by NSF # DPP-8317082.

THE INFLUENCE OF MAJOR WEATHER EVENTS ON AN ALABAMA COASTAL HERONRY.
John J. Dindo, Dauphin Island Sea Lab, Dauphin Island, AL 36528. Ken
R. Marion, Biology Department, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

Cat Island, a 5.2 ha. island in Mississippi Sound, is home to
more than three thousand nesting herons, egrets and ibises. The
Island has the largest assemblage of Tricolor Herons (Hydranassa
tricolor) in Alab'ama. During the fall of 1985, hurricanes Elena,

Juan, and Kate battered the Alabama coast after the nesting season
and reduced the nesting vegetation ( Iva f rutescens and Bacchar is
halimifolia) from an average height of seven feet to little more than
two feet. The total number of nesting birds during the following
season (1986) was reduced by 157., apparently due to a reduction in
suitable nest sites. Nesting success rates for Tricolor Herons and
Snowy Egrets were 597. and 567. during 1986, compared to 797. and 707.
during 1985. This reduction was believed due to decreased vegetative
cover over the nests, thus enhancing the predation of eggs and young
by fish crows. An additional factor was the closing of an inland
pond on Cat Island when the tidal creek feeding it was blocked by
sand movement during the storms. The loss of volume exchange was
evident in 1986 and is believed to have reduced the available food
resources (fish), thereby contributing to increased nestling and
fledgling mortality.

121

Abstracts

SEASONAL OCCURRENCE AND ABUNDANCE OF BRACHYURAN LARVAE IN
ELKHORN SLOUGH AND NEARSHORE WATERS OF MONTEREY BAY,
CALIFORNIA. Pan- wen Hsueh, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

Oblique plankton tows were taken biweekly at four slough and one offshore stations
over 14 months to sample brachyuran crab larvae. In total, 12 taxa of brachyuran crab
larvae were identified, representing five families; 7 taxa were identified to species, 4 to
genus, and 1 to family. Ten brachyuran larval species were identified from the
plankton. Larvae of Pinnixa franciscana and P. weymouthi were cultured through the
megalopa stage to juveniles, and thus could be identified. Larvae of Pinnixa
franciscana, Hemigrapsus oregonensis. Cancer gracilis, and P, weymouthi were the
most abundant. Larvae of these four species comprised almost 97 % by number of the
total larvae collected in the entire sampling period. The pea crab family Pinnotheridae
had the highest number of species (6 species) followed by Cancridae (2 species) and
Grapsidae (2 species). The Majidae and Xanthidae were each represented by a single
species. Among the 12 species, Pinnixa franciscana, P. weymouthi. Cancer gracilis, C.
productus, Hemigrapsus oregonensis, and Lophopanopeus bellus bellus were recorded
at the study site for the first time. Brachyuran crab larvae were most abundant in late
winter and early spring but the larvae of Pachygrapsus crassipes had a peak abundance
in summer and early fall. Some of species appear to brood twice a year. Larvae of P.
franciscana and P. weymouthi tended to stay within the slough. The presence of
megalopae of several species provided evidence of local recruitment and the numerous
first stage larvae of P. franciscana, H. oregonensis, and P. crassipes collected in upper
slough stations (Red House and Kirby Park) indicate that adults spawned in Elkhom
Slough. High abundances of the late larval stages of P. franciscana and P. weymouthi
suggest a higher larval survivorship than the other three abundant species. Cancer
gracilis, Hemigrapsus oregonensis, and Pachygrapsus crassipes ,which comprised less
than 3% of the larvae collected.

IMMUNOCYTOCHEMICAL DETECTION OF PROLACTIN IN REPRODUCTIVE TRACT OF
MATURE MALE MOUSE. W.B. Brumlow and C.S. Adams, Biology Department,
Auburn University at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36193.

Prolactin (PRL) binds to the testis of mice and rats where it
increases the number of luteinizing hormone (LH) receptors, increases
the binding of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to the LH receptors,
and enhances testosterone synthesis and secretion. PRL also binds to
the prostate and seminal vesicles of rats and humans where it increases
organ weight and stimulates growth and uptake of testosterone. PRL
binds to the epididymis of rats but the effect of PRL on this organ is
unknown. In the present study, standard immunoperoxidase (PAP) and
avidin-biotin complex (ABC) techniques were used to detect the binding
of endogenous and exogenous PRL to the epididymis of the mature mouse .
Throughout the epididymal duct, a positive reaction for peroxidase,
indicating PRL binding, occurred in the Golgi area of principal cells.
In segment 1, positive reactions were also visualized in the
perinuclear area and in the region located between the Golgi area and
the apical surface of the principal cells (supra-Golgi area) . In the
corpus and cauda epididymidis , scattered entire principal cells were
also positive. Throughout the epididymal duct, the reactions
indicating the binding of exogenous PRL were slightly • stronger than
those of endogenous PRL. The significance of PRL binding to the
epididymis is uncertain but PRL may perform the same functions in
epididymal principal cells as it does in the testis, prostate, and
seminal vesicles.

122

Abstracts

DETERMINATION OF THE POLYAMINES SPERMINE, SPERMIDINE AND PUTRESCINE
IN SEVERAL INVERTEBRATE TISSUES. Kara ,J. Lee , Stephen A. Watts, and
James B. McClintock, Dept, of Biology, U.A.B., Birmingham, AL 35294.

Levels of spermine, spermidine and putrescine, recognized for
their role in cell and tissue growth, were determined in tissues of
larval and adult marine and terrestrial invertebrates. Species
examined included echinoderms, molluscs, cnidarians and arthropods.
Acid-extracted polyamines were derivatized with dansyl chloride and
quantified using HPLC. Levels of polyamines in adult tissues showed
intraspecific as well as interspecific variability, with levels of
spermidine and spermine ranging from 2.3 to 165 nmol/g wet weight.
These levels are comparable to those found in vertebrates. Levels
of putrescine were more variable, ranging from 0 to 755 nmol/g wet
weight. Highest levels of putrescine were found in digestive and
secretory tissues, such as the pyloric caeca of the sea star Asterias
vulgaris and the hepatopancreas of the mussel Geukinsea demissa and
gastropod Thais harmostoma . Larval tissues ( Artemia spp. and Manduca
sexta) exhibited the highest levels of polyamines. High levels of
putrescine and spermidine in larval tissues (up to 3.9 umol/g wet
weight) may be necessary for sustaining cell proliferation and
differentiation in these rapidly growing tissues. The spermidine/
spermine ratio, an indicator of biosynthetic activity, is <1.2 in
adult tissues and should reflect maintenance-level biosynthesis. In
larval tissues the ratio is > 5 , reflecting higher rates of protein
synthesis during cell growth and proliferation. These data suggest
that the levels and distributions of polyamines may reflect distinct
ecological and physiological differences among species and functional
differences among tissue types.

DISTRIBUTION OF GLYCOLYTIC ENZYMES IN THE SEA STAR ASTERIAS VULGARIS .
Naoyuki Saito and Stephen A. Watts, Dept, of Biology, U.A.B.,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

The specific activities of hexokinase (HK), phosphof ructokinase
(PFK) and pyruvate kinase (PK) were determined in the pyloric caeca,
tube feet and body wall of Asterias vulgaris . Specific activities
were expressed as functions of wet 'weight and cytosolic protein. The
average gravimetric distribution of the organs were calculated (wet
organ weight/wet animal weight: pyloric caeca 16%; tube feet 3%;
body wall 55%) to determine the total enzyme activities per organ.

HK and PK activities were significantly higher than PFK activity in
all organs studied. The highest HK activity as a function of wet
weight was found in the pyloric caeca. Despite low PFK activity, the
highest PK activity per gram wet weight as well as the highest total
PK activity were found in the pyloric caeca. These results suggest
that a high concentration of a glycolytic intermediate, probably
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate derived through lipid catabolism, enters
the pathway after PFK. Tube feet exhibited the highest PFK and PK
activities as a function of cytosolic protein. This may reflect the
high energetic requirements of the tube feet. As a function of wet
weight, activities of HK, PFK and PK were minimal in the body wall,
reflecting low organic content of the organ. However, the highest
total PFK activity and highest HK activity per mg cytosolic protein
suggest the importance of the body wall in the overall glycolytic
activity of the organism.

123

Abstracts

PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES SPECIFIC FOR
CILIARY MEMBRANES OF TETRAHYMENA PYRIFORMIS. Barbara H. Estridge and
Christine A. Sundermann, Department of Zoology and Wildlife Sciences,
Auburn University, AL 36849.

Tetrahymena pyrif ormis (ATCC 30005) were deciliated and ciliary
membranes were purified by sucrose-gradient ultracentrifugation. Balb/c
mice were immunized with purified ciliary membranes and monoclonal
antibodies (MAb) to ciliary membranes were generated by fusion of
X63-Ag8 . 653 cells with immunized Balb/c spleen cells. Fused cells were
cultured in 96-well plates, and supernatants were tested for antibody
by enzyme immunoassay, using whole cilia as antigen and alkaline-
phosphatase labeled secondary antibody (anti-mouse IgG, anti-mouse IgM).
Cells from antibody-positive wells were cloned or frozen, and super¬
natants were retained. Thirteen MAb (7 IgG, 6 IgM) have been tested
by indirect immunofluorescence and immunoperoxidase staining. Five
staining patterns were observed: 1) intense staining of cell body and
cilia, 2) patchy staining of cell body and cilia, 3) intense staining
of cilia but not cell body, 4) moderate staining of cell body with
cilia unstained or weakly stained, and 5) moderate staining of cell
body and cilia. Some MAb stained the Tetrahymena culture heterogeneous¬
ly. The culture was cloned to separate positive and negative staining
subpopulations, and clones were tested repeatedly by immunoperoxidase
staining. The variations in staining patterns suggest that 1) some
determinants are present only on cilia or cell body, while others are
present on both cell body and cilia, and 2) the culture contains two
antigenic types, distinguishable by immunoperoxidase staining. This
work was supported by NSF grant DCB-8718174 and Alabama NSF EPSCoR
RII 8610669.

NON-SPECIFIC HYPERPLASTIC RESPONSE IN L-M CELLS INDUCED BY
VACCINIA VIRUS

Lawrence Drummond* and Lyman Magee. *Biology Dept, Talladega
College, Talladega, AL 35160. Dept. Biology, Liberal Arts,
University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677

L-M mouse fibroblast cells propagated in Yeast Extract
Lactalbumin Hydrolysate Peptone (YELP) medium. Mediun-199
or Eagle's minimal esential medium with or without fetal
calf serum were infected with 5, 10, and 20 plaque-forming
units (PFU) of vaccinia virus per culture. The cultures
were examined microscopically daily. Areas of focal pro¬
liferation were observed in cultures propagated in YELP
medium and Medium-199 supplemented with 3% fetal calf
serum and infected with 5 to 20 PFU/culture 48-72 hours
post-infection. There was a significant increase in the
total protein concentration per culture infected with
5, 10, and 20 PFU per culture demonstrating focal pro¬
liferation, Electron microscopy of thin sections of areas
of focal proliferation revealed intracellular localization
of vaccinia virus in all sections examined. These re¬
sults indicate that a virus-cellular interaction is involv¬
ed in the cellular proliferative response in L-M cells
infected with varying PFU/culture of vaccinia virus.

124

Abstracts

EIMERIA PAPILLATA (PROTOZOA: AP i COMP LEX A) : EARLY DEVELOPMENT IN VIVO
AND IN VITRO, Stephanie A. Stafford and Christine A. Sundermann, Dept.
Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn University, AL 36849.

The early development of Eimeria papillate in the mouse has not
yet been described. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate
early merogony and determine if spherical meronts (common to most eime-
rians) or sporozoite-shaped meronts (multinucleate forms that retain
the shape of a sporozoite) are produced. Mice were inoculated orally
with 6 million oocysts of JL papillata and killed 30 hours later. Por¬
tions of the small intestine were excised, and mucosal scrapings from
each animal were examined with Nomarski interference contrast micro¬
scopy (NIC). Motile sporozoite-shaped meronts were observed entering
and leaving host cells and contained one large posterior refractile
body and one small anterior refractile body and several nuclei. Twenty
living specimens were measured, and the mean length and width were
1 1 . 98um and 3. 73um respectively. Stained slides revealed that the mer¬
onts were indeed multinucleate. In order to isolate and concentrate
these meronts for further study, the small intestine was minced, placed
in a solution of bile and trypsin at 37C and then column-filtered. The
filtrate was centrifuged and the resulting pellet examined by NIC.
Numerous sporozoite-shaped meronts were observed; they displayed for¬
ward motility and the bending and flexing movements often associated
with excysted sporozoites. The isolated meronts will be inoculated on¬
to human fetal lung cells (passage 15) and primary fetal mouse brain
cells to observe, in vitro, early merogony of JL papillata. The obser¬
vation of sporozoite-shaped meronts in the early development of JL pap¬
illata serves as a valuable laboratory model for further studies of the
early developmental stages of similar coccidia.

EVOLUTIONARY AND DEVELOPMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE STRUCTURE OF
ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE FROM THE LAMPREY PETROMYZON MARINES . Leo
Pezzementi, Birmingham, Southern College, Birmingham, Alabama 35254

In the skeletal muscle of higher vertebrates, acetylcholines¬
terase (AChE) has been found to exist in globular forms, , G^. and
, consisting of one, two or four catalytic subunits; and asyxmnetic
forms, A^, Ag, and Aj^, consisting of one, two or three globular
tetramers linked to a collagenous tail. In contrast, only globular
forms of AChE have been reported in deuterostome invertebrates. To
obtain information about the evolution of AChE, we studied the enzyme
from the lamprey Petromyzon marinus , a member of the most primitive
class of vertebrates, the Agnatha. Sequential extraction of enzyme
and velocity sedimentation on sucrose gradients indicated that muscle
from adult spawning lamprey contains G^, A^, Ag, and Aj2 AChE. We
confirmed the presence of asymmetric AChE by collagenase digestion
and low-salt precipitation. Thus, muscle from representatives of all
classes of vertebrates has asymmetric and globular AChE, possibly be¬
cause asymmetric forms are needed at the neuromus clular junction for
rapid and coordinated muscle contraction. We also found that the
muscle of the larval form of the lamprey, the ammoeoete, possesses
asymmetric and globular AChE. In contrast to adult spawning lamprey,
where globular esterase is almost all , ammoeoete muscle contains
significant amounts of and G2 . The absence of these globular
forms in the spawning lamprey may be due to the degenerative state
of the lamprey in this stage of its life cycle.

125

Abstracts

STEROID METABOLISM IN SOMATIC AND GAMETIC TISSUES OF THE SEA
STAR ASTERIAS VULGARIS. Gene A. Hines and Stephen A. Watts, Dept, of
Biology, U.A.B., Birmingham, AL 35294, Charles W. Walker, Univ. of New
Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, Peter A. Voogt, State University, Utretch, The
Netherlands. Supported by NSF #DCB-871 1425.

Tissues were obtained in the fall during early stages of gametogenesis when gonads
and, presumably, somatic tissues are metabolically active. Microsomal preparations of
male and female pyloric caeca, body wall, testis and ovary were incubated with
radioactive androstenedione to evaluate androgen and estrogen metabolic pathways.
Testis, ovary, and body wall homogenates were incubated for eight hours; pyloric
caecal homogenates were incubated for two hours. Product identification was
determined via TLC and recrystallization to constant specific activity. Androstenedione
was converted primarily to testosterone and also to androstanedione and
epiandrosterone in all homogenates, indicating high 1 7(3- hydroxys teroid
dehydrogenase (HSD) activity relative to 5a-reductase ana 3J3-HSD. Trace levels of
unidentified products were found which may represent other androstane derivatives,
steroid esters, or degradation products. Highest rates of androstenedione conversion
were found in the pyloric caeca. It is not known whether high levels of androgen
metabolism in the pyloric caeca are related to cholesterol catabolism associated with
digestion, or production of metabolically active steroids. 5a-androstane-3|3,17j3-diol, a
potent androgen, was produced in male and female pyloric caeca. Homogenates of male
and female body wall showed relatively low rates of androstenedione conversion.
Homogenates of testes and ovaries produced the highest levels of androstanedione and
epianairosterone relative to somatic tissues. In gonadal tissues, highest rates of
androstenedione conversion were found in the testes. No estrogens were detected by
TLC, however, preliminary RIA has detected significant levels of estradiol in male and
female gonads and pyloric caeca with highest levels noted in ovaries. Sex-specific
differences in androgen metabolism were most apparent in gonadal tissues; these
differences were not apparent in somatic tissue.

ACTIN AND MYOSIN GENE EXPRESSION IN CHICK CARDIAC CELL CULTURES.

Ronald £. Young . Lee L. Zwanziger and Debra M. Moriarity. Department
of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Alabama, Huntsville, AL 35899

Cells from the ventricles of thirteen-day chick embryos were
cultured for 1, 4, 8, and 12 days in a serum-free, chemically defined
culture medium. The quantity of total protein per cell increased
approximately three-fold with time in culture compared to the level in
intact ventricles, whereas the quantity of myosin heavy chain per cell
decreased approximately four-fold. The quantity of myosin heavy chain
mRNA also decreased during the 12-day culture period. Changes in
expression of the alpha, beta and gamma isoforms of actin were also
investigated. The sarcomeric alpha-actin isoform predominated in
homogenates of intact ventricular tissue, but the ratio of alpha-actin
to beta- and gamma-actins decreased with time after the cells were
placed in culture. Because avian ventricular cells do not undergo
gene switching to different isoforms of sarcomeric myosin heavy chain
or actin when placed in culture, these results show that cardiac cells
quantitatively readjust the levels of individual contractile proteins
downward by several-fold in response to the serum-free, chemically
defined conditions in the cell culture environment. This culture
system therefore provides an assay for quantitative effects -of
exogenous pharmacological agents on the synthesis or degradation of
individual cardiac sarcomeric proteins or their mRNA's, without
concern for effects on gene switching. Supported by the Alabama Heart
Association.

126

Abstracts

SEED ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT EFFECTS ON THE GOPHER TORTOISE (GOPHERUS
POLYPHEMUS): A PRELIMINARY REPORT. T^ W. Bryan, Dept, of Zoology &

Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849. Dr. Craig
Guyer, Research Advisor, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife Sciences,

Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.

Establishment of the Black Creek Seed Orchard in DeSoto National
Forest, Mississippi, began in June 1988 with the clearcutting of
approximately 300 acres. A two-year study was contracted by the US
Forest Service to determine the effects this seed orchard establish¬
ment had on gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) . Several strict
rules governed the cut, including a 3 m buffer zone around each tor¬
toise burrow, in hopes of reducing the impact on the tortoises. We
present preliminary data regarding population structure, movement,
and activity. Data from the seed orchard site are compared with sim¬
ilar data from an unaltered control site. The two populations closely
match in mean body size, with only a 1 cm difference in male carapace
length (n=15 for the study site, n=ll on the control) and no difference
in carapace length for females (n=19 for study site, n=6 on control).
The relative numbers of active versus inactive burrows on the seed
orchard site did not differ from numbers recorded prior to the clear-
cut. This indicates that the tortoises have remained on the study
site. Daily use of active burrows on the two sites was not signifi¬
cantly different. Ten hatchlings were found on both the control and
study sites showing the two populations to be reproductive. This
study is funded by USFS contract 53-44-7U-8-4372 .

THE BIOCHEMICAL AND ENERGETIC COMPOSITION OF BLADES, STIPES
AND PNEUMATOCYSTS OF LIVING AND DECOMPOSING SARGASSUM FLUITANS
FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO. Michael J. Lares and James B.
McClintock, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

The biochemical composition of individual components of
Saraassum fluitans was variable, with stipes having more
soluble and insoluble carbohydrate and ash than blades.
Pneumatocysts were similar in composition to stipes, but had
higher levels of insoluble carbohydrate than blades.
Decomposing pneumatocysts had greater levels of ash than
either decomposing stipes or blades, and less insoluble
carbohydrate than decomposing stipes. Although there were
differences in the qualitative composition of living and
decomposing plant components, there were no significant
differences in the overall energy contents of living and
decomposing plant components (mean kJ/g dry wt of all plant
components ranged from 13.4 to 14.6). A representative plant
weighing 13 g wet wt would contain a total of 22.6 kJ,
allocating 13.7, 6.0 and 2.9 kJ to blades, stipes and
pneumatocysts, respectively. The retention of energy within
tissues throughout the decomposition process is important, as
this abundant pelagic species is widely distributed and may
provide a significant amount of imported energy to shallow
and deep sea benthic communities.

127

Abstracts

TRIALS OF SEVERAL DRUGS FOR THE CONTROL OF COCCIDIOSIS IN GOATS.

John C. Frandsen, USDA, ARS, Animal Parasite Research Laboratory,
Auburn, AL 36831-0952. Byron L. Blagburn, Dept. Pathobiology , College
of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, AL 36849.

Goats in the Southeast harbor infections by several species of
coccidia, especially Eimeria arloingi , E. christenseni and E. Parva,
almost continuously throughout most of their lives. Though these
infections rarely produce clinical disease in adult goats, they are
responsible for morbidity and mortality in young kids, skeletal weak¬
ness in goats of breeding age, and unevaluated losses of productivity
in both juveniles and adults. Control or elimination of these in-
fectons by drugs is hampered by a paucity of chemotherapeutics cleared
for use in goats and by the low efficacy of those that are cleared.
Trials of monensin (Rumensin(R) ) , amprolium (Corrid(R)), decoquinate
(Deccox(TM) ) , sulf aquinoxaline (Sulfa-Q(R) ) , clindamycin (Antirobe (R) ) ,
and Tribrissen (R) , a mixture of 1 part trimethoprim with 5 parts of
sulfadiazine, have shown a general lack of significant efficacy in re¬
ducing fecal oocyst production over a period of time, indicating that
the use of these drugs as a means for reducing the exposure of young
kids to infection is of limited - if any - value. Recently, trials
with toltrazuril (Bay Vi 9142, Baycox(R)), a triazinetrione synthe¬
sized as a coccidiostat for broilers, have indicated that this drug
has promise and warrants further evaluation. Administered either as
a drench or in drinking water, at 15 ppm for 14 days, it leads to a
reduction in oocyst production.

ALTERED CRICKET FAT BODY PROTEIN METABOLISM AFTER OVARIECTOMY. James
T. Bradley, Patrizio Caturegli and Barbara Estridge, Dept, of Zoology
and Wildlife Science, Auburn University, AL 36849.

Vitellogenesis in Acheta domestious begins with induction of
vitellogenin (VG) synthesis soon after ecdysis to the adult. Pre-VGs
are synthesized and processed in the fat body, secreted into the
hemo lymph, and sequestered by vitellogenic follicles. Pre-VG
processing includes glycosylation , phosphorylation, and specific
proteolytic cleavages. Ovariectomy before adult ecdysis effects
neither the timing of later VG induction nor the rate of fat body VG
synthesis, but the rate of secretion of newly made VG is attenuated
after ovariectomy. This phenomenon is being exploited to gain insight
into regulation of protein secretion in eukaryotic cells. Fat body
proteins were labeled in vivo with [ 35S ] -methionine at various times
after ovariectomy or sham operations, separated by SDS-PAGE, and
analyzed by fluorography and Western blotting. Ovariectomy resulted
in changes in the pattern of incorporation of label into fat body
polypeptides, and electron microscopy revealed an above normal
accumulation of secretory vesicles in fat body cell cytoplasm.
Immunological approaches are being used to learn how
ovariectomy-induced alterations in fat body protein metabolism are
related to steps in pre-VG processing.

Supported by Alabama NSF/EPSCoR Program in Molecular, Cellular and
Developmental Biology (Grant #RII-8610669) and the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station.

128

Abstracts

UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FLORA OF PITCHER PLANT
HABITATS IN THE GULF COAST AREA. George W. Folkerts. Dept,
of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn Univ. , AL 36849-5414

Pitcher plant habitats have been largely neglected by
ecologists because they are not traditional wetlands, nor
are they typical terrestrial habitats. This, along with the
fact that fire restriction has allowed successional changes
to essentially obliterate many sites, has resulted in a lack
of appreciation of their uniqueness. The flora of pitcher
plant habitats is unique in a number of its characteristics.
In life form, essentially all species are perennial
herbaceous geophytes. Almost none of the species are shade
tolerant. All are fire tolerant, mainly as a result of
their geophytic habit. The community is conspicuously
microspermous, nearly 60 percent of the species having
diaspores less than 2mm in length. The dispersal spectrum
differs conspicuously from that of adjacent communities, an
unusually high percentage of the species having rainwash
hydrochory as their primary dispersal method. Sedges
(Cyperaceae) comprise approximately 20 percent of the flora.
Many of the species are highly lignified, a feature which
may relate to their flammability, their low nutrient
content, and the relatively low incidence of herbivore
damage. These characteristics, along with the high
diversity of carnivorous plants, indicate that the flora of
pitcher plant habitats possesses unique features which make
it, as an abstract unit, as distinct as any other plant
community on the Coastal Plain of southeastern North
America.

STATUS OF ALABAMA BIRDS AND MAMMALS. Dan C. Holliman,

Division of Science and Mathematics, Birmingham-Southern College,
Birmingham, Alabama 35254

The status of those birds and mammals listed in Vertebrate
Animals of Alabama in Need of Special Attention (Al. Agri. Exp. St.
Auburn, University, Auburn, Al, 1986) is reviewed. Status changes
and data gaps are detailed for other birds and mammals that were not
included in the proceedings of the 1983 Alabama First Nongame Wildlife
Conference. Critical habitats and stress sources are described. A
research and management program along with specific jobs within these
programs are listed by priority. A basic philosophy relative to the
implementation of the program encourages rangewide studies, coopera¬
tion among educational institutions and the utilization of ongoing
state and federal activities.

129

Abstracts

INVESTIGATION OF THE CARYOCYST OF CARYOSPORA BIGENETICA (APICOMPLEXA:
EIMERIIDAE) . Christine A. Sundermann, Dept. Zoology & Wildlife Science,
Auburn University, AL 36849. David S. Lindsay, USDA, Beltsville, MD,
20705.

Caryospora bigenetica is a coccidian with a heteroxenous life cycle
involving viperine snakes and rodents. When rodents are experimentally
infected with snake-derived oocysts, asexual and sexual reproduction
occur in a variety of extraintestinal sites. Sporulated oocysts in the
tissues release motile sporozoites that then enter other host cells.

The final developmental stage is the formation of caryocysts - host
cells, containing a sporozoite (s) , that round-up and become enclosed
by a thick wall. In this study, a male cotton rat was inoculated with
snake-derived oocysts and then sacrificed 16 days later (DPI). Portions
of the scrotum, footpad, and muzzle were processed for histological and
electron microscopical (TEM) observation. TEM revealed that the sporo¬
zoite had an anterior and posterior refractile body, centrally-located
nucleus, posterior pore, micronemes, rhoptries, a conoid, a micropore
at the level of the anterior refractile body, amylopectin granules, and
lipid bodies. Also present were a Golgi body, a mitochondrion, and 24
subpellicular microtubules. The infected host cell was spherical and
surrounded by a fibrous wall-like covering that was 0.35 - 1.00 um thick
and PAS-positive . It is not known if this wall forms by secretory ac¬
tivity of the host cell or is built by incorporation of material from
the extracellular matrix. To test longevity of the caryocysts, mice
were inoculated with sporulated oocysts; all animals developed clinical
signs of dermal coccidiosis 8-12 DPI and then recovered. The mice were
sacrificed more than a year later, and fresh tissue scrapings were
treated with bile/ trypsin. The wall of the caryocyst quickly disinte¬
grated and the sporozoites became motile. Supported by the AAES.

A MURINE SPERM COMPONENT WHICH RECOGNIZES THE ZONA
PELLUCIDA. Holly L. Boettqer and G.R. Poirier, Dept, of
Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
35294.

The murine zona pellucida consists of three glyco¬
proteins ZPl, ZP2 and ZP3, with molecular weights of
200,000, 120,000 and 83,000 daltons. Both ZP2 and ZP3
function in the binding of sperm to the zona. ZP3 is
responsible for initial binding, while ZP2 functions to
bind sperm during zona penetration (Bleil et al, 1988).
This presentation demonstrates that a 15,000 MW component,
the acceptor, localized on the head of murine spermatazoa
binds to whole and heat solubilized zonae as well as to
purified ZP2 and ZP3. These observations indicate that
the acceptor may play a major role in the sperm-zona
interactions which lead to fertilization.

130

Abstracts

THE PHYLOGENETIC POSITION OF THE FOSSIL TELEOST FISH MICROCAPROS
LIBANICUS . Steven J. Zehren, Dept, of Cell Biology and Anatomy,

Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

The Family Caproidae (boarfishes) contains two living genera, Capros
(with one species, C^ aper) and Antigonia (with 11 species). A number
of fossil species have also been assigned to the Caproidae including
three of the genus Capros , three of the genus Antigonia and one of the
genus Microcapros (M. libanicus from the Cenomanian of Lebanon). Twen¬
ty-four characters are noted in the literature as being indicative that
Microcapros is a caproid. However, osteological examination of aper
and seven of the living species of Antigonia reveals that only two of
these characters are derived and common to all three genera (frontals
ornamented with tubercles; dorsal spines alternately inclined). None
of the other characters is indicative that Microcapros is a caproid
because they are of questionable polarity (spines on cleithrum, supra-
cleithrum and posttemporal ; dorsal spines grooved), primitive (frontals
high; supraoccipital crest thornlike; lacrimal articulates with lateral
ethmoid; last dorsal spines diminished in height; strong pelvic spine
present) or absent in one or more of the three genera (frontals orna¬
mented with spinous ridges; infraorbitals of constant height; subocular
shelf present; mouth large and oblique; ascending process of premaxilla
well-developed; one supramaxilla; mandibular canal in a groove; post¬
temporal bifid; six pelvic rays; nine dorsal spines; scales not cover¬
ing bases of spinous dorsal and anal fins; presence of thickened scales
in front of pelvic fins). It is concluded that Microcapros should be
removed from the Caproidae and placed in the position incertae sedis .

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN LARVAE OF THE SOUTHERN LEOPARD FROG (RAN A
UTRICULARIA) AT CONSTANT AND FLUCTUATING TEMPERATURES. David H.
Nelson, Department of Biology, Univ. of South Ala., Mobile, AL
36688.

Larvae of the Southern leopard frog were reared (from eggs)
for six weeks in environmental chambers at constant (10°C, 17°C,
25°C) and fluctuating (cyclic and non-cyclic) temperature regimes.
Fluctuating temperatures varied from 10°C to 25°C with mean values
of 17.5°C. Stages of development and body lengths were compared
after three weeks. At the termination of the six-week study, the
stages of development, body lengths and body weights were recorded.
Among the constant temperatures (as expected) , the values for all
parameters were directly related to temperature. Although the
differences in some cases were slight, values for all parameters
were greater at the noncyclic, fluctuating temperature regime than
at the cyclic, fluctuating regime.

131

Abstracts

CHEMISTRY

ELECTRON DENSITY ANALYSIS OF BONDING BETWEEN
INVERTED-TRICOORDINATE CARBONS. Osman F. Griner and
Koop Lammertsma; Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at
Birmingham, University Station PHS-219, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Rhombic dicarbides contain two inverted tricoordinate carbons at the bridge¬
head positions that are separated by a distance shorter than a typical C-C
single bond. The bonding nature of rhombic dicarbides, C2X2 where X =
Li, Be, B, C, and CH+, are investigated using Bader’s topological electron
density approach. While the electron density for bridgehead C-C bond of
C2Li2 is high, it gradually decreases for C2Be2 and C2B2. Particular empha¬
sis is given to rhombic C4 since the interpretation of stability, bonding, and
spectroscopic characteristics of this species have been controversial. At the
HF/6-31G* level of theory, a bond path between the inverted-tricoordinate
carbons is located and the corresponding bond critical point has a close re¬
semblance to a catastrophe point. However, when the electron correlation
effects is included in the calculations by means of second order Mpller-Plesset
perturbation theory (MP2-FU/6-31G*), it is determined that there is no bond
path connecting the inverted-tricoordinate carbons of rhombic C4. Since the
existence of a bond path is a “necessary condition” for the existence of a bond,
it is concluded that there is no formal bond between the bridging carbons of
the rhombic C4 which is in contrary to the earlier assumptions.

COPING WITH REGULATIONS. Mary Frances Dove , Div. of Natural Sciences,
Mobile College, Mobile, AL 36613.

Small colleges, both public and private, are under regulation by
both OSHA and EPA. Unlike larger universities which usually have
special departments whose responsibility is regulatory compliance,
small colleges often suffer from a lack of specific information about
regulations and the process of compliance. Our experiences at Mobile
College, a small private college, have demonstrated the importance of
organizing campus activities to ensure that reporting deadlines and
safety standards are met. Small colleges need to develop up-to-date
inventory and compatible storage systems, responsible waste disposal
procedures, safety inspection routines, and worker right-to-know
training programs for all campus personnel and areas involved in the
handling and storage of chemicals. These activities should be carried
out by a permanently designated site coordinator or safety officer
who represents the college on the local emergency planning committee.

132

Abstracts

Competitive Adsorption of Corrosion Inhibitors
on Metal Surfaces

A. Ibrahim, C. Jenkins, M. Emerson, and B.H.Loo

Chemistry Department
University of Alabama in Huntsville
Huntsville, AL. 35899
(205) -895-6023

Surf ace -enhanced Raman Spectroscopic (SERS) studies of
corrosion inhibitors on a copper electrode surface are
reported. Competitive adsorption of benzotriazole (BTA) and
tolyltriazoles ( 1-TTA, 5-TTA, 6-TTA) has been studied using
Raman microprobe SERS. Preliminary results support the
hypothesis of bidentate coordination to the metal surface
through the 1,3 -nitrogens. SERS spectra of individual
compounds on the surface of a copper electrode are compared
with the spectra of mixtures taken under the same
conditions. A Fast Fourier Transform algorithm is used to
estimate the relative contribution of each component to the
spectrum of the mixture.

Studies of other similar corrosion inhibitors (e.g.
benzothiozole) will also be reported.

Diimide Kinetics In Aqueous Solution. David M. Stanbury, Department of Chemistry,
Auburn University, AL 36849

2—

The acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of azodiformate ((NC02)2 X which has diimide
(N2H2) as an intermediate, has been studied by stopped-flow spectrophotometry. When
the hydrolysis is conducted at sufficiently low pH (= 6), the second-order dismutation of
diimide occurs on a time-scale slower than that of its generation. The reduction of
azobenzene-4, 4'-disulfonate (ABDS) by diimide provides a convenient indicator of these
reactions. The consumption of ABDS gives the relative rate constants of reduction and
dismutation, and the kinetics gives the absolute rate constants. At 25 °C these rate
constants are 2.5 x 104 M ^s * and 2.3 x 10^ M *s \ respectively. A mechanism is
proposed in which the high-energy cis-diimide is in rapid solvent-catalyzed
equilibrium with (ground-state) frcms-diimide; the cis-isomer reduces the azobenzene
and trans-diimide competitively at rates near the diffusion limit.

133

Abstracts

AN EXPERT SYSTEM FOR WASTE DISPOSAL: TOSS IT! USING EXSYS. Ann E.
Stanley, Research Directorate, U.S. Army Missile Command, Redstone
Arsenal, AL 35898-5248.

About two years ago, we learned that we must adhere to a regu¬
lation called HAZCOM. This regulation requires employers to notify
employees of the hazards to which they are exposed during work or in
storage areas. We reacted in several ways to this measure. We in¬
ventoried all materials and placed Material Safety Data Sheets in work
areas and storage areas. We initiated a program to educate employees
about this regulation and how it impacted them. We began a program
to identify all excess materials and to turn in those materials
through our appropriate channels. A great deal of time was spent in
the identification, cleanup and disposal of hazardous chemicals and
other materials. This involved sorting through old and hazardous
chemicals and packing the chemicals for transport to those responsible
for disposal. We have only a few materials left to eliminate. In
the course of this experience, I and members of my group, learned a
great deal about the proper disposal of hazardous waste materials at
the U.S. Army Missile Command. The expert system described herein
is an attempt to incorporate our experiences into an expert system
which will assist others in accomplishing the same task. Some of our
activities were strictly regulated by MICOM Regulation 200-2. Others
were discovered as we attempted to fathom our way through the maze
of organizations involved. In my discussion I intend to relate some
of my experiences during this time and to describe the expert system
which I developed to assist others in this task.

METAL COMPLEXES OF ALKYLATING AGENTS CONTAINING THE BIS (2-CHLOROETHYL)
AMINE FUNCTIONAL GROUP. Jamie B. Neidert, Melvin D. Joesten, and
Ethel L. Krasney, Dept, of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University,

Nashville, TN 37235.

0

Cyclophosphamide (shown above) is a widely used anticancer drug.
The active metabolite of this drug is phosphoramide mustard, (HO) (^N)
P (O)N (CH„CH„C1) „ . Metal complexes of phosphoramide mustard deriva¬
tives with the general formula RR'P (O)N (CH-CH-Cl) where R=R'=NH2;
R=-0-P (R' ) (O)N (CH^CH^Cl) 2 and R'^N^H^^ have been prepared.

Complexes with two other anticancer drugs, melphalan and chlorambucil,
have also been prepared and characterized. Transition, alkali,
alkaline-earth, main group, and lanthanide metal ions have been
employed, with the emphasis given to metal ions which exhibit anti¬
cancer activity such as Au(III), Cu(II), Pt(II), and Rh(II). The
stoichiometry and spectral data for these complexes will be presented.
The results of this study indicate that the phosphoramide mustard
group in the ligands remains intact in the metal complexes.

134

Abstracts

RADON SITUATION TODAY. Carlton D. Whitt, Retired Chemist and Teacher,
407 E. Washington St., Athens, AL 35611. Donald R. Payne, Dept of
Physics, Athens State Col., Athens, AL 35611

The large amounts of money spent in testing for radon and for protect¬
ion against its hazards, the widespread concerns of the public and the
many conflicting test results obtained to date, warrant an indepth
study of the situation. The basic properties of radon gas and all the
daughters of uranium were studied in detail. Simple calculations of
the possible amounts of radium, radon and the daughters of radon based
on the uranium contents of soils and minerals are presented. For
example the amounts of radon gas contained in the total 10 feet of air
over a one acre area and over a square mile at levels of 4.0 & 4,000
pico curies per liter of air were caculated to be:

ACRE SQUARE MILE

4PCi _ 1n 4>000 PCi7

Radon, g. 3.21 X 10~JU 3.21 X 10"'

Radon, ml. 3.25 X 10'8 3.25 X 10~5

4 pCi _ 4,000 pCi ,
2.06 X 10'; 2.06 X 10";
2.08 X 10"5 2.08 X 10'2

The amounts of uranium in the locale under study rigorously control
the maximum amounts of each of its daughters including radium, radon
and the short half-life daughters of radon. The disintegrations of
atoms of uranium per second is the same as the number of atoms of
each of the 14 daughters which react per second. It is independent
of the half-life of each element. The authors will show that the
amounts of radon and the daughters of radon as gaseous atoms or as
dispersed atoms in the air are of little threat to our health.

BON^ ENERGIES AND ENTROPIES OF GAS-PHASE ION-MDLECULE CLUSTERS:
SO2 COp, SO^ N2O AND SO2 SO2. Andreas J. lilies. Kevin Snowden
ana Matthew scanlon, Chemistry Department, Auburn University, AL
36849-5312.

Ion-molecule clusters have been extensively studied, partly
because of the, role they play in the chemistry of planetary
atmospheres. Reactions of sulfur containing molecules are
relevant to both the earth' s and the Venusian atmospheres .
Studies of clusters are also important from the fundamental
point of view. We have studied, and continue to study, neutral
clustering to sulfur containing ions by experimental equilibrium
methods using high pressure mass spectrometry . Fran the van't
Hoff plots one can determine heats of reaction (and hence
binding energies) and entropies of reaction. Exanples of the
ions we have studied with preliminary experimental binding
energies in kcal/mol are: SCu CCt (10.2), SCL |~12), and

(~22) . The present binding energy for sCt SCu is higher
than previous photoionization results. This difference can be
explained by examining the Franck-Condon overlap in the
photoionization experiments. Our results on reaction entropies,
enthalpies and cluster binding energies of these and similar
clusters will be presented.

135

Abstracts

BORANE COMPETITION REACTIONS TOWARD N, P, AND As DONOR SITES.
Larry K. Krannich, Dileep K. Srivastava, and Charles L. Watkins,
Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, UAB Station,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

Prior research has established that BH3 binds to the nitrogen
atom in Me2AsNMe2- We have recently shown that, depending upon the
reaction stoichiometry, P-B, N-B, and B-P-N-B bonded BH3 adducts of
Me2PNMe2 are formed. These studies have established the
intramolecular competition of the As, N, and P atoms toward BHg.
In the present work, we have focused on the intermolecular
competition of N, P, P-N, and As-N base sites toward BHg. The
reactions of BH-^’THF toward a series of solutions containing
competing Group 15 Lewis base site compounds were studied using
multinuclear nmr to establish the relative order of reactivity.
Our data indicate the following order

Me3N = Me2AsNMe2 > Me2PNMe2 = Me3P > Me3As

toward BH3 in dg-toluene. This ordering will be discussed using
electronegativity arguments for Me3E (E = N, P, As), group
substitution effects, and the relative significance of dir-piT
bonding in the As-N and P-N bonds. The results are in contrast to
those determined previously from displacement reactions, i.e. Me3E

+ Me3E''BH3 - > Me3E' + Me3E ' BH3 , for establishing relative base

strengths .

MOLECULAR STRUCTURES AND DIMERIZATION ENERGIES
OF DIGALLANES. Jerzy Leszczvnski and Koop Lammertsma;
Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
University Station PHS-219, Birmingham, AL 35294.

The heavier atom analogues of diborane(6) are of both experimental and
theoretical interest. Only as recent as 19SS has dichlorodigallane(6) been
synthetized and studied by means of i.r. spectroscopy as well as gas-phase
electron-diffraction. However, the information on digallanes is extremely
limited.

Our ab initio study supplies theoretical information about the molecu¬
lar structures, vibrational spectra and dimerization energy of these digallane
species. The di-bridged molecule has been found to be minimum on the poten¬
tial energy surface, triply- and singly-bridged isomers were also investigated
and characterized as first and second order transition structures. The com-
parision between experimental and our theoretical data on H2Ga-/iCl2-GaH2
is quite satisfactory and shows that 3-21 G* basis set describes the molecular
structure and the vibrational frequencies of these gallium species adequately.

136

Abstracts

YOUR RIGHT TO KNOW. Johnnie Marie Whit field , Department of Chemistry,
Millsaps College, Jackson, MS 39210.

As of August 1, 1983, OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard (29
CFR 1910.1200), also known as Worker's Right-to-Know, went into effect.
Originally . intended for the chemical manufacturing industry, litigation
broadened its scope. Now employers, including private colleges and
universities, must design and implement programs for their employees.
The American Chemical Society is strongly encouraging the public acade¬
mic laboratories to adhere to the spirit of this program if they exist
in states without comparable plans. The HAZ COM Standard also triggers
nonmanufacturer compliance with Sections 311 and 312 of SARA Title III.
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization ACT (SARA) was signed into
law on October 17, 1986. SARA Title III is also known as the Emergency
Response and Community Right-to-Know (RTK) law. This talk will
address the main requirements and impact of these RTK regulations.

For HAZ COM these are : ' ( 1 ) development and implementation of a written
Hazard Communication Program; (2) Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) ;
(3) container labeling requirements; and (4) employee information and
training. For SARA Title III these will include an audit of all
hazardous chemicals (any element, chemical compound, or mixture of
elements and compounds that is a physical or health hazard), whether
these hazardous chemicals exceed specified thresholds and thus require
reporting of Tier I or Tier II to Local Fire Department, Local Emer¬
gency Planning Committee (LEPC) , and State Emergency Response
Commission (SERC).

SERS of Dicyanogroups on Metal Surface

Y. L. Pay, A. Ibrahim,, D. H. Burns and B. H. Loo

Chemistry Department
University of Alabama in Huntsville
Huntsville, AL. 35899
(205) 895 -602 3

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) is used
to study the molecular interactions of dicyanoalkanes
with a copper electrode surface. The double degeneracy
of the J (C—N) in the free molecule is removed when
the cyano groups are adsorbed onto copper, showing that
the two C=N groups are no longer chemically equivalent.
Shifts in the nitrile peak position indicate that CN
groups are pi-coordinated to the copper surface.

137

Abstracts

STRUCTURE ANALYSIS OF PO L Y ETH Y LOX AZO L I N E-CO- PO L Y ETH Y L E N I M I N E AND ITS
PRECURSOR. Key in W . Carter . Adriane G. Ludwlck and M. A. Salam
Biswas, Chemistry Department, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088.

The objective of this research is to examine the structure of
po I y e+h y I oxazo I i ne-co-po I y e+h y I en ! m i ne ( PEOX-co-PE I ) , a potential
therapeutic agent, and its precursor po I y ethy I oxazo I i ne (PEOX).
PEOX-co-PE I is synthesized from the hydrolysis of PEOX. PEOX (Dow
Chemical Company) is a c ommme r i c a I 1 y available water-soluble adhesive
represented as repeat unit 1, sold in three molecular weight ranges.
The PEOX-co-PE I can be consTdered a copolymer with the repeat unit 2.

CH - -N-CHCH-N-CHCH-

2 ! 2 2 > 2 2
H 9 = 0

CH2

1 1

Preliminary NMR studies showed 2_ had been synthesized. Low angle
laser light scattering (LALLS) measurements of the PEOXs gave weight
average molecular weights simi lar to those reported by Dow. The
PEOX-co-PEI results, however, Indicate that the PEOX backbone breaks
during hydrolysis. Viscosity measurements of the PEOX-co-PEI polymer
showed polyelectrolyte behavior in water and methanol. Huggins
constants calculated for the PEOX systems indicated branching.
Chromatograms from GPC studies of the PEOXs imply that PEOX is a
mixture of components. The copolymers could not be distinguished by
the columns used. From the results it Is concluded that the PEOX
system appears to be a branched polymer with amide functional groups
incorporated Into its backbone. The copolymer is inferred to be a
mixture of linear polymers, some containing carboxylic acid end
groups. (Supported by NIH RR 08091)

-n-ch2-
C = 0

CH,

TERTIARY ARSINES: NOVEL SYNTHESIS. Dileep K. Srivastava, Larry K.
Krannich, and Charles L. Watkins, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Ala.
at Birmingham, UAB Station, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Recently there has been intense interest in organoarsine
synthesis, since alkylarsines and designer III-V adduct precursors
are being evaluated in the MOCVD production of GaAs for
microelectronic technologies. Electronically pure arsines are
reguired for this work. Although numerous synthetic pathways to
organoarsines are known, undersirable side-reactions produce low
yields or contaminants that are difficult to remove in the
purification processes. We have been successful in developing a
versatile, high yield novel synthetic route to highly pure tertiary
arsines. Twelve alkyl and aryl tertiary arsines [R^As, where R =
Et, Prn, Pr\ Bun, Busec, Bu1", vinyl, allyl, Ph, Bz, mesityl, and
Me^SiC^] have been synthesized in good yields (65-90%) by reacting
a stoichiometric excess of the alkylating agent (RMgX, RLi, or
R2Zn) with OO^C^OAsCl and OCMe2CMe20AsCl . Furthermore, the mixed
alkyl tertiary arsine, Et?AsMe, was prepared in 75% yield from the
reaction of EtMgBr with OCT^CT^OAsMe. The desired products are
easily isolated by distillation or recrystallization. All the
synthesized arsines have been completely characterized by their IR,
NMR, and mass spectra. Regardless of the alkylating agent, the
tertiary arsine yield increased in the order Et < Prn < Bu11 < Ph.

138

Abstracts

STOCHASTIC EVALUATION OF ALGORITHMS PROPOSED FOR REMOVING
INTERFERENCE IN CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA. Michael L. Gibson and
Michael B. Moeller, Department of Chemistry, University of North Alabama,
Florence AL 35632.

The dilute acid hydrolysis of cellulose involves a series of sequential
reactions. Reaction products formed in the later phases of the reaction series
interfere with the measurement of the hydrolysis rate by weight loss. We have
developed a computer simulation of the reaction system in order to investigate
and optimize two methods proposed for removing interference in kinectics data.
The first of these methods involves fitting the data to a series of polynomial
functional forms and estimating the hydrolysis rate constant from the average of
the initial slopes. This method produced reliable values if there was little
random error introduced in the simulated data, but this polynomial regression
technique became unstable when the standard deviation was increased in the
stochastically generated data points. In the second method examined, the
effect of the interference was systematically reduced by using a conventional
semilog plot and sequentially removing the last data points. The rate constant
without interference was estimated by a linear extrapolation. After optimization,
the simulations indicate this second method will give reliable values even with
considerable scatter in the data.

The Synthesis of Some New Derivatives of
Acetophenone tricarbonyl chromium.

B. Armstrong, M. Bowen, J. Hamilton, C.A.L. Mahaffy
and J. Rawlings.

Department of Chemistry, Auburn University at Montgomery,
Montgomery, Alabama, 36193-0401, USA.

A large number of alkyl and alkoxy substituted
derivatives of acetophenone tricarbonyl chromium have been
been prepared. The preparations together with some of the

spectral properties will be
described. One noticeable
feature of these complexes
is that 2 , 6-di-substituted
compounds are yellow while
complexes containing other
substitutent patterns are
orange to red. The extent of
the requirement for bis-ortho
substitution to restrict
acetyl group rotation as an
explanation for this phenomenon
will be discussed.

139

Abstracts

SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF FLUORINATED EPOXY RESINS CONTAINING
THE ESTER FUNCTIONAL GROUP. Derrick R. Dean and Adriane G. Ludwick,
Chemistry Dept., Materials Research Lab, Tuskegee Univ., Tuskegee, AL
36088 .

The objective of this study Is to synthesize a fluorinated epoxy
resin containing the ester functional group. Based on the kinetic
results from an experiment done by Griffith and O'Rear (Ind, Eng, Chem.
Prod. Res. Dev., 1974, 13, 148-149), It is thought that such a resin

s hou Id cure we I I with most common curing agents. Two synthetic
approaches were used in this work. The first approach was aimed at
developing a novel route for obtaining an ester-containing fluorinated
resin 1. The proper conditions were determined using nonf I uor I nated

analogs and then attempting each reaction with the fluorinated
compounds. The first step in this synthetic scheme involved reacting
benzene and hexaf I uoroacetone in the presence of aluminum chloride to
obtain the monofunctional alcohol,

( 1 1 1 , 3 33-h exa f I uoro-2 -h y d roxy p rop y I ) bez ene , which was esterified by
reaction with chloroacetyl chloride. This {(-haloester was then reacted
with more hexaf I uoroacetone in an attempt to form the ester-containing
epoxide. This final step proved unsuccessful, however. A second
approach, the method of Maerker , Carmichael, and Port ( J , Or q . Chem,,
1961 , 55 , 2681-2688 ), which called for preparing a g I y c i d i c ester From
the sa I ts of some long-chain fatty acids as we I I as from the acid
itself, was employed. However, the acid used in this experiment,
perf I uorog I utar i c acid, contains only five carbons. This work is still
underway. (Supported by DOD/URI/ONR, contract no. N00 1 4-96-K-0765 )

SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POLYCARBOSILANES . Taleb H. Ibrahim
and Adriane G. Ludwick, Chemistry Department, Materials Research
Laboratory, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088.

Polycarbosilanes are potential precursors for silicon carbide
fibers and can be sintered to give materials which can be used as
matrices for ceramic composites. The commercial method for the
conversion of polydimethylsilane (PM) to a hexane-soluble
polycarbosilane (reportedly 450 C, 14 hours, Ar atmosphere) gave a
hexane-insoluble material in our laboratory. Reasoning from the
thermal gravimetric analyses of PM and of the commercial
polycarbosilane, modified conditions (350 C, 10 hours) were
established for the PM to polycarbosilane conversion to give a product
essentially identical to the commercial polycarbosilane. This
approach has been used to establish the conditions for the production
of polycarbosilanes from polymethylphenylsilane and from copolymers of
dimethylsilane and methylphenylsilane. Polydiphenylsilane and
polyborodiphenylsiloxane have been found to convert to a product
containing polycarbosilane features in their infrared spectra. The
molecular weights of the polycarbosilanes from polymethylphenylsilane
and polydiphenylsilane have been found to increase as the reaction
temperature increases. The influence of phenyl content on the
properties of ceramic matrices prepared from polycarbosilanes is under
investigation. (Supported by DOD/URI/ONR, Contract No.
N0014-86-K-0765)

140

Abstracts

LANGMUIR EQUATION AS A MODEL FOR P SORPTION BY ALUMINUM OXIDE SURFACE,
Robert W. Taylor, Ala. A&M Univ,s Normal, AL 35762. William Bleam,
USDA/ARS-ERRC, Philadelphia, PA.

P adsorpton on soil mineral surfaces is of concern in plant
nutrition as well as environmental quality. Much research has been
done to find a model to accurately describe this phenomenon. We
studied P adsorption on laboratory synthesized Boehmite [ -A10(0H)],
a soil mineral, at pHs 3.25, 4.00 and 5.50 using the Langmuir model
and comparing its calculated adsorption maximum to that determined
by direct measurement. The specific surface area determined by N2
adsorption and BET monolayer capacity was 187.25 M^/gm. P concen¬
trations used were below the Ksp of amorphous varascite, ALPO4H2O,
at all three pHs in a system designed to eliminate precipitation as
a factor in the surface reaction(s). The adsorption reactions con¬
formed to the linear Langmuir equation and peaked at pH 4.0. This
suggested monolayer adsorption at singular sites but other surface
techniques need to be used to explain the peak in adsorption at pH
4.0.

TRANSITION METAL COMPLEXES CONTAINING N-D0N0R HETEROCYCLIC LIGANDS.
Lee Warren and Nick Thomas, Department of Physical Sciences,

Auburn University at Montgomery, Montgomery AL 36193.

The reaction of the rhodium octaethyl porphyrin complex
Rh ( 0EP ) Cl with 4,4' -bipyridyl (BPY ) yields a homobimetal 1 ic
complex. Cl (OEP)Rh (BPY)Rh(OEP )C1 , which contains a bridging
bipyridyl ligand. The complex has been characterized by
:H n.m.r. and FAB mass spectrometry.

OPTICAL AM) MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF RARE EARTH SUBSTITUTED YiBa2CV3°6+x. ’
Terry D. Rolin, B.H. Loo, D.R. Bums and N. Wang, Dept, of Chemistry ,
Univ. of Ala. in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899.

We have investigated the optical and magnetic properties of some
rare-earth substituted Y,BapCuoO^ (Y123) compounds using a SQUID
magnetometer and a Raman~microprdbe spectrophotometer, respectively.
SQUID measurements were performed to determine values for diamagnetic
shielding which gives the volume fraction of superconducting phase.
Transition temperatures for each sample were also determined. The
Raman spectra of these samples reveal modes centered approximauej_y at
320, 50*0 and 580 cm"1. The presence of thes modes correlates well with
the presence of large values for diamagnetic shielding which suggests
that these oeaks belong to the superconducting phase.

141

Abstracts

ION MDLECULE CLUSTERING OF H30 TO C02 AND N^O. BOND ENERGIES
AND ENTROPIES OF REACTION. Kevin Snowaen ana Andreas lilies;
Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5312.

Ion-molecule reactions have been extensively studied mainly due
to their relevance to astrophysical chemistry, atmospheric
chemistry, nucleation phenomena and the chemistry of high energy
environments such as plasmas, lasers and flames. Here we
present new results on high pressure (<2.0 torr) ion-molecule
reactions. H^O is an extremely import ant ion in our
atmosphere. Many proton-bound molecules involving the H^O
species have been reported, yet very few studies with H^O and
inorganic molecules of atmospheric importance have been
investigated. We studied the binding of H30 N20 and H^O CCu by
high pressure ion-molecule equilibrium methods Z and found the
binding energies to be 11.1 Kcal/mole and 12.1 Kcal/mol
repectively. The experimental entropies of reaction are higher
(less negative) then previous reports on similar molecules.
Arguments which support the higher entropies of reaction are
presented.

MODEL COMPLEXES OF METAL NUCLEOTIDES. J. Rawlings, Chemistry Dept.,
Auburn University at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36193.

2+

Models for the Mg -ATP system have been synthesized using
cobalt(III) or chromium(III) in place of magnesium. For example,
the Co(NH3)3ATP complex resulting from the reaction of

mer-[Co(NH3)3(H20)Cl2]Cl with ATP has been prepared. These

substitution inert complexes have been purified using a variety of
chromatographic techniques and have been characterized by their
uv-visible and NMR spectra. The ability of these model complexes
to inhibit the reaction of hexokinase with glucose has then been
studied.

COMPARATIVE RADON DANGERS. Donald R. Payne, Dept of Physics, Athens
State College, Athens, AL 35611 . Carlton D. Whitt, Retired Chemist
and Teacher, 407 E. Washington St. Athens, AL 35611

The large sums of money spent testing for and modifying buildings to
protect against radon appears to be far out of proportion to the real
threat for most US citizens. The radiation from radon and its
daughter products can cause few problems greater than those caused by
natural background radiation, cosmic radiation, x-rays, microwaves,
or the world increase in radioactive elements released into the
environment from nuclear power plants (naval and shoreside), weapons
testing, and neutron activiation. Several waste disposal and energy
use problems are far more significant in their effect on every person
on the earth.

142

Abstracts

GEOLOGY

GEOCHEMICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ORIGIN OF THIN-LAYERED AMPHIBOLITES
WITHIN THE ROPES CREEK AMPHIBOLITE, WESTERN LEE COUNTY, ALABAMA. Greg
D. Hall and Peter A. Salpas , Dept, of Geology, Auburn University.

The Ropes Creek amphibolite is the largest exposure of rock in
the Dadeville Complex of Alabama's Inner Piedmont, and is interpreted
to be metamorphosed, obducted sea-floor basalt. Our mapping has re¬
vealed two rock types - a massive amphibolite (MA) and a thin- layered
amphibolite (TLA) . There are three mechanisms by which layers in
metamorphic rocks may be produced: (1) metamorphic differentiation of
a homogeneous rock (2) alternating layers of meta-igneous and meta¬
sedimentary material; and (3) alternating layers of meta-igneous ma¬
terial and felsic tuffs.

The TLA is composed of alternating bands (1-50 cm thick), contin¬
uous along strike, of well foliated mafic layers (ML) composed of 57% -
61% nematoblastic hornblende, 17%-23% plagioclase, and 14-18% quartz,
and slightly foliated felsic layers (FL) containing 49% -55% subhedral
plagioclase, and 40% -44% quartz. The ML and FL have distinctly dif¬
ferent major element compositions, and mass balance calculations pre¬
clude derivation of the TLA by metamorphic differentiation of the MA
or any reasonable basaltic composition. The modal mineralogies of the
FL plot in the dacite field on Steckeisen's diagram, consistent with
their major element compositions which are enriched in Si and depleted
in Mg, Ca, Fe , and Al relative to the ML. Major element compositions
of the ML are similar to tholeiite basalts. REE compositions are also
different between the ML and FL. The ML exhibit flat to slightly
LREE-depleted patterns. The FL are slighty LREE- and MREE-depleted
and have large positive Eu anomalies. Mass balance calculations using
REE also prohibits deriving the ML and FL by segregation of a common
basaltic parent.

SINKHOLE OCCURRENCE IN ALABAMA AND THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. J. G.
Newton and Philip E. LaMoreaux, P. E. LaMoreaux and Associates, Inc.

P. 0. Box 2310, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35403.

More than 1,000 sites of sinkhole development have been identified
during a series of investigations in Alabama and the eastern United
States. It is estimated that more than 8,000 collapses have occurred
at these sites with most occurring since 1950. Costs of damage and
safety measures reported for a limited number of sites exceeded $170
million .

Sinkhole occurrence is both natural and induced (accelerated or
caused by man). Almost all occurrences result from the collapse of.
soil cavities or the downward migration of unconsolidated deposits into
openings in bedrock. Most occurrences and damage are induced. These
man-related collapses are divided into two types: those resulting
from ground-water withdrawals and those resulting from construction.
Sinkholes resulting from water-level declines due to pumpage are
caused by loss of buoyant support, increase in velocity of water
movement, water-level fluctuations, and recharge. Most induced sink¬
holes resulting from construction are caused by the diversion or
impoundment of surface drainage over unconsolidated . deposits resting
on openings in the top of bedrock. Collapse mechanisms include
loading, saturation, and piping.

143

Abstracts

FUNCTIONAL HEARING IN MOSASAURS REASSESSED . James P. Lamb, Jr., Red
Mountain Museum, 1421 22nc* St. So., Birmingham, AL 35205

Most researchers studying mosasaurs have concluded poor hearing for
these animals since mosasaurs lack the specialized adaptations of ce¬
taceans for underwater hearing. Mosasaurs, being reptiles, could not
possess the underwater hearing adaptations of the cetacea, since their
immediate ancestors did not have a similar middle ear system to that
of cetacean ancestors. The middle ear in mosasaurs differs from that
of their terrestrial lizard ancestors in that the stapes proper has
been shifted from its articulation with the extracolumellar process of
the stapes ( hence with its articulation to the tympanic membrane ),
to fit into a pit ( the stapedial pit ) on the quadrate. The extra¬
columella and tympanic membrane have fused to each other and ossified,
and the extracolumella runs through the peculiar stapedial notch of
the mosasaur quadrate to articulate ligamentously with the mid-shaft
of the stapes proper. This system allowed mosasaurs to recieve audi¬
tory vibrations in two ways, the " normal " way, via the stimulation
of the tympanic membrane, and by low-frequency vibrations recieved by
the lower jaw unit. These vibrations would pass the length of the jaw
( as they do in some cetaceans by the way ) to the dense quadrate,
then to the stapes and inner ear. This system allowed for probably ex¬
cellent reception of low-frequency sound, which would be most impor¬
tant for aquatic predators .The fact that the stapedial pit is in abso¬
lute terms as large in newborns and juvenilles as adults indicates
that young were born with a well-developed hearing apparatus, and may
indicate birth at an advanced stage of development. This research
based in part on specimens from the Tyrell Museum of Paleontology,
Canada, and from specimens in the collections of Red Mountain Museum.

CORRELATION OF SOIL ASSOCIATIONS TO GEOLOGY AND MINERAL
RESOURCES OF ELMORE COUNTY, ALABAMA. Lewis S. Dean, Geological
Survey of Alabama, P.O. Box O, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35486

During an evaluation study of the mineral resources of Elmore County,
Alabama, a preliminary correlation was made between previously mapped
soils and their related parent lithologies. Elmore County, Alabama, located
in the east-central part of the state, contains a variety of mineral resources
situated in two physiographic/geologic regions--the Piedmont and Coastal
Plain provinces. A regional unconformity separates the two geologic pro¬
vinces. Sand and gravel, clay, and silica sand have been produced from
Coastal Plain sediments. Stone has been produced from the Piedmont
Province, and gold, mica, and garnet occurrences have been prospected.
Elmore County is one of the State's leading producers of sand and gravel
and clay in Alabama. Three major groups of soil associations are recognized
in the county, those of- the Piedmont Plateau, Coastal Plain, those of
the major flood plains and terraces. Soil associations are useful in distin¬
guishing variation in Coastal Plain and Piedmont lithologies, particularly
along the Fall Line, and in mapping different Quaternary terrace deposits
from which the principal production of clay, sand, and gravel is derived.
Correlation of soils with geologic lithologies, including Quaternary terrace
and alluvial deposits, Cretaceous sediments of the Tuscaloosa Croup,
and igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Piedmont can provide information
on thickness, areal distribution, overburden, texture, topographic position,
and parent material of potential mineral resource deposits.

144

Abstracts

MONTGOMERY THEROPOD : A STATUS REPORT. James P. Lamb, Jr., Red
Mountain Museum, 1421 22n St. So., Birminham, AL 35205

In the summer of 1982, David and Janet. King ( Auburn Univ. , Auburn,
A1 ) , discovered the bones of a carnivorous tyrannosaurid dinosaur in
Montgomery County, Alabama. The specimen, found in a 77-million year-
old stratum of the Demopolis Chalk Formation, ( normal-nearshore ma¬
rine ) , represents a carcass which was transported via currents into
the offshore marine environment where it sank and was preserved by
rapid sedimentation. Jim Dobie and Dan Womochel ( Auburn Univ., Auburn
AL, and Univ. TX, Odessa ) excavated portions of the specimen in 1982.
The. author, Gorden Bell ( previously of Red Mountain Museum, now Univ.
Tx, Austin ) , and field crew of Red Mountain Museum, Birmingham, AL,
excavated the majority of the specimen in 1984 and 1986. Currently,
the specimen resides at Red Mtn. Museum, where it is being prepared
from the rock matrix. The specimen is represented by approximately 1/2
of the skeleton. Elements so far identified are: right dentary, left
maxilla-premaxilla, two complete pes units , both tibiae, both fibu¬
lae, and portions of the pelvic girdle. Also numerous teeth and rib
fragments are represented. Bones still in jackets may include: Left
dentary, right maxilla, basicranium and skull roof, as well as a par¬
tial humerous . Both femora and most of the vertebral column are miss¬
ing. While recognizing that there may be some problems with the vali¬
dity of the tyrannosaurid genus name Albertosaurus , the specimen is
provisionally referred to that taxa based on measurements and direct
comparison with material from the Tyrell Museum of Paleontology, Al¬
berta, Canada, This specimen most complete, best preserved theropodous
dinosaur from the eastern U.S, and the only substantiable record of
Albertosaurus .

PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS ON THE ORIGIN OF RHYTHMIC BEDDING IN THE
PALEOGENE CLAYTON FORMATION. Richard A. Huchison, Jr. , and Charles E.
Savrda, Dept . of Geology, Auburn University , Auburn, AL 36849-5305 .

The Pine Barren Member of the Lower Paleocene Clayton Formation of
Alabama is characterized by well-developed rhythmic alternation of
poorly resistant, olive-gray, silty, organic-rich, calcareous mudstones
and indurated, light gray, organic-poor limestones. Average bedding-
couplet thickness is approximately 65-70 cm. Similar decimeter-scale
rhythmic bedding of carbonate-rich and carbonate-poor lithologies is
common in many fine-grained stratigraphic sequences, particularly of
Cretaceous age, and has been attributed to a variety of paleoenviron-
mental mechanisms including cyclic variations in 1) bottom-water redox
conditions, 2) degree of carbonate dissolution, 3) influx of fine¬
grained elastics , 4} carbonate productivity, and 5) bottom-current
activity. These cycle types can often be distinguished through detailed
study of general bedding characteristics, primary and biogenic
structures, macro- and microfossil content, and sediment texture,
composition, and geochemistry. This approach is currently being
employed on a continuous and well-exposed section of the Pine Barren in
Lowndes and Butler Counties, central Alabama. In conjunction with
lateral stratigraphic relationships established through the analysis of
additional outcrops and water-well data from across the state, this
study will provide an improved understanding of the paleoceanographic
and paleoenvironmental processes that influenced deposition on the
Alabama shelf during the Paleocene.

145

Abstracts

TRACE FOSSILS WITHIN A LOWER PALEOCENE TRANSGRESSIVE SEQUENCE, WESTERN
ALABAMA. Charles E. Savrda, Department of Geology, Auburn University,
Auburn, AL 36849-5305.

Trace-fossil assemblages in the Lower Paleocene Clayton and
Porters Creek Formations of western Alabama reflect sea-level-modulated
changes in paleoenvironmental conditions. The basal "Clayton sands"
contain pervasive box-work systems of Thalassinoides that were emplaced
during times of relative quiescence in high-energy, shallow marine
environments generated during initial pulses of rapid transgression.

The bulk of the Clayton Formation overlying the basal sand is
characterized by alternating mudstones and indurated sandy limestones
that record later-stage transgressive, highstand, and possibly minor
regressive phases. Diffuse burrow mottling and rare, small discrete
burrows (e.g., Chondrites and Planolites) characterize the mudstones
and indicate relatively quiet conditions, soupy substrates, and oxygen-
depleted pore waters. Vertically extensive Thalassinoides dominate the
limestones and reflect periods of slower sedimentation and/or winnowing
associated with intensified bottom-current activity. Rhythmic bedding
in this interval may be in response to minor sea-level fluctuations
and/or climate-induced scour cycles. The upper few meters of the
Clayton Formation and the lower part of the overlying Porters Creek
Formation reflect sea-level rise of a higher magnitude. This package
includes, in ascending order, a relatively clean white chalk, gray
marlstones, and olive black clays. The chalk bed contains Thalassi¬
noides , Planolites, Chondrites , and Zoophycos . As carbonate decreases
and organic carbon increases up-section away from the chalk, the diver¬
sity, size, and depth of penetration of burrows decrease, reflecting a
progressive, sea-level controlled decrease in benthic oxygen levels.

GEOMETRIC MODEL OF A RAVINEMENT SURFACE IN THE UPPER POTTSVILLE
FORMATION, NORTWESTERN ALABAMA. Yuejin Liu and Robert A. Gastaldo,
Department of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849

A ravinement surface was recently discovered above the Mary Lee
coal zone of Lower Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation in the Black
Warrior Basin of northwestern Alabama. This ravinement surface is
disconf ormably underlain by lagoonal and alluvial swamp deposits and
overlain by a thin ravinement bed. Two types of ravinement beds are
identified: (1) shale beds with in situ bivalve and brachiopod

assemblages, and (2) sandstone beds characterized by Zoophycos and
allochthonous trilobite-crinoid-brachiopod assemblages. The ravine¬
ment surface was produced as a result of the migration of an erosional
shoreface during sea-level rise. Under subcritical conditions wherein
the shoreface angle is greater than its climbing angle, gradual rise
of sea level causes erosion of the existing shoreface. This continuous
process produces two final results: (1) the formation of a ravinement
surface consisting of a series of erosional surfaces, and (2) the
deposition of ravinement beds. The geometry of the ravinement surface
is controlled by the climbing angle of the shoreface. The ravinement
bed sediments are derived from material eroded from the shoreface,
and controlled by the properties of the shorelines within the coastal-
deltaic systems. Shale beds are associated with lagoonal and alluvial
swamp shorelines, whereas sandstone beds are connected with barrier
island shorelines.

146

Abstracts

TOPOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF STREAMS TO DETERMINE GROSS CHARAC¬
TERISTICS OF BEDROCK FRACTURE-ZONE PATTERNS. Thomas J.
Carrington , Carleton W. Degges, and Steven C. Bearce,
Department of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849-5305.

Orientations of 551 rectilinear stream segments (RSS)
were obtained from 7.5 minute, U.S.G.S. topographic maps
covering the Piedmont portion of the Little Uchee Creek
basin, Lee County, AL. RSS peaks equal to or greater than
the mean concentration factor were compared with similar
peak concentrations of 1,349 joints and 493 foliations
from the same area, showing a correlation of 77.7%. Com-
parisions of RSS-to- joint/foliation from the structural
units comprising the area [Pine Mountain (PM) , Bartletts
Ferry fault zone (BF) , amphibolite sequence (AS) , Goat
Rock fault zone (GR) , and Motts gneiss (MG)] revealed,
respectively, 70, 42.8, 58.3, 54.5, and 58.3 percent cor¬
relations. Only on the AS, GR, and, MG blocks did major
RSS peaks correlate with major peaks of joints and/or
foliation. Comparison of major RSS peaks with relatively
minor joint/foliation peaks improved correlations signifi¬
cantly. This suggests control of stream-valley erosion by
the relative degree of "openness" of preferred joint di¬
rections. Major RSS concentrations in the area are from
N. 6-22° w. and range between 71° and 87° from major foli¬
ation peaks, indicating that stream valleys are preferen¬
tially developed along extension joints. This work was
supported by grants from the Water Resources Research
Institute, Auburn University.

THE PERSISTENCE OF FORESTED SWAMP ENVIRONMENTS IN A PENNSYLVANIAN
COASTAL-DELTAIC SYSTEM, NORTHWESTERN ALABAMA. Timothy M. Deroko and

Robert A. Gastaldo, Dept, of Geology, Auburn Univ. , AL 36849

Tine sediments of the Mary Lee coal zone of the Lover Pennsylvanian
"Pottsville" Formation in Walker County, Alabama record deposition in
peat swamp and alluvial swamp environments. Peat swamp environments
are represented by the dagger, Blue Creek , Mary Lee, and Newcastle
coal seams. These coals are low to moderate in ash, indicating isola¬
tion from clastic deposition. Standing forests of erect lycopods and
calamites, along with lycophyte-dominated forest-floor litter horizons,
are preserved immediately above these coals. These accumulations of
autochthonous plant material represent the last vegetational elements
of the peat-accumulating swamps and mark the senescence and death of
these swamps due to incursion by clastic material, initially by high
magnitude floods. Although these swamps no longer accumulated peat,
growth of forest vegetation continued in alluvial swamp environments.

Alluvial swamp environments are represented by mudstone, shale,
and silty shale sequences between coal seams. These facies contain
multiple forest-floor litter horizons identified by : 1) pteridosperm-
dominated litter accumulations, 2) mud-cast prostrate logs, 3) stig-
marian root axes and other rooting structures, and 4) erect, in situ
lycopod. and calamites trunks.

Probable regulatory mechanisms for alteration of peat swamp and
alluvial swamp facies involve fluctuating clastic depocenters due to
subsidence on two scales. Subsidence on a local scale, over a
relatively short period of time, was probably due to differential
compaction of buried peat swamps. Subsidence on a regional scale,
over a longer period of time, may have been tectonically controlled.

147

Abstracts

FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, CONSERVATION, AND PLANNING

"DRASTIC" MODEL AS A TOOL FOR PLANNERS CONCERNED WITH GROUNDWATER
PROTECTION, Frank N, Himmler and Priscilla Holland, Department of
Geography, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001.

The "DRASTIC" model is a standardized system for evaluating
groundwater pollution potential using hydrogeologic settings. The
model was developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in
cooperation with the National Water Well Association at the Robert S.
Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory in Ada, Oklahoma. "DRASTIC"
employs seven parameters, Depth to water table, net Recharge, Aquifer
media, j>oil media, Typography, _Impact of the vadose zone and hydraulic
Conductivity of the aquifer. The seven parameters create the acronym
from which the model acquires its name. Each parameter is mapped,
weighted and rated. The sum of weighted rates for each unit of area
on the map is its pollution potential index. The "DRASTIC" model is
being integrated into a geographic information system (GIS) which is
run on an IBM PC/AT micro-computer using Earth Resources Data Analysis
Systems (ERDAS) software. The results will eventually become part of
the already existing Shoals Industrial Development Information System
(SIDIS) data base housed at the Geographic Research Center of the
University of North Alabama. Planners may use these results as a basis
for locating activities such as heavy industry or landfills which may
pose a threat to groundwater supplies. This pilot study focuses on the
"Tuscumbia Quadrangle - 7.5 Minute Series (Topographic)" produced by
the U.S. Geological Survey. This location is in the Tennessee Valley
of northwestern Alabama. Funding for this research has been provided
by a grant from the Alabama Universities — TVA Research Consortium
(AUTRC) .

URBANI ZAT I ONAL INFLUENCE ON THE CAHABA RIVER BASIN SINCE 1930.
William Timothy Wynn, Department of Geography, University of
Alabama , Tuscaloosa, AL 35487,

Over the past fifty years the Birmingham Metropolitan area has
grown at a steady rate with urban sprawl and population growth being
at an all time record high. Urbanization brings with it changes in
land use, which disrupts the natural landscape, replaces it with
impervious surfaces, and redistributes the land surface flows of the
hydrologic cycle (Lazard, 1979). The objective of this research is
to examine the urban factors that have presented water quantity
problems for the Cahaba River Basin and to develop coefficients to
be used in rainfall/runoff relationships for three different time
periods ( 1920' s, 1950's, and 1980' s).

148

Abstracts

COMPUTER AIDS FOR PLANNING COMMUNITY SOLID WASTE
RECYCLING PROGRAMS. Michael William Mullen, Center
for Environmental Research and Service, Troy State
University, Troy, Alabama 36082.

Due to decreasing landfill capacity and
increasing landfill costs many communities are
beginning to look at recycling as a partial
solution to their solid waste management needs.

Both the opinions about the capability of recycling
to help meet solid waste management needs and the
options for recycling programs are numerous and
diverse. The only real way for a community to
assess the potential recycling has in their solid
waste management system is to examine recycling in
a broader planning context. Since so many
variations or options exist for recycling programs
it would be inefficient and unwise to perform a
detailed evaluation of every option. Fortunately,
simple computer models are available which can be
used early in the planning process to reduce the
number of options which should be examined in a
detailed manner. This paper describes how one such
model, the RECYCLE model, can be applied to
planning. It also presents some model inputs and
outputs which show how local factors influence the
economic feasibility of different recycling
options .

EVALUATION OF UPPER CRETACEOUS WATER RESOURCES OF
THE MONTGOMERY AREA, ALABAMA. Scott B. Couch, Dept,
of Geography, University of Alabama, University, AL 35487.

Water levels fluctuate on an almost continual basis. This
is in response to discharge from and recharge to aquifers by
natural and artificial means. Water level changes may be affected
by atmospheric conditions, changes on the earth's surface, and
subsurface processes operating within the earth itself. In recent
years, there has been much concern about the ground water
resources available within Alabama and the susceptibility of these
resources to contamination. This author will focus on evaluating
the characteristics of the major aquifers within the Upper
Cretaceous depositional sequences of the Montgomery area.

149

Abstracts

FUNCTIONAL CHANGE IN THE CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT: A CASE STUDY OF
TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA. Jeffrey P. Richetto, Dept, of Geography, Univ,
of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0322. D. Michael Henderson, Dept, of
Geography, Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0322.

Since the mid 1950s there has been a significant spatial
reorganization of human and economic activities within the North
American city. In response to the continuing suburbanization of the
urban population; retail, commercial, and ancillary activities have
decentralized. In the wake of this abandonment of the central business
district by the economic activity sector, several office and service-
related functions have found the rental opportunities in the central
business district attractive. Thus, in order for local government and
booster organizations to more effectively target their resources for
reinstating the economic competitiveness of the central business
district, it is necessary to identify those traditional tertiary
activities responding to decentralisation forces and those office and
service activities that are sensitive to the centripetal forces
operating within the central business district. Within this context,
this study (1) traces the extent of economic activity decline in the
central business district by type of activity and where, in general,
relocation occurs, (2) examines the in-migration of office and service
activities into the central business district by type of activity as
well as factors underlying this pattern, and (3) investigates the
extent to which the availability and patterns of low-cost rental
opportunities affect the spatial distribution of both retail and office
activities.- The City of Tuscaloosa, Alabama serves as a case study.

RE-USE OF ABANDONED RAILROAD RIGHTS-OF-WAY FOR RECREAT¬
IONAL OPEN SPACE. Timothy C . Balentine , Univ. of Ala.,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

Since the heyday of the Railroad Age in the 1920's,
thousands of rails have been abandoned. Many of these
railroads have been converted to trails for recreational
open spaces. Most of these conversions in the United
States have taken place in the Northeast and Northwest.
Many obstacles must be overcome in the creation of these
trails. Each project is unique; topography, status of the
tracks, and the aesthetics provide both positive and neg¬
ative aspects to each project. After a general foundation
is layed, the basic principals will then be applied to the
Holt Junction of the L & N line in Tuscaloosa to illus¬
trate the potential and problems that abandoned railroad
beds offer.

150

Abstracts

D£vU?mI. fN° PR0SPECTS F°F SUSTAINABLE FOOD PRODUCTION
?™^ALL SCALE PARSERS IN ZIMBABWE: THE INFLUENCE OF

eFO^SfiPwvRnL P0LICIES- PETER S. NGWAZIKAZANA, DEPT. OF
GEOGRAPHY, Uni v of Ala . , Universit y , A1 . 35486-3958 . Professor
J. Harlin of The Dept, of Geography , Univ . of Alabama
provided much appreciated advice and help in the course of
this research.

Typically, the mass media highlights the food shortages
that periodically ravage different regions of sub-Saharan
Africa and ignores the apparent successes of such
countries as Zimbabwe since 1980 to be self-sufficient in
their food requirements . This means that whatever "lessons"
these rare cases might hold for the rest of the region go
unheeded. A judicious mix of policies seems to have
successfully brought an increasing number of small scale
farmers into food production for both the home and export
market inspite of the drought . However new imbalances and
constraints threaten the long term sustainability of
Zimbabwe’s initial gains. Flexible approaches to policy
formulation and implementation are needed to minimise these
threats .

A CENTER OF EXCELLENCE IN GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION. William
R. Strong, Dept of Geography, Univ. of North Alabama,
Florence, Alabama, 35632.

A program funded in 1987 by the Fund for the Improve¬
ment of Post Secondary Education established eight Centers
of Excellence including the University of North Alabama.
The original proposal title read as follows: " The project
aims primarily to improve the degrees of correspondence
between the geographical content of the middle school
curriculum and the content of col lege- level geography
courses which are used to educate teacher candidates in
social studies and geography. During the three year
project, each Center is to design a course syllabus that
is sensitive to the requirements of the state social
social studies course of study, teach that syllabus on a
trial basis in special graduate courses or summer
institutes, publish the results, and incorporate the
syllabus into p re- service geography courses at the college
level. This paper reports on the proposal, objectives,
instructional programs, results of the first year in
Alabama, and future directions.

151

Abstracts

PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

CALCULATION OF VELOCITY PERTURBATIONS AND DIRECTIONALITY OF THE
FRAGMENTS IN SATELLITE FRAGMENTATION EVENTS. R. C. Reynolds, Lockheed
Engineering & Science Company, Houston, TX 77058, G. D. Badhwar, NASA
Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX 07758 and A. Tan, Department of
Physics, Alabama A & M University, Normal, AL 35762.

The magnitude, variance and directionality of the velocity
perturbations of the fragments of a satellite can shed valuable
information regarding the nature and intensity of the fragmentation.

Up until now, the only method used to calculate the three orthogonal
components of the velocity change consisted of inverting the process
of evaluating the changes in the orbital elements of the fragments due
to velocity perturbing impulses. But the traditional method failed in
various occasions, giving singularly high values for the radial and
the cross-range components. This paper describes a new method of
calculating the velocity perturbations, which is free from the
shortcomings of the traditional method and could be used in all
occasions, provided the fragmentation data and the orbital elements
data are true and consistent with one another. The method uses the
parent satellite's local frame of reference at the time of breakup.

The three orthogonal components of the velocity change are derived
from the three simultaneous equations provided by the changes in
specific energy, specific angular momentum and plane angle of the
fragment. The directionality of the fragment is studied by defining
two angles, the colatitude and the longitude of the fragment in the
parent satellite's local frame of reference. The preferred
directionality of the fragments of Landsat 1 and Landsat 3 rockets
indicates that these rockets most likely broke up in the "clam" model
of low intensity explosion.

ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOELECTRIC PHOTOMETRY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH
ALABAMA. David R. Curott, Department of Physics and Earth Science,
University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632.

Small telescopes in the Alabama environment can make valuable
contributions to the astronomical database if they undertake a
program of photoelectric photometry of variable stars. Such a
program, recently begun at the University of North Alabama, is
described. This work was supported by a UNA Faculty Research
Grant .

152

Abstracts

OPTIMUM CHARACTER ENCRYPTION AND EXTRACTION FOR
OPTICAL CORRELATION TECHNIQUES. Larry D. Brasher. James F.
Hawk and James C. Martin, Physics Department, Univ. of Alabama at
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Don A. Gregory, U. S. Army
Missile Command, AMSMI-RD-RE-OP, Redstone Arsenal, AL 35898.

An important subset of pattern recognition applications permit the
representation of data by characters which have been optimized for the type
of data and the type of search to be performed. An example of this is the
search for biologically important patterns within the sequences of nucleotide
subunits of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In this case the four distinct
subunits of DNA must be represented and "wildcard" or metacharacters are
needed to permit flexible searches for sequence patterns. Due to the rapidly
increasing availability of DNA sequence information, more rapid and
interactive analytical techniques are needed to make full use of this data.
This study seeks to design optimal characters for use in an optical correlator
recognition device. Characters which are compact, easily distinguishable
and compatible with current coherent light modulators have been designed.
Preliminary work on these representations has been guided by computer
modeling of the optical recognition process. Promising characters have been
tested experimentally in a VanderLugt system. The use of laser printers and
photo-typesetters to prepare original test images will be discussed.

SOME SURPRISES IN THE THEORY OF FINITE GAMES. Olav Kallenberg, Dept.
Algebra, Combinatorics and Analysis, Auburn University, AL 36849.

If a roulette game is repeated indefinitely, and if you are free
to choose, based on your past experience, in which games to partici¬
pate, then obviously you cannot do better than choosing all the games.
Playing red and black on a card-deck seems different: Here your past
experience gives information about the future, so you might expect to
improve your chances by a clever strategy. However, a closer analysis
yields conclusions which seem contradictory to all common sense.

(Some of the mathematics involved here is rather sophisticated, but
the present talk will be kept on a heuristic and non-technical level.)

153

Abstracts

TRACK RECONSTRUCTION OF HIGH ENERGY PARTICLE INTERACTIONS ON THE
ALABAMA SUPERCOMPUTER, C. Merrill Jenkins and R. Kent Clark, Dept,
of Physics, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688

In a recent experiment at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
about 5000 tapes (0.6 Tbytes) of dat| were accumulated. _This
experiment used a beam of positive ( n , p) and negative ( * , p)

particles on a lithium target at 300 GeV/c in a study of the
hadronic production of J/ik particles.

To reduce this data set in a timely fashion, some of the world's
most powerful computing facilities are utilized. At the University
of South Alabama we have begun using the Cray XMP/24 at Huntsville
to locate and define particle paths through the experiment's
spectrometer .

The experiment is studying hadronic states that decay into the
J/ + y • The experimental spectrometer utilizes charge track
detection (proportional wire chambers and drift chambers) with a
momentum analysis magnet, electromagnetic shower detection (Pb-glass
and scintillating glass) and muon identification. The tracking
program we are using on the Alabama Supercomputer currently takes
0.173 seconds/event cpu time. We will briefly discuss the physics
of the experiment, the experimental set-up and the method of
employing the Alabama supercomputer in the data reduction.
Benchmark results will also be presented.

RESEARCH INTO SEVERAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE UNDERSTANDING OF
BASIC PHYSICS CONCEPTS. Dennis A. Likens, Dept, of Physics,
Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088.

The learning of basic physics concepts by engineering
majors seems to be largely unaffected by teaching techniques,
laboratory procedures, and the instructor. Instead, student
learning appears to be influenced by factors largely outside
of the control of the instructor. These factors include the
student's earlier educational experiences, grade point
average, and entrance scores.

154

Abstracts

CALCULATIONS OF METALLIC AND NONMETALLIC ELECTRON
CONCENTRATION IN INTERMEDIATE CONCENTRATION REGION FOR
DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS. Shiva Shankar Subramanyam ,

I. K. Kothari, and P. C. Sharma , Department of Physics,
Tuskegee University, AL - 36088

In doped semiconductors with low doping, the
electrons are bound and with high doping, the electrons
are free. But in the intermediate concentration region of
metal-nonmetal transition, it is concluded by this work
that the electrons exist in a mixed state, i.e., partly
in metallic (free) state and partly in non-metallic
(bound) state. Using the concept developed here the
electron concentration in nonmetallic (Nyj) and metallic
(N^) regions are calculated and it is found that for
low doping concentration N^N^ , for high doping
concentration NtrNmand for intermediate doping both
N y\ and N^ are appreciably significant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS : One of us (P.C.S.) gratefully

acknowledge the support provided by research grant NSWC
contract N60921-86-C-A226 .

THE PROBLEM OF SHORTEST TWILIGHT — A NEW LOOK AT A FAMOUS PROBLEM.
William J. Boardman, Div. of Science-Math, Birmingham-Southern
College, Birmingham, AL 35254.

First posed by the Portugese astronomer Pedro Nunes in 1542,
the question: "What day of the year has the shortest twilight?"
was investigated by Bernoulli and d'Alembert, and is discussed in
Heinrich DBrrie's 100 Great Problems of Elementary Mathematics .

This investigation relaxes the assumption usually made for
simplicity, that the evening twilight begins when the true center of
the sun is on the horizon.

155

Abstracts

MAGNETIC RESONANCE STUDY OF THE PROTONS IN THE HYDRATED COMPLEXES
OF COBALT: LANTHANUM ZINC DOUBLE NITRATE. Henry W. Glotfelty,
Dept, of Physics, Samford University, Birmingham, AL 35229. J. W.
Culvahouse, Dept, of Physics, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS.

The proton ligand magnetic hyperfine tensors of the X and Y
sites of the Cobalt: Lanthanum Zinc Double Nitrate (Co:LaZnDN)
crystal have been determined from an Electron-Nuclear Double
Resonance (ENDOR) investigation. The X and Y sites are distorted,
hydrated complexes of the form Co (6^0)2+. A symmetric (six
parameters) hyperfine tensor was found for each of the four
non-equivalent protons of the X site. Since the trigonal
distortion of the Y site is quite large, a nine parameter ligand
hyperfine tensor was found for each of the two non-equivalent
protons of the Y site. In addition, the proton contact
interactions of the X site were found to be close to the values
found for the X site protons in Cobalt: Lanthanum Magnesium Double
Nitrate (Co:LaMgDN). It was found that the major part of the
ligand magnetic hyperfine tensor for the X and Y site protons could
be explained by the magnetic point dipole-dipole interaction. All
ENDOR measurements were made at 4.2K.

The research was supported in part by a grant from the
National Science Foundation.

0>N" NIL1DEALS OF LOCAL r-RSI RINGS. Haghdad S. Memauri ,
Department of Mathematics, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee,
AL 36088.

It is of interest to know under what conditions
certain nil ideals of a ring are nilpotent. Among im¬
portant ideals of a ring R is J(R), the Jacobson radical
of R. In my earlier work I have shown that if R is a r-SI
as an R-module, then the condition that J(R) nil implies
it is nilpotent. In this article along with some other
results we show that if R is a local r-RSI ring which is
either a PI ring or J(R) is of bounded index, then J(R)
nil implies it is nilpotent.

156

Abstracts

ELECTRON-PHONON INTERACTION IN DOPED MATERIALS AND ITS INFLUENCE ON
THERMAL CONDUCTION IN THE ULTRALOW TEMPERATURE REGION OF 5-35K, P.C,
Sharma, department of Physics, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL-
36088 ,

The electron-phonon scattering in the intermediate donor
concentration region has been studied. At low concentrations, below
metal-insulator transition, the donor electrons are bound to the
impurity atoms and at high concentrations they are free in conduction
band. According to our model the electrons are in a mixed state,
both in metallic and non-metallic state. The electron concentrations
in both metallic and non-metallic states are calculated for each
sample and the theory of both bound electron-phonon and free
electron-phonon scattering are applied to P-, As- and Sb-doped
germanium and P- and Li-doped silicon samples. The values of density-
of-states effective mass and deformation potential constants have
been calculated by our model and are compared with experimental
values .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS : The financial support provided by the Research

Contract No. NSWC-N60921-86-C-A226 is gratefully acknowledged by the
author.

*

PROPAGATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION "RAYS" THROUGH MATERIAL MEDIA. A. Tan,
Department of Physics, Alabama A & M University , Normal , AL 35762 .

By treating heat flux as "rays", the laws of rectilinear
propagation, reflection and refraction of heat conduction rays through
material media are derived. It is shown that total internal reflection
of thermal rays is unattainable. The condition of extremum deviation
of thermal rays at the surface of separation of two media is
determined . The same for refraction through a thermally resisting
wedge is obtained via the principle of reversibility. Finally, a
variational principle for heat conduction rays is obtained, from which
the laws of rectilinear propagation, reflection and refraction can be
derived as special cases .

*This work was partially supported by NSF-MRCE grant.

157

Abstracts

TEACHING SAMPLE VARIANCE: DIVISOR n, n-1 , n+1,...? Satlsh Chandra
Misra, Dept, of Math & Comp. Sc., Tuskegee Univ., Tuskegee, AL 36088
and Hardeo Sahai, Dept, of Biostat., Univ. of Puerto Rico, San Juan,
PR 00936.

The usual sample variance is defined as the sum of squares of
deviations of sample observations from the sample mean divided by
n-1, where n is the number of independent, identically distributed
observations from the population. This estimate of the population
variance is unbiased in the sense that its expected value is equal
to the population variance. However, the usual estimate of the
population standard deviation, i. e., the square root of the sample
variance is not an unbiased estimate. In this paper, various other
estimators of the population variance are explored. Some of these
estimators preserve the invariance property. Some examples are:
Median unbiased estimator (divisor — n-5/3), modal unbiased
estimator (divisor — n-3), minimum variance - minimum mean square
error estimator (divisor — n+1), the method of moments and maximun
likelihood estimator (divisor — n+1), uniformly most accurate
unbiased estimator (divisor — n-1), etc. Furthermore, estimators
in the sense of hypothesis testing properties and Bayesian
estimators are also discussed.

RANKING AND SELECTION: AN EXPOSITION TO NEW METHODOLOGY. S.N. Mishra,
Dept, of Mathematics and Statistics, Univ. of So. Ala., Mobile, AL
36688.

In today's complex world we are faced with the decision making
in presence of uncertainties. Classical statistical procedures, such
as testing and estimation with model building, have carefully provided
analysis for many situations. However, the real situations at times
demand for "choosing the best" in some sense. Ranking and selection
procedures appropriately address this problem. Beginning with the
pioneering works of Bechhofer (1954) and Gupta (1956), we are now in
a position to answer some of the very basic questions left unanswered
by the classical statistics. This paper is an attempt to give some
of the existing important ranking and selection methodologies, and
hence its nature is expository. A number of examples are included
for discussion and a few very important literature citations are
given .

158

Abstracts

CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE MASS AND PROBABILITY DENSITY
USING A RECTANGULAR PERIODIC POTENTIAL: Abraham George,
P.C. Sharma/ Department of Physics, Tuskegee University,
AL-36088

A method of analysing the dynamic behavior of elec¬
trons for particular material is proposed by studying E-K
relationship, effective mass and probability density. The
schro dinger equation for the band electrons are solved
and hence their probability density and effective mass for
the first three energy states are estimated. Using a
rectangular potential the calculations have been perform¬
ed that gives an insight to reinvestigate electron-energies
in a system where the form, magnitude and period of the
potential can be specified.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT : One of us (P.C.S) gratefully acknowledge the
support-provided by research grant NSWC contract: N60921-86-C-A226 .

CLUSTER EMBEDDING WITHIN THE METHOD
COMBINATIONS OF ATOMIC ORBITALS: APPLI

CENTER IN MgO. J ian- Wien Hsu and Joseph
Dept. of Physics, Univ. of Alabama at

OF LINEAR
CATION TO F
G. Harrison,
B i rmingham ,

Birmingham, AL 35294.

The embedded - cluster method [1,2], is distinguis
from other cluster methods in that it uses
Hamiltonian of an infinite system, matrix - represen
in a basis limited to a finite number of "shells"
atoms centered on the defect. The use of this method
conjunction with the local spin density approximat
(LSDA) of density functional theory has been applied
F center in MgO. We present results of this work.

he d
the
ted
o f
in
ion
to

1. J.G. Harrison and C.C. Lin, Phys . Rev. B2_3_, 3 894

(1981).

2. R.C. Chaney and C.C. Lin, Phys. Rev. Bl_3_, 843 ( 1976 ).

159

Abstracts

IRREDUCIBLE REPRESENTATIONS OF sl(2, C) AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS.
H. L. Manocha, Department of Algebra, Combinatorics and Analysis,
Auburn University AL 36849

A theorem is established which helps In obtaining symmetry
algebra associated with the linear partial differential equation
Qu ” 0, where Q is a differential operator. Guided by this
theorem, a model of an irreducible representation D(a) of
s£(2, €) on the representation space V with basis functions

{^F^[a+n; y; x]ta+n: n**0 , +1, +2, ...} is constructed. Through

Mellin transformation, which is duly introduced, this model induces
another model of the representation D(a), in which the basis

Q | n

functions turn out to be {^F^Ia+n, B; y; x]t }. These models

are 'exponentiated* leading to models of representations of the
special linear group SL(2, C). By bringing into the scene the
enveloping algebra of s2(2, e), this exercise eventually
culminates in generating functions involving the hypergeometric
functions F as well as F .

SOME SPECIAL CLASSES OF MATRICES, Teh-Huey Chuang, Department of
Mathematics, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, Alabama 36088

For a given mxn matrix A, there is a matrix J. satisfying
* + * + + A

= AA and = A A, with A denoting the Moore-Penrose

generalized inverse of A and JA the conjugate transpose of .

We shall call a J-matrix of A. The concept of J matrices is used
to develop three new classes of matrices called invariant
matrices, JT invariant matrices and J-EP matrices. Necessary
and sufficient conditions for the existence of these matrices
are presented. Properties and relationships of these matrices
are also investigated. All matrices considered are defined over
the complex field.

160

Abstracts

ROLE OF MTOs AND THE TAIL CANCELLATION IN CANONICAL BAND THEORY:

A NEW APPROACH, P,C. Sharma, Department of Physics, Tuskegee
University, Tuskegee, AL-36088 .

The concept of canonical bands has been discussed which raises
the LMTO method above the level of being just a new procedure for
calculating energy-band structures. The important ingredients are
volume and energy independent structure constants and parameters
which contain information relating to the one electron-potential.

It is shown that tail cancellation of MTOs give rise to highly
simplified and physically transparent equation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS : The financial support provided by the Research

Contract No. NSWC-N60921-86-C-A226 is gratefully acknowledged by the
author.

TRAFFIC EFFECTS ON ROADWAY TEMPERATURE. Randy D. Russell,
Department of Physical Sciences, Auburn University at Montgomery,
Montgomery, AL 36193.

Measurements of surface temperature were recorded for a heavily
traveled roadway and an untraveled extension of the roadway of
similar construction. Ten minute averages of traffic amount
were also measured. Meteorological conditions during the
observation periods were obtained from the National Weather
Service. Traffic was found to enhance the transport of sensible
heat from the roadway surface. The difference in temperature
between the roadway and the untraveled extension was found to
follow a simple relaxation equation. The dependence of sensible
heat transport on traffic amount and the time constant for the
return of the roadway to its untraveled state were estimated.

This work was supported by the Research Grant-In-Aid Program
of Auburn University at Montgomery,

161

Abstracts

INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS

INTERNATIONAL MARKETING IN HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA. Marsha D. Griffin and
James G. Alexander, Departments of Marketing and Economics and Finance,
respectively, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762.

In the Fall of 1987, managers of 30/81 firms— designated as
exporters in the HUNTSVILLE/MADISON COUNTY INDUSTRIAL DIRECTORY— were
interviewed to determine the extent of their involvement in
international marketing. About 37 percent of the sample had been
involved in international marketing for over 10 years; about 34 percent
had been involved between 1 and 5 years. For about 56 percent of the
sample, foreign markets accounted for less than 10 percent of total
annual sales. When asked if they changed the product, promotion,
price, and/or distribution strategy for the international market, the
percent responding "no" was 70, 53, 53, and 56, respectively. The
percent indicating that they were unfamiliar with the Alabama Export
Council, Alabama International Trade Center, Foreign Credit Insurance
Association, International Trade Development Program, International
Trade Specialist of the U. S. Chamber of Commerce, and the North
Alabama International Trade Association was 36, 26, 63, 56, and 33,
respectively. Problems with international marketing included finding
customers, pricing, getting help for international marketing, export
licensing, trying to keep technology away from the Soviet Union,
communicating, identifying reliable distributors, modifying
advertising , complying with paperwork requirements * collecting accounts
receivable, fluctuating exchange rates, weakening of oil-dependent
countries, dealing with cultural differences, and shipping.

Respondents had entered foreign markets by indirect exporting, direct
exporting, licensing, contract manufacturing, management contracting,
joint-venturing, and direct investing. Of these entry strategies, the
one most frequently used was direct exporting.

FAIRHOPE, ALABAMA: A SINGLE TAX EXPERIMENT. Edward T. Merkel and
G. T. Stewart, Troy State Univ., Troy, AL 36082

Since the turn of the century, Fairhope, Alabama has been the site
of a laboratory experiment of Henry George's single tax. The Fairhope
Single Tax Corporation (FSTC) has attempted to apply the theory that
government can be financed solely by a single tax on land site value.
The founder of FSTC hoped that this experiment would provide a stimulus
to the adoption of the single tax by governments. The purpose of this
paper is to discover and critically examine the views of the people in
Fairhope on the claims made for and against the FSTC. The primary
instrument used in the research is a random telephone survey of 110
Fairhope residents. Additional information was provided by interviews
of FSTC officials, state and local tax accessors, and an analysis of
the official records of the corporation. Part II analyzes and
summarizes the results of the survey. Part III concludes that the
majority of Fairhope residents do not believe that the FSTC has been
beneficial to the community.

162

Abstracts

TRADE AREA IDENTIFICATION FOR FACTORY-OUTLET SHOPPING CENTERS.

Kerry P. Gatlin and Keith Absher, Dept, of Marketing and Management,
Univ. of North Alabama, Florence, A1 35630

Shoppers at the regional factory-outlet shopping center in Boaz,
Alabama were surveyed to identify point-of-origin, spending patterns,
and perception of the center's drawing appeal. Reilly's Law of Retail
Gravitation was tested to determine if the model could predict
approximate trade-area boundaries for a regional specialty factory-
outlet center. A modification of the model, using center size rather
than community population was found to correctly locate 88 percent of
trade-area shoppers. The relationship between distance traveled to
the center and annual spending was found to be curvilinear. The
appeal of the center was found to be selection, price and quality, in
that order. The rural center's 'shopping mass' was found to overcome
more dispersed discount opportunities in much larger metropolitan
areas confirming the role that 'mass' plays in shopper gravitation.

MINIMUM WAGE, UNEMPLOYMENT RATE AND THE CONSUMER PRICE INDEX -
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. Stephanie Moxley Moore, Graduate Student,
University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35630. Stephanie Moxley
Moore aftd Veronica Free, Professor of Economics, University of North
Alabama, Florence, AL 35630.

Increasing the minimum wage has been a controversial topic
since its inception in 1937 • The minimum wage was originally
established to shift the distribution of income in favor of the
lower income households. But the actual purchasing power of the
dollar has continually eroded away as the consumer price index
and the minimum wage rate rises. A $3.35 minimum wage rate was
worth only $1.02 in 1986. The very people that the original minimum
wage was set up for are the ones who are suffering the most now.
Businesses are having to cut back and increase prices. The inflation
rate continues to rise and the value of the dollar continues to fall.
Each new increase in the minimum wage seems to falsely uplift the
purchasing power and better the hourly salary. When in fact, it
only feeds an unquenchable inflationary spiral and ends up lowering
the already depressed poverty level.

INFLATION EFFECTS ON THE AGE DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH. R. Bruce Jones,
Univ. Of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632-0001

The maintenance of stable prices has been a policy objective of
generations of economist. Many have argued against inflation on
equity grounds. Often overlooked is the wealth redistributional
effect. Since the effect of redistribution of wealth is uneven in
a society one could argue that some age groups would suffer more
than others. Using panel data for the period 1977 to 1983 the
author attempts to identify changes in wealth by age groups.

Younger age groups are found to lose ground both in nominal and real
terms. This is in defiance to Life-Cycle Theory predictions. The
author concludes that inflation contributed to wealth inequality by
age groups.

163

Abstracts

MARKETING THE CLASSROOM. Frederick A. Viohl, Marketing Department,

Troy State University, Troy, AL 36082.

The lack of good management is the major problem facing many
colleges and universities today. During the period from the end of
World War II until the late 1960s colleges could afford to ignore
many management problems. This was primarily due to the large numbers
of "baby boom" students who wished to go to college. There were
more students who wished to go to college than there was space for the
colleges to accommodate. No matter how poorly a college was operated,
it would still be filled with students each year - even if the food
was abominable, the instruction irrelevant and boring and the staff
aloof or surly. The admissions office could still maintain a
waiting list and serve primarily as order takers for would be students.
If bad errors were made in fiscal policy or planning, a government
loan or grant could easily be secured to bail out the college for a
few years, or the colleges, if private, could merge into the state
university and secure ample additional funds. With the end of the
baby boom, changes in government funding priorities, and student
demands for more relevant education, the days of wine and roses were
over for many colleges. In the more competitive environment of the
late 1970s and the 1980s most colleges and universities have had to
resort to improved management and marketing techniques. The 1990s
will demand that the traditionally diffuse areas of admissions,
public relations, development, and alumni affairs be integrated into
a single matrix of marketing management.

AN APPLICATION OF LEARNING CURVE MODELS TO ANALYZING COST VARIANCES.
Rama R. Guttikonda, Dept, of Accounting and Finance, Auburn Univ. at
Montgomery, AL 36193.

The phenomenon of learning, which is more pronounced in highly
labor intensive industries tends to decrease the incremental
production cost as the cumulative output increases. This learning
effect has some very important inplications which can lead to unwise
decision making and poor cost controls. Variance analysis results in
misleading analysis in efficiency variances.

An awareness of the learning effect can lead to significant
improvement in four functional areas of acccounting of the firm
(reporting, budgeting, cost control, and capital budgeting) where it
is often overlooked. In the past few years, learning has been
considered in managerial planning analysis such as product pricing,
profit and cash planning, production scheduling, and break even
analysis. Of late, attention has also been directed to the effect of
Learning on managerial control of operations. The potential benefits
of learning on managerial planning and control of operations are
numerous.

164

Abstracts

SHIITAKE MUSHROOMS: MARKETING PROBLEMS FACING THE SMALL FARMER.

W. Joe Free, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, AL 35660.
William S . Stewart, Gerald L. Crawford and Veronica A. Free,

Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632.

The U.S. mushroom industry has grown at a 10 percent annual
rate since the mid-1960s. Mushrooms produced in the U.S. for
canning have remained relatively stable and the expanded production
has gone for fresh consumption. Imports of canned mushrooms have
doubled in the last 10 years. The Agaricus bisporus or button
mushroom is the primary type produced and consumed in the U.S.

In the 1980s, the Letimus or Shiitake has expanded rapidly but
remains an "exotic" in the mushroom trade. Several button
mushroom producers have added controlled environment facilities
for producing Shiitake mushrooms and have added Oyster mushrooms
to their product line. Many new Shiitake growers produce in the
open and supplies are intermittent. Producers of mushrooms face
buyers that control large volumes of product and they are changing
to service the diverse requirements of these buyers. The small
new Shiitake growers will face a major marketing dilemma. They
will have to remain small and service a small local trade or
band together and expand so they can meet the requirements of the
commercial buyer. Consumption of mushrooms will continue to
expand. The exotics such as Shiitake and Oyster will gain in
popularity as consumers learn how to integrate them into their
diets and as supplies become available year round.

MEDIA AND AGENCY EXECUTIVES' PERCEPTIONS OF ADVERTISING MISTAKES
KEITH ABSHER AND KERRY GATLIN, DEPT. OF MARKETING AND MANAGEMENT,
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA. FLORENCE, ALABAMA 35630.

This research used advertising professionals to rank the
frequency and critical nature of advertising mistakes made by small
businesses. A five point Likert scale questionnaire was developed
from primary and secondary research on advertising mistakes.
Advertising professionals were selected from advertising agencies,
newspapers, radio stations, and television stations that are
located in Alabama. The data from the questionnaire was broken
down into a ranking by means of the top ten advertising mistakes
of small businesses. The Top Ten Advertising Mistakes as ranked
by advertising professionals are: 1. Not spending enough money
to get results. 2. Not having a planned advertising budget.

3. Not advertising frequently enough. 4. Not taking advantage
of co-op advertising money. 5. Lack of continuity. 6. Spreading
the budget too thin. 7. Choosing a media based on its low rate.

8. Having no objective measure of advertising's effectiveness.

9. Not getting professional help for advertising. 10. Failure
to pick a theme and live with it.

165

Abstracts

AGRICULTURE IN ALABAMA BY THE YEAR 2000, James L^ Stallings and
Rupert Hopkinson, Dept, of Agr. Economics and Rural Sociology, Auburn
University, AL 36849-5406.

From projections there is little doubt that the numbers of farms
and land in farms in Alabama will continue to decline. Of the crop¬
land harvested, hay land is expected to at least remain steady or
slightly increase. The beef industry, the main user of this hay land,
is expected to continue present levels and increase to about a million
cows by the year 2000. Soybeans will continue to be an important crop
but will probably not soon reach the peak acreage of 2,150,000 of 1979.
Instead, acreage is projected at about 560,000. This will produce
about 12,880,000 bushels, an amount far short of the almost 41 million
bushels crushed in Alabama plants in 1985, necessitating continued
imports of soybeans if that level of crushing continues. Cotton has
generally moved from the southern part of the State to the Tennessee
Valley in recent years and the best estimate is that the recent decline
in acres will level off and possibly increase slightly, Peanut acreage
is projected at 230 thousand acres. Wheat and grain sorghum acreage
should show increases by 2000. The broiler enterprise is expected to
continue to expand and use large quantities of imported corn and soy¬
beans for soybean meal. Hens and pullets should also continue at a
high level. Horses, mules, and ponies are hobby enterprises but
significant users of grains and pasture resources and are expected to
continue to expand. There is little doubt that the swine and dairy
enterprises will continue to decline.

CHAOS AND THE THEORY OF EFFICIENT MARKETS. Macon Wilbourn, Dept, of
Accounting and Finance, Auburn Univ. at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL
36193.

Sir Issac Newton, seventeenth-century physicist and mathemati¬
cian, Laid the scientific foundations of our modern world. Newton
helped to separate scientific methodology from the mysticism of the
dark ages, and formulated many of the tools necessary to understand¬
ing the workings of nature and the universe. Newton's followers,
championed by the likes of Simon Laplace, believed that any system's
behavior is predictable, given the prior knowledge of that system's
initial conditions. Those things not predictable, such as the
specified outcome of a coin toss, were subject to the laws of
probability, and thus any desired outcome could be assigned a
likelihood of occurrence. Efficient market theorists place stock
market forecasting in this latter category. Both fundamental and
technical analysis are believed to be ineffective as predictive tools
for market behavior. But now the emerging science of Chaos is
offering new insights into general systems behavior. Both Laplacian
determinism and many probabilistic situations are yielding to the new
"Laws" of Chaos Theory. The objective of this paper is to look at
Chaos as it relates to stock market patterns and the theory of
efficient markets.

166

Abstracts

EXCHANGE RATES AND ECONOMIC NEWS. Charles E. Hegji, Dept, of
Economics Auburn Univ. at Montg. , Montgomery, AL 36193.

This paper investigates exchange rate and interest rate responses
to the monthly U.S. merchandise trade announcements, focusing on the
post 1985 period. The investigation demonstrates a significant
exchange rate depreciation to larger than expected announcements.
This result dramatically contrasts with previously reported lack of
exchange rate response over the pre-1985 period.

The investigation also shows that interest rates did not respond
to trade announcement surprises over the entire post 1985 period.
However, for the trade announcements covering the 1985.3 to 1986.7
period, the analysis indicates a significant decrease in short term
interest rates to larger than anticipated trade deficit
announcements. This result is consistent with the view that during
this period the Federal Reserve attempted to depreciate the dollar in
order to narrow the trade gap. For trade announcements during the
1986.8 to 1988.7 period, short-term interest rates increased,
although not significantly, with the announcement of large trade
deficits. This result is consistent with market uncertainty about
changing central bank foreign exchange objectives, or the changing
informational content in trade announcements.

Finally, the analysis found that long term interest rates
increased with large deficit announcements after 1986.7 which is
consistent with increasing inflationary expectations.

ECONOMICS OF EDUCATIONAL INVESTMENT. Curtis M. Jolly and Palitha
Muthukude, Dept, of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology,
Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5406.

In this paper models based on the theory of human capital
were evaluated to determine their appropriateness in ranking
postsecondary educational investment decisions. Data from the
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics: Occupational Outlook and from
report of the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study were used
to estimate net present values (NPV), internal rates of return
(IRR) and net benefit investment ratios (NIBR) for alternative
educational investments. Refined models based on the theory of
human capital were appropriate to evaluate alternative post¬
secondary educational investments, but the NPV and IRR were not
appropriate in ranking projects. The NIBR was the most suitable
criterion for such evaluation. The decision to invest or not to
invest in postsecondary education depended on individual choice
and economic circumstance.

167

Abstracts

CHANNEL REQUIREMENTS IN MARKETING FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES.
Gerald Crawford, Professor of Marketing, William S. Stewart,
Professor of Management, and Joe Free, Professor of Economics,
School of Business, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL
35632.

Approximately two percent of all fresh fruits and vegetables
are sold directly to ultimate consumers in the U.S.A. while 98
percent passes through indirect channels. In other countries
significantly larger amounts are sold directly to consumers. It
would be helpful if small farmers could learn why consumers buy the
way they do, and to learn what marketing functions are required to
move these farm products to consumers and organizational buyers.

Available data provides evidence that American consumers want
fresh produce at reasonable prices, and they want these products
consistently available at their existing (one-stop) retailer.
Consumers do not care to make special trips to buy produce unless
large quantities for canning are being purchased. Organizational
buyers want consistent availability of fresh, high quality produce
from a small number of suppliers who call on the account and provide
delivery and credit terms. In summary, small farmers must provide
time and place utility, along with related services if they expect
to compete with large farmers and corporate operations.

TAX SIMPLIFICATION AND THE COST OF TAX COMPLIANCE. Samuel L. Lett,
Dept, of Accounting and Finance, Auburn Univ. at Montgomery, AL
36193.

Tax simplification was one of the driving forces behind the
passage of the massive Tax Reform Act of 1986 (TRA). The perception
held by taxpayers that the tax law was unduly complicated and unfair
was used by supporters of tax revision in Congress to generate the
passage of the TRA. The TRA hailed as tax simplification at the time
of its passage has created far greater complexity and costlier tax
compliance for taxpayers than previous tax laws.

Even with the removal of approximately six million taxpayers
from the tax rolls due to lower tax rates, still nearly fifty percent
of taxpayers pay professional tax preparers to complete their
returns. Based on figures provided by the Internal Revenue Service
(IRA), the cost of a return could be greater than a thousand dollars.
Additionally, evidence exists that major mistakes by preparers
costing taxpayers thousands of dollars do occur at at all levels of
professional tax preparation. An analysis of IRS time estimates for
preparation of federal tax forms reveals that while these estimates
may be overstated, taxpayers can expect to pay more for return
preparation. The tax simplification hoped for has generated major
cost increases for tax compliance by the taxpayer.

168

Abstracts

SCIENCE EDUCATION

LEARNING OF DRUG TERMINOLOGY BY BEGINNING BACCALAUREATE NURSING
STUDENTS. Alfred E. Lupien and Ellen Buckner, School of Nursing,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

The purposes of this study were to measure the change in drug
terminology scores across the span of one academic quarter and to
determine if relationships existed between terminolgy scores and
various demographic characteristics. Fifty-eight nursing students
enrolled in an introductory pharmacology course participated in the
study which included completion of written examinations eight weeks
apart, an investigator-developed semantic differential, and a
demographic worksheet. The difference between scores at the
beginning and at the end of the quarter was not statistically
significant; nor were there statistically significant relationships
between examination scores and age, self-reported percentage of terms
previously known, or attitude toward knowledge of drug terminology.
Relationships were demonstrated between terminology score and years
of employment in health care (_r = -.328, £ = .009, n = 56) as well as
between terminology examination score and final course grade
(r_ = .616, £ = .001, £ = 58). Three conclusions may be drawn from
the findings of this study: that scores on drug terminology
examinations did not change across the span of one academic quarter,
that there was a negative relationship between years of employment in
health care and terminology examination scores, and that there was a
strong relationship between examination scores and final course
grade. Instructor-related interventions that may facilitate learning
of terminology include assuring that terminology is consistent with
contemporary clinical language, conscientiously utilizing these terms
in classroom instruction, and encouraging student use of terminology.

COASTAL POLLUTION*- A REFLECTION OF GLOBAL DISASTER. John J. Dindo,
Dauphin Island Sea Lab - Discovery Hall Project, Dauphin Island, AL
36528.

For years we have heard about coastal pollution problems from
around the world. No one could believe that an estuarine system as
large as the Chesapeake Bay could collapse, yet it did and with very
little warning. In the last six months the media within the U.S. has
featured cover articles on our dying planet. Are these only stories
that sell magazines and newspapers or do they reflect a real threat to
mankind and our planet.

169

Abstracts

NATURE'S WAY SERIES: A REPORT ON THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF A PILOT SCIENCE ENRICHMENT
PROJECT. Robert 0. Joslin, Center for
Environmental Research and Service, Troy State
University, Troy, Alabama 36082.

The Science Education Enrichment Project was
originally conceived by the Center for
Environmental Research and Service and the Regional
In-Service Education Center of Troy State
University. The nature of the pilot program was
designed to establish a 3-way partnership between
Troy State University, the Troy City School System
and the local business community. The purpose of
this partnership arrangement was to develop and
implement experience-based science activities that
would enrich the existing curriculum of the
participating target school. The project was
successful in establishing an on-going science
enrichment program at the target school. A product
of this development and implementation is The
Nature's Way Series: A Guide to Science Enrichment

Activities. This published curriculum guide is

serving as a valuable resource for science
enrichment programs in public schools.

TEACHING HANDICAPPED STUDENTS SELECTED CONCEPTS ABOUT
RADON HAZARDS, Joseph D. George, Ernest D. Riggsby, and
E. Christopher Carlisle, Columbus College, Columh_u§, GA
31993-2399.

Since there are two distinctly different approaches to
the teaching of handicapped students: through mainstream¬

ing and in special classes, it was deemed desirable to
prepare a mini-unit which would be compatible with either
approach. The project approached radon as a significant
health hazard, probed its origins, its nature, how it might
be detected and its concentrations determined. Visual,
verbal, and tactile experiences were devised. A major
objective was to help develop a keen awareness of the
presence of radon in our environment but without developing
anxiety. The culmination of the mini-unit was the
demonstration of testing equipment and a discussion of
measures to be taken if a screening test indicated higher
than normal, tolerable levels.

170

Abstracts

Of Wolves and This Woman. Nancy V. Veil, Teacher-In-Residence, Ala.
Power Company , ^Birmingham Al. 35291. Dr. Lugi Boitani, University
of Rome, Dr. Francisco Francisci, National Institute of Game CBiology ,
Rome, Italy.

Legend tells of how Romulus and Remus were suckled and nourished
by a she wolf. Romulus went on to found the city of Rome in Ttaly.

A latin proverb warns Homi homini lupus: Man is a wolf to man.

This proverb proved to be the foundation of a current feeling
in Rome and inother parts of Italy about people who dare to study
the now almost extinct wolf. "Of Wolves and This Woman", is represent¬
ative of the research which I did in conjunction with an ongoing
research project on wolves in the Appentine Mountain chain in Italy
to determine the number of wolves left. The research seeks to find
the reasons for near extinction by studying geographical range, feed¬
ing, and mating habits of the Italian wolf and the feral dog packs of
the Appenines. Specific information obtained was a) ascess to what
extent, given the same environmental conditions, wolf and dog
develop survival strategies b) ascess degree and mode of competition
between wolf and dog c) ascess to what extent survival of feral
dog packs is done to recruitment of adult stray dogs from outside the
packs d) ascess preying on the study area livestock e) ascess
how certain environmental changes may limit and/or enhance survival of
wolf and/or dog.

IMPACT OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE VISITING SCIENTIST PROGRAM ON
STUDENT ATTITUDES. Robert E. Hayes, Tallassee High School, Tallassee,
AL 36078

The purpose of this study was to review the scope of the AAS
Visiting Scientist program and to examine the impact of a visiting
scientist on student attitudes and knowledge about recombinant DNA
at Tallassee High School. Pretests and posttests were administered
to 136 students to assess knowledge about DNA and recombinant DNA
technology before and after a visit from a visiting professor from
Auburn University. Student attitudes toward various ethical aspects of
recombinant DNA technology were also assessed. After the scientist's
talk, student knowledge increased 10% when measured six months later.
Students attitudes remained relatively stable over the six months
period and generally reflected views held by a majority of Americans.
Student? opposed any use of the technology for achieving the "perfect"
human but favored use of cloning for achieving better crop yields and
in the search for cures for intractable diseases. Students gained both
longterm knowledge and a better appreciation of how working scientists
solve problems from the Visiting Scientist program.

171

Abstracts

RADON-222: A CONCERN FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE. Ernest D.

Riggsby , Joseph D. George, and E. Christopher Carlisle,
Columbus College, Columbus, GA 32993-2399.

School science courses allow some flexibility in the
selection of topics. This paper describes a unit on radon,
its physical and chemical properties, how it originates,
and how it is detected and mitigated. This study of radon
adapts well to physics, chemistry, physical science or
biology. Since the Environmental Protection Agency made
its announcements about the hazards of radon, there has
been an increasing presence of door-to-door salespersons,
offering testing and mitigation at prices which are often
much too high. This scare tactic can probably best be
countered by education. This effort was aimed at raising
the awareness level, as well as, the informing of students,
with the parallel anticipation that some of the information
and handouts would find their way into the hands of the
parents of some of the students, and suggest proper and
much less expensive measures for detecting and measuring
radon levels in the indoor-environment.

THE MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES ON SMALL-COLLEGE CAMPUSES.

Ronald N. Hunsinger and W. Mike Howell, Dept, of Biology, Samford Uni¬
versity, Birmingham, AL 35229.

Due to new federal regulations designed to inform employees of
potential hazards in their workplace, colleges and universities must
begin to revise their policies and procedures governing the procurement,
proper usuage, and storage of hazardous material. Such "Right-to-Know"
legislation calls for written compliances from institutions regarding
detailed hazardous substances inventories, material safety data sheet
compilation and availability, and documentable employee safety training.
Additionally, a strengthening of the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amend¬
ments (HSWA) and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) man¬
dates a radically different approach for the disposal of materials
designated as hazardous and regulated according to RCRA and HSWA. Fail¬
ure to comply with these regulations can result in imprisonment, fine
up to $25,000, and civil suits by any citizen harmed as the result of
negligent use or disposal of hazardous material. In light of these re¬
cent developments, it is in the best interest of colleges and universi¬
ties to devise appropriate policies which address the issues mentioned
above. This presentation will provide a model for compliance, designed
especially for small colleges and universities.

172

Abstracts

SOCIAL SCIENCES

CORRELATES OF COMPUTER-RELATED STRESS. Richard A. Hudiburg,

Dept, of Psychology, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632

The purpose of this study was two-fold. First, the reliability
and construct validity of the Computer Technology Hassles Scale (CTHS) ,
a measure of computer-related stress, was determined. Second,
correlates to this measure of computer-related stress were investigated

The Computer Technology Hassles Scale (CTHS) was composed of 69
"hassles" or potential computer technology stressors . A questionnaire
was constructed that included demographic information, the CTHS, the
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), a global measure of stress; the Computer
Attitude Scale (CAS), and the semantic complaint items from the
Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL) . The questionnaire was administered
to a sample (N - 129) of undergraduate students. A second
administration of the questionnaire, which included an additional
measure, the Computer Anxiety Scale (CAXS), was given two months
later to the same sample of students. A total of 100 students
responded to both administrations of the questionnaire.

Reliability analysis indicated that the CTHS had a moderate test-
retest reliability coefficient (r = .64). Correlation analysis
indicated that the CTHS, as a measure of computer-related stress, was
significantly correlated to perceived stress (PSS) and semantic
complaints (HSCL) . The CTHS was independent of attitudes toward
computers (CAS) and computer anxiety (CAXS). A principal axis analysis
with varimax rotation of the items composing the CTHS yielded 11
factors. A scaling analysis of the 11 factors revealed that nine
defined subscales of the CTHS met minimum internal consistency
requirements. The current research indicated that the CTHS was a
reliable and construct valid measure of computer-related stress.

BIPARTISAN1IAT1QN OF THE BLACK ELECTORATE; THE CASE FOR THE SYNTHETIC
EQUAL OPPORTUNITY POSTURE. Lawrence J. Hanks, Department of Political
Science, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36Q8B

The black electorate is the Democratic Party's most loyal voting
bloc. Since joining the New Deal coalition in 1936, a majority of the
black electorate has supported the Democratic ticket for the presidency
Since I960, an overwhelming majority of the black electorate has
supported the Democratic ticket. This loyal support has had two major
effects; the Democrats take the black electorate for granted while
the Republicans ignore it. This paper argues that the black electorate
should adopt the synthetic equal opportunity posture to combat the
forestated negative effects. This position argues that political
effectiveness dictates a 40% black yellow-dog Republican base, a 40%
black yellow-dog Democratic base, and a 20% Independent base which
is capable of mobilizing behind the desired candidate. Others options
are examined and the synthetic equal opportunity posture is defended
as the optimal posture for political effectiveness.

173

Abstracts

ANALYSIS OF DINOSAURS: POLICE ORGANIZATIONS AND CULTURE.
Jerald C. Burns and Nicholas A. Astone. Dept, of Crimino¬
logy and Criminal Justice, Alabama State University,
Montgomery, Alabama 36195

This paper examines police organizations to determine
the common charactertistics that they share based on
various organizational theories and the unique culture
that exists within such organizations. A brief history
of police organizations is presented, along with pertinent
organizational theories, principles, and cultural
characteristics which influence the structure and opera¬
tion of police agencies. Specifically, police organiza¬
tion and culture were analyzed; the authors conclude
that the traditional police organization and culture
are like dinosaurs in terms of efficiency and the role
that police are expected to play.

ROLE OF THE PRESIDENT AS PERCEIVED BY CHILDREN. Sheila Davis and Cora
A. Ingram, School of Nursing, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, Alabama 35294. Fran Perkins, School of Education,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.

The study was conducted to determine the perceptions of selected
children of the role of the President of the United States of America.
Twenty-six children were interviewed utilizing a semi-structured
interview guide. The respondents were drawn from a convenience sample
at three different sites in Birmingham, Alabama. The data were
analyzed by the process of enumeration and domaining. The study
revealed that these children perceived the role of the President as
leader and peacemaker. They also viewed his job as one requiring
higher education and providing substantial monetary reward.

HOUSING THE MENTALLY ILL IN URBAN COMMUNITIES. Jill Hall
Dept, of Political Science and Public Affairs, Univ of
Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

The need for appropriate housing for the chronically
mentally ill has become an increasingly difficult
problem to resolve in urban communities. In
recognition of the need for more housing for the»
mentally ill more organizations are turning to the HUD
Section 202 for a partial resolution to the problem.

The Birmingham area is no exception either in problem
or prospective solution. A look at the implementation
process of a Section 202 program in the Birmingham area
reveals some local and national implications for the
future of housing the mentally ill in urban communities.

174

Abstracts

THE BLACK MALE IN ALABAMA: A DEMOGRAPHIC PORTRAIT. Donald
W. Bogie, Dept, of Demographic and Cultural Research,

Auburn Univ. at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36193. William
A. Barrett, Dept, of Human Resources, State of Alabama,
Montgomery, AL 36130. Milton E. Belcher, Attorney
General's Office, State of Alabama, Montgomery, AL 36130.

Reversing a decline that had prevailed for three
decades, the number of black males in the Alabama popu¬
lation registered a moderate increase during the 1970s.
Still, however, this group comprised only 11.9 percent of
the state's population in 1980, down from 17.3 percent a
half century ago. Black males constitute an exceptionally
youthful population, who overwhelmingly reside in metro¬
politan locales. While they remain most highly concen¬
trated in Black Belt counties (as measured by the number
per 1,000 population), the largest totals by far reside
in Jefferson, Mobile and Montgomery counties. Black males
in Alabama are much more apt than their white counterparts
to be absent from the family, to have fewer years of
education, and to earn less. They are also more likely to
be arrested than white males and to be characterized by
higher rates of incarceration. Mortality rates are sig¬
nificantly higher for black males than for other segments
of the population, while life expectancies at birth are
correspondingly lower. Although not the total solution,
an increased emphasis on education, job training, and
occupational placement would serve to enhance the
socioeconomic status of the black male.

CgyMJNICATION APPREHENSION: REDUCTION WITHIN A PRISON SETTING.
Eugenie Nickell, Del Witherspoon and Carolyn Long-Hall, Auburn
University of Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36193.

This study compared self-reported ccnmunication apprehension
(CA) experienced by female inmates before and after attending a
special program within a state prison. Thirteen women volunteers
who scored high on the Personal Report of Confidence As a Speaker
(PKCS) (Paul, 1966) were ( treated in a program incorporating various
techniques including systematic desensitization, cognitive restruc¬
turing, skills training and shaping within six two-hour sessions.
Pre-post ccrrparisons resulted in a significant decrease in CA
(t = 7.12, df=10, p< .001). Discussion focused on basic character¬
istics relevant to this population (short attention span and low
reading level) and restrictions of an institutional nature such
as excessive noise levels, lack of privacy and limitations on
possession of study materials.

175

Abstracts

AN INTERACTION PROCESS ANALYSIS OF COLLABORATIVE WRITING. Annete N.
Shelby, School of Business Communication, Georgetown Univ. , Washington,
D.C. 20057. Amanda W. Borden, Dept, of Theatre, Birmingham-Southern
College, Birmingham, AL 35254.

Collaborative writing involves two processes: (1) writing, which
within the accepted recursive view includes prewriting, drafting, and
editing; and (2) interaction, which involves intrapersonal and inter¬
personal processes. The present research focused on interpersonal
processes as they relate to the task of collaborative writing. The
research question was this : In what way do interaction and writing
processes influence efficiency, effectiveness, and satisfaction (mea¬
sures of collaborative writing)? To test the research question, the
researchers studied six work groups comprised of graduate business
students. Coders evaluated audio tapes of the group discussions
according to the Interaction Process Analysis system [Bales, R.F.

(1959) Interaction process analysis : A method of the study of small
groups . Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley . ] The findings were as fol¬
lows: (1) The more structured the group process, the more efficient

the prewriting stage; (2) Efficiency of the process was greater when
tasks to be accomplished were identified early in the prewriting
process, when a strong leader emerged, and when one individual (as
opposed to a number of group members) revised and edited the document;
(3) The group product was more effective when the group process was
highly structured, when more time was allotted to revision and editing,
and when group members participated in revising and editing; and (4)
Individuals experienced greater satisfaction when they perceived all
group members to have "carried their weight."

ADOLESCENT SELF PERCEPTIONS: AN EXPOSITION BASED ON PERSONAL
INTERVIEWS. Kasandra E. Williams and Jan 0. Case, Department
of Mathematics and Statistics, Samford University, Birmingham,

AL 35229.

A self-reporting questionnaire and the Bern Sex Role Inventory
were used to evaluate adolescent self perceptions on such traits
as androgyny, self esteem, sexual activity, and perceived sexual
pressures. Ninety-one adolescents with primarily white middle
class backgrounds were found to perceive themselves as androgynous,
with no difference in male and female ratings. Differences
occurred among males and females with respect to self esteem
ratings, with females assigning themselves lower ratings. Among
females, self esteem was also found to be dependent on sexual
activity, with sexually active females rating their self esteem
lower than non-sexually active females. Both males and females
felt that their sexual activity was not influenced by pressure to
be sexually active.

176

Abstracts

College Education Among Police Officers of Selected Alabama Law
Enforcement Agencies. Tim Jones , Dept, of Justice Studies, Athens
State College., Athens, AL 35611. Jerry Armor, Dept, of Criminal
Justice, Calhoun Community College., Decatur, AL 35601.

In recent years there have been significant increases in the
educational levels of the American workforce, and there has been a
perceived need for advanced education for police officers. In
response to the 1973 National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice
Standards and Goals that all police officers should possess an under¬
graduate degree by 1983, an examination of the current status of
higher education among police in Alabama is needed. The purpose of
this descriptive study is to determine the level of college education
among police officers from selected agencies in Alabama, and to com¬
pare the results with national averages. Nine Alabama municipal
police agencies were surveyed in order to determine the percentage of
officers possessing two years of college, two to three years of col¬
lege, and four or more years of college education. The results of the
analysis revealed that selected police agencies in Alabama range from
a high of 85% of officers possessing college credits (exceeding the
78% national average) to a low of 31%. The study has definite impli¬
cations for additional research. The research study has attempted' to
construct baseline data for future comparisons of higher education
among police officers, but correlations of percentage of college edu¬
cated police officers with jurisdiction size, educational pay incen¬
tives, agency proximity to educational institutions, and educational
levels among supervisory ranks remain to be studied.

Accreditation of Criminal Justice Education Programs: Is There A Need?
Joseph Luskin, Dept, of Criminal Justice, Alabama State University.

Accreditation for postsecondary educational programs in criminal
justice has been a controversial issue among criminal justice educators
for more than a decade. The development of accreditation, in general,
is a distinctive characteristic of American education. The develop¬
ment of a good accreditation procedure in criminal justice however,
has been unsuccessful over the years because of certain major areas of
diverse opinions within the profession. As a consequence, there are
polarized schools of thought as to whether or not criminal justice, as
presently taught in degree awarding universities, should be under the
aegis of an accreditating agency. Following a brief historical treat¬
ment of accreditation in the United States, this paper explores some
of the pros and cons, the advantages and disadvantages of accredit¬
ation. The purpose of this paper is not to extol the virtues of either
of the extreme positions over the other but rather to set the scene
for a mutual philosophically oriented arena wherein a meeting of the
minds may be accomplished. The position taken is that a profession
requires its practitioners to conform to certain minimum standards of
acceptance and that by voluntary participation in a universally
recognized and respected accreditation agency, this objective can be
accomplished

177

Abstracts

REPERCUSSIONS OF ACCEPTANCE OF CRIME MYTHS ON INDIVIDUAL
FEAR OF CRIME. Mark M. Lanier, Dept, of Criminal Justice,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, University Station,
Birmingham, AL. 35294.

Crime myths are widespread in our society.
Sociologists, criminologists, and other theorists have
established the existence of these myths and have
postulated as to their function. This study contributes
to our understanding of the impact of crime myths by
focusing on the repercussions of these myths on
attitudes. The focus of this research is on whether or
not an unsubstantiated, exaggerated perception of crime
precipitates a heightened fear of crime. Media
attention has been focused on the 'crime problem' and a
'fear of crime' which reputedly exists among students
attending the University of Alabama at Birmingham. One
hundred fifty randomly selected university students were
surveyed to measure an acceptance of myths and a fear of
crime. Relationships were found to exist; myths are
accepted and are positively related to an increased
fear of crime. In addition, the visual mass media was
eliminated as being a primary source of common crime
myths--it is generally recognized as being unrealistic.

RECENT RESEARCH WITH THE FAMOUS SAYINGS TEST. Charles EL_ Joubert,
Dept, of Psychology, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632

Bass's Famous Sayings Test contains four scales derived through
factor analysis: Conventional Mores, Hostility, Fear of Failure, and
Social Acquiescence. The purpose of this research was to assess the
presence of these traits in north Alabama and to compare locally
observed norms with those of the original standardization group. An
additional purpose was to determine the stability of these local norms
over a fifteen-year period. Two samples of university students
responded to the Famous Sayings test. The 1973 sample consisted of
29 men and 50 women; while the 1988 sample consisted of 31 men and 54
women. The results indicated that women scored higher than did men
on Conventional Mores and Social Acquiescence, with no significant sex
differences being observed on Hostility and Fear of Failure. No sig¬
nificant changes occurred on any of the four scales between 1973 and
1988. When compared against the original standardization group, north
Alabama women's means were higher on both Conventional Mores and
Social Acquiescence in both 1973 and 1988; and higher on Hostility and
Fear of Failure in 1988 only. Men's means on these scales compared
with those of the original standardization group, with the exception
of higher Hostility means in 1973. Finally, the Social Acquiescence
scale correlated positively with Conventional Mores and Fear of
Failure for both sexes and in both yearly samples. Hostility posi¬
tively correlated with Fear of Failure and Social Acquiescence scores
in women.

178

Abstracts

POLICE OFFICER FEMINIST ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS OF FEMALE CRIME:

AN EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS. John J. Sloan , Dept, of Criminal Justice,
Univ. of Ala. -Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Criminologists have recently become interested in the extent and
nature of female criminality. Most of this research has examined
changes in female arrest trends over time using official sources of
data. Less well researched is the area of the attitudes and percep¬
tions of criminal justice officials regarding female criminality, i.e.
do criminal justice officials believe female criminality has changed
and react to women suspects based on these beliefs? This study, using
a sample of police officers from Indiana, analyzes links between po¬
lice officer feminist attitudes and officer perceptions of female
criminality. The results indicate that officers generally hold strong
anti-feminist views concerning women in work, politics, domestic
matters and social matters, as well as that officers perceive female
involvement in crime as more prevalent than previously, that female
offenders are perceived as being more violent than before, and that
the women's movement is partly responsible for the changing nature
of female criminality. Officer perceptions of female offenders are
in agreement with Adler's (1976) depiction of a "new female criminal".
Explanations for these results are considered from two sources:
organizational socialization into police work and occupational choice
bringing together like minded individuals.

VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL PROSECUTION: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES FROM THE PERSPECTIVE
OF THE VICTIM. William E. Osterhoff, Dept, of Justice and Public Safety, Auburn Univ.
at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36193.

The role of the prosecutor In the American criminal Justice systems results In a combin¬
ation of quasl-Judlclal and political power which Is derived, In part, from his/her
potential Involvement In almost every stage of the criminal Justice system process.

The prosecutor, as a representative of the state and the criminal Justice system, has the
responsibility of assuring that Justice occurs within the criminal justice system. The
prosecutor's goals also Include obtaining convictions of guilty defendants and protecting
the rights and Interests of the victims whose cooperation Is needed for successful prose¬
cution of offenders. Two models by which prosecutors can manage their caseloads are
vertical and horizontal prosecution. In vertical prosecution, one prosecutor handles a
case at all stages of the proceedings, whereas In horizontal prosecution, different
prosecutors handle the various stages of the proceedings. For victims of violent crimes
such as child abuse and rape, vertical prosecution offers several advantages over horizon¬
tal prosecution. The victim Is not forced to repeat the details of the criminal act to
different prosecutors at each stage of the criminal Justice process. Because of the one-
to-one relationship with the prosecutor, the victim Is provided with more continuity and
Is more likely to have Input Into each stage of the criminal Justice process. Vertical
prosecution also benefits witnesses and professionals who might testify on behalf of the
victim. Disadvantages of vertical prosecution result when there Is rapid turnover In
staff In the prosecutor's office and when the prosecutor who Is assigned to a victim Is
Inexperienced or less than optimally competent.

179

Abstracts

HEALTH SCIENCES

ANALYSIS OF A SURFACE PROTEIN FROM A PspA (PNEUMOCOCCAL
SURFACE PROTEIN A) MUTANT. Timothy E. Hughes and Larry S.
McDaniel. University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
35294.

PspA was originally identified using monoclonal antibodies
that can protect mice against intravenous challenge with several
strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae. We previously reported on
the isolation of insertionally inactivated mutants of strain Rxl
which fail to express this cell surface protein. In analyzing other
cell wall components that can elicit protective responses, we have
produced a hybridoma cell line, designated SC25, that secretes an
IgM, k antibody which reacts with a non-PspA pneumococcal
surface protein. SC25 was generated from a CBA/N mouse that
was immunized with a protection eliciting gel filtration fraction of
cell wall material from a PspA mutant. By Western blotting this
antibody detects a broad range of molecular weight bands in a
single pneumococcal isolate. Not unlike some monoclonal
antibodies against PspA, this antibody fails to protect mice against
pneumococcal challenge. We have identified clones in a Xgtll
expression library of genomic pneumococcal DNA that react with
this monoclonal antibody. We are characterizing these clones to
assess the ability of this protein to elicit protection against
pneumococcal infection in mice.

SANDPLAY THERAPY. Frances Gatewood, School of Nursing, University of
Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Sandplay is a psychotherapeutic modality in which clients create
three dimensional scenes, pictures or abstract designs with sand,
water and a large number of miniature realistic figures. It can take
place with few or no words and change is experienced and observed in
behavior. Sandplay is based on the postulate that the psyche contains
a drive toward wholeness and health. This drive toward realization of
potential, suggests that the psyche, like the body, under adequate
circumstances, has a tendency to heal itself. Sandplay provides a
"free and protected space" for this to happen and a br-idge between
inner and outer life.

180

Abstracts

Axillary Versus Rectal Temperatures in Children Under Four Years of Age

J. Colleen Russell. Captain, Army Nurse Corps, Pediatric Nurse Practi¬
tioner, Graduate Student, University of Alabama at Birmingham.

Abstracts This descriptive study was designed to ascertain if there
was a significant difference between axillary and rectal temperature
measurements in children under 4 years of age. Instruments utilized
were an investigator constructed demographic tool and 2 glass thermo¬
meters (one rectal and one oral thermometer). (Results supported cur¬
rent literature). Although a paired differences t test revealed a sig¬
nificant statistical difference between the two measurements , the mean
temperatures of 9 8.52° F for axillary temperatures and 99-21° F for
rectal temperatures are statistically correlated. Therefore, it is not
clinically significant to warrant the discomfort and risk of physical
insult caused tjy rectal temperature measurements. Recommendations for
future research include: (a) repeat of study changing thermometer
placement times to 3 minutes for rectal temperatures and 5 minutes for
axillary temperatures, (b) repeat of study in children with febrile
episodes versus healthy children, (c) study the differences in morning
versus afternoon temperatures in the same subjects.

Acknowledgements: I express my gratitude to my advisors and research
committee, chaired by Dr Kathleen Dobbs and later by Dr. Kathryn Wood,
who inspired the topic for research £ Dr. Kathryn Barchard , and Dr. Ann
Edgil, who advised on statistical analysis, and editorial advisement,
respectively; my sister, Rhonda Russell, and my classmate, Lisa South,
who provided editorial and typing services; my friend, Jewell Fleetwood,
who provided computer time for final writing? the Pediatric Clinic
staff and subjects who allowed the conduction of the study; and my fam¬
ily who provided loving, prayerful support throughout the entire pro¬
cess of obtaining a Master's Degree.

NUTRASWEET: A COMPARISON OF CONSUMPTION LEVELS OF COLLEGE STUDENTS
WITH THE UNITED STATES GENERAL POPULATION. Mary-Martin Nordness
and Jan Case, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Samford
University, Birmingham, AL 35229.

A review of related research concerning the consumption of
NutraSweet, as well as phosphorus and caffeine, is presented with
emphasis on studies concerning females. National per capita
figures from the U. S. Department of Agriculture are used as a
basis for evaluating the consumption levels of 105 Samford
University students who answered a questionnaire prepared by the
authors .

181

Abstracts

USING MAGNITUDE ESTIMATION SCALING TO EXAMINE THE VALIDITY OF NURSING
DIAGNOSIS. Joan S, Grant, School of Nursing, University of Alabama at
Birmingham, University Station, Birmingham, Alabama 35294

This descriptive exploratory study was guided by a diagnostic reasoning
framework and used magnitude estimation scaling (MES) to examine the
construct validity of the nursing diagnoses altered level of conscious¬
ness: arousal and altered level of consciousness: content. I) What are
critical defining characteristics? 2) What are important defining
characteristics? 3) What are clinical manifestations? MES is a techni¬
que in which numbers are assigned to stimuli in proportion to the
magnitude of subjective responses. Thirty nurse subjects scored the
importance and frequency of defining characteristic in confirming both
diagnoses. Critical defining characteristics for altered level of
consciousness: arousal were no motor response to painful stimuli, no
brainstem reflex activity, abnormal extension posturing, abnormal
flexion posturing, fixed eye position, no motor response. . .auditory
stimuli, and diminished brainstem reflex activity. The correlation
between the geometric means of the defining characteristics for impor¬
tance and frequency was not significant (£=-.19, £=.32). Critical
defining characteristics for altered level of consciousness: content
were inappropriate behavior, incomprehensible speech, only obeys one-
step commands, inappropriate speech, and impaired recent memory. There
was a significant relationship between the geometric means of the
defining characteristics for importance and frequency for altered level
of consciousness: content (£=.62, £=.001). There was support for con¬
struct validity of the nursing diagnoses. MES was a useful technique
for examining the construct validity of both nursing diagnoses.

(Support provided by Alabama Academia of Science; Sigma Theta Tau, &
AANN. )

DEMOGRAPHY OF HIV INFECTIONS IN ALABAMA. Bradley R. Ware, Dept, of
Family Medicine, Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

The spread of HIV infection in Alabama continues to escalate.
The distribution of the disease, however, is not strictly confined
to the major metropolitan areas (population greater than 100,000).
According to the AIDS update compiled by the Alabama Department of
Health, as of February 1989, there have been 476 cases of AIDS
reported. Of interest is the fact that of those counties with a
population of less that 50,000, 12 counties have no cases diagnosed
and the rate per 100,000 ranges from 2.6 to 33. For the population
between 50-100,000 the rate is from 1.7-14.5, and for the counties
with a population greater than 100,000 the rate is from 1.9-23.2.
This comparison of the range of the rate per hundred thousand and
population per county suggests there are a significant number of HIV
infections in the rural population.

182

Abstracts

STRESSORS, LEVELS OF STRESS, AND SELF-CARE ACTIONS TO REDUCE STRESS IN
PREADOLESCENT CHILDREN. Linda Roberts, Dept, of Nursing, North
Georgia College, Dahlonega, Georgia 30597.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain gender-related
stressors, levels of stress, and self-care actions for reducing stress
in preadolescent children; and to ascertain if there were differences
between mothers' perceptions and children's perceptions of the same
variables. Orem's (1985) Self-Care Nursing Model and concepts related
to stress were the framework guiding the study. An exploratory/
descriptive design was used to collect data from 64 preadolescent
subjects and their mothers, using three research instruments.
Descriptive, Chi-square, and t-test analyses of data revealed the
following findings: (a) "fighting with sibling(s)" was the most
frequently occurring stressor; (b) stress levels in the majority of
children were average; (c) "trying to forget about it" was the most
common self-care action used by children to reduce stress; (d)
participation in organized activities, talking to parents, and
interaction with others as well as pets were mentioned by the child
subjects as helpful in reducing stress; (e) mothers identified similar
stressors and self-care actions to reduce stress as their children, but
mentioned stressors related to school problems more often than the
child subjects; (f) there were no statistically significant differences
between the child subjects' levels of stress and the levels of stress
as perceived by mothers; (g) there was a statistically significant
association between mothers talking to children directly about how to
manage stress and the child subjects' levels of stress; (h) there were
few gender-related differences in stressors, levels of stress, and
self-care actions to reduce stress.

PRIMARY PERITONITIS: CASE REPORT AND LITERATURE REVIEW. Todd
Sherrer and Robert E. Pieroni, College of Community Health Sciences,
Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

Primary peritonitis is an inflammatory process of the peritoneal
cavity with no documented source of contamination such as a perfo¬
rated viscus or penetrating injury. Alcoholic liver disease and
ascites are major predisposing factors to primary peritonitis in
adults. This disorder can present with minimal peritoneal signs and
the clinical picture is often dominated by a more obvious problem.

The significant mortality rate and subtle presentation mandate that
the clinician have a high index of suspicion in the predisposed
population. The characteri sties of primary peritonitis will be
discussed and a typical case which emphasizes many of the features
of this often unrecognized disorder will be presented.

183

Abstracts

COMPARISONS OF DUBOWITZ SCORES OF NEWBORN INFANTS AT 2, 12, and 24
HOURS AFTER BIRTH. Penne Mott , Graduate Study, University of Alabama
School of Nursing, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Assessing the gestational age of the newborn infant is a routine
practice of neonatal health care providers. When used in combination
with the infant's weight, determinations can be made about the infant's
size for gestational age. The clinical care provided to an infant is
often based on knowledge acquired from these parameters. Utilizing the
Dubowitz scoring system of assessment for gestational age, assessments
can be performed anytime up to 5 days after birth. Research substanti¬
ating the accuracy of these scores at different time periods post-
delivery is lacking. The purpose of this study was to ascertain if
there were statistically significant differences in the Dubowitz scores
of newborn infants at 2, 12, and 24 hours after birth. The study popu¬
lation consisted of 24 full-term neonates that were products of spon¬
taneous, low forceps vaginal, and cesarean section deliveries. Sepa¬
rate Dubowitz assessments on a single infant were completed within 2
hours of delivery, repeated again when the infant was 12 hours old, and
then again at 24 hours of age. Descriptive data was collected concern¬
ing the infant's weight, apgar scores, and gestational age. A one-way
factor ANOVA with repeated measures were performed on the Dubowitz
scores obtained at the predetermined time intervals. Significant dif¬
ferences were found between the scores at 2 and 12 hours, 2 and 24
hours, and 12 and 24 hours at the £ = .05, .01, and .01, respectively.
The findings of this study do not support the findings of time stabil¬
ity of Dubowitz (1977). The implications drawn from this study are
that a need exists for assessing Dubowitz scores at specific times
after delivery. 'These results indicate that policies should be
specific regarding timing of the Dubowitz assessment.

PERCEIVED IMMEDIATE NEEDS OF PARENTS WITH YOUNG CHILDREN IN AN
INTENSIVE CARE UNIT. Carol L. Holcombe, R.N. , M.S.N., Cardiac
Referral Coordinator, Baptist Medical Center - Montclair, Birmingham,
Alabama, 35213. Jan E. Christopher, R.N., M.S.N., Instructor,
University of Alabama School of Nursing, UAB, Birmingham, Alabama.

The purpose of the study was to identify perceived immediate
needs of parents with young children in an intensive care unit. The
tool utilized for data collection was a questionnaire consisting of
45 need statements. Each statement was scored by the parents on a
scale of 1-4, with 1 being least important and 4 most important. The
sample consisted of 30 parents with a child between the ages of 1 and
4 in a pediatric intensive care unit. An item mean was calculated for
each statement and ranked according to their mean scores. Based on
the findings it was concluded that the need for explanations,
information, and having questions answered honestly were perceived as
most important by the majority of the subjects.

184

Abstracts

SELF-ESTEEM IN THE KINDERGARTEN CHILD. Martha G. Lavender. University
of Alabama School of Nursing, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between
maternal self-esteem, work status, and sociodemographic characteristics,
i.e., age, sex, race, birth order, socioeconomic status, family
structure, and child care arrangements, and self-esteem of the
kindergarten child. The conceptual framework was derived from the Roy
Adaptation Model of Nursing and self-esteem theory.

The convenience sample of this study was comprised of 130 mother-
child dyads. A stepwise multiple regression procedure was employed on
the data. For the total sample, child care arrangements, family
structure, age and sex were significantly related to the child's
self-esteem (£ < .05). A significant relationship existed between child
care arrangements and the self-esteem of kindergarten children of
working mothers <£ < .05). The self-esteem of kindergarten children of
non-working mothers was significantly related to age, sex, race, birth
order, and maternal self-esteem (£ < .05).

Based on the findings, a lower self-esteem in these children was
related to child care provided by parents as opposed to relative or
non-relative care. Two parent families, being male, and younger had a
positive influence on the children's self-esteem. Among the children of
non-working mothers, a high maternal self-esteem, being firstborn, and
being black negatively influenced the children's self-esteem.
Socioeconomic status was not related to the children's self-esteem.

MYELOGRAM: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROUTE OF FLUID ADMINISTRATION AND
SEVERITY OF SIDE EFFECTS IN POST- I OPAM IDOL MYELOGRAM PATIENTS.
Kathy H. Nelson, School of Nursing in the Graduate School,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL.

The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship
between route of administration of fluids and severity of side
effects in post-iopamidol myelogram patients. If the patient could
be adequately hydrated with fluids by mouth, pre- and post¬
myelogram, the unnecessary risks, pain, and cost of the intravenous
procedure could perhaps be eliminated. Orem's self-care deficit
theory of nursing served as the nursing framework for the study.
Subjects hydrated only by mouth or combined intravenously and
orally were analyzed for severity of side effects following lumbar
myelography. No statistically significant relationship between
route of fluid administration and severity of side effects was
found. From these results recommendations were made for nursing
educators, future nursing research, and for nursing practice.

185

Abstracts

SELENIUM BLOOD LEVELS IN RENAL DEFICIENT PATIENTS. A_;_ Mllly and L.
C. Wit, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn, AL. 36849; C.
J. Diskin, Opelika Nephrology Referral Center, Opelika, AL. 36801.

Low blood selenium (se) levels have been proposed as a cause for
the increased incidence of cancer and uremic cardiomyopthy in renal
failure patients. The objective of this study was to determine if
renal failure patients do, in fact, have low blood se levels and to
correlate any changes in blood se with changes in the various se
carriers such as RBCs, albumin and alpha-2 globulin. Blood se levels
were determined in 3 groups (chronic renal failure, nephrotic
syndrome, hemodialysis) of approximately 10 renal deficient patients,
and from controls matched for sex and age. Se was determined in
fractions of the blood (plasma and whole blood) by the method of wet
digestion followed by flameless AAS with a graphite furnace.
Additionally, se levels in the pre- and post-dialysate water of the
hemodialysis patients were determined to detect losses across the
dialysis membrane. Paired t-tests were used to determine differences
in blood se, se carriers and pre- and post-dialysis water. The
post-dialysis water of the hemodialysis patients had no more se than
the pre-dialysis water. Neither whole blood nor plasma se levels
differed between patients and controls within any group (p<.05).
Within all groups, a positive correlation (r=*.3496; p*.01) existed
between alpha-2 globulin and plasma se, while other se carriers showed
no correlation. Alpha-2 globulin levels did not differ between
patients and controls within any group. These data suggest normal
levels of se and alpha-2 globulin in these patients and caution should
be observed in prescribing se supplementation. Funded by East Alabama
Chapter of the National Kidney Foundation of Alabama.

HIV INFECTION: A DISEASE OF INDIVIDUALS, NOT INDIVIDUAL. Bradley R.
Ware, Department of Family Medicine, Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa,

AL 35487.

HIV infection is certainly a disease inflicting an individual.
However, it is a disease which affects individuals. This author has
cared for HIV positive individuals in a rural area. In each case the
effects encountered by the physician who becomes associated with any
infected individual are quite taxing. The range of these effects
extends from the physician and the office staff, to those who have a
close relationship with the patient, and to the community at large.

The physician must repeatedly reassure the office staff of its safety,
and provide the necessary known precautions. The physician is fre¬
quently required to answer questions and concerns by those who are
close to the patient. The community's concerns must be addressed by
the physician for many reasons (i.e., to keep from losing patients,
or to prevent unnecessary fears leading to violent consequences).

For the treating physician, HIV infection is truly a disease of
individuals.

186

Abstracts

SWITCHING OF HEMOGLOBIN PROPORTIONS TOWARD NEWBORN VALUES IN ADULT RATS
BY HYDROXYUREA IS BLOCKED BY ASPIRIN. Harold J. Spears and Mukul C.
Datta, Dept, of Chemistry and Carver Research Foundation, Tuskegee
University, Tuskegee, AL 36088.

This study was carried out firstly to determine whether hydroxy¬
urea (HU) that induces fetal hemoglobin (HbF) synthesis in humans and
primates can also induce newborn like Hb proportions in ml Idly anemic
adult rats. If so, then secondly, to explore the possible involvement
of other factor(s) in the process of HU-mediated Hb switching. Mild
anemia was developed in normal adult Sprague-Dawley rats by controlled
bleeding. A fixed dose of HU (75 mg/500g) was administered each time
intravenously in each of such anemic rats for altogether 25 times cove¬
ring a span of 35 days. Anemia of moderate degree was maintained du¬
ring the entire drug regimen. Blood samples at several points of the
drug treatment were analysed by ion-exchange chromatography to separate
and quantitate the Hb components . A significant increasing pattern was
measured for Hb components I, II and IV in red cells of the HU— treated
rats compared to the anemic control rats, a situation analogous to that
observed between normal adult and newborn samples. However, aspirin
intake at a dose level of 20 mg/day/500g along with HU administration
totally blocked the changeover of Hb components toward newborn propor¬
tions. Since aspirin is known to inhibit pros tag] and in synthesis, the
present results reveal the importance of concurrent prostaglandin syn¬
thesis for the expression of the HU-mediated changes in Hb proportions
toward newborn values in adult rats. Delineation of the mechanism of
regulation of fetal hemoglobin in adults might be of therapeutic bene¬
fit in patients with sickle cell anemia or severe variants of homozy¬
gous beta— thalassemia.

AMBULATORY HEALTH CARE IN THE WESTERN DEMOCRACIES: POLICIES TO FOSTER
ITS EXPANSION. C. George Tulli, Jr., Capstone Medical Center,
University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35401.

During the last two decades all the western democracies have
had to face sharp increases in public spending for health service
expenditures. In response, many governments have attempted to curb
this unchecked growth by adopting various cost containment strate¬
gies. One such strategy embraces the expansion of ambulatory health
services. The successful expansion of health services has apparent¬
ly occurred, however, when primarily coupled with government poli¬
cies that either restrict the availability of inpatient care or
promote the expansion of primary health and medical care. From
the data provided by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development, relationships were established between public spending
on ambulatory health services and hospital occupancy rates
(rs = 0.86} and between public spending on ambulatory health
services and general practice physician population ratios
(rs = 0.42) .

187

Abstracts

PRELIMINARY STUDY OF GROUNDWATER MICROBIOTA ASSOCIATED WITH AQUIFER
THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE (ATES). T. E. Thompson, C. E. Brett, F. S.
Allison, J. A. Neville, C. Shea, and A. L. Winters, Dept, of
Microbiology and the Natural Resources Center, Univ. of Ala.,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. R. J. Hicks, Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Richland, WA 99352.

The Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (ATES) system used at the
Univerisity of Alabama is an engineering technology that uses thermal
transfer from chilled groundwater to cool a recreation center. This
technology has the potential for reducing the national demand for
fossil fuels with a corresponding reduction in pollution. The
objective of this project is to examine ATES-associated groundwater
for possible changes in the indigenous microbial populations and for
the presence of pathogenic microorganisms. Water samples are being
collected from six sites within the ATES system over four seasons to
develop a microbial profile of the associated aquifer water.

Bacterial populations under investigation include heterotrophs ,
coliforms, and pathogens. Pathogens from the genera Legionella,
Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Vibrio, Yersinia, and
Mycobacteria are targeted for detection by selective cultivation
methods. Data from one season of sampling indicate a stable
heterotrophic population that contains low numbers of Pseudomonas
and non-fecal coliform species. No human pathogens were detected,
indicating that the ATES system does not contribute to pathogen
levels in the aquifer during the winter cycle.

Supported by Battelle Subcontract B-H5383-A-0.

AN ASSESSMENT OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR IN FENFLURAMINE-TREATED RATS.
Ronald N. Hunsinger , Jennifer Dole, and Joni Justice. Department of
Biological Sciences, Samford University, Birmingham, AL 35229.

Fenfluramine ( FN ) is a drug which causes a rapid release of brain
serotonin. Thus, a single dose of the drug often elicits various ser¬
otonergic-dependent behaviors. Since FN also blocks the reuptake of
serotonin into the nerve terminal, it is possible that repeated admin¬
istration of the drug might attenuate such functions, as a result of
neurotransmitter depletion. In this study, we observed that a single
dose of FN ( 10 mg/kg, i.p, ) significantly depressed attack behavior,
a spontaneous form of aggression, in rats 24 h following drug injec¬
tion. Parallel locomotor tests conducted on these animals suggest that
some sedation may have existed at the time of testing. In other
trials, no significant differences in either spontaneous aggression or
locomotor activity were observed in rats receiving FN ( 10 mg/kg, i.p.)
for 14 days, as compared to saline controls. Additionally, predatory
aggressive behavior, as assessed by the muricide test, in rats re¬
ceiving the 14-day FN regimen was no different from that of saline
controls .

188

Abstracts

COMMUNICATION SKILLS: EFFECTS OF TEACHING UNSKILLED HEALTH CARE WORKERS
CONFIRMATION/DI S CONFIRMATION COMMUNICATION PATTERNS WHEN INTERACTING
WITH ELDERLY CLIENTS. GLENDA AVERY, Marlys Bates, Ben Fones, & Donna
Roper; Gay Reeves, Advisor, B.S.N., Miss. Univ. for Women, Columbus, MS
39701.

The purpose of this study was to decide if unskilled health care
workers' communication skills with elderly clients were significantly
affected by a 45-minute teaching session on therapeutic communications.
A quasi-experimental research design was implemented using a convenient
sampling of 16 unskilled health care workers in a 142-bed rural nursing
home. The experimental group consisted of eight unskilled health care
workers who attended the teaching session. The control group consisted
of eight unskilled health care workers who did not attend a teaching
session. Three weeks after the teaching session, researchers made on¬
site observations of 173 interactions between unskilled health care
workers and elderly clients. The observations occurred at two differ¬
ent time intervals. A checklist based on Heineken's modified version
of the Sieburg tool on conf irmation/disconf irmation interactions and a
master list identifying members of the experimental and control group
was used to compile statistical data. Data analysis was obtained
by using the Chi-Square goodness of fit one tailed-t^ test using p=.05,
d . f . =7 ,X2 = 14 . 07 . The calculated t value was 1.79. Therefore, the re¬
searchers failed to reject the null hypothesis. The conclusion of the
study was that the teaching session did not significantly improve un¬
skilled health care workers' therapeutic communication skills with the
elderly clients. However, analysis of the data revealed the experimen¬
tal group demonstrated a 4% increase of confirmation patterns. This
finding indicates that additional research may reveal significant
statistical data to support the hypothesis of this study.

COMPARISON OF JOB SATISFACTION IN STAFF REGISTERED NURSES. Gretchen A.
Kennemer, University of Alabama Hospital, Birmingham, AL 35294.

The purpose of this descriptive study was to ascertain if there
is a difference in job satisfaction between staff registered nurses
employed in the same institution for five or more years and new
graduate nurses employed less than one year. The convenience sample
consisted of 40 subjects, 20 of whom were staff registered nurses
employed in the same institution for five or more years and 20 of whom
were new graduate nurses employed less than one year. The Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire was used for data collection. Multivariant
analysis of variance was used to test the null hypothesis. The Neuman
Systems Model was found to be adequate and appropriate for the purpose
of the study. There was a statistically significant difference on
extrinsic satisfaction but not intrinsic satisfaction. New graduate
nurses employed less than one year were more satisfied than the staff
registered nurses employed in the same institution for five or more
years. Implications for nursing practice and education are presented.
Recommendations, including a larger and more representative sample as
well as an investigation of the recognition and advancement variables
of job satisfaction, are suggested for future research.

189

Abstracts

ROLE STRAIN FOR THE MALE NURSING STUDENT IN THE OBSTETRICAL AREA.
Roy Ann Sherrod, Capstone College of Nursing, Univ. of Ala. ,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0358.

The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a
difference in the reported existence of role strain for male and
female nursing students in the obstetrical area. Goode's (1960)
theory of role strain and role theory were used as the conceptual
framework. The null hypothesis was there would be no statistically
significant difference in reported role strain as described by the
Sherrod Role Strain Scale (SRSS) experienced by male and female
baccalaureate nursing students in the obstetrical area. The SRSS
was completed by 18 male and 18 female nursing students after their
obstetrical nursing experience. Independent t-test comparisons of
male and female nursing students on the overall scale and the four
subscales of role strain overload, conflict, incongruity, and
ambiguity at the 0.5 level of significance resulted in the
rejection of the null hypothesis by the researcher. Implications
for nurse educators and nursing were delineated with specific
methods to facilitate a more rewarding educational experience for
the male nursing student such as avoiding stereotyping, using
anticipatory guidance, and presenting an equitable perspective.
Recommendations for further research included replication of the
study with exploration of relationships among selected demographic
variables, refinement of the Sherrod Role Strain Scale (SRSS), and
investigation of methods to reduce role strain. Other
recommendations for nursing education and practice included the
provision of an environment conducive to learning and reducing role
strain for the male nursing student in the obstetrical setting.

COMPARISON OF SELF CONCEPT OF SCHOOL AGE SURVIVORS OF ACUTE LEUKEMIA
AND SELF CONCEPT OF HEALTHY SCHOOL AGE CHILDREN. Lisa D. South,
University of Alabama School of Nursing, University of Alabama at
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

This descriptive study was designed to ascertain if there was
a difference in self-concept of school age survivors of acute leukemia
and self-concept of healthy school age children. The sample consisted
of 11 survivors of acute leukemia and 11 healthy children, aged 8
to 12 years, and matched for age, race, and sex. Instruments utilized
were an investigator constructed demographic tool and the Piers-Harris
Children's Self-Concept Scale. One way analysis of variance revealed
a significant difference in self-concept between the two groups.
Significant differences were also found between the two groups on
the Physical Appearance and Attributes subfactor and the Intellectual
and School Status subfactor of the self-concept tool. Recommendations
for future research include: (a) longitudinal studies to assess
developmental, environmental, and family influences on the self-
concept, (b) comparison of children at different stages of cancer
therapy, and (c) comparison of various treatment regimes in regards
to self-concept.

190

Abstracts

THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF SPINAL CORD INJURY. Michael J. DeVivo, Dept,
of Rehab. Medicine, Univ. of Alabama at Binn., Birmingham, AL 35294.

This study examined the direct and indirect costs incurred by
spinal cord injury patients, the aggregate costs to society and ways
to reduce these costs using a combination of previously published
information and new data from the National Spinal Cord Injury Statis¬
tical Center. Costs for patients treated at the University of Alabama
Hospital were considered separately and compared with national cost
estimates. Nationally, in 1987 dollars, average first year costs,
which include initial acute care, rehabilitation and all post-dis¬
charge expenses up to the first anniversary of injury, ranged from
$64,674 per person for neurologically incomplete paraplegics to
$153,682 for neurological ly complete quadriplegics. Average annual
costs thereafter ranged from $7,997 to $38,758, respectively. Over¬
all, the comparable range for the average present value for all
direct costs following injury was from $186,744 to $507,611. Based
on the likelihood of returning to gainful employment following injury,
the average present value of forgone earnings was conservatively
estimated to range from $139,625 for incomplete paraplegics to
$284,371 for complete quadriplegics. Using current estimates of the
incidence of spinal cord injury, conservative estimates of national
aggregate annual direct costs were $2.24 billion while indirect costs
were an additional $3.39 billion. Since life expectancies have been
increasing for these patients, direct costs are expected to increase
in the future while indirect costs may decline slightly. To reduce
these enormous costs, increased efforts aimed at primary, secondary
and tertiary prevention, as well as increasing the reemployment rate
and utilizing more cost-effective treatment modalities will be needed.

PILOT STUDY: EVALUATION OF DIETARY TREATMENT OF OBESITY IN A GROUP
PRACTICE SETTING. Carol B . Murphree , Robert E. Pieroni, C. George
Tulli, Jr. and Margaret P. Garner, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa,
Alabama 35401.

How effective is the dietary treatment of obesity in a group
practice setting? To answer this question, a pilot study of sixty-
seven patients was conducted. The patients were divided into
several categories, including demographic information, socio¬
economic status and weight reduction. For this limited sample,
the results indicated that age, sex, education, and distance
apparently had little bearing on potential weight loss. While
equal percentages of men and women lost weight, women did have a
higher percentage of weight gain. The documented cases of low
motivation and negative family support were observed among the
patients who gained weight. Another interesting result was that
fifty percent of the patients lost weight between the physician
referral date and the initial visit with the consulting dietitian.
Regardless of whether or not the patients gained or lost weight
after nutrition visits, thirty-four of the sixty-seven patients
lost weight when the physician referred them to the dietitian.

191

Abstracts

NURSING DOCUMENTATION . Darlene H. Renfroe, School of Nursing,
Samford University, B'ham, AL 35229.

The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship of
nurses' attitude, subjective norm, and behavioral intention to
their documentation behavior using Ajzen and Fishbein's theory
of reasoned action. A total of 108 questionnaires with
accompanying documentation data were obtained frcm staff nurses
in three hospitals in the southeast. The nurses' attitudes,
subjective norms, and behavioral intentions toward documentation
were elicited using standard A j zen-Fishbein format. Documentation
behavior was based on what should be documented in any
hospitalized patient's chart in an eight-hour shift. The model
was analyzed with LISREL VI. The overall fit of the final model
bo the data was good, as judged by a chi-square of 3.41 (df=7,
p=.845). The total coefficient of determination for the
structural equation was .461. Results indicated that nurses'
attitude toward documentation did not relate significantly to
their intention to document optimally. Subjective norm did have
a significant effect on behavioral intent. There was a
significant positive relationship between subjective norm and
attitude. Behavioral intent had a significant effect on
documentation behavior, accounting for 15.2% of the variance. It
appears that subjective norm, which is the influence of others,
is what directs the intention to document and thus relates to the
subsequent documentation. Reccrrmendations for practice include
the camtunication of high ideals and expectations of important
others to the staff nurse in order to improve the quality of
documentation .

AIDS SEROPOSITIVITY RATES IN SOUTHERN STATES: A DISTRIBUTION
ANALYSIS. Robert E. Pieroni, College of Community Health Sciences,
Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0326. Walter J. Jones, Health
Services Administration, Memphis State University, Memphis, TN 38152.
James A. Johnson, Dept, of Health Services Administration, Medical
University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425.

In analyzing the development and spread of AIDS in Southern
states, it is clear that the states of Florida, Georgia and Louisiana
have been most severely afflicted to date. These three states have
the highest cumulative totals of AIDS cases, as well as the largest
number of cases reported in 1988. However, the rate of increase in
reported AIDS cases is actually higher in other Southern states
(such as Mississippi and alabama) which have not been as affected by
the AIDS epidemic until recently. Southern metropolitan areas most
affected by AIDS include Miami, Fort Lauderdale and Tampa in Florida,
and Atlanta, Georgia. As in other regions, the spread of AIDS in the
South has disproportionately affected black and latino minority
groups, and has recently involved a decline in the proportion of
cases involving homosexual and bisexual males, and a corresponding
increase in reported AIDS among IV-drug-using males and females.

192

Abstracts

MJNCHMJSEN'S SYNDROME: A CASE REPORT AND LITERATURE REVIEW. Richard
Gist and Robert Pieroni, College of Caimmity Health Sciences, Univ.
of Ala., Tuscaloosa , AL 35487.

Munchausen's syndrome encompasses three clinical entities, each of
which has sore similar features. These have been classified as A) a
factitious disorder with physical symptoms, B) a factitious disorder
with psychiatric symptoms, and C) a factitious disorder with atypical
symptoms. The most cannon presentation is type A. Patients with this
disorder usually fabricate elaborate and often convincing symptans in
order to gain admission to medical facilities. These patients may
undergo painful and frequently dangerous diagnostic and therapeutic
procedures in order to remain in the health care facility. They often
display extensive medical knowledge and, occasionally, are narcotic
abusers. It is postulate! that the primary gain for these patients
is attention by the medical and nursing staff - attention that had
been denied them as a result of parental neglect, abandonment, or
abuse. This is in contrast to malingering, in which there is usually
a primary gain, e.g. narcotics for support of an addiction, food and
shelter, or escape fron legal authorities. Munchausen's syndrome may
also present with psychiatric symptoms or atypically, such as by proxy.
We will describe the case of a thirty-eight year old white male who
presented to the Capstone Internal Medicine Service at DCH Regional
Medical Center with very convincing cardiac symptomatology . On
further evaluation he was found to fulfill criteria of Munchausen's
svndrare, type A. His hospital course and a review of germane litera¬
ture will be presented, as will methods to help medical personnel
identify this intriguing syndrore.

DETERMINATION OF INITIAL LIFT RESISTANCE IN A STRENGTH TRAINING PROGRAM
Terry Hoobler and Kennon Francis, Division of Physical Therapy, Univ.
of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Determination of baseline strength measurements using cable tensi¬
ometer, weight prediction tables and one/five/ten repition maximum (RM)
lifts were compared with isometric and concentric strength measures
from the Lido 2.0 Active Isokinetic Dynamometer in the same population. .
30 healthy males, ages 18 to 43, with no prohibiting medical conditions
were tested. All subjects were randomly tested for baseline maximal
strength using each of the assessments listed above. All methods incl¬
uded calibration with standardized weights. A Pearson Product Moment
Correlation was used to examine the relationship between variables.
Results of the study indicated high correlations and statistical sign¬
ificance (p 0.01) between the data from the Lido 2.0Act and: one/five/
ten RM free weight lifts, cable tensiometer values at 90 and 120
degrees of motion. Cable tensiometer values at 45 degrees of motion and
prediction of initial lift with weight based tables were not statistic¬
ally significant. This study supports the use of one/five/ten RM tests
or isokinetic dynamometer measurement for determining intial lift
resistance in setting up an exercise program.

193

Abstracts

AMP DEAMINASE ISOZYMAL CHANGES IN THE HEART OF
STREPTOZOTOCIN DIABETIC RATS. Ronald L. Jenkins Dept.
Biology Sam ford Univ. Birmingham"^ AL 35229, Linda
Atkins and Huey G. McDaniel, Veterans Administration
Medical Center, Birmingham, AL 35233.

Five adult male Long-Evans rats were made diabetic with 40
mg/kg, ip. injection of streptozotocin. Five male litter
mates served as control. The diabetes was pronounced
(>400 mg% blood glucose) from the 3rd until the 28th day.
Isozymes of AMP deaminase from mitochondrial and from
cytosolic fractions were separated on cellulose phosphate
with a linear gradient of KC1 (50 mM to 1000 mM) . AMP
deaminase activity from column eluants was determined by
the rate of conversion of AMP to IMP which was quantited
by ion-pair HPLC (J. Chromoatograhy 1988, 426:249). The
three isozymes of AMP deaminase, according to the KC1
elution and their % of total activity were: 0.17 M (85%),

0.25 M (8%) and 0.33 M (7%) KC1. The 0.17 M KCl isozyme

was the sole component of mitochondria. After four weeks
of diabetes the heart isozymal profile dramatically
changed to: 0.17 M (10%), 0.25 M (75%), and 0.33 M (15%).
The isolated isozymes were pooled and fractionated in (20—
40%) ammonium sulfate with a 900 fold purification. The
kinetics of the three isozymes proved to be distinctive:
0.17 M KCL: AMP Km = 17.9, stimulated by ATP, ADP, and NAD

0.25 M KCL: AMP Km = .97, inhibited by ATP and NAD

0.33M KCl: AMP Km = .66, stimulated only by ADP.

IDENTIFICATION OF 'THE INFORMATION NEW MOTHERS PERCEIVE AS HELPFUL
DURING EARLY BREASTFEEDING. Lee Ann Street, 3334-A Avery Drive,

Fort McClellan, AL 36205.

A qualitative descriptive study of 23 primiparous mothers was
done to identify the information perceived as helpful during early
breastfeeding and its sources. A telephone interview was conducted
three weeks after delivery. The 15 mothers who were successfully
breastfeeding at three weeks most frequently cited information
concerning nipple/breast care and the supply and demand process of
lactation as most helpful. The eight mothers who had stopped
breastfeeding by the three week date reported problems in these areas
critical enough to end their breastfeeding attempts.

Health professionals were the least reported sources of helpful
breastfeeding information.. Subjects cited books or pamphlets and
family or friends most frequently.

Incorporation of nipple and breast care specifics, as well as
the supply and demand process of lactation into breastfeeding
education is indicated. Health professionals need to reestablish
their significant role in providing information to those mothers
desiring to breastfeed their infants.

194

Abstracts

PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION OF IVF MEDIA AFFECTS PREIMPLANTATION
MOUSE EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT. joe R. Warren and Wayne H. Finley,
Department of Medical Genetics, Charles P. Dagg, Department of
Biology, and Michael P. Steinkampf, Department of Obstetrics and
Gynecology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
35294.

Mouse embryo development has been used as a quality control
assay in many in vitro fertilization (IVF) programs. Many
factors, including media and sera quality, toxicity of certain
IVF products or reagents, and pH or other environmental changes
have been previously reported to have an effect on this
development. In this 2-year study, the effects of supplementing
Ham's F10 medium with human serum were examined. Embryo
development in BWW-BSA medium (Biggers, Whitten, and Whittingham
medium supplemented with bovine serum albumin) was used as the
control. In addition, the effects of supplementing Ham's F10
with BSA. instead of human serum were also examined. It was
determined that different lots of serum could have varying
effects on embryo survival, supporting normal cleavage to the
blastocyst stage from 0% up to 100% of the time. In contrast,
BWW-BSA and Ham's F10 supplemented with BSA generally supported
increased and more consistent embryo survival rates, and Ham's
F10 without protein supplementation was capable of supporting
embryo development up to hatching. However, hatching rates
increased significantly in the presence of a protein supplement
and attachment to the culture dish followed by trophoblastic
outgrowth occurred only in the presence of human serum.

ATTITUDES TOWARD ELDERLY AND INFANT: IS THERE A DIFFERENCE? Barbara
B. Pickens, School of Nursing, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
University Station, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.

Research supported that attitudes toward the elderly among society
as a whole were negative, the needs of the elderly came second to those
of smaller but younger population groups, almost all health profes¬
sionals prefer to work with children or younger adults, and that few
choose to specialize in geriatrics. The purpose of this study was to
describe baccalaureate degree students' (BSN) attitudes toward the
elderly and infant patient. The hypothesis for the study was "there
will be no significant difference in BSN students' attitudes toward the
elderly and infant patient." The subjects were 150 junior BSN students
enrolled at a large university in the Southeastern U.S. Half of the
subjects were given a case presentation (CP) identified as an elderly
patient and the other half were given a CP identified as an infant
patient. The content of both CPs was identical. After reading the CP
the subjects completed the evaluative dimension of a semantic differen¬
tial. Using ANOVA, the hypothesis was rejected at the .05 level of
significance (p<.001). There was a statistically significant
difference in the BSN students' attitudes toward the elderly and infant
patient .

195

Abstracts

CALCULATION OF INTRACELLULAR TRANSPORT OF
OXYGEN IN HEART MUSCLE BY MYOGLOBIN

K. S. Yackzan, Diabetes Research & Training Center
W. J. Wingo,* Emeritus, Department of Biochemistry
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

Myoglobin (Mb) is of interest from a number of viewpoints. An
example of its ability to bind fatty acids is shown by experimental
and model studies. The intracellular oxygen (0^) transport function
of Mb has been postulated, but to our knowledge has not been
theoretically calculated using our assumptions. We calculated the
percentage of transported by Mb in heart muscle based on literature
data and certain assumptions: (1) 0.25% Mb in heart muscle; (2)
Partial 0~ pressure (PO^) of 25 mm Hg at the sarcolemma and 1 mm PO2
at the mitochondrial membrane (MCM) ; both PC^ values being conducive
to the diffusion of 0^ to the interior of the mitochondrion; (3)
Sarcolemma-mitochondrial membrane distance = 7.75 x 10-7 cm; (4) We
used the values of diffusion constants for Mb and 0^ and the Keq for
the O^-Mb system to calculate the relative amounts of 0^ carried by
a simple diffusion and by Mb. Mb transports a significant fraction
(=90%) of the intracellularly diffusing oxygen as MbO^.

Supported by grants from Diabetes Trust Fund.

FIELD STUDIES OF POTENTIAL TICK VECTORS OF LYME DISEASE IN ALABAMA.
Shirley Luckhart and Gary R. Mullen, Dept, of Entomology, Auburn Univ.,
Alabama, 36849-5413.

In March 1986, the first serologically substantiated case of Lyme
borreliosis was reported in Alabama. Since that time, 5 additional
confirmed cases have been reported in Lee county, AL. The clustering
of these cases and lack of travel in the case histories suggest
autochthonous transmission of the agent, Borrelia burgdorferi. In an
attempt to characterize the transmission cycle of this agent in Ala¬
bama, 1 ive-captured rodents and hunter-killed deer in areas immediate¬
ly adjacent to confirmed cases were examined for ticks. Attached ticks
were either removed in the field or allowed to complete engorgement
and drop off in the laboratory. Adult, nymphal , and larval Ixodes
scapularis, Dermacentor variabil is, D . nigrol ineatus, D_. albipictus,
and Amblyomma americanum collected from cotton mice (Peromyscus
gossypinus), golden mice (Ochrotomys nuttalli), cotton rats (Sigmodon
hispidus) , short-tailed shrews (Blarina brevicauda), house mice (Mus~
muscul us ) , and hunter-killed deer were dissected and examined for the
spirochete with fluorescently-labelled polyvalent anti-B. burgdorferi
conjugate. Borrel ia-1 ike organisms were detected in ticks recovered
from P_. gossypi nus and deer in areas where transmission is likely to
have occurred.

196

Abstracts

PILOT STUDY IN PROGRESS-SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC AND ACADEMIC PREDICTORS OF
SUCCESS OF BACCALAUREATE DEGREE NURSING STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
ALABAMA SCHOOL OF NURSING AT BIRMINGHAM. Gayle Becker, Pat Cleveland,
Mary K. Peacock, Linda Reed, Catherine Shields, Mvra Smith, Judy
Taylor, Janice Vincent, Joan Yeager, and Joan Burttram.

A descriptive pilot study is being conducted to determine if it is
possible to predict student success in a baccalaureate nursing program
by examining the relationship between selected demographic and academic
variables. The data collected to date was obtained by surveying
student records for the following: race, age, sex, marital status,
number of children, previous education and work experience, grade point
average end of freshman year (GPA-1), Watson-Glaser (WG) and Nelson
Denny (ND) test scores, and Adult Health course grade. In addition,
the faculty of the first clinical nursing course were asked to predict
student success in the program.

For the purpose of the pilot study, success in the program was
defined as successful completion of Adult Health Nursing. A moderate
positive correlation was found to exist between GPA-1 and the Adult
Health grade. A weak positive relationship also existed between the
WG and ND percentile scores and the Adult Health grade. The two
variables which helped to explain the variance of scores in Adult
Health were GPA-1 and educational background. GPA-1 accounted for 28%
of the variance in grade and an additional 10% of the variance could
be explained when educational background was included. Race made a
difference in student program success; approximately one third of
the black subjects were unsuccessful. The other variables did not
have significance in our study.

PERCEPTIONS OF NURSING SERVICE ADMINISTRATION GRADUATE STUDENTS
REGARDING THE UTILIZATION OF THE CLINICAL NURSING SPECIALIST IN
THE HOSPITAL SETTING. Patricia A. White, Clinical Nursing
Specialist, Baptist Medical Center-Princeton, Birmingham, A1 35211

The sample in this study consisted of graduate students in one of
the last two quarters prior to graduation. Data were obtained by use
of a questionnaire previously used with nursing service administrators
(NSAs). The data indicated that of the five roles of the clinical
nursing specialist (CNS) -consultant , teacher, researcher, clinician,
manager-the first three roles were perceived by these future NSAs as
being the most important. Interpersonal skills, such as verbal and
non verbal communication patterns and the ability to listen, were
viewed as being of great importance for optimum utilization of the
position of CNS. Results of this study have implications for both
prospective NSAs and CNSs. Future NSAs and CNSs should seek to
improve their knowledge of the functions and roles of the CNS. It is
recommended that another research study be conducted by using a larger
sample size from a cross-section of graduate schools with nursing
service administration programs. It should be noted that this is
the first of a two part study to determine also if the perception
of these nursing service administration graduate students change
once these students are in practice for two years.

197

Abstracts

MORAL DILEMMA DISCUSSIONS AND MORAL REASONING. Beth S_l Hembree.
College o-f Nursing, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL
36265 .

The purpose o-f this study was to determine the e-f-fect o-f moral
dilemma discussions utilized in an ethical decision-making course on
moral reasoning levels o-f senior generic baccalaureate nursing
students and registered nurses who were completing the baccalaureate
degree. Sixty-seven senior baccalaureate nursing students were
non-randoml y assigned to treatment and control groups. Each o-f the
two treatment groups, generic and registered nurse, were enrolled in
a 5-week ethical decision-making course which emphasized moral
dilemma discussions. Moral reasoning was assessed by administering
the Defining Issues Test (Rest, 1986) as a pretest and posttest.
Statistical analysis with an independent t-test on pretest data
revealed no significant difference in moral reasoning levels between
generic and registered nurse students. Dependent t-tests indicated a
significant increase in principled level moral reasoning <F' score)
between pretest and posttest in both the generic treatment (p. <.05) and
registered nurse treatment (p. C.05) groups. Statistical
analysis with ANOVA revealed a significant difference in posttest P
scores among the four groups when pretest P scores were used as a
covariate (p <.05). Post-hoc analysis indicated a significant
difference between posttest P scores of the registered nurse
treatment group and the registered nurse control group. It is
recommended that baccalaureate nursing programs consider
incorporating teaching of ethical decision-making skills into
curricul a .

ADOLESCENTS' LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE OF ILLNESS AND HOSPITALIZATION.

K. Alberta McCaleb, School of Nursing, Univ. of Ala. at B'ham,
Birmingham, AL 35294. Alberta McCaleb, School of Nursing, Room 321,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

An assessment of the need and desire for information regarding
illness and hospitalization was obtained in hospitalized adolescents
ranging in age from 12 to 18 years. Adolescents were interviewed
using a Likert-type scale after 72 hours of hospitalization with
regard to perceived reason for hospitalization, perceived need for
information about the illness or hospitalization, and specific
information desired by the adolescent. All (100%) of the participants
stated a physiological reason for admission to the acute care setting.
At least half (50%) of the participants felt that they knew a
"great deal" about their illness or hospitalization. Fifty-eight
(58%) of the adolescents stated that they needed to know "everything"
about their illness. The results of the study indicated that
eighty-three (83%) of the items identified by the adolescent as
"knowledge desired" could be categorized as a physiological nursing
diagnosis. The study lends direction to the pediatric nurse in
planning patient education sessions for the adolescent client and
family .

198

Abstracts

EVALUATION OF NURSING EDUCATION ADMINISTRATORS AS DESCRIBED BY
INDIVIDUALS IN THAT POSITION. Felecia G. Wood, The University of
Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL. 35487-0358.

The purpose of this research was to describe the evaluation process
of nursing education administrators as recounted by individuals in
that position. Evaluation was defined as the process of gathering
information, examining and judging the information on the basis of
value and worth, and possibly using that information for future
decision-making. Only communicated evaluation was assessed. General
systems theory was used to guide this research. This descriptive
research was implemented by mailing an investigator constructed
questionnaire to 151 administrators of baccalaureate nursing
education programs in the southern region as defined by the Southern
Regional Education Board (SREB). Useable responses were obtained
from 100 administrators {66.2%). Most of the respondents had been
evaluated (83%). Those not yet evaluated (17) indicated they would
like to be evaluated (15; 88.2%). For those evaluated, the purpose
was for: (a) information (40; 48.2%); (b) assessing progress toward
institutional goal attainment (51; 61.4%); (c) merit salary adjust¬
ments (34; 41%); and/or (d) determining retention in the position
(31; 37-3%). Role performance, professional service, and professional
relationships were assessed in the evaluation. Superiors,
subordinates, and the nursing dean as subject of the evaluation
gathered data, supplied data, and received results of the process.
Those administrators who were evaluated attempted to change those
behaviors perceived as negative by the individuals evaluating them.

HEALTH STATUS AND BEHAVIOR OF ELDERLY ALABAMIANS: THE BEHAVIORAL RISK
FACTOR SURVEY. Janis A. Simpson, James Eddy, Dept, of Health
Education, Robert E. Pieroni, Dept, of Internal Medicine, Catherine
Teare, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35477.

The health of the elderly is one of considerable concern within
the medical and public health communities, since this age group
comprises an increasing proportion of the population. The socio¬
demographic characteristics and health behaviors of Alabamians ages
sixty-five and over (N = 239) were examined using data from the 1987
Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), which incorporates
questions based on their relationship to risk factors for the leading
causes of death. Results depict the prevalence of selected behavioral
risk factors specifically concerning seat belt use, hypertension,
physical activity, diet, smoking, smokeless tobacco, alcohol, and
preventive practices. Based on criteria from the Centers for Disease
Control approximately 57% of the elderly were at risk because of lack of
belt use, 14% were at risk because of smoking, 16% for smokeless
tobacco use, and 15% for acute alcohol use. A description of the
health behavior of the elderly can assist health professionals in
recognizing specific health problems in planning educational
interventions and health promotion strategies to meet the needs of
this unique population.

199

Abstracts

A Q-ANALYSIS OF INTERPERSONAL TRUST IN THE NURSE-CLIENT RELATIONSHIP.
Deborah E, Gibson , School of Nursing, The Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

Trust of the nurse is of crucial importance for the client with
spinal cord injury since the client must adapt to a most devastating
life change event (Rehabilitation Nursing Institute, 1981). The
purpose of this study was to develop a Q-instrument (i.e., Trust-Q)
to answer the question: What are the dimensions of interpersonal
trust in the nurse-client relationship? Content validity and test-
retest reliability were established in a pilot study. The final
instrument was administered to registered nurses and adults with
spinal cord injury in one rehabilitation agency. A Q-type factor
analysis of the data revealed four person types. There were seven
significant sorts at the .05 level of significance. Post hoc analyses
revealed differing response patterns. While consensus items were
found in all three dimensions, one-way analysis of variance indicated
the dimension of credibility had the mean of greatest magnititude.

Each sort revealed internal consistency at the .40 level or
greater. The data revealed a lack of agreement among the nurses
and their clients regarding perceptions of ideal nurse interpersonal
trust behaviors. The findings suggest that there may be a temporal
sequence to the trusting choice with credibility of the nurse,
perhaps, having primacy. It is recommended to extend the use of
Q methodology to study interpersonal trust among various populations.
It is also recommended to formulate a causual model for the trusting
choice .

IMPROVING NURSING DOCUMENTATION BY EVALUATING PERCEPTIONS OF STAFF
NURSES REGARDING QUALITY OF DOCUMENTATION. Joyce Chappelear ,
Bromleioh Naf tel , University of Alabama School of Nursing. Kathleen
Leonard* Carol Benton, and Gretchen Kennamer , University of Alabama
Hospital, Birmingham, AL 35294

Nursing documentation is an integral part of nursing practice and
serves a number of important purposes: to record the patient’s health
care status, to evaluate nursing care, to establish legal account¬
ability and to provide economic information. In spite of the demands
for quality, nursing documentation is generally considered to be in¬
adequate. Identifying factors which are perceived by nurses to in¬
fluence the quality of their documentation would be one way to obtain
data about documentation inadequacies. The purpose of this study was
to identify perceptions of staff nurses regarding the effect of
selected factors on the quality of their documentation. The tool was
an investigator constructed questionnaire consisting of demographic
questions, 23 factors possibly related to the quality of documenta¬
tion, and a request for information about strengths, weaknesses, and
ideas for change in the present documentation system. 427 registered
nurses completed the questionnaire. Factors perceived to increase the
quality of documentation were legal accountability, knowing what to
document, and the educational preparation of the nurse. Factors per¬
ceived to decrease the quality of documentation were having more
patients than usual, time constraints and the repetitious nature of
documentation. Strengths of the present documentation system were the
use of checklists and graphs. Weaknesses identified were that docu¬
mentation is repetitive, redundant and time consuming. The over¬
whelming implication of the findings is the need to change the docu¬
mentation system to make nursing documentation more efficient. (This
project was supported by a grant from the Hazel Taylor Research Fund.)

200

Abstracts

STRATEGIES FOR STIMULATING RESEARCH Interest Among First Year Nursing
Students. Sheila P. Davis, School of Nursing, University of Alabama
at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294.

The primary goal of nursing research is to provide a basis for decision
making at all levels of the profession. Research endows the profession
with a body of scientific knowledge to direct practice and propogate
the impact of nurses in health care. Because research occupies such a
fundamental aspect of nursing science, the investigator explored
strategies of stimulating research interest among entry level nursing
students. It was conjectured that if students were introduced to the
research process very early in their nursing program, they would
possibly be more likely to incorporate research in their professional
practice. Thus, the present study investigated the relationship
between Sex, Age, Pulse, and Activity Level. Entry level nursing
students (N=46) assessed the radial pulse rate (RPR) of 127 community
individuals (males = 64, females = 63) with an age range of 2 to 95.

The average pulse was 80.126. Results indicate a significant corre¬
lation between Activity Level and RPR, r=.252, p<05. Thus increases
in RPR were associated with increases in Activity Level at 25% of the
time. A regression analysis supports a significant prediction for RPR
using activity F(l,126) = 8.47, p<.004. Age as a predictor approached
significance, F(l, 126) = 2.96, p<.08. Sex did not emerge as a signi¬
ficant predictor of RPR F(l,126) = 1.182. Thus, sex was not a signifi¬
cant factor in the current study. Predictive power of activity and age
was .06 and .02. Together, they accounted for 8% of the variance in
RPR.

BREAST-FEEDING: IDENTIFYING MATERNAL- INFANT NURSES' KNOWLEDGE AND

ATTITUDES. Gabriele Glass Darch, College of Nursing, Southern
Union State Junior College, Valley, Alabama.

The purpose of this study was to identify maternal-infant nurses'
knowledge and attitudes regarding the practice of breast-feeding.

A 25-item questionnaire was used to evaluate nurses' knowledge of
breast-feeding. An attitude and information profile was also obtained
from a sample of 30 nurses working in the labor and delivery, nursery,
and post-partum units in a 300-bed community hospital in the
southeast. This study found that level of nursing education
influenced breast-feeding knowledge. Nurses with a baccalaureate
degree scored highest. The scores indicated, however, that nurses,
regardless of educational level, did not have mastery level knowledge
of breast-feeding practices. Generally, positive attitudes toward
breast-feeding were expressed, and most of the respondents enjoyed
working with breast-feeding mothers. Based on the results of this
study, nurses were still in need of accurate information about
breast-feeding .

I wish to acknowledge Dr. Molly Walker, University of Alabama
at Birmingham for her assistance with the research process and
Deborah Liddell of Auburn University for her assistance with data
analysis .

201

Abstracts

Peak Inspiratory Pressures Applied by Nurses Lairing Manual
Ventilation of an Infant Mannequin. Janet K. Riggs MSN, KN, CORK,
Pediatric Caraiothoracic Clinical Nurse Specialist, Pediatric Heart
Institute, ot. Christopher's Hospital for Children, Philadelphia, PA
19133.

An infant who is unable to meet self-care needs for air relies on
the nurse for maintenance of normal pulmonary function and prevention
of barotrauma. During manual ventilation of infants by nurses, peak
inspiratory pressures (PIP) may fall outside the recommended range of
15-30 cm H}0 pressure. The purpose of this study was to measure PIP
applied by*”32 nurses during manual ventilation of an infant mannequin
and calculate what proportion of pressures fell within and outside
the range of 15-30 cm H2O pressure. The range of pressures applied
was 4-80 cm H2O pressure. The proportion of pressures that fell
within the recommended range was 0.46, The proportion that fell
outside the range was 0.54. Only 2 of 32 subjects maintained
pressures within the recommended range for the three minute test
period. The percent of median pressures that fell above the 30 cm H2O
maximum was 55%. The number of months of each nurse's experience had
no bearing on the proportion of pressures that fell between
15-30 cm H2O pressure. Recommendations include (l) nurses need to
observe a pressure manometer while manually ventilating infants,

(2) the educational program needs to include practice with an infant
mannequin, and (3) additional studies need to be done to quantify the
efficacy of using a pressure manometer while manually ventilating
human infants.

A COMMUNICATION MODEL FOR REDUCING CANCER AMONG BLACKS. Sheila P.
Davis, School of Nursing, University of Alabama at Birmingham, William
G. Reasor, Spain Rehab. Hospital, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, Alabama 35294.

Cancer mortality and morbidity rates are significantly higher among
minorities (NCHS, 1982). Davis (1984) notes that an external health
locus of control accounts for some of the difference. Persons with an
external health locus of control perceive their health as being
influenced more by powerful others, chance, or luck. Others reasons
include a) limited Objective Life Control, b) economics, and c) in¬
ability of cancer awareness prevention information to impact the black
communi ty .

The proposed model will increase cancer awareness and prevention methods
among minorities by facilitating dissemination of cancer awareness/
prevention information. Oral and visual centered strategies will be
employed through churches, mass media, and significant reference
points. These strategies will be used to test the hypothesis that
cancer awareness will increase minorities' compliance with cancer pre¬
vention recommendations. Specific outcomes will include a) greater
minority awareness of cancer prevention methods, b) enhanced compliance
with prevention recommendations, c) a stronger community base for
combating cancer in minority communities, and d) validation of a
culturally sensitive approach to cancer awareness prevention in the
black community.

202

Abstracts

SURVEY OF CARING BEHAVIORS AMONG NURSES. Sheila P. Davis, School of
Nursing, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
35294.

Caring has been defined by some nurse educators and theoreticians as
being a set of universal values that exemplify the essence of nursing
(Hyde, 1988 and Teininger, 1977). These values include kindness, con¬
cern, and love of self and others. However, Baer and Towey (1986)
assert that nurses do not regard and care for all patients with the
same depth of concern. Nurses categorized as goodness and normality
specialists are accused of being incapable of rendering care to
patients whose behavior and/or background is different from theirs.
Hence, because of the apparent discrepancies that exist among nurses
regarding what is, or what is not caring, the researcher developed nine
exemplars of caring behaviors derived from outstanding clinical
situations having vestiges of "caring". Nurse faculty and staff nurses
(n=20) were asked to rate each exemplar to determine the degree of
caring. The data suggest that caring was unique for nurse faculty and
staff nurses. Explanation for difference in responses between the two
groups were that caring is a contextual concept which is individually
and situationally unique. The role of nurse faculty lends itself to
scientific principles. Whereas, the staff nurse role is more perfor¬
mance and task oriented. Thus, humanistic values displayed by the
group would be a reflection of background. The implications for
nursing suggest a need for further research in defining, theoretical
formulation, and methodologies for evaluation and measurement of
caring and caring behaviors .

Vaccinogenic Effect of PspA (Pneumococcal Surface Protein A). Tammie
Lvnn Law. David Briles, and Deborah Talkington, Dept, of Microbiology,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, 35294.

The pneumococcal vaccine presently used is composed of polysaccharide
antigens. After finding infants to be very poor responders to
polysaccharide antigens, attention turned to possible protein antigens for
vaccine development. PspA is an antigenically variant protein on
pneumococci. Previous studies have shown that this protein is necessary

for the full virulence of particular type 2 and type 3 pneumococcal strains
in mice. It is also known that PspA isolated from pneumococcal strain D39
can protect against infection with strains D39 and WU2. D39 PspA does not
elicit protection against most other strains of pneumococci, but this may be
because of differences in the antigenic determinants of PspA in those
strains as compared to D39. The purpose of these studies was to determine if
PspA from other strains of pneumococci could also elicit protection. To
carry out this study we isolated PspA from strain DBL6A by polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis, followed by emulsification of the appropriate slice of
the gel. This material was injected into mice prior to challenge with strain
DBL6A. In this single experiment, a higher percentage of the vaccinated
mice than non-vaccinated mice survived the infection. Among vaccinated
mice if death occurred it generally came after the death of the non-
vaccinated mice. If these findings are confirmed it will be a strong
indication that a vaccine containing a mixture of PspA may be useful as a
pneumococcal vaccine.

203

Abstracts

CUES AND HYPOTHESES IDENTIFIED BY SENIOR BACCALAUREATE NURSING
STUDENTS. Cathy Stone. R.N. , M.S.N., School of Nursing, Univ. of
Tenn., Murfreesboro, Tenn., 37130

Joan Yeager, R.N., M.S.N., School of Nursing, Univ. of Ala. at
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294

Identifying the level of competency of BSN students in regard to
diagnostic skills and establishing further reliability of the proposed
measurement tool were determined to be the purpose of the
investigation. Thirty senior students were presented with six tasks
based on specific nursing diagnoses. Nine cues, randomly ordered for
each task, provided students with limited information. The subjects
were asked to formulate initial hypotheses, based on the cues.
Responses were categorized and descriptive statistics were used.

A majority of the subjects were able to identify plausible initial
hypotheses or nursing diagnoses. Conversely, the subjects had
difficulty identifying some task nursing diagnoses. These diagnoses
should have been the most obvious considering four of the nine cues
clustered suggest their presence. The tool was evaluated by students'
perception rating scores and rated fair with regard to degree of
difficulty and familiarity of data. In addition, the investigators
coded separately at 75% interrater reliability and coded together at
100% interrated reliability. The difference being related to the
coding scheme utilized, not the tool. The findings suggest nurse
educators need to focus on diagnostic reasoning if we are to help
our students fully develop diagnostic skill. Further research
utilizing novice's and expert's diagnostic behaviors is recommended.

Sex Chromosome Aneuploidy in Women with Recurrent Spontaneous Abor¬
tions. Gretchen Wells , Andrew J. Carroll, and Wayne H. Finley,
Laboratory of Medical Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294

Couples with repeated pregnancy wastage are routinely referred
to the cytogenetics laboratory for diagnostic purposes. In approx¬
imately 5% of these couples, one member will have a chromosome
rearrangement (either a translocation or an inversion). In addition,
some investigators have reported a higher incidence of sex chromo¬
some mosaicism, especially in women, with recurrent spontaneous
abortions. In order to determine the clinical significance of the
occasional X-aneuploid cell, a prospective blind study was initiated
comparing 49 women with 2 or more spontaneous abortions (experimental
group) with 49 age and race matched women with healthy children and
no miscarriages (control group) . 30 G-banded karyotypes from cul¬

tured peripheral leukocytes were examined for each subject and low
levels of sex chromosome mosaicism were recorded for both groups.

The predominant cell line was 46, XX and the minor cell line was
either 45, X or 47, XXX. Neither the total number of women with sex
chromosome mosaicism nor the number of cells with extra or missing
chromosomes was significantly different between the two groups
(a=0.05). This finding confirms that low levels of sex chromosome
mosaicism found by leukocyte culture are not associated with recurrent
fetal wastage.

204

Abstracts

ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE

A COMPILER FOR ADA USING DENOTATIONAL SEMANTICS. Willard F. 0. Dawson
and Barrett R. Bryant, Department of Computer and Information Sciences,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Denotational semantics were originally developed for the purpose
of studying the effectiveness of programming languages. They have since
grown to become a useful tool for the actual design of languages. This
paper will describe the development, using denotational semantics, of a
compiler for a subset of the programming language Ada.

Denotational semantics are used to formally define the static
meaning of programs. They consist of three parts: an abstract syntax,
a semantic algebra, and a valuation function. The abstract syntax of a
language may be expressed as a context-free grammar; the valuation
functions are expressed in the form of X-calculus expressions, which
conveniently have a graphical representation. Compiling a program can
be thought of as a process of building a graph of valuation functions.
Using denotational semantics as an intermediate representation language,
so that the output of the front end of the compiler has a well-defined
static meaning, reduces the proof of correctness for the compiler to a
proof for the back-end of the compiler.

YACC (Yet Another Compiler Compiler) is an example of a parser
generator which converts a context-free grammar into a set of look-up
tables for an LR(1) parsing algorithm. It is a common language develop¬
ment tool used to build compilers, and is available on most UNIX systems
as a matter of course. Often, the output of a YACC-generated parser
would be three-address code; the alternative described here is to output
the actual denotational definition for a program.

This paper describes an implementation of a semantics-directed
compiler for a subset of Ada. The parser for the compiler was built by
creating a YACC specification from the abstract syntax of Ada, as per
the denotational definition of the language. The output of the parser
is the denotational definition of the program, which is further reduced
to VAX assembly language.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING NATIONS. James V.
Walters and Pamela C. John, Dept, of Civil Eng., Univ. of Ala.,
Tuscaloosa AL 35487-0205.

Europe, North America, and other individual industrially developed
nations are influencing the developing nations by exporting to them many
of our manufacturing jobs and plant capacities, and exporting to them
our needs for raw materials. These influences drive them to develop
their resources or to allow international companies to set up plants to
develop them. The wiser populations are now concerned with protecting
their environments. They desire to provide wastewater treatment as
resources are developed so that their streams will not get into the
sorry conditions that our waterways did before we began the monumental
job of cleaning up after the Second World War. This paper describes
some of the strategies that such developing nations have used to protect
themselves and some of the programs that some international companies
have implemented in those nations.

205

Abstracts

SUSI: PROTECTING THE MAINFRAME FROM THE STUDENTS (AND
VICE VERSA). Susan T. Dean, Dept, of Mathematics,
Engineering, and Computer Science, Samford University,
Birmingham, AL 35229.

The SUSI (Samford University Student Interface)
system consists of a driver program, written in C by Gus
Baird of Georgia Tech, and a collection of programs
written in the shell language for UTS (Amdahl UNIX
operating system) . The mainframe computer at Samford is
used both for administrative and academic computing; SUSI
controls all access to the mainframe by students, and
includes built-in safeguards to minimize the likelihood
of student access to the administrative "side" of the
machine. Since access to the individual commands is
table-driven, aliases are easily provided for various
commands so that students more quickly feel comfortable
using the system. It has also been quite easy to add new
commands without having to take the system down.

ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT — ARE THEY A REAL
ALTERNATIVE? James V. Walters, Jeffries B . deGraf fenried, Jr . and
Joseph E . Patrick., Dept, of Civil Eng., Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa AL
35487-0205.

As U.S. water-quality standards become more stringent, wastewater
treatment cost is escalating and becoming prohibitive to many small
communities. To achieve desired effluent quality, municipalities have
been forced to search for alternative technologies. One alternative to
conventional treatment is to incorporate artificial wetlands into the
wastewater-treatment system. These systems function as biological
factories between surface water and ground water and reduce
significantly BOD, TSS, N, P, metals, tract organics, and pathogens. In
many areas, effluent waste loads exceed the natural assimilation
capacity of the receiving streams. Utilization of wetlands provides
reduction of the above mentioned parameters and will prevent overloading
of the receiving streams and hence upgrade and expand the operating
capacity of the treatment facility. Other advantages include greater
flexibility for design and management, simple operation and maintenance,
process stability under varying environmental conditions, and the
possibility of creating aesthetically pleasing wildlife habitats. A
review of current uses of artificial wetlands in Alabama and their
associated costs, water quality performance, and environmental impact
are presented as an aid in determining the feasibility of incorporating
these aquatic systems into wastewater treatment for small
municipalities .

206

Abstracts

SOLIDIFICATION PROCESSING OF ALLOYS USING AN APPLIED
ELECTRIC FIELD TO CONTROL MICROSTRUCTURE. Robert ^ Bond
and Gary L. Workman, Kenneth E. Johnson Research Center, The University of
Alabama in Huntsville., Huntsville, AL 35899.

Hostile environments with long exposures at high temperatures place
tremendous requirements on alloys used in jet engines, gas turbines, rockets and
certain nuclear applications. Alloys that perform well in the regime described
above possess properties which have high corrosion resistance, creep resistance,
high cycle fatigue resistance and most important, high strength at elevated tempera¬
tures (over 1100°C). The limits of many alloys have been exceeded by today’s en¬
gineering applications, and future applications await the development of alloys with
improved properties. Directional solidification has been utilized for many years to
enhance the properties of alloys. The compositions of many alloys have been varied
to optimize the desired properties. A new approach to improve the properties of
alloys involves controlling the microstructure of the alloy. This is accomplished by
applying an electric field to the alloy while it is being directionally solidified. The
results of this technique applied to PWA 1480 nickel based superalloy are
presented.

SLUDGE-RECYCLE RATE AND ITS CONTROL OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEM.

James V. Walters and Tzenqe-Huev Shih, Dept, of Civil Eng., Univ. of
Ala., Tuscaloosa AL 35487-0205.

Control of activated sludge processes depends upon the selection of
the fraction of the sludge collected in the clarifier that will be
recycled to the sludge aeration basin (reactor) and the portion that
will be disposed. That selection greatly influences the attributes of
the activated sludge in the reactor, how it will settle, and what will
be the degree of removal of pollutants from the wastewater treated. An
empirical test that evaluates the zone-settling characteristics of the
mixed liquor indicates the expectable concentration of the underflow
from the clarifier but requires more than thirty minutes to perform.
During periods of unsteady influent loadings (flow rate or organics
concentration) the frequency at which such tests are needed greatly
affects the workload of the operations staff, so that optimal operation
is extremely challenging. This paper reports the results of a
simulation modeling of the activated sludge system to allow a
statistical evaluation of the sensitivity of the performance
characteristics of the system to the periodicity of sludge-recycle rate
adjustment. The simulation program — OSRRC, written in BASIC, is based
upon the kinetic relationships of sludge production in the sludge
reactor and of the zone-settling velocities in the sludge clarifier as
they affect the mass balance of the wastewater constituents in the
system.

207

Abstracts

COMPLETE COMPILER SPECIFICATION USING PROLOG. Aiqin Pan
and Barrett R. Bryant, Department of Computer and Information Sciences,
The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

A logic programming language, Prolog, is advocated as a metalanguage for the
complete specification of programming languages and compilers, including specification
of syntax, static semantics, dynamic semantics, and the target machine. Logic
programming offers a number of advantages, namely: (1) the definitions are very
readable and elegant, due to the natural style of logic, (2) both syntax and semantics
can be specified in a single unified definition, (3) proof of correctness is facilitated by
the many proof techniques for logic, (4) the definitions are directly executable,
automatically accomplishing syntax/semantics-directed compilation, and
(5) techniques for executing logic programs in parallel are well developed, allowing
parts of the compiler to be executed in parallel.

The specification of context-free syntax using logic in the form of definite clause
grammars is well known. There is also a very natural logic representation of both
attribute grammar and denotational semantics. It is also straightforward to define a
lambda calculus reduction machine to execute the denotational machine code.
Furthermore, the implicit parallelism present in these definitions can be realized in a
parallel implementation of the Prolog specifications, facilitating both parallel
compilation of source programs and parallel execution of object programs. Our
conclusion is that logic programming is a very suitable approach to the formal
specification of programming languages and compilers.

LASER WELDING EXPERIMENT IN MICROGRAVITY. Teresa C. Plaster and Gary
L. Workman, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Johnson Research Labs,
Huntsville, AL 35899.

Laser beam welding (LBW) is used as a joining process of materials
in the aerospace industry as well as in the automotive and electronic
industry. Laser beam welding has many advantages: the heat affected
zone (HAZ) is narrower resulting in tensile strength equivalent to or
exceeding the parent material, and because the weld pool has a small
volume, heat is dissipated rapidly resulting in excellent solidifica¬
tion characteristics like fine grain and low composition changes due to
welding. Further improvements result when welding in the space envi¬
ronment where a vacuum helps to form oxygen-free and porosity-free
welds. Laser beam welding in a microgravity environment may cause an
alteration in the heat flow within the weld pool and produce a weld
that has differing characteristics to those made on the ground. These
items were addressed by using a 40W continuous output ND:YAG laser on
board the KC-135, NASA's zero-gravity aircraft. Specimens of 304 type
Stainless Steel were prepared on the ground and in the microgravity
environment produced by the aircraft. A feasibility study is being
performed using this test bed to address the major parameters of laser
beam welding to process/join materials in a microgravity environment.

208

Abstracts

COMPLEXITY OF PARSING IN TAG, H.V.S.Murthy , Department of Computer
and Information Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294,

The computational tractability of constrained grammatical systems is
a major area of concern in natural language processing. Tree
Adjoining Grammar (TAG) is a formalism of natural language
processing. The tractability issue is intricate and often
misleading. Top-down TAG parsers are exponential in nature. A
bottom-up parser proposed by Joshi and Vijay-Shankar is claimed to
be tractable. This is designed similar to CYK algorithm for parsing
Context Free Grammars using dynamic programming technique. A four
dimensional array is used to store the nodes of the trees. The
number of adjoining operations performed is pruned using the
knowledge of the trees and the input string. Further the derived
trees need not be stored and hence the parser is efficient even for
long strings involving several adjoin operations. A node gets
promoted to a higher level if it can produce a longer string.

Further nodes need not be duplicated so long as it produces the same
string. These techniques avoid the combinatorial explosion of
adjoining operations. The bottom-up parser has been implemented and
is currently being investigated with regard to tractability and
lexical ambiguity.

SPATIAL RECONSTRUCTION USING BACKPROPAGATION , Edward Baggott, Kevin
D. Reilly, Warren T. Jones, Dept, of Computer and Information
Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Backprogation has been investigated as a method of solving the
three-dimensional reconstruction problem. In this problem, a cubic
region of space containing a number of objects is viewed by sensors
placed at several locations. The task then is to fuse the
information contained in the two-dimensional views from these
sensors into the correct three-dimensional configuration of the
objects. We first show how the three-dimensional problem may be
regarded as a set of separate two-dimensional problems, and present
an encoding scheme whereby the data may be utilized by a
backpropagation network. Next we present some results in which a
3-layer backpropagation network, after being trained on a set of
example data, is presented with unfamiliar data representing the
sensor input from an object configuration to be reconstructed. The
resulting output of the net is then compared against the desired
output. These results show that, subject to certain restrictions, a
properly-trained backpropagation network possesses sufficient
generalization ability to generate correct reconstructions of three
dinensional object configurations from two-dimensional sensor data.

209

Abstracts

ZINC RECOVERY FROM BRASS-FOUNDRY FLUE DUST WITH ION EXCHANGE. James V.
Walters and Richard I . Harris, Dept, of Civil Eng., Univ. of Ala.,
Tuscaloosa AL 35487-0205.

Brass-foundry flue dust is a byproduct from the air-pollution
control systems of some industries in Alabama. It is a byproduct that
must be recycled because it contains metals that can be reused and
because if it were discarded it would be classifiable as hazardous if it
were tested according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
extraction-procedure toxicity test method. Zinc constitutes about 60
percent of the flue dust, and recent increases in its value have begun
to make recovery of the flue-dust zinc attractive as an alternative to
sale of the byproduct on the internationsl market. This paper contains
a proposal for a process of recovery of the zinc in a marketably
attractive form through the use of ion exchange.

ALGORITHMIC ASPECTS OF RECONSTRUCTION OF MOP SRAPHS. Larry
Basenspi 1 er , Div. of Computer and Information Sciences,
Univ. o-f So. Ala., Mobile, AL 36688.

The algorithms underlying a -four-phase project regarding
C-reconstruct i on of outerplanar graphs, as well as an
overview of the project in its entirety, are presented.
During phase 1 the package generates all non-isomorphic
maximal outerplanar contractions of a MOP graph G in time
0(n ). Phase 2 concerns constructing a semidual from a MOP
contraction of phase 1. This algorithm runs in the time
linear in the number of edges. Phase 4 reconstructs , up to
2-isomorphism, an OP graph from its combinatorial dual in
time linear in the number of edges of the dual. The work
was partially supported by NSF grant No. CCR-8804250 .

A Proposal for a Computer Science Laboratory for Upper-Level Under¬
graduate Courses. George T. Crocker, Dept, of Mathematics and
Computer Science, Samford University, Birmingham, AL 35229.

The computer laboratories at Samford University support the
general computing needs of the complete student body. Computer
Science students have few concessions to their special needs. With
the emphasis on specific laboratory experiences recommended by the
Denning report, we have concluded that a separate laboratory is
needed. In this paper a new laboratory for upper level Computer
Science students is proposed. Some of the desired experiences are
discussed and some suggestions are made about the acquisition of
needed equipment. It is assumed that the budget is limited.

210

Abstracts

ANTHROPOLOGY

PRELIMINARY EXCAVATIONS AT MOUND P. David Courington , student of
Anthropology, Univ. of Ala., University, Alabama 35486.

Mound P is one of twenty platform mounds in existance at the
site of 1TU500 , or Moundville, located in Alabama.

The excavations at Mound P consisted of a trench located on the
east side of the mound. The trench began at the base of the mound and
was excavated in stairstep fashion units that extended up the side of
the mound. The excavation was performed from October through December
1988 by the students enrolled in a field school offered as a course
by the University of Alabama Department of Anthropology. This
excavation was initiated as the first step in a longterm investigation
of the construction, history, and function of mounds at the site.

ELKO SWITCH CEMETERY., Michael G. Shogren, Division of Archaeology,
Alabama State Museum of Natural History, Univ. of Ala., University,

AL 35486.

During the months of December 1987 and January 1988, the Division
of Archaeology, Alabama State Museum of Natural History, University
of Alabama was contacted to remove and relocate, by accepted archa¬
eological methods, a portion of an unmarked and apparently undocu¬
mented 19th and early 20th century cemetery. A brief overview of the
excavations, including methodology, will be presented with emphasis
placed on the techniques developed to place the interments in a rea¬
sonable temporal position. The use of spatial placement and pat¬
terning, combined with known manufacturing dates of coffin hardware,
as well as correlation with a phenomenon in rural communities that
the author has termed "culture lag," will form the basis of these
interpretations .

PREDICTING BONE PRESERVATION FROM OBSERVED SOIL PROPERTIES. Paul
Patterson and Kenneth R. Turner, Dept, of Anthropology, Univ. of Ala.,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

Soil pH levels and calcium concentrations are compared to one
another and to skeletal preservation within subdivisions of grave
pits at the 19th century Elko Switch cemetery outside Huntsville,
Alabama. An interacting set of mechanisms is proposed to account
for the patterns observed, which include horizontal and vertical
gradients in acidity and calcium concentration within pits. These
mechanisms include altered soil permeability, rainfall, surface
slopes, plant roots, and contributions of the organic fraction of
bone to soil acidity. Suggestions are offered concerning future
research and field sampling strategies.

211

Abstracts

THE CHANGING STRUCTURE OF THE BLACK FARM FAMILY: FAMILY SIZE, LIFE
CYCLES, AND SUBSISTENCE PRODUCTION. Robert Zabawa , Dept, of Sociology,
Tuskegee Univ. , Tuskegee, AL 36088.

Due to an historic lack of access to land, credit, and off-farm
work opportunities, Black farmers in the United States often have been
relegated to the categories of limited resource farmer, subsistence
producer, and "endangered species." Given this hostile environment,
Black farmers have developed survival strategies to maintain their
farm operations. Two such strategies have traditionally included the
substitution of farm family labor for machinery and subsistence pro¬
duction. On the other hand, advances over the last 25 years in civil
rights have given Black farmers access to resources previously denied
them. Research conducted in the Black Belt region of Alabama examines
family size and subsistence production to see if these strategies
remain a significant part of the Black farming system. Results indi¬
cate that farm families are decreasing in size and that subsistence
production, as illustrated by family gardens, accounts for a signifi¬
cant portion of the family's meat and vegetable needs as well as a
savings on food purchased at the store. Additionally, food produced
on the farm for the farm family is life-cycle dependent, in terms of
quantity and kind, based on the activity level, medical condition,
age, and off-farm work commitments of the farmer. [This research was
supported by the George Washington Carver Agricultural Experiment
Station, USDA/CSRS Grant No. AL.X-RD-1, and the Department of
Sociology,. Tuskegee University].

The Battle of Tallasseehatchee , an Archaeological and Historical
Investigation Into a Creek Indian War Battlefield Site in Northeast
Alabama.

On November 3, 1813, 1000 Tennessee militiamen under the commend of
General Andrew Jackson attacked a Red Stick Creek Indian village. In
the course of the battle, 186 Creek Indians and five Tennessee militia¬
men were killed. Archaeological and historical research indicates the
archaeological site of lCal62, near Alexandria, Alabama is the loca¬
tion of this major military encounter of the War of 1812. Extensive
historical research provided new insight into the battle's parti¬
cipants while generating significant topographic data. Archaeological
research resulted in the recovery of sufficient 19th Century Creek
and military artifacts to warrant lCal62 as the best candidate for
the Battle of Tallasseehatchee.

Dr. Harry 0. Holstein and Dr. Philip Koerper, Jacksonville State
University .

212

Abstracts

EXCAVATIONS AT SMITH BOTTOM CAVE 1984-1988. Boyce Driskell, Alabama
State Museum of Natural History, Univ. of Ala., University, Alabama
35486.

Smith Bottom Cave, near Florence, Alabama, was utilized by pre¬
historic peoples of the area for about 10,000 years. Investigations
of the cave, associated bluff shelter, and talus slope since 1984
have revealed the presence of up to four meters of archaeological
deposits. The lowest strata, apparently formed during the early
Holocene, contained early Archaic and transitional Paleo-Indian
artifacts. Upper deposits, at least in the cave proper, were placed
in the entrance of the cave shaft in order to seal the cave. This
event is dated tentatively to about A. D. 700. Reasons for sealing
the cave entrance are not yet understood but one possible motive
would be to protect a burial site or locality. Hopefully, during
the last season of work at the cave scheduled for the summer of 1989,
reasons for this unusual archaeological situation will become clear.
The work at Smith Bottom Cave is jointly sponsored by the Alabama
State Museum of Natural History, the University of North Alabama,
and the Tennessee Valley Authority.

POPULATION SIZE ESTIMATES FOR MOUNDVILLE AND OTHER MISSI SSIPPIAN
SITES. Kenneth R. Turner. Dept, of Anthropology, Univ of Ala
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0210.

The average _n umber of individuals dwelling in the prehistoric
community of Moundville , in a typical year during its Mississippian
occupation, is estimated through application of osteologies lly
derived statistics to demographic formulae. The estimation formulae
of Ubelaker and of Acsadi and Nemeskeri are applied to Powell's
calculation of expectation of life at birth for Mississippian
Moundville and to estimates of total deaths and length of occupation
The resulting range of 278 to 1950 individuals, and the mean estimate
of 913 individuals, give some idea of the size of the community but
serve best to point out the need for more complete information about
Moundville. Additional excavation of the site would allow much more
precise estimation. Considering "best guess" information in the
absence of further excavation, it is most probable that the
Mississippian community at Moundville consisted of 250 to 750
individuals per year of occupation.

213

Abstracts

GARBOLOGY— "YOU ARE WHAT YOU THROW AWAY": ANALYSIS OF COLLEGE
STUDENTS'* GARBAGE TO DETERMINE STUDENT TRENDS. Andrew Lienau,

Dept, of Biology, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham, AL 35254.

"Garbology" is the study of garbage by which an investigator
makes general observations about a group based on its trash or
waste. The study involved the on-campus student population of a
small Southern college, Birmingham-Southern College. Garbage gathered
from sample sites was sorted and categorized. The accumulated data
was analyzed and some general campus-wide student behaviors were
noted. In addition, other topical areas included observations of
the student's views on health based on the consumption of healthy
foods and taking medication to relieve pain or sickness. Some
surprising differences developed between the groups studied; one
such observed trend being the lesser importance of healthy foods
for upperclassmen than originally expected. Hypothesis to explain
these trends were formulated. I acknowledge Dr. Jeannette Runquist,
Research Advisor, for her invaluable time and energy.

GARBAGE SAMPLES OF BIRMINGHAM-SOUTHERN. Dr. Jeannette Runquist,
Science-Math Division, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham, AL
35254. Thcmas G. Spence, Elizabeth M. Fairchild, David C. Sutherland,
Linda L. Fues, Patrick H. Hill, Scott J. Rayburn, Amy L. Thrasher,
and Elizabeth K. Watts.

Garbology is the study of people through the items they discard.
The garbology study at Birmingham-Southern College involved eight
students who collected one bag of garbage five days a week for ten
weeks. The garbage was obtained on campus from three female
dormitories, three male dormitories, and a dumpster that serviced
five fraternity houses. The items of trash gathered were sorted,
documented, and compiled by item codes and material composition
categories. Through the data compiled, this project sought to find
basic trends in the conduct of the college students as well as
differences between males and females, lowerclassmen and
upperclassmen.

PAINTED "TROPHY SKULLS" FROM PREHISTORIC NORTH ALABAMA. Darwin -Tamar
Ramsey and Kenneth R. Turner, Dept, of Anthropology, Univ. of Ala.,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

Two occurrences of painted, so-called "trophy" skulls in Marshall
County, Alabama, derive from the WPA excavations in the Guntersville
Basin. However, historical descriptions of true trophy skulls and of
the use of paint in burial rituals, as well as archaeological evidence
found with these burials, make it unlikely that the Marshall County
skulls are trophy skulls. The more plausible explanation is that
these painted skulls represent reuse of the burial pit, perhaps for
related individuals. These skulls then, derive from a Mississippian
mortuary practice and not from the taking of trophy heads or skulls.

214

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 3, July 1989.

MINUTES

ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
Birmingham Southern College
Birmingham, Alabama
March 22-25, 1989

1. Dr. Richard Shoemaker, President of AAS, called the meeting to
order at 5:30 P.M.

2. The President asked for the "Report of the Counselor to the AJAS."
Dr. Eugene Omasta sent the following report to the Secretary after the
meeting :

The 1989 annual meeting was hosted by Birmingham Southern College in
Birmingham and like all previous meetings, was shared with the Alabama
Academy of Science.

The winners oF the scientific paper competition were:

Physical Science

1st place
2nd place

Shreyas Vasanawala*
Sandra Padgett

Sidney Lanier
Jackson Academy

Biology

1st place
2nd place

Wendi Mann

Sam Houston

T. R. Miller
Decatur

Humanities

1st place
2nd place

Peter Strong

Kimberly Burdette

Sidney Lanier
Tallassee

Engineering

1st place
2nd place

Jason Matherne

Greg Lukins

Sidney Lanier
Shades Valley

Mathematics

1st place
2nd place

Jennifer Clark

Jack Hughes

Sidney Lanier
Randolph

*0verall winner who will represent Alabama in the paper competition that
is a part of the National JSHS Symposium at West Point, New York, May 3-
7, 1989. The other 1st place winners will accompany Shreyas on this

expense paid trip.

Other awards were:

Army Award ($300 for supplies and a certificate) - Teacher-sponsor of the
overall winner:

John Halbrooks Sidney Lanier

Expense paid trips to the National Symposium at West Point, New York:

Fannie Nelson Central Regional Counselor

Karen Carmichael Sidney Lanier

215

Minutes

AAAS - A subscription to a scientific magazine:

Steve Davis
Shane Skipworth

Grant for a research project:

Northport

Bradshaw

Mario Nall
Shreyas Vasanawala

Escambia County
Sidney Lanier

Outstanding Teacher (more than five years)

$100 and a certificate:

Barbara Kimbrell

Norths ide

Outstanding Teacher (less than five years)

$100 and a certificate:

Lisa Gillum

Norths ide

Outstanding Region - An engraved plaque:

Central - Regional Counselor Fannie Nelson

Newly elected
President

Vice-President

Treasurer

Secretary

:rs for 1989-90:
Andy Jemigan

Sarah Grover
Demetris Harris
Julie Childers

Shady Mountain
Christian

Auburn

Phillips

Brewer

Many people deserve special thanks for their efforts in support of the
1989 annual meeting, including: Doug Waites and Bill Boardman for serving
as local arrangements persons for AJAS and in making plans and
arrangements for the meeting rooms, motel rooms, tours, and other
activities; Dan Holliman for serving as the overall local arrangements
person in planning and assisting AJAS at this meeting; Fannie Nelson as
counselor of the host Central Region, in arranging the dance, gathering
gifts and materials for the students from local merchants, assisting with
registration, and planning and assisting with the meeting; the state
officers for their support and assistance - Chris Daniels (President) ,
Kelly Cain (Vice-President), Shreyas Vasanawala (Treasurer), Angela
Dewberry (Secretary) . The officers also deserve credit for designing this
year's T-shirt in the colors of the host institution. Special appreci¬
ation is extended to the judges of the paper competition for both judging
and their concern for student scientific development - Katie Blanding and
Latricia Greene from the U. S. Army Missile Command at Redstone Arsenal;
Jim DuBard, Rick McCallum, and Carl Salter from Birmingham Southern
College; John Beaton, Larry Boots, John Carmichael, Ronald Gettinger, Carl
Graves, Dorthea Klip, William Klip, Christo Psarras, Linda Reed, Gaetanno
Saccomoni , David Sink, and K. Yackzan from the University of Alabama at

216

Minutes

Birmingham; Anna Smith and Bill Smith from Troy State University; and
Abraham George and Adrian Ludwick from Tuskegee University. Appreciation
is also extended to the associate counselors for their continued dedicated
service to AJAS - Betty Bigham and B. J. Bateman.

The continued support of the Senior Academy in AJAS activities is
appreciated. We especially appreciate the support of this year's
President, Dr. Richard Shoemaker, and the Executive Officer, Bill Barrett.

3. Ms. Elsie Spencer mailed the following report to the Secretary:

Alabama selected 20 Finalists in Regional and State Fair Science and
Engineering competition. The students, high school, and addresses are as
follows :

FAIR

DIRECTOR

Mobile

Dr . Jim Langdon
USA

West

Dr. David Heggem
UA

East

Dr. W. H. Mason
AU

Southeast

Dr. Bill Norman

Troy State

Northeast

Dr . Arthur Bacon

Talladega College

North

Mr. George Williams
Calhoun State CC

ALABAMA FINALISTS

FINALISTS

Mehul Mankad
Mobile, AL

Aaron Raulerson
Brewton, AL

David Hebbler
Northport, AL

Chuck Barkley
Linden , AL

Shreyas S . Vasanawala
Montgomery, AL

Jason Matherne
Montgomery, AL

William A. Anderson
Opp , AL

Donald A. Nelson
Opp , AL

Christy Dawkins
Springville, AL

Adam Barnes
Childersburg, AL

Sam Houston, Jr.
Decatur, AL

SCHOOL

St. Paul's Episcopal
School

T. R. Miller High

Tuscaloosa

Central-West

Marengo High
Sidney Lanier High
Sidney Lanier High
Opp High
Opp High
St. Clair High
Childersburg High
Decatur High

217

Minutes

Hugh Greene, Jr.
Somerville, AL

Brewer High

Lome Graves
Decatur, AL

Brewer High

Elena Quirk
Somerville, AL

Brewer High

Central

Stewart Davenport

Altamont School

Dr. Lee Summerlin

Birmingham, AL

UAB

Ashley Belcher

Leeds , AL

Resource Lrng. Ctr.

Alabama State

Tim Martin

Austin High

Mr. George Williams

Decatur , AL

Calhoun State CC

Teresia Hook
Birmingham, AL

Resource Lrng. Ctr.

Ericka Coats
Birmingham, AL

Resource Lrng. Ctr.

Richard Pilston
Birmingham, AL

Resource Lrng. Ctr.

All Alabama Finalists

attended the 40th

International Science and

Engineering Fair, Pittsburgh, PA May 7-13, 1989. Travel and housing was
arranged by the Coordinator. The Alabama Delegation was composed of Peggy
Wilkerson, Sharon Peacock, Mary Thomaskutty, Bob Davis, Trudy Anderson,
Terese Morris, George Williams, Bob Scearcy, Rosie McKinney, Jane Houston,
Elsie Spencer, and the 20 finalists.

The 20th Finalists fared well in competition. In addition to local,
regional, and state awards they garnered the following honors in
International competition:

Shreyas S. Vasanawala, Sidney Lanier High, Second award of $200 from
the American Association of Physics Teachers; Physics award of 20 shares
of United Technologies Corporation common stock; U.S. Army Certificate of
Achievement consisting of a personal computer and a gold medallion; Naval
Air Systems Command plaque, certificate, a visit to one of their labs, and
an all -expense paid trip to the London International Youth Science
Fortnight; 1st Place ISEF Award of $500 and was named alternate to the
Glenn T. Seaborg Nobel Prize Visit Award which involves an all-expense-
paid trip to Stockholm, Sweden, in December to attend the Nobel Prize
Ceremonies .

Jason Paul Matherne , Sidney Lanier High, Honorable .mention award of
$50, 35 mm camera and certificate from Eastman Kodak; a half ship model
plaque and certificate from The Naval Ship Research and Development
Center; a NORDA Ocean Science Award of a one -year $1000 scholarship and

218

Minutes

a plaque, plus an all-expense paid visit to the London International Youth
Science Fortnight; 4th place ISEF Award of $100.

Elena Quirk, Albert P. Brewer High, Honorable mention award of
certificate, t-shirt, and a subscription to Chem-Matters from the American
Chemical Society; 2nd ISEF Award of $350.

Stewart Davenport, Altamont School, Third Award of $50 from American
Geological Institute; 4th ISEF Award of $100.

William Anderson, Opp High, Honorable mention of one -year membership
in the Acoustical Society of America.

Ashley Belcher, Resource Learning Center, 4th ISEF Award of $100.

Lome Graves, Albert P. Brewer High, 4th ISEF Award of $100.

Sam Houston, Decatur High, 2nd ISEF Award of $350.

Teresia Hook, Resource Learning Center, 2nd ISEF Award of $350.

Tim Martin, Austin High, 1st Award of $250, 35 mm camera, certificate,
and a one -year subscription to Science News.

Christy Dawkins, St. Clair High, 1st Award of $250, 35 mm camera,
certificate, and a one-year subscription to Science News.

Hugh Greene, Jr., Brewer High, expense-paid "Energy Research
Orientation Week" a U.S. DOE National Laboratory.

Special commendations are in order for teachers Trudy Anderson of
Resource Learning Center with 4 Finalists, Mary Thomaskutty of Brewer High
School who had 3 Finalists, and John Halbrook of Sidney Lanier who teaches
Mr. Matherne and Mr. Vasanawala.

4. Dr. L. S. Hazlegrove, Chairman of the Judges of the Gorgas
Scholarship Foundation, sent the following report to the Secretary:

The Gorgas Scholarship Foundation announced today the ranking of the
finalists in the 1989 Alabama Science Talent Search. The Search was held
at the meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science at Birmingham- Southern
College, Birmingham, Alabama.

The winner of the first-place tuition grant of $2500 was:

April Marie Johnson, 3436 Vaughn Rd. , Montgomery, AL 36106.

Sidney Lanier High School.

First alternate and winner of a $1500 tuition grant was:

Kapil Pareek, 2504 Panorama PI. , Vestavia, AL 35216
Vestavia High School.

219

Minutes

Second alternate and winner of a $1000 tuition grant was:

Kristi Leigh Scarbrough, 3585 Brookfield Rd. , Birmingham, AL 35226

Resource Learning Center.

Other finalists listed in alphabetical order were:

Adam Wesley Barnes, Rt. 1, Box 2511, Childersburg, AL 35044.

Childersburg High School.

Zachary Howard Gann, 110 Moorsgate Dr., Florence, AL 35630.

Bradshaw High School.

Adam Scott Driver, 801 N. Wood Ave., Florence, AL 35630.

Bradshaw High School.

Janice Leigh Haddock, 230 Britt St., Florence, AL 35630.

Bradshaw High School.

Charlotte Melissa Homan, 230 N. Sequoia Blvd. , Florence, AL 35630.

Bradshaw High School .

David Jonathan Linton, 523 Malone Circle, Florence, AL 35630.

Bradshaw High School .

Robert Neil Mohon, 105 Village La., Athens, AL 35611.

Athens High School.

Sandra Kay Padgett, Rt. 1, Box 39-P, Jackson, AL 36545.

Jackson High School.

Kevin Michael Skelton, Rt. 1, Box 900, Childersburg, AL 35044.

Childersburg High School.

Sliana Denise Wise, 2500 Redstart La., Birmingham, AL 35226.

Shades Mountain Christian.

The rankings were established by a panel of judges consisting of
department heads, deans, and professors from many of the leading
universities and industries in Alabama. Dr. Leven S. Hazlegrove,
Professor of Chemistry, Samford University is Chairman of the Judge
Committee .

Winners and finalists in the Gorgas Contests receive offers of tuition
scholarships to colleges and universities in Alabama for the study of
science. The Gorgas Foundation is named for General William Crawford
Gorgas, the Alabama physician who conquered yellow fever in the Panama
Canal Zone and later became the Surgeon General of the U. S. Army. The
purposes of the Foundation are to promote interest in science and to aid
in the education of promising students.

5. Dr. Shoemaker called for the "Report of the Secretary." Dr. Ann
Williams presented the following report:

220

Minutes

Membership, March, 1988 . 878

Members dropped for non-payment of dues (Sept., 1988) . -140

Members deceased . . -4*

New members added . +143

Members reinstated . +28

Total Membership, March 22, 1989 905

Net difference from March, 1988 +27

MEMBERSHIP BY SECTIONS

Section

March. 1988

March. 1989

Change

1

261

272

+11

2

88

91

+ 3

3

47

49

+ 2

4

28

31

+ 3

5

87

88

+ 1

6

57

61

+ 4

7

37

35

- 2

8

38

48

+10

9

144

157

+13

10

58

43

-15

11

25

21

- 4

99

8

9

+ 1

878

905

+27

*Mr .

James F.

Sulzby ,

Jr.

Fr.

Louis J .

Eisele

Mr.

Albert H

. Bryan,

Jr.

Dr.

Kenneth

E. Landers

During registration for the meeting, 27 new memberships and 2
reinstatements have been added to the roll bringing the total membership
to 934.

6. The President asked for the "Treasurer's Report." Dr. Adams was
not present to present a report.

7. Dr. Shoemaker called for the "Report of Place and Date of Meeting
Committee." Dr. Robert Lishak provided the following report:

The AAS Place of Meeting Committee composed of Dr. Robert P. Bauman,
UAB; Dr. Lou Destito, TSU; Dr. Elisabeth S. Sheldon, AUM; Dr. David H.
Nelson, USA; and Dr. Robert Lishak (Chairman), Auburn University, hereby
reports that the following dates and meeting sites have been established
and confirmed by the respective institutions and the Executive Committee
of the Alabama Academy of Science.

1990 -- Mobile College

1991 -- Jacksonville State University

1992 -- The University of Alabama

1993 -- The University of Alabama in Huntsville

221

Minutes

1994 -- Troy State University

1995 -- The University of Alabama at Birmingham

8. The "Report of the Resolutions Committee" was next called for by
Dr. Shoemaker. Dr. Linda Reed was not present to provide resolutions.

9 . Dr . Shoemaker then asked for the "Report of the Research
Committee." Dr. Lisano reported the following for Dr. Garstka:

Research Grants have been awarded by the Research Committee to the
following students:

Holly Boettger (UAB)

$250

Holley Handley (AU)

$250

Carl Massey (UAB)

250

Aiqin Pan (UAB)

250

Stephanie Stafford (AU)

250

Shirley Luckhart (AU)

250

Dean Williams (UAH)

250

Timothy Demko (AU)

250

Winners of the Research Awards for the following sections were selected
by the Section and Session Chairpersons:

Biological Sciences: Stephanie Stafford

Chemistry: Derrick Dean

Geology: Yeuj in Lin

Forestry, et al . : Scott Couch

Physics & Mathematics: Abraham George

Jian-Wien Hsu

Science Education: Alfred Lupien
Social Sciences: Kasandra Williams
Health Sciences: Kat Milly
Engineering & Comp. Sci.: Robert Bond
Anthropology: Andrew Lienau

Auburn University

Tuskegee University

Auburn University

U. of Alabama

Tuskegee University (Tie)
UAB

UAB

Samford University
Auburn University
UAH

Birmingham Southern

10. Dr. Shoemaker asked for the "Report of the Nominating Committee."

Dr. Larry Wit submitted the following list of nominees, all of whom were
elected unanimously:

First Vice President: Mike Lisano
Second Vice President: Ken Marion
Editor of the Journal: William Mason
Counselor to the Junior Academy: Eugene Omasta
Coordinator of Science Fairs: Rosie McKinney

Trustees: Roy J. Nichols (3 years)

Elsie Spencer (3 years)

222

Minutes

Philip Beasley (3 years)

William Barrett (3 years)

Robert Gudauskas (2 years)

Section Officers:

Section I - Biological Sciences

1. Tom Jandebeur, Chair

2. Jim McClintock, Vice -Chair

Section II - Chemistry

1. Barry Corona, Chair

2. Larry Krannick, Vice-Chair

Section VI - Industry & Economics

1. Keith Absher, Chair

2. Marsha Griffin, Vice-Chair

Section VIII - Social Science

1 . Lawrence Hanks , Chair

2. David Sink, Vice-Chair

Section IX - Health Science

1. Linda Reed, Chair

2. George Tulli, Vice-Chair

Section X - Engineering & Computer Science

1. Terry Glover, Chair

2. Barrett Bryant, Vice -Chair

Section XI - Anthropology

1. Tim Mistovich, Chair

2. Boyce Driskell, Vice-Chair

11. Dr. Shoemaker called for the "Report of the Gardner Award Com¬
mittee." Dr. Wilborn was unable to attend but sent the following report:

The Gardner Award for 1989 will be presented to Dr. Aubrey Taylor,
Chairman of the Department of Physiology, University of South Alabama.

12. Dr. Shoemaker announced for the Carmichael Award Committee that the
1989 award would be presented to Dr. David T. King, Jr. , and 5 co-authors
from Auburn University.

13. Old Business: None

14. New Business:

Dr. Shoemaker thanked Dr. William Barrett, retiring Administrative
Officer, and Ms. Elsie Spencer, retiring Science Fair Coordinator, for
their many years of service to the Academy.

15. There being no further business, the business meeting was adjourned
at 6:05 P. M.

223

.

■

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Editorial Policy: Publication in the Journal of the Alabama Academy
of Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms
can be obtained from Dr. Ann Williams, 101 Cary Hall, Auburn Univer¬
sity, AL 36849. Subject matter should address original research in
one of the discipline sections of the Academy: Biological Sciences;
Chemistry; Geology; Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning;
Physics and Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education;
Social Sciences; Health Sciences; Engineering and Computer Science;
and Anthropology. Timely review articles of exceptional quality and
general readership interest will also be considered. Invited arti¬
cles dealing with Science Activities in Alabama are occasionally
published. Book reviews of Alabama authors are also solicited.

Reviews'. Each manuscript will receive at least two simultaneous peer
reviews. Include in your letter of transmittal the names, addresses,
and telephone numbers of at least four qualified referees. Do not
include names of individuals from your present institution.

Manuscripts: Consult recent issues of the Journal for format. Dou¬
ble-space manuscripts throughout, allowing l'-inch margins. Number
all pages. Submit the original and two copies to the Editor. Papers
which are unreasonably long and verbose, such as uncut theses, will
be returned. The title page should contain the author's name, affil¬
iation, and address, including zip code. An abstract not exceeding
200 words will be published if the author so desires. Use headings
and subdivisions where necessary for clarity. Common headings are:
INTRODUCTION (including a literature review), PROCEDURES (or MATE¬
RIALS AND METHODS), RESULTS, DISCUSSION, and LITERATURE CITED. Other
formats may be more appropriate for certain subject matter areas.
Headings should be in all-caps and centered on the typed page; sub¬
headings should be italicized (underlined) and placed at the margin.
Avoid excessive use of footnotes. Do not use the number 1 for foot¬
notes; begin with 2. Skip additional footnote numbers if one or more
authors must have their present address footnoted.

Illustrations: Submit original inked drawings (graphs and diagrams)
or clear black and white glossy photographs. Width must be 14-15 cm
and height must not exceed 20 cm. Illustrations not conforming to
these dimensions will be returned to the author. Use lettering that
will still be legible after a 30% reduction. Designate all illustra¬
tions as figures, number consecutively, and cite all figures in the
text. Type figure captions on a separate sheet of paper. Send two
extra sets of illustrations; xeroxed photographs are satisfactory for
review purposes.

Tables: Place each table on a separate sheet. Place a table title
directly above each table. Number tables consecutively. Use symbols
or letters, not numerals, for table footnotes. Cite all tables in
the text.

Literature Cited: Only references cited in the text should be listed
under LITERATURE CITED. Do not group references according to source
(books, periodicals, newspapers, etc.). List in alphabetical order
of senior author names. Cite references in the text by number or by
author-date .

JOURNAL OF THE

OCTOBER 1989

VOLUME

COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Adult common ground-dove ( Columbina pa.sseri.na.) incu¬
bating a normal clutch of two eggs. This nest was located on the lee
side of a foredune in a clump of sea oats, nettles, and panic grasses in
Grayton Beach State Recreation Area, Florida. Common ground-doves are
frequent residents of coastal dune communities in Alabama also, even
though they are officially designated as a Species of Special Concern in
our state. Reasons for this status designation, and possible explanations
for the decline in their populations in Alabama, are explored in the
article by Tim Jones and Ralph Mirarchi beginning on page 224 of this
issue. Photograph courtesy of Dr. Nicholas R. Holler.

Tim Jones is a former graduate student and Ralph Mirarchi is a Professor
in the Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science at Auburn University.
Dr. Holler is Unit Leader of the Alabama Cooperative Fish and Wildlife
Research Unit and Associate Professor in the Department of Zoology and
Wildlife Science.

LIBRARY

NOV 9 1989

THE JOURNAL A. M. W. H

OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 60 OCTOBER 1989 NO. 4

EDITOR:

W. H. Mason, Extension Cottage, Auburn University, AL 36849
ARCHIVIST:

C. M. Peterson, Department of Botany, and Microbiology, Auburn University,
AL 36849

EDITORIAL BOARD:

J. T. Bradley, Chairman, Department of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn
University, AL 36849

Charles Baugh, 1005 Medical Science Building, University of South Alabama,
Mobile, AL 36688

J. W. Sulentic, PO. Box 1921, University of Alabama, University, AL 35486
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AUBURN UNIVERSITY
BIRMINGHAM - SOUTHERN COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO
AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA
TROY STATE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM
JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT HUNTSVILLE
TUSKEGEE UNIVERSITY
MOBILE COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA

CONTENTS

ARTICLES

Distribution and Status of Common Ground- Doves
in Alabama

Malcolm T. Jones and Ralph E. Mirarchi . 224

Lack of Effect of the Beta-Agonist Cimaterol on
Growth and Composition of Neonatal Rats

J. A. Chromiak, D. R. Mulvaney, and

D. R. Strength . 235

Registered Nurses' Responses to Reporting Abuse:

A Survey of Home Health and Community Health
Nurses in Alabama

Carolyn Lea Clark-Daniels . 243

Trichostrongylus colubriformis (Nematoda) Infection
in Normal and Zinc-Deficient Goats

Leon W. Bone, Edward J. Parish,

Waite Dykes, and Herbert H. Kohl . 257

ABSTRACTS . 263

INDEX . 265

MEMBERSHIP ROLL

281

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol, 60, No. 4, October 1989.

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF COMMON GROUND -DOVES IN ALABAMA1

Malcolm T. Jones
Department of Wildlife
College of Forest Resources
University of Maine
Orono , ME 04469

and

Ralph E. Mirarchi

Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn University , AL 36849-5414

ABSTRACT

The distribution and status of the common ground- dove ( Columbine
passerine ) was studied in Alabama from June through September, 1986-87.
Relative population densities also were determined for 25 counties during
the 1987 season. A reduction in the statewide distribution of the ground-
dove has occurred over the last 20-40 years, most likely as a result of
land use changes. The highest relative densities (0.029 birds/km)
observed in the southeastern corner of the state were still considered
low. Our study indicates that the common ground-dove's status as a
Species of Special Concern in Alabama is justified and the population
should be closely monitored. Other factors potentially limiting ground-
dove populations are discussed, and measures to stabilize populations are
recommended.

INTRODUCTION

In the United States, the common ground-dove is primarily a Coastal
Plain species associated with sandy soils (Hopkins 1958), and is distrib¬
uted from California to North Carolina, and sporadically farther north
in the East. Declining ground-dove populations in the United States were
noted as early as the 1920' s (Bent 1932). Since the start of the Breeding
Bird Survey (BBS) in 1968, population trends have been more consistently
determined and monitored. Twenty-year trends in BBS data indicate that
the common ground-dove has experienced a continental decline of 5.8 % per
year Including a 7.0 % per year decline in the eastern half of the United
States (S. Droege, pers. comm.).

In Alabama, common ground-doves are considered local , uncommon to
common, permanent residents in the lower third of the state and are rare
farther north (Howell 1928, Inhof 1976). Recently, they have been
assigned the status of Species of Special Concern statewide (Keeler 1986) »
The once locally common dove is now less common and may have been totally
extirpated from some areas (Mount 1981) .

’Manuscript received 12 May 1989; accepted 30 June 1989.

224

Jones and Hlrarchi

Baseline data on the status and distribution of the common ground-dove
in Alabama are needed before research into the causes of perceived de¬
clines can begin. Herein, we describe the geographical distribution,
status, and relative density of the common ground-dove population in
Alabama .

METHODS

The lower third of Alabama served as the primary study site and
included 24 counties in 1986 and 25 during 1987 (Fig. 1). All of the
counties, with the exception of the northern three- fourths of Lee County,
lie in the Coastal Plain. This area was designated as the primary study
site after preliminary investigations, questionnaires, and data from BBS
routes indicated little ground-dove activity north of the Fall Line.

FIG. 1. Primary study area of the common ground-dove
in Alabama, 1986-87.

225

Common ground- doves in Alabama

Ground-dove distribution was determined by three methods. From June
to September, 1986 and 1987, each county in the primary study area was
surveyed for ground-doves by driving secondary and less travelled roads
that allowed for representative coverage of the county. During the first
year of the study, all habitat types were surveyed. This proved extremely
time consuming, so unproductive habitat types (e.g., closed-canopied
mature forests) were not sampled during the second year. The survey
methods were the same as those used on BBS routes (Robbins et al. 1986),
except that the observation period at each stop was extended to five
minutes, and probable ground-dove habitats (Jones and Mirarchi 1990) were
emphasized. Ground-doves were positively identified with 8x binoculars
and/or a 20x spotting scope, or by vocalizations. Sites then were mapped
and distances to the nearest landmark recorded.

During fall 1986, 61 questionnaires regarding ground-dove sightings
were mailed to professional biologists and amateur ornithologists through¬
out Alabama. The questionnaire asked for locations of sightings from
1984 to the present, and prior to 1984. These data were used to supple¬
ment sightings and also to identify localized ground-dove populations
that were missed. BBS data also were used in addition to direct observa¬
tion and questionnaires to complete distribution maps. Sightings obtained
from all methods were transferred to computer -generated maps (Mapmaster,
Ashton-Tate Inc., Westport, CT) to show the past and present distribution
of ground-doves in Alabama.

During the 1987 field season, 322 kilometers of roadway were driven in
each county in the primary study area to determine relative population
densities (birds/km) . Relative population densities were calculated using
a weighted average (number of km2 in a particular county + largest county
area {3217 km2} x {# of birds actually seen / 322 km}) to allow compari¬
sons among counties of differing sizes. The basic assumption of the
equation was that 322 km of roadway was representative of available habi¬
tat within each county.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight ground-doves were observed at 22 sites in 1986, and 127
ground-doves were observed at 62 sites during 1987. In 1986 the sightings
were distributed among 11 counties: Barbour, Bullock, Butler, Covington,
Crenshaw, Geneva, Henry, Macon, Mobile, Montgomery, and Russell. During
1987 ground-doves were found in 14 counties: Baldwin, Barbour, Bullock,
Butler, Coffee, Covington, Crenshaw, Dale, Geneva, Henry, Houston, Monroe,
Pike, and Russell. Comparison of pre-1984 sightings (Fig. 2) to post-
1984 sightings (Fig. 3) indicated a reduction in the range of the common
ground-dove. Ground-doves continue to be more common in the southeastern
portion of the state than elsewhere. Breeding populations in the northern
and western portions of the range appear to be extirpated. Relative
density values varied from a high of 0.029 birds/km in Crenshaw county to
a low of 0.000 birds/km in several counties (Fig. 4). An Index value of
zero indicated that ground-doves were not observed during the survey, but
not necessarily that they were absent from a county.

226

Jones and Mirarchi

FIG. 2. Distribution of the common ground-dove in
Alabama, pre-1984. Includes sightings
reported in the literature (•) (Imhof 1976) ,
study questionnaire (■) , and Breeding Bird
Survey (A) .

DISCUSSION

The distribution of common ground-doves in Alabama, as determined by
this study, has decreased when compared to previous distribution maps
(Imhof 1976, Keeler 1986). Most ground-dove sightings in the northern
two-thirds of the state occur during the non-breeding season, indicating
that those doves are probably vagrants. The disappearance of the ground-
dove from the Tennessee River Valley has been noted previously (Atkeson
1964). No ground-doves were found during preliminary scouting of this
area in the spring of 1986. Researchers conducting a mourning dove
( Zenalda macroura ) study in the Tennessee Valley concurrently with this

227

Common ground- doves in Alabama

FIG. 3. Distribution of the common ground-dove in
Alabama, 1984-1987. Includes sightings
reported in this study (•) , study question¬
naire (■) , and Breeding Bird Survey (A).

project also reported no ground-doves during two years of extensive field
work (M. Losito, pers. comm.). Additionally, ground-doves have occurred
on only 18 of 54 routes in the state, with all but one route situated in
the Coastal Plain (S. Droege, pers. comm.).

Ground-doves located during this study were most often found in early
successional stages such as old fields and young pine plantations, and
were most often associated with sandy soils (Jones and Mirarchi 1990) .
The physical structure of these habitat types, rather than the species
composition, seemed most important in satisfying their food and nesting
requirements .

With these habitat requirements in mind, one can speculate as to the
causes of the decline in common ground- dove populations in Alabama.

228

Jones and Mlrarchi

Number of Birds/km

□

0

0.002

B

0.007

to

0.01 1

m

0.013

to

0.023

■

0.029

FIG. 4. Relative common ground- dove population index
in the primary study area, southern Alabama,
1987. Index values of zero Indicated ground-
doves were not observed in, but not necessarily
absent from, a county during the survey.

Ground-doves originally may have inhabited only the coastal dunes where
they are still abundant. Prior to European colonization, the longleaf
pine (Pinus palustrls ) forest type dominated (approximately 24 million ha;
Means and Campbell 1981) the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United
States. Fire, both natural and set by Indians, was a major component of
this ecosystem (Means and Campbell 1981, Johnson 1987). These fires,
along with the agricultural practices of the Indians (fields being used
for only a few years and then abandoned) , created a mosaic of early and
late serai stages (Johnson 1987). These factors probably allowed ground-
doves to thrive, and may have permitted them to move into inland dune
(sandhill) habitats.

Even after European colonization, when large areas were cleared and
put into agricultural production, farming methods of the time probably
continued to favor ground-dove populations. Fields were small, and were
planted in winter legumes or were allowed to remain fallow for a year or

229

Common ground- doves in Alabama

more after harvesting. They typically had corners that were not tilled
annually and were bordered by brushy fence rows. These "pea-patch farms"
had fields, and associated hedge rows and waste places that provided
excellent cover for ground nesting species of birds (Shalaway 1985) like
ground-doves. The only negative impacts on habitat during this period may
have been some loss of quality as topsoil and fertility were lost, and
as a result of the removal of mild soil disturbance agents (e.g. bison)
from sandy soil areas.

Changes in the amount of land being cultivated (cropland) in Alabama
since then could have negatively impacted ground-dove populations. In
1900, there were 2.8 million ha of Alabama croplands. This reached a
peak of 2.9 million ha in 1935, and dropped to 1.8 million ha by 1982
(Lanham 1963, U.S.D.A. Soil Conser. Service 1987). This represents almost
a 31% decrease in the amount of cropland potentially available to become
early serai stages.

Indeed, a trend in the presence or absence of ground- doves becomes
evident when the amount of cropland in each of the 25 counties surveyed
in 1987 is examined. For the 11 counties where no ground- doves were
observed, eight had less than 15 % of their total area in croplands,
whereas three had between 15 and 21.3 % in cropland. In counties where
ground-doves were present (14) only three (Butler, Monroe, and Russell),
had < 15% in croplands. The other 11 counties had up to 44.2% in crop¬
lands (U. S. D. A. Soil Conservation Service 1987). Butler, Monroe, and
Russell counties did have large amounts (> 70 % of county) of commercial
forests that were being clearcut (Alabama Forestry Association 1985), and
had the potential to provide favorable ground dove habitat (Landers and
Buckner 1979).

Changes in forestry practices in Alabama also could have adversely
affected ground-dove populations. Suppression of wild fires was common
before fire was recognized as a valuable tool of foresters. Fire sup¬
pression allowed succession to proceed to the detriment of most wildlife
species associated with the longleaf pine forest type. Fire suppression
probably also altered the mosaic patterns that occurred naturally by
reducing the amount of land in early serai stages. Additionally, vast
areas were converted to even- aged pine plantations for lumber and/or
pulpwood production. These plantations were suitable, and even desirable,
for many species during early serai stages (Johnson 1987) , but proved to
be poor wildlife habitat after canopy closure. Large areas of open land
were converted, or allowed to succeed, to forests. The ultimate result
has been a decrease in the amount of available ground-dove habitat.

Land use patterns and ground-dove densities In the counties surveyed
are consistent with the contention that ground-doves may require minimal
amounts of land In early serai stages to sustain viable populations. Data
on the effects of habitat fragmentation on animal populations are numer¬
ous. However, most of the work on fragmentation has dealt with forests
(Harris 1984, Yahner 1985, Haila et al. 1987) and not relatively open
ecosystems. Fragmentation of early serai stages by the interspersion of
large tracts of wooded areas could impede dispersal of ground-doves since

230

Jones and Mirarchi

they are not exceptionally strong fliers. This would lead to a contrac¬
tion of their range into areas where a large proportion of the land is
still in early serai stages. Rights-of-way or other corridors that are
maintained in early serai stages might offer opportunities for ground-
doves to disperse across otherwise unsuitable habitat, but there has been
no documentation of such utilization.

Other factors also may be limiting ground-dove populations. Mount
(1981) postulated that the imported red fire ant (Solenopsis LnvicCa ) has
been a factor in the decline of ground-doves in Alabama. Although no
direct evidence of fire ant predation on ground-dove nests exists, there
is growing evidence that fire ants can be a serious threat to other
altricial species such as northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis )
(Conner et al. 1986), and cliff swallows (Hlrundo pyrrhonota ) (Sikes and
Arnold 1986) .

Professional and lay conservationists across Alabama also report that
ground-doves are regularly shot by mistake during mourning dove hunts.
These mistakes occur because many hunters are unaware that more than one
species of dove exists in the state, and others have difficulty distin¬
guishing between the species. Additionally, Alabama hunting regulations
specify that "doves" are legal to hunt in season and make no distinction
between state and federally protected species such as the common ground-
dove and game species such as mourning or white -winged doves (Zenaida
asiaClca ) (Ala. Dept. Conser. and Nat. Res. 1988).

Pesticides associated with agricultural and forestry practices also
could be contributing to the ground-dove's decline. Ground-doves frequent
agricultural areas and young pine plantations and could come in contact
with a variety of pesticides in use there. Although no intensive studies
of ground-dove - pesticide interactions have been conducted, carcasses of
ground-doves have been recovered after pesticide applications to agricul¬
tural fields in Alabama (M. Wallace, pers. comm.).

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The common ground-dove should remain a Species of Special Concern in
Alabama and their populations should be closely monitored because of
reduced distribution in the state, low densities, instability of the
populations as a result of land use changes, incidental hunting kills, and
possibly other undetermined factors. This status should be retained until
future research indicates a stabilization or increase in population
numbers .

Additionally, a public relations program should be initiated in Ala¬
bama to inform dove hunters of the existence of ground-doves, that they
are declining, and that they are protected by state and federal law.
Posters showing the differences between common ground- doves and mourning
doves (i.e., size, color, wing shape, and tail length) should be dis¬
tributed statewide to lessen the Impact of incidental hunting pressure
on the species. Law enforcement personnel then should be instructed to
strictly enforce protective statutes and regulations.

231

Common ground-doves in Alabama

Although major changes in land use and habitat composition for the
entire state cannot be predicated on one species of wildlife, certain
practices will ensure the continued survival and increase of the common
ground-dove in Alabama. Where feasible, early serai stage habitats should
be protected and maintained. Along the coast, dune communities should be
protected to benefit ground-doves and other threatened species. In the
Coastal Plain, longleaf pine-wiregrass communities should be protected and
maintained with more natural fire regimes.

In agricultural areas, ground-dove habitat should be created by using
fire, or selective mowing on 1-3 year rotations to ensure a mosaic of
suitable areas. The nationwide trend toward integrated pest management
in agriculture should be encouraged in Alabama so heavy pesticide use can
be curtailed. Foresters should retain mechanical site preparation until
the effects of chemical site preparation are determined. Additionally,
regeneration areas should be kept small and in close proximity to each
other.

Other studies should be conducted in Alabama and other states within
the range of the common ground-dove to determine what specific factors,
if any, limit their populations. Such efforts should determine the
effects of habitat fragmentation on ground dove populations; the effects
of imported fire ants on ground-dove reproduction; the amount of inci¬
dental hunting pressure exerted on ground-doves; and the effect of
pesticides on ground-dove survival and reproduction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Funded by Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station (AAES) Project 13-
0065 and the Nongame Wildlife Program of the Division of Game and Fish,
Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources under Pittman-
Robertson Project, W-44-III, Segments 12 & 13 . Published as AAES Journal
Series 15-881880P. S. Droege provided Breeding Bird Survey data and
helpful comments on the ms. J. L. Landers provided valuable insights on
common ground- doves and fire ecology.

LITERATURE CITED

Alabama Dept, of Conser. and Nat. Res. 1988. Alabama regulations
relating to game, fish and fur-bearing animals, 1987-1988.
Montgomery, AL. 84pp.

Alabama Forestry Association. 1985. Alabama forest land. Alabama
Forests 28(4): 119.

Atkeson, T. Z. 1964. The disappearance of ground doves from the
Tennessee Valley region. Alabama Birdlife 12:24.

Bent, A. C. 1932. Life histories of North American gallinaceous
birds. Orders: Galliformes and Columbiformes. U.S. Natl. Mus.
Bull. 162. 490pp.

232

Jones and Mirarchi

Conner, R. N. , M. E. Anderson, and J. G. Dickson. 1986. Relationships
among territory size, habitat, song, and nesting success of northern
cardinals. Auk 103:23-31.

Haila, Y. , I. K. Hanski, and S. Raivio. 1987. Breeding bird distri¬
bution in fragmented coniferous taiga in southern Finland. Ornis
Fennica 64:90-106.

Harris, L. D. 1984. The fragmented forest. The Univ. of Chicago
Press, Chicago, Ill. 211pp.

Hopkins, M. 1958. Life history notes concerning the ground dove. The
Oriole 23:5-7.

Howell, A. H. 1928. Birds of Alabama. Dept, of Game and Fisheries.
Birmingham Printing Co., Birmingham, Al. 384pp.

Imhof, T. A. 1976. Alabama Birds. University of Alabama Press,
Tuscaloosa. 445pp.

Johnson, A. S. 1987. Pine plantations as wildlife habitat: a
perspective. Pp. 12-18. In: J. G. Dickson and 0. E. Maughan,

(eds) . Managing southern forests for wildlife and fish. Gen. Tech.
Rep. SO-65. U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest
Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 85pp.

Jones, M. T. , and R. E. Mirarchi. 1990. Habitats used by common
ground-doves in southern Alabama. Wilson Bull. 102: In press.

Keeler, J. E. 1986. Common ground dove. Pp. 93-94. In: R.H. Mount,
(ed) . Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of special attention.
Ala. Agric. Expt. Sta. Auburn Univ., Al. 124pp.

Lanham, B. T. 1963. Statistical supplement for Chart Book on Alabama
Agriculture: recent changes and trends. Alabama Agric. Expt. Sta.

Auburn Univ. , AL. 53pp.

Landers, J. L. , and J. L. Buckner. 1979. Ground dove use of young
pine plantations. Wilson Bull. 91:467-468.

Means, D. B. , and H. W. Campbell. 1981. Effects of prescribed burning
on amphibians and reptiles. Pp. 89-97. In: G. W. Wood (ed) .
Prescribed fire and wildlife in southern forests. Belle W. Baruch
Forest Ser. Institute of Clemson Univ., Georgetown,- SC. 170pp.

Mount, R. H. 1981. The red imported fire ant, Solenopsis Lnvicta

(Hymenoptera: Formicidae) , as a possible serious predator on some

native southeastern vertebrates: direct observations and subjective
impressions. J. Ala. Acad. Sci. 52:71-78.

Robbins, C. S., D. Bystrak, and P. H. Geissler. 1986. The breeding
bird survey: its first fifteen years, 1965-1979. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv. , Resour. Publ. 157. 196pp.

233

Common ground- doves in Alabama

Shalaway, S, D. 1985. Fencerow management for nesting birds in
Michigan. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 13:302-306.

Sikes, P. J. and K. A. Arnold. 1986. Red imported fire ant

(Solenopsis invicCa ) predation on cliff swallow (Hirundo pyrrhonota )
nestlings in east-central Texas. Southwest. Nat. 31:105-106.

U. S. D. A. Soil Conservation Service. 1987. Basic statistics 1982
national resource inventory. Iowa State Univ. , Stat. Bull. 756.
153pp.

Yahner, R. H. 1985. Effects of forest fragmentation on winter bird
abundance in central Pennsylvania. Proceedings Penn. Acad. Sci.
59:114-116.

234

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 4, October 1989.

LACK OF EFFECT OF THE BETA-AGONIST CIMATEROL ON
GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF NEONATAL RATS'

J. A. Chromiak

Interdepartmental Physiology Program
Auburn University , AL 36849

and

D. R. Mulvaney and D. R. Strength
Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn University , AL 36849

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of cimaterol
administration on body and muscle growth of neonatal rats, and the effect
of cessation of cimaterol treatment on subsequent postnatal growth. Male
rats were injected with 0, 0.5, 1.0, or 2.0 mg/kg BW cimaterol daily from
7 to 21 days of age. Six rats per treatment group were killed at 21 and
42 days of age. Various skeletal muscles and the heart were dissected and
weighed, and carcass protein and fat content determined. Data at 21 or 42
days were analyzed with an ANOVA, with Duncan's multiple range test as the
post-hoc test. Body weights were not different across cimaterol dosage
groups at 21 or 42 days of age. There were no differences in net BW gain
for the 7 to 21 day or 21 to 42 day periods. Compared to the 0 mg/kg
group, percentage and total carcass fat and protein were not affected by
cimaterol treatment. Weights of the heart and skeletal muscles were
unaffected by cimaterol treatment, except at 42 days when gastrocnemius
and soleus muscle weights were reduced in the 1 mg/kg group. It is
concluded that cimaterol at 0 to 2.0 mg/kg BW does not affect the body and
muscle growth of neonatal rats.

INTROUDUCTION

Administration of beta-adrenergic agonists to various species of
animals has been shown to alter body composition by increasing muscle mass
and reducing body fat (3,10,14). Beta-agonists, such as cimaterol and
clenbuterol, are selective for the receptor (16), and cause nutrient
repartitioning in livestock (3), and rats (10,13). Subcutaneous in¬
jection of clenbuterol twice daily at 1.0 mg/kg body weight (BW) increased
weight gain in 150 g rats by 27% (10). This increased gain in clenbuterol
treated rats was due to an elevated fat- free mass with no difference in
total body fat content between control and clenbuterol treated groups.
Administration of clenbuterol in the diet of rats (13) and by subcutaneous
injection (2 mg/kg BW) to mice (15) increased both body and muscle
weights, and decreased percent body fat. Beta-agonists reduce fat

'Manuscript received 1 February 1989; accepted 5 April 1989.

235

Cromiak, Mulvaney, and Strength

accretion due to direct effects on lipid metabolism (5); however, the
cellular mechanisms involved in the enhanced muscle hypertrophy have not
been resolved.

Neonates may not respond to beta- agonists in the same manner as older
animals as recent data demonstrated that cimaterol can have a negative
impact on growth of rats 7 to 21 days of age (6). Daily injection of 0,
2, 4, or 8 mg/kg cimaterol depressed body weight gain and muscle weights
at higher doses in rats selected for large and small mature body size.
However, cimaterol had a greater impact on the body and muscle growth of
the large strain rats compared with the small strain rats.

Following cessation of beta-agonist administration, body composition
apparently returns rapidly to control values (2). In obese mice (ob/ob
strain), dietary administration of the beta-agonist, BRL 26830, for 28
days resulted in a 17% reduction in body weight, and a 28% decrease in
body fat content compared to a control group. However, 21 days after
removal of BRL 26830 from the diet of the ob/ob strain of mice, body
weight and composition had returned to values similar to the control
group. Whether these kinds of responses for muscle weight would occur
following withdrawal of cimaterol have not been reported.

Due to an inhibition of growth at high doses of cimaterol in neonatal
rats in an earlier study (6) , the present study was conducted to determine
if administration of lower doses of cimaterol from 7 to 21 days of age
would promote or Inhibit body and muscle growth. The effect of withdrawal
of cimaterol on subsequent body and muscle growth was also examined in
order to determine the impact of altering growth during the neonatal
period on subsequent postnatal growth. Manipulation of growth, positive
or negative, at this age may have a significant impact on ultimate body
size and composition.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Charles River CD strain male rat pups from litters representing a
population that had been genetically selected for large size over 13
generations were used for this study. At 12 weeks of age, mean weight of
male rats from the large strain was 470 g compared to 380 g for males from
the unselected control strain (unpublished data) . To minimize litter
effects, the number of rats per litter was normalized to 8 pups per lit¬
ter. At 7 days of age, forty-eight rats were randomly assigned to one of
4 treatment' groups consisting of rats that received subcutaneous injec¬
tions of 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/kg body weight of cimaterol (American
Cyanamid, Princeton, NJ) between 0800 and 1000 h daily. Six rats in each
dosage group were also designated to be killed at 21 or 42 days of age.
Cimaterol was dissolved in propylene glycol, and administered by injection
of volumes standardized across treatment groups (50 or 100 ul) . Rats in
the 0 mg/kg group received propylene glycol only. Nursing females and
respective litters were provided free access to a complete rat chow diet
(Purina Mills, St. Louis, MO) and water. At 21 days, rats were weaned and
all injections terminated.

236

Effect of cimaterol on growth and composition of neonatal rats

At slaughter, rats were euthanized with chloroform, decapitated, and
the hide, tail, and paws removed. The heart and various skeletal muscles
from the left forelimb or hindlimb were dissected, trimmed of connective
tissue, blotted lightly with gauze, and weighed. The skeletal muscles
excised were the triceps brachii, semitendinosus , soleus, gastrocnemius,
plantaris, extensor digitorum longus (EDL) , and tibialis anterior. The
remainder of the internal organs were removed, the carcass weighed and
frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -20 C until further analysis.

Carcasses were autoclaved for 4 h, mixed with an equal volume of
distilled water, and homogenized with a Polytron homogenizer (Brinkman
Instruments, Westbury, N.Y.). The homogenizer tip and beaker were rinsed
with distilled water, which was added to the homogenate, and the total
homogenate volume determined. Homogenates were divided into 2 aliquots
for determination of protein using micro -Kjeldahl analysis (1) and lipid
content using the procedure of Bligh and Dyer (4) .

Data for body and tissue weights, BW gain, and body composition at 21
or 42 days were analyzed with an analysis of variance (ANOVA) . When ANOVA
indicated statistical differences between cimaterol treatment groups,
Duncan's multiple range test was used to test for differences between
individual means with p values equal to or less than 0.05 accepted as
significant (17).

RESULTS

There were no differences in body weights across the four cimaterol
dosage groups at 21 days of age, or at 42 days of age after the rats had
been removed from cimaterol treatment for 21 days (Table 1) . There were
no differences in net body weight gain (Figure 1) for the 7 to 21 day and
21 to 42 day periods. Compared with the 0 mg/kg group, percentage and
total carcass protein and fat content at 21 and 42 days of age were not
affected by cimaterol administration (Table 1). At 42 days the percentage
carcass protein of the 2.0 mg/kg group was lower than the 1.0 mg/kg.

At 21 days, there were no differences in the weight of the heart and
skeletal muscles across the four cimaterol dosage groups (Table 2). At 42
days, the weight of the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles in the 1.0 mg/kg
group were 78.0 and 80.6% of the values of the 0 mg/kg group. There were
no other differences for muscle weights at 42 days across the treatment
groups. Liver and kidney weights at 21 and 42 days were unaffected by
cimaterol treatment (data not shown) .

DISCUSSION

The present study was conducted to determine the effect of low doses
of cimaterol on body and muscle growth of neonatal rats. In previous
work, cimaterol administration to neonatal rats from 7 to 21 days of age
inhibited growth at 4 and 8 mg/kg BW in large strain rats, but did not
affect carcass composition (6). It was clear that neonatal rats do not
respond to beta-agonist treatment in the same direction as older rats
treated similarly (10, 13, 15). It was suggested that energy expenditure

237

Cromiak, Mulvaney, and Strength

Table 1. Live weight and carcass composition of large strain rats

injected with 0, 0.5, 1.0, or 2.0 mg/kg BW of cimaterol from 7
to 21 days of age, and killed at 21 days of age, or at 42 days of
age after cessation of cimaterol administration for 21 days.

Age

Cimaterol

Dosage

(mg/kg)

Live

Weight

(g)

Carcass

Protein

(g)

%

Protein

Carcass

Fat

(g)

%

Fat

21 d

0

51 . 8+4 . 4

2 . 8+0 . 3

17 . 1±0 . 8

0 . 9±0 . 4

4 . 7+1 . 4

0.5

52 . 7±4 . 1

3 . 0+0 . 3

17.3+0.8

0 . 8+0 . 3

4 . 3+1 . 1

1.0

48 . 5+4 . 3

2 . 6±0 . 2

17.7+0.8

0 . 9+0 . 4

5 . 5+1 . 4

2.0

48 . 0+4 . 3

2 . 8±0 . 2

18 . 8+0 . 9

0 . 8±0 . 3

4 . 4+1 . 2

42 d

0

195. 3± 8.6

12 . 1±1 .4

17 . 2±1 . 1

1 . 8±0 . 5

2 . 6+0 . 7

0.5

189.1+10.8

11.4+1.9

17.0+0.5

1 . 9±0 . 5

2 . 7+0 . 5

1.0

169.4+ 9.9

11 .6+0.6

19.1+0.5

2 . 0+0 . 4

3 . 3+0 . 7

2.0

202.3+ 9.0

11.3+1.1

15 . 6+1 . 0*

2 . 5+0 . 7

3 . 3+0 . 8

Values are mean + SEM. ; n-6 per group
*2.0 mg/kg different from 1.0 mg/kg (p<.05).

200 -

7-21 DAYS 21-42 DAYS

I I O 0.5 ■■ 1.0 2.0

CIMATEROL DOSAGE (mg/kg)

FIG. 1. Net gain in body weight from 7 to 21 days of age and 21
to 42 days of age for large strain rats injected with 0,
0.5, 1.0, or 2.0 mg/kg BW of cimaterol from 7 to 21 days
of age.

238

Table 2. flkeletal muscle and heart weights of large strain rats injected with 0, 0.5, 1.0, or 2.0 mg/kg
fiw of a i materol from 7 to 21 days of aoe. and killed at 21 days of age, or at 42 days of age

Effect of ciaaterol on growth and composition of neonatal rats

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Cromiak, Mulvaney, and Strength

might have been elevated in the neonatal rats receiving cimaterol (6) ,
which would be consistent with a 26% elevation in energy expenditure of
clenbuterol injected rats compared to controls (10). If high dosages of
cimaterol elevated the metabolic rate of neonatal rats, less energy would
be available for whole body and muscle growth. Therefore a narrower and
lower dosage range was employed in the present study. However, injections
of cimaterol at 0 to 2 mg/kg of body weight did not affect body and muscle
growth. This is consistent with the recent study of Mersmann et al . (12)
in which dietary cimaterol at 0 to 0.5 mg/kg for 10 wk had no effect on
growth and carcass composition of young, rapidly growing pigs.

Age or maturity of an animal may affect responsiveness to beta-
agonists. Although administration of 0 to 2 mg/kg cimaterol did not
affect the growth of neonatal rats in the present study, it has been
demonstrated consistently that beta-agonists promote body weight gain,
reduce percent fat, and increase muscle weight in older animals (3,10,
13,14). For example, subcutaneous Injection of epinephrine at 10 mg/d
(approximately 0.15 mg/kg BW) for 10 to 30 days increased nitrogen
retention 10.4 to 22.7% and body weight gain 11.0 to 18.7% in adult
castrated male pigs (7). However, injection of epinephrine (0.0625 mg/kg
to 0.2 mg/kg) to 3 to 4 week old female and castrated male pigs for 6
weeks resulted In decreased growth rates. Young pigs receiving epineph¬
rine had 2.8 to 6.5% more carcass protein and 0.5 to 23.4% less fat
compared with a control group, but weighed 95 to 99% of controls. Epi¬
nephrine injections increased the growth rate of older pigs but restricted
the growth rate of young pigs when administered at equivalent or lower
doses. Epinephrine had little effect on fat deposition of older pigs but
decreased fat storage in younger animals. In the present study, total
carcass fat and percent fat were not different between cimaterol treated
rats and 0 mg/kg controls. Dietary energy and tissue reserves available
to the neonatal rats may have been inadequate to support any reparti¬
tioning effects due to cimaterol administration.

Animal genotype may affect responsiveness to beta-agonists (6,9). In
mice selected for rapid 3 to 6 week weight gain, dietary cimaterol at 50
ppm at 4 to 10 weeks of age had no affect on body weight gain, but 200 ppm
depressed body weight gain (9). In a control strain, 50 ppm cimaterol
resulted in increased body weight gain compared with the 0 ppm diet, but
200 ppm cimaterol did not affect body weight gain. In both strains, epi-
didymal fat pad weight and subcutaneous fat weight expressed as a percent¬
age of empty body weight decreased consistently as the level of dietary
cimaterol increased.

The lack of effect of cimaterol on muscle weight in this study with
neonatal rats is in contrast to increases of 10 to 35% in the weight of
various skeletal muscles in older rats given clenbuterol compared to
controls (10,11,13,18). In previous work (6), cimaterol at higher doses
(2 to 8 mg/kg) inhibited the growth of the triceps brachii, gastrocnemius,
brachialis, and peroneus muscles 10 to 40% in neonatal rats. It appears
that the doses used in the present study were too low to inhibit muscle
growth in neonatal rats .

240

Effect of cimaterol on growth and composition of neonatal rats

In contrast with a reported increase in heart weight with beta-
agonist administration (8), cimaterol had no effect on heart weight. The
doses used in the present study were sufficient to induce cardiac
hypertrophy, since daily administration of 0.1 mg/kg of isoproterenol
induced significant cardiac hypertrophy within 3 days (8). After 21 days,
weight of the heart was 40% greater in the rats given isoproterenol
compared to controls. Discrepancies between studies may be due to
differences in structure and beta-receptor selectivity of the beta-
agonists. Cimaterol is f}2 selective, while isoproterenol is a non-
selective beta-agonist.

Growth of rats post-weaning after termination of cimaterol treatment
was examined to determine the impact of withdrawal of the beta-agonist on
subsequent growth. Cessation of cimaterol administration at 21 days of
age had no effect on subsequent body and muscle growth to 42 days of age.
Body weight and lipid content in ob/ob strain mice were decreased due to
administration of a beta-agonist for 28 days, but had returned to control
values within 21 days after removal of BRL 26830 from the diet (2) . In
the present study, cimaterol administration did not affect growth from 7
to 21 days of age; therefore, it might be expected that cessation of
treatment would have little effect on subsequent growth. It is concluded
that cimaterol administration at 0 to 2 mg/kg daily does not affect body
and muscle growth of rapidly growing neonatal rats bred for large mature
body size. It is suggested that future studies are needed to determine
the relationship of age and genotype to the effectiveness of beta-
agonists in promoting growth.

REFERENCES

1. A.O.A.C. Handbook, 1980. 13th ed. Washington D.C.

2. Arch, J. R. S., and Ainsworth, A. T. 1983. Reduction of obesity in
mice with a novel type of thermogenic ^-adrenergic agonist. Int. J.
Obesity. 7:85-6. (Abstract)

3. Beerman, D. H. , Campion, D. R. , and Dalrymple, R. H. 1985.
Mechanisms responsible for repartitioning tissue growth in meat
animals. Proc. Recip. Meat Conf. 38:105-17.

4. Bligh, E. G., and Dyer, W. J. 1959. A rapid method of total lipid
extraction and purification. Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 37:911-17.

5. Buttery, P. J., and Dawson, J. M. 1987. The mode of action of
beta-agonists as manipulators of carcass composition. In: J. P.
Hanrahan (Ed.) Beta-Agonists and Their Effects on Animal Growth and
Carcass Quality, pp. 29-43. Elsevier Appied Science, New York.

6. Chromiak, J. A., Mulvaney, D. R. , and Strength, R. 1989. Effect of
the beta-agonist cimaterol on growth and composition of neonatal
rats selected for large and small body size. Biol, of the Neonate.
55:111-118.

241

Chromiak, Mulvaney, and Strength

7. Cunningham, H. M, , Friend, D. W. , and Nicholson, J. W. G. 1963.
Effect of epinephrine on nitrogen and fat deposition of pigs. J.
Anim. Sci. 22:632-36.

8. Deshaies, Y. , Willemot, J., and Leblanc, J. 1981. Protein
synthesis, amino acid uptake, and pools during isoroterenol- induced
hypertrophy of the rat heart and tibialis muscle. Can. J. Physiol.
Pharmacol. 59:113-21.

9. Eisen, E. J., Croom, W. J. Jr., and Helton, S. W. 1988.

Differential response to the ^-adrenergic agonist cimateriol in mice
selected for rapid gain and unselected controls. J. Anim. Sci.

66:361-71.

10. Emery, P. W. , Rothwell, N. J., Stock, M. J., and Winter, P. D.

1984. Chronic effects of fi2- adrenergic agonists on body composition
and protein synthesis in the rat. Bioscience Rep. 4:83-91.

11. Maltin, C. A., Delday, M. I., and Reeds, P. J. 1986. The effect of
a growth promoting drug, clenbuterol, on fibre frequency and area in
hind limb muscles from young male rats. Biosci. Rep. 6:293-9.

12. Mersmann, H. J., Hu, C. Y. , Pond, W. G. , Rule, D. C . , Novakofski, J.
E. , and Smith, S. B. 1987. Growth and adipose tissue metabolism in
young pigs fed cimaterol with adequate or low dietary protein. J.
Anim. Sci. 64:1284-94.

13. Reeds, P. J., Hay, S. M. , Dorwood, P. M. , and Palmer, R. M. 1986.
Stimulation of muscle growth by clenbuterol: lack of effect on
muscle protein biosynthesis. British J. Nutr. 56:249-58.

14. Ricks, C. A., Baker, P. K. , and Dalrymple, R. H. 1984. Use of
repartitioning agents to improve performance and body composition of
meat animals. Proc. Rec. Meat Conf. 37:5-11.

15. Rothwell, N. J., and Stock, M. J. 1985. Modification of body
composition by clenbuterol in normal and dystrophic mice. Biosci.
Rep. 5:755-60.

16. Timmerman, H. 1987. B-Adrenergics : Physiology, pharmacology,
applications, structure, and structure-activity relationships. In:
J. P. Hanrahan (Ed.) Beta-Agonists and Their Effects On Animal
Growth and Carcass Quality, pp. 13-28. Elsevier Applied Science,
New York.

17. SAS User's Guide. 1985. Statistical Analysis System Institute,

Inc . Cary , NC .

18. Zeman, R. J., Ludemann, R. , and Etlinger, J. D. 1987. Clenbuterol,
a /)2-agonist, retards atrophy In denervated muscles. Am. J.

Physiol. 252 : E152-5 .

242

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 4, October 1989.

REGISTERED NURSES' RESPONSES TO REPORTING ABUSE:

A SURVEY OF HOME HEALTH AND COMMUNITY HEALTH NURSES IN ALABAMA*

Carolyn Lea Clark-Daniels
Center for the Study of Aging
College of Community Health Sciences
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487

ABSTRACT

Abuse of the elderly is a problem of some magnitude. A survey of
nurses in the fields of home health and community health concerning the
detection of abuse and the law on mandatory reporting of abuse, neglect,
or exploitation was conducted in 1988. The nurses who were surveyed were
confused about the mechanics and operation of the law and expressed some
reluctance about reporting abuse or neglect to the authorities.
Furthermore, nurses believed that there were not enough protective
services provided for those who had been abused or neglected. The most
disturbing aspect of the survey was the high level of dissatisfaction with
the current law expressed by all categories of nurses.

Review of the Literature

Abuse of the elderly is difficult to detect because the problem is
often obscure. The abuse remains hidden because the victim frequently
fears public exposure with its accompanying shame, embarrassment, and
guilt over what has happened; because the victim sometimes fears retali¬
ation or removal from the abode and placement in a nursing home; or

because they are too passive or sick to remedy the situation. As a

result, no accurate estimate of the extent of the problem has been

developed. One author calculated that approximately one in every 25 (or

4%) of elderly Americans (>1.1 million) are probably victims of abuse
(Clark, 1981). The House Select Committee on Aging reported that there
were approximately 100,000 abuse victims annually (U.S. House of Repre¬
sentatives, 1985). Others conclude that elder abuse occurs with about
the same frequency as child abuse (Crouse, Cobb, Harris, Kopecky, and
Poertner, 1981; Kosberg, 1986; O'Brien, 1987). Unfortunately, all of
these estimates were based on haphazard sampling techniques. Pillemer
and Finkelhor (1988) extrapolated an abuse rate of 3.4 percent of the
elderly population from a random sample taken in the Boston metropolitan
area. However, the sample was limited geographically and by the reluc¬
tance of respondents to discuss abuse. Despite these differences in
estimation, significant agreement exists that abuse of the elderly is a
serious, ongoing problem.

^Manuscript received 14 March 1989; accepted 12 May 1989.

243

Clark-Daniels

Most often, social policy response to abuse or neglect of the eld¬
erly has taken two forms, protective services legislation and mandatory
reporting legislation (Kosberg, 1986). Currently, all 50 states use one
or both of these two approaches. Protective services usually involve the
provision of both voluntary and involuntary services to the physically or
mentally infirm, older adult who has been abused, neglected, or exploited
(Faulkner, 1982). While protective services historically have helped to
protect vulnerable adults from "abuse, maltreatment, self- destructive
behavior, and other forms of adversity," (Kosberg, 1986) they also

exacerbate existing legal difficulties. Problems such as the absence of
due process safeguards and interference with protections against the
invasion of the rights to privacy and self-determination, often place the
abuse victim at the mercy of institutions whose goals may not match their
own (Crouse, et al. , 1981).

The second type of legislation, mandatory reporting of elder abuse,
generally requires health care and other professionals to report cases of
suspected abuse to appropriate authorities. Yet, there is little
standardization of "...the criteria for emerging intervention and the
protecting of due process rights..." across states (Kosberg, 1986).

Kosberg points out that usually "legislation provides [for] legal action

against anyone who, knowing of elder abuse, fails to report it." But,

there are few, if any, due process protections for the abused persons.

Mandatory reporting has been criticized because of its ineffective¬
ness in reducing elder abuse and its failure to protect the personal
liberties of the abuse victim (Salend, Kane, Satz, and Pynoos, 1984;
Faulkner, 1982). Mandatory reporting has also been criticized as an
"inexpensive (but showy) way for the state to deal with the problem and,
thus, demonstrating] an effort to deal with a problem that will not cost
a great amount of state revenue" (Kosberg, 1986).

Additional problems exist. One such problem is the lack of aware¬
ness of the legal requirement that certain groups report cases of elder
abuse. O'Brien (1986) surveyed physicians in Michigan and North Caro¬
lina, and found that 70 percent of physicians were unaware of elder abuse
reporting requirements, even though about 25 percent of these physicians
had previously encountered a case of elder abuse. In a random survey of
physicians in Alabama, Daniels, Baumhover, and Clark-Daniels (1989)
reported that 72.3 percent of the respondents were unclear as to how to
report cases of elder abuse even if they did recognize that abuse had
occurred. In Alabama, 41.9 percent of these same physicians had seen
abuse in their practices.

The literature on nurses and elder abuse is sparse . Available
literature suggests that recognizing and helping abuse victims is a vital
part of nursing (Hirst and Miller, 1986). Furthermore, the literature
suggests that nurses are required to report abuse, neglect, or
exploitation, when mandatory reporting requirements exist. Several
authors (c.f. Brent, 1988; Thobaben and Anderson, 1985) note that nurses
are part of the medical profession who are mandated to report abuse.

244

Registered nurses and the reporting of abuse

Three years ago, nurses in Canada were concerned because there was no
mandatory reporting law in "any of the provinces..." (Hirst and Miller,
1986). Unfortunately, little research has been done on the nurses'
responses to these requirements. This article attempts to fill this gap
for registered nurses in Alabama.

The Alabama Law

In Alabama, Act No. 780 was enacted in 1976 to protect all persons
over the age of 18 who were in need of protective services. The Act
required the reporting of cases of abuse, neglect, and exploitation to
the Department of Human Resources (county welfare department) by "prac¬
titioners of the healing arts." The act did not define "practitioners".
The penalty for not reporting suspected cases of abuse, which was $500 or
six months in jail, is the same penalty for abusing an adult.1 The
Department of Human Resources (DHR) was required to investigate within 72
hours of the initial report.

In May 1989 (Alabama Senate Act 337) , this law was amended to make
the act of abuse, neglect, or exploitation a felony punishable, in some
cases, by a maximum 20-year prison sentence and a maximum fine of $10,000.
Emotional abuse remains a misdemeanor. However, "practitioners of the
healing arts" were not further defined and, the fine for not reporting
such cases remained the same ($500) . The amendment allows any person in
the state to report if they so choose. Reporting by other than
"practitioners of the healing arts" was occurring even without the
official status given by the amendment.

Since 1976, there has been an increase in reported cases of adult
abuse. For instance, during 1984, there were 4,171 cases of abuse,
neglect, or exploitation reported in the state. In 1988, over 7,200
reports were received by DHR. Based on reporting in 1989, it is ex¬
pected that over 9,000 cases will have been reported by September 30,
1989. These reports include all reported cases of abuse, neglect, and
exploitation of both disabled adults and older adults.

The Purpose of this Study

This research is part of an ongoing project to examine the under¬
standing and attitudes of Alabama health care providers concerning three
important components of public policy toward elder abuse: understanding
and diagnosis of elder abuse, neglect, and exploitation; knowledge of and
attitudes toward the Alabama Adult Protective Services Act; and possible
barriers to the willingness to report.

The initial study covered Alabama physicians in the specialties most
likely to encounter elder mistreatment: family practice, general prac¬
tice, and internal medicine. The study concluded that, while physicians
evinced considerable knowledge about elder abuse, they clearly were not
aware of the law and its operation, nor were they very willing to report
cases of abuse (Clark- Daniels , 1988; Clark- Daniels , Baumhover, and
Daniels, in press; Daniels, Baumhover, and Clark- Danie Is , 1989; Daniels,
Clark-Daniels , and Baumhover, 1988).

245

Clark-Daniels

The current study shifts the focus to registered nurses. Of the
several classifications of health care providers likely to come into
contact with elder mistreatment, nurses are among the most likely to make
the initial contacts with the patients. This front-line position is
especially the case for nurses specializing in home health and community
health care (Brent, 1988). Many of these nurses frequently work with the
elderly in the patient's home. They may see neglected or abused persons
before the physician does. A physician is likely to see the elderly
patient after the person is dressed up and made ready for a visit to the
physician's office.

The Sample

The research population for this study consisted of home health and
community health nurses. As of July 1988, the Alabama Board of Nursing
listed 1,539 registered nurses in these specialties. A two-page mail
questionnaire was administered to the entire universe in late July 1988.
Return envelopes were included. Two weeks after the initial mailing, a
reminder postcard was mailed to boost response. The master list of reg¬
istered nurses provided by the Alabama Board was unusually complete and
up-to-date. Less than 10 of the surveys were returned as undeliverable,
and only 4 percent of the respondents indicated that they were retired.
By comparison, the Alabama Medical Association list of licensed physi¬
cians used in the previous study yielded a higher rate of undeliverable
letters, and a retirement rate of 20 percent (Clark-Daniels, 1988).

Of the 1,539 surveys sent, 462 (or 30%) were returned. The response
rate is low, but is not at all unusual for mail questionnaires to pro¬
fessional populations. O'Brien (1986) achieved a 30 percent response rate
for his elder abuse survey of physicians in Michigan and North Carolina.
The authors achieved a 46 percent response rate for a random 12 percent
sample of the population of Alabama general practitioners, family
practitioners, and internists. Even taking into account the high rate of
retirement for the physicians survey, the usable response rate was 35
percent. Thus, the nurses' response fit within these boundaries.

However, the low response rate does bias the conclusions to an un¬
determined degree. Unfortunately, the respondents and non- respondents
cannot be compared demographically because no state -wide demographic data
are available for these two nursing specialties. Strictly speaking,
therefore, the conclusions of this study should be limited to the 30
percent who responded.

Some speculations about the direction of bias are possible. In
particular, the nature of the study and previous research on the biases
of mail questionnaires suggest that the nurses who responded to the survey
are likely to be those most interested in the topic. These nurses are
more likely to be those who have seen and reported abuse, neglect, or
exploitation. As a result, the survey probably overestimates the
percentage of the registered nurses in Alabama who have seen and reported
abuse and will generally not be useful in evaluating the extent of abuse.
The possible bias with regard to the attitudes of the nurses to the three
main areas of the study is impossible to determine.

246

Registered nurses and the reporting of abuse

The Questionnaire

The survey instrument was developed from the instrument used for the
physician study in 1987. Both the earlier instrument and the draft in¬
strument for the nurses' study were pretested. The instrument sent to
the physicians also served as a pretest for the survey mailed to the
nurses. A modified instrument was then sent to select registered nurses,
physicians, and academics associated with the College of Behavioral
Sciences at the University of Alabama. Based on their suggestions the
instrument was further revised and sent to the population of home health
and community health registered nurses.

The key difference between the physician instrument and the nurse
instrument was the focus of the nurses' instrument on the reporting of
elder abuse, neglect, and exploitation, and the reasons for not reporting.
The nurses' questionnaire contained demographic items (age, sex, and
race), characteristics of practice occupation, years in practice,
retirement status, patient load, and proportion of senior citizens among
patients. Questions concerning the identification and reporting of elder
mistreatment, scales dealing with the understanding and diagnosis of
abuse, knowledge of the Alabama law, and willingness to report abuse were
also included.

The identification and reporting section of the questionnaire asked
the respondent to identify whether they had come across cases of abuse,
and if so, how many in the past year and in their career. They were also
asked to respond to a similar set of questions with regard to reporting
cases of abuse. In addition, they were asked to identify the agency to
which they reported and their satisfaction with the response. Non¬
reporters were asked to list the reasons for not reporting.

The final section of the survey consisted of 31 statements on the
definition of abuse, the understanding of the law, and the willingness to
report. The respondents were asked to evaluate these statements on the
basis of a five -point Likert- type scale ranging from Definitely Not True
to Definitely True. For the purposes of this report, the scales were
collapsed into three-point scales, Not True, Unsure, and True.2

Results of the Study

Table 1 presents the demographic information and practice charac¬
teristics of the survey respondents. Because some nurses did not list
home health and community health as areas of specialty, nurses who stated
that they were in administrative, mental health, hospital emergency room,
and other positions, or simply did not give any specialty, were catego¬
rized as "other" . The average ages of the three groups of nurses were not
very different. The typical home health nurses were 40.6 years of age,
community health nurses 42.6, and other nurses 40.9. A large majority of
the nurses were white and female. There was some variation in the average
number of years the nurses had spent in their profession. Home health
care nurses in this survey had the least experience (6.3 years), followed
by other nurses at 9.2 years. Community health nurses averaged 11.9 years
in their profession.

247

Clark-Daniels

Table 1. Personal and Practice Characteristics of
Registered Nurses in Alabama

Home

Health

Community

Health

Other

Average Age (in years)

40.6

42.6

40.9

Race: White

Other

95.2%

4.8

89.7%

10.3

91.5%

8.5

Sex: Male

Female

.5%

99.5

1.4%

98.6

8.5%

91.5

Average number of years in profession

6.3

11.9

9.2

Average number of patients seen per day

7

19

25

Percent of patients seen per day

81.0%

48.1%

45.5%

Percent who have seen cases of
elder abuse in the past year

67.8%

53.5%

35.8%

Percent who have seen cases of
elder abuse in their career

85.6%

71.6%

52.6%

Median number of cases of elder
abuse seen in past year

2

2

0

Median number of cases of elder
abuse seen in career

5

4

0

Percent who* have reported cases of
elder abuse in past year

52.3%

46.1%

9.4%

Percent who have reported cases of
elder abuse in career

76.5%

59.2%

32.7%

Median number of cases of edler abuse
reported in the past year

1

0

0

Median number of cases of elder abuse
reported over entire career

2

1

0

Of those who reported, reported to DHR

93.2%

91.5%

76.2%

Agree that cases I have reported have
been satisfactorily handled

24.9%

36.0%

14.3%

N - 462

189

214

59

Source: 1988 Alabama Edler Abuse Survey of Home Health and Community

Health Registered Nurses.

The home health care nurses saw the fewest patients per day but the
highest percentage of patients over the age of 65. There was a progres¬
sion from highest (home health) to lowest ("other") among both those who

248

Registered nurses and the reporting of abuse

have seen abuse and those who have reported abuse. Home health nurses
saw a higher percentage of abuse in their patients in the past year and
in their careers. "Others" saw the least and reported the least abuse.

Community health nurses were most likely to have both seen and
reported abuse in the past year (46.1% / 53.5% - 86.2%). Home health
nurses were more likely to have seen and reported abuse in their careers
(76.5% / 85.6% - 89.4%). Other nurses reported startlingly few of the
cases of abuse they had seen, 26.3% in the. past year and only 62.2% in
their career. The source of this gap in reporting is not clear. The
community health nurses were the most satisfied with the handling of cases
once abuse was reported to authorities. Even so, the satisfaction measure
for all three categories was low. For example, only 36.0% of the
community health nurses were satisfied with the handling of reported
cases .

Despite the dramatic differences in encountering and reporting abuse,
few differences existed across groups in the understanding and diagnosis
of abuse (see Table 2). Home health and community health nurses shared
common points of view. Other types of nurses were slightly more likely to
be uncertain about the definition and diagnosis of abuse. Most nurses
disagreed with the statements that few older people were abused or
neglected. Most also believed that the abuse which physicians saw was
only the tip of the iceberg, although the "other" category was slightly
more likely to disagree. There was confusion concerning the existence of
clear-cut definitions of abuse given by professional associations and
whether most abuse involved only minor injuries. In addition, Diagnostic
Related Groups (DRGs), according to a plurality of the nurses, have
contributed to mistreatment of elderly patients in some cases. Still,
many of the nurses expressed uncertainty or disagreement with this
evaluation of DRGs. In general, though, a majority of nurses in all
categories believed that experienced people in their profession could
accurately detect cases of elder abuse.

Many of the nurses did not fully understand the legal responsi¬
bilities imposed by the law (Alabama, 1976), especially the handful of
nurses not identified as home health and community health. On the one
hand, over 90% of the nurses in all categories responded that all health
care providers had a legal responsibility to report elder abuse. Over
90% also disagreed with the statement that only physicians were required
to report. On the other hand, most of the nurses in all categories were
confused about whether an older adult could be removed from their home
without his or her consent (see Table 3). Moreover, less than 7% of the
nurses in all three categories believed that Alabama had sufficient
services available to meet the needs of abused elderly people once the
legal process of intervention had begun.

Most of the respondents were also uncertain about the protections and
penalties of the law. There was concern about whether anonymity could be
guaranteed to any health care provider who reports cases of elder abuse.
Additional confusion arose over protection from litigation. A plurality
of all groups were unsure of legal protection even though the law provides

249

Clark-Daniels

Table 2. Alabama Home Health (HH) and
Understanding and Diagnoses

Community (CH) RNs'
of Elder Abuse

Statements

Not

True

Unsure

True

Very few older adults are abused.

HH

67.

9%

18

.2%

13

.9%

CH

74.

9

16

.1

9

.0

Other

67.

2

20

.7

12

.1

Very few older adults are neglected.

HH

86.

0

4

.8

9

.1

CH

84.

8

3

.8

11

.4

Other

86.

0

7

.0

7

.0

Older adults are more prone to abuse

HH

25.

1

40

.1

34

.8

than children.

CH

27.

0

48

.3

24

.6

Other

31.

0

46

.6

22

.4

There are clear-cut definitions of

HH

35.

6

38

.3

26

.1

elder abuse given by my professional

CH

29.

5

38

.6

31.

.9

association.

Other

29.

8

49.

.1

21

.1

Experienced people in my profession

HH

20.

7

14.

.4

64.

.9

can accurately detect cases of

CH

22.

9

14.

.8

62.

.4

elder abuse.

Other

27.

6

13.

.8

58.

.6

The largest number of incidents of

HH

49.

5

30.

.9

19.

.7

elder abuse involve only minor

CH

53.

6

27.

.5

19.

.0

injuries .

Other

44.

6

37.

.9

15.

.5

In my experience, DRGs have contri-

HH

14.

5

33.

,3

52.

2

buted to mistreatment of the elderly

CH

12.

7

39.

.5

47.

,8

in some cases.

Other

5.

3

47.

,4

47.

.4

Most cases of elder abuse are seen

HH

78.

7

12.

.8

8.

,5

in hospital emergency rooms.

CH

73.

8

15.

2

10.

9

Other

60.

3

22.

.4

17.

2

Most cases of elder abuse are never

HH

9.

0

11.

7

79.

3

seen by a doctor or other health

CH

4.

8

8.

1

87.

1

care providers .

Other

10.

3

13.

8

75.

9

Source: 1988 Alabama Elder Abuse Survey of Home Health and Community

Health Registered Nurses.

such protection. The same uncertainty was shown in the responses to a
potential fine or jail sentence. The law states that the fine for not
reporting is $500, and there is a jail sentence of up to 6 months for not
reporting abuse, neglect, or exploitation (Alabama, 1976).

250

Registered nurses and the reporting of abuse

Table 3. Alabama Home Health (HH) and Community (CH) RNs'
Understanding of the Mechanics and Operation of
the Law

Statements Not True Unsure True

In Alabama, no older adult can be

HH

52.

.7%

21.

.8%

25.

,5%

removed from their home without

CH

43.

.1

39.

.2

17.

,7

his or her consent

Other

31.

.0

50.

.0

19.

,0

The State of Alabama has sufficient

HH

75.

.0

18.

.6

6.

.4

services available to meet the needs

CH

77.

,6

15.

.7

6.

,7

of abused elderly people.

Other

86.

.2

12.

.1

1.

.7

Most abused elderly people are able

HH

77.

.2

11.

.7

10.

.6

to get help if they need it.

CH

80.

.0

11,

.4

8.

,6

Other

74,

.1

20.

.2

5.

,2

All health care providers in Alabama

HH

1.

.6

4.

.8

93.

.1

have a legal responsibility to report

CH

5,

.2

3,

.8

92.

,0

elder abuse .

Other

5.

.2

6.

.9

87.

,9

Only physicians are required to

HH

94.

.7

3.

.2

2.

,1

report abuse of the elderly.

CH

92,

.9

3.

.8

3.

.3

Other

86,

.0

12,

.3

1.

,8

Anonymity will be guaranteed to any

HH

27.

.1

32,

.4

40.

.4

health care provider who reports

CH

28.

.0

27

.0

45.

.0

cases of elder abuse.

Other

22,

.4

43,

.1

34.

,5

There are standard procedures for

HH

23,

.9

36.

.7

39.

.4

dealing with elder abuse.

CH

15,

.2

37,

.0

47.

.9

Other

24,

.1

29,

.3

46.

.6

I am protected from litigation if

HH

22,

.9

50,

.5

26.

.6

I report unfounded cases of

CH

19.

.0

49,

.0

31.

.9

elder abuse.

Other

15,

.5

56,

.9

27.

.6

In Alabama, there is a potential

HH

13,

.3

64,

.4

22.

.3

jail sentence if elder abuse is

CH

9.

.6

60,

.3

30.

.1

not reported to the authorities.

Other

3.

.4

82.

.8

13.

.8

In Alabama, there is a potential

HH

9,

.1

67,

.9

23.

.0

fine if elder abuse is not reported

CH

12.

.0

56,

.9

31.

.1

to the authorities.

Other

3,

.4

72,

.4

24.

.1

The abuse victim must consent

HH

78,

.1

16,

.0

5.

.9

before a report of abuse is made.

CH

77.

.1

19,

.0

3.

,8

Other

53.

.4

37,

.9

8.

,6

Source: 1988 Alabama Elder Abuse Survey of Home Health and Community
Health Registered Nurses.

251

Clark-Daniels

Table 4. Alabama Home Health (HH) and Community (CH) RNs'
Willingness to Report Elder Abuse and Neglect

Statements

Not True

Unsure

True

Reporting cases of elder abuse is

HH

88.7%

1

.1%

10.

.1%

my responsibility as a health care

CH

89.6

2

.4

8.

.1

provider.

Other

87.9

6

.9

5.

,2

I must be absolutely certain that

HH

55.3

12

.2

32.

.4

abuse has occurred before reporting

CH

62.4

6

.2

31.

,4

elder abuse.

Other

59.6

10

.5

29.

.8

A major reason for failure to

HH

23.9

17

.6

58.

.5

report elder abuse is the chance of

CH

26.5

14

.2

59.

.2

a lengthy court appearance .

Other

17.2

24

.1

58.

.6

I would rather handle cases of

HH

87.2

6

.4

6.

.3

elder abuse myself than report

CH

90.5

6

.2

3.

.3

them to the authorities.

Other

82.5

12

.3

5.

.3

Reporting abuse will make the

HH

12.2

16

.0

71.

,8

abuser angrier.

CH

11.9

16

.7

71.

.4

Other

12.1

24

.1

63.

.8

Families of abuse victims will

HH

9.1

14

.4

76.

.5

assume that I am the one who

CH

12.0

21

.5

66.

.5

reported the abuse.

Other

13.8

27

.6

58.

.6

Prompt action will be taken if

HH

56.4

23

.4

20.

.2

I report cases of elder abuse.

CH

51.7

29

.9

18.

.5

Other

36.2

41

.4

22,

.2

If I report a case of elder abuse,

HH

50.5

23

.9

25,

.5

my relationship with the patient

CH

50.7

29

.2

20.

.1

will be damaged.

Other

51.7

27

.6

20.

.7

I believe that the identity of

HH

15.5

30

.5

54.

.0

the reporter will eventually

CH

24.8

20

.5

53,

.7

be disclosed.

Other

20.7

39

.7

39.

.7

Abuse victims will usually deny

HH

7.0

8

.0

85,

.0

that they have been abused.

CH

5.2

10

.5

84,

.3

Other

6.9

12

.1

81.

.0

Reporting of elder abuse is a

HH

88.2

8

.0

3,

.7

violation of the elderly person's

CH

86.6

9

. 6

3,

.8

privacy.

Other

86.2

10

.3

3,

.4

Source: 1988 Alabama Elder Abuse Survey of Home Health and Community

Health Registered Nurses.

252

Registered nurses and the reporting of abuse

The third set of statements concerned the willingness of profession¬
als to report abuse. Table 4 reports these responses. Again, responses
varied little across specialties. Most of the nurses agreed that it was
their responsibility to report abuse. A majority in all three catego¬
ries of nurses actually believed that they did not have to be absolutely
certain abuse has occurred before reporting it. Even so, over 30% of the
respondents in all groups reported that they had to be sure abuse had
occurred. Over 50% of the respondents said that they would find the
possibility of a lengthy court appearance to be a barrier to reporting
abuse. Nevertheless, over 80% of all respondents would not want to handle
cases of elder abuse themselves.

Most believed that reporting abuse would make the abuser angrier and
that the families of the victims of abuse would find out that they were
the ones who had reported abuse. These same respondents believed that
the victim would deny that abuse had happened. Still, over 74% of the
respondents were either unsure or did not believe that their relation¬
ship with the patient would be damaged if they reported abuse.

Conclusions

Clearly, there is much confusion and ignorance about elder abuse
legislation in Alabama. This uncertainty is not unique to either the
particular categories of nurses surveyed or to the state. Physicians in
Alabama who were surveyed in 1987, demonstrated this same confusion
(Daniels, et al., 1988). Although nurses were fairly certain of their
ability to detect abuse, they were unsure about important aspects of the
law, and displayed considerable disillusionment with the effectiveness of
reporting. These data demonstrate that nurses, who are often among the
first non- family members to become aware of abuse or neglect, are
ambivalent about reporting when these cases arise. Misconceptions remain
concerning the meaning of the law, the degree of legal protection
provided, and the degree of certainty required before abuse is reported.

For this and a variety of other reasons, there is probably signifi¬
cant under reporting in Alabama. The mandatory reporting feature of most
state laws has probably increased the awareness of abuse and neglect. The
fact that over 90% of home health and community health nurses and 76% of
the "other" nurses in Alabama knew that the appropriate agency for
reporting cases of abuse was the Department of Human Resources reflects
the increase in awareness. It is likely that more cases of abuse are
being reported than ever before. Yet, it is not possible to truly measure
the effectiveness of the law because unreported abuse of some magnitude
still exists. Increases in reported cases may simply mean that more new
cases of abuse are occurring that particular year than in previous years.

Thus , human services workers may never be given the opportunity to
deal with any but the worst cases of abuse or neglect because these cases
are so obvious and demand immediate attention. There are still other
difficulties for public administrators. The mandatory reporting law in
Alabama and in many other states does not seem to give the necessary pro-

253

Clark-Daniels

cedural guidelines which will actually protect the rights of elderly
adults. Nor has the law been well publicized among health care providers.
And even for those who know of the law, the law's provisions are not well
understood.

This survey demonstrates that nurses who are required to report cases
of abuse or neglect are reluctant to invoke the law. The law in Alabama
is now 12 years old and not many in the population of the state actually
know what the law provides. Public administrators and human services
workers could do considerably more to make the law and its amendment known
to caregivers in the state and to help medical professionals define the
meaning of the law.

One of the key weaknesses of the law is in the area of services . The
nurses in the survey were uniform in their belief that social services for
the elder abuse victim in Alabama are inadequate. This lack of services
is particularly damaging, as it imposes a cruel choice on DHR social
workers : institutionalization or no intervention.3

Furthermore, protective services provided for elder adults are often
sparse, particularly in rural areas. In rural areas, health care pro¬
viders may not know if there are any services available beyond nursing
homes. This can serve to frustrate those who are required to report
abuse. Even though relocation to an institution may clearly obviate the
need to report further abuse, it may not be the best solution for the
victim. For instance, the home where the abuse occurred is often owned
by the victim and the abuser may be living there in order to care for the
victim. It would seem that the removal of the abuser would leave the
elder person less vulnerable than the removal of the victim. This
requires the development of alternative in-home services. The law offers
no guidelines on this point.

Abuse and neglect of the elderly are a continuing problem that will
not go away with the passage and implementation of new punitive laws.
Mandatory reporting laws alone cannot prevent abuse or even reduce the
problem. Laws tend to be punitive toward both the abuser and the abused
as well as toward the non-reporting physician. Problems of abuse are
particularly difficult when the abuser is a family member, as is often
the case. Currently, most social and economic support of the aged is
derived from family members. Elderly persons depend on this support even
if their family members are the ones committing the abuse , The elderly
person needs this support and expects that this support will continue even
if abuse occurs .

Beyond the immediate problem of abuse, all of us are growing older
and want to lead productive lives without facing abusive situations.
Punitive laws can protect us to some extent, but can deprive us of control
over our lives. Moreover, the lack of guidance and coordination among
professions most likely to encounter elder abuse makes the application of
existing law sporadic and arbitrary. The lack of knowledge about existing
law and lack of a common frame of reference in dealing with elder abuse is
clearly apparent among some Alabama nurses . What is needed now is a more

254

Registered nurses and the reporting of abuse

comprehensive education program for those professionals most likely to
encounter abuse. A further demand for creative programs designed to meet
the unique requirements of an aging population needs to be met.

ENDNOTES

’The starting age for "older adults" is uncertain. The Alabama Depart¬
ment of Human Resources (DHR) considers adults 50 years and older to be
older adults. Others in the state and American Association of Retired
People (AARP) define the age as 55 years of age. The United States Social
Security Act of 1935 uses a retirement age of 62 years for early
retirement and 65 years for the beginning of normal retirement and the
beginning of the "older years." This article, and the survey on which it
is based, used 65 as the cut-off point.

2Despite the complexity of the statements, most of them appear to fit
reasonably well within the three categories: understanding and diag¬

nosis of abuse, understanding of the mechanics and operation of the law,
and the willingness to report abuse and neglect. A factor analysis of
the 21 statements revealed 12 factors. Thus, each of the categories was
multidimensional; however, the overlap across categories was minimal. At
most, only eight of the scales loaded on more than one factor or on no
factors at all. Moreover, most of the factors were associated with
primarily one category of scales. Only four of the twelve factors could
not be unambiguously identified with one of the categories.

3The lack of services has become a real problem Even institutional¬
ization is not always a possibility because there simply are not enough
nursing home beds available for those on Medicaid or who are unsponsored
and not private pay patients in Alabama. At least some of the abused
elderly are unable to pay to live in any other situation than the place
they currently reside. This is a particularly difficult situation when
the abused elderly person's abuser also lives in the same household.

REFERENCES

Alabama (1977). Adult protective services act of 1976. Act No. 780,
Regular Session.

Alabama (1989). Amendment to the adult protective services act of 1976.
Senate Bill 337, Regular Session.

Brent, Nancy J. (1988). "Elder abuse: The next step." Home
Healthcare Nurse. 6:4,5.

Clark, C. B. (1981). "Geriatric abuse--out of the closet." Journal of
the Tennessee Medical Association. 77:470-71.

Clark-Daniels , Carolyn Lea (1988). "Physician's response to abuse of
the elderly: The not- so- surprising answers to a survey of doctors
in Alabama." Presented at the Alabama Academy of Sciences Annual
Conference .

255

i

Clark-Daniels

Clark-Daniels , Carolyn Lea, Lorin A. Baumhover, R. Steven Daniels (in
press). "To report or not to report: Physicians' responses to
elder abuse." Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration .

Crouse, Joyce S., Deborah C. Cobb, Britta B. Harris, Frank J. Kopecky,
and John Poertner (1981) . Abuse and neglect of the elder in
Illinois: Incidence and characteristics , legislation and policy-
recommendations. Springfield, Illinois: Illinois Council on Aging.

Daniels, R. Steven, Lorin A. Baumhover, and Carolyn L. Clark-Daniels.
(1989). "Physicians' mandatory reporting of elder abuse. The
Gerontologist . 29:321-327.

Daniels, R. Steven, Carolyn L. Clark-Daniels and Lorin A. Baumhover

(1988). "Abuse of elders: Physicians are confused." JAMA: Journal
of the American Medical Association. 260:3276.

Faulkner, L. R. (1982). "Mandating the reporting of suspected cases of
elder abuse: An inappropriate, ineffective and ageist response to
the abuse of older adults." Family Law Quarterly 16 No. 1) : 69-91 .

Hirst, Sandra P. and Jean Miller (1986). "The abused elderly." Journal
of Psychosocial Nursing. 24:28-34.

Kosberg, J. I. (1986). "Preventing elder abuse: Identification of high
risk factors prior to placement decision." Presented at the Annual
Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, Chicago, Illinois.

O'Brien, J. G. (1987). "Elder abuse and the physician: Factors

impeding recognition and intervention." Unpublished manuscript,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, Michigan.

O'Brien, J. G. (1986). "Elder abuse: Barriers to identification and
intervention." Presented at the Annual Meeting of the
Gerontological Society of America, Chicago, Illinois.

Pillemer, K. A. and D. Finkelhor (1988). "The prevalence of elder
abuse: a random sample survey." The Gerontologist 28:51-57.

Salend, E. , R. A. Kane, M. Satz and J. Pynoos (1984). "Elder abuse
reporting: limitations of statutes." The Gerontologist 24:61-69.

Thobaben, M. , C. Anderson (1985). "Reporting elder abuse: It's the
law." American Journal of Nursing. 85:371-375.

U. S. House Select Committee on Aging, Subcommittee on Health and Long-
Term Care (1985). Elder abuse: A national disgrace (H. Doc. 99-
502). 99th cong., 1st Sess. Washington, D. C. : Government
Printing Office.

256

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 4, October 1989.

TRICHOSTRONGYUJS COLUBRIFORMIS (NEMATODA) INFECTION
IN NORMAL AND ZINC-DEFICIENT GOATS1

Leon W. Bone

USDA, ARS Animal Parasite Research Laboratory
P. O. Box 952
Auburn, AL 36830

and

Edward J. Parish, Waite Dykes, and Herbert H. Kohl
Department of Chemistry
Auburn University
Auburn University , AL 36849

ABSTRACT

Goats infected with the intestinal nematode, Trichostrongylus colu-
briformis , gained less weight than uninfected animals. Infection of zinc-
deficient animals caused a weight loss while uninfected goats, given
deficient feed, gained insignificantly. Loss of body weight was independ¬
ent of infection level. Levels of serum zinc declined in deficient-
ration animals by 71% while zinc levels in the intestinal nematodes
declined by 35%. Infection with various levels of nematode larvae
indicated no effect on the zinc status of the host.

INTRODUCTION

The importance of dietary zinc is recognized in both man and ruminants
(Hambridge, 1981; Blackmon et al., 1967). The role of zinc during infec¬
tion has been reviewed (Sugarman, 1983) , but few studies have examined the
relation of zinc levels in the host and helminth disease. Plasma levels
of zinc are reduced in human schistosomiasis while zinc supplementation
reduces the schistosome burden in hamsters (Mikhail and Mansour, 1982;
Mansour et al., 1983). These studies suggest an interaction of zinc
status and helminthiasis.

Helminths may also require trace levels of zinc. The zinc -dependent
enzyme, leucine aminopeptidase , may be involved in both hatching of eggs
and exsheathment of larvae of Haemonchus contortus (Rogers, 1982). Addi¬
tionally, schistosomes and their eggs concentrate zinc from the environ¬
ment of the host (Booth and Schulert, 1968).

This study examined the influence of the ruminant nematode Tricho¬
strongylus colubriformis on growth and serum levels of zinc in normal and
zinc-deficient goats. Zinc content of the parasite was determined also in
these hosts.

’Manuscript received 15 May 1989; accepted 6 June 1989.

257

Bone, Parish, Dykes, and Kohl

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male, cross-bred goats, 10 to 12 weeks of age at infection, were
weighed and placed in cages. Normal animals were fed a grain mix, hay-
pellets and tap water that contained adequate levels of zinc. Two animals
were held as uninfected controls while five additional goats were infected
orally with 10, 25, 37.5, 45, or 65 x 103 larvae of Trichostrongylus
colubriformis .

Zinc deficiency was induced in another group of six goats. Animals,
6- to 8-weeks old, were given a zinc -deficient diet (1.05 ppm; ICN) and
reagent-grade water (Milli-Q; Millipore Corp.). Zinc was not detected by
atomic absorption spectrophotometry in the reagent-grade water. The zinc-
deficient diet was formulated according to Neathery et al. (1973). After
1 month for zinc depletion, four animals were infected orally with 10, 25,
35, or 50 x 103 larvae of T. colubriformis . Two goats were held as con¬
trols. Animals in both groups were weighed at biweekly intervals to
determine the mean percentage of weight change, relative to their previous
weight determination, over a 12-week period. Blood was taken by veni¬
puncture at biweekly intervals and allowed to clot overnight. The mean
content of zinc (ug/ml) in the serum was determined during the 12 -week
period by atomic absorption with a Perkin Elmer Model 103 spectrophoto¬
meter versus standards (1974, Analytical Methods for Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry, Perkin-Elmer Corp., pp. 5-20). Stainless steel cages and
feed or water containers were used throughout the study to eliminate the
availability of zinc in the host's environment. Animals were given normal
food and water or zinc-deficient food and water ad lib.

Normal and zinc-deficient animals that were inoculated with 25 x 103
larvae were killed after 12 weeks for recovery of nematodes in a Baerman
apparatus. Worms were rinsed repeatedly with reagent-grade water,
weighed, and digested with warm, concentrated nitric acid. Digestion of
the helminths was completed with perchloric acid at 200 C. Zinc content
(ug/g) of the acid background and triplicate samples of helminths were
determined by atomic absorption as described above.

Data are given as mean + SEM. Data were evaluated by Student's t-
test, analysis of variance, and linear regression. The 0.05 probability
level was considered significant.

RESULTS

Infected goats on normal feed gained significantly less (F - 12.52)
than the uninfected controls (Fig. 1). Mean gain in weight decreased
linearly (r - 0.90) as the larval inoculum of T. colubriformis was
increased. Weight gain in the animal that was given 65 x 103 infective
larvae was only 36% of the uninfected controls; however, all infected
animals exhibited some weight gain during the study.

In contrast, little weight gain (0.9%) occurred in the uninfected
animals that were given zinc -deficient feed (Fig. 2). Zinc-deficient
animals that were infected with T. colubriformis lost significant weight
(F - 41.88) during the study. Loss of weight was independent of the
dosage of larvae (r - 0.13). Infection by T. colubriformis had no appar-

258

Trichostrongylus colubrlformis infection in zinc-deficient goats

Figure 1. Percent change in weight (mean + SEM) of goats that were given
normal feed and were uninfected or infected with the indicated
dosage of T. colubrlformis larvae during a 12 -week period.

ent effect on the level of serum zinc in goats on either feed (Fig. 3).
The level of serum zinc was significantly less (F - 17.65) in animals on
zinc-deficient rations.

The zinc content of T. colubrLformls was altered significantly
(p < 0.05) by their host's status. Helminths from animals on normal feed
contained 2.23 (+ 0.32) ug of zinc/g dry body weight while those from
zinc-deficient animals had 1.44 (+ 0.18) ug/g dry body weight. Worms from
zinc -deficient animals appeared morphologically normal and produced patent
infections, based on fecal examinations. Viable third-stage larvae were
recovered from fecal-spagnum moss cultures.

DISCUSSION

Infection of goats with T. colubrlformis had no apparent influence on
the level of serum zinc when an adequate dietary source of zinc was
produced. In contrast, plasma levels of calcium decline in sheep after
3 weeks of Infection by T. colubrlformis (Coop et al., 1976).

The infected animals showed significantly less weight gain than the
uninfected controls. Also, infection with T. colubrlformis apparently
contributed to weight loss in zinc-deficient animals. The absence of a

259

Bone, Parish, Dykes, and Kohl

Figure 2. Percent change in weight (mean + SEM) of goats that were given
zinc-deficient feed and were uninfected or infected with the
indicated dosage of T. colubriformis larvae during a 12 -week
period.

dose -dependency of larvae to weight loss suggests that fewer helminths
(less than 10,000 larvae) affected the host when the helminth infection
was superimposed on the zinc deficiency. Coop et al. (loc. cit.) reported
a 50% reduction in weight gain by sheep with 17,500 larvae of T. colubri¬
formis while Steel et al. (1980) found that 9,500 T. colubriformis caused
a 39% decrease in the sheeps' weight gain.

The 35% reduction in total zinc in T. colubriformis while the host's
serum declined by 71% during a dietary deficiency of zinc suggests a
successful competition by the helminths for available zinc. Our interest
in this facet originated with reports that various nematodes contain
comparatively high levels of zinc for animal tissue (Deuhert and Gray,
1974) and the occurrence of zinc sulfide in the often-described calcium

260

Trlchostrongylus colubrlformis infection in zinc-deficient goats

Figure 3. Serum zinc levels (mean + SEM) of goats that were given normal
(•) or zinc-deficient (o) feed and were uninfected or infected
with the indicated dosage of T. colubrlformis larvae during a
12-week period.

granules of nematodes (Goldsmid and Jablonski, 1982). However, the lack
of any effect of increasing larval dosages on the host's level of serum
zinc indicated that zinc uptake by the parasite contributed little to the
nutritional deficiency in the goat.

REFERENCES

Blackmon, D. M. , Miller, W. J. and J. D. Morton. 1967. Zinc deficiency
in ruminants: occurrence, effects, diagnosis, treatments. Vet. Med.

62: 265-270

Booth, G. H. and A. R. Schulert. 1968. Zinc metabolism in schisto¬
somes. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 127: 700-704.

Coop, R. L. , Sykes, A. R. and K. W. Angus. 1976. Subclinical tricho-
strongylosis in growing lambs produced by continuous larval dosing. The
effect on performance and certain plasma constituents. Res. Vet. Sci.

21: 253-258.

Deuhert, K. H. and R. Gray. 1974. Determination of zinc in individual
terrestrial nematodes. Nematologica 20: 365-366.

261

Bone, Parish, Dykes, and Kohl

Goldsmid, J. M. and W. Jablonski. 1982. Demonstration of ZnS in Temi-
dens deminutus using EDAX analysis. Int . J. Parasitol . 12: 145-149.

Hambridge, K. M. 1981. Zinc deficiency in man: its origins and
effects. Phil. Trans. R. Soc . Lond. 294: 129-144.

Mansour, M. M. , Mikhail, M. M. and N. I. Guirgis. 1983. Effect of zinc
supplementation on S. mansoni- infected hamsters. Ann. Trop. Med. Hyg.

71 517-521.

Mikhail, M. M. and M. M. Mansour. 1982. The interaction of zinc and
vitamin A in human schistosomiasis. Europ . J. Clin. Invest. 12: 345-
350.

Neathery, M. W. , Miller, W. J., Blackmon, W. M. , Pate, F. M. and R. P.
Gentry. 1973. Effects of long term zinc deficiency on feed utili¬
zation, reproductive characteristics, and hair growth in the sexually
mature male goat. J. Dairy Sci. 56: 98-105.

Rogers, W. P. 1982. Enzymes in the exsheathing fluid of nematodes and
their biological significance. Int . J. Parasitol . 12: 495-502.

Steel, J. W. , Symons, L. E. A. and W. 0. Jones. 1980. Effects of level
of larval intake on the productivity and physiological and metabolic
responses of lambs infected with Trichostrongylus colubriformis Aust. J.
Agric. Res. 31: 821-838.

Sugarman, B. 1983. Zinc and infection. Rev. Infect. Dis. 5: 137-
147.

262

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 4, October 1989.

ABSTRACTS

HEALTH SCIENCES

NEW MEDICAL QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAM FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE.
Robert E. Pieroni, Dept, of Internal Medicine and Family Medicine,

Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

In 1985 the Department of Defense (DOD), in its continued efforts
to provide optimal patient care to patients in its world-wide medical
treatment facilities, instituted a plan for external civilian peer
review. Written standards were developed by a multidisciplinary
advisory panel, and abstracted data from medical records (approximately
8% of total hospital discharges) were compared with criteria-based
computer algorithms. In general, less than 1% of the medical records
sampled failed to meet quality assurance criteria. Two areas of
concern involved treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis, and decisions
concerning need for hysterectomy. I shall discuss this innovative
system which has been designed to improve medical and surgical care of
DOD beneficiaries, as well as its potential application for civilian
medical facilities. Specific examples of the functioning of the
quality assurance program and its benefits in improving patient care
will be described.

ALCOHOLIC KETOACIDOSIS. Jim Zumstein and Robert E. Pieroni, College
of Community Health Sciences, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

Alcoholic ketoacidosis (AKA), a disorder of carbohydrate
metabolism, was first described in 1940. Patients are usually
chronic alcoholics who have been on a recent "binge," but, because
of nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and abdominal pain, often have not
taken food or alcohol for one to three days before hospital admission.
Although serum glucose is usually slightly elevated, patients, not
infrequently, are euglycemic or actually hypoglycemic. Even though
it has been estimated that for every four cases of diabetic keto¬
acidosis there is one case of AKA, the majority of AKA cases are not
correctly diagnosed. Because of an increased beta-hydroxybutyrate
acid to acetoacetate acid ratio, the nitroprusside reaction, used to
determine ketones, may be negative, thereby obscuring the diagnosis
of AKA. We shall present the case of a female with classic manifes¬
tations of AKA, and discuss the characteristics of this disorder,
including pathophysiology, clinical and laboratory findings,
differential diagnosis, potential complications, and appropriate
therapy.

263

Abstracts

THE WHITE CLOT SYNDROME. Robert E. Pieroni , Dept, of Internal
Medicine and Family Medicine, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is felt to be the most
important idiosyncratic drug-induced thrombocytopenia because of its
frequency (occurring in about 5% of patients) and its less common,
yet potentially devastating, association with hemorrhage, as well as
systemic thrombosis. Heparin has been in use as an anticoagulant for
about 50 years, and its capacity to induce severe arterial thrombosis
has been documented in a variety of reports for over a decade.
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis (the "HITT" or "White
Clot Syndrome") most often occurs after a patient has received
heparin for six days or more. However, in a previously exposed
patient, the syndrome can develop in hours or days. This syndrome
has occurred following administration of heparin by any route and at
any dose. Heparin-IgG immune complexes are considered important in
the etiology of this disorder which can result in strokes, amputa¬
tions, myocardial infarctions and other severe thrombotic events. We
shall review the literature and discuss case reports pertaining to
HITT. Emphasis will be directed toward proper use and monitoring of
heparin in order to prevent the white clot syndrome and reduce
potential complications during heparin utilization.

ABNORMAL CHOLESTEROL VALUES: CLINICAL VIGNETTES. Robert E. Pieroni,
Dept, of Internal Medicine, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

Increasing attention continues to be given to serum cholesterol as
a major risk factor for coronary heart disease (CHD). The relatively
high prevalence of CHD in this country has been convincingly associated
with high cholesterol levels. It has been demonstrated that in high-
risk hypercholesterol emic patients each 1% reduction in total serum
cholesterol is associated with a 2% decline in CHD. Although prudent
diet remains the cornerstone for lowering serum cholesterol, other
risk factors (e.g. sedentary living habits, hypertension, stress,
diabetes, smoking) should also be modified in order to lower CHD risk.
We shall review recent recommendations on treatmet of hyperlipidemia
emphasizing diet, exercise and use of medications that can diminish
harmful low density lipoproteins (LDL) , and potentially elevate high
density lipoproteins (HDL) - the so-called "good cholesterol.

Several clinical vignettes will be presented which underscore the
importance of evaluating lipid profiles, as well as use of appropriate
methods to lower CHD in dyslipemic subjects.

264

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 4, October 1989.

INDEX

Abbott-King, Janet P . . . 63

Absher, Keith . 163, 165

Acetophenonetricarbonylchromium, the synthesis of some new

derivatives of . 139

Acremonium coenophialum - the tall fescue endophyte,

variation in . . . Ill

Actin and myosin gene expression in chick cardiac

cell cultures . 126

Adams, C. S . 122

Adolescent self perceptions: an exposition based on

personal interviews . 176

Adolescents' level of knowledge of illness and

hospitalization . 198

Aggressive behavior in fenfluramine- treated rats, an

assessment of . 188

Agriculture in Alabama by the year 2000 . . 166

AIDS seropositivity rates in southern states: a distribution

analysis . . . 192

Air flow distribution in an underfeed residential stoker

combustor using bituminous coals . 56

Alabama Academy of Science visiting scientist program

on student attitudes, impact of the . 171

Alabama scientists: profiles of five years' recipients

of the Wright A. Gardner award, outstanding . .... 49

Alabama's grain marketing system in the 1980' s . 16

Alcoholic ketoacidosis . 263

Alexander, James G . 162

Algorithmic aspects of reconstruction of MOP graphs . . . 210

Alkylating agents containing the bis (2-chloroethyl) amine

functional group, metal complexes of . 134

Allison, F. S . 188

Ambulatory health care in the western democracies:

policies to foster its expansion . 187

AMP deaminase isozymal changes in the heart of

streptozotocin diabetic rats . 194

Amphibians and reptiles of Alabama- -status update . . . 116

Antibodies to protein kinase c isoforms, production and

characterization of . 120

Armor, Jerry . 177

Armstrong B . 139

Aster Las vulgaris : a characterization of basic nucleoproteins

isolated from pyrolic caeca, histones of the sea star . 119

Asterias vulgaris, distribution of glycolytic enzymes

in the sea star . . . 123

Asterias vulgaris , steroid metabolism in somatic and

gametic tissues of the sea star . . . 126

Astone, Nicholas A. . 174

Astronomical photoelectric photometry at the University

of North Alabama . 152

Atkins, Linda . 194

265

Index

Avery, Glenda . 189

Backpropagation, spatial reconstruction using . . . 209

Badhwar, G. D . 152

Baggott, Edward . 209

Balentine, Timothy C . 150

Barrett, William A . 175

Basenspiler, Larry . 210

Bates, Marlys . 189

Battle, Teresa . 112

Bearce, Steven C . 147

Becker, Gayle . 197

Bedrock fracture-zone patterns, topographic analysis of streams

to determine gross characteristics of . 147

Behringer, Richard R . 115

Belcher, Milton E . 175

Benton, Carol . 200

Bipartisanization of the black electorate: the case for the

synthetic equal opportunity posture . 173

Birds and mammals, status of Alabama . 129

Biswas, M. A. Salam . 138

Biting midge larvae (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) , taxonomic

potential of palatal sensilla of . 112

Black farm family: family size, life cycles, and subsistence

production, the changing structure of the . 212

Black male in Alabama: a demographic portrait, the . 175

Blagbum, Byron L . 128

Bleam, William . 141

Boardman, William J . 155

Boettger, Holly L . 112, 130

Bogie, Donald W. . . 175

Boitani, Lugi . 171

Bollenbacher , Walter E . . . . . 114

Bond energies and entropies of gas -phase ion-molecule

clusters: S02+ C02, S02+ N20 and S02+ S02 . 135

Bond, Robert W . . . 207

Bone, Leon W. . . . . . . 257

Bone preservation from observed soil properties,

predicting ... . ..... . ..... 211

Borane competition reactions toward N, P, and As donor sites. . . . 136

Borden, Amanda W. . ........ . 176

Bosch, Isidro . . . . . . . 121

Bowen, M . 139

Brachyuran larvae in elkhorn slough and nearshore waters
of Monterey Bay, California , seasonal occurrence and

abundance of . . 122

Bradley, James T . . . . 92, 111, 128

Brasher, Larry D . 153

Breastfeeding, identification of the information new mothers

perceive as helpful during early. . . ......... 194

Breast-feeding: identifying material -infant nurses' knowledge

and attitudes . 201

Brett, C. E . 188

266

Index

Briles, David . 203

Brinster, Ralph L . . . 115

Brumlow, W. B . 122

Bryan, Ty W . 127

Bryant, Barrett R . 205, 208

Buckner, Ellen B. . . 49, 169

Burns, D. H . . . 137, 141

Burns, Jerald C . 174

Burttram, Joan. ,. . 197

Business district: a case study of Tuscaloosa, Alabama,

functional change in the central . 150

Cancer among blacks , a communication model for reducing . 202

Canonical band theory: a new approach, role of MTOs and

the tail cancellation in . 161

Capers, Gesa . . . 113

Carlisle, E. Christopher . 170, 172

Carrington, Thomas J . ' . 147

Carroll, Andrew J . 204

Carter, Kevin W . . . 138

Caryospora bigeneCica (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) , investigation

of the caryocyst of . . .' . 130

Case, Jan 0 . 176, 181

Caturegli, Patrizio . 128

Chang, H.-C . 92

Chaos and the theory of efficient markets . 166

Chappelear, Joyce . 200

Charles Mohr, botanist in Alabama heritage . 48

Cholesterol values: clinical vignettes, abnormal . 264

Christopher, Jan E . 184

Chromiak, J. A . 235

Chuang, Teh -Huey . 160

Clark, R. Kent . 154

Clark, Edward M . Ill

Clark-Daniels , Carolyn Lea . 243

Classroom, marketing the . 164

Cleveland, Pat . . . 197

Cline, George B. . . . 113, 118, 120

Cluster embedding within the method of linear combinations

of atomic orbitals: application to F center in MgO . 159

Coastal pollution - a reflection of global disaster . 169

Coccidiosis in goats, trails of several drugs for the

the control of . . . 128

Cody, Reynolds M . . . 11

Collaborative writing, an interaction process

analysis of ... . . 176

College education among police officers of selected Alabama

law enforcement agencies . 177

Communication apprehension: reduction within a

prison setting . . . 175

Communication skills: effects of teaching unskilled health
care workers confirmation/discomflrmation communication
patterns when interacting with elderly clients. ........ 189

267

Index

Competitive adsorption of corrosion inhibitors on metal

surfaces . 133

Computer- related stress, correlates of . 173

Computer science laboratory for upper- level undergraduate

courses, a proposal for . ..... 210

Conant, Elizabeth .... . 119

Coping with regulations . 132

Couch, Scott B . 149

Courington, David . 211

Crawford, Gerald L . 165, 168

Cretaceous water resources of the Montgomery area,

Alabama, evaluation of upper . 149

Crime myths on individual fear of crime, repercussions

of acceptance of . 178

Criminal justice education programs: is there a need?,

accreditation of . 177

Crocker, George T . 210

Culvahouse, J. W . 156

Curott, David R . 152

Dagg, Charles P . 195

Darch, Gabriele Glass . 201

Datta, Mukul C . 187

Davenport, Larry, J . 48

Davis, Sheila P . 174, 201, 202, 203

Dawkins, Theresa G . 92

Dawson, Willard F. 0 . 205

Dean, Derrick R . 140

Dean, Lewis S . 144

Dean, Susan T . 206

Defense, new medical quality assurance program for

the department of . 264

Degges, Carleton W . 147

deGraffenried, Jeffries B., Jr . 206

Demko, Timothy M . 147

Demographic and academic predictors of success of
baccalaureate degree nursing students at the
University of Alabama school of nursing at

Birmingham, pilot study in progress-selected . 197

Denotational semantics, a compiler for ADA using . 205

DeVivo, Michael J . . . . 191

Dietary treatment of obesity in a group practice setting,

pilot study: evaluation of. . . 191

Diimide kinetics in aqueous solution .... . 133

Dindo , John J. . . . . . . 121, 169

Dole, Jennifer . . 188

Dove, Mary Frances . 132

Driskell, Boyce . 213

Drought and the prospects for sustainable food production
by small scale farmers in Zimbabwe: the influence of

agricultural policies . . . ..... 151

Drug terminology by beginning baccalaureate nursing

students, learning of ..... . . 169

268

Index

Drummond, Lawrence . 124

Dubowitz scores of newborn infants at 2, 12, and 24 hours

after birth, comparisons of . 184

Dute , Roland R . 117

Dykes, Waite . 257

Economics of educational investment . 167

Eddy, James . 199

Effective mass and probability density using a rectangular

periodic potential: calculation of . . . 159

Eimeria papillata (Protozoa: Apicomplexa) : early development

in vivo and in vitro . 125

Elderly Alabamians: the behavioral risk factor survey,

health status and behavior of . \ . 199

Elderly and infant: is there a difference?, attitudes toward. . . . 195

Electron concentration in intermediate concentration region
for doped semiconductors, calculations of metallic and

nonmetallic . 155

Electron density analysis of bonding between inverted-

tricoordinate carbons . 132

Electron-phonon interaction in doped materials and its
influence on thermal conduction in the ultralow

temperature region of 5-35K . 157

Elko switch cemetery . 211

Emerson, M . 133

Environmental control strategies for developing nations . 205

Estridge, Barbara H . Ill, 124, 128

Excavations at mound P, preliminary . 211

Excavations at Smith bottom cave 1984-1988 . 213

Exchange rates and economic news . 167

Fairchild, Elizabeth M . 214

Fairhope, Alabama: a single tax experiment . 162

Fat body protein metabolism after ovariectomy,

altered cricket . . 128

Finite games, some surprises in the theory of . 153

Finley, Wayne H . 195, 204

Fishes in Alabama in need of special attention, status of . 117

Fishes in the lower Cahaba River, Alabama, distribution and status

of rare or environmentally sensitive . 1

Fluorinated epoxy resins containing the ester functional

group, synthesis and characterization of. . . . . 140

Folkerts, George W. . . . . . 116, 129

Fones, Ben. ........ . 189

Francis, Kennon . ......... 193

Francisci, Francisco. ........... . 171

Frandsen, John C. ........ . . 128

Free, W. Joe . 165, 168

Free, Veronica A . 163, 165

Free, Donna A . 112

Fues, Linda L. . 214

Gabrology- -"you are what you throw away": analysis of
college students" garbage to determine student

trends . 214

269

Index

Garbage samples of Birmingham- Southern . 214

Garner, Margaret P. . . . 191

Gastaldo, Robert A . 146, 147

Gatewood, Frances . 180

Gatlin, Kerry P . 163, 165

Geochemical implications for the origin of thin- layered
amphibolites within the ropes creek amphibolite,

western Lee County, Alabama . 143

Geographic education, a center of excellence in . 151

Geology and mineral resources of Elmore County, Alabama,

correlation of soil associations to . 144

George, Abraham . 159

George, Joseph D . 170, 172

Gibson, Deborah E. . 200

Gibson, Michael L . 139

Gist, Richard . . 193

Glotfelty, Henry W . 156

Gopher tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus ) : a preliminary

report, seed orchard establishment effects on the . 127

Grant, Joan S . 182

Gregory, Don A . 153

Griffin, Marsha D. . . . 162

Ground-dove in Alabama, distribution and status

of common . 224

Groundwater microbiota associated with aquifer thermal

energy storage (ATES), preliminary study of ......... . 188

Groundwater protection, "drastic" model as a tool for

planners concerned with . 148

Gudauskas, Robert T . 11

Guner, Osman F. . . . . . 132

Guttikonda, Rama R. . . . 164

Guyer, Craig . 127

Habitats in need of attention . 115

Hahn 0. J. . . 56

Hall, Jill . 174

Hall, Greg, D. . . . 143

Hamilton, J. . 139

Handicapped students selected concepts about radon hazard,

teaching . . 170

Handley, Holley L . Ill

Hanks, Lawrence J . 173

Harris, Richard I . . . 210

Harris, S. C. . . 118

Harrison, Joseph G . 159

Hawk, James F. . . 153

Hayes, Robert E. . 171

Hazardous substances on small-college campuses, the

management of . . . . 172

Heat conduction "rays" through material media,

propagation of . 157

Hegji, Charles E . 167

270

Index

Hembree, Beth S . 198

Hemoglobin (Hb S) in transgenic mice, synthesis of high levels

of human sickle . 115

Hemoglobin proportions toward newborn values in adult rats

by hydroxyurea is blocked by aspirin, switching of . 187

Henderson, D. Michael . 150

Heterocyclic ligands, transition metal complexes containing

n-donor . 141

Hicks, R. J . 188

Hill, Patrick H . 214

Himmler, Frank N . 148

Hines, Gene A . 126

HIV infection: a disease of individuals, not individual . 186

HIV infections in Alabama, demography of . 182

Holcombe, Carol L . 184

Holland, Cherie . . . . . . 113

Holland, Priscilla . 148

Holliman, Dan C . 129

Holstein, Harry 0 . ' . 212

Hoobler, Terry . 193

Hopkins, Linda . 113

Hopkinson, Rupert . 166

Howell, W. Mike . 172

Hribar, Lawrence J. . . 112

Hsu, Jian-Wien . 159

Hsueh, Pan-wen . 122

Huchison, Richard A . 145

Hudiburg, Richard A . 173

Hughes, Timothy E . 180

Human twinning as a compensatory mechanism:

a unifying hypothesis . 63

Hunsinger, Ronald N . 172

Ibrahim, A . 133, 137

Ibrahim, Taleb, H . 140

lilies, Andreas J . 135, 142

Income distribution in Alabama: an historical perspective . 101

Inflation effects on the age distribution of wealth . 163

Ingram, Cora A. . 174

Inspiratory pressures applied by nurses during manual

ventilation of an infant mannequin, peak. . 202

Intensive care unit, perceived immediate needs of parents

with young children in an . 184

Invertebrates with restricted distributions in Alabama,

status of .......... . . 118

Ion molecule clustering of H30+ to C0a and Na0. Bond

energies and entropies of reaction ..... . 142

Irreducible representations of sl(2,C) and generating

functions . . 160

Jenkins, C . 133

Jenkins, C. Merrill . . . 154

Jenkins, Ronald L . 194

Job satisfaction in staff registered nurses, comparison of . 189

271

Index

Joesten, Melvin D . 134

John, Pamela C . 205

Johnson, James A . 192

Johnson, Kenneth E . 207

Jolly, Curtis M . 167

Jones, Malcolm T, . 224

Jones, R. Bruce . 163

Jones, Tim . 177

Jones, Walter J . 192

Jones, Warren T . 209

Joslin, Robert 0 . 170

Joubert, Charles E . 178

Justice, Joni . 188

Kallenberg, Olav . 153

Kay, Larry K . 39

Kennemer, Gretchen A . . . 189, 200

Koerper, Philip . 212

Kohl, Herbert H . 257

Kothari, I. K . 155

Krannich, Larry K . 136, 138

Krasney, Ethel L . 134

Krotzer, R. Stephen . 1

Lacy, A. Wayne . 101

Lamb, James P. , Jr . 144, 145

Lammertsma, Koop . 132, 136

LaMoreaux, Philip E . 143

Langmuir equation as a model for P sorption by aluminium

oxide surface . 141

Lanier, Mark M . 178

Lares, Michael T. . . . 127

Laser welding experiment in microgravity . 208

Lavender, Martha G . 185

Law, Tammie Lynn . 203

Learning curve models to analyzing cost variances, an

application of . 164

Lee, Kara J. . . 123

Leonard, Kathleen . 200

Leopard frog ( Rana utricular ia) at constant and fluctuating
temperatures, growth and development in larvae of the

southern . . . 131

Leszczynski, Jerzy . . . . . . 136

Lett, Samuel L. . . 168

Lienau, Andrew . 214

Lift resistance in a strength training program,

determination of initial . 193

Likens, Dennis A . . . ' . 154

Lindsay, David S. . ........ . 130

Liu, Yuejin . 146

Long-Hall, Carolyn . . . . • 175

Loo, B. H. . 133, 137, 141

Luckhart, Shirley . 196

Ludwick, Adriane G . . 138, 140

272

Index

Lupien, Alfred E . ..... 169

Luskin, Joseph . 177

Lyme disease in Alabama, field studies of potential

tick vectors of . . . . . 196

Magee, Lyman . 124

Magnetic resonance study of the protons in the hydrated

complexes of cobalt: lanthanum zinc double nitrate . 156

Magnitude estimation scaling to examine the validity of

nursing diagnosis, using . 182

Mahaffy, C. A. L . . . 139

Male nursing student in the obstetrical area, role

strain for the . 190

Manocha, H. L . 160

Marion, Ken R . 121

Marketing fresh fruits and vegetables, channel

requirements in . 168

Marketing in Huntsville, Alabama, international . 162

Marshall, Norton L. . . 48

Martin, James C . 153

Massey, Carl B . 119

Matrices, some special classes of . 160

McCaleb, Alberta . . 198

McClintock, James B . . 114, 121, 122, 127

McDaniel, Huey G . 194

McDaniel, Larry S . 180

McLaughlin, Ellen W . 119

Meade, Mark E . 118

Media and agency executives' perceptions of advertising

mistakes . 165

Memauri, Haghdad S . 156

Mentally ill in urban communities, housing the . 174

Merkel, Edward T. . . 162

Metal nucleotides, model complexes of . 142

Microcapros libanicus , the phylogenetic position of the

fossil teleost fish . 131

Milly , K. A . 186

Minimum wage , unemployment rate and the consumer price index -

preliminary observations. ....... . 163

Minutes, annual meeting . 215

Mirarchi, Ralph E . 224

Mishra, S. N. . . . . . 158

Misra, Satish Chandra . 158

Moeller, Michael B. . . . 139

Molecular structures arid niimerization energies of digallanes. . . . 136

Monoclonal antibodies against cricket vitellogenin,

characterization of ........ . . Ill

Monoclonal antibodies specific for ciliary membranes of

Tetrahymena pyriformis , production and characterization of. . . 124

Montgomery theropod: a status report . 145

Moore, Stephanie Moxley . 163

Moral dilemma discussions and moral reasoning ........... 198

Moriarity, Debra M . 126

273

Index

Mosasaurs reassessed, functional hearing in . ... 144

Mott, Penne . 184

Moundville and other Mississippian sites, population size

estimates for . 213

Mount, Robert H . 116

Mukherjee, N. L . 56

Mullen, Michael William . 149

Mullen, Gary R . 112, 196

Mulvaney , D. R . 235

Munchausen's syndrome: a case report and literature review . 193

Murphree, Carol B . 191

Murphree , C. Steven . 112

Murthy, H.V.S . 209

Muthukude, Palitha . 167

Myelogram: relationship between route of fluid administration
and severity of side effects in post-iopamidol myelogram

patients . 185

Naftel, Bromleigh . 200

Nature's way series: a report on the implementation of a

pilot science enrichment project . 170

Neidert, Jamie B . 134

Nelson, David H . 131

Nelson, Kathy H. . . 185

Nematode* induced damage to cotton roots as monitored by

Sudan Black B . 117

Neville, J. A. . . 188

Newton, J. G . 143

Ngwazikazana, Peter S . 151

Nickell, Eugenie . 175

Nilideals of local r-RSI rings, on . 156

Nordness, Mary-Martin . 181

Nurse-client relationship, a q-analysis of interpersonal

trust in the . 200

Nurses in Alabama, registered nurses' responses to
reporting abuse: a survey of home health and

community health . 243

Nurses, survey of caring behaviors among . 203

Nursing documentation . 192

Nursing documentation by evaluating perceptions of staff

nurses regarding quality documentation, improving . 200

Nursing education administrators as described by individuals

In that position, evaluation of . . 199

Nursing service administration graduate students regarding
the utilization of the clinical nursing specialist in

the hospital setting, perceptions of. . 197

Nursing students, cues and hypotheses identified by

senior baccalaureate ... . 204

Nutrasweet: a comparison of consumption levels of college

students with the United States general population . 181

Odont&ster validus : an indicator of primary production in
the shallow waters of antarctica, the ecology of the
common sea star . 121

274

Index

Optical correlation techniques, optimum character encryption

and extraction for . 153

Ornithine decarboxylase and polyamine synthesis in embryos

of the brine shrimp Artemia spp., induction of . 113

Osterhoff, William E . 179

Oxygen in heart muscle by myoglobin, calculation of

intracellular transport of . 196

Paleocene clayton formation, preliminary investigations on

the origin of rhythmic bedding in the . 145

Palmiter, Richard D . 115

Pan, Aiqin . . 208

Parish, Edward J . 257

Parsing in TAG, complexity of . 209

Patrick, Joseph E . 206

Patterson, Paul L . 211

Patterson, Algem . . . 11

Pay, Y. L . 137

Payne, Donald R. . . . . . 135, 142

Peacock, Mary K . 197

Pearse, John S . 121

Pennsylvanian coastal-deltaic system, northwestern Alabama,

the persistence of forested swamp environments in a . 147

Peritonitis: case report and literature review, primary . 183

Perkins, Fran . 174

Petromyzon marlnus , evolutionary and developmental implications

of the structure of acetylcholinesterase from the lamprey . . . 125

Pezzementi, Leo . 125

Physella cubensis with an analysis of the effects of
temperature on embryonic and juvenile growth, the

natural history of the common pulmonate gastropod . . 114

Physics concepts, research into several factors affecting

the understanding of basic . 154

Pickens, Barbara B . . 195

Pieroni, Robert E . 183, 191, 192, 193, 199, 263, 264

Pierson, J. Malcolm . 1, 117

Pitcher plant habitats in the Gulf Coast area, unique

characteristics of the flora of . 129

Plaster, Teresa C . 208

Poirier, Gary R . . . 112, 130

Police officer feminist attitudes and perceptions of female

crime: an exploratory analysis . 179

Police organizations and culture, analysis of dinosaurs: . 174

Polyamines spermine, spermidine and putrescine in several

invertebrate tissues , determination of the ..... . 123

Polycarbosilanes, synthesis and characterization of . 140

Polyethyloxazoline-Co-Polyethylenimine and Its precursor,

structure analysis of .... . . 138

Prehistoric north Alabama, painted "trophy skulls" from . 214

President as perceived by children, role of the . . . 174

Prolactin in reproductive tract of mature male mouse,

Immunocytochemical detection of . .... 122

Prolog, complete compiler specification using . . 208

275

Index

Prosecution: advantages and disadvantages from the

perspective of the victim, vertical and horizontal . 179

Protein supplementation of IVF media affects preimplantation

mouse embryo development . 195

Puleo, Stephanie G . . . 1

Radon dangers, comparative . 142

Radon situation today . 135

Radon- 222: a concern for middle school science . 172

Railroad rights-of-way for recreational open sapce,

re-use of abandoned . 150

Ramsey, Darwin- Tamara . 214

Ranking and selection: an exposition to new methodology . 158

Rare earth substituted Y^aaCUjO,*,,, optical and magnetic

properties of . 141

Ravinenment surface in the upper pottsville formation,

northwestern Alabama, geometric model of a . 146

Rawlings, J . 139, 142

Rayburn, Scott J . 214

Reasor, William G . 202

Reed, Linda . 197

Reeves, Gay . 189

Reilly, Kevin D . 209

Renf roe , Darlene H . 192

Research interest among first year nursing students,

strategies for stimulating . 201

Respiratory gas exchange in softshell, mud, and musk

turtles , aquatic and aerial . 115

Reynolds , R. G . 152

Richetto, Jeffrey P . _ . 150

Riggs, Janet M . 202

Riggsby, Ernest D. . . 170, 172

Roberts, Linda . 183

Rolin, Terry D . 141

Roper, Donna . 189

Runquist, Jeanette . 214

Russell, Randy D . 161

Russell, J. Colleen . 181

Ryan, Thomas M. . . 115

Sahai, Hardeo . . . 158

Saito, Naoyuki . 123

Salpas, Peter A . 143

Sandplay therapy . . 180

Sargassum £ luitans from the Gulf of Mexico, the biochemical
and energetic composition of blades, stipes and

pneumatocysts of living and decomposing . . . 127

Sauser, William I., Jr . 29

Savrda, Charles E . 1^5, 146

Sayings test, recent research with the famous . 178

Scanlon, Matthew ........... . 135

Scyll&rides nodifer (Stimpson) , morphological characterization

of the hemocytes of the slipper lobster ............ 120

Selenium blood levels in renal deficient patients . 186

276

Index

Self concept of school age survivors of acute leukemia and self

concept of healthy school age children, comparison of . 190

Self-esteem in the kindergarten child . 185

SERS of dicyanogroups on metal surface . 137

Sex chromosome aneuploidy in women with recurrent spontaneous

abortions . 204

Sharma, P. C . 155, 157, 159, 161

Shea, C . 188

Shelby, Richard A . Ill

Shelby, Annete N . 176

Sherrer, Todd . . 183

Sherrod, Roy Ann . 190

Shields, Catherine . 197

Shih, Tzenge-Huey . ; 207

Shiitake mushrooms: marketing problems facing the small farmer . . 165

Shogren, Michael G . 211

Simpson, Janis A . 199

Sinkhole occurrence in Alabama and the eastern United States. . . . 143

Skipjack herring, with notes on early life ecology, description

of young . ...... 39

Sloan, John J . 179

Sludge -recycle rate and its control of the activated

sludge system . ...... 207

Smith, Myra . . . 197

Snowden, Kevin . 135, 142

Solid waste recycling programs, computer aids for

planning community . 149

Solidification processing of alloys using an applied

electric field to control microstructure . 207

South, Lisa D . . . 190

Spears, Harold J . 187

Spence, Thomas G . 214

Spinal cord injury, the economic impact of . .... 191

SpLroplasma florlcola isolated from flowers in Alabama . 11

Spoon, Robin . 113

Srivastava, Dileep K. . . 136, 138

Stafford, Stephanie A . 125

Stallings, James L . ..... 16, 166

Stanbury, David M . . . 133

Stanley, Ann E. . . . . 134

Steinkampf, Michael P . 195

Steroidogenesis in insects ( Manduca sexCa ) prothoracic

glands, regulation of . 114

Stevens, Clauzell . 11

Steward, William S . 165, 168

Stewart, G. T . 162

Stochastic evaluation of algorithms proposed for removing

interference in chemical kinetic data . 139

Stone, Cathy . 204

Stone crabs, development of a computer library of IEF profiles

of single aquacultured larval stages of . . 118

Stone, Paul A. . . 115

277

Index

Strategic planning as a management development tool . 29

Street, Lee Ann . 194

Strength, D. R . 235

Cimaterol on growth and composition of neonatal

rats, lack of effect of the beta-agonist . 235

Stressors, levels of stress, and self-care actions to reduce

stress in preadolescent children . 183

Strong, William R . 151

Subramanyam, Shiva Shankar . 155

Sundermann, Christine A . 124, 125, 130

Supercomputer, track reconstruction of high energy particle

interactions on the Alabama . 154

Surface protein from a PspA (pneumococcal surface protein a)

mutant, analysis of a . 180

SUSI: protecting the mainframe from the students (and

vice versa) . 206

Sutherland, David C . 214

Talkington, Deborah . 203

Tallasseehatchee , an archaeological and historical

investigation into a creek Indian war battlefield

site in northeast Alabama, the battle of . 212

Tan, A . 152, 157

Tax simplification and the cost of tax compliance . 168

Taylor, Robert W . 141

Taylor, Judy . 197

Teaching sample variance: divisor n, n-1, n+1,...? 158

Teare, Catherine . 199

Temperatures in children under four years of age,

axillary versus rectal . 181

Tertiary arsines: novel synthesis . 138

Thomas, Donald L . . . 114

Thomas, Nick . . 141

Thompson, T. E . 188

Thrasher, Amy L . 214

Townes, Tim M. . . 115

Trace fossils within a lower paleocene transgressive

sequence, western Alabama. ... . 146

Trade area identification for factory- outlet shopping

centers . ............. . 163

Traffic effects on roadway temperature . 161

Tri chos Crongyl us colubriformis (nematoda) infection

in normal and zinc-deficient goats . 257

Tulli , C. George, Jr. . . . 187, 191

Turner, Kenneth R . . . 211, 213, 214

Twilight --a new look at a famous problem, the problem

of shortest . . . 155

Urbanizat ional influence on the Cahaba River basin since 1930 . . . 148

Vaccinia virus, non-specific hyperplastic response in

L-M cells induced by . ......... . 124

Vaccinogenic effect of PspA (pneumococcal surface

protein A) . . 203

Veil, Nance V . 171

278

Index

Velocity perturbations and directionality of the fragments

in satellite fragmentation events, calculation of . 152

Vibrios in oyster shellstock shipped inland, presence of . 113

Vincent, Janice . 197

Viohl, Frederick A . 164

Vitellogenic protein synthesis by the cricket ovary . 92

Voogt, Peter A . 126

Walker, Charles W . 126

Wallus, Robert . 39

Walters, James V . . . 205, 206, 207, 210

Wang, N . 141

Ware, Bradley R . . . 182, 186

Warren, Lee . . . 141

Warren, Joe R . 195

Waste disposal: toss it! using exsys, an expert system for . 134

Wastewater treatment- -are they a real alternative?,

artificial wetlands in . 206

Watkins, Charles L . . . 136, 138

Watson, R. Douglas . 114

Watts, Stephen A . 113, 119, 123, 126

Watts, Elizabeth K . 214

Weather events on an Alabama coastal heronry, the influence

of major . 121

Wells, Gretchen . 204

White clot syndrome, the . 263

White, Patricia A . 197

Whitfield, Johnnie-Marie . 137

Whitt, Carlton D . 135, 142

Wilbourn, Macon . 166

Williams, Kasandra E . . . . 176

Wingo, W. J . 196

Winters, A. L . 188

Wit, L. C . 186

Witherspoon, Del . 175

Wolves and this woman, of . 171

Women and the american society of zoologists . 119

Wood, Felecia G . 199

Wooten, Angela L . 120

Wooten, Marie W . . . 120

Workman, Gary L . 207, 208

Wynn, William Timothy . 148

Yackzan, K. S. . . . 196

Yeager, Joan . 197, 204

Young, Ronald B. . . 126

Your right to know . 137

Zabawa, Robert . 212

Zehren, Steven J . . . . . 131

Zinc recovery from brass -foundry flue dust with ion

exchange ......... . . . 210

Zona pullucida, a murine sperm component which recognizes the . . . 130

Zona pellucida binding component on murine sperm,

redistribution of a . 112

279

Index

Zumstein, Jim . 263

Zwanziger, Lee L . 126

280

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 4, October 1989.

SECTION I

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Abbott-King, Janet
Abee, Christian R.
Adams, Caroline
Allan, Mary Ann
Angion, Wlnford
Angus, Robert
Appel, Arthur G.
Armitage, Brian
Bailey, Mark A.
Bart, Henry L., Jr.
Beasley, Philip G.
Bell, Nancy
Bell, P. Darwin
Benford, Helen H.
Best, Troy L.
Beyers, Robert J.
Bilbo, Thomas
Blackmore, Mark S.
Boettger, Holly L.
Bone, Leon W.
Borden, Amanda W.
Boyd, Robert S.
Bradley, James T.
Braid, Malcolm
Brown, Jack S.
Brown, Rather
Brumlow, William B
Bryan, Ty W.
Buckner, Richard L.
Campbell, Olivia
Campbell, P. Samuel
Carey, Steven D.
Carter, Gregory A.
Cassell, Gall H.
Cherry, Joe H.
Chromiak, Joseph A.
Clark, Edward M.
Clements, Ben A.
Cliburn, J. William
Cline, George B.
Cochis , Thomas
Coleman, Theresa
Cooper, W. Wade
Costes, Danice H.
Curl, Elroy A.
Darden, W. H. , Jr.
Datta, M. C.
Davenport, L. J.

1989 Membership Roll by Section

Davis, Donald E.
Denton, Tom E.

Diamond, Alvin R., Jr.
Diener, Urban L.

Dindo, John
Dixon, Carl
Dobson, F. Stephen
Dodd, Thomas H. , III
Douglas, Robert J.
Dusi, Julian L.

Dusi, Rosemary D.

Dute, Roland R.

Elder, Don
Emert, George H.
Estridge, Barbara H.
Fain, Jennifer
Finley, Sara C.
Folkerts, Debbie R.
Folkerts, George W.
Frandsen, John C.
Freeman, John D.
French, Elizabeth
Garstka, William
Gau, Paul

Gauthier, Joseph J.
Gibbons, Ashton
Glaze, Robert P.

Golab, Dorothy K.
Goode, Naaman D.

Goode , Paula Rae
Grizzle, John M.
Gudauskas, Robert T.
Guyer, Craig
Haggerty, Thomas M.
Handley, Holley
Hardy, Michael E.
Harper, James D.
Herbert, Richard
Henderson, James H.
Henry, Raymond P.

Hepp, Gary R.

Hileman, Douglas R.
Hines, Gene A.
Holifield, Quintaniay
Holland, Richard D.
Holler, Nicholas R.
Holliman, Dan C.
Hopkins, Linda H.
Hribar, Lawrence
Hsueh, Pan Wen

Hudgins, Michael D.
Hulcher, Richard F.
Ivey, William D.
Jandebeur, Thomas S.
Johnston, Carol
Jolly, Curtis M
Jones Lawanda
Kempf, Stephen C.
Kendrick, Aaron B.
Kirby, Albert W.
Kittle, Paul
Koiki, Adeniyi F.
Koopman, William J.
Lane, Jacqueline M.
Langdon, James W.
Lares, Michael T.
Lartey, Robert
Lawrence, Faye B.

Lee, Kara
Lindsay, David S.
Lisano, Michael E.
Lishak, Robert S.

Liu, Frank
Long, Calvin L.
Luckhart, Shirley
Lydeard, Charles
MacMillan, William H.
Marion, Ken Roy
Marshall, John E.
Mason, William H.
Massey, Carl B.
Mathews, Robert
McClintock, James B.
McCord, Joe
McCullough, Herbert A.
McKee, Dorothy W.
McKinney, Rose B.
McLaughlin, Ellen W.
McMillan, Charles
Miller, Demetrius
Miller, Gary
Miller, Melissa K.
Milly, Kat
Mirarchi, Ralph E.
Modlin, Richard F.
Moore, Bobby G.

Moore, Irene
Moore, Jack H.

Moore, Teresa Kelley
Moriarity, Debra M.

281

Membership Roll

Mullen, Gary R,
Mulvaney , Donald R.
Murphree , C, Steve
Myers, Lawrence J.
Nancarrow, D. V,
Nance, Marione E.
Nelson, David H.
Nelson, Fannie
Nelson, Karl M.
Nesdill , Daureen
Niedermeier , William
Okezie, B. Onuma
Ottis, Kenneth
Paxton, Mary Jean W.
Peterson, Curt M.
Pezzementi, Leo
Pierson, J. Malcolm
Plakas , Steven M.
Poirier, Gary R.
Porter, Eural
Pritchett , John F.
Pyle, Joseph
Quindlen, Eugene A.
Ramsey, John S.

Regan, Gerald T.

Reid, Robert R., Jr.
Richardson, Velma B.
Riley » Thomas N .
Robinson, George H.
Rochowiak, Daniel M.
Runquist , Jeannette
Ryan, Thomas
Salto, Naoyuki
Sanford, L. G.

Shea, Catherine
Shew, H. Wayne
Sizemore, Douglas R.
Smith, Robert G.
Sparks, Timothy H.
Spears, Harold J.
Spencer, Elsie
Stafford, Stephanie
Stanb rough, Sheila
Stevens, Clauzell
Stinson, Narvaez
Stone, Paul
Strada, Samuel J.
Strickland, Richard C.
Sundermann, Christine
Swanson, Kay A.

Tad t os , Manas in
Taylor, Michael S .
Thomas, Donald

Thomas , Laquita
Thompson , W. Joseph
Thornton, Keith
Truelove , Bryan
Tucker, Charles E.
Turner, C. J.

Waits, E. Douglas
Walker, J. H.

Walker, Scotty
Ward, Edward R. , Jr.
Watson, R. Douglas
Watts , Stephen A.
Wester, Ed
White, J. F.
Whitlock, Suzanne
Wilkes , James C.
Wilkoff , Lee J.
Williams , Ann H.
Williams , Carol S .
Williams , Dean A.
Williams , Delbert E .
Williams , John W.
Williams , Kasandra
Wilson, H. J.

Wilson, Mack A.
Wilson, Thomas H.
Winkler, Fred
Wit, Lawrence C.
Wooten, Michael C .
Yackzan, Kamal S.
Young, Ronald B.
Zehren, Steven J.

SECTION II
CHEMISTRY
Alexander, Kliem
Allen, Roger W.

Ar end ale, William F.
Armstrong, Brian M.
Barrett , William J.
Beck, Mary Jim
Brown, Mary A. H.
Bugg, Charles E.
Cappas, Constantine
Carter, Kevin W.
Chang, Ki Jo on
Chastain, Ben B.
Coble, Dwain
Cooper, E. A.

Corona, Barry
Darling, Charles M.
Davis, Robert S.
Dean, Derrick R.

Dillion, H. Kenneth
Doorenbos , Norman J.
Dove , Mary Frances
Finkel, Joe M.

Finley, Wayne H.

Fisk, James D.

Ford , Jonathon B.
Gibson, Michael L .
Godbey , S . E .

Gray, Gary M.

Guner, Osman F.
Haggard, James H.
Hazlegrove , Leven S .
Hung, George W. C.
Ibrahim, Taleb
Ihejeto, Godwin
lilies , Andreas J.
Ingram, Sammy W. , Jr.
Isbell, Raymond R.
Jackson, Margaret E.
Jotani, Kishor P.
Kispert, Lowell
Koons, L. F.

Krannich, Larry K.
LaGrone , Craig
Lambert, James L.

Legg, J. Ivan
Leszczynski , Jerzy
Livant, Peter
Locklar , Kelley G.

Loo , Boon H.

Ludwick, Adriane
Mahaffy , C. A. L.
McDonald , Nancy C .
Meehan, Edward J. , Jr.
Moeller, Michael
Moore, McDonald, Sr.
Mountcastle, William
Muller, John H.

Murray , Thomas P.
Neidert, Jamie B,

Okike , U chechuku
Peters, Henry B.

Radel, Robert J.
Rawlings, Jill
Riordan, James M.
Setzer, William N,
Sheridan, Richard C.
Small, Robert
Spence , Thomas
Stanbury, David
Stanley, Ann
Taylor, Robert W.

282

Membership Roll

Thomas, Joseph C.
Thomas, Nicholas
Thomaskutty, Mary G.
Thompson, Davis H.
Thompson, Wynelle D.
Toff el, George M.
Toren, E. C., Jr.
Vallarino, Lidia M.
Ward, E. H.

Warren, Lee
Watkins, Charles L.
Webb, Thomas R.
Wells, David
Wheeler, G. P.
Whitfield, J.-M.
Whitt, Carlton D.
Youngblood, Bettye

SECTION III
GEOLOGY
Bearce, Denny
Brande, Scott
Brosheer, Clinton J.
Carrington, Thomas J
Chase, David
Cranford, Norman B.
Cross, Whitman, II
Dean, Lewis S.
Degges, Carleton W.
Dejarnette, David L.
Esposito, Rick
Hall, Greg D.

Hawkins , William
Henson, Sharon
Huchison, R. A., Jr.
Joiner, Thomas J.
King, David T., Jr.
Lamb, James P., Jr.
Lamb, George M.

Liu, Yuejin
McCarroll, Steven M.
McMillan, Richard C.
Newton, John G.
Owens, Daryl S.
Patterson, Daniel J.
Powell, William
Raymond Dorothy E.
Rheams, Karen F.
Russo, Brian R.
Salpas, Peter A.
Savrda, Charles E.
Shultz, Albert W.
Sides, Garry L.

Skotnicki, Michael C.
Smith, Charles C.

Stock, Carl W.

Thurn, Richard L.
Wright, Kenneth R.

SECTION IV
FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY,
CONSERVATION, AND
PLANNING

Balentine, Timothy C.
Boyer, William
Cagle, Karen K.

Couch, Scott B.

Deaver, Paul F.

DeVall , Wilbur B.

Dodds, Philip M.

Espy, Amanda J.

Gardner, Robert
Gibbs, George S.
Henderson, H. A.
Himmler, Frank N.
Holland, Andrea P.
Icenogle, David W.
Johnson, Howard P.
Jonakin, James L.
Mathur, Surendra P.
Mclnnish, Mary K.
Nettles, Jami Espy
Ngwazikazana, Peter S.
Richetto, Jeffrey P.
Rivizzigno, Victoria
Stribling, H. Lee
Strong, William Reese
Tang, R. C.

Vaughn, Danny
Weaver, David C.
Wilbourn, Macon
Williams, Louis G.

Wynn, W. Timothy

SECTION V

PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS
Agresti, David G.
Alford, William L.
Allison, D. Lee
Bauman, Robert P.
Bearden, T. E.
Beiersdorf er, Peter
Boardman, William
Boyd, Louise M.

Byrd, Gene G.

Case, Jan 0.

Castillo, Oreste
Christensen, Charles
Chuang , Teh-Huey
Clark, R. Kent
Colvett, Robert Dee
Comfort, Richard
Curott, David R.
Destito, Lou
Dubard, James L.
Easterday, Kenneth
Essenwanger, Oskar M.
Forte, Aldo
Furman, W. L.
Gallagher, Dennis
Gathright, Carolyn H.
George, Abraham
Gibson, Faison P., Sr.
Glotfelty, Henry W.
Harrison, Joseph G.
Hawk, James F.

Hayes, Cathy
Howell, Kenneth B.

Hsu, Jiann-Wien
Hudson, Glenn
I-la, Daryush
Jenkins, C. Merrill
Jones, Stanley T.
Lester, William
Lundquist, Charles A.
May, Louis D.

Mishra, Satya N.
Misra, Satish Chandra
Miyagawa, Ichiro
Morton, Perry W. , Jr.
Omasta, Eugene
Payne, Donald R.
Piccirillo, John
Polan, Marvin
Rash, Ed
Reid, William J.
Reisig, Gerhard
Roberts, Thomas G.
Robinson, Edward L.
Ruffin, Paul B.
Russell, Randy D.
Scarborough, J. M.
Sharma , P . C .

Shealy, David L.
Shelton, Darryl G.
Shipman, Jerry R.
Smith, Micky
Smoot, Henrene
Spencer, Gilbert 0.

283

Membership Roll

Steedly, Dwight
Stewart, Dorothy A.
Subranmanyam, Shiva S.
Sulentic, J. W.

Tan, Arjun
Turner, M. E. , Jr.
Varghese, S. L.

Vinson, R. G.
Werkheiser, A. H.
Wheeler, R. E.
Wilkinson, E. L.

Wills, Edward L.

Y oung , J ohn H .

SECTION VI

INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS

Absher, Keith
Aebersold, Kris
Bobo, James R.

Caudill, Donald W.
Clark, Joy L.

Cole, S. W.

Crawford, Gerald
Free, W. Joe
Gatlin, Kerry P.

Geer, William D.
Gentle, Edgar C., Jr.
Gibson, Dennis W.
Grant, Eugene W. , Jr.
Graves, Benjamin B.
Gregorowicz, Philip
Griffin, Marsha D.
Guttikonda, Rama R.
Harrison, Golson
Heacock, Marian V.
Hegji, Charles E.
Holmes, Mac R.

Jackson, Leslie T.
Johnson, Raymond
Jones, R. Bruce
Kamnikar, Edward G.
Lacy, Wayne
Lake, Robert C.

Lester, Rick
Left, Samuel L.

Lortie, John W.
Moberly, H. Dean
Moore, Stephanie
Norrell, Fred M.
Peacock, Richard
Rawlins, V. Lane
Rodgers, M. R.

Salimi, Awais T.

Sanders, Robert L.
Sauser, W. I. , Jr.
Stallings, James L.
Stewart, G. T.

Thomas, Rebecca L.
Viohl, Frederick A.
Vitelli, Maria
Wheatley, Robert, Jr.
Willhardt, John A.

SECTION VII
SCIENCE EDUCATION
Baird, Bill
Ball, Patsy
Bentley, Donna
Caudle, Sandra I.
Clark, Neil Penton
Coffman, Lindsey F.
Curry, Julie B.

Fish, Frederick P.
George, Joseph D.
Gonce, Mary N.

Hayes, Lee T.

Hayes, Robert E.
Henrikson, Matthew T.
Jones, Diana D.
Landers, John I.
Ludwick, Larry M.
McDade, Claudia
Nall, Jane
O'Brien, James M.
Rainey, Larry
Reynolds, Barbara S.
Riggsby, Dutchie S.
Riggsby, Ernest D.
Rowsey, Robert E.
Rust, Debra
Short, William A.
Shumaker, Anne W.
Smith, Karl Dee
Thompson, Tracy
Turner, E. J.
Wolfinger, Donna M.
Wright, Jada F.

SECTION VIII
SOCIAL SCIENCES
Astone, Nicholas
Belcher, Milton
Buckalew, L. W.

Burns, Jerald C.
Cantrell, Clyde H.
Crampton, Roger B.

Dunkelberger , John E.
Elixon, Joseph M. , Jr
Eule, Edward E.
Gatewood, Frances
Hanks, Lawrence J.
Haynes , Mike
Hoke, Daniel M.
Hudiburg, Richard A.
Huggins, Joseph F.
Ingram, Cora A.
Johnson, James A.
Jones, Tim R.
Jourbert, Charles E.
Kelly, Bill
Lanier, Mark
Longnecker, Gesina L.
Longnecker, Herbert E
Luskin, Joseph
Mabry, Helen
Mashatt, Marilyn
Nickell, Eugenie
O'Neill, Sue B.
Osterhoff, William E.
Sadowski, Cyril J.
Schlotterback, D. L.
Sink, David W.

Sloan, John J.
Thrasher, Amy Lee
Vocino, Thomas
Weber, B. C.

Wheelock, Gerald C.
Williams, Walter S.
Witherspoon, Arnold D
Yeager, J. H.

SECTION IX
HEALTH SCIENCES
Adams , Cara
Barfield, Betty R.
Barker, Samuel B.
Barton, James C.
Baugh, Charles
Beaton, John M.

Beck, Lee R.

Bennett, J. Claude
Bergman, Joan S.
Boerth, Robert C.
Boots, Larry R.
Breslin, Frances A.
Briles, David E.
Brown, Jerry W.
Bubien, James K.
Bubien, Rosemary

284

Membership Roll

Buckner, Ellen
Chappelear, Joyce
Christopher, Jan
Clark-Daniels , Carolyn
Clelland, Jo
Clovers, David
Compans, Richard W.
Conary, Jon T.
Cornwell, P. E.

Cosper, Paula
Cusic, Anne
Dansak, Daniel A.
Darch, Gabriele G.
Davis , “Richard
Davis, Sheila P.

Davis, W. R.

Dechesnay, Mary
DeRuiter, Jack
Devivo, Michael J.
Drummond, Lawrence C.
Elgavish, Ada
Emerson, Geraldine M.
Frederick, A, P.
French, James H.
Gardner, W. A., Jr.
Gaubatz, Jim W.

Gibson, Deborah E.
Gilbert, Fred
Gist, Richard
Gossman, Marilyn
Grant, Joan S.

Gwebu, Ephraim T.
Hembree, Beth S.
Herban, Nancy L.
Herbert, Donald
Higginbotham, M. C.
Hoffman, Henry H.
Holcombe, Carol
Hoobler, Terry
Hopkins, John B.
Hughes, Edwin R.
Hughes, Glenn H.
Hunsinger, Ronald N.
Jenkins, Ronald L.
Jensen, Gail M.
Johnson, Evelyn P.
Jones, Harold P.

Jones, Walter J.

Katz, Judd A.

Keith, Robert E.
Kelley, Jean
Kennamer, Gretchen A.
Kirkpatrick, M. B.

Kleinstein, Robert
Knopke, Harry
Lamon, Eddie W.
Lavender, Martha
Long-Hall, Carolyn K.
Matalon, Sadis
McCaleb, K. Alberta
McCallum, Charles
McDaniel, Larry
Meezan, Elias
Morgan, Alice H.

Mott, Penne
Nanda, Navin C.

Navia, Juan M.

Nelson, Kathy H.
Nordness, Mary M.
Owings, William 0.
Parsons, Daniel L.
Perry, Nelson
Peters, Henry B.
Phillips, J. B.

Pickens , Barbara
Pieroni, Robert E.
Pillion, Dennis J.
Pirkle, James A.
Pitman, Angelia
Pittman, James A., Jr.
Reed, Linda
Reeves, Gaynell
Renfroe, Darlene H.
Riggs, Janet M.
Roberts, Linda R.
Rodning, Charles B.
Roozen, Kenneth J.
Roush, Donald
Rudd, Steven
Russell, J. Colleen
Salser, Janice
Sanders, Sharena R.
Schnaper, Harold W.
Self, Barbara F.
Shepard, Richard B.
Sherrod , Roy Ann
Shoemaker, R. L.
Simpson, Janis A.
Skalka, Harold W.
Smith, Myra A.

South, Lisa D.

Street, Lee Ann
Swansburg, Russell C.
Tulli, C. George, Jr.
Vacik, James P.

Vezza, Anne E.

Waites, Ken B.

Walker, Brenda S.

Ware, Bradley R.
Warren, Joe R.

Wells, Gretchen
White, Patricia
Wilborn, W. H.

Wilson, Graeme
Wintemitz, William W.
Winters, Alvin L.

Wise, Sandra R.

Wood, Felecia
Wooley, Thomas W.
Wooten, Marie W.
Yeager, Joan
Zorn, George, Jr.

SECTION X
ENGINEERING AND
COMPUTER SCIENCE
Albright, C. Wesley
Astone, Mary K.
Baggott, Edward
Barrett, John
Basenspiler, Larry
Beck, Oscar
Brullman, August W.
Bryant, Barrett
Byrne, Peter C.

Craig, Thomas F.
Crawford, Martin
Crocker, George
Dean, Susan T.

Glover, Terry C.
Goodman, Charles H.
Harrison, Benjamin
Hayes, R. M. , Jr.
Hearn, William H.
Hermann, Rudolf
Hicks, James W., Jr.
Hirth, Leo J.

Hollis, D. L. , Jr.
Hool, James N.

Jacobs, Paul L.
Kurzius, Shelby C.
Lane, James H.

Lim, Joon Shik
Lindly, Jay K.

Moon, Taesam
Moulton, V. Gordon
Mukherjee, Nanda Lai
Murthy, H. V. S.

Pan, Aiqin

285

Parker, Donald L.
Rangaswamy , Partha
Rlndt, Donald W.
Sarathy, Vijaya K.
Shaffer, Harry B.
Walters, J. V.

Weiss, James T.
Wisniewski, Raymond B.
Workman, Gary L.

SECTION XI
ANTHROPOLOGY
Barnes, Nancy
Bizzoco, Bruce D.
Courington, David S.
Driskell, Boyce N.

Gay, Robert W.
Gillaspie, Leon W.
Gilliland, M. Janice
Hansen, Asael T.
Henson, B. Bart
Hill, Cassandra
Hollingsworth, C. Y.
Holstein, Harry 0.
Huscher, Harold A.
Mistovich, Tim
Patterson, Paul L.
Ramsey, Darwin-Tamar
Rowe , Bobby
Sheldon, Craig T.
Shogren, Michael G.
Turner, Kenneth R.
Zabawa, Robert
Zeanah, Shelby

'

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THE JOURNAL OF THE
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-* COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Sunset over a sinkhole pond In Geneva County, Alabama.
A variety of sinkhole habitats exist on the Lower Coastal Plain. They
have-not be^n extensively investigated by biologists. Most types are
i’faisappearing'jrapidly as a result of drainage, timber harvest, and other
alterations by man. Photo by George Folkerts, Department of Zoology and
Wildlife Science, Auburn University.

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mar i 4 w

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CONTENTS

ARTICLES

Spatio-Functional Reorganization within Urban
Areas: Toward a Redefinition of the Central

Business District

Jeffrey P. Richetto and D. Michael Henderson .... 1

A Roving Creel Survey of Anglers using Guntersville
Reservoir, Alabama: Geographic Origins, Seasonal
Patterns of Fishing Effort and Success, and
Contributions to the Local Economy

Robert A. Angus and Ken R. Marion . 18

Changes in Extensibility and Tissue Cholesterol
of Rat Aortas with Exercise

R. C. Vesterfield, T. J. Pujol, and

F. S. Bridges . 29

A Black Bear Tooth Anomaly

Julian L. Dusi . 39

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 1, January 1990.

S PATIO -FUNCTIONAL REORGANIZATION WITHIN URBAN AREAS:
TOWARDS A REDEFINITION OF THE CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT1

Jeffrey P. Richetto
Department of Geography
The University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa , Alabama 35487

and

D. Michael Henderson
Department of Geography
The University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa , Alabama 35487

ABSTRACT

Since the mid 1950s there has been a significant spatial reorgani¬
sation of human and economic activities within the American city. In
response to the continuing suburbanization of the urban population; retail
and commercial activities have decentralized. In the wake of this aban¬
donment several office and service -related functions have found the rental
opportunities in the central business district attractive. In order for
local government and booster organizations to more effectively target
their resources for reinstating the economic base of the central business
district, it is necessary to identify those traditional tertiary activi¬
ties responding to decentralizing forces and those quaternary activities
that are sensitive to the centripetal forces operating within the CBD.
Within this context, this study (1) traces the extent of retail/commercial
decline in the central business district, (2) examines the in-migration of
office and service -related functions into the central business district,
and (3) investigates the extent to which the availability and pattern of
low-cost rental opportunities affect the spatial distribution of retail
and office activities. The City of Tuscaloosa, Alabama serves as a case
s tudy .

INTRODUCTION

Since the mid 1950s there has been a significant spatial and
functional reorganization of human and economic activities within the
American city. The centrifugal movement of residential, retail, and
commercial activities away from the central business district (CBD)
towards the urban fringe and beyond has been widely documented (Andrews ,
1962; Hoyt, 1968; Murphy, 1974; Taeuber, 1974; Gale, 1982; Brown, et al. ,
1982; Schwartz, 1984). Numerous spatio-economic and socio-political
processes have served as push-pull factors resulting in the massive exodus
of residential and retail activities from the CBD. However, in the wake
of such abandonment, a centripetal movement pattern has emerged as several

’Manuscript received 5 June 1989; accepted 25 July 1989 .

1

Richetto and Henderson

office-related functions have found the increasing number and lower cost
rental opportunities in the central business district attractive.

Within this context the primary purpose of this study was fourfold:
(1) document the extent of retail/commercial decline in the CBD by type
of activity and where, in general, relocation occurred; (2) identify
factors underlying such decentralization; (3) investigate the increasing
attraction of the CBD for the location of office activities; and (4)
examine the trends of commercial rental opportunities in order to project
the future locations of retail and office activities. Although the city
of Tuscaloosa, Alabama served as the case study to evaluate empirically
these objectives, it is necessary and informative to discuss CBD function¬
al reorganization in its most general form.

CBD FUNCTIONAL REORGANIZATION

Since the early 1960s considerable attention has focused on central
business districts throughout the United States; particularly functional
land-use changes occurring within these areas associated with increasing
suburbanization. Several studies have attempted to determine the extent
and nature of this functional change, specifically the decline in retail/
commercial activity (Rannells, 1956; Cox, 1967; Bowden, 1971; Davies,
1984) and more recently the locational patterns of office functions
(Armstrong, 1972; Black, et al., 1982; Bateman, 1985).

As early as 1932, Rolph noted that the four most important factors
determining the location of retail and commercial activities were popula¬
tion, income, transportation, and topography. Five years later, Proudfoot
wrote: "the central business district represents the retail heart of the
city". Historically, such a characterization of the CBD was accurate.
The central business district served as the nucleus of the American city;
it functioned as the terminus of major transport systems and provided the
most central and accessible location for commerce, industry, and govern¬
mental activities. The end of World War II, however, signalled the
beginning of an era of near cataclysmic change in urban spatial patterns.
Transportation, population density, and the geography of household income
underwent profound change. The nation's urban population increased from
20% in 1860 to nearly 75% in 1980 (Figure 1). As a result, the compact
prewar city grew into the postwar suburban spread city. Perhaps the most
important factor contributing to the modern day, spread city was the
automobile and its attendant highway development. Between 1940 and 1980
automobile ownership increased from 27.3 million to 120.9 million; a 343%
increase. This mode of transportation provided a more flexible and
quicker means of movement, therefore, opening up areas for development
which were once considered too distant. As a result, the geography of
residential development shifted ever outward away from the CBD, creating
retail market opportunities that before were nonexistent (Figure 2).

Between 1960 and 1970 the increase in population of areas outside the
central city in major metropolitan areas exceeded that of the central
city, indicating that the relative significance of the central city for
residential development was declining. Other evidence in support of this

2

Spatio-functional reorganization within urban areas

Figure 1. Percent of the United States population in urban
areas, 1960-1980.

YEARS

Figure 2. Population of central cities and outside central
cities for United States SMSAs , 1950-1980.

functional reorganization occurring within the American city includes the
locational trends of retail stores. In 1967, for example, 12,682 stores
were operating in major cities across Alabama, of which nearly 1,200 or
9.2% were located in the CBDs. By 1982, the total number of stores in¬
creased to over 17,500; however, the number located in the CBDs decreased
to less than 1,000 or 5.7%. Several national-based studies concur with
the above Alabama statistics noting significant residential and retail

3

Richetto and Henderson

abandonment of the CBD (Simmons, 1964; Murphy 1974; U.S. Department of
Commerce, 1980; Johnston, 1984).

In the wake of the continued residential and retail abandonment of
the CBD (thereby vacating large amounts of available floor space), the
declining level of competitive use for land within the CBD, and the trend
toward functional separation within large businesses; an increasing number
of comparatively low cost rental opportunities has emerged in the CBD. In
turn, the office sector which has developed as an outgrowth of the spatial
separation of clerical, administration, and executive functions has been
increasingly attracted into the CBD in growing numbers (Ginzberg, 1974;
Stanback, 1976; Sim, 1982; Bateman, 1985). Finally, although nearly every
type of retail/commercial activity has responded to the centrifugal forces
of suburbanization, not all office functions have found the CBD to be a
favorable location (Table 1) . Those office functions where external
personal contact and access to public documents is critical and decision
making and negotiation requires face-to-face communication; the amenities
associated with the central business district become increasing-ly
important in the location decision.

Table 1. Concentration of Selected Types of Office Activities
in Houston and Denver (Percent of Total Space) .

Business

Type

Houston

CBD

Houston

Suburban

Denver

CBD

Denver

Suburban

Banking

84

16

87

13

Legal Services

74

26

61

39

Accounting

71

29

--

--

Insurance

20

80

14

86

Real Estate

11

89

23

77

Engineering

3

97

“ •

. «

Source: Black, J., et al. Downtown Office Growth and the Role
of Public Transit, 1982.

Therefore, by examining the trends of both retail and office
activities and their respective roles in reorganizing the functional
landscape of the American city, local governments may better understand
those factors causing functional change within the CBD before determining
that retail decline is worthy of the massive investment necessary to
reverse this phenomenon. The city of Tuscaloosa serves as a data base for
examining the extent and nature of CBD functional reorganization.

THE CASE STUDY

The city of Tuscaloosa is situated on the Black Warrior River in West
Central Alabama and is the fifth largest urban area in the state, with a

4

Spatio- functional reorganization within urban areas

population of nearly 100,000. For the purpose of this study Tuscaloosa is
defined as the urbanized area of Tuscaloosa County, including the incorpo¬
rated cities of Tuscaloosa and Northport, and the unincorporated urbanized
areas of Tuscaloosa County (Figure 3). Between 1940 and 1980, the total
population of Tuscaloosa County increased from 76 thousand to over 137
thousand, an increase of 81%. During the same period the urban population
of Tuscaloosa increased from 40.3% to 72.4% of the total population. As
Tuscaloosa's population increased, most of the residential expansion oc¬
curred along the urban fringe. Such outward movement of the population
away from the CBD, along with the development of an integrated transport
system and changes in retail marketing strategies, also facilitated the
decentralization of the retail sector. This decentralizing trend began in
Tuscaloosa as early as 1960 with the development of the Parkview Shopping
Plaza located two miles east of the central business district. Subsequent
to this development, several other suburban-oriented retail districts have
developed and continue to develop at ever-increasing distances away from
Tuscaloosa's CBD (Table 2).

Figure 3. The urbanized area of Tuscaloosa, Alabama.

In reference to the above general trend describing Tuscaloosa's retail
sector, the remainder of this paper explores the hypothesis that the city

5

Richetto and Henderson

Table 2. Retail Shopping Districts in Tuscaloosa.

Name of

Retail District

Distance from

CBD (miles)

Year

Developed

Parkview

1.6 - 2.0

1960

Alberta City

3.0 - 3.5

1963

McFarland

3.6 - 4.0

1969

University

2.6 - 3.0

1980

Northport

3.6 - 4.0

1984

Source: calculated by authors.

of Tuscaloosa has undergone functional reorganization. Specifically, Tus¬
caloosa's central business district no longer serves as the city's primary
area of retail and commerce; rather it has become an area predominated by
office and ancillary activities.

THE METHODOLOGY

A list of business establishments was compiled including retail and
office activities found in the urbanized area of Tuscaloosa (Table 3).
Although the list is composed of general functional classifications, it
is limited to those functions which have in the past or are presently
locating in Tuscaloosa's CBD. A base map was constructed consisting of
a series of concentric zones centering on Tuscaloosa's peak value inter¬
section (Figure 4). In an effort to document the spatial and temporal
trends in retail and office location patterns, the radius of each succes¬
sive concentric zone was increased by one-half mile; thereby dividing the
city into 9 zones. In turn, each zone was identified by its predominant
function.

Table 3. Retail and Office Functional Classifications
in Tuscaloosa.

Retail

Office

Apparel

Lawyer

Shoe

Accountant

General Department

Real Estate

Furniture

Insurance

Jewelry

Financial

Automobile

Engineer

Florist

Source: calculated by authors.

Telephone directories for select years between 1940 and 1983 were used
to determine the locations of establishments for each functional classifi-

6

Spatio- functional reorganization within urban areas

Figure 4. Concentric Zone Base Hap.

cation. This information resulted in a time series of maps for each re¬
tail and office activity determining the number and type of establishments
by zone and year.

Finally, in order to examine the interrelationship between retail
outmigration and office inmigration into the CBD, data were collected on
available rental opportunities from the Sunday edition of the city's
newspaper between January 1985 and January 1986. Rental opportunities
were divided into retail and office and both were plotted on the study’s
base map so as to determine the number and average rental price for each
zone .

Although all of the above tasks were performed for each retail and
office activity identified in Table 3, the remainder of this paper will
discuss, in detail, one retail (clothing) and office (lawyer) activity and
then present summary findings for all other activities.

RETAIL/OFFICE ACTIVITY ANALYSIS

Between 1940 and 1983 the total number of clothing outlets in
Tuscaloosa increased from 15 to 58 with the largest increase occurring
between 1963-1973 when the number of establishments grew by 23 (Table 4).
Notwithstanding this dramatic overall increase, there were substantially
fewer clothing stores operating within the central business district in
1983 as compared to 1940. In particular, there occurred a significant
outward shift in retail clothing establishments between 1973-1983 favoring

7

Richetto and Henderson

Table 4. Number of Apparel Establishments by Zone and Year.

Year

Zone 1940 1953 1963 1973 1983

(miles from CBD)

0.0

-

0.5

15

15

18

24

12

0.6

-

1.0

0

2

3

6

2

1.1

-

1.5

0

1

3

6

2

1.6

-

2.0

0

0

5

2

2

2.1

-

2.5

0

0

0

0

1

2.6

-

3.0

0

0

0

2

26

3.1

-

3.5

0

0

0

0

1

3.6

-

4.0

0

0

3

15

12

4.1

+

0

0

0

0

0

TOTAL 15 18 32 55 58

Source: calculated by authors.

newly developing suburban locations (Figure 5). The most important force
underlying this decentralizing pattern was the development of suburban
retail districts.

Data for 1940 and 1953, a period during which no major shopping center
development occurred, reveals that clothing stores were located primarily
in the central business district of Tuscaloosa; with only two outlets
situated in the Northport zone and one outlet located in the University
zone (between 0.6 and 1.0 miles and 1.1 and 1.5 miles from the CBD, re¬
spectively). By 1960, however, the Parkview shopping district was opened
(between 1.6 and 2.0 miles from the CBD) and commercial development was
occurring along University Boulevard in Alberta City (between 3.6 and 4.0
miles from the CBD) . Data for 1963 indicate that the number of clothing
stores opened in these areas was 5 and 3, respectively or 25% of all
clothing outlets. In 1969, McFarland Mall opened in the McFarland- Leland
zone (between 3.6 and 4.0 miles from the CBD) and subsequently the number
of clothing establishments in this zone increased by 12, from 3 to 15.
Later, in 1980, the development of University Mall (between 2.6 and 3.0
miles from the CBD) resulted in the largest increase in the number of
clothing stores for all concentric zones over any ten-year period. The
number of outlets increased by 24, from 2 to 26. During this same time
period (1969-1980) the number of clothing stores located within the CBD
decreased by more than one-half. Similarly, all other retail functions
listed in Table 3 illustrated a decentralizing location pattern, although
furniture, jewelry, and florists to a lesser extent (Table 5).

In contrast, the location of office-based activities became in¬
creasingly concentrated within the CBD between 1940-1983. In particular,
the total number of lawyer offices increased nearly eightfold, from 20
(1940) to 152 (1983). Moreover, not less than 90% of all lawyer offices

8

Spatio- functional reorganization within urban areas

1940

1953

Figure 5. Location of apparel stores in Tuscaloosa, Alabama
for select years.

were located within the CBD for any given year (Table 6). This sizable
and consistent clustering of lawyer offices in the CBD (Figure 6) may be
explained by several factors including reduced travel time to and from the
courthouse, ready access to both city and county government documents,
direct access to other attorneys for council and negotiation, and an
abundant supply of low-cost rental space.

Office space within the central business district became increasingly
available as retail use diminished. The CBD was less than successful in

9

Table 5. Summary of Retail Establishments by Retail Classification. Zone and Year.

Richetto and Henderson

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Spatio- functional reorganization within urban areas

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1953

Figure 6. Location of lawyer offices in Tuscaloosa, Alabama
for select years.

replacing those retail activities relocating to the suburb with other
retail establishments. Thus, several office reconversion projects
occurred within the CBD (1980-1986) resulting in an oversupply of office
rental opportunities. While accountant offices became increasingly
concentrated within the CBD; insurance, real estate, financial, and engi¬
neering activities increasingly favored suburban locations in an effort to
maximize their community visibility and minimize inconvenience to their
prospective clientele (Table 7).

11

Riche tto and Henderson

Table 6. Number of Lawyer Offices by Zone and Year.

Zone

(miles from CBD)

1940

1953

Year

1963

1973

1983

0.0 - 0.5

20

73

70

76

141

0.6 - 1.0

0

0

1

4

4

1.1 - 1.5

0

1

0

0

0

1.6 - 2.0

0

0

0

2

3

2.1 - 2.5

0

0

0

0

4

2.6 - 3.0

0

0

0

0

0

3.1 - 3.5

0

0

0

2

0

3.6 - 4.0

0

0

0

0

0

4.1 +

0

0

0

0

0

TOTAL 20 74 71 84 152

Source: calculated by authors.

SPATIAL PATTERN OF RENTAL OPPORTUNITIES

In 1985 there were 96 retail rental opportunities in Tuscaloosa which
were located primarily east and southeast of the central business district
(Figure 7). In fact, the CBD contained only 10 or 10.4% of all retail
rental opportunities. In contrast, out of 120 office rental opportuni-

I —

Figure 7. Location of retail rental opportunities in
Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1985.

12

Table 7. Summary of Office Establishments by Office Classification, Zone and Year.

Spatio-functional reorganization within urban areas

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13

Financial

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Richetto and Henderson

ties, 62 or 51.6% were concentrated in the CBD (Figure 8). Because retail
activities were decentralized, the average rental price for office space
in the central business district became lower than would be expected.
That is, the loss of retail establishments from the central business
district, in conjunction with a vast number of retail- to-off ice reconver¬
sion projects, and reduced competition, especially from activities capable
of high rental bids (e.g., retailers), resulted in a short-term oversupply
of low-cost vacant space and a below normal rental market. In turn, the
office sector quickly began to establish itself as the predominant func¬
tion within the CBD. Although Tuscaloosa's central business district
calculates to be the highest average cost per square foot for office
space, by comparison the cost is substantially lower than corresponding
retail rental costs in other zones of the city. In these other zones the
higher per square foot rental costs reflect greater levels of retail-
based competition that is capable of bidding higher prices for use of the
land (Table 8).

Figure 8. Location of office rental opportunities in
Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1985.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Throughout the last 40 years the American city has undergone
considerable reorganization in human and economic land use patterns.
Households have continually shifted their locational preferences away from
the central business district and towards the periphery of the built-up
city. In response, economic activities, especially retail and commercial,
have similarly shifted their site selections. With some major changes,
including the development of a suburban- oriented transport system, an

14

Spatio-functional reorganization within urban areas

Table 8. Number and Average Cost Per Square Foot of Retail and Office
Rental Opportunities in 1985 by Zone.

Zone Number of Rental

(miles from CBD) Opportunities

(Retail) (Office)

Average Cost Per
Square Foot

(Retail $) (Office $)

0.0 - 0.5

10

62

7.62

7.10

0.6 - 1.0

7

18

4.00

3.98

1.1 - 1.5

10

11

3.20

2.62

1.6 - 2.0

5

3

3.47

3.25

2.1 - 2.5

9

12

7.87

3.33

2.6 - 3.0

25

6

8.25

2.85

3.1 - 3.5

11

3

4.33

not available

3.6 - 4.0

14

3

4.33

not available

4.1 +

5

2

not available

not available

Source: calculated by authors.

outward movement of middle -to -high income households, the substitution of
space for labor in retailing, and the development of mini shopping dis¬
tricts, retailers have increasingly favored non-CBD locations. By com¬
parison, office activities have responded positively to the central
business district's changing environment. The exodus of retail activity
has resulted in an overabundance of vacant space. With reduced competi¬
tion for this space, vis-a-vis retail replacement, there has and likely
will continue to be a depressed rental market encouraging office location.

Finally, the results of this study may be beneficial to cities which
have or are currently experiencing decline in their central business dis¬
trict. Office and retail functions identified as favoring a CBD location
may be targeted for incentive programs, ensuring that those already
located in the central business district remain and any revitalization
efforts to restore the CBD's viability include these functions. Moreover,
this study provides a methodology to determine what unique combination of
office and retail activities may positively serve the central business
district for other cities.

In conclusion, local governments must recognize and understand the
factors underlying functional change within the central business district
before determining that retail decline is a problem worthy of the massive
resource investment necessary to reinstate the CBD as the retail heart of
the city. Rather, it may be expedient to redefine the primary function of
America's central business district as 'central service districts' and
allow retail and commerce to respond to the ever changing geography in our
cities' market conditions.

REFERENCES

1. Andrews, R. , Urban Growth and Development: A Problem Approach. New
York: Simmons -Boardman Publishing Corporation, 1962.

15

Richetto and Henderson

2. Armstrong R. , The Office Industry: Patterns of Growth and Location.
Cambridge: MIT Press, 1972.

3. Bateman, M. , Office Development: A Geographical Analysis. Sydney:
Croom Helm, 1985.

4. Black, J., D. O'Connell and M. Morina, Downtown Office Growth and
the Role of Public Transit. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Land
Institute, 1982.

5. Bowden, M. , "Downtown Through Time: Delimitation, Expansion and
Internal Growth", Economic Geography (47), 1971.

6. Brown, L. , F. Williams, C. Youngman, J. Holmes and K. Walby, "The
Location of Urban Population Service Facilities: A Strategy and its
Application", in Internal Structure of the City, L. Bourne (ed) , New
York: Oxford University Press, 1982.

7. Cox, E. and L. Erickson, Retail Decentralization . East Lansing:
Michigan State University, 1967.

> 8. Davies, R. , Retail and Commercial Planning. New York; St. Martins
*-> Press , 1984 .

9. Gale, D., "Middle Class Resettlement in Older Urban Neighborhoods:
The Evidence and the Implications", in Internal Structure of the
City. L. Bourne (ed.). New York: Oxford University Press, 1982.

10. Ginzberg, E., The Future of the Metropolis: People, Jobs and Income.
Salt Lake City: Olympus Publishing Company, 1974.

11. Hoyt, H. , "Recent Distortions of the Classical Models of Urban
Structure", Land Economics (40), 1964.

12. Johnston, R. , The American Urban System: A Geographical Perspective.
New York: St. Martins Press, 1984.

13. Murphy R. , The American City: An Urban Geography . New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 1974.

14. Proudfoot, M. , "City Retail Structure", Economic Geography (13),
1937.

15. Rannells, J., The Core of the City. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1956.

16. Rolph, I., "The Population Pattern in Relation to Retail Buying: As
Exemplified in Baltimore", The American Journal of Sociology (38),
1932.

17. Schwartz, G. , Where's Main Street U.S.A.7 Westport: ENO Foundation
for Transportation, Inc., 1984.

16

Spatio- functional reorganization within urban areas

18. Sim, D. , Change in the City Center. Hampshire: Gower Publishing
Company, Ltd., 1982.

19. Simmons, J., The Changing Pattern of Retail Location. Chicago: The
University of Chicago, 1964.

20. Stanback, T. and R. Knight, Suburbanization and the City.

Montclair: Allumheld, Osmun and Company, 1976..

21. Taeubers, K. , "Social and Demographic Trends: Focus on Race:, in The
Future of the Metropolis: People, Jobs, Income: E. Ginzberg (ed.):
Salt Lake City: Olympus Publishing, 1974.

22. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, United States
Census of Population Journey- to-Work Statistics , 1980.

17

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No, 1, January 1990.

A ROVING CREEL SURVEY OF ANGLERS USING GUNTERSVILLE RESERVOIR,
ALABAMA: GEOGRAPHIC ORIGINS, SEASONAL PATTERNS OF FISHING
EFFORT AND SUCCESS, AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
LOCAL ECONOMY’

Robert A. Angus and Ken R. Marion
Biology Department
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Birmingham , AL 3529 4

ABSTRACT

This report summarizes the results of a roving creel survey of anglers
which was conducted on two creeks on Guntersville Reservoir during spring,
summer, and fall, 1987. Spring fishing activity was almost three times as
heavy as in summer and fall, with weekend usage much heavier than week¬
days. Most anglers were from northern Alabama. The mean distance driven
was 49.6 miles one-way. Each angler spent an average of $8.68 per day for
nondurable trip-related goods and services. Based on extrapolation of our
data over the entire reservoir, we estimate conservatively that anglers
contributed approximately $1.98 million to the regional economy over the
three seasons included in the study. Overall, 41.5% of the parties inter¬
viewed indicated they were fishing for bass. Bass fishermen caught nearly
1 bass per hour in the spring and averaged 0.72 bass per hour for the
entire year; they released 62.5% of the bass they caught. Fishermen
apparently have widely differing expectations of success from a fishing
trip on the reservoir; their rating of the fishing quality showed little
relationship to the actual numbers of fish caught.

INTRODUCTION

Reservoirs provide numerous aesthetic, recreational, and economic
benefits to American society. These large artificial lakes were estimated
to have supported 22% of all freshwater fishing in 1980 and generated
total retail expenditures of over $3 billion (Hall, 1985). Effective
management of large reservoir fisheries is one of the most important
challenges in North American fishery management. The objectives of
successful management are (1) satisfactory water quality and fish habi¬
tats, (2) satisfactory fish population structure and dynamics, and (3)
satisfactory fish quality as perceived by anglers (Anderson, 1984).

It often requires significant expenditure of resources, both of
manpower and materials, to ensure that the aforementioned objectives are
met. It is easier to present a strong case in favor of preserving the
reservoir environment if some reasonable estimates of the extent of usage
by anglers and the economic "value" of the reservoir, both as a recre¬
ational and economic resource, is known (Propst and Gavrilis, 1987;
Tschirhart and Crocker, 1987). In addition, analysis of the economic

’Manuscript received 13 July 1989; accepted 21 August 1989.

18

Angus and Marion

impact of a reservoir can evaluate the significance of sportfishing to
economic development and tourism. It can identify the relative contri¬
butions of different kinds of anglers, identify businesses directly
affected, and suggest approaches to strengthening the interactions between
various sectors of the economy to maximize impact (Martin, 1987).

Guntersville Reservoir is a 69,100 acre impoundment of the Tennessee
River in northern Alabama near the cities of Guntersville and Scottsboro.
Impounded In 1939, the reservoir has enjoyed a national reputation among
anglers for its abundant production of quality- sized largemouth bass
( Hicropterus salmoides) , "bream" ( Lepomis species e.g., L. macrochirus ,
L. mlcrolophus , L. auritus , L. megalotis) , and crappie ( Pomoxis nigro-
maculatus and P. annularis) . Fishermen visiting the area to enjoy the
fishery have undoubtedly generated much income to the state and local
economy by patronizing area businesses such as marinas, fishing tackle/
bait shops, restaurants, and motels. At present, however, the value of
the reservoir to the local economy is not precisely known.

This report summarizes the results of a roving creel survey conducted
on Guntersville Reservoir during the spring, summer, and fall of 1987.
The purpose of the study was to obtain information on the numbers of
anglers using the reservoir, geographic origins of anglers, the species
they were primarily seeking, their success rates, and to estimate the
amount of money they contribute to the local economy via expenditures for
nondurable, trip- related goods and services.

SURVEY SITES AND METHODS

Two embayments on Guntersville Reservoir were chosen for study: Spring
Creek (lower reservoir) at the city of Guntersville, Marshall County, and
North Sauty Creek, (mid reservoir) near Scottsboro, Jackson County. The
two embayments are approximately 30 miles apart and represent different
regions of the reservoir. The survey areas were selected because they
were relatively well-delimited, being bounded by causeways in most in¬
stances. At Spring Creek, an area of approximately 845 acres is delimited
by U.S. highway 431 on the upper end and by Marshall Co. highway 67 on the
lower. On North Sauty Creek, an area of approximately 2,347 acres was
delimited by Jackson Co. highway 11 on the upper end and an imaginary line
across the creek at Goose Pond launch at the lower end.

Angler surveys were conducted on four days a month during the spring
(March-May), and on three days a month during summer (June-August) and
fall (September). "Fall" included only one month as funding ceased after
September. Each survey began with an instantaneous count of anglers using
the predefined study areas. This was done by the clerks travelling
throughout the study area in a small aluminum boat. After recording the
count of anglers, the interviews were taken. Questions asked of the
anglers fell Into three categories: (1) geographic origin of the anglers,
(2) expenses related to the fishing trip, and (3) species sought and
angling success. The clerks spent a minimum of two hours per site (summer
and fall), and considerably more than that in the spring, interviewing
anglers. During spring and fall, surveys were conducted from mid-morning

19

Roving creel survey from Guntersville Reservoir

to mid-afternoon. In the summer months, the surveys were concentrated in
the early morning and later afternoon hours as very few anglers used the
reservoir during the heat of the day. Except for the busy spring months,
two -three hours was sufficient to interview all anglers within a study
site. This schedule also permitted the crew to travel from Birmingham,
survey both sites and return in a single day.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Usage

Spring fishing activity on Lake Guntersville is almost three times as
heavy as in summer and fall (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Weekend usage of the
reservoir is more common than on weekdays, but especially so in spring,
when the number of weekend angling parties more than doubles the number
fishing during weekdays.

Of all anglers interviewed, approximately two-thirds were fishing from
boats and one-third were fishing from the bank. Most anglers on Lake Gun¬
tersville are from North Alabama (Tables 2-4). Almost one-third (30.3%)
are from the local area (<10 miles from launch site) and 76.2% are from 50
miles or less. The mean distance driven was 49.6 miles one-way. A sig¬
nificant number of anglers at Spring Creek (25.9%) come from Birmingham
(Jefferson County) , which is more than 50 miles from the reservoir (Table
4). However, few Birmingham anglers appear to drive much further than

Figure 1. Seasonal trends in numbers of anglers using
the two study sites. SC - Spring Creek,

NS - North Sauty Creek.

20

Angus and Marion

Table 1. Seasonal angler usage of Guntersville Reservoir study sites.
Numbers in the table are average numbers of anglers observed in a de¬
signated region of the study site (see methods). Number of surveys in
brackets, standard error of mean in parentheses. SC - Spring Creek,
NS - North Sauty Creek.

Spring
Site

Boats

SC

Weekend

[3]

30.3

(10.8)

21.0

(8.2)

43.7

(18.4)

74.0

(28.7)

Weekday

[3]

6.7

(2.0)

9.7

(1.3)

18.0

(1.5)

24.7

(3.4)

NS

Weekend

m

33.0

(6.9)

21.5

(5.0)

44.0

(9.9)

77.0

(16.7)

Weekday

[3]

15.3

(1.8)

14.3

(1.9)

26.3

(3.3)

41.7

(4.1)

Summer

Site

Bank Anelers

Boats

Boat Anelers

Total

Anelers

SC

Weekend

[5]

8.4

(2.9)

3.2

(0.5)

5.6

(1.2)

14.0

(3.6)

Weekday

[4]

10.7

(3.8)

4.0

(1.4)

8.3

(2.7)

19.0

(5.7)

NS

Weekend

[5]

10.8

(3.9)

6.6

(0.8)

12.2

(1.6)

23.0

(4.8)

Weekday

m

1.9

(0.9)

3.3

(1.1)

7.5

(2.6)

9.4

(2.6)

Fall

Site

Bank Anglers

Boats

Boat Anglers

Total

Anelers

SC

Weekend

[2]

8.0

(5.0)

8.0

(0.0)

13.5

(1.5)

21.5

(6.5)

Weekday

tl]

2.0

(-)

4.0

(-)

9.0

(-)

11.0

(-)

NS

Weekend

[2]

2.5

(0.5)

9.5

(3.5)

17.5

(6.5)

20.0

(6.0)

Weekday

[1]

1.0

(-)

2.0

(-)

4.0

(-)

5.0

(-)

Spring Creek. Only 1.6% of the parties at North Sauty Creek were from
Jefferson County. Madison County (Huntsville) dominated the angling
parties at North Sauty (52.7%, Table 4). Obviously, anglers are tending
to utilize the closest available location on the reservoir.

Table 2. Distances travelled by anglers to
Guntersville Reservoir (one way) .

Distance Number of

(miles) Parties Percent

0-10

116

30.3

11-30

84

21.9

31-50

92

24.0

51-100

69

18.0

101-500

18

4.7

>500

4

1.0

Total

383

100.0

21

Roving creel survey from Guntersville Reservoir

Economic Impact

By his/her own estimation, each angler spent an average of $8.68 for
nondurable goods and services during the day's fishing trip to Lake Gun¬
tersville (Table 5). If gasoline purchases are limited to sites within 10
miles of the reservoir, $6.89 is contributed directly to the local economy
by each person- trip to the local area. These are the actual figures pro¬
vided by the anglers. No "multipliers" have been used in this study to

Table 3. Home states of Guntersville Reservoir
anglers .

Number of

State Parties Percent

Alabama

352

91.9

Tennessee

17

4.5

Georgia

5

1.3

Ohio

3

0.8

Kentucky

2

0.5

Florida

1

0.3

New York

1

0.3

Pennsylvania

1

0.3

Texas

1

0.3

Total

383

100.0

Table 4. County of origin of Alabama anglers at Guntersville
Reservoir.

Spring Creek North Sauty

County # Parties % # Parties %

Baldwin

1

0.5

Blount

5

2.9

1

0.5

Calhoun

1

0.6

Cullman

10

5.9

2

1.1

Dekalb

3

1.6

Etowah •

10

5.9

Hamilton

1

0.5

Jackson

1

0.6

54

29.7

Jefferson

44

25.9

3

1.6

Madison

10

5.9

96

52.7

Marshall

81

47.6

18

9.9

Montgomery

1

0.6

1

0.5

Morgan

5

2.9

1

0.5

St. Clair

1

0.6

Tuscaloosa

1

0.5

Walker

1

0.6

Total

170

100.0

182

100.0

22

Angus and Marion

Table 5. Summary of financial expenditures (in dollars
per person) as estimated by anglers.

Mean

S. E.

n

Gasoline (Total)

4.25

0.36

374

Gasoline*

2.35

0.22

380

Food*

1.67

0.18

380

Bait*

1.62

0.13

380

Lodging*

1.25

0.31

380

*Spent within 10 miles of Guntersville
Reservoir

take into account that dollars brought into an area change hands many
times within the economy. Economists typically introduce multipliers in
the range of 2.5 to 7 or more (e.g., see Anderson et al., 1986). How¬
ever, they can be misinterpreted if analysts fail to state the type of
multipliers and the context in which they were derived (Propst and
Gavrilis, 1987).

Estimates of the numbers of anglers using the two sites were obtained
by extrapolating from the instantaneous counts. For example, on spring
weekend days at Spring Creek, an average of 74.0 anglers were counted.
Since there were 27 weekend days during the spring months of 1987, an
estimated 1,998 anglers (-74.0 x 27) used the Spring Creek embayment dur¬
ing that time (Table 6). Overall, for the three-quarter sample period,
13,282 anglers are estimated to have visited one or the other of the study
sites. This method assumes that the days and hours when counts were
obtained were representative ones and that the number of anglers using the
study sites on similar days, e.g. spring weekend, would have been simi¬
lar. The estimated totals of anglers visiting each area are underesti¬
mates because they are based solely on fishermen present at the same time
the clerks were there. Fishermen leaving before the clerks arrived, or
arriving after they left, of course, were not counted or allowed for by
some expansion factor. Evening and night fishermen may have been con¬
siderable users of the study sites, especially in the summer.

Further extrapolation can be done to provide an estimate of the total
numbers of anglers using the entire reservoir during the spring, summer,
and fall seasons. The two defined study areas represent 4.62% of the
total surface area of the reservoir. Assuming that the number of anglers
per surface acre of the study sites is representative of the whole reser¬
voir, an estimate of 13,282 x (100/4.62) - 287,489 anglers using the
entire reservoir is obtained. The validity of this extrapolation to the
whole reservoir may be questioned since both study areas are embayments ,
and if the amount of usage is different on the main reservoir (which makes
up most of the surface area), the estimate will be in error. Seasonal
fishing patterns do exist. In the spring, when fish are in shallow
waters, there are clearly more anglers in the embayments than on the main
reservoir. Thus, the total number of anglers on the reservoir would be

23

Roving creel survey from Cuntersville Reservoir

Table 6. Extrapolation of angler counts to estimate the
total number of anglers using the study sites
during spring, summer, and fall, 1987. SC -
Spring Creek, NS - North Sauty Creek.

Average # Days per Total

Type of day # Angler/Count Season (Average x Days)

Spring Weekend (SC)

74.0

27

1,998

Spring Weekend (NS)

77.0

27

2,079

Spring Weekday (SC)

24.7

64

1,581

Spring Weekday (NS)

41.7

64

2,669

Spring Total

8,327

Summer Weekend (SC)

14.0

26

364

Summer Weekend (NS)

23.0

26

598

Summer Weekday (SC)

19.0

66

1,254

Summer Weekday (NS)

9.4

66

620

Summer Total

2,836

Fall Weekend (SC)

21.5

26

559

Fall Weekend (NS)

20.0

26

520

Fall Weekday (SC)

11.0

65

715

Fall Weekday (NS)

5.0

65

325

Fall Total

2,119

GRAND TOTAL 13,282

overestimated by counting only creek fishermen. However, the situation
probably reverses in the summer when fish tend to move to deeper water.
At this time of year, the anglers follow the fish and more will be found
on the main reservoir than in the creeks. During these seasons, counts on
the embayments tend to underestimate the total number of anglers using the
entire reservoir. Thus, we believe that over all seasons, these over- and
underestimates tend to balance each other.

The economic information from the interviews indicated that the
average angler spends $6.89 per trip in the immediate vicinity of the
reservoir (within 10 miles). Thus, over the three most active fishing
seasons, anglers contribute an estimated $6.89 x 287,489 - $1,980,799 to
the regional economy. This is a very conservative estimate of the impact
of angling on the regional economy since no "multipliers” have been ap¬
plied to the numbers. It also should be noted that this represents only
money spent for nondurable goods associated with daily fishing trip
expenses and does not include money spent on more expensive durable goods
such as rods, reels, tackle, and boats. Most of these items are probably
purchased around the angler's home town and may not represent a signifi¬
cant source of outside money flowing into the regional economy.

24

Angus and Marion

Species Sought

Large-mouth bass angling is the most important recreational fishery on
Lake Guntersville in terms of the numbers of anglers who are actively
seeking a specific species. Between 31.3 and 61.4 percent of the fisher¬
men interviewed during the three seasons were fishing for largemouth bass.
Overall, 41.5% of all parties interviewed indicated they were fishing for
bass (Table 7). Crappie fishermen were abundant (25.6% of parties) in the
spring, but virtually disappeared from the summer and fall samples. Bream
fishermen were active in the spring (17.5%) and summer (11.7%). In all
seasons, less than 10% of those interviewed were seeking catfish. Roughly
one -fourth of the fishermen were fishing for no particular species.

Table 7. Fish sought by Guntersville anglers. Entries in
the table represent the percentage of angling
parties surveyed which expressed preference for
each category of fish. Numbers of parties surveyed
in spring, summer, and fall were 211, 128 and 44,
respectively.

Species

Spring

Summer

Fall

Bass

31.3

51.6

61.4

Crappie

25.6

0

4.5

Bream

17.5

11.7

2.3

Catfish

1.9

1.6

6.8

No Preference

23.7

35.2

25.0

Angler Success and Satisfaction

Bass anglers were most successful in the spring when catch rates
approached one fish per hour. Catch rates remained high (over 0.7 fish/
hr) during the summer (Table 8). However, the fall surveys, conducted
only during September, may not have provided an accurate representation
of fall fishing conditions. This may have produced an under- estimation of
the fall angling success which, presumably, increased with dropping water
temperatures later in the season.

Table 8. Bass angler success as average catch per hour
(standard error in parentheses).

Spring

Summer

Fall

Spring Creek

North Sauty Creek

0.91 (0.17)
0.87 (0.14)

0.78 (0.18)

0.71 (0.18)

0.28

0.24

(0.17)

(0.07)

25

Roving creel survey from Guntersville Reservoir

The abundance of bass in Lake Guntersville appears to be good as bass
fishermen caught an average of 0.72 bass per hour over the study period.
A national Bass Angler Sportsman Society tournament in April, 1987 pro¬
duced outstanding results (Tucker, 1987). The three-day tournament
produced a record number of seven-bass limits and an average of 16 bass
(12" or greater) per angler. The average catch rate, 0.60 bass per hour,
is an underestimate of total bass catch rate since the top anglers caught
and released many more than their seven- fish limit. In April, 1^87, 50.8%
of the B.A.S.S. tournament anglers brought in limits, which is excep¬
tionally high. According to D. Kendrick, B.A.S.S. tournament director
(Tucker, 1987), "Normally, if 20 to 25% of the fishermen bring in a limit,
we're impressed with the lake's fishery." Similar tournament successes
were repeated over the next two years at Lake Guntersville. In fact, the
1989 tournament set records for total number of bass caught, number of
seven-bass limits, and total weight (Vincent, 1989).

Among persons fishing for species other than bass, bream fishermen
had the highest catch per hour, followed by the crappie fishermen (Table
9). Catfish fishermen experienced much lower catch rates. This was
apparently compensated for by the fact that they were angling for larger
fish.

Table 9. Non-bass angler success. Mean catch per hour

among anglers stating the particular species as
their preference. Standard errors in parentheses.

Crappie

Bream

Catfish

1.36

3.96

0.19

(0.32)

(0.53)

(0.09)

Overall, interviews indicated that bass anglers released 62.5% of the
bass they caught (all sizes included). This is encouraging, since the
maintenance of a quality fishery with good numbers of fish in the larger
size classes may depend on the anglers releasing more bass, especially the
larger ones.

Despite the relatively high catch rates, most people interviewed were
somewhat dissatisfied with the result of their fishing trip. More than
85% perceived fishing as fair or poor, whereas only about 14% indicated
that their success was good or excellent (Table 10). It was clear,
however, that one's rating of the days' fishing success (as excellent,
good, fair, or poor) often had little to do with the actual numbers of
fish caught. People apparently have widely differing expectations of
success from a fishing trip. Persons who caught relatively few fish would
often rate the fishing as good or better than others who had been much
more successful. The relationship of stated satisfaction to actual
angling success is shown graphically for bass fishermen in Figure 2.

26

Angus and Marion

Table 10. Quality of fishing as judged by anglers.

Number %

Excellent

8

2.1

Good

46

12.1

Fair

122

32.0

Poor

205

53.8

Total

381

100.0

Conclusions

At the time of this study, Guntersville Reservoir was attracting
anglers from throughout northern Alabama, surrounding states, and even
nationwide. These anglers contributed millions of dollars annually to
the regional economy. Since 1987, fishing has continued to be excellent
on the reservoir and its reputation as one of the nation's premier fresh-

Estimation of Success

Figure. 2. Relationship between actual bass angling success
(as catch per hour) and estimation of success
(stated as Excellent, Good, Fair, or Poor).

27

Roving creel survey from Guntersville Reservoir

water fisheries has grown. It is likely that the numbers of anglers
travelling to Guntersville Reservoir from outside the region has continued
to increase If this is the case, then the present economic impact of the
fishery is even greater than estimated in 1987.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was funded by a grant from the Alabama Universities/
Tennessee Valley Authority Research Consortium and by funds from the
Tennessee Valley Authority.

LITERATURE CITED

Anderson, R.O. 1984. Perspectives on bass length limits and reservoir
fishery management. Fisheries 9:6-9.

Anderson, R.S. 1986. Regional economic impact of the Devils Lake
fishery. Fisheries 11:14-17.

Hall, G.E. 1985. Reservoir fishery research needs and priorities.
Fisheries 10:3-5.

Martin, L.R.G. 1987. Economic impact analysis of a sport fishery on
Lake Ontario: An appraisal of method. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
116:461-468.

Propst, D.B., and D.G. Gavrilis. 1987. Role of economic impact

assessment procedures in recreational fisheries management. Trans.
Am. Fish. Soc. 116:450-460.

Tschirhart, J., and T.D. Crocker. 1987. Economic valuation of
ecosystems. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 116:469-478.

Tucker, T. 1987. Clunn wins at Guntersville-again. Bassmaster
Magazine, August, 1987, pp. 68-71.

Vincent, M. 1989. Byrd soars to Alabama victory. Bassmaster Magazine,
July/August, 1989, pp. 75-76.

28

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 1, January 1990.

CHANGES IN EXTENSIBILITY AND TISSUE CHOLESTEROL
OF RAT AORTAS WITH EXERCISE1

R. C. Westerfield, T. J. Pujol, and F. S. Bridges2
Department of Health Studies
The University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa , Alabama 35487-0312

ABSTRACT

The effects of a moderate aerobic exercise program on arterial
extensibility and aortic tissue cholesterol levels were determined in
rats. Forty-six Lewis strain rats were randomly assigned to an exercise
or non- exercise group. The exercise group was given daily aerobic
exercise on a small animal treadmill for 14 weeks. Thoracic aortic
segments from 202-day old subjects were excised and evaluated. Esteri-
fied, unesterified, and total cholesterol were determined through chemical
analysis. Tubular aortic segments were circumferentially stretched
utilizing an Instron Instralab Instrument. Extensibility measure of
aortic stiffness and circumferential stretch distance were determined at
15%, and 30%, of an 0.91 kg load and at the breaking point of the aortic
segment. Only the breaking load was significantly higher for the exercise
group. The exercise group had significantly lower levels of unesterified
and total cholesterol. The findings support an inhibitory role of ex¬
ercise in cholesterol accumulation.

INTRODUCTION

The role exercise may play in exerting a preventive effect on the
pathogenesis of atherosclerosis is ambiguous and conflicting. Several
non-human studies have demonstrated, with moderate exercise, an inhibitory
effect on atherogenesis (20,22,24,35). In other animal studies, exercise
failed to decrease the extent and severity of atherosclerosis or prevent
its occurrence (24,34,40). Evidence has been presented that moderate
regular exercise alters the metabolism and absorption patterns of lipids
in human and non-human subjects (12,14,38). Research has demonstrated
with atherosclerosis there is a concomitant loss of arterial extensibility
(10,29,30). Kramsch, et al. (22) and Leung, et al. (23) have presented
evidence that one of the factors by which exercise inhibits the develop¬
ment of atherosclerosis may be the effect of exercise on arterial ectensi-
bility .

The present study was undertaken to determine how a moderate exercise
program would affect aortic tissue cholesterol levels and arterial ex¬
tensibility in rats fed an atherogenic diet.

’Manuscript received 31 August 1989; accepted 6 November 1989.
Presently at Northeast Louisiana University.

29

Westerfield, Bridges, and Pujol

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Sub jects

Forty-six 50 day old male rats of the Lewis strain were randomly
assigned to either an exercise (N-23) or non-exercise (N-23) group.
Subjects were housed together in identical environmental conditions:
temperature, 21.1°C, humidity 50%, and light 12 hours/day. Food and water
were offered ad libitum. The subjects were fed an atherogenic diet
(standard rat food pellets enriched with 2% cholesterol) for 44 days prior
to the commencement of the exercise regimen and continuing until termi¬
nation of the study. The rat is known to be somewhat resistant to
demonstrable atherosclerotic lesions (8,26,36). Therefore, in order to
determine any effects of aerobic exercise on arterial extensibility and
tissue cholesterol, an atherogenic diet was utilized to facilitate the
pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.

Exercise Training

Non-exercise subjects remained limited to standard rat cages (20.3 cm
x 25.4 cm x 45.7 cm) throughout the investigation. Exercise animals
received daily (7 days/week) aerobic physical exercise on a small-animal
treadmill for a 14-week duration. The exercise protocol and intensity
were patterned after previous research (1,2,16,27). During weeks 1,2,3,
and 4, the exercise was 0.96 km/h at 5% incline for 10 minutes; week 5 was
0.96 km/h at 10% incline for 15 minutes; weeks 6 and 7 were 1.12 km/h at
10% incline for 15 minutes; weeks 8.9, and 10 were 1.12 km/h at 10%
incline for 10 minutes twice daily; week 11 was 1.28 km/h at 10% incline
for 15 minutes twice daily; weeks 12, 13, and 14 were 1.28 km/h at 15%
incline for 15 minutes daily. Exercise subjects received one week of
training on the treadmill prior to the experimental study to ensure
familiarity and proficiency. Subjects were weighed every three days to
determine if exhaustion, anorexia, or weight loss occurred. There was no
significant differences in body weight between the groups at commencement
or termination of the study (P < .05).

Pathological Procedures

The subjects were 202 days old upon termination of the experiment. An
intraperitoneal injection of Nembutal (.1 ml/100 gm of body weight) was
used to anesthetize the subjects. A midline chest and abdominal incision
was made exposing the thoracic aorta. A 31 mm tubular segment of the
aorta, beginning at the innominate branch, was excised and maintained in
a Lock-Ringer's solution at 37°C to reverse any spontaneous constriction.
After 15 minutes, the aortic segment was stripped of its adventitia
utilizing procedures described by Wolinsky and Daly (37) and utilized in
previous research 3,4,6,29). A 6 mm tubular segment was excised (phrenic
end) for assessment of arterial extensibility, with the remaining segment
used to determine tissue cholesterol levels. Both specimens were
temporarily stored in isotonic saline at 4°C.

Arterial extensibility was measured by utilization of the Instron
Instralab University Testing Instrument (7). The equipment and testing

30

Extensibility and tissue cholesterol of rat aortas

procedure allowed visualization and strip chart recording of circumfer¬
ential stretch of arterial segments under a given load at a constant rate
of elongation. The equipment and procedure were similar to techniques
published by Bailey (4). Arterial segments (6 mm) were held in place to
two high- tensile strength specimen hooks (.76 mm dia.) secured vertically
by specimen grips. The horizontally held arterial segments were circum¬
ferentially stretched by application of a load up to 0.91 kg. Initially
a circumferential stretch tension of 5% of a 0.91 kg load (45.5 g) was
employed to induce lumen tautness and thus minimize error in measurement
attributable to anatomical size differences in arterial segments. Circum¬
ferential stretch was induced until a force of 15% of a 0.91 kg load
(136.5 g) was reached. The circumferential stretch or tension was un¬
loaded to the initial 5% point. This procedure was repeated at 30% of a
0.91 kg load (273 g) . Circumferential stretch was finally induced until
the arterial segment broke or fractured.

Measures of extensibility in the form of arterial stiffness and
stretch distance were derived from recordings of the Instralab strip chart
recorder. From the graphline generated and recorded on the Instralab
strip chart recorder, the distance the arterial segment stretched under a
given load could be determined in mm. In addition, from the slope of the
graphline, generated from circumferential stretch tension, arterial
stiffness was calculated. The slope of the arterial stretch, due to load
tension, would differ according to the elastic properties of the segment
being stretched under load. The arterial stiffness values (kg/cm) were
calculated in the following manner: From the point where the loading line
(slope line) crossed the vertical predetermined 15% and 30% load points,
a line was drawn horizontally backward 5% and then drawn vertically
downward until it intersected the loading line. This vertical distance
was measured to the nearest 0.5 mm and divided by the predetermined and
standardized recorder magnification ratio (chart speed of 12.7 cm/min. to
crosshead speed of 0.127 cm/min). This quotient was finally divided by
0.0455 kg (5% of 0.91 kg load) to derive the stiffness value (kg/cm).
Breaking load was the tension in kg necessary to break or fracture the
arterial segment. Stretch distance was derived by calculating the
distance (nearest 0.08 cm) from the initial 5% load t the 15%, 30%, and
breaking point.

Cholesterol Assay Methods

The technique for cholesterol extraction was adopted from methods
utilized by Folch (11). For chemical analysis of tissue cholesterol,
arterial segments were homogenized and extracted with methylene chloride-
methanol (2:1). The methylene chloride -methanol was washed with 0.2
(0.2x40) volumes of saline. The aqueous phase was separated by centri¬
fugation, removed, and washed with 40 volumes of methylene chloride -
methanol-saline (86:14:1). The methylene chloride-methanol phases were
pooled and evaporated to dryness under nitrogen at 40°C. Samples were
divided into two equal fractions from analysis of free and esterified
cholesterol. The fractions analyzed for cholesterol esters were treated
with cholesterol esterase and analyzed for free cholesterol. The amount
of cholesterol in the untreated fraction was subtracted from the treated

31

Westerfield, Bridges, and Pujol

fraction to give the amount of esterified cholesterol present. Choles¬
terol was isolated from other lipids by three-dimensional thin layer
chromatography. Cholesterol was visualized by standing the plates in an
iodine -vapor chamber at room temperature for one hour. The amount of
cholesterol was determined by calorimetric analysis using the Dow method
(32). Measurements were made in a Beckman spectrophotometer at 565 nm and
reported as milligrams of cholesterol per gram of aortic tissue.

Statistical Analysis

Data from extensibility measures and chemical analysis for cholesterol
were statistically treated through multivariate analysis of variance (17) .
Hotellings multivariate test of significance was significant (P<.001).
Univariate F-tests were used to determine significant difference between
the two groups .

RESULTS

The aortic breaking load value was the only extensibility determi¬
nation which was significantly different between the exercise and non¬
exercise groups (Table 1) . Mean aortic breaking load for exercise group
(0.563 + 0.025) was significantly greater than the non-significantly
different between the two groups. Measurements of circumferential stretch
distance of the two groups at 15%, 30%, and breaking point also were
significantly different.

Significant mean differences between the exercise and non-exercise
groups in aortic tissue cholesterol (mg of cholesterol per gm of aortic
tissue) was demonstrated (Table 1). The non-exercise group had a sig¬
nificantly higher unesterified cholesterol level (0.215 + 0.003) than did
the exercise group (0.173 + 0.002) and a significantly higher total
cholesterol level (0.852 + 0.002) than the exercise group (0.817 ± 0.002).
There was no significant difference between the exercise and non-exercise
groups with regard to esterified cholesterol (0.644 + 0.003 vs. 0.637 +
0.002, respectively).

DISCUSSION

The results of this study partially support previous research in
demonstrating exercise as a preventive measure in the pathogenesis of
atherosclerosis (22,24). The findings of significantly higher levels of
unesterified and total cholesterol in the non-exercise, and higher
breaking load for the exercise group, support the preventive actions of
moderate exercise. The study failed to detect significant differences
between the exercise and non-exercise groups in arterial extensibility
measures of stiffness at 15% load, 30% load, all stretch distances, and in
esterified cholesterol tissue levels.

Studies by Newman et al. (29), and Pynadath and Mukherjee (30), have
demonstrated a decrease in arterial extensibility with increasing athero¬
sclerosis, and the loss of arterial elasticity being proportional to
atherosclerotic involvement. The present study's failure to detect

32

Extensibility and tissue cholesterol of rat aortas

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extensibility; #Stretch distance is cm, : @Cholesterol is mg/g aortic tissue; **15%, 30%
and percentages of 0.91 kg load applied circumferentially at a constant rate; ++Mean +SE.

Westerfield, Bridges, and Pujol

significant differences between the exercise and non-exercise groups in
extensibility at 15% and 30% load was in conflict with these previous
studies. The detection of a significant difference in arterial tissue
lipids would appear to indicate physiological if not pathological changes
had occurred. Perhaps the extent of atherosclerotic development was not
sufficient to elicit subtle changes in arterial extensibility. The rat
model has been shown to be appropriate for atherosclerosis research but
is known to be more resistant to diet induced atherosclerosis than other
animal models (8,26,36). Hasler (20,21) utilizing an atherogenic diet
consisting of 10% lard and 4% cholesterol was able to produce only
moderate atherosclerotic changes in the intimal surface of rat aortas. In
addition, the researcher found minimal differences between exercise and
sedentary rats in intimal surface plaques. In the current investigation
the resistant nature of the subjects, coupled with the experimental time
frame, 14 weeks, may have prevented sufficient changes in the intimal
layer necessary for detection of extensibility variations.

The finding of a significant difference between the groups with regard
to breaking load would be in agreement with previous studies. With ex¬
treme or high levels of artery stretch, the medial layer becomes signifi¬
cantly involved. The ratio of elastin to collagen tissue in the medial
layer is an important factor in elasticity demonstrated at high levels.
Ruderman et al. (31) and Wong et al. (39) have provided evidence that
exercise can and does lower the collagen to elastin ratio thus preventing
a loss of elastic characteristics.

The demonstrated higher levels of unesterified and total cholesterol
in the non-exercise subjects would appear to indicate an acceleration of
lipid deposition in arterial tissue. Numerous studies have shown exercise
to lower serum lipid levels in humans and non-humans (5,9,14,18). The
measurement of arterial tissue lipids has not been as extensive as serum.
Forsythe et al. (12) found exercise lowered the total heart lipid levels
in pigs. Gollnick (15), Fukida et al. (13), and Naratan et al. (28)
determined that exercised animals had significantly lower liver lipids
than sedentary controls.

The failure of exercise to significantly reduce esterified cholesterol
was surprising since unesterified and total cholesterol levels were re¬
duced. Atherosclerotic lesions demonstrated a higher relationship to
esterified cholesterol than unesterified or total levels. The conversion
of lipids to the esterified form has been shown to be partially attribu¬
table to the level of unesterified cholesterol, which in turn is partially
related to serum lipid levels. The significantly lower levels of un¬
esterified and total cholesterol in the exercise group would be consistent
with the lowering of serum lipids through exercise. Previous researchers
(19) found cholesterol esterification in the atherosclerosis resistant rat
was higher than in other more susceptible animals. These researchers as
well as Small and Shipley (33) postulate that esterification may be a
protective mechanism in converting toxic atherogenic free cholesterol to
a less toxic esterified form. Perhaps exercise initially stimulates the
protective mechanism which converts unesterified to esterified, but long¬
term effects would be the reduction of esterified through limiting the

34

Extensibility and tissue cholesterol of rat aortas

unesterified available for conversion. Other plausible explanations
include physiological, enzymatic, and chemical changes in the arterial
wall due to exercise.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Ahrens, R.A. , C.L. Bishop, and C.D. Berdanier. Affect of age and
dietary carbohydrate source on the response of rats to forced
exercise. J. Nutr. 102:241-248, 1971.

2. Ahrens, R.A. and E.T. Koh. Effect of dietary carbohydrate sources
in controlling body composition due to forced exercise in rats. J.
Nutr. 101:885-888, 1971.

3. Apter, J.T., M. Rabinowitz, and D.H. Cummings. Correlation of
visco-elastic properties of large arteries with microscopic
structure. Circ. Res. 19:104-121, 1966.

4. Bailey, J.M. Elasticity and tensile strength of normal and
atherosclerotic rabbit aorta. J. Atheroscler . Res. 5:112-110, 1965.

5. Baker, T. , D. Allen, K. Lei, and K. Willcox. Alterations in lipid
and protein profiles of plasma lipoproteins in middle-aged men
consequent to an aerobic exercise program. Metabolism. 35:1037-
1043, 1986.

6. Band, W. , W.J. Goedhard, and A. A. Knoop. Comparison of effects of

high cholesterol intake on viscoelastic properties of the thoracic
aorta in rats and rabbits. Atherosclerosis . 18:163-171, 1973.

7. Carden, G. Instralab Instructors guide: Publication #10-348-1 .
Instron Corp., Springfield, MO, 1969.

8. Clarkson, T.B. Animal models of atherosclerosis. Adv. Vet. Sc.
Comp. Med. 16:51-73, 1972.

9. Durstine, J.L. , K. Keumo, and R. Shepherd. Serum lipoproteins of
the Zucker rat in response to an endurance running program. Med.
Sci. Sports Exer. 17:567-573, 1985.

10. Farrar, D.J., H.D. Green, M.G. Bond, W.D. Wagner, and R.A. Gobbee.
Aortic pulse wave velocity, elasticity, and composition in a
nonhuman primate model of atherosclerosis. Circ. Res. 1:52-62,
1978.

11. Folch, J., M. Lees, and G.H.S. Stanley. A simple method for the
Isolation and purification of total lipids from animal tissues. J.
Biol. Chem. 226:497, 1957.

12. Forsythe, W.A. , E.R. Miller, B. Curry, and M.R. Bennick. Aerobic
exercise effects on lipoproteins and tissue lipids in young pigs.
Atherosclerosis. 38:327-337, 1981.

35

Westerfield, Bridges, and Pujol

13. Fukida, N. , T. Ide, Y. Kida, K. Takamine, and M. Sugano. Effects of
exercise on plasma and liver lipids of rats, Part 4: Effects of
exercise on hepatic cholesterogenesis and fecal steroid excretion in
rats. Nutr. Metabol. 4:256-265, 1979.

14. Garman, J.F. Coronary risk factor intervention: A review of
physical activity and serum lipids. Am. Corr. Ther. J. 6:183-189,
1978.

15. Gollnick, P.D. Cellular to exercise. In Frontiers to Fitness, R.D.
Shepard, editor, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, 1971.

16. Hanson, D.L. , J.A. Lorenzen, A.E. Morris, R. A. Ahrens, and J.E.
Wilson. Effects of fat intake and exercise on serum cholesterol and
body composition of rats. Am. J. Physiol. 213:347-352, 1967.

17. Hardyck, C.D. and L.F. Petrinovich. Multivariate statistical
analysis. In Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, Saunders Co.,
Philadelphia, p. 233, 1976.

18. Hartung, G.H. Physical activity and coronary heart disease risk: A
review. Am. Corr. Ther. J. 4:110-114, 1977.

19. Hashimoto, S. and S. Dayton. Cholesterol-esterifying activity of
aortas from atherosclerosis-resistance and atherosclerosis-resistant
and atherosclerosis-susceptible species. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.
145:89-92, 1974.

20. Hasler, C.M., H. Rothenbacher , D. Mela, and P. Kris-Etherton. The

effects of exercise and hyperlipidemic diet on aortic histopathology
in the rat. Atherosclerosis . 52:279-286, 1984.

21. Hasler, C.M. , H. Rothenbacher, D. Mela, and P. Kris-Etherton.
Exercise attenuates diet- induced arteriosclerosis in the adult rat.
J. Nutrition. 117:986-993. 1987.

22. Kramsch, D.M., A.J. Aspen, B.M. Abramowitz, T. Kreimendahl, and W.B.
Hood. Reduction of coronary atherosclerosis by moderate
conditioning exercises in monkeys on an atherogenic diet. N. Engl.
J. Med. 25:1483-1489, 1981.

23. Leung, K.Y.M. , S. Glagov, and M.B. Mathews. Elastin and collagen
accumulation in rabbits ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk during
postnatal growth: Correlations of cellular synthetic response with
medial tension. Circ. Res. 41:316-323, 1977.

24. Link, R.P., W.M. Pedersoli, and A.H. Safanie. Effect of exercise on

development of atherosclerosis in swine. Atherosclerosis . 15:107-

122, 1972.

25. Lofland, H.B. and T.B. Clarkson. A biochemical study of spontaneous
atherosclerosis in pigeons. Circ. Res. 7:234-237, 1959.

36

Extensibility and tissue cholesterol of rat aortas

26. Luginbuhl, H. , G.L. Rossi, H.L. Ratcliffe, and R. Muller. Compara¬
tive atherosclerosis. Adv. Vet. Sc. Comp. Med. 21:421-441, 1977.

27. Mayer, J., N.B. Marshall, J.J. Vitale, J.H. Christensen, M.B.
Mashayekhi, and F.J. Stare. Exercise, food intake, and body weight
in normal rats and genetically obese adult mice. Am. J. Physiol.
177:544-548, 1954.

28. Naratan, K.A. , J.J. McMullen, D.P. Butler, T. Wakefield, and W.K.
Calhoun. Effect of exercise of tissue lipids and serum lipoproteins
of rats fed two levels of fat. J. Nutr. 105:581-587, 1975.

29. Newman, D.L. , R.G. Gosling, N.L.R. Bowden. Changes in aortic

distensibility and area ratio with the development of
atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis . 14:231-240, 1971.

30. Pynadath, T.I. and D.P. Mukherjee. Dynamic mechanical properties of

atherosclerotic aorta: A correlation between the cholesterol ester
content and the viscoelastic properties of atherosclerotic aorta.
Atherosclerosis . 26:311-318, 1977.

31. Ruderman, N.G., S. Schneifer, and D.M. Kramsch. Physical training
and cardiovascular disease in the diabetic. In: Diabetes and
Exercise, M. Berger and J. Wahren, editors. Huber Co., Bern,
Switzerland, 1982.

32. Scimore, J. and R. Rothstein. Clinical Chemistry . A.U.I.

Publishing Co., West Point, Connecticut, pp. 73-74, 1975.

33. Small, D.M. and G.G. Shipley. Physical-chemical basis of lipid
deposition in atherosclerosis. Science. 185:222-229, 1974.

34. Weiss, H.S., F.D. Brown, P. Griminger, and H. Fisher. Physical
activity and atherosclerosis in the adult chicken. J. Atheroscler .
Res. 6:407-414, 1966.

35. Westerfield, R.C. The effects of vasectomy and exercise on choles¬
terol levels in rat aortas. Atherosclerosis. 49:319-324, 1983.

36. Wissley, R.W. and D. Vesselinovitch. Evaluation of animals models
for the study of the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. In:
International Symposium: State of Prevention and Therapy in Human
Arteriosclerosis and in Animal Models. W.H. Hauss, R.W. Wissler,
and R. Lehman, editors. Westdeutcher/Verlag, Germany, 1978.

37. Wolinsky, H. and M.M. Daly. Method for the isolation of intimal-
medial samples for arteries. Proc. Soc . Exp. Biol. Med. 135:364,
1970.

38. Wolinsky, H. , S. Goldfisher, D. Katz, R. Markle, L. Gidez, A.
Wassertheil-Smoller , and B. Coltoff-Schiller . Hydrolase activities
in the rat aorta, Part 3: Effects of regular swimming activity and
its cessation. Circ. Res. 45:546-633, 1979.

37

Westerfield, Bridges, and Pujol

39. Wong, H.Y.C., S.N. David, S.O. Orimilikwe, and F.B. Johnson. The
effects of physical exercise in reversing experimental
atherosclerosis. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 60:34-36, 1975.

40. Van Oort, Gross, and Spiekerman. Effects of eight weeks of physical
conditioning on atherosclerotic plaque in swine. Am. J. Vet. Res.
48:51-55, 1987.

38

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 1, January 1990.

A BLACK BEAR TOOTH ANOMALY1

Julian L. Dusi

Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn University , AL 36849

A female black bear, Ursus americanus , was killed by a truck, 29
November 1979, near Turnerville, Mobile Co., Alabama. The bear weighed
about 150 lb (68 kg), and measured 420 cm total length, 65 mm tail length,
180 mm hind foot, and 105 mm ear length. A longitudinal section of an
upper first premolar showed the following pattern of annuli in the
cementum (Fig. 1). Regardless of the method of assigning age to annuli,
there is no doubt that it is an older bear.

On examining the cleaned skull it was discovered that there was a
stone wedged between lower molars 2 and 3 in the right dentary bone (Fig.
2A, B, C) . The stone had caused the teeth to separate and the dentary to
erode around them, exposing the roots of the teeth (Fig. 2A, E) . The
stone also caused the bear to chew with its left molars, causing them to
wear much more than the right molars (Fig. 2A, D) . Figure 2D also shows
the normal, uneroded dentary by the molars of the left mandible. The bear
obviously lived with the discomfort of the stone for a number of years.

Figure 1. Cross Section of Upper Premolar Showing Annuli (A) in the
Cementum.

’Note received 3 October 1989; accepted 30 November 1989.

39

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40

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Editorial Policy: Publication of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of
Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms can be
obtained from Dr. Ann William, 101 Cary Hall, Auburn University, AL
36849. Subject matter should address original research in one of the
discipline sections of the Academy: Biological Sciences; Chemistry;
Geology; Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning; Physics and
Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education; Social Sciences;
Health Sciences; Engineering and Computer Science; and Anthropology.
Timely review articles of exceptional quality and general readership
interest will also be considered. Invited articles dealing with Science
Activities in Alabama are occasionally published. Book reviews of Alabama
authors are also solicited.

Submission: Each manuscript will receive at least two simultaneous peer
reviews. Include in your letter of transmittal the names, addresses, and
telephone numbers of at least four qualified referees. Do not include
names of individuals from your present institution.

Manuscripts : Consult recent issues of the Journal for format. Double¬
Space manuscripts throughout, allowing 1-inch margins. Number all pages.
Submit the original and two copies to the Editor. Papers which are
unreasonably long and verbose, such as uncut theses, will be returned.
The title page should contain the author's name, affiliation, and address,
including zip code. An abstract not exceeding 200 words will be published
if the author so desires. Use headings and subdivisions where necessary
for clarity. Common headings are: INTRODUCTION (including a literature
review), PROCEDURES (or MATERIALS AND METHODS), RESULTS, DISCUSSION, and
LITERATURE CITED. Other formats may be more appropriate for certain
subject matter areas. Headings should be in all-caps and centered on the
typed page; sub-headings should be italicized (underlined) and placed at
the margin. Avoid excessive use of footnotes. Do not use the number 1
for footnotes; begin with 2. Skip additional footnote numbers if one or
more authors must have their present address footnoted.

Illustrations: Submit original inked drawings (graphs and diagrams) or
clear black and white glossy photographs. Width must not exceed 15 cm and
height must not exceed 20 cm. Illustrations not conforming to these
dimensions will be returned to the author. Use lettering that will still
be legible after a 30% reduction. Designate all illustrations as figures,
number consecutively, and cite all figures in the text. Type figure
captions on a separate sheet of paper. Send two extra sets of illustra¬
tions; xeroxed photographs are satisfactory for review purposes.

Tables: Place each table on a separate sheet. Place a table title
directly above each table. Number tables consecutively. Use symbols or
letters, not numerals, for table footnotes. Cite all tables in the text.

Literature Cited: Only references cited in the text should be listed
under LITERATURE CITED. Do not group references according to source
(books, periodicals, newspapers, etc.). List in alphabetical order of
senior author names. Cite references in the text by number or by author-
date .

»-"’j wMm

THE JOURNAL OF THE
ALABAMA ACADEM

COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Upper Left: Rainbow snake. A harmless, secretive
species very rarely encountered in Alabama. Upper Right: Alabama red-
bellied turtle. Found only in Alabama, in Mobile and Baldwin counties,
this federally listed, endangered species faces an uncertain future.
Center: Flattened musk turtle. Found only in Alabama in streams of the
upper Black Warrior River system. A federally listed, threatened species.
Lower Left: Dusky gopher frog. Known in Alabama from only a few
localities, the welfare of this frog is linked closely with that of the
gopher tortoise, in whose burrows it resides. Lower Right: Red Hills
salamander. This threatened species occurs only in a small area of
southern Alabama, where much of its habitat is being degraded by certain
forestry practices. Dusty gopher frog photo by Mark Bailey, Alabama
Natural Heritage Inventory, Montgomery. Others by Robert Mount, Depart¬
ment of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn University (see article on
page 117) .

THE JOURNAL
OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 61 APRIL 1990 NO. 2

EDITOR:

W. H. Mason, Extension Cottage, Auburn University, AL 36849
ARCHMST:

C. M. Peterson, Department of Botany, and Microbiology, Auburn
University, AL 36849

EDITORIAL BOARD:

J. T. Bradley, Chairman, Department of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn
University, AL 36849

Charles Baugh, 1005 Medical Science Building, University of South
Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688

J. W. Sulentic, P.O. Box 1921, University of Alabama, University, AL 35486

Publication and Subscription Policies

Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent
correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two
simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow instructions to Authors (see
inside back cover).

Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to Authors.

Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence
to the CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD

ISSN 002-4112

wff ?4

BENEFACTORS OF THE
JOURNAL OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The following have provided financial support
to partially defray publication costs of the Journal.

AUBURN UNIVERSITY
BIRMINGHAM-SOUTHERN COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO
AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA
TROY STATE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM
JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT HUNTSVILLE
TUSKEGEE UNIVERSITY
MOBILE COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA
SAMFORD UNIVERSITY

CONTENTS

lbdra&y

rug 2 1 1990

&. fV$. Us Ha

ARTICLES

The Black Bear in Southwestern Alabama

Julian L. Dusi and D. Tommy King . 41

Sylacauga Meteorite Fall

Harold Povenmire . 50

A Range Extension of the Oligochaete PiqueCiella
michiganensis

C. Rex Bingham and Andrew C. Miller . 60

Symposium on the Status of Endangered Species
in Alabama

Richard F. Modi in . 62

Preliminary Considerations on Rare and Endangered
Invertebrates in Alabama

Steven C. Harris . 64

Status of Alabama Birds and Mammals

Dan C. Holliman . 93

Status of Endangered, Threatened and Special Concern
Freshwater Fishes in Alabama

J. Malcolm Pierson . 106

The Status of Alabama Amphibians and Reptiles —

An Update

Robert H. Mount . 117

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1990.

THE BLACK BEAR IN SOUTHWESTERN ALABAMA1

Julian L. Dusi and D. Tommy King
Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science
and Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn University , AL 36849

ABSTRACT

This was the first ecological study of the black bear, Ursus
americanus , in Alabama. The study was conducted near Saraland (Mobile
County), where the greatest bear population density occurs. Our study
area (103.6 km2) contained a population of at least 10 bears that utilized
about 60 km2. Five bears, ranging from 2 to 8 years of age, were trapped,
measured, and radio- tagged. Annual home ranges of 4 bears ranged from 4.5
- 42 km2, with a mean of 25.9 km2. Winter home ranges of these same bears
ranged from 0.5 - 1.5 km2, with a mean of 0.93 km2. Greatest activity
occurred between May and December. Winter activity was greatly re¬
stricted. During the winter, radio -tagged bears were alert and moved when
we tried to home in on them. Of the baits used in trapping, shelled corn
and honey was the best combination. Bears did not respond to scent or
bait posts. Habitats used were upland mixed pines and deciduous trees,
with oaks ( Quercus sp .) and other mast trees, adjacent to swamps with very
dense cover of- titi ( Cyrilla racemiflora and Cliftonia monophylla) .
Acorns, berries, and other fruits provided most food items. The bears
tolerate people living on the edge of the area. They were not affected
by the gas wells and drilling crew activity scattered through the area.

INTRODUCTION

The black bear was originally distributed in suitable habitat
throughout Alabama and the Eastern United States (Hall 1981) . Howell
(1921) stated that the black bear occurred only in the lower tier of
counties in Alabama. Prior to Howell's work, a large portion of Alabama
had been deforested and cotton and other agricultural crops occupied the
land that was not mountainous or swampy (Lineback 1973) . In 1924 the
black bear was listed as a game mammal with an open hunting season. In
1940, however, the State Department of Conservation closed the black bear
season, as it remains today (Gary Moody pers. commun. ) .

The Rare and Endangered Vertebrates of Alabama Symposium (Anon. 1972) ,
listed the black bear as "rare." In 1976, both subspecies of the black
bear (Ursus a. americanus and Ursus a. floridanus ) were listed as "endan¬
gered," and the number of Alabama black bears was estimated to be about
150 (Boschung 1976). In 1983 the first Alabama nongame wildlife con¬
ference was held at Auburn University (Anon. 1984, Mount 1986) in which
a group of specialists grouped the vertebrate species of the state into
the categories: endangered, threatened, special concern, and poorly known.
The black bear was reclassified in the "special concern" category.

’Manuscript received 6 December 1989; accepted 18 January 1990.

41

Dusi and King

The objectives of this study were to assess the ecology of the black
bear in southwestern Alabama and to formulate management recommendations.

METHODS

The main study area was located in Hells' Creek Swamp northwest of
Saraland, Mobile County, Alabama. It was bounded on the south and west by
Celeste Road, on the north by Salco Road, and on the east by Interstate
Highway 65, U. S. Highway 43, and by the Burlington Northern Railway.
Radcliff Road subdivided the area into northern and southern halves. The
Mobile Water Canal extended from southwest to northeast. This canal was
about 10 -m wide and was flanked on both sides by roads, one of which was
surfaced with oystershell and the other unimproved. The total width of
the water canal clearing was about 100 m. On either side of the water
canal was swampy land covered with tupelo ( Nyssa aquaCica ) and titi. The
land gradually increased in elevation providing upland, mixed forest
habitat in the western part of the study area. A number of gas wells was
present, mostly along the water canal, and access roads connected them.
Houses were located along parts of Celeste and Radcliff roads. Hunting
rights of the study area were owned by several hunting clubs. This
restricted our free use of the area during the deer and turkey seasons,
which were from early November to January 31 and from March 1 to April 30.

We carried out a trapping program from early May until November of
each year, utilizing culvert traps and Aldrich snares (Dusi and King
1987). The snares were set in cubbys made of old, discarded, corrugated
sheet iron (Fig. 1) which was present on the area and was familiar to the
bears. Traps were baited with 1 qt each of shelled corn and honey.
Several baits were tested at the traps and at scent posts (shelled corn
and honey, sardines, meat scraps, and burned bacon, Fig. 2). Opossums
( Didelphis virginiana) and raccoons ( Procyon loCor ) were so abundant that
control using small live traps near our bear sets was necessary to keep
them from raiding the bear traps.

Trapped bears were anesthetized with ketamine hydrochloride and
xylazine, using a dart gun. The sedated bears were then radio tagged with
Wildlife Materials, Inc. HLPM-22200-LD transmitters, ear tagged with
National Band 6t Tag Co. #49 self -piercing tags, and measured (total
length, tail length, hind foot length, ear length, canine length, chest
girth, and weight). The first upper premolar tooth was removed for
ageing, the bears were released, and their positions were monitored with
a Wildlife Materials, Inc. TRX-24 receiver and a 3-element Yagi antenna,
once or twice a day, for the rest of the study.

Habitat data were obtained using transects (Lome Malo , pers .
commun. ) . It soon became evident that the key vegetation was the thick,
impenetrable cover in the swamps, which could not be sampled by our
transect methods, because we would have to destroy the understory
vegetation to enter the swamp. Food habits were determined from the
analysis of bear scats for seeds and animal remains (Lome Malo, pers.
commun . ) .

42

The black bear in Alabama

Fig. 1. Trap cubby using an Aldrich snare.

RESULTS AMD DISCUSSION

A total of 5 bears was trapped over a period of 611 trap nights (an
average of 122 trap nights per bear). One large bear, whose size was
estimated from his large footprints, broke a snare and escaped. During
the study one unmarked female bear was killed in an automobile accident on
Celeste Road. A female and 2 cubs were seen on the area. This is a total
of at least 10 bears, that we could account for, using about 60 km2 of the
103.6 kmz study area, or about 1 bear per 6.5 km2. Felton and Markam
(1977), from 1972 - 1974, had a density of bears in their Tennessee study
area of 1 bear per 2.71 km2. The Tennessee density is over twice the
density of our population, which we believe to be the most dense popula¬
tion for Alabama.

The age distribution of the population of Hells' Creek Swamp varied
from 2 yr for the 15.4-kg female and 24.5-kg male, to 6 yr for the 55.7-
kg female and 8 yr for the 70. 3 -kg female. The ages and weights of the
female with cubs and the large bear that escaped the snare can only be

43

Dusi and King

estimated. Several years prior to the study there was a Celeste Road male
bear kill that was 193.2 kg and 17 yr old.

Population movements and home ranges varied seasonally. Winter (Janu¬
ary - March) home ranges were small, ranging from 0.26 km2 to 1.04 km2
(Fig. 3, Table 1). Annual home ranges varied from 2.3 km2 to 20.7 km2
(Fig. 4, Table 1). The young male, B-2, had the largest annual home
range. The female, B-3, had an annual home range that was almost iden¬
tical with that of B-2. These data suggest that he may have been her
offspring. His home range may also reflect his sex and the generalization
that males have larger home ranges than females. The 2 -year-old female
had the smallest home range.

The food habits for some of this population were, in part, determined
from the crude analysis of 22 scats and 1 stomach sample (fall-6, winter-

Bacon burner at scent post. The bottom can was filled
with charcoal to cook and burn bacon in the top can.

44

The black bear in Alabama

Fig 3. Winter home ranges of bears: B-2 (2 year old, 24.5 kg male)- B-
(6 year old 55. 7 kg female); B-4 (8 year old, 70 kg female); and’B-5
(2 year old, 16 kg female). The dotted squares are section lines.

45

Dusi and King

Fig. 4. Annual home ranges of bears B-2 , B-3 , B-4, B-5.2. The dotted
squares are section lines.

46

The black bear in Alabama

Table 1.

Weight, Age,

Sex and Home Range

s for Four Radio

- tagged Bears .

Number

Weight Kg.

Age

Sex

Winter Range

Summer Range

B-2

24.5

2

M

1 . 04 km2

20.70 km2

B-3

55.7

6

F

0.26 km2

18.65 km2

3-4

70.3

8

F

0.26 km2

8.80 km2

B-5

15.4

2

F

0.39 km2

2.30 km2

6, spring- 9, and summer- 2; Lome Malo , pers. commun . ) . He found that
acorns (Quercus spp . ) were the principal foods of fall and winter and that
they were supplemented in the fall by black gum ( Nyssa sylvatica) , blue¬
berries (Vaccinium sp .) , beetles, and other invertebrates. In the spring
corn (Ruhus sp.) and plums ( Primus sp.) were supplemented by beetles. In
the summer, corn was the only grain recovered in the 2 samples. This com
could have been from our trap bait. Acorns were abundant during the fall
and winter seasons of this study. Oak trees were adjacent to the swamps
and acorns were easily accessible. Except for several small food plots,
no planted corn was available. Our traps were heavily baited and were
often raided by bears without making a catch. Therefore, com was readily
available during the spring and summer when we could trap. This corre¬
sponds with the seasons when com was found in the scats ,

When we designed our study we tried to find an area with a bear
population that was representative of the low density populations of the
state but with enough bears to get movement data, etc. As it turned out,
we probably located the most dense population in the state. This was a
fortunate mistake because we were able to get an amount of data which
would otherwise have been missed.

While we carried out our study, we became involved in several bear
damage cases. We spent about 68 trap nights on the farm of James Daly,,
north of Grand. Bay, which is southwest of Mobile and in Mobile County .
Here a female bear and her cub occupied an area estimated to be between
40 and 50 ha. The bear had raided Daly's bam and eaten shelled corn that
he had stored for livestock feed. It also had chewed and scratched 268
trees and dug holes in his lawn and adjacent fields. We attempted to
capture the female bear in culvert traps and snares but only succeeded in
capturing his dog or livestock. This was the only site we visited where
a bear scratched so many trees and dug so many holes. We visited several
other sites where bears were reported to be causing problems and in no
cases were we able to trap the problem bears. They appeared to be much
more wary than the bears on our study site.

During the period of the study, a bear was hit by an automobile near
Decatur, Limestone County. This bear was taken to the Jimmy Morgan Zoo

47

Dusi and King

Rescue Unit, in Birmingham, and wa& treated and later released by us in
Clarke County, where it has since been seen several times. This bear had
been tagged by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources and had been
relocated once before it came to Alabama. Another bear was active in the
Birmingham area, where it dug in a yard and scratched on an adjacent
mobile home. A third bear appeared for several days near Eufaula, Barbour
County. A fourth bear appeared at Fairhope , Baldwin County for several
days. Another bear was shot by a landowner near Cedar Bluff, Cherokee
County. Still another was reported at the eastern side of Bankhead
National Forest, in Cullman County. Another bear has been reported near
the Tuskegee Airport, Macon County, and still another near Spring Villa,
Lee County. All these reports indicate quite a change from 20 years ago
when we rarely heard of a bear, except in the Mobile area.

With the growth in the human population and the increases in forested
lands, bears are noticed more and perhaps increasing in numbers. There¬
fore, more study is needed on these isolated individuals and their habitat
requirements. We also need to develop proper handling of garbage and
other attractants which may lure bears near houses. Finally, we need a
good education program so that the people of Alabama know what to expect
from bears and learn to exist harmoniously with them.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people helped us in this project. We especially want to thank
Conservation Officer James Harbin and his son Bruce, Fred Kellum, District
Biologist Eugene Widder, John Cutts, Raymond Keyser and Charles Radcliff.

LITERATURE CITED

Anonomous 1972. Rare and endangered vertebrates of Alabama. Ala. Dept.
Con. and Nat. Res., Montgomery, Ala. 92pp.

_ 1984. Vertebrate wildlife of Alabama. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta. ,

Auburn Univ . , Ala . 44pp .

Boschung, H. 1976. Endangered and threatened plants and animals of

Alabama. Bui. Ala. Mus . Nat. Hist. No. 2, University, Ala. 92pp.

Dusi, J. L. and D. T. King 1987. Ecology of the black bear in southwest
Alabama. Ala. Dept, of Cons, and Nat. Res., Montgomery, Ala. 52pp.

Hall, E. R. 1981. The mammals of North America, 2 Ed. Wiley, N.Y.
1175pp.

Howell, A. H. 1921. A biological survey of Alabama. N. Am. Fauna No.

45. Gov. Print. Off., Washington. 88pp.

Lineback, N. G. 1973. Atlas of Alabama. Univ. of Ala., University, Ala.
138pp .

48

The black bear in Alabama

Mount, R. H. 1986. Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of special
attention. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta. , Auburn Univ. , Ala. 124pp.

Pelton, M. C. and L. C. Marcum 1977. The potential of radioisotopes for
determining density of black bears and other carnivores. Pages 221-
236 in R. C. Phillips and C. Jonkel, eds . Proc. 1975 Predator Symp .
Mont. For. and Cons. Exp. Sta., Univ. of Mont., Missoula. 268pp.

49

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1990.

SYLACAUGA METEORITE FALL1

Harold Povenmire
215 Osage Dr.

Indian Harbour Bch. , FL 32937

ABSTRACT

This paper summarizes the available data concerning the first well-
documented" injury to a human being by a meteorite fall. Precise co¬
ordinates of the primary mass have been determined. A determination of
its radiant and its orbital parameters have been made. Several candidates
for related meteorite falls and an asteroidal parent body have been
suggested based upon solar longitude, approximate radiant, and petrologic
classification. Suggested strewnfield parameters are indicated, since
more unrecovered fragments probably survived impact.

Sylacauga , Alabama Revisited

On November 30, 1954, the first well-authenticated case of a meteorite
striking a human being occurred. It was written up briefly in a report by
the geologists who were on the scene (Swindel and Jones, 1954). The
meteorite itself has been described separately (Mason, 1963) . The purpose
of this report is to record many of the details that were not recorded
previously before they are historically lost, as most of the persons
involved are now deceased.

The site of the meteorite fall was in the southwest corner of an
approximately 136 year old farm house located on Odens Mill Road. The
house is located just south of the old Birmingham highway (Rt. 91) in the
town of Oak Grove, northwest of Sylacauga in Talladega County, Alabama.
The postal address is Rt. 7, Box 726 B, Sylacauga, Alabama, 35150.

The house was owned by Mrs. Birdie Guy until her death in 1988. The
precise coordinates of the impact of the primary mass were: longitude
86°17' 40". 2 W, latitude 33°ll'18".l N as scaled from the U. S. Geological
Survey 7. '5 Sylacauga West, Alabama, 1980 topographic map. The elevation
of this site is 180 meters.

On December 1, 1954, a farmer, Julius Kempis McKinney, recovered the
second and smaller fragment. The approximate impact coordinates of this
object were scaled as longitude 86°17'20".7 W, latitude 33°13'08".4 N at
an elevation of 161 meters. The distance between these impact points is
3750 meters. It was found southwest of the railroad tracks and across
from the road connecting Odena and Lipsy (formerly called Zubers) .

Mr. J. K. McKinney was hauling a load of firewood along a woods trail
in a wagon pulled by two mules. One of the mules shied away from an
object, apparently because of its odor. (Has any meteorite hunter ever

’Manuscript received 8 May 1989; accepted 9 February 1990.

50

Povenmire

considered using bloodhounds to help search for freshly fallen meteor¬
ites?) Mr. McKinney thought it must be a snake but instead found only a
black rock. He threw it down, but later retrieved it, and kept it until
December 8, 1954. It was then reported and given to geologists to examine
(Swindel and Jones, 1954). He later sold the meteorite for a "handsome
sum" which allowed him to purchase an automobile and a 10 acre farm.

In falls of stony chondritic meteorites, especially large ones where
fragments show highly angular plane surfaces and thin fusion crusts,
several fragments are usually found. At least three distinct fragments
were reported to have been visible after the terminal burst and at least
three very loud sonic booms were heard and felt. If more fragments
survived to impact, they should be found along the same azimuth as the
line from the Hodges fragment to the McKinney fragment. The rolling
terrain between the impact sites is partly farm land and partly resi¬
dential neighborhoods with a fairly high population density. This
researcher believes that if people in the area were made aware of the
possibilities, the chances of recovering additional fragments are
reasonably high.

The strewfield containing such fragments should be an ellipse with the
long axis in a north-south direction centered at longitude 86°17'30."0 W.
It should have a minor axis diameter of at least 3.0 km. The southern end
should be at 33°09' N and extend north to 33°20'N. This is a large area
but the observations support these parameters.

It is interesting to note that many persons from Montgomery to
Sylacauga reported that they experienced television interference at the
time the meteorite fell (Birmingham News, 1954, December 1). This
phenomenon has been noted on other fireball reports analyzed by the
Florida Fireball Patrol.

On this Tuesday afternoon, Mrs. Ann Elizabeth Hodges, 34, was not
feeling well and took a nap after lunch. She was sleeping on her right
side on a couch in her front room. Apparently the sonic boom and the
meteorite impact occurred almost simultaneously. She was stunned by the
noise of the impact and did not at first realize that she had been hit by
the ricocheting meteorite. She and her mother, Mrs. Ida Franklin, who was
sewing in the adjacent room, at first believed that the gas heater had
exploded. A large bruised knot quickly appeared on Mrs. Hodges hand. It
was only when sunlight was noticed coming through the square (0.35 meter
on a side) hole in the corner of the ceiling was the meteorite found (Fig.
1) . Its black surface appeared sooty, but the black color did not rub
off. It had a slightly sulfurous odor and was very warm to the touch.
Mrs. Hodges reportedly saw a boiling dust column over her house shortly
after the impact. Mrs. Hodges called the police. The Chief of Police, W.
D. Ashcraft, took Mrs. Hodges to a doctor, Moody D. Jacobs, and with her
permission, kept the meteorite. She was thoroughly examined and x-rayed
by the doctor and released even though her left hand, left hip, and
abdomen were sore and swollen (Jacobs, 1988).

51

Sylacauga meteorite fall

Figure 1. Mrs. Hewlett Hodges holding the 3.68 kg meteorite
that hit her after penetrating the roof and
ceiling of the house.

The next night she was admitted to Sylacauga General Hospital for five
days of rest as "the excitement was too much for her to sleep and to
shield her from the endless string of visitors and telephone calls." It
was reported that there were traffic jams in the area for several miles.
There were also approximately 200 reporters trying to interview Mrs.
Hodges .

52

Povenmire

Mrs. Hodges was not seriously injured and no bones were broken. The
next day, a 10 x 20 cm bruise appeared on her hip and abdomen showing the
imprint of the meteorite even though she was covered by two heavy quilts
(Life Magazine, 1954). She believed that these saved her from serious
injury. Mrs. Hodges required several hours of daily bedrest and suffered
severe pain for many weeks. While her physical health returned to normal
after several months, she never completely recovered her emotional and
mental health. Mrs. Hodges, who was by nature quiet and shy did not even
want to look at the meteorite when it was returned to her. Both Mr. and
Mrs. Hodges remarked that the meteorite had caused a lot of pain, suf¬
fering and expense, and stated many times that they wished that the event
had not involved them (Birmingham News, 1979).

The notoriety and publicity of the event did not bring them happiness
and was a contributing factor to their divorce in 1964. Mrs. Hodges'
health declined further after that and she died of a stroke in a Sylacauga
nursing home in 1972. She is buried in the Baptist Charity Cemetary at
Hazel Green, Alabama with a very small, undistinguished headstone (Sims,
1988).

On one corner of the meteorite, the fusion crust is broken showing the
grey interior (Fig. 2). This broken end made first contact with the roof
and small amounts of the roofing tar are embedded in the meteorite at this
point. An examination of the roof, walls, and radio that were struck
first appears to indicate that the meteorite's kinetic energy had essen¬
tially been damped to zero when it struck Mrs. Hodges. The last object
the meteorite contacted before it hit Mrs. Hodges was a large Philco
console radio. The radio chassis was made of tough, curved, laminated
plywood. The meteorite broke a hole approximately 8 x 8 cm in it. This
radio has been preserved by Eugene Hodges. Prior to penetrating the roof,
the meteorite had a calculated velocity of approximately 270 km per hour
(Halliday, Blackwell and Griffin, 1978). A direct hit would have almost
certainly been fatal.

The Hodges fragment of the meteorite was taken by helicoper to Maxwell
A.F.B. Montgomery, Alabama. It was then flown to the Air Force Technical
Intelligence Center at Wright - Patterson A.F.B. , Dayton, Ohio for identi¬
fication and analysis.

In the United States, three separate appellate court decisions
(Oregon, Iowa, and New York) state clearly that a meteorite belongs to the
owner of the land on which the impact occurred. The Hodges were renting
the property on which the house stands, so legal possession of the
meteorite defaulted to the landowner, Mrs. Birdie Guy. Mrs. Guy gave up
all rights of possession of the meteorite on September 22, 1955. Mrs.
Hodges immediately received offers of over $5500 for the object. Mrs.
Hodges later becme the sole owner and kept it for 15 months until March,
1956. Mrs. hedges donated it (for remuneration) to the Alabama Museum of
Natural History, then a branch of the Geological Survey of Alabama. The
Hodges fragment had a mass of 3.68 kg and a specific gravity of 3.70 and
is on permanent display at the University of Alabama-State Museum of
Natural History at Tuscaloosa, Alabama.

53

Sylacauga meteorite fall

Figure 2. The Sylacauga 3.68 kg primary mass showing the
typical highly angular flat sides.

The McKinney fragment, (1.68 kg) is pyramidal is shape with a flat
top. Its basic dimensions are 10 x 10 x 12.5 cm. It is on display at the
National Museum (The Smithsonian) in Washington, D.C.

The time of the fall has been frequently (but incorrectly) published
as 1:00 p.m., C.S.T. (Graham, Bevan and Hutchison, 1985). The fireball
was widely sighted and timed at or slightly before 12:45 p.m. (+/- 1.0
minute), C.S.T. The calculated duration for the dark portion of the
flight was approximately 130 seconds (Halliday, Blackwell and Griffin,
1978) . Because of many small timing uncertainties the adopted time for
this object's impact is 12:46 p.m., C.S.T. (18:46.0 U.T.) (Lovelass,
1988). The sidereal time of the impact of the primary mass is 17:36:15
(Dunham, 1987). The corresponding Julian date is 2435077.2819 (Sims,
1988).

The meteorite is an olivine bronzite chondrite (H4) . It is a rough
parallelepiped with dimensions of 17.7 x 11.8 x 11.0 cm. Low-angle
lighting shows one side is smoother than the other and exhibits atmos¬
pheric ablative orientation. The black fusion crust is less than 1.0 mm

54

Povenmire

thick. The interior resembles grey concrete. An approximately 31 mm
diameter core has been removed from the bottom of this object (34 mm deep)
for internal examination and thin section analysis (King 1987). This
researcher examined the primary mass and counted as many as 15 flat
surfaces where fragments may have broken off. Most of these were probably
consumed in the ablation process as evidenced by the many small sparks ,
long dust train, and mushroom- shaped terminal burst. Most observers
described the massive train and terminal burst cloud as white. Some
observers, who were looking nearly into the Sun and saw the dense cloud by
silhouette, described it as dark or black (Swindel and Jones, 1954). The
cloud lasted at least 15 minutes and trailed off in a spiral.

The sky was very clear and the terminal burst and start of the dark
flight portion of the fall was clearly visible from the R.O.T.C. field at
the University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa (Swindel and Jones, 1954). Donald
Lovelass, a student, was facing east and saw the descent of the fireball.
The fireball appeared to be light orange in color and had very slow
apparent motion in its several seconds of visibility. Its apparent
diameter at this distance was much less than the full moon and reminded
him of a ball from a roman candle at "some distance" (Lovelass, 1988).
This observation site was approximately 116 km to the WNW of the Hodges'
house and would indicate that the terminal burst occurred at an altitude
of approximately 19 km. The loud sonic phenomena heard in the Sylacauga
area and to the SSW support this (Swindel and Jones, 1954). The sonic
phenomena were heard and felt so strongly in Montgomery, some 75 km to the
SSW that a boy was nearly knocked off a bicycle (Time, 1954).

A line connecting the impact points indicate a trajectory azimuth of
approximately 9.5° east of north. The winds at this time were from the
south-west as indicated by the conspicuous dust train and terminal burst
cloud (Swindel and Jones, 1954). Since lighter fragments are affected by
the winds more than heavier ones, the flight azimuth adopted for computa¬
tional purposes is 0°.

The radiant was high in the SSW sky as indicated by the observed
azimuth, nearly vertical train column, and the intense sonic phenomena.
The massive terminal burst was observed essentially at the zenith over
Sylacauga. This would place the radiant in or near the constellation of
Ophiuchus . This is very near the southernmost declination of the
ecliptic. The exact position of the Sun at the time of the meteorite
impact was Right Ascension 246. °12, Declination - 21.°37 (Equinox 1950.0)
(Kronk, 1987). The meteorite's position is east of the position of the
Sun at the time of impact, so an observer at Sylacauga would see the
meteorite apparently coming almost directly out of the Sun.

This meteorite crossed the Earth's orbit at Solar Longitude 247°
42 '58. "9 (Equinox 1950.0) (Dunham, 1987). Since the meteorite came in on
the sunward side of the Earth, it had passed perihelion and was traveling
outward from the Sun. Since it probably passed perihelion when it was
north of the celestial equator, it would have crossed the Earth's orbit at
its descending node.

55

Sylacauga meteorite fall

All chondritic meteorites fragment during their entry into the Earth's
atmosphere. The aerodynamic stresses on these meteorites are greater than
their tensile strength.

At the latitude of Sylacauga, 33° N, the Sun was approximately 44°
above the southern horizon at the time of impact. The observed path of
the meteor indicated a radiant with a higher altitude. After much study
of the observers' descriptions of the path, and the impact locations, the
following radiant was computed using both the graphical and mathematical
methods of Olivier (Olivier, 1925).

Date

November

30, 1954

Time

18:46.0

U.T.

R. A.

261. °0

Dec .

+ 5 ,°0

(1950.0)

An attempt was made to determine a general shape of the orbit and a
range of approximate orbital elements. Even with the many approximations,
the orbit is surprisingly consistent and is close enough for comparison
purposes to link other known or related objects. A literature search was
made for the orbital elements of Apollo asteroids, fireballs, meteorite
falls, earth crossing comets, and radar meteor orbits. When this orbit
was compared with the known Apollo asteroids it became obvious that (1685)
Toro was a much more likely candidate than any other known asteroid.

Visual meteor showers cannot be compared with this event because their
radiants would be too near the Sun and therefore in daylight. Two radar
meteor orbits are being examined. Comets that make close approaches (< .1
A.U.) to the earth's orbit have been examined but no likely candidates
have been found (Lovell, 1954).

The best candidates for related meteorite falls on the basis of a
combination of solar longitude, radiant altitude, and petrological
classification are as follows:

NAME OF FALL

DATE

LOCAL

TIME

LONGITUDE

TYPE

Kerilis, France

Nov.

26,

1874

10:30

3°

18 'W

H5

Kutais, USSR

Nov.

28,

1977

08:00

39°

18 ' E

H5

Xingyang, China

Dec .

1.

1977

18:57

114°

19 ' E

H5

Farmville, N.C.

Dec .

4,

1934

77°

32 'W

H4

Conquista, Brazil (early)

Dec .

1965

6:00

47°

33 'W

H4

Cangas de Onis , Spain

Dec .

6,

1866

11:00

5°

09 'W

H5

After a major fireball or meteorite fall, it is common for numerous
reports of other fireballs, meteors, and unusual stones to be brought to
the public's attention. It is the opinion of this researcher that none of
the numerous reports that were received in the local press in the fol¬
lowing weeks had any connection with this event since the radiant of this
meteorite fall was below the horizon in those locations at their reported
times .

56

Povenmire

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Advance, 1954 Sylacauga, December 2.

Advance, 1954 Sylacauga, December 9.

Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 1954 December 26, 6-7.

Avondale Sun, 1954, December 20, Vol. 29 # 46, Pg. 3.

Birmingham News, 1954 December 1.

Birmingham News, 1954 December 2.

Birmingham News, 1954 December 3.

Birmingham News, 1955 Sun Star, February 13, Sec C, p. 11.

Birmingham News, 1979 July 8.

Birmingham News, 1985 November 24, 8A.

Bridgeman, Bernice 1987, Personal Communication.

Brown, Gladys Tartt 1987, Personal Communication.

Ceplecha, Zdenek 1961, Multiple Fall of Pribram Meteorites Photographed.
Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of. Czechoslovakia, vol. 12,
no. 2 Ondrejov, Czechoslovakia p. 21-47.

Culver, Rudolph and Myrtle 1988, Personal Communication.

Cunningham, Clifford 1988, Asteroids, Willmann-Bell , Richmond, VA.

Dunham, David W. 1987, Personal Communication.

Field, William 1987, Personal Communication.

Fowler, Mrs. Arthur H. 1988, Personal Communication.

Graham, A.L., A.W.R. Bevan and R. Hutchison 1985 Catalogue of Meteorites
4th Ed. University of Arizona Press 339.

Gehrels, Tom 1971 Physical Studies of Minor Planets, NASA SP-267,
Washington, D.C.

Gehrels, Tom 1982 Asteroids, University of Arizona Press 1982, Tempe ,
Arizona p. 320.

Guy, Birdie 1987, Personal Communication.

Guy, Edward 1987, Personal Communication.

57

Sylacauga meteorite fall

Hall, John 1987, Personal Communication.

Halliday, Ian and Allan T. Blackwell and Arthur A. Griffin 1978, The

Innisfree Meteorite and the Canadian Camera Network, Journal of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Vol 72 #1, p.
15-39.

Halliday, Ian 1987, Detection of a Meteorite "Stream": Observations of a
second meteorite fall from the orbit of the Innisfree Chondrite.
Icarus, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, p. 550-556.

Hodges, Eugene Hewlett 1987, Personal Communication.

Hudgens, Walter Thomas 1987, Personal Communication.

Jacobs, Moody D. , MD 1988, Personal Communication.

Johns, Christopher 1988, Personal Communication.

Kronk, Gary W. 1987, Personal Communication.

Levin, B.Y. and Bronshten, V.A. 1986 The Tunguska Event and the Meteors
with Terminal Flares. Meteoritics 21, 199-215.

Life Magazine, 1954 Meteorite Injures Alabama Housewife, December 13,

26.

Love, Huel 1988, Personal Communication.

Lovelass, Donald Terry 1988, Personal Communication.

Lovell, A.B.C. 1954, Meteor Astronomy Claredon Press, Oxford, England p.
415 .

Madden, Wayne Cornell 1988, Personal Communication.

Mason, Brian 1963, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 27 p. 1011.

McCrosky, Richard E. 1970, The Lost City Meteorite Fall. Sky and
Telescope, Cambridge, MA, March, p. 154-158.

McCrosky, R. E. 1971, Lost City Meteorite. Smithsonian Astrophysical
Observatory - Special Report 336, Cambridge, MA.

McEwen, Stuart 1987, Personal Communication.

McKay, Charles W. 1987, Personal Communication.

McKinney, Julius Kempis Jr. 1987, Personal Communication.

McKinney, Pearson 1987, Personal Communication.

58

Povenmire

McKinney, James William 1988, Personal Communication.

Mosley, John E. 1988, Personal Communication.

Newsweek 1954 "Some Stars" December 13, p. 29.

Odessy Magazine 1987, August 10-11.

Olivier, Charles P. 1925, Meteors University of Virginia Press Norfolk.
People Magazine 1979, July 30 p. 28.

Sims, David 1988, Personal Communication.

Sullivan, Sean 1987, Personal Communication.

Swindel, George W. Jr. and Walter B. Jones 1954, The Sylacauga,

Talladega County, Alabama Aerolite: A Recent Meteoritic Fall that
Injured a Human Being Meteoritics 1, 125-131.

Talladega Daily Home, 1981 December 9.

The American Weekly Magazine 1955 "I Was Hit By a Meteorite" Our
Wonderful World Champaign, IL February 13, p. 4.

Time Magazine 1954, December 13 p. 61-63.

United States Geological Survey 1980, 7.5 Sylacauga West, Alabama
(Topographic Map) .

Whitaker, H.R. 1967, The Meteor that Blitzed Alabama, Chicago Tribune
Magazine, August 13, p. 26-66.

Zeigler, Bloise 1987, Personal Communication.

Zeigler, James 1987, Personal Communication.

59

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1990.

A RANGE EXTENSION OF THE OLIGOCHAETE
PIQUETIELLA MICHIGANENSIS'

C. Rex Bingham and Andrew C. Miller
Environmental Laboratory
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station
Vicksburg , Mississippi 39180-6199

ABSTRACT

The oligochaete Piquetiella michiganens is (Annelida: Oligochaeta:
Naididae) was found in pool/riffle habitat in Luxapalila Creek, a
tributary of the Tombigbee River near the Mississippi-Alabama border.
This species, reported from the Great Lakes and upper Mississippi River,
has previously been collected only as far south as Virginia.

Piquetiella michiganens is (Annelida: Oligochaeta: Naididae) was
collected from a gravel riffle and adjacent pool of Luxapalila Creek, a
tributary of the Tombigbee River near the Mississippi-Alabama border.
This species has been reported in north-central North America as far south
as Virginia (Brinkhurst 1986). It has been collected in the Great Lakes
and upper Mississippi River east to the Susquehanna and Chemung rivers in
New York (Hiltunen and Klemm 1980, Klemm 1985), and south to the Wabash
River in southern Indiana (Dr. Michael S. Loden, personal communication).

In June 1988, 20 specimens were found in four of five samples taken
with a 10-cm diameter corer (Miller and Bingham 1987) at a gravel riffle
in the upper reach of the creek at Millport, Alabama. Densities (+SD)
were estimated at 314.3 + 258.2 individuals/m2. In a nearby pool two of
five core samples yielded one specimen each with an estimated density of
31.4 + 38.5 individuals/m2. Similar sampling at two pools and two riffles
in the lower river near its confluence with the Tombigbee River yielded no
P. michiganens is . However, in the fall of 1988, a single P. michiganens is
was collected in a riffle in the upper section of the lower reach.

Luxapalila Creek is characterized by moderate to high water ve¬
locities, sediment-free gravel, and well -oxygenated water. Physical
conditions are similar throughout the river; however, pools are more
extensive in the lower reach. More complete macroinvertebrate surveys in
the central United States would establish whether the apparent disjunct
distribution of this species is the result of incomplete data or specific
habitat requirements that are occasionally met at the periphery of its
range .

’Manuscript received 23 December 1989; accepted 13 January 1990

60

Bingham and Miller

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was funded by the US Army Engineer District, Mobile
(Mobile, Alabama). Permission was granted by the Chief of Engineers to
publish this information. Dr. Michael S. Loden, Jefferson Parish
Environmental Department, Jefferson, Louisiana, confirmed our identifi¬
cation of P. michiganens is .

LITERATURE CITED

Brinkhurst, R. 0. 1986. Guide to the freshwater aquatic microdrile

oligochaetes of North America. Canadian Special Publication of
Aquatic Sciences 84, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa,

Canada .

Hiltunen, J. K. , and Klemm, D. J. 1980. A guide to the Naididae

(Annelida: Cliteilata: Oligochaeta) of North America. Environmental
Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio. EPA-6000/4-

80-031.

Klemm, D. J. 1985. A guide to the freshwater Annelida (Polychaeta,
Naidid and Tubificid Oligochaeta, and Hirudinea) of North America.
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa.

Miller, A, C . , and Bingham, C. R. 1987. A hand-held benthic core
sampler. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 4:77-81.

61

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1990.

SYMPOSIUM ON THE STATUS OF ENDANGERED SPECIES IN ALABAMA

Richard F. Modlin, Organizer and Moderator
Department of Biological Sciences
The University of Alabama in Huntsville
Huntsville , AL 35899

INTRODUCTION

A goal during my chairmanship (1987-89) of the Biological Sciences
Section of the Alabama Academy of Science was to organize and present a
symposium on the endangered and threatened species in Alabama. This goal
was reached and the symposium materialized at Birmingham- Southern College
on 24 March 1989 as part of the annual meeting of the AAS . It was pre¬
sented to a large concerned audience. This was the fourth such symposium
to be held in Alabama. The first was held in 1972 at Birmingham- Southern
College (Keeler 1972) , the second in 1974 at the University of Alabama
(Boschung 1976), and the third at Auburn University (Mount 1984, 1986).
The objectives in each were to identify and provide information on those
species on the edge of, and those threatened toward, extinction. The
objectives of the fourth symposium were to update, add to, and crystalize
this past body of information in hopes of stimulating an awareness of the
problems facing our state's wildlife resources and to provide direction
for future research.

The symposium treated plants, animals, and habitats. Five speakers
from the Alabama community of field biologists, all experts in their
field, were asked to make presentations. Dr. Steven C. Harris from the
Geological Survey of Alabama presented information on the invertebrates .
Fishes were treated by Dr. J. Malcolm Pierson of the Alabama Power Compa¬
ny. Auburn University provided two eminent scientists to the symposium.
Dr. Robert H. Mount discussed the status of the state's reptiles and
amphibians and Dr. George W. Folkerts talked on endangered and sensitive
habitats in our state. Dr. Dan C. Holliman from Birmingham- Southern
College informed the audience of the problems facing the birds and mammals
of Alabama. Each of these presentation stimulated the audience and
generated numerous questions and considerable discussion. I would like to
thank each of the presentors for their contributions which lead to the
success of this symposium.

Four publications were generated as a result of the symposium and are
published in this issue. The articles summarize the information on the
invertebrates, fishes, amphibians and reptiles, and birds and mammals
presented during the symposium.

Future symposia on Alabama's threatened and endangered species, and
species of concern, are presently being planned. In the immediate future,
it is hoped that, the symposia will direct their discussions toward spe¬
cific problems, such as particular animal or plant taxa or habitats that
may require special attention and/or examination. Alabama is a special

62

Modi in

state with a tremendous diversity of animals, plants, and habitats. Many
of these are unique or extremely fragile and are constantly threatened by
extinction. Consequently, there is a definite need to continually moni¬
tor, and be aware of problems in, our natural resources and bring this
information to the scientific community, governmental officials, and the
public.

I would like to acknowledge the committee that helped organize the
fourth Symposium on the Status of the Endangered Species of Alabama. This
committee consisted of Dr. Dan Holliman of Birmingham- Southern College;
Dr. Robert Stiles, Samford University; Dr. Ken Marion, UAB; and Dr. Tom
Jandebeur, Athens State College. Without their help this symposium would
not have left the launch pad. I would also like to thank Dr. William
Mason, Editor of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, for
providing an avenue for the dissemination of our information and the
anonymous reviewers that helped refine the articles that were submitted
for publication. Support for this symposium was provided by the Alabama
Academy of Science and Birmingham- Southern College.

LITERATURE CITED

Bos chung, H. 1976. Endangered and threatened plants and animals of
Alabama. Bulletin Alabama Museum of Natural History, No. 2, The
University of Alabama, University, Alabama. 92 p.

Keeler, J. E. 1972. Rare and endangered vertebrates of Alabama. Alabama
Department of Conservation, Natural Resources, Division of Game and
Fish. 92 p.

Mount, R. H. 1984. Vertebrate Wildlife of Alabama. Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. 44 p.

Mount, R. H. 1986. Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in need of special
attention. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn

University, Auburn, Alabama, 124 p.

63

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1990.

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS ON RARE AND ENDANGERED
INVERTEBRATES IN ALABAMA1

Steven C. Harris
Biological Resources Division
Geological Survey of Alabama
Tuscaloosa , AL 35A86

INTRODUCTION

The first symposium on threatened and endangered species of Alabama
was organized in 1972. This symposium only considered vertebrates, but in
1976, at the second symposium, the format was expanded to include plants
and selected invertebrates, as well as vertebrates. Also at this second
symposium, the categories of endangered, threatened, and special concern
species were precisely defined and utilized in a resulting publication
(Boschung, 1976). However there was no accompanying legislation by the
state of Alabama to give legal status to those species in need of pro¬
tection. Only those few species in Alabama considered to be threatened
or endangered under the U.S. Department of Interior, Endangered Species
Act of 1973 are officially protected.

In 1982, the fauna of Alabama received renewed attention with the
creation of a Nongame Wildlife Program by the state legislature. The
first conference on nongame wildlife in Alabama was organized in 1983 with
two resultant publications, "Vertebrate Wildlife of Alabama" (Mount, 1984)
and "Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in Need of Special Attention" (Mount,
1986) . Both these publications were concerned with vertebrates with no
consideration given to the invertebrate fauna of Alabama. The purpose of
this paper is to provide a preliminary accounting of selected groups of
invertebrates in Alabama which might be considered rare, insufficiently
known, or in need of special attention.

Invertebrates as a group constitute about 95% of all known animal
species, the overwhelming majority of which are arthropods (Barnes, 1980).
They occur in virtually all habitats and are enormously important from
both an ecological and economical standpoint, yet as a group they have
been little studied in Alabama. This lack of detailed knowledge of the
invertebrate fauna of Alabama accounts in part for their exclusion from
recent compilations of rare or endangered species. Our knowledge of the
invertebrates, though far from complete, is improving and invertebrates
are included by several southeastern states in listings of threatened or
endangered species (Table 1) . South Carolina has compiled the most ex¬
tensive list, followed by Florida, with both states including terrestrial
and aquatic taxa. In Alabama, we are beginning to document a portion of

’This article was presented as an invited paper at a Symposium on the
Status of Endangered Species in Alabama on 24 March 1989 at the annual
meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science held at Birmingham- Southern
College, Birmingham, Alabama.

64

Harris

Table 1. Compilations of rare and endangered invertebrates
in the southeastern United States

Invertebrate taxon

South

Carolina1

Florida2

North

Carolina3

Tennessee4

Porifera (sponges)

X

Echinodermata (sea stars)

X

Hemichordata (acorn worms)

X

Annelida

Oligochaeta (worms)

X

Hirudinea (leeches)

X

Mollusca

Gastropoda (snails)

X

X

X

X

Bivalvia (clams)

X

X

X

X

Arthropoda

Crustacea (crustaceans)

X

X

X

Arachnida (spiders)

X

X

Diplopoda (millipedes)

X

Insecta

Ephemeroptera (mayflies)

X

X

X

Odonata (dragonflies)

X

X

X

Orthoptera (grasshoppers)

X

X

Mallophaga (chewing lice)

X

Plecoptera (stoneflies)

X

X

Psocopt'era (psocids)

X

Thysanoptera (thrips)

X

Hemiptera (true bugs)

X

Coleoptera (beetles)

X

X

Mecoptera (scorpionflies)

X

Lepidoptera (butterflies)

X

X

Trichoptera (caddisflies)

X

X

X

Diptera (flies)

X

X

’Forsythe and Ezell, 1976; Morse, personal communication, 1989.

2Franz , 1982.

3Lenat, personal communication, 1989.

4Bogan and Parmalee, 1983.

the invertebrate fauna, particularly those groups inhabiting aquatic
environments. Even here much of our knowledge is limited to the larger
aquatic invertebrates, for example the mollusks and some aquatic insects,
with terrestrial and microscopic invertebrates remaining poorly known.

Our meager knowledge of the invertebrate fauna of Alabama also
presents difficulties when attempting to assign species to the standard
protected categories of endangered, threatened, or special concern. One
possible exception is the Mollusca, which have been studied extensively
enough in Alabama to allow placement of some species in the protective

65

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

categories. Stein (1976) and Stansbery (1976) assigned protective cate¬
gories to gastropods and naiad mollusks, respectively, and 11 mollusks
from Alabama are listed as threatened or endangered by the U.S. Department
of the Interior (Table 2). Crayfishes in Alabama, although still incom¬
pletely known, are often so limited in distribution that some species may
be assigned to protective categories. A preliminary list of the cray¬
fishes and freshwater shrimps of Alabama, which listed one species as
threatened, was compiled by Bouchard (1976). In 1988, the freshwater
shrimp, Palaemonias alabamae was proposed for listing as threatened by the
U.S. Department of the Interior.

Most insects in Alabama, are not easily placed in the protective
categories of endangered, threatened, or special concern. As with the

Table 2. Mollusks occurring in Alabama which are listed as endangered by
the U.S. Department of the Interior, 1988.

STREAM

COUNTY SPECIES

Estill Fork

Jackson

Jackson

Larkin Fork

Jackson

Tennessee River

Jackson

Marshall

Marshall

Marshall

Morgan

Colbert

Colbert

Paint Rock River

Jackson

Jackson

Jackson

Jackson

Jackson

Marshall

Tombigbee River

Sumter

Sumter

Sumter

Sumter

Sumter

Buttahatchie River

Lamar

Sipsey River

Greene

Greene

Lampsilis virescens (Lea, 1858)
Toxolasma cylindrella (Lea, 1868)

Lampsilis virescens (Lea, 1858)

Lampsilis orbiculaCa (Hildreth, 1828)
Lampsilis orbiculaCa (Hildreth, 1828)
PleChobasus cooper ianus (Lea, 1834)
Plethobema plenum (Lea, 1840)
Lampsilis orbiculaCa (Hildreth, 1828)
Lampsilis orbiculaCa (Hildreth, 1828)
Pleurobema plenum (Lea, 1840)

Fusconaia cuneolus (Lea, 1840)
Fusconaia cor (Conrad, 1834)

Lampsilis orbiculaCa (Hildreth, 1828)
Lampsilis virescens (Lea, 1858)
Toxoplasma cylindrella (Lea, 1868)
Lampsilis orbiculaCa (Hildreth, 1828)

Pleurobema curCum (Lea, 1859)
Pleurobema CaiCianum (Lea, 1834)
Pleurobema marshalli (Frierson, 1927)
Epioblasma peniCa (Conrad, 1834)
Quadrula scapes (Lea, 1831)

Epioblasma peniCa (Conrad, 1834)

Pleurobema CaiCianum (Lea, 1834)
Quadrula stapes (Lea, 1831)

66

Harris

other invertebrates, we have a limited knowledge of the Alabama fauna, but
as well, insects have several inherent characteristics which make place¬
ment in protective categories difficult.

1. ) Mobility: With the exception of some primitive and parasitic
groups, all insects have wings. While invertebrates such as mollusks and
crayfishes may be restricted to a specific drainage or habitat, insects
have the capability to move easily.

2. ) Life history complications: With insects, as well as other
invertebrates , the identification of a species is often dependent on a
specific life history stage, usually late instar immature s or adult males.
With most aquatic insects, the immatures are collected from the water,
while the adults are terrestrial.

3. ) Size: Insects and most invertebrates are small and are identi¬
fied to species on the basis of small morphological characters, often only
observable by specialists. Generally the specimens must be killed and
preserved in order to make specific identifications.

4. ) Public Perception: With most insects and arachnids being per¬
ceived by the general public as a nuisance or dangerous, assigning such
organisms to protected status is difficult.

With these points in mind, most of the invertebrate specialists con¬
tacted and asked to compile lists of species considered rare in Alabama
were unable in many cases to assign such species to the categories of
endangered, threatened, or special concern. In most cases those species
listed are limited or restricted in their occurrence in Alabama. Even
assigning species to such a broad category as "restricted in occurrence"
can be misleading as several examples from the caddisflies (Trichoptera) ,
a common group of aquatic insects, will illustrate. The leptocerid
Ceraclea alces occurs in the north central United States and in the Little
River of northeastern Alabama . Within Alabama the species in certainly
restricted in distribution, yet whether this represents a disjunct popu¬
lation or merely reflects inadequate collecting in eastern and central
United States is unknown . The same situation applies to the microcad-
disfly Hydroptila lennoxi which is known only from New Hampshire and
Chilton County , Alabama.

This problem of discerning whether a species is truly restricted or
merely an artifact of inadequate collecting is illustrated by looking in
more detail at those species of caddisflies with restricted distributions
in Alabama. Of the approximately 325 species in the state , about one-
third appear to be restricted in occurrence . However, nearly half of
these rare species are only known from a single location or collection and
86% are known from three or fewer locations (Fig. 1). The same situation
exists in the abundance of these rare species , with 20% known from a
single specimen and 80% known from less than 10 specimens (Fig. 2) .

The following sections present a preliminary compilation of those
species of aquatic invertebrates considered rare or restricted by the

67

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

C/3

UJ

O

HI

CL

C/3

HI

I—

a_

O

X

a

cr

ac

UJ

m

2

NUMBER OF LOCAUTIES

Figure 1. Occurrence of caddisflies (Trichoptera) in Alabama considered
rare or restricted in distribution.

NUMBER OF SPECIMENS

Figure 2. Abundance of caddisflies (Trichoptera) in Alabama considered
rare or restricted in distribution.

68

Harris

specialists for each group. In some cases the fauna is sufficiently known
to apply the categories of endangered, threatened, or special concern; in
others, the species are simply restricted in their occurrence in Alabama.
Also with some groups, their distribution within Alabama is well docu¬
mented and allows some reliability in placing a species within a certain
habitat or drainage; in others, only records of occurrence within a county
are available at this time. Although this makes for a somewhat loose
format, it is a reflection of the state of our present knowledge of
invertebrates in Alabama.

MGLLUSCA: Prepared by Paul Yokley, Jr. , Department of Biology, University
of North Alabama, Florence , AL 35632

Mo Husks are among the most conspicuous of invertebrates and include
the familiar freshwater mussels, clams, and snails, as well as oysters,
squids, and octopods . In freshwater, mo llusks are divided into two
classes: Bivalvia , the clams and mussels, and Gastropoda, the snails and
limpets. Both groups are immediately recognized by either a flattened or
conical shell which covers the body. Mollusks occur in virtually all
types of aquatic habitats from springs and streams to large rivers, ponds,
marshes, and lakes. Generally they are found in shallow waters on stable
substrated . Water quality is of importance to mollusk populations with
clean, alkaline waters supporting more species than impacted waters, low
in dissolved oxygen. Since mollusks have limited mobility, many species
are restricted to specific drainages or habitats. Detrimental changes to
these habitats often results in the loss of the endemic mollusk popula¬
tion.

Naiad mollusks of Alabama considered endangered (E) , threatened (T) ,
special concern (S) , extirpated (X) » or of uncertain status (U)

Common

Distribution

Taxon

Magaritiferidae

Magaritiferinae

Names

in Alabama

Status

Magaritifera hembeli
(Conrad, 1938)

Cumberlandinae

Louisiana

pearlshell

Small tributaries of
Escambia River also
Limestone Creek of
Alabama River

E

Cumberlandia monodonta
(Say, 1829)

Unionidae

Anodontinae

Spectacle

case

Tennessee River

E

Alasmidonta marginata
(Say, 1818)

Elktoe

Tennessee River

E

.4. mccordi (Athearn, 1964)

Coosa Elk-

toe

Coosa River

X

69

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

A. wrightiana

Ochlocknee

Choctawhatchee , Pea

(Walker, 1901)

arc -shell

River

Lasmigona holstonia

Tennessee

Tennessee and Mobili

(Lea, 1838)

heel-

splitter.

Rivers

Pegias fabula

Little

Tennessee River

(Lea, 1938)

wing pearly
mussel

Ambleminae

Elliptio arcus

Alabama

Mobile Basin

(Conrad, 1834)

spike

Fusconaia bamesiana

Tennessee

Tennessee River

(Lea, 1838)

pigtoe

F. cor (Conrad, 1834)

Shiny pig-
toe

Tennessee River

F. cuneolus

Fine -rayed

Tennessee River

(Lea, 1840)

pigtoe

F. escambia (Clench &

Narrow

Escambia River

Turner, 1956)

pigtoe

Hemistena lata

Cracking

Tennessee River

(Rafinesque, 1820)

pearly

mussel

Lexingtonia dolabelloides

Slabside

Tennessee River

(Lea, 1840)

pearly

mussel

Plethobasus cicatricosus

White

Tennessee River

(Say, 1829)

wartyback

P. cooper ianus

Orange- foot

Tennessee River

(Lea, 1834)

pimpleback

P . cyphyus

Sheepnose

Tennessee River

(Rafinesque, 1820)

Pleurobema altum

Highnut

Alabama River

(Conrad, 1854)

P. clava (Lamarck, 1819)

Clubshell

Tennessee River

P. curtum (Lea, 1859)

Black club-
shell

Tombigbee River

P. decisum (Lea, 1831)

Southern

clubshell

Tombigbee River

P. marshall i

Flat pigtoe

Tombigbee River

(Frierson, 1927)

P. nucleops is

Longnut

Coosa River

(Conrad, 1849)

P . ovi forme

Tennessee

Tennessee River

(Conrad, 1834)

clubshell

P. perovatum

Ovate

Mobile Basin

(Conrad, 1834)

clubshell

P. plenum

Rough pig¬

Tennessee River

(Lea, 1840)

toe

P. pyriforme (Lea, 1857)

Oval pigtoe

Apalachicola River

P. rubellum

Warrior

Black Warrior and

(Conrad, 1834)

pigtoe

Alabama Rivers

S

E

E

E

E

E

E

S

E

E

E

E

E

E

70

PJ H p] PI PJ PJ PI PI PJ PJ

Harris

P. taitianum

Heavy pigtoe

Tombigbee River

E

(Lea, 1834)

Quadrula apiculata

Southern

Rivers tributary to

S

(Say, 1929)

mapleleaf

Gulf

Q. cylindrica cylindrica
(Say, 1817)

Rabbits

foot

Tennessee River

E

Q. intermedia
(Conrad, 1936)

Cumberland

monkeyface

Tennessee River

E

Q. nodulata

Warty back

Tennessee River

E

(Rafinesque, 1820)

Q. stapes (Lea, 1831)

Stirrup

shell

Tombigbee River

E

Lampsilinae

Actinonaias ligament ina

Mucket

Tennessee River

E

(Lamarck, 1819)

A. pectorosa
(Conrad, 1834)

Pheasant-

shell

Tennessee River

E

Cyprogenia stegaria

Fanshell

Tennessee River

E

(Rafinesque, 1820)

Dromus dromas
(Lea, 1834)

Dromedary

pearly

mussel

Tennessee River

E

Epioblasma arcaeformis

Sugarspoon

Tennessee River

X

(Lea, 1831)

E. biemarginata
(Lea, 1857)

Angled

riffleshell

Tennessee River

X

E. brevidens
(Lea, 1831)

Cumber¬
land! an
combshell

Tennessee River

E

E. flexuosa

Leaf shell

Tennessee River

X

(Rafinespue, 1820)

E. florentina
(Lea, 1857)

Tan riffle-
shell

Tennessee River

X

E. hays iana

Acornshell

Tennessee River

X

(Lea, 1834)

E. lenior
(Lea, 1843)

Narrow

catspaw

Tennessee River

X

E. lewisii

Forkshell

Tennessee River

X

(Walker, 1910)

E. metastriata

Upland

Alabama And Black

E

(Conrad, 1840)

combshell

Warrior Rivers

E. othcaloogensis
(Lea, 1857)

Southern

acornshell

Coosa River

E

E. penita

Southern

Alabama and Tombigbee

E

(Conrad, 1834)

combshell

Rivers

E. personata (Say, 1829)

Round

combshell

Tennessee River

X

E. propinqua (Lea, 1857)

Tennessee

riffleshell

Tennessee River

X

E. stewardsoni
(Lea, 1852)

Cumberland
leaf shell

Tennessee River

X

71

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

E. torulosa torulosa

Tubercled

Tennessee River

(Rafinesque, 1820)

blossom

E. triquetra

Snuffbox

Tennessee River

(Rafinesque, 1820)

Lamps il is binominata

Lined poc-

Chattahoochee River

(Simpson, 1900)

ketbook

L. orbiculaCa

Pink mucket

Tennessee River

(Hildreth, 1828)

L. ovaCa (Say, 1817)

Pocketbook

Tennessee River

L. perovalis

Orange -

Mobile and Tombigbee

(Conrad, 1834)

nacre

Rivers

L. virescens

mucket

Alabama

Tennessee River

(Lea, 1858)

lampshell

Lemiox rimosus

Birdwing

Tennessee River

(Rafinesque, 1831)

pearly

Leptodea lep Codon

mussel

Scaleshell

Tennessee River

(Rafinesque, 1820)

Medionidus conradicus

Cumberland

Tennessee and Mobile

(Lea, 1834)

moccasin-

Rivers

M. mcglameriae van der

shell

Tombigbee

Tombigbee River

Schalie, 1939

moccasin-

Obovaria jacksoniana

shell

Southern

Mobile River

(Frierson, 1912)

hickorynut

0. olivaria

Hickory nut

Tennessee River

(Rafinesque, 1820)

0. reCusa (Lamarck, 1819)

Ring pink

Tennessee River

0. subroCunda

Round

Tennessee River

(Rafinesque, 1820)

hickorynut

0. unicolor

Alabama

Mobile System

(Lea, 1845)

hickorynut

PoCamilus inflatus

Inflated

Mobile River

(Lea, 1831)

heel-

Ptychobranchus fasciolaris

splitter
Kidney -

Tennessee River

(Rafinesque, 1901)

shell

P. greeni (Conrad, 1834)

Triangular

Mobile River

P. subtentum (Say, 1825)

kidneyshell

Fluted

Tennessee and Coosa

kidneyshell

Rivers

Toxolasma cylindrella

Pale

Tennessee and Mobile

(Lea, 1868)

illiput

Rivers

T. lividus

Purple

Tennessee and Mobile

(Rafinesque, 1831)

illiput

Rivers

Truncilla truncata

Deertoe

Tennessee River

(Rafinesque, 1820)

Villosa fabalis (Lea, 1831)

Rayed bean

Tennessee River

V. taeniata

Painted

Tennessee River

(Conrad, 1834)

creekshell

72

mpjmpiwpi X pin Xn nn

Harris

Freshwater snails of Alabama considered endangered (E) or threatened
(T) (Compiled by Jeffrey T. Garner)

Taxon

Viviparidae

Lioplax pilsbryi (Walker, 1905)

L. cyclostomaformis (Lea, 1841)
Tulotoma magnifica (Conrad, 1834)

Pilidae

Pomacea paludosa (Say, 1829)

Hydrobiidae

Clappia cahabensis Clench, 1965
C. umbilicata (Walker, 1904)
Lepyrium showalCeri (Lea, 1861)
Marstonia olivacea (Pilsbry, 1895)

M. pachyCa Thompson, 1977

Somatogyrus aureus Tryon, 1865

S. biangulaCa Walker, 1906

S. constr ictus Walker, 1904
S. coosaensis Walker, 1904

S. crassus Walker, 1904
S. currier ianus (Lea, 1863)

S. decipens Walker, 1909
S. excavatus Walker, 1906

S. hendersoni Walker, 1909
S. hinkleyi Walker, 1904

S. humerosus Walker, 1906

S. nanus Walker, 1904

S. obtusus Walker, 1904

S. pilsbryanus Walker, 1904
S. pygmaeus Walker, 1909
S. quadratus Walker, 1906
S. sargent i Pilsbry, 1895

S. strengi Pilsbry and Walker,
1906

S. tennesseens is Walker, 1906

Distribution in Alabama Status

Choctawhatchee River
Coosa-Alabama River Systems
Coosa River

Large springs and spring- fed
creeks in southeastern Alabama

Cahaba River
Coosa River

Coosa and Cahaba Rivers
Springs and streams, Madison
County

Limestone and Piney Creeks
(Limestone County)

Coosa River, Yellowleaf Creek
(Shelby County)

Tennessee River at Muscle
Shoals
Coosa River

Coosa River, creeks of St,
Clair, Shelby and Talladega
Counties
Coosa River

Streams of Madison County
Coosa River

Shoal Creek (Lauderdale
County)

Coosa River

Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers
and some tributaries

Tennessee River at Muscle E

Shoals

Coosa River, Weogufka Creek E

(Coosa County)

Coosa River, Upper Clear Creek E

(Talladega County)

Tallapoosa River E

Coosa River E

Coosa River E

Tributaries of Tennessee E

River

Tennessee River, Shoal Creek T

(Lauderdale County)

Shoal Creek (Lauderdale E

County)

73

M w n m H m mm m H tn pjpjpipj m n n w

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

Stiobia nana Thompson, 1978

Pleuroceridae

Elimia alabamensis (Lea, 1861)

E. albanyensis (Lea, 1864)

E. ampla (Anthony, 1854)

E. annettae (Goodrich, 1941)
E. bellula (Lea, 1861)

E. boykiniana (Lea, 1840)

E. brevis (Reeve, 1860)

E. cahawbensis (Lea, 1841)

E. capillaris (Lea, 1861)

E. crenatella (Lea, 1860)

E. fascinans (Lea, 1861)

E. fusiformis (Lea, 1861)

E. gerhardci (Lea, 1862)

E. hartmaniana (Lea, 1861)
E. haysiana (Lea, 1843)

E. hydei (Conrad, 1834)

E. impressa (Lea, 1841)

E. interveniens (Lea, 1862)

E. jonesi (Goodrich, 1936)
E. laeta (Jay, 1839)

E. nassula (Conrad, 1834)
E. olivula (Conrad, 1834)

E. pilsbry (Goodrich, 1927)
E. pupaeformis (Lea, 1864)
E. pygmaea (Smith, 1936)

Coldwater Springrun (Calhoun E

County)

Middle Coosa River, Yellow- E

leaf Creek (Shelby County) ,
Cahatchee and Choccolocco
Creeks (Talladega County)

Uchee Creek (Russell County) , E

Howard Creek (Houston County)
Cahaba River (Bibb County)

Cahaba River (Bibb County)

Middle Coosa River, Yellow-
leaf Creek (Shelby County),
Choccolocco Creek (Talladega
County)

Chattahoochee River, Uchee
Creek (Russell County)

Middle and lower Coosa River,

Upper Cahaba River, Black
Warrior River and tribu¬
taries, Waxohatchee Creek
(Coosa River drainage)

Coosa River, Chattooga River,
Choccolocco Creek (Talladega
County)

Middle Coosa River, creeks in
Etowah, St. Clair and Talladega
Counties

Coosa River tributaries
Coosa River
Coosa River
Coosa River
Lower Coosa River
Black Warrior River and
tributaries
Coosa River

Tennessee River at Muscle
Shoals , Cypress and Shoal
Creeks (Lauderdale County)

Coosa River, Spring Creek
(Shelby County)

Coosa River, Big Canoe Creek
(St. Clair County)

A few springs in Colbert and
Madison Counties
Alabama River, lower reaches
of Cahaba and Tombigbee Rivers,
middle Coosa River
Middle Coosa River
Coosa River

Coosa River (Talladega County)

74

PI PI P3 PI H PJ PJ H PI H P) PI P) PI PI PJ H H PI PJ H PI PI

Harris

E. showalteri (Lea, 1860)
E. vanuxemiana (Lea, 1843)
E. varLans (Lea, 1861)

E. variata (Lea, 1861)

Gyrotoma excisa (Lea, 1843)

G . lewisi (Lea, 1869)

G. pagoda (Lea, 1845)

G. pumila (Lea, 1860)

G. pyramidata (Shuttleworth, 1845)
G. walker i (Smith, 1924)

Jo fluvialis (Say, 1825)

Leptoxis ampla (Anthony, 1855)

L. clipeaCa (Smith, 1922)

L. compacta (Anthony, 1854)

L. crassa (Haldeman, 1841)
L. formani (Lea, 1843)

L. formosa (Lea, 1860)

L. ligata (Anthony, 1860)

L. lirata (Smith, 1922)

L. melanoidus (Conrad, 1834)
L. minor (Hinkey, 1912)

L. occultata (Smith, 1922)

L. picta (Conrad, 1834)

L. plicata (Conrad, 1834)

L. showalteri (Lea, 1860)

L. taeniata (Conrad, 1834)

L. virgata (Lea, 1841)

L. vittata (Lea, 1860)
Lithasia armigera (Say, 1821)
L. curta (Lea, 1868)

L. geniculata (Haldeman, 1840)
L. lima (Conrad, 1834)

L. salebrosa (Conrad, 1834)

L. verrucosa (Rafinesque, 1820)
Pleurocera alveare (Conrad, 1834)

Cahaba River (Bibb County) E

Coosa River, Alabama River E

Cahaba River (Bibb County) E

Cahaba River and tributaries E

in Bibb and Jefferson Counties,
Little Cahaba River
Coosa River E

Coosa River E

Coosa River E

Coosa River E

Coosa River E

Coosa River E

Tennessee River E

Coosa River, Cahaba River and E

some of its tributaries in¬
cluding Little Cahaba River
Coosa River

Upper and middle Cahaba River,
Buck Creek (Shelby County)
Tennessee River
Middle Coosa River
Coosa River, Talladega Creek
(Talladega County) , Yellowleaf
Creek (Shelby County)

Lower Coosa River
Coosa River
Black Warrior River
Tennessee River at Muscle
Shoals
Coosa River

Alabama River, lower Coosa
River, lower Cahaba River
Upper Black Warrior River,
Little Warrior River, Tom-
bigbee river
Coosa River

Alabama River, lower Coosa
River, lower Cahaba River
Tennessee River
Coosa River
Tennessee River
Tennessee River
Tennessee River
Elk River, Tennessee River at
Muscle Shoals, Cypress and
Anderson Creeks (Lauderdale
County) , Bear Creek (Colbert
County)

Tennessee River
Tennessee River
Tenneessee River

75

W W WWW WWWW WW W WW WWHWHH HHH

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

P. annul if era (Conrad, 1834)

Upper and middle Black Warrior E

River, Village Creek (Jeffer¬
son County)

P. brumby i (Lea, 1852)

Springs and streams of Tennes- T

see River (Lawrence, Limestone,
Madison Counties)

P. corpulenta (Anthony, 1854)

P. curta (Haldeman, 1841)

Tennessee River and tributaries T
Tennessee River, Paint Rock T
River, Flint River

P. foreman i (Lea, 1842)

P. postelli (Lea, 1862)

Coosa River E
Small streams of north Alabama T
in vicinity of Muscle Shoals

P. pyrenellum (Conrad, 1834)

Tributaries of Tennessee river T

(Morgan and Limestone Counties)

P. showalteri (Lea, 1862)

P. walker i (Goodrich, 1928)

Coosa River E

Tennessee River at Muscle T

Shoals, Shoal Creek and tri¬
butaries (Lauderdale County)

Ancylidae

Ferissia mcnelli (Walker, 1925)

Mandeville Creek (Mobile E

Rhodacmea elaCior (Anthony, 1855)

R. filosa (Conrad, 1834)

R. hinkleyi (Walker, 1908)

County)

Cahaba River E
Coosa and Black Warrior Rivers E
Coosa and Tennessee River E
Systems

Planorbidae

Amphigyra alabamensis Pilsbry, 1906
Neoplanorbis carinatus Walker, 1908
N. smichi Walker, 1908

N. tantillus Pilsbry, 1906

N. umbilicaCus Walker, 1908

Coosa River E
Coosa River E
Coosa River E
Coosa River E
Coosa River E

Endangered Land Snails of Alabama

Taxon

Common Name County

Records

Pupillidae

Vertigo alabamensis Clapp, 1915

Alabama vertigo Tuscaloosa

Valloniidae

Vallonia perspective Sterki, 1892

Thin- lip vallonia Jackson

Zonitidae

Glyphyalinia pecki Hubricht, 1966
Vitrinizonites latissimus
(Lewis, 1875)

Blind glyph Jefferson

Glassy grapeskin Madison

Polygyridae

Al logons profunda (Say, 1821)

Broad-banded Jackson

forest snail

76

W H H W H W WWW

Harris

Mesodon clausus Say, 1821
Stenotrema bevipila (Clapp, 1907)

Yellow globelet Clarke

Talladega slitmouth Cleburne,

Cherokee

DECAPODA: Prepared by J . F. Fitzpatrick, Jr., Department of Biological
Sciences , University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688

The Decapoda are the largest order within the Crustacea and include as
members the freshwater crawfishes and shrimps. Crawfishes are familiar to
most aquatic biologists as they are common inhabitants of shallow waters,
including lakes, ponds, swamps, sloughs, streams, and rivers, as well as
wet areas in meadows and roadside ditches. While many species of crawfish
are found in open waters, others build burrows in the vicinity of water,
with some rarely venturing out of these burrows. Most species that in¬
habit temporary or seasonal waters will burrow into the substrate during
dry periods, and a few species seem to be completely divorced from any
open water. The freshwater shrimps, also called prawns or grass shrimp,
are generally inhabitants of the large rivers and permanently flowing
creeks , although the genus Palaemonias in Alabama occurs in subterranean
pools. A checklist of the Decapoda of Alabama was provided by Bouchard
(1976), but a much more complete and up-to-date reference for the craw¬
fishes is Hobbs (1989). Bouchard's list identified 58 species of craw¬
fishes and 6 shrimps, of which 14 were considered to be threatened or of
special concern status in Alabama. He mentioned that his compilation was
preliminary with a state fauna of approximately 75 species of crawfishes
likely with a thorough survey; true of his predictions, several taxa have
been described since then and at this writing, more are "in press."

Decapoda of Alabama considered threatened (T) , of special concern (SC),
or rare (R)

Taxon

Cambaridae

Cambarellus (Dirigicambarus)
shufeldtii (Faxon)

C. (Pandicambarus) diminutus Hobbs

C. (P.) lesliei Fitzpatrick and
Laning

Cambarus (Aviticambarus) hamulatus
(Cope)

County

Habitat

Records

Status

Swamp ,
ditches ,
sloughs ,
lakes ,
ponds ,
sluggish
streams

Mobile

SC

Sluggish

streams

Mobile

SC

Sluggish to

Baldwin,

SC

moderate

Mobile ,

streams

Washington

Subter¬

Blount ,

SC

ranean

Jackson,

streams

Marshall

77

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

C. (A.) jonesi Hobbs and Barr

Subter¬

ranean

waters

Colbert ,
Lauderdale ,
Limestone ,
Marshall

SC

C. (A.) sp. A

Subter¬

ranean

waters

Limestone

SC

C. (A.) sp. B

Subter¬

ranean

waters

Madison

R.

T

C. (Depressicambarus) englishi

Hobbs and Hall

Streams

Clay,

Cleburne ,
Tallapoosa

SC

C. (D.) halli Hobbs

Streams

Lee ,

Tallapoosa

SC

C. (D.) obsCipus Hobbs

Streams

Greene ,

Hale ,

Jefferson,
Walker ,
Winston

SC

C. (Exilicambarus) cracens

Shallow

DeKalb ,

SC

Bouchard and Hobbs

rocky

streams

Marshall

C. (Hiaticambarus) girardianus Faxon

Streams

?Colbert,
Lauderdale ,
TLimestone

sc

C. (H . ) manning i Hobbs

Streams

Cherokee

sc

C. (Jugicambarus) distans Rhoades

Streams

Dekalb

R

C. (J.) parvoculus Hobbs and Shoup

Streams

Jackson

R

C. (J.) unestami Hobbs and Hall

Streams

Jackson

R

C. (Lacunicambarus) miltus

Burrows

Baldwin

R,

Fitzpatrick

along
creeks ide

T

C. (Puncticambarus) scotti Hobbs

Streams

TCalhoun,
Cherokee
?St . Clair

SC

Fallicambarus (Greaser inus) burr is i

Burrows in

Baldwin,

SC

Fitzpatrick

pitcher

plant

savannahs

Washington

F. (C . ) byersi (Hobbs)

Burrows in
pitcher
plant
savannahs

Baldwin,

Mobile

SC

F. (C . ) danielae Hobbs

Burrows in
wet areas

Mobile

R1

F. (C.) oryktes (Penn and Marlow)

Burrows in

wet areas

Baldwin,

?Mobile

R1

Orconectes (Crocker inus)
erichsonianus (Faxon)

Streams

Blount ,
?DeKalb ,
Jefferson,
Shelby

SC

78

Harris

0. (Gremicambarus) cooper i

Cooper and Hobbs

Streams

Madison

R

0. (G.) hold Cooper and Hobbs

Sluggish to
moderate

streams

Dallas ,

Lowndes ,
Montgomery ,
Perry, Wilcox

SC

0. ( Hespericambarus ) perfectus

Walls

Streams

Choctaw,

Clarke

SC2

0. ( Orconectes ) australis australis
(Rhoades)

Subter¬

ranean

streams

Jackson,

Madison

SC

0. (Procericambarus) forceps
(Faxon)

Streams

Lauderdale ,
?Limestone ,
Madison

SC

Procambarus (Leconticambarus)
capillatus Hobbs

Temporary
water ,
burrows

Conecuh ,
Escambia

SC

P. (L.) escambiensis Hobbs

Temporary
water ,
burrows

Escambia

SC

P. (L.) shermani Hobbs

Streams ,
sloughs

? Baldwin,
Mobile ,
Washington

SC

P. ( Ortmannicus ) bivittatus Hobbs

Streams ,
sloughs

Escambia
Mobile ,

Monroe ,
Washington

SC

P. (0.) ever manni (Faxon)

Sluggish
streams ,
burrows

Baldwin,

Mobile

SC

(?R)

P. (0 . ) hybus Hobbs and Walton

Temporary
waters ,
burrows

Greene ,

Pickens

SC

P. (0.) lecontei (Hagen)

Streams

Mobile ,
Washington

sc

P. (0.) marthae Hobbs

Very-
sluggish
streams ,
ditches

Monroe

R

P. (0.) verrucosus Hobbs

Streams

Lee , Macon

SC

P. (Pennides) cleimeri Hobbs

Streams

Mobile ,
Washington

SC

P. (P . ) lagniappe Black

Small

streams

Sumter

R

P. (Remoticambairus) pecki Hobbs

Subter¬

ranean

waters

Colbert ,
Lauderdale ,
Morgan

SC

P. (Scapulicambarus) paeninsulanus
(Faxon)

Lentic and
lotic waters

Houston

R

79

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

Atyidae

Palaemonias alabamae Smalley

Standing Madison T

subterranean

waters

Palaemonidae

Macrobrachium carcinus (Linnaeus)

Estuarine ?Baldwin, SC

streams, Mobile

often

fresh

'The relationships and precise identities of F.(C.) byersi, F. (C.)
danielae , and F; (C . ) oryktes are not completely determined at this
writing.

20. perfectus probably has a much wider, more common distribution in the
Tombigbee system, but at present, Walls has severely restricted its
distribution.

EPHEMEROPTERA : Prepared by Steven C. Harris, Biological Resources
Division, Geological Survey of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35486 and
Boris C. Kondratieff, Department of Entomology , Colorado State University ,
Fort Collins, Colorado 80523

Mayflies, which are commonly known as "willow flies," occur throughout
Alabama in most types of freshwater, from rivers and streams to lakes and
ponds. The adults, during periods of emergence or nuptial flights (swarm¬
ing), are often present in enormous numbers, particularly along large
rivers and lakes, forming dense clouds around lights and covering the
ground. The nymphs are aquatic and while occurring in a wide variety of
habitats, they all generally require high levels of dissolved oxygen.
This requirement often allows the group to be utilized by aquatic biol¬
ogists as indicators of clean waters. A preliminary checklist of the
mayflies of Alabama was compiled by Kondratieff and Harris (1986) . To
date 114 species have been reported from the state, 13 of which are rare
or restricted in distribution.

Ephemeroptera of Alabama considered rare or restricted in distribution

Taxop

Habitat

County

Records

Baetidae

Heterocloeon curiosum

(McDunnough)

Streams

Randolph

Metretopodidae

Siphloplectron basale

(Walker)

Sandy streams
and rivers

Lamar

80

Harris

Oligoneuriidae

Homoeoneuria cahabensis Pescador &
Peters

Isonychia sayi Burks

I. similis Traver

Rivers

Streams

Streams

Perry

Chilton

Franklin

Heptageniidae

Macdunnoa persimplex (McDunnough)

M. brurmea Flowers

Pseudiron centralis McDunnough
Stenonema meririvulZnum Carle and
Lewis

Streams

Streams

Sandy rivers
Spring runs

Macon

Lawrence

Dallas

Franklin,

Tuscaloosa

Leptophlebiidae

Paraleptophlebia jeanae Berner

Streams

Sumter

Tricorythidae

Leptohypes dolani Allen

Streams , rivers

Etowah

Caenidae

Brachycercus nasutus Soldan

Sandy streams,
rivers

Escambia ,
Perry

Behningiidae

Dolania americana Edmunds and Traver

Sandy streams

Escambia

ODONATA: Prepared by Kenneth J. Tennessen, 1949 Hickory Avenue, Florence ,
Alabama, 35630

Odonates are conspicuous insects flying along the waterways of
Alabama. The adults are familiar to most people and are often called
"snake doctors" or "darning needles." Their diversity in color, size, and
behavior make them ideal subjects for observation. The immatures are
aquatic and live along the margins of water bodies, often amidst vegeta¬
tion. The Odonata are divided into two suborders, the Anisoptera or
dragonflies and the Zygoptera or damselflies. In Alabama, 157 species of
odonates have been identified, of which 49 are rare or restricted in
distribution.

Odonata of Alabama considered rare or restricted In distribution

Taxon

Distri¬
bution ’

Habitat

County

Records

Anisoptera (dragonflies)

Cordulegastridae

Cordulegaster erronea Hagen

N

Small seepage
runs

Marion

Gomphidae

Aphylla williamsoni (Gloyd)

C

Lakes

Baldwin,
Geneva, Lee

81

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

Arigomphus maxwelli (Ferguson)

R

Tupelo, gum-
swamp

Baldwin,
Mobile ,
Tuscaloosa

A. pallidus (Rambur)

C

Ponds

Geneva

Dromogomphus armatus Selys

C

Small streams

Baldwin

Gomphus crassus Hagen

N

Streams

Jackson,

Lauderdale

G. modestus Needham

N

Rivers

Tuscaloosa

G. septima Westfall

R

Rivers

Tuscaloosa

G. apomyius Donnelly

C

Streams

Marion,

Tuscaloosa

G. geminatus Carle

C

Streams

Escambia

G. viridifrons Hine

N

Streams

Tuscaloosa

G. hodgesi Needham

C

Small streams

Escambia

G. consanguis Selys

A

Small streams

Blount

Ophiogomphus mainensis Packard

N

Streams

Blount ,
Tuscaloosa

Stylurus amnicola (Walsh)

N

Streams

? (Needham
&Westfall ,
1955)2

S. ivae (Williamson)

C

Streams

Bibb

S. notatus (Rambur)

N

Large rivers

Colbert

S. townesi (Gloyd)

R

Sandy stream

Escambia

Aeshnidae

Aeshna umbrosa Walker

N

Streams

Lee ,

Tuscaloosa

Gomphaeschna antilope (Hagen)

C

Swamps

Mobile ,
Tuscaloosa

G. furcillata (Say)

C

Swamps

Tuscaloosa

Corduliidae

Neurocordulia alabamensis

Hodges

c

Small, sandy
streams

? (Needham,
& Westfall
1955)2

N. obsolete (Say) N

& c

Lakes, streams

Tuscaloosa

Somatochlora georgiana

c

Seepage areas

Tuscaloosa

Walker

Tetragoneuria sepia Gloyd

c

Ponds, pools,
slow streams

Chambers ,
Lee ,

Perry

T. spinosa (Hagen)

c

Cypress swamps
or lakes

Tuscaloosa

Libellulidae

Celithemis amanda (Hagen)

c

Ponds

Baldwin,

Covington

C. omata (Rambur)

c

Ponds

Baldwin,

Covington

C. vema Pritchard

c

Ponds

Tuscaloosa

Erythrodiplax berenice (Drury)

c

Coastal pools

Mobile

E. limb rata (Linnaeus)

c

Coastal pools

Washington

82

Harris

Libellula needhami Westfall

Ponds

Baldwin,

Mobile

Nannothemis bella (Uhler)

N & C

Sphagnum pools

Russell

Sympetrum semincinctum (Say)

N

Wetlands

Blount

Zygoptera (damselflies)

Lestidae

Archilestes grandis (Rambur)

N,C, &

West U.S.

Ponds

Jackson,

Marion

Lestes congener Hagen

N

Ponds

Marion

L. forcipatus Rambur

N

Ponds

Madison

L. vidua Hagen

C

Ponds

Westfall
unpub 1 . 3

Coenagrionidae

Enallagma cardenium Selys

C

Stream

Geneva

E. concisum Williamson

c

Ponds

Mobile

E. davisi Westfall

c

Sandy lakes

Mobile

E. dubium Root

c

Slow streams

Houston,

Mobile

E. durum Hagen

c

Lakes

Baldwin,

Mobile

E. pallidum Root

c

Lakes or ponds

Baldwin

E. pollutum (Hagen)

c

Slow streams

Westfall
unpub 1 . 3

E. sulcatum Williamson

c

Lakes

Covington

E. weewa (Byers)

c

Streams

Westfall
unpub 1 .3

Ischnura prognatha (Hagen)

N & C

Swamps

Madison

Telebasis byersi Westfall

c

Ponds, slow
streams

Houston

1) A - mainly southern Appalachian in distribution.

C - coastal plain distribution, probably restricted to southern
Alabama .

N - northern in distribution, probably restricted to northern Alabama.
R - rare in distribution throughout range in U.S.

2) Alabama record in Needham and Westfall, 1955, but no specific location
given.

3) Alabama record from unpublished data of M.J. Westfall, but no specific
location given.

PLECOPTERA: Prepared by Steven C. Harris, Biological Resources Division ,
Geological Survey of Alabama, Tuscaloosa , Alabama 35686 and Bill P.
Stark, Department of Biological Sciences , Mississippi College, Clinton,
Mississippi 39058

The Plecoptera, or stoneflies, are usually found in association with
cool, clean streams. The nymphs are aquatic and live under rocks or
debris on the stream bottom, while the adults are terrestrial, although

83

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

they are seldom found far from the stream margin. Since the nymphs
usually require habitats high in dissolved oxygen and low in silt, the
group is often utilized by aquatic biologists as indicators of clean,
unpolluted streams. Checklists of the stonefly fauna of Alabama were
compiled by James (1972) and updated by Stark and Harris (1986). To date,
72 species have been reported from the state, of which 18 are rare, or
limited in distribution.

Plecoptera of Alabama considered rare or restricted in distribution

County

Taxon Habitat Records

Pteronarcyidae

Pteronarcys biloba Newman

Nemouridae

Prostoia completa (Walker)
Shipsa rotunda (Claassen)

Leuctridae

Leuctra alabama James
L. alta James

L. alexanderi Hanson
L. biloba Claassen

L. cottaquilla James
L. moha Ricker

Capniidae

Allocapnia tennessa Ross and
Ricker

Perlidae

Beloneuria jamesae Stark
and Szczytko

Hansonoperla appalachia Nelson
Neoperla harrisi Stark and Lentz

Perlodidae

Helopicus subvarians (Banks)
Remenus bilobatus
(Needham and Claassen)

Chloroperlidae

Alloperla furcula Surdick

Foothill streams

Cleburne

Foothill streams

Tallapoosa

Small streams

Tuscaloosa

Mountain streams

Jackson

Calhoun,

Tuscaloosa

Mountain streams

Jackson

Small streams,
spring seeps

Calhoun

Small streams

Calhoun

Small streams

Clay,

Lawrence

Small streams

Franklin

Mountain spring

Clay,

seeps

Cleburne

Foothill streams,
undercuts

Cleburne

Foothill streams

Colbert ,

Franklin,

Lauderdale

Small streams

Tallapoosa

Small streams

Calhoun

Sandy streams

Baldwin, Es¬
cambia, Monroe

84

Harris

A. hamata Surdick Foothill streams Lawrence,

Jackson

A. usa Ricker Foothill streams Calhoun

Sveltsa mediana (Banks) Mountain streams Calhoun,

Lawrence

TRICHOPTERA: Prepared by Steven C. Harris, Biological Resources Division ,
Geological Survey of Alabama, Tuscaloosa , Alabama 35486

The Trichoptera, or caddisflies , are small moth- like insects as
adults; as larvae they are aquatic. Caddisfly larvae are notable for the
feeding nets constructed by some groups and the portable cases of rocks
and leaves constructed by others. Most freshwater aquatic habitats,
ranging from streams and rivers to lakes and ponds , have a trichopteran
fauna. Caddisflies are most abundant and diverse in clean waters high in
dissolved oxygen and they are often utilized by aquatic biologists as
water quality indicators. Alabama has a rich caddisfly fauna with over
325 species (Harris, 1986; Lago and Harris , 1987 ; Harris and Lago , 1990) ,
of which 112 may be considered rare or restricted in occurrence in the
state .

Trichoptera of Alabama considered rare or restricted in distribution

Taxon

Philopotamidae

Chimarra augusta Morse
C. falculata Lago and Harris

Dolophilodes major (Banks)
Vonmldia shawnee (Ross)

Psychomyiidae

Psychomyia nomada (Ross)

Polycentropodidae

Gemotina Cruncona Ross

Nyctiophylax morsel Lago and
Harris

Phylocentropus karris i
Schuster and Hamilton
Polycentropus barri Ross and
Yamamoto

P. carlsoni Morse
P. clinei (Milne)

P . elarus Ross

County

Habitat

Records

Streams

Cleburne

Sandy streams

Baldwin,
Covington,
Escambia, Mobile

Streams

Cleburne

Streams

DeKalb

Streams

Lauderdale

Streams and

Barbour ,

lakes

Covington,
Escambia, Mobile

Sandy streams

Baldwin, Mobile

Small streams

Baldwin, Clarke

Streams

Tallapoosa

Small streams

Calhoun

Sandy streams

Baldwin, Mobile,
Washington

Streams

DeKalb, Jackson

85

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

P. floridensis Lago and Harris
P. nascotius Ross
P. pentus Ross
P. rickeri Yamamoto

Hydropsychidae

Cheumatopsyche bibbensis
Gordon, Harris and Lago
C. cahaba Gordon, Harris and Lago
C. helma Ross
C. kinlockensis Gordon,

Harris and Lago
Homoplectra doringa (Milne)
Hydropsyche decalda Ross
H. demora Ross

H. fattigi Ross
H. phalerata Hagen
H. rotosa Ross

H. scalar is Hagen
H. simulans Ross

Rhyacophilidae

Rhyacophila carolae Harris
R. fenestra Ross

R. teddy i Ross

Glossosomatidae

Agapetus alabamensis Harris

A. gelbae Ross
A. iridis Ross
A. spinosus Etnier and Way
Protoptila cahabensis Harris
P . georgiana Denning

Hydroptilidae

Hydroptila chelops Harris
H. coweetensis Huryn
H. fuscina Harris

H. grandiosa Ross
H. lagoi Harris

Sandy streams

Baldwin

Sandy streams

Mobile

Streams

Tuscaloosa

Streams

Marion

Rivers

Bibb

Streams

Jefferson

Streams

Clay, DeKalb

Streams

Lawrence

Spring seeps

Tuscaloosa

Sandy streams

Baldwin

Streams

Cleburne ,
Coosa ,
Tallapoosa

Streams

Cleburne ,
Tallapoosa

Streams

Coosa, Marion
Randolph

Streams

Lauderdale ,
Limestone ,
Madison

Streams

Bibb , Calhoun
Cherokee

Streams, rivers

Calhoun,

Madison

Small streams

Lawrence

Streams

Lauderdale ,
Limestone

Streams

Cleburne

Small streams,

Tuscaloosa

spring seeps

Small streams

Lauderdale

Small streams

Cleburne

Small streams

DeKalb

Rivers

St. Clair

Streams

Tallapoosa

Spring seeps

Choctaw

Small streams

Lawrence

Small streams

Lawrence ,

Tuscaloosa

Streams

Blount, Bibb

Springs, small

Tuscaloosa

streams

86

Harris

H. lennoxi Blickle
H. micropotamis Harris
H. parastrepha Kelley and Harris
H. patriciae Harris

H. recurvata Harris and Kelley

H. scheiringi Harris
H. setigera Harris
H. spinata Blickle and Morse

H. Calladega Harris

H. valhalla Denning
H. xella Ross

Leucotrichia plctipes (Banks)
NeoCrichia mobilensis Harris
Ochrotrichia arva (Ross)

0. eliaga (Ross)

0. elongiralla Harris
0. graysoni Parker and Voshell
0. riesi Ross

0. tuscaloosa Harris
0. weoka Harris

Orthotrichia baldufi Kingsolver
and Ross

0. instabilis Denning
Oxyethira anabola Blickle

0. coercens Morton
0. dualis Morton

0. may a Denning

0 . michiganens is Mosely

0. savaimlensis Kelley and Harris

0. sininsigne Kelley
Stactobiella cahaba Harris

Small streams

Chilton

Rivers

Calhoun

Sandy streams

Mobile

Small streams

Blount, Bibb,
Calhoun

Small streams

Fayette, Hale,
Lamar, Marion,
Tuscaloosa

Sandy streams

Baldwin, Mobile

Small streams

Calhoun

Streams

Cleburne ,
Lauderdale ,
Tuscaloosa

Small streams

Calhoun,

Cleburne

Streams

Cleburne

Streams

Jackson,

Madison

Streams

Calhoun

Rivers

Mobile

Streams

Calhoun

Streams

Colbert ,
Limestone ,
Morgan

Small streams

Madison

Streams, rivers

Bibb, Jefferson,

Streams

Etowah,

Jefferson,

Tuscaloosa

Streams

Colbert ,
Tuscaloosa ,

Small streams

Elmore

Streams

Lauderdale ,
Lawrence ,
Tuscaloosa

Streams, marshes

Baldwin

Sandy streams

Baldwin, Mobile,
Monroe

Streams

Bibb

Streams

Marshall ,
Lawrence

Small streams

Tuscaloosa

Small streams

Cleburne

Sandy streams

Baldwin, Mobile,
Monroe ,
Washington

Sandy streams

Baldwin, Mobile,
Monroe

Streams

Bibb

Phryganeidae

Agrypnia vestita (Hagen) Rivers, streams Bibb, Fayette,

Tuscaloosa

87

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

Banksiola concatenata (Walker)

Brachycentridae

BrachycenCrus chelatus Ross

B. nigrosoma (Banks)

Micrasema charonis Banks

Lepidostomatidae

Lepidostoma weaveri Harris
Theliopsyche melas Edwards
T. tallapoosa Harris

Limnephilidae

Ironoquia kaskaskia (Ross)
Platycentropus radiatus (Say)

Pycnopsyche gentilis (MacLachlan)

P. virginica (Banks)

Uenoidae

Neophylax acutus Vineyard and
Wiggins

N. atlanCa Ross
N. concinnus MacLachlan

N. oligius Ross
N. omatus Banks

N. securis Vineyard and Wiggins

Sericostomatidae

Agarodes alabamensis Harris
A. stannardi (Ross)

Odontoceridae

Psilotreta rufa (Hagen)

Leptoceridae

Ceraclea alabamae Harris

C. alces (Ross)

C. menCiea (Walker)

C. neffi (Resh)

OeceCis daytona Ross

0. morsei Bueno -Soria

Rivers, streams

Choctaw, Lee,
Monroe

Sandy streams

Mobile

Streams

Macon

Small streams

Cleburne

Spring seeps

Tuscaloosa

Small streams

DeKalb

Streams

Tallapoosa

Rivers

Fayette

Streams

Lawrence ,
Winston

Streams

Calhoun,

Talladega

Small streams

Calhoun

Streams

Jackson

Streams

Lawrence

Streams

Lawrence ,
Tuscaloosa

Streams

Tuscaloosa

Streams

Lawrence ,
Tuscaloosa

Streams

Jackson

Sandy streams

Clarke

Streams

Franklin,
Marion, Winston

Small streams

Cleburne

Rivers

DeKalb

Rivers

DeKalb

Rivers

Pickens

Streams

Conecuh,

DeKalb ,

Jackson

Sandy streams

Baldwin,
Escambia,
Mobile ,
Washington

Rivers

Bibb , Perry

88

Harris

Setodes dixiensis Holzenthal

Streams

Bibb, Perry

S. guttatus (Banks)

Streams

Bibb , Conecuh

S. incertus (Walker)

Streams

Coosa

S. stehri (Ross)

Streams

Conecuh

Triaenodes abus Milne

Streams

Choctaw,

Jefferson

T. dipsius Ross

Small streams

Tuscaloosa

T. flavescens Banks

Streams

Cleburne ,
Lauderdale

T. florida Ross

Sandy streams

Covington

T. helo Milne

Sandy streams

Baldwin

T. melacus Ross

Streams

Choctaw

T. nox Ross

Streams

Bibb , Lee ,
Randolph

T. taenius Ross

Streams

Calhoun,
Choctaw,
Cleburne , Lee

T. tridontus Ross

Sandy streams

Clarke

COLEOPTERA: Prepared by George W. Folkerts, Department of Zoology, Auburn
University, Auburn, Alabama 36849 and Steven C. Harris, Biological Re¬
sources Division, Geological Survey of Alabama, Tuscaloosa , Alabama 35U86

The beetles constitute the largest group of insects, but only about 2%
of all species are aquatic or semiaquatic. Beetles occur in a wide array
of habitats from streams and lakes to brackish estuaries and marshes, but
rarely are they found in large numbers. Most of the aquatic beetles live
close to the bottom, but some such as the Dytiscidae are efficient swim¬
mers. Other beetles, such as the Gyrinidae have adapted to live on the
water surface, and some groups are semiaquatic occuring at the water
margin. While the beetle fauna of Alabama is incompletely known, several
studies are available, including Loding (1945), Folkerts (1978), and
Eiland (1979).

Coleoptera of Alabama considered rare or restricted in distribution

Taxon

Gyrinidae

Gyrinus rockinghamensis LeConte
Spang lerogyrus albiventris
Folkerts

Dytiscidae

Hoperius planatus Fall
Hydroporus folkertsi Wolfe and
Matta

Hydrovatus sp.

Matus leechi Young

County

Habitat

Records

Streams

Houston

Streams

Butler,
Conecuh,
Monroe ,
Winston

Streams

Elmore

Streams

Tuscaloosa

Streams

Montgomery

Sandy streams

Escambia

89

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

Noteridae

RoComicrus nanulus (LeConte)
Psephenidae

Alabameubria starki Brown

Elmidae

Optioservus sp.

Promores ia elegans (LeConte)
Stenelmis beameri Sanderson
S. humerosa Motschulsky
S. hungerfordi Sanderson
S. mirabilis Sanderson
S . sp .

Chrysomelidae

Disonycha fumata Schaeffer

D. balsbaughi Blake

D. funerea (Randall)

DonacLa palmata Olivier

D. rugosa LeConte

D. vicina Lacordaire
Hydrothassa vittata (Olivier)

Ponds, lakes

Baldwin

Streams

Blount ,

Jackson

Small streams

Perry

Small streams

Blount

Streams

Walker

Streams

Walker

Streams

Walker

Streams

Russell

Lakes

Covington

Saline marshes ,

Mobile

on vegetation

On Amaranthacea

Jackson,

Winston

On Amaranthacea

Mobile

On vascular

Colbert

hydrophytes

On vascular

Mobile

hydrophytes

Mobile

On Ranunculus

Baldwin

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Alabama Academy of Science and R.F. Modlin are due our thanks for
organizing and supporting the symposium on endangered organisms in
Alabama. A preliminary compilation of rare invertebrates in Alabama by G.
W. Folkerts was kindly made available as this manuscript was being pre¬
pared. Information on rare invertebrates of North and South Carolina was
graciously provided by D.R. Lenat and J.C. Morse, respectively. P.E.
O'Neil kindly constructed the text figures. Peggy Marsh is due special
thanks for her efforts and patience in typing the many manuscript drafts.

LITERATURE CITED

Barnes, R.D. 1980. Invertebrate zoology. 4th edition, Saunders
College/Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Philadelphia, 1089 p.

Bogan, A.E. and P.W. Parmalee. 1983. Tennessee's rare wildlife. Vol¬
ume II: The Mollusks. Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, 123 p.

Boschung, H. (ed.). 1976. Endangered and threatened plants and animals

of Alabama. Bull. Alabama Mus. Nat. Hist. 2:1-92.

90

Harris

Bouchard, R.W. 1976. Crayfishes and shrimps. In H. Boschung, (ed.).
Endangered and threatened plants and animals of Alabama. Bull.
Alabama Mus . Nat. Hist. 2:1-92.

Eiland, F.W. , II. 1979. The Elmidae of Alabama. Unpubl. M.S. thesis,
Auburn Univ . , 8 1 p .

Folkerts, G.W. 1978. A preliminary checklist of the Hydradephaga
(Coleoptera) of Alabama. Coleopterists Bull. 32:345-347.

Forsythe, D.H. and W.B. Ezell, Jr. (eds.). Proceedings of the first

South Carolina endangered species symposium, South Carolina Wildlife
and Marine Resources Department, 201 p.

Franz, R. (ed.). 1982. Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Volume

6. Invertebrates. University Presses of Florida, 131 p.

Harris, S.C. 1986. Hydroptilidae (Trichoptera) of Alabama with

descriptions of three new species. J. Kansas Entomol. Soc. 59:609-
619.

Harris, S.C. and P.K. Lago . 1990. Annotated checklist of the Rhyacoph-

iloidea and Integripalpia (Trichoptera) of Alabama. Entomol. News,

In press .

Hobbs, H.H. 1989. An illustrated checklist of the American crayfishes
(Decapoda: Astacidae, Cambaridae, and Parastacidae) . Smithsonian
Contrib. Zool. 480: 1-236

James, A.M. 1972. The stoneflies (Plecoptera) of Alabama. Unpubl.
Ph.D. Dissertation, Auburn Univ., 161 p.

Kondratieff, B.C. and S.C. Harris. 1986. Preliminary checklist of the
mayflies (Ephemeroptera) of Alabama. Entomol. News 97:230—236.

Lago, P.K. and S.C. Harris. 1987. An annotated list of the Curvipalpia
(Trichoptera) of Alabama. Entomol. News 98:255-262.

Loding, H.P. 1945. Catalogue of the beetles of Alabama. Alabama Geol.
Surv. Monogr. 11:1-172.

Mount, R.H. (ed.). 1984. Vertebrate wildlife of Alabama. Alabama

Agric. Exp. Stat. , Auburn Univ., 44 p.

Mount, R.H. (ed.). 1986. Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of

special attention. Alabama Agric. Exp. Stat., Auburn Univ., 124 p.

Needham, J.G. and M.J. Westfall. 1955. A manual of the dragonflies of
North America (Anisoptera) . Univ. California Press, 615 p.

Stansbery, D.H. 1976. Naiad mollusks. p. 42-52. In H. Boschung (ed.)
Endangered and threatened plants and animals of Alabama. Bull.
Alabama Mus. Nat. Hist. 2:1-92.

91

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama

Stark, B.P. and S.C. Harris. 1986. Records of stoneflies (Plecoptera)
in Alabama. Entomol. News 97:177-182.

Stein, C.B. 1976. Gastropods, p. 21-41. In H. Boschung, (ed.)
Endangered and threatened plants and animals of Alabama. Bull.
Alabama Mus. Nat. Hist. 2:1-92.

U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1988.

Endangered and threatened species of the southeastern United States.
Atlanta, Georgia.

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1990.

STATUS OF ALABAMA BIRDS AND MAMMALS1

Dan C. Holliman

Division of Science and Mathematics
Birmingham- Southern College
Birmingham, AL 35254

ABSTRACT

The status of those birds and mammals listed in Vertebrate Animals of
Alabama in Need of Special Attention (Mount 1986) is reviewed. Status
changes and data gaps are detailed for other birds and mammals that were
not included in the proceedings of the 1983 Alabama First Nongame Wildlife
Conference. Critical habitats and stress sources are described. A
research and management program along with specific jobs within these
programs are listed by priority. A basic philosophy relative to the
implementation of the program encourages rangewide studies, cooperation
among educational institutions, and the utilization of ongoing state and
federal activities.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to update the status of those birds and
mammals listed in Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in Need of Special Atten¬
tion (Mount 1986). Comments are made only about those species that should
be reexamined. The objectives are to indicate any status changes, data
gaps , critical habitats , and stress sources that were not previously
addressed; and to propose a research and management program along with
specific jobs, by priority, within these programs.

The bird and mammal committee of the 1986 symposium recommended the
following status for each of these species:

ALABAMA BIRDS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION (Mount, 1986)

SPECIES CURRENT PROTECTION

ENDANGERED

Wood stork
Bald eagle
Sandhill crane
Snowy plover

Federal (endangered status) , State
Federal (endangered status) , State
Federal (endangered status) , State
Federal, State

’This article was presented as an invited paper at a Symposium on the
Status of Endangered Species in Alabama on 24 March 1989 at the annual
meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science held at Birmingham- Southern
College, Birmingham, Alabama.

93

Holliman

Red-cockaded woodpecker

Federal (endangered status) ,

State

Bachman's warbler

Federal (endangered status) ,

THREATENED

State

Golden eagle

Federal, State

Peregrine falcon

Federal (endangered status) ,

State

Bewick's wren

Federal, State

SPECIAL CONCERN

American white pelican

Federal, State

Reddish egret

Federal, State

Mottled duck

Federal, State

Osprey

Federal, State

Cooper's hawk

Federal, State

Merlin

Federal, State

Wilson's plover

Federal, State

Piping plover

Federal (Threatened status) ,

State

American oysterchatcher

Federal, State

Gull-billed Tern

Federal, State

Common ground dover

Federal, state

POORLY KNOWN

Yellow rail

Federal, State

Black rail

Federal, State

Long- eared owl

Federal, State

Northern saw-whet owl

Federal, State

Alder flycatcher

Federal, State

Willow flycatcher

Federal, State

Warbling vireo

Federal, State

Henslow's sparrow

Federal, State

Le Conte's sparrow

Federal, State

ALABAMA MAMMALS IN ]

NEED OF SPECIAL ATTENTION (Mount, 1986)

ENDANGERED

Gray myotis

Federal (Endangered status)

Indian myotis

Federal (Endangered status)

Alabama beach mouse

Federal (Endangered status)

Perdido key beach mouse

Federal (Endangered status)

Mountain lion

Federal (Endangered status
State

SPECIAL CONCERN

) and

Southeastern myotis

None

Rafinesque's big-eared bat

None

Brazilian free -tailed bat

None

Southeastern pocket gopher

None

94

Alabama birds and mammals

Meadow jumping mouse
Black bear

None

State

POORLY KNOWN

Northern yellow bat
Marsh rabbit
New England cottontail
J aguarundi
California sea lion

None

State (seasonal)

State (seasonal)

Federal (endangered status)
None

Both committees recommended these determinations realizing that such
judgements are dependent upon extreme environmental changes and the
accumulation of knowledge as well as the education of the general public.
In most determinations these above factors are unknown entities that make
it necessary to periodically review status designations for the welfare of
the species. Priority categories were as follow (Mount, 1986):

Endangered . Forms in danger of extinction or extirpation in all or in
a majority of their range in Alabama within the foreseeable future.

Threatened . Forms likely to become endangered in all or in a majority
of their range in Alabama within the foreseeable future.

Special Concern. Forms that must be continually monitored because of
imminent threats to the habitat, limited range in Alabama, or because of
other physical or biological factors that may cause them to become threat¬
ened or endangered within the State in the foreseeable future.

Poorly Known . Forms for which data on status, distribution, and/or
life history are insufficient to permit categorization otherwise. These
should be among the top candidates for expenditures of funds and re¬
sources .

The information and recommendations given in this report were gathered
from many sources. Committee members from the previous symposium, other
workers in the field, and my own observations and work with certain spe¬
cies have supplied data that is reflected in this paper. It should be
noted that the status determination for any species of vertebrate is a
continuing process and that this process should be closely monitored if we
are to serve as prudent stewards for our fauna and flora.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The following is a recommendation for a resource plan for selected
birds and mammals that were listed in Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in
Need of Special Attention (Mount, 1986). Only those species that were
judged to require reexamination are discussed. Hopefully at the next
symposium other species that were not considered in this paper will be the
object of discussion. Undoubtedly there will be others. The major areas
or programs for recommend funding are listed in an order of priority.

95

Holliman

Table 1. Recommendations for a resource plan for birds and mammals.

Major Program

Specific jobs

Research or

or Area for

within each

Management

Job

Gontiniing

Funding

Program

(R or M)

Priority

Job

A. Habitat

Acquisition M 1 Yes

B. Habitat 1. Evaluate and inventory M 1 Yes

Studies habitat (by remote

sensing and ground
truth studies

2. Improve habitat

(Landowner subsidy)

M

2

3. Identify habitat
preference for
each species

R

3

Public

Education

1 . Expand educational
efforts related to
habitat protection
and endangered species

M

1

Harvest

2. Conduct harvest survey
of game mammals and
fur bearers

M

1

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

3. Study effects of hunt- M
ing and trapping on
population dynamics

E. Population
Dynamics

1. Conduct distribution
studies

R

2 Yes

1 Yes

2. Identify limiting R

factors

2

3. Study life histories R

3

No

4. Conduct density
studies

R 4

No

5. Conduct pesticide R 5 No

studies

6 . Conduct disease R 6 No

studies

96

Alabama birds and mammals

A. Habitat aquisition.

Every effort should be made to secure any available habitat that
remains. This goes without saying. As scientists we sould stand ready to
identify the habitat needs of our fauna and flora so that habitat aquisi¬
tion can be justified. It is not within the purviews of this paper to
catalogue potential habitat that could be secured through the various
state, federal, and private organizations. This has been done elsewhere.

B. Habitat studies.

Certainly if one takes a holistic view of the broad spectrum of the
state's environmental problems, an argument could be marshalled for the
importance of any research or management project concerning the welfare of
a species. Elsewhere in this symposium Dr. George Folkers will talk about
the wide variety of habitats in the state and will address problems that
are indigenous to each. Time and space will not permit me to analyze all
of the habitat needs for birds and mammals, but I would briefly like to
point out several habitats that need to be closely watched.

Spartina marshes, predominantly Spartina altemiflora (smooth
cordgrass) with limited amounts of Juncus roemerianus (black needlerush) ,
have slowly disappeared within the last ten years. Four thousand- four
hundred and ninety hectares were mapped in 1978 (Holliman, 1978) . Hur¬
ricane Frederick on the evening of September 12, 1979 (Holliman, 1981)
washed over- most of this wetland with no apparent long term damage to
vegetative communities. Bordering these marshes are interdigitations of
saltbush- saltflat habitat characterized by Baccharis halimifolia (salt
bush), Iva fruCescens (marsh elder), Salicomia sp . (glasswort) , BaCis
maricima (saltwort), Distichlis spicata, and mats of bluegreen algae and
diatoms. Savannah lands with Spartina patens (saltmeadow cord grass),
Pinus elliotii (slash pine), Pinus palustris (long-leaf pine), Taxodium
distichum (cypress), various species of sedges and rushes, and Sarracenia
sp. (pitcher plants) form a fringe along the mainland border of the
saltbush- saltflat complex. All of this is fairly typical of the existing
marshlands along the coast of southern Mobile County. In southern Baldwin
County there are limited amounts of the beach- sand dune habitat. In 1983
(Holliman, 1983, 1982) there were approximately 134.6 ha of beach mouse
habitat primarily consisting of primary, secondary, and teritary dunes
vegetated with Uniola paniculata (sea oats), Spartina patens (saltmeadow
cordgrass), Hydrocotyl bonariensis (pennywort), and Panicum amaium (bitter
weed). On the mainland edge of this critical habitat beginning with the
tertiary sand dunes can be found Quercus virginica var. maritina (live
oak), Pinus elliottii (slash pine), Pinus clausa (sand pine), Seronoa
repens (saw palmetto), Ilex vomitoria (yaupon) , Ceratiola ericoides
(seaside rosemary) , and Solidago pauciflosculosa (seaside goldenrod) . The
relict dune system, and accompanying swamp land, with Taxodium distichum ,
T. ascendens (cypress), Salix nigra (willow), Magnolia virginiana (white
bay), Nyssa biflora (black gum), Cliftonia monophylla (titi) , and Pinus
serotina (pond pine), is now mostly preserved in the Bon Secour National
Wildlife Refuge. These four habitats (saltmarsh, saltbush- saltflat ,
savannah, and beach- sand dune) support a significant number of mammal and

97

Holliman

bird species. The Alabama coast line, although limited, is the focus
point for migrants in the spring, and is a staging area in the fall for
birds tracking back and forth from Central and South America.

The Mobile Delta, essentially resembling the swamp land found in the
Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge, provides breeding and feeding habitat
for colonial nesting birds. Dindo (1989) has documented the fierce
competition among colonial nesters for nesting space on Cat Island in
Portersville Bay. Holliman (1984) described the growth of Gaillard Island
in terms of exploitation of available nesting territories by shore birds.
The State of Alabama, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources is
presently monitoring bird utilization of this spoil island in Mobile Bay.

Another habitat that we may be overlooking is the boundary between
brackish-mixed and fresh-mixed marshes along our coastal rivers. This
interface is marked by the upstream presence of Typha angustifolia , T.
laCifolia (cat tails), Sagittaria falcata (duck potato), Zizania aquaCica
(wild rice), Zizaniopis miliacea (cutgrass), Scirpus americanus (three
square) , Cladium jamaicenere (saw grass) , and Vigua repens (cow pea) .
Here clapper and king rails may interbreed. I have suspected the presence
of intermediate forms during call count surveys along coastal rivers in
previous years. Other rail species and gallinules may use this transi¬
tional habitat during migration through the southeastern U. S. (Holliman,
1977).

Upstate isolated swamps associated with Karst topography are being
altered by the manipulation of water tables. Such a wetland is located in
north Shelby County immediately west and contiguous to the Shelby County
airport. Tree species include Quercus nigra (water oak), Acer rubrum (red
maple), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum) , N. aquatica (tupelo gum), and N. s.
var biflora (swamp tupelo). These scattered swamps provide stopover areas
for migrating and resident waterfowl as well as habitat for other wildlife
species .

The evaluation and inventory of existing habitat should be a con¬
tinuing process. Flora signatures are yet to be determined for many
indicator plant species. Without these ground truth surveys interpreta¬
tion of remotely sensed imagery is difficult, particularly when one is
attempting to locate microhabitats. For an example, we know now that
clapper rail habitat requires proportional amounts of different vegetative
types; and it is important to be able to measure this moasic pattern.

The improvement of habitat by landowner subsidy is at the embryonic
stage in this state and will indeed be a challenge for those state and
federal agencies who are charged with this responsibility. Educators have
done a poor job in helping the general public formulate a land ethic.
There must be a balance struck between lands used for hunter harvest and
other forms of wildlife.

Habitat preferences remain to be determined for certain species.
Migratory bats require roosts and hunting areas. The degree of utili¬
zation of caves and other structures needs to be evaluated before we can

98

Alabama birds and mammals

adequately protect these mammals. We need to "fine tune" our knowledge
concerning habitat preferences for such species as the sea side sparrow,
reddish egret, piping and snowy plovers, and the long nose shrew.

The following problem areas related to habitat studies need additional
research:

1. Determination of snowy plover and American oyster catcher
utilization of coastal islands.

2. Location of nesting birds colonies in the Mobile Delta.

3. Identification of floral signatures in Spartina marshes for remote
sensing and ground truth studies.

4. Habitat requirements for the black rail in Alabama.

5. Habitat preference for both long nose and least shrew in Alabama.

C. Public Education.

We need to expand educational efforts that are directed towards
habitat protection and endangered species. The Nongame Program of the
State of Alabama is to be commended for its efforts to attempt this
monumental task. Their efforts to publicize the plight of the bald eagle,
osprey, and blue bird are spartan, given their present level of funding
and other forms of support. As educators and scientists we need to
galvanize support for this program by providing technical knowledge. On
our coast the Marine Sciences Consortium serves as a model of what re¬
source education should be. With their educational and research programs
the Dauphin Island Sea Lab is providing a center for learners and re¬
searchers alike. The Birmingham Audubon Society has been sponsoring the
Mountain Ecology Workshop at Mentone since May 1977 and should be com¬
mended for efforts in conservation education (Holliman, 1984) .

The following problem area related to public education needs
additional attention:

Scientists and educators of the colleges and universities of Alabama
should insist that courses be offered in their curricula that emphasize a
holistic view of environmental education. The Alabama Academy of Science
could well serve as a forum where there can be an interchange of ideas and
philosophies .

D. Harvest.

We would do well to come to the realization that game and non- game
research and management practices are compatible. They should go hand in
hand. For an example, one can have both Canada geese and Carolina wrens
by leaving brush piles along the edge of land that has been cleared for
winter oats. The wildlife dollar can benefit both game and non game
programs at the same time. We've yet to learn whether the marsh rabbit,

99

Holliman

bayou gray squirrel, the woodland and western cottontails, and rails turn
up in the hunter's bag.

The following problem areas related to harvest need additional
attention:

Gather hunter harvest data to determine presence of rail species, New
England cottontail, and marsh rabbits and bayou gray squirrels in hunter's
bag.

E. Population dynamics.

The federally administered Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) begun in 1966
has provided significant data relative to our breeding bird population.
The BBS now consists of approximately 2,000 randomly selected routes
throughout the United States and Canada that are surveyed each breeding
season from the last proper week in May to the end of the second week in
June. These roadside surveys (starting 1/2 hour before sunrise) use a
standardized technique consisting of recording all birds heard or seen in
3 minutes at 50 stops, each 1/2 mile apart. A "route regression" method
is used to estimate the trend in percent of change per year. Individual
route estimates are weighted by the number of birds on the route, the area
of the state or other geographic region, and the sample size of routes
within that region. Those weighted estimates are then converted to
percent change per year. The survey procedure is more fully described by
Robbins, Bystrak, and Geissler (1986).

Based on 22 years of data from 1966 to 1987 Reid and Droege (1989)
determined some significant decreases in population of Alabama birds
(Table 2). Trends are expressed in percent of change per year. Sig¬
nificance of trends is indicated by asterisks: * - significant at P less
than 0.05 level; ** - highly significant at P less than 0.01 level.

It will be noted that, of the 13 species presented, eight are tropical
or subtropical migrants. Three (the wood pewee and yellow and cerulean
warblers - the latter now not being found with any regularity in Alabama
outside the Bankhead Forest) winter in South America, two (the blue-
winged warbler and orchard oriole) in Central America and Northwest South
America, and the other three (the wood thrush, prairie warbler, and chat)
in Central America and the West Indies. Five might be classed as edge of
scrub species and three as birds of the forest. The major causes of their
decline appear to be forest fragmentation on the breeding range and de¬
forestation in the wintering range. The latter is considered the primary
cause since during the last 10 years of the Breeding Bird Survey (1978-
87) , which coincides with the greatest increase in tropical deforestation,
neotropical migrants have decreased more than species that winter north of
Central America, and forest-wintering tropical migrants have decreased at
a greater rate than migrants that winter in open habitats (see Robbins,
C. S., J. R. Sauer, R. S. Greenberg and S. Droege, "Population Declines in
North American Birds that Migrate to the Neotropics," USF&WS Bulletin,
1988) . The increases of blue-winged warblers and yellow-breasted chats
in the Piedmont and, in the case of the latter, a significant increase in

100

Table 2. Significant decreases in selected populations of Alabama birds (1966-87)

Alabama birds and mammals

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101

(SS = Too small a sample to be statistically signiticant; the decrease in Grasshopper Sparrow in Alabama,
although large, is not classed highly significant because of the low number (11) of routes, but the
decreases in broader areas are highly significant. In addition, the decrease in Orchard Oriole in
Alabama is significant at the P less than 0.10 level.)

Holliman

the Coastal Plain, plus the smaller decreases of the Prairie Warbler in
those regions, is probably due to the increase in even-age forest manage¬
ment (clear cutting) ; and it has been said that the Grasshopper Sparrow
benefits from strip-mine reclamation, which may account for its increase
in the Piedmont, although that cause would leave the decreases in other
mountainous regions unexplained. Decrease in the flicker is attributed
largely to competition for existing nest holes from the starling and
perhaps due to a reduction in number of dead trees left standing in edge
and woodlot areas. The shrike appears to be suffering from a multiplicity
of changes in land-use practices, including surburban sprawl, roadside
spraying, and loss of pastureland and hedgerows. The towhee is thought to
be suffering seriously from cowbird parasitism as might also be the case
with the field sparrow. In addition this species and the grasshopper
sparrow doubtless are being impacted by the loss of pastureland as are all
grassland species. Highly significant annual percentage declines have
also been shown by the BBS over a 20-year period (1966-1985) for the
following species that winter in Alabama or migrate through it: yellow-
bellied sapsucker (-3.886), olive-sided flycatcher (-3.754), golden-
crowned kinglet (-3.782), golden-winged warbler (-3.208), white- throated
sparrow (-2.032), and white -crowned sparrow (-2.690). Reid has con¬
tributed significantly to the knowledge of our breeding bird populations
by compiling and analyzing the accumulated BBS data.

Some unanswered problems are yet to be solved. Declines in the
northern harrier, American Kestrel, ground dove, and loggerhead shrike
have been noticed.

Little is known about the. marine mammals that frequent Alabama waters
(Holliman, 1979). Southward, beyond the three mile limit and within the
territorial waters, there are scattered records of both whales and dol¬
phins (Table 3).

Inside the three mile limit the bottle-nosed dolphin is clearly the
most common species. It is encountered in about equal numbers throughout
the year. Occasional individuals move well into the mouth of Weeks Bay
and even into Fish, Magnolia, and Bon Secour rivers. Little is known
about their seasonal movements, and the location of their calving and
feeding grounds. The possible effects of poaching, malicious killing, and
harrassment are not known. It is highly probable that the manatee is a
frequent visitor to Alabama waters. Various unconfirmed reports of this
mammal have come from several boat captains operating out of Bayou la
Batre in recent times. In Mississippi a single manatee was sighted in
Wolf River on January 1, 1979 (telephone call March 20, 1979 to J.
Corcoran, Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, Ocean Springs, MS 39564)). A
second sighting of this same individual was made on January 3, 1979 in a
small craft harbor at Gulfport. Finally on January 6, 1979, the manatee
was captured and transported to Sea World in Florida where it was treated
for pneumonia. There is no information available to the author as to
whether subspecific identification was determined for this specimen. It
appears that the manatees from the eastern Gulf of Mexico represent the
subspecies Trichechus manatus latirostris , while those from Louisiana,
Texas, and Mexico represent the subspecies Trichechus manatus manatus.

102

Alabama birds and mammals

Table 3. Marine Mammals Observed in Territorial Waters Off Alabama
Coastal Zone (after Caldwell and Caldwell, 1973).

Marine Mammals

Number of Records

Fin Whale

Balaenoptera physalus

2

Rough- tooth Dolphin

Steno bredanensis

1

Common or Saddleback Dolphin

Delphinus delphis

3

Bottlenosed Dolphin

Tursiops truncatus

11

Spotted Dolphin

Stenella plagiodon

22

False Killer Whale

Pseudorca crassidens

1 a .

Sperm Whale

Physeter catodon

3

Manatee or Sea Cow

Trichechus manatus laCirostris

1

California Sea Lion

Zalophus calif omianus

1

a. sighting along eastern boundary of territorial sea

Bob Shipp, University of South Alabama, (personal communication, 1989)
reported that in June, 1989 several killer whales where observed at the
head of DeSoto Canyon, 95 miles south of Orange Beach. Some two weeks
later pods of hump backs and sperm whales were seen in approximately the
same location. Veron Menton, (State of Alabama Conservation Department,
personal communication, 1989) recorded manatees in Perdido Pass in 1988,
and again at Gulf Shores in 1989. Bob Shipp (personal communication,
1989) observed a single manatee in the early 1980' s in Fowl River, Mobile
County. The status of all marine mammals should be updated. Hopefully
this subject will be treated at our next symposium.

The Non Game Program has mounted a successful eagle hacking project
with promising results for this bird. The Department of Conservation and
Natural Resources is to be commended for their support of the Non Game
Division.

103

Holliman

For a long time Bob Mount and myself and others have been speculating
as to the decline in striped and spotted skunk populations. These mammals
along with such ground nesting birds as the eastern meadow lark are simply
not as conspicuous as they were 40 years ago. Perhaps it was a combina¬
tion of factors such as the indiscriminate use of pesticides and habitat
alterations. This may also be tied with the high incidence of rabies in
raccoons and bats in the southeast because of a decline in normal reser¬
voir species, the skunks.

Mammals that are on the increase include the nine-banded armadillo,
coyote, and black bear. Armadillos are now so common in east Tuscaloosa
County that they can be seen during the day in certain areas. There is
a population of coyotes that may be seen at the Wheeler Wildlife Refuge,
Reports of black bears are numerous, particularly in the Mobile Delta and
Yellow Leaf Creek drainage in Shelby County. Studies in the Black Belt
(Holliman, 1978) suggest that the common snipe may be a resource that is
being overlooked.

The following problem areas related to population dynamics need
additional research:

1. Conduct distributional studies on the bewick wren, mottled duck,
black rail, kestrel, and all bat species.

2. Reevaluate the status of the New England cottontail and
j aguarundi .

3. Continue density studies on all known colonial nesters,
particularly in the coastal zone.

4. Conduct heavy metal and pesticide studies on breeding shore birds.

5. Conduct rabies studies in bat and raccoon populations.

LITERATURE CITED

Dindo, J. J. 1989. Population dynamics of a mixed species coastal

heronry in Alabama. (In preparation).

Holliman, D. C. 1977. Rails and gallinules in: G. C. Sanderson (ed.)

Management of migratory shore and upland game birds in North

America. International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies,

Wash. , D. C.

_ 1978. Clapper rail (Rallus longirostris) studies in

Alabama. Northeast Gulf Sci. Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 24-34.

_ 1978. Preliminary survey studies on the common snipe in

Alabama. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Accelerated Research
Program.

104

Alabama birds and mammals

_ 1979. The status of mammals in the Alabama coastal zone

and a proposed resource plan for their management. Symposium on the
natural resources of the Mobile estuary, Alabama. Alabama Coastal
Area Board, Miss-Ala. Sea Grant Consortium, USFW Service, pp. 263-
176.

_ 1981. A survey of the September 1979 hurricane damage

to Alabama clapper rail habitat. Northeast Gulf Sci. Vol. 5, No. 1,
pp. 95-98.

_ 1982. Phase II; Present levels of birds and mammals in

the Alabama coastal zone. Coastal Area Board of Al .

_ 1983. Status and habitat of Alabama gulf coast beach

mice Peromyscus polionotus ammobates and P. p. trissyllepsis .
Northeast Gulf Sci. Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 121-129.

_ 1984. Preliminary survey studies on post storm (Sept.

13, 1979) shore bird breeding habitat in Alabama. U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Accelerated Research Program.

_ 1984. Alabama's Mtn. Ecology Workshop: A model

conservation education. Jour. Al. Acad. Scil, Vol. 55, No. 2.

Mount, R. H.(ed), 1986. Vertebrate animals of Alabama in need of

special attention. Al. Agr. Exp. St. Auburn University, Auburn, Al.

Reid, R. R. Jr. and S. Droege. 1989. Breeding bird survey reveals

significant declines in some populations of Alabama birds. Alabama
Birdlife Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 6-9.

Robbins, C. S., D. Bystrak and P. H. Geissler. 1986. The breeding bird
survey: its first fifteen years, 1965-1979. USF&W Resource Publ.
157.

105

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1990.

STATUS OF ENDANGERED, THREATENED, AND SPECIAL
CONCERN FRESHWATER FISHES IN ALABAMA1

J. Malcolm Pierson
Department of Environmental Affairs
Alabama Power Company
P. 0. Box 26A1
Birmingham, AL 35291

ABSTRACT

Approximately 300 species of freshwater fishes have been documented
from the State of Alabama. Ten of these fishes are found only in Alabama,
while Alabama waters represent over 60 percent of the total range of an
additional 37 species. In a recent publication (Mount 1986), 18 species
of freshwater fishes were assigned some level of conservation status. The
Cahaba shiner, Alabama cavefish, spring pygmy sunfish, and watercress
darter were given endangered status and the paleband shiner, slackwater
darter, goldline darter, snail darter, and pygmy sculpin were assigned
threatened status. An additional nine species were designated as either
special concern or poorly known. This report updates the status of these
18 species and in some cases suggests studies to assess the current status
of these and other sensitive fishes in Alabama waters.

INTRODUCTION

The first Nongame Wildlife Conference in Alabama was held at Auburn
University in July 1983 and was jointly sponsored by the Alabama Depart¬
ment of Conservation and Natural Resources and the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station. Prior to the state's Nongame Wildlife Program created
in 1982, nongame vertebrates received little attention unless they were
federally listed as either threatened or endangered. The results of this
nongame conference were two publications: "Vertebrate Wildlife of Ala¬
bama" published in 1984 and "Vertebrate Wildlife of Alabama in Need of
Special Attention" published in 1986. The purpose of this report is to
note any changes in the conservation status of fishes which were listed in
Mount (1986) or to mention other species which may need further study or
which may deserve some type of conservation effort.

Alabama ranks second only to Tennessee in number of strictly fresh¬
water fish species with approximately 300 known from Alabama waters . This
is due primarily to the diversity of aquatic habitats, the number of major
river systems which drain our state, and the absence of early glacial
scouring.

xThis article was presented as an invited paper at a Symposium on the
Status of Endangered Species in Alabama on 24 March 1989 at the annual
meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science held at Birmingham-Southern
College, Birmingham, Alabama.

106

Pierson

While most species of Alabama fishes are represented by large, stable,
reproducing populations, this report concerns species which are considered
either very rare or species which have a restricted range and could be
vulnerable to environmental stress or other alterations to their preferred
habitat. The conservation status of the 21 species covered in this status
review is an indicator of their environmental sensitivity. Most are
highly fastidious "specialists" that are competitively excluded from other
habitats (Ramsey 1986).

The first five species to be discussed are listed as endangered by the
State of Alabama. The next five species are considered threatened, six
are listed as special concern, and seven are designated poorly known.

ENDANGERED

NoCropis cahabae Mayden and Kuhajda Cahaba shiner

RANGE - Historically, the Cahaba shiner was known only from the main
channel Cahaba River from about 11 kilometers below Centreville upstream
to Helena, a distance of about 95 river kilometers. In recent years, the
Cahaba shiner has been collected at several localities from near Heiberger
(Perry County) upstream to Hancock Creek in Shelby County.

STATUS - Several workers have recently collected the Cahaba shiner in the
main channel at the Highway 27 locality above Centreville, however, none
have been recently collected upstream of Piper Bridge. Thorough distribu¬
tion studies by Howell et al. (1982); Ramsey (1982), and Pierson et al.
(1989) revealed the Cahaba shiner to be quite rare even in its preferred
habitat. A formal description of this species has been recently published
by R, L. Mayden and B. R. Kuhajda. The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(USFWS) Office of Endangered Species plans to propose threatened status
for this shiner.

COMMENTS - Based on these recent developments, it appears that the Cahaba
shiner should retain its present endangered status at the state level.
Known populations should be monitored and newly reported records below the
Fall Line should be investigated to determine if these represent perma¬
nent, reproducing populations.

Speoplatyrhinus poulsoni Cooper and Kuehne Alabama cavefish

RANGE - The Alabama cavefish is known only from Key Cave in Lauderdale
County, Alabama. This species is threatened by low population levels, low
reproductive rate, and a very restricted range (Ramsey 1986).

STATUS - Continued existence at the type locality was confirmed in late
1983, when sightings were made in several pools of Key Cave (Ramsey 1986).
The status of the Alabama cavefish was changed from threatened to en¬
dangered by the USFWS Endangered Species Office in October 1988. The
USFWS has contracted Underground Labs, Inc. to study the hydrology of Key
Cave and the surrounding area.

107

Status of Alabama fishes

COMMENTS: This is one of the rarest of North American vertebrates, and
for this reason it should retain its endangered status in Alabama.

Elassoma sp. spring pygmy sunfish

RANGE - This undescribed Alabama endemic historically was confined to
several well -vegetated springs or spring runs in the Tennessee River
drainage (Mettee 1986). After the impounding of a portion of the Tennes¬
see River by Pickwick Dam, this species was believed to be extinct until
1973 when Dave Etnier and others collected specimens from Beaverdam Spring
in Limestone County. Subsequent sampling found other populations within
the Beaverdam Creek watershed.

STATUS - In 1984-1985 M. F. Mettee and others reintroduced pygmy sunfish
into Pryor Spring. Successful reproduction has been recorded for three
consecutive years. A second introduction was attempted in a headwater
spring in 1988. At the present time the result of this introduction is
not known. A renewable conservation agreement with two landowners has
been obtained, and overall the population appears to be doing well (M. F.
Mettee, personal communication).

Etheostoma nuchale Howell and Caldwell watercress darter

RANGE - This federally endangered Alabama endemic is restricted to a small
area in the upper Black Warrior River system in Jefferson County. For¬
merly known only from Glenn, Thomas, and Roebuck springs it has recently
(January 1988) been introduced into Avondale Spring and Tapawingo Plunge
Springs at Pinson. A man-made pond below Thomas Spring now contains an
abundance of watercress darters.

STATUS - The Glenn Spring population is apparently stable but the Roebuck
Spring population has been slowly declining. There is run-off from nearby
streets and a service station and some herbicide run-off from a golf
course (Mike Howell, personal communication). The Tapawingo Plunge Spring
population has had a successful spawn in 1988 and 1989. Mike Howell
reported observing adults, subadults, and fry in the Summer of 1989.

Etheostoma wapiti Etnier and Williams boulder darter

RANGE - This recently described darter is presently restricted to a 60
mile section of the Elk River in the Tennessee River system of Alabama and
Tennessee. No specimens have been reported from Shoal Creek since the
late 1800's. Less than 60 specimens of this elusive species have been
collected.

STATUS - The USFWS Endangered Species Office issued a final rule for
endangered status on October 3, 1988. Attempts to collect additional
specimens from the Shoal Creek system in 1983 and 1986 were unsuccessful,
however, suitable habitat in the Shoal Creek system could result in a new
successful population if the boulder darter is reintroduced (Jim Williams,
personal communication) .

108

Pierson

COMMENTS — Since the USFWS has considered this species deserving of en¬
dangered status at the federal level, and the State of Tennessee lists
this species as endangered, it would seem appropriate to assign the
boulder darter endangered status in Alabama. This species has recently
been described by James D. Williams and David A. Etnier.

THREATENED

Notropis sp. cf. procne paleband shiner

RANGE - The paleband shiner is restricted to a three mile stretch of the
Paint Rock River in Madison and Jackson counties, Alabama. This popula¬
tion was discovered while searching for additional populations of snail
darters .

STATUS - Rechannelization is being considered for the Paint Rock River and
constitutes a potential threat (Tom Jandebeur, personal communication).

COMMENTS - The present threatened status in Alabama is probably still
applicable to this species. Surveys should be undertaken to determine the
present range of the paleband shiner in the Tennessee River system of
Alabama .

Etheostoma boschungi Wall and Williams slackwater darter

RANGE - The slackwater darter is restricted to tributaries of the Southern
Bend of the Tennessee River, in northern Alabama and Tennessee, and to one
area of the Duck-Tennessee basin in western Tennessee (Ramsey and Boschung
1986). In Alabama, most of its range is in the Cypress and Swan Creek
watersheds and the Flint River system in Lauderdale, Limestone, and
Madison counties.

STATUS - The range of the slackwater darter and its known habitat within
this range are limited. As recent as the mid 1980' s the Cypress Creek
population was generally widespread and successful; however, suitable
spawning habitat is decreasing due to farm pond and beaverdam construction
(Ramsey and Boschung 1986) .

COMMENTS - The present threatened status in Alabama should probably be
retained.

Percina aurolineata Suttkus and Ramsey goldline darter

RANGE - Historically, in Alabama the goldline darter has been collected
from the main channel of the Cahaba River from Centreville upstream to
Helena and in the lower Little Cahaba River. In recent years no specimens
have been collected in the main channel above Piper. Goldline darters
have also recently been reported from lower Sixmile and Schultz creeks in
Bibb County (Pierson et al. 1989).

STATUS - Apparently, siltation from upstream developments, organic
enrichment, and/or mining operations have reduced or eliminated goldline

109

Status of Alabama fishes

darter populations from the upper main channel. Recent run-offs from a
wood treatment plant have resulted in fish kills in the Little Cahaba and
an apparent decrease in goldline darter numbers.

COMMENTS - The threatened status of the goldline darter should be retained
unless further degradation of the main channel or Little Cahaba occurs; in
which case endangered status may be more appropriate. Known populations
should be carefully monitored for sudden changes in status.

Percina tanasi Etnier snail darter

RANGE - In Alabama the historic range is unknown since almost no col¬
lections were made in the Tennessee River and its major tributaries before
impoundment. The sole existing Alabama population was discovered in the
Paint Rock River between river mile 16 and 19 in 1981 near the Jackson-
Marshall County boundary (Jandebeur 1986).

STATUS - The preferred habitat of the snail darter in Alabama has been
relatively stable since its discovery. It is unknown how the Paint Rock
population discovered in 1981 is doing presently. The Paint Rock was
channelized in 1966 and some consideration has been given to proposals for
rechannelization (Tom Jandebeur, personal communication). Percina tanasi
is currently recognized as threatened at both the state and federal level.

COMMENTS - The Paint Rock River population should be monitored regularly
and adjacent watersheds should be searched for additional populations.

Cottus pygmaeus Williams pygmy sculpin

RANGE - The pygmy sculpin is known only from Coldwater Spring, the spring
run, and a small section of Coldwater Creek, a tributary to Choccolocco
Creek in the Coosa River system in Calhoun County, Alabama (Boschung
1986).

STATUS - Coldwater Spring is the major water supply for the City of
Anniston which works to the advantage of the pygmy sculpin. In the past
the City of Anniston has had a cooperative agreement with the USFWS
providing that "no action be taken which would endanger the pygmy scul¬
pin" . In February of this year (1989), the USFWS proposed threatened
status for the pygmy sculpin because of proposed highway construction from
Interstate 20 and possible chemical contamination of the groundwater from
the near-by Anniston Army Depot. Hexavalent chromium and Trichloroethy¬
lene occur in strong concentrations in test wells at the army depot.

SPECIAL CONCERN

Notropis caeruleus Jordan blue shiner

RANGE - Historically in Alabama, the blue shiner is known from the Cahaba
River proper and several tributaries to the Coosa River including Big
Wills Creek and its tributaries, Little River, Weogufka, Choccolocco, and
Shoal creeks. The blue shiner has not been taken in the Big Wills Creek

110

Pierson

watershed since 1958 and was last collected in the Cahaba system in 1971
(Ramsey and Pierson 1986) .

STATUS - The Alabama Nongame Wildlife Program recently funded a study on
the distribution and relative abundance of the blue shiner in Alabama
(Pierson and Krotzer 1987) . No new populations were found, but fair to
good populations were documented in Little River (Cherokee County) ,
Choccolocco Creek (Calhoun County) , and Weogufka Creek (Coosa County) . A
range extension was documented in Choccolocco Creek about four miles
downstream from the known lower distribution limit.

COMMENTS - These three known Alabama populations should be carefully
monitored and additional life history information would probably help us
better understand the needs of this sensitive species.

NoCurus munitus Suttkus and Taylor frecklebelly madtom

RANGE - Alabama populations are known historically from the main channels
of the Tombigbee, Alabama, and Cahaba rivers and two major tributaries to
the upper Tombigbee.

STATUS — The frecklebelly madtom has probably been eliminated from the
main channels of the Tombigbee and Alabama Rivers in Alabama. Small
populations may remain in the Sipsey and Buttahatchee Rivers (major
tributaries to the upper Tombigbee system). Recently, we have collected
this small catfish in lower numbers in the Cahaba River main channel
between Centreville and Radford (Pierson et al. 1989).

COMMENTS - Due to increases in habitat loss, a change in conservation
status from special concern to threatened is probably appropriate at the
state level. If the Tombigbee system population is lost, endangered
status would be recommended. Major Tombigbee River tributaries in Alabama
should be searched for populations of this sensitive species.

Typhlich thys subterraneus Girard southern cavefish

RANGE - In Alabama the cavefish is known from at least 25 caves in the
Tennessee River drainage and in two caves in the Big Wills Creek watershed
which is part of the Coosa River system (Ramsey 1986) .

STATUS - While fairly widespread over north Alabama, most populations are
very small and fecundity is extemely low (Ramsey 1986) .

COMMENTS - No new information is available on the status of the southern
cavefish.

Ammocrypta asprella Jordan crystal darter

RANGE - Historically, Alabama populations are known from large-river
habitats in the Mobile Bay basin and the Conecuh River proper. Ramsey
(1986) indicated that populations of this obligate riverine species have
apparently been eliminated from the Coosa River system. Recent col-

111

Status of Alabama fishes

lections in the Black Warrior River system by Mettee et al. (1989) did not
document the crystal darter. R. D. Suttkus (personal communication)
reports that he has not collected the crystal darter in the Alabama River
system in recent years.

STATUS - Since 1983 Ammocrypta asprella has been collected in the Cahaba
River proper at nine stations below the Fall Line (Pierson et al. 1989).
In the Winter and Spring of 1989 Alabama Power Company biologists have
collected both larval and adult crystal darters from the lower Tallapoosa
River main channel.

COMMENTS - Due to these apparent stable populations in the Cahaba and
Tallapoosa systems, special concern status as designated in Mount (1986)
seems appropriate .

Etheostoma ditrema Ramsey and Suttkus coldwater darter

RANGE - The spring-dwelling form has good populations only in Coldwater
Spring (Calhoun County) and Glencoe Spring (Etowah County) . A possibly
derived stream-dwelling form is found in tributaries to Waxahatchee Creek
(Shelby County) and two Coosa tributaries in Coosa County (Ramsey 1986).

STATUS - The coldwater darter benefits from the cooperative agreement
designed to protect the pygmy sculpin and the recent proposed threatened
status for the pygmy sculpin.

COMMENTS - A study should be undertaken to determine the relationships
between the spring form and the possibly derived stream— dwelling form.

Etheostoma tuscumbia Gilbert and Swain Tuscumbia darter

RANGE - In Alabama this darter is limited to spring and spring run habitat
in the Southern Bend of the Tennessee River drainage. The only Tennessee
population has apparently been extirpated and a total of eight populations
have been lost in Alabama (Ramsey 1986).

STATUS - Recently, an excellent new population was found in a spring pond
below the water supply for New Hope in the Mountain Fork Creek system of
Madison County (Dave Etnier, personal communication).

COMMENTS — Known populations should be watched closely because of the
vulnerability of spring organisms, and the Tennessee River system should
be searched for additional populations.

POORLY KNOWN

Scaphirhynchus sp. cf. platorynchus Alabama shovelnose sturgeon

RANGE - This undescribed Mobile basin endemic is known only from main
channel habitat in the Tombigbee, Alabama, lower Coosa, and lower Cahaba
rivers. Prior to a recent survey by Burke and Ramsey, no specimens had
been documented since 1977.

112

Pierson

STATUS - Burke and Ramsey (1985) recently conducted a status survey of
this sturgeon. They stated that only about 15 percent of the total
historical range of the shovelnose sturgeon appears to be adequate for its
existence. The Alabama shovelnose sturgeon has been documented as re¬
cently as 1985-1986 in the Cahaba and Alabama rivers.

COMMENTS - Based on data from the recent status survey, this sturgeon
should probably be given threatened status. The USFWS Endangered Species
Office is planning to propose threatened status in the near future.

Hybopsis monacha Cope spotfin chub

RANGE - This species was probably once found throughout the Tennessee
River and its major tributaries, but it has only been collected from two
Alabama localities: Shoal Creek, Lauderdale County, 1884 and Little Bear
Creek, Colbert County, 1937.

STATUS - Since this species has not been documented from Alabama in 52
years, chances are good that the spotfin chub has been extirpated from the

state .

COMMENTS - A thorough search of the two historical sites in Alabama should
be undertaken to determine this chub's status.

Etheo stoma trlsella Bailey and Richards trispot darter

RANGE - Historically, the trispot darter probably occurred in small -
medium streams of the upper Coosa system in Alabama.

STATUS - The last collections of this species were at the type locality in
1948 (Cherokee County) and from the Coosa River below Gadsden (1958) .

COMMENTS - This species may no longer occur in Alabama. A status survey
of this species in Alabama should be undertaken, concentrating on streams
of the upper Coosa system near the type locality.

Polyodon spathula Walbaum paddlefish

RANGE - The paddlefish is known to occur in large-stream habitat of the
Mobile and Tennessee river systems in Alabama.

STATUS - In the last few years large, sexually mature females have been
heavily harvested for their roe which brings a good price as a substitute
for sturgeon roe. This development, coupled with a declining fishery
prompted the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources to
pass a law in 1988 to prevent the harvest of paddlefish in all public
waters of Alabama (Bill Reeves, personal communication).

COMMENTS - Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resoruces
personnel indicate that a healthy year class (probably 1983 spawn) is
coming along in the Alabama River system and should be reproductively
capable in two or three more years. Additionally, higher than normal

113

Status of Alabama fishes

spring and early summer rainfall should have produced a good 1989 year
class .

Cycleptus elongaCus LeSueur blue sucker

RANGE - In Alabama the and blue sucker has historically occurred in the
large streams of the Mobile and Tennessee drainages. In recent years
suitable riverine habitat has declined, mainly because of impoundments.
It is difficult to assess the status of this species because it usually
inhabits the deepest water and most torrential current available.

STATUS - Recently we have documented specimens from the Coosa and Talla¬
poosa main channels during early spring spawning movements.

COMMENTS - A thorough field survey is needed to determine the status and
range of the blue sucker in Alabama.

Percina lenticula Richards and Knapp freckled darter

RANGE — In Alabama the freckled darter is found in large— stream habitat in
the Mobile basin. It frequents deep, fast waters around heavy instream
cover, therefore, it is easily missed in conventional fish collections.

STATUS - Recent records have been established from tributaries to the Tom-
bigbee River, Cahaba River and its tributaries, the Tallapoosa River
proper, and a single adult from the Coosa River proper below Jordan Dam.

COMMENTS - A thorough distribution and life history study is needed to
accurately assess the status of this elusive darter.

Morone saxatilis Walbaum striped bass (Gulf Coast strain)

RANGE — The striped bass historically made spawning runs into freshwaters
of the Mobile bay system and other large coastal streams such as the
Conecuh and Choctawhatchee rivers.

STATUS - Impoundments on the Alabama and lower Tombigbee Rivers have
blocked or hindered spring upstream spawning movements in the Mobile Bay
drainage. Additionally, the State of Alabama Department of Conservation
and Natural Resources have been stocking the Atlantic strain striped bass
for years and more recently the hybrid striped bass x white bass on a put
and take basis. There have been no positive records of natural reproduc¬
tion by the striped bass in many years.

COMMENTS — According to the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural
Resources personnel, there may be no Mobile Bay strain of striped bass
left. There is a cooperative effort to do some genetic work to compare
the striped bass in the Appalachicola system with preserved specimens at
various fish collections in the southeast.

114

Pierson

LITERATURE CITED

Boschung, Herbert, 1986. Pygmy sculpin CoCtus pygmaeus Williams. Pages
11-12 in Mount, R. H. (ed.), Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in Need
of Special Attention. Ala. Agr. Expt. Sta. , Auburn Univ. 124 pp .

Burke, J. S. and J. S. Ramsey, 1985. Status survey on the Alabama
shovelnose sturgeon ( Scaphirhynchus sp. cf. platorynchus) in the
Mobile drainage: Project Completion Report to the U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Endangered Species Field Office, Jackson,
Mississippi, contract No. 14-16-009-1530, 61 pp.

Howell, W. M. , R. A. Stiles and J. S. Brown. Status survey of the
Cahaba shiner ( Notropis sp.) and the goldline darter ( Percina
aurolineata ) in the Cahaba River from Trussville to Booth Ford,
Alabama. Report to U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Jackson, MS.

Jandebeur, T. J. 1986. Snail darter. Percina tanas i Etnier. Pages

10-11 in Mount R. H. (ed.), Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in Need of
Special Attention. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ. 124 pp .

Mettee, M. F. 1986. Spring pygmy sunfish Elassoma sp . Pages 4-5 in

Mount, R. H. (ed.), Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in Need of Special
Attention. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ. 124 pp.

Mettee, M. F. , P. E. O'Neil, J. M. Pierson, and R. D. Suttkus, 1989.
Fishes of the Black Warrior River system in Alabama: Alabama
Geological Survey Bulletin 133, 201 pp.

Mount, R. H. (ed.) 1986. Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in Need of
Special Attention. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ. 124 pp .

Pierson, J. M. and R. S. Krotzer, 1987. The distribution, relative
abundance and life history of the blue shiner, Notropis caeruleus
(Jordan): Montgomery, Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural
Resources, Alabama Nongame Wildlife Coordinator, Project Completion
Report, 105 pp.

Pierson, J. M. , W. M. Howell, R. A. Stiles, M. F. Mettee, P. E. O'Neil,
R. D. Suttkus, and J. S. Ramsey, 1989. Fishes of the Cahaba River
system in Alabama: Alabama Geological Survey Bulletin 134, 185 pp .

Ramsey, J. S. 1982. Habitat and distribution of the Cahaba shiner and
appraisal of methods for its capture. Report to U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. Division of Federal Assistance, Atlanta, GA 75
pp.

Ramsey, J. S. 1986. Freshwater fishes in Mount, R. H. (ed.), Vertebrate
Animals of Alabama in Need of Special Attention. Ala. Agr. Expt.
Sta., Auburn Univ. 124 pp.

115

Status of Alabama fishes

Ramsey, J. S. and H. Boschung. 1986. Slackwater darter, Etheostoma
boschungi Wall and Williams, Pages 7-8 in Mount, R. H. (ed.),
Vertebrate Animals of Alabama in Need of Special Attention. Ala.
Agr. Expt. Sta. , Auburn Univ. 124 pp.

Ramsey, J. S. and J. M. Pierson, 1986. Blue shiner, NoCropis caerulus
(Jordan). Pages 12-13 in Mount. R. H. (ed.), Vertebrate Animals of
Alabama in Need of Special Attention. Ala. Agr. Expt. Sta., Auburn
Univ. 124 pp.

United States Federal Register. 1988. Endangered and threatened

wildlife and plants; determination of endangered species status for
the boulder darter. Vol. 53, No. 170 pp. 33996-33998.

116

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1990.

THE STATUS OF ALABAMA AMPHIBIANS
AND REPTILES --AN UPDATE1

Robert H. Mount
Professor Emeritus

Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science
Auburn University , AL 368A9 -5A1U

INTRODUCTION

The most recent attempt at a comprehensive assessment of the status of
the amphibians and reptiles of Alabama was in 1983. Thirteen scientists
participated in the effort, and their conclusions were published in 1986
(Mount, ed.). Of a total of 149 native, breeding distinctive species and
subspecies, 39 were categorized as endangered, threatened, poorly known,
or otherwise considered deserving of special concern. Of this collective
assemblage, only 7 species subsequently received significant specific at¬
tention by researchers and/or governmental agencies. These are mentioned
in the following discussion, along with other information pertaining to
the status and welfare of the state's herpetofauna .

RESEARCH EFFORTS

Dusky gopher frog ( Rana areolata sevosa ) . Mark Bailey continues his
investigations of this rare species. Although the dusky gopher frog, one
of the many animals that live in gopher tortoise burrows, has been report¬
ed from 10 localities in Alabama, only four ponds, two each in Covington
and Escambia counties, are now known to support breeding. Two of these
are being adversely impacted by runoff from nearby dirt roads and another
by cattle (Bailey 1989, 1990). Bailey's research has been funded in part
by the Alabama Nongame Wildlife Program.

Red Hills salamander ( Phaeognathus hubrichti) . This federally listed
threatened species is known only from a small area of southern central
Alabama. Dr. C. K. Dodd (1988) studied the species and concurred in
earlier workers' reports that clear-cutting of its hardwood cove and
ravine habitats reduces or eliminates populations of the salamander. He
recommended purchase of some tracts of suitable habitat to enhance its
chances of survival.

Black Warrior waterdog ( Necturus sp.). This undescribed, "poorly
known" aquatic salamander, known only from Alabama, has received research
attention from Ray Ashton and Paul Moler. Publication of a formal de-

’This article was presented as an invited paper at a Symposium on the
Status of Endangered Species in Alabama on 24 March 1989 at the annual
meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science held at Birmingham- Southern
College, Birmingham, Alabama. Some of the information it contains,
however, has been obtained subsequently.

117

Mount

scription, along with other results of their investigations, are forth¬
coming. Ashton's initial studies on this salamander were funded in part
by the Alabama Nongame Wildlife Program.

Flattened musk turtle ( Stemotherus depressus) . Dodd, et al. (1986,
1988) conducted an investigation of this species, now federally listed as
threatened, in 1986. Although the study was designed primarily to assess
the impacts of strip-mine runoff on the turtle, a wealth of other data on
the species was collected as well. The study confirmed that runoff from
strip mines does adversely impact the turtle, as does that from other
activities that expose the soil to erosion.

The flattened musk turtle occurs only in Alabama, in streams of the
upper Black Warrior River basin. A recent "Problem Assessment Report,"
prepared by representatives of ten federal and state agencies and pub¬
lished by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service (1989), indicated that "a
large number of streams" in the basin "are adversely impacted by
pollutants from various sources." The report stated further that "Fishery
resources and aquatic organisms within these streams are showing signs of
stress and depletion." The implications with respect to the flattened
must turtle are obvious.

Alabama red-bellied turtle ( Pseudemys alabamamens is) . Now on the
federal list of endangered species, the Alabama red-bellied turtle is
endemic to Alabama and occurs only in the lower portion of the Mobile Bay
drainage. Dr. James L. Dobie and representatives of the Alabama Depart¬
ment of Conservation and Natural Resources and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service continue their efforts to secure protection of the turtle's major
nesting site, a beach- like area on an island in the Tensaw River.

Most of the site is owned by the Coastal Land Trust, headquartered in
Mobile. Several other turtles and some shore bird species also nest
there. A recovery plan, prepared by Dr. Dobie and Fred Bagley (U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, 1990) calls for additional research and conservation
efforts, which, in order to be successful, will require the cooperation of
the Coastal Land Trust. Authorities are hopeful that such cooperation is
forthcoming.

The Alabama red-bellied turtle was officially designated as the State
Reptile of Alabama during the 1990 session of the legislature.

Eastern indigo snake ( Drymarchon corais couperi) . This snake is
federally listed as threatened. Dr. Dan Speake and his colleagues have
conducted research on several aspects of the snake's ecology and life
history, the most recent having been a study of the ecology of the juve¬
niles and gravid females in northern Florida using telemetry (Smith,
1987).

Dr. Speake is also monitoring the results of successful efforts at re¬
establishing populations in Covington and Washington counties and is
evaluating the results of several other re-stocking efforts in Alabama.

118

Status of Alabama amphibians and reptiles

Recent field sightings, although lacking documentation, suggest that one
or more native populations of indigo snakes may have escaped extirpation
in Alabama.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Aside from those on the aforementioned species and a few studies on
small areas, most of the information on Alabama reptiles and amphibians
obtained since 1986 is based on subjective impressions. Numerous con¬
versations with professional zoologists and with interested laymen,
conjoined with my own observations, suggest the following with respect to
some of the other species:

1. Most frogs and toads that were common or abundant in 1986 are
faring reasonably well in areas where habitat is or appears to be
suitable. Nothing has been added to our knowledge relative to
the status of two species, rare in Alabama, the wood frog ( Rana
sylvatica) and the Pine Barrens treefrog ( Hyla andersonii) .

2. Nothing has been added to our knowledge of the status of the
various salamanders other than those mentioned previously. It
can be safely assumed, however, that as habitats for the respec¬
tive species decline in abundance or quality, corresponding
declines will occur in the salamander species requiring the
habitats .

3. Among lizards, an apparent continuing decline in the six-lined
racerunner ( Cnemidophorus sexlineaCus ) perhaps warrants "special
concern" status for that species. Legless lizards ( Ophisaurus
ventralis , 0. attenuatus , and 0. mimicus) are very likely at a
historic low ebb.

4. Population densities of numerous snakes are declining over all
or large portions of their ranges. Those that appear to be
relatively stable are few and include some of the water snakes
( Nerodia spp.) and, notably, gray rat snakes ( Elaphe obsoleCa
spiloides ) . Among those species that once were encountered
fairly frequently, but are now becoming scarce over large areas
of the range include corn snakes ( Elaphe guttata) , hognose snakes
( Heterodon simus and H . platyrhinos ) , coachwhips ( Masticophis
flagellum) , queen snakes ( Regina septemvittata) , and mole snakes
( Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata) .

5. Little has been added to our knowledge of the status of Alabama's
fresh-water and estuarine turtles, except for those mentioned
above. Casual observations suggest that those species capable of
living in ponds and fresh water swamps are thriving, whereas
those restricted to streams (ex. Graptemys spp.) may be
declining, along with the Mississippi diamondback terrapin
( Malaclemys terrapin pileata) , a salt-marsh species. Commercial
exploitation continues to be a problem of unknown magnitude for
some species.

119

Mount

6. Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles ( Caretta caretta caretta) at¬
tempted to nest on Alabama's coast in 1987 for the first time in
more than 15 years. At least two sets of hatchlings resulted
from the attempts on Dauphin island and one set emerged at Gulf
Shores. This marine turtle is federally listed as "Threatened."
Protective measures taken by biologists with the Alabama Depart¬
ment of Conservation and Natural Resources doubtless contributed
to the nesting successes.

7. Alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis) . Populations appear to
be stable or increasing within the species' range in Alabama.
The status of the alligator in Alabama (federal level) has been
downgraded from "endangered" to "threatened due to similarity of
appearance." In 1989, legislation was enacted to permit "alliga¬
tor farming" in the state.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Included in the above referenced 1983 publication edited by Mount, the
section dealing with amphibians and reptiles contained, collectively,
about 100 specific recommendations that would be helpful to those species
considered endangered, threatened, "special concern," or "poorly known."
Of those, approximately 74 have received little or no attention. Exem¬
plary among the latter was a plea for a state law or regulation pro¬
hibiting the introduction of gasoline or other toxic materials into the
burrows of hibernating gopher tortoises. This destructive practice has
been banned in Florida, but in Alabama such a prohibition is in effect
only in Conecuh National Forest, by the U.S. Forest Service, and in
Choctaw, Washington, and Mobile counties, where federal law protects the
tortoise as a threatened species. A statewide ban on gassing tortoise
burrows should be instituted.

Several aquatic reptiles are believed to suffer as a result of their
being used as targets by "plinkers." Currently, existing laws and
regulations are inadequate to prevent this practice. A law or regulation
that would prohibit the discharge of rifles into or over the public waters
of Alabama is needed. Exemptions could be made, if justified, for hunting
of certain game animals within season.

Netting for fish in the fresh waters of Alabama is believed to result
in the death of several species of aquatic turtles, including the endan¬
gered Alabama red-bellied turtle (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990).
An effort to prohibit the use of gill nets in the public fresh waters of
Alabama during the 1989 legislative session was unsuccessful. Fresh water
turtles, as well as several declining species of fish (e. g. , paddlefish,
Polyodon spatula ) would probably benefit by a ban on gill nets, trammel
nets, and hoop nets in our streams and reservoirs.

Many of the recommended measures that have not been implemented deal
with needs for research. Currently, mechanisms are available for federal
funds to be used for research on birds, mammals, and fishes in the state
through cooperative agreements between the Alabama Department of Conser-

120

!

Status of Alabama amphibians and reptiles

vation and Natural Resources and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. A
cooperative agreement for federal funding for research on reptiles and
amphibians is currently (March 1, 1990) non-existent, but could be

negotiated under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. It is recom¬
mended that the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources proceed
forthwith to secure such an agreement.

An increased interest in use of herbicides, including aerial appli¬
cations, in commercial forestry is a cause for concern. As nearly as I
can determine, virtually no information is available on the impact of
herbicides on the herpetofauna of our forestlands. Information on their
impacts on small, isolated wetland communities is also very limited.
These wetlands, often referred to as "class 1 and class 2 wetlands," are
often overlooked because of their ephemeral nature but are essential to
the survival of several amphibians that breed in them. Research on direct
and indirect impacts of herbicides is badly needed.

Finally, a realistic re-assessment of the status of the state's
reptiles and amphibians, using the best available knowledge, should be
undertaken. A recent change (January, 1990) in a D.C.N.R. regulation
leaves the vast majority of the species with no protection whatsoever.
The only species now protected are those that were categorized in 1983 (in
Mount, ed. , 1986) as endangered, threatened, or "special concern," along
with common snapping turtles ( Chelydra serpentina) and softshell turtles
( Trionyx spp.) under eight inches in length. A good case can be made for
placing all "poorly known" species, along with those that are believed to
be in a state of continuing decline, under the "special concern" category.
Presumably, such species would then become eligible as candidates for
protection by the state.

LITERATURE CITED

Bailey, Mark A. 1989. Migration of Rana areolata sevosa and associated
winter-breeding amphibians at a temporary pond in the Lower Coastal
Plain of Alabama. Unpub. M.S. Thesis, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL. 56
pp.

Bailey, Mark A. 1990. The frog that lives with the tortoise. Alabama
Conservation, LXII : 1 : 28-29 , 34. Montgomery.

Dodd C. K. Jr., Kevin M. Enge , and James N. Stuart. 1986. The effects
of mining siltation on the distribution and abundance of the
flattened musk turtle, Stemotherusdepressus, in northern Alabama.
Rept. to Off. of Surface Mining, U. S. Dept. Interior, Washington,
D.C. 82 pp. and appen.

Dodd, C. K. Jr., Kevin M. Enge, and James N. Stuart. 1988. Aspects of
the biology of the flattened musk turtle, Stemotherus depressus , in
northern Alabama. Bull. Florida State Mus . , Biol. Sci. 34(1)1-64.

121

Mount

Dodd, C. K. Jr. 1988. A re-examination of the status of the Red Hills
salamander, Phaeognathus hubrichti . Rept. to U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, U. S. Dept. Interior, Washington, D.C. 40 pp. plus tables,
figs., and appen.

Mount, R. H. (ed.) 1986. Vetebrate animals of Alabama in need of
special attention. Ala. Agr. Expt. Sta. , Auburn Univ. 124 pp.

Smith, Cynthia R. 1987. Ecology of juvenile and gravid eastern indigo
snakes in North Florida. Unpub. M.S. Thesis, Auburn Univ., Auburn,
AL. 116 pp.

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1990. Alabama red-bellied turtle
recovery plan. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Jackson, MS. 17
pp.

U. S. Soil Conservation Service. Problem assessment report, Upper Black
Warrior water quality project, Alabama. U. S. Soil Conservation
Service, Auburn, AL. 30 pp.

L

122

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Editorial Policy: Publication of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of
Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms can be
obtained from Dr. Ann William, 101 Cary Hall, Auburn University, AL
36849. Subject matter should address original research in one of the
discipline sections of the Academy: Biological Sciences; Chemistry;
Geology; Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning; Physics and
Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education; Social Sciences;
Health Sciences; Engineering and Computer Science; and Anthropology.
Timely review articles of exceptional quality and general readership
interest will also be considered. Invited articles dealing with Science
Activities in Alabama are occasionally published. Book reviews of Alabama
authors are also solicited.

Submission: Each manuscript will receive at least two simultaneous peer
reviews. Include in your letter of transmittal the names, addresses, and
telephone numbers of at least four qualified referees. Do not include
names of individuals from your present institution.

Manuscripts: Consult recent issues of the Journal for format. Double¬
Space manuscripts throughout, allowing 1-inch margins. Number all pages.
Submit the original and two copies to the Editor. Papers which are
unreasonably long and verbose, such as uncut theses, will be returned.
The title page should contain the author's name, affiliation, and address,
including zip code. An abstract not exceeding 200 words will be published
if the author so desires. Use headings and subdivisions where necessary
for clarity. Common headings are: INTRODUCTION (including a literature
review), PROCEDURES (or MATERIALS AND METHODS), RESULTS, DISCUSSION, and
LITERATURE CITED. Other formats may be more appropriate for certain
subject matter areas. Headings should be in all-caps and centered on the
typed page; sub-headings should be italicized (underlined) and placed at
the margin. Avoid excessive use of footnotes. Do not use the number 1
for footnotes; begin with 2. Skip additional footnote numbers if one or
more authors must have their present address footnoted.

Illustrations : Submit original inked drawings (graphs and diagrams) or
clear black and white glossy photographs. Width must not exceed 15 cm and
height must not exceed 20 cm. Illustrations not conforming to these
dimensions will be returned to the author. Use lettering that will still
be legible after a 30% reduction. Designate all illustrations as figures,
number consecutively, and cite all figures in the text. Type figure
captions on a separate sheet of paper. Send two extra sets of illustra¬
tions; xeroxed photographs are satisfactory for review purposes.

Tables: Place each table on a separate sheet. Place a table title
directly above each table. Number tables consecutively. Use symbols or
letters, not numerals, for table footnotes. Cite all tables in the text.

Literature Cited: Only references cited in the text should be listed
under LITERATURE CITED. Do not group references according to source
(books, periodicals, newspapers, etc.). List in alphabetical order of
senior author names. Cite references in the text by number or by author-
date.

THE JOURNAL OF THE
ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 61 JULY 1990 NO. 3

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

\

“S

•La-
•* •

Editorial ^ Policy: Publication of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of
Science th restricted to members. Membership application forms can be
obtained from Dr. Ann William, 101 Cary Hall, Auburn University, AL
36849. Subject matter should address original research in one of the
discipline sections of the Academy: Biological Sciences; Chemistry;
Geology; Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning; Physics and
Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education; Social Sciences;
Health Sciences; Engineering and Computer Science; and Anthropology.
Timely review articles of exceptional quality and general readership
interest will also be considered. Invited articles dealing with Science
Activities in Alabama are occasionally published. Book reviews of Alabama
authors are also solicited.

Submission: Each manuscript will receive at least two simultaneous peer
reviews. Include in your letter of transmittal the names, addresses, and
telephone numbers of at least four qualified referees. Do not include
names of individuals from your present institution.

Manuscripts : Consult recent issues of the Journal for format. Double¬
Space manuscripts throughout, allowing 1-inch margins. Number all pages.
Submit the original and two copies to the Editor. Papers which are
unreasonably long and verbose, such as uncut theses, will be returned.
The title page should contain the author's name, affiliation, and address,
including zip code. An abstract not exceeding 200 words will be published
if the author so desires. Use headings and subdivisions where necessary
for clarity. Common headings are: INTRODUCTION (including a literature
review), PROCEDURES (or MATERIALS AND METHODS), RESULTS, DISCUSSION, and
LITERATURE CITED. Other formats may be more appropriate for certain
subject matter areas. Headings should be in all-caps and centered on the
typed page; sub-headings should be italicized (underlined) and placed at
the margin. Avoid excessive use of footnotes. Do not use the number 1
for footnotes; begin with 2. Skip additional footnote numbers if one or
more authors must have their present address footnoted.

Illustrations : Submit original inked drawings (graphs and diagrams) or
clear black and white glossy photographs. Width must not exceed 15 cm and
height must not exceed 20 cm. Illustrations not conforming to these
dimensions will be returned to the author. Use lettering that will still
be legible after a 30% reduction. Designate all illustrations as figures,
number consecutively, and cite all figures in the text. Type figure
captions on a separate sheet of paper. Send two extra sets of illustra¬
tions; xeroxed photographs are satisfactory for review purposes.

Tables: Place each table on a separate sheet. Place a table title
directly above each table. Number tables consecutively. Use symbols or
letters, not numerals, for table footnotes. Cite all tables in the text.

Literature Cited: Only references cited in the text should be listed
under LITERATURE CITED. Do not group references according to source
(books, periodicals, newspapers, etc.). List in alphabetical order of
senior author names. Cite references in the text by number or by author-
date .

LIBRARY

THE JOURNAL
OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

OCT 9 1990

VOLUME 61

JULY 1990

NO. 3

EDITOR:

W, H. Mason, Extension Cottage, Auburn University, AL 36849

ARCHMST:

C. M. Peterson, Department of Botany, and Microbiology, Auburn
University, AL 36849

EDITORIAL BOARD:

J. T. Bradley, Chairman, Department of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn
University, AL 36849

Charles Baugh, 1005 Medical Science Building, University of South
Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688

j, W. Sulentic, PC, Box 1921, University of Alabama, University, AL 35486

Publication and Subscription Policies

Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent
correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two
simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow instructions to Authors (see
inside back cover).

Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to Authors.

Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence
to the CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD

ISSN 002-4112

BENEFACTORS OF THE
JOURNAL OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The following have provided financial support
to partially defray publication costs of the Journal.

AUBURN UNIVERSITY
BIRMINGHAM-SOUTHERN COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO
AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA
TROY STATE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM
JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA
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MOBILE COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA
SAMFORD UNIVERSITY

CONTENTS

ABSTRACTS

Biological Sciences . 123

Chemistry . 145

Geology . 153

Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning . 161

Physics and Mathematics . 164

Industry and Economics . 175

Science Education . 183

Social Sciences . 185

Health Sciences ..... . 192

Engineering and Computer Science . 215

Anthropology . 223

MINUTES OF ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING

228

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■

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 3, July, 1990.

ABSTRACTS

Papers presented at the 67th Annual Meeting
Stouffer's Riverview Plaza
Mobile, Alabama
March 9-12, 1990

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

PURIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF A NOVEL Mg2+/Mn2+-
STIMULATED PROTEIN KINASE FROM HL60 CELLS. Yunjo Soh and
Marie W. Wooten, Dept, of Zoology/Wildlife, Auburn Univ. ,
Auburn, AL 36849

A protein kinase which displayed activity in the
presence of Mg2+/Mn2+ was purified by a series of column
chromatographic steps from HL60 cells. Sequential column
chromatography on DEAE-Sepharose, Protamine agarose,
hydroxylapatite and Toyopearl HW55 yeilded an enzyme
which was >95% homogenous as judged by SDS-PAGE silver
stain. Kinetic assays conducted in the presence of
various substrates demonstrated a preference for
protamine. In the presence of micromolar amounts of
Ca2+, protamine kinase activity was inhibited. Lipid
activators, phosphatidylserine and diolein did not
activate the kinase. Protamine kinase has an apparent
molecular weight of 120kDA, with an apparent dimeric
structure. Studies are in progress to examine the role
of this kinase system during HL60 differentiation.

BIOTECHNOLOGY OF ALGAE. Mahasin G. Tadros, Beverly Joseph and
Woodrow Smith, Department of Biology, Alabama A&M University,
Normal, AL 35762.

Algae are known to respond to alterations in environmental
conditions and nutrient shortage by adjustments in physiological
adaptations. Marine diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) and
Cyanobacteria (Cyanophyceae) were characterized in batch cultures
under various growth conditions: temperature, light
irradiations, and nutrient concentrations. Diatoms produced high
lipids while cyanobacteria produced high carbohydrates, when
stressed. The results indicated that the partioning of the
assimalatory products were manipulated by varying the
environmental growth conditions.

123

Abstracts

CRYPTOSPORIDIUM BAILEYI : CLINICOPATHOLOGIC EFFECTS OF
INFECTIONS IN BROILER CHICKENS. B. L. BLAGBURN. J. F. DAVIS, J.
J. GIAMBRONE, D. S. LINDSAY and J. S. SPANO, Departments of
Pathobiology and Poultry Science, Auburn University, AL 36849.

One hundred thirty two, one-day-old commercial broilers were randomly
allocated into 3 groups of 44 (22 male, 22 female) birds each. Group I birds
were controls. Groups 2 birds were each given 500,000 C. baileyi oocysts
intratracheally (IT). Group 3 birds received the same number of oocysts per os
(PO). Birds were inoculated on day 7. Birds were maintained in electrically
heated Petersime wire batteries (controls in a separate room), and fed a
standard starter ration and water, ad libitum. Birds were weighed weekly through
day 42. Four birds from each group were sacrificed on days 1, 4, 8, 11, 15,
18, 22, 25, 29, 36 and 43 and a 2-3 cc heparinized sample of oxygenated blood
was collected from the left ventricle. Blood or serum were immediately analyzed
for pH, pOz, pCOz, HC03', C02, Na+, K+, Cl" and anion gap values. Random
fecal samples were taken for oocyst enumeration on days 6, 8, 11, 13, 15, 18, 20,
23, and 25. Blood or serum values were compared using ANOVA and Duncan’s
Multiple Range Test. Birds given C. baileyi IT developed respiratory disease and
weight depression similar to those previosly described. Birds inoculated PO did
not demonstrate clinical signs. Oocyst excretion dynamics were similar to
previous studies. Clinicopathologic results indicated the p02 (deer.), pC02
(incr.), HC03 (incr.) and COz (incr.) values were altered only in IT inoculated
birds, and correlated with acute respiratory disease. No significant alterations
in blood gas or serum electrolyte values were observed in PO inoculated birds.

USE OF RIVULUS FOR SCIENTIFIC STUDIES. John H. Grover, John M.
Grizzle, and Sarah J. Grover, Dept, of Fisheries and Allied Aqua¬
cultures, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.

The small drab fish known as Rivulus may provide the key to
important work in toxicology and tumor research. These fish are more
sensitive to cancer-causing chemicals than terrestial vertebrates.
They also are unique among fish because they have air respiration
capability and are self-fertile hermaphrodites, thus having the
ability to essentially "clone" themselves while living in a stagnant
dish of water. This paper discusses what is known about their
biology, laboratory care, and shares some of our experience working
with this animal. Potential uses of rivulus in other scientific
research and teaching are also discussed.

124

Abstracts

SEX STEROIDS MAY REGULATE SPERMATOGENESIS IN THE SEA STAR ASTERIAS
VULGARIS . Gene A. Hines and S.A. Watts, Dept, of Biology, U.A.B. ,
Birmingham, AL 35294. S.A. Sower and C.W. Walker, Dept, of Zoology,
University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824.

Levels of the sex steroids estradiol, testosterone and
progesterone in testes were determined via radioimmunoassay throughout
the 1988-89 annual reproductive cycle of A. vulgaris . During the
summer months testes contained stem spermatogonia, residual
spermatozoa and phagocytic somatic cells and appeared metabolically
inactive. Sex steroid levels were lowest during this aspermatogenic
period. In the early fall, spermatogonia began to divide mitotically
and testicular mass began to increase. In late fall, spermatogonia
differentiated to form columns containing primary spermatocytes in
various stages of meiosis I. Estradiol levels increased greatly at the
onset of spermatogonial mitoses (0.42 ng/g), followed by a transient
peak in testosterone (2.36 ng/g) ca. 1 month later during spermatocyte
column formation. Progesterone levels increased to a maximum of 4.98
ng/g ca. 1 month following the peak in testosterone levels, and were
coincident with the initiation of spermiogenesis . In the winter,
spermatozoa were produced and stored in the testicular lumen and
steroid levels remained low. Transient peaks of testosterone and
progesterone occurred in the early spring. In the late spring spawning
occurred and all steroid levels decreased. Similar seasonal variations
in the levels of these steroids in ovaries and in male and female
pyloric caeca occurred during the annual reproductive cycle. We
hypothesize that transient increases in the levels of sex steroids at
the onset of gametogenesis may serve as intrinsic modulators of
spermatogonial proliferation and spermatocyte differentiation.
Supported by A.A.S. Student Research Grant and NSF DCB-8711425.

OVICIDAL EFFECTS OF THE LECTIN LIMULUS POLYPHEMUS AGGLUTININ ON EGGS
OF TRICHOSTRONGYLUS COLUBRIFORMIS (NEMATODA) . Leon W. Bone, Animal
Parasite Research Laboratory, ARS, USDA, Auburn, AL 36830.

The lectin, Limulus polyphemus agglutinin (LPA) , was lethal to
eggs of the ruminant nematode Trichostrongylus colubrif ormis . Eleven
other lectins had no effect. Fluorescein-labelled LPA bound to the
nematode egg, but this binding was inhibited by pretreatment of the
eggs with sialic acid or sialidase. Treatment of nematode eggs with
sialic acid after LPA exposure caused increased ovicidal activity.
Sialic acid only had no effect. Sialidase had no influence on eggs,
but enhanced the lethality of LPA. Sialic acid or similar carbo¬
hydrates may contribute to some critical regulatory process in the
nematode eggshell.

125

Abstracts

DEMONSTRATION OF ANTIGENIC VARIATION IN A STRAIN OF TETRAHYMENA
PYRIFORMIS BY USE OF A MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY. JL. Estridge and C.
A. Sundermann, Dept. Zoology & Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University,
AL 36849.

Antigenic variation in surface membranes of protozoa has been
studied for many years. This paper reports a preliminary
investigation of antigenic variation in the surface membrane of the
amicronucleate ciliate Tetrahvmena pyriformis (ATCC 30005) using
immunohistochemical techniques. Monoclonal antibodies (MAb) against
T . pyriformis ciliary membrane proteins were generated using
standard methods. Using immunoperoxidase staining, MAb 6F10, which
has been shown by Western blot to react with a 15-18 kD membrane
protein, was observed to stain the stock culture heterogeneously,
with positive cells showing deeply stained cilia and cell membrane,
and other cells being negative. Both positive and negative clones
were established. Some clones which were initially positive-
staining showed heterogeneous staining when tested with the same
MAb over time; the same situation occurred with clones initially
negative. Percent positive cells was higher in clones grown at RT
(21-22 C) than in those grown at 28 C. Preliminary testing of
clones grown in five different growth media showed some differences
in the percents of positive staining cells. The variation in
staining of the clones suggests that more than one antigenic type
is present in the stock culture, and that the antigenic expression
can be influenced by changes in temperature and growth media. This
work was supported by NSF grant DCB-8718174 and Alabama NSF EPSCoR
RII 8610669.

FACTORS AFFECTING AGGREGATION OF GRAY SQUIRRELS (SCIURUS CAROLINENSIS)
DURING MATING CHASES. Robert S. Lishak, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife
Sciences, Auburn, AL 36849. The mating system of the eastern gray
squirrel is best described as scramble competition polygyny in which
many males chase and ultimately mate with a female squirrel in
estrous. The stimuli that allow males to detect estrous females and
those that are thought to enhance the cohesiveness of aggregations of
males were studied by: 1) presenting squirrels with urine from two
hand-raised female squirrels in estrous, and 2) the playing of
previously recorded mating calls. Focal animal sampling revealed that
when urine was presented alone or in combination with the playing of
mating calls, males investigated the stimuli but patterns of
locomotion associated with mating chases were not observed. The
playback of mating calls resulted in approach and investigatory
behaviors but aggregations of males did not form.

126

Abstracts

GAMETOGENESIS AND EARLY OOCYST FORMATION IN THE MOUSE COCCIDIAN
EIMERIA VERMIFORMIS (APICOMPLEXA) . Stephanie Stafford and C.A.
Sundermann, Dept, of Zoology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849

The development of gamonts and oocysts of Eimeria vermif ormis has
not yet been described. Thus, the purpose of this study was to
investigate gametogenesis and the development of young oocysts using
histological/light microscopical and electron microscopical
preparations of parasites grown in vivo. Mice were inoculated orally
with 5000 oocysts of E. vermiformis and sacrificed at 7-12 days post
inoculation (DPI) . At 7 DPI young macrogamonts were seen in the
jejunum. Living specimens were subspherical to ovoid and had a mean
length of 19.5 pm and a mean width of 15.8 pm. Microgamonts were
first seen at 8 DPI and had a mean length of 15.5 um and a mean width
of 13.7 pm. In histological sections 62% of 200 gamonts were
macrogamonts and 38% were microgamonts. Thick-walled oocysts were
seen at 9-12 DPI. TEM revealed that microgamonts (at 8 DPI) had
electron-dense nuclei which emerged from the gamonts, each nucleus was
followed by a single elongated mitochondrion with tubular cristae.
Mature microgametes possessed two flagella that appeared to be
associated with basal body. Ultrastructural studies of macrogamonts
revealed the presence of two types of wall forming bodies (WF) . Type
I (WF-I) were spheroid, electron-dense and measured 1.27 pm in
diameter. Type II (WF-2) appeared first in young macrogamonts and
were spheroid, spongy in appearance and measured 1.45 pm in diameter.
As oocyst development proceeded, WF-l's disaggregated into smaller
particles at the periphery of the parasite and fused to form a
membrane bound electron-dense outer layer of the oocyst wall. Wf-2's
became more labyrinthine in appearance and moved into the
intermembranous space beneath the developing outer layer.

Biochemical Sytematics of the Fundulus grandis-F. heteroclitus
species complex (Pisces:Cyprinodontidae). C.F. Duggins, Dept, of Biology,
Univ. of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, K. Relyea, Dept, of
Biology, Univ. of Montevallo, Montevallo, Alabama 35115, and A. A. Karlin,
Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Arkansas, Little Rock, Arkansas 77204. Fundulus
grandis ranges from NE Florida to Mexico along the Atlantic and Gulf of
Mexico coasts, and disjunctly in Cuba where it has been recognized as £4
saguanus. Relyea (1983) suggested that, on the basis of morphological traits,
Florida Keys populations should be included in F. g. saguanus. Our studies of
isozyme variation show no difference in isozyme allele frequencies between
Florida Keys populations and other F. grandis. Recognition of subspecies
is questioned, but Cuban material remains to be examined. Fundulus
grandis and F. heteroclitus are distinct at a specific level based on isozyme
analysis.

127

Abstracts

REVERSION OF HEMOGLOBIN PROPORTIONS TOWARD NEWBORN VALUES BY TWO
CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS IS TOTALLY BLOCKED BY ASPIRIN. Veronica D.
Boswell, Habiba A. Dow la and Mukul C. Datta, Department of Chemistry,
Tuskegee University, AL 36088.

Studies with anemic baboons and monkeys have found augmentation
of Hb F production when treated with S-phase specific agents. This
study was carried out to determine whether 5-azacytidine (AZA) that
induces Hb F synthesis in humans and primates can induce newborn like
Hb proportions in anemic adult rats. If so, then to explore the possi¬
ble involvement of other factor(s) and to compare the effect of AZA
with hydroxyurea (HU) which also activates Hb F synthesis in adults.
Mild anemia was developed in normal adult Sprague-Dawley or Wistar
rats. A fixed dose of AZA (1.5 mg/500 g) or HU (75 mg/500 g) was ad¬
ministered each time intravenously in each of such anemic rats for al¬
together 35 times covering a span of b9 days. Anemia of moderate de¬
gree was maintained by bleeding once a week during the entire drug
treatment. Blood samples drawn on every Friday were analysed by ion-
exchange chromatography. A significant increasing pattern was measured
for Hb components I, II and IV in red cells of the AZA or HU treated
rats compared to the anemic controls (p < O.Ol), a situation analogous
to that observed between normal adult and newborn samples. However,
acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) intake at a dose level of 20 mg/ day/500 g
along with AZA or HU administration totally blocked the changeover of
Hb components toward newborn proportions. Based on the clinical trials
of these two drugs , several experts proposed that hypomethylation of
DNA is not necessary for increased Hb F production as a sole mechanism.
However, since ASA is known to inhibit prostaglandin synthesis, our re¬
sults reveal the importance of concurrent prostaglandin synthesis as a
common mechanism for the expression of both HU and AZA mediated changes

AVIAN NESTING HABITAT - CRITICAL FOR COASTAL ALABAMA.
John L Dindo. Dauphin Island Sea Lab, Dauphin Island, AL 36528. Ken R.
Marion, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 and
Dan Holliman, Birmingham Southern University, Birmingham, AL 35254.

Increase population and industrial growth has caused the loss of some
critical nesting sites along Dauphin Island, Sand Island and the coastal
mainland. Sand Island and Dauphin Island have been prime breeding sites
of Least Terns, Sterna albifrons, Sandwich Terns, Sterna sandvicensis, Gull-
Billed Terns, Gelochelidon nilotica and the Black Skimmer, Rynchops niger.
Increased public use of these areas as well as unauthorized vehicular traffic
has forced these species out of these nesting sites. Little Dauphin Island,
part of the Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge, and Cat Island remain as
nigh density nesting sites for numerous coastal species.

128

Abstracts

REPRODUCTIVE PERIODICITY AND GAMETOGENESIS OF THE IRREGULAR
SEA URCHIN CLYPEASTER RAVENELII FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO.
Jeffrey D. Vernon and James B. McClintock, University of Alabama at
Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 and Thomas S. Hopkins,
Dauphin Island Sea Laboratory, Dauphin Island, Alabama 36528.

Clypeaster ravenelii is a common offshore irregular sea
urchin with a distribution ranging from North Carolina southward to
the Yucatan Peninsula in the Gulf of Mexico. Although population
densities are high, little is known about the biology of this species.
Periodic collections of Clypeaster ravenelii were taken from
November 1988 to February 1990 using an Otter trawl on a fine¬
grained substrata 25 miles off the coast of Pensacola, Florida.
Individuals were collected from a depth of 90 meters. Reproductive
condition was determined by gonad indices (wet weight of the gonad
divided by the wet weight of the individual X 100) and histological
examinations of the testes and ovaries of ten individuals on each
sampling date. Gonad indices were low in spring and summer, th en
rose slightly in the late fall, and peaked in the late winter. Ripe
gonads, as indicated by oozing gametes, high gonad indices and
testicular and ovarian lumens filled with spermatozoa and oocytes,
were observed in February during both 1989 and 1990. Clypeaster
ravenelii has an annual reproductive cycle and, in contrast to most
echinoids which are spring spawners, releases its gametes in the
winter. Supported by NSF EPSCoR Grant # R1 1-89961 52 to J. B. M.

THERMAL STRESS RESPONSES OF FRESHWATER SHRIMP. David H. Nelson
and I. Suzie Hatten, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of South Ala., Mobile,
AL 36688.

Thermal tolerance was studied in a lotic population of
freshwater shrimp (Palaemonetes kadiakensis) in Mobile Co., Alabama.
Shrimp were acclimated in the laboratory Jior a minimum Qof 2 weeks at
four constant temperature regimes (20 C, 24 C, 28 C, & 32 C) .
Specimens (N = 85) manifested several responses to thermal stress:
initial disorientation, complete disorientation, onset of tail
fold, and loss of movement. Values for all of these parameters
were directly related to the temperature of acclimation. Initial
disorientation was assumed to represent the critical thermal maximum
(CTM) . Beginning with shrimp acclimated at 20 C, respective values
for initial disorientation were 33°C, 36 C, 38 C, and 39 C. Data
are compared with those from lentic and lotic congeneric populations
from Michigan and South Carolina.

129

Abstracts

THE DUSKY GOPHER FROG IN ALABAMA. Mark A. Bailey, Alabama Natural
Heritage Program, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Montgomery, AL 36130.
Cynthia Ragland, USDA Forest Service, Route 5, Box 157, Andalusia, AL 36420.

The dusky gopher frog (Ranidae: Rana areolata sevosa ) is one of Alabama’s rarest
and most poorly known amphibians. Although reported from 11 locations in six
counties (Baldwin, Barbour, Covington, Escambia, Mobile, Shelby), only six extant
breeding populations are known: two in Escambia and four in Covington County.
Although additional populations almost certainly exist, they are thought to be
exceedingly scarce. Rangewide (LA, MS, GA, FL and AL), fewer than 20 extant
populations of this subspecies are known. A survey, funded by the U.S. Forest
Service, is being conducted by the Alabama Natural Heritage Program on the
Conecuh National Forest to determine periods of breeding activity, distribution,
and habitat. Gopher frogs typically breed in ephemeral ponds during the months
of January, February, and March, but breeding occurred at one Covington County
pond in late September of both 1988 and 1989. An Escambia County population
was occupied by at least 269 adults during the 1986 winter breeding season. In
Alabama, documented declines in gopher frog populations have resulted from
road construction through a breeding site and introduction of fish (Centrarchidae)
to a breeding pond. Additional threats include conversion of natural sandhill
habitat to commercial pine stands, siltation of breeding ponds from adjacent roads
and fields, and numerous factors contributing to the continued decline of the
gopher tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus), in whose burrows gopher frogs take
shelter and feed. Needed to ensure the long-term survival of the dusky gopher
frog in Alabama are: 1) protection of breeding sites and enhancement of gopher
tortoise habitat on adjacent uplands, 2) surveys for new populations, and
3) further research into home range, larval ecology, and population genetics.

COCCIDIOSIS IN GOATS IN THE SOUTHEAST: ITS IMPORTANCE IN
PRODUCTION. John C. Frandsen, USDA Animal Parasite Research Laboratory,
ARS, Auburn, AL 36831-0952.

A survey of 103 goat producers in the southeastern United States conducted in the autumn
of 1989 revealed that 63% perceived coccidiosis to be a major problem in production.
Based on diagnoses by their veterinarians, 29% of these producers rated coccidiosis the
most important disease in their herds. Intestinal worms and other parasites, caprine
arthritis & encephalitis (CAE), abscesses, and pinkeye were considered their major
herd health problem by 28, 8, 6 and 4% of the producers, respectively, again based on
veterinary diagnoses. Coccidiosis occurred primarily in young kids, in spring and
summer, though about 1 producer in 20 reported its occurrence in adults. The major
effects of the disease were unthriftiness and failure to gain, but 30% of the producers
reported mortality in kids. Amprolium was the most frequently used anticoccidial
drug, followed by the various sulfonamides, alone and in combination. Decoquinate,
lasalocid and Tribrissen® were used by less than 3% of these producers. The disparity
between the percentage of producers perceiving coccidiosis as a major problem in goat
production (63) and the percentage experiencing it as a major problem in their herds (29)
is intriguing, and may indicate that the reputation of the disease is inflated.

130

Abstracts

ELECTROPHORETIC ISOZYMES OF ADENOSINE DEAMINASE (AD) AND NUCLEOSIDE
PHOSPHORYLASE (NP) IN NEONATAL, ADULT AND DIABETIC RATS. Joni L.
Justice and Ronald L. Jenkins, Dept, of Bioloqy, Samford University,
Birmingham, AL 35229.

Previous studies of blood flow rates and total purine nucleotide
levels in neonatal and diabetic rats have suggested that purine cata¬
bolic enzymes may be altered from that of the adult. In this study,
heart, liver and gastrocnemius muscle from adults, streptozotocin dia¬
betic and 1 day old neonatal rats were homogenized in 50mM Tris, 50mM
KCl , 1% Triton X-100, and 2mM b-mercaptoethanol and centrifuqed at
10,000 xq for 20 minutes. Isozymes of NP and AD in the supernates were
separated by agarose electrophoresis and visualized with tetrazolium
staining (Harris and Hopkinson. Handbook of Enzyme El ectrophoresis in
Human Genetics, 1976). Percentages of each isozyme were quantitated by
densi tometric scans. Total NP and AD activities in tissue fractions
were quantitated colorimetrical ly using calibrated tetrazolium methods
In neonatal muscle and heart, total NP activity was significantly ele¬
vated as compared to adult rats, while AD activity was significantly
decreased in liver. The different isozymes of neonatal NP dramatically
shifted toward anodal forms in muscle and heart, but toward cathodal
forms in liver. The neonatal isozymes of AD were more anodal as com¬
pared to adult hearts. After 4 weeks of diabetes, adult rats had signi¬
ficantly elevated blood glucose levels (403+64 mg%) above controls
(122+24 mg%). NP activity was significantly increased in muscle and
heart, while AD activity was elevated only in heart. Isozymes of dia¬
betic rat NP shifted anodal ly in muscle and heart, but cathodal ly in
liver as compared to controls. All cathodal isozymes of AD were lost in
diabetic tissues, with a subsequent increase in anodal isozymes.

ONTOGENETIC CHANGES IN THE DIEL ACTIVITY PATTERN OF THE
GREENSIDE DARTER, ETHEOSTOMA BLENNI OOIDES . Robert Stiles,

Dept, of Biology, Samford Univ. , Birmingham, AL 35229.
Larry Greenburg, Dept, of Limnology, LUND, Sweden.

A study of the diel activity pattern of the
greenside darter (Etheostoma blennioides) was conducted
in the Little River of eastern Tennessee during the
Summer of 1988. Fish were collected over 24 hour periods
using a handnet, while snorkeling. During 15-16 July and
25-26 August four day and two night collections were
carried out, with additional collections at dawn and
dusk. The standard lengths of day-captured and night-
captured fish were compared using One-Way ANOV. Night-
captured fish were larger and the difference was
significant at the P< 0.0001 level. Analysis of stomach
contents revealed that the large fish taken at night
were actively feeding. Questions are raised concerning
the adaptive value of switching activity patterns and
the sensory systems used in nocturnal foraging.

131

Abstracts

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE POPULATION DYNAMICS OF THE
BLUE CRABS CALUNECTES SIMMS AND C. SAPIDUS IN ESTUARINE
ENVIRONMENTS OF THE GULF OF MEXICO. Pan-wen Hsueh, James B.
McClintock. Dept, of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294. Tom S. Hopkins, Dauphin Island Sea Laboratory,
Dauphin Island, AL 36528.

Monthly samples were taken from three study sites in the greater
Mobile Bay area, Alabama, using either an Otter Trawl (offshore) or a
Beach Seine (inshore). Study sites were chosen to represent high,
intermediate, and low salinity estuarine habitats. Field observations
indicate that Callinectes similis co-occurs with C. sapidus in estuarine
waters. However, C. similis dominates numerically at lower estuarine
high and intermediate salinity sites, whereas C. sapidus is more abundant
at an upper estuarine low salinity site. Juvenile C. similis recruit into both
open-bay soft-bottom and salt marsh habitats, while juvenile C. sapidus
recruit into salt marsh and grassbed habitats. C. similis in salt marsh
habitats were never found greater than 3-cm in carapace width, indicating
that young and adult crabs either migrate or are eliminated by predators.
Subadult females of C. similis were abundant in the fall at open-bay sites,
suggesting that mating may occur in the subsequent spring or summer,
which is similar to the mating season of C. sapidus. In both species, males
numerically dominate these estuarine populations. Supported by a Sigma
Xi Grant-in-Aid, and grants from NOAA (# NA89AA-D-CZ052) and
Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant (# NA89AA-D-SG016).

THE ALABAMA RED-BELLIED TURTLE: AN ENDANGERED ALABAMA ENDEMIC. James
L. Dobie, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn Univ.,

AL 37849-5414.

The Alabama red-bellied turtle, Pseudemys alabamensis, was
listed as an endangered species by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
in 1987 and a recovery plan for the species has been prepared. The
ultimate goal of the recovery plan is to provide for reclassification
from endangered to threatened status. The species has declined over
the last several decades and could become extinct if adequate
conservation measures are not taken. The turtle was officially
designated the State Reptile of Alabama during the 1990 legislative
session. Factors contributing to the decline have been: (1) predation
by humans, hogs, fish crows, imported fire ants, and alligators; (2)
decreases in the amount of aquatic vegetation on which the species
depends for food, cover, and basking; (3) trapping for food and for the
pet trade; and (4) death by drowning in nets. Studies are needed on
life history and ecology, and conservation measures should be
instituted to protect the turtle's habitats.

132

Abstracts

ACETYLATION OF HISTONES IN THE TESTES OF THE SEA STAR ASTERIAS
VULGARIS . Sara K. Hecker, Carl B. Massey and Stephen A. Watts, Dept, of
Biology, Univ. of Ala., Birmingham, AL 35294.

Asterias vulgaris were collected in the fall during the annual
reproductive cycle at the onset of spermatogenesis. Subsamples of A.
vulgaris testes were incubated in the presence of l^C-acetate and
n-butyric acid for two hours at 15°C in an attempt to measure the
acetylation of histone proteins in germinal cells. The tissue was
placed in liquid nitrogen to stop the reaction and stored frozen at
-70°C. Histone proteins were acid-extracted from the frozen tissue,
electrophoresed on an acetic acid-urea polyacrylamide gel (5% acetic
acid-2.5 M urea-15% acrylamide), and stained with Coomassie blue for
identification of specific histone isotypes. Stained gels were scanned
with an LKB densitometer to determine Rf and relative protein content
of the various bands of histone proteins. Gel slices representing
histone protein variants were removed and dissolved in 307» peroxide.
Radioactivity was determined by scintillation counting. Results indi¬
cated that slow migrating variants of H4 represent several multiply-
acetylated H4 histones, the distance of migration being inversely
proportional to the amount of incorporated acetate. Similar multiply-
acetylated variants were observed in H3 . Acetylated variants of the
nucleosomal histones H2A and H2B were not observed. These data suggest
that H4 , H3-specific acetyltransferase( s) may be active during
spermatogenesis. H4 and H3 are considered to contain the primary sites
of DNA attachment to the nucleosome. Histone acetylations would result
in decreased binding affinity for DNA allowing specific decondensation
of chromatin and enhancing processes related to spermatogonial
replication and transcription.

ENDANGERED PLANT SPECIES OF COASTAL ALABAMA. Michel G. Lelong,
Dept, of Biological Sciences, University of South Alabama, Mobile,
AL 36688.

Approximately 310 species of endangered, threatened and
Special Concern plants occur in Alabama. Of these, 115 species grow
in the Coastal Plain, including 66 in coastal Alabama. Over 40% of
rare coastal plant species grow in Pine-oak savannas and bogs,
includings Sarracenia rubra, S . rubra ssp. alabamensis , S.
psittacina, Pinguicula planifolia, Pinguicula primulif lora ,
Andropogon arctatus, Panicum nudicaule and Lindera subcoriacea.
Nearly 35% of rare coastal plant species occur in swamps, marshes
and aquatic habitats, among them Lilium iridollae , Sium
f loridanum, Ilex amelanchier , Epidendrum conopseum, Lilaeopsis
caroliniana, Triglochin striatum, Myriophyllum laxum , and
Potamogeton robbinsii . Less than 23% of rare coastal species occur
in mesic or dry habitats, among them Rhododendron prunif olium,
Oenothera grandif lora, Sagere t ia minut if lora , Polygonella
macrophylla, and Polanisia tenuifolia . Efforts should continue to
be made to preserve sites in coastal Alabama in which those rare
plants grow, particularly in pine savannas, bogs and other
wetlands .

133

Abstracts

WHALES AND DOLPHINS OFFSHORE OF ALABAMA. Keith Mullin, Ren
Lohoefener, Wayne Hoggard, Carolyn Rogers and Carol Roden,

National Marine Fisheries Service, P.0. Drawer 1207,

Pascagoula, MS 39568. Brian Taggart, Office of NOAA Aircraft
Operations Center, P.O. Box 020197, Miami, FL 33102.

Based on aerial surveys we have conducted and a review of
literature on cetacean sightings and strandings , of the 76
cetacean species which occur world-wide, we estimated at least
20 have occurred offshore of Alabama (within 300 km of the
coast). Four of these are whales (sperm, fin, sei, humpback)
listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act. All
whales and dolphins in U.S. waters are protected by the Marine
Mammal Protection Act. In shallow continental shelf waters
(less than 200 m) , the bottlenose dolphin is the most common
cetacean. Spotted dolphins also occur but are much less common.

Other species are rare. The shelf waters have been well studied
compared to the continental slope waters (greater than 200 m) .

In the first study of its kind in the Gulf of Mexico, from July
- November 1989, we conducted aerial surveys of continental
slope waters in DeSoto Canyon, the Mississippi River Cliff and
Mississippi Canyon. We made 119 sightings of cetacean herds
with the following frequencies: sperm whales, 23%; Atlantic or
pantropical spotted dolphins, 19%; dwarf or pygmy sperm
whales, 13%; bottlenose dolphins, 13%; Risso's dolphins, 10%;
common dolphins, 8%; Mesoplodon spp. , 4%; short-finned pilot
whales, 3%; Cuvier's beaked whale, long- or short-snouted
spinner dolphins, striped dolphins, false killer whales, and a
fin whale (total 7%). Killer whales, Bryde's whale and rough¬
toothed dolphins have also occurred offshore of Alabama.

POPULATION DYNAMICS AND REPRODUCTION OF THE BLUE CRAB
CALLINECTES SAPIDUS IN AN ALABAMA ESTUARY. James B.

McC 1 intock . Ken Marion and Pan Wen Hsueh, Dept, of Biology,
Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Studies were initiated in May 1989 at Weeks Bay National
Estuarine Reserve, located on the eastern side of Mobile Bay.
Three sites, indicative of the estuary mouth, mid-bay and
river inflow, were sampled monthly using an Otter Trawl.
Triplicate 300 m tows were performed at each site and
abundance, size, sex, molt condition and gonad index
determined. Crabs were generally small and most abundant in
the estuary in early summer, particularly at mid-bay and river
mouth sites. Males greatly outnumbered females at these two
sites during the summer, while females became more common than
males during the winter. Molting was most common in the
summer at mid-bay and bay-mouth sites. Recruitment was low
and constant with small pulsations in August and January. No
berried female crabs were caught, indicating that mature
females probably migrate out of the estuary to spawn their
larvae into higher salinity water at the mouth of Mobile Bay.
Gonad indices were variable, but higher in the summer than the
winter. This study is supported by a grant from NOAA.

134

Abstracts

HYPOOSMOTIC INDUCTION OF ORNITHINE DECARBOXYLASE ACTIVITY IN THE
BRINE SHRIMP ARTEMIA . Stephen A. Watts and Frederica White, Dept, of
Biology, Univ. of Ala., Birmingham, AL 35294.

Ar temia can tolerate a wide range of salinities and are often
found in many salt and brine lakes. Long-term (several days) osmotic
and ionic regulation is accomplished by changes in the levels of
sodium and chloride ions and is controlled principally by the
activity of Na+K+ATPase. Dried Artemia cysts were hydrated at 4°C
and 32 ppt salinity overnight. Hydrated cysts were incubated at 28°C
and 32 ppt for 25 hours. Batch samples of nauplii were removed and
placed in 5 , 15, 32 (control), 40 or 50 ppt salinity. ODC activity
was determined at time 0, 2, 4, 6 and 24 hours. Exposure of larvae
to hypoosmotic conditions increased levels of ODC activity within
2 hr, resulting in a 60% and 460% increase in activity at 15 and 5
ppt, respectively. Activity decreased significantly by 4 hours but
remained above that of the 32 ppt control throughout the 24 hr
exposure period. Increases in ODC activities were reflected by
significant increases in the levels of the polyamine products,
putrescine and spermidine. Exposure of larvae to hyperosmotic
conditions resulted in a 30% depression in ODC activity at 40 and 50
ppt, however, ODC activity returned to control levels within 4 hr in
those exposed to 40 ppt, and within 6 hr in those exposed to 50 ppt.
Polyamine levels decreased in proportion to decreased ODC activity.
Changes in ODC activity and polyamine preceded acclimatory changes
in whole animal wet weight. These data suggest that modulation of
ODC activity and subsequent polyamines synthesis, degradation and/or
transport are mechanistically related to short-term regulation of
osmotic and ionic balance. The research supported by UAB Faculty
Grant to SAW.

HAZARDOUS WASTE CLEANUP UNDER CERCLA. Olivia A. Campbell, Dept, of
Botany and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849.

In 1978 Love Canal, was the first hazardous waste site to be
declared a "federal emergency disaster area" by the President of
the United States. The property had been used for disposal of
toxic wastes by Hooker Chemical Company prior to its donating the
land to the Niagara Falls Board of Education. Currently many
United States industries, even those which employ the latest in
high-tech manufacturing methods, still dispose of their toxic
wastes by primitive methods. The 1980 Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) and its 1986
amendments (SARA) were enacted by Congress as a federal response to
the public health and environmental hazards which result from
improper use and disposal of hazardous substances. The purpose of
CERCLA is twofold: 1) to abate release of hazardous substances and
2) to provide both a long-term and short-term response to spills or
leaks from hazardous waste sites. In 1988 the State of Alabama
enacted the Alabama Hazardous Substance Cleanup Fund, which
parallels CERCLA and the SARA amendments in some important aspects
but is broader in several defenses which may be utilized by
responsible parties to excuse them from liability.

135

Abstracts

CONSERVATION PROGRAM FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE SOUTHEASTERN CONTINENTAL
UNITED STATES. Earl E. Possardt, (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
3100 University Boulevard South, Jacksonville, Florida 32216)

The southeastern United States provides nesting habitat for a major
loggerhead (Caretta caretta) rookery. Estimates of up to 50,000
nests deposited annually suggest that at least one-fourth of the
world's loggerhead population may nest here. The green turtle
( Chelonia mydas) and leatherback (Dermochelvs coriacea) also nest
but far less abundantly. The hawksbill (Eretmochelvs imbricata) is
a rare nester. The Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempi) frequents
coastal waters. Coastal development, sea walls, riprap, and exotic
trees degrade nesting habitat. Incidental capture from commercial
fisheries drowns sea turtles; artificial lights disorient hatchlings
and can cause high mortality; and predators and erosion can cause
excessive nest loss in some localities. Governmental and private
organizations carry out a variety of nest protection activities
including predator control, nest screening, and relocation of nests
to protected self-releasing hatcheries. Many coastal communities
have enacted lighting ordinances restricting beach lights during the
nesting and hatching period. Federal and state regulations have
been implemented requiring turtle excluder devices on shrimp trawls.
Federal and state efforts are underway to purchase key nesting
beaches. Research is underway to determine natural hatchling and
juvenile sex ratios, identify juvenile habitats, investigate hatch¬
ling orientation mechanisms, elucidate adult interseasonal movements
and migratory routes, assess the effects of persistent marine debris
on sea turtles, and develop safer dredging technology.

CORRELATIONS OF AGE TO ROD AND CONE DENSITIES OF THE RETINA. IN THE
GREENSIDE DARTER (ETHE0ST0MA BENNIOIDES) . Michael Pugh, Cris Cole,
and Ronald Jenkins, Dept, of Biology, Samford University, Birmingham,
Alabama 35229.

Feeding behavior of the greenside darter changes from diurnal
feeding to nocturnal feeding with increasing age. This study deter¬
mines if there is a correlation of this feeding behavior to photo¬
receptor populations in the retina. Sixteen greenside darters were
collected and preserved immediately in formalin. Standard body
lengths (snout to anal fin base) were measured and all eyes were
prepared for histological sectioning in paraffin. Entire eyes were
completely sectioned through the optical axis in eight (8) micron
sections and stained with H. and E. The sections through the optic
axis were chosen according to thickness of the retinal nerve fiber
layer and total retinal thickness. Rods and cones were distinguished
in that cone nuclei were adjacent to the external limiting membrane
and pyramidal in shape. Total number of rods and cones were counted
over a horizontal distance of 1800 microns. In longer animals, rod
densities increased, cone densities decreased, and the rod/cone ratio
significantly increased. There is a correlation of the nocturnal
feeding behavior in the greenside darter to declining cone densities.

136

Abstracts

PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES AGAINST STICK
INSECT VITELLOGENINS. B. Estridge, and J_,_ Bradley . Dept. Zoology &
Wildlife Sciences, Auburn Univ. , AL 36849. A. Cecchettini, M. Mazzini,
and F. Giorgi, Istituto di Istologia e Erabriologia, Univ. of Pisa, 56100
Pisa, ITALY.

Vitellogenin (VG) , from which yolk proteins are derived, is
synthesized by insect fat body, secreted into the hemolymph, and
sequestered by oocytes via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Little is
known about the mechanism of VG processing and secretion in insects.
This study reports the production and characterization of monoclonal
antibodies (Mabs) specific for vitellogenins of the stick insect,
Carausius morosus . and their use as tools to study vitellogenesis.
Hybridoma cell lines producing VG-specific antibodies were generated by
fusing non-secreting mouse myeloma cells with spleen cells from mice
immunized with stick insect egg VG. A library of Mabs reactive with
VG by enzyme immunoassay was obtained. By electrophoresis under
denaturing conditions, native stick insect VG molecules A and B can be
separated into five polypeptide subunits - -Al , A2 , and A3 and B1 and B2 ,
respectively. Five Mabs reactive with single VG subunits, two Mabs
reactive with multiple VG subunits, and one Mab reactive with an egg
specific protein (ESP) have been identified using immunob lotting
techniques. One of the antibodies was also found to react with fat body
pre-VG. A preliminary experiment using brefeldin A (BFA) , an inhibitor
of protein secretion, indicates that fat body secretion of VG decreases
following in vitro exposure to concentrations of BFA above 5 ug/ml. The
VG subunit- specif ic Mabs will be useful probes for further investigation
of the secretory mechanisms involved in vitellogenesis. This work was
supported by Alabama NSF/EPSCoR grant RII-8610669.

CHARACTERIZATION OF AN EPIDIDYMAL COMPONENT CAPABLE OF MASKING SPERM
HEAD EPITOPES. T. A. Battle, H.L. Boettger and G.R. Poirier, Dept, of
Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL.

Murine spermatazoa use a trypsin-like proteinase molecule to
bind to the zonae of homologous oocytes. Previous investigations,
using a monoclonal antibody to this molecule, suggest that the
initial in vitro exposure of the epitope in the acrosomal cap region
of the sperm head is by the dilution of epididymal fluid. By 90
minutes of incubation at 37 C the epitope becomes visible on the
equatorial region of the sperm head. Exposure in both the equatorial
and the acrosomal cap regions can be blocked by an in vitro
incubation in the supernatant of washed caudal epididymal sperm or in
a partially purified (gel-filtration and ion-exchange chromatography)
preparation. The blocking component of the supernatant is heat labile
with a molecular weight of approximately 17-19,000 daltons.
Furthermore, the binding of the monoclonal to epitope exposed sperm
can be blocked by treatment with a crude or partially purified
preparation. The data are interpreted to mean that the epitope is
first exposed in the acrosomal cap region by dilution and with
incubation, in the equatorial region by the removal of a masking
component in the epididymal fluid. (Supported by NIH grant HD 22377)

137

Abstracts

LONG TERM IN VITRO CULTIVATION OF CARYOSPORA BIGENETICA (APICOMPLEXA) .
Christine A. Sundermann, Department of Zoology & Wildlife Science, &
David S. Lindsay, Department of Pathobiology , Auburn University AL 36849

Caryospora bigenetica is a coccidian parasite of snakes and mam¬
mals. The genus is unusual in that both asexual and sexual stages occur
in both the reptilian and mammalian hosts. When mammals are infected,
severe dermal coccidiosis usually occurs, and mortality is not uncommon.
Caryospora bigenetica is unusual in that it can also undergo its entire
developmental cycle in vitro in cultured cells of several types. For
this study of development under long term maintenance conditions, spor¬
ozoites were purified from oocysts of rattlesnake origin and added to
flasks of monolayers of human fetal lung (HFL) cells. By Day 15, the
coccidian had completed development and formed caryocysts; the flasks
were then split, and development occurred again. On Day 58, some monos
of HFL cells were deteriorating, so RPMI medium with 10% fetal bovine
serum was added to the flasks. This stimulated division of the HFL
cells and C. bigenetica underwent another round of development with both
asexual and sexual multiplication occurring. On Days 77, 92, and 153,
the monolayers were split with either cell scraping or with addition of
trypsin-EDTA (and removal of Ca-H- and Mg++) which caused the HFL cells
to detach. Each split induced C_. bigenetica to undergo another develop¬
mental cycle. On Day 197, HFL cells were chemically lysed and caryo¬
cysts were liberated. These caryocysts were inoculated onto fresh
monolayers, and development of the coccidian occurred. Some infected
HFL cells also were frozen in liquid N£ in order to study cryopreserva-
tion of the parasite. This is the first report of a coccidian under¬
going both asexual and sexual development continuously under in vitro
conditions. Supported by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station.

The Pocosin of Pike County Alabama. Alvin R. Diamond, Jr.
Troy State University Arboretum, TSU AL 36082

Six miles due east of Troy on the east side of Walnut
Creek, the Pocosin encompasses an area of about a half
square mile. The word Pocosin is of Indian origin and was
originally applied to evergreen swamps in North Carolina.

The Pike County Pocosin contains a large number of ever¬
green species but is by no means a swamp. Deep white
nutrient poor and extremely xeric sands underlie the area.
Vegetation consists mainly of dwarfed oakes, including
Arkansas Oak (Quercus arkansana ) , few if any over 30 feet
tall. Pines are almost totally absent. Except for
lichens and spotty patches of wiregrass and sand cactus
ground cover is lacking. In such open areas the rare
Warea sessil i f ol ia is found. These bare areas provided a
block to fires on the uplands and protected several deep
horse-shoe shaped ravines. Approximately 200 feet from
side to side and up to 100 or so deep each has a spring
at its base. Numerous species of saprophytes are found
there under the mostly evergreen hardwood cover such as
ghost pipes, pine sap and nodding nixie. Unf orunately ,
almost all of this unique area has been transformed into
hay fields, pine plantations or mobile home parks.

138

Abstracts

LABORATORY CULTURE AND LIFE CYCLE OF THE NUDIBRANCH BERGHIA
VERRUCI CORNI S . David J. Carroll , Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife, Auburn
University, A1 36849. Stephen C. Kempf, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife,
Auburn University, Al. 36849.

The complete life cycle of Berghia verrucicornis was studied using
seasoned laboratory aquarium water for all cultures. Adult 13. verruci¬
cornis lay white, spiral egg masses containing fifty to several hundred
embryos. At the time of laying the embryos are in the zygote stage;
development proceeds quickly with the first division beginning 2-2.5
hours after laying. The bilobed velum is apparent at the end of the
second day after oviposition, and the larval shell appears on the
beginning of the third dag. Hatching occurs 11 to 12 days after the egg
mass is layed (23.9 + 1.3 C) resulting in the release of lecithotrophic
veliger larvae. Poecilogony occurs; both larvae and juveniles hatch
from the same undisturbed egg mass. Metamorphosis occurs 1 to 2 days
after hatching and involves the loss of the velum and larval shell. The
newly metamorphosed juvenile is compact, but lengthens considerably
overnight. 3 to 4 days after metamorphosis the juveniles begin feeding
on laboratory reared clones of the sea anemone Aiptasia pallida . The
juveniles reach reproductive maturity (adulthood) on the average of 6
to 7 weeks after oviposition, but the laying of the first egg mass has
been observed as early as 4 weeks after oviposition in the lab. j3.
verrucicornis offers several advantages for inland investigators who
wish to work with opisthobranch molluscs in the lab. It lays egg masses
year round, with regularity, and with a considerable number of eggs;
the embryonic (10-12 days) and larval (1-5 days) periods are short,
neither feeding nor antibiotics is needed during larval culture, and
the juveniles and adults are easily reared in the lab.

SYMBIOSIS BETWEEN A ZOOXANTHELLA AND THE NUDIBRANCH
BERGHIA VERRUCICORNIS. A "PRIMITIVE" ASSOCIATION? Stephen C.
Kempf. Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn University, AL
36849

As the aeolid nudibranch Berghia verrucicornis feeds on the anemone
Aiptasia pallida, the dinoflagellate zooxanthellae living in Aiptasia’s entodermal
cells are transferred, along with anemone tissue, into the lumina of the
ceratal digestive diverticula. Here the algal symbionts, and presumably
anemone tissue, are phagocytosed by nutrient processing cells (NPCs) lining
the diverticula walls, the zooxanthellae coming to reside intracellularly within
membrane bound vesicles. Any given algal cell is transient within the NPCs,
eventually being exocytosed and passed out of the digestive tract in
Berqhia’s feces. Field and lab populations of Berghia maintain a high
concentration of symbionts within their NPCs as they regularly feed on
Aiptasia. Division stages of the algae are present within the NPCs and their
is no evidence of active digestion of the algae in the ceratal tissues or fecal
pellets. The concentration of zooxanthellae slowly decreases over a 1 7 day
period of starvation; however, the algal cells are never totally lost. Evidence
obtained thus far suggests that this association is a "primitive" symbiosis.

139

Abstracts

A COMPARISON OF SOMATIC AND TESTICULAR HISTONE PROTEINS FROM THE SEA
STAR ASTERIAS VULGARIS. Carl B. Massey and Stephen A. Watts, Dept, of
Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Samples of whole histone (HI ,H2A,H2B ,H3 , and H4) were prepared
either by protamine displacement or acid extraction. Histones were
examined electrophoretically employing one dimensional acetic acid-urea
polyacrylamide gels (5% acetic acid-2. 5M urea-157. acrylamide) and
acetic acid-urea-Triton X-100 gels (5% acetic acid-6M urea-6mM Triton-
127. acrylamide) for second dimensional analysis. In male gametogenic
tissues, the predominant HI protein exists as a slow-migrating variant
differing significantly from HI found in somatic tissue (pyloric
caeca). A minor band migrating with somatic type HI was also observed
in testicular extracts. This minor protein band represents either (1)
the HI contribution of the small number of somatic cells present in the
mature testes, or (2) low-level expression of the somatic type HI in
male germinal cells. Nucleosomal histones (H2A, H2B , H3 , and H4) from both
testicular and somatic tissues exhibited similar electrophoretic
patterns. Therefore, A. vulgaris appears to possess primarily one
testis or sperm-specific histone (SpHl) as evidenced by comparison with
testicular histones of the sea urching Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis
which exhibits a distinct SpH2B and SpHl. These data indicate that
histone variants functioning in spermatogenesis may be present as
variants of different histone isotypes (H1,H2B and possibly others) in
different organisms. Thus, variable histone/DNA interactions necessary
during spermatogenesis may be mediated through several different but
functionally related protein variants, and the scheme adopted by the
organism may be related to its phylogeny. This research supported by
AAS Student Research Grant to CBM.

EFFECT OF ALCOHOLS AND NGF ON PROTEIN KINASE C ACTIVITY
IN PC12 CELLS. Elizabeth D. Lloyd, Trudy Swanda and Marie
W. Wooten, Dept, of Zoology/Wildlife, Auburn Univ.,
Auburn, AL 36849

We used PC12 cells as an in vitro model to examine
the effects which alcohols have upon cellular
differentiation. PC12 cells treated with 30ng/ml NGF and
87mM ETOH underwent rapid neurite extension, as compared
to NGF alone. Cells treated with alcohols displayed an
increase in neurite length and number, a decrease in 3H-
thymidine incorporation and a dramatic 4-fold increase
in acetylcholine esterase activity as compared to control
or NGF treatment alone. The synergism observed between
NGF (30ng/ml) in promotoing neurite extension was
directly correlated with the side chaine length of the
alcohol BuOH>PrOH>EtOH>MeOH. Alcohol differentiated PC12
cells contained 3-4 fold greater amounts of protein
kinase C activity. Pretreatment of these cells with
sphingosine (2.5/iM), a specific PKC inhibitor, prevented
differentiation and accumulation of PKC. These data
suggest an intimate relationship between PKC and cellular
differentiation.

140

Abstracts

STATUS OF ENDANGERED BEACH MOUSE POPULATIONS IN ALABAMA. Nicholas R.
Holler and Elizabeth H. Rave, Alabama Cooperative Fish and Wildlife
Research Unit, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn
University, AL 36849-5414.

Two endangered subspecies of beach mice (Peromyscus polionotus)
occur on the coastal dunes of Alabama. The Perdido Key beach mouse
(P. £. trissyllepsis) formerly occurred in more or less continuous
populations along the coast of Perdido Key in Alabama and Florida. In
April 1986 it existed only as one small population of less than 30
individuals in Alabama. The population had increased greatly by April
1987 and numbered more than 100 by November 1987; it appears to have
stabilized at that level. A second population has been established at
Gulf Islands National Seashore in Florida through translocation. That
population has occupied 11,000 meters (approximately 160 ha) of dune
habitat and exceeded 100 individuals in January 1990. The Alabama
beach mouse (P. £. ammobates) formerly occurred on Ono Island and
along the coast from Perdido Pass to Fort Morgan. It was extirpated
from Ono Island by 1982. In 1987, we found remaining populations at
and between Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge (Perdue Unit) and Fort
Morgan. Alabama beach mice may now be extirpated from Gulf State
Park, where domestic cats (Felis silvestris) are common and house mice
occur. In November 1987, 8 house mice (Mus musculus) but no beach mice
were captured in 5 nights of trapping (910 trap nights). Trapping at
Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge and Fort Morgan 1987 through 1989
showed that those areas remain occupied. Tropical storms pose the
most serious threat to remaining populations. Captive colonies are
being maintained at Auburn University to guard against the potential
loss of wild populations.

EXPRESSION OF PROTEIN KINASE C ISOFORMS DURING
DIFFERENTIATION OF PC12 CELLS. K. Beth Beason and Marie
W. Wooten, Dept, of Zoology/Wildlife, Auburn Univ. ,
Auburn, AL 36849

Protein kinase C is a gene family composed of 3
highly related members, alpha, beta and gamma. Selective
expression of the various encoded isoforms have been
examined in several tissues, in addition to various
established cell lines. Using brain as a standard we
have compared the expression of PKC isoforms in the
pheochromocytoma cell line, PC12 . Undifferentiated PC12
cells express two of the encoded protein isoforms, PEAK
II=beta and PEAK III=alpha. An intimate relationship
between PKC activation and differentiation of PC12 cells
has been established. We were therefore interested to
examine the expression of PKC isoforms during
differentiation of these cells. Cells were harvested
after being treated with inducer and probed by Western
blots with isoform specific antibodies. Our results
reveal an increase in the gamma-isoform. We are
currently examining the time course and induction of the
various mRNA ' s for these isoform proteins.

141

Abstracts

LONG TERM EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON THE GROWTH AND
REPRODUCTION OF THE TROPICAL SEA URCHIN, EUCIDARIS
TRIBULOIDES. Michael T. Lares and James B. McClintock, Dept, of
Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Individuals of Eucidaris tribuloides were held at temperatures
of 18 and 27°C for a period of seven months to examine the effects
of temperature on somatic growth and reproduction. Growth, as
measured by changes in wet weights and test diameters, was
monitored monthly and reproductive condition was ascertained at
the conclusion of the seven months. Individuals held at 18°C showed
little or negative growth throughout the seven month period (mean
growth/month = -0.12 ± 0.21 g wet wt; 0.2 ± 0.8 mm test diameter).
However, individuals held at 27°C increased in size (mean
growth/month = 0.24 ± 0.35 g wet wt; 0.2 ± 0.2 mm test diameter).
The gonads of individuals held at 18°C were generally small (mean
gonad index = 4.13 ± 3.00) and lacked definitive gametes, whereas
the gonads of individuals held at 27°C were large (mean gonad index
= 7.96 ± 2.20) and contained numerous mature gametes. The results
of this experiment indicate that temperature has a pronounced
effect on the somatic growth and gonadal development in this
common, tropical sea urchin. Supported by a Grant-in-Aid from
Sigma Xi.

ENDANGERED MARINE FISHES: ARE THERE ANY? Robert L. Shipp,
Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Alabama, Mobile,
Alabama 36688.

Despite heated controversy regarding intense overfishing on several
marine species, there are currently no species of marine fishes off the
north central Gulf coast which appear to be in any danger of approaching
critically low population levels. Populations of economically important
species may be below optimal, but their reduced abundance would not be
construed as even remotely threatening their survival as species.

However, there are several poorly known cryptic species occurring
in specialized habitats along the mid shelf region whose status is unclear.
Two of these are chaenopsid blennies, Chaenopsis roseola, the flecked
pikeblenny, and Emblemaria piratula, the pirate blenny. Both species app'ear
restricted to rubble/shell hash bottoms of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico
at depths of from approximately thirty to sixty meters. The former species
may have a greater geographical range, but the status of its close congeners
is currently unclear. The pirate blenny appears to have a more restricted
range.

Several other poorly known cryptic forms (e.g. Cobulus myersi,
Palatogobius paradoxus, and Gillelus sp.) co occur on this distinctive
substrate. While none of these species is herein considered threatened
or endangered, their possible limited range and apparent specialized habitat
render them most vulnerable in the event of major environmental
modification in the Gulf of Mexico.

142

Abstracts

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF THE FRESHWATER GASTROPOD PHYSELLA CUBENSIS,
Donald Thomas and James McClintock, Dept, of Biology, University of
Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294.

The population densities, s ize- frequency distributions and
reproductive activities (egg mass abundnace) of the freshwater
pulmonate gastropod Physella cubensis were examined during 1989 at
three sites in Shades Creek, Birmingham, Alabama. A fourth site in
an adjacent ephemeral pond habitat was also sampled. Stream sites
I and II were gravel/mud habitats while site III was a rock-shelf
habitat. Total numbers of individuals/m2, individual sizes, numbers
of deposited egg masses, temperature and precipitation were recorded
at two week intervals. Snails appeared in the stream sites in June
and attained peak mean densities of 35, 30, and 10/m2 in sites I, II
and III, respectively. Stream-site snails were absent by the end of
September. Snails were present in the pond site from January through
October reaching multiple peak mean densities of 363, 280, 275 and
101/m2 in March, April, July and September, respectively. Size-
frequency analysis indicates that growth occurred slower in the
stream than in the pond, with stream populations having two
generations/year and pond populations having six or more generations/
year. Egg masses first appeared in the stream sites in June and in
the pond site in April. Egg mass abundance was positively correlated
with larger sized individuals (5-10 mm shell length). The population
dynamics of P. cubensis appear to be regulated by such factors as
habitat structure, precipitation, food availability, and particularly,
temperature .

REPRODUCTION IN CAPTIVE SANTA ROSA BEACH MICE (PEROMYSCUS P0LI0N0TUS
LEUCOCEPHALUS) AND CHOCTAWHATCHEE BEACH MICE (P. P. ALLOPHRYS) .

Karen L. Fleming and Nicholas R. Holler, Alabama Cooperative Fish and
Wildlife Research Unit, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn
University, AL 36849-5414.

Reproductive data were collected on captive Santa Rosa beach
mice (Peromyscus polionotus leucocephalus ; SRBM) and captive Chocta-
whatchee beach mice (P. £. allophrys ; CBM) at the Alabama Cooperative
Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Auburn University, from January 1987
to January 1990. Data were analyzed for all continuously paired
wild-trapped females (SRBM, n=20; CBM, n=5) and for first generation
captive-born females paired at age 60 days with first generation cap¬
tive born males age 60-90 days (SRBM, n=28; CBM, n=9) . Seventy-one
percent (20) of SRBM first generation females and 56 percent (5) of
CBM first generation females produced young. An ANOVA showed signi¬
ficant differences (p < .05) between subspecies for mean days to
first littering (SRBM, 148 + 122 days; CBM, 331 ± 159 days) and mean
numbers of litters in first year after pairing (SRBM, 5.9 ± 3.3; 1.8
± 2.5). Mean litter sizes were 4.12 ± 1.32 for SRBM and 4.31 ± 1.64
CBM and did not differ significantly (p < .05). Likewise, mean
litter weights, young weights, number of males, number of females,
number of litters in first year after pairing, and litter interval
did not differ significantly (p < .05) between subspecies, between
generations within a subspecies, or between like generations of
separate subspecies.

143

Abstracts

TOXOPLASMA GONDII: CHARACTERIZATION OF MONOCLONAL ANTI¬
BODIES GENERATED AGAINST TACHYZOITES. D. S. Lindsav. Dept.
Pathobiology, Auburn University, AL 36849, J. P. Dubey, USDA, Zoonotic Dis.
Lab., Beltsville, MD 20705 and B. L. Blagbum, Dept. Pathobiology, Auburn
University, AL 36849.

Toxoplasmosis is a serious disease of man and other warm-blooded animals.
Mental retardation and blindness are common in transplacentally infected
children. Toxoplasmic encephalitis is a fatal condition that develops in many
Toxoplasma gondii seropositive AIDS patients. Cats are the only known definitive
host for T. gondii. Infectious stages of the parasites are classified as sporozoites,
tachyzoites or bradyzoites. We made monoclonal antibodies (MAB) to tachyzoites
of the highly pathogenic RH isolate by immunizing BALB/C mice with killed
tachyzoites collected from cell cultures. Following fusions of immune spleen cells
with myeloma cells, two hybridomas were identified that reacted with tachyzoites
in an IFA test. Positive hybridomas were cloned by limiting dilution. One of the
MABs (TG-1DE4C) gave a tachyzoite pellicle surface binding IFA pattern and
the other MAB (TG-2AB2A) gave a anterior end binding IFA pattern. MAB TG-
1DE4C was specific for tachyzoites while, MAB TG-2AB2A also reacted with
sporozoites an bradyzoites of T. gondii. Additionally, MAB TG-2AB2A reacted
with Neospora caninum tachyzoites and Eimeria bovis merozoites. Neither MAB
protected mice from lethal infection with the RH isolate.

GEOGRAPHY, SEASONALITY, SIZE,
DEAD IN ALABAMA SINCE 1987.
Spring Hill College, Mobile,

AND SEX OF BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS FOUND
Gerald T. Regan , Department of Biology,
AL 36608.

The design had been to report results through calendar 1989, but
was extended to include the first 46 days of 1990 either by expanding
the database or simply adding the 1990 results as such as time
permitted. From April 1, 1987 through February 15, 1990, of 42 cases,

n ii-Wo[e °n the Gulf beaches: Dauphin Island 21*; Mobile Point 21*;
Gulf Shores - Roraar Beach 12*; Perdido Key 5*. The Bays had 40*:
Mobile Bay 21 *; Perdido Bay 19*. At Dauphin Island, over half were
on the Mississippi Sound side. In Mobile Bay, the northmost was at
Dog River; more than half the cases were between Point Clear and
Mullet Point. From April 1, 1987 through 1989, 40* of 30 cases
occurred in March and April, the rest scattered evenly in other
months. In 1990, there were 12 cases, including two mummies, by mid-
ebruary. Of 34 cases that could be sexed, 68* occurred in the first
tour months of the year, males outnumbering females 14 to 9 then, 1990
a a included. Of 23 measurable cases before 1990, 47* exceeded 230
cm (max 247) and 26* were below 110 cm (neonate) standard length
Females averaged 205 cm (max 247), males 198 (max 270), 1990 data
included. Of 11 weighed before 1990 the range was 21-251 lbs. In
early 1990 cases of 334, 376, 426, and 475 lbs appeared, all males.

Of cases that could be sexed, before 1990 56* of 25 were females but
in early 1990 78* of 9 were males.

144

Abstracts

CHEMISTRY

DIASTEREOMERJC DERIVATIZATION AND LIQUID CHROMATO¬
GRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF N-(PHENYLSULFONYL)-2-PHENYLGLYCINE
ALDOSE REDUCTASE INHIBITORS. Kamal Bouhadir. C. Randall Clark,
Charles A. Mayfield and Jack DeRuiter, Department of Pharmacal Sciences,
School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, AL, 36849.

A series (5)- and (R)-N-(phenylsulfonyl)-2-phenylglycines were synthesized
as potential inhibitors of the enzyme aldose reductase. In vitro analysis
demonstrates that the S-enantiomers are more inhibitory than the R-enantio-
mers and that the differences in potencies between enantiomeric pairs is
dependent on the electronic nature of ring substituents. To ensure that this
enantioselectivity does not reflect varying degrees of racemization during the
syntheses, the enantiomeric purity of the N-(phenylsulfonyl)-2-phenylglycines
was determined by HPLC after chiral derivatization. Each 2-phenylglycine
product was derivatized with (R)-methylbenzylamine and the resulting
diastereomers analyzed using reversed and normal achiral stationary phases.
Reversed-phase methods with Cjg or phenyl stationary phases and solvent
mixtures of acetonitrile or methanol in water did not provide satisfactory
diastereomer resolution. Normal phase analyses with a silica stationary phase
and mixtures of methanol, ethanol or acetonitrile in chloroform provided good
separations with relatively short analysis times. The normal phase analyses
demonstrate that a single diastereomeric amide formed from each N-(phenylsul-
fonyl)-2-phenylglycine product, establishing that these compounds did not
racemize during synthesis.

TRANSAMINATION AND THE SYNTHESIS OF AMINOARS INE S . Colacot J.
Thomas , Larry K. Krannich and Charles L. Watkins , University of
Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama 35294.

Aminoarsines are a class of As-N compounds which have shown
significant synthetic potential in organometallic and coordination
chemistry. Despite their applications, the number of aminoarsines
known in the literature is limited. Although several publications
have appeared on the synthesis of aminoarsines/phosphines by the
t ransaminati on ( transesterification ) route, the general utility of
this pathway as compared to aminolysis has received little
attention. In this paper, we will discuss the synthetic merits and
certain mechanistic implications of transamination reactions. A
variety of ami
iPr2N-, nBu2

C5H10N~, C6H12N" and

ninoarsines of the type Me2AsR [R=Me2N~, Et2N-, nPr 2N-,
N— , 1Bu2N-, Ph2N-, (PhCH2)2N-, (C6Hn)2N-, C4HRN-,

CH3NC4Hr1

N-] have been synthesized by the
aminolysis and transamination routes. This study suggests that
transamination reactions are primarily sterically controlled,

whereas electronic effects dominate aminolysis reactions.
*H-NMR spectral details of these arsines will be discussed.

13

C and

145

Abstracts

SYNTHESIS OF HETERO-FUSED ISOQUINOLONES. Forrest T. Smith,
Venkat Ram Atieadda. Jack DeRuiter, School of Pharmacy, Auburn
University, Auburn, Alabama 36849.

The reaction of 7-methoxyphthalic anhydride with heterocycles containing
a basic azomethine linkage has proven to be quite successful in providing a
variety of hetero-fused isoquinolones. Although thiazole, oxazole and
imidazole fail to give the desired compounds 1-pyrroline, 1-pyrroline trimer,
and 2-thiazoline give the carboxy-substituted heterocycles in high yield. The
results favor a mechanism by which there is an initial attack of the imine on
the anhydride at C-l followed by attack of the acyl iminium cation by the
generated enol. A cycloaddition mechanism or prior abstraction of the C-
4 proton are not supported by these results. Support for this research has
been provided, in part, by the W. W. Walker, Jr. Endowment.

UV STUDIES OF STERICALLY RESTRICTED ARENETRICARBONYLCHROMIUM COMPLEXES.
D. Radzvkewycz. J. Rawlings, and C.A.L. Mahaffy, Dept, of Chemistry,
Auburn University at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL, 36117.

The UV-visible spectra for a variety of substituted arene
tricarbonylchromium complexes have been obtained. Arenes which
contain acetyl, ester, or vinyl groups which are not sterically
hindered at the 2- or 6- position form arenetricarbonylchromium
complexes which show an absorption maximum in the 420 nm region;
this band gives these complexes their characteristic orange color.
Arenes which have a substituent ortho to the unsaturated group have
this band shifted to somewhat shorter wavelengths. When the arene
is 2 , 6-disubstituted, the complex is yellow and the absorption
maximum is no longer apparent.

NEW METAL COMPLEXES USEFUL AS ENZYME INHIBITORS. J. Rawlings,
Dept, of Chemistry, Auburn University at Montgomery,
Montgomery, AL 36117.

The kinases are a class of enzymes that require MgATP for
activity. By synthesizing and characterizing substitution-inert
metal complexes of ATP, these enzymes have been shown to have a
steric preference for particular conformations of the metal-ATP
complex. Hexokinase, for instance, preferentially uses a lambda
metal-ATP complex. This paper will present the synthesis, isolation,
and characterization of new metal-ATP complexes and will also discuss
their steric interactions with hexokinase.

146

Abstracts

PEOX-co-PEI/URACIL OR 5-FLU0R0URACIL POLYNUCLEOTIDE ANALOGS:
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION. Kevin W. Carter and A. G. Ludwick.
Chemistry Department, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088

The project is designed to study the antiviral activity of the uracil or 5-fluorouracil analog
and correlate the results with structural characteristics. The analogs are synthesized by the
reaction of an intermediate succinimide ester with a 50% hydrolyzed polyethyloxzaline
copolymer (PEOX-co-PEI). Structural characterization of the uracil and 5-fluorouracil

analogs is underway using spectroscopic analyses. Antiviral activity of the analogs will b<
examined at Southern Research Institute. (Supported by NIH/MBRS)

ECKART'S CRITERION APPLIED TO SIMPLE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODELS.
Robert Mathews, Mobile College, Mobile, AL 36613.

Only the very simplest systems can be solved exactly in
quantum mechanics, making approximate solutions necessary for
problems of interest. How accurate are the approximate solutions?
The variation theorem guarantees that the energy of any valid
approximate solution must exceed the true energy of the system,
and it is generally assumed that the lower the energy, the more
accurate the approximate solution. Recent studies have shown
that lower energies do not always correspond to better solutions,
since such quantities as the dispersion of the energy may increase.
Eckart established that the mean-square error in the wavefunction
decreased as the energy of the approximate solution decreased.

By using computer spreadsheet programs, it is easy to demonstrate
Eckart' s criterion. Sample calculations and their instructional
use will be discussed.

147

Abstracts

QUANTUM MECHANICAL PREDICTION OF TAUTOMERIC
EQUILIBRIA FOR THE PURINE BASES. .Terzv Leszczvnski.
Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
University Station PHS-219, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Chemical studies show that DNA has the structure of a long-chain poly¬
mer consisting of alternating phosphate and nitrogen base-substituted sugar
residues. One of the four bases, adenine, guanine, cytosine , and thymine
is bonded to each of the sugar residues. The hydrogen bonds formed be¬
tween base pairs lead to linking the two strands of DNA helix. From the
point of view of structural chemistry and molecular biology a knowledge of
relative stabilities of tautomeric forms of nucleic acid bases (NAB), as well as
of the tautomeric conversion from one form to another is important. Watson
and Crick suggested that the spontaneous point mutations might be due to
mispairing by rare tautomeric forms of purinic and pyrimidinic NAB.

The stabilities of several isolated tautomers of ■purine, adenine and gua¬
nine are discussed by considering their relative internal energies predicted by
ab initio quantum mechanical calculations. The contributions of the SCF, zero
point vibrational energy and electron correlation for calculation of the relative
tautomer stabilities are studied. The stabilities of the guanine tautomers are
compared with similar calculations for isocytosme tautomers. An effect of the
environment on the relative stabilities of several tautomers is also discussed.

OPTIMIZATION OF A FLOW INJECTION ANALYSIS SYSTEM FOR
LACTATE. Moore U. Asouzu, Dept, of Chemistry, Troy State
Univ., Troy, AL 36082. William K. Nonidez, Mat H. Ho,
Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Ala . -Birmingham , AL 35294.

Lactate analysis by enzyme amplification and ampero-
metric detection was adapted to flow injection analysis.

The operating parameters of this system were optimized by
the simplex method, and maximized by the univariate method.
Results obtained under conditions predicted by both
methods were compared. It was found that the sensitivity
of the linear portion of the calibration curve prepared
under the simplex conditions was 1.2 times better than
that of the calibration curve generated with the
values determined by univariate maximization. The
detection limit was 0.119yUM and 0.329 /<M with a %RSD of
2.5 and 3.6 respectively, under simplex conditions and
univariate conditions (n = 10). The optimization process
was completed in about 3 hrs. and a total of 15 steps
were needed.

143

Abstracts

Accuracy of Weighted Semi-log Linear Regressions. Michael B. Moeller.
Department of Chemistry, University of North Alabama, Florence AL 35632.

Semi-log plots are used in the analysis of data from a wide variety chemical
experiments. As sophisticated statistical software becomes increasingly
available, weighted linear regressions are becoming more commonplace. For
a semilog plot, if the measurements of the dependent variable are assumed to
have equal precision, the appropriate weighing factors are the square of the
true values of the dependent variables. Of course, the true values are not
known, so typically the weights are estimated either by using the observed
values or by calculating the values through an iterative procedure.
Unfortunately the use of estimated weights invalidates, to some extent, the
statistics from the least squares analysis. This paper describes a Monte Carlo
investigation of the accuracy of weighted linear regressions using estimated
weights. It was found that using a single iteration, that is, having weights
calculated from a prior fit which used weights estimated by the observed
values, the slope parameter from the regression closely matched the slope
parameter obtained when true weight values were used. The results also
reveal the magnitude of bias introduced by the log transformation of the data.
This information can be useful for experimental design and also suggests a
desirability in certain instances to replace the semi-log model by the nonlinear
least squares fit of the exponential model.

BONDING SITE SELECTIVITY OF Me6Al2. Larrv K^_ Krannich.
Charles L. Watkins, and Dileep Srivastava, Dept, of
Chemistry, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
35294.

Trimethylaluminum exists in solution in predominantly the
dimeric form, (Me3Al)2. It readily reacts with almost
every conceivable molecule having unshared electron pairs
or even ^-electrons . While there are numerous
characterized 1:1 adducts of amines and phosphines, there
is very limited information concerning the reactions of
(Me3Al)2 with arsines and molecules containing adjacent,
competing heteroatom Lewis base sites. Reactions with M-
H (M = N, P, As) bonding containing species result in
cleavage of the M-H bond and formation of methane and
cyclic M-Al bond containing dimers and trimers. We have
extended the reactivity of (Me3Al)2 to aminoarsines and
have established this as a novel synthetic route to Me3As
and heterolyptic arsines of the type, Me2RAs and R2MeAs .
Multinuclear NMR studies have permitted us to elucidate
the reaction pathways to the tertiary arsines.

149

Abstracts

INVESTIGATION OF THE ROTAMERIC NATURE OF THE N-BEN-
ZOYL-N-METHYLGLYCINE AND N-BENZENESULFONYL-N-METHYL-
GLYCINE ALDOSE REDUCTASE INHIBITORS BY PROTON NMR.

R. Alan Davis. Charles A. Mayfield, and Jack DeRuiter, Department of
Pharmacal Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, AL, 36849-5503.

A number of N-benzoylamino acids and isosteric N-benzenesulfonylamino
acids were synthesized as inhibitors of the enzyme aldose reductase. These
compounds exhibit a high degree of inhibition in vitro. Proton NMR analysis
(utilizing a Bruker AM 400 spectrometer) of a series of N-benzoyl-N-methylgly-
cine and N- benzenesulfonyl-N-methylglycine inhibitors provided information
concerning the rotameric nature of these compounds in solution. THe
multiplicity of proton signals demonstrates that the N-benzoyl compounds exist
as a mixture of rotamers in dg-acetone, d^-DMSO, and ^H phosphate buffer,
while similar behavior was not apparent with the N-benzenesulfonyl derivatives.
The rotameric nature of the N-benzoyl compounds is a result of the hinder¬
ed rotation about the C-N amide bond; however, no such hinderance is
apparent in the sulfonamide series. Using dynamic range analysis, the activation
parameters and relative populations of the individual rotamers were obtained
for the N-benzoyl compounds and analyzed relative to other amides. Since
aldose reductase could have an affinity for one of the N-benzoyl rotamers, the
potential inhibitory activity of these compounds could be underestimated by the
in vitro assay.

DISPERSION AND KINETIC TRANSFER FUNCTIONS BY FFT, E. Clifford Toren,
Jr., and George W. Mclntire, Department of Pathology, University
of South Alabama Medical Center, Mobile, AL 36617.

Convection, diffusion, and chemical kinetics in tubular reactors
such as encountered in Flow Injection Analysis and Post Column detect¬
ion systems result in dispersion (band broadening) of the solute peaks.
These systems can be characterized by the transfer function of the
system. The transfer function can be further resolved into separate
components. The Fourier transform provides a computationally effi¬
cient method to determine these transfer functions. In the frequency
domain the transfer function is simply the quotient of the output and
input functions. In the time domain lengthy convolution operations,
often involving real exponentials, are required. Especially for data
acquired digitally, the Fast Fourier Transform offers even faster
solutions. Simple analytic solutions to the mass balance equations
governing these phenomena are often possible in the Laplace plane;
however, inversions back to the time domain are frequently intract¬
able. Numerical inversion from the Laplace domain is readily accomp¬
lished with the Fast Fourier Transform. We present several experi¬
mental examples for illustration.

150

Abstracts

THE PREPARATION OF SOME NEW DERIVATIVES OF ANILINETRICABONYLCHROMIUM.
J. Hamilton, L. Harvev, C.A.L. Mahaffy, D. Radzykewycz, and
J. Rawlings, Dept, of Chemistry, Auburn University at Montgomery,
Montgomery, AL, 36116-3596, USA.

Derivatives of Anil inetricarbonylchromlum may be prepared
according to the equation:

-+- 3CO

R may be a great variety of groups including alkyl (n£5)»
alkoxy (n<3), F (n<2), CF3 (n-1). OCF3 (n=l) together with many
mixed examples. The latest syntheses will be presented together
with a discussion of this important synthetic method.

INVESTIGATION OF THE SYNTHESIS OF 1-SUBSTITUTED 4-(PROPAN-
ANILIDO)PERHYDROAZEPINE ANALGESICS. Shridhar V. Andurkar.
Thomas N. Riley and Jack DeRuiter, Department of Pharmacal Sciences,
School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, AL, 36849.

A series of 1-substituted 4-(propananilido)perhydroazepines (4-PPAs) were
synthesized as ring expanded analogues of the analgesic fentanyl and found to
display significant activity in the tail flick assay. These compounds were
prepared from l-carbethoxy-4-piperidone (1) by an eight step reaction sequence.
Reaction of 1 with ethyl diazoacetate and boron trifluoride afforded the
intermediate l,5-biscarboethoxyperhydroazepine-4-one (2). Hydrolysis of 2 with
6N HC1 yielded perhydroazepine-one (3), which was N-reprotected as the
carbamate (4). Reductive amination of 4 by sequential reaction with aniline
and zinc chloride followed by imine reduction provided the intermediate 1-
carboethoxy-4-anilidoperhydroazepine (5). Several analogues with varying
1-substituents were then prepared by N-deprotection (48% HBr) of 5 followed
by N-alkylation (simple or reductive). Finally, aniline N-propionylation of the
1-substituted derivatives afforded the 4-PPA analgesics. While successful, this
synthetic approach is relatively inefficient and the 4-PPA products are obtained
as racemates. Therefore our current efforts are directed towards a) direct
formation of 4 by ring expansion of 1 with diazomethane, b) optimization of the
efficiency of subsequent transformations and c) resolution of racemic inter¬
mediates using chiral derivatization and separation techniques.

151

Abstracts

DETERMINATION OF THE ENANTIOMERIC COMPOSITION OF
AMPHETAMINE ANALOGUES. Jack DeRuiter. F. T. Noggle and C. Randall
Clark, Department of Pharmacal Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Auburn
University, AL, 36849.

The clandestine synthesis of amphetamine and methamphetamine remains
the major source of these drugs of abuse. Liquid chromatographic analysis
(HPLC) of samples containing these amines is hampered by the poor retention
properties and low UV detectability of these compounds. Precolumn
derivatization of amphetamines with phenylisothiocyanate (PIT) yields thiourea
products that have improved reversed-phase chromatographic properties and
increased UV absorptivity. Using precolumn derivatization with chiral reagents
such as 2,3,4,6-tetra-0-acetyl-/J-D-glucopyranosylisothiocyanate (GITC), the
enantiomeric composition of amphetamines containing a chiral center can also
be determined. These derivatives also have good retention properties and
absorptivities, and analyses can be performed under standard reversed-phase
conditions with achiral C^g stationary phases. Sample separations will be
presented to demonstrate how these chromatographic procedures allow for the
rapid identification and determination of stereochemistry of amphetamines and
related compounds.

AN AB INITIO STUDY ON XGaH4 SYSTEMS (X = B, Al, Ga).

JerzY — Leszczynski and Koop Lammertsma; Department of Chemistry,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, University Station PHS-219,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

The potential energy surfaces of digallane(4) Ga2H4 and its boron BGaH4
and aluminum AlGaH4 analogues have been studied by ab initio molecular or¬
bital theory at the MP2 level using a Huzinaga valence triply ( basis set for
gallium and Pople 6-31G * basis functions for the other atoms. Six struc¬
tures in the case of Ga2H4 and AlGaH4 systems and five BGaH4 structures
of the eight HF/3-21G optimized isomers were characterized as minimuma.
The //-hydrido bridged tridentate isomer is the global minimum for digal-
lane(4), while bidentate structures form the most stable isomers for its B and
Al derivatives.

Our ab initio study provides theoretical information about the molec¬
ular structures, vibrational spectra, and dimerization energy of digallane(4),
AlGaH4 , and BGaH4 . Their bonding properties, investigated by a topological
electron density analysis, are also reported.

152

Abstracts

GEOLOGY

TRACE ELEMENT DISTRIBUTION IN IGNEOUS ROCKS AS A FUNCTION OF CRYSTAL
GROWTH. Peter A. Salpas . Department of Geology, 210 Petrie Hall,
Auburn University, Alabama 36849-5305

Distributions of trace elements in hand specimen-size igneous
rocks are largely dependent upon two factors: (1) the compositions of
parent magmas which are functions of the extent of fractionation; and
(2) the minerals which make up the rocks and the degree to which miner¬
als of a given type are homogeneously arranged throughout the rock.
This last factor has been elucidated by an investigation of cubic mil¬
limeter- to centimeter-size samples which reveals that movement of
interstitial liquid and equilibration with different solid phases in¬
fluences the compositions of samples that fall in this size range.
Anorthosites from the Stillwater Complex in Montana originated as a
suspension of cumulus plagioclases (-80 vol.%) and parent magma. The
interstitial liquid solidified by growing cotectic mixtures of plagio-
clase and augite oikocrysts up to 6 cm in diameter. Pyroxenes tended
to nucleate in clusters so that 100-300 cnr volumes of the suspension
became either pyroxene-rich or pyroxene-poor. For size scales on the
order of 10 cnr or less, pyroxene-rich samples are depleted in incom¬
patible trace elements compared to ones with little or no pyroxene
because their intercumulus pore space filled with large, single-crystal
pyroxenes leaving little space for trapping the residue of interstitial
liquid which must then have been dispersed into the pyroxene-poor
samples. This process fractionated the REE because the LREE partition
evenly between plagioclase and augite but the HREE prefer augite over
plagioclase . A sample's relative REE composition reflects (1) its
augite content, (2) its trapped liquid content, and (3) its trapped
liquid composition, which will vary depending on the extent to which
the liquid equilibrated with plagioclase, pyroxene, or both.

JOURNEY OF AN ASBESTOS FIBER. Norman B. Cranford, Harmon Engineering
Associates, Inc., Auburn, AL 36830.

The journey of an asbestos fiber begins when building surveyors
collect bulk samples from buildings that have suspect or asbestos-
containing materials. The bulk samples are placed in Ziplocm bags
and transported to our Harmon Engineering analytical laboratory.
Analysis of the bulk samples for the presence or absence of asbestos
is performed by the techniques of Polarized Light Microscopy (PLM)
and Dispersion Staining. PLM uses R.I. liquids (high dispersion),
extinction angles, and sign of elongation (using a red 1 or lamda
compensator plate-530nm) to identify the asbestos minerals
Chrysotile, Amosite, Crocidolite, Anthophyllite, Tremolite, and
Actinolite from the non-asbestos materials. Dispersion Staining is a
specialized technique of polarized light observation used to devise a
distinct set of color indicators for each mineral type of asbestos.
The journey of an asbestos fiber ends with the proper disposal of
asbestos-containing materials in a hazardous waste facility.

153

Abstracts

MINERAL RESOURCES OF CHEROKEE COUNTY, ALABAMA. Karen F. Rheams,
Geological Survey of Alabama, P.0. Box 0, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486.

Cherokee County, Alabama, is underlain by Paleozoic rocks of
the Appalachian Plateaus and Valley and Ridge provinces and Quaternary
alluvial and terrace deposits associated with the Coosa River and
Weiss Lake. A wide variety of mineral resources have played an
important role in the settlement and economic development of this
county. One of the earliest iron ore furnaces in northeast Alabama
began operation at Round Mountain in 1852. Hematite was mined
extensively from the Silurian Red Mountain Formation on Round
Mountain, Shinbone Ridge, and Dirtseller and Scraper Mountains.
Limoni te, occurring in the siliceous Knox Group and Weisner and
Wilson Ridge Formations, was mined in the southeast part of the
county from the late 1800's to the 1940' s. The discovery of massive
and pisolitic bauxite associated with the limonite deposits in the
Rock Run and Goshen Valley areas produced a mining boom in this
part of the county from 1891 to 1923. Supergene manganese deposits
in the Fort Payne Chert and Knox Group rocks and residuum, and in
fault-related deposits in the siliceous Weisner and Wilson Ridge
Formations were mined from approximately 1918 to 1943. Limestone,
sandstone, chert, and quartzite quarries have produced crushed and
building stone. High-quality molding sand in the floodplains of
Little River and Benjamin and Yellow Creeks was mined and shipped
to steel foundries in Anniston. Alluvial and terrace deposits have
supplied sand and gravel for construction material. Fluorite,
cobalt-bearing manganese, phosphate minerals, and uranium also have
been investigated in the county. Removal of rail transportation
and changes in markets have drastically altered the economy of this
once active mining area in Alabama.

NEW INSIGHT ON ICHNOGENUS ROSSELIA (CRETACEOUS AND HOLOCENE,
ALABAMA). Andrew K. Rindsberg. Geological Survey of Alabama, P. O. Box O,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35486. Robert A. Gastaldo, Department of Geology, Auburn
University, AL 36849.

The maker and ethology of the burrow Rosselia were obscure until
modem examples were discovered in a brackish interdistributary bay within an
Alabama estuary. In the Mobile Delta, Rosselia is the thickly reinforced
apertural lining of the crustacean burrow Thalassinoides in soft to soupy
substrates. The unseen makers are presumably thalassinidean shrimp, which
thoroughly rework the bay floor. Apertural linings are made of firm muddy sand
and comprise small, cryptic firmgrounds inhabited by polychaetes and minute
gastropods. Vibracores show that Rosselia is preserved even under conditions
of slow burial, perhaps because the linings are too firm to be easily reworked.
In size, internal structure, associated burrows, and littoral setting, modem
Rosselia corresponds well to fossil examples in the Upper Cretaceous Tombigbee
Sand Member (Eutaw Formation) of west and central Alabama.

154

Abstracts

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL COMPUTER GRAPHICS
IN GEOLOGICAL TERRANE ANALYSIS. Wayne C^ Isphordinq. Dept'
of Geology/Geography, Univ. of South Ala., Mobile,' AL 36688

The United States now has the "enviable" distinction
hring®ne attorneY for every 286 citizens. This fact makes
it highly likely that today's geologist and engineer will,
at some time in their career, be asked to testify either in
the form of a deposition or in an actual court of law as to
the meaning and significance of spatial ly-distr ibuted data.
The common way of displaying such information is to simply
contour" the data in order to identify sites of anomalous]
high or low concentrations of a particular variable. Whil
contour maps are a commonly used vehicle for sue
information and are readily interpreted by most
professionals, their use in a court of law frequently has
either no result or even disastrous results. This, because
most individuals serving on juries have little or no
training in interpreting such diagrams and, as such, can
often be mis-Iead as to their actual significance by the
opposing attorney. Because such information may be critical
to the actual case, however, it is incumbent that the expert
witness be able to explain the true significance of such
data. One means by which this can be accom-pl ished is by
means of computer algorithms that transform 2-dimensional
data (contour maps) into 3-dimensional "net diagrams". Six
examples will be discussed from cases that were litigated in
the State of Alabama. Five of these resulted in favorable
decisions for the client.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION OF GOLD
DEPOSITS IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. Robert B. Cook, Dept,
of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849.

More than 100,000 ounces of gold were produced in the southeastern
United States in 1989, an amount significantly larger than in any year
since 1800. Three South Carolina deposits, all within metavolcanic
rocks of the Carolina Slate Belt, are responsible for this output. One
of these, the Ridgeway mine, has reserves exceeding 1,000,000 ounces
and represents a modem discovery based in part on detailed geochemical
exploration techniques. Operational permits for other deposits have
been applied for in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and
Georgia. In addition to the Carolina Slate Belt discoveries, new mines
are in the development or planning stage in metavolcanic rocks of the
Kings Mountain Belt of North Carolina and the Northern Piedmont of
Georgia. Intense exploration of occurrences related to major regional
structures such as the Brevard Zone are presently underway. Companies
actively exploring or developing gold deposits in the southeast during
the past 48 months include Piedmont Mining Company, Corona, Westmont,
Amselco-RTZ, Gwalia International, Battle Mountain, Texas Gulf, Bond
International Gold-Lac Minerals, Newmont Gold, Freeport-McMoRan, and
Phelps Dodge.

155

tr ,-i k:

Abstracts

THE CAMBRIAN -ORDOVICIAN "FINNMARKIAN" AND SILURIAN-
DEVONIAN "SCANDIAN" PHASES OF THE CALEDONIAN OROGENY IN
NORTH NORWAY. Mark G. Steltenpohl, Dept, of Geology,
Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 36849-5305

The north Norwegian Caledonides represent the
northernmost extension of the Appalachian-Caledonian
mountain chain, which was split during the Mesozoic
through Cenozoic opening of the Atlantic Ocean basin.
North of the Arctic circle, the mountain belt is
characterized by two distinct orogenic phases. The early
Paleozoic " Finnmarkian" phase today is recorded by
Cambrian-Ordovician structures, metamorphism, and
plutonism in rocks of Finnmark, the northernmost county in
Norway. The remainder, and majority, of the Caledonides
experienced Silurian-Devonian tectonometamorphism related
to the "Scandian" event. (These phases roughly correspond
at least in time to the Penobscotian and Acadian events in
the Appalachians.) An ill-defined transitional zone
separates the effects of these two orogenic events and
lies somewhere between Finnmark and Ofotfjorden. Recently,
this transition has been recognized to correspond at least
in part to a regional Middle Ordovician unconformity
(i.e., the "post-Finnmarkian unconformity"), which is well
documented in other parts of the Caledonides. Insights
into the character of both the Finnmarkian and Scandian
orogenies are described based on studies of clast types
within conglomerate units marking the unconformity, and
lithologies, structures, and metamorphism of units lying
above and below it.

PESTICIDES IN ALABAMA'S GROUNDWATER. Richard A^ Esposito.

Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 1751
Congressman W.L. Dickinson Drive, Montgomery, AL 36130

The Alabama Department of Environmental Management
(ADEM) and the Alabama Department of Agriculture and
Industries (ADAI) have recently completed a cooperative
pilot study with respect to the sampling for pesticides in
groundwater. The study was conducted in an effort to expand
the State's existing pesticide-in-groundwater data base.

These data will be utilized in making accurate decisions in
the development of a groundwater protection strategy for
pesticides in the state. Under this plan certain pesticides
could only be used in Alabama if a groundwater management
plan for that chemical to prevent contamination is
developed. Results of the pilot study revealed detection of
10 different pesticides in 11 of the 50 wells sampled
including Atrazine, Malathion, Chlordane, Bravo, Alachlor,

Dual, Dieldrin, Heptachlor Epoxide, Endrin, and Dursban.

Although the study revealed the presence of pesticides in
several wells, no concentrations were found to be above
health advisory limits (HAL) or maximum contaminant levels
(MCL). Sampling of additional wells and the installation of
shallow monitoring wells in agricultural areas is proposed
as a Phase II portion of the pilot study.

156

Abstracts

NATURE AND ORIGIN OF SEAFLOOR TOPOGRAPHY, ALABAMA
INNER CONTINENTAL SHELF. Albert W, Shultz. Dept, of Geology,
Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

The seafloor of a part of the northern Gulf of Mexico, extending
south 40 km from the Alabama shoreline, consists of a generally sandy,
low-relief surface. However, textural and topographic variations become
apparent at a variety of scales. Numerous previous general studies, as
well as more detailed work currently in progress, provide a basis for
describing these variations and speculating on their origins. The
nearshore zone and lower shoreface, dominated by sandy sediment on a
relatively smooth bottom, reflects the influence of coastal reworking of the
barrier complex. At somewhat greater depths, a flat zone with more mud
is present along the western part of the area. The largest zone consists of
an irregular, heterogeneous bottom characterized by sand flats, shell-rich
ridge-trough systems, rocky hardbottoms, and localized mud patches.
Maximum relief is attained on ridge slopes that rise 5 m over a distance of
100 m, although a few hardbottom features of less than 2 m relief rise
abruptly from the surrounding bottom. Possible factors in controlling
seafloor topography in this area include modem processes, principally
rare, high-energy storm events; and relict coastal and continental
landforms developed during periods of lowered sea level associated with
Pleistocene glaciation. The consistent NW-SE trend of ridge-trough
systems is noteworthy. Storm-ebb flow, oblique shoreface-attached bars,
fluvial drainage patterns, and underlying structural control are all
possible contributing factors in the evolution of these km-scale features.

UPDIP SMACKOVER RESERVOIR FACIES: SOUTHWEST ALABAMA. David C. Kopaska-

Merkel, Geological Survey of Alabama, Box O, Tuscaloosa AL 35486-9780.

The Smackover Formation (Late Jurassic) is the most prolific hydrocarbon-producing formation in
Alabama. Since production began in 1967, the Smackover in Alabama has produced more than 95
MMbbl of oil, 1 14 MMbbl of condensate, and 862 Bcf of natural gas. The Smackover was deposited on
a carbonate ramp, modified in Alabama by a system of preexisting ridges that delineated three partially
isolated basins: the Mississippi interior salt basin, the Manila embayment, and the Conecuh
embayment Initial flooding of SW Alabama during Smackover time was followed by filling of the
basins with sediment and by outbuilding from paleohighs. High-energy facies, which form most
Smackover reservoirs, occur on or flanking paleohighs and in the upper Smackover. Hydrocarbon
reservoirs commonly consist of zones with significantly different production characteristics (reservoir
facies). Smackover reservoir facies are controlled by depositional patterns and by diagenetic processes.
Depositional patterns tended to exercise large-scale control, whereas diagenetic processes fine-tuned
Smackover reservoir facies architecture. Most Smackover reservoirs in the study area were strongly
affected by diagenesis, but the original depositional setting is commonly readily discemable. Most
Smackover reservoirs were deposited near sea level as high-energy carbonate sands dominated by ooids,
fecal pellets, algal balls, and intraclasts. Most of these were partially cemented by marine waters shortly
after deposition, generating a rigid framework, and later were dolomitized and leached. Three end-member
kinds of porosity are common in Smackover dolostones: (1) primary interparticle porosity; (2) particle-
moldic porosity; and (3) intercrystalline porosity. Thus, an ooid sand may be converted to (1) an
oomoldic framework of dolomitized cement, (2) a dolomitized but otherwise relatively unaltered rock
which retains primary interparticle porosity, or (3) a porous mass of dolomite crystals retaining no
vestige of depositional fabric. Each kind of reservoir has distinct petrophysical characteristics. The
Droducibility of hydrocarbons is not controlled by the amount of void space in a rock, but by the sizes
and shapes of the voids. In particular, it is the sizes and shapes of the narrowest constrictions of the pore
system (the throats) that exercise the greatest control on the movement of fluids through the rock. Thus,
rocks with moldic porosity, which consists of large pores separated by areas containing only much-
smaller pore spaces, tend to have low fluid-recovery efficiencies, whereas rocks with intercrystalhne- or
interparticle porosity, characterized by a relatively small range of pore- and throat sizes, have much higher
recovery efficiencies. However, end-member reservoir facies are rare in the Smackover m the study area,
most reservoirs exhibit "mixed" pore systems.

157

Abstracts

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF PLIOCENE-PLEISTOCENE ABYSSAL FORAMINIFERA FROM
THE LESSER ANTILLES FOREARC. Murlene W. Clark, Dept, of Geology/
Geography, Univ. of South Ala., Mobile, AL 36688.

A relatively complete Pliocene through lower Pleistocene section
was recovered from DSDP Leg 110, Site 672, drilled in the Lesser
Antilles Forearc Region of the Atlantic Abyssal Plain. Site 672
yielded a moderately well preserved population of benthic foraminifera.
Q-mode factor analysis of the benthic population data for the Pliocene-
Pleistocene identified three assemblages that al ternately inhabited the
site. The Factor 1 fauna, characterized by Nuttallides umboniferus, is
commonly associated with the presence of Antarctic Bottom Water. The
Factor 2 assemblage is associated with Globocassidul ina subqlobosa and
Epistominella exigua and the Factor 3 assemblage is characterized by
E. exigua and Planulina wuel lerstorfi . Although a specific watermass
can not be assigned to the Factor 2 and 3 assemblages, it is likely
that they are associated with warmer bottom water than the Factor 1
assemblage. The distribution of the above assemblages has been used to
distinguish climatic changes in the deep Atlantic environment. An
early Pliocene warm interval is indicated by the dominance of the
Factor 2 and 3 faunas. During the late Pliocene, oscillations between
the Factor 1 and 2 assemblages suggest climatic deterioration and
increased pulses of Antarctic Bottom Water flow. The dominance of the
Factor 1 assemblage throughout the early Pleistocene indicates full
glacial development at both poles and a substantial volume of
Antarctic Bottom Water production.

INVESTIGATIONS OF AN UNUSUAL OCCURRENCE OF FOSSIL DECAPODS IN THE
RIPLEY FORMATION (UPPER CRETACEOUS), CENTRAL ALABAMA. Susan L
Abston. Charles E. Savrda, and Ronald D. Lewis, Department of Geology,
Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5305.

An unusual occurrence of fossil crabs has been recognized in the
Upper Cretaceous Ripley Formation where it crops out near Braggs,
central Alabama. The crabs, tentatively assigned to the genus
Avitelmessus . are entombed within syngenetic phosphatic concretions,
the shapes of which mimic the embodied fossils. The concretions are
found in situ at several discrete horizons within bioturbated, organic -
rich (-1.5% org C) , calcareous (-20%), micaceous mudstones that are
otherwise characterized by a molluscan faunal assemblage. Allochthonous
decapod-bearing concretions are also found in extraordinary abundance
within Recent stream point-bar accumulations (-8 specimens/mz) .

Although difficult to extricate from their host concretions, most
decapod fossils appear to be complete and articulated; typically, only
the most distal portions of walking legs are missing, owing primarily
to weathering of thin concretion margins. Associated concretionary
elements commonly observed in allochthonous deposits include large
Thalassinoides - like burrows, irregular burrowed masses, and smooth
oblate nodules. The latter may reflect the phosphatization of smaller
crabs (or crab parts) and/or internal molds of bivalves. Less common
elements include ammonites and vertebrates. The distribution and
preservation state of the in situ decapods are suggestive of mass
mortality, perhaps associated with rapid burial events and/or brief
episodes of hypoxia. Detailed sedimentological studies of the decapod¬
bearing interval are currently underway and will elucidate the
paleoenvironmental mechanisms responsible.

158

Abstracts

GEOCHEMISTRY OF GRANITOIDS IN NORTH NORWAY. Laura F. Wood,
Southern Union State Junior College, Opelika, AL 36802.

The Ofoten nappe stack (ONS) comprises four
lithotectonic units, from bottom to top, the Narvik,
Evenes, Bogen, and Niingen Groups. The nappes (far-
traveled thrust sheets) were emplaced upon Precambrian-
Cambrian basement-cover rocks of the Baltic shield along E-
SE directed thrusts during the Caledonian orogeny. Based
on whole-rock chemistry, petrography, and field relations,
four different types of felsic intrusives were
distinguished in each of the nappes. They are separated
temporally into early-phase nappe-specific plutons and
late-phase intrusions, some of which cross nappe
boundaries. Petrogenetic relationships between the various
intrusions are inferred from chemical variation diagrams.
Most are S- and I-type collisional granitoids. The
chemistry and mineralogy of the early-phase granitoids in
the Bogen Group are more similar to A-type granites. The
lack of Caledonian intrusives in both the Evenes Group and
the basement requires that allochthons overlying these
units rooted from somewhere to the west. The nappes rode
piggyback, one-on-top-of-the-other , with the Niingen Group
being emplaced first and the composite ONS thrust lastly
upon the basement-cover complex. Available timing
constraints indicate that construction, emplacement, and
subsequent modification of the ONS resulted from the
Silurian-Devonian Scandian orogeny.

THE EFFECT OF PALEOTOPOGRAPHY ON DEPOSITION WITHIN THE
MARY LEE COAL ZONE, "POTTSVILLE" FORMATION, WARRIOR
BASIN, NORTHWESTERN ALABAMA. Timothy M. Demko and Robert A.
Gastaldo, Department of Geology, Auburn University, AL 36849-5305

Facies distribution and interval thicknesses within the Mary Lee coal zone of
the "Pottsville" Formation in northwestern Alabama were influenced by the
thickness and paleotopography of a sandstone body near the base of the unit.
Both isopach maps and outcrop observations indicate strong influence
immediately above the sandstone with less control up-section as aggradation
subdued local relief. The basal sandstone body, locally called the "Jagger
bedrock", is interpreted to have been deposited in a nearshore- to offshore-
marine setting. This environment was tidally-influenced — large scale trough
cross bedding is believed to be the result of flood current deposition, whereas
ripple bedding and reactivation surfaces are believed to be ebb current
modifications of the flood deposits. Sandstone body geometry, determined from
structure contour and isopach maps, is characterized by northeast- to southwest-
oriented, linear paleotopographic ridges and valleys. Features associated with
this relief include dunes, megadunes, sand waves, and sand ridges. These
features and their effect are documented at outcrop and 7.5-minute quadrangle
scale. Intervals between the major coals, coal thicknesses, and positions of
clastic pathways were controlled by this local paleotopographic relief.

159

Abstracts

STRUCTURAL AND TECTONIC IMPLICATIONS OF QUARTZITE -BEARING SEQUENCES IN
THE SOUTHEASTERN ALABAMA PIEDMONT. William IX Keefer .and Mark G.
Steltenpohl, Dept, of Geology, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 36849.

The Jacksons' Gap Group (JGG) , Inner Piedmont (IP), and Pine
Mountain Group (PMG) are traditionally recognized as distinct, fault-
bounded mutually adjacent terranes of the southeastern Alabama
Piedmont. Each of these terranes includes a prominent quartzite-bearing
lithostratigraphic sequence adjacent to its margin. The juncture of
these terranes has been projected to occur beneath the Coastal Plain
onLap near Tallassee, Alabama, the area of this study. Five distinct
structural/lithologic groups are recognized from the Coastal Plain
onlap North to the limit of the study area. From the structurally
lowest, these are: 1) a sequence of porphyroblastic felsic gneiss and
kyanite bearing biotite schist; 2) an interlayered series of quartz-
biotite gneiss and quartzite with minor garnet- staurolite- tourmaline
bearing pelites and graphitic units; 3) garnet bearing felsic gneisses
and minor amphibolites, followed by a large shear zone; 4) felsic
gneiss which grades into and out of a weakly foliated granitic body,
followed by another shear zone; and 5) a thinly laminated to banded
amphibolite, showing progressively more intense deformation approaching
the footwall. Ongoing 1:24000 scale structural mapping in this area
indicates that the quartzite-bearing series (2) is structurally
juxtaposed with rock of the IP Dadeville Complex. This finding supports
the assignment of the Tallassee Quartzite to the JGG. However, the
lithostratigraphy also bears distinct similarities to rocks of the IP
Opelika Group.

BIOTURBATED EVENT BEDS IN DIATOMITES OF THE MONTEREY FORMATION
(MIOCENE), CENTRAL CALIFORNIA. Katherine Ozalas and Charles E. Savrda,
Department of Geology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5305.

Slope and basinal facies of Neogene siliceous strata of the
Pacific rim are predominantly laminated as a result of deposition
under anoxic or anaerobic background conditions. However, bioturbated
intervals that reflect periods of improved oxygenation are not
uncommon in some sequences. In order to enhance our limited
understanding of the ichnologic character and paleoceanographic
implications of such intervals, over 200 bioturbated event beds have
been studied in the upper 200 meters of the Monterey Formation exposed
in the Manville diatomite quarry, Lompoc, California. Each of these
beds consist of two parts: 1) a homogenous, relatively clay- and silt-
rich primary stratum; and 2) a subjacent piped zone wherein deeper
burrow penetration has only partially disrupted the lamination of more
pure diatomites. Beds vary considerably with respect to the thickness
of primary strata, depth of piped zones, and trace-fossil assemblage
composition and preservation. This variability is interpreted to
reflect variations in the duration, magnitude, and temporal spacing
between associated oxygenation events. Two potential paleoceanographic
mechanisms are currently favored to explain the coincident increases
in oxygenation level and terrigenous sediment content: 1) deintensifi¬
cation of upwelling, resulting in the reduction of both oxygen demand
and biogenic silica productivity; and 2) minor sea-level fall,
resulting in the lowering of the oxygen -minimum zone and either
increased bottom- current induced nepheloid transport and/or increased
dissolution of biogenic silica.

160

Abstracts

DISTRIBUTION AND EFFECT OF TREMORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE 1843 EARTHQUAKE
IN ALABAMA. Lewi s S_. Dean, Geological Survey of Alabama, P.0. Box
0, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486.

One of the largest earthquakes to affect the Alabama area was
in the winter of 1811-12 when three major earthquakes struck the
area of New Madrid, Missouri. No earthquake in Alabama during historic
time has been as great. One of the earliest recorded earthquakes
in Alabama occurred on January 4, 1843, with an epicenter in western
Tennessee. Its maximum intensity was VIII on the modified Mercal 1 i
Intensity Scale. This was the first earthquake affecting Alabama
in historic times that was associated with the New Madrid, Missouri,
seismic zone. Tremors occurred in the Interior Low Plateaus province
of Alabama from Florence to Decatur and Huntsville in the Appalachian
Plateaus province. At 9:00 p.m. in Huntsville "two severe shocks
of the earth, in immediate succession, which lasted about one and
a half minutes'1 were documented, however no damage was reported
by local newspapers. The quake also affected Tuscaloosa, Wetumpka,
and areas in eastern Russell County, Alabama. In Tuscaloosa, tremors
were "sufficiently strong to cause the windows to rattle in their
frames." Tremors were felt in the Coastal Plain province of Dallas
County at Selma and Prairie Bluff and in Choctaw County at Barrytown.
In Selma "the shock lasted upwards of half a minute and caused a
perceptible movement of the furniture in some dwellings." The 1843
earthquake produced widespread but mild tremors in Alabama causing
little or no damage. The large geographic distribution of tremors
in Alabama as a result of this earthquake were an early indication
of the extent and type of effect the New Madrid seismic zone could
produce.

FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, CONSERVATION, AND PLANNING

THEORIES OF FARMER CHOICE AND AGRICULTURAL GEOGRAPHY. Tom L.
Martinson, Department of Geography, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL
36849.

Geographers have long been interested in the study of agricultural
patterns and have used many approaches to analyze these patterns.
Agricultural geographers employing the environmental determinism,
regionalism, and spatial analysis paradigms have produced maps
placing Alabama in the "cotton belt," "commercial plantation crop
tillage," and "subtropical" agricultural regions in the United
States. What patterns might appear if a map based on farmer
choice were produced for Alabama?

161

Abstracts

TRENDS IN INWARD FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN THE UNITED STATES: A
SPATIAL AND SECTORAL ANALYSIS. Jeffrey P. Richetto, Dept, of Geography,
Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Marita B. Schumacher, Dept, of
Geography, Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

Since World War II the emergence of a new integrated global system
of manufacturing production, trade, and direct investment has occurred
primarily through transnational corporations, techno-economic re¬
structuring, and the implementation of liberal-protectorate trade and
capital investments by most industrialized nations. Within this con¬
text, industrialized countries have struggled with the twin problems of
swift inflation and slow economic growth. In particular, traditional
manufacturing industries have scaled down, businesses have closed, and
millions of individuals have become unemployed. One of the most im¬
portant single elements in structuring the global economy has been the
transnational corporation, specifically their decisions pertaining to
foreign direct investment.

Interest in foreign direct investment, FDI, in the United States
has surged recently due to its dramatic increase in number and total
value of transactions. State and local governments are recognizing the
importance of FDI as a source of new employment and tax revenue. How¬
ever, since the late 1960s, although American transnational firms have
continued to account for the majority of the world's FDI, f oreign-owned
firms located primarily in Western Europe, Japan and Canada have in¬
creasingly invested into other countries. One result of this increased
international competitive strength has been a dramatic increase in the
transfer of FDI into the United States. In this way, this study
identifies and analyzes the spatial and sectoral trends of inward FDI
in the United States between 1979-1938.

THE TRANSMIGRATION PROGRAM IN INDONESIA: CHANGES IN ECONOMIC AND
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. D. Gregory Jeane, Department of History,

Political Science, Geography, Samford University, Birmingham, AL 35229.

The Indonesian transmigration program is the oldest peaceful,
agricultural "colonization" plan in the world, having originated in
1905 when the country was under Dutch control. The program has taken
on new significance since 1969 when the Indonesian government institu¬
ted its system of 5-year plans. It is an economically, politically,
and environmentally sensitive issue. National justification for the
program is the need to alleviate inordinate stress on the carrying
capacity of Java, Bali, Madura and Lombok islands. Population
pressure exceeds 5000 people per square mile in central Java, and is
proportional on the other main islands. The environmental cost in
relocation has not been adequately measured, but rain forest destruc¬
tion is widely evident. In addition, accusations of forced cultural
assimilation have been registered against the government by displaced
idigenous peoples living on the outer islands targeted for transmigra¬
tion development. Population relief has not been realized since
natural increase has outpaced the number relocated and governmental
planning has exceeded the ability to relocate enough people.

162

Abstracts

RECOGNIZING PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AS A PHYSICAL SCIENCE:
SUPPORTIVE MATERIALS. Victoria L. Rivizzigno, Dept, of
Geology /Geography , Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL
36688.

After chairing a task force charged with revamping USA's
General Education curriculum, I have come to the con¬
clusion that the definition of an academic discipline
is most important as it can serve as the primary means of
classifying the discipline within a General Education
curriculum. Dictionary and introductory textbook defin¬
itions were used to justify the inclusion or exclusion
of disciplines within the curriculum categories of the
social sciences, physical sciences, humanities, fine arts,
and communication. Many dictionaries and introductory
geography textbooks made my goal of getting our physical
geography courses classified as physical science difficult
because of the inconsistencies in the definition of
physical geography. There was also the problem that many
of the definitions did not mention that physical geography
was a physical science. The AAG needs to develop a
standard definition of physical geography which includes
the identification of major subfields, and the idea that
physical geography is a physical science. Once this is
done, the AAG should disseminate the definition to
publishers and granting agencies.

POTENTIAL INDUSTRIAL SITES UTILIZING THE SHOALS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
INFORMATION SYSTEM. Priscilla Holland and William R. Strong, Univ. of
N. Ala., Dept, of Geography, Geographic Research Center, Florence,

AL 35632.

The first research project of the Geographic Research Center in
the Department of Geography at the University of North Alabama was to
develop a Geographic Information System (GIS) database of the two
northwest counties, Lauderdale and Colbert. The project was funded
through the Alabama Universities/TVA Research Consortium. The
requirement of this consortium was that the project provide assistance
in economic development issues by transferring the research to both
public and private users. The conclusion of the research of the
Shoals Industrial Development Information System (SIDIS) was a project
which designed a methodology for the location of potential industrial
sites in the Shoals area on the Earth Resources Data Analysis System
(ERDAS) . Using the parameters of five targeted industries, determined
through an economic survey by the Tennessee Valley Authority, this
methodology was applied to the database with the results showing prime
potential sites in the two counties. The purpose of this application
of the SIDIS database was to demonstrate the use of GIS to the local
elected officials and thereby achieve the AUTRC purpose of extending
the research results to the public and private sector.

163

Abstracts

EARLY RESULTS OF ON-GOING RESEARCH TO DETECT AND MONITOR KUDZU
GROWTH IN EAST ALABAMA USING REMOTE SENSING/GIS TECHNIQUES. Dav_id
R. Hicks, Dept, of Geography, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849.

Kudzu (Pueraria thunbergiana) is a leguminous vine native to
Japan and China that has since spread widely over the southeastern
U.S. since its importation as an erosion control plant in 1876.
Because of its invasive nature, Kudzu is regarded as a nuisance
plant in the region. Yet it not only controls erosion, but is also
a good forage crop for cattle and is high in protein and certain
vitamins. This presentation reports on the early results of a pro¬
ject to detect, map, and measure Kudzu areas in East Alabama using
air photos and satellite imagery that is now being initiated at
Auburn University under the Geography Research Incentive Program
(GRIP). The Department of Geography's PC-based image processing/
geographic information system will support the project, particularly
with respect to the preparation of suitability maps for Kudzu
eradication/preservation if the pilot project is successful.

GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION: SELECTED OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES. William
H. Bailey, Dept, of Geography, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849.

Defining the role of geography in the curriculum is not the only
challenge and opportunity for geographic education in the public
schools. Examples of student transportation and instructional tech¬
nology planning by local school systems suggest that school admin¬
istrators need a better understanding of geography to plan the
delivery of school services. This need presents challenges and
opportunities for geography in education.

PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

THE PHYSICS OF ERATOSTHENES. Victor F. Nichols, Glen D. Johns, and
Henry W. Glotfelty, Dept, of Physics, Samford Univ., Birmingham, AL
35229.

The ancient Greek scholar Eratosthenes was able to determine
the radius of the earth using simple geometry, trigonometry, and
shadow lengths. His experiment was repeated by measuring the
shadow of two plumb lines when the sun reached its zenith. These
measurements were taken on the same day at two different points in
Alabama that lie along a north-south line. The data was analyzed
and used to calculate the radius of the earth. The simple method
and equipment used proved to be both a strength and a weakness.

Many difficulties were encountered that contributed to the error
(6%) in the result.

164

Abstracts

OPTICAL PHASE CONJUGATION. VENKATESWARLU PUTCHA. Department of
Physics. Alabama ASM University. Normal (Huntsville) AL 35803.

The development of optical phase conjugation and their
applications will be briefly reviewed. Phase conjugation in resonant
systems with special reference to their application for developing new
nonlinear optical materials will be discussed. In this connection,
phase conjugation work on rare earth ion doped materials, on materials
with color centers, and glasses doped with dyes will be reviewed.
Recent work at the Alabama A<SM University on different types of phase
conjugate resonators, bistabilities and bistable oscillations in
barium titanate will be presented. Coherent beam couplings in self
pumped barium titanate crystal will be discussed. Recent work in our
laboratory on the effects of phase conjugation in specular reflection
dncl transmission in barium titanato will also be presented.

„n, nInn^Cial supported by the U.S. Army Research Office Grant
#DAAL03-87-G-0078

STRONGLY NIL IDEALS. Haghdad S. Memauri, Department of Mathematics,
Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088

Nil and Nilpotent ideals of a ring are well known and they have
been used widely in the study of the rings. The purpose of this
article is to define another ideal called strongly nil ideal, which
lies between nilpotent and nil ideals. Examples are constructed
to show this ideal is different from nilpotent and nil ideals.
Whenever the aim is to show certain nil ideal is nilpotent, this
intermediate ideal can serve as a step to reach this goal.

ESTIMATING THE TEMPERATURE GRADIENT AT THE SOLID-MELT INTERFACE FROM
THE RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF THE INTERFACE IN THE BRIDGMAN METHOD OF
CRYSTAL GROWTH.* A. Tan, Department of Physics, Alabama A&M University,
Normal, AL 35762.

The temperature gradient at the solid-melt interface in the
Bridgman method of crystal growth is an important parameter which can
influence the structure, composition and quality of the resulting
crystal. This gradient is usually different from that maintained
outside the crucible and is not easily calculable even from detailed
numerical modelling. It is shown that the temperature gradient can be
determined from the radius of curvature of the interface whether the
interface is concave, plane or convex. The results can be used to
estimate the thermal conductivity of the melt (which is not well known)
by comparing with those obtained by numerical modelling.

*This work was supported by NSF-MRCE Grant.

165

Abstracts

SATELLITE SPIN RATE CONTROL WITH APPLICATION TO GALILEO SPACECRAFT.
F. 0. Eke and Busty 0. Okundaye, Dept, of Mechanical Engineering,
Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088.

This paper presents the analysis and design of a spin rate
control flight algorithm for a spinning spacecraft. The specific
case of the dual-spin Galileo spacecraft is examined in depth.
Because of plume contamination constraints on this spacecraft,
only one poorly located thruster is available for spin rate
correction in each direction. Hence, firing of any of the spin
thrusters has a deleterious effect on spacecraft pointing. A
control strategy was developed for achieving the desired spin rate
correction while keeping disturbances at acceptable levels. This
involved symmetrically distributed, even numbered multiple thruster
burns. Extensive analysis of various aspects of the control
scheme, and several numberical checks are also presented.

THE ROLE OF INTERVALS IN METRIC GEOMETRY. Richard G.
Vinson, Department of Mathematics and Statistics,
University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688.

Distance is one of the first concepts encountered
in any modern study of metric geometry. An interval
is also usually the beginning point in the study of
distance. Thus, we examine intervals and how they
relate to lines and to parallelism. This involves
the study of both Euclidean and some Non-Euclidean
Geometries .

RING LIKE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD IN GENERAL RELATIVITY. Joseph Otu and
John H. Young, Department of Physics, University of Alabama at
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

The Weyl formulation of the static axially symmetric Einstein
gravitational field equations is utilized to obtain the field due to
a massive ring. An exact solution is obtained for the regions
exterior and interior to the ring in terms of oblate spheroidal
coordinates, which yield a relatively simple, closed form solution.
General relativistic multipole moments are derived and a comparison
is made with the Newtonian field.

166

Abstracts

MONTE CARLO STUDY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SHOWER DEVELOPMENT. R.K.
Clark , C.M. Jenkins, and G.S. Mitchell, Department of Physics,
University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688.

The proposed Superconducting Super Collider will place new
demands on particle detector technology. Using a Monte Carlo
program (EGS) developed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator
Center, we have investigated the development of
electromagnetic showers initiated by a high energy gamma ray
in a possible dectector for the SSC. This detector is
constructed of alternating layers of scintillation material
(polystyrene) and lead to a depth of 20 radiation lengths. It
is proposed that light signals from the layers of scintillator
be recorded using photodiodes rather than the usual
photomultiplier tubes. The operation of EGS, prototype model
of a detector segment, and initial results of the prototype
tested by EGS will be presented.

CONSTRUCTION OF A SHOWER POSITION DECTOR FOR A HIGH ENERGY
PHYSICS EXPERIMENT. C.M. Jenkins, Department of Physics,
University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688.

A detector that determines the position of electromagnetic
showers in a photon detecting calorimeter is described. The
detector consisted of two planes of proportional tubes (grounded
tube walls with a central wire at high voltage) that collected
charge from charge particles that pass through the device. The
device was constructed so that the X projection and Y projection
of the shower profile was measured. The charged was digitized by
Analog to Digital converters (ADC's) which were read out and
stored event by event on magnetic tape for off-line analysis.
The construction and operation details of the detector are
described .

A RESEARCH PARTICIPATION APPROACH TO TEACHING STATISTICS. Jan Case,
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Samford University,
Birmingham, AL 35229

In order to function in virtually any career, one must be able
to interpret statistical reports. This includes reading printouts,
being familiar with experiment designs, and understanding the
conditions necessary for generalization of findings. Statistics
students at Samford University learn about these topics by
participating in research projects of their own design. The
requirements for the project follow the course syllabus so that ^
each new topic is discussed from the point of view of the ideal
textbook examples as well as the "real" world. This parallel
approach makes clear to the students the links between topics, and
the applications of the theory.

167

Abstracts

Mathematical Methods in the Development of Information Theory.

E, C, Paramore, Department of Mathematics, Tuskegee University, AL

This paper presents an example of the constructive relationship
between the establishment of mathematical theory and the development
of science in which both the theory and scientific practice benefit
in a symbiotic manner. This paper will illustrate this phenomenon
through the case of the mathematical theory of communication and
it's role in the development of information theory. Examples from
theory and applications are presented which provide an intuitive
overview of both sides of this case; developments in applied mathe¬
matical theory have resulted in the advancement of information theory
while applications in information theory have motivated new mathe¬
matical theories. This paper will explore this development through
four stages.

(1) Establishment of the basic foundations of information theory.

(2) Implementation of the basic communications model.

(3) Recent research, development, and new applications in information
theory.

(4) Future requirements for research and development in information
theory.

OXYGEN DIVACANCY CENTER IN MgO. Jian-donc Feng and H.T. Toiler, Tent,
o* Physics, Tniv, of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294,

As part of an ongoing search for potential laser action from la¬
ttice defects in alkaline earth oxides we have identified an electron
center in MgO. This center consists of three electrons trapped at two
nearest neighbor oxygen vacancies. The spin hamiltonian parameters
for the spin 1/2 orthorhombic center have been determined to be
Gxx = 1.8489 Gyy = 1.9461 Gzz = 1.7675
for G tensor with the X axis of the defect in the (110) crystalline
direction, the Y axis in the (-110) direction and Z axis along
(001), followed by

Axx = 25.0136 MHZ Ayy = 79.3941 MHZ Azz = 37.4858 MHZ
for the hyperfine tensor.

BRIEF REVIEW OF FATHER EISELE ' S WORK. W.L. Furman, Spring Hill College
Mobile, Al 36608.

Father Louis J. Eisele began preparation for the priesthood in the
Society of Jesus in 1930 with classical and religious studies at Saint
Charles College, Grand Coteau, Louisiana followed by studies in philo¬
sophy and physics at St. Louis University. He then taught physics and
assisted in the operation of the seismological station at Spring Hill
College. He left for studies in theology at St. Mary's College in
Kansas and after ordination to the priesthood returned to Spring Hill.
He designed and built a seismograph for visible pen and ink recording
at Spring Hill and spent one summer improving the seismological station
at Regis College in Denver. He was president of the Alabama Academy of
Science in 1962-63. He died in 1989 and was buried in the Jesuit Cem¬
etery at Spring Hill College.

168

Abstracts

Some Results in Low Dimensional Topology , J. Scott Carter, Department
ot Math, and Stat., Univ. of South Ala., Mobile, AL 36688

The knot polynomials of V. Jones, FLYPMOTH (an acronym), and Kauff¬
man express profound and yet to be understood relations among knotted cir¬
cles in space, quantum and statistical mechanics, and the action of topoiso-
merase on molecules of DNA. Recently, Whitten announced a definition of
3-dimensional topological invariants that are defined in terms of knot poly¬
nomials. Tureav and Reshetikhin reinterpreted this invariant in terms of rep¬
resentation theory. In the last few months Raymond Lichorish has given an
elementary combinatorial definition of these polynomials.

An outline of Lichonsh’s definition will be given. Our starting point is knots
and links in ordinary space. From these we will define the “skein theory” in
which the knot polynomials are thought of as a method of changing bases in
the sense of linear algebra. The method of obtaining any three dimensional
manifold from links will be demonstrated. From there, the steps in Lichorish’s
definition will be apparent.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION IN A STATIC AXIALLY SYMMETRIC
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD. Joseph Otu and John H. Young, Department of
Physics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

The curvature of space-time representing the Einstein gravita¬
tional field influences all other physical fields within those regions
of curvature. In particular, the Maxwell equations are altered by
gravity in such a way that gravity appears to present an effective,
variable, refractive index. An electromagnetic wave equation is
derived for the presence of a static axially symmetric gravitational
field and solutions are then examined for the case of wave propagation
along the symmetry axis of a massive ring. Graphical solutions are
presented which clearly display the effect of the field on the
wavelength as propagation progresses into strong field regions.

PROBLEM SOLVING CONTEST AS A LEARNING TOOL. David L. Foreman,

Dept, of Mathematics, Engineering, and Computer Science, Samford
University, Birmingham, AL 35229.

In an effort to encourage improvement in the problem solving
ability of both lower and upper level mathematics students at
Samford University, a weekly problem solving contest was initiated.
This contest is described, sample problems are exhibited, and sources
for problems are suggested.

169

Abstracts

CZOCHRALSKI CRYSTAL PULLER FOR ORGANIC MATERIALS*

M.D. Aggarwal and J. Idasetima, Department of Physics,
Alabama A and M University, Normal, AL 35762.

Organic crystals exhibiting nonlinear optical
properties have important applications in second harmonic
generation and deflection of laser beams apart from
possible future uses in optical information processing and
optical electronic devices. Although the understanding of
nonlinear organic material is not yet complete the
intriguing possibility of "tailoring" nonlinear properties
through organic chemistry is reason enough for substantial
research activity in the field. In the present paper, a
laboratory model Czochralski crystal puller has been
described which is designed and fabricated including the
pull and rotation mechanism, fume enclosure, temperature
control and recording system in connection with a NASA
project on nonlinear organic crystals. Pull rates as low
as 0.1 mm/hr can be achieved. Initial test runs have been
made and crystals of potassium chloride have been grown
successfully. Organic crystals are planned to be grown
using liquid encapsulated Czochralski technique to
alleviate the problem of high vapor pressure associated
with organic materials.

★

Work supported under NASA Grant NAG8-125

RUTHERFORD BACKS CATTERING. John R. Williams, Physics Dept.,

Auburn University, AL 36849

The techniques of Rutherford backscattering (RBS) are based upon
the energy loss and scattering mechanisms which govern the penetration
of a sample material by light, MeV ions (usually alpha particles). RBS
spectrum analysis provides information concerning atomic concentration
as a function of depth in the near-surface (±2.5 microns) of a
sample. Data acquisition is fast and mechanically non-destructive,
and a variation of the basic RBS technique called light ion channeling
(LIC) provides additional information for crystalline samples which
can be aligned with the direction of the incident beam. A powerful
materials analysis capability can be developed when RBS and LIC
techniques are applied to compliment other techniques such as AES/XPS
(Auger electron/x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) , SIMS (secondary
ion mass spectroscopy) and SEM/TEM (scanning/ transmission electron
microscopy) . The basic concepts of RBS will be discussed together
with the principal advantages and limitations of the technique. The
RBS/LIC facility at Auburn University will be described.

170

Abstracts

CALCULATION OF ELECTRON ENERGY BANDS AND SOME PHYSICAL
PARAMETERS USING A ONE DIMENSIONAL PERIODIC POTENTIAL.*
Abraham George and P.C. Sharma/ Department of Physics/
Tuskegee University/ Tuskegee/ AL - 36088.

Using a one dimensional rectangular-well potential/
the first three electron energy levels at a potential
height of 1.0 e.v. — 9.0 e.v. have been calculated/ at
different wave vectors. The density-of-states effective
mass and the probability density, have been

calculated for a particle in the state <pd) . it has
been shown that the free electron velocity v, is dir¬
ectly proportional to wave vector K. At the top and
bottom of the band the velocity v=o . This further
supports the result that in a periodic structure dE/dK=0
at the top and the bottom of the band.

*This research work was supported by the strategic
Defense Initiative by it's Office of Innovative Science
and Technology through contract N60921-86-C-A226 with
Naval Surface Warfare Center.

PHONON-PHONON INTERACTIONS AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE LAT¬
TICE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF GERMANIUM. Darrvl Whitlow
and P. C. Sharma, Department of Physics, Tuskegee Univer¬
sity, Tuskegee, AL 36088.

The thermal energy of a semiconducting crystal con¬
sists of waves which travel with the velocity of sound.

The quantized wave energy is called phonons. In a perfect
crystal, the phonons possess an infinite mean free path
but actually at higher temperatures the phonons interact
with other phonons which thereby limit the mean free path.

The number of phonons at a particular point in a sys¬
tem changes due to the following reasons: (1) the phonons
collide with each other and (2) the phonons move from one
point to another due to the temperature gradient. Using
this concept, a thermal conductivity integral is derived
and the lattice thermal conductivity is calculated at low
and high temperatures. It agrees well with the experimen¬
tally known values.

*Thi.s research work was supported by the Strategic Defense
Initiative by its Office of Innovative Science and Techno¬
logy through contract N60921-86-C-A226 with the Naval Sur¬
face Warfare Center.

171

Abstracts

GAGE BLOCK TREND STUDIES AT THE U.S. ARMY PRIMARY STANDARDS LABORATORY.
A. Tan, Department of Physics, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762
and J. R. Miller III, U.S. Army TMDE Support Group, Redstone Arsenal,

AL 35809.

Trend studies of standard and regular gage block sets were
undertaken at the U.S. Army Primary Standards Laboratory by studying
their total deviations summed over each block. The standard sets
exhibited shrinkage due to volumetric change and wear. It was possible
to separate the two after there was a clear cessation of volumetric
change. The regular gage block sets frequently exhibited expansions,
mostly in the earlier and middle stages of their calibration history,
which were evidently triggered by temperature fluctuations encountered
during transit. Some of the observed expansions were unreal and could
be traced to the calibration process. The rates of total deviations
were smaller for the standard sets than for the regular sets and were
the least for the carbide sets. The Pratt & Whitney gage blocks showed
a significantly larger shrinkage as compared with gage blocks made by
DoAll and other manufacturers. The recommended calibration intervals
of the gage block sets depended upon the regression curve used.

ELECTRIC BREAKDOWN IS SOLIDS. Paul P. Budenstein, U.S. Army RD&E Ctr,
Redstone Arsenal, AL 35898 and Physics Dept., Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL
36849.

Electric breakdown in a solid insulating material occurs, in the con¬
text of a particular insulation system, when the applied voltage be¬
comes sufficiently large. Breakdown involves rapid growth of a high-
temperature, high conductivity, gaseous filament completely through the
insulating material, thereby decreasing the circuital resistance by
about ten orders of magnitude in a time less than a nanosecond. The
gaseous filament is formed by energetic dissociation of the solid in¬
sulating material. Damage due to breakdown can be very extensive, de¬
pending upon the circuital environment of the insulation system. An
overview of breakdown phenomenology in solids will be given, based
mostly upon studies at Redstone Arsenal and Auburn on thick materials.
Each specimen, with no previous exposure to high electric fields, was
subjected to a single impulse that yielded breakdown. Test were per¬
formed with a uniform-field geometry, with specimen thicknesses between
1 mm and 25 mm, specimen voltages up to 4 MV, and breakdown occurring
ten to fifty ns from the beginning of the pulse. Types of materials
tested include polymers, inorganic glass, ceramics, composites (poly¬
meric binder with inorganic powdered filler), and single crystal KCI.

A common phenomenology is observed. Current work, directed toward
modeling breakdown, will be mentioned.

172

Abstracts

ON THE NONLINEAR JEFFCOTT EQUATIONS. R. A. Zalik, Auburn University,
Department of Algebra, Combinatorics and Analysis, Auburn, AL 36849.

The Jeffcott equations are a system of coupled, nonlinear, ordi¬
nary differential equations. The primary application of their study
is directed towards understanding the reasons for the excessive vibra¬
tion recorded in the cryogenic pumps of the second stage main engine
of the Space Shuttle, during hot firing ground testing. In this talk
we shall examine some properties of the solutions of the Jeffcott
equations. In particular, we show how bounds for the solutions of
these equations can be obtained from bounds of the solutions of the
linearized equations. By studying the behavior of the Fourier trans¬
forms of the solutions, we are also able to predict the onset of
destructive vibrations. These conclusions are verified by means of
numerical solutions of the equations, and of power spectrum density
plots. This work shows how numerical simulations can be used to
obtain an insight into the correct solution to a problem. Once this
correct answer is known, it then becomes possible to give a rigourous
proof. Key words and phrases: Ordinary Differential Equations,
Simulation, Discrete Fourier Transform, Numerical Quadrature, Complex
Approximation, Signal Processing.

QUANTIZATION OF LATTICE VIBRATIONS . * Casandra Stephens
and P.C. Sharma, Department of Physics, Tuskegee
University, Tuskegee, AL - 36088.

The computation of the possible mode of vibration of
a real three dimensional solid is extremely difficult but
the essential ideas for understanding the general
properties of normal modes has been derived by considering
a linear chain of atoms. We consider a single linear
chain consisting of N identical atoms of mass M, held
together by harmonic force acting only between adjacent
atoms and constrained to move along the length of the
chain. Here it has been shown that the vibrational
energy of a lattice is quantized and yields an infinite
conductivity .

u,

'This research work was supported by the Strategic
Defense Initiative by it's Office of Innovative Science
and Technology through contract N60921-86-C-A226 with
the Naval Surface Warfare Center.

173

Abstracts

ON EXTREMAL PROBLEMS FOR POLYNOMIALS AND RELATED ENTIRE
FUNCTIONS. N. K. Govil, Dept, of Algebra, Combinatorics & Analysis, Division of
Mathematics, 120 Mathematics Annex, Auburn University, AL 36849.

In an answer to a question raised by chemist Mendelieff, A. Markoff proved that
if p(x) = £"=0 avxv is a real polynomial of degree n, then

max \p\x)\ < n2 max |p(x)|.

— 1<X<1 — 1<X<1

Few years later, Serge Bernstein needed the analogue of this result for the unit disk
in the complex plane instead of the interval [—1,1] and the following is known as
Bernstein’s inequality.

If p(z) = &vZv is a polynomial of degree n then

maxIoTz)! < nmax|p(z)|.

|z|=i 1 v “ |2|=i

This inequality and the corresponding inequality for functions of exponential type
have been the starting point of a considerable literature in Approximation Theory. In
this talk we discuss some of the research centered around these inequalities.

MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE TENSION OF A MULTI-COMPONENT
LIQUID SYSTEM. Java Krishnagopalan, Dept, of Chemical Engineering,
Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088

Physical properties like viscosity, density and surface tension along with
process variables like pressure, velocity, nozzle diameter, determine the size
and shape of droplets formed by the breaking up of liquid jets. Droplet size is
a very important variable in processes like ink-jet printing, atomization and
other specialized areas. One such process, where the droplet size is very
critical is the chemical recovery furnace in the pulp and paper industry. In this
process, the spent liquor from the pulping process, called ‘black liquor’ is
sprayed through nozzles, such that the drops can be dried and burnt. The
‘black liquor’ is a highly complex, multi-component system containing many
inorganic chemicals and high polymer weight organic compounds. Surface
tension data for this liquid system are not available, especially at high process
temperatures and other conditions. This paper describes a study conducted at
the University of Maine, to measure the surface tension of this ‘black liquor’
using a specially designed equipment. Design considerations and results will
be presented.

174

Abstracts

QUASI -UNITARY AND A POLAR DECOMPOSITION THEOREM. Teh H.
Chuang, Department of Mathematics, Tuskegee University.
Tuskegee, AL 36088.

It is well known that any complex square matrix A
can be decomposed as A = UK = HV, where U and V are
unitaries and K, H are positive semidefinite hermitian
matrices. In this paper, we generalize this polar
decomposition theorem for matrices of more general
classes. The main result of this paper is as follows:
For any complex matrix A, square or non-square, there
exist a matrix S, called quas i -un i t ary , and positive
semidefinite hermitian matrices P and Q such that A =

SP = OS. A quasi -un i tary is a matrix such that A* = kA+
and all eigenvalues of A*A or AA* are 1, where k is a
non-zero number, and A* and A+ denote the transpose
conjugate and the Moore-Penrose generalized inverse of
A, respectively. It is shown that all quasi -un i tary
matrices are unitary if and only if they are square.
Some characterizations of quasi -un i tary matrices are
also given In this paper.

INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS

FORECASTING RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION. Veronica A., Free, Depart¬
ment of Economics and Finance, University of N.A., Florence, A1 .

New construction for residential properties usually lags demand
in a particular market. Developers sense a need for more housing and
build in response to that perceived need. Knowledge of the market
is often imperfect and overbuilding (or underbuilding) occurs.

Little or no attention has been given to the existence of a real
estate cycle either locally or nationally. The purpose of this paper
is to analyze the existence of the national real estate cycle and the
implications for forecasting new residential construction in a local
market.

Research results indicate that real estate investment managers
are demanding accurate information on the periodic nature and cyclical
character of the supply and demand for office, industrial and retail
properties. When planning real estate investment strategies, large
scale developers are also demanding more information about residential
cycles. Results also indicate that there is not a consensus about the
behavior of a national residential real estate cycle. There is even
less information available to help developers forecast the need for
new residential construction in a local market.

175

Abstracts

INCOME DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES BY RACE 1978-1988
James R. Bobo, Department of Economics and Finance, University of
South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688.

This paper examines the distribution of money income among
families in the United States from 1978 to 1988, with an emphasis on
income distribution among Black families. There was a greater
concentration of money income in 1988 than any time since 1947,
especially among Black families. We find a massive redistribution
among Black families, with the three lowest quintile receiving 3.3
percentage points (or about $566.8 billion) less in 1988 than in 1978.
Mean Black family income in the lowest quintile was 16.5% less and the
second quintile was 4.6 less in 1988 than in 1978. By contrast, the
highest quintile, the richest 20% of all Black families, received a
greater absolute and relative share of total money income. The Top
5% of Black families received a greater absolute and relative share.
Mean Black family income in each quintile, except the highest quintile,
was a decreasing percentage of the mean income of all Black families
and the mean for all White families in the period 1978-88.

We suggest that several reciprocally related factors account for
the deterioation Black family income. The problem is in large part
the legacy of decades of discrimination, and discrimination still
exists in subtle and not so subtle ways. Other educational, economic,
and social factors are an important part of the problem. The trend to
a service economy changed the structure of employment. Many high-wage
jobs were lost and many low wage jobs were created. Since the 1970s,
property-type incomes — rents, interest, and dividends —have been an
increasing percentage of earnings. The growth of one parent families,
especially those headed by a female, has tended to increase poverty
among children, as well as feminize poorness and poverty.

THE DEFERRED TAX CONTROVERSY: FASB 96. Janice Thompson, Troy State
University at Montgomery.

For over two years the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)
has been attempting to focus on how to best report deferred taxes on
the financial statement. Proposed FASB Statement 96 is still unre¬
solved. A major obstacle has been determining the accounting objective
in the reporting of deferred taxes. To focus on this, we must under¬
stand how current accounting methods compute and report deffered taxes,
and how FASB Statement 96 proposes to compute and report the same
facts. Experts agree that there is a need for change, but they are
unable to agree on how to best accomplish this objective.

176

Abstracts

THE MORALE SURVEY: A POTENTIAL CHANGE AGENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION.

T. Morris Jones and Gerald Crawford, School of Business, University
of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001.

A Carnegie Foundation survey reports that college administrators
and faculties are learning that the morale survey can be useful when
the faculty is "concerned about its prospects for the future." They
can measure the concerns, satisfactions, and aspirations of faculty.
However, they can do more. They can draw a loosely knit faculty
together to speak out against weak, misdirected, or incompetent
leadership. These traits are most often found in regional schools
where the president is selected on a political or patronage basis
rather than leadership abilities and academic qualifications.
Undesirable leadership styles tend to be replicated by lower levels,
since these persons "serve at the pleasure" of the chief executive.

To further complicate matters, tenured faculties lose motivation and
in turn, the organization becomes less effective and a liability
rather than an asset to taxpayers. With a properly designed morale
survey (developed by the faculty senate) and a skillful public
relations effort, taxpayers can be motivated to demand accountability.
In a recent in-depth study of high morale colleges, it was found that
four key features were present: (1) The faculty has a distinct
organizational culture that is nurtured and built upon by the
administration, (2) all have a strong participatory leadership that
provides direction and purpose while conveying to the faculty the
empowering conviction that the college is theirs, (3) that each
institution is "on the move," and (4) the faculty has an unusually
compelling close identification with the institution.

AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE APIARY INDUSTRY IN ALABAMA.

Charles M. Simon, Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, P.O. Box 519,
Andalusia, AL 36420 and James L. Stallings, Department of
Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Auburn University,

AL 36849 - 5406.

In order to acquire basic information about the industry, 1460
questionnaires were sent out to producers. Diseases and pests were
the concerns most mentioned by the respondents with the spread of
Africanized bees a close second. Also important concerns were
economic factors. Honey and wax ranked first in revenue with queen
and package bees and sales of hives of bees second. Pollen and
pollinating services were third with royal jelly sales fourth. Two
typical management options of 120 and 80 lbs . /hive/year were analyzed
along with their typical "honey houses." Linear-program models were
used to determine profitablity of a honey enterprise on typical South
Alabama farms. It was found that the honey enterprise can profitably
displace the coastal hay and livestock enterprises in some cases.

177

Abstracts

TOWARD A NEW THEORY OF SOCIAL CLASS: A MATHEMATICAL MODEL
FOR CONSTRUCT MEASUREMENT. Donald W. Caudill , Assistant
Professor of Marketing, Southern Arkansas University,
Magnolia, AR 71753.

Researchers have developed a variety of techniques for
measuring social class. Four major categories include (l)
reputational, (2) sociometric, (3) subjective, and (4)
objective--single-item (occupation status best proxy indi¬
cator) or multiple-item indexes (most noted Warner's ISC,
Coleman's Index of Urban Status, Carman's Index of Cultural
Classes, and Hollingshead ' s Index of Social Position).

In this study, numerous combinations of over 20 variables
were analyzed with the following formula yielding the best
predictor rate.

Social Class = .30E + .250 + .201 + .15C + . 10D

where E=Education, 0=0ccupation, I=Income, C=Social Con¬
tacts, and D=Dwelling type. Instead of six social classes,
the research. indicates there are seven. The author termed
these: Platinum (old rich), Gold (new rich), Silver,

Bronze, Nickel, Copper, and Aluminum. A point score of
90-100, for instance, would place a person in the Platinum
social class; 80-89 in Gold, etc. In a pilot study, this
new model yielded a significantly better predictor rate for
social class measurement than any existing technique. Most
experts agree that the first step in theory development is
the organizing of phenomena into classif icational schema.
This new model should lead to the development of a theory.

TAXATION: MODERN VIEWS ON SMITH'S CANONS. Edward Merkel and
G.T. Stewart, Sorrell College of Business, Troy State University,

Troy, AL 36082.

The authors have attempted to determine from a telephone survey
which taxes used today seem best fitted to Adam Smith's canons of
taxation. Adam Smith's 200 years old canons of taxation are:
equality, certainty, convenience of payment, and economy of
collection. The telephone survey was accomplished using the residents
of Fairhope, Alabama. The authors selected Fairhope for the survey
because the Fairhope Single Tax Colony is located there and the
people seem well informed on tax matters. The survey revealed that
the sales tax was favored based upon certainty, convenience of
payment, and economy of collection. Although the survey revealed a
preference for ability to pay, the residents did not believe the
sales tax was based upon ability to pay. The property tax was viewed
negatively with a large number preferring to reduce the tax to
provide incentives for the use of land. The residents of Fairhope did
not believe that taxes reduce incentives to produce.

178

Abstracts

MANY HAPPY RETURNS: A DELICATE BALANCE. R_j_ Keith
Absher and Kerry P. Gatlin, Dept, of Marketing and
Management, Univ. of North Alabama, Florence, A1
35630.

For many years retail managers have been
bombarding sales clerks with: "The consumer is
king", "Customer satisfaction is our number one
priority", "The customer is always right" and many
similar cliches. However, there is a down side to
this seemingly enlightened approach to retail
management. That is consumer abuse, which ranges
from unreasonable demands to fraudulent activity.
Where does the retailer draw the line between
customer satisfaction and allowing some customers to
take advantage of the store?

This research utilized interviews with return
personnel in retail stores to collect basic
descriptive data on the return policies practiced in
these stores. Sixteen different return policies
were identified. The most popular return policies
among retailers were #1 "Return for cash for any
reason," #2 "Return with sales receipt (no specified
time) ," and #3 "Return with sales receipt or
exchange without sales receipt". Data collected on
the amount of return abuse indicated that it is
probably higher than previously published estimates.

COMMODITIES REGULATION: WHAT TO EXPECT IN THE FUTURE. Macon Wil bourn.
Dept, of Accounting and Finance, Auburn University at Montgomery,
Montgomery, AL 36193.

Russia's grain purchase in 1972 fostered a new era in
commodities regulation. The Commodity Exchange Act of 1936 was
drastically amended, and a new regulatory agency, the Commodity Futures
Trading Commission (CFTC), was created. The Economic Recovery Act of
1981 again made special note of the rapid growth in commodity trading,
and served to clarify the jurisdiction of the CFTC and the Securities
and Exchange Commission (SEC). That clarification remains clouded
today, however, by a large jurisdictional grey area surrounding hybred
financial instruments. The now infamous FBI "sting" operation of
last spring has again thrust the regulatory aspect of the commodities
industry into national focus. Current revelations, at best, question
the reliability of the existing regulatory structure. . .and, at worst,
question the fundamental integrity of the entire futures industry.

The purpose of this paper is to review the current state of
commodities regulation and to discuss the regulatory changes we may
expect in the future.

179

Abstracts

COMPUTER UTILIZATION FOR MARKETING ACTIVITIES IN PROFESSIONAL
OFFICES. Beth C. Rico, CIS Instructor and Dr. Marlon C. Rico,
Professor of Marketing, University of North Alabama, Florence,

Alabama 35632-0001.

Processing information as an aid to marketing functions rather
than for financial records or production activities is a relatively
new horizon in computer utilization. The focus of this report is
concerned with the utilization of computers as a tool in performing
the marketing functions of marketing information and selling in
professional offices. The universe for this study included medical
and dental practices, accounting firms and law offices. Early
accounts of collecting, storing and retrieving data on customers
appeared in the form of hospital patient records. In 1982 the
nursing team at Washington Hospital Center began implementing plans
for an automated patient classification system. The system retained
detailed data on each patient regarding type of treatment, hours of
care required and other pertinent information that could be retrieved
by patient, by treatment and by several other classifications. This
data collection was not specifically for marketing purposes but
gave rise in the literature to the idea of collecting and classifying
information on customers for the purpose of better serving a parti¬
cular market target. By the fall of 1983 one Alabama hospital had
developed a computer program capable of showing the contribution
to hospital profitability by each staff doctor. A software program
by the name of "Practice Builder" is currently available to dental
offices .

ANOVA: IS THERE LIFE AFTER INTERACTION? Dennis W. Gibson, Division
of Business, Troy State University in Montgomery, POD 4419, Montgomery,
AL. 36103-4419.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is the regression data analysis method
of choice when a researcher is attempting to assess the effects of
qualitative or categorical independent variables on a dependent
variable. In analytical models where the combined effect of the
independent variables is the object of the research the presence of an
interaction effect does not detract substantially from the results of
the ANOVA procedure. However, when the object of the research is to
clearly define the effect of each independent variable on the variable
of interest the detection of significant interaction between two or
more of the independent variables confounds the interpretation of the
regression analysis. Almost all texts on regression enjoin the
researcher to stop the analysis when interaction is detected. Some
evidence exists that this enjoinder results in an premature cessation
of research. A tabular study of the means for each value in each
category involved in the interaction and a multiple classification
analysis using dummy variables are interpretive techniques that may
help to solve the puzzle posed by interaction.

180

Abstracts

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS: A POTENTIAL APPLICATION FOR BUSINESS
AND INDUSTRY. Eric Rahimian and William K. McAllister, Alabama
A&M University, Huntsville, AL 35762.

The widespread availability of geographic databases combined
with recent computer system advances encourages the use of Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) by business and industry. A useful applica¬
tion of GIS is screening numerous potential areas to select a short
list of candidate sites to Locate a new or expanding firm. This
application, which uses U.S. Census data and related map outputs,
is more valuable for larger firms. Smaller firms, however, should
not be excluded from the opportunity of access to GIS. Presently,
geographic, socioeconomic, and business information is becoming
widely available from published and digitized data source tapes
sold by governmental and business data agencies. However, for
smaller firms the cost of compiling pertinent information for each
application may not be economical. Economies of scale, on the
other hand, could stimulate specialization and marketing of this
valuable service by a pioneer information firm which sells GIS
services to subscribers. Such effort would save funds, allowing
for further R&D investment on this subject. We perceive the poten¬
tial of the growth of the system to surpass the national boundaries.
Ultimately, a Global Geographic Information System (GGIS) may emerge
which governments, academicians, businesses and industrial firms
can utilize.

ITALIANS: CULTURAL REBELS WITH BUSINESS SAVEY. Frederick A. Viohl,
Department of Marketing, Management and Economics, Troy State
University, Troy, AL 36082.

Italians have always excelled in activities where appearance is
predominant: architecture, landscape gardening, pageantry, fashions
and automobile design. Appearance is everything.

Virtually every mode of behavior in Italy is either forbidden or
regulated and no one pays the slightest attention to the rules. Red
lights at street intersections; solid white lines on roads; and
mandatory road signs are all regarded merely as suggestions. Italians
firmly believes that individual action or behavior is a matter of
choice, and must not be imposed by some unseen higher authority.

Despite severe structural political and economic problems, Italy
is currently enjoying another Renaissance. With few natural
resources, the Italians have used quick wit and superb design sense
to capture a dominant share of such high-margin businesses as luxury
furniture, shoes and especially, fashion. They concentrate on the
practical yet elegant.

181

Abstracts

AIDS IN THE WORKPLACE. K. B. Kohls Jordan, Dept, of Business, Troy
State University in Montgomery, P. 0. Box 4419, Montgomery, AL
36103.

According to the Centers for Disease Control, by 1991 there will
be 250,000 Americans with AIDS. In addition, there are currently
500,000 people with AIDS Related Condition and another one to two
million persons who are infected with the AIDS virus but who show
no symptoms. As the number of Americans who contract AIDS
increases, and as medical advances allow AIDS victims to live
longer and more productive lives, it is inevitable that the chances
of employing someone with AIDS will also increase. AIDS presents
management with tremendous legal, benefits, workplace, and
relations problems. Management can respond to the AIDS crisis with
a reactive approach, but if they are not prepared for an AIDS
threat they will be ill-equipped to make rational and legally
acceptable decisions. Management should, therefore, respond with a
proactive approach by developing policies pertaining to AIDS prior
to the appearance of the first AIDS infected employee. A proactive
approach is the only way in which companies can mitigate the severe
legal, economic, and human costs associated with the disease.
Management should develop policies in the context of nondis¬
crimination laws, current medical information regarding the disease,
and compassion for the victims of the AIDS virus.

ALABAMA’S METROPOLITAN ECONOMIES: ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE AND FISCAL

CONDITION. James G. Alexander, Dept, of Eco. & Fin., Marsha D.

Dept, of Mkt. , Eric Rahimian, Dept, of Eco. & Fin., Alabama
A&M University, Normal, AL 35762.

Concern with local economic development, always strong, has in¬
tensified in recent years. Interarea and intercity competition for
industrial and other projects is now pervasive. This trend was exac¬
erbated by the tax limitation movement of the late 1970s and by Fed¬
eral policy during the 1980s; many local governments experienced an
erosion of revenue-raising authority while being forced to rely more
heavily on locally raised funds as intergovernmental transfers were
constrained. The present paper attempts to provide a preliminary
assessment of the economies of Alabama's ten Metropolitan Statistical
Areas (MSAs) . Indicators employed include per capita personal income,
per capita sales tax collections, per capita appraised property val¬
ues, and unemployment rates. Further, major municipal governments'
fiscal conditions are represented by measures of tax effort and
credit-worthiness (Moody’s bond ratings). It appears that municipal
fiscal condition is related to the local economy's (MSA’s) economic
performance, but that the relation is complex. This study's results
indicate that persons interested in strengthening the fiscal condition
of a local government should perhaps focus on much more than just
local economic development.

182

Abstracts

ALABAMA INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT REPORT CARD AS VIEWED BY
MANUFACTURERS AND COMMUNITY LEADERS. Kerry P. Gatlin and Keith
Absher, Dept, of Management and Marketing, Univ. of North Alabama,
Florence, Alabama 35630.

A study was conducted of the perceptions of Alabama manufact¬
urers and Alabama Chamber of Commerce officials pertaining to
industrial development. Seventiy three usable responses were
received from chamber leaders and eighty two from manufacturing
officials from around the state. Each group was asked to rate the
importance to industrial development of twenty five items frequently
mentioned in the economic development literature. Each group was
then asked to rate their community on each of the twenty five items.

General findings included two points: (1) Chamber leaders and
manufacturing officials hold similar views on at least three fourths
of the variables but significant differences exist on at least one
fourth; and (2) Chamber leaders rate their communities higher on
industrial desirability than do manufacturing officials on
several significant variables. The study suggests that community
leaders become more knowledgeable of the needs of manufacturing and
work more diligently in their efforts to correct community short¬
comings inorder to compete in the very competitive industrial
recruiting and retention phase of their economic development efforts.

SCIENCE EDUCATION

MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE STUDENTS' CONCERNS ABOUT LEAD CONTAMINA¬
TION IN OUR WATER SUPPLY, Ernest D. Riggsby and Joseph D. George,
Columbus College, Columbus (GA). Magazine and newspaper articles have
recently focused our renewed interest toward lead contamination in our
water supply. Since the contamination levels are much higher in the
hot water supply than in the cold and since the major portion of lead
found in household water supplies is introduced into the water after
it leaves the main distribution source, our efforts were to help stu¬
dents learn how water is tested for lead contamination and to help
develop an awareness that water from the hot water tap should never
be used in cooking.

183

Abstracts

HELD-BASED INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY: BASIC COURSE FOR
EARTH SCIENCE TEACHERS? Albert W, Shultz. Dept, of Geology,
Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

College-level geology courses provide an important source of
information for secondary earth-science teachers. Unfortunately, the
format of standard lecture/lab courses offered at the introductory level is
not conducive to an appreciation for the most exciting, relevant, or
accessible aspects of geology. An intensive, field-based introduction to
geology is presented as an alternative course that has proven useful to a
wide variety of students, including university education majors and earth-
science teachers. For five weeks in late summer, students in Indiana
University's G111-G112 course live and study at a geologic field station in
the Rocky Mountains of Montana. Although some information is
presented in classroom lectures (e.g., minerals, geologic history, and plate
tectonics), most instructional time is spent in the field. A great variety of
landforms, rock types, and geologic processes can be observed in the
vicinity of the station. A four-day camping tour of the nearby
Yellowstone, Teton, and Snake River country offers a scenic and geologic
contrast. The primary goals of the course are an acquaintance with
geology and an understanding of fundamental scientific principles.
Assignments range in length from half-hour outcrop notes to full-day and
multi-day mapping projects, and emphasize individualized instruction
and induction from personal observations. Skills acquired include
identification of rocks, minerals, fossils, landforms, and structures; note¬
taking, sketching, map-reading, and geologic mapping. After the course,
students speak highly of the benefits of total immersion and camaraderie
in shaping their attitudes toward learning about the earth.

LEAD CONTAMINATION: A HEALTH LESSON FOR THE MIDDLE SCHOOL
MILDLY HANDICAPPED PUPIL, Joseph D. George and Ernest D. Riggsby,
Columbus College, Columbus (GA). Like any other pupil, the handi¬
capped student needs to know about the potential dangers of lead con¬
tamination in our water supply. But unlike their "normal" peers, the
handicapped student must be taught about these dangers in concrete
repetitive ways. This lesson focuses attention on the types of infor¬
mation about lead contamination in our water supplies that is useful
to handicapped learners and the ways by which such information can be
constructively presented.

184

Abstracts

SOCIAL SCIENCES

THE BLACK MALE IN ALABAMA: A DEMOGRAPHIC PORTRAIT. Donald W. Bogie,
Dept, of Demographic and Cultural Research, Auburn Univ. at Montgomery,
Montgomery, AL 36193. William A. Barrett, Dept, of Human Resources,
State of Alabama, Montgomery, AL 36130. Milton E. Belcher, Attorney
General's Office, State of Alabama, Montgomery, AL 36130. (Belcher ' s
personal update of this publication regarding the urgency of education

for African-American males is the essence of this latest report. )

Nearly 20% of all African-American males drop out of high school;
in many cities the percentage is nearly 50%. Black boys score lower
than any other group of children on standardized tests; they are
disproportionately misclassif ied and placed in classes for the mentally
retarded or are tracked into slow-learning classes more often and with
more dire consequences than any other group of children; suspended
more often and for lesser offenses than White children; less likely
to go to college than Black girls, and when they do, they are more
likely to drop out. The percentage of low income Black high school
graduates attending college dropped from nearly 40% in 1976 to 30%
in 1988. The lack of emphasis in the classroom setting on African and
Afro-American culture, history, achievement, and contributions to the
world and to America is a prejudical "miseducation" of Black children
undermining their overall educational/social progress while saddling
them with negative stereotypical inferiority complexes and an
attitude of "Why the hell even try?!" This biased and genocidal
"miseducation" can be halted only by implementing a detailed
"de-miseducational" initiative (i.e., denouncing "miseducation" and
properly re-educating those who have been/are being "miseducated . ")

We must now move beyond merely citing the grim statistics, and embark
on remedying them.

THE RABBIT AND THE FIG TREE: A LESSON FOR THE SUPREME COURT ON CAPITAL
PUNISHMENT. Ethan Fishman, Dept, of Political Science, Univ. of So.
Ala., Mobile, AL 36688

I trace the confusion surrounding the issue of capital punishment
in this country to imprudent Supreme Court constitutional
interpretations. My thesis is that, by consciously restricting itself
to the procedural aspects of what is fundamentally a moral problem,
the Court has reached decisions which are not authoritative, logical or
predictable enough to be transformed into effective legislation and
policy. For thousands of years, in contrast, Jews have addressed the
ironies and paradoxes of capital punishment through a consideration of
its moral and procedural implications. I examine the tradition of
Jewish theory and practice on the death penalty and discuss what
lessons the Supreme Court reasonably can be expected to borrow from it.

185

Abstracts

POLITICS AND THE BLACK PRESS IN THE SOUTH. Sarita A. McCov.

Dept, of Political Science, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee,

Tuskegee, AL 36088.

In southern cities, such as Atlanta, GA; Birmingham and
Montgomery, AL; New Orleans, LA; and Jackson, MS, Blacks are
becoming more progressive in areas of politics and business.

The political leaders are faced with important policy issues
concerning their constituency (i.e. economic development,
improved housing conditions, educational advancement, day-care
facilities, etc.). These issues must be conveyed to the Black
communities which they will affect.

As more and more blacks seek and gain access to political
offices, there arises an increasing need for a channel of political
expression through which the black community can effectively com¬
municate with its elected officials, and vice versa. It is for
this reason that emphasis on Black newspapers in these communities
should be intensified. It is the goal of this research to identify
who reads Black newspapers, to determine why it is important for
the Black community to demand accurate representation from the
press, to determine how the Black press has tried to meet this
demand, and to address how the Black press can be used as a tool
of political expression.

SMALL GROUP INTERACTION: TEAM LEARNING IN THE UNIVERSITY CLASSROOM.
Lyle L. Shook, Department of Justice and Public Safety, Auburn
University at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36117-3596.

Most, classroom experiences are individualistic in nature. The
course grade a student receives is dependent upon many variables, i.e.
how much time the individual studies, classes attended, and the
difficulty of the exams. However, once the individual leaves the class
room and enters the job market, he/she finds a much different environ¬
ment in which to be "graded". This paper discusses a class setting
wherein students work on class projects in small groups. Their final
grades are determined jointly by the members of their groups and by an
outside Board of Directors who listens to their group presentations.

A COMPARISON OF THE EXPECTATIONS OF UNIVERSITY FRESHMEN AND THEIR
ACTUAL PERFORMANCE. Kasandra Williams, SU Box 3970, Birmingham, AL
35229. Jan Case, Dept, of Mathematics and Statistics, Samford
University, Birmingham, AL 35229.

A sample of 39 university freshmen who were undecided about
their major were asked to rate themselves of a variety of traits at
the beginning and ending of their first semester at Samford
University. These responses were then examined in several ways.
T-tests were conducted to determine how the students’ perceptions
changed throughout the semester. The variables were correlated
with academic success (which was measured by grade point average) ,
and regression analysis was performed to develope a prediction
model .

186

Abstracts

THE DYNAMICS OF DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENT. Stephen D. Morris
Department of Political Science, Univ. of South Alabama,

Mobile, AL 36688.

The predominance of cross-sectional methods in empirical
research on democracy has prevented attention to the short-term
incremental dynamics of democratic development. This paper
highlights the difficulties of extrapolating from long-term,
cross-sectional correlates of democracy to short-term changes
and empirically assesses the impact of certain factors on
changes in political openness for a large sample of countries
for the 1973-1979 period. Analysis reveals that countries
increasing their level of openness during the period generally
enjoyed slightly higher rates of economic growth, increases
in government expenditures, inflation, real wages and political
protests than countries with decreasing openness or no change.
Discussion closes on the theoretical question of the
interrelationship between short-term and long-term determinants
of democratic development.

COMPARATIVE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: THE USE OF SYMBOLS BY AFRICAN
AND AFRICAN-AMERICAN ELITES. J.B. Jirameh, Department of
Political Science, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088.

The economic, political, and cultural progress of the
relevant ( ethnic or national ) community remains an
enduring interest and issue for African and

African - American leadership. Serving as principal agenda-
setters and articulators of people's interests and
aspirations, howbeit, convergent or incongruous, both groups
have employed "seminal concepts" with varying connotations
or implications for social development. In spite of
geographic divide and different details of culture-specific
experiences in the United States or an African nation, the
use of symbols is marked similarly by continuity and change
with respect to context, strategy or instrumentality, and
goal of social development.

Organization and Delivery of Home Health Care Services In. Rural
Areas: An Analysis of the Community Care Continuum. Doris .E_._
Dinkins Ford, Dept, of Political Science, Heal th Care Administration
Program, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.

This study examines the environmental and organizational re-
(ponses of the home care industry to the following policy changes:
1) Medicare and the prospective payment system; (2) Private sector
mansion and growth; and (3) the impact of the ex panded role of
itate and local governments in setting policies for Medicaid^and
;ocial services. The study is also designed to stimulate debate
1 nd discussion of current home care policy formulation, and to
inalyze the home care iHustry's policies that have already been
;nacted and their impact on the development of a community-base
:onti nuum of care, especially for high-risk elderly.

187

Abstracts

GENDER ROLES IN WEST AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE FOR SENEGAL.
Gladys J. Lyles , Dept, of Sociology, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee,
Ala., 36088.

An understanding of gender roles is central to the problem of
hunger and malnutrition in Africa. Prior to the United Nations
Decade of the Woman (1975-85), most development projects focused on
men, when in fact, in Africa, women do most of tne work required to
feed the family. The importance of the role of women in food pro¬
duction and processing is undeniable. In order to integrate women
into rural development, the Senegalese government encouraged the
formation of women's farming cooperative at the village level. In
July 1987, 2500 of these individuals came together as a federation.
This paper examines the diversity in the contribution of Senegalese
women to food production. It examines their contribution at various
levels: small market gardening projects, large farms and organized

cooperatives. In addition, the various levels of expertise are
demonstrated — the low level of technology involved with home
gardening; the sophisticated techniques of the agricultural scien¬
tists as well as the social scientists.

A COMPARISON OF MALE AND FEMALE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS' OPINIONS
CONCERNING PORNOGRAPHY. Kristen Hanson, SU Box 1201, Birmingham,

AL 35229, Jan Case, Dept, of Mathematics and Statistics, Samford
University, Birmingham, AL 35229.

Seventy-three Samford University students were surveyed to
determine their attitude relating to issues of pornography. The
students reported their opinions on topics such as legalization of
various types of pornography, censorship, moral/political/social
implications, and degradation of women. A hypothesis test for the
difference of two binomial proportions was conducted to examine
differences in male and female opinions.

THE TRANSRACIAL BLACK POLITICIAN: TRENDS, PROSPECTS, AND CONSEQUENCES
Lawrence J. Hanks, and Sarita McCoy, Department of Political Science
Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36083

November 7, 1989 brought the development of black politics to a new
era — America elected its first black governor. Moreover, blacks were
elected to represent predominantly white constituents in New York,

New Haven, and Seattle. Thus, November 7, 1989 has become known
as "Rainbow Tuesday" and all manner of analyst are attempting to
analyze the meaning of these rare examples of large numbers of white
voters supporting black candidates. This paper maintains that
this new development has at least three meanings: first and foremost
it means that the ceiling of political ambition for black politicians
has risen; secondly.it means that black expectations from having
political power will be lowered; and finally it means that black
Americans will began to further critically analyze the theory of
black political empowerment, the notions that black political power
will lead to collective socio-economic gains, and formulate new
strategies for political, social, and economic empowerment.

188

Abstracts

BULIMIA IN BLACK COLLEGE WOMEN. L.D. Dunson and J.M. Jones,

Psychology, Tuskegee Univ. , Tuskegee, Ala. 36088 and Psychology,

Univ. of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716.

Dieting has become a dangerous fad in this country. Some people
have to diet for health reasons, and do so under a doctor's order and
care. But dieting to become "stylishly" thin may be particularly
unhealthy for young people. Although the prevalence of the eating
disorder of bulimia is still not clearly known, it does appear that
it is high in young women. The lack of information on bulimia among
ethnic groups is striking and presents extreme gaps in the literature.
The present study compared the prevalence of bulimia and the
attitudes toward food and weight in black females attending black and
white colleges. A 34-item questionnaire containing an operationalized
version of the DSM-111 criteria for bulimia and demographic information
was completed by 561 students (341 from black colleges and 220 from
white colleges). The findings appear to confirm the hypothesis.

Black women on primarily white college campuses were inclined to
internalize an extreme emphasis on thinness. Furthermore, these
women felt greater pressures toward thinness, and thus bulimic
behavior, than black women on a primarily black college campus.

Supported by ADAMHA-MARC Grant #5 T34 MH1 7078-06

CONSTITUTION: BEDROCK OR SHIFTING SAND. Darrell L. Schlotterback,
Dept, of Justice and Public Safety, Auburn University at Montgomery,
AL 36117.

The Constitution of the United States is to the American citizen what
the Bible is to the Christian. Both are seldom read by the
worshippers. Yet, the existence of both is acknowledged and a faith
in both is professed. As bedrock, both are supported by faith and
reverence. As shifting sand, both are subject to interpretation. The
interpretation of the Constitution as a function of the United States
Supreme Court was formalized in the case of Marbury v. Madison, 2 L.
Ed. 60 (1803). Therein, Chief Justice John Marshall stated, "It is
emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say
what the law is." Since that time the court has engaged in periods of
strict construction reinforcing the bedrock concept and periods of
liberal construction reinforcing the shifting sand concept. The
period chosen to illustrate both concepts is the years of the
Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency, 1933 - 1945. Prior to 1937,
proposed depression relief social and economic programs were found to
be unconstitutional. From 1937 forward, similar programs were found
to be constitutional. The catalyst for the change from a bedrock to a
shifting sand approach was the retirement of one justice, the
appointment of his replacement, and a change in the philosophy on the
part of an existing member of the court. The Constitution says what
at least five members of the court say it says. As a document, it is
bedrock. In its interpretation, it is shifting sand. Therein, lies
its durability as our principal governing document.

189

Abstracts

HUGO MUNSTERBERG: A PIONEER IN FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY. Mike Haynes,

Al. Dept, of Corrections.

This paper is an exercise in the history of psychology which
highlights some of the contributions of Hugo Munsterberg in the area
of forensic psychology. Karl Marburg of Germany is thought to be the
first psychologist to take the witness stand. Yet, Munsterberg was
the first person to draw attention to the psychologist in the
courtroom with his research concerning the problems of witnesses'
perceptions. Munsterberg researched reasons for disagreements
between equally trustworthy witnesses who are trying their best to
give accurate and truthful statements. Munsterberg studied the
conditions that foster and produce crime so that such conditions
could be changed. Hugo was opposed to brutal, third-degree methods
of interrogation and developed psychological alternatives to see if
a person was lying. He was interested in knowing more about people
who claim to have committed crimes they actually have not committed.
Munsterberg' s 1914 article entitled "The Mind of the Juryman"
described experiments he had done at Harvard concerning group
decision making. Munsterberg is more important in the history of
psychology for his work as an industrial psychologist, but he
retained an interest in crime and legal affairs to the very end of
his life.

THE ROLE OF CITIES IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: THE NIGERIAN CASE. Edward
E. Eule, Department of Sociology, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee,

Alabama 36088.

Relative to other regions of the world, African in the least urban¬
ized continent. However, the tempo of urbanization in Africa is the
highest in the world. For the 1980-85 period, African urban population
increased at a rate of 5.8 percent. This rate is phenomenally high
when compared to European urban growth rate (1 percent); North American
growth rate (1.4 percent); and Latin American growth rate (3.6 percent).
Some individual African countries register urban growth rates higher
than 7 percent. Nigeria's 1980-85 urban growth is about 6 percent.
Nigeria's high urbanization momentum warrants some comments on the role
of cities in the socioeconomic development of the nation. Pertinent
questions in this regard are: (1) Do Nigerian cities provide the needed
impetus for the nation's economic growth? (2) Has the continued citifi-
cation of the nation brought about improvements in the general welfare
of the people? These questions are addressed in this paper. The
findings reveal a bloated urban sector that continues to grow at the
expense of a declining rural sector. While urbanization is found to be
strongly correlated with nation's economic development, the social
benefits of development seem concentrated in urban areas. These find¬
ings provide support for the modernization and urban-bias theories
generally associated with urbanization in LDCs.

190

Abstracts

REVERSE DISCRIMINATION AND THE BIRMINGHAM CITY COUNCIL
David W. Sink, Dept, of Political Science & Public Affairs,

Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, 35294.

When white residents (and several supporting black residents) of
the city of Birmingham sued the city government on the contention
that at-large elections of council members discriminate against
white voters, they made history of sorts by transferring the argu¬
ment used in public hiring practices to the electoral arena. Further,
they borrowed an oft-heard complaint of black residents when in a
minority about at-large elections. In short, they used a "reverse
discrimination" argument. As a minority of the population (approxi¬
mately 43 percent of Birmingham's total of 278,000), the plaintiffs
contended that they could no longer elect white, independent candi¬
dates. One of their not-so-subtle targets was the Citizen's Coali¬
tion, a successful political coalition started by Mayor Richard
Arrington. Based on population and organizational advantages, the
Coalition has established itself as the power of local politics.

All nine of the incumbent council members had, at one time or another,
been endorsed by the Coalition. This paper deals with 1) the conten¬
tions of the suit, 2) the response of the city, 3) the decisions of
the court, and 4) the results of 18-months of negotiation, argument,
and compromise. It concludes with a brief analysis of council mem¬
ber behavior since being elected in nine, single-member districts in
October, 1989.

A 20 YEAR FOLLOW-UP OF AN EARLY INTERVENTION PROGRAM TO BREAK THE
POVERTY CYCLE. E.C. Booker and R.M. Dunham, Dept, of Psychology,
Tuskegee Univ., Tuskegee, Ala. 36088 and Dept, of Psychology,

Florida State University, Tallahassee, Fla. 32306-1051.

An early intervention program^, Project Know How (PKH) , was
designed in 1967-68 to normalize and stabilize lower-class families
by teaching the mother and father middle-class values and by pro¬
viding a preschool program of their one and two year old. The
objective was to increase the intellectual development of the child
as a deterrent to future poverty. Subjects were selected for three
conditions: the experimental group, lower-class control group and

middle-class control group. The research hypothesis was that dyads
from the treated condition will continue to show a more participatory
style of interaction than will dyads from the untreated condition.

The long-term and sustained effects of PKH were measured using an
interaction task for style of interaction and resolution in mother-
child communication during an interview. At the ten year period,
the overall results revealed significant differences in the experi¬
mental group and the lower-class group due to the initial PKH program.
Communication between the mother-child dyad had become more democratic
and participatory for the experimental families relative to the lower
class control group.

Supported by ADAMHA-MARC Grant #5 T34 MH17078-06

191

Abstracts

HEALTH SCIENCES

THE EFFECTS OF A TELEPHONE FOLLOW-UP PROGRAM ON DIABETES CONTROL
AMONG THE ELDERLY. Kuei-shen Tu, School of Nursing, University of
Alabama at B'ham, UAB Station, B'ham, AL 35294.

A preliminary study was conducted on the effect of a post¬
hospitalization follow-up program via telephone on diabetes self-
care knowledge and practice and metabolic variables of the elderly
patients. Twenty seven participants with type II diabetes ranged in
age between 60 to 81. The experimental subjects (N=15) received 4
weekly post-discharge interventions. Differences in diabetes self-
care knowledge (DCKS), fasting blood sugar (FBS), and HbAl between
groups were not significant. A descriptive analysis of data
indicated that deficits existed in all 4 areas of diabetes self-
care knowledge and practice. The knowledge deficits were completely
reduced while deficits in practice were also substantially decreased
following the telephone follow-up intervention.

PAIN ASSESSMENT. Myra A. Smith, University of Alabama at
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294

Nurses have a major responsibility for accurately assessing
clients' pain. Accurate assessment can assist the nurse in planning
& implementing appropriate pain relief measures. Many times clients
have difficulty in describing their pain. Vague descriptions are
often used, which may be confusing to the nurse. Therefore, another
method needs to be developed which would enable clients to more accu¬
rately describe their pain.

The following research questions have been formulated: 1. Will
the utilization of a pain assessment tool provide clients with a more
accurate method for describing their pain? 2. Will the utilization
of a pain assessment tool improve the nurses' documentation of pain
assessment? 3. Will the utilization of a pain assessment flow sheet
improve the documentation of evaluation of pain relief measures?

4. Will the utilization of a pain assessment tool decrease the amount
of analgesic required by clients?

The origin of this idea is from an ANA workshop on pain assess¬
ment presented in Louisville, Ky in June, 1988 by Margo McCaffery and
Alexandra Beebe.

This idea is to be implemented beginning Sept., 1989 at a small
community hospital in a major metropolitean area with orthopedic
clients .

Accurate pain assessment and evaluation of pain relief measures
helps to insure that clients will receive adequate pain relief. If
pain relief is obtained, clients may be discharged earlier, thus
decreasing health cost. Also, if the pain assessment tool provides
a more efficient method of assessment, then the amount of time
required of nurses for assessment would be decreased.

192

Abstracts

CHILD RESTRAINT DEVICE USE IN A RURAL SETTING. Tracy C. Babcock and
Carol A. Clements, College of Nursing, Univ. of South Ala., Mobile,

AL 36688.

The purpose of this research was to determine the percentage of
use of CRDs (Child Restraint Devices) in a rural setting and what are
the characteristics of drivers who use CRDs compared to drivers who do
not. A convenience sample consisted of 80 observations and 25 inter¬
views. Demographic characteristics and an abbreviated form of
Correlates of Child Restraint Use were completed for each subject.

Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and lambda as a
measure of correlation. Observed use was 19% and reported use was
48%. Adult and child restraint were not highly correlated. Future
research should explore ways nurses can improve effective CRD use.

COMPARISON OF THE EFFECT OF WHOLE-BODY GAMMA RADIATION ON HEMOGLOBIN
COMPONENTS OF FISCHER-344 AND WISTAR ADULT RATS. Jackie Diaz-Albertini,
Habita A. Dowla and Mukul C. Datta, Depts. of Biology and Chemistry,
Tuskegee University, AL 36088.

Rats of Fischer strain are known to be quite resistant to gamma-
radiation compared to rats of other strains. There is a genetic differ¬
ence in rat hemoglobin ( Hb) beta-chain structure, with alternate alle¬
les, _A and _B, at a single locus. We have previously shown that geno¬
types AA and Jffl have different proportions of two Hb components, for
both newborn and adult rat red cells. This study compares the effect
of total body radiation on red cell Hb components in adult male Fischer-
344 and Wistar rats, in an attempt to explore whether alternate states
of the beta-globin gene cluster is linked to radioresistivity of Fischer
strain. Both strains were given °®Co gamma fractions of 400 rad at 0,

16 and 32 days. Blood samples were drawn at intervals. Hb components
were separated by ion-exchange chromatography. Total Hb content, RBC,
WBC, VPRC, platelets were all more greatly depressed in the Wistar
strain. Moreover, the Hb components in the Wistar rats showed a signi¬
ficant switch toward newborn values indicating a severe erythropoietic
stress, while the Fischer rats did not. When the patterns of Hb compo¬
nents were analyzed, the Fischer rats (n = 53) always exhibited AA geno¬
type while none of the Wistar rats (n = 57) revealed Hb profile corres¬
ponding to AA genotype. To our knowledge, this is the first observation
which implies that genetic factors closely linked to the rat beta-globin
gene cluster influence the greater marrow resistivity in the Fischer
strain. Radiation sensitivity appears to be governed by the Hb genotype
of a rat and not by its strain. As for humans, our rat study may lead
to a better understanding of radiation- induced variable effects in nu¬
clear accident victims.

193

Abstracts

EFFECTS OF TWO METHODS OF DANGLING ON HEART RATE AND BLOOD
PRESSURE IN POSTOPERATIVE ABDOMINAL HYSTERECTOMY PATIENTS.
Gretchen McDaniel, Nursing, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

Nurses advocate dangling as a nursing intervention to
prevent orthostatic hypotension. One specific situation for
which dangling has been specified is the postoperative
period. The purpose of this study was to determine the
effects of two methods of dangling on heart rate and blood
pressure in postoperative abdominal hysterectomy patients.
The conceptual framework; was an adaptation of the Neuman
systems model. The sample was 20 postoperative abdominal
hysterectomy patients, aged 31 to 53 years. On the second
postoperative morning each patient was dangled by a method
in which the feet were hanging freely and by a method in
which the feet were moving. The patient rested supine in
bed for 20 minutes between methods. Heart rate and blood
pressure measurements were taken supine, 2 and 4 minutes in
the dangle, 0.5 and 2 minutes after standing. Repeated
measures ANOVA revealed significant interaction between
dangling method and time for heart rate and systolic blood
pressure. Overall, mean values for each variable were
higher while the feet were moving. These findings supported
dangling with the feet moving as a method to strengthen the
person's flexible line of defense by taking advantage of the
muscle pump aspect of normal physiology. Additional
recommendations included replicating the study following a
variety of surgical procedures, conducting research on
dangling at a time closer to the surgical procedure, and
research to include leg muscle contraction after standing.

WHY CLIENTS CHOOSE NURSE PRACTITIONERS FOR THEIR HEALTH CARE. Betty
Reeder Barfield, School of Nursing, Auburn University at Montgomery,
7300 University Drive, Montgomery, Alabama 36117-3596.

A study was conducted to assess why clients choose nurse
practitioners for their health care. One hundred twelve clients at
two private, f ee-for-service nurse practioner offices were
interviewed and were asked why they chose a nurse practitioner for
their health care. The responses were categorized according to
Maslow's need categories. It was determined that clients seek care
from nurse practitioners not only for physiological needs, but also
for their safety and security needs, love and belonging needs, and
self-esteem needs.

194

Abstracts

EVALUATION OF A TEEN PARENT PROGRAM DESIGNED TO REDUCE
CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT AND TO STRENGTHEN FAMILIES.

Ellen Buckner. Elaine Marshall, Kathy Powell, and Gretchen
McDaniel, School of Nursing, University of Alabama at
Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate a teen
parent program designed to increase parents' self-esteem,
improve parenting skills and increase parental knowledge
about child development. Subjects (30) in the program
were referred from public health services. Control
subjects (30) were served by a local health department.
Subjects were tested prior to and upon completion of the
program (or 6-9 mos. later for controls) using the
Coopersmith Self Esteem Inventory (SEI) , the Inventory of
Parents Experiences (IPE) and the Denver Developmental
Screening Test (DDST) . Findings included a) intervention
subjects scored lower than control subjects on the pre¬
testing in self-esteem (p < .05) and community support
(p < .0001), b) at post-test there were no statistically
significant differences and intervention subjects recorded
self-esteem scores had increased to control levels, c) no
developmental delays were detected in newborns at either
pre- or post-testing. Implication of this study include
1) data support effectiveness of the program in enhancing
self-esteem parental role satisfaction and community
support scores in teen parents, 2) evaluation of teen
parent programs effects could be shortened to 3-6 months
to reduce subject attrition.

NURSING PROCESS: A MODEL FOR CLINICAL DECISION-MAKING. Pamela £.
Daugherty , School of Nursing, UAB , UAB Station, Birmingham, AL 35294.
Carol A. Lammon, Capstone College of Nursing, P.0. Box 870358,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487

This conceptual model presents independent and collaborative deci¬
sions made by nurses within the framework of the five steps of the
nursing process. The structure of a decision tree is used to describe
decisions within each step of the nursing process, as well as decisions
which enable the nurse to progress to successive steps in the process.
The locus of decision-making is described for each decision. All
terminology used within the model is defined.

The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of their col¬
leagues in the Nurse-Author Partnership in development of this concep¬
tual model.

195

Abstracts

DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF SLEEP APNEA SYNDROME. Robert G. Swanton
and Robert E. Pieroni, Dept, of Internal Medicine, Univ. of Ala.,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

The breathing disorder known as sleep apnea syndrome is becoming
more and more common in the primary care physician's medical practice.
The initial diagnosis often occurs when the patient complains of
daytime sleepiness, and family members report excessively loud
snoring. Proper diagnosis is made by polysomnography, which is
considered to be the gold standard for establishing the presence of
sleep apnea syndrome. The most effective forms of treatment are
focused on opening the oropharyngeal - nasopharyngeal passageway,
lie present an overview of this intriguing and potentially lethal
disorder as well as the diagnostic and treatment histories of two
sleep apnea patients: a 38 year old male with obstructive sleep apnea
(OSA) and a 57 year old female with mixed sleep apnea syndrome (MSA).
Clinical features of patients with various forms of sleep apnea will
be described in detail.

THROMBOXANE A2 EFFECTS ON THE ISOLATED PERFUSED LUNG. Joseph
W. Barnard. Scott A. Barman, W. Keith Adkins, and Aubrey E.
Taylor, Dept of Physiology, Univ. South Ala., College of
Med., Mobile, A1 36688.

The cyclooxygenase product Thromboxane A2 (TXA2) increases
pulmonary venous resistance in the dog lung, leading to
increased capillary pressure and hydrostatic pulmonary edema.
It is also thought that TXA2 causes pulmonary venous
constriction in other species as well. The present study
examined the effect of the TXA2 analog U46619 (Upjohn) in dog
and rat isolated blood perfused lungs. A dose response on the
segmental vascular resistance effects of U46619 was
characterized using a four resistance (large and small
arteries, small and large veins) model. In dog lungs (n=3) ,
U46619 increased the large vein segment resistance, but in
rat lungs U46619 increased the small artery segment
resistance (n=5) . The V in rat lung for U46619 was 48.0 ±
9.1 cm H-O/l/min/lOOg lung wet wt (indicating the maximum
that small artery resistance could increase as a response to
U46619) and the was 103.1 ± 49.9 ng/ml (the affinity of
U46619 for the TXA2 receptor was such that 103.1 ng/ml
produced 1/2 the maximum resistance) . The V in the isolated
dog lung for U46619 was 44.0 ± 21.1 cm H-O/I/min/ lOOg lung
wet wt and the was 2.1 ± 1.1 ng/ml. These data indicate
that TXA-, affects different vessel segments of the pulmonary
circulation in the dog and rat. Also, although the maximum
increase in total vascular resistance is similar between the
two species, the dog lung is much more sensitive to TXA2 than
is the rat lung. (Supported by NIH HL22549.)

196

Abstracts

APPLICATIONS OF THE ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD TO TRAINING. A,W. FARIS ,

Human Performance Lab, Univ. of So. AL. , Mobile, AL 36688. R. Heitman
and S . Dawkins .

A strong relationship has been known to exist between cardiopul¬
monary parameters such as maximal oxygen uptake (VO^max) , anaerobic
threshold (AT) , and prolonged exercise performance. Using a middle-
distance running event ( 10K race) as a model, this study predicted
maximal performance from measured oxygen consumption at AT. Using
data collected during routine cardiopulmonary testing under medical
supervision, seventeen nonsmoking subjects were chosen (13 males, 4
females) who were trained runners with a VC^max^SA ml/kg/min. Expired
gases were monitored by use of a Beckman Horizon 6 microprocessed gas
measurement system that sampled mixed expired and end-tidal respira¬
tory gases in time alignment adjusted for ventilatory level. VO^ ,

VCO„ , and V were sampled and printed every 15 seconds. AT was taken
at the point of nonlinear increase in VCO^ and Vg with VC^ being re¬
corded at that point. A standard Bruce Protocol was employed with the
subjects exercising to exhaustion or until the standard end-point
criteria were achieved. A projection of race pace was accomplished by
expressing AT in terms of oxygen uptake and converting to velocity by
( ( ( (VO^-B. 5) 5) 0. 0373)0 . 0 167) = speed (Min/irdle). This result was mult¬
iplied by 6.2 to predict total race time. The Pearson Product Moment
correlation was used to compare times predicted from AT and actual
running time. Regression of actual race time on predicted race time
was 0. 964(P<0.0005) . V0„ at AT was strongly related to actual race

pace but time predicted from VO^ max demonstrated a much weaker corre¬
lation and less predictive value. VC^ at AT, when converted to pace,
would appear to be an important parameter to consider when developing
training programs for endurance athletes.

EMPLOYEE SUPPORT OF A MEDICAL GROUP PRACTICE: Impact of a Quality
Circle On Its Organization Culture. C. George Tulli , Jr. , Capstone
Medical Center, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35401

A relationship was determined between employees who thought
the quality circle at an ambulatory health care center was suc¬
cessful and who expressed stronger support for the organization
and its leadership as reflected in the organization's climate
(p - .02). Participation on the quality circle by every em¬
ployee was not determined to be a factor in this relationship.

A quality circle was defined as a small problem-solving work
group of employees who had firsthand knowledge of the problems
addressed. Organization culture was the belief and value sys¬
tems held by people in an organization which could be influ¬
enced by its leadership. Organizational climate, a by-product
of an organization's culture, was a set of properties in the
work environment influencing employee behavior.

197

Abstracts

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SECOND TRIMESTER MATERNAL SERUM HUMAN CHORIO¬
NIC GONADOTROPIN (MShCG) LEVELS AND COMPLICATIONS OF PREGNANCY. Larry
R. Boots, Nancy Rich, Richard Davis, and Sara Finley, Univ. of AL.,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

Several studies have successfully identified 60 to 75% of Down syn¬
drome fetuses by measuring hCG serum levels during second trimester
prenatal screening programs. This study was undertaken to determine
normal hCG levels in our clinic population, to confirm earlier reports
for aneuploid fetuses and to obtain data on relationships between hCG
levels and other complications of pregnancy. Serum samples from 354
normal pregnancies were assayed to determine weekly hCG means (mlU/ml) ,
standard deviations, and medians. These are, for weeks 14 to 20 of
pregnancy, respectively: 39864±22459, 34744; 52446±26221, 52091; 47319±
29264, 33818; 32685±14521, 28723; 30828±17464, 28256; 27306±13565,
27480; 29240±28809, 17271. MS hCG levels in 16 aneuploid (10 were Down
syndrome) and 257 other complicated pregnancies were then determined
and compared to the normal values. In agreement with previous studies
we found MS hCG levels in Down syndrome pregnancies were increased
approximately 2 fold that of normal pregnancies. Using a cutoff of ei¬
ther 1SD above or 1SD below the control mean, 24.5 % (67/273) of all
complicated pregnancies could be identified. By complication, the low
cutoff allowed 23% (14/60) of all pregnancy losses, 22% (2/9) of all
NTD's, 22.5% (27/120) of all premature births, and 30% (6/30) of other
types of complications to be identified. The high cutoff allowed 25%
(4/16) of all aneuploid fetuses (40% (4/10) for Downs only) and 29%
(14/48) of all twin pregnancies to be identified. Using these cutoff
points for identifying at-risk pregnancies, this test has a sensitivity
of 24.5% (67/273) and a specificity of 87.29% (309/354).

ANXIETY OF GRADUATE NURSE STUDENTS CONCERNING RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.

Gail Lavine Stevens, Division of Nursing, Mobile College, Mobile, Al.
36613.

The purpose of this pilot study was to determine if there was a
significant relationship between graduate nurse students' perceived
apprehension or test anxiety and their achievement in a research meth¬
odology course. A researcher designed pre- and post-test and Sarason's
Test Anxiety Scale (TAS) tools were used to collect data from ten par¬
ticipants enrolled in a research methodology course in a private, theo-
centric college in southeastern United States. Descriptive statistics,
chi-square, _t-test, and Pearson r were used to analyze data. This
study showed that 90 percent of the participants perceived apprehension
and test anxiety at the onset of the course that was not significantly
decreased at course completion. Undergraduate statistics course grade
was the only independent variable that showed a significant relation¬
ship with test anxiety. Recommendations include replication using a
larger sample population and teaching strategies to decrease student
apprehension and test anxiety.

198

Abstracts

READING ABILITY AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF ASSOCIATE DEGREE
NURSING STUDENTS. Joyce W. Jenkins and Catherine Dearman, School
of Nursing, Troy State University, Troy, AL 36082

The purpose of this study was to identify the reading
ability of a group of student nurses and whether reading ability
was a factor in successful program completion and in passing or
failing of the NCLEX-RN examination. Investigation was also made
of the reading levels of selected nursing textbooks. Subjects
were students enrolled in an associate degree in nursing program
in Alabama. One hundred forty student volunteers participated
in this study. The Nelson-Denny Reading Test was used to
determine the reading grade level of each subject. The Fry Graph
and the Flesch-Kincaid Formula were used to establish the
readability of several nursing textbooks. Data analysis were
accomplished using the chi square test with Yates correction.
Vocabulary, comprehension, and total scores were found to be
significantly related to program completion. Vocabulary and
total scores were found to be significantly related to passage
of the NCLEX-RN examination.

TRANSCRIPTIONAL ANALYSIS OF A FAMILY OF SHORT-INTERSPERSED
REPETITIVE SEQUENCES IN MURINE TISSUES AS A FUNCTION OF AGE. Zuhair
Oureshi and James W. Gaubatz, Dept, of Biochem., Univ. of South Ala. Mobile, AL 36688.

We have examined transcripts of the B1 repetitive sequence family of rodents as part of
an age-related study on gene expression. The B1 family is composed of short sequences
which are spread about the genome, interspersed among single-copy sequences. Previous
studies have shown that B1 sequences are transcribed as part of heterogeneous nuclear RNA
and as a small, 130 nucleotide, stable RNA. Total RNA was isolated from C57BL/6 mouse
liver, heart, and brain tissues at different ages. RNA samples were denatured, blotted on
nylon membranes, and hybridized with radiolabeled, cloned B1 sequences. Slot blot analysis
showed that B1 transcripts were highest in neonatal tissues and were more abundant in brain
tissue than liver or heart tissues. The level of B1 transcripts appeared to remain constant
from 2-months to 24-months of age. However, the relative content of 81 RNA decreased in
the oldest age-group of 32-months. RNA preparations were also fractionated on denaturing
agarose gels, and the resultant Northern blots were probed for B1 sequences. Specific
hybridization occurred to heterogeneous, mostly high-molecular-weight transcripts and to the
small B1 RNA. In brain tissue, an abundant Bl-containing RNA approximately 6.5 Kb in
length, was evident in all samples except the neonatal brain RNA. The relative proportion
of this apparent brain-specific transcript increased until 12-months of age, then declined over
the remainder of the animal’s life span. The levels of the small B1 transcript changed with
age in essentially the same manner as the 6.5 Kb transcript, but these RNAs did not follow
the pattern observed for total B1 sequences in brain tissue. The similarities in the age-related
changes of the large and small B1 -specific RNA suggests that these two transcripts are
coordinately regulated, and the results are consistent with a decline during aging in whatever
function might be encoded in these transcripts. (Supported by AG 07860).

199

Abstracts

MATERNAL SERUM UNCONJUGATED ESTRIOL LEVELS DURING THE SECOND TRIMESTER
AS ASSOCIATED WITH ADVERSE PREGNANCY OUTCOME. Nancy Rich. Larry Boots,
Richard Davis, and Paula Cosper, Univ. of AL. , Birmingham AL 35294.

Several reports have concluded that second trimester maternal serum
unconjugated estriol (MS FE3) levels may be useful for prenatal screen¬
ing for Down's syndrome. This preliminary, retrospective study was un¬
dertaken to further investigate this possibility and to also study the
relationship between MS FE3 levels and other complications of pregnan¬
cy. Serum samples from 651 uncomplicated pregnancies were assayed to
determine weekly means, standard deviations, and medians for weeks 14
to 20 of pregnancy. These are, for weeks 14 to 20, respectively : 6 . 64±
3.12, 5 . 7 ; 8 . 03±3 . 53 , 7.40; 10. 14±4.05, 9 . 80; 13 . 16±4 . 28 , 12.65; 16.52 ±
4.87, 15 . 70 ; 18 . 41±6 . 20 , 18 . 80 ; 21 . 84±5 . 90, 21.40. MS FE3 levels in 16
aneuploid (10 were Down's syndrome) and 260 other complicated pregnan¬
cies were then determined and compared to the normal values. We found
that MS FE3 levels in Down's syndrome pregnancies were reduced compared
to that found in normal pregnancies. Values for Down's syndrome preg¬
nancies were only 83% of controls. Using a cutoff of either 1SD above
or 1SD below the control mean, 39.1% (108/276) of all complicated preg¬
nancies could be identified. By complication, the low cutoff allowed
28% (17/60) of all pregnancy losses, 30% (3/10) of all NTD's, and 44%
(7/16) of all aneuploid fetuses to be identified. The high cutoff al¬
lowed 31% (37/121) of all premature births, 75% (36/48) of all twin
pregnancies, and 38% (8/21) of other types of fetal complications to
be identified. Using these cutoff points for identifying at-risk
pregnancies, this test has a sensitivity of 39% (108/276) and a speci¬
ficity of 85.7% (558/651). Though preliminary, it appears that second
trimester measurement of MS FE3 may be an indicator of high risk preg¬
nancies which should be monitored more closely.

HOW MEDICARE AREA PREVAILING FEES ARE ESTABLISHED.

Barbara F. Self, Capstone Medical Center, University of
Alabama , Tuscaloosa , AL 35401.

Medicare payments for physician services are made on
the basis of what is referred to as "reasonable charge".
Reasonable charge is determined by the Medicare carrier,
which in our area is Blue Cross and Blue Shield of /Alabama .

Three factors are involved in determining the "reason¬
able charge" for a physician's services. One is the act¬
ual charge or the charge the physician actually bills for
his services. Another is the customary charge. This is
the amount a physician usually bills. The third is called
the prevailing fee. This is based on an average of phy¬
sician charges submitted for a specific procedure, in a
specified area or locality for a certain specialty. Using
these factors, a profile is determined.

Unfortunately, there is little that can be done by a
physician to change his fee profile since it is determined
in part by what physicians in his same specialty and in
his same locality are charging.

200

Abstracts

CHARACTERISTICS 01 NOVICE NURSE EDUCATORS.

Debra C. Davis, Catherine Dearman, Charlene Schwab. Edeth Kitchens
School of Nursing. Troy State University, Montgomery. AL 36101,

The purpose of this study was to explore the employment
characteristics and educational preparation of novice nurse faculty.
Participants in this study were 427 novice nurse faculty in a 30
state area. The majority (60%) of the participants taught in
associate degree programs. Over one-third (36%) taught in
baccalaureate programs. More then one-half of the subjects were in
their first year of teaching. Almost 70% of the respondents held
the master's in nursing and six percent held a master's in another
field. Surprisingly, almost one-fourth of the respondents held only
a baccalaureate in nursing. Only two percent of the sample held a
nursing or non-nursing doctorate. One half of the sample reported
that academic preparation for teaching was a required component of
their graduate program. Overall, the subjects reported that the
most important resources for acquiring the knowledge and skills
requisite to the educator role were informal. These sources
included experiential learning, mentorships, and continuing
education.

The results of this study have definite implications for the
educational preparation of nurse educators. Students interested in
a career in education need to choose their graduate program
carefully. Employers of novice nurse educators should expect to
continue their development for at least one full year. Mentorships,
comprehensive orientation programs, and support for continuing
education programs focusing on the educator role are essential
not luxuries.

HEALTH BEHAVIORS THAT AFFECT THE INCIDENCE OF CANCER. Penny Daffin,
Judy Holcombe, Pam Dixon, Billie Henderson, and James Jackson,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, UAB Station, 35294. Penny Daffin,
School of Nursing, Room 346, University of Ala at Birmingham,
Birmingham, Alabama 35294.

The purpose of this study was to determine the personal health
behaviors that influence the incidence of cancer among registered
nurses. A 41-item instrument was mailed to a stratified random sample
of 1,000 registered nurses in Alabama. Of the 384 or 39% participat¬
ing, 368 were females and 16 were males with a mean age of 40 years.
Subjects had a moderate to infrequent intake of foods recommended to
help prevent cancer. While 58% of the subjects ate whole wheat bread
regularly, nine other foods associated with cancer prevention were
eaten regularly only by 43% or less. The regular use of sunscreen
was reported by 30% of the subjects. Only 14% reported currently
smoking tobacco. A moderate to moderately high number of subjects
used cancer detection behaviors. For those 50 years and older, 50%
reported performing monthly self "breast exams. Yearly pap smears were
obtained by 70% of the female subjects. Although nurses are educated
concerning prevention and detection behaviors related to cancer, most
nurses in Alabama practice these behaviors to a limited extent.

201

Abstracts

CLONING AND NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE OF MOUSE BRAIN B-SPECTRIN
CDNA, Yupo Ma, Warren E. Zimmer, Steven R. Goodman,
Department of Structural and Cellular Biology, College of
Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688.

Spectrin is a major cytoskeletal component of the brain and
has at least two distinct neuronal isoforms: brain spectrin
(240/235E) and brain spectrin (240/235) . These two isoforms
have been defined by localization with two isoform specific
spectrin antibodies. We have isolated a ll85bp cDNA from a
mouse brain library using an antibody specific for erythroid
R spectrin which has been shown previously to stain the cell
body and the dendrite of neurons (brain spectrin (240/235E)) .
Sequence analysis revealed that this cDNA contains a single
open reading frame of 999bp encoding a 333 amino acid
sequence. The deduced amino acid sequence exhibited homology
to spectrins, demonstrating the characteristic 106 amino acid
repeat unit. The highest observed homology was found to
human erythroid R spectrin. This homology begins at amino
acid 7 of the R 15 repeat unit and extends to the C-terminus
of human rbc R spectrin exhibiting - 56% identity within this
overlapping region. An additional 62 amino acids were found
at the C-terminus of the 235 KDa brain subunit not seen in
human erythroid R spectrin. The use of an erythroid R
spectrin antibody, which stained neuronal soma and dendrites,
to probe the library; and the high homology of the deduced
amino acid sequence with human erythroid R spectrin support
the suggestion that this sequence encodes the R subunit of
brain spectrin (240/235E) .

TOBACCO USE AMONG SIXTH, SEVENTH, AND EIGHTH GRADE STUDENTS IN
ALABAMA. Bettv Barfield. Auburn University at Montgomery,
Montgomery, AL. Martha G. Lavender, Jacksonville State
University, Jacksonville, AL.

The use of tobacco products has a long history in the United
States. Unfortunately, tobacco use is not limited to adults:
adolescents and children have been known to smoke cigarettes and
are also using various forms of smokeless tobacco. The purpose of
this descriptive study was to identify the prevalence and use of
tobacco among middle school children. The convenience sample
consisted of 1516 students enrolled in grades 6, 7, and 8. Data
were retrieved from a 13-item questionnaire developed by Scott and
modified for this study. A total of 250 students (16.5%) reported
that they had tried smokeless tobacco; however, only 74 (5%)

reported current use. An increased number reported that they had
tried smoking (n = 396, 26%) with 119 (8%) reporting current use.

The data analysis revealed tobacco usage was higher in older
students, those in the eighth grade, in males, and by students who
have parents and friends who use tobacco products. The majority
of students listed that they had been introduced to tobacco
products by their friends. The most frequently cited reasons for
ceasing to use tobacco were taste, parents, and cleanliness.

202

Abstracts

Ischemia-Reperfusion and Hypoxia-Reoxygenation Injury in
Isolated Rabbit Lungs. W.K. Adkins and A.E. Taylor., Dept.
Physiology, Univ. of S. Alabama, Mobile, AL.

This study evaluated the effect of ischemia-reperfusion
( I-R) and hypoxia-reoxygenation (H-R) on pulmonary capillary
permeability in isolated rabbit lungs. The role of xanthine
oxidase (XO) in I-R and H-R was evaluated by inhibition with
allopurinol (lOO^m) . Vascular permeability was evaluated by
determining the capillary filtration coefficient (K^ c)
measured before and after either I-R or H-R. Reperfusi'on
following 2 hours of ischemia increased pulmonary capillary
permeability (baseline Kf c 0.096 + 0.014 to 0.103 + 0.025
ml/min/cmH20/100g) , and t:his increase was blocked by the
addition of allopurinol (0.126 + 0.018 to 0.103 + 0.005

ml/min/cmH20/100g) . Reoxygenation following 2 hours of
hypoxia caused an increase in pulmonary capillary
permeability (0.117 + 0.021 to 0.168 + 0.025

ml/min/cmH20/100g) which was unaffected by allopurinol
addition (0.118 ± 0.010 to 0.156 + 0.019 ml/min/cmH20/100g) .
We conclude that I-R increases pulmonary capillary
permeability through a XO-mediated mechanism, yet the H-R
induced increase in pulmonary capillary permeability is not
dependent on XO. (Supported by NIH HL41961)

EMPATHY TRAINING AND MORAL REASONING. Mary C. Henderson, Dept, of
Nursing, Troy State Univ., Troy, AL 36082.

The effect of empathy training on moral reasoning of nursing
students was studied in a posttest-only control group design.
Specifically, this study was designed to determine whether there would
be a difference on principled moral reasoning scores of nursing
students who received microtraining in empathy and students who
received training based on a traditional nursing-process model.
Conceptual support was derived from theoretical relationships between
empathy and moral reasoning. The sample consisted of 30 students in
the final quarter of a nursing program at a state-supported university
in Alabama. The sample was predominantly white female whose mean age
was 28 years. Subjects were randomly assigned to the treatment or the
control group. The treatment condition was an empathy training program
which included Microtraining's Basic Attending Skills and Bender's
Empathy Enhancement Tapes. The control group participated in case-
focused group discussion following a nursing-process model. Conducted
over a six-week period, the experiment included 6 two-hour training
sessions for each group. After the six-week intervention, all subjects
in both groups completed Rest's Defining Issues Test. Two indexes of
principled moral reasoning, P% and D scores on the Defining Issues
Test, were obtained for each subject. Multivariate analysis of
variance revealed no significant difference between groups. It was
concluded, therefore, that neither approach to empathy training was
superior to the other in facilitating principled moral reasoning.
Findings suggest that principled levels of moral reasoning may not be
a realistic goal for certain undergraduate students in nursing.

Support of USDHHS NRSA 1 F31 NU 05757 from DON is acknowledged.

203

Abstracts

PERCEPTIONS AND DEMOGRAPHICS OF FLEXIBLE STAFF RNS . Billie R. Rozell,
Graduate Program, U.A.H. , Janet G. Alexander, U.A.B., Janice L.
Vincent, U.A.B., and Elaine M. Marshall, School of Nursing U.A.B.,
University Station, Birmingham, AL, 35294.

In a health care delivery system that is rapidly changing, nursing is
seeking mechanisms to ensure adequate, cost effective delivery of
care. The purpose of this study was to compare demographic
characteristics and perceptions of the workplace by RNs who participate
in hospital-based and private nursing pools. A descriptive study of
172 RNs was conducted in 4 hospital based and 4 private nursing pools
in a large suburban county in Alabama. An investigator constructed
questionnaire (Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha=0.83) was distributed to
all RNs in the selected pools. A sealed receptacle was placed in each
staffing pool office for one month to collect completed questionnaires.
Differences were found between the private and hospital-based
staffing pools in regard to salry, age, marital status, highest degree
earned, and the number of RNs employed full time in another agency.
Major determinants for selecting the staffing pool for both groups
included control (88%), salary (82%), and flexible scheduling (60%).
Recommendations include continued research using a wider geographical
area and periodic assessment of RN staffing needs.

HEALTH BELIEF MODEL/SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND CANCER IN BLACK AMERICANS.
Linda Wi 1 son-Thomas , School of Nursing, University of AL at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL, 35294

There is a 25% higher incidence of cancer in Black males and 4%
increase in Black females compared to their White counterpart. Lower
socioeconomic status and conflicts in cultural traits are factors con¬
tributing to the high incidence and mortality rates of cancer among
Blacks. The differences may be more attributable to socioeconomic
status, cultural patterns and environmental factors than biological or
genetic characteristics . The purpose of this study was to identify if
there is a difference in risk factors for cancer, health seeking
behavior patterns and knowledge level about cancer in Blacks from
different socioeconomic status. The study included 123 men and women
from lower and middle income levels. The subjects were divided into
those who attend private physicians (P.C.) and those who attend health
fairs (HFP) for care. The average income for the P.C. group was
$32,000 and for the HFP group was $6,000. In the HFP group, 75% com¬
pared to 25% of the P.C. group sited insensitivity, lack of ability
for health care workers to maintain dignity of poor individuals, non¬
caring attitudes of health care providers, less personal attention in
clinics and county hospitals and fear of the unknown as primary
deterrents to the health care system. Finances, lack of transporta¬
tion and lack of community emphasis on cancer prevention were socio¬
economic factors that contributed to inadequate health care practices.

A positive relationship between knowledge level about cancer, the
frequency of routine medical exams and socioeconomic status existed.

The higher the income, the more individuals were motivated to partic¬
ipate in health promotion.

204

Abstracts

COMMITMENT AND PREFERENCE TOWARD LPN EDUCATIONAL MOBILITY. Ayda
Nambayan and Janet Alexander, Univ. of AL at Birmingham, B'ham,

AL, 35294.

The nursing shortage of the 1980 ' s was driven both by economic
and non-economic factors leading to increased efforts in recruitment
and retention in the profession. Based on the assumption that LPNs
are a potential pool of recruits, a study regarding LPN preferential
factors influencing career mobility decision and commitment of hos¬
pital administrators toward career mobility was conducted in 1989. A
questionnaire was mailed to 1400 LPNs and 100 hospital administrators.
Two hundred twenty four LPNs responded with 208 interested in pursuing
an RN degree. Motivational factors include personal satisfaction,
increase in pay and better work conditions. The LPNs identified num¬
erous sources of support ranging from employee benefits to loans and
personal savings. The hospital administrators had a 74% response and
the assistance provided by the agencies affirms their commitment to
career mobility. Types of assistance the employers are committed to
provide are financial i.e. tuition reimbursements , loans, flexible
scheduling and leave of absences. Findings of this study indicated
that recruiting and retaining LPNs in the RN programs may help
alleviate the present nursing shortage and would require substantial
collaborative efforts between the LPN, the School of Nursing and the
health care agencies.

A QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF THREE BLACK NURSING LEADERS.

Sheila P. Davis, School of Nursing, University of Alabama in
Birmingham, AL, 35294.

Three black nursing leaders were interviewed to assess their
leadership style and strategies. A research guide of 10 open ended
questions were used during the tape recorded face to face interview.
All subjects graduated from predominately black undergraduate nursing
programs and identified black females as mentors. Two of the subjects
were doctorally prepared and the other had done past masters work.
Coding categories developed from the field notes were: a) strategy,
b) relationships and social structure, c) and incidental common
trends. As black females in leadership positions, all three indicated
that they could not do work that was just satisfactory and expect the
same approval as a coworker of the majority culture. They had to work
twice as hard for the same rewards. Problem solving techniques
employed by respondents varied, but all indicated an attention to the
human element. Additional considerations were the needs of the
organization, the facts, legal concerns, and the how and who would be
involved. Strategies related to one's philosophy to unmet job related
goals consisted of: a) "looking beyond the self", b) being a
pragmatist, c) evaluation of importance of goal, d) reviewing
priorities, and e) realization of Divine Order to events that occur
and that do not occur. As becomes apparent in the study, black
females in leadership still continue to surmount unequal barriers to
goal achievement. However, success is possible. My recommendations
would be to continue to study the black nursing leader in an effort to
identify her/his strengths, and/or areas needing additional support.

205

Abstracts

BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF BEDSIDE RESUSCITATION BAGS. Kenny M.
Williamson , School of Nursing, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294 and Dorothy K. Gauthier, School of Nursing,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

This descriptive study was implemented to (a) identify the extent
of contamination of bedside resuscitation (AMBU) bags used for patients
requiring ventilatory support (b) identify the bacteria found on Ambu
bag adapters, and (c) ascertain if there is a significant relationship
between bacterial contamination and patient demographic or environ¬
mental factors.

Swab cultures were done on Ambu bag adapters from 50 patients in a
Neurological Intensive Care Unit in a major urban medical center.
Fifty-four percent of the adapters harbored bacteria (39 different
strains of 15 different types). Of the 39 strains isolated, 49% were
also found in patient sputum cultures. There was a statistically
significant relationship between appearance of the Ambu bag adapter
and contamination (X ^ =11.76, d.f. =2, p=.0028). Additionally, it
was noted that the percentage of contaminated adapters increased with
the number of days the adapter was in use. No statistically
significant difference was identified between variables such as
patient age, sex, and admitting diagnosis and contamination of Ambu
bags.

Conclusions reached include: (a) Ambu bags used for patients re¬
quiring ventilatory support are capable of harboring bacteria, (b)
these bacteria are often also found in the patient's sputum, (c) the
chance of contamination increases with length of time the Ambu bag has
been in use, and (d) adapters which are visibly "dirty" are likely to
harbor live organisms and should be changed.

REPAIR OF THE CYTOTOXIC AND MUTAGENIC DNA LESION 0‘-ALKYLGUANINE IN
0 CELLS. J. W. Nelson. S. LeDoux, and G. Wilson, Mobile, AL 36688.

Accumulating evidence indicates that environmental toxins may be involved in the pathogenesis
of some forms of diabetes mellitus. Studies have shown that certain chemical agents, including
the diabetogenic compounds streptozotocin (SZ) and chlorozotocin (CLZ), damage preferentially
the insulin-secreting 0 cells of the pancreas. Damaging the DNA is one way such toxins might
alter 0-cell function or be 0-cytotoxic. Indeed, SZ and CLZ are known to alkylate DNA. Much
evidence indicates that alkylation of DNA at certain sites leads to cytotoxicity or mutagenesis.
Thought to be of particular importance is alkylation at the O6 position of guanine (O'er). Among
the cell’s defense mechanisms is the DNA-repair protein 06-alkylguanine alkyltransferase (GAT),
which repairs the 0X3 lesion. Its importance in protecting cells from alkylation damage is
emphasized by the fact that cells deficient in GAT are extremely sensitive to the cytotoxic effects
of alkylating agents. To understand the mechanisms of action of SZ and CLZ, it is important to
determine if 0-cell sensitivity to these agents is related to repair of 0X3. Thus, the purpose of
these studies was to measure concomitantly the levels of GAT and 0X3 in 0 cells. Briefly, the
GAT assay was performed as follows: high-speed supernatant from sonicated cells was incubated
with DNA containing [3H]OX3. GAT activity was measured as picomoles of 3H transferred from
DNA to protein. Quantification of 0X3 was done using a 32P -endlabeling assay. Studies were
performed using the rat insulinoma cell line RINr 38. These cells have approximately 1 unit of
GAT activity/mg protein, as compared to about 3 units/mg protein in a GAT-proficient hepatoma
cell line. Quantification of 0X3 revealed that nearly 70% of the 0X3 still persisted at 24 hrs
following exposure to alkylating toxin. Thus, RINr 38 cells (which are extremely sensitive to CLZ)
appear to be deficient in the repair of 0X3. Similar studies are currently being conducted in
primary rat and human 0-cell cultures to determine if the sensitivity to SZ and CLZ in these cells
correlates with decreased GAT levels.

206

Abstracts

CAREGIVERS OF CVA PATIENTS IN THE HOME: POPULATION AT
RISK. Sandra Hutto Faria, School of Nursing, Troy State
University, Dothan, AL 36302.

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) is a major public
health problem. More of these disabled patients are
being cared for in the home. Therefore, it becomes
imperative that health care workers have knowledge of
the caregiving experience as perceived by the caregivers
themselves. Two research questions were answered by
utilizing a descriptive grounded theory methodology:

(1) What are the problems of caregiving in the home as
perceived by spouses of CVA patients? (2) What are the
strategies of caregiving in the home as perceived by
spouses of CVA patients? Twenty spouse caregivers of CVA
patients in the home were interviewed. Organizing con¬
cepts were developed from the data. The problems of care¬
giving which were described included increased responsi¬
bility, worrying, changing roles in the family, and
curtailing of activities. Keep On Going was the core
concept that enabled the caregiver spouse to continue to
participate in caregiving in spite of the changes in
their lives. Keep on Going consisted of three supporting
concepts: Acknowledging Feelings, Performing Tasks, and

Looking Ahead. It was concluded from this study that
Keep On Going is an important part of the life of the
caregiver. Recommendations were made for clinical
practice, education, and research.

HOW TO BETTER UTILIZE THE NURSING ASSISTANT TO ASSIST THE RN IN
PROVIDING QUALITY PATIENT CARE. Linda Reed, and Myra A. Smith,

Scl. of Nursing, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

According to the report by the Commission on Nursing (Dec. 1988),
the health care system is experiencing a widespread shortage of
registered nurses (RNs) . Exacerbating the problem is health care
organizations' reduction in ancillary personnel, forcing RNs to perform
nonprofessional activities. The Commission (1988) recommended that
employers use RN resources in an effective and efficient manner. One
strategy is the use of ancillary personnel. However, data regarding
the current use of ancillary personnel and their potential for
enhanced roles is largely unexplored. Therefore, the purpose of this
study is to describe the duties of nursing assistants (NAs) at selected
local hospitals and to explore potential additional duties they could
perform. All (100%) of the Nursing Assistants and a random sample of
RNs at 3 local hospitals were asked to complete a questionnaire
regarding current duties and additional duties nursing assistants
could perform with minimal training. The results indicated that
nursing assistants currently perform duties in the areas of hygiene,
nutrition, comfort and basic measurements. Additional duties
identified that NA's could perform with minimal training included
basic treatments, transportation, and some unit environmental
responsibilities .

207

Abstracts

SELF-ESTEEM IN ADOLESCENT FEMALES. Portia Foster. College of
Nursing, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265.

The purpose of the study was to ascertain the relationship
between the selected variables (age, race, grade, family
structure, sexual activity, and contraceptive use) and the
self-esteem of adolescent mothers, pregnant adolescents, and
never-pregnant adolescent females. A convenience sample of 512
adolescent females, aged 14 to 19 years, were drawn from three
public high schools and two county health departments In a
southeastern state. One hundred and seven adolescent mothers, 105
pregnant adolescents, and 300 never-pregnant adolescent females
participated In the study by completing an Investigator made data
questionnaire and a Coopersmlth Self-Esteem Inventory. There was
a significant relationship between the selected variables anh the
three group of adolescents (p < .05). Statistically significant
differences were not found In the self-esteem of the adolescent
mothers, pregnant adolescents, and never-pregnant adolescents.
Self-esteem was significantly related to age In the adolescent
mother group and the pregnant group <p * .05). Two family
structure variables were significantly related to self-esteem In
the never-pregnant group <p * .05). Implications from this study
Involve Intervention planning and counseling needs. It Is
recommended that studies be conducted to Identify other variables
that Influence adolescent's self-esteem.

Assessment Characteristics of Dark Skin. Sheila P.

Davis, Cora A. Ingram. School of Nursing, University of
Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. William C.
Reasor, Spain Rehabilitation Center, Birmingham, Alabama
35294.

Many textbooks, teaching aids, and assessment tools use
the descriptor pink to refer to skin color. Healthy skin
is generally described as warm to touch and pink in
color. The fallacy of this description is that pink is
not the universal color of skin. Consequently, this
fallacy has resulted in lack of knowledge by health
practitioners related to the assessment of black skin or
the skin of other dark ethnic groups.

Hence, the purpose of this study is to assess the
knowledge level of health practitioners, i.e. registered
nurses at the University of Alabama at Birmingham Medical
Center (UAB) . Subjects will include consenting
registered nurses from ten (10) randomly selected nursing
units. The subjects will complete a questionnaire
designed to test their knowledge of dark skin assessment.
The analysis of data will include descriptive statistics
- mean, median, and standard deviation. Chi square will
also be used. If it is demonstrated that a knowledge
deficit exists in the subjects then recommendations for
the removal of this deficit will be made.

208

Abstracts

THE USE OF A TEMPORARY SYSTEM TO EFFECT AND SUSTAIN CHANGE IN NURSING
PRACTICE. Luzenia H. Marques, Nursing Division, Mobile College,
Mobile, AL 36613.

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of the use of
a temporary system on continuing education for nurses. Thirty nurses
who were employed in psychiatric settings were randomly assigned to a
control group and a treatment group. Each of two groups participated
in a workshop where physical assessment was taught. Traditional
methods were used for the control group but a temporary system model
was applied during the workshop for the treatment group. A pretest/
posttest procedure was used to study cognitive change, and a preaudit/
postaudit procedure was used to elicit data relative to sustained
change in nursing practice. Three hypotheses were tested. First, the
hypothesis of no difference was used to test the relationship between
cognitive change and change in nursing practice. Correlation analysis
showed no statistically significant results. The second hypothesis of
no difference used to measure differences in cognitive change between
the control group and the treatment group was rejected, since the
treatment group showed significantly greater improvement in knowledge
regarding physical assessment. The third hypothesis of no difference
in the rate of documentation of physical assessment findings 6 weeks
after the workshop was accepted. There was also no significant
difference in sustained change in documentation of physical assessment
findings when the data were analyzed relative to age of the
participants, length of time in practice, or the length of service in
the subjects' current positions.

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE EFFECTS OF ENDOTHELIN-1 (ET-1) ON
PULMONARY VASCULAR RESISTANCE. S.A. Barman. J.W. Barnard,
W.K. Adkins, G.L. Longenecker, and A. E . Taylor, Depts. of
Physiology and Biomedical Sciences, University of South
Alabama, Mobile, AL. 36688.

The pulmonary vascular effects of the vasoconstrictor
peptide ET-1 have yet to be characterized. Using the
arterial, venous, and double occlusion techniques, total
pulmonary vascular resistance was partitioned into a four
series segmental resistance (large and small arteries, small
and large veins) , model in isolated, blood perfused rat,
rabbit, and dog lungs. 10‘8 M ET-1 increased the small artery
resistance in the rat lung, the large and small arterial
resistances and the small vein resistance in the rabbit lung,
and only the large vein resistance in the dog lung. Using
radioimmunoassay to assess for the release of any
cyclooxygenase products, only ET-1 increased the levels of
6-oxo-PGF1a, a metabolite of the vasodilator prostacyclin in
the dog lung. These results indicate that ET-1 increases
total pulmonary vascular resistance in the rat, rabbit, and
dog lungs by targeting different vessel segments in each
species, which may only be partially mediated by
cyclooxygenase products in the dog lung. (Supported by NIH
HL22549)

209

Abstracts

Social Competence Development In Four-Year Old Children. Patricia Goodman,
Department of Nursing, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL. 36265.

This descriptive correlational study investigated the effects of the factors- SES,
the home environment, maternal age, maternal education, maternal stress, social
support for the mother , maternal attitudes, familv size, and the child's birth order
on the development of social competence in the four-year old child. Social competence
was assessed by measuring behaviors relevant to the four-year old child in the areas
of cognitive competence, physical competence, acceptance, and interpersonal
relationships. Subjects were 201 mothers and their four-year old children who
attended state licensed aay care centers in Alabama ana who met the criteria for
inclusion in the study Quota sampling was used to provide four-year old male and
female children heterogeneous for socioeconomic status and homogeneous for age and
race. The results of the stepwise multiple regression analyses supported the
rejection of the null hypothesis. Additional analyses were performed, using
correlational statistics, to assess for simple correlations among the predictor
variables and social competence. These findings suggest that multiple factors within
the child’s environment affect the development of social competence in the child. In
this study, the most important factor in the development of the child’s overall social
competence was the home environment followed by the social support available for
the mother and family size. SES and maternal education were significantly related to
cognitive competence while high levels of maternal stress and maternal attitudes
were significantly related to undesirable behavior and had low or non-significant
relationships with cognitive and physical competence.

ALABAMA STATE NURSES' ASSOCIATION NURSING SHORTAGE SURVEY - 1988-89.
Margie Findlay, Joyce Chappelear, University of Alabama School of
Nursing, Birmingham, AL 35294. Jean Hohman, Dale County Hospital,
Ozark, AL.

The purpose of this study was to describe the perceptions of
Alabama State Nurses' Association members related to the nursing
shortage in Alabama. Data were collected with a nineteen item
questionnaire, "ASNA Nursing Shortage Survey - 1988-39," developed by
members of the Nursing Shortage Task Force of ASNA. Members of ASNA
were asked to identify the following: opinion of the Registered Care
Technologist proposal; areas within their agencies with greatest num¬
bers of Registered Nurse and Licensed Practical Nurse vacancies;
services; retention and recruitment services being used; use of tempo¬
rary staffing; and whether or not they would encourage an individual
to go into nursing. Sixty-nine ASNA members responded. Findings in¬
cluded the following: overwhelming disagreement with RCT proposal;
greatest RN and LPN vacancies on Medical-Surgical units; majority of
agencies do not use temporary staffing services; RNs and LPNs most
often recruited by advertisements; retention method most often used
was improving salary/benefits; 73% reported they would encourage
individuals to go into nursing; major reasons for not encouraging
individuals to go into nursing were poor salary/benefits and stressful
envi ronment.

210

Abstracts

HOPE, SELF-ESTEEM, AND SOCIAL SUPPORT IN PERSONS WITH MULTIPLE SCLERO¬
SIS. Anne W. Foote, School of Nursing, Univ. of Ala. at B'ham, UAB
Station, 35294. Anne Foote, School of Nursing, Room 330, University of
Alabama at Birmingham, UAB Station, Birmingham, AL 35294.

The purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship existed
among the variables of hope, self-esteem, and social support in persons
with Multiple Sclerosis. Data were obtained by use of a demographic
data sheet, Miller Hope Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and Part II
of the Personal Resource Questionnaire. Of 75 individuals contacted by
mail asking them to participate, 40 sets of questionnaires were
returned. The subjects' ages ranged from 32 to 70 years with a mean
age of 48.2 years. The mean scores on the three instruments were:
Miller Hope Scale-157.9 (40-200 possible range), Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scale-29.68 (10-40 possible range), and Personal Resource Questionnaire
141.13 (25-175 possible range). A statistically significant relation¬
ship was found between hope and self-esteem, hope and social support,
and social support and self-esteem. T-test scores revealed significant
differences in hope scores and self-esteem scores according to employ¬
ment status. Individuals who were employed had a higher mean hope
score and a higher mean self-esteem score than those who were unemploy¬
ed. No differences in hope, self-esteem, or social support were found
according to gender or race. Pearson correlation coefficients were
used to determine if there were relationships between age and marital
status and hope, self-esteem, and social support. No significant
relationships were found.

CHARACTERIZATION OF CHLORIDE CHANNELS IN ISOLATED
VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS. C.R. White, N.R.
Danthuluri, T.A. Brock and R.L. Shoemaker. Department of
Physiology & Biophysics and Department of Medicine, University of
Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Freshly isolated cells from the caudal artery or cultured aortic
vascular smooth muscle (VSM) (passages 1-5) from rats were studied
by patch clamp technique to measure Cl” channel currents. Multiple
types or substates of Cl" channels were identified using cell attached
(C/A) and inside out patches (I/O). The conductances given were
estimated as the slope of the current- voltage plots through zero.
Types of channels observed were: 1.) 8 pS and 2.) 25 pS

conductance Cl” channels that were difficult to distinguish from non-
relative cation channels ; 3 . ) and 4 . ) flickering outward rectifying

type channels with 55 and 100 pS conductances were also found.
Angiotensin II increased activity of Cl" current in C/A and whole cell
modes; 5. a time dependent inactivating current (found only in
cultured cells ) , probably due to hypotonic solutions ; 6 . a flickering
type 150 pS channel occurring in bursts when [Ca+^]j > 100 nM (<
15% patches) ; and 7. a flickering type 250 pS channel when
[Ca+2]j > 200 nM. We feel that chloride channels are involved in the
maintenance of the membrane potential in VSM cells; a change in
chloride channel activity can alter the membrane response due to
voltage changes.

211

Abstracts

Variation In Scrum Transferrin and ImmunogJobin levels with Age
and with Lipoprotein Cholesterol Fraction Levels.

Kamal S. Yackzan and Barry M. Gray, Departments of Cell Biology and Anatomy,
and Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294, U.SA.

The concentrations of four plasma proteins, transferrin (TO, immunoglobulins
IgG, IgM, and, IgA were measured in 158 subjects aged 8 to 80 years and in 207
subjects (ages 30-50 years) with varying levels of lipoprotein cholesterol levels
[high density lipoprotein (HDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL), high levels of both
HDL and LDL high cholesterol levels (HCL), low cholesterol levels (LCL), and
normal controls]. Regression analysis revealed that Tf and IgM concentrations
decreased with increasing age (p<0.001). IgA levels increased with increasing age
(p<0.05). IgG levels were independent of age. It is postulated that with increaseing
age and decreaseing energy requirements there is decreased demand for iron
transfer in the body tissues. The data also showed that Tf levels increased as LDL
rose. In the high total cholesterol level group (HCL) Tf levels were significantly
lower than in controls. Beyond these observations one may conclude that there
was little association between the levels of Tf and immunoglobulins and altered
levels of plasma lipoprotein cholesterol fractions.

[Thanks to Charles Krauth and Dr. Buris R. Boshell, Director of the Diabetes
Trust Fund.]

BRAIN SPECTRIN INTERACTS WITH SMALL SYNAPTIC VESICLES. Alexander
F. Sikorski. Dept, of Structural & Cellular Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile,
AL 36688, Ian S. Zagon, Dept, of Anatomy, Pennsylvania State University, M.S. Hershey
Medical Center, Hershey, PA 17033, and Steven R. Goodman, Dept, of Structural &
Cellular Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688.

In the current study, we have investigated the interaction of brain spectrin with 50 nm
diameter synaptic vesicles. Small synaptic vesicles, radiodinated with 125I-Bolton-Hunter
reagent were incubated with brain spectrin covalently immobilized on cellulosic membranes.
Binding was found to be rapid (equilibrium is reached in 1 min), salt dependent (optimum
at 50-70 mM NaCl), and pH dependent (optima at 6.5 and 7.5 -7.8). Scatchard analysis
revealed biphasic binding isotherm suggesting that spectrin binds to at least two distinct
classes of noninteracting sites: high affinity (Kj)~31 ug/ml) and low affinity (Kj)~126
ug/ml). Synaptic vesicles extracted with high salt solution displayed little binding capacity
towards brain spectrin. To identify potential membrane attachment sites, spectrin was
covalently bound to a cellulosic membrane in a affinity chromatography unit and the
vesicles were passed through. Adhering vesicles were solubilized with 0.2% Tween 20 and
bound protein was recovered by elution with 0.2 M KC1, 0.2% Tween 20 in the same
buffer. SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and western blot indicated that eluted
protein bands were primarily synapsins. Isolated synapsin I was found to competitively
inhibit the binding of 125I-synaptic vesicles to brain spectrin with an apparent Kj of 59 nM
synapsin I. The above findings are consistent with the cytoskeletal-mediated release
hypothesis, in which the spectrin-synapsin interaction is proposed to be critical to the
regulation of synaptic vesicle translocation and fusion.

212

Abstracts

PILOT STUDY: SHORTAGE OF LAB PERSONNEL?. Katherine L. Bradshaw
and William R. Krause, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama
35401. C. George Tulli, Jr., CMC, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35401.

Is there a shortage of lab personnel in the state of Alabama?

In order to answer this question, a pilot study of fifty hospitals
was conducted. The questions used in this study were taken from a
1988 national survey commissioned by the ASCP. The results of the
ASCP survey, published in the June 1989 edition of Laboratory
Medicine , showed a national vacancy rate of 9.4 percent for medical
technologists. In order to find where the greatest shortage exists
in Alabama, the state was divided into four districts: Mobile,
Montgomery, Birmingham, and Huntsville. From this limited sample,
the results showed that the FTE vacancy rates for medical technolo¬
gists in the four districts were as follows: Mobile, 8.33 percent;
Montgomery, 8.42 percent; Birmingham, 6.04 percent; and Huntsville,
7.69 percent. The overall percentage for the state as a whole was
7.43 percent. Several solutions have been posed to address the
problem of the shortage of lab personnel. One interesting
alternative that has been implemented in several institutions is
the use of temporary technologists. Over fifty-three percent of
the sample hospitals used temporary technologists. Almost one-half
of these hospitals had a supplier that provided the temporary
technologists. Some of the other solutions that have been tried
are local and national advertising, salary increases, subsidized
tuitions, recruitment tactics through high schools, and restructuring

of lab duties and responsibilities.

TRANSFERRIN AND IMMUNOGLOBULIN LEVELS IN HUMAN
AMNIOTIC FLUID OF NORMAL PREGNANCY

Kamal S. Yackzan and Nona Colburn, Department of Cell Biology and
Anatomy, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 U.S.A.

Amniotic fluid is important in clinical diagnosis of
intrauterine infections in amniotic fluid. Controversy still exists
regarding role, correlative relation between IgG, its increase, &
its source in amniotic fluid and the growth of the fetus during weeks
of increasing gestation period. Many studies have found no
correlation. Quantitative analyses for IgG, IgM, IgA and transferrin
levels were performed on forty amniotic fluid and forty maternal
gestation serum samples using Mancini's single radial immunodiffusion
method. All subjects had normal pregnancies. Ig levels in maternal
sera were similar to non pregnant controls (p 0.05). However by
use of linear regression analysis a positive correlation was found
between IgG levels in amniotic fluid and the stage of gestation. An
increase of gestational age by 1 week increased IgG level by 0.8
mg/dl. This study postulates that IgG source is not strictly
maternal in origin. The increase in Ig level may be contributed by
synthesis in the fetus. The limited sensitivity of this method for
Tf allowed us to detect this protein in five out of fifteen samples.
Clinical relevance of this relation may be enhanced by further study
of these proteins for detection of intrauterine infection.

[Thanks to C. Krauth, Dr. L. R. Boots, and Dr. B. R. Boshell,

Director of Diabetes Trust Fund]

213

Abstracts

PHYSIOLOGIC RESPONSE TO EXERCISE IN CLIENTS WITH MITRAL VALVE
PROLAPS SYNDROME (MVPS). Betty W. Norris, DSN, RN, Critical Care
Nursing, Baptist Medical Center Montclair, Birmingham, Alabama
35243.

The physiologic response to exercise in clients
with MVPS is not fully understood. To determine if two subsets of
clients with MVPS had a significantly different response to exercise
than a group of normal a retrospective research design was
implemented. The sample consisted of 72 subjects who had received
a metabolic GXT (MGXT) at a local center. The MGXT records of 24
normals. 24 MVP clients with hyperadrenerg ic dysautonomia and 24
MVP clients with hypervagal dysautonomia were reviewed. The
following variables were examined: resting heart rate (HR), peak
exercise HR, resting systolic BP and peak exercise SBP, Peak V02 ,
time to peak V02 , Met level reached and rate of perceived exertion.

The statistical hypotheses were tested using analysis of
variance procedures. The F statistics indicated no significant
difference at the .05 level of significance among the three groups
for the variables included.

It was concluded at least for this study there was not a
significant difference for response to exercise among the three
groups. The conclusion leaves open the question of whether there is
a need to teach clients with MVPS differently with regard to
exercise. Additional studies are needed to better understand
exercise in clients with MVPS.

THE DIFFERENCES IN MATERNAL REACTIONS TO INFANTS' SEX BASED ON
ATTAINMENT OR NON-ATTAINMENT OF SEX PREFERENCE DURING THE POSTPARTAL
PERIOD. Lyn Reilly and Molly Walker, University of Alabama School of
Nursing, University of Alabama at Birmingham, UAB Station, Birmingham,
Alabama, 35294.

Sex preference or the desire to have a child of a particular sex
has not been studied in relation to attainment or non-attainment of
the desired sexed child. It is believed that non-attainment of sex
preference could possibly have negative effects on the development of
family relationships. A descriptive design was used to report scores
of maternal reaction to the attainment or non-attainment of sex pre¬
ference during the postpartal period. The Maternal Sex Preference
Instrument-Postpartum was used to gather data from 115 subjects. This
instrument is composed of two parts, a demographic data sheet and a
semantic differential scale. Differences in maternal reaction scores
between the group of mothers who attained their sex preference and
those who did not were found to be statistically significant. Other
variables studied included partner's sex preference as perceived by
the mother, intentional pregnancy, desire to know fetal sex, sex
belief prior to delivery, and methods used for sex selection. It was
concluded from this study that mothers had a slightly higher pre¬
ference for male infants especially if it was the first born infant in
a family. Subjects also had a definite sex preference and expressed
many negative reactions about the sex of the infant when the pre¬
ferred sex was not attained. Further studies are planned to look at
the consequences of these negative maternal reactions.

214

Abstracts

ASSESSMENT OF ALKYLATION DAMAGE AND REPAIR WITHIN THE
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA (MTDNA) OF RINR 38 CELLS. Cathleen C. Pettepher. Susan P.
LeDoux and Glenn L. Wilson, Mobile, AL 36688.

There is much evidence supporting environmental toxins, like the naturally occurring
nitrosourea Streptozotocin (STZ), as causative factors in the etiology of diabetes mellitus. In
some cases, this diabetes is associated with altered beta cell function rather than overt beta cell
necrosis and more closely resembles type II diabetes. The mechanisms underlying the cellular
effects of toxins like STZ have yet to be elucidated. It is known that STZ is a potent
alkylating agent of nuclear DNA and most of its resulting lesions are repaired through an
excision mechanism. This repair process leads to an intracellular depletion of pyridine
nucleotides necessary for cellular respiration with a concomitant drop in ATP concentrations.
Since the mitochondrion contains its own genetic information and is the key organelle involved
in cellular respiration and generation of ATP, it could be a critical target for the action of
STZ. The purpose of these experiments is to determine the extent of DNA damage and its
subsequent repair within the mitochondrion, since damage to this organelle could dramatically
affect overall cellular function. For these studies, monolayer cultures of Rinr 38 cells were
exposed to varying doses (.1-lOmM) of STZ for 1 hour. The drug was removed and the cells
were allowed to repair for designated periods of time. The cells were removed, the DNA
extracted and digested with Bam HI. After heat denaturation and alkali treatment to cause
DNA strand breaks at sites of purine alkylation, the restriction fragments were separated using
alkaline gel electrophoresis. Following Southern transfer, the membranes were probed with
a 32P-labeled mitochondrial probe. Assessment of alkylation damage and repair was based on
the disappearance and the subsequent reappearance of a major restriction fragment over time.
It has been previously reported that repair mechanisms do not exist within the mitochondrion.
These studies have demonstrated that STZ causes appreciable mtDNA damage in a dose-
dependent manner and provide the first evidence that there are mechanisms present within the
mitochondrion that repair this damage.

ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE

IMPLEMENTATION OF PARALLEL BRANCH-AND-BOUND ALGORITHMS ON A SHARED MEMORY
MULTIPROCESSOR. Godfrey B. Saldanha & Dr. Alan Sprague, Univ. of Alabama
at Birmingham, Dept, of Computer and Information Sciences, AL 35294.

In this paper, we explore the feasibility of implementing best
first branch-and-bound algorithms on a shared memory multiprocessor, spe¬
cifically on the Sequent Balance 21000. A best-first variant of Little et
al's branch-and-bound algorithms to solve the travelling salesman problem
( TSP ), will be used as a testbed for our experiments. The aim of the
paper is to make a comparison of the performance obtained by our impleme¬
ntation against that obtained by others( Mohan, Quinn, etc. ) on Hypercu-
bic machines. For this purpose, we will be using two parallel implementa¬
tions of the TSP algorithm - one with constant granularity and the other,
with granularity increasing with the degree of parallelism. Specific
issues to be dealt with, are the Speedup and the number of nodes expanded

215

Abstracts

IMPROVED READ'S ALGORITHM. Larry Basenspiler and Sen King,
Division o-f Computer and Information Sciences, University
o-f South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688.

We describe an algorithm tor calculating the chromatic
polynomials of sparse graphs based on that of Ronald Read.
Alqorithmic and programming improvements make the space
requirement a polynomial function of the size of input and
independent of the density of the graph. Because of space
constraints, Read's algorithm handles very sparse graphs
on up to 15 vertices, and graphs of medium density on up
to 10 vertices. Using the constant (10,000 words) amount
of space, our algorithm is able to process graphs of any
density on up to 32 vertices. We present experimental
results of running the algorithm on sparse graphs on up to
26 vertices. The work was partially supported by NSF grant
No . ASC- 8900690 .

AN APPLICATION OF COGNITIVE MODELING OF COMPETENCY FOR
ALGORITHM DEVELOPMENT. John Olson. Herbert E. Longenecker. Jr., and Michael V.
Doran. Division of Computer and Information Science, University of South Alabama, Mobile,
Alabama, 36688. (205)460-6390.

A stimulus will lead to cognition if and only if attention of the observer is gained and the stimulus is
recognized. In order to learn a new event, repeated application of the same stimulus must occur so that
long term memory will capture the stimulus.

Measures for determinig competencey can be based on levels of cognition within a framework of
knowledge objects. The following competency levels would reflect the degree of cognition, hence
learning: 1 — recognition of facts, 2-- operating with a set of facts, the how and why, 3-- using a set of
facts to solve a problem.

Repeating a previously learned algorithm is a very different process from devising a new algorithm. With
a new algorithm, life cycle techniques must be firmly at hand so that attention can be paid to data and data
structures so that a particular sequence of instructions can be devised to transform a given input data set to
the requried output

It is our hypothesis that in order to learn to write algorithms it is necessary to repeatedly address life cycle
stages, the relevance of data and data structures, the translation to hierarchical control structures, the
learning of related vocabulary, and the repetative application of this process in succedingly more complex
problem domains until the students begin to actively master the process techniques on problems wherein
the answers were truly unknown. Learning can not be accomplished without this repetative and spiraling
process.

These theories were the basis for a series of repetition of our introductory algorithms/problem solving
course. Over the span of two years the course has matured, and has remained succesful due to these ideas.
Instructors and students of more advanced courses have expressed benefit from this introduction to
algorithm development. Advanced students without this background generally do not perform as well.

216

Abstracts

AUTOMATABLE PATTERNS IN DEVELOPMENT OF DATABASE
APPLICATIONS IN SMALL INFORMATION SYSTEMS. Tariq Ali, Herbert E.
Longenecker. Jr., and Michael V. Doran. Division of Computer and Information Science, University of
South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, 36688. (205)460-6390.

Higher generation programming languages generate many lines of code in lower generation langauages
per line of code in higher generation language. Thus, there are second, third and fourth generations of
language. In each generation, higher level function cause increasingly more effect per line of code. Yet,
with current fourth generation languages it still requires much code to implement applications.

Abstract data types, and object structures are devices for generation of reusuable code. These methods
form libraries or tool sets for extensibility of a given programming language. These devices afford ease
of use while enabling considerable less error for implementation of what would be described as routine
tasks.

It is our hypothesis that there are recurrent patterns of code in information systems designs that can be
automated by simple specification facilities. Indeed, many lines of code should be replaceable with a
single line with parameters that can be used to code generate appropriate sequences in a target fourth
generation language. The specification commands may be interspersed within the regular syntax of the
fourth generation language giving the feel of a very high level fifth generation language as a result

Several business accounting systems coded in the DATAFLEX language were used as objects for the
study. Command code sequences were identified in a parsing routine. Commands were expanded using
specific processing routines for each particular command sequence. The following sequences were
identified for specification and code generation: 1- Scrolling Window Editors and 2~ Update Procedures.
In both cases one or two lines of specification could be foound to generate code varying in length
according to the parameters giving a code savings of 50 - 200 : 1 depending on the number of fields in the
scrolling window, and 15 + n : 1 depending on the number of consecutive fields to be updated. With the
update code sequences, a requirement was found to use a similar data dictionary for both source and target
files to be updated.

FLUE GAS EMISSIONS CONTROL IN SMALL SCALE COAL COMBUSTORS. Nanda L.
Mukherjee, Chemical Engineering Dept., Auburn University, AL 36849

CO, total hydrocarbons and particulates emissions from the
underfeed retort small scale coal combustors can be reduced econom¬
ically and technically below ERA limit by selecting suitable types
of coal and size, modifying screw feeder and retort design, insta¬
lling simple automatic ash discharge system as well as post baghouse
CO reduction unit in the combustor and optimizing combustion process.

S0X emission in flue gas can be decreased 75-80% of the normal
level by employing low sulfur coal mixed with CaO. At the same time
combustion efficiency could also be increased significantly.

217

Abstracts

USE OF EXPERT SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY TO MODEL PROBABILITIES OF
DISORDERS IN PEDIGREE ANALYSIS. Charles Gamer. Michael V. Doran, and Herbert E.
Longenecker, Jr.. Division of Computer and Information Science, University of South Alabama,
Mobile, Alabama, 36688. (205)460-6390.

A pedigree is a graphical hierarchical representation of family relationships. Viewed from the child's
perspective backwards, the pedigree is a tree structure. However, matings of individuals can involve
cyclic relations which can not be modeled hierarchically.

Previous models of pedigrees have been attempted with limited degrees of success. Some models use
only tree drawings. Others have used a textual database format, but have lacked a graphical interface and
presentation methodology. We have described a system which allows the graphical and textual creation,
modification and manipulation of the pedigree. This is accomplished via a reversible data structure which
allows for a transformation between nodal elements for graphical, editing and storage purposes.

It is our hypothesis that a rule-based system can be developed to perform analysis of human pedigree
structures. This analysis is accomplished by the use and understanding of the knowledge inherent in the
pedigree chart. Traits occur in a family with a known degree of probablity. An automated tool would
assist in such analysis and better allow for predication of future disorders.

A network model was selected for the storage structure for pedigree information. Each node within the
network represents a mating of two individuals who have in fact produced progeny related to the mating.
Multiple progeny may be stored in relation to the same parent set. Multiple attributes of individuals are
stored in a related structure which is tied to each mating in which that individual is involved. These
attributes include specific knowledge of the genetic traits or other physical findings.

By initial complete ancestral traversal, all known traits are posted on nodes of the data structure. By
subsequent ancestral traversal specific occurrences and/or future conditions may be calculated and predicted.
This method works with cyclic mating behaviors. Simple heuristics may be employed to fill in missing
data items by forward or backward referencing dependent of available facts or suppositions.

Implementing an Ada-to-Parallel C Translator. Subramanian Varadarajan. Dept,
of Computer and Information Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294.

A compiler for Ada to produce parallel code can be implemented by exploiting
the parallelism in the tasking features of Ada. The host system for the compiler under
construction is a Sequent Balance 21000 which is a 30-processor bus-connected MIMD
architecture. The use of several processors available in the Sequent makes possible the
efficient exploitation of heterogeneous parallelism found in the multi-tasking features of
Ada. This is implemented by doing a source-to-source translation of an input Ada
program to its equivalent code in C. The system routines available in DYNIX (a parallel
version of UNIX on the Sequent) can be invoked from the output program in C, to
implement multi-tasking on the available multiple processors. The output code may then
be compiled using an existing parallel C compiler.

Acknowledgements: Foremost, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Barrett R. Bryant
for his detailed comments and suggestions to improve this project. I also thank the
Department of Computer and Information Sciences, UAB for giving me a pleasant
working environment.

* Ada is a registered trademark of the United States Department of Defense, Ada Joint Program
Office.

218

Abstracts

ON-LINE EXPANSION OF DATA DICTIONARIES IN A GRAPHICAL
ALGORITHM DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT. Ser Seong Lee, Michael V. Doran, and
Herbert E. Longenecker, Jr.. Division of Computer and Information Science, University of South
Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, 36688. (205) 460-6390.

In conventional flow charting or hierarchy charting methods, data and data flows are not presented. With
data flow drawings, there are alternate possible implementations of the data flow, and there is no
committment to a particular or even exact solution.

CASE tools such as Excelerator capture the current state of methodologies of defining data flow and data
dictionaries, and allow drawing of control flow based on the identified data flows. The level of detail of
the actual data transformations are not evident As the complexity of the data structures increase, data
flow drawings become less meaningful without some drawing showing the details of the data structures.

It is our hypothesis that computer assisted design environments require methods to define and present data
structures and data flows during the process of algorithm development. That is, design must be based on
data and data flows, and that without adequate representation of data and data flows, design may be flawed
or difficult.

We have used the concepts of defining data within the context of a graphical hierarchical structure chart
development environment. Data is defined and recorded in data dictionaries. These dictionaries become
visible as each task, or process is instantiated. During the development phase, the dictionaries are created
or modified. Subsequently, the graphical structures are directly executed. This allows for immediate
feedback and validation of the developed algorithm vis a vis the correctness of data generated by the
process as viewed in the data dictionaries. In this method, data flows are replaced by the concept of
sequential data dictionaries. Also, parameters are specific data dictionaries that are drawn prior to the
execution of a procedure, as opposed to any other valid instruction. At any level within the chart, all
data, and data flows must always be in balance from the input to the eventual output of the algorithm.

Support from the USARC grant is gratefully acknowledged.

THE EFFECT OF OZONE ON COAGULATION OF COLLOIDAL CLAY PARTICLES IN
DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES . George P. Whittle, Dept . of Civil
Engineering, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Rickey B. Harrison,
Hankins and Harrison Engineering, Inc., Tuscaloosa, AL 35401.

The effect of ozone on coagulation/clarification water treatment
processes was studied by subjecting raw- water samples containing
colloidal-clay turbidity to treatment with ozone in a laboratory
jartest procedure. Samples were dosed with varying amounts of ozone
followed by addition of alum and lime in a treatment— step sequence of
rapid mix, slow mix, sedimentation, and filtration. Turbidity removal
efficiencies, zeta potential measurements, and required sedimentation
times obtained on ozonated samples were compared with those obtained
on unozonated samples. Turbidity removal efficiencies were found to
be higher in ozonated samples, and low doses of ozone produced a
significant reduction in zeta potential. On ozonated samples, the
sedimentation time required for a given turbidity removal was found to
be less than that required for unozonated samples. It is postulated
that low doses of ozone change the chemical character of adsorbed
organic matter on the clay surface resluting in a reduced zeta
potential at the surface of shear, and higher dosages of ozone strip
away the adsorbed organic layer producing a "clean-surface" state
amenable to an improved agglomeration when a coagulant is added.

219

Abstracts

PRACTICABLE HYDROLOGIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR HYDRAULIC DESIGNS IN
ALABAMA. Jay K. Lindly, James V. Walters, Daniel S. Turner, and David
K. Hains, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Univ. Of Ala, . Tuscaloosa AL
35487-0205 .

Hydrologic aspects of the design of hydraulic facilities for
stormwater management in Alabama are worthy of careful, detailed
considerations that will lead to designs conforming to high
performance standards. Damages and liabilities associable with some
relatively recent designs economically demand those considerations.
Practioners should devote effort to the design of the convenience
system of drainage facilities to minimize flooding nuisance as they
have in the past. They also must consider the convenience system and
how it will function as a part of the major drainage system of an area
during the occurrence of major storm events whose annual likelihoods
of occurrence are smaller than ten percent. Designers must select the
appropriate storm recurrence interval for their application, and then
they must have access to storm intensity, duration, and frequency data
for their particular location within the state. The rainfall data for
use in such designs are available in broad form from applicable
National Weather Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration studies. The authors used raw data and algorithms
supplied in those studies to develop intensity-frequency-duration
rainfall data for ten Alabama cities selected to cover the state.

THE CRITICAL ROLE OF DATA FOR NOVICE STUDENT ALGORITHM
DEVELOPMENT, UNDERSTANDING AND VERIFICATION. Michael V. Doran, and
Herbert E. Longenecker, Jr. Division of Computer and Information Sciences, University of South
Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36688. (205)460-6390.

In many programs in computer science utilizing the ACM CS1, and CS2 sequences (Curriculum 78) a
primary focus in on computer language elements and syntax. Frequently design is often not addressed, or
design are handed to students. Student code production is rarely based on a reproducible software life cycle
methodoloogy. Rather, the students leam to "hack" code, that is, to produce code in an irrational and ad
hoc uncontrolled manner.

Several approaches to algorithm development have been used over the past several years with varing
degrees of success. The initial method was a purly abstract approach using pseudocode with complex
problems, with little or no emphasis placed on data or data structures. This method resulted in a high
level of student failure.

It is our hypothesis that novice students should be exposed to software engineering principles in the
initial course in a computer science sequence. This will build a proper foundation for problem solving to
be used in later courses, and fosters the notion that knowledge of data structures, is prerequisite to
algorithm development.

We have designed a course to address all of these issues: 1-- Data structures are defined, drawn, and are
represented in data dictionaries during the requirements phase, 2- Control flows are graphically and
systemstically developed based upon the data flows, 3— The complexity of each problem is kept to a
minimum so that each new concept is presented and utillized in a sequential and orderly fashion with
immediate feedback to the students given using an automatic graphical algorithm language in which
flows of control are indicated by shapes, and are converted automatically to Pascal code which is executed
by Dr. Pascal (Visible Software, Inc.). High success rates have accompanied this approach as evidenced
by a considerably lower course drop rate and higher performance on course exams.

220

Abstracts

“Think-Time” Awareness in Scheduling. Robert A. Allen, Department of
Computer Science, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487-0290.

Classical computer scheduling algorithms make decisions based upon the as¬
sumption that all iisers’ response time needs are equivalent. “Fair and equitable”
response times are desirable, however, each user may actually perform better un¬
der his own uniquely characterized virtual system. Virtual system characterizations
should change dynamically as each user not only changes from task to task but
as each user begins to fatigue. It would appear advantageous for an Operating
System to individually cater these user/task dependent virtual system characteri¬
zations to each user. One system measurable user characteristic which should be
a critical component of a uniquely characterized virtual system is the user’s think¬
time. “Think-Time Oriented” CPU scheduling algorithms have been developed as
a first, step to incorporate user’s think-times and user’s needs into each user’s vir¬
tual system. System resources should be proportionally distributed among its users
based upon the users’ performance needs. It has been shown that users overlap
different amounts of think-time with processing time as a function of task. There¬
fore, user’s response time needs change from task to task. Think-time oriented
scheduling algorithms dynamically adjust to reflect current user think-time behav¬
ior. Think-time algorithms have been developed as non-preemptive CPU scheduling
algorithms. Extension of these think-time oriented scheduling algorithms to include
preemptive CPU scheduling and the scheduling of other resources is now at hand.
Other resources of interest include main memory and disk drives. As Operating
System designers, we must keep in mind that we are scheduling more that a piece of
hardware. Every scheduling decision which is made in our operating system trinkles
down to our end users. Users then make their own scheduling decisions based upon
what they have “seen” or experienced on our systems. Different perceptions of the
system a, re, on an individual basis, more conducive to productive work than others.
System designers’ goal should now be to learn how to give each user the system
which, subject to physical constraints, makes that user tne most productive at his
task. Our users’ success is the ultimate measure of our system’s success.

HYDRAULIC OCMXtCITVITY OF CLAYS USING HIGH HYDRAULIC GRADIENTS,

Norman D. Pumphrev. Jr. . Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

Hydraulic conductivity of a clay soil is a particularly
troublesome characteristic to determine using standard laboratory or
fieldj^ests. A typical clay soil might have a hydraulic conductivity
of 10 7 centimeters per second or less. Under normal hydraulic
gradients present in the field, it can take months or even years for a
fluid to permeate through a 1" clay layer. High hydraulic gradients
might be used to decrease the time required for the fluid to permeate
through the soil. Unfortunately , these high gradients can cause
problems which prohibit the accurate measurement of the hydraulic
conductivity. Particle migration and decreased void ratio under
extreme pressures will cause measured values to be significantly less
than the conductivity values present under normal field conditions.
System and border leaks, which are often difficult to detect, can
cause measured conductivities to be greater than the field values.
These potential measurement errors can have serious implications in
the area of hazardous waste containment using clay liners. A
conductivity measurement error of one magnitude could cause a liner
designed for a 100-year life to fail after only 10 years. As a
result, high hydraulic gradient tests should only be used to find
relative instead of absolute hydraulic conductivity values.

221

Abstracts

ANALYTICAL REPRESENTATIONS FOR THE THERMAL CREEP OF A NUCLEAR FUSION
REACTOR FIRST WALL ALLOY. Gladius Lewis, Dept, of Mechanical Engineer¬
ing, Memphis State University, Memphis, TN 38152.

Selection of the proper material for structural components of the
first wall is arguably one of the most pressing issues in the evolution
of nuclear fusion reactors. Thus, interest in and study of this aspect
is justifiable. In the present work, .the focus is on the thermal creep
deformation behavior of one material, HT-9 ferritic steel, with a view
to presenting appropriate empirical parametric relations for this de¬
formation. HT-9 steel would probably be the material of choice for the
first wall of a commercial reactor, and has thus attracted a lot of re¬
search and development attention in recent years. Essentially, the
approach taken involves obtaining relations that describe the depen¬
dence of creep strain, e , on time, t, temperature, T, and stress, (T ,
taken severally or jointly. The selection of empirical relations to
examine was guided by a study of the literature which indicated which
relations have been most frequently shown to reasonably describe the
creep deformation of a variety of ferrous materials. For each equa¬
tion, the procedure for extracting the values of the empirical coeffi¬
cients from the experimental e - t data (which had been obtained pre¬
viously at three combinations of stress and temperature) involves the
use of a nonlinear parametric estimation technique, namely a guarded
Gauss - Newton method. Using the criterion of the standard error of
estimate of the creep strain, the equation that provides the most
accurate representation of the data is obtained. Finally, a description
of the thermal creep mechanism of the alloy, based on the results of
the study, is presented.

A MULTILAYERED NEURAL NETWORK FOR ROTATIONAL INVARIANT PATTERN
RECOGNITION. Ramiah Srinivasan, Dept, of Computer&Information Sciences, University of
Alabama at Birmingham, AL-35294.

Most pattern recognition techniques, especially template matching, are over sensi¬
tive to shifts in position of the pattern. These techniques, as a result of the above stated downfall,
find very little practical application. This has led many researchers to look for pattern recognition
algorithms which would tolerate shifts in position, rotations and also distortion and noise.

Cognitron is an algorithm proposed by Fukushima of NHK Labs in Japan.This algo¬
rithm is based on the structure of the visual nervous system and can be realized with a multilayered
network containing neuron like cells. The algorithm is such that the network acquires the ability
to recognize patterns through unsupervised learning (ie. self organization without a teacher) depend¬
ing only on the shapes of the characters.

This algorithm has been modified in this paper by moving it from Unsupervised
learning to supervised learning paradigm. Backpropagation is used as the learning algorithm. This
network at present is capable of rotational invariant pattern recognition.

Acknowledgement : I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Alan Sprague for his suggestions and
support during the course of this project.

222

Abstracts

NATURAL LANGUAGE PARSING FOR OBJECT-ORIENTED DATABASE FRONT
ENDS. Aiqin Pan, Department of Computer and Information Sciences, University of
Alabama at Birmingham, UAB Station, Birmingham, AL 35294. CSNet address:
pan@uab.edu. Tel: (205)-934-2213

A special natural language parsing technique is used on an object-oriented data-base
system called ASASA (A System to Assist School Applications). The goal of the data-base
system is to help the applicants to choose suitable schools for themselves in a short time and
in a convenient way. The user can use the natural English to communicate with the system
and the system is built for people who have little or no computer science background. The
major functions of the system are: 1. INQUIRE: The user can ask for any information related
to the university applications; 2. CONSULT: The system can work as a consultant and even
answer personal questions of the users and guide them to the best choice; and 3. CREATE.
The user and the system administrator can add any updated information to the system using
English and the system itself also has a self-learning function. The parsing technique that
we use is based on dynamic accessing of keywords in the syntactic structure which omits the
tedious formal syntax parsing of natural languages. The advantages of this technique are high
efficiency and allowing the user to use a wide range of English structures even including those
with grammatical mistakes. Furthermore, it works especially well with the object-oriented
database system because the keywords are organized in an object-oriented style. This system
has been implemented on the VAX system in LISP.

Acknowledgement. This research has been supported in part by a student research grant
from the Alabama Academy of Science.

ANTHROPOLOGY

ALBUMIN VARIANTS AMONG NATIVE AMERICAN POPULATIONS. Kenneth R.
Turner , Dept, of Anthropology, Univ. of Ala., Box 870210,
Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487-0210.

Among Native American populations, polymorphic frequencies are
attained by two serum albumin variants: albumin Naskapi and
albumin Mexico. Albumin Naskapi occurs at relatively high
frequencies among populations belonging to the Athabascan
language group and is found very rarely in other North American
populations. Albumin Mexico is found at relatively high
frequencies among several populations from Central America to the
southwestern United States, and rarely elsewhere. Surveys of
these albumin variants have neglected regional ethnohistoric
human biology and have consequently been so population-specific
as to obscure significant patterns. Ethnohistoric reconstructions
organize the jumbled mosaic of data and reveal previously unseen
implications in distributions of these two albumin variants.

223

Abstracts

A DESKTOP COMPUTER SIMULATION FOR ANTHROPOLOGY. Mark A. Andrews and
Kenneth R. Turner, Dept, of Anthropology, Univ. of Ala., Box 870210,
Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487-0210.

POPLAB, a Pascal program authored by Mark A. Andrews for IBM
compatible microcomputers, simulates human populations for anthropol¬
ogical teaching and research. POPLAB determines the framework accord¬
ing to user-specified conditions. Students select one of several
predefined initial populations or create their own, selection age-
specific mortality and fertility rates, and specifying mutation and
selection coefficients. For experiments of anthropological interest,
students can vary incest rules, other rules of mate selection, birth
intervals, ideal family sizes, and other conditions. POPLAB demon¬
strates the principles of population genetics and their importance to
anthropology by presenting a laboratory-like opportunity to experiment
upon simulated human populations.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE INVENTORY OF LAKE OKATIBBEE, MISSISSIPPI. Trov
0. Martin. Panamerican Consultants, Inc. P.O.Box 050623 Tuscaloosa,
Alabama 35405.

Beginning in the summer and continuing in the winter of 1989, Panamer¬
ican Consultants, Inc., under contract to the US Corps of Engineers,
Mobile District, performed a cultural resources survey of Lake Okatib-
bee , Ms. The purpose of this survey was to provide an archaeological
site inventory for the Corps, listing all aboriginal sites within the
Corps property in the lake area. During the conduct of this survey a
total of seventy-nine archaeological sites of aboriginal origin were
discovered, dating largely from the Archaic and Woodland Stages.

EXCAVATION AT BLUE HOLE WEST SITE lCak21. Harry 0.
Holstein and Curtis E. Hill, Archaeology Resourse
Laboratory, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville,

AL 36265.

The Blue Hole West Site, lCaU21, lies approximately
91 meters (300 feet) west of a large natural sinkhole
spring adjacent to Cane Creek north of the City of
Anniston, Alabama. In the spring of 1989, a total of
fifty-three subsurface excavation units were excavated
revealing thirty-eight aboriginal features and one
hundred twenty-nine postmolds. The features and postmolds
confirm the presence of a Woodland (Coker Ford and
Yancey's Bend Phase) Village with associated ceremonial
mound .

224

Abstracts

MICROSCOPIC USE WEAR ANALYSIS OF FLINTS FROM THE ANCIENT CITY OF MEM¬
PHIS, EGYPT. Michael A. Kittrell , Dept, of Anthropology, Univ. of
Ala. , University, AL 35486

During the 1985 field season excavation within the ancient 18 th-
19th dynasty city of Memphis, Egypt, located along the Nile River just
south of present day Cairo, an assemblage of over one hundred large
flake tools manufactured from local Egyptian flint was unearthed. The
flint tools were found in the context of a single floor level within
a domestic structure. With the use of stereoscopic and incident light
microscopes, traces of utilization including microscopic edge damage,
striations, and polish become apparent at magnifications of lOOx to
400x, Preliminary analysis of a portion of the assemblage by Dr.

Boyce Driskell in 1986 suggest their use as impromptu butchering tools.
Similar analysis of the remainder of the assemblage is ongoing at the
Division of Archaeology, Alabama State Museum of Natural History.

Cahaba; A northern outpost o£ the Pensacola variant In Central Al.
Julie R. Lyons, Alabama Historical Commissron, Selma, Al.

Site 1Ds32 known as Old Cahawba in Dallas County, Alabama

i; “ 3 s:

“me .it. » determine

it's association, if any, with the 16th century site of Casiste
lnMtpH here bv the original DeSoto Commission m 19 J9.

10TJ Original villi, palisaded -at and -und de — as
„ cite were found to be associated with an artuaci

” ~ definitely related to the Mississlpplan/ Protohistonc

cultural^ tradition previously thought to be centered around the
Mobile Delta and known as the Pensacola variant. Ceramic types
associated with this variant have been found a. far north as

£f^d^

Protohistoric sites cS5 for

Pensacola assemblage at t archaeologlcal resources and survey

LSSSST coding fate Mississlpplan/ early Protohistoric
site affiliations.

225

Abstracts

Historical Archaeology at Old Cahawba. Linda Derry, Alabama
Historical Commission, 719 Tremont St., Selma, AL 36701

The research design for Old Cahawba centers on the theory that the
material world is manipulated to signal incorporation or exclusion
from groups. Instead of trying to explain discovered archaeological
patterning with the usual simplistic, externally imposed categories
of economics, politics, etc., we undertook documentary research
prior to excavation in order to approximate the groupings that were
actually important within the 19th century community. Preliminary
findings indicate that identification with kin was much stronger
than with status defined by wealth. Previous historical studies
have described our research area as lacking any supportive kin net¬
works, but this work suffers from strong androcentric bias. In
fact, women, especially married sisters, were the social glue that
bound together rootless young men who were traveling west to seek
their fortunes. Identification with wife's kin will be shown in
examples of "action-statements," clustering of architectural styles,
spatial ordering of residential lots, and in the composition of
cemetery plots. Finally, predictions about how these alliances will
be reflected in the archaeological record are presented.

THE ALABAMA SUBMERGED CULTURAL RESOURCES (SCR) SITE FILE: A
PROGRESS REPORT. Brina J. Agranat. Department of History, Univ. of
Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.

In 1989 the Division of Archeology, University of Alabama,
initiated a five-year program to develop a computerized Submerged
Cultural Resources (SCR) Site File for the State of Alabama under
a grant from the Alabama Historical Commission. During Phase I,

391 shipwrecks and 39 non-shipwreck sites were input into the
dBase III file, representing a preliminary inventory of known or
recorded sites within the Tombigbee, Black Warrior, Mobile, and
Alabama River Systems, and Mobile Bay (including Mississippi Sound
and offshore waters). Phase II of the project, in progress, expands
this preliminary inventory to all navigable waters within the State
of Alabama.

In addition to the dBase III file, the SCR Site File is also
being developed into a fully integrated Geographic Information
System (GIS) , utilizing the University of Alabama Remote Sensing
Laboratory's Intergraph system. Once complete, the GIS will
maintain important geographic data, including survev areas, river
and harbor improvements, dredge and disposal areas, and recorded
anomalies, as well as known site locations.

226

Abstracts

ARCHAEOLOGICAL MITIGATION OF ADVERSE IMPACT FROM HOUSE
RECONSTRUCTION AT THE MCINTOSH RESERVE, CARROLL COUNTY,
GEORGIA. Catherine E. Clinton and Tim S. Mistovich,
Panamerican Consultants, Inc., P.O. Box 050623,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35405.

The McIntosh site ( WGC13 ) is located on the McIntosh
Reserve, Carroll County, Georgia. It has long been
thought to be the location of General William McIntosh's
plantation residence - Lochchau Talofau. General McIntosh
was a prominent early nineteenth century leader among the
Lower Creek Indians and was infamous for his part in
negotiating Indian land cessions in the 1810s. Because of
his role in these negotiations, McIntosh was murdered in
1825 at Lochchau Talofau by hostile Upper Creeks. In
addition, McIntosh's home, a large two-story log
structure, and several outbuildings were burned. Although
a DAR-erected grave monument was placed at the site in the
early 1900s, the exact location of Lochchau Talofau has
never been identified conclusively. However, inferential
evidence has been unearthed which suggests that WGC13 is,
indeed, the site of the McIntosh plantation.

THE PICKWICK BASIN CAVES PROJECT: ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND PROSPECTS.

Boyce N. Driskell , Division of Archaeology, Alabama State Museum of
Natural History, University of Alabama, University, AL 35486

The Museum, with support from the Tennessee Valley Authority and
in conjunction with the University of North Alabama, is conducting
archaeological investigations within Coffee Slough near Florence,
Alabama. In places, the karstic bluff line towers up to 100 feet above
waters of the slough and numerous caves occur within its sheer face.
Thus far, only Smith Bottom Cave has been extensively excavated: in
other caves, explorations have been limited to small test excavations.
Even so, it is already clear that several caves along this bluffline
were used by prehistoric peoples as burial repositories while other
caves were used for habitation or special activity areas. The re¬
search will continue in the summer of 1990 with extensive excavation
of Dust Cave. Preliminary testing revealed the presence of middle
Archaic deposits overlain with a layer of natural cave fill. Up to
three meters of archaeological deposits may be present within the
initial room of the cave; other areas of the cave are yet to be ex¬
plored. Eventually, these archaeological explorations in the Pick¬
wick Basin will add substantially to our understanding of the use of
caves by the prehistoric inhabitants of the Tennessee Valley.

227

MINUTES

ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
Stouffer's Riverview Plaza
Mobile, Alabama
March 9-12, 1990

1. Dr. Adriane Ludwick, President of AAS , called the meeting to
order at 5:30 P. M.

2. The President asked for the "Report of the Counselor to the
AJAS . " Dr. Eugene Omasta sent the following report to the Secretary after
the meeting:

The 1990 annual meeting was hosted by Mobile College in Mobile and
like all previous meetings, was shared with the Alabama Academy of
Science .

The winners of the scientific paper competition were:

Physical Science

1st place

David Lin

Resource Learning
Center

2nd place

Charles Frederick

Bradshaw

Biology

1st place

Teresia Hook*

Resource Learning
Center

2nd place

Munish Goyal

Sidney Lanier

Humanities

1st place

Sharman Smith

Brooks

2nd place

Stephanie Settle

Resource Learning
Center

Engineering

1st place

Shreyas Vasanawala

Sidney Lanier

2nd place

Timothy Lyons

Altamont

Mathematics

1st place

Tom Crittendon

Sidney Lanier

2nd place

Kenneth Weekly

Escambia County

*0verall winner who will represent Alabama in the paper competition that
is a part of the National JSHS Symposium at Huntsville, Alabama, May 17 -
20, 1990. The other 1st place winners will accompany Teresia on this
expense paid trip.

Other awards were :

Army Award ($300 for supplies and a certificate) - Teacher-sponsor of the
overall winner:

Trudy Anderson

Resource Learning Center

228

Minutes

Expense paid trips to the National Symposium at Huntsville, Alabama:

Jane Nall
Trudy Anderson

Grant for a research project:

Sam Houston
Hugh Greene
Laurie Strawbridge

Mobile Regional Counselor
Resource Learning Center

Decatur

Brewer

Escambia County

Outstanding Teacher (more than five years) - $100 and a certificate:

Shirley Hartin Kinston

Outstanding Teacher (less than five years) - $100 and a certificate:

Tammy Schiering

Tuscaloosa Academy

Outstanding Region - An engraved plaque:

Central - Regional Counselor Fannie Nelson

Newly elected officers for 1990-91:

President

Vice-President

Treasurer

Secretary

Andy Jernigan

Kristy Thomaskutty
Clay Carroll
Kelly Pate

Shady Mountain
Christian

Brewer

Northside

Mary G. Montgomery

Many people deserve special thanks for their efforts in support of
the 1990 annual meeting, including: Joe Pyle for serving as local
arrangements person and in making plans and arrangements for the meeting
rooms, motel rooms, tours, and in planning and assisting AJAS at this
meeting; Jane Nall as Regional Counselor of the host Mobile Region and her
students from Escambia County, in arranging the dance, gathering gifts and
materials for the students from local merchants, assisting with
registration, and planning and assisting with the meeting; students from
Mary G. Montgomery for their assistance with registration; the state
officers for their support and assistance - Andy Jernigan (President) ,
Sarah Grover (Vice-President) , Demetris Harris (Treasurer) , Julie Childers
(Secretary); The officers deserve special credit for designing this year's
T-shirt in the colors of the host institution. Also, special appreciation
is extended to the judges of the paper competition for both judging and
their concern for student scientific development - Darrell Barnette and
Joan Clark from Ciba-Geigy Corporation; Mary Frances Dove, Elizabeth
French, and Jack Williams from Mobile College; Glenn Harbin from Akzo

229

Minutes

Chemicals Inc.; McDonald Moore from Bishop State Jr. College; John Boron
from Faulkner State Jr. College; Cleta Kay Hanebuth from the University of
South Alabama; Anna Smith and Bill Smith from Troy State University - and
also the associate counselors for their continued dedicated service to
AJAS - Betty Bigham and B. J. Bateman.

The continued support of the Senior Academy in AJAS activities is
appreciated. We especially appreciate the support of this year's
President, Dr. Adriane Ludwick and the Executive Officer, Richard
Shoemaker .

2. The President called for the "Report of the Coordinator of
Science Fairs." Ms. Rose McKinney mailed the following report to the
Secretary:

1990 ALABAMA SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING FINALISTS

FAIR

DIRECTOR

FINALISTS

SCHOOL

South Regional

Dr . Jim Langdon

USA

Hadley Sikes

Mobile, AL

Murphy HS

Mehul Mankad

Mobile, AL

St. Paul's
Episcopal School

West Regional

Dr. David Heggem

UA

Wade Roe

Tuscaloosa, AL

Tuscaloosa Academy

Lauren Mane ini
Northport, AL

Riverside Junior HS

East Regional

Dr. William Mason

AU

Carmen Mann
Montgomery , AL

Sidney Lanier High

Kenneth Harbaugh
Montgomery, AL

Sidney Lanier High

Northeast

Dr. Authur Bacon
Talledega College

Todd Blanchard
Childersburg, AL

Childersburg High

Heather Schultz
Odenville , AL

St. Clair County HS

North Regional

Mr. George Williams

Sam Houston

Decatur , AL

Decatur High

Calhoun State CC

230

Minutes

Hugh Green
Somerville, AL

Brewer High

Lisa Hammond
Somerville, AL

Brewer High

Ann Estes

Athens , AL

Athens High

Central Regional

Dr. Lee Summerlin

UAB

Josh Tribble
Birmingham, AL

Shades Mountain
Christian

Sandra Lo
Birmingham, AL

Resource Lrng. Ctr.

Alabama State Fair Finalists

Mr. George Williams

Calhoun State CC

David Lin
Birmingham, AL

Shades Valley

Teresia Hooke
Birmingham, AL

Resource Lrng. Ctr.

Munish Goyal
Montgomery, AL

Sidney Lanier HS

Brian Riley

Florence , AL

Bradshaw HS

3. Dr. Ludwick called for the "Report of the Gorgas Foundation."
Dr. L. S. Hazlegrove, Chairman of the Judges of the Gorgas Scholarship
Foundation, provided the following report for the Secretary:

The Gorgas Scholarship Foundation announced today the ranking of the
finalists in the 1990 Alabama Science Talent Search. The Search was held
at the meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science at Mobile College,
Mobile, Alabama.

The winner of the first-place tuition grant of $2500 was:

Shreyas Shreenivas Vasanawala, 501 Paddock Lane, Montgomery, AL

36109. Sidney Lanier High School.

First alternate and winner of a $1500 tuition grant was:

Chi-Chang David Lin, 2044 Shebia Dr. , Birmingham, AL 35216

Resource Learning Center.

Second alternate and winner of a $1000 tuition grant was:

Sandra Bae-Yi Lo, 1317 Plum Tree Trail Apt. E, Birmingham, AL

35226. Resource Learning Center.

231

Minutes

Third alternate was:

Gregory John Lukins, 5021 Meadow Brook Rd. , Birmingham, AL 35242.

Resource Learning Center.

Fourth alternate was:

Amanpreet Singh Bhullar, 9610 Waldrop Dr., Huntsville, AL 35803.

Grissom High School.

Other finalists listed in alphabetical order were:

Alicia Marie Woods, Rt. 4 Box 309— F, Killen, AL 35645.

Bradshaw High School.

Julie Marie Lehrter, 550 Highland Circle , Florence, AL 35630.

Bradshaw High School.

Mark Griffin Berry, Rt. 6 Box 202, Killen, AL 35645.

Bradshaw High School.

Mr. Bhullar, Mr. Lin, Mr. Matherne and Mr. Vasanawala were Honors
Winners in the Westinghouse Science National Talent Search. Mr. Matherne
was not able to exhibit.

The rankings were established by a panel of judges consisting of
department heads, deans, and professors from many of the leading
universities and industries in Alabama.

Dr. Leven S. Hazlegrove, Executive Director, Alabama Academy of
Science, is Chairman of the Judges Committee.

Winners and finalists in the Gorgas Contests receive offers of
tuition scholarships to colleges and universities in Alabama for the study
of science.

4. Dr. Ludwick called for the "Report of the Secretary." Dr. Ann
Williams presented the following report:

Membership, March, 1989.... . 905

Members dropped for non-payment of dues (Sept., 1989). . -174

Members deceased . -3*

New members added . +155

Members reinstated . +28

Total Membership, March 7, 1990... . 911

Net difference from March, 1989 . . . . +6

*Roger B. Cramp ton, Enterprise, AL
Aaron B. Kendrick, McCalla, AL
Herbert A. McCullough, Birmingham, AL

232

Minutes

MEMBERSHIP BY SECTIONS

Section

March, 1990

March. 1989

Chance

1

252

272

-20

2

93

91

+ 2

3

51

49

+ 2

4

33

31

+ 2

5

98

88

+10

6

50

61

-11

7

33

35

- 2

8

53

48

+ 5

9

158

157

+ 1

10

50

43

+ 7

11

25

21

+ 4

99

16

9

+ 7

911

905

+ 6

During registration for the meeting, 13 new memberships and 5
reinstatements have been added to the roll bringing the total membership
to 930.

5. Dr. Ludwick called for the "Report of Place and Date of Meeting
Committee." Dr. Robert Bauman provided the following report:

The following dates and meeting sites have been established and
confirmed by the respective institutions and the Executive Committee of
the Alabama Academy of Science:

1991 — Jacksonville State University

1992 — The University of Alabama

1993 — The University of Alabama at Huntsville

1994 — Troy State University

1995 — The University of Alabama at Birmingham

An invitation is in process, and expected soon, from the central
part of the State for 1996.

6. The "Report of the Resolutions Committee" was next called for by
Dr. Ludwick. Dr. Linda Reed was not present to provide resolutions.

7. Dr. Ludwick then asked for the "Report of the Research
Committee." Dr. Buckner sent the following report for Dr. Garstka:

Research Grants have been awarded by the Research Committee to the
following students :

Pan-Wen Hsueh (UAB) Margaret Melton (UAH)

David J. Carroll (AU) Donna Hoyne-Brown (UAH)

Charles D. Bishop (UAB)
Kara Lee (UAB)

233

Jeffrey Mark Burson (UAH)
Mac McRae (AU)

Minutes

Winners of the Research Awards for the following sections were
selected by the Section and Session Chairpersons:

Biological Sciences:
Chemistry :

Geology:

Physics & Mathematics:

Social Sciences:

Health Sciences:
Engineering & Comp. Sci.

Gene A. Hines
Shridhar Andukar
Timothy M. Demko

UAB

Auburn University
Auburn University

Cassandra Stephens Tuskegee University (Tie)

Darryl M. Whitlow Tuskegee University

Kasandra Williams
J. W. Nelson
Aiqin Pan

Samford University
U. South Alabama
UAB

8. Dr. Ludwick asked for the "Report of the Nominating Committee."
Dr. Larry Boots submitted the following list of nominees, all of whom were
elected unanimously:

2nd Vice President: Michael Moeller
Treasurer: Caroline Adams

Coordinator of the Science Olympiad: William Mason
Trustees: Sam Barker (3 years)

Stan Jones (3 years)

Joe Thomas (3 years)

Dean Moberly (3 years)

Section Officers:

Section II - Chemistry

1. Larry Krannich, Chair

2. Moore Asouzu, Vice-Chair

Section III - Geology

1. Peter Salpas, Chair

2. Lewis Dean, Vice-Chair

Section IV - Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning

1. Barry Corona, Chair

2. Greg Jeane, Vice-Chair

Section V - Physics & Mathematics

1. R. Kent Clark, Chair

2. William Boardman, Vice-Chair

Section VII - Science Education

1. Larry Rainey, Chair

2. Myra Smith, Vice-Chair

234

Minutes

Section X - Engineering and Computer Science

1. Barrett Bryant, Chair

2. Jay K. Lindly, Vice-Chair

9. Old Business: None

10. New Business: None

11. There being no further business, the business meeting
adjourned at 5:45 P. M.

was

235

COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Alabama beach mouse ( Peromyscus polionoCus ammobaCes)
at burrow entrance in coastal dunes on Bon Secour National Wildlife
Refuge, Baldwin County, Alabama. This subspecies is one of three
occurring along the Gulf Coast that are listed as endangered by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service. Eight subspecies of the oldfield mouse, which
inhabits a wide range in southeastern United States, are restricted to
coastal beach dune habitat and are collectively known as beach mice. They
are lighter in color than inland forms, with areas of white pelage on the
face and a reduction or loss of the tail stripe. Beach mice have been
reduced to small, isolated populations as a result of extensive
development along coastal Alabama and Florida. Tropical storms and
hurricanes represent the greatest threat to loss of remaining populations.
Beach mice are currently being intensively studied by personnel of the
Alabama Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit at Auburn University.
Photograph courtesy of Dr. Nicholas R. Holler.

Dr. Holler is Unit Leader of the Alabama Cooperative Fish and Wildlife
Research Unit and Associate Professor in the Department of Zoology and
Wildlife Science at Auburn University.

s

*

I

JOURNAL OF THE

SCIENCE

OCTOBER

COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Sole marks on under surface of sandstone bed,
Ordovician Normanskill Shale, near Albany, NY. So-called "Squamiform load
oasts" (actually flutes) and associated grooves are indicators of
deepwater deposit Lori. Interpretation of these structures as flute marks,
and not as load casts, was suggested by John E. Sanders. This distinction
is important, because load casts are not primary features, but form after
deposition of sand over mud, whereas flute marks are current structures
formed in mud and then preserved by later-deposited sand. Diagnostic
features of very shallow water deposition are discussed in "Detailed
Structure of Wrinkle Marks", by David C. Kopaska- Merkel and Jonathan
Grannis (see p. 236). Meter stick and 10-cm card for scale. Photo by
David C. Kopaska-Merkel . A photograph of the same outcrop, taken by E.
Chown, was published by Pettijohn and Potter, 1964, Atlas and Glossary of
Primary Sedimentary Structures, Springer-Verlag, plate 59.

David C. Kopaska-Merkel is a geologist at the Geological Survey of
Alabama. The cover photograph was taken on a field trip led by Professor
Gerald M. Friedman, when Dr. Kopaska-Merkel was employed by Professor
Friedman as a Research Associate, before coming to Alabama.

LIBRARY

THE JOURNAL
OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

APR 1 0 19y I

A. M. N. H

AFFILIATED WITH THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

VOLUME 61 OCTOBER 1990 NO. 4

EDITOR:

W, H. Mason, Extension Cottage, Auburn University, AL 36849

ARCHMST:

C. M. Peterson, Department of Botany, and Microbiology, Auburn
University, AL 36849

EDITORIAL BOARD:

J. T. Bradley, Chairman, Department of Zoology-Entomology, Auburn
University, AL 36849

Charles Baugh, 1005 Medical Science Building, University of South
Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688

J, W. Sulentic, P.O. Box 1921, University of Alabama, University, AL 35486

Publication and Subscription Policies
Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent
correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two
simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow instructions to Authors (see
inside back cover).

Reprints: Requests for reprints must be addressed to Authors.

Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address ail correspondence
to the CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD

ISSN 002-4112

BENEFACTORS OF THE
JOURNAL OF THE

ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The following have provided financial support
to partially defray publication costs of the Journal.

AUBURN UNIVERSITY
BIRMINGHAM-SOUTHERN COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO
AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA
TROY STATE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM
JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT HUNTSVILLE
TUSKEGEE UNIVERSITY
MOBILE COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA
SAMFORD UNIVERSITY

CONTENTS

ARTICLES

Detailed Structure of Wrinkle Marks

David C. Kopaska-Merkel and Jonathan Grannis .... 236

Seasonal Availability of Gopher Tortoise • (Gopherus
polyphemus ) Forage in Southwestern Alabama
John E. Marshall and Judy P. Stout . 244

Tree Climbing Ability of a Cottontail Rabbit
Sammy L. King, H. Lee Stribling, and

Dan W. Speake . 255

Physiological' Response to Jumping on the Lolobal
at Three Different Frequencies

Tamara Kumler and Kennon Francis . 258

Commodity Flow and Regional Economic Development
Along Alabama's Tennessee River

Jeffrey P. Richetto . 265

MEMBERSHIP ROLL . 279

INDEX . 286

.

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 4, October 1990.

DETAILED STRUCTURE OF WRINKLE MARKS1

David C. Kopaska-Merkel
Geological Survey of Alabama
P. 0. Box 0

Tuscaloosa , AL 35486-9780
and

Jonathan Grannis

Phillips Petroleum Resources Limited
1 44 Fourth Ave. Southwest
Calgary, Alberta T2P3N4 Canada

ABSTRACT

Sedimentary structures from the Middle Cambrian Whirlwind Formation
of Utah are interpreted as wrinkle marks (sedimentary structures formed
under very shallow water conditions) . The absence of ripple cross lamina¬
tion, fine particle size of the rock, small size of the structures, and
the presence of disturbed relict lamination in wrinkle-marked samples
support this interpretation. Previous workers* have described and in¬
terpreted the surface morphology of wrinkle marks; internal structures
described in this paper provide additional criteria for their identifi¬
cation.

INTRODUCTION

Wrinkle marks, or ru nzelmarken , are small-scale, ripple-like,
bedding-plane features generally associated with tidal and peritidal
deposits (Allen, 1984, 1985; Reineck and Singh, 1980; Reineck, 1969).
These structures are believed to form through the action of wind-driven,
non— erosive shear by a thin film of water on underlying fine-sandy or
silty sediment (Reineck, 1969) . The steep sides of asymmetrical wrinkle-
mark crests face away from the direction of applied stress. Wrinkle marks
are sensitive indicators of intermittent emergence of the sediment surface
(Reineck and Singh, 1980), so a reliable means of identification and an
understanding of their origin and structure would be helpful to research¬
ers studying shallow-water deposits. This would allow corroboration of
conclusions based on other sedimentary structures and lithologic associ¬
ations. In this paper, the internal structure of sedimentary features
interpreted as wrinkle marks is described in order to facilitate wrinkle-
mark identification and to provide cross-sectional information for
interpretations of wrinkle-mark origins.

Sedimentary structures interpreted as wrinkle marks in Middle
Cambrian rocks of Utah display previously unreported features that are
consistent with the mode of origin proposed by Reineck (1969). These

Manuscript received 25 April 1990; accepted 5 June 1990.

236

Kopaska-Merkel and Grannis

Explanation

00

V"

WM

flat -pebble congl.
desiccatibn cracks
ripples

wrinkle marks
cryptalgal laminae
lime mudstone

shale and siltstone

shale, siltstone.
and limestone

5 meters

B

Fig. 1. (A) Map of Utah showing location of Drum Mountains. (B)

Schematic stratigraphic section of Whirlwind Formation in southern
Drum Mountains, showing location of sample of wrinkle -marked
siltstone described here. More precise location information and
stratigraphic sections showing the occurrences of wrinkle marks
appear in Kopaska-Merkel (1983, 1987, especially his figures 2, 3,
and 6) .

features may facilitate the discrimination of wrinkle marks from other
sedimentary structures. The wrinkle marks, collected from several strati¬
graphic sections in the Drum Mountains (Fig. 1) , were associated with
desiccation cracks and flat-pebble conglomerates. They are preserved in
calcareous siltstone in the Whirlwind Formation, a shallow subtidal and
peritidal deposit (Kopaska-Merkel, 1983, 1987).

DESCRIPTION

Height of individual wrinkle marks in the Whirlwind ranges from 1 to
2 mm; spacing from 5 to 9 mm. Wrinkle marks are dominantly asymmetric
with most steeper sides facing in a common direction (Fig. 2). Transverse
crest lengths average about 50 mm; the longest continuous crest observed
was 100 mm. Individual crests are generally subparallel. Poorly- to
well-defined bifurcations of the crests occur at irregular intervals.

237

Detailed Structure of Wrinkle Marks

Fig. 2. Plan view of wrinkle -marked sample; shadowed faces are, on
the average, steeper. Scale in cm.

Internally, the wrinkle marks are not ripple cross laminated (Figs.
3 and 4). The thin (15 mm) bed upon which they occur consists of a lower,
parallel- laminated division and an upper division (2.5 to 5.0 mm thick)
that is in part structureless and in part shows discontinuous lamination
like that in the lower division. The boundary between the two divisions
is, in most places, parallel to bedding (Figs. 3 and 4). Wrinkle-mark
troughs lie from 1.5 to 3.0 mm above this horizontal boundary; the wrinkle
marks are therefore rooted within the upper (disrupted) division. In the
upper division, some laminae dip away from the inferred direction of
applied stress; others form symmetrical ripple-like forms. These are out
of phase with the surface form of the wrinkle marks but are of similar
amplitude and spacing (Fig. 3). The origin of the symmetrical ripple-like
laminae is unknown, but they may be primary laminae deformed by the shear
stress that formed the wrinkle marks.

238

Kopaska-Merkel and Grannis

B

Fig. 3. (A) Negative print of thin section cut perpendicular to

wrinkle-mark crests. Inferred direction of shear from right to left.
A-B: endpoints of divisional boundary; small arrows: endpoints of
laminae within deformed division, note variable orientation; large
arrows: representative kinks. (B) Sketch of thin section from
figure 3A showing the two laminae within the deformed division which
are indicated by arrows at their endpoints in figure 3A, the division¬
al boundary, and a representative lamina within the laminated division.

Two close-set parallel laminae, the lower one coinciding with a
fracture, dip to the left in the middle of figure 4 and are horizontal in
the far right of the figure. These two laminae are laterally more ex-

239

Detailed Structure of Wrinkle Marks

Fig. 4. (A) Negative print of thin section cut perpendicular to

wrinkle-mark crests . Inferred direction of shear from right to left.
AB; endpoints of divisional boundary; arrows : two close-set parallel
laminae referred to in text; C:- thin structureless wedge above line A-B.
(B) Sketch of thin section from figure 4A showing divisional boundary,
representative lamina within laminated division, the two close -set
parallel laminae indicated by arrows in figure 4A, and the thin
structureless wedge beneath them which is indicated by "C" in figure 4A.

tensive than others and may represent a local upward stepping of the shear
surface, isolating a thin, structureless wedge of the deformed division
from the remainder of that division. In figure 3, a horizontal plane is
the only boundary between the deformed and nonde formed divisions.

240

Kopaska-Merkel and Grannis

Wrinkle marks sometimes display small bumps or kinks averaging 0.15
mm in amplitude and distributed in a regular pattern along their upper
surfaces (Figs. 3 and 4). They differ from the wrinkle marks on which
they are superimposed primarily in having a smaller spacing and lesser
amplitude. These kinks may be second- order deformational features ap¬
parently formed as a quasi -periodic response to the same lateral shear
force that produced the wrinkles. Alternatively, the kinks could be
smaller- scale features generated by shear before the wrinkle marks formed.

DISCUSSION

The absence of any cross laminae, the occurrence in some wrinkle
marks of internal laminar features that are not cross laminae, the small
scale of the structures-, and the fine- textured nature of the rock make it
unlikely that the wrinkle marks were formed by depositional sedimentary
processes. The mean particle size of the rock is about 0.1 mm; this is
near the minimum size known to be transported as bedload (Mantz, 1978).
Minimum reported height for wave or current ripples is 3 mm (Reineck and
Singh, 1980), a millimeter or more greater than the maximum height of the
wrinkle marks described here. (Mechanical compaction of this rock was
negligible because it contains very little clay.)

Although the wrinkle marks in the Whirlwind Formation have only been
found on weathered surfaces, it is unlikely that they are the product of
modem subaerial weathering. The very regular areal pattern of ridges,
roughly constant ridge height and trough depth, and gently rounded ridge -
and trough cross sections do not support a weathering origin. More
tellingly, linear dissolutional or erosional features commonly show a
dendritic areal pattern not observed in inferred wrinkle marks from the
Whirlwind Formation. Also, it appears that wrinkle ridges rise above the
undisturbed sediment surface adjacent to the wrinkle marks in figure 2;
this would not be the case if the features had resulted from weathering.
Wrinkle marks occur only on bedding surfaces; weathering features might
also be expected on the joint surfaces which are common in the Whirlwind
Formation. Finally, unequivocal weathered rock surfaces in the Whirlwind
Formation in the Drum Mountains exhibit "razor-blade topography" and other
typical weathering features, but nothing resembling wrinkle marks.

Wrinkle marks from the Whirlwind Formation show similarities to
ancient wrinkle marks described and/or figured by other authors, and are
similar to recent marks figured by Reineck (1969, Fig. 2) but have
slightly greater amplitudes. They are comparable to those produced
experimentally by Reineck (1969, Fig. 3) but differ in that the natural
crests are more rounded, and the smaller transverse crests present in
experimentally formed wrinkle marks are absent. Wrinkle marks figured by
Reineck and Singh (1980, Fig. 80), unlike those described here, have a
honey-comb-like arrangement of crests; they are also continuous on a much
smaller scale.

Hunter (1969) figured several examples of ancient microridges (ad¬
hesion ripples) that he suggested might be of aeolian origin and that look
almost identical to wrinkle marks described in this paper. Hunter at-

241

Detailed Structure of Wrinkle Marks

tributed these ancient marks to the adhesion of dry sand on a wet sandy
surface, but Teichert (1970) suggested that they may be wrinkle marks.
The features described by Hunter and those described in this paper are
quite similar in external form, but internal structure appears to be very
different (Hunter, 1973). At least some adhesion ripples are internally
pseudo-cross laminated (Hunter, 1973).

With one exception, wrinkle marks described in the literature have
been found in deposits interpreted to have formed in shallow water where
intermittent exposure of the sediment was possible. The exception was
described by Dzulynski and Simpson (1966). The structures they described
were associated with features typical of flysch, and are unlikely to have
formed in shallow water. This indicates that wrinkle marks should not be
used alone as environmental indicators, but are best considered within the
context of an association of sedimentary structures.

Comparison of wrinkle marks described herein with other published
descriptions indicates that a range of surface morphology of these
structures exists. The internal structure of wrinkle marks may also be
highly variable but this is not known. Variations in morphology probably
reflect variations in the conditions that prevailed during formation of
the wrinkle-mark assemblages. Differences in water depth, wind veloc¬
ities, particle sizes, and cohesiveness and water content of the sediment
are factors which may influence the form and distribution of wrinkle
marks. Reineck (1969) reported that experimental wrinkle marks are
smaller when formed in shallower water. Particle size, cohesiveness, and
water content of the sediment probably affect the angle of repose and
therefore the final slopes of wrinkle marks. The probable effect of wind
velocities is unknown and should be investigated experimentally.

CONCLUSIONS

The absence of ripple cross lamination, the small size of the
structures, and the fine particle size of the rock indicate that the
wrinkle marks in the Whirlwind Formation were not formed by primary
depositional processes. The zone of detachment and overlying wrinkled
division imply deformation of a continuous layer of sediment as a unit.
The small superimposed kinks and possible upward stepping of the shear
surface (Fig. 4) also indicate a syndepositional deformational origin for
the wrinkle marks. The dominantly asymmetric profiles of the wrinkle
marks indicate unidirectional stress (i.e., a single, clearly dominant
wind direction) . All these features suggest that these wrinkle marks were
formed by the action of non-erosive, horizontally-directed shear stress
upon an unlithified or semilithif ied cohesive sediment surface.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank Milos Velechovsky for translating the
paper by Reineck, and William Merrill for critically reviewing two drafts
of the manuscript. Earlier drafts were also reviewed by J. E. Amthor,
Kevin Bohacs, Chris Paola, John E. Sanders, K. 0. Stanley, and three
unidentified reviewers, all of whose suggestions materially improved the
manuscript.

242

Kopaska-Merkel and Grannis

LITERATURE CITED

Allen, J.R.L., 1984, Wrinkle marks: an intertidal sedimentary structure
due to [sic] aseismic soft-sediment loading: Sedimentary Geology, v.
41, p. 75-95.

Allen, J.R.L., 1985, Principles of physical sedimentology : Boston, George
Allen and Unwin, p. 195-196.

Dzulynski, S. and Simpson, F. , 1966, Experiments on interfacial current
markings: Geol. Rom., v. 5, p. 197-214.

Hunter, R.E., 1969, Eolian microridges on modem beaches and a possible
ancient example; Jour. Sedimentary Petrology, v. 39, p. 1573-1578.

Hunter, R.E., 1973, Pseudo-cross -lamination formed by climbing adhesion
ripples: Jour. Sedimentary Petrology, v. 43, p. 1125-1127.

Kopaska-Merkel, D.C. , 1983, Paleontology and depositional environments of
the Whrilwind Formation (Middle Cambrian) of western Utah: .Unpubl.
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas.

Kopaska-Merkel, D.C., 1987, Depositional environments and stratigraphy of
a Cambrian mixed carbonate/terrigenous platform deposit: Carbonates
and Evaporites, v. 2, p. 133-147.

Mantz, P.A. , 1978, Bedforms produced by fine, cohesionless, granular and
flakey sediments under subcritical water flows: Sedimentology, v.
25, p. 83-103.

Reineck, H.-E., 1969, Die Entstehung von Runzelmarken: Natur u. Museum, v.
99, p. 386-388.

Reineck, H.-E. and Singh, I.B., 1980, Depositional sedimentary

environments, 2nd ed. , Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 549 p.

Teichert, C. , 1970, Runzelmarken (wrinklemarks) : Jour. Sedimentary
Pertrology, v. 40, p. 1056-1057.

243

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 4, October 1990.

SEASONAL AVAILABILITY OF GOPHER TORTOISE
( GOPHERUS POLYPHEMUS ) FORAGE IN SOUTHWESTERN ALABAMA1 • 2

John E. Marshall and Judy P . Stout
Department of Biological Sciences
University of South Alabama
Mobile, AL 36688

ABSTRACT

Seasonal forage availability was investigated in two colonies of
gopher tortoises ( Gopherus polyphemus ) in southwestern Alabama. Grasses
were the dominant forage type of both sites, but legumes were more abun¬
dant at the site that experienced prescribed bums on a regular basis.
Both the quantity and quality of gopher tortoise forage appears to be
related to the frequency of fire.

INTRODUCTION

The gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus (Daudin 1802) (Testudines:
Testudinidae) is a colonial species that inhabits xeric plant communities
of the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States. (Conan t 1975,
Mount 1975). Tortoise habitat, in most of 'its range, is typically char¬
acterized by deep, well-drained sandy soils and a canopy dominated by
longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) (Auffenberg and Iverson 1979, Landers and
Speake 1980). These "sandhills" plant communities have been historically
maintained in an open, park-like condition by periodic fires (Komarek
1974, Lohoefener and Lohmeier 1984, MacDonald and Mushinsky 1988).

As one of the principle grazers of the sandhills ecosystem, tor¬
toises are heavily dependent upon the availability of herbaceous ground
cover. Tortoise population densities have been closely correlated with
both the quality and quantity of ground cover (Garner and Landers 1981,
Landers and Speake 1980) . The dispersal of tortoises from centers of
activity has also been associated with the availability of forage (McRae,
et al. 1981).

The availability of preferred foods may change between seasons,
which in turn may cause variations in population densities and dispersal
patterns of tortoises. The purpose of this study was to examine the
seasonal availability of forage at two different sites and to address some
of the factors which may have affected it. Special emphasis was given to
legumes (Fabaceae) , because of their potential nutritional importance to
tortoises (Garner and Landers 1981) .

Manuscript received 11 January' 1990; accepted 21 May 1990.

2Present address: Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 2204
Perimeter Road, Mobile, AL 36615.

244

Marshall and Stout

STUDY AREA

Study area 1 was located at the Mobile County School Board's En¬
vironmental Studies Center (ESC). This is a 259-ha site located along
Girby Road, 2.1 km west of U.S. Highway 90, in central Mobile County,
Alabama (Figure 1) . The ESC is composed primarily of upland xeric forests
characteristic of the Southeastern Coastal Plain sandhills (Mount 1975,
Lelong 1977) . Tree cover is dominated by longleaf pine and oaks (Quercus
spp.). Understory vegetation consists primarily of grasses (Poaceae) ,
forbs, blueberries ( Vaccinium spp.), and greenbrier ( Smilax spp.).

The canopy was relatively open due to blow— down of numerous large
trees by Hurricane Frederick in 1979 and timber harvesting conducted prior
to 1974 (L. Scott, Pers . comm..). Fire had been absent from this site for
many years as evidenced by the dense stands of seedling and sapling stage
trees and encroaching shrubs. The principle soil types in the xeric
habitats were Troup loamy sand and Troup-Heidel Complex, with slopes of 0-
12% (Hickman and Owens 1980) . The tortoise burrows were located in both
soil types on two sand ridges, which were separated by a small stream.

Study Area 2 was a 486-ha tract on private land owned by Arthur
Tonsmeire, Jr. (TP). This tract is bounded by the Dog River, Rangeline
Road, and Alabama Highway 163A in southeastern Mobile County (Figure 1) .
It consists primarily of moist pinelands dominated by longleaf pine and
pitcher plants ( Sarracenia spp.). The tortoise colony was located within
a relatively narrow strip of land running from east to west, and bisected
by a small stream. The plant community within this strip was a longleaf
pine-turkey oak (Quercus laevis) association. Soils were Escambia sandy
loam with 0—2% slopes and Troup loamy sand with 0—5% slopes (Hickman and
Owens 1980) . Tortoise burrows were found almost exclusively in the latter
soil type.

The TP site was managed for longleaf pine and bobwhite quail
(Colinus virginianus) . Timber was harvested by selective cutting and
periodic prescribed buring was employed as a management tool for natural
regeneration of pine and habitat improvement for quail. Most of the
gopher tortoise habitat was burned the winter prior to this study.

METHOD

Vegetation was sampled in 1984, between March and October. Ground
cover was sampled in early spring and later summer at the ESC and later
spring-early summer and later summer at the TP site. Canopy cover at both
sites was sampled in late summer.

Tortoise burrows were located using a variety of survey techniques
(Marshall 1987). All burrows were flagged and assigned a number with the
prefix "B", in the order in which they were discovered.

Ground cover was clipped around 3 randomly selected burrows (B-l, B-
6, B-ll) at the ESC and around four randomly selected burrows (B-9, B-14,
B-12, B-21) at the TP site. The sampling scheme was similar to the point-

245

Seasonal Availibility of Gopher Tortoise Forage

Figure 1. Relative location of gopher tortoise study colonies.

246

Marshall and Stout

centered quarter method (Cottam and Curtis 1956) , with the burrow serving
as the center point of the quarters. This methodology was adopted to
facilitate sampling each burrow in a radial pattern. McRae, et al. (1981)
reported that tortoises often feed in a circular or elliptical pattern
around the burrow. A maximum of 10 m from the center point was sampled
for each quadrant. Although the feeding radii of tortoises may vary, they
have been observed feeding in the vicinity of their burrows (McRae, et al.
1981, Wright 1982). Ten meters was chosen as the sampling radius because
it was believed it would include most principal forage types.

Eight randomly-selected sampling plots were located along randomly-
selected, intersecting compass lines, with two plots per quarter (Figure
2). Each plot was a 0.25 m2, square quadrate that was sampled with the 100
percent clipping method (Campbell and Cassidy 1951) . At the ESC four
plots per. burrow were clipped in the early spring and the remaining four
were clipped in late summer. The same clipping procedure was conducted at
the TP site, except at B-9 and B-14 in the late spring-early summer. Due
to logistic problems, only two of the four plots per burrow were clipped.
Four of the remaining six plots at these burrows were clipped in the late
summer. Plots 6 and 7 at B-9 and plots 5 and 7 at B-14 were not clipped
during this study. As a result, 12 plots were clipped during late spring-
early summer and 16 were clipped during late summer at this site.

Figure 2. Diagram of vegetation sampling scheme. X's show
hypothetical sample plots.

247

Seasonal Availibility of Gopher Tortoise Forage

Table 1, Number of plots and percent occurrence in which each
vegetation category was represented at the ESC.

CATEGORY

EARLY SPRING
NUMBER OF

(N - 12
PLOTS

PLOTS)

PERCENT

OCCURRENCE

Grasses

12

100

Forbs

12

100

Legumes

1

8.3

Shrubs

8

66.7

CATEGORY

EARLY SUMMER
NUMBER OF

(N - 12
PLOTS

PLOTS)

PERCENT

OCCURRENCE

Grasses

12

100

Forbs

11

91.7

Legumes

8

66.7

Shrubs

5

41.7

Table 2. Number of plots and percent occurrence in which each
vegetation category was represented at the TP site.

CATEGORY

LATE SPRING-EARLY SUMMER (N -
NUMBER OF PLOTS

12 PLOTS)

PERCENT OCCURRENCE

Grasses

12

100

Forbs

12

100

Legumes

10

83.3

Shrubs

10

83.3

CATEGORY

LATE SUMMER
NUMBER OF

(N - 16
PLOTS

PLOTS)

PERCENT

OCCURRENCE

Grasses

15

93.7

Forbs

16

100

Legumes

15

93.7

Shrubs

13

81.2

248

Marshall and Stout

Plants were separated into 4 categories: grasses, forbs, legumes,
and shrubs. Plants were identified using Radford, et al. (1968). All
herbaceous plants not classified as grasses or legumes were classified as
forbs. Sedges (Cyperaceae) were grouped with the grasses, and all tree
seedlings less than 0.50 m were grouped with the shrubs. No shrub or tree
greater than 0.50 m was clipped.

Each category was ranked according to its estimated relative abun¬
dance, with a value ranging from 1 to 4. The most abundant category in a
plot was given the rank of 1 and the least abundant category was given the
rank of 4. When more than one category was absent, each was ranked 4(0).

Canopy cover analysis used the point— centered quarter method (Cottam
and Curtis 1956), with the burrow serving as the center of the 4 quarters.
Canopy cover was analyzed around 3 burrows at the ESC (B-l, B-6 , B-ll) and
four burrows at the TP site (B-5, B-7 , B-12, B-21) . The distance from the
center point, diameter at breast height (dbh) , and species of each tree
were recorded. The mean basal area, absolute density, and absolute
dominance were calculated using the methodology of Mueller-Dombois and
Ellenberg (1974) .

RESULTS

Nineteen burrows were located at the ESC in an area of approximately
1.2 ha (Density — 15.8 burrows/ha) , of which 10 (52.6%) were considered
active. Forty burrows were found at the TP site occupying an area of
approximately 1.2 ha (Density - 33.3 burrows/ha), 24 (60%) of which were
considered active.

Table 1 shows the number of plots in which each vegetation category
was represented at the ESC. The number of plots in which each vegetation
category was present at the TP site is shown in Table 2.

Ten (83.3%) of the early spring plots at the ESC were dominated by
grasses. Forbs composed the principal ground cover in the remaining two
(16.7%) early spring plots. Grasses were also the most abundant category
in 11 (91.7%) of the late summer plots at the ESC. The one remaining late
summer plot at this site was dominated by shrubs. Legumes did not domi¬
nate in any of the sample plots at the ESC in either season, and only
four species of legumes were identified from this site: butterfly pea
( Centrosema virginianum ) , littleleaf sensitive brier ( Schrankia micro-
phylla) , pencilflower ( Stylosanthes biflora ) , and Florida goats rue
( Tephrosia florida) . The only legume species found in the one early
spring plot at the ESC was littleleaf sensitive brier. The other three
legume species were present in the late summer plots.

The mean basal area at the ESC was 60.7 cm2(SD - 176.40), with an
absolute density of 27.7 trees/100 m2. Longleaf pine was the dominant tree
species .

Grasses were the dominant ground cover in 9 (75%) of the late
spring-early summer plots at the TP site. Two (16.7%) of the late spring-

249

Seasonal Availibility of Gopher Tortoise Forage

early summer plots at this site were dominated by forbs , while shrubs were
the most abundant category in the one remaining plot during this season.
Ten (62.5%) of the late summer plots at the TP site were dominated by
grasses. Shrubs were the most abundant category in four (25%) of the late
summer plots, and legumes were the most abundant category in the remaining
two (12.5%) late summer plots. Nine species of legumes were found at this
site: hog peanut ( Amphicarpa bracteata) , partridge pea senna ( Cassia fa-
siculata) , sensitive senna ( Cassia nictitans) , tickclover ( Desmodium sp . ) ,
lespedeza ( Lespedeza sp.), roundleaf rhynchosia ( Rhynchosia reniformis) ,
butterfly pea, pencilf lower , and Florida goats rue.

At the ESC, the mean number of plots containing legumes for both
seasons was 4.5 (SD — 4.95). The mean number of plots containing legumes
at the TP site was 12.5 (SD - 3.53). There was a significant difference
in occurrence of legumes between the two study sites (t - 5.24, a - 0.05,

df - 32) .

The mean basal area at the TP site was about seven times greater
than at the ESC, with 426.3 cm2 (SD — 425.75). Absolute density, however,
was considerably less than at the ESC, with 3.8 trees/100 m2. Longleaf
pine was also the dominant tree species at the TP site.

DISCUSSION

The composition of the plant communities at the two study sites was
influenced by several factors. Soil associated with tortoise burrows at
both sites are characterized by Hickman and Owens (1982) as droughty and
low in fertility. Greater drainage and increased leaching of nutrients
would have occurred at the ESC, however, because of the steeper slopes.
This may have accounted for some of the differences in the vegetation
between the two study areas .

Garner and Landers (1981) observed that herbaceous vegetation pro¬
duction on their study areas in southwestern Georgia was lower on steep
slopes than in shallow loamy sands. But they noted that the actual
composition of groundstory vegetation was a function of successional
stage. One of the most important factors affecting succession in tortoise
habitats is fire (Auffenberg and Franz 1982, Lohoefener and Lohmeier
1981).

The long-term absence of fire from the ESC appears to have been a
major factor affecting the deterioration condition of tortoise habitat
there. The dense stands of young trees and encroachment by shrubs ap¬
parently resulted from the lack of fire, and was undoubtedly detrimental
to the production of herbaceous vegetation. While grasses were abundant
at the ESC, much of the grass cover, both in sample plots and in observa¬
tions of the surrounding vegetation, consisted of bluestems ( Andropogon
spp . ) , which are indicative of later successional stages in longleaf pine
communities (Garner and Landers 1981, Whalenberg 1946). Lohoefener and
Lohmeier (1981) stated that bluestems may be difficult for tortoises to
graze upon because of their dense, erect growth habit. Thus, they may not
be an important forage species. Panic grasses ( Panicum spp.) and side-

250

Marshall and Stout

seed grasses ( Paspalum spp.) are considered important forage species
(Garner and Landers 1981) . Seeds of these two genera were found commonly
in tortoise scats (Marshall, unpublished data). These grasses did not
appear as abundant in the sample plots or in the surrounding habitat as
the blue-stems, and they probably decreased in occurrence as succession
proceeded. Garner and Landers (1981) noted that panic grasses in their
study areas in southwestern Georgia declined through subsequent succes-
sional stages.

Notably absent in samples and scats from both study areas was
wiregrass ( Aristida spp.). Wiregrass has been reported as a major
component of gopher tortoise diets throughout their range (MacDonald and
Mushinsky 1988, McRae, et al. 1981, Mount 1975, Wright 1982). It is also
considered an indicator of soils that have not been mechanically disturbed
(Means 1988). The absence or scarcity of wiregrass from these sites may
have resulted from past land use practices, such as disking or site
preparation. These practices may also have affected the composition of
the existing vegetation, by favoring species more tolerant of soil distur¬
bance. Auffenberg and Franz (1982) noted that bluestems invade some areas
where wiregrass has been removed.

In addition to natural successional events, the absence of fire from
the ESC would also account for the relative scarcity of legumes from this
site. The frequency of legume occurrence in coastal plain habitats has
been directly related to both the frequency and recency of fire (Lewis and
Harshburger 1986). Garner and Landers (1981) reported that legumes were
the most important forb in the diet of gopher tortoises in southwestern
Georgia. They proposed that the depletion of this preferred food may con¬
tribute to the dispersion of juveniles from the center of adult activity.

Legumes were apparently important in the diets of ESC tortoises as
well. In spite of the scarcity of legumes in the sample plots, the leaves
and stems of Florida goats rue were seen frequently in tortoise scats
(Marshall unpublished data). Tortoises apparently selected for legumes,
panic grasses, and side-seed grasses over more common though less pre¬
ferred forage types.

Conditions at the TP site differed sharply from those at the ESC.
Timber harvesting and prescribed buring at the TP site resulted in a much
larger mean basal area and a lower absolute density than at the ESC. This
combination of management practices produced a relatively open canopy and
encouraged the growth of herbaceous vegetation. The presence of fire was
especially beneficial for controlling shrub invasion and recycling nutri¬
ents (Garner and Landers 1981, Komarek 1974).

Open canopy habitat has also been correlated with high tortoise
densities (Auffenberg and Franz 1982, Landers and Speake 1980). Dense
tree growth and the resulting canopy closure reduce light intensity at
ground level. High light levels are considered important not only for the
production of forage, but to provide sufficient radiat energy for incu¬
bation of the tortoise's eggs (Auffenberg and Franz 1982, Landers and
Speake 1980) .

251

Seasonal Availibility of Gopher Tortoise Forage

The high percentage of late summer plots (25%) dominated by shrubs
was attributable to the sample plots at B— 9 and B— 14. These burrows were
located at the edge of the main colony in an area that had escaped recent
burning. As a result, shrubs were more prevalent around these burrows
than elsewhere at this site. The abundance of shrubs around these burrows
also accounts for the TP site containing a higher percentage of plots with
shrubs than the ESC (Tables 1 and 2) .

The higher percentage of legumes in the late summer samples compared
to the late spring-early summer samples contrasted with the observations
of McRae, et al. (1981). They reported that legumes were absent in later
summer samples in southwestern Georgia, and believed that the absence of
legumes was due to depletion by tortoise grazing. Tortoises in the TP
colony may have selected more heavily for grasses, resulting in less
grazing pressure on legumes. Periodic examination of tortoise scats,
however, revealed the leaves and stems of Florida goats rue to be common
food items (Marshall, unpublished data). A more likely explanation might
be that legumes were so abundant that grazing pressure by tortoises was
insufficient to deplete them. Grasses of the genera Panicum and Paspalum
were encountered more frequently at the TP site than at the ESC. This may
have been attributable to the more frequent and recent fires at the TP
site, which would have encouraged the growth of these grasses. Soil dis¬
turbances associated with timber harvesting may have also favored these
grasses! Garner and Landers (1981) found that panic grasses were the most
common species in areas subjected to timber site preparation.

Although several factors influenced tortoise population structure at
these study areas (Marshall 1987) , the availability of preferred forage
was believed to be a major one. The absence of fire from the ESC resulted
in the deterioration of suitable habitat and reduced both the quality and
quantity of preferred forage. Habitat availability at the TP site was
much more restricted than at the ESC, but frequent fires and low tree
density increased the carrying capacity of this site. Fire was especially
important to the production of legumes , and may have produced them in such
abundance as to reduce the effects of grazing pressure by tortoises.

MacDonald and Mushinsky (1988) concluded that the gopher tortoise is
an opportunist, which chooses its foods based on the locality in which it
lives. It is reasonable to assume, however, that tortoises may select
certain forage types that may not be readily available, based on specific
nutritional requirements (i.e., legumes) or foraging ability (Paspalum vs
Andropogon) . Animals in this study, especially at the ESC, apparently
have exhibited such feeding behavior. Individual tortoise populations,
such as the TP colony, also appear to respond favorably to those con¬
ditions which increase both the quantity and quality of herbaceous forage.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was supported by grants from the Birmingham Audubon
Society's Walter F. Coxe Research Fund and the Gopher Tortoise Council's
Student Research Award to the senior author. Mr. Arthur Tonsmeire, Jr.
and the staff of the Mobile County School Board's Environmental Studies

252

Marshall and Stout

Center kindly permitted the use of their respective properties as research
areas. M. Lelong assisted with identification of plants and provided a
plant press. D. H. Nelson reviewed the manuscript and provided many
useful suggestions for its improvement. Logistical support was provided
by the University of South Alabama. J. Zito, J. Earp, M. Boyle, and L.
Covington kindly and cheerfully assisted in the preparation of several
drafts of this manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

Auffenberg, W. and R. Franz. 1982. The status and distribution of the
gopher tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus) . Pp. 95-126 in R. B Bury, ed.
North American tortoises: conservation and ecology. U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Wildlife Research Report 12.

Auffenberg, W. and J. B. Iverson. 1979. Demography of terrestrial
turtles. Pp. 541—569 in M. Harless and N. Norlock, eds . Turtles:
research and perspectives. John Wiley and Sons. New York. 695 pp.

Campbell, R. S. and J. T. Cassidy. 1951. Grazing values for cattle on
pine forest ranges in Louisiana. Louisiana State Univ. Bull.
452:46 pp.

Conant, R. W. 1975. A field guide to the reptiles and amphibians of
eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.
366 pp.

Cottam, G. and J. T. Curtis. 1956. The use of distance measures in
phytosociological sampling. Ecology. 37:451-460.

Garner, J. A. and J. L. Landers. 1981. Foods and habitat of the gopher
tortoise in southwestern Georgia. Proc. Ann. Conf. S. E. Assoc.
Fish and Wildl. Agencies. 35:120-134.

Hickman, G. T. and C. Owens. 1980. Soil survey of Mobile County,
Alabama. Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Department of

Agriculture. 134 pp.

Komarek, E. V. 1974. Effects of fire on temperate forests and related
ecosystems: southeastern United States. Pp. 251-277 in T. T.
Kozlowski and C. E. Ahlgren, eds. Fire and ecosystems. Academic
Press. New York. 542 pp.

Landers, J. L. and D. W. Speake. 1980. Management needs of sandhills
reptiles in southern Georgia. Proc. Ann. Conf. S. E. Assoc. Fish
and Wildl. Agencies. 34:515-529.

Lelong, M. G. 1977. Annotated list of vascular plants of Mobile,
Alabama. Sida. 7: 118—146.

Lewis, C. E. and T. J. Harshburger. 1986. Burning and grazing effects on
bobwhite foods in the Southeastern Coastal Plain. Wildl. Soc. Bull.
14:455-459.

253

Seasonal Availibility of Gopher Tortoise Forage

Lohoefener, R. and L. Lohmeier. 1984. The status of Gopherus polyphemus
(Testudine, Testudinidae) west of the Tombigbee and Mobile Rivers.
Rept. to U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. in support of petition to list
this population under the Endangered Species Act of 1973: 116 pp.

Lohoefener, R. and L. Lohmeier. 1981. Comparison of gopher tortoise
( Gopherus polyphemus ) habitats in young slash pine and old longleaf
pine areas of southern Mississippi. Journal of Herpetology.
15:239-242.

MacDonald, L. A. and H. R. Mushinsky. 1988. Foraging ecology of the
gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus, in a sandhill habitat.
Herpetologica. 44:345-353.

Marshall, J. E. 1987. The effects of nest predation on hatching success
in gopher tortoises ( Gopherus polyphemus ) Daudin 1802). M. S.
Thesis. University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 77 pp.

McRae, W. A., J. L. Landers, and J. A. Garner. 1981. Movement patterns
and home range of the gopher tortoise. Am. Midland Nat. 106:165-
179.

Means, D. B. 1988. Management recommendations for the gopher tortoise in
longleaf pine ecosystems. Pp. 41-56 in C. K. Dodd, Jr. ed. Gopher
tortoise habitat management — strategies and options. Proc. Sixth
Ann. Mtg. Gopher Tortoise Council. Florida Mus. Nat. Hist.,
Gainesville, FL. 58 pp.

Mount, R. M. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of Alabama. Alabama Agr.
Exp. Sta. , Auburn, viii + 347 pp.

Mueller-Dombois , D. and H. Ellenberg. 1974. Aims and methods of

vegetation ecology. John Wiley and Sons. New York. 547 pp .

Radford, A. E. , H. E. Ahles , and C. R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the
vascular flora of the Carolinas. University of North Carolina

Press, Chapel Hill, N. C. 1184 pp.

Wahlenberg, W. G. 1946. Longleaf pine, its use, ecology, regeneration,
protection, growth and management. Charles Lathrop Pack Forest
Found. Washington, D. C. 429 pp.

Wright, S. 1982. The distribution and population biology of the gopher
tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus ) in South Carolina. M. S. Thesis.
Clemson University, Clemson, S. C. 74 pp.

254

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 4, October 1990.

TREE CLIMBING ABILITY OF A COTTONTAIL RABBIT1,2

Sammy L King and H. Lee Stribling
Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science
and Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn University , AL 368A9

and

Dan W. Speake

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Alabama Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit
Auburn University , AL 3684-9

ABSTRACT

Tree climbing ability of eastern cottontails ( Sylvilagus floridanus )
has not been previously reported. However, we observed a radio— collared
eastern cottontail outside of its usual home rage using an erect, hollow
red maple (Acer rubrum ) as diurnal cover. We suspect a predator may be
responsible for forcing the cottontail out of its original home range and
provoking the tree climbing behavior.

NOTE

Cottontail rabbits are known to use ground holes and logs as escape
and protective cover (Haugen 1943, Lewis 1972, Trent and Rongstad 1974,
Anderson and Pelton 1976, Chapman et al. 1982) and use cursorial loco¬
motion as the primary means of escape (Verts et al. 1984). However, this
note reports the utilization of an erect, hollow tree as diurnal cover by
a male cottontail rabbit.

The cottontail was trapped on 24 January 1988 as part of a movement
and habitat study on the Piedmont Agricultural Substation in Camp Hill,
Alabama. Upon capture, the cottontail was sexed, weighed, and fitted with
a radio transmitter. The rabbit remained within an area of 7.5 ha until
5 March 1988, when the radio signal was located outside of the rabbit's
usual home range. The radio signal was located in a hollow red maple 0.5
km from a location recorded the previous evening.

The antenna was removed from the radio receiver to determine the
precise location of the radio in the tree. After thoroughly searching the
tree for the peak radio signal, we determined the radio was 3.7 m above

Manuscript received 17 March 1990; accepted 16 May 1990.

2Cooperators : U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Game and Fish Division,
Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources; Wildlife
Management Institute, Auburn University (Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station, Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures, Department of
Zoology and Wildlife Science) .

255

King, Stribling, and Speake

the ground. We assumed the rabbit was dead and the radio was left in the
tree by an avian predator. Therefore, the radio was not monitored again
until the tree was cut on 10 March to retrieve the radio.

The tree was 17 m tall, with the hollow cavity extending from ground
level to 7 m high. The basal diameter of the cavity was 15.2 cm, but it
tapered to 11.4 cm at 4.6 m high. An opening at the base of the tree
provided access to the cavity.

After an examination of the tree yielded no radio, we began to
search for the signal. The rabbit was found alive and within its original
home range, where it remained until 27 March 1988 when it successfully
slipped, the attachment collar and removed the radio transmitter.

Arboreal behavior among members of Sylvilagus has been reported.
Mountain cottontails ( Sylvilagus nuttalli) have been observed to climb
small junipers ( Juniperus occLdentalis ) in order to obtain water droplets
which exude from the leaf surface at night. This apparently adaptive
behavior has allowed S. nuttalli to successfully occupy habitats at the
periphery of its range (Verts et al. 1984).

Swamp rabbits (S. aquaticus ) occasionally use hollow trees as escape
cover from hunting dogs (Lowe 1958) . We suspect a predator may be re¬
sponsible for forcing the cottontail we monitored out of its normal area
and for causing the climbing behavior demonstrated by this animal, al¬
though this is only speculative. Nevertheless, climbing trees as a mode
of escape or use of erect trees as diurnal cover by eastern cottontails
has not been noted previously in the literature.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by the Federal Aid in Wildlife Resor—
ation Act administered by the Alabama Department of Conservation, Division
of Game and Fish; Alabama Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit;
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, and Safari Club International,
Alabama Chapter. Appreciation is extended to Daniel Spillers for his
field assistance. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series
No. 15-892127P .

LITERATURE CITED

Anderson, B. F. , and M. R. Pelton. 1976. Movements, home range, and

cover use; Factors affecting the susceptibility of cottontails to
hunting. Proc. Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies.
30:525-535.

Chapman, J. A., J. G. Hockman, and W. R. Edwards. 1982. Cottontails,
Pages 83-123 in J. A. Chapman and G. A. Feldhammer, eds . Wild
Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, Economics. John
Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, MD. 1147 pp.

256

Tree Climbing in Cottontails

Haugen, A. 0. 1943. Management studies of the cottontail rabbit in

southwestern Michigan. J. Wildl. Manage. 7:102-119.

Lewis, H. S., Jr. 1972. Cottontail rabbit home range, habitat use, and
mortality in southern Wisconsin. M. S. Thesis, Univ. of
Wisconsin, Madison 33 pp.

Lowe, C. E. 1958. Ecology of the swamp rabbit in Georgia. J. Mammal.
39:116-127.

Trent, T. T. , and 0. J. Rongstad. 1974. Home range and survival of
cottontail rabbits in southwestern Wisconsin. J. Wildl. Manage.
38:459-472.

Verts, B. J., S. D. Gehman, and K. J. Hundertmark. 1984. Sylvilagus
nut alii : A semiarboreal lagomorph. J. Mammal. 65:131-135.

257

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 4, October 1990.

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO JUMPING ON THE LOLOBAL
AT THREE DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES1

Tamara Kumler and Kennon Francis
Division of Physical Therapy
• University of Alabama, at Birmingham
Birmingham, A L 3 529 A

ABSTRACT

Heart rate and V02 (mlkgmin-1) of 10 men and 9 women were measured
while jumping for five minutes at frequencies of 104, 126, and 144 jumps/
min(JPM) using a new jumping device called a "Lolobal" . Mean V02 ( + SD)
for respective jumping rates were 25.7+3.9, 24.6+3.7, and 24.8 + 4.5
ml -kg min-1 respectively. Corresponding mean heart rates (+ SD) at the
jumping frequencies of 104, 126 and 144 were 152,3 + 23.1, 147.2 + 22.5,
and 151.7 + 18.4 beats/min. The intensity of exercise with the Lolobal
resulted in V02 values that ranged from 50% to 60% of the subjects' V02
max level and heart rate values that ranged from 70% to 77% of maximum.
These values border on the lower end of the American College of Sports
Medicine's suggested range of intensity levels that are necessary for
producing a training effect. It can be concluded that the work intensity
of jumping with this new device might be a suitable alternative for low to
moderate intensity exercise regimens requiring an intensity of approxi¬
mately 24.5 mlkgmin-1 of oxygen consumption. However, in order to
determine the training effectiveness of this new device, longitudinal
studies are required.

INTRODUCTION

Individuals desiring to maintain or initiate an exercise program are
continually searching for convenient activities that provide vigorous
physical exercise, yet are inexpensive and can be performed under time
limiting schedules. Activities such as running, swimming, and bicycling
are among the more traditional favorites. Recently, jumping exercises
such as rope skipping and rebounding exercise using a minitrampoline have
become popular because they are economical and easily accessible. These
types of jumping activities require little space to perform and individu¬
als can exercise in the privacy of their home, apartment, or motel room.
Studies of physiological responses and training effects indicate that both
rope skipping and rebounding can be used to improve cardiovascular en¬
durance, however the general application of these devices to all indi¬
viduals is not without limitations (Ballard, Dal Pozzo, and Healey, 1984;
Bishop, Smith, Everett, 1986; Bruce, 1971; Bruce, 1974; Solis, Foster and
Thompson, 1988; Town, Sol, and Sinning, 1980).

Several studies suggest that rope skipping may be too strenuous for
the average individual (Bruce, 1971; Getchell and Cleary, 1980; Jette ,

^Manuscript received 5 December 1989; accepted 10 April 1990.

258

Kumler and Francis

Mongeon, and Routhier, 1979) and rebounding may not produce a sufficient
Intensity of exercise for a well trained individual (Ballard et al. , 1984;
Bishop, Smith, and Everett, 1986). The Lolobal (In-Tech Marketing,
Doylestown, PA) (Figure 1) is a new jumping device that incorporates
attractive aspects of both the jump rope and rebounding. The Lolobal
incorporates the Jump rope features of convenience, economy, and the
requirement for little space, and the rebounding feature of a cushioning
effect during the jumping activity.

Figure 1. Positioning of the subject used in this study to
measure effects of jumping on the Lolobal. Lolobal is
manufactured by In-Tech Marketing, Doylestown, PA.

259

Physiological Response to Jumping on the Lolobal

Because of the relative newness of this exercise device there have
been no standardized measurements of the energy consumption relative to
its use. Therefore the purpose of this study was to quantify selected
physiological responses while using this new device in order to determine
its usefulness for aerobic training. The oxygen consumption and heart
rate response of 10 men and 9 women were measured while jumping at three
frequencies (104, 126, 144 jumps/minute ( JPM) ) .

METHODS

Sub jects

Nineteen healthy subjects, ten males and nine females, mean age 24
years were selected from a group of volunteers of University of Alabama at
Birmingham (UAB) students. A summary of their physical characteristics is
shown in Table 1. Subjects used in the study were non-smokers with no
history of orthopedic or cardiovascular abnormality and no reported sur¬
gery or hospitalization in the past year. All subjects were active,
healthy individuals as indicated by the average maximal V02 values of 45
ml kgmin-1. None of the subjects were competitive or trained athletes.
Standard informed consent procedures were used and the protocol was
approved by the Institutional Review Board for Human Use at the University
of Alabama at Birmingham.

Table 1. Characteristics of Subjects.

Age

Weight

Height

V02max

Heart rate maximum

(yr)

(kg)

(cm)

ml kg min

beats/min

24.1 ± 2.1

67.5 ± 10.0

174.5 ± 7.3

45.1 ± 8.2

191.6 + 8.4

Values represent the mean + standard deviation.

Apparatus

The Lolobal is a round rubber ball approximately the size and pos¬
sessing the resiliency of a volleyball (Figure 1) . The ball has a round
18 inch diameter platform attached midcircumference for placement of the
feet while jumping. Oxygen consumption was determined using a standard
open-circuit, semi-automated protocol. Values of oxygen consumption
during the treadmill test were measured using expired gases collected in
a Tissot spirometer; alliquots of expired gases were analyzed for oxygen
using a Beckman 0M11 analyzer and carbon dioxide using a Beckman LB2
analyzer. Both analyzers were calibrated with standardized gas before
each test. Heart rates were monitored using a CM5 electrocardiograph. A
Quinton Model 24-72 treadmill was used for the maximal physical work
capacity test. The Lolobal was maintained at a pressure of 10 psi as

260

Kumler and Francis

recommended by the manufacturer. A mechanical metronome was used to
maintain the specified jumping rates.

No stabilization device is included with the Lolobal for maintaining
balance while jumping. Because the subjects were unskilled and novices at
jumping with the Lolobal, a handrail was used to standardize stability and
eliminate possible variability due to dexterity. Subjects maintained
their balance while jumping by placing their open palsm on a horizontal
bar, which was adjusted to the height of their anterior superior iliac
spine. Subjects were instructed not to grip the bar, but simply to touch
the bar for stability.

Procedures

Prior to initiating the study it was determined that the minimal and
maximal jumping frequencies that could be sustained for five minutes with
the Lolobal were 104 and 144 jumps/min (JPM) respectively. The elasticity
of the Lolobal would not support jumping rates lower than 104 JPM. Jump¬
ing rates higher than 144 JPM resulted in failure of the Lolobal to
adequately clear the ground while jumping.

The study consisted of four individual exercise sessions fot each
participant separated by a time period of at least 24 hours. During the
first session, maximal oxygen consumption and maximum heart rate were
determined by a progressive Bruce treadmill test (Bruce, 1971; Bruce,
1974) to volitional exhaustion. In the subsequent sessions, subjects
jumped on the Lolobal for five minutes using one of three randomly as¬
signed jumping rates of 104, 126, or 144 JPM. Five minutes of exercise
was chosen in order to insure a steady rate of the exercise heart rate and
V02. Heart rate and V02 were recorded during the last twenty seconds of
every minute. The means of minute four and five were used in statistical
analysis. On the day prior to the first jumping session, subjects were
allowed to experience jumping at the different frequencies and familiarize
themselves with the various testing equipment. Student's t test was used
to determine differences between gender at each of the jumping frequen¬
cies. Because there was no statistical difference between gender, com¬
bined values were used for conducting a repeated measures ANOVA to test
for significant differences in heart rate or V02 due to jumping rate. A
P value of <0.05 was established as the minimal criterion for signifi¬
cance .

RESULTS

The means + SD of V02, work intensity, and heart rate, at each of
the three jumping frequencies are shown in Figure 2. Mean values of V02
at the respective jumping rates of 104, 126, and 144 JPM were 25.7 + 3.8,
24.6 + 3.7, and 24.8 + 4.5 ml kg min respectively, which represented 50 to
60% of the subjects' V02max. There was no statistical difference between
any of the values. Mean heart rates were 152.3 ± 23.1, 147.2 + 22.5, and
151.7 + 18.4 beats/min which represented 70% to 77% of the subjects'
maximum heart rate. There was no statistically significant difference
between any of the values.

261

Physiological Response to Jumping on the Lolobal

DISCUSSION

The relative newness of this form of exercise and the absence of
comparative studies with standardized measurement and protocols makes this
study of jumping on the Lolobal somewhat unique. The narrow range of 24 6
— ^’7 to 25.7 ± 3.8 ml kg min in V02 and heart rate response (147.2 + 22.5
to 152 + 23.1) shown in Figure 2 was not altogether surprising. A similar
type of response has been reported for jumping with a jump rope. Quirk
and Sinning (1982) and Town, Sol, and Sinning (1980) have reported that
the V02 requirement and heart rate response for jumping rope does not
Increase with skipping rate over a relatively wide range (i.e., 120 to >

JUMP8/MINUTB

Figure 2. Oxygen consumption and heart rate response of nineteen
subjects while jumping on the Lolobal at three jumping frequencies
of 104, 126 and 144 jumps per minute.

140 JPM) . Only extremely high rates of 160 JPM and above required sig¬
nificantly more oxygen and resulted in significantly different heart
rates. Quirk et al. (1982) suggested that there is a threshold rate
between 140 and 160 JPM where V02 increases unproportionally to jumping
frequency, leading to a higher oxygen requirement and heart rate response.
The highest jumping frequency used in this study of the Lolobal did not
cross this threshold, which might explain the similarity of the V02
recorded for the various jumping frequencies.

Another explanation for the similarities in oxygen consumption while
jumping at the different frequencies on the Lolobal might be due to the
mechanics of jumping. Town, et al. (1980) found from cinematographic

262

Kumler and Francis

analysis that during jumping rope, a decrease in average vertical dis¬
placement takes place with an increase in jumping rate. This same
phenomena was visually observed during jumping on the Lolobal. The jump
height perceptively decreased with increasing jumping frequency which may
have accounted for the similarity in oxygen consumption values despite the
increase in jumping rate shown in Figure 2.

The intensity of exercise with the Lolobal resulted in V02 values
that ranged from 50% to 60% of subjects' V02max level. These values
border on the lower end of the American College of Sports Medicine's
suggested range of intensity levels that are necessary for producing a
training effect in training activities. It can be concluded that the work
intensity of jumping with this new device might be a suitable alternative
for low to moderate intensity exercise regimens requiring an intensity of
approximately 24.5 ml kg min of oxygen consumption. However, in order to
determine the training effectiveness of this new device, longitudinal
studies are required.

REFERENCES

American College of Sport Medicine . Guidelines for Graded Exercise
Testing and Exercise Prescription. (1986) Philadelphia: Lea &
Febiger .

Ballard J.E., Dal Pozzo M.S., 6c Healey P. (1984). Perceived exertion,
energy cost, and cardiovascular responses to treadmill and mini tramp
work. Medicine and Science and Sports in Exercise , 16, 125.

Bishop P.A. , Smith J.F., 6t Everett L. (1986). Exercise intensity
increased by addition of handheld weights to rebounding exercise.
Medicine and Science and Sports in Exercise , 18, S28.

Bruce R.A. (1971). Exercise testing of patients with coronary heart
disease. Annals of Clinical Research, 3, 323-332.

Bruce R.A. (1974). Methods of exercise testing. American Journal of
Cardiology, 33, 715-720.

Getchell B. & Cleary P. (1980) Caloric costs of rope skipping and
running. Physician and Sport smed ic ine , 8, 56-60.

Howley E. 6e Martin D. (1978). Oxygen uptake and heart rate responses
measured during rope skipping. Tennessee Journal of Health and
Physical Education and Recreation , 3, 7-8.

Jette M.J., Mongeon J., 6c Routhier R. (1979). The energy cost of rope
skipping. Journal of Sports Medicine , 19, 33-37.

Quirk J.E. 6c Sinning W.E. (1982). Anaerobic and aerobic responses of
males and females to rope skipping. Medicine and Science and Sports
in Exercise , 14,26-29.

263

Physiological Response to Jumping on the Lolobal

Solis K. , Foster C. , & Thompson N. (1988). Aerobic requirements for and
heart rate responses to variations in rope jumping techniques.
Physician and Spcrtsmedicine , 16, 121-128.

Town G.P., Sol N. & Sinning W.E. (1980). The effect of rope skipping on
energy expenditure of males and females. Medicine and Science and
Sports in Exercise , 12, 295-298.

264

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 4, October 1990.

COMMODITY FLOW AND REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
ALONG ALABAMA'S TENNESSEE RIVER1

Jeffrey P. Richetto
Department of Geography
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, AL 35^87

INTRODUCTION

In 1933, the Tennessee Valley Authority, TVA, was established and
given a mandate from Congress to identify and develop the full resources
of the Tennessee River, including but not limited to regulating and
improving its flood waters, navigation, and power generation. TVA has and
continues to demonstrate remarkable success in accomplishing all three
objectives. By 1945, the development of the Tennessee River was nearly
completed with the construction of seven dams and navigation locks. These
newly built structures, along with two existing locks and dams, have
allowed commercial vessels to move with equal ease upstream or downstream,
changing elevation by more than 500 feet. At present, the commercially
navigable waterway consists of 650 miles of main channel and nearly 150
miles of tributary and secondary channels. The Tennessee River flowing
from Knoxville, Tennessee to Paducah, Kentucky, connects with the recently
completed Tennessee-Tombigbee waterway system at Yellow Creek, Mississippi
and is part of the United States' Interconnected Inland Waterway System
(Figure 1) .

The completion of the Tennessee River as a commercial waterway has
created a valuable tool providing the basis for economic development
throughout the Tennessee Valley region. For example, since 1945, the
private sector has committed investments of nearly $5 billion in Tennessee
River waterfront plants, terminals, and distribution facilities (Table 1) .
Moreover, because waterway transportation has been a comparatively low-
cost, energy efficient, safe mode of movement, the total amount of tonnage
trafficked along the Tennessee River has increased nearly seventeenfold
between 1945 and 1986 (Figure 2). In this way, major industrial growth
areas have been identified and partially developed along the waterway.
Approximately 42 public-use and 140 special commodity private— use termi¬
nals are currently in operation. While public-use terminals are designed
primarily to serve off— river industry and business, private-use terminals
are utilized for specific traffic of their owners, usually serving a
waterfront establishment.

Prior to the completion of the Tennessee River the regional economy
of the Tennessee Valley was characteristically localized, emphasizing
agriculture and extractive industry. With the exception of Chattanooga
and Knoxville, Tennessee towns along the waterway were generally small,
rural trade centers. Although these two metropolitan areas have benefit-

manuscript received 7 July 1990; accepted 17 August 1990.

265

Richetto

Figure 1. The U.S. Interconnected Inland Waterway System.

ted from the improved channel, the more dramatic growth has occurred in
the smaller, rural centers along the entire stretch of the river including
Calvert City, Kentucky; New Johnsonville , Counce, Charleston-Calhoun,
Clinton, and Loudon-Lenoir , Tennessee; and Muscle Shoals, Decatur, Court-
land, Guntersville , and Scottsboro-Stevenson, Alabama (Figure 3). Several
similarities exist between these port centers including the availability
of commercial navigation in combination with related inland transport
networks such as rail and highway, flood-free sites for industrial
development, and an uninterrupted supply of process and cooling water.

266

Commodity Flow and Regional Economic Development

Table 1. Private Sector Investment on the Tennessee River, 1945-1986.

Capital Investment in
New and Expanded
Year Facilities ($000)

Percent
of Total

1945-50

59,340

1.2

1951

24,491

0.5

1952

44,805

0.9

1953

37,792

0.8

1954

94,985

1.9

1955

56,633

1.1

1956

169,703

3.4

1957

159,449

3.2

1958

21,788

0.4

1959

57,471

1.2

1960

27,937

0.6

1961

67,961

1.4

1962

110,050

2.2

1963

83,529

1.7

1964

62,157

1.3

1965

214,620

4.3

1966

180,755

3.6

1967

95,876

1.9

1968

311,251

6.2

1969

133,050

2.7

1970

78,943

1.6

1971

27,895

0.5

1972

46,195

0.9

1973

365,915

7.3

1974

162,273

3.2

1975

300,488

6.0

1976

71,632

1.4

1977

437.248

8.8

1978

97,523

2.0

1979

154,243

3.1

1980

316,886

6.3

1981

317,872

6.4

1982

40,000

0.8

1983

172,775

3.5

1984

211,065

4.2

1985

123,700

2.5

1986

47,650

1.0

Grand Total

4,985,946

100.0

*Source: Tennessee Valley Authority, Navigation Development

Division, River Traffic and Industrial Growth, TAV/ONRED/LER- 86/28 .

267

Tons (millions) Tons < millions) Tons (millions)

Richetto

40i

CHEMICALS

3 -

PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

IRON AND STEEL

20

5

GRAINS AND PRODUCTS

0-4 - - - t - T - T - : - 1 - - - •

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985

Figure 2.

Total Tonnage Trafficked on the Tennessee River by Major
Commodity Group, 1945-85.

268

Commodity Flow and Regional Economic Development

Figure 3. Major Port Centers on the Tennessee River.

Inasmuch as these centers have accounted for more than 90 percent of
the total capital investment along the Tennessee River during the past two
decades, they may be considered as 'growth poles' within the Tennessee
Valley regional economy. In an effort to evaluate their potential for
continued economic support in the growth and development of the region as
a whole, it is informative to determine their interport (on-river) com¬
modity flow including its functional and geographic extent. It is within
this context that this study examines the above characteristics for the
port center of Decatur, Alabama.

COMMODITY FLOWS AND ON-RIVER HINTERLANDS

Since the early 1980s the nature and role of inland waterway ports
in the United States have undergone dramatic change. On the one hand,
these changes have been reflected in the development of new technologies
including double-stack trains and super containerships (Fahrenwald, 1988;
Chilcote, 1988). Container traffic accounts for nearly one-half of all
rail intermodal volume and three -fourths of the general cargo handled at
U.S. ports. Economic and technological innovations stimulated by con¬
tainerization have modified the geography of movement in the United
States, effectively eliminating inland waterway commerce for the lucrative
general cargo market. Despite the fact that 16 percent of all the
nation's freight moves on the inland waterway system, virtually no
containers move on barges (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1983).

To a greater degree, however, have been the changes occurring in the
overall operating environment of the port. New government policies,

269

Richetto

innovative management directives, and a realignment of international
economic relationships have impacted significantly on a port's traditional
service area as well as its marketing strategy (Dicer, 1986). The growth
of strategic planning and the development of formal plans on the part of
several ports are evidence of their recognition of the new operating
environment and their desire to direct future changes rather than to be
acted upon. Nevertheless, even with the establishment of such strategic
programs many ports struggle with the twin issues of market identification
for their services and marketing the facilities of the port for the pur¬
pose of supplying consumer demands through the exchange process.

Historically, the inland transportation industry operated under
strict government regulation. Primarily through the Interstate Commerce
Commission, the federal government regulated the rates that could be
charged for specific movements and the type and location of services.
Under such a regulated system, transportation companies were limited in
their ability to adjust quickly to changing market conditions in an effort
to attract business. As a result, market areas were delimited primarily
by geographic distance wherein (1) the cost of inland transportation was
considered the primary factor in routing shipments and (2) the cost of
inland transportation was a direct function of both distance over which
movement occurred and weight of the commodity being moved. In this way,
transportation centers, for example ports, functioned as monopolies
serving a 'natural' tributary hinterland.

Since the later 1970s, however, there has been considerable
deregulation in the U.S. inland transportation industry. One of the more
significant changes, especially as it impacts on the on-river market area
of ports, is the ability of railroads to set spot rates and to enter into
contracts with shippers. This added capability allows intermodal carriers
to establish competitive rates negating the benefits of once lower line-
haul costs of waterway transportation. As a result, the traditional
natural tributary hinterland for a port has all but disappeared while the
role of geographic distance for delimiting the spatial extent of a port's
market area has lessened considerably.

Dicer (1986) identifies several ways by which a port may improve its
competitiveness in- such a new and dynamic operating environment: (1)
delimit a port's hinterland through the identification of customers and
their service needs, (2) integrate a marketing research effort into the
ongoing activities of the port, (3) employ market segmentation techniques
to establish profitable market niches, (4) consider the marketing program
as a totally integrated effort, and (5) recognize the role of the port in
the ever-changing international distribution environment.

In addition, a port may play an important role in the overall eco¬
nomic development of a region. First, it must be determined whether or
not a port is able to attract economic development both locally and
regionally (through an established, interconnected trade network with
other ports) and second, it is necessary to measure the geographic extent
and degree of a port's local and regional connectivity. A port's local
and regional market area may be delimited according to scale, function,

270

Commodity Flow and Regional Economic Development

and specificity; that is, (1) a single terminal or group of terminals
(designated by a given river mile), (2) on-river (interport) or off-river
(terminal -to -end user) connections, (3) total tonnage trafficked, (4)
inbound vs. outbound traffic, (5) commodity classification codes, or (6)
any combination of the above. Within this context, this study measures
the interport hinterland for the port city of Decatur, Alabama. Specifi¬
cally, this study examines the type and quantity of inbound/ outbound
commodities and their origin and destination for the years 1970, 1975,
1980, 1984, and 1985.

THE NORTH ALABAMA CORRIDOR: THE ROLE OF THE DECATUR PORT

The development of the Tennessee River has resulted in a commercial¬
ly navigable waterway of which 202 miles constitutes the North Alabama
Corridor, (Figure 4). Within the twelve-county corridor, a dynamic
transportation network including air, highway, rail, and water offers
industry strategic access to local, regional, and national markets.
Moreover, 85 of the nation's 500 largest corporations have located sub¬
sidiary or divisional operations within this area. Nearly $12 billion is
spent annually by the O.S. Government and Procurement Facilities in the
region and the overall industrial base of the region is represented by
virtually all standard industrial classifications.

Among the several port centers along the Tennessee River situated
within the Corridor, Decatur represents a center of sizable trade and
industrial development. With its central location Decatur enjoys a
comparative trade advantage over the state's other ports along the
Tennessee River by serving directly several regional metropolitan areas
including Nashville, Tennessee and Huntsville and Birmingham, Alabama.
Moreover, its population size of nearly 60,000 and its relative location
to the U.S. Interconnected Inland Waterway System enable Decatur to serve
a more prominent role in the interport hinterland of the nation's inland
waterway industry. Although Decatur handles a diversity of commodities,
the port center's public and private terminals are characteristically
'sinks' on the Tennessee River averaging nearly 88 percent of their total
traffic as inbound shipments (Figure 5) .

271

Richetto

Decatur River Mile no. 45301

Year

E3 Inbound
■ Outbound

Decatur River Mile no. 45304

Year

Figure 5. Total Torjnage of Inbound and Outbound
Shipments for Select Terminals in the
Port Center of Decatur.

COMMODITY FLOW ANALYSIS

The port center of Decatur is served by a total of 14 terminals; 4
public and 10 private. In order to ensure the conf identiality of indi¬
vidual terminal operators, commodity flow data were obtained from eight
terminals and aggregated into a single data base. Table 2 indicates the
total inbound/outbound tonnage of shipments for all major commodity
groups. With the exception of coal and sand, Decatur has experienced a
significantly larger inbound as opposed to outbound shipment of com¬
modities. This relationship is particularly evident for grains and
chemicals where' the tonnage of inbound shipments Was on the average nearly
ten times greater than the tonnage of corresponding outbound shipments .

Since 1980, the port center of Decatur has increasingly served as a
termination point for interport traffic. Between 1980-85 the total
tonnage of inbound shipments increased from 350.5 thousand to over 373
thousand (6.6%) while at the same time the total tonnage of outbound
shipments decreased from 85.8 thousand to 49 thousand (-43.3%). Histori¬
cally, although coal, iron/steel, and chemicals dominated the in and
outbound shipments; since 1980, grains (especially corn and grain mill
products), fertilizer, and building cement have become the more trafficked
commodities. Between 1980 and 1985 nearly 60 percent of all inbound
traffic was grain and grain mill products of which 94 percent was corn.
Building cement averaged 12 percent per year while fertilizer accounted
for slightly over 10 percent. Although iron/steel in the form of pipes
represented a sizable share of outbound shipments (27 percent in 1985);
sorghum, soybeans, and grain mill products combined to total over 35
percent and chemicals 12 percent for the same year .

- 272

Commodity Flow and Regional Economic Development

Table 2. Inbound, Outbound and Net Commodity Flow by Major Commodity
Group for Decatur, Alabama.

Commodity

Group

IN

(tons)

1970

OUT

(tons)

♦NET

(tons)

IN

(tons)

1975
OUT
( tons )

♦NET

(tons)

Chemicals

75,618

14,739

60,879

15,753

1,000

14,753

Coal/Coke

413,442

- -

413 , 442

1,268

136,192

-134,924

Forest

*

Products

- -

- -

- -

- -

- -

- -

Grains/

Products

1,377

- -

1,377

6,105

1,315

4,790

Iron/Steel

15 , 507

9,306

6,201

33,303

19,836

13,467

Petroleum

Products

56,259

- -

56,259

14,071

7,964

6,107

Stone/Sand

Gravel

- -

- -

- -

- -

- -

- -

Other

50,114

- -

50 , 114

4,932

1,408

3,524

TOTAL

612,317

24 , 045

588,272

75,432

167,715

-92,283

1980

1984

Commodity

IN

OUT

♦NET

IN

OUT

♦NET

Group

(tons)

(tons)

(tons

(tons)

(tons)

( tons )

Chemicals

78,194

- -

78,194

60,911

- -

60,911

Coal/Coke

35,063

64,955

-29,892

1,487

21,660

-20,173

Forest

Products

- -

- -

- -

- -

- -

- -

Grains/

Products

132,971

10,841

122,130

178,261

18,740

159,521

Iron/Steel

35,784

1,400

34,384

30,528

2,893

27,635

Petroleum

Products

48,283

7,215

41,068

7,583

- .

7,583

Stone/Sand

Gravel

- -

1,391

-1,391

- -

2,996

-2,996

Other

19,974

- -

19,974

44,971

- -

- -

TOTAL

350,269

85,802

264,467

323,741

46,289

277,452

1985

Commodity

IN

OUT

♦NET

Group

(tons)

( tons )

(tons)

Chemicals

69,432

6,377

63,055

Coal/Coke

- -

- -

- -

Forest

Products

- -

- -

- -

Grains/

Products

198,912

17,316

181,596

Iron/Steel

28,127

21,457

6,670

Petroleum

Products

812

924

-112

Stone/Sand

Gravel

- -

1,816

1,816

Other

75,967

1,145

74,822

♦NET - IN -

OUT

TOTAL

373,250

49,035

324,215

Source: Compiled by author

273

Richetto

Of equal importance in measuring the potential economic development impact
of a port center is the number of commodities trafficked as well as the
ratio of diversity and tonnage between inbound and outbound shipments.
Between 1970 and 1980 Decatur's inbound shipments included a total of 16
different commodities while its outbound shipments included a total of 7
different commodities, averaging slightly over a 2:1 ratio of inbound to
outbound traffic. Although the 2:1 ratio remained in force throughout the
following five-year period the total number of different inbound and out¬
bound commodities handled increased significantly, 29 and 16 respectively.
An even greater difference between inbound and outbound shipments is
evidenced in the tonnage trafficked. For example, while the ratio of the
number of inbound to outbound commodities averaged nearly 2:1 (1980-85)
the corresponding tonnage of inbound to outbound shipments averaged over
7:1 during the same time period. Table 2 indicates that for all major
commodity groups with the exception of coal and sand the port center of
Decatur had significantly larger inbound as opposed to outbound traffic.
This was especially evident for grains and chemicals where the tonnage of
inbound shipments was more than ten times greater than the tonnage of
outbound shipments .

Finally, because of its relative location on the Tennessee River,
along with a well-developed and integrated off-river transportation
network, Decatur serves an important role to both the Tennessee Valley
region and the U.S. inland waterway system. Of the over 180 terminals
operating along the Tennessee River, the few terminals located in Decatur
handle a disproportionately large share of certain commodities, especially
grains. Since 1975 the percentage share of total river shipments for
grains trafficked through Decatur increased from 0.1 percent to 5.5 per¬
cent in 1985 (Table 3). Other major commodity groups exhibiting smaller
percentage increases included iron/steel and the category labelled others.
During the same time major commodity groups experiencing a decreasing role
in percent share of total river traffic included chemicals, coal/coke, and
petroleum products. Moreover, Decatur handles a sizable diversity of com¬
modities including 29 different inbound and 16 outbound products. How¬
ever, in 1985, nearly 85 percent of total inbound shipments specialized in
only three products; grains, 58.2 percent, fertilizer, 17.9 percent, and
iron/steel, 7.2 percent. Similarly, over 70 percent of outbound traffic
included only two products; iron/steel, 43.8 percent and grains, 26.6
percent.

Although the port center of Decatur continues to function primarily
as an on-river point of termination or sink, since 1970 this role has les¬
sened considerably. While over 600,000 tons of products were received in
1970 only 373,000 tons of inbound shipments occurred in 1985, a decrease
of 39 percent. This sizable percentage change in inbound traffic was
largely attributed to significant decreases in incoming shipments of coal
tar, iron/steel, and lubricating oils.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The several port centers along the Tennessee River are character¬
istically different in terms of tonnage and diversity of commodities

274

Commodity Flow and Regional Economic Development

Table 3. Tonnage Comparisons Between Select Terminals in Decatur and the
Total Tennessee River System by Major Commodity Groups.

Major Commodity

Group /Year

Total River
System
(tons)

Decatur

terminals

(tons)

% of

Total River
System

Chemicals

1970

1,592,216

90,360

5.7

1975

2,142,540

16,753

0.8

1980

2,487,484

78,194

3.1

1984

2,440,004

60,911

2.5

1985

2,313,406

75,809

3.3

Coal/Coke

1970

9,625,242

413,442

4.3

1975

12,044,219

137,460

1.2

1980

15,465,438

100,018

0.7

1984

15,926,123

23,147

0.2

1985

18,857,715

. - -

- -

Forest Products

1970

310,775

1975

302,687

- -

- -

1980

590,802

- -

- -

1984

548,178

- -

- -

1985

547,655

- -

- -

Grains

1970

2,937,985

1,377

0.1

1975

1,886,215

7,420

0.4

1980

2,895,258

143,812

5.0

1984

4,604,809

197,001

4.3

1985

3,911,798

216,228

5.5

Iron/Steel

1970

739,291

24,813

3.4

1975

815,033

53,139

6.5

1980

931,723

37,184

4.0

1984

1,334,343

33,421

2.5

1985

1,114,839

49,584

4.4

Petroleum Products
1970

3,016,682

56,259

1.9

1975

2,900,111

22,035

0.8

1980

2,112,063

55,498

2.6

1984

2,027,051

7,583

0.4

1985

2,075,266

1,736

0.1

Stone/Sand/Gravel

1970

5,597,351

1975

6,923,557

- -

- -

1980

3,157,391

1,391

0.1

1984

4,214,983

2,996

0.1

1985

5,591,067

1,816

0.03

Other

1970

1,756,246

50,114

2.9

1975

1,439,854

6,375

0.4

1980

1,782,572

19,974

1.1

1984

2,087,097

44,971

2.2

1985

2,271,559

77,112

3.4

Source: Compiled by author.

Richetto

trafficked and their primary function on the river which is reflected in
their service capabilities, relative location, and surrounding transpor¬
tation infrastructure. The port center of Decatur, in particular, pos¬
sesses several excellent advantages which allow the port to serve pri¬
marily as a sink or termination point on the river. For example,
Decatur's relative location on the Tennessee River is accessible to both

Figure 6. Decatur's Interport Hinterland for Inbound
Shipments, 1975, 1980, and 1985.

276

Commodity Flow and Regional Economic Development

the U.S. inland waterway system and the several major port cities along
the eastern segment of the Tennessee River (Figure 6). Moreover, Decatur
is served by a well established multimodal, off- river transportation
network linking it to the Southeast's regional economy and, in particular,
Alabama's local economy (Figure 7). Finally, Decatur is one of the larger
ports on the Tennessee River and is situated within a growing and econom¬
ically developing region within the state.

Figure 7. Decatur’s Interport Hinterland for Outbound
Shipments, 1975, 1980, and 1985.

277

Richetto

In an effort to more fully understand the potential role of ports
along the Tennessee River in the Tennessee Valley's regional economy,
additional commodity flow studies for other ports are needed. The trends
and spatial organization of interport and off- river hinterlands must be
identified. Such a data base could prove to be invaluable for terminal
operators seeking to either more fully develop their existing markets
and/or to expand into other geographic or product markets.

REFERENCES

Chilcote, P. , (1988), "The Containerization Study: Meeting the

Competition in Trade," in Urban Ports and Harbor Management, M.
Hershman (ed.) New York: Taylor and Francis.

Dicer, G. , (1986), "Marketing: Crucial for Port Survival," Traffic World ,
September, pp. 36-40.

Fahrenwald, B. , (1988), Intermodal Age, November/December.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, (1983), National Waterways Study-A Framework
for Decisionmaking , Washington, DC: USGPO.

278

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 4, October 1990.

SECTION I

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Abbott -King, Janet
Abee Christian R.
Adams, Caroline
Albertini, Jackie D.
Allan, Mary Ann
Angion, Winford
Angus , Robert
Appel, Arthur G.
Armitage, Brian
Bacot, Brian C.
Bailey, Mark A.

Bart, Henry L. , Jr.
Beasley, Philip G.
Bell, P. Darwin
Benford, Helen H.
Best, Troy L.

Beyers, Robert J.
Bilbo, Thomas
Blackmore , Mark S .
Blagburn, Byron
Blanchard, Paul D.
Boettger, Holly L.
Bonds , Eldon D .

Bone, Leon W.

Borden, Amanda W.
Boswell, Veronica D.
Boyd, Robert S.
Bradley, James T.
Braid, Malcolm
Brown, Jack S.

Brown, Rather
Brumlow, William B.
Bryan, Ty W.
Buchanan, James V.
Buckner, Richard L.
Burns , Wendy R .
Campbell, Olivia
Campbell, P. Samual
Carey, Steven D.
Carroll, David J.
Carter, Gregory A.
Cassell, Gail H.
Cherry, Joe H.
Chromiak, Joseph A.
Clark, Edward M.
Clements, Ben A.
Clibum, J. William
Cline, George B.

1990 Membership Roll by Section

Cochis , Thomas
Coleman, Theresa
Cooper, W. Wade
Costes, Danice H.
Culberson, Donald E.
Curl, Elroy A.

Darden, W. H. , Jr.
Datta, M. C.

Davenport, L. J.

Davis, Donald E.

Debro, LaJoyce H.
Denton, Tom E.

Diamond, Alvin R. , Jr.
Diener, Urban L.

Dindo, John
Dixon, Carl
Dobson, F. Stephen
Dodd, Thomas H. , III
Douglas , Robert J .
Dusi, Julian L.

Dusi, Rosemary- D.

Dute, Roland R.

Edge , Mark T .

Elder, Don
Emert, George H.
Estridge, Barbara H.
Fain, Jennifer
Finley, Sara C.
Fleming, Karen L.
Folkerts, Debbie R.
Folkerts, George W.
Frandsen, John C.
Freeman, John D.
French, Elizabeth
Garstka, William
Gau, Paul

Gauthier, Joseph J.
Gibbons, Ashton
Glaze, Robert P.

Golab, Dorothy K.
Goode, Naaman D.

Goode , Paula Rae
Goodman, Steven R.
Grizzle, John M.
Grover, John H.
Gudauskas , Robert T .
Guyer, Craig
Haberyan, Kurt A.
Haggerty, Thomas M.
Handley, Holley

Hardy, Michael E.
Harper, James D.
Harris, Steven C.
Hebert, Richard
Henderson, James H.
Henry , Raymond P .
Hepp, Gary R.

Hileman, Douglas R.
Hines, Gene A.
Holifield, Quintaniay
Holland,. Richard D.
Holler, Nicholas R.
Holliman, Dan C.
Hopkins , Linda H .
Hopkins , Tom
Hoyne- Brown, Donna M.
Hribar, Lawrence
Hsueh, Pan Wen
Hudgins, Michael D.
Hulcher, Richard F.
Ivey, William D.
Jandebeur, Thomas S.
Johnson, Adriel D.
Johnston, Carol
Jolly, Curtis M.
Jones, Lawanda
Kempf, Stephen C.
Kirby, Albert W.
Kittle, Paul
Knox, Bryant E.

Koiki, Adeniyi F.
Koopman, William J.
Lane, Jacqueline M.
Langdon, James W.
Lares, Michael T.
Lartey, Robert
Lawrence , Faye B .

Lee , Kara
Lindsay, David S.
Lisano, Michael E.
Lishak, Robert S.

Liu , Frank
Long, Calvin L.
Luckhart, Shirley
Lydeard, Charles
MacMillan, William H.
Marion, Ken Roy
Marshall, John E.
Mason, William H.
Massey, Carl B.

279

Membership Roll

Mathews , Robert
McClintock, James B.
McCord, Joe
McKee, Dorothy W.
McKinney, Rose B.
McLaughlin, Ellen W.
McMillan, Charles
Melton, Margaret
Miller, Demetrius
Miller, Gary
Miller, Melissa K.
Milly , Kat
Mirarchi, Ralph E.
Mitchell, Joan P.
Modlin, Richard F.
Moore, Bobby G.

Moore , Irene
Moore, Jack H.

Moore, Teresa Kelley
Moriarity, Debra M.
Mullen, Gary R.
Mulvaney, Donald R.
Murphree, C. Steven
Myers , Lawrence J .
Nancarrow, D. V.
Nance, Mari one E.
Nelson, David H.
Nelson, Fannie
Nelson, Karl M.
Nesdill, Daureen
Niedermeier, William
Okezie, B. Onuma
Ottis , Kenneth
Paxton, Mary Jean W.
Peterson, Curt M.
Pezzementi, Leo
Pierson, J. Malcolm
Plaskas, Steven M.
Poirier, Gary R.
Porter, Eural
Pritchett, John F.
Pyle, Joseph
Quindlen, Eugene A.
Ramsey, John S.
Ravis, William R.
Regan, Gerald T.
Reid, Robert R. , Jr.
Re lye a, Kenneth
Richardson, Velma B.
Riley, Thomas N.
Robinson, George H.
Rochowiak, Daniel M.
Runquist, Jeannette

Ryan , Thomas
Saito, Naoyuki
Sanford, L. G.

Shea, Catherine
Shew, H. Wayne
Singh, Narendra K.
Sizemore, Douglas R.
Smith, Robert C.
Sparks, Timothy H.
Spears, Harold J.
Spencer, Elsie
Srinivasan, Ramiah
Stafford, Stephanie
Stanbrough, Sheila
Stevens, Clauzell
Stiles, Robert A.
Stinson, Narvaez
Stone, Paul
Strada, Samuel J.
Strickland, Richard C.
Sundermann, Christine
Swanson, Kay A.

Tadros, Mahasin
Taylor, Michael S.
Thomas , Donald
Thomas , Laquita
Thompson, W. Joseph
Thornton, Keith
Truelove , Bryan
Tucker, Charles E.
Turner, C. J.

Vawter, Nancy V.

Waits, E. Douglas
Walker, J. H.

Walker, Scotty
Ward, Edward R. , Jr.
Watson, R. Douglas
Watts, Stephen A.
Wester, Ed
White, J. F.

Whitlock, Suzanne
Wilkes, James C.
Wilkoff, Lee J.
Williams, ann H.
Williams, Carol S.
Williams, Dean A.
Williams, Delbert E.
Williams, John W.
Williams, Kasandra
Wilson, H. J.

Wilson, Mack A.

Wilson, Thomas H.
Winkler, Fred

Wit, Lawrence C.
Wooten, Michael C.
Yackzan, Kamal S.
Young, Ronald B.
Zehren, Steven J.

SECTION II
CHEMISTRY
Alexander, Kliem
Allen, Roger W.
Andurkar, Shridhar
Arendale, William F.
Armstrong, Brian M.
Asouzu, Moore V.
Barrett, William J.
Beck, Mary Jim
Bouhadir , Kamal
Brown, Mary A. H.
Bugg, Charles E.
Cappas , Constantine
Carter, Kevin W.
Chang, Ki Joon
Chastain, Ben B.
Coble, Dwain
Cooper, E. A.

Corona , Barry
Cox, A. Barry
Darling, Charles M.
Davis, Robert A.

Davis , Robert S .

Dean, Derrick R.
Dillion, H. Kenneth
Doorenbos , Norman J .
Dove, Mary Frances
Finkel, Joe M.

Finley, Wayne H.

Fisk, James D.

Ford, Jonathon B.
Gant, Fred A.

Gaunder, Robert
Gibson, Michael L.
Godbey, S. E.

Gray, Gary M.

Guner, Osman F.
Haggard, James H.
Hazlegrove, Leven S.
Hung, George W. C.
Ibrahim, Taleb
Ihejeto, Godwin
lilies, Andreas J.
Ingram, Sammy W. , Jr.
Isbell, Raymond R.
Jackson, Margaret E.

280

Membership Roll

Jotani, Kishor P.
Kispert, Lowell
Koons , L. F.

Krannich, Larry K.
LaGrone, Craig
Lambert, James L.

Legg, J. Ivan
Leszczynski, Jerzy
Livant, Peter
Locklar, Kelley G.

Loo, Boon H.

Ludwick, Adriane
Mahaffy, C. A. L.
McDonald, Nancy C.
Meehan, Edward J., Jt.
Moeller, Michael
Moore, McDonald, Sr.
Mountcastle, William
Muller, John H.

Murray , Thomas P .
Neidert, Jamie B.

Okike , Uchechuku
Peters, Henry B.
Phadtare , Hanmantrao P.
Radel, Robert J.
Rawlings, Jill
Riordan, James M.
Setzer, William N.
Shakhashiri, Bassam Z.
Sheridan, Richard C.
Small, Robert
Smith, Forrest T.
Spence, Thomas
Stanbury, David
Stanley, Ann
Studdard, A. L.

Taylor, Robert W.
Thomas, Colacot J.
Thomas-, Joseph C.
Thomas, Nicholas
Thomaskutty, Mary G.
Thompson, Davis H.
Thompson, Wynelle D.
Toffel, George M.

Toren, E. C. , Jr.
Vallarino, Lidia M.
Watkins, Charles L.

Webb , Thomas R .

Wells, David
Wheeler, G. P.
Whitfield, J . -M.

Whitt, Carlton D.
Youngblood, Bettye

SECTION III
GEOLOGY

Abston, Susan L.
Bearce , Denny
Brande , Barbara L.
Brande, Scott
Brosheer, Clinton J.
Carrington, Thomas J.
Chase , David
Cook, Robert B.
Cranford, Norman B.
Cross, Whitman, II
Dean, Lewis S.

Degges, Carleton W.
Dejarnette, David L.
Demko, Timothy M.
Esposito, Rick
Hall, Greg D.

Hawkins, William
Henson, Sharon
Huchison, R. A. , Jr.
Joiner, Thomas J.
Keefer, William D.
King, David T. , Jr.
Kopaska-Merkel , David
Lamb, James P. , Jr.
Lamb, George M.
Lamoreaux, P. E.

Liu, Yuejin
McCarroll, Steven M.
McMillan, Richard C.
McRae , Mac
Neilson, Michael J.
Newton, John G.

Owens , Daryl S .
Ozalas, Katherine
Patterson, Daniel J.
Powell, William
Raymond, Dorothy E.
Rheams, Karen F.
Rindsberg, Andrew K.
Russo, Brian R.

Salpas , Peter A.
Savrda, Charles E.
Shultz, Albert W.
Sides, Garry L.
Skotnicki, Michael C.
Smith, Charles C.
Steltenpohl, Laura
Steltenpohl, Mark
Stock, Carl W.

Wright, Kenneth R.

SECTION IV
FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY,
CONSERVATION, AND
PLANNING

Balentine, Timothy C.
Baucom, Thomas F.

Boyer, William
Cagle, Karen K.

Clark, Murlene
Couch, Scott B.

Deaver, Paul F.

DeVall, Wilbur B.

Dodds, Philip M.

Espy , Amanda J .

Gardner, Robert
Gibbs, George S.
Henderson, H. A.

Hicks, David R.

Himmler, Frank N.
Holland, Andrea P.
Icenogle, David W.
Jeane, Gregory
Johnson, Howard P.
Jonakin, James L.
Mathur, Surendra P.
McAllister, William K.
Mclnnish, Mary K.
Nettles, Jami Espy
Richetto, Jeffrey P.
Rivizzigno, Victoria
Stribling, H. Lee
Strong, William Reese
Tang, R. C.

Vaughn, Danny
Weaver, David c.
Wilbourn, Macon
Williams, Louis G.

Wynn, Timothy W.

SECTION V

PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS
Aggarwal , Manmohan D .
Agresti, David G.
Alexander, Don
Alford, William L.
Allison, D. Lee
Barry, Hubert G.

Bauman, Robert P.
Bearden, T. E.
Beiersdorfer , Peter
Boardman, William
Boyd, Louise M.

Byrd, Gene G.

281

Membership Roll

Case , Jan 0.

Castillo, Oreste
Christensen, Charles
Chuang , Teh - Huey
Clark, R, Kent
Colvett , Robert Dee
Comfort, Richard
Coulter, Philip W.
Curott , David R.

Cypher t, Daniel S.
Destito , Lou
Dubard, James L.

Easter day, Kenneth
Essenwanger , Oskar M.
Feng, Jian-Dong
Foreman, David L.

Forte , Aldo
Furman , W. L.

Gallagher , Dennis
Gathright, Carolyn H.
George , Abraham
Gibson, Faison P . , Sr .
Glotfelty , Henry W.
Harrison, Joseph G .
Hawk, James F.

Hayes , Cathy
Helminger , Paul
Horsfield, Christopher
Howell , Kenneth B.

Hsu, Jiann-Wien
Hudson, Glenn
11a, Daryush
Jenkins , C. Merrill
Jones , Stanley T .
Knight, Martha V.
Kribel, Robert E.
Lester, William
Lundquist, Charles A.
May, Lewis D.

Memauri , Haghdad
Mishra, Satya N.

Misra, Satish Chandra
Miyagawa, Ichiro
Moore , Carey
Morton, Perry W. , Jr.
Omasta, Eugene
Otu, Joseph 0.

Payne , Donald R.

Perez, J . D.
Piccirillo, John
Polan, Marvin
Povenmire , Harold
Putcha , Venkateswarlu

Rash , Ed
Reid, William J.
Reisig, Gerhard
Roberts , Thomas G .
Robinson, Edward L,
Rowell , Neal
Ruffin, Paul B.

Russell , Randy D .
Scarborough , J . M.
Sharma , P . C .

Shealy , David L.
Shelton, Darryl G .
Shipman, Jerry R.

Smith , Micky
Smoot, Henrene
Spencer , Gilbert 0 .
Stamper , Archie L.
Steedly , Dwight
Stephens , Cassandra
Stewart , Dorothy A. •
Subranmanyam, Shiva S.
Sulentic , J . W.

Swinney , Kenneth R.
Sykes , Marvin D.

Tan , Arj un
Turner , M. E. , Jr.

Van Cleave , John
Varghese, S . L.

Vinson, Clarence
Vinson, R. G.

Visscher , Pieter B .
Werkheiser , A, H. , Jr.
Wheeler, R. E .

Whitlow, Darryl
Wilkinson, E . L.
Williams , John R.
Wills, Edward L.

Young, John H.

Zalik, Richard A.

SECTION VI

INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS
Absher , Keith
Aebersold, Kris
Alexander , James G.
Bobo, James R.

Caudill , Donald W.
Clark, Joy L.

Cole, S. W.

Crawford, Gerald
Free, Veronica
Free , W. Joe
Gatlin, Kerry P,

Geer, William D.
Gentle , Edgar C . , Jr
Gibson, Dennis W.
Grant , Eugene W. , Jr
Graves , Benj amin B .
Gregorowicz , Philip
Griffin, Marsha D .
Guttikonda, Rama R.
Harrison, Golson
Heacock, Marian V.
Hegji, Charles E .
Holmes, Mac R.
Jackson, Leslie T .
Johnson, Raymond
Jones , Morris
Jones , R. Bruce
Kamnikar , Edward G .
Lacy , Wayne
Lake , Robert C .
Lester , Rick
Lett , Samuel L.
Lortie , John W.
McCarley , David E .
Moberly , H. Dean
Moore , Stephanie
Norrell , Fred M.
Peacock, Richard
Rawlins, V. Lane
Rico , Beth C .

Rodgers , M. R.

Salimi , Awais T .
Sanders, Robert L.
Sauser , W. I . , Jr .
Smith, Leon L.
Stallings, James L.
Stewart , G . T .
Suwanakul , Sontachai
Thomas, Rebecca L.
Viohl , Frederick A.
Wheatley, Robert, Jr
Willhardt , John A.

SECTION VII
SCIENCE EDUCATION
Baird, Bill
Ball, Patsy
Bentley, • Donna
Bigharo, Betty
Caudle , Sandra I .
Clark, Neil Penton
Coffman, Lindsey F.
Ctrry, Julie B .

Fish, Frederick P.

282

Membership Roll

George, Joseph D.
Gonce, Mary N.

Hayes, Lee T.

Hayes, Robert E.
Henrikson, Matthew T.
Jones, Diana D.
Landers, John I.
Ludwick, Larry M.

Me Dade , Claudia
Nall, Jane
O'Brien, James M.
Rainey, Larry
Reynolds, Barbara S.
Riggsby, Dutchie S.
Riggsby, Ernest D.
Rowsey, Robert E.

Rust, Debra
Shumaker, Anne W.
Smith, Karl Dee
Thompson, Tracy
Turner, E. J.

Warren, Bertie M.
Wolfinger, Donna M.
Wright, Jada F.

SECTION VIII
SOCIAL SCIENCES
Adams, Kenneth A.
Astone, Nicholas
Barty, Peter F.
Belcher, Milton
Buckalew, L. W.

Burns, Jerald C.
Cantrell, Clyde H.
Dunkelberger , John E.
Elixon, Joseph M. , Jr.
Eule, Edward E.

Ford, Doris E. D.
Gatewood, Frances
Hanks , Lawrence J .
Hanson, Kristen
Haynes , Mike
Hoke, Daniel M.
Hudiburg, Richard A.
Huggins, Joseph F.
Hutchinson, Ardra H.
Johnson, James A.
Jones, Tim R.

Joubert, Charles E.
Kelly, Bill
Lanier, Mark
Lobello, Steven G.
Longnecker, Gesina L.

Longnecker, Herbert E.
Luskin, Joseph
Lyles, Gladys J.

Mabry, Helen
Mashatt, Marilyn
McCoy, Sarita A.
Morris, Stephen D.
Nickell, Eugenie B.
O'Neill, Sue B.
Osterhoff, William E.
Sadowski, Cyril J.
Schlotterback, D. L.
Sink, David W.

Sloan, John J1.
Thrasher, Amy Lee
Vocino, Thomas
Webber, Avery
Weber, B. C.
Westerfield, R. Carl
Wheelock, Gerald C.
Williams, Walter S.
Witherspoon, Arnold D.
Woodson, James W.
Yeager, J. H.

SECTION IX
HEALTH SCIENCES
Adams , Cara
Alexander, Janet G.
Awtrey, Janet S.
Babcock, Tracy C.
Barfield, Betty R.
Barker, Samuel B.
Barton, James C.

Baugh, Charles
Beaton, John M.

Beck, Lee R.

Bennett, J. Claude
Bergman, Joan S.
Boerth, Robert C.
Boots, Larry R.
Bradshaw, Katherine L.
Breslin, Frances A.
Briles, David E.

Brown, Jerry W.

Bubien, James K.
Bubien, Rosemary
Buckner, Ellen
Chappelear, Joyce
Christopher, Jan
Clark-Daniels , Carolyn
Clelland, Jo
Glowers , David

Compans , Richard W.
Conary, Jon T.
Cornwell, P. E.
Cosper, Paula
Cusic, Anne
Daffin, Penny
Dansak, Daniel A.
Darch, Gabriele G.
Daugherty, Pam
Davis, Debra C.

Davis, Lloyd L.

Davis , Richard
Davis, Sheila P.
Davis, W. R.

DeRuiter, Jack
Devivo, Michael J.
Drummond, Lawrence C.
Elgavish, Ada
Emerson, Geraldine M.
Faria, Sandra H.

Far is, Arthur W.
Findley, Margie
Foote, Anne W.

Foster, Portia
Frederick, A. P.
French, James H.
Gardner, W. A., Jr.
Gaskins , Susan
Gaubatz, Jim W.
Gibson, Deborah E.
Gilbert, Fred
Gist, Richard
Goodman, Patricia S.
Gossman, Marilyn
Grant, Joan S.

Gwebu, Ephraim T.
Hembree, Beth S.
Henderson, Mary C.
Herban, Nancy L.
Herbert Donald
Higginbotham, M. C.
Hoffman, Henry H.
Holcombe, Carol
Hoobler, Terry
Hopkins, John B.
Hughes, Edwin R.
Hughes, Glenn H.
Hunsinger, Ronald N.
Ingram, Cora A.
Jenkins, Joyce W.
Jenkins, Ronald L.
Jensen, Gail M.
Johnson, Evelyn P.

283

Membership Roll

Jones, Harold P.

Jones, Walter J.

Katz, Judd A.

Keith, Robert E.
Kelley, Jean
Kennamer, Gretchen A.
Kirkpatrick, M. B.
Kleinstein, Robert
Knopke , Harry
Jordan, K. B. Kohls
Turnon, Eddie W.
Lavender, Martha
Long-Hall, Carolyn K.
Martin, Jane S.
Matalon, Sadis
McCaleb, K. Alberta
McCallum, Charles
McDaniel, Gretchen S.
McDaniel, Larry
Meezan, Elias
Morgan, Alice H.

Mott, Penne
Nambayan, Ayda G.
Nanda , Navin C .

Navia, Juan M.

Nelson, Kathy H.
Nordness, Mary M.
Owings , William 0.
Parsons, Daniel L.
Perry, Nelson
Phillips, J. B.

Pickens , Barbara
Pieroni, Robert E.
Pillion, Dennis J.
Pirkle, James A.
Pitman, Angelia
Pittman, James A., Jr.
Reed, Linda
Reeves , Gaynell
Reilly, Lyn
Renfroe, Darlene H.
Riggs, Janet M.
Roberts, Linda R.
Rodning, Charles B.
Roozen, Kenneth J.
Roush, Donald
Rudd , S teven
Russell, J. Colleen
Salser, Janice
Schnaper, Harold W.
Self, Barbara F.

Shaw , Howard M .
Shepard, Richard B.

Sherrod, Roy Ann
Shoemaker, R. L.

Shook, Lyle L.

Simpson, Janis A.
Skalka, Harold W.
Smith, Myra A.

South, Lisa D.

Street, Lee Ann
Swansburg, Russell C.
Swanton, Robert G.
Tulli, C. George, Jr.
Vacik, James P.

Vezza, Anne E.

Waites, Ken B.

Walker, Brenda S.

Ware, Bradley R.
Warren, Joe R.

Wells, Gretchen
White, Patricia
Wilborn, W. H.
Williamson, Kenny
Wilson-Thomas , Linda
Wilson, Glenn L.
Wilson, Graeme
Winternitz, William W.
Winters, Alvin L.

Wise, Sandra R.

Wood, Felecia
Wooley, Thomas W.
Wooten, Marie W.
Yeager, Joan
Zorn, George, Jr.

SECTION X
ENGINEERING AND
COMPUTER SCIENCE
Albright, C. Wesley
Allen, Robert A.

As tone, Mary K.
Baggott, Edward
Barrett, John
Basenspiler, Larry
Beck, Oscar
Bru liman, August W.
Bryan, Barrett
Byrne, Peter C.

Craig, Thomas F.
Crawford, Martin
Crocker, George
Dean, Susan T.

Doran, Michael V.
Godfrey, Saldanha B.
Goodman, Charles H.

Gray , Kay H .

Harrison, Benjamin
Hayes , R. M. , Jr .

Hearn, William H.
Hendrix, T. Dean
Hermann, Rudolf
Hicks, James W. , Jr.
Hirth, Leo J.

Hollis , D . L. , Jr .

Hool, James N.

Jacobs, Paul L.

Kadar , J ac B .

Kurzius, Shelby C.

Lane, James H.

Lewis , Gladius
Lim, Joon Shik
Lindly, Jay K.

Moulton, V. Gordon
Mukherjee, Nanda Lai
Pan, Aiqin
Parker, Donald L.
Pumphrey, N. D., Jr.
Rangaswamy, Partha
Rindt, Donald W.

Sarathy, Vijaya K.
Shaffer, Harry B.

Triche, Michael H.
Varadarajan, Subramanian
Walters, J.V.

Whittle, George P.
Wisniewski, Raymond B.
Workman, Gary L.

SECTION XI
ANTHROPOLOGY
Andrews , Mark
Baklanoff, Joy
Barnes , Nancy
Bizzoco, Bruce D.
Christy, T. Craig
Courington, David S.
Driskell, Boyce N.

Gay, Robert W.

Gillaspie, Leon W.
Gilliland, M. Janice
Hansen, Asael T.

Hensen, B. Bart
Hill, Cassandra
Hollingsworth, C. Y.
Holstein, Harry 0.
Huscher, Harold A.
Mistovich, Tim
Nance, C. Roger

284

Membership Roll

Patterson, Paul L.
Ramsey, Darwin-Tamar
Rowe , Bobby
Sheldon, Craig T.
Shogren, Michael G.
Turner, Kenneth R.
Zab awa , Robert
Zeanah, Shelby

285

Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 61, No. 4, October 1990.

INDEX

Allen, Robert A . 221

Absher, R. Keith ..... . 179, 183

Abston, Susan L . 158

Acetylation of histones in the testes of the sea star

Asterias vulgaris . 133

Ada- to - Parallel C translator, implementing an . 218

Adkins, W. Keith . 196, 203, 209

Adolescent females, self-esteem in . - . . 208

Aggarwal , M. D. ......... . 170

Agricultural geography, theories of farmer choice and. ...... 161

AIDS in the workplace . 182

Alabama red-bellied turtle: an endangered Alabama

endemic, the . ..... 132

Alabama industrial development report card as viewed

by manufacturers and community leaders . ... 183

Alabama submerged cultural resources (SCR) site file:

a progress report, the . ........ 226

Agranat, Brina J . 226

Alabama birds and mammals , status of . . . . . 93

Alabama's metropolitan economies: economic performance

and fiscal condition ...... . ... 182

Albumin variants among native American populations . . . 223

Alexander, James G. . . 182

Alexander, Janet G. . . . . 204, 205

Algae, biotechnology of. .......... . . 123

Algorithm, improved read's .......... . ... 216

Algorithm development, understanding and verification,

the critical role of data for novice student ........ 220

Alkylation damage and repair within the mitochondrial DNA

(MTDNA) of RINR 38 cells, assessment of . - . 215

Amphibians and reptiles - an update, the status of . . 117

Anaerobic threshold to training, applications of the ....... 197

Andrews, Mark A. . . . . . . 224

Andurkar , Shridhar V. . . . . . 151

Angus, Robert A. . . . . . 18

Anilinetricabonylchromium, the preparation of some new

derivatives of ............ . . 151

Anova: is there life after interaction? ........ . 180

Anthropology, a desktop computer simulation for. . . . 224

Antigenic variation in a strain of Tetrahymena pyriformis

by use of a monoclonal antibody, demonstration of. .... . 126

Anxiety of graduate nurse students concerning research

methodology ............... . .... 198

Archaeological site inventory of Lake Okatibbee,

Mississippi, an . . . ......... 224

Archaeological mitigation of adverse impact from house
reconstruction at the McIntosh reserve,

Carroll County, Georgia . . . . . • 227

Archaeology at Old Cahawba, historical .............. 226

286

Index

Arenetricarbonylchrominum complexes, UV studies of

sterically restricted . 146

Asbestos fiber, journey of an . . . . 153

Asouzu, Moore U. . 148

Aspirin, reversion of hemoglobin proportions toward newborns
values by two chemotherapeutic agents is totally

blocked by . . . 128

Atigadda, Venkat Ram . 146

Automatable patterns in development of database applications

in small information systems . 217

Avian nesting habitat - critical for coastal Alabama . 128

Babcock, Tracy C . 193

Bacterial contamination of bedside resuscitation bags. ...... 206

Bailey Mark A . 130

Bailey, William H . . 164

Barfield, Betty Reeder . 194, 202

Barman, Scott A . 196, 209

Barnard, Joseph W . .196, 209

Barrett, William A . 185

Basenspiler, Larry . 216 '

Battle T. A . 137

Beason, K. Beth . 141

Belcher, Milton E . 185

Bingham, C. Rex . 60

Bioturbated event beds in diatomites of the monterey

formation (Miocene), central California . 160

Black politician: trends , prospects , and consequences,

the transracial . . 188

Black male in Alabama: a demographic portrait, the . 185

Black nursing leaders, a qualitative assessment of three . 205

Black Bear in southwestern Alabama, the . 41

Black Bear Tooth Anomaly, a . . 39

Blagburn, B. L. . 124, 144

Blue crabs Callinectes similis and C. sapidus in estuarine
environments of the Gulf of Mexico, a comparative

study on the population dynamics of the . 132

Blue crab Callinectes sapidus in an Alabama estuary,

population dynamics and reproduction of the . 134

Blue hole west site lCa421, excavation at . . 224

Bobo, James R. . . . •. . 176

Boettger, H. L . 137

Bogie, Donald W . 185

Bonding site selectivity of Me6Al2 . 149

Bone, Leon W . 125

Booker, E. C . . . . . . , . . 191

Boots, Larry R . 198, 200

Boswell, Veronica D . 128

Bottlenose dophins found dead in Alabama since 1987,

geography, seasonality, size, and sex of . 144

Bouhadir, Kamal . 145

Bradley, J. ...... . 137

Bradshaw, Katherine L . 213

287

Index

Brain spectrin interacts with small synaptic vesicles . 212

Bridges, F. S . 29

Bridgman method of crystal growth, estimating the temperature
gradient at the solid-melt interface from the radius

of curvature of the interface in the . 165

Brock, T. A . 211

Buckner, Ellen . 195

Budenstein, Paul P . 172

Bulimia in black college women . 189

Cahaba: a northern outpost of the Pensacola variant in

Central AL . 225

Cambrian- ordovician "f innmarkian" and Silurian- devonian
"scandian" phases of the Caledonian orgeny in

North Norway, the . . 156

Campbell,, Olivia A . 135

Carroll, David J . 139

Carter, Kevin W . 147

Carter, J. Scott . 169

Caryospora bigenetica (Apicomplexa) , long term in vitro

cultivation of . 138

Case, Jan . 167, 186, 188

Caudill, Donald W. . . . 178

Cecchettini, A. . 137

Chappelear, Joyce . 210

Child restraint device use in a rural setting . 193

Chloride channels in isolated vascular smooth muscle cells,

characterization of . 211

Cholesterol of rat aortas with exercise, changes in

extensibility and tissue . 29

Chorionic gonadotropin (MShCG) levels and complications
of pregnancy, the relationship between second

trimester maternal serum human . .... 198

Chuang, Teh H . 175

Cities in national development: the nigerian case,

the role of . 190

Clark, C. Randall . 145, 152

Clark, Murlene W . 158

Clark, R. K. . . .167

Clements, Carol A . 193

Clinton, Catherine E. . 227

Cloning and nucleotide sequence of mouse brain

/3- spectrin CDNA ....... . ..... 202

Coccidiosis in goats in the southeast: its importance

in production ..... . 130

Cognitive modeling of competency for algorithm development,

an application of ........ . ....... 216

Colburn, Nona . 213

Cole, Cris . 136

Commodities regulation: what to expect in the future . 179

Commodity flow and regional economic development

along Alabama's Tennessee River . 265

288

Index

Computer graphics in geological terrane analysis,

practical application of three-dimensional . 155

Computer utilization for marketing activities

in professional offices . 180

Conservation program for sea turtles in the southeastern

continental United States . 136

Constitution: bedrock or shifting sand . 189

Cook, Robert B . 155

Cosper, Paula . 200

Cottontail rabbit, tree climbing ability of a . 255

Cranford, Norman B . 153

Crawford, Gerald . 177

Creel survey of anglers using Guntersville reservoir,

Alabama: geographic origins, seasonal patterns
of fishing effort and success , and contributions

to the local economy, a roving . 18

Cryptosporidium bailey i: clinicopathologic effects of infections

in broiler chickens . 124

CVA patients in the home: population at risk, caregivers of. . . . 207

Czochralski crystal puller for organic materials . 170

Daffin, Penny . 201

Danthuluir, N. R . 211

Data dictionaries in a graphical algorithm development

environment, on-line expansion of . 219

Datta, Mukul C . 128, 193

Daugherty, Pamela S . 195

Davis, Debra C . 201

Davis J. F . 124

Davis, R. Alan . 150

Davis, Richard . 198, 200

Davis, Sheila P . 205, 208

Dawkins, S . 197

Dean, Lewis S . 161

Dearman, Catherine . 199, 201

Deferred tax controversy: FASB96, the . 176

Demko, Timothy M . 159

Democratic development, the dynamics of . 187

Derry, Linda . 226

DeRuiter, Jack . 145, 146, 150, 151, 152

Diabetes control among the elderly, the effects of a

telephone follow-up program on . 192

Diagnosis and treatment of sleep apena syndrome . 196

Diamond, Alvin R. , Jr . 138

Diastereomeric derivatization and liquid chromatographic
analysis of N- ( Phenyl sulfonyl) -2-Phenyl glycine

aldose reductase inhibitors . 145

Diaz-Albertini , Jackie . 193

Dindo, John J . 128

Discrimination and the Birmingham city council, reverse . 191

Disperson and kinetic transfer functions by FFT . 150

Dixon, Pam . 201

289

Index

DNA lesion 0s- alkyl guanine in /? cells, repair of the

cytotoxic and mutagenic . 206

Dobie, James L . 132

Doran, Michael V . 216, 217, 218, 219, 220

Dowla, Habiba, A . 128, 193

Driskell, Boyce N . 227

Dubey, J. P . 144

Duggins, C. F . 127

Dunham, R. M . 191

Dunson L. D . 189

Dusi, Julian L . 39, 41

Dusky gopher frog in Alabama . 130

Eckart's criterion applied to simple quantum mechanical models . . 147

Economic analysis of the apiary industry in Alabama, an . 177

Eimeria vermiformis (Apicomplexa) , gametogenesis and early

oocyst formation in the mouse coccidian . 127

Eke, F. 0 . 166

Electric breakdown in solids . 172

Electromagnetic wave propagation in a static axially

symmetric gravitational field . 169

Electron energy bands and some physical parameters using

a one dimensional periodic potential, calculation of ... . 171

Electrophoretic isozymes of adenosine deaminase (AD) and
nucleoside phosphorylase (NP) in neonatal, adult

and diabetic rats . 131

Empathy training and moral reasoning . 203

Employee support of a medical group practice: impact of

a quality circle on Its organization culture . 197

Enantiomeric composition of amphetamine analogues,

determination of the . 152

Endangered plant species of coastal Alabama . 133

Endangered beach mouse populations in Alabama, status of . 141

Endangered marine fishes: are there any? . 142

Endangered species in Alabama, symposium on the status of ... . 62

Endangered, threatened and special concern freshwater

fishes in alabama, status of . : . . 106

Enzyme inhibitors, new metal complexes useful as . 146

Epididymal component capable of masking sperm head epitopes,

characterization of an . 137

Esposito, Richard A . 156

Estridge, B. H . 126, 137

Eule, Edward E. . . 190

Faria, Sandra Hutto . 207

Faris, A. W . 197

Father Eisele's work, brief review of . 168

Feng, Jian-dong . 168

Findlay, Margie . . • 210

Finley, Sara . 198

Fishman, Ethan . . p . 185

Fleming, Karen L . . 1^3

Flints from the ancient city of Memphis, Egypt, microscopic

use wear analysis of . 225

290

Index

Flue gas emissions conCrol in small scale coal combustors .... 217

Foote, Anne W . 211

Ford, Doris E. Dinkins . 187

Foreign direct investment in the United States: a spatial

and sectoral analysis, trends in inward . 162

Foreman, David L . 169

Fossil decapods in the ripley formation (Upper Cretaceous),'
central Alabama, investigations of an unusual

occurrence of . . . . . . 158

Foster, Portia . 208

Dark skin, assessment characteristics . . 208

Francis, Kennon . 258

Frandsen, John C . 130

Free, Veronica A. . . 175

Fundulus grandis-F . heteroclitus species complex (Pisces:

Cryprinodontidae) , biochemical systematics of the . 127

Furman, W. L . 168

Gage block trend studies at the U. S. Army primary

standards laboratory . 172

Gametogenesis of the irregular sea urchin Clypeaster
ravenelii from the Gulf of Mexico, reproductive

periodicity and. . 129

Gamma radiation on hemoglobin components of fischer-344
and wistar adult rats, comparison of the effect

of whole -body . 193

Gamer, Charles . 218

Gastaldo, Robert A . 154, 159

Gatlin, Kerry P . . . 179, 183

Gaubatz, James W . 199

Gauthier, Dorothy K . 206

Gender roles in West African development: the case

for Senegal . . . 188

General relativity, ring like gravitational field in . 166

Geochemistry of granitoids in north Norway . . . 159

Geographic education: selected opportunities and challenges. . . . 164

Geographic information systems: a potential application

for business and industry . 181

Geology: basic course for earth science teachers?, field-

based introduction to . 184

George, Abraham . 171

George, Joseph D . . . .183, 184

Giambrone , J . J . 124

Gibson, Dennis W . 180

Giorgi, F . 137

Glotfelty, Henry W . 164

Gold deposits in the southeastern United States, recent

developments in the exploration and exploitation of . 155

Goodman, Steven R . . .202, 212

Goodman, Patricia . 210

Gopher Tortoise ( Gopher Polyphemus) forage in southwestern

Alabama, seasonal availability of ..... . 244

Govil, N. K . 174

291

Index

Grarmis, Jonathan . 236

Gray squirrels ( Sciurus carollnensis) during mating chases,

factors affecting aggregation of . 126

Gray, Barry M . 212

Greens ide darter (Etheostoma Bennioides) , correlations of

age to rod and cone densities of the retina in the . 136

Griffin, Marsha D . 182

Grizzle, John M . 124

Grover, John H . . 124

Grover, Sarah J . 124

Hains, David K . 220

Hamilton, J . 151

Hanks, Lawrence J . 188

Hanson, Kristen . . . . . 188

Happy returns: a delicate balance, many . 179

Harris, Steven C . 64

Harrison, Rickey B . 219

Harvey, L . 151

Hatten, I. Suzie . 129

Haynes , Mike . 190

Hazardous waste cleanup under cercla . 135

Health belief model/socioeconomic status and cancer

in black americans . 204

Health behaviors that affect the incidence of cancer . 201

Heart rate and blood pressure in postoperative abdominal
hysterectomy patients, effects of two methods of

dangling on . 194

Hecker, Sara K . 133

Heitman, R . 197

Henderson, Billie . 201

Henderson, Mary C . 203

Hershey, M. S . 212

Hetero-fused isoquinolones , synthesis of . 146

Hicks, David R . 164

Hill, Curtis, E . 224

Hines, Gene A . 125

Histone proteins from the sea star Aster Las vulgaris, a

comparison of somatic and testicular . 140

Ho, Mat H . ' 148

Hoggard, Wayne . . • 134

Hohman, Jean . 210

Holcombe, Judy . . . 201

Holland, Priscilla . . 163

Strong, William R . . • 163

Holler, Nicholas R . 141, 143

Holliman, Dan . . 93, 128

Holstein, Harry 0 . 224

Home health care services in rural areas: an analysis of
the community care continuum, organization and

delivery of . . 187

Hopkins, Thomas . . 129, 132

292

Index

Hsueh, Pan-wen . 132, 134

Hugo munsterberg: a pioneer in forensic psychology . 190

Hydraulic conductivity of clays using high hydraulic gradients . . 221

Hydrologic considerations for hydraulic designs in Alabama,

practicable . 220

Ichnogenus Rosselia (Cretaceous and Holocene, Alabama),

new insight on . 154

Idasetima, J . 170

Income distribution in the United States by race 1978-88 . 176

Industrial sites utilizing the shoels industrial development

information system, potential . 163

Ingram, Cora A . 208

Ischemia-reperfusion and hypoxia- reoxygenation injury

in isolated rabbit lungs . 203

Isphording, Wayne C . 155

Italians: cultural rebels with business savey . 181

Jackson, James . 201

Jeane, D. Gregory . 162

Jeffcoatt equations, on the nonlinear . 173

Jenkins, Ronald L . 131, 136

Jenkins, C. M . 167, 167

Jenkins, Joyce W . 199

Jimmeh, J. B . 187

Johns, Glen D . 164

Jones, J. M . 189

Jones, T. Morris . 177

Jordan, Kohls K. B . 182

Joseph, Beverly . 123

Justice, Joni L . 131

Karlin, A. A . 127

Keefer, William D . 160

Kempf, Stephen C . 139, 139

King, Ben . 216

King, D. Tommy . 41

King, Sammy L . 255

Kitchens, Edeth . 201

Kittrell , Michael A . 225

Kopaska -Merkel , David C . 157, 236

Krannich, Larry K . 145, 149

Krause, William R . 213

Krishnagopalan, Jaya . 174

Kudzu growth in East Alabama using remote sensing/gis
techniques, early results of on-going research

to detect and monitor . 164

Kumler, Tamara . 258

Lab personnel?, pilot study: shortage of . 213

Lactate, optimization of a flow injection analysis system for. . . 148

Lammertsma, Koop . 152

Lammon, Carol A. . . . 195

Language parsing for object-oriented database front ends,

natural . 223

Lares, Michael T . 142

293

Index

Lattice vibrations, quantization of . 173

Lavender, Martha G . 202

Lead contamination: a health lesson for the middle school

mildly handicapped pupil . 184

LeDoux, Susan P . 206, 215

Lee, Ser Seong . 219

Lelong, Michel G . 133

Leszczynski, Jerzy . 148, 152

Lewis , Gladius . 222

Lewis, Ronald D . 158

Limulus polyphemus agglutinin on eggs of Trichostrongylus
colubriformis (Nematoda) , ovicidal effects of the

lectin . 125

Lindly, Jay K . 220

Lindsay, David S. ■ . 124, 138, 144

Lipoprotein cholesterol fraction levels, variation in
serum transferrin and immunoglobin levels with

age and with . . . 212

Yackzan, Kamal S . 212

Lishak, Robert S . 126

Lloyd, Elizabeth D . 140

Lohoefener, Ren . . . 134

Lolobal at three different frequencies, physiological

response to jumping on the . 258

Longenecker, G. L . 209

Longenecker, Herbert E. , Jr . 216, 217, 218, 219, 220

Low dimensional topology, some results in . 169

LPN educational mobility, commitment and preference toward .... 205

Ludwick, A. G . 147

Lyles, Gladys J . 188

Lyons, Julie R . 225

Ma, Yupo . 202

Mahaffy, C.A.L . 146, 151

Marion Ken R . 18, 128, 134

Marques, Luzenia H . 209

Marshall, Elaine L . 195, 204

Marshall, John E . 244

Martin, Troy 0 . 224

Martinson, Tom L . 161

Massey, Carl B. . 133, 140

Maternal serum unconjugated estriol levels during the second

trimester as associated with adverse pregnancy outcome . . . 200

Maternal reactions to infants' sex based on attainment or
non- attainment of sex preference during the

postpartal period, the differences in . 214

Mathematical methods in the development of information theory. . . 168

Mathews, Robert ....'. . 1^7

Mayfield, Charles A . 145, 150

Mazzini, . . 137

McAllister, William K . 181

McClintock, James B . 129, 132, 134, 142, 143

McCoy, Sarita A . 186, 188

294

Index

McDaniel, Gretchen . 194, 195

Mclntire, George W . 150

Medicare area prevailing fees are established, how ........ 200

Memauri, Haghdad S . 165

Merkel, Edward . 178

Metric geometry, the role of intervals in . 166

Middle school science students' concerns about lead

contamination in our water supply . ..... 183

Miller, J. R . 172

Miller, Andrew C . 60

Mineral resources of Cherokee County, AL . 154

Mistovich, Tim S . : 227

Mitchell, G. S . 167

Physics. experiment, construction of a shower position

dector for a high energy . 167

Mitral valve prolaps syndrome (MVPS) , physiologic response

to exercise in clients with . 214

Modlin, Richard F . 62

Moeller, Michael B . 149

Monoclonal antibodies against stick insect vitellogenins,

production and characterization of . 137

Monte Carlo study of electromagnetic shower development . 167

Morale survey: a potential change agent in higher education,

the . 177

Morris, Stephen D . 187

Social development: the use of symbols by African and

African-American elites, comparative .... . . . 187

Mount, Robert H . 117

Mukherjee, Nanda L . 217

Mullin, Keith . 134

Multiple sclerosis, hope, self-esteem, and social support

in persons with . 211

Multiprocessor, implementation of parallel branch- and-bound

algorithms on a shared memory . 215

Nambayan, Ayda . 205

Nelson, David H . 129

Nelson, J. W . 206

Neural network for rotational invariant pattern

recognition, a multilayered . 222

Nichols, Victor F . 164

Nil ideals, strongly . 165

Noggle , F. T . 152

Nonidez, William K . 148

Norris, Betty W . 214

Nuclear fusion reactor first wall alloy, analytical

representations for the thermal creep of a . 222

Nudibranch Berghia verru cicomis , laboratory culture and

life cycle of the . 139

Nurse practitioners for their health care, why clients choose. . . 194

Nurse educators, characteristics of novice . 201

Nurses' association nursing shortage survey - 1988-89,

Alabama State . 210

295

/

Index

Nursing process: a model for clinical decision-making . 195

Nursing practice, the use of a temporary system to effect

and sustain change in . 209

Nursing assistant to assist the RN in providing quality

patient care, how to better utilize the . 207

Okundaye , Busty 0 . 166

Oligochaete PiqueCiella michiganensis , a range extension

of the . 60

Olson, John . 216

Ontogenetic changes in the diel activity pattern of the

greenside darter, EtheosComa bleuniooides . 131

Optical phase conjugation . 165

Orithine decarboxylase activity in the brine shrimp

Artemia, hypoosmotic induction of . 135

Otu, Joseph . 160, 169

Oxygen divacancy center in MgO . 168

Ozalas , Katherine . 160

Ozone on coagulation of colloidal clay particles in drinking

water treatment processes, the effect of . 219

Pain assessment . . . ' 192

Paleotopography on deposition within the Mary Lee Goal
zone, "Pottsville" formation, Warrior Basin,

northwestern Alabama, the effect of . 159

Pan, Aiqin . 223

Paramore, E. C . 168

Pedigree, analysis, use of expert system technology to

model probabilities of disorders in . 217

Peox-o-Pei/Uracil or 5-fluorouracil polynucleotide

analogs: structural characterization ....... . 147

Perceptions and demographics of flexible staff RNs . 204

Pesticides in Alabama's groundwater . 156

Pettepher, Cathleen C . ' . 215

Phonon-phonon interactions and its application to the

lattice thermal conductivity of germanium . 171

Physical geography as a physical science: supportive

materials, recognizing . 163

Physics of eratosthenes , the . 164

Pickwick basin caves project: accomplishments and prospects,

the . 227

Pieroni, Robert T . . ... . 196

Pierson, J. Malcolm . 106

Pocosin of Pike County Alabama, the . 138

Poirier, G. R. . . . 137

Politics and the black press in the south . 186

Polynomials and related entire functions, on extremal

problems for . 124

Population dynamics of the freshwater gastropod

Physella cubensis . . 14-3

Population dynamics of pliocene-pleistocene abyssal

foraminifera from the lesser antilies forearc ....... 158

Pornography, a comparison of male and female university

students' opinions concerning . 188

296

Index

Possardt, Earl E . 136

Povenmire , Harold . 50

Poverty cycle, a 20 year follow-up of an early

intervention program to break the . 191

Powell, Kathy . 195

Problem solving contest as a learning tool . 169

Protein kinase from HL60 cells, purification and properties

of a novel Mg2+/Mn2+- stimulated . •. . 123

Protein kinase C activity in PC12 cells, effect of

alcohols and NGF on . 140

Protein kinase C isoforms during differentiation of PC12

cells, expression of . 141

Pugh, Michael . . 136

Pujol, T. J . • . . . 29

Pulmonary vascular resistance, characterization of the

effects of endothelin-1 (ET-1) on . 209

Pumphrey, Norman D. , Jr . 221

Putcha, Venkateswarlu . 165

Quantum mechanical prediction of tautomeric equilibria

for the purine bases . . . 148

Quasi-unitary and a polar decomposition theorem . 175

Qureshi, Zuhair . 199

Rabbit and the fig tree: a lesson for the supreme court

on capital punishment, the . . 185

Radzykewycz , D . 146 , 157

Rahimian, Eric . 181, 182

Rare and endangered invertebrates in Alabama,

preliminary considerations . 64

Rave, Elizabeth H . 141

Rawlings, J . 146, 146, 151

Reading ability and academic performance of associate degree

nursing students . 199

Reasor, William C . 208

Reed, Linda . 207

Regan, Gerald T . 144

Reilly, Lyn . 214

Relyea, K . 127

Residential construction, forecasting . 175

Rheams, Karen F . 154

Rich, Nancy . 198, 200

Richetto, Jeffrey P . 1, 162, 265

Henderson, D. Michael . 1

Rico, Marlon C . 180

Rico, Beth C . 180

Riggsby, Ernest D . 183, 184

Riley, Thomas N . 151

Rindsberg, Andrew K . 154

Rivizzigno, Victoria L . 163

Rivulus for scientific studies, use of . 124

Roden, Carol . 134

Rogers, Carolyn . 134

297

Index

Rotameric nature of the N-Benzoyl-N-Methylglycine and N-
Benzenesulfonyl-N -Methyl -Glycine aldose reductase

inhibitors by proton NMR, investigation of the . 150

Rozell , Billie R . 204

Rutherford backscattering . 170

Saldanha, Godfrey B . 215

Salpas, Peter A . 153

Santa Rosa beach mice (Peromyscus poliono-tus leucocephalus)
and Choctawhatchee beach mice (P. p. allophrys) ,

reproduction in captive . 143

Satellite spin rate control with application

to galileo spacecraft . 166

Savrda, Charles E . 158, 160

Schlotterback, Darrell L. . . 189

Schumacher, Marita B. . . ' 162

Schwab, Charlene . 201

Seafloor topography, Alabama inner continental shelf,

nature and origin of . 157

Self, Barbara F . 200

Sharma, P. C . 171, 173

Shipp, Robert L . 142

Shoemaker, R. L . 211

Shook, Lyle, L. . . . 186

Shultz, Albert W . 157, 184

Sikorski, Aleksander F . 212

Simon, Charles M. . 177

Stallings, James L . 177

Sink, David W . 191

Small group interaction: team learning in the university

classroom . 186

Smith, Woodrow . . 123

Smith, Forrest T. . . 146

Smith, Myra A. . . 192, 207

Social class: a mathematical model for construct measurement,

toward a new theory of . 178

Social competence development in four -year old children . 210

Soh, Yunjo ..... . ...... . ...... 123

Sower S. A. . . 125

Spano, J. S. . . . . 124

Spatio- functional reorganization within urban areas: toward

a redefinition of the central business district . 1

Speake, Dan W. . . 255

Spermatogenesis in the sea star Asterias vulgaris , sex

steroids may regulate . 125

Sprague, Alan . 215

Srinivasan, Ramiah . 222

Srivastava, Dileep ..... . .... 149

Stafford, Stephanie . 127

Statistics, a research participation approach to teaching. .... 167

Steltenpohl, Mark G . 156, 160

Stephens, Casandra .... . 173

298

Index

Stevens, Gail Lavine . 198

Stewart, G. T . 178

Stiles, Robert . 131

Stout, Judy P . 244

Stribling, H. Lee . 255

Structural and tectonic implications of quartzite-bearing

sequences in the southeastern Alabama piedmont . 160

Sundermann, Christine A . 126, 127, 138

Surface tension of a multi-component, measurement of . 174

Swanda, Trudy . ..... 140

Swantori, Robert G . 196

Sylacauga meteorite fall . 50

Symbiosis between a zooxanthella and the nudibranch Berghia

verrucicomis . A "primitive" association? . . 139

Synthesis of 1-substituted 4- (Propananilido) perhydroazepine

analgesic, investigation of the . 151

Tadros, Mahasin G . 123

Taggart, Brian . 134

Tan, A . . . .165, 172

Taxation: modern view on Smith's canons . 178

Taylor, Aubrey E . . 196, 203, 209

Teen parent program designed to reduce child abuse and

neglect and to strengthen families, evaluation of a . 195

Thermal stress responses of freshwater shrimp . 129

"Think-Time" awareness in scheduling . 221

Thomas, Colacot J . 145

Thomas , Donald . 143

Thompson, Janice . 176

Thromboxane A2 effects on the isolated perfused lung . 196

Tobacco use among sixth, seventh, and eighth grade students

in Alabama . . .• . 202

Tohver , H. T . 168

Toren, E. Clifford, Jr. * . 150

Toxoplasma gondii: characterization of monoclonal

antibodies generated against tachyzoites . 144

Trace element distribution in igneous rocks as a function

of crystal growth. . . 153

Transamination and the synthesis of aminoarsines . 145

Transcriptional analysis of a family of short- interspersed
repetitive sequences in murine tissues as a function

of age . 199

Transferrin and immunoglobulin levels in human amniotic

fluid of normal pregnancy . . . 213

Transmigration program in Indonesia: changes in economic

and political geography, the . 162

Tremors associated with the 1843 earthquake in Alabama,

distribution and effect of . 161

Tropical sea urchin, Eucidaris tribuloides , long term effects

of temperature on the growth and reproduction of the .... 142

Tu, Kuei-shen . 192

Tulli, C. George, Jr . 197, 213

Turner, Daniel S . . . 220

299

Index

Turner, Kenneth R . 223, 224

University freshmen and their actual performance, a

comparison of the expectations of . 186

Updip smackover reservoir facies: southwest Alabama . 157

Varadarajan, Subramanian . 218

Vernon, Jeffrey D . 129

Vincent, Janice L . 204

Vinson, Richard G . 166

Viohl, Frederick A . 181

Walker C. W. . . . 125

Walker, Molly . 214

Walters, James V . 220

Watkins, Charles L . 145 , 149

Watts, Stephen A . 125, 133, 135, 140

Weighted semi-log linear regressions, accuracy of . 149

Westerf ield, R. C . 29

Whales and dolphins offshore of Alabama . 134

White, Frederica . 135

White, C. R . 211

Whitlow, Darryl . ' . 171

Whittle, George P . . . 219

Wilbourn, Macon . 179

William, John R . 170

Williams Kasandra . 186

Williamson, Kenny M . 206

Wilson, Glenn L. . 206, 215

Wilson- Thomas , Linda . 204

Wood, Laura F . 159

Wooten, Marie W . 123, 140, 141

Wrinkle marks, detailed structure of . 236

XGaH* systems (X - B, AL, GA) , an AB initio study on . 152

Yackzan, Kamal S . 213

Young, John H . 166, 169

Zagon, Ian S . 212

Zalik, R. A . 173

Zimmer, Warren E . 202

300

Notes

v:

Notes

.1

.*

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Editorial Policy: Publication of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of
Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms can be
obtained from Dr. Ann William, 101 Cary Hall, Auburn University, AL
36849. Subject matter should address original research in one of the
discipline sections of the Academy: Biological Sciences; Chemistry;
Geology; Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning; Physics and
Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education; Social Sciences;
Health Sciences; Engineering and Computer Science; and Anthropology.
Timely review articles of exceptional quality and general readership
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Activities in Alabama are occasionally published. Book reviews of Alabama
authors are also solicited.

Submission: Each manuscript will receive at least two simultaneous peer
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