LIBRARY OF THE 100 pm) separate touching Table 2. Comparison of classifications of Choquette and Pray and of Lucia. Table 2. Comparison of pore classifications Choquette and Pray Lucia moldic vuggy interparticle interparticle intercrystalline interparticle secondary intraparticle vuggy or interparticle The Lucia classification is of some value in an engineering context. Sedimentological analyses, which aim to infer the origins and histories of rocks, need more detail than the Lucia classification can accommodate. For these purposes, the classification of Choquette and Pray is preferable. However, even in the context of engineering the Lucia classification is too simple for two reasons. First, interparticle pores sensu Lucia correspond to interparticle plus intercrystalline pores sensu Choquette and Pray. These two kinds of pores tend not to occur together, have different sizes and connectivities, form under different conditions and at different times, and differ in their resistance to destruction in the subsurface. Interparticle pores sensu stricto exist when sediment is deposited; their story is one of progressive occlusion by cement and destruction by pressure dissolution under conditions of deep burial. One of the most-common fates to befall an interparticulate pore system is the precipitation of pore-lining cement in the subsurface (Longman, 1980). Crystals grow into pores perpendicular to pore surfaces, pore throats are almost instantly sealed off, and interparticle pores are converted into cement-reduced pores whose fluid-flow characteristics are those of isolated vugs sensu Lucia. Pores no longer touch one another through the medium of relatively large primary interparticle pore throats, but through tortuous pathways among the tiny cement crystals. By contrast, intercrystalline pores in carbonate rocks chiefly occur between dolomite crystals. These crystals form after burial of the sediment, and after 8 Visual Pore-System Analysis formation of early cement phases. Because of this, and because dolomite is chemically resistant, intercrystalline pore systems tend to persist for long periods of time. Also, because dolomite crystals are rhombic, connectivity of intercrystalline pore-systems is high. 9 Kopaska-Merkel Figure 5. Thin-section photomicrographs illustrating common kinds of pore systems in the Smackover of Alabama. Dark areas are pores; white spots are nonstained epoxy in pores; scales in fim. A) Moldic; B) moldic plus interparticle; C) secondary intraparticle plus interparticle; D) intercrystalline. In (B), note nearly continuous horizontal band of primary interparticle porosity across middle of photomicrograph, with white patch of nonstained epoxy. In (C), center of view is a primary interparticle pore rimmed by a thin cement rind; the five surrounding spherical particles exhibit varying degrees of dissolution. Visual Pore-System Analysis Interparticle pores and intercrystalline pores tend not to occur together for the reasons outlined. Also, interparticle pores commonly co-occur with molds, formed by the dissolution of chemically unstable particles. In carbonates, interparticle pores rarely dominate a pore system (e.g., Kopaska-Merkel and Mann, 1991b), whereas primary interparticle pores are abundant in siliciclastic sandstone. By contrast, pore systems consisting almost entirely of intercrystalline pores are common in carbonates. Because interparticle and intercrystalline pores form at different times and in different ways, persist in different places and for different reasons, and are modified to different degrees in the subsurface, an understanding of their origins helps predict their distribution. This understanding is encouraged by the genetic-geometrical classification of Choquette and Pray, but not by the geometrical classification of Lucia. GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS OF PORE-SYSTEMS No matter what pore-system classification has been chosen, ternary diagrams provide a powerful method of graphically displaying the data so that they can be readily understood. This applies both to nongenetic classifications and to classifications with genetic implications. Ternary diagrams commonly are used to summarize geological data. In the earliest instance I know of in which ternary diagrams were used specifically to study porosity, Pittman (1979) estimated the relative proportions of interparticle pores, dissolutional pores, and micropores in sandstone. Despite widespread use of ternary diagrams in geology, and specifically in rock classification, the most widely accepted carbonate-rock classifications, those of Folk (1959), Dunham (1962), and Choquette and Pray (1970), are essentially tabular. The power of ternary diagrams for clearly and simply summarizing data suggests that they can play a greater role than heretofore in the classification of carbonate rocks. I use ternary diagrams to classify carbonate pore types as described below. Ternary diagrams whose apices are pore types (ternary pore plots; Kopaska- Merkel and Mann, 1991a, b; Kopaska-Merkel, 1992) are constructed such that the three apices together account for most of the pores observed. This approach simplifies the interpretation of pore systems, by focusing on only three major components and by displaying these data on a simple graphic plot that makes trends and clustering of samples obvious. Ternary pore plots provide information on the shapes and origins of pore-system elements, and, because these factors are correlated with engineering parameters such as permeability, ternary pore plots summarize information on those characteristics as well. For the Smackover Formation in Alabama, the three apices of ternary pore plots are: (1) moldic plus secondary intraparticle, (2) interparticle, and (3) intercrystalline (all sensu Choquette and Pray). Data consist of point counts of thin 11 Kopaska-Merkel sections. Thin sections, 30-micrometer-thick slices of rock on glass, are illuminated with transmitted light in a petrographic microscope. The rock is impregnated with blue epoxy, so pore space is readily visible. A grid is placed over the slide, and the nature of the rock or pore at each grid intersection is recorded. About 200 points were counted on each of more than 100 thin sections. This procedure could be automated using image analysis, at least for simple pore systems. A somewhat different method has been automated by Ehrlich and co-workers (e.g., Ehrlich and others, 1991). Most Smackover reservoir rocks fall close to either the moldic apex or the intercrystalline apex of ternary pore plots, with most of the remaining pore systems falling between these two extremes (fig. 6). The spectrum of Smackover pore systems is not a continuum, but represents partial mixing of two distinct end members and Moldic Interparticle Intercrystalline Figure 6. Ternary pore plot of more than 100 point-counted thin sections from the Smackover of Alabama (After Kopaska- Merkel and Mann, 1991b, fig. 3, p. 377). intermediates are scarce. Two pore facies (rock units defined by the relative proportions of different kinds of pores) are recognized in the Smackover of southwest Alabama: the moldic pore facies and the intercrystalline pore facies (Kopaska-Merkel and Mann, 1991b). These are defined on the basis of the relative proportions of particle molds (including secondary intraparticle pores) and intercrystalline pores, 12 Visual Pore-System Analysis which together account for greater than 85% of the total porosity in the Smackover of southwest Alabama (Kopaska-Merkel and Mann, 1991b). An arbitrary percentage of 60% of the dominant pore type has been selected as the boundary for pore facies. Intermediate pore systems are classified informally as a third pore "facies." Not only do the pore facies look different, they have different petrophysical characteristics as well (table 3). Porosity values are significantly higher in the moldic pore facies, but connectivity is better in the intercrystalline pore facies. Maximum permeability is significantly higher in the intercrystalline pore facies than in the moldic pore facies. Intermediate pore systems resemble intercrystalline ones petrophysically, except that intermediate samples yield capillary-pressure curves resembling those of both moldic and intercrystalline samples, as well as a third kind of curve (Kopaska-Merkel, 1992, 1993a). Table 3. Characteristics of moldic, intermediate, and intercrystalline pore systems. Pore-system Kind ol dolomite 'able 3. C Aspect ratio iharacterls Pore size lies ol pore Throat size systems classifier Throat-size dist. according Mean a** 1 to pore Max. k type.* Slope of o-k plot CP curve form MH . pH moldic intermediate intercryslalline fabric selective both nonseleclive high variable low large variable small very large variable large leptokurtic platy- to leplok. mesokurtic high very low low low”1 high high low high, variable high, variable 1. 3 3. 4, 5 4 low high high high low low * See Kopaska-Merkel (1992) and Kopaska-Merkel and Hall (1992) for details and numerical values. ** 0-porosity; k«permeability; CP-capillary pressure; MH-megascopic heterogeneity; pH=microscopic heterogeneity ••• Excluding all samples that contain significant amounts of interparticle porosity Using a genetic pore classification to identify different kinds of pore systems relates directly to fluid-flow characteristics. Moldic and secondary intraparticle pores differ fundamentally from intercrystalline pores. This difference has a major effect on fluid-flow properties of pore systems dominated by one or the other of these two kinds of pores. Moldic (and secondary intraparticle) pore systems are heterogeneous on a microscopic scale because they consist of large pores (or clusters or relatively large pores) that are connected to one another by distinctly different (commonly finer) pore systems. The large pores are the particle molds, and the fine pores are found in the material that has filled the original interparticle primary porosity. In the Smackover, this material is commonly either dolomitized carbonate cement (by far the most common), dolomitized lime mud, or calcium-carbonate cement. Note that pore sizes, but not necessarily pore-throat sizes, are inherently heterogeneous in the moldic pore facies. By contrast, many intercrystalline pore systems are inherently less heterogeneous microscopically, because they tend to consist of unimodal leptokurtic distributions of dolomite crystals that are all about the same shape (figs. 2 and 7). (Kurtosis refers to the breadth of a frequency distribution: leptokurtic distributions are concentrated near the mode, whereas platykurtic distributions are spread out over a wide range of values.) Moldic pore systems have a significant potential for trapping hydrocarbons within the large molds, because the high aspect ratio (pore/throat size 13 Kopaska-Merkel ratio) at the interface between the molds and the surrounding much-smaller intercrystalline pores puts stress on the continuous nonwetting phase (oil, water-wet : reservoirs) (Yu and Wardlaw, 1986). This facilitates rupture of the continuous nonwetting phase, and isolated oil globules left behind in particle molds are permanently trapped. (This process is only common in water-wet systems; Morrow, 1 1990). By contrast, in intercrystalline pore systems, aspect ratios are relatively low and uniform, and the potential for trapping is thereby diminished. Further, intercrystalline pore systems are probably more highly interconnected than moldic I pore systems, so small permeable regions that are entirely surrounded by much finer pore throats are comparatively rare. This is important, because moving fluids tend to bypass such regions. Figure 7. Planar-e dolostone with unimodal crystal-size distribution. Note rhombic crystal form. Thin-section photomicrograph; scale in pm. See figure 2 for histogram of crystal-size distribution from a similar sample. The range of slopes of regression lines of porosity vs. permeability for the intercrystalline pore facies is much greater than for the moldic pore facies. This may be because only two processes (i.e., cementation and dissolution) operate to produce moldic pore systems, whereas a third process, nonfabric-selective dolomitization, is also important in the evolution of intercrystalline pore systems (Kopaska-Merkel and Mann, 1991b; Kopaska-Merkel, 1992). (Dolomitization per se had little effect on pore-system characteristics of the moldic pore facies, because pore-system characteristics were preserved along with rock fabrics by fabric-selective dolomitization. Note that here it is the process of dolomitization that is fabric-selective 14 Visual Pore-System Analysis or not. Intercrystalline pores are always fabric-selective with respect to the fabric of dolomite crystals.) This variation in slopes of regression lines is a megascopic effect, distinct from the microscopic heterogeneity referred to above. Whereas moldic pore systems are relatively heterogeneous microscopically, just the opposite is true at megascopic scales (Kopaska-Merkel and Mann, 1992). CONCLUSIONS Visual pore-system analysis is an important component of the study of fluid- flow through porous media. A genetic pore-system classification that is congruent with geometrical differences among pore systems is most useful because predictivity is highest and the groups identified by the classification differ in fluid-flow characteristics. Ternary pore plots are a powerful but simple tool that can be used to summarize pore-system geometry. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Numerous discussions with Steve Mann have sharpened my ideas about pore systems. Two anonymous reviewers materially improved the manuscript. REFERENCES CITED Choquette, P.W. and Pray, L.C., 1970. Geological nomenclature and classification of porosity in sedimentary carbonates. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 54, p. 207-250. Dunham, R.J., 1962. Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture, in Ham, W.E. ed., Classification of carbonate rocks: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 1, p. 108-121. Ehrlich, R., Crabtree, S.J., Horkowitz, K.O., and Horkowitz, J.P., 1991. Petrography and reservoir physics 1: objective classification of reservoir porosity: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 75, p. 1547-1562. Folk, R.L., 1959. Practical petrographic classification of limestones. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 43, p. 1-38. Friedman, G.M., 1965. Terminology of crystallization textures and fabrics in sedimentary rocks: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 35, p. 643-655. Friedman, G.M., Sanders, J.E., and Kopaska-Merkel, D.C., 1992. Principles of sedimentary deposits, stratigraphy and sedimentology: New York, Macmillan Publishing Co., 717 p. 15 Kopaska-Merkel Kopaska-Merkel, D.C., 1991. Analytical procedure and experimental design for geological analysis of reservoir heterogeneity using mercury porosimetry. Geological Survey of Alabama Circular 153, 29 p. _ , 1992. Geological setting, petrophysical characteristics, and regional heterogeneity patterns of the Smackover in southwest Alabama, Draft Topical Report on Subtasks 2 and 3, U.S. Department of Energy Contract No. DE- FG22-89BC14425: Geological Survey of Alabama, 207 p. _ , 1993. Capillary-pressure characteristics of Smackover reservoirs in Alabama: Geological Survey of Alabama Circular 170, 38 p. _ , 1993. Slide set on carbonate porosity and pore-system evolution: Geological Survey of Alabama Educational Series 1, 17 p. and 40 35-mm slides. Kopaska-Merkel, D.C., and Hall, D.R., 1992. Reservoir characterization of the Smackover Formation in southwest Alabama: final summary topical report submitted to DOE for contract no. DE-FG22-89BC14425, Geological Survey of Alabama, 186 p. Kopaska-Merkel, D.C., and S.D. Mann, 1991a. Carbonate pore-system analysis using ternary pore plots [abs.]: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 75, p. 613. _ , 1991b. Pore facies of Smackover carbonate reservoirs in southwest Alabama: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 41, p. 374-382. _ , 1992. Regional variation in microscopic and megascopic reservoir heterogeneity in the Smackover Formation, southwest Alabama: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 42, p. 1-24. Longman, M.W., 1980. Carbonate diagenetic textures from near surface diagenetic environments: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 64, p. 461-487. Lucia, F.J., 1983. Petrophysical parameters estimated from visual descriptions of carbonate rock: A field classification of carbonate pore space: Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 35, p. 629-637. Morrow, N.R., 1990. Wettability and its effect on oil recovery: Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 42, p. 1476-1484. 16 Visual Pore-System Analysis Pittman, E.D., 1979. Porosity, diagenesis and productive capability of sandstone reservoirs, in Scholle, P.A. and Schluger, P.R. eds., Aspects of Diagenesis. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 26, p. 159-173. Schlumberger, 1972. Log interpretation: volume 1 -- principles: New York, Schlumberger Ltd., 112 p. Sibley, D.F., and J.M. Gregg, 1987. Classification of dolomite rock textures: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 57, p. 967-975. Warlaw, N.C., 1976. Pore geometry of carbonate rocks as revealed by pore casts and capillary pressure. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 60, p. 245-257. Wardlaw, N.C., and McKellar, M., 1981. Mercury porosimetry and the interpretation of pore geometry in sedimentary rocks and artificial modles: Powder Technology, v. 29, p. 127-143. Yu, Li and Wardlaw, N.C., 1986. The influence of wettability and critical pore-throat size ratio on snap-off: Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, v. 109, p. 461- 472. 17 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 1, January 1993. CALCULUS INSTRUCTION IN ALABAMA’S SECONDARY SCHOOLS1 Kenneth E. Easterday Department of Curriculum and Teaching Auburn University, AL 36849 ABSTRACT A survey of all high school calculus teachers identified by each school system in Alabama revealed that about half of the teachers taught calculus for the specified school year, although evidence exists that the remaining teachers expected to teach calculus the following year which suggests a large increase in the number of secondary schools offering calculus. Even though most of the teachers had attended an AP training session and their classes had been identified as an advanced placement course, texts recommended by the Advanced Placement Program and the Alabama State Department of Education were not used and many students did not take the AP examinations. The study found that the preparation of these calculus teachers was questionable. A Sloan Foundation sponsored conference on calculus at Tulane University in January, 1986, came to the conclusion that calculus instruction and the calculus curriculum were in serious need of revision and there was agreement on this need. The conferees concluded that the course content needed to be focused on the basic concepts of calculus and that the algorithmic approach to teaching calculus should be changed. The need for revision was enhanced by the development of discrete mathematics, the opportunity to seriously consider the role of computer technology in the determination of appropriate content, and recent administrative and instructional practices (Zorn, 1986). Lynn Steen (1986), President of the Mathematical Association of America, stated that the teaching of calculus was a national disgrace as evidenced by the fact that many universities reported a combined failure and withdrawal rate in excess of 50%. Gillman (1988) cited large classes, classes in excess of 100 to 200 students, as one means that universities have used to increase tuition income without a corresponding increase in cost as a contributing factor to the calculus problem. Calculus for a New Century (1987) indicates the concerns and approaches of many groups and individuals involved in calculus reform. Among the issues raised in this report were: the problem of mathematics departments retaining their own majors in their own graduate programs which clearly impacts on the quantity and quality of Manuscript received 2 November 1992; accepted 22 January 1993. 18 Easterday instructors in calculus, inappropriate and poorly structured texts, the use of technology in calculus, the selection of appropriate applications for both old and new clients, the motivational level of students enrolled in calculus, and calculus as a discipline. Barry Cipra (1988) reported that many students enter college with a weak background in algebra, geometry, and trigonometry in preparation for calculus and many have had a watered down taste of calculus in secondary schools which has resulted in many students retaking calculus in college with poor results. He also asserted that there is a shortage of high school mathematics teachers prepared to teach calculus. As a consequence of these and other problems, a joint committee of the Mathematical Association of America and the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics sent a letter to high schools nationwide recommending that only students with 4 full years of college preparatory mathematics be offered calculus and that those students should be so prepared that they would not need to retake that portion of calculus in college. A summary of the curriculum recommendations of the joint committee were reported by Lichtenberg (1988). Among the conclusions reached by the committee were that the four years of precalculus mathematics should include essential content from geometry and intermediate algebra; geometry in both two and three dimensions, coordinate geometry, and the development of geometric perception; computer programming should not replace any college preparatory mathematics course; and that if calculus is taught in high school, then it should be the equivalent of a college level calculus course as exhibited by successful completion of an AP exam or a university level examination. More recent guidelines for the preparation of mathematics teachers (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989), including calculus teachers, have been written in terms of competencies rather than courses or course structure. The Committee on the Undergraduate Program in Mathematics (CUPM) Panel on Teacher Training (1983) recommended that high school mathematics teachers complete 13 courses in mathematics (approximately 60 quarter hours of mathematics beginning with calculus) and that teachers of calculus should have additional work in analysis including background for teaching the content of advanced placement calculus. Previous recommendations (CUPM, 1961) stated that teachers of calculus should have a master’s degree in mathematics with a minimum of 18 courses of college mathematics beginning with calculus. The advanced placement program in mathematics has expanded considerably. In 1955 there were 38 schools in the country participating in the program and, in that same year, there were 285 students who took the examination (Pieters, 1961). In 1987 in Alabama alone, there were 72 schools participating in the advanced placement program in calculus as reported by the Alabama State Department of Education. This does not include those schools that teach calculus that are not under the auspices of the advanced placement program (Johnson, personal communication, 1987). 19 Calculus The expansion of the advanced placement program in mathematics, the problems associated with the teaching of calculus at the college level, and the lack of I any detailed description of the advanced placement program in calculus or calculus programs other than the advanced placement programs at the secondary level motivated this study. This research focuses on the expansion of the advanced placement program in calculus and other calculus programs in Alabama’s high schools Ithat impact on college calculus programs. Information regarding the following specific questions was sought: 1. To what extent are Alabama schools offering calculus, particularly AP calculus, and how many students are involved? 2. Are students actually taking the AP examinations and what are the policies associated with the decision for students to take or not take the examinations? 13. How are students performing on the advanced placement examinations? 4. To what extent are schools with advanced placement calculus programs actually following advanced placement policies including course syllabi, recommended texts, and supplemental materials? 5. What is the nature of the preparation of secondary calculus teachers? 6. Although the AP calculus program does not address the use of computers, are secondary calculus teachers incorporating computer technology into their instruction? METHOD To address these questions, a complete listing of school systems and schools with AP calculus was obtained with the cooperation of the Alabama State Department of Education. Not only did this provide baseline information but also an opportunity to ascertain the validity of that information. Also the State Department of Education provided complete and current information regarding the state approved advanced placement program in calculus. In the spring of 1988 each public school superintendent in the state was contacted by mail, asked to identify each high school in their district which offered calculus, and to name the calculus teacher in each school for the school year 1987-1988. All 129 school systems responded. A questionnaire was developed and sent to chairs of the mathematics departments in three of the state’s colleges and universities and three known secondary calculus teachers for their review and suggested modifications. The following school year the revised instrument was sent to each identified secondary 20 Easterday calculus teacher in the state. The following short answer questionnaire resulted with blanks provided for responses. CALCULUS SURVEY INSTRUMENT Unless specifically stated otherwise, all answers should be in terms of the 1987- 1988 academic year, if you are unsure of a response, provide your best estimate. 1. Did you teach calculus in your high school in 1987-88? Answer YES or NO If your answer is no, you need not complete the remainder of the instrument. 2. What grade levels are included in your school, i.e. 9-12? 3. What was the total school enrollment? 4. How many calculus classes do you teach? 5. How many students were enrolled in calculus? 6. How many years of college preparatory mathematics is required for admission to your calculus program? 7. Were the calculus classes approved AP courses? Answer YES or NO. 8. If your answer to item 7 was YES, how many were AB classes? 9. If your answer to item 7 was YES, how many were BC classes? 10. How many students were enrolled in AB classes? 11. How many students were enrolled in BC classes? 12. How many students took the AP exam for AB classes? 13. How many students who took the AP exam for AB calculus made a score of 3 or more? 14. How many students took the AP exam for BC classes? 15. How many students who took the AP exam for BC calculus made a score of 3 or more? 21 Calculus 16. On the reverse side of this page, describe the policies regarding whether or not a student takes the AP exam. 17. On the line below, provide the bibliographic information for the text you use in your calculus course. 18. How many years has calculus been taught at your school? 19. Do you use computer technology as an integral part of the calculus course? Answer YES or NO. 20. Is the calculus class structured differently than other mathematics classes at your school? Answer YES or NO. 21. What is the calculus enrollment in 1988-89? 22. How many years have you taught calculus in this school? 23. How many years have you taught calculus at the secondary level? 24. How many years have you taught calculus at the junior college level? 25. How many years have you taught calculus at the senior college level? 26. In 1987-88, how many different preparations did you have? 27. Have you attended training sessions for AP calculus? 28. What was the date of your most recent training session? 29. What was the length of your AP training session? 30. How many computer languages do you know well enough to include in your instruction in calculus? 31. Do you have computer facilities available for your instruction in calculus? 32. If you have microcomputers available regularly for use in your calculus classes, how many computers do you have? 33. If you have other computers available for calculus, describe below. 34. Do you believe that computers should be a part of the calculus instruction program? 22 Easterday 35. Discrete mathematics is proposed as one alternative to the current calculus program. How many graduate courses have you taken in discrete mathematics? 36. Given your students, do you believe that a course other than calculus would be more appropriate given their preparation and career goals? 37. If your answer to item 36 is YES, describe on the reverse side of page 1 the nature of the course which you have in mind. 38. What is your most advanced certification level in MATHEMATICS? 39. How many courses in advanced calculus, real variables, or complex variables have you taken? 40. Below list your degrees with dates, institutions, and number of hours of mathematics. 41. If possible, enclose your syllabus for calculus. 42. On the reverse side of page 2, identify any non-computer based resource material which you use in your calculus class. 43. On the reverse side of page 2, identify computer based resource material which you use in your calculus class. RESULTS Forty of the 62 city systems and 28 or the 67 county systems 52.7% of the public school systems in Alabama, reported that they provided calculus instruction at the secondary level. There were 118 schools with calculus classes in these 68 schools systems. Each identified calculus instructor was sent the questionnaire with a cover letter. A follow-up letter and/or telephone contact was made to teachers who could not be identified as initial respondents. The questionnaire did not require that the teacher identify themselves or the school district; however, if the respondent wished to receive the results, the cover letter had to be returned. Of the 118 questionnaires mailed, there were 86 (72.9%) responses. Eliminating those individuals (47) who asked for the results, a follow-up telephone contact was made to 10 randomly selected teachers to ascertain if they had responded and, if not, their reasons for non¬ response and to determine their situation. Of the 86 responses, 50 teachers taught calculus for the specified year and the remaining 36 teachers did not teach calculus in contradiction to the school system report (see Table 1) although many of them indicated that they expected to teach calculus the following year. 23 Calculus The Alabama State Department of Education reported that advanced placement calculus was offered by 72 school systems. The identified teacher in each of 7 schools in 7 different school systems stated that the school did not offer calculus, it is impossible to know how many of the remaining 65 schools offered AP calculus or non-AP calculus since individual teachers could only be identified if they requested a copy of the report. Table 1. Teacher Respondents and Frequency of Calculus Instruction Group AP Non AP Either No Calculus No Response Initial 41 8 1 36 32 Follow up 4 1 0 5 Table 1 also provides information regarding the telephone follow-up of 10 teachers. Six of these teachers had responded to the original questionnaire and 4 had taught calculus during that school year and 2 had not. Of the remaining 4 non¬ respondents, 3 teachers stated that their reason for non-response was that they did not teach calculus, and the other did teach calculus at the school but she had replaced another calculus teacher during the summer interval and did not have all of the requested information. In the follow-up survey, all teachers indicated that there were plans to offer calculus in their school the following year which probably indicates why the teacher had been identified by the school system. Since there were 50 calculus teachers identified for the given school year and, if the follow-up study is reasonably accurate, 25% of the non-respondents were also calculus teachers. This implies that there were approximately 58 calculus teachers in the state’s high schools in 1987-88 and this number would likely have doubled in 1988-89. Each respondent was requested to report the number of years that calculus had been taught at that school. The number of years and frequencies were 1-5, 2-7, 3-4, 4-3, 5-4, 6-4, 7-4, 8-4, 9-1, 10-5, 11-1, 12-4, 14-1, 20-1, and 25-1. These results indicate that there has been a steady increase in the number of schools offering calculus from 1975 to 1987. Data regarding the type of school organization, average school enrollment, number of calculus classes, number of schools offering calculus, and the number of calculus students enrolled are reported in Table 2. There were 1067 students enrolled in 68 calculus classes in 1987-88 and at least 964 students were projected for enrollment in 1988-89. These schools tended to be organized in a grade 9-12 configuration and were the larger schools. 24 Easterday Table 2. School Organization and Enrollment, Class and Calculus Enrollment School Organization Mean Enrollment AP Calculus No. of Schools No. of Classes No. of Students 1-12 850 1 1 8 7-12 2292 4 4 37 9-12 1115 32 43 761 10-12 866 4 4 28 TOTAL 41 52 834 Non-AP Calculus 1-12 880 2 2 20 9-12 845 6 13 193 TOTAL 8 15 213 Tvpe of Calculus Not Reported 9-12 920 1 1 20 The mean number of years of college preparatory mathematics required for admission to AP calculus was 3.6 years and 2.7 years for non-AP calculus. These means are substantially below the recommended 4 years. The type of advanced placement program and the number of classes of each type are reported in Table 3. There were some few schools which offered both the AB and BC programs. Table 3. Type and Frequency of Advanced Placement Classes by School Number of AB BC Classes 1 33 5 2 4 0 3 2 0 Total 47 5 25 Calculus The number of students enrolled in each type of program is provided in Table 4. Of 714 students enrolled in AB classes, 245 (34.3%) took the advanced placement examination and 127 (51.8%) of those scored a 3 or better. Overall 17.7% of the students enrolled in AB calculus took the exam and passed. Only 8 (6.6%) of the 120 students enrolled in BC calculus took the exam and 7 of these passed. Table 4. Enrollment in AB and BC Programs by School Calculus Advanced Placement Program Enrollment AB BC 1 - 5 6 0 6 - 10 7 1 11 - 15 9 0 16 - 20 6 2 21 - 25 3 0 26 - 30 3 0 31 - 35 1 1 36 - 40 2 1 41 - 45 0 0 > - 45 2 0 Actual Mean 15.1 24.0 Each of the 41 AP teachers were asked to indicate the policy regarding whether of not the students were required to take an advanced placement exam. Eight teachers did not respond or the response was vague, 3 teachers required students take the exam, and 30 teachers left that decision up to the student. Only 8 of the 41 AP teachers reported using a text identified in the advanced placement manual provided by the State Department of Education although there are other texts endorsed by the College Board which were not on the state list. The most frequently used text (n=6) was that by Thomas. From the course syllabi submitted, there was no discemable pattern or commonality. Teachers reported their previous experience teaching calculus at that school, any high school, and the college level. Although there were two items that separated junior college instruction from college level instruction, the same teachers responded congruently to both questions. 26 Easterday Table 5. Experience Teaching Calculus Years Experience Current School Any High School College 0 - 1 3 3 43 2 - 3 23 22 3 4 - 5 9 9 0 6 - 7 6 6 3 8 - 9 4 3 0 10 - 11 4 4 0 12 - 13 3 2 0 14 - 15 1 2 0 Since earlier guidelines on the preparation of calculus teachers gave particular attention to preparation in analysis, teachers were asked to report the number of courses taken in advanced calculus, real variables, and complex variables. In addition they were to report the number of graduate courses completed in discrete mathematics since there are proposals to alter the calculus program to more of a discrete orientation. Table 6. Graduate Courses in Discrete Mathematics and Courses in Analysis Number of Courses Frequency Discrete Mathematics Analysis No Response 3 7 None 29 1 1 - 2 13 11 3 - 4 2 14 5 - 6 3 8 7 - 8 0 4 9 - 10 0 4 > 10 0 1 27 Calculus Information was sought regarding the certification level and training in mathematics and the teachers’ participation in AP training. Forty-three of 49 respondents had participated in an AP training program. As of 1979 in Alabama, a Class B certificate requires a bachelor’s degree with a minimum of 40 quarter hours of mathematics, a Class A certificate requires a Class B certificate plus a master’s degree which includes a minimum of 20 quarter hours of graduate mathematics, and a Class AA certificate requires a Class A certificate in mathematic plus an additional 45 quarters hours of graduate study including an additional 20 quarter hours of graduate mathematics. It should be emphasized that these are the minimum number of hours required and policies of individual institutions may require considerably more than the minimums. Four teachers did not provide information on their certification, 11 had a Class B certificate, 22 a Class A certificate, 13 a Class AA certificate each in mathematics. Three teachers did not report their college degree. Of the remaining teachers, there were 6 bachelor’s degrees, 28 master’s degrees, 13 teachers had work beyond the master’s including two working towards the doctorate. Provision was made for the teacher to identify the degree, the name of the degree granting institution, the date of the degree, the number of hours of mathematics completed in each degree program, and if the teacher had taken courses beyond their last degree. From this information, it was possible to estimate the number of hours in mathematics in quarter hours. Perusing the data, it appears that there were some inconsistencies in the teachers’ responses and this is an obvious limitation of the study. The mean number of total hours, undergraduate and graduate, in mathematics reported was 79. Table 7. Academic Training in Mathematics and Degree Granting Institution Institution Number of Teachers Range in Hours of Math Mean8 Hours of Math Bachelor’s Degree Alabama 7 b- 77 53 Athens 4 32 - 63 43 Auburn 1 - 55 55 B’ham Southern 2 30 - 67 49 Jacksonville 6 44 - 53 48 Livingstone 1 - 44 44 Montevallo 3 45 - 59 46 North Alabama 2 54 - 60 57 28 Easterday Samford 1 - 50 50 South Alabama 2 30 - 65 48 St. Bernard 2 - 52 52 Troy 5 45 - 55 48 UAB 3 27 - 55 40 UAH 1 - 40 40 Out of State 6 30 - 67 40 Mean of Individual Scores 49 Master’s Degree Alabama 5 18 - 27 22 Alabama A & M 4 0 - 42 21 Auburn 2 30 - 60 45 Jacksonville 2 0 - 22 11 Montevallo 4 0 - 27 16 North Alabama 4 14 - 45 22 Samford 1 45 45 South Alabama 1 12 12 Troy 2 25 - 45 35 UAB 12 0 - 59 18 UAH 2 50 - 59 55 Out of State 1 63 63 Mean of Individual Scores 25 Mathematics Beyond Master’s Degree Alabama 2 14 - 18 16 Alabama A & M 1 3 3 Auburn 2 15 - 68 41 Montevallo 2 14 - 22 18 North Alabama 2 9 9 29 Calculus Troy 1 35 35 UAB 6 0- 27 15 Out of State 1 36 36 Mean of Individuals 22 aMean computed only on available scores. bUnable to determine minimum hours because of non-response. The number of preparations of a teacher may influence not only the quality of instruction but also whether or not the teacher will have the time or energy needed to study new topics such as computers or discrete mathematics. The number and frequency of preparations were 2 preparations - 2, 3 preparations - 25, 4 preparations - 12, 5 preparations - 8, and more than 5 preparations - 2. It is difficult to see how a teacher could adequately prepare a calculus class if the teacher has more than 3 preparations. Information regarding the role and use of computer technology in calculus instruction was sought. Thirty-three teachers (66%) indicated that computers should be a part of the calculus program. Microcomputer facilities were available to 32 teachers and another 3 teachers indicated that they had other computer facilities. The number of microcomputers available to the remaining 29 teachers are provided in Table 8. When asked if computer technology was an integral part of their program, only 10 teachers indicated affirmatively. One possible reason for the lack of use of computers is that 21 teachers did not respond to a question which asked for the number of computer languages known by the teacher, 18 teachers indicated that they did not know any programming language, and 6 teachers reported knowledge of a single language. The secondary calculus teachers who reviewed the initial draft of the questionnaire requested an item to determine if high school calculus was structured differently than the other mathematics courses in the school and 44% of the responses were affirmative although it is not clear what this means. When asked if some courses other than calculus would be more appropriate for their students, only 3 teachers preferred some other course and there was no agreement among the three teachers about the nature of the alternative course. 30 Easterday Table 8. Number of Microcomputers Available for Calculus Instruction Number of Computers Frequency 1 11 3 1 4 1 7 1 8 2 12 1 14 1 15 3 16 1 20 1 22 1 24 1 25 1 30 3 DISCUSSION Calculus programs in the secondary schools are increasing at a substantial rate. Although there is extensive criticism of the calculus programs, there is little indication that the secondary calculus teachers in this survey desire any substantial change in the program. Few of these teachers have taken graduate courses in discrete mathematics. Almost 2/3 of the teachers indicated that computers should play some role in calculus instruction. However, 21 of 50 teachers did not respond to an item seeking information on teacher’s knowledge of computer programming, more than 1/3 of the respondents did not know a single programming language. This lack of computer knowledge may account for the result that only 20% of the respondents considered computers to be an integral part of their calculus course. It is possible that the teachers might be able to use some existing software in calculus instruction; however, the number of available computers and the class size could mitigate against such usage. 31 Calculus Evidence exists to suggest that policies associated with the advanced placement program are not being followed with the exception of teacher participation in advanced placement training programs. Although the State Department of Education and the AP program recommends texts, many of the teachers did not use such texts. The failure of AP calculus students to take the advanced placement exams is of even greater concern. These examinations are critical to the quality control of the advanced placement programs and the lack of quality control contributes support to the charges of Cipra (1988). Teachers were not asked if the students were required to take university level calculus examinations. There is clear conflict between the recommendations of the Joint Committee (Lichtenberg, 1988) and the practices of these schools regarding the mathematical preparation of students to take calculus. The AP calculus teachers and the non-AP calculus teachers reported 3.6 and 2.7 years respectively of college preparatory mathematics as a requirement for a student to enroll in calculus. The mathematical preparation and teaching load of high school calculus teachers continues to be of concern. The number of preparations likely influences the teacher’s planning and instruction. The mean of 72 quarter hours of mathematics completed by these teachers would be about 18 courses and in the range of the minimum number of courses recommended by CUPM 1961) although not necessarily beginning with calculus. But is the glass half full or half empty since this would infer that about half the teachers would not have met the minimum? Similarly only about 50% of these teachers reported that they had taken 4 or more courses in analysis. The author suspects that the frequency of calculus teachers graduating from the various institutions reflects policies and views of faculty members of the institutions. Any resolution of the problems in calculus will have to include high school teachers. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author wishes to thank Linda Galloway, Janet Shiver, and Susan Williams for their assistance in this study. REFERENCES Committee on the Undergraduate Program in Mathematics. (1961). Recommendations for the training of teachers of mathematics. Berkeley, CA: Mathematical Association of America. Committee on the Undergraduate Program in Mathematics. (1983). Recommendations on the mathematical preparation of teachers. Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America. 32 Easterday Cipra, B. (1988). Calculus: Crises looms in mathematics’ future. SCIENCE, 239. 1491-1492. Gillman, L. (1988). The college teaching scandal. FOCUS. 8,(2), pp. 2,5. Lichtenberg, D. R. (1988). Curriculum recommendations grades 11-13: The NCTM/MAA task force report. FOCUS. 5(10). pp. 1,5. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1989). Curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Pieters, R. S. (1961). The advanced placement program in mathematics. Mathematics Teacher, 54, 201-211. Steen, L. A. (Ed.). (1989). Calculus for a new century: A pump not a filter. Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America. Steen, L. A. (1986). Taking calculus seriously. FOCUS, 6,(2), 4. Zorn, P. (1986). Calculus redux. FOCUS, 6(2), 1-2. 33 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 1, January 1993. SYNTHESIS, STABILITY AND ANALYTICAL PROFILES OF 3, 4- METHYLENEDIOXY AMPHETAMINES: DERIVATIVES OF "ECSTASY" (MDMA)1 C. Randall Clark, A. K. Valaer, and J. DeRuiter Department of Pharmacal Sciences School of Pharmacy Auburn University, AL 36849 and F. T. Noggle Department of Forensic Sciences Wire Road Auburn, AL 36830 INTRODUCTION The various N-substituted derivatives of l-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2- propanamine (3, 4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, MDA) have been popular drugs of abuse in the past decade (1-3). The N-methyl derivative, 3,4-methylenedi- oxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy", "XTC") is perhaps the most widely abused drug of this series. MDMA is reported to have the unique ability to facilitate interpersonal communication by reducing the anxiety and fear that normally accompanies the discussion of emotionally painful events (4). MDMA has been suggested to represent a new pharmacological class distinct from both hallucinogenic agents and stimulants such as amphetamine and cocaine. This new class is described as entactogens - compounds that produce a "touching within". MDMA is one of several designer drugs of the MDA class that are currently popular in certain segments of the population (5). Biochemically MDMA is thought to release serotonin and, to a lesser extent, dopamine in the central nervous system (6-8). Some reports (9, 10) have suggested that MDMA is a potent neurotoxicant that may cause selective degeneration of brain serotonin neurons and, after repeated administration, produces a long term depletion of serotonin markers in experimental animals and a reduction in serotonin receptor sites (11). In rats, behavior characteristic of the serotonin syndrome such as low body posture, repetitive treading of the forepaw, head weaving and resting tremors (12), 'Manuscript received 18 November 1992; accepted 10 December 1992. 34 Clark, Noggle, Valaer, and Deruiter locomotor activity and autonomic signs of piloerection and salivation occur with MDMA administration in a dose related manner (12, 13). Subchronic injections of MDMA have been used in animals to compare acute versus chronic effects on these same behaviors. Both the serotonin syndrome and locomotor behavior were augmented with repeated intermittent administration (13). This latter observation parallels that observed with amphetamine (sensitization) indicating that MDMA, like amphetamine, is capable of producing behavioral sensitization. M D A : R = H MDMA: R=CH3 MDE: R=CH2CH3 N-OHMDA: R-OH In recent years other "designer drug" analogues of MDA including the N-ethyl (MDE) and N-hydroxy (NOHMDA) have also been encountered in forensic samples and appear to possess pharmacological activities comparable to MDA and MDMA. The continued designer-drug exploration of the MDA series has resulted in legislation in recent years to upgrade the penalties associated with the clandestine synthesis and abuse of these compounds. EXPERIMENTAL Instrumentation. The liquid chromatograph consisted of a Laboratory Data Control Constametric 3000 pump, 3100 Spectromonitor UV detector operated at 280 nm, Cl 4100 Integrator and a Rheodyne 7125 Injector. Infrared spectra were recorded on a Perkin-Elmer Model 1710 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometer. Ultraviolet spectra were recorded on a Shimadzu Instruments Model UV-160 spectrophotometer. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectra (1H) were determined using a Varian EM-360 60 MHz Spectrometer. The electron impact (El) mass spectra were obtained using a Hewlett-Packard 5970B mass selective detector. The ionization voltage was 70 eV and the source temperature was 220° C. The individual amine hydrochlorides were dissolved in methanol (1 mg/mL) and 0.5 uL introduced into the mass spectrometer via a gas chromatograph equipped with a 12m X 0.31 mm i.d. fused silica column with a 0.52 um thickness of OV-1. The column temperature was programmed from 70° C to 150° C at a rate of 15° C/min and from 150° to 250° C at a rate of 25° C/min and the split ratio for the GC was 10:1. 35 Derivatives of "Ecstasy" (MDMA) Liquid Chromatographic Procedures. The analytical column was 30 cm X 3.9 mm i.d. packed with uBondapak C18 (Waters Associates). The analytical column was preceded by a 7 cm X 2.1 mm i.d. guard column packed with CO:Pell ODS (Whatman). The amine hydrochlorides (1 mg/mL) were dissolved in HPLC grade methanol and separated using a mobile phase of pH 3.0 phosphate buffer, methanol, acetonitrile and triethylamine (600:100:25:1). The pH 3.0 phosphate buffer was prepared by mixing 9.2 g monobasic sodium phosphate (NaH2P04) in 1 L of double- distilled water and adjusting the pH to 3.0 with H3P04. The mobile phase flow rate was 1.5 mL/min and the detector was operated at 0.2 AUFS. A 15 uL aliquot of each amine solution was injected into the liquid chromatograph. Synthesis of N-Substituted MDA derivatives by Reductive Amination. A solution of 1- (3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-propanone (10 mmol), ammonium acetate or alkyl- amine (100 mmol) and sodium cyanoborohydride (25 mmol) in methanol (25 mL) was stirred at room temperature for 24 h. The reaction mixture was then evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure and the remaining residue was suspended in dichloromethane (50 mL). The dichloromethane suspension was extracted with 3N HC1 (2 X 75 mL) and the combined acid extracts were made basic (pH 12) with sodium hydroxide. The basic aqueous suspension was then extracted with dichloromethane (2 X 100 mL) and the combined organic extracts were dried over anhydrous Na2S04. Filtration, followed by evaporation of the filtrate solvent under reduced pressure, gave the product amines in free base form. Treatment of the bases with ethereal HC1 afforded the product amines as the hydrochloride salts and these were recrystallized from mixtures of anhydrous ether and absolute ethanol. The structures of the products were confirmed by IR (KBr) and *H-NMR (DMSO-d6). The purity of the products was established by GC-MS and the liquid chromatographic analyses. Synthesis of N-Hydroxy-MDA (N-OHMDA). A solution of l-(3,4- methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-propanone (1.0 g, 5.6 mmol) and hydroxylamine hydrochloride (1.0 g) in a solvent mixture of ethanol (5.0 mL) and pyridine (5.0 mL) was stirred at reflux for 2 hr. The reaction mixture was evaporated in vacuo and the remaining oil triturated with water to yield the intermediate oxime. The oxime was isolated by filtration, washed with water and recrystallized from ethanol/water. The dried oxime (0.5 g) and sodium cyanoborohydride (0.25 g) were dissolved in methanol (10 mL) and stirred at room temp for 3 days. Concentrated HC1 (1 drop) was added to the reaction mixture every 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was evaporated in vacuo and the remaining residue suspended in 3N HC1 (50 mL). This suspension was extracted with dichloromethane (2 X 50 mL), then the aqueous solution made basic (pH 12) by the addition of sodium hydroxide pellets. The aqueous base suspension was extracted with dichloromethane (3 X 75 mL) and the combined dichloromethane extracts evaporated under reduced pressure to yield N-OHMDA as the free base. Treatment of the base with ethereal HC1 afforded the product as the hydrochloride salt which was recrystallized from a mixture of anhydrous ether and absolute ethanol. Clark, Noggle, Valaer, and DeRuiter The structure of the product was confirmed by IR (KBr) and ^-NMR (DMSO-d6). The purity of the product was established by GC-MS and the liquid chromatographic analyses. Synthesis of MDMA from Sassafras Oil (Safrole). Samples of sassfras oil or alkenes (5.0 g of safrole, isosafrole, eugenol, isoeugenol, etc) in 48% HBr (25 mL) were stirred at room temperature for 7 days. The reactions were then quenched with the addition of crushed ice (25 mL) and extracted with ether (2 X 50 mL). The ether extracts were evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure and the resultant product oils analyzed directly. The crude bromination products (2.0 g) were dissolved in methanol (100 mL) containing 40% aqueous methylamine (20 mL) and stirred at room temperature for 4 days. The reaction mixture was evaporated to dryness and the resultant oil dissolved in 10% HC1 (50 mL). The aqueous acid solution was washed with ether (2 X 50 mL) and then made basic (pH 12) by the addition of NaOH pellets. The aqueous base solution was extracted with ether (2 X 50 mL) and the combined ether extracts evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure. The resulting oil was analyzed directly. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Clandestine Synthesis of MDA and MDA Derivatives A variety of methods have been reported for the synthesis of MDA, MDMA and related compounds (14,15). The most direct approach involves treatment of the commercially available ketone l-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-propanone (3,4- methylenedioxyphenylacetone) with an amine under reducing conditions as shown in Scheme 1. With this method, MDA, MDMA and the N-ethyl derivative MDEA are obtained directly in a single step. The structurally unique member of this series, N- Scheme 1. Synthesis of MDA derivatives by reduction amination OHMDA, is prepared by reduction of the oxime formed from reaction of hydroxyamine with 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylacetone. Based on this synthetic strategy, the availability of the ketone was controlled by the Drug Enforcement Administration under the Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act in March of 1989. The restricted availability of the key ketone precursor has forced clandestine laboratory operators to seek alternative approaches for the synthesis of MDA and MDMA. One such unique approach to the synthesis of MDA derivatives employs the natural product safrole which is commercially available or can be obtained by extraction or distillation of the sassafras plant native to the US. Safrole may be used 37 Derivatives of "Ecstasy" (MDMA) to synthesize the ketone j^3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-propanone, or may be brominated with hydrobromic acid to yield 2-bromosafrole which can be converted to MDA or MDMA by direct displacement with ammonia or methylamine, respectively (Scheme 2). It appears that this latter approach was being employed by the operator of a clandestine laboratory seized recently. In this laboratory safrole was obtained by steam distillation of the roots of the sassafras plant, and then treated with HBr to generate 2-bromosafrole. The oil extract of sassafras bark is reported (16) to consist of about 80% safrole, 4-allyl-l,2-methylenedioxybenzene. ch3mh2 T 2 HBr - »• 3 + 2 3 2-BROMOSAFROLE 3-BR0M0S AFROLE Scheme 2. Synthesis of MDMA from safrole 38 fib u n cl an c e Clark, Noggle, Valaer, and DeRuiter The chromatogram in Figure 1 shows the gas chromatographic analysis of the sassafras oil sample obtained from the clandestine laboratory. The total ion chromatogram (TIC) trace was obtained using a 12 m X 0.20 mm id fused silica col urn with a 0.33 micron thickness of methylsilicone (HP1), programmed from 70° C to 150° C at a rate of 15° C per minute and from 150° C to 250° C at a rate of 25° 1.0E7: 8. 0E6: “ 6 . 0EG : fd ] ^ 4.0EG: A E if 2.0E6: |, B \ ' ■ ' 1 D) F 0J IJ j .... -1 • ' ' 1 * ' ’ ' l 1 1 ' !' ' '1 ■ . ■ ”7 T ' T 1 ' ' 1 ‘ T ' * ’ " - - - 1 , • f 2 4 6 8 10 12 1*1 16 T i rrie ( m in..) Figure 1. Gas chromatographic analysis of sassafras oil distallate C per minute. The major component in this sample at 5.686 minutes (peak C in Figure 1) matches both the chromatographic properties and the mass spectrum for safrole (4-allyl-l,2-methylenedioxybenzene). Figure 2 shows the mass spectrum (2a) and the chromatogram (2b) obtained from the analysis of an authetic sample of safrole. These data were obtained under conditions identical to those used for the analysis of the sassafras oil distillate. This volatile organic sassafras extract contains other substituted allyl-benezenes such as eugenol and 4-allyl-l, 2-dimethoxybenezene. Several other aromatic compounds were tentatively identified based on mass spectral data. Literature reports [16,17] on the oil of sassafras bark indicate safrole as a major component (approximately 80%) with smaller amounts of pinene, eugenol, camphor and phellandrene. A second sample obtained from the clandestine laboratory was reported to be the result of hydrobromic acid (HBr) treatment of the sassafras distillate. The chromatogram obtained from the GC-MS analysis of the HBr treated sassafras oil is shown in Figure 3a. The mass spectra of the individual peaks in this chromatogram indicates the presence of several brominated products as well as other non- brominated compounds. 39 Rb u n d a n c e i Hn u n a a n c Derivatives of "Ecstasy" (MDMA) Figure 2. GC-MS analysis of an authentic sample of safrole The major component in the HBr treated sassafras oil sample (Peak G in Figure 3) has a retention time for 7.580 minutes, a molecular weight of 242 and contains one bromine atom. A second peak at 7.781 minutes (Peak H), which is only partially resolved from the major component, also contains one bromine atom and has a mass of 242. These peaks both give mass spectra (Figures 3b and 3c) consistant with the addition of HBr to safrole. Both compounds have a fragment at m/z 163 in the MS which corresponds to the loss of Br from the parent molecule. The base peak for the two components, however, differs; the base peak for the major component is m/z 135 (Figure 3b) while the base peak for the secondary product is m/z 149 (Figure 3c). These peaks are likely the result of fragmentation of the carbon-carbon bond alpha to the bromine atom, with the m/z 135 arising from 2- bromosafrole and the m/z 149 arising from 3-bromosafrole (Scheme 3). The presence of these two regiosiomeric bromo products is reasonable based on the mechanism of 40 Clark, Noggle, Valaer, and DeRuiter 3b C 7 . 7 S 1 rn i n ) £ . j 2. 0EG 1 1 . 5 EG -i 1 . GEG \ 5 . QE5 i 0 149 9 1 63 \ U.,- -Li \ JL \ Jd- -L. L 1 1 9 2*H \ 2&5 50 I 00 Has 50 200 : / L I'l a P C| 6 3c Figure 3. GC-MS analysis of sassafras oil distillate after treatment with 48% HBr. 41 Derivatives of "Ecstasy" (MDMA) the HBr addition reaction (18). Such electrophilic additions are initiated by protonation of the double bond to yield either a primary or secondary carbocation (Scheme 2). Of these, the secondary carbocation forms preferentially due to greater hyperconjugative stabilization. Since the 2-bromosafrole product would form by bromination of the secondary carbocation, it would be expected to form in higher proportion than the 3-bromosafrole product which results from bromine addition to the primary carbocation intermediate. Such a hypothesis accounts for the formation of both bromo regioisomers, with the 2-bromo isomer predominating. C H 3 m/ z - 1 6 3 m/ z - 1 3 5 r 3-BROMOSAFROLE m/ z - 1 6 3 m/ z - 1 4 9 Scheme 3. MS fragmentation of the regioisomeric bromosafroles The peaks at 8.181 (J) and 8.291 (K) in the chromatogram shown in Figure 3a have a similar MS fragmentation pattern as was observed for Peaks G and H. Both J and K have a molecular weight of 258 and contain one bromine atom. The base peaks at 151 for J and 165 for K differ by 14 mass units (a methylene group), with the lower mass base peak being the compound present in higher concentration based on relative peak heights. These data are consistant with HBr addition to the isolated double bond in 4-allyl-l,2-dimethoxybenzene. The major addition product of this pair is the 2-bromo derivative and it fragments to yield the lower mass peak at m/z 151. The minor product of this pair fragments to yield the m/z 165 ion. Thus, both the 2-bromo- and 3-bromo-products from the HBr addition to 4-allyl-l, 2- 42 Clark, Noggle, Valaer, and DeRuiter dimethoxybenzene were observed in the sample. The peak in Figure 3 at 9.168 minutes (peak L) corresponds to the bromination of the trimethoxy-substituted allylbenzene at the 2-position in the side chain. This assignment is substantiated by the presence of a molecular ion at m/z 288 and a peak at m/z 209 resulting from the loss of bromine. The base peak in this spectrum at m/z 181 is from the loss of CH3CHBr+ to yield the trimethoxybenzyl fragment, demonstrating that bromination occurred at the 2-position. The brominated sassafras oil was treated with methylamine in an attempt to show that N-methyl-l-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-propanamine (3,4- methylenedioxymethamphetamine, MDMA) could be synthesized by this method. The chromatogram in Figure 4a was obtained following isolation of the basic fraction from the reaction mixture. The major component in the chromatogram has a retention time of 7.350 minutes and its mass spectrum (Figure 4b) shows a molecular ion at 193 and a base peak at m/z 58. These data are consistant with the profile for Figure 4. GC-MS analysis of the basic fraction isolated following methylamine treatment of the brominated sassafras oil. 43 Derivatives of "Ecstasy" (MDMA) MDMA under identical analysis conditions. The base peak at m/z 58 in the mass spectrum is the result of amine-dominated fragmentation to yield the imine species and the 3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl radical (Scheme 4). Thus, this synthetic procedure can be used to prepare MDMA in significant quantities from the constituents of an uncontrolled plant material native to the US. m/ z - 5 8 Scheme 4. MS fragmentation of MDMA Chracterization/ Analysis of MDA and MDA Derivatives MDA derivatives are easily identified by their characteristic mass spectra and can be separated by reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC). RPLC is very effective for the resolution of homologues since molecular hydrophobic surface area is a major factor in the chromatographic retention process. The chromatogram in Figure 5 shows the separation of a series of N-alkyl MDA derivatives under reversed- phase HPLC conditions. The stationary phase is composed of n-octadecyl-silica (a j, C18 hydrocarbon covalently linked to silica) and the mobile phase is acidified methanol-water containing triethylamine as the silanol masking agent. Thus the basic N-alkyl MDA derivatives are chromatographed as the more hydrophilic protonated amine species. These compounds elute in order of increasing hydrophobic surface area roughly equivalent to the hydrocarbon content of the N-substitutent. Thus, unsubstituted MDA elutes before N-methyl MDA (MDMA), followed by the derivatives with two-carbon N-substituents (peaks 3 and 4), the three-carbon N- substiutents (peaks 5 and 6), with the N-OHMDA eluting last in this system. Figure 5 illustrates the effect on resolution obtained by the addition of the masking agent triethylamine (1% total volume) to the mobile phase. Initial separations of N-OHMDA from MDA and other N-alkyl substituted analogues were attempted using a C18 stationary phase with a mobile phase consisting of pH 3.0 phosphate buffer:acetonitrile mixtures. The results of this initial chromatograph were poor peak shape and inadequate resolution due to the extensive tailing of the amines. This phenomenon is caused by solute interactions with the unreacted silanol sites on the silica-based stationary phase. The silica surface remains weakly acidic and is, therefore, capable of producing interactions between the solute and stationary phase other than the hydrophobic interaction between the non-polar moieties of the solute and the stationary phase. Protonated amines are capable of undergoing both ion exchange and hydrogen bonding interactions with the exposed silanol sites. The degree of contribution from each of these possible interactions, hydrophobic, ion 44 Clark, Noggle, Valaer, and DeRuiter CH3 i J Figure 5. Reversed phase liquid chromatographis separation of MDA and N-substituted derivatives. exchange and hydrogen bonding, dictates the chromatographic results and can lead to severe peak tailing or even irreversible adsorption of the solute to the stationary phase. This problem can be remedied by the addition of silanol masking agents to the mobile phase. These agents act by blocking the available ion exchange and hydrogen bonding sites of the stationary phase. Initial chromatographic separation of N-OHMDA from other N-alkyl MDA derivatives in this study showed N-OHMDA to consistently display increased retention over MDA, MDMA and MDEA. Based on the findings described above 45 Derivatives of "Ecstasy" (MDMA) concerning the increase in reversed phase retention with hydrophobic surface area of the N-substituent of the MDA derivatives, it would be reasonable to expect that N-OHMDA should elute first. Furthermore, the relative retention of N-OHMDA compared to the N-alkyl derivatives was observed to increase with increasing pH. For example, a change in mobile phase pH from 2.5 to 5.5 produced an approximate 1.2-fold increase in retention for MDMA, while the same pH 'hange produced about a 2.5-fold increase in the retention of N-OHMDA One potential explanation for this variation in retention properties as a function of N-substituent is a difference in basicity produced by the N-hydroxyl group. In titration experiments to measure the relative basicity, MDA was found to have a pKa of 10.04 while N-OHMDA had a pKa of 6.22. These measurements were made by titrating aqueous solutions of the hydrochlorides of MDA and N-OHMDA with standardized sodium hydroxide solutions. The significant difference in basicity between N-OHMDA and the N-alkyl MDA derivatives may account for the reversed-phase retention differences between these compunds. Variation of the mobile phase pH in the 2.5 to 5.5 range would result in a significant change in the degree of ionization of a relatively weak base such as N-OHMDA (pKa 6.22), while having little effect on the more basic amines such as MDA (pKa 10.04) and the N-alkyl derivatives. The aqueous solution stability of N-OHMDA was also studied in anticipation of the need for animal dosing for biological studies. Earlier studies in our laboratory demonstrated the thermal instability of N-OHMDA and the inability of this compound to survive injection port temperatures in many gas chromatographic procedures. The GC-MS analysis of N-OHMDA produced two compounds, MDA and the oxime of 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylacetone likely from an oxidation/reduction disproportionation reaction. Furthermore, preliminary liquid chromatographic studies showed a decrease in N-OHMDA peak size and the appearance of a late eluting second peak in solutions of N-OHMDA used over a several day period. The aqueous solution stability of N-OHMDA was studied by varying solution pH from 4 to 10. At pH levels below 7.0, solutions of N-OHMDA were found to be relatively stable, with little change in concentration over a several day period. However the degradation rate was found to increase with an increase in solution pH. At pH 7.0 the degradation half-life (t1/2 deg.) was 49.8 +/- 2.4 hours, while at pH 10.0 the degradation half-life was 2.57 +/- 0.13 hours with rapid conversion to the corresponding oxime (Scheme 5). At a pH greater than 10, decomposition was extremely rapid and consistent estimates of the rate constants were difficult to obtain. The results of this study show that aqueous solutions of N-OHMDA maintained in the pH 7.0 range can be expected to deliver the parent drug for biodisposition experiments. Scheme 5. Decomposition of N-OHMDA to the oxime 46 Clark, Noggle, Valaer, and DeRuiter In some preliminary studies in rats dosed intravenously (iv) with N-OHMDA via a jugular vein cannula, drug levels appear to decrease rapidly. Furthermore, the corresponding oxime was not detected in any serum samples drawn during the 24 hour period following dosing. The major metabolite observed in the serum samples was MDA which appears rapidly following dosing and becomes the major sample component within 20 to 30 minutes after dosing. Drug levels were determined for these studies using a reversed phase HPLC procedure following solvent extraction of the serum samples. The biodiposition, stability and analytical properties of this unique compound (N-OHMDA) as well as other designer analogues of MDMA remain the focus of our work. REFERENCES 1. Noggle, F. T., Jr.; DeRuiter, J.; Coker, S. T.; Clark, C. R. J. Assoc. Anal. Chem. 1987, 70, 981. 2. Noggle F. T., Jr.; DeRuiter, J.; McMillian, C. L.; Clark, C. R. J. Liq. Chromatogr. 1987, 10, 2497. 3. Noggle, F. T., Jr.; Clark, C. R.; Valaer, A. K,; DeRuiter, J. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 1988, 26, 410. 4. Shulgin, A. T.; Nichols, D. E. "The Psychopharmacology of Hallucinogens", Stillman, R. C.; Willette, R. E.; Eds.; Permagon Press, New York, 1987, 74. 5. Shulgin, A. T. J. Psychedelic Drugs,, 1986 18, 291. 6. Johnson, M. P.; Hoffman A. J. and Nichols, D. E. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 1986, 132, 269. 7. Kalix, P. A. Arzneim. Forsch., 1986, 30, 1019. 8. Nichols, D. E.; Lloyd, D. H.; Hoffman, A. J.; Nichols, M. B. and Yim, G. K. W. J. Med. Chem., 1982, 25, 530. 9. Commins, D. L.; Vosmer, V.; Virus, R. M.; Woolverton, C. R.; Schuster, C. R. and Seiden, L. S. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1987, 241, 338. 10. O’Hearn, E.; Battaglia, G.; De Souza, E. B.; Kuhar, K. J. and Molliver, M. E. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr., 1986, 12, 336.2 11. De Souza, E. B.; Battaglia, G.; Shu, Y. Y.; and Kuhar, M. J. Amer. Coll. Neuropsychopharm., 1986, 207. 47 Derivatives of "Ecstasy" (MDMA) 12. Kulmala, H. K.; Boja, J. W. and Schechter, M. D. Life Sciences, 1987, 41, 1425 and Frith, C. H.; Chang, L. W.; Lattin, D. L.; Walls, R. C.; Hamm, J. and Doblin, R. Fund., Appl. Tox., 1987, 9, 110, and Project Report, Toxicology Pathology Associates, Little Rock, Ark., 1986. 13. Frith, C. H. "Project Report, Toxicology Pathology Associates", Little Rock, Ark., 1986. 14. Braun, U.; Shulgin, A. T.; Braun, G. J. Pharm. Sci. 1980, <59, 192. 15. Dal Cason, T. A. J. Forensic Set 1990, 35, 675. 16. Tyler, V. E.; Brady, L. R.; Robbers, J. E. "Pharmacognosy", 7th ed., Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia 1976, 165. 17. Reynolds, J. E. F. "Martindale The Extra Pharmacopoeia", 28th ed., The Pharmaceutical Press, London 1982, 683. 18. March, J. "Advanced Organic Chemistry", 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York 1977, 687. 48 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 1, January 1993. CLANDESTINE SYNTHESIS OF METHAMPHET AMINE DERIVATIVES1 J. DeRuiter and C. R. Clark Department of Pharmacol Sciences School of Pharmacy Auburn University, AL 36849 and F. T. Noggle Department of Forensic Sciences Wire Road Auburn, AL 36830 INTRODUCTION Amphetamine and methamphetamine continue to be two of the more frequently encountered illicit drugs produced in clandestine laboratories (1-2). The major methods (1-4) by which these amines are prepared in clandestine laboratories are outlined in Scheme 1 and include: 1). amination of phenyl-2-propanone (P-2-P) under reducing conditions (Method A) and 2). hydrogenolysis of 1-hydroxy- or 1- chloro-l-phenyl-2-propanamines (Method B). Since the amination method (Method A) employs a carbon-nitrogen bond formation reaction with an achiral precursor (P-2- P), the amphetamine or methamphetamine products are formed as racemates - equimolar amounts of the more potent S-enantiomer and the R-enantiomer. Also, as a result of U.S. Federal control of P-2-P, the essential precursor for the amination method, the clandestine chemist frequently must first prepare this intermediate. This is commonly done by base-catalyzed condensation of phenylacetic acid and acetic anhydride. However, this condensation reaction also results in the formation of a second ketone, dibenzylketone (1, 3-diphenyl-2-propanone) in variable quantities (Scheme 2) (2). Since the P-2-P prepared by this route is rarely purified, reductive amination with the crude condensation product yields a mixture of racemic amphetamine or methamphetamine and alphabenzylphenethlamine or alpha-benzyl- N-methylphenethylamine (Scheme 2) (2). The hydrogenolysis method (Method B) uses starting materials that contain the structural elements of amphetamine or methamphetamine in chiral form (3,4). For example, the norephedrines and norpseudoephedrines contain the structural skeleton of amphetamine, while the ephedrines and pseudoephedrines possess the Manuscript received 18 November 1992; accepted 10 December 1992. 49 DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark METHOD A err'" o r RNHCHO NHR P-2-P RACEMIC PRODUCTS METHOD B H OH NHR SOC I R,S- or S , S - START I NG MATER I ALS H C I NHR H OH NHR SOC I 2 R.R- or S , R- START I NG MATER I ALS H C I NHR 5.. H H H Scheme 1. Methods for the synthesis of amphetamine and methamphetamine basic structural elements of methamphetamine (Table 1). Direct hydrogenolysis of these compounds or the 1-chloro intermediates yields the amphetamine or metamphetamine products in enantiomerically pure form. For example, by this method R.S-ephedrine is converted exclusively to the more active S-enantiomer of methamphetamine. Which of these synthetic methods is employed in the production of an illicit amphetamine or methamphetamine sample can be determined by complete analysis of the composition and stereochemistry of the components in the drug sample. The 50 Clandestine Synthesis of Methamphetamine Derivatives complete characterization of a clandestine drug product may be important because, in addition to the method of preparation, it allows for: 1). the identification of drug samples of common origin, 2). differentiation of legitimate pharmaceutical products from illicitly manufactured products, and 3). the identification of potentially toxic contaminants or reaction side products. In this paper we report the results of studies using high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) methods to analyze and determine the composition of methamphetamine and amphetamine samples prepared by clandestine laboratory operators. CHjC02Na (CH3C0)20 PHENYL ACETIC P — 2 — P ACID (PAA) + D I PHENYLACETONE R-NH2 [ R 1 RACEMIC AMPHETAM I NE PRODUCT ALPHA-BENZYL PHENETHYLAM I NE CONTAMINANT Scheme 2. Synthesis of amphetamine and methamphetamine from phenylacetic acid 51 DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark Structure and Stereochemistry of Common Amines in Forensic Samples X R Configuration Name OH H 1R, 2S (-) -Norephedrine OH H IS, 2R (+) -Norephedrine OH H 1R, 2R (-) -Norpseudoephedrine OH H IS, 2S (+) -Norpseudoephedrine OH CH3 1R, 2S (-) -Ephedrine OH ch3 IS, 2R (+) -Ephedrine OH CH3 1R, 2R (-) -Pseudoephedrine OH CH3 IS, 2S (+) -Pseudoephedrine H H 2S (+) -Amphetamine H H 2R (-) -Amphetamine H CH3 2R ( + ) -Methamphetamine H ch3 2R (+) -Methamphetamine EXPERIMENTAL Reagents and Chemicals. Samples of S,R-norephedrine, racemic norephedrine and R,R-norpseudoephedrine were obtained from Aldrich Chemical Company (Milwaukee, WI). Samples of S,R- and RJS-ephedrine and S.S- and R,R- pseudoephedrine and standard samples of amphetamine and methamphetamine were obtained from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO). 2,3,4,6-Tetra-O-acetyl-beta-D- glucopyranosyl isothiocyanate (GITC) was purchased from Polysciences (Warrington, PA). HPLC-grade chloroform and methanol were obtained from J. T. Baker 52 Clandestine Synthesis of Methamphetamine Derivatives Chemical Co. (Philipsburg, NJ). Phenylisothiocyanate and HPLC-grade tetrahydrofuran (THF), hexane and acetonitrile were purchased from Fisher Scientific Co. (Fair Lawn, NJ). All other chemicals were reagent grade and were used without further purification. Instrumentation. The liquid chromatograph consisted of a Waters (Milford, MA) Model 6000A pump, U6K injector, 440 UV detector with dual wavelength accessory operated at 254 nm and 280 nm, and a Houston Instruments (Austin, TX) OmniScribe recorder. Infrared spectra were recorded on a Perkin-Elmer 1500 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometer. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance ^H-NMR) spectra were recorded using a Varian T-60A spectrometer (Varian Instruments, Palo Alto, CA). Chromatographic procedures. Reversed-phase separations were carried out on a 30- cm X 3.9-mm i.d. uBondapak C18 column (Waters) at ambient temperature. The analytical column was preceded by a 7-cm X 2.1-mm i.d. guard column dry packed with Co:Pell ODS (Whatman Inc., Clifton, NJ). The mobile phases consisted of methanol:water:acetic acid (50:49:1) (solvent system 1), methanol:water:acetic acid (60:39:1) (solvent system 2) and tetrahydrofuran:water:acetic acid (35:70:1) (solvent system 3). The mobile phase flow rate was 1.5 mL/min and the detector was operated at 0.2 AUFS. Derivatization procedures. For the phenylisocyanate (PIT) derivatives, samples of the amines (3 mg) were dissolved in 30 mL of 0.45 N NaOH and extracted as the bases into 30 mL of chloroform. To the chloroform was added 10 uL of neat PIT. The chloroform reaction mixture was then evaporated to dryness under a stream of air. The resulting residue was dissolved in 1 mL of methanol and 5 uL was injected into the liquid chromatograph. For the GITC derivatives, a sample of each amine (2 mg) was dissolved in 0.45 N NaOH and extracted as the base into 30 mL of chloroform. A 10% molar excess of GITC was then added to the chloroform extract and the derivatization reaction allowed to proceed at room temperature for 10 min. The reaction mixture was then evaporated to dryness under a stream of air. The resulting residue was dissolved in 1 mL of THF or methanol and 5 uL was injected into the liquid chromatograph. General method for the preparation of the 1 -phenyl- 1 -chloro-2-aminopropanes. A solution of the norephedrine, norpseudoephedrine, ephedrine or pseudoephedrine (10 mmol) and thionyl chloride (10 mL) in chloroform (200 mL) was stirred at reflux for 3 h. The reaction mixture was then cooled to room temperature and the solvent volume reduced to approximately 50 mL under reduced pressure. Addition of anhydrous ether (ca. 200 mL), followed by cooling (0-5°C) resulted in crystallization of the l-phenyl-l-chloro-2-aminopropane hydrochlorides. General method for the preparation of the amphetamines and methamphetamines. A mixture of the l-phenyl-l-chloro-2-aminopropane hydrochloride (2.3 mmol), sodium 53 DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark acetate trihydrate (1.22 g, 8.9 mmol) and 5% Pd-BaS04 (250 mg) in glacial acetic acid was shaken under a hydrogen atmosphere (initial psi of 40-45) on a Parr apparatus for 30-60 min. After the uptake of hydrogen ceased, the catalyst was removed by filtration and washed with water. The combined filtrate and water washings were evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure, and the remaining oil dissolved in water (50 mL) and acidified (pH 1) with cone HC1. The acidic aqueous solution was washed with chloroform (2 X 50 mL), then made basic (pH 12) with 10% NaOH. The basic aqueous suspension was extracted with chloroform (3 X 75 mL), and the combined chloroform extracts washed with water (100 mL) and dried over MgS04. Evaporation of the chloroform under reduced pressure yielded the products in free base form. The bases were converted to their hydrochloride salts by treatment with ethereal HC1, and the HC1 salts recrystallized from solvent mixtures of absolute ethanol-anhydrous ether. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Determination of the Composition of Clandestine Methamphetamine Samples: High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) has proven to be an effective method for the separation and detection of a variety of pharmaceutical preparations and biological samples. HPLC is a non-destructive technique which allows the analyst to recover the sample following analysis and perform other tests of identification and confirmation such as thin layer chromatography (TLC), infrared spectroscopy (IR), ultraviolet spectroscopy (UV), gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS). Yet amines such as amphetamine and methamphetamine are not ideal substances for direct HPLC analysis for several reasons: 1). they have low molar absorptivities in the UV region and thus are not detected with great sensitivity by the UV methods commonly employed, and 2). they exhibit poor chromatographic properties (retentions, peak shape, etc.). Thus derivatization procedures prior to HPLC analysis are often used to enhance the UV absorbance and chromatographic properties of these amines (5-7). For example, derivatization prior to analysis (precolumn) with phenylisothiocyanate (PIT) as shown in Scheme 3 results in the formation of thioureas with good UV absorbance and HPLC retention characteristics. These derivatives also are easy to prepare and are stable to the conditions of HPLC analysis (1-2). R H i i AMPHETAMINE OR PIT PIT DERIVATIVE METHAMPHETAM I NE Scheme 3. Phenylisothiocyanate (PIT) derivatization reaction 54 Clandestine Synthesis of Metamphetamine Derivatives The initial objective of this work was to develop an HPLC screening method to separate and characterize amphetamine and methamphetamine, as well as the alpha-benzylphenethylamines contaminants that may be present when the amination method is used for clandestine synthesis. This first required the preparation of alpha- benzylphenethylamine standards which are obtained by reaction of commercially available l,3-diphenyl-2-propanone with ammonium acetate or methylamine to form the imine, and reduction of the imines with sodium borohydride (Scheme 4). The structures and purity of these standards are determined by common spectroscopic and RNH2 No BHjCN 1 ,3-DIPHENYL-2-PR0PAN0NE BENZYLPHENETHYLAM I NES Scheme 4. Synthesis of alpha-benzylphenylamines chromatographic methods. Samples of racemic amphetamine, racemic methamphetamine and the alpha-benzylphenethylamine standards were then converted to PIT derivatives to facilitate HPLC analysis. All four compounds are resolved (Figure 1) using a reversed phase system with a C18 stationary phase and a mobile phase of acetonitrile-water-acetic acid (50:49:1). In this system the primary amine amphetamine derivative elutes first, followed closely by the N-methyl secondary amine derivative, methamphetamine. The alpha-benzylphenethylamines have significantly greater hydrophobicities and thus greater retention times than amphetamine or methamphetamine in the reversed phase system. Also, among the alpha-benzylphenethylamines, the N-methyl derivative elutes later than the primary amine. The utility of this HPLC method for determination of sample composition is illustrated by the analysis of forensic samples. The chromatogram in Figure 2 was obtained from the analysis of a clandestine dosage form known on the street as a "minibennie". By comparing retention times, this sample was found to contain amphetamine and alpha-benzylphenethylamine, suggesting that this sample was prepared by the amination method, and the P-2-P ketone required for synthesis was obtained by the phenylacetic acid condensation reaction. The third compound in this mixture (peak 1) was identified as underivatized caffeine, a diluent added by the clandestine chemist to "cut" the drug and increase quantity. Figure 3 shows the HPLC analysis of a PIT derivatized sample of a gummy brown powder removed from a baking dish discovered at the scene of a suspected clandestine methamphetamine laboratory. By comparison of relative retention times, this sample was found to contain methamphetamine and alpha-benzyl-N-methyl- phenethylamine. Again the presence of the alpha-benzyl contaminant strongly suggests that this drug product was prepared by the amination method and that the P-2-P used was prepared from the phenylacetic acid condensation route. 55 DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 TIME (Minutes) Figure 1. Liquid chromatographic separation of PIT derivatized amines. Peaks: 1= racemic amphetamine, 2= racemic methamphetamine, 3 =alpha-benzylphenethylamine, 4=alpha-benzyl-N-methylphenethylamine. Solvent system 1. 56 Clandestine Synthesis of Methamphetamine Derivatives TIME (Minutes) Figure 2. Liquid chromatographic separation of a PIT derivatized "minibennie" sample. Peaks: 1 = caffeine (underivatized, 2=amphetamine, 3=alpha-benzyl-N-methylphenethylamine. Solvent system 1. 57 DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 J_I - 1_ I_ I_ I_ L 2 UJ co z o Q. to UJ a. a. O H O UJ H UJ Q JU/ — t - 1 - 1 - r~ 30 25 20 15 i — 10 TIME (Minutes) Figure 3. Liquid chromatographic separation of a PIT derivatized powder from a clandestine laboratory. Peaks: l=methamphetamine, 2=alpha-benzyl-N-methylphenethylamine. Solvent system 1. 58 Clandestine Synthesis of Methamphetamine Derivatives The HPLC analysis of PIT derivatives allows for efficient identification of methamphetamine, amphetamine, alpha-benzylphenethylamine contaminants and other diluents. However, this method alone does not necessarily yield all the information available concerning the source of an illicit methamphetamine or amphetamine sample. For example, the only substance detected in the drug sample analyzed in Figure 4 is methamphetamine. While this analysis is useful for identification, it does not provide the level of detail required to determine if the origin of the sample may be pharmaceutical manufacture or clandestine synthesis by either the amination or hydrogenolysis methods. To more accurately predict the source of such an illicit sample, it is necessary to determine the stereochemistry or enantiomeric composition of a methamphetamine or amphetamine sample. Determination of the Enantiomeric Composition of Clandestine Methamphetamine Samples: A number of chromatographic methods have been developed for determination of sample stereochemistry and the resolution of enantiomers (3,4). The primary methods include the use of 1). chiral stationary phase, 2). achiral stationary phases with a mobile phase containing a chiral additive, and 3). precolumn derivatization of enantiomers to form diastereomers and analysis in an achrial chromatographic system. The latter derivatization approach was used in these studies. The formation of covalent diastereomers typically involves precolumn derivatization with a homochiral derivatizing agent and numerous such reagents have been developed that contain functional groups capable of reaction with primary and secondary amines such as amphetamine and methamphetamine (8). The diastereomers formed from the reaction of a homochiral derivatizing reagent and a racemic amine can be separated using conventional achiral stationary phases in either normal or reversed phase procedures. The derivatizing agent selected for these studies, 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-acetyl-B-Dglucopyranosyl isothiocyanate (GITC), produces diastereomeric thiourea derivatives upon reaction with racemic amines (Scheme 5). Commercially available GITC is chemically and stereochemically stable and the thiourea derivatives have strong absorption properties in the UV range. Thus this reagent is a convenient means for diastereomeric derivatization of chiral primary and secondary amines (3,4). As discussed earlier, the enantiomers of norephedrine, and norpseudoephedrine as well as ephedrine and pseudoephedrine contain the structural elements of amphetamine and methamphetamine in chrial form (Table 1). In theory, these compounds can be converted to enantiomerically pure amphetamine and methamphetamine products either directly or via the corresponding 1-chloro intermediates as outlined in Scheme 1 (Method B). To conduct the stereochemistry studies by HPLC, commerically available enantiomers of the norephedrine, norpseudoephedrine, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine starting materials and 59 DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark 1 Figure 4. Liquid chromatographic separation of a PIT derivatized powder from a clandestine laboratory: Peak=methamphetamine. Solvent system 1. 60 Clandestine Synthesis of Methamphetamine Derivatives E N A N T I 0 M E R S R- ! SOWER HETEROCH I RAL DRUG SAMPLE HOMOCH I RAL DER I VAT I Z I NG AGENT Scheme 5. GITC derivatization reaction amphetamine and methamphetamine products were derivatized using GITC (Scheme 5). Separation of the GITC derivatives was studies using an achiral C18 stationary phase and various aqueous acidic mobile phases. Successful separations are shown in Figures 5 and 6. Figure 5 shows that a solvent system of methanol:water:acetic acid (60:39:1) allowed for efficient separation of the diastereomeric derivatives prepared from the individual enantiomers of the starting materials norephedrine and norpseudoephedrine, as well as the product amphetamines. Similar results are obtained upon analysis of the diastereomers prepared from the enantiomeric secondary amines, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine and the methamphetamine products, using a solvent system of THF:water:acetic acid (35:70:1) (Figure 6). Initially this HPLC technique was used to demonstrate that absolute configuration remains unaffected when this synthetic method is used, and enantiomerically pure products are obtained (3,4). Thus, each enantiomer of ephedrine 1R.S and S,R1 and pseudoephdrine (S,S and R,R1 was converted to the corresponding 1-chloro intermediate by treatment with thionyl chloride and the 1- chloro intermediates subjected to hydrogenolysis to yield the methamphetamine products (Scheme 1, Method B). The methamphetamine products formed from these reactions were analyzed by HPLC following GITC derivatization, using the standard 61 DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark analysis described above to interpret the results. These analyses demonstrated that only a single enantiomer of methamphetamine was formed from each chiral starting material and that the configurations of the methamphetamine products were the same as the configurations of the 2-carbon of the chiral starting material. Thus, as predicted by theory, the absolute configuration of chiral starting materials is retained in the methamphetamine products in this synthetic procedure. These results are illustrated by the chromatograms in Figure 7, which show that only S- methamphetamine was formed by R.S-ephedrine and only R-methamphetamine was obtained from S.R-ephedrine. Analogous results also were obtained in the study of this synthetic method using the enantiomers of norephdrine and norpseudoephedrine to prepare the S- and R-enantiomers of amphetamine. The utility of this HPLC method was demonstrated by the analysis of a variety of forensic samples. Figure 8 shows the chromatogram from a GITC-derivatized sample of methamphetamine collected at the site of a clandestine laboratory. The chromatogram shows that the sample is a mixture of S- and R-methamphetamine, suggesting that it was prepared by a reductive amination procedure. Figure 9 shows the analysis of sample that consists solely of R-methamphetamine. While it is possible that this product was synthesized from S.R-ephedrine or R.R- pseudoephedrine by the hydrogenolysis method, it is more likely that the drug was obtained by extraction of a common inhaler product which is known to contain R- methamphetamine. HPLC analysis of the clandestine sample in Figure 10 revealed that it consisted of a mixture of R.S-ephedrine. S.R-ephedrine. S-metamphetamine and R- methamphetamine. It is possible that this product was prepared by the hydrogenolysis method, using both R.S-ephedrine and S.R-ephedrine starting materials. Figure 11 is the chromatogram of a forensic sample that contains R,S- ephdrine and racemic methamphetamine (R + S). These stereochemical results clearly indicate that the methamphetamine product was not prepared from the R.S- ephedrine. In this sample the ephedrine appears to have been added as a diluent for the sample. 62 Clandestine Synthesis of Methamphetamine Derivatives 1 45 40 35 30 25 20 25 10 5 0 TIME (MINUTES) Figure 5. Liquid chromatographic separation of GITC derivatized amines. Peaks: 1 = R.R-norpseudoephedrine. 2=R,S-norephedrine. 3 = S.R-norephedrine. 4=R-amphetamine, 5=S-amphetamine. Solvent system 2. 63 DETECTOR RESPONSE (254 nm) DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark 3 50 40 30 20 10 0 TIME (MINUTES) Figure 6. Liquid chromatographic separation of GITC derivatized amines. Peaks: 1 = R,R-pseudoephedrine. 2=S,S-pseudoephedrine. 3=RoS-ephedrine, 4=S.R-ephedrine. 5=S-methamphetamine, 6=R-methamphetamine. Solvent system 3. 64 l/i_ i uvx i un ncorvnoc Clandestine Synthesis of Methamphetamine Derivatives 1 a - 1 40 30 20 10 TIME (minutes) Figure 7 A. Liquid chromatographic separation of GITC derivatized methamphetamines synthesized from ephedrines. 7A. A= S-methamphetamine synthesized from R.S-ephedrine. Solvent system 3. 65 254 nm DETECTOR RESPONSE DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark TIME ( minutes) Figure 7B. Liquid chromatographic separation of GITC derivatized methamphetamines synthesized from ephedrines. 7B. B= R-methamphetamine synthesized from SJR-ephedrine. Solvent system 3. 66 L^iwn nr^r\ ;n^r Clandestine Synthesis of Methamphetamine Derivatives TIME l minutes) Figure 1C. Liquid chromatographic separation of GITC derivatized methamphetamines synthesized from ephedrines. 1C. C=S-methamphetamine (1) and R-methamphetamine (2). Solvent system 3. 67 DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark 1 Figure 8. Liquid chromatographic separation of a GITC derivatized forensic samples from a clandestine laboratory. Peaks: l=S-methamphetamine, 2=R-methamphetamine. Solvent system 3. 68 DETECTOR RESPONSE (254 nm) Clandestine Synthesis of Methamphetamine Derivatives 1 Figure 9. Liquid chromatographic separation of a GITC derivatized forensic sample. Peak = R-methamphetamine. Solvent system 3. 69 DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark UJ CO Z o Ql CO LU cc cc o LU H LU Q 3 TIME (MINUTES) Figure 10. Liquid chromatographic separation of a GITC derivatized forensic sample. Peaks: l=R.S-ephedrine. 2=SiR-ephedrine, 3=S-methamphetamine, 4=R-methamphetamine. Solvent system 3. 70 Clandestine Synthesis of Methamphetamine Derivatives 1 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 TIME (MINUTES) Figure 11. Liquid chromatographic separation of a GITC derivatized forensic sample. Peaks: l=R,S-ephedrine, 2=S -methamphetamine, 3=R-methamphetamine. Solvent system 3. 71 DeRuiter, Noggle, and Clark CONCLUSION The studies outlined above illustrate the utility of HPLC in determining the composition and stereochemistry of clandestine drug samples. The PIT precolumn derivatization method is useful to yield derivatives of sample components that have good liquid chromatographic retention properties and high UV detectability. Thus this method is useful for efficient determination of sample composition. The GITC precolumn derivatization method is useful to yield diastereomeric derivatives of sample components that can readily be separated and identified, thus allowing for the determination of the stereochemistry of components of the drug sample. When used together, these methods provide an efficient means to identify drug samples of common origin, differentiate legitimate pharmaceutical products form illicitly manufactured compounds, and identify potentially toxic contaminants or reaction side products present in clandestinely manufactured amphetamine and methamphetamine drug samples. REFERNCES 1. Noggle, F. T.; DeRuiter, J.; Clark, C. R. J. chromatogr. Sci.. 1990, 28, 529. 2. Noggle, F. T.; Clark, C. R.; Davenport, T. W.; Coker, S. T. J. Assoc. Anal. Chem. 1985, 68, 1215. 3. Noggle, F. T.; DeRuiter, J.; Clark, C. R. Anal. Chem. 1986, 58, 1643. 4. Noggle, F. T.; DeRuiter, J.; Clark, C. R. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 1987, 25, 38. 5. Clark, C. R.; Wells, M. M. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 1978, 16, 332. 6. Lawrence, J. F.; Frei, R. W. Chemical Derivatization in Liquid Chromatography, Journal of Chromatography Library, Vol. 7. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1976. 7. Noggle, F. T.; Clark, C. R. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 1984, 67, 687. 8. Clark, C. R.; Barksdale, J. M. Anal. Chem. 1984, 56, 958. 72 Notes INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Editorial Policy: Publication of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms can be obtained from Dr. Larry R. Boots, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294. Subject matter should address original research in one of the discipline sections of the Academy: Biological Sciences; Chemistry; Geology; Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning; Physics and Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education; Social Sciences; Health Sciences; Engineering and Computer Science; and Anthropology. 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LIBRARY Received on: 06-24-93 5. 06(76. 1 ) B VOLUME 64 APRIL 1 993 COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Aerial view of the recently completed Materials Science and Optics Buildings at the University of Alabama in Huntsville, site of the 70th Annual Meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science. Cover provided by: Patrick Karigan, Office of University Relations, the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL. THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE VOLUME 64 APRIL! 993 NO. 2 EDITOR: James T. Bradley, Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn University, AL 36849 ARCHMST: C. M. Peterson, Department of Botany, and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849 EDITORIAL BOARD: Douglas Watson, Chairman, Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 James McClintock, Department of Biology. University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Lawrence C. 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AUBURN UNIVERSITY BIRMINGHAM-SOUTHERN COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA TROY STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA TUSKEGEE UNIVERSITY MOBILE COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA SAMFORD UNIVERSITY CONTENTS ABSTRACTS Biological Sciences ..... Chemistry ...... Geology ...... Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning Physics and Mathematics .... Industry and Economics .... Science Education ..... Social Sciences ..... Health Sciences ..... Engineering and Computer Science Anthropology . . . . . MINUTES OF ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING 73 105 114 118 125 129 141 143 146 154 162 168 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 2, April, 1993. ABSTRACTS Papers presented at the 70th Annual Meeting The University of Alabama Huntsville, Alabama March 24-27, 1993 BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES STREAM BIOASSESSMENT AS INDEPENDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS FOR UNDER¬ GRADUATES. Cliff Webber, Matthew Floyd, Curry Dowdle and Matthew Allison. Dept, of Fisheries, Auburn University. Independent research projects were conducted by three seniors, a biology major and two environmental science majors. The students had never conducted stream bioassessments prior to these projects. The projects included assessment of nonpoint source impacts to stream quality from strip mining, agricultural runoff and urban runoff. Rapid bioassessment procedures suggested by the U.S. EPA were utilized by each student. Students learned to identify macroinvertebrates to the family level. The same variables were measured in impacted streams and in a reference (undisturbed) stream from the same ecoregion. Based on percent comparability with the reference stream, biological integrity in impacted streams was determined. Once students completed their bioassessment, macroinvertebrate samples were identified to the generic and/or specific level by an experienced biologist, and biological integrity was recalculated. Stream quality, as measured by the students using family-level identification of macroinvertebrates, was comparable to that measured from the more detailed identifications. TEACHING SCIENCE IN "INCLUDED" SETTINGS. Joseph D, George, Counseling and Clinical Programs, and Ernest D. Riggsby, Curriculum and Instruction, Columbus College, Columbus, GA 31907. "Inclusion" refers to an instructional setting in which children with special needs and children with disabilities are taught in regular education classrooms alongside gifted and "normal" children. To date, science teachers Ijave had little responsibility for education of children with special needs and children with disabilities. "Inclusion" will change this. It is here to stay. Science teachers at all levels of public schooling will be functioning in "included" settings. 73 Abstracts INDUCTION OF MICRONUCLEI BY THERAPEUTIC ALKYL IMIDATES IN CYTOKINESIS-ARRESTED CHINESE HAMSTER CELLS. S. M. Torrence. V. B. Richardson, M. Abdullah, M. and B. Das Vishnu, Department of Biology, Tuskegee University, AL 36088. The micronucleus (MN) assay is a widely used short-term test for the detection of putative clastogenic and aneugenic agents. Micronuclei may arise from chromatid fragments, the condensation of lagging acentric chromosomes or entire chromosomes. We employed the cytokinesis-block micronucleus (CBMN) technique developed by Fenech and Morley (1985) to assess chromosome damage induced by methyl acetimidate (MAI) and its bifunctional derivative, dimethyl adipimidate (DMA), in Chinese hamster Don cells. Our objectives were to establish dose response curves for binucleate cell induction by Cytochalasin B and to determine the relative frequency of MN in imidate-treated cells. Don cells were cultured 24 hours then exposed to imidates for 1 hour prior to reincubation in medium supplemented with Cytochalasin B. Analysis of the data suggests that acute exposure of proliferating cells to the lysine-specific alkyl imidates does not increase the frequency of MN in cytokinesis-arrested Don cells. These findings are consistent with the observation that the MN assay may underestimate the total chromosomal damage in cells exposed to agents known to perturb cellular proliferation kinetics. (Supported by NIH S06-GM08091). CHARACTERIZATION OF FOLLICLE- SPECIFIC PROTEIN IN A STICK INSECT. B. H. Estridge and J. T. Bradley, Dept. Zoology & Wildlife Science, Auburn Univ. , AL 36849. A. Cecchettini and F. Giorgi, Dept, of Biomedicine, Univ. Pisa, Italy. During vitellogenesis, the fat body of Carausius morosus synthesizes and secretes two multisubunit vitellogenins (VG) which become sequestered by terminal follicles of the panoistic ovarioles . Separation of egg yolk polypeptides by SDS-PAGE reveals five vitellin (VG-derived) polypeptides with molecular weights ranging from 60 kD to 180 kD and a sixth polypeptide (A4) at 93 kD. A4 is not detectable in hemolymph proteins separated by SDS-PAGE and stained with Coomassie brilliant blue, suggesting that A4 might be a follicle - specif ic protein (FSP) . A rabbit polyclonal antiserum and mouse monoclonal antibodies prepared against A4 were used in immunoblots in conjunction with fluorographs of polyacrylamide gels to analyze the polypeptides synthesized and secreted by fat body, whole staged follicles, and follicle cell layers isolated from staged follicles. In vivo and in vitro data indicate that A4 is not produced by the fat body but is synthesized and secreted by follicular epithelium of all stages of vitellogenic follicles. This characterizes A4 as a FSP. YP A4 is the only sulfated follicle polypeptide. In vivo incorporation of 32P- orthophosphate into the major egg yolk polypeptides showed that all five VG polypeptides are phosphoproteins ; however, no detectable 32P was incorporated into A4. Supported by Alabama NSF/EPSCoR grant #RII - 8610669 and the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. 74 Abstracts SPECIES DIVERSITY OF BENTHIC MACRO INVERTEBRATES NEAR THE HEADWATERS OF THE CAHABA RIVER. Debra Moore and Ken R. Marion, Dept, of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Benthic macroinvertebrates were collected bimonthly from five sites on the Cahaba River in St. Clair, Jefferson and Shelby Counties, Alabama, from July 1991 through April 1992. Comparable riffle habitats were sampled using a Surber square-foot sampler for 10 thirty-second intervals with vigorous agitation of the substrate. Samples were cleaned through a U.S. standard No. 30 sieve, with the remaining detritus and organisms preserved in 70% ethanol for later sorting and identification. Organisms were identified to the lowest practical taxon. Shannon-Weiner species diversity indices were calculated at the family level. Results indicated that all sites showed relatively high diversity. Spring and summer indices were slightly higher. Community structure at all sites initially reflected organisms primarily found in relatively unimpacted waters, with ephemeropterans and tr ichopterans abundant. One site affected by sedimentation from nearby construction showed a decrease in diversity and number of species over time and an increase in organisms more tolerant of impacted waters. The preliminary data provided by this study will be helpful in serving as a biological baseline for monitoring long-term changes in both water quality and habitat integrity in a region of the Cahaba experiencing increasing urban encroachment . ESTROGENS IN ECHINODERMS. . . ? Gene A. Hines. Stephen A. Watts and ‘Peter A. Voogt. Department of Biology, U.A.B., Birmingham, AL 35294. ‘Laboratory of Chemical Animal Physiology, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Echinoderms contain a variety of steroid hormones, including androgens and estrogens, which have well-known regulatory functions in higher vertebrates. The endogenous presence and production of androgens in echinoderms is well-documented, however the production of estrogens in echinoderms is unclear. Early studies utilized bioassays to demonstrate the presence of "estrogenic" compounds in several species of echinoderms. Later studies detected immunoreactive estrogens in several asteroids and echinoids. Recently, the presence of estradiol in the asteroid Asterias rubetis was confirmed utilizing gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Based on these studies and many physiological investigations in vitro and in vivo, the endogenous presence of estrogens in echinoderms is accepted. However, despite numerous metabolic tracer studies, the actual biosynthesis of estrogens in echinoderm tissues has remained an endocrinological enigma for many years. We have utilized radiolabeled steroid precursors and optimized techniques for investigation of steroid metabolism in vitro. Our studies have shown that echinoderms from the Northern Gulf of Mexico all synthesize a variety of androgens including androstenedione and testosterone. These androgens are metabolic precursors for the production of estrone and estradiol. Utilizing thin layer chromatography with multiple chromatographic solvent systems and product derivitizations we have demonstrated the conversion of radiolabeled androgen precursors to estrone and, tentatively, estradiol in somatic and gametic tissues of several asteroid species and in an ophiuroid, echinoid and holothuroid. Definitive identification (recrystallization to constant specific activity) is pending. This is the first indication that echinoderms may actually synthesize the estrogens which are present and physiologically relevant. Supported by NSF EPSCoR grant EHR9 108761. 75 Abstracts A PRELIMINARY BIOTIC SURVEY OF VILLAGE CREEK, JEFFERSON CO., AL. Roy D. Shaddix, Frank A. Romano and R. David Whetstone, Dept of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Village Creek is a small stream with its headwaters near East Lake and the mouth at Bayview Lake in Jefferson County, AL. This creek flows westerly through both municipal and industrial sections of Birmingham. Inputs into the stream are from natural sources, indus¬ trial and municipal runoff, storm drains and sewage treatment plants. The creek banks have been altered by being dredged, channeled to decrease flood problems and portions are now found in tunnels beneath streets and buildings. Some sections are somewhat pristine (site 2) while others are heavily trash littered. An assessment of water quality, the benthic macroinvertebrate community and a wetland delineation was performed during the fall of 1992 at 4 sites. The following water quality parameters were assessed (averages) ; tempera¬ ture v (24 . 2 °C) , NHg, (0.62 mg/1), NH^ (0.65 mg/1), C02 (12.5 mg/1), Cl (41.25 mg/1), turbidity (0.0 NTU) , and pH (7.6). Benthic invertebrates were collected employing the EPA's rapid biological assessment methodology and a cumulative index was calculated for each site and a rating was determined. Site 1 had a few group 1 animals and scored a fair rating while sites 2-4 were poor. Wetland delineation was determined by a plant (several obligate and facultative species) , visual clue, and soil analysis (Munsell's Soil Color 10 YR) . Overall, the streams health was fair to poor. BIOTIC SURVEY: A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF JONES BRANCH, CLEBURNE CO., ALABAMA. Franci ne Hutchinson . Frank A. Romano, and R. David Whetstone, Dept, of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL, 36265. A preliminary biotic survey of Jones Branch reveals a nearly pristine stream that may serve as a microcosmic stream model. An initial survey was performed in Oct-Nov and a second survey was com¬ pleted in Feb-Mar. Water chemical analysis was determined using HACH Test Kit Model AL-36B; results for indicator substances were within EPA-acceptable ranges. Microbial testing, using Difco lactose and EC broths in 18mmX150mm sterile tubes fitted with Durham gas collection tubes, showed low to non-existent levels of coliforms, specifically Escherichia coli . Benthic invertebrates and algal samples were collected with standard equipment and evaluated using a dissecting scope and identification keys, then rated according to EPA rapid biological assessment methods. Results further indicated excellent stream health. Non-wetland status of soil sites was determined using a standard soil probe; soil samples were matched with Munsell 1 s Soil Color Chart. Plant communities were determined by site surveys and collections that were prepared using standard botanical methods, identification keys, and jurisdictional wetland criteria. Animal species diversity was estimated using species-specific sign and censusing methods. 76 Abstracts INTRACELLULAR LETHAL EXPRESSION OF THE pSa NUCLEASE GENE IN Escherichia coli. Wee-Yao Ng and A. K. Bej, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. The nuclease ( nuc ) gene from a number of bacterial species such as Staphylococcus aureus, Serratia mercescens, and Aeromonas hydrophila code for nuclease enzymes which exhibit extracellular DNAse activity. These nuclease enzymes contain a short signal-sequence at their -NH2 terminal ends which is responsible for the extracellular transport of the proteins. Recently, such a nuc gene has been characterized from an IncW group plasmid, pSa. In an effort to investigate intracellular expression of the nuc gene in E. coli, two oligonucleotide primers were selected to clone the pSa nuc gene without its signal-sequence by PCR DNA amplification method. The amplified nuc gene was then fused with an inducible Operator system in pSE 420 plasmid. The intracellular expression of the cloned pSa nuc gene lacking its signal-sequence was tested in E. coli by addition of IPTG and trace amounts of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the growth media. The induction caused cell death due to the damage of the cellular nucleic acids by the nuclease enzyme, which was determined by the decline in cell numbers from 2 x 106 to 1.5 x 104 between 0- 7h time period. The expression of the nuclease enzyme in E. coli was confirmed by western blot analysis using antisera raised against the nuclease enzyme from S. aureus. Also, the intracellular stability of the nuclease enzyme was ~2h as determined by ELISA assay. This model of programmed cell death function by the intracellular lethal expression of the nuclease enzyme can be utilized to engineer controllable, safer microorganisms for efficient removal of hazardous chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides, and other toxic wastes in the environment. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG DOMESTIC POPULATIONS OF ESTRILDID FINCHES (POEPHILA) . Dept, of Biology, Jacksonville State Univ. Jacksonville, AL 36265. Benj ie G. Blair and Jeri W. Higginbotham. Four species of Estrildid finches, indigenous to Australia, (Poephila gouldiae , P . bicheniovii , P . acuticauda and P^ guttata) were examined electrophoretically to determine genetic relationships. Poephila gouldiae has characteristics which are atypical of the genus. Because of that, it has been segregated into the monotypic genus, Chloebia, by some workers. Individuals of domestic populations were sampled non-invasively by collecting developing blood feathers as a tissue source. A total of fifteen enzyme systems were assayed and evaluated yielding five enzyme systems that provided consistently reliable results. One additional enzyme was found to be scorable but was only included late in the study. Domestic zebra finches (P . guttata) exhibited a great deal of polymorphism relative to reports of other avian taxa. Wild populations, when tested, should be expected to express even greater polymorphism. Cluster analysis, using the enzyme data, support the inclusion of P^ gouldiae into the genus Poephila . 77 Abstracts EFFECT OF COMMON CULTURE MEDIA ON THE GROWTH OF TWO -MOUTHED TETRAHYMENA (CILIOPHORA) . G. Christopher & C.A. Sundermann, Department of Zoology & Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, AL 36849. Mutants of Tetrahymena are not uncommon. The exo" mutant SB255 of T. thermophila has defects in mucocyst formation and docking. Three common culture media (proteose peptone, Medium 357, and yeast) were analyzed for total carbon, nitrogen, and inorganic elements. Cultures were grown at 28°C and fixed in 4 % formalin at various times. Cells were counted and examined using Nomarski interference contrast microscopy. SB255 cultures grown in Medium 357 consisted of a mixed population of cells with either two mouths (2M) or one mouth. Immunofluorescence and scanning electron microscopy were used to examine the aberrant cellular morphology of the 2M cells. Cultures from the same original stock grown in Medium 357 (SBm) and in 1 % proteose peptone (SBpp) had different percentages of 2M cells in 1 , 2, 3, & 4 day old cultures. SBm had increasing percentages of 2M cells over the 4 day culture period. When grown in 1% yeast medium both SBpp and SBm cultures had increased percentages of 2M cells over a 4 day culture period. When grown in 0.1, 0.5, or 1% yeast medium for 2 days SBm cultures had more 2M cells in 1% than in either 0.1 or 0.5% yeast medium. After 4 days in 0.5% yeast SBm cell counts approximated those of 2 day 1% yeast cultures but the percent 2M cells remained similar to 2 day 0.5% yeast cultures. SBm cultures grown in Medium 357 or 1% yeast medium for 2 days had over 10 times the 2M cells in the inoculum while those in 1% proteose peptone had only two times the 2M cells in the inoculum. Phagocytosis of carmine red appeared to occur via both oral structures in the 2M cells. These findings suggest that both mouths are functional and that enriched media promote the growth of the two mouthed cells. This work was supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation (DCB- 9018047 ) . KING HELMET SNAIL PREDATION ON SAND DOLLARS AT SAN SALVADOR, BAHAMAS. James B. McCIintock and Ken R. Marion, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. We report the first quantitative observation of predation by the King Helmet snail Cassis tuberosa on the six-holed sand dollar Leodia sexiesperforata. Ninety percent of snails randomly examined on a soft sandy bottom site (4 m depth) at San Salvador, Bahamas, were feeding on sand dollars. Moreover, 95% of a randomly sampled population of sand dollars with spines intact (no dead clean tests) had evidence of recent snail predation. Snails apparently use their radula-equipped protrusible proboscis to drill a single 3-4 mm diameter hole in the oral side of the test of each sand dollar. The hole is drilled towards the anterior portion of the test, ensuring access of the proboscis to the soft internal tissues. Size- selective predation was not evident, as almost all sand dollars had drill holes regardless of test diameter. The results of this study indicate that populations of L. sexiesperforata can suffer high levels of mortality as a result of predation by C. tuberosa. Supported in part by the Bahamian Field Station, San Salvador, Bahamas. 78 Abstracts BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE CONTROL OF ZEBRA MUSSELS. Gerald L. Mackie, Department of Zoology, University of Guelph, GUELPH, Ontario NIG 2W1. Biological characteristics of zebra mussels, Dreissena polvmorpha. that need to be considered when developing control stratagies include: (i) shell form; (ii) mode of life; (iii) reproductive potential; (iv) larval life cycle; (v) population dynamics; (vi) distribution, (vii) dispersal mechanisms; (viii) physiological requirements and tolerances; (ix) potential impact on the ecosystem; and (x) impact on society and the economy. Knowledge of its body form is important because it is not only necessary to know what the adult looks like, but how it differs from other nuisance species, especially the closely related "quagga mussel" and the brackish water, Mytilopsis leucophaeta. as well as the Asiatic clam, Corbicula fluminea. The zebra mussel is strongly byssate enabling it live on almost any hard surface but several factors, including material composition, water velocity, and temperature, affect its ability to adhere to hard surfaces. Physical and chemical characteristics of the water must be examined in order to determine the potential for infestation at a facility. Minima and maxima temperatures greatly affect the periods of reproduction and settlement, as well as the growth rates of adults. Most adults live for about 2 years but growth rates vary greatly even within the Great Lakes. Variations will be even greater in the southern United States because of higher average temperatures. Standing crops as high as 500,000 m 2 were reached in parts of the Great Lakes. At some sites (e.g. Lake St. Clair), population peak densities occurred about five 5 years after their introduction. High temperatures in warmer climates may not only limit population densities but the period of time needed to reach peak densities. Infestations are interfering with the normal metabolism of native unionid clams and there is potential of the unionid clam populations being reduced or even eliminated from major lakes and rivers in which zebra mussels thrive. Zebra mussels will also infest Asiatic clams which will act as a substrate for zebra mussels in many facilities. Although zebra mussels themselves will help to limit densities of Asiatic clams within facilities, control stratagies must include those for Asiatic clams. The control options employed must be compatable with environmental standards for municipalities, states, and federal agencies in order to keep socio¬ economic impacts to a minimum. PHYSIOLOGICAL ACROSOME REACTIONS IN CAPUT EPID1DYMAL SPERM. Beth E. Biegler, David J. Aarons and Gary R. Poirier, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Murine caput sperm are considered immature and thus unable to fertilize oocytes. It has been shown, however, that these sperm, if incubated under capacitating conditions and washed, will bind to whole zonae. Capacitated cauda sperm not only bind to zonae but undergo zonae- induced acrosome reactions, while caput sperm failed to acrosome react. These caput sperm were incubated under capacitating conditions, but not washed. Since washing increased the binding capacity of caput sperm, it was of interest to determine if washing would increase their ability to acrosome react in response to a zonae stimulus. It is shown here that incubated, washed caput sperm will acrosome react in response to both solubilized zonae and immunoaggregat ion of a zona binding site. In addition, the material removed from caput sperm by washing will block induced acrosome reactions of cauda sperm. The data indicate that murine caput epididymal sperm are able to be capacitated and to undergo a physiologically- induced acrosome reaction. 79 Abstracts MECHANISM FOR LONG-TERM CUMULATIVE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF EM RADIATION. T. E. Bearden, A.D.A.S., 2311 Big. Cove Rd., Huntsville, AL 35801. EM potentials, not force fields, are the primary causes of EM phenomena. The two major postulates of the classical EM bioeffects model are falsified, and a corrected model presented. Whittaker/Ziol- kowski (WZ) decomposition of the scalar EM potential yields a harmonic structure of bidirectional EM wave pairs, with sum and product sets, used by the living organism for operations of mind, thought, long-term memory, and deep cellular control. Both a species quantum potential (SQP) and a personal quantum potential (PQP) exist in the body. Popp’s master cellular control system (MCCS) operates in the PQP. Newton's third law requires that the common photon interaction be a graviton (photon/antiphoton pair) interaction. Antiphotons from the organism's sustained low-level stress interactions provide slowly cumulating stress-relieving WZ signals in the PQP/MCCS. When these signals breach the quantum threshold, weak EM currents are provided to the affected cells as dedifferentiation orders. Sustained low-level EM radiation, contaminants, and pollutants in the blood fluid interfere with its H-bonding interaction with hemoglobin, resulting in sustained cellular oxygen deficiency. The most affected cells eventually receive feedback signals to dedifferentiate back toward their anaerobic ances¬ try. The first step, partial separation from the MCCS, causes loss of central PQP control of growth of those cells, and other changes, resulting in cancer. Irradiation by WZ counter-structures can cause cellular redifferentiation, total remission of the cancer, and prevent¬ ion of metastasis, as shown by Priore, Pautrizel, et al under rigorous protocols. The "extended EM WZ antidote" is a totally new therapeutic modality for serious scientific investigation. BIOTIC SURVEY OF CANE CREEK, CALHOUN COUNTY, AL (PRELIMINARY) Loretta L. Weninegar , Dept of Biology, JSU, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Dr. Frank A. Romano and Dr. R. David Whetstone, Dept of Biology, JSU, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Preliminary analyses including water chemistry and benthic macroinvertebrates of Cane Creek (Calhoun County, AL) were performed in Fall 1992 and Winter 1993 to determine the general health of the stream. Data was collected utilizing EPA standard methodology for rapid biological assessment and Hach's water quality kit. Values for NH3, CO2, CI2, DO, CaC03, NO2, pH, temperature, and turbidity were determined at 6 sites from headwaters to the mouth. Macro¬ invertebrates, including indicator species, at the same 6 sites were also collected. The chemical analysis yielded the following averages for the stream: NH3 -0.01 mg/L, CO2 -12.0 mg/L, CI2 -20.0 mg/L, DO -9.5 mg/L, CaC03 -119.7 mg/L, NO2 -0.24 mg/L, pH -7.5, temperature -15.6 C, and turbidity -0.08 NTU. The benthic macroinvertebrate study yielded a cumulative index value of 10.9. Based on both the water chemistry analysis and the benthic study the stream's health is rated as fair and it degrades from headwaters to mouth. 80 Abstracts EMBRYONIC CHICK PANCREATIC ORGAN CULTURE SYSTEM: VIABILITY AND AMYLASE RELEASE. Connie A. Meacham. Adriel D. Johnson, Nina S. German and Selena S. Williams, Dept, of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899. Jacqueline U. Johnson, Dept. of Food and Animal Industries, Alabama A & M University, Normal, AL 35762. Studies were conducted using an embryonic chick pancreatic whole organ culture system to characterize lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, amylase (AMYL) release, and histological integrity over time. Organ cultures were prepared using 18 day old embryonic chicks. LDH and AMYL activities in the media during 2,4,8,12,16,24, and 48 hours incubation periods were examined. Total LDH release ranged from 47 to 290 U/ml and LDH release per unit weight of tissue ranged from 3 to 20 U/ml/mg, during the incubation periods. Total AMYL release and AMYL release per unit weight of tissue ranged between 714 to 10,087 U/L and 48 to 694 U/L/mg, respectively, over the incubation times. Under the conditions of this study, the embryonic pancreatic tissue remains histologically intact and functional as measured by LDH and AMYL activity in the medium during the incubation periods. This whole organ culture system may serve as a functional model for the study of cellular changes in pancreatic function by various neurotransmitters and hormonal agents known to alter secretion in vivo. DESCRIPTIONS OF A GRAVITATIONALLY INDUCED OSCILLATORY MOTION FROM NEWTON THROUGH EINSTEIN. Govind K. Menon and J.H. Young, Dept, of Physics, Univ. A1 . at B'ham, Birmingham, AL. 35294. The gravitationally induced oscillatory motion of a test mass along the symmetry axis of a massive ring has been examined from a number of approaches for motion near the plane of the ring. Descriptions of the motion based on (A) purely Newtonian, (B) special relativistic dynamics plus Newtonian gravity, (C) special relativistic dynamics plus pseudo-Newtonian gravity, (D) weak field general relativity, and (E) exact general relativistic treatments will be presented. The roles of relativistic dynamics and energy density on the oscillatory frequency in the escalating levels of the description will be presented and their significance will be discussed. 81 Abstracts ADAPTIVE COLD TOLERANCE RESPONSE (CTR) IN Vibrio cholerae. Kiran Chava and A. K. Bej, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Vibrio cholerae , the causative agent for cholera, has been reported to enter into a viable but non-culturable state during cold seasons. The adaptation and survival of this bacterium in cold temperatures is due to physiological and metabolic changes within the cell. To determine the CTR, an exponentially grown culture of V. cholerae was transferred to a M9 minimal medium containing 35S-methionine, and incubated at 37° C, 25° C, 18 °C, or 10°C for 15 min or 60 min, to radiolabel total cellular protein. Following incubation, total protein from the cold-adapted and unadapted cells of V. cholerae were subjected to electrophoretic separation in a 17.5% SDS-PAGE, and autoradiography was performed to determine the protein profile. A significant decrease in the synthesis of a 24 kDa protein and marked increase in a 23 kDa protein were observed. In an attempt to clone the gene that encodes cold-inducible protein in V. cholerae two oligonucleotide primers were designed from the reported nucleotide sequence of the cold-inducible cspA gene in Escherichia coli. The PCR amplified DNA of molecular weight approximately 0.350 kb was cloned in a pCR 2000 plasmid vector, and DNA sequence analysis was performed. The deduced nucleotide sequence of the amplified DNA fragment showed significant homologies with the E. coli cspA gene indicating the presence of a cspA-Wkt gene in V. cholerae. Further analyses of the cold-inducible proteins and the underlying genetic control for adaptation in the cold environment may help to understand the possible physiological changes during the viable but non-culturable state of this pathogen. CHARACTERIZATION OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES PRODUCED AGAINST TETRAHYMENA LWOFFI CILIA. B. Estridge. A. Southwood, M. Mayo, and C. Sundermann. Dept. Zoology & Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, AL 35849 USA. Mouse monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) produced against Tetrahvmena lwof f i cilia were characterized using immunocytochemical and immunoblotting techniques. T\_ lwof f i . T . pyriformis (ATCC 30005 and 30327), and T\_ thermophila (ATCC 30008 and an exo mutant SB255, a gift of E. Orias) were used to test MAb reactivity by enzyme - immunostaining and immunofluorescence. Two general staining patterns were observed: 1) species - specif ic staining of cilia T\. lwof f i (three MAbs), and 2) staining of somatic and oral ciliary structures in all five strains (five MAbs). The three LW species - specif ic MAbs reacted differently with immunoblots of reduced and non-reduced ciliary polypeptides, indicating that the reactive epitope is altered by reducing agents. The species- specific MAbs did not react with T\_ lwof f i cytoskeletal preps, indicating that these MAbs are specific for a surface membrane antigen. The five MAbs that reacted with cilia of all strains reacted also with cytoskeletal preps and with bands that co -migrated with ciliary tubulins in SDS-PAGE. Only three of these MAbs reacted with purified calf brain tubulin. Supported by the National Science Foundation (Grant DCB- 9018047) and the Alabama EPSCoR Program in Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology (RII - 8610669) . 82 Abstracts ESTROGEN EFFECTS ON EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR (EGF) LEVELS. Katherine A. Mousel, D. M. Moriarity, and P. S. Campbell, Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama in Huntsville, AL 35899. Since human saliva changes composition during the reproductive cycle (J. Dent. Res. 51:1212, 1972), the possibility that salivary glands may be an estrogen target organ was investigated. Using the rat as a model, it is evident that salivary gland tissue exhibits a specific estrogen receptor which can be modulated by exogenous and endogenous estradiol. It has since become apparent that EGF, rather than estrogen, is the uterotrophic factor in the estrogenized uterus and that estrogen acts to promote uterine growth through induction of the EGF receptor in uterine cells (J. Biol. Chem. 260:9820, 1985). Since the EGF-rich submandibular salivary gland has the greatest concentration of estrogen receptor and since estrogen serves to orchestrate dependent events of the female reproductive cycle through temporal stimulation of hormone receptor inductions and hormone secretions, we hypothesized that estrogen-mediated EGF release from the submandibular gland might be another critical link in the multifaceted physiological regulatory loop exhibited by estrogenic hormone. Thus, serum and submandibular gland EGF levels at time intervals after estrogen administration were measured by RIA. Because of assay sensitivity limits and low serum EGF levels in females, adult male rats were used. A time coincident reciprocal relationship exists between serum and glandular EGF levels suggestive of an estrogen- regulated EGF release process. Consequently, we suspect that endogenous estrogen can serve to regulate serum EGF levels in concert with the appearance of uterine EGF receptor in the stimulation of uterine growth. (Supported by N.I.H. grant #1R15HD26887-01A1 . ) FETU1N : A ZONA MIMIC. B. George, B. Biegler, D. Aarons, G.R. Poirier, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at B'ham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Fetuin, a complex glycoprotein with antitrypsin activity, has biological features similar to ZP3 . ZP3 , one of the three glyco¬ proteins of the murine zona pellucida plays a major role in the fertilization process. It functions to bind sperm and to induce the acrosome reaction in the bound cells. ZP3 triggers the acrosome reaction in the bound cells by aggregation of the zona binding sites. We show here by indirect immunofluorescence that fetuin, like ZP3 , binds in the acrosomal cap region and will induce capacitated cells to acrosome react. Furthermore the same proteinase inhibitor blocks ZP3 and fetuin binding suggesting that ZP3 and fetuin bind to the same sites on the sperm. To demonstrate that fetuin induces acrosome reactions by aggregation, pronase- treated fetuin was added to capacitated sperm. These sperm acrosome reacted when the bound fetuin was aggregated by a polyclonal anti-fetuin antiserum. These data indicate that fetuin can be used as a substitute for ZP3 . Zona mimics are useful for studying mechanisms for sperm binding and acrosome reactions and may at least, on a theoretical basis, be used to induce acrosome reactions prematurely reducing the possibility of successful fertilization. 83 Abstracts BIOSYNTHESIS OF SEX STEROIDS IN THE ECHINOID LYTECHINUS VARIEGATUS (LAMARCK). A.S. Hasan. G.A. Hines and S.A. Watts, Dept, of Biology, U.A.B., Birmingham, AL 35294 During the last twenty years much of the research in echinoderm steroid biochemistry has involved asteroids only. Little is known about the steroid biochemistry of other major groups of echinoderms. In what represents only the second study of steroid biosynthesis in an echinoid, L . variegatus were collected from mixed grass beds in St. Joe’s Bay, Florida, during November, 1992, following their apparent late summer spawning season. Steroid biosynthesis was compared among various tissue types in vitro. Isolated cells and mixed tissue preparations were incubated with tritiated androstenedione. Steroid products were then extracted and identified using thin layer chromatography and a radioisotope imaging scanner. In preliminary experiments, all tissues examined had the ability to convert the precursor to other steroid products. The rates of conversion of the radioactive precursor were highest in the gut followed by the body wall, gonads and coelomocytes. The major product produced initially in all tissues was testosterone. Other androgen products include epiandrosterone, 5a-DHT, and 5 a-androstanedione. In addition, the limited synthesis of esterified androgens, estrogens, and water soluble steroid conjugates were presumably observed, although positive identification has not been accomplished. Limited conversion was seen in the coelomocytes. No obvious sex-specific differences in steroid metabolism were seen; this may be related to their post-spawning stage of reproduction. Further studies will provide tissue-specific rates of precursor conversion and identify other unknown steroids and steroidal derivatives. Supported by NSF EPSCoR grant EHR 9108761. SEASONAL DIETARY HABITS OF THE NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO IN SOUTHERN ALABAMA. Lisa L. White and David H. Nelson, Dept, of Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. The stomach contents of 151 specimens of the nine- banded armadillo ( Dasypus novemcinctus ) from southern Alabama and the surrounding area were analyzed to determine seasonal dietary habits. Armadillos were found to be opportunistic feeders, consuming mainly insects in all seasons of the year. Additional food items included other invertebrates (mostly arthropods) and some vertebrates. The most important groups of insects in armadillo diets were represented by Order Hymenoptera (ants). Order Isoptera (termites). Order Coleoptera (beetles), and Order Diptera (flies). Minor food items included caterpillars, grasshoppers, crickets, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, earthworms, lizards, and snakes. Some wild fruits were also consumed. Very few seasonal trends were apparent in the diets of armadillos in the study area. Differences in the results of this study and the results of previous dietary surveys appear to reflect the abundances of potential prey items and the availabilities of these prey items to armadillos. 84 Abstracts THE EFFECT OF HYPERTONIC DILUENTS AND RATE OF THAW ON MOTILITY CHARACTERISTICS AND POST-THAW VIABILITY OF FROZEN BUCK SPERMATOZOA. Jacqueline U. Johnson. Gerald Frank, Jeffery Dorsey, Dept, of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL. 35762. Adriel D. Johnson, Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899 . Cryopreservation techniques were employed to examine the effect of different media and buffers on Caprine (buck) semen. Buck semen was processed for freezing using two types of extenders (skim milk and Tris-based) . Each extender varied in composition and concentration of cryoprotectant agent (glycerol) . Aliquots of semen were treated with different extenders and processed by cooling gradually to 5°C; further dilution, equilibration and packaging of semen in 0.5 ml straws. Freezing was done in liquid nitrogen ( LN2 ) vapor and final storage in LN2 (-196QC) . Semen was evaluated before freezing and again post-thaw to look at % motility and post-thaw viability with the rate of thaw considered as a factor. Based on the results of this study, there is suggestion that the type of extender affects sperm survival, and rate of thaw (waterbath: 3 5°C-2 0 sec vs. 35°C-65 sec) affects % sperm motility. Further studies are necessary to determine the relative efficacy of any one medium and to establish repeatability of procedures. PARASPORAL INCLUSIONS OF BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS SUBSPECIES FINITIMUS . LaJoyce H . Debro, Dept of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Bacillus thurinqiensis subspecies f initimus produces two parasporal inclusions with unique antigenic properties. The major inclusion is formed within the exosporium and a minor, small parasporal body is formed outside the exosporium. Both inclusions are sporulation specific products but antigens for the enclosed inclusion appear earlier during sporulation than antigens specific for the free inclusion. The enclosed inclusion is hydrophobic and spores plus enclosed inclusions persist in an aqueous environment after free inclusions have settled. The enclosed inclusion is produced only when a resident plasmid of 98md is present. Transfer of this plasmid into B^ cereus resulted in transformants that produced hydrophobic exosporium enclosed inclusions. These results lead to the attractive hypothesis that subspecies f initimus is a candidate for donating hydrophobicity genes that can control the environmental distribution of parasporal inclusions of strains of Bacilli. This work was supported by a Faculty Research Grant provided by Jacksonville State University. 85 Abstracts ECOLOGY OF TWO NATURAL POPULATIONS OF ELIMIA ACUTOCARINATA, LEA (MOLLUSCA: GASTROPODA) AT CAVE SPRING, GA. Frank A. Romano , Dept of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Two populations of Elimia acutocarinata were discovered at Cave Spring, GA living in the effluent of a freshwater spring (Cave Spring Pond and creek-CS) and in a normal watershed stream (Little Cedar Creek-CC) . Environmental parameters of CS are considerably different than CC especially with respect to water temperatures, since this water is warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer. In 1920-21 the city of Cave Spring built a swimming pool in CS effectively isolating the CS population. Considering these differences and that temperatures are highly correlated to an animal's physiology, one would expect the populations might show life history variations. Plotting shell length measurements versus time of collection for both populations reveals that this animal is biennial, living up to three years of reproducing in their second year. Juveniles hatch at approximately 0.755 mm and grow continuously becoming adults at approximately 7 mm in length, attained during their 2nd year of growth. CS juveniles grow (mm/day) at a rate of 0.043 during the summer and fall and falls to 0.03 during the winter while adults averaged 0.001. CC juveniles growth rate (mm/day) is 0.46 during their first summer and 0.01 during the winter. CS adults are bivoltine reproducing in both spring and fall while CC adults are univoltine, reproducing only in the spring of each year. Fecundity (average #eggs/adult) of the snails also differs between populations. CS adults produce 6.07 eggs/adult and 9.25 during their two reproduc¬ tive periods while CC adults produce 8.82 during their single reproductive period. THE EFFECTS OF COPPER NITRATE ON GROWTH, FOOD CONSUMPTION, EGG MASS DEPOSITION, AND EMBRYOGENESIS IN THE PULMONATE SNAIL PHYSELLA CUBENSIS. fi. Hart. S. Archie, D.L. Thomas and J.B. McClintock, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Physella cubensis exposed to a variety of concentrations of copper nitrate showed both acute and chronic responses. Juveniles and adults exposed to high (0.05 %) and medium-high (0.01%) concentrations of copper nitrate suffered complete mortality within 3 days. Food consumption and growth of individuals exposed to medium low (0.005%) levels of copper nitrate were reduced when compared to snails exposed to low (0.001%) levels or control treatments. Moreover, mature snails exposed to medium-low levels of copper nitrate produced only half the number of egg masses as individuals exposed to low levels or water alone. Embryonic development was retarded in all copper nitrate treatments with only embryos exposed to low levels of copper nitrate and control individuals hatching. These studies indicate that populations P. cubensis may serve as useful bioindicators of heavy metal water contamination, and that very low concentrations of copper nitrate can have a dramatic impact on aspects of the biology of this common snail. 86 Abstracts BIOACTIVE PROPERTIES OF ECHINODERM BODY WALL EXTRACTS: FEEDING DETERRENCE, ANTIFOULING AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY. Patrick J. Brvan. James B. McClintock, Stephen A. Watts, Ken Marion, Joseph J. Gauthier, and *Thomas S. Hopkins. The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170 and *University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486. Body wall tissues of 25 species of echinoderm were tested for feeding deterrence using two species of marine fish (Lagodon rhomboides. Cvprinodon variegatus) and a spider crab (Libinia emarginata). Uniform pieces of body wall tissue of 14 echinoderm species caused significant feeding deterrence in at least two model predators. Ethanolic body wall extracts embedded in alginate pellets at an ecologically relevant concentration (3 mg/ml) caused significant feeding deterrence (17 of 20 species tested against L^ rhomboides). Ethanolic extracts of the body wall tissues of all 25 echinoderms significantly inhibited the settlement of barnacle (Balanus amphitrite) and bryozoan (Bugrula nerita) larvae at a concentration of 3 mg extract/ml seawater, and in some species, at concentrations orders of magnitude below that occurring in the body wall. Extracts of 18 species of echinoderms also inhibited microbial growth in at least one or more of 18 microbial species (including fungi, marine and non¬ marine bacteria). These results indicate that echinoderms have bioactive chemicals sequestered in their body walls which augment morphological defenses. These chemicals may have multiple functions including the prevention of infection, fouling, and predation. Supported by NSF EPSCoR grant # EHR 9108761 to J.B.M., S.A.W., K.R.M. AND T.S.H. BURROWS OF THE GOPHER TORTOISE (GOPHERUS POLYPHEMUS) IN BALDWIN COUNTY, ALABAMA. David Nelson, Lisa White and Suzie Hatten, Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. To assess the distribution of gopher tortoises within Baldwin County Alabama, a systematic field survey of tortoise burrows was conducted from February to August, 1992. In each non-wetland township, we surveyed available sites in which tortoises might be expected to occur. Both public and private lands were sampled. A line-transect burrow count system was employed; each burrow was measured and characterized as "active," "inactive" or "old." During 24 days in the field, we sampled a total of 124 gopher tortoise burrows in 49 townships and drove a total of 4,274 miles. A majority of the 95 transects (61%) disclosed no tortoise burrows. Of the 124 burrows encountered, 61% were old, 27% were active and 11% were inactive. Juvenile burrows accounted for only 3% of those observed. Preliminary data analyses indicate that most surveys represent declining populations. Effects of predation, soil types and land management are discussed. A similar study of Mobile County in 1991 revealed 392 burrows. In Baldwin County, 28 more transects were conducted but only 124 burrows were encountered (68% fewer than in Mobile County) . 87 Abstracts A REVIEW OF CRETACEOUS BIRDS OF ALABAMA AND INITIAL REPORT OF A POSSIBLE NEW SPECIES. James Lamb, The Alabama Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 870340, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Previous reports of cretaceous birds from Alabama refer to a single fragmentary humerus from the Mooreville Chalk Fm. , described as Plegadorni s antecessor ( Wetmore , 1 9 62 ) , and as Ichthyornis antecessor (Olson, 1 975) . A large collection of additional material, also from the Mooreville Chalk, is re- ferrable to Ichthyornis . A small, gracile and larger, ro¬ bust morph exist within this population (per.obs. and D. Womochel, per.comm. ) . It is presently unclear whether this represents sexual dimorphism or the prescence of two spe¬ cies. The abscence of Hesperornis , common in the Niobrara Chalk of Kansas, is puzzling. This may represent a sampling bias due to differences in the age of the Niobrara ( Coniaci- an--Santonian ) , where Hesperornis is most abundant, and the Mooreville (Campanian). However, Hesperornis occurs in the midcontinental Pierre Shale (Campanian). Hesperornis may then be found in the lag deposits of the basal Eutaw Fm. of AL, barring its abscence due to difference of depositional environment between the Niobrara and Eutaw Formations. The abscence of Hesperornis may also reflect a southern range limit for Hesperornis , known from Kansas north to Canada. Environmental similarities as evidenced by the near match of non-avian fauna from Kansas and Alabama make this un¬ likely. A very recent find, (Sept. 1992) from Greene Co.,AL appears to be undescribed and may represent a new clade. Mooreville avians represent attrition from migration. THE EFFECTS OF ELEVATED LEVELS OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND NITROGEN ON PHOTOSYNTHESIS OF SWEET POTATO. R.C. Strachan and D.R. Hileman, Dept, of Biology and M. Alemayehu, G. Huluka , J. Moore and P.K. Biswas, Dept, of Agricultural Sciences, Tuskegee Univ. , Tuskegee, AL 36088 Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas c.v. 'Georgia Jet1) plants were exposed to six treatments in a randomized complete block design with four replicate blocks. The treatments consisted of three C02 treatments (open-field plot and chambers with 0 and 300 pmol mol”^ of CO^ added to the ambient level) and two nitrogen treatments. Leaf gas exchange measurements were taken when the plants were 51-78 days old using the LI-COR LI-6200 portable photosynthesis system. Gas exchange measurements were performed on six leaves from each plot. Measurements were made between 0900 ho^rs ^nd 1300 hours CST , when the light intensity was above 1000 jomol m s . Photosynthetic rates and water use efficiency were significantly higher while transpiration and stomatal conductance rates were significantly lower in plants grown at elevated CO^ . There was no significant nitrogen effect on photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance or water use efficiency. The research was supported in part by the Department of Energy (contract No. DE-FG05— 86ER-60498 ) and by the Tuskegee University Agricultural Experiment Station. 88 Abstracts APPLICATION OF POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) IN DISTINGUISHING LIVE AND DEAD BACTERIAL CELLS. Sharon Graves and A. K. Bej. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method has been applied to detect various microbial pathogens in clinical, environmental and food samples with high specificity and sensitivity. Since the PCR method uses a unique segment of the genetic material from a target microbial pathogen, concerns have been raised that this method may have the potential to detect dead cells providing false-positive results. To determine the ability of the PCR method to distinguish live from the dead microorganisms, aliquots of an exponentially grown culture of Salmonella typhimurium were treated with hypochlorite biocide upto 30 min at 5 min intervals. After terminating the biocide treatment with sodium thiosulfate, aliquots from each sample were exposed to INT to determine the total number of metabolically active cells, stained with acridine orange fluorescent dye for total cell enumeration, and plated onto agar media for total viable plate counts. Also, an aliquot of each of the biocide-treated samples was PCR amplified using LHNS and RHNS oligonucleotide primers. Although viable culturable S. typhimurium cells were detectable only after 5 min of biocide treatment on agar plates, the INT and the PCR positive samples were detectable upto 15 min of treatment indicating the presence of viable but non- culturable S. typhimurium cells in the samples. At 20 min of biocide treatment, all cells were INT-negative, indicating the presence of dead cells. Also, these INT- negative samples did not show any PCR amplification of the target microorganisms. Therefore, the PCR method specifically detected the viable, and metabolically active live S. typhimurium in the samples. 3-glucuronidase competitive inhibition from human synovial fluid. Kedi Wang and Michael E. Friedman, Dept, of Chemistry, Auburn University, AL 36849. 3-Glucuronidase ( B^D-glucuronide glucuronohydrolase , (EC 3.2.1.32), an enzyme released in relatively large quantities during joint inflammation, was purified from human synovial fluid by chromatography, yielding a 148 fold purification. The KM for the substrate phenolphthaleinglucuronide was experimentally determined to be 0.321 mM. The enzyme was then inhibited by sodium thiomalatoaurate (I) and saccharo 1,4-lactone. Both compounds, the former being a drug commonly used in cases of Rheumatoid Arthritis, and the latter an analog of the naturally occurring substrate, have been shown to be competitive inhibitors. The Kj 1 s were determined, and a value of 460 p M was obtained for the gold compound and 215 nM was obtained for the saccharide. A number of steroids have been used to inhibit this enzyme. One of them, 6-nitrocholesterol , which was found to be of a mixed inhibition type was reasonably effective. Studies have been performed to determine if the steroid is inhibiting at the substrate binding site. 89 Abstracts POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) BASED DETECTION OF Salmonella spp. IN CHICKEN MEAT. R. M. Law , A. K. Bej, and D. D. Jones, Department of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. The increased prevalence of foodbome microbial pathogens, such as Salmonella spp., has heightened concerns about food safety. Consumption of foods such as chicken meat contaminated with Salmonella spp. can cause enterocolitis, gastroenteritis, and septicemia. A rapid, reliable, and sensitive method has been developed to detect this pathogen in artificially contaminated chicken meat using PCR DNA amplification. The PCR is a primer-directed, in vitro enzymatic amplification of specific target DNA sequences. S. typhimurium cells from a freshly grown culture were added to minced chicken meat samples. DNA from the target microbial pathogen was purified by adding a chelating resin, Chelex® 100 to the sample, incubating at 60°C for 15 min with intermittent vortexing, boiling for 10 min, and adding 2.5 M solid NH4OAc. The treated meat sample was centrifuged and the supernatant transferred to a fresh tube. The supernatant was then extracted with chloroform: isoamyl alcohol, concentrated with a Centricon® 100 microconcentrator, and treated with ProCipitate®, a protein precipitating reagent. Two oligonucleotide primers designed to detect a 152 bp region of the histone binding protein (HNS) in Salmonella spp. were used to direct PCR amplification. The amplified DNA was electrophoretically separated and visualized on agarose gels. To confirm the presence of Salmonella spp., DNA-DNA hybridization was performed using an oligonucleotide probe internal to the target DNA sequence. This rapid, reliable method of DNA extraction coupled with PCR amplification can be used to detect Salmonella spp. and other foodbome microbial pathogens to reduce the risk of disease outbreaks. THE BURROWING CRAYFISHES (DECAPODA: CAMBARIDAE) OF THE CAHABA RIVER SYSTEM. James V. Buchanan. Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Few systematic surveys of the crayfishes of Alabama have been conducted. An intensive survey of the burrowing crayfishes of the Cahaba River Basin was undertaken from July, 1991 until March, 1992. A total of 279 localities was surveyed yielding 285 specimens. Fifteen species of fossorial crayfishes representing five genera (Cam barns. Fallicambarus. Hobbseus, Orconectes. and Procambarus) were found. Of the fifteen species encountered, none were endemic to the Cahaba River Basin. Two of the fifteen species represented introductions into the region. The distribution of the various species encountered, their reproductive ecology, habitat preferences, and burrow morphologies are presented. This survey will serve as baseline data by which changes in burrowing crayfish populations in the Cahaba River Basin can be measured. 90 Abstracts DETECTION OF Corynebacterium jeikeium IN BLOOD BY POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) METHOD. A. J. Perry and A. K. Bej, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Corynebacterium jeikeium has been identified as an etiologic agent for bacterial endocarditis, especially in patients who have had open heart surgery. A detection method using PCR-gene probe was developed for this pathogen because the conventional methods, which are based on the culturing of this pathogen in non- selective followed by selective microbiological media, are unreliable and time consuming. Two oligonucleotide primers, 23 and 24 mer, were designed from the deduced nucleotide sequence of a cloned fragment of the thymidylate synthase (TS) gene from C. jeikeium. Using these primers, PCR amplification of the C. jeikeium genomic DNA generated a 0.2 kb amplified DNA band during electrophoretic separation. With these primers, 6 isolates of C. jeikeium from patient’s blood were tested for PCR amplification. No amplification occurred when 8 strains of non-C. jeikeium species of Corynebacterium and 46 non -Corynebacterium bacterial strains were tested confirming the specificity of the primers. The sensitivity of this PCR- based detection was determined by the addition of C. jeikeium cells (~ 106 - < 101) to 0.5 ml blood samples. The amplified DNA was detected by an oligonucleotide probe internal to the amplified DNA sequence at a sensitivity of < 10 target C. jeikeium cells, in the presence or absence of > 106 non-target cells. This rapid, reliable, and sensitive detection of C. jeikeium in blood takes approximately 8 hours to complete. The PCR-gene probe approach can be useful for routine monitoring and early detection of C. jeikeium , and possibly other microbial pathogens in the blood of patients, reducing the risk of bacterial endocarditis. A PSEUDO-NEWTONIAN GRAVITATIONAL THEORY ARISING FROM ENERGY DENSITY CONSIDERATIONS. J.H. Young, Dept, of Physics, Univ. A1 . at B'ham, Birmingham, AL 35294. General relativity is a theory of gravitation having all of the basic reguirements of special relativity built into it. The well known mass-energy eguivalence suggests that a complete theory of gravity should include field energy density in addition to mass density as a gravitational source. Incorporating field energy density into Newtonian gravity leads to a nonlinear pseudo-Newtonian gravity [P.C. Peters, Am. J. Phys. , 49(6), 564 (1991)] which offers a number of the interesting characteristics of general relativity while avoiding the mathematical complexities of that theory. The basic ideas of this incorporation will be discussed along with several of the immediate physical conseguences . 91 Abstracts CONTROL OPTIONS FOR ZEBRA MUSSEL INFESTATIONS. Robert F. McMahon . Center for Biological Macrofouling Research, Box 19498, Univ. Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019. Options for mitigation/control of zebra mussel ( Dreissena polymorpha) macrofouling of raw water systems include chemical or nonchemical approaches and off-line or on-line application strategies. Among chemical options, chlorination and a molluscicide formulated from Dimethylbenzyl Ammonium Chloride and Dodecylguanidine Hydrochloride are presently most utilized to control zebra mussel fouling in North America. However, other potentially efficacious molluscicides are available or being developed including: Bromine; Ozone; and several nonoxidizing agents. Toxic paints and coatings are also effective. Among nonchemical technologies, manual removal, line pigs, and thermal treatments are presently most utilized, while robotic cleaners, dewatering and desiccation, exposure to freezing conditions, nontoxic foul-release coatings, strainers, centrifugal separators, infiltration beds, anoxia/hypoxia, and disposable substrata all appear to be important emerging technologies. An effective zebra mussel macrofouling control/mitigation strategy is likely to involve integration of several different technologies fitted to a particular system's specific operating, environmental and regulatory constraints. Regulatory pressure to reduce biocide release into receiving waters is likely to increase over the next decade. Thus, lanq-term solutions to zebra mussel control should focus on nonchemical technologies. THE EFFECTS OF SALINITY ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND REPRODUCTION OF THE FRESHWATER SNAIL, HELISOMA SP . Alan Whitehead and Anne M. Cusic, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Embryos of the freshwater pond snail, He li soma sp . in the gastrula stage were placed in saline solutions ranging from 1 ppt to 10 ppt with conditional tap water as a control. At 1 ppt, survivor¬ ship was 887, control with no effect on growth, development, or reproduction. At 2 ppt, survivorship was 897, with no effect on development or growth; however, adults were unable to produce egg masses that would hatch. At 4 ppt, survivorship was 857, with no significant effect on hatching, but the embryos were slightly smaller in their overall size. At 5 ppt, survivorship was 337, with embryos being somewhat smaller in size. Doses of 6 ppt and 7 ppt produced malformed embryos with a bubble-like sack replacing the calcified shell, none of which hatched. At 10 ppt development did not proceed from the gastrula stage and the embryos died. This preliminary data suggests that there is an inverse relationship of saline concentration and growth and development of He 1 isoma sp . 92 Abstracts SIMPLE REPETITIVE DNA SEQUENCES ASSOCIATED WITH HETEROGAMETIC SEX IN MOSQUITOFISH. Praful G. Patel , R. A. Angus, and A. K. Bej, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294. Many animals have been characterized as having a specific heterogametic sex based solely on chromosome morphology. However, in fishes, a heterogametic sex is difficult to characterize. One particular problem in fishes is that karyotype analysis does not reveal a sex chromosome in most species. In several species of fish, DNA fingerprinting analysis of minisattelite DNA has provided a way to determine the heterogametic sex by hybridization using short tandem [(GATA)n/(GACA)n] sequences as probes. Despite success in some families of fish such as Poeciliid, sex heterogamacy cannot be substantiated in even different species within the same family. In a hybridization study using various [(GATA)n/(GACA)n] oligonucleotides proved to be sex-specific at higher molecular weight bands in Poecilia reticulata. In general, DNA from the fish tissue was released using GITC treatment, purified with phenol-chloroform and concentrated with NHjOAC, and dialyzed against TE buffer. The DNA was then digested with restriction enzymes for 24 hours, and separated on an agarose gel by electrophoresis. The gel is dried and hybridization was carried out either directly on the dried gel or on a nylon membrane following capillary transfer, using a radio-labeled oligonucleotide probe. Despite success in the use of DNA fingerprinting in other members of the Poeciliid family, no fingerprint has been observed in Gambusia affinis (the eastern mosquito fish). Therefore, the DNA fingerprint protocol designed to determine heterogametic sex in fishes using sex specific, tandemly repetitive DNA sequence probes cannot be used universally and requires further modifications. DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POLYCLONAL ANTISERA AGAINST OVARIAN VITELLIN ISOLATED FROM THE BLUE CRAB, CALL1NECTES SAPIDUS. Chi-Ying Lee and R. Douglas Watson, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Polyclonal antibodies were raised in rabbits against vitellin (Vn) , the major egg yolk protein, purified from the ovary of a vitellogenic blue crab, Callinectes sapidus . Several immunological methods were utilized to characterize the antiserum. In slot blot analyses, the antiserum reacted with the ovarian homogenate from which Vn was isolated, whereas control preimmune serum showed no reaction with the same homogenate. The antiserum was also tested in a double immunodiffusion test. Single precipitation lines were found between the center well containing immune serum and the surrounding wells containing, respectively, purified Vn, purified vitellogenin (Vg, the hemolymph precursor of Vn) , female hemolymph and ovarian homogenate. The precipitation lines are continuous with each other indicating the antiserum recognizes proteins of complete identity. Neither Vn, Vg nor any of the tissue homogenates precipitated with the preimmune serum. Finally, a Western blot analysis revealed that the antiserum bound to both Vn and Vg. We anticipate utilizing this antiserum to develop immunoassays for investigating the hormonal and environmental control of yolk protein synthesis . 93 Abstracts POLYCULTURE OF THE PULMONATE GASTROPOD PHYSELLA CUBE N SIS AND THE AUSTRALIAN CRAYFISH CHERAX QUADRICARINATUS IN A CLOSED, INDOOR RECIRCULATING SYSTEM. H.L. Thomas. M.E. Meade and S.A. Watts, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. The common Alabama pulmonate snail Physella cubensis can be cultured in biofilters receiving effluent from closed, recirculating systems used for culture of the Australian crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus. The snails were cultured in flat, 0.36 m2box filters containing hogshair and oyster shell hatch as the bacterial matrix. Each filter received recirculated effluent from a 1.44 m raceway containing 15 to 20 adult C. quadricarinatus. Growth ofP. cubensis from hatchling to adult occurred more rapidly in this system than in finger bowl culture (13 vs. 18 days, respectively) at 27°C. The snails were able to grow and reproduce at optimal levels in the biofilters subsisting entirely on bacterial film. Feeding activity helped to prevent the overgrowth of bacteria which must be periodically removed from the biofilter in the absence of the snails. In addition to their contribution to filter maintenance, P. cubensis may be useful as a supplementary food source for C. quadricarinatus. Adult C. quadricarinatus cultured in the laboratory feed readily on the snails, which are known to constitute an important natural food source for many Alabama crayfish species. The co-culture of P. cubensis with crayfish might prove a useful means of providing a year-round source of P. cubensis for gastropod research as well as a nutritional supplement for the crayfish at minimal cost. CAN A HERBIVORE GENERALIST BE AN OPPORTUNISTIC CARNIVORE? Michael Kay and James B. McClintock, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. The regular sea urchin Lytechinus variegcitus is classically considered to be herbivorous, feeding on a variety of algae and sea grasses. Although plant foods may be more abundant and predictable foods than animal prey, plants are lower in nutrients and energy. Therefore, one might predict that herbivores such as L. variegatus should feed opportunistically on animal prey when readily accessible. We tested the hypothesis that L. variegatus will prefer animal food when given a choice between plant and animal food models. In one experiment, sea urchins were presented one of two diets comprised of either agar food models containing a 5% concentration of a plant or animal based meal. Sea urchins consumed significantly more animal than plant food during each of eight weeks. In a second experiment, sea urchins were given a choice of foods by placing each individual on two food models, one animal and one plant. Sea urchins showed a highly significant preference for animal foods, rarely consuming plant food. These experiments suggest that L. variegatus may feed opportunistically on animal prey in their natural environment. This hypothesis is indirectly supported by studies of the gut contents of L. variegatus , several of which indicate that these sea urchins may consume small crustaceans, gastropods, sponges and polychaetes in addition to plant foods. 94 Abstracts POPULATION ECOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL (GLAUCOMYS VOLANS) IN ALABAMA. Suzie Hatten , David Nelson and Dwayne Biggs, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. A 12-month study of the natural history and population dynamics of Glaucomys volans was conducted in Mobile County, Alabama. One hundred nest boxes were installed in a grid system with 25-m intervals. In addition, 68 live traps were installed such that each trap was centered within 4 nest boxes. Nest boxes were checked bimonthly, and trapping was conducted for five consecutive days at the end of each month. From June 1991 through May 1992, 64 squirrels were captured 497 times. Two hundred and ninety one captures (59%) occurred in nest boxes while 206 captures (41%) occurred in traps. Overall, 45 of the nest boxes were used solely as nesting sites, 12 as feeding stations, one as a defecatorium and eight exhibited changing use. Mean adult home range size was 0.82 ha (males = 0.94 ha and females = 0.68 ha). Mean juvenile home range size was 0.38 ha (males = 0.41 ha and females = 0.32 ha). Home ranges of adult males showed considerable overlap and were clustered in an area of low female density. Home ranges of adult females overlapped much less. The mean density of flying squirrels was 3.48 squirrels/ha. The largest aggregations (N = 9 squirrels) were found in December and February. Males were found to have two distinct reproductive periods. Most males were in full reproductive condition from early May through July and from mid-November through early January. Seven litters were discovered in nest boxes. Six of these were born in late August (mean litter size = 3.3) while one litter of two was born in mid-February. ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF ZEBRA MUSSELS IN THE GREAT LAKES AND SPREAD IN NORTH AMERICA. Don W. Schloesser. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 and Kenneth M. Muth. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Sandusky, OH 44870. Zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) were discovered in North America in 1988 and are believed to have been introduced via the discharge of ship ballast water in Lake St.Clair of the Laurentian Great Lakes in 1986. In 1989, zebra mussels began exponential reproduction and reached a maximum density of 750,000/m2 in portions of western Lake Erie, causing serious problems for raw water users and raising major concern for the ecology of aquatic systems. Observed ecological impacts in western Lake Erie that have been attributed to zebra mussels include: increased water clarity, reduced plankton populations, reduced total water column chlorophyll, increased substrate heterogeneity, changed benthos populations, and, the most dramatic impact, reduced unionid populations (in open waters of western Lake Erie, and nearby water bodies, unionids have been or are being extirpated due to zebra mussels). Concern about food web structures has lead to studies into the potential impact on fishes. The present and projected range of zebra mussels (and similar mussels known as " quaggas ") in North America indicate that ecological impacts similar to those being observed in western Lake Erie are likely to occur in surface waters throughout a large portion of the United States. 95 Abstracts CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION AND POPULATION STRUCTURE OF ECHINODERMS IN MARINE COMMUNITIES: ROLE OF STEROIDS. Stephen A. Watts. Gene A. Hines, James B. McClintock and Ken R. Marion, Dept, of Biology, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Thomas S. Hopkins, Dept, of Biol. Sciences, Univ. of Ala. , Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0344. Echinoderms represent one of the most prominent groups of benthic invertebrates in the marine environment. Their abundance in shallow and deep water communities can have a highly significant impact on community structure. Understanding echinoderm intra- and interspecies chemical communication will increase our knowledge of processes which influence community structure in marine ecosystems. We are investigating the production and influence of hormones and steroidal pheromones from echinoderms in the northern Gulf of Mexico. These echinoderms produce a variety of steroid products that are, in some cases, homologous to those found in vertebrates, including testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, androstane derivatives, and estrone. The metabolic pathways used to produce these compounds are similar to those found in vertebrates. The types and quantities of steroids produced depend on the tissue type and the reproductive state of the organism. Several echinoderm species produced large quantities of water-soluble steroid conjugates, primarily glucuronides, which may have pheromonal activity. Preliminary results suggest that other echinoderms produce 11-oxy androgens which were previously found only in fish, suggesting a close evolutionary relationship among these groups. These steroids and steroid-related compounds present in echinoderm tissues may function as chemical signals which regulate physiological processes within individuals and influence both intra- and interspecific chemical communication. Supported by NSF EPSCoR grant EHR 9108761. Characterization of a New Isolate of Toxoplasma gondii from the Alabama Bobcat. R.S. VAN HOUTEN , C.A. SUNDERMANN, D.S. LINDSAY* & E.E. WESTER. Department of Zoology & Wildlife Science, *College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, AL 36849. Toxoplasma gondii was isolated from thigh and heart muscle of an adult male bobcat, Lynx rufus . collected in Lee Co., Alabama. This new isolate has been designated BC - 1 . Mice inoculated subcutaneously with digest of this tissue developed tissue cysts. Cysts from fresh brain smears ranged from 21 - 132 pm in diameter (n - 27; mean = 65.3 pm). Zoites harvested from these cysts were inoculated onto monolayers of human fetal lung (HFL) cells. Tissue cysts developed in the HFL cells and were processed for transmission electron microscopy. Cyst wall thickness ranged from 0.125 - 0.33 pm. Ultrastructure of the zoite apical complex revealed the presence of rhoptries with a spongy appearance, micronemes, polar rings, subpellicular microtubules (number - 22), and a conoid. Micropores, amylopectin granules, nuclei and a grainy or particulate tissue cyst wall were also noted. This is the first report on the ultrastructure of T^_ gondi i isolated from a bobcat. Supported by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station . 96 Abstracts UBIQUITINATED YOLK PROTEINS IN INSECTS. Susila Dorai-Rai and Jim Bradley. Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife, Auburn University, 36849. Ubiquitin (Ub) is a highly conserved 8.6 kD polypeptide that becomes covalently conjugated to intracellular proteins, thereby marking them for an energy dependent proteolysis. In the house cricket, Acheta domesticus . and the stick insect, Caraus ius morosus . vitellin (VN) polypeptides undergo a developmentally programmed pattern of proteolysis during oogenesis and/or embryogenesis . We have tested the reactivity of VN and VN-derived polypeptides with anti-Ub (Sigma Chem.) by Western blotting. In Acheta . anti-Ub reacted with a single 49kD VN polypeptide (YP IV) in chorionated eggs and its corresponding vitellogenin (VG) polypeptide in the hemolymph. Similarly, a 50 kD yolk polypeptide (A3'), the processed form of 60 kD VN polypeptide A3, in chorionated eggs of Carausius was reactive. A 70 kD polypeptide was the sole reactive species in unchorionated follicles. Examination of embryos from oviposition through hatching in both species showed that A3' and YPIV remain reactive throughout embryogenesis. The intensity of YP IV reactivity in Acheta decreased during embryogenesis, whereas that of A3' in Carausius remained constant. Free Ub competed with both polypeptides for reaction with anti-Ub. Sigma anti-Ub was also found to react with a 50 kD polypeptide in the ovary of the grasshopper, Pardalophora phoenicoptera . A rabbit polyclonal antiserum against free Ub (Sigma) was prepared and shown to be reactive with free Ub and Caraus ius polypeptide A3' but unreactive with Acheta and Pardalophora yolk proteins. Supported by the Alabama NSF-EPSCoR Program in Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology (Grant #RII - 8610669) and HATCH Project 665 (AAES) . NEST-SITE SELECTION, NEST CONSTRUCTION AND NEST ENTRANCE ORIENTATION IN THE BACHMAN’S SPARROW (AIMOPHILA AESTIVALIS). Thomas M. Haaaertv. Department of Biology, Univ. of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001 In pine plantations in central Arkansas from 1983-1985, the macro habitat of Bachman’s Sparrow (Aimophila aestivalis) nest sites could best be discriminated from nonnesting sites by percent forb cover, percent woody cover, and shrub density. Canonical discriminant analysis of macrohabitat variables showed that nest-sites were associated with greater tree and shrub densities, higher trees and woody vegetation, but with less forb cover, woody cover, vertical vegetation density between 0 - 90 and 0-180 cm, and lower forb height than random sites. Nest sides had greater vegetation density between 0 - 60 and 0-180 cm, and greater woody cover than random points and nest entrances. Most nests were partially (38%) or completely domed (55%) and entrances were oriented in a northern direction. Nest construction was not affected by degree of concealment, nesting year, or nesting season, but grasses and forbs were taller around domed nests than at partially domed nests. Nest success was not affected by degree of concealment or macrohabitat structure. 97 Abstracts DOES THE PORTUNID CRAB SPECIES CALLINECTES SIMILIS IONICALLY RUN IN PLACE IN THE OSMOREGULATORY RACE WITH C SAPIDUS? Sabine C. Piller, Jeannette E. Doeller, and David W. Kraus. University of Alabama at Birmingham, Dept, of Biology, Birmingham, AL 35294 The two portunid crab species Callinectes sapidus and C. similis inhabit Alabama’s estuaries. Their distribution in the Gulf of Mexico is correlated to salinity. Both species co-occur above 15%o salinity, but C. similis is rarely found below 15%c salinity. At low salinities, both species maintain their hemolymph more concentrated than the ambient seawater by actively pumping ions into their hemolymph. This ion-pumping process primarily takes place in the posterior gills and requires energy in the form of ATP. ATP is mainly produced during oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. To compare osmoregulatory capabilities between the two species, we measured mitochondrial function in excised intact posterior gills as a function of salinity. Mitochondrial function was measured as oxygen consumption rate, p02 at which oxygen consumption rate was half maximal (p50), and mitochondrial density. Additionally, hemolymph osmolality and hemolymph Na+, K+, and CL concentrations were measured as a function of acclimation salinity. In both species, oxygen consumption rate and mitochondrial density increased significantly as salinity decreased, while p50’s did not change significantly. The increase in oxygen consumption rate and mitochondrial density was significantly greater in C. similis gills than in C. sapidus gills. This suggests that both species increase the number of mitochondria in posterior gills as a response to low salinities, but C. similis does so to a greater extent. Despite the higher metabolism observed in C similis gills, C similis could not maintain its hemolymph as concentrated as that of C. sapidus. Therefore we suggest that the gills of C similis may be more leaky to ions than those of C. sapidus. Supported in part by grants from the BMfWF, Austna and A AS to SCP and NSF IBN91 18048 to JED and DWK. ZEBRA MUSSELS IN THE TENNESSEE VALLEY: CURRENT SITUATION AND PROGNOSIS Steven A. Ahlstedt, Wat. Mgmt., Aquatic Biol. Dept., Tennessee Valley Authority, Norris, TN 37828. The zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, was first discovered by commercial musselers in the lower Tennessee River at river mile 30 (Kentucky Lake) in September 1991. The mussel has since spread upstream and has now reached Nickajack Lock and Dam at river mile 425 near Chattanooga, Tennessee. Predictions are that it will rapidly become established in all suitable habitats from the extreme southern U. S. to central Canada. At present, zebra mussels have been reported in numbers ranging from a few to over a thousand individuals on navigation lock walls and miter seals. Commercial musselers are routinely finding zebra mussels as single specimens attached to native mussels. Zebra mussels have killed all mussel species in portions of the Great Lakes. Because of ideal growing conditions, water quality, and food availability for native mussel species in southern rivers, conditions appear optimum for the rapid spread and colonization of zebra mussels. 98 Abstracts COMPARISON OF REFERENCE STREAMS BETWEEN ECOREGIONS USING RAPID BIOASSESSMENT PROTOCOLS. Phillip Emmerth and E. Cliff Webber, Dept, of Fisheries, Auburn University. Reference streams were sampled in Spring 1992 from two subregions: the Piedmont subregion of the Southeastern Plains ecoregion located in east-central Alabama and the eastern subregion of the Southwestern Appalachian ecoregion located in central Alabama. U.S. EPA Rapid Bioassessment Protocols (RBP) were used to assess stream quality. RBP is an integrated assessment comparing habitat (eg. physical structure and flow regime) and biological measures with empirically defined reference conditions within an ecoregion. Reference streams are defined as the "best attainable conditions" against which other streams are compared when assessing impacts. EPA and The Alabama Department of Environmental Management (ADEM) have now suggested using reference streams within subregions of the ecoregion. We compared the inter and intra- variability of two reference streams within each of two subregions defined by EPA. No distinct differences were evident between subregions. The two streams in the eastern subregion of the Southwestern Appalachian ecoregion exhibited distinct differences. Observations revealed heavily forested watersheds but some clear cutting was evident on one of the streams. The two streams in the Piedmont subregion had similar stream quality. Land use within the watersheds of the Piedmont streams was comprised of more pasture and less forested land than the Southwestern Appalachian watersheds. Therefore, land-use patterns appeared to be a major factor influencing variability among reference streams. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF QUADRULA METANEVRA ( UNIONIDAE ) IN KENTUCKY LAKE. Jeffrey T. Garner, Aquatic Resources Center, Franklin, TN , and Richard F. Modlin, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL . The reproductive biology of Quadrula metanevra in the Tennessee River, Hardin Co., Tennessee, was invest¬ igated over a period of two years (July 1988 to June 1 990)# Histological preparations of gonadal tissue were used in the assessment. Gonadal tissue of both sexes remained active throughout the year, though activity decreased during the winter months. Spawning began during the winter and continued through mid July. Mature glochidia were found in the marsupia of females from March to late July. The sex ratio of the population was 1.45:1 (females to males). Hermaphroditic individuals made up 1.8% of the population. All hermaphrodites appeared to be func¬ tionally male. 99 Abstracts TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR (TNF) : RECENT ADVANCES. Richard E. Jones and Robert E. Pieroni, Dept, of Internal Medicine, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) was initially described as a macrophage-derived protein which could induce the hemorrhagic necrosis of certain types of tumor cells in immunologically-primed mice. TNF is now known to represent two activities, specifically, TNF-a or cachectin, and the unique but structurally similar TNF-B, or lymphotoxin (LT). As implied by its name, TNF-a/cachectin has been identified as a central etiologic agent of the "wasting" phenomenon known to occur in subjects with overwhelming sepsis or malignant disease. More recently, the broad role of TNF-a as a pyrogen, acute phase reactant, and as a mediator of pathologic inflammatory disease has been investigated. Data suggest that synthesis and secretion of this factor may play a role in autoimmune states, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. Receptors for TNF-a have been identified on many cell types, ranging from T cells to vascular endothelium. TNF-a has specifically been shown to be a potent in vitro promotor of cytotoxic activity by granulocytes. Current data indicate that an immunologic regulatory network exists between TNF-a, TNF-B, IL-1, and other cytokines which, when acting upon various cellular components of the immune system, may lead to autoimmune disease. This review indicates that TNF-a plays a central role in the regulatory cascade of both normal and pathologic immune functions. OPTIMIZATION OF GROWTH IN HATCHLING AUSTRALIAN CRAYFISH, Cherax quadricarinatus: A COMPARISON OF COMMERCIAL FEEDS. Mark E. Meade and Stephen A. Watts. Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, UAB Station, Birmingham, AL 35294. The success of the commercial production of the Australian freshwater crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus, in the Southeastern US depends largely on the ability of producers to maintain hatchlings indoors during the cooler months of the year. During this indoor season, hatchling growth must be maintained in preparation for pond grow-out. We examined the growth and survival of hatchlings held indoors fed different commercial feeds to determine a suitable and costly-feasible diet which could be used in an indoor hatchery system. A total of 32 hatchlings from 7 different females were used in each diet treatment. All diets were pulverized and introduced to hatchlings in a 2% agar binder. Several commercial feeds were evaluated including Argent's Brine Shrimp Flakes, Freeze-dried Krill, Powdered Spirulina, and Hatchfry Encapsulon. After two weeks, hatchlings fed any of these Argent feeds demonstrated little or no growth and mortality was high (> 90%). After 10 weeks of growth, hatchling crayfish fed Zeigler post-larval shrimp feed averaged 270 mg (±159.5 SD) fresh weight with only 41% survival. Those hatchlings fed Zeigler shrimp grower averaged 323 mg (±170 SD) fresh weight with slightly improved survival of 66%. Hatchlings fed Burris Mills crayfish feed averaged 290 mg (±159.5 SD) fresh weight with a survival of 72%. Hatchlings fed a newly formulated UAB hatchling feed demonstrated the best survival and growth, averaging 448 mg (±247.4 SD) fresh weight with 91% survival at 10 weeks (p<.05). In all diet treatments, considerable differences in growth rates were observed among female hatches suggesting qualitative differences among offspring of brood females. We hypothesize that with further refinement, our UAB feed can be successfully used for the grow-out of hatchling crayfish in indoor facilities. 100 Abstracts ISOELECTRIC FOCUSING OF TOTAL PROTEINS IN COMMERCIALLY CULTURED CRAYFISH SPECIES. Mickie L. Powell. Mark E. Meade, and Stephen A. Watts, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Total proteins in the tail muscle of Procambarus clarkii. P. zonangulus, and Cherax quadricarinatus were separated based on their pi values using isoelectric focusing (IEF). Samples were separated using hand-poured 4.5% polylacrylamide gels and commercially available IEF polyacrylamide gels from LKB/ Pharmacia. Tail muscle was removed from freshly killed crayfish, divided into several aliquots, and stored at -70°C until the proteins were extracted. Proteins were extracted from the tissue using several different methods including extraction in water on ice, in boiling water for 10 min, in 8M urea, and using phenol/chloroform. For all preparations, the initial separation of proteins on broad pH range gels (pH 3-10) showed the largest concentrations of protein bands occurred in the acidic pH range (pH 4-6.5). The banding patterns present in the acidic region were slightly different depending on the protein extraction method used. Denaturing the samples using heat or urea eliminated several protein bands that had been observed in the cold water preparation. The urea extraction increased the number of visible protein bands, but required the presence of urea in the gel. Although banding patterns produced by the phenol/chloroform preparation were easily resolved with little background staining, it was also the most labor intensive preparation and it required greater amounts of tissue. The most time efficient protein extraction that produced a reasonably clear banding pattern was the cold water preparation. Most of the sample preparations produced banding patterns that were species specific and may be used potentially to identify the species. OBSERVATIONS ON THE REPRODUCTION AND POPULATION BIOLOGY OF AN ANTARCTIC BROODING SEA CUCUMBER ( CUCUMARIA FERRARI). Brian K- Gaschen. James B. McQintock and Marc Slattery, Dept of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170 and John Heine, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, CA 95039. Little information is available on the reproductive mode and population biology of antarctic sea cucumbers. Individuals of Cucumaria ferrari were collected using Scuba under the seasonal pack ice from 30 m depth near Hut Point McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. The mean density (± 1 S.D.) of sea cucumbers collected from three 0.25 m2 quadrats within a dense assemblage of branching hydroids ( Halecium sp.) was 42.6 ± 26.5. Individuals ranged in retracted body length and wet wt from 4-66 mm and 0.003-25.15 g, respectively. Size frequency analysis of a population sampled in Nov, 1992, indicated most sea cucumbers were quite small, with 52% of the individuals ranging from 3-10 mm in retracted body length. At least four age cohorts were evident from the population sample. Observations revealed that sexually mature females had large eggs (2 mm diameter) and brooded their young in three body wall chambers immediately posterior to the oral opening. As many as 100 brooded young were collected from a single female, ranging in size from 3.3- 4.8 mm length. These data support earlier hypotheses that some antarctic marine invertebrates tend to favor brood protection. Supported by NSF grant # DPP- 9118864 to J.B.M. 101 Abstracts PREY ELECTIVITY IN THE SEA STAR ASTROPECTEN ARTICULATUS. Steven D. Beddingfield and James B. McClintock, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL. 35294. Thomas S. Hopkins, Dept, of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Natural prey species for A. articulatus have been documented from several areas within their geographic range. It has been suggested that A. articulatus is a non-selective feeder and that its stomach contents reflect the composition of the benthic fauna of the area in which it is found. Nonetheless, no studies have investigated prey electivity in this sea star. This was investigated in A. articulatus by identifying prey types found in stomach contents of individuals collected from two sites in the northern Gulf of Mexico, and comparing these prey with fauna found in the surrounding soft sediment. Prey electivity indices were calculated by determining the relative frequency of each organism in the diet and comparing it with the relative frequency of this item in the environment. A. articulatus showed positive electivity for several taxa of crustaceans and mollusks. Sea stars exhibited negative electivity values for polychaetes, scaphopods and foramanifera, even though these groups were among the most abundant at the study sites. We gratefully acknowledge the help of the staff of the Dauphin Island Sea Laboratory and the crew of the R.V. Verrill. This research was supported by a NSF EPSCoR grant to J.B. McClintock (#R11- 8996152) and by the Department of Biology at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. TEMPORARY POND OLIGOCHAETES , Marianne C. Eckroth and Richard F. Modlin, Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899. Oligochaeta, aquatic Annelids, were collected from the WEUP Temporary Pond in Huntsville, Alabama, from 1983 through 1987. This community was composed of the following: Varichaetadrilus fulleri , previously reported only from Kentucky and Louisiana, Varichaetadrilus angus tepenis , an uncommon species reported east of the Mississippi River and east of Manitoba, Quistadrilus multisetosus , from eastern North America and British Columbia, two species of immature tubificids, and one undescribed species in the Lumbricul idae . With the possible exception of the immature tubifids, the two families and four genera represented have not been previously reported in Alabama. The temporal distribution of the oligochates will be discussed and contributions to their ecology will be presented. 102 Abstracts RECOVERY OF GAMETOGEN1C ACTIVITY FOLLOWING NUTRIENT DEPRIVATION IN THE ECH1N01D LYTECHINUS VARIEGATUS LAMARCK. CLD. Bishop and S.A. Watts, Dept, of Biology, UAB . Birmingham, AL 35294. Previously starved Ly techinus var iegatus were fed a 57. fish meal- sea weed-agar diet for 32 days at 200°C and 32 ppt salinity. Gonadal indices increased significantly by 9607- and 3037. in females and males, respectively, with most of the growth occurring after day 8. Histological examination of the female gametic tissue revealed the presence of previously developed oocytes but no definable germinal epithelium until day 16. Mean oocyte diameter increased significantly within the first 8 days. At day 16 small zones of germinal epithelium appeared, by day 32 a thickened germinal epithelium and new developing oocytes were observed. Histology of the male spermatogenic sac suggested an immediate differentiation of all existing spermatocytes and spermatids to mature spermatozoa. No new definable germinal epithelium could be observed until day 16 when thin discontinuous zones appeared. By day 32 thick continuous zones of germinal epithelium were evident. The trends observed in this study suggest that both sexes utilize a similar two phase strategy in gamete recovery. First an immediate completion to the development/differentiation of existing gametes allowing individuals to attain some minimal reproductive capacity. If unlimited food supplies are available, the second phase of this strategy (initiating the development of a new cohort of gametes) would allow maximal reproductive effort to be attained. EFFECTS OF GRAVITATIONAL FIELD ENERGY DENSITY AND SOLAR OBLATENESS ON PERIHELION ADVANCES. David C. Patton and J.H. Young, Dept, of Physics, Univ. A1 . at B'ham, Birmingham, AL 35294. The nonlinear pseudo-Newtonian gravitational po¬ tential for an oblate mass includes the energy density of that mass as an additional gravitational source. The Kepler problem has been investigated using this modi¬ fied source and a perihelion advance has been found to result from the oblateness and energy density effects. The use of numerical data appropriate to Mercury in the resulting perihelion shift indicates the significance of including the energy density as a source contribu¬ tion, although that inclusion alone does not yield a full realization of the perihelion shift of general relativity . 103 Abstracts CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE GULF RED PITCHER PLANT, Sarracenia rubra subsp. gulf ensis . John D. Wigginton and George W. Folkerts, Department of Zoology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849. Sarracenia rubra gulf ensis , described by Schnell (1979), is one of five subspecies of the red pitcher plant. As presently known, the range of the gulf red pitcher plant extends from southeastern Santa Rosa Co., FL, north to southwestern Covington Co., AL, and east to southwestern Walton Co., FL. There is one possible outlier popula¬ tion in B ay Co., FL. Totally, there are 112 known localities har¬ boring a total of about 26,000 clumps of the plant. Total site area is approximately 250 acres with a mean site size of 2.2 acres. Factors that have been detrimental to the survival of this taxon include drainage, heavy machinery damage during timber harvesting, road contruction, pine monoculture, fire restriction, farm pond construction, and development. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON PLANT ACTION POTENTIALS. Richard G. Lee, M. Stanfield, P. Jacobsen, C. Olander, Dept of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Using a common variety of Peperomia, action potentials were obtained in the stem after leaf wounding and electrical stimulation. Mean values of the amplitude and conduction velocities in response to nondamaging electrical stimuli have been determined. Data typically obtained will be presented. Amplitudes were essentially identical but the velocity of propagation was greater in the upper than in the lower half of the plant. It was noted that the excitability level between similar plants on the same day and in the same plant on different days is variable and undergoes periodic diurnal changes. TEACHING SCIENCE IN "INCLUDED" SETTINGS. Joseph D . George , Counseling and Clinical Programs, and Ernest D. Riggsby, Curriculum and Instruction, Columbus College, Columbus, Georgia 31907. "Inclusion" refers to an instructional setting in which children with special needs and children with disabilities are taught in regular education classrooms alongside gifted and "normal" children. To date, science teachers have had little responsibility for education of children with special needs and children with disabilities. "Inclusion" will change this. It is here to stay. Science teachers at all levels of public schooling will be functioning in "included" settings. 104 Abstracts CHEMISTRY HYPOCHROMICITY OF URACIL- AND 5-FLUOROURACIL-CONTAINING POLYNUCLEOTIDE ANALOGS. Xinhua Chen. Virginia M. Mitchell and Adriane G. Ludwick, Chemistry Department, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088. Water soluble uracil and 5-fluorouracil containing polynucleotide analogs have been prepared by using 26% and 57% partially hydrolyzed polyethyloxazoline. In order to examine the nucleic acid character of these analogs by means of hypochromicity, related monomer and dimer models have been synthesized. All the compounds have been characterized by NMR (JH and OQand elemental analyses. Initial screening of the monomer and dimer models selected by NCI were inactive in anticancer and AIDS antiviral assays. For solvents used (water and basic aqueous solutions), significant hypochromicity is observed. The 26% grafted analogs in these solvents indicated higher hypochromicity and better solubility than 57% grafted analogs. (Supported by NIH/MBRS, Grant.No. S06GM08091.) THE PREDICTION OF THE 19F NMR SPECTRA OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS USING STATISTICAL METHODS. Jimmy R. Nannev , Department of Mathematics, Auburn University at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36117-3596 and Christopher A.L. Mahaffy, Department of Chemistry, Auburn University at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36117-3596, USA. Two methods for the prediction of the 19F NMR spectra of f luoroaromatic compounds will be discussed and compared. The first uses a Mathematical Modelling approach in which signal is predicted from an equation written in terms of the position of the group(s) (relative to the fluorine atom) and the Field, & and Resonance, 9? Parameters, the Molar Refractivity and Charlton's Steric Parameter, v for the group(s) in question. The correlation coefficient for the predicted versus observed values was 0.99 with an average error of prediction of 2 ppm. The second method involves the use of Substi¬ tuent Chemical Shift values which have been determined statistical¬ ly. Over 400 of these 'Statistical' SCS (SSCS values) have been determined. When they are used to predict the signal positions, they give a correlation coefficient for the predicted versus ob¬ served values of .995 with standard deviation of 2.46. The use of this new method will be described for derivatives of f luorobenzene and f luoropyridine. Abstracts THE REAL HAZARDS OF U-238 SERIES OF ELEMENTS. Carlton D. Whitt, 601 Schilling Street, Athens, AL 35611-2931. Retired, TVA, Monsanto. Some governmental agencies consider U-238 and it's 14 daughters great nuclear threats to man, particularly Rn-222 which is a heavy inert gas. U-238 with a T^ of 4.51 billion yrs. has 14 daughters each forming at this rate and the daughters formed react at their own Tj. This permits calculations of the maximum amounts of each daughter per gram of uranium. Any radioactive element with a T^ of a billion years or more is no real nuclear threat to man. U-238 series are all toxic and very poisonous to man but not nuclear hazards. Tritium, H-3, T^ of 12.26 yrs. and it's product He-3 are not toxic to man but tritium is a great nuclear hazard to man. Just 3 grams of tritium will give as many disintegrations per second as 96,300 tons of U-238 or 6,883 tons of uranium including all it's daughters. The volume of radon T^ 3.82 days in a 13.1 ft. column of air over a square mile area at 4,000 pCi per liter is only 0.03 ml. and THIS IS A HAZARD?? Too many of our scientists consider alpha emissions worse than beta emissions, but this is true only if the reactions take place inside our bodies. The author has spent a few hundred hours in labs and rooms to which a 50,000 pCi beam of alpha emissions was continuously added not enclosed in any equipment. Nuclear dangers to man come not from naturally occuring sources but from what man and his nuclear technology have done and are still doing. Some chemical hazards will be mentioned such as dioxin, DDT, tricresyl phosphate, L-tryptophan, metal organic compounds, Elixir of Sulfanilamide and carbon monoxide. Some errors made by environmental scientists will be pointed out and explained. USE OF R2AIH TO PREPARE Al-N, Al-P, AND AI-As compounds. Steven Schauer. C. Lagrone, C. Watkins, and L. Krannich, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of AL at Birmingham, 'Birmingham, AL 35294. The most commonly used method for synthesizing Al-N, Al-P, and AI-As bonded ring compounds has been the direct reaction between an organoalane, R3AI, and a secondary organopnictide that leads to a 1,2- elimination process - elimination of an alkane. Several phosphinoalanes and one arsinoalane have also been synthesized by a coupling reaction/salt elimination methodology. From our study of the reactivity of Me2AIH with Me2AsNMe2, we have established that [Me2AINMe2]2 forms when the Me2AIH/Me2AsNMe2 stoichiometry is 1:1 and [Me2AIAsMe2]3 also forms when it is 2:1. Solution NMR studies on Me2AIH/Me2AsNMe2 and Me2AIH/Me2PNMe2 systems suggested a methodology for the synthesis of Al-P and AI-As ring compounds from R2AIH/R'2MMR'2 (M = P,As) systems. This has led to the successful synthesis of [Me2AIAsMe2]3, [Me2AIPMe2]3 and [Bu‘2AIPMe2]3. We have also synthesized ring compounds from the reactivity of R2AIH with R'2AsH and R'2NH. These results and structural data will be discussed and compared with the literature. 106 Abstracts THE SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF A POLYNUCLEOTIDE ANALOG FROM HYDROXYETHYLTHYMINE AND POLY(ACRYLYL CHLORIDE). Eva Graham. Adriane G. Ludwick and Milton Mathis, Chemistry Department, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, Alabama 36088. A polynucleotide analog (1) has been synthesized from the reaction of CH2CH2OH o o hydroxyethylthymine (HET) and poly(acrylyl chloride). The analog has been characterized by means of proton and 13 C NMR, and infrared spectroscopy. Other methods of analysis include thin layer chromatography, titration and viscosity. Biocompatibility and activity as an antiviral, antitumor agent, will be tested. (Supported by NIH/MBRS, Grant No. S06GM08091.) INFLUENCE OF BORON ON POLYCARBOSILANE SYNTHESIS. Xiniian Xie. Adriane Ludwick and Taleb Ibrahim, Chemistry Department, Materials Research Laboratory, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088 The conversion from polydimethylsilane to polycarbosilane was established by Yajima and his coworkers in 1975. Boron was used as a catalyst to improve this conversion for commercial production. In order to determine the effect of boron on the conversion mechanism, it is necessary to establish an effective method to get samples which belong to different reaction times, and to analyze these samples quantitatively. High reaction temperature under an inert atmosphere and poor product solubility make this determination difficult. In the Materials Laboratory of Tuskegee University, a special reaction unit has been used for the conversion reaction. The samples can be taken from the system continually during the reaction. The sample analysis includes solubility, NMR spectra for Si-H, Si-CH2, and Si-CH3 bonds, UV for Si-Si bonds, GPC for molecular weight, and IR for Si-H, Si-CH2, and SLCH3 bonds. The mineral oil (Nujol) mull technique was used for quantitative IR analysis of solid samples. The reproducibility of this approach was established. The influence of boron in this conversion will be determined by analysis of the results. The conversion mechanism will be established. (Supported by ONR/URI, Contract No. N00014-91-J-4035.) 107 Abstracts SYNTHESIS OF PROTECTED 6-DEOXY-6-HALEGENO-5-KETO-D-GLUCOSE DERIVATIVES AS INTERMEDIATES IN THE PREPARATION OF CHIRAL CYCLITOLS. David W. Morton and Donald E. Kiely, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Compounds of type (I) are used as intermediates in the preparation of natural products such as cyclitols (13) and nojirimycin (III) derivatives. Two general routes to the title compounds will be discussed. H- OR CHj C 0- C I - OR Ir I X • Cl- OR B r ACCURATE NMR PARAMETERS IN MONOSUBSTITUTED BENZENES. Marietta Domensino and Charles L. Watkins, Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1240. Recently, we became interested in obtaining accurate 1H and 13C NMR chemical shifts and 1H-1H coupling constants for aromatic compounds. Examination of current NMR textbooks revealed that the 3H NMR data that were referenced were obtained at 60 MHz about twenty-five years ago. Thus, we initially checked the reliability of the reported data for thirteen monosubstituted benzenes by obtaining the 1H NMR spectra at 300 MHz. Then, using quantum mechanical simulation and iteration techniques, accurate 3H NMR chemical shifts and coupling constants were obtained. These data are compared with literature values. Similarly, 13C NMR chemical shifts for the monosubstituted benzenes were measured and are compared with reported literature values. Finally, techniques for correlation of 1H and 13C NMR chemical shifts and rapid spectral assignment will be discussed. Examples for 1-D 13C spectral editing (APT, Attached Proton Test) , 13C-{1H} single frequency decoupling, and 2-D 13C-1H Heteronuclear Correlation will be presented. 108 Abstracts N-BENZOYLAMINOPHENYLSULFONYLAMINO ACIDS: MULTISITE-DIRECTED ALDOSE REDUCTASE INHIBITORS. R. Alan Davis1. Charles A. Mayfield2, Mike McManus2, and Jack DeRuiter1, 1 Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacal Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, AL 36849, departments of Oncology and Biophysics, University Hospitals, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 To date, of the aldose reductase inhibitors (ARIs) studied in our laboratory, the 4-{N- [(benzoylamino)phenyl]sulfonyl}amino acids are among the most potent members. As a function of the amino acid substitution (glycine, N-phenylglycine, R- and S-a-phenylglycine, and N-methylglycine), relative structure-inhibition relationships (SIRs) with aldose reductase (ALR2) were derived. From consideration of these SIR trends, in conjunction with the multiple- inhibition and competition analyses, it was apparent that these compounds had an unique mechanism of inhibition. Such novel binding resulted from interaction of the aroyl and amino acid moieties at their respective substrate and inhibitor sites within the ALR2 domain. However, this mutual two-site interaction did not account for the inhibitory differences observed within a regioisomeric series. For example, in the benzoylaminophenylsulfonyl- glycine (BAPSG) family, the relative IC50 values increased from 0.41 //M (4-BAPSG), to 7.0^M (3-BAPSG), to, finally, 70 fiM (2-BAPSG) as the benzoylamino fragment was moved around the phenylsulfonylglycine. Thus, it remained to be determined if the cooperative binding was maintained in the 2- and 3-regioisomers. As a result of these questions, other regioisomeric compounds were synthesized and kinetically analyzed. Using the same amino acid substitutions of the 4-regioisomeric series, the 2- and 3-regioisomeric counterparts were analyzed with respect to their relative SIRs. Other compounds, where the substrate (aroyl) moiety was varied (phenacetyl, cinnamoyl, benzyl, acetyl), were also considered. From these results, the 3- and 4-regioisomers inhibited ALR2 with similar mechanism of inhibition with slight deviation exhibited by the 2-regioisomers. PHENYL-CONTAINING POLYCARBOSILANES: SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION. Keqin Ma. Adriane G. Ludwick and Taleb H. Ibrahim, Chemistry Department, Materials Research Laboratory, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088. Phenyl-containing polycarbosilanes, useful as precursors for ceramic materials, were synthesized using polysilastyrene and polyborodiphenylsiloxane. Reaction times were varied for the synthesis of the phenyl-containing polycarbosilanes. The solubility of the resulting polycarbosilanes in various organic solvents ranged from 10 percent to 96 percent. Molecular weights and polydispersities were measured. "Polycarbosilanisity", a measure of the extent of conversion of polysilane to polycarbosilane, was calculated from 1H NMR spectra to be approximately 50 percent for all soluble portions. The phenyl- containing polycarbosilanes will be used as precursors for novel phenyl/titanium-containing polycarbosilanes, also to be used as preceramic polymers. (Supported by ONR/URI, Contract No. N00014-91-J-4035.) 109 Abstracts SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF A NEW FLUORINE-CONTAINING EPOXY RESIN. Jianxin Ren and Adriane G. Ludwick, Chemistry Department, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088. The objective of this study is to synthesize and characterize a new epoxy resin containing the ester functional group and fluorine atoms (la). It is rationalized that the X X la, x=F; lb, x=H ester group will improve compatibility of the fluorine epoxy with common amine curing agents. In comparison with a nonfluorine-containing epoxy resin (lb), the fluorine- containing resin should be more water resistant. Both la and lb are designed so that control of the glass transition temperature can be achieved. This should increase the versatility of the use of the system. The nonfluoroepoxy has been synthesized by a Darzen's condensation reaction. Several reaction conditions were examined. The purification was attempted by column chromatography. The product was characterized by IR, JH-NMR, and ^C-NMR. The fluoroepoxy synthesis is underway. STRUCTURE-INHIBITION STUDIES WITH ALDOSE REDUCTASE INHIBITORS DERIVED FROM FUNGI. Jack DeRuiter and R. Alan Davis, Department of Pharmacal Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, AL 36849. John M. Jacyno and Horace G. Cutler, Richard B. Russell Center, USDA, ARS, P.O. Box 5677, Athens, GA 30613. The fungal metabolites citrinin (4,6-dihydro-8-hydroxy-3,4,5-tri- methyl-6-oxo-3H-2-benzopyran-7-carboxylic acid) and DHMI (3,4-dihydro-6- methoxy-3,7-dimethyl-1 H-2- benzopyran-8-ol), as well as certain synthetic derivatives have been tested for their ability to inhibit aldose reductase isolated from rat lens. Citrinin and its reduced analogue, dihydrocitrinin, were found to have significant inhibitory activity (IC^ = 10 uM), whereas the other analogues including DHMI, methyl-DHMI and the N-methyl carbamate of DHMI were 3-10 times less inhibitory. While citrinin possesses a reactive quinone methide moiety and thus may be capable of alkylating of the enzyme, no irreversible inhibit of aldose reductase was observed in enzyme kinetic studies. Spectroscopic (NMR) studies revealed that citrinin exists predominantly in the form of its hemi-acetal in aqueous media, suggesting that the lack of reactivity results from the rapid hydration of citrinin under enzyme assay conditions. 110 Abstracts SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THERMALLY STABLE POLYMERS. Rahul D, Patil. James Jackson, and Himansu M. Gajiwala, Dept, of Chemistry, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088. In this project an attempt is being made to synthesize new polyimides having good thermal stability and better processability, using heterocyclic diamine - acridine yellow and different dianhydrides. Due to the poor reactivity of the diamine, two step polyimide synthesis at low temperature was unsuccessful. Polymerization reactions were therefore carried out at elevated temperatures in different polar aprotic solvents. Dimethyl formamide, Dimethyl sulfoxide and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP) were used as solvents for polymerization. NMP yielded the product with 100% imidization. Reaction conditions were optimized in terms of percentage solids, reaction time, temperature and molecular weight. The reactivity of acridine yellow was theoretically estimated using HYPERCHEM. The resulting new heterocyclic polyimides have high thermal stability. Besides good thermal stability, these polyimides are expected to have better processability and insulating properties due to the presence of bulky methyl groups. ENZYME AMPLFICATION-THE GLUCOSE OXIDASE/GLUCOSE DEHYDROGENASE CYCLE AND POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS. Moore U. Asouzu, Shawn Mansfield, Kimberlyn Ballard, Rachael Leopold, and Teresa Sims, Troy State University, Troy, AL 36082. In enzyme amplification, a substrate is passed through a cyclic pathway many times with the aid of two or more enzymes and coenzyme. At the end of these cycles, the product accumulated or reagent consumed is measured and related indirectly to the concentration of the substrate in the cycle. Because product accumulation or reagent consumption in such a cycle is usually more than stoichiometric, the measured signal is much higher them usual , and this phenomenon is the basis for enzyme amplification. We will present the glucose oxidase/glucose dehydrogenase amplification cycle, and propose how this system may be beneficial as a detection scheme in solid-phase immunoassays. Ill Abstracts THEORETICAL STUDIES ON THE REARRANGEMENT OF PHENYLCARBENE. Tracy P. Hamilton, Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294. One of the models proposed for the observed reactivity of phenylcarbene (I) is one in which a ground state triplet is in thermal equilibrium with a slightly higher energy singlet. However, even the energy gap between the singlet and triplet states is not known for certain. Semiemperical calculations give values for the singlet-triplet difference that range from 2.2 to 19.2 kcal/mol. First principles methods have been used with fairly good basis sets to obtain 15.6, 9.9 and 7.9 kcal/mol for the singlet-triplet energy splitting for Hartree-Fock, Cl and Davidson corrected Cl, respectively. The errors in the answers given by these methods can be estimated from using them on methylene, which has an accurately known singlet-triplet energy gap. Some possible intermediates and transition states in the rearrangement of singlet and triplet phenylcarbene will also be examined. Among the interesting structures proposed are a bicycloheptatriene, cycloheptatrienylidene, and cycloheptatetraene. IMMOBILIZATION OF CHOLINE OXIDASE AND ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE ON GLYCERYL-COATED CPG AND ITS APPLICATION TO HPLC SEPARATION OF ACETYLCHOLINE AND CHOLINE. Shawn Mansfield and Moore U. Asouzu, Troy State University, Troy, AL 36082. The assessment of acetylcholine and choline profiles of tissue samples is very useful in the study of neural activities and dis¬ orders. HPLC coupled with post-column enzymatic conversion with acetylcholinesterase and choline oxidase, and amperometric detection of hydrogen peroxide on Pt electrode continues to be the only method used to determine these neurochemicals in a real sample. Acetylcholine and choline are neither chromogenic nor electroactive. We will present the results of HPLC quantitation of these neuro¬ chemicals based on amperometric oxygen electrode along with the advantages and the disadvantages of this system. 112 Abstracts Microscale Determination of Molar Mass By Mixed Melting Points. Dawn Kirkland, Sandra Padgett, Joseph Stewart, Maurice Ware, Massimo D. Bezoari, Division of Natural Science and Math, Livingston University, Livingston, AL 35470 The molar masses of compounds can be determined by making mixtures of known composition with a "solvent" compound having a high cryoscopic constant. The difference in melting points between the pure "solvent" compound and the mixture is obtained using capillary melting point tubes and milligram quantities of mixtures The molar mass of the "solute" compound is calculated after the molality of the "solution" is deduced. The method works surprisingly well with common experimental errors of less than 5%. A greater degree of error is observed if the solids have not been mixed well. The method has advantages over the usual larger scale methods in that: a) smaller quantities of materials are required; b) less waste is generated; and c) students learn the technique of taking accurate melting points. REDUCTION OF QUINONE AT AN ENZYME-MODIFIED GLASSY CARBON ELECTRODE AS A POSSIBLE ROUTE TO ENZYME AMPLIFICATION. Moore U. Asouzu , Shawn Mansfield, and Kimberlyn Ballard, Troy State University, Troy, AL 36082. In enzyme amplification, a substrate is passed through a cyclic pathway many times with the aid of two or more enzymes and coenzyme. At the end of these cycles, the product accumulated or reagent consumed is measured and related indirectly to the concen¬ tration of the substrate in the cycle. The requirement that a coenzyme be present is expensive in many instances, and may even lead to reduced amplification through enzyme inhibition. We have immobilized horseradish peroxidase on a Jeffamine-modified glassy carbon electrode. By reducing the quinone product formed when catechol is used as substrate for the enzyme at this electrode, we are able to achieve amplification without the use of a coenzyme We will present the immobilization method along with the results obtained to date. We will propose further how this system may be beneficial as a detection scheme in solid-phase immunoassays. 113 Abstracts GEOLOGY ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF CARBONATE ROCKS IN MADISON COUNTY, ALABAMA. Paul H. Moser and Karen F. Rheams, Geological Survey of Alabama, 420 Hackberry Lane, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486 Madison County is underlain predominantly by carbonates of Mississippian age at the lower elevations, and by sandstone, shale and coal of Pennsylvanian age at the higher elevations. The cavernous nature of the carbonate rocks over approximately 90 percent of the county is, in many cases, directly or indirectly responsible for a variety of environmental and engineering problems . More than 300 caves in Madison County have been located on topographic maps and mapped by tape, compass and inclinometer. These interconnecting openings are often large in the subsurface and may allow the rapid movement of the ground water generally in a southerly direction toward the Tennessee River. These interconnecting solution features of varying sizes furnish the conduit system through which pollutants may be carried over long distances in the subsurface. Caves and widespread subsurface solution openings provide seme potentially damaging structural and engineering dilemmas. Specialized subsurface foundation treatments have been designed to accommodate these anomalous conditions. Sinkholes in Madison County appear to be prevalent but not abundant in number. The majority of these sinkholes appear to be formed by a mechanical erosion of the regolith overlying a conduit system in the underlying carbonates through which silt-ladened drainage is carried downward and out of the area. These sinkholes, in seme cases, provide direct access of contaminants and contaminated water to the ground-water system. TRACER-DYE TECHNIQUES AND GROUND-WATER FLOW IN CARBONATE ROCKS, MADISON COUNTY, ALABAMA. Karen F. Rheams and Paul H. Moser, Geological Survey of Alabama, 420 Hackberry Lane, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35486. In conjunction with a study of the endangered Alabama cave shrimp (Palaemonias alabamae), tracer-dye investigations have been conducted to determine general and specific ground-water flows and to delineate subsurface basins and potential recharge areas of significant caves and springs in west-central and southeast Madison County, Alabama. Two artificial types of tracers, Blankophor BBH (an optical brightener) and Fluorescein Cl Acid Yellow 73 (a fluorescent green dye) have been utilized in the study area. The tracers are recovered with detectors (colloquially known as "bugs") from possible points of intersection with the groundwater flow, such as springs, cave stream resurgences, and surface streams. Tracer-dye investigations in any given area have been hampered by a lack of suitable injection points. Although the study area is in a karstic terrain, many sinkholes are either closed or are only open to the ground-water system during limited periods of heavy precipitation. Tracer-dye tests are not entirely conclusive. Positive test results demonstrate a hydrologic connection between the input point and recovery point, but negative results are not proof of an absence of hydrologic connection. Non-uniform tracer-dye test results within the area of study are due to a number of factors, such as dilution, multi-level conduit versus diffuse subsurface flow regimes, sampling frequency, and animal and human vandalism. Much has been learned over the past 3 years concerning ground- water flow patterns in selected areas of Madison County, but much has yet to be perfected about dye-tracing techniques in this carbonate terrain. 114 Abstracts AN IMPROVED CARBONATE POROSITY CLASSIFICATION. David C. Kopaska-Merkel, Geological Survey of Alabama, PO Box O, Tuscaloosa AL 35486-9780. The genetic carbonate-porosity classification of Choquette and Pray has proven to be flexible and is widely used. Three modifications to this classification increase its usefulness. First, modifiers indicating the nature of the precursor particles are added to moldic and intraparticle pores. (Choquette and Pray suggested this informally in the appendix to their paper.) The second modification concerns partial molds, or secondary intraparticle pores, which are considered separately from molds because (1) they have differing spatial distributions, (2) different kinds of particles follow different diagenetic pathways; e.g., in some reservoir rocks, ooids become molds, whereas co-occurring pellets are transformed into ellipsoidal "sacks" of secondary intraparticle pores, and (3) molds and secondary intraparticle pores differ systematically and significantly in their petrophysical characteristics. Secondary intraparticle pores are small clusters of small pores, surrounded by pore systems that may be finer or coarser, whereas molds are individual large pores surrounded by finer pore systems. Secondary intraparticle pores are divided into cement-reduced moldic pores (recognized by Choquette and Pray), microvuggy secondary intraparticle porosity, formed by the partial dissolution of particles, and intercrystalline secondary intraparticle pores, commonly formed by the partial dolomitization and subsequent partial dissolution of a particle. These three fabrics are commonly restricted to the interiors of particles, and do not transgress particle boundaries. The U.S. Department of Energy partially supported this research. AN OVERVIEW OF MINERAL PRODUCTION IN ALABAMA. Lewis S. Dean. Geological Survey of Alabama, 420 Hackberry Ln., Tuscaloosa, AL 35486. Utilization of current and historical nonfuel mineral production data is an important factor in assessing the economic and technical development of the state's mineral industries. Mineral production data provide insight to exploration effort and reserve identification by the mineral industry and consumption, trade, and conservation practice. The earliest commercial operation (mineral production unrecorded) was in 1780 for clay used in making brick and tile at Mobile. Other early commercial production occurred in 1809 in Washington Co. for salt, 1818 in Franklin Co. for iron ore, 1827 in Tuscaloosa Co. for sandstone (building stone), 1831 in Chilton Co. for gold, 1838 in Talladega Co. for marble, and 1840 for lime and limestone. State mineral production was first recorded in 1840 for clay (brick and earthenware), stone (limestone and marble), iron, and gold. For the period 1880-1992 mineral production has been lead by limestone and dolomite (801.7 million short tons (mst)) [and associated manufacture of lime], sand and gravel (438.9 mst), iron ore [1880-1975] (374.5 million long tons), clay (104.8 mst), marble (29.1 mst), bauxite (6.6 mst), and sandstone (4.7 mst). Intermittent production for graphite took place in 1910-29 (50.8 million pounds (m pds)) and 1942-53 (30 m pds); for talc in 1955-76 (130,000 short tons); for flake mica in 1968-80 (1.6 mst); for gold in 1831-1949 (49,495 troy oz.); and minor production of barite, cassiterite, chert, phosphate, pyrite, sheet mica, talc, tantalite, and stone (building stone, granite, and quartzite). For the period 1970-92 production has been lead by limestone and dolomite (532.2 mst) in Shelby Co. (30%) and Jefferson Co. (19%) from the Cambrian Conasauga Formation-Ketona Dolomite and Ordovician Newala Limestone; Madison Co. (8%), Colbert Co. (7%), and Morgan Co. (7%) from the Mississippian Bangor and Tuscumbia Limestones; and Marengo Co. (4%) from the Cretaceous Demopolis Chalk. Sand and gravel production of 261.8 mst has been principally from Montgomery Co. (17%), Elmore Co. (8%), Macon Co. (7%), Tuscaloosa Co. (4%), and Russell Co. (4%) from Quaternary alluvium and terrace deposits, and Mobile Co. (8%) from the Citronelle Formation. Clay production of 60.5 mst from 1970-92 consists of common clay (45%), shale (29%), fuller's earth (14%), bentonite (6%), fireclay (4%), and kaolin (2%). Currently other significant production consists of bauxite, dolomitic marble (Chewacla Marble), marble (Sylacauga Marble Group), salt, stone (building stone and granite), and recovered sulphur. 115 Abstracts GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS OF LANDSLIDE CHARACTERIZATION IN HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA. S.J. Vitton. Dept, of Civil Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0205. Due to accelerated growth in and around the metropolitan area of Huntsville, Alabama, development pressures are being exerted on the slopes of Monte Sano, Green, and Huntsville Mountain Ridges. These ridges, which are remnants of the once more extensive Cumberland Plateau, are formed from a cap rock of Pottsville Sandstone of Pennsylvanian age underlain by a sequence of Mississippian aged limestones, shales and sandstones, most notable the Pennington and Bangor Formations. Through weathering and mass wasting, both residual and colluvial soils exist on the slope with some of the colluvium reaching depths in excess of 20 m. While normal slope processes are apparent, such as erosional movement of the soil and toppling failures of the Pottsville Sandstone, both ancient and recent landslides can also be observed in the colluvium. The colluvium, while variable in nature, is generally composed of sandy clays along with considerable sandstone fragments from the overlying Pottesville Formation. Due to the potential for earth movement in the form of debris flows and larger scaled landslides, the City of Huntsville has adopted a Mountainside Development Zoning District Ordinance, which requires that a geotechnical investigation be performed on the slope stability of the proposed development. To aid in the implementation of this ordinance, an investigation is currently being conducted to assess the characteristic of the earth movement in an attempt to develop landslide potential maps for the Huntsville area. While numerous complex factors are involved in the mass movement of soil, some of the more important factors being considered in this investigation are (1) the strength of the colluvium, which has been found to be highly overconsolidated, (2) the dilational effects of the sandstone fragments in the colluvium, (3) changes in soil mineralogy with weathering, (4) saturation by infiltration of surface water as well as migration of ground water, and (5) the cause and effect relationship of sinkhole development on slope stability. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE STUDY OF MICROFOSSILS FROM THE TALLADEGA SLATE BELT, ALABAMA. Denny N. Bearce, Dept, of Geology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Mark C. Koopman, Dept, of Materials Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. The Talladega slate belt is the westernmost belt of the southern Appalachian Piedmont metamorphic province in Alabama and Georgia. It contains lower greenschist facies metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks ranging in age from latest Precambrian or Early Cambrian to Devonian. These rocks have been thrust-faulted onto Paleozoic sedimentary rocks of the Appalachian Valley and Ridge province. Stratigraphic relationships have been established between the Talladega slate belt and the Valley and Ridge province through the rare occurrance of fossils in a few of the Talladega slate belt formations. These fossils have also constrained structural models of the Talladega slate belt. Many stratigraphic intervals of the Talladega slate belt remain of uncertain age. However, SEM study of one such interval has revealed the presence of microfossils ranging in size from two to twenty microns. These microfossils have not been identified, but some are of the size and shape of spores. Most of the forms have been pyritized, but some are carbonaceous. The microfossils occur in black, carbonaceous, phyllitic metashale. No comparable forms have been found as yet in rocks of known age. These microfossils are relatively abundant, and current study is directed toward establishing their biologic affinity, age range, and usefulness in correlation. 116 Abstracts IMAGING OF LOW-INTENSITY CATHODOLUMINESCENCE IN AUTHIGENIC QUARTZ, NORPHLET SANDSTONE, OFFSHORE ALABAMA. Ralph L. Kugler. Geological Survey of Alabama, P.O. Box O, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486 and Kitty L. Milliken, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712 Cathodoluminescence (CL) of authigenic quartz cannot be detected by cold-cathode luminescence devices attached to optical microscopes routinely used in studies of carbonate cements. However, recently available CL detectors on scanning electron microscopes, utilizing photomultiplier technology similar to that used in optical telescopes by astronomers, can characterize previously unrecognized, low-intensity CL in quartz cement. In offshore Alabama, quartz cement in Norphlet sandstone has two occurrences; (1) pervasive, pore- occluding quartz cement in the "tight zone" at the top of the unit and (2) millimeter-scale, quartz-cemented nodules in porous sandstone lower in the unit that contain inclusions of earlier anhydrite cement. These two occurrences of authigenic quartz have distinct CL char¬ acteristics. Combined CL and backscattered-electron imaging of samples from the “tight zone" revealed complex zonation and assemblages of crystals that were unexpected in quartz overgrowths that appear optically continuous with polarized-light microscopy. The multitude of crystals in individual intergranular spaces may reflect nucleation sites at breaks in chlorite grain coats or nucleation on detrital quartz grains out of the plane of observation. Although causes of CL in quartz are poorly understood, CL zonation in most crystals apparently reflects normal growth banding. However, some crystals appear to be sector zoned. Detrital grains and cement are locally fractured, with authigenic quartz filling fractures. Quartz-cemented nodules display the most complicated CL patterns. Generally, iuminescence is duller and zonation is indistinct. The most surprising result was the high degree of compaction in the nodules. Rounded luminescent patches within quartz-cemented nodules appear to be detrital fragments that were not visible with other forms of microscopy. Some detrital grains contain complex embayments, unrelated to pressure solution. Imaging of low-intensity CL promises to be a significant tool in deciphering the evolution of quartz cement in hydrocarbon reservoir sandstone, as well as in evaluation of compaction and brittle deformation. Additionally, knowledge of CL zonation in authigenic quartz can guide and constrain collection and interpretation of fluid inclusion and stable isotope data. 117 Abstracts FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, CONSERVATION, AND PLANNING SIGNS, THEIR PURPOSE, TYPE, AND USE. Wilbur B. De Vail, Proxy Services, Ltd, Auburn, Alabama 36830-2505. Signs are efficient means of direct, mass communication which are available to everyone. They may provide directions, announce events, promote a product, convey a message, or just provide information. Signs may convey an image of you or your business, telling others who you are, what service or product you are offering, and how to contact you. When one cannot talk with people, signs do the communicating such as "WET PAINT", "BEWARE OF THE DOG"., and similar messages. The word SIGN has other meanings. A sign may point out a location of a particular business by use of a symbol - three balls for a Pawn Shop. A gesture or motion is a sign such as "sign of the cross". The word may be an indication of a situation - "no sign of life". In astronomy, the 12 signs of the Zodiac have specific meanings. When a check is written, a person 'signs' it. A coach may 'sign' a new player. In business, a sign is some form of board, plate, or space used to advertise, guide, or inform. The final objective of signs is to create an image. A good sign which creates a good image, will help others remember the business, its name, product, or service. Its value pays off when people return to the business as repeat purchasers. The cost of a sign depends on its size, material used in construction, and embellishments such as reflective paint or artificial lighting. Each should be considered a business expense, designed to increase income, create the proper image for the product or service, and be kept in first-class condition by frequent maintenance. A poorly designed sign, of inadequate size, in a poor location, and improperly maintained will be a liability to any business whether large of small. THE RENEWED POPULARITY OF DOWNTOWNS. Jason Claxton, Dept, of Geography, Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632. The characteristics that made the downtown a focus of economic and social life include its location at crossroads of a regional transpor¬ tation network, its diversity of land uses, and its concentration of activity in a compact area. After World War II, the decline of the downtown affected housing, retailing, and industries. This decline can be traced to the invention of electric streetcars and the automobile. Today, the downtown has turned towards a pedestrian-oriented environ¬ ment. This paper will explain the influence that the downtown had on a community's economic and social life. These influences include the decline of the downtown market places, pedestrian and transit systems, and technological and social forces. 118 Abstracts GIS AND REMOTE SENSING ANALYSIS OF WETLANDS IN HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA. Benjamin A, Fcrrill. Planning Department, City of Huntsville, 308 Fountain Circle, Huntsville, AL 35804. The purpose of this study is to develop a GIS and remote sensing approach to wetland identification and delineation and to verify the results by ground-based studies. Digital data sets (including U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetland Inventory (NWI), Soil Conservation Service hydric soils (1958), topography and drainage, current land use, color infrared (CIR) photography, a January, 1990 Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) image, and other data sets) arc being compared to establish the spatial associations that constrain the most accurate delineation and classification of wetlands. Preliminary results from comparisons of hydric soils, NWI, and TM analysis from three quadrangles indicate less than 50% agreement between data set pairs. Comparison of these data with current land use, CIR photography, topography and drainage and field- based studies help to define types of disagreement. For example, the NWI maps erroneously identified several bottomland hardwood forests as wetlands, whereas, they commonly failed to show fanned or cleared wetlands. The TM analysis missed many small wetlands because of the 30m pixel resolution and misidentified others, particularly marginal wetlands and wetlands with mixed cover types. Changes in land use including ditching to drain wetlands, slope paving for flood control, and filling of wetlands for commercial/residential development have altered soil hydrology in several areas. The highest agreement between respective data sets is in large wetlands that are permanently or seasonally flooded. THE LOCATION AND ANALYSIS OF CHERT PITS TO DETERMINE PALEOSTREAM CHANNELS. Debbie Harrison and Deborah Wilson, Dept, of Geography, Univ. of North Ala. , Florence, AL 35632. According to 1968 geologic maps of Northwest Alabama, the Upper Cretaceous Gordo Formation, part of the undifferentiated Tuscaloosa Group, is a blanket deposit on the east side of the Mississippi Embay- ment . A hypothesis has been proposed that asks: Could the Gordo Formation have been deposited by paleostreams that emptied into the Mississippi Embayment rather than a marginal marine deposit? To test the hypothesis, our research included: a review of the literature on the Gordo and Coker Formations of the Tuscaloosa Group; studying geo¬ logic maps of Colbert and Franklin counties in Northwest Alabama; and, field work to investigate, map, and analyze Gordo exposures in the study area. At each locality the thickness and elevations of the Gordo were determined. Preliminary results are inconclusive, and it is hoped that further field work will produce a definitive answer to the hypo¬ thesis . Abstracts THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE 1992 PRESIDENTIAL DEBATES. Cynthia L. Sutherland, Department of Geography, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486. Gerald R. Webster, Department of Geography, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486. Due to our reliance on the electoral college, U.S. presidential elections are intrinsically geographic events. In their campaigns successful candidates must address issues pertinent to varying geographic places and scales. For example, in the 1992 presidential election popular wisdom has held that Bill Clinton's success was partially due to his attention on domestic issues, most notably the economy. In contrast, many perceived George Bush's campaign as neglecting the domestic economy and emphasizing his record in international affairs. Due to their attention to geographically defined issues and places the three 1992 presidential debates provide an opportunity to consider these common assertions. This paper uses a content analysis of place names mentioned by each of the three presidential candidates during each debate. Place names are then classified by geographical setting including a U.S. vs. foreign dichotomy. These geographical setting classifications are then used to determine the spatial emphasis of places by each of the three candidates. This paper finds that all three candidates stressed domestic locations more than foreign locations, but this domestic emphasis was indeed slightly greater in Bill Clinton's responses during the three debates. ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF AN IMPROVED ETHANOL PRO¬ DUCTION TECHNOLOGY. Eric N. Rahimian, Dept, of Economics and Finance, Alabama A&M University, Huntsville, AL 35762. Several studies exist about the feasibility of an economically viable ethanol production from corn and sugar cane. Ethanol production from corn stalks, corn cobs, sawdust, grass clippings, old newspapers, the sludge generated from the paper mills, municipal solid waste (MSW) has recently gained a technological momentum. The improved technology utilizes genetic engineering to produce a more productive bacteria (superbug) which has the ability to produce ethanol from almost any kind of plant material. The cost of ethanol production may go down to 45 to 50 cents per gallon which makes it a good rival to gasoline. The byproducts of the new technology are said to be useful in other pro¬ ductive processes. This paper reviews the recent improvement in the ethanol production technology and its economic and environmental impli¬ cations. Although a detailed cost-benefit analysis of full-scale implementation of the new technology is not yet available, there seems to be enough evidence to support further allocation of funds and atten¬ tion to the potentials of the new technology. The implementation of the new technology is expected to improve the quality of our environ¬ ment and to reduce our dependence on foreign sources of energy. 120 Abstracts THE LOSS OF WETLANDS IN THE URBANIZED AREA OF MADISON COUNTY, (ALABAMA) BETWEEN 1979 AND 1989. Claudette P. Hall, Dept, of Community Planning and Urban Studies, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762. The purpose of this research was to determine wetland losses in the Urbanized Area of Madison County, Alabama from 1979 to 1989. The specific objectives were: to determine the amount and rate of wetland loss, identify the factors contributing to wetland loss, and identify those factors threatening wetlands in the study area during the period under investigation. Wetland losses were determined by converting map and photographic data to digital format, then measur¬ ing and recording wetland acreages. Aerial photographic interpreta¬ tion and field investigation determined wetland losses between 1979 and 1989, revealed factors threatening wetlands and identified new land uses that have replaced wetlands over the study period. Within the eleven year study period, approximately 5 percent of the study area's wetlands have been destroyed. Residential and commercial developments are the major contributing factors. Wetlands continue to be threatened by various activities. These findings formed the basis for documenting the past, present and future status of wetlands in the Urbanized Area of Madison County. KEY WORDS: Wetlands, Urbanized Area of Madison County. USING SATELLITE IMAGERY TO DETECT PINE BEETLES IN BANKHEAD. Roger Taylor, Dept, of Geography, Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632. The University of North Alabama's Geographic Research Center is currently researching the possibility of early detection of pine beetles in Bankhead National Forest through the use of multispectral satellite images. Trees killed by pine beetles are not only an eye sore, but are also a threat to the timber industry and the economy of Alabama. This project uses anniversary date imagery to determine if stress, exhibited by the damaged trees, is detectable in the satellite imagery. The stressed spectral response will indicate one of two things: The tree has either been infested by pine beetles or the tree is exhibiting stress and is a good candidate for a pine beetle attack. This project seeks to answer two questions: "Can the satellite imagery be used to detect trees under stress, thereby predicting where the pine beetles will move next?" and "Can the satellite imagery be used to detect current locations of pine beetles in order to save the Alabama Forestry Commission time and money in searching for the locations?" This project is funded by the Alabama Forestry Commission. 121 Abstracts THE EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE GIS INDUSTRY: WHAT UNIVERSITIES SHOULD PROVIDE TO UNDERGRADUATE GEOGRAPHY MAJORS . Lisa Ke ys-Ma thews , Dept, of Geography, Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632. The Geographic Information Systems (GIS) market has grown steadily over the past several years and this growth is predicted to continue. Given this growth, many employment opportunities are available for college graduates with an interest in this technology. Undergraduate institutions that provide a curriculum to support the GIS industry must prepare students for these positions. There are four sectors of the GIS employment market which include software development, sales and marketing, user applications, and support functions (including educa¬ tion, hardware, and software support). Needless to say, a student's talents and interests will determine in which of these sectors they will work. What the educational system must provide, however, is direction to the students in these areas. This paper serves to provide suggestions relative to classes, work experience, and projects in each of the four sectors based on practical hiring experience and interviews with professionals in the field. THE EFFECTS OF CLEARCUTTING ON THE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE BANKHEAD NATIONAL FOREST. Sherry L . Bishop , Dept, of Geography, Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632. The present practice of clearcutting in the Bankhead National Forest of Alabama is a highly destructive method of timber harvesting. The researcher will present evidence to show how this practice adverse¬ ly affects the Earth's biosphere, geosphere, atmosphere, and hydro¬ sphere. Overwhelming evidence indicates that clearcutting causes a loss of biodiversity through habitat destruction. Current research of forest ecosystems have proven that reduced diversity limits a forest's ability to deal with stress. The spatial distribution patterns of a replanted forest can affect the health of that forest by reducing its ability to cope with natural calamities. This paper supports the thesis that present practices and attitudes must change if forest eco¬ systems are to survive. Suggestions are offered on the changes and modifications required. LIVING IN THE RAINFOREST: IF WE LIVE WITH IT, CAN THEY LIVE WITHOUT IT? Rhonda Grissom, Dept, of Geography, Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632. The news media constantly publicizes the fact that the rainforests of the world are being devastated. What is often not discussed is the fact that the citizens of these countries are conducting the deforest- tation to survive. The deforestation occurs for short-term economic benefits, but in the process the environment is being destroyed. How can this process be slowed to an acceptable rate of recovery? This paper will examine the effects of deforestation on cultures, the environment, and the future of medicine. In addition, it will offer alternatives to deforestation, among them ecotourism, selling of plants with medicinal value, change of landownership distribution, and the developmental research of plants. 122 Abstracts HIGH TECHNOLOGY COMPLEXES AS PORTRAYED IN MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS, 1955-1990- Roberta Haven Webster, Department of History, Political Science and Geography, Samford University, Birmingham, AL 35229. The United States is in the midst of social, economic and political transformation that is fundamentally altering the nature of spatial relationships. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the changing role of place and location in this transformation with special emphasis on the locational impact of high technology activities. The data set for this study was generated from a content analysis of more than 500 magazine advertisements from Business Week and Time between 1955 and 1990. Nearly one hundred variables were initially identified as potentially significant to this transformation process, and the frequency of their occurrence in each advertisement was recorded. Twenty-three variables were selected for further study and entered into a principal components analysis in an effort to identify major socio-spatial dimensions within the data. The principal components analysis resulted in the identification of six dimensions, including a "new manufacturing/high technology" dimension. A closer examination of this dimension showed that it was dominated by ads from the latter portion of the study period, specifically post-1975, and that these same ads portray not only corporate movements to locations outside the traditional manufacturing belt but also increasing placelessness . THE INFLUENCE OF THE TENNESSEE RIVER ON SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN NORTH¬ WEST ALABAMA. Deborah Wilson and Angelia Mance, Dept, of Geography, Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632. The Tennessee River has exerted a profound influence on the settlement of Northwest Alabama. A plentiful source of good water, fertile lands, and transportation routes were primary reasons for settlement in the vicinity of the river. The Tennessee River has been important to the economic development of Northwest Alabama. For example, the presence of shallow water necessitated the establishment of a break-in-bulk point to allow the trans-shipment of goods from the river to land transport. The establishment of port facilities contri¬ buted to further growth and economic development of the area. Sequen¬ tial occupants of these locations ranged from the Prehistoric Indians to the cotton planters of the Antebellum period to the current inhabi¬ tants of the valley. THE USEFULNESS OF SIMCITY IN A PLANNING CLASS: A STUDENT PERSPECTIVE. Jeffrey S. Henderson, Dept, of Geography, Univ, of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632. Zoning is one tool used by city planners; SimCity, a computer "game" that simulates the development and growth of a city, is a teaching tool that can allow future planners the opportunity to sharpen their use of this tool. The user is both a city planner and a mayor. The objective of the "game" is to develop a healthy city on a given landscape that is well designed and properly budgeted. This paper describes from a student perspective the benefit of using Sim¬ City in a classroom situation. The paper also addresses the practical planning concepts that SimCity demonstrates compared to the theoretical concepts taught in class. 123 Abstracts USING CENSUS DATA TO SUPPORT UNIVERSITY NEEDS IN STATISTICAL MAPPING. Amy Aldridge, Dept, of Geography, Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632. In the Geographic Research Center at the University of North Ala¬ bama, large numbers of maps are produced for various grants and contracts as well as to support University marketing and recruiting. In the past, these maps were generated using Atlas*Graphics/Atlas*Draw, a basic computer mapping tool. The data was normally collected and input manually into the system. This project integrates the Census Bureau's STF-1A Population and Housing data available on CD-ROM with ESRI's ArcUSA 1:2 million data. The resulting database will allow the faculty to present a graphical representation of the university community yesterday, today, and tomorrow. This database will also serve as an excellent tool for strategic and long-range planning for the University. This paper explains the database design and development as well as the applications . IMAGERY: A POTENTIAL POSSIBILITY. Priscilla Holland, Dept, of Geography, Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has promoted the use of its satellite imagery from the time of its first collection in 1974. The community of users in the United States has increased from a small cadre of pioneers to a field practiced by thousands. The arena of research in the use of satellite imagery as a teaching tool within the secondary schools has been limited because of the cost of the hardware and software required to manipulate these data. During the eighties, as the price decreased, universities and colleges were able to afford systems for teaching and training tools. In the past year such systems have become even more affordable and, in the opinion of this researcher, the field has reached a point where the incorporation of this technology into the curriculum at the secondary level is crucial. Not only does satellite imagery bring new resources to education, but research shows that it interests and motivates students to learn. AN INNOVATIVE METHOD FOR DEVELOPING A GROUND RECEIVING STATION FOR NOAA AND GOES SATELLITES. Darryl Shelton, Dept, of Geography, Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 35632. NOAA and GOES satellites are constantly sending remotely sensed data of the earth to receiving stations around the globe. This data is free to all that have the basic hardware and software. With a minimum of expense and effort, a geography or earth science department at a university or secondary school can assemble a satellite downlink receiving station. The data downlinked from these satellites, along with their associated orbital tracking, can be used in the classroom, or as student projects. Data can be used to instruct students in meteorology, earth science, geo¬ graphy, and physics. This paper describes how to construct and set up the basic components of a NOAA and GOES satellite ground receiving station. 124 Abstracts PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF ION DEPLETION IN A SPACECRAFT WAKE. Richard H. Comfort. Center for Space Plasma and Aeronomic Research and Physics Dept., Univ. of Ala. in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899. Uri Samir, Dept, of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel. Observations made by the Retarding Ion Mass Spectrometer (RIMS) on the Dynamics Explorer 1 spacecraft provide data for this study of plasma wakes. Because the spin-plane of the spacecraft lies in the orbital plane, the RIMS detector can view in both the direct forward (ram) and direct backward (wake) directions as the spinning spacecraft moves through the ambient plasma. Approximately 5000 one-minute averages of the wake-to-ram countrate ratios for both H+ and He+ form the database for this study. We examine the variation of these ratios with ion Mach number, normalized spacecraft potential, and normalized body size. Results from this study confirm earlier results based on a much smaller data set that the wake-to-ram ratio varies most sensitively with the ion Mach number. With this larger data base, however, we are also able to identify systematic variations of this ratio with the normalized potential, which were not apparent in the previous study. We also attempt to separate the physical influences of the normalized body size from those of the normalized potential, both of which appear to affect the wake-to-ram ratio comparably. From these results we can gain insight into the differences between these plasma wakes and similar wakes in neutral gases. GYROGRAPHICS: VISUALIZING SOLIDS IN CALCULUS. Judy E. Massey, Division of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Livingston University, Livingston, AL 35470. Students have difficulty visualizing solid figures. The student's first introduction to graphing these figures is generally in Calculus II, when the student is introduced to solids of revolution. Gyro- Graphics is a marvelous tool for graphing these and other three-dimen¬ sional solids. The student can input various functions and revolve them about any horizontal or vertical axis of revolution. In addition, a student can graph a plane curve and actually manipulate the axes to find the shape of the inverse relation. The inverse trigonometric functions are especially nice to visualize with GyroGraphics . Spheri¬ cal and cylindrical coordinates can also be used to graph solids of various types. Parametric space curves are always interesting to work with mathematically, but difficult to visualize. These are easy to graph with GyroGraphics and students can better understand the concepts from calculus when they are reinforced by visual input. This software can also be used in upper level senior seminar courses, multivariable calculus or linear algebra. Dr. Jerry Johnson has contributed some of the examples which will be demonstrated in the talk. (Dr. Johnson is a faculty member at the University of Oklahoma in Stillwater, OK). 125 Abstracts SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SCHIFF'S BASES FOR NONLINEAR OPTICS* * K. Bhat . M.D. Aggarwal, W.S. Wang, Department of Physics and K.J. Chang, Department of Chemistry, Alabama A&M University, Normal, A1 35762. Organic materials with nonlocalized n electron systems are very attractive for nonlinear optics. Schiff's bases are an important class of materials which are getting increasing attention for nonlinear optical applications. In the present paper, N-Salicylidene aniline and various substituted aniline derivatives have been synthesized in an effort to explore new nonlinear optical materials. These compounds are synthesized by condensation of an aldehyde with an appropriate amine in a monohydric solvent. It is aimed to study the effect of various substituents and positions of these substituents cn the second harmonic generation of the synthesized compounds. In all cases meta position and chloro substituted derivatives seem to show better SHG results. * Work supported under NASA grant NAG8-125 and NSF Project RII— 8802971 COMPUTER-BASED INTERACTIVE DEMONSTRATIONS IN PHYSICS . * Antonino Carnevali and Anthony Blose, Dept, of Physics & Earth Science, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. Recent research in physics education conducted at various universities across the nation has shown that classroom lectures are ineffective vehicles for teaching basic concepts in kinematics and dynamics. At the University of North Alabama, we are exploring the potential of computer-based interactive classroom demonstrations as a more effective way to promote understanding. A motion detector and force probe are interfaced to a computer; real-time graphs of the actual motion of a cart are produced and projected onto a screen. An interactive protocol is used to foster students' understanding. Standardized pre-tests and post-tests were administered to monitor students' progress and evaluate the effectiveness of the method. The configuration, the demonstrations, and the protocol will be described, and the first results of our study will be presented. * This work was partially funded by an NSF grant (administered by Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA) and a UNA research grant. A GEOMETRIC SERIES DEVELOPMENT OF EEROR BOUNDS FOR POWER SERIES. Larry Parks, Mobile College, Mobile, AL 36663-0220. This paper discusses the use of Geometric Series in determining the error bounds for both Taylors and McLaurin series. The technique has the advantage of providing rather simple error bound calculations while at the same time requiring only the fundamentals of Geometric Series. The technique, perhaps, would be an excellent introduction to the summation of infinite series for students of technology, requiring a minimum of mathematical acumen. 126 Abstracts ANOMALOUS PLASMA HEATING IN THE EARTH'S IONOSPHERE. Trevor W. Garner, R. Hugh Comfort, and Phil G. Richards Center for Space Plasma and Aeronomic Research, Univ. of Ala. in Huntsville, 301 Sparkman Dr., Huntsville, AL 35899 The Earth's ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere composed of plasmas created by the interaction of solar radiation and neutral gases. The density and temperature of the electrons in this compli¬ cated region are two of the most important features of the ionosphere. Any further investigation of the ionosphere must begin with a full understanding the structure of the density and temperature. In general, ionospheric electron temperatures rise sharply at sunset, decay slowly through the day, and fall rapidly at sunset. Using data taken by the incoherent scatter radar facility at Millstone Hill, Massachusetts, we have occasionally observed anomalously high electron temperatures during the night, comparable to the noontime temperatures. In this study, we statistically analyze eight years of data taken by the Millstone Hill radar and present the results. POISSON'S EQUATION VIA SPREADSHEET David R Curott , Dept of Physics and Earth Science, Univ. of North Ala , Florence, AL 35632 The two dimensional Poisson equation may be solved using a spreadsheet. This method provides a pedagogic advantage of being visual and it emphasizes a localized algorithm for solving either the Poisson, or the simpler Laplace, equation The spreadsheet uses the fact that the Laplacian solution at a point is the average of the solutions at neighboring points. Boundary conditions and source densities are entered into spreadsheet cells, and successive iterations (recalculations) of the spreadsheet cause the cells to approach the solution of the potential. ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN N DIMENSIONS. William J. Boardman, Div. of Science and Mathematics, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham, AL 35254. The description of angular momentum as a vector quantity is possible only if one refers to instantaneous values, because of the non-vector nature of finite rotations. In a space of four or more dimensions, a vector description becomes inadequate, and it is necessary to recognize angular momentum for what it is: an anti¬ symmetric second rank tensor. This paper describes the commutation relations the angular momentum operators in N dimensional space must satisfy, and the ultraspherical harmonics that form the angular part of the wave function of a particle in an ultraspherically symmetric potential . 127 Abstracts MORPHOLOGY OF BENZIL CRYSTALS GROWN BY THE CZOCHRALSKI TECHNIQUE. A. Conner, A. Tan and W. S. Wang, Dept, of Physics, Alabama A&M Univ . , Normal, AL 35762.* Good quality single crystals of Benzil (C^H^-CO-CO-C^H,- ) have been successfully grown by a modified Czochralski technique. Flat interfaces and consequent defect-free crystals were obtained at the optimum rotation speeds of 10 rpm. Higher rotation speeds produced concave interfaces with frequent entrapment of air bubbles. The outline of the Benzil crystals exhibited a competition between the trigonal and hexagonal forms in which principal faces changed into sub-faces and vice-versa. The probable cause of this reversal is being investigated. Since the rotation speed and the pulling rate were held constant throughout the growth process, minor fluctuations in temperature may play a possible role in this reversal. *This study was supported by NSF Grant MRCE-880297 1 . 128 Abstracts INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS SEXUAL JOKES IN THE WORKPLACE: HUMOR OR HARASSMENT? Sylvanus S. Ogburia; Mark Andreoni and Jackie Warren. School of Business, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL Sexual harassment has become a topic that has gained national attention since the Clarence Thomas and Anita Hill episode. It is now important more than ever before to identify all facets of sexual harassment and determine how people feel towards workplace jokes that may have some sexual overtones. The purpose of this research was to de¬ termine to what degree, if any, the exposure to sexual jokes in the workplace may be construed as sexual harass¬ ment. The result of the study shows that younger people (ages 20-29) viewed workplace jokes with sexual flavor as being more offensive than older employees. Those within (ages 40-49) were the least offended by jokes that have sexual components. Unlike the single people, the married employees thought that the jokes were extremely offensive. Among the various ethnic groups studied, the Blacks showed the highest level of dissatisfaction with jokes that were laden with sexual overtones. Overall, men were more offended than women. One glaring but disturbing finding of the study was the compartmentalization of jokes. If jokes are from your circle of friends and social groups, they are laughed over, dismissed and no one gets offended. But if jokes are made by a "stranger", an outsider or a person you do not like, nerves are stirred up and emotion would rise. It would appear plausible that we should not evaluate "jokes" but rather we should evaluate the "source"of jokes. PERCEPTIONS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN THE SHOALS AREA. Rick A. Lester, Sandra S. Carpenter, Department of Management, Marketing, and CIS, and Lorraine Glasscock, Department of Accounting, University of North Alabama, Florence, Alabama 35632. The present study will measure aggregate as well as gender-based attitudes of respondents toward the issue of sexual harassment. There were 892 participants from Colbert and Lauderdale Counties in Northwest Alabama. Preliminary findings indicate that as a result of the Clarence Thomas confirmation hearing, respondents were made more aware and sensitive to the issue of sexual harassment in the workplace. However, a clear majority did not see the issue as a work environment problem. The most alarming finding was that almost three-fourths of the respondents agreed that working women must accept some level of sexual harassment on the job. Further, almost two-thirds of the participants stated that companies should not be responsible for training employees regarding the issue of sexual harassment and more than a majority felt that the government had no role in the legislation of sexual harassment policies. 129 Abstracts WHAT BUSINESS WANTS COLLEGES TO TEACH IN BUSINESS SCHOOLS. Clayton Kelly. Gerald Crawford, R. Keith Absher, and William S. Stewart, School of Business, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001. The purpose of the research was to determine what qualities employers feel are most important when hiring new employees for clerical and managerial (or management training) positions. A population of employers to be per¬ sonally interviewed was scientifically selected from four employer sectors: manufacturing, wholesale/retail trade, services, and government. These groups were stratified to match the proportions found in a nine county primary catchment area served by the University of North Alabama. Two hundred and fifty-three interviews were conducted by graduate students during the Fall semester of 1992. One question dealt with ranking the importance of 27 variables found in the literature concerning the preparation of college students for the workplace. The ten most important qualities desired were rank ordered as follows: (1) Good work experience, (2) Trust¬ worthy and honest, (3) Good, positive attitude, (4) Hard worker, does more than expected, (5) Good work habits, (6) Dependable, on time, (7) College graduate, (8) Understands specific college course material, (9) Gets along with others, diplomatic, and (10) Fast learner, smart. There are implications that more time and attention should be devoted in the classroom to helping develop desirable attitudes and work habits. COMPARISON OF GENDER NEUTRAL ATTITUDES TOWARD WORKING WOMEN. Sandra £L Carpenter , Rick A. Lester, Department of Management, Marketing, and CIS, and Lorraine Glasscock, Department of Accounting, University of North Alabama, Florence, Alabama 35632. Has the American business become gender neutral? In the past decade, statistics provided in scholarly works have shown that the actual number of women in the workforce, in general, and in management, in specific, has increased drastically. Clearly the law and thus citizens have been in support of such moven since the mid-sixties. The present study is an attempt to determine first if the attitudes concerning women in the workforce have kept pace with the increases in employment figures; secondly, if some correlations can be made between sex and gender-based attitudes; and, thirdly, if there have been changes in the attitudes concerning women in the workplace since a 1987 use of this survey. The responses to the survey indicate that attitudes are clearly drawn by sex although they remain diverse. Although both studies showed a greater acceptance of women in the working environment, clear obstacles still surfaced. The results will be presented by looking at the four categories of questions dealt with in the present and past studies: (a) women are provided employment breaks; (b) the use of affirmative action; (c) where is the woman's place?; (d) women's duties. 130 Abstracts TAX REFORM IN ALABAMA. Paulette Alexander, Department of Management and Marketing, University of North Alabama, Florence AL 35632. James G. Alexander, Department of Economics and Fi¬ nance, Alabama A&M University, Normal AL 35762. Tax reform and education reform have been the subject of numerous debates and proposals associated with the Alabama's legislative processes of the last several years. Yet Alabama still ranks at or near the bottom in virtually every ranking evaluating education systems in the nation. Alabama was the only state in the nation to register a decline during the eighties in the percent of its citizens who are college graduates. Projections show that two-thirds of all jobs created in the nineties and beyond will require some post-secondary education. A recent survey found that major compa¬ nies locate elsewhere because of Alabama's lack of quality education Sand lack of skilled workforce. Seventy-five percent of the state budget is devoted to education. Further education spending and education problems impact other essential services. For example, high school dropouts account for 90% of the prison population. Both the level and the structure of taxation in Alabama must be over¬ hauled . Our present tax structure fails in all the standard measures of tax systems: it is regressive, complicated, expensive to adminis¬ ter, subject to downward fluctuations in the economy and limited in the amounts of revenue that can be generated. Alabama's tax struc- Iture is detailed in the Constitution, making changes expensive, time- consuming and unlikely. Further the predictability of tax collections is hampered by numerous legal challenges currently on the docket of the state court systems. Education is the cornerstone on which our economic destiny is based. And tax structure and level changes are the only method for achieving real education reform in Alabama. CLASSIFICATION OF SHOP SCHEDULING IN A FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SHOP. Hossein Jamshidi . Dept, of Business Administration, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762 . Shop scheduling can be classified as flow (closed) shop or job (open) shop. The proposed study investigates the conditions in which one approach would be preferable to another in terms of optimizing a performance criterion such as the total cost. The variables or factors used in this study are: - Frequency of job arrivals in the work center - Number of different jobs arriving at the work center - The ratio of setup cost to holding cost The proposed study will help managers choose an appropriate approach to overcome the scheduling and planning problem and, as a result, improves overall shop performance and reduces costs. 131 Abstracts CONDUCTING AN IMAGE STUDY OF A REGIONAL UNIVERSITY. Gerald Crawford, R. Keith Absher, and William S. Stewart, Profes¬ sors, School of Business, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. The purpose of the research was to determine how 18 various groups or "relevant publics" perceived their ex¬ change relationships with the University. It was impor¬ tant to know what each group liked and disliked about the school and to determine specifically what the University sity could do to better serve the needs of each group with¬ in the context of its mission and its available resources. Some of these groups were: current undergraduate students, current graduate students, faculty, staff, administration, alumni, the local community, parents, prospective employ¬ ers, prospective students, high school counselors, and media representatives. Following the identification of "relevant publics", it was then necessary to design a research plan for each group. Various research techniques were used to system¬ atically gather data within established confidence and precision guidelines. Some of the methods used to gather data were: personal interviews, mail questionnaires, focus group interviews, and simple observation. The data was subsequently reviewed for accuracy before being entered in¬ to computerized databases and statistically analyzed. The results were compiled for each group and are being used by the administration, faculty, and staff to make positive changes at the University. Computerized accounting information systems use among Shoals area manufacturers. TL_ Morris Jones , Sarah Brown, and Richard A. Hudiburg, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL. Falling prices of computer hardware and software have made it more attractive for businesses, even very small one-owner businesses, to use accounting software. Prior research, however, reveals that no accounting software package is dominant and a package that is selected is rated high in one or more of the following factors: quality of documentation, telephone support, software cost and ease of use. A random sample of 120 companies was drawn from a list entitled Shoals Area Manufacturers . The majority of the companies (58%) did not use a computerized accounting package. Of the 50 companies (42%) that did use a computerized accounting package: (1) the average number of employees using the accounting package was 4.4, (2) only 16% allowed access to a modem at home, (3) 42% had no provision for hardware backup, (4) all had provision for software backup and 56% of these did a daily backup. There was no dominant software package used by these 50 companies. Peachtree, RealWorld and Great Plains accounting software were each used by three companies. 132 Abstracts CORPORATE PERCEPTIONS OF THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT (ADA) OF 1990. Sylvanus S. Ogburia; Brian Wood; Jean Dow and Mary Epps. School of Business, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762. The American with Disabilities Act was signed into law on July 26, 1990. The Act was patterned after section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. The purpose of this study was to measure the initial corporate perception to ADA. An attempt was made to determine what the respondents understood by the term, "reasonable accommodation" as de¬ fined in ADA. The understandings were very broad. To some, a "reasonable accommodation" is any accommodation that does not place undue burden or hardship on the company. To others, it is "anything that gives the dis¬ abled the same accesibility as anyone else". Still to others, it is any changes in the workplace made to accommodate disabled employees so long as it did not cause a financial hardship. The study also tried to establish if ADA has forced companies to make some structural modifications in order to comply with ADA. Large percentage of the manufacturing companies affirmed that some degree of structural modifications were required. Structural modifications cited were redesigning bathrooms, construction of handi¬ capped ramps and parking spaces, and redesigning some assemble line jobs. RETAIL PRICING POLICIES: A COMPARISON OF THEORY AND PRACTICE- Donna Yancev and Keith Absher , Dept. of Marketing and Management, Univ. of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001. A questionnaire was developed from the "Mason, Mayer and Ezell, Pricing Check-list for Retailers" . This questionnaire was pre-tested and administered to a group' of retail store managers. A total of 234 usable questionnaires were returned. Of the 234 responses, 37 (15.8%) were classified as convenience stores, 63 (26.9%) were classified as shopping stores and 134 (57.3%) were classified as specialty stores. The researchers found that these classifications of stores were more similar in their pricing policies than expected. Shopping stores did exhibit a tendency to lol low more aggressive pricing policies than did convenience stores or specialty stores. All three types of retail stores were very aware of competitors prices and had some type of device to monitor competitors prices. Price competition was an overriding factor in the setting of the original price for all types of stores . 133 Abstracts PROSPECTS FOR A CHALLENGER LEARNING CENTER: DEVELOPING A HIGH-TECH CORRIDOR IN ALABAMA. Paulette Alexander, Department of Management and Marketing, University, of North Alabama, Florence AL 35632-0001. The University of North Alabama (UNA) was approved as a Challenger Learning Center site in January 1992, by Challenger Center for Space Science Education. UNA is situated approximately halfway between Huntsville, Alabama and Iuka, Mississippi. Residents of the area surrounding UNA comprise a substantial portion of the workforce for the many and varied high technology space- and defense-related companies and agencies in the Huntsville area and for the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor plant near Iuka. The University is an integral part of the educational system for the region, with a wide variety of degree programs. UNA strives to support K-12 education in the region through many of its projects and programs. Challenger Center for Space Science Education is a non-profit education organization, created by the families of the shuttle flight 51-L crew. Space exploration is utilized as the unifying and tantalizing theme throughout the programs of Challenger Center. Communication, problem solving and teamwork are key elements of the programs, creating positive experiences that raise students' expectations of success, foster a long-term interest in science, math and technology, and motivate students to pursue studies in these areas. The Challenger Learning Center combines computer technology and space exploration scenarios to create missions in simulated space station and mission control environments. A Challenger Learning Center will be a critical element in economic development for the region, as additional employers locate in the region and require technically skilled and highly motivated workers. VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT: A LOOK AT THE FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN MANAGING VOLUNTEERS. Jo Carwile, School of Business, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001. This paper explores issues relevant to the management of volunteers in nonprofit organizations. The issues examined included the volunteers' motivations for volunteering, the benefits and costs to organizations by using volunteers, and the attitudes of organizational employees toward volunteers . Exploratory research was also conducted to gather primary data concerning the motivations behind the choice of college students to volunteer. A questionnaire was used to collect information from a convenience sample of 55 business students from the University of North Alabama. The questionnaire asked the students to rank different motivational factors. The factors included obtaining in¬ sight and guidance for their career, building their resume, making friends or social contacts, wanting to do something useful, because someone asked them, it was an activity sponsored by their employer or school, they felt a sense of obligation, they would enjoy the work, because of religious concerns or social reasons, and because their family or friends would benefit. 134 Abstracts QUALITIES DESIRED IN EMPLOYEES OF SMALL BUSINESSES IN NORTH ALABAMA. Margie S. Crocker, Gerald Crawford, and Jo Carwile, School of Business, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001. The purpose of this study was to determine qualities small businesses sought when hiring personnel and to com¬ pare those qualities to those considered important by the University of North Alabama Business Faculty. It was felt that information obtained would be useful to faculty as they plan for instruction and to students as they prepare for the job market. A questionnaire was used to gather information from 40 University of North Alabama School of Business faculty and 197 small business people from the University's service area. Replies to the questionnaire revealed unanamous agreement between the faculty and small business people on the first two qualities, both consider¬ ing a good positive attitude number one and honesty and trustworthyness number two. Getting along with others was rated third by business people and fourth by the faculty. Being a hard worker was rated fourth by small business people and third by the faculty. There was additional agreement in ranking five through ten with dependability, good communication skills and high standards being in¬ cluded by both groups . There was some disagreement in rankings five through ten. The faculty included writing skills, resourcefulness and college graduation. Business ranked good work habits, learning quickly and good team player. These rankings were mutually exclusive. NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT. Robert Trimm, Dept, of Economics and Finance, Univ. of N. Alabama, Florence, AL 35630. Veronica A. Free, Dept, of Economics and Finance, Univ. of N. Alabama, Florence, AL 35630. The North American Free Trade Agreement has the potential to encompass Canada, the United States, and Mexico, representing a $6 trillion economy embracing about 360 million people. Currently, Canada is the largest trading partner of the U.S., with Japan being second. The third most important trading partner is Mexico. The trading block of this hemisphere could represent a formidable power against southeastern Asia and European trading entities. Gains from trade or the profit motive is the essential factor in stimulating the discovery of new methods of production. By reducing tariffs and giving equal access to a larger potential market, producers are able to extend this possible market and lower costs because of economies of scale. There are an estimated 20,000 different tariffs for U.S. goods exported to Mexico. The average Mexican tariff is 11 percent. Under the North American Free Trade Agreement, these tariffs will be reduce to zero over the next 15 years. The purpose of this paper is to study the disruptions that will occur in the U.S. production markets, especially in regard to labor. Some industries will be more adversely affected in the U.S. than others. However, it is anticipated that the econo¬ mies of growth in Mexico will further increase the demand for U.S. products, thus limiting adverse factors in the long run. 135 Abstracts CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATIONS WITH FORMAL SEXUAL HARASS¬ MENT POLICIES AND PROCEDURES. Sylvanus S. Ogburia; James Broomfield; Sue Shelton and Betty Cardon. School of Business, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762 Headlines announcing penalties levied against in¬ dividuals and organizations have become commonplace to most of us that we pay little attention. This study was done to determine the degree to which organizations in the North Alabama area have written sexual harassment policies. The study revealed a high correlation between number of years in operation with formal sexual harassment policy. The longer the organization has been in operation the more likely the organization shall have formalized its sexual harassment policies. The size of the organization was also found to be highly significant. The large organizations tended to have formal sexual harassment policies. It was also found that organizations which were predominately women and also with large proportion of female executives had relatively no sexual harassment policies in place. This may mean that female executives handle sexual harass- ments quite differently than their male counterparts. It could also mean that since males know that they are in minority, the tendency to harass women may not be there. Also, organizations that were predominately white-collar employees were more likely to have formal sexual harass¬ ment policies than organizations with predominately blue- collar employees. The Collaboration Process of Linking Education and Economic Development (LEED): A Prototype for the Appalachian Regional Commission and the State of Alabama. Ann S. James and Brinda Lisano, Economic Development Institute, Auburn University, Alabama, 36849-5252 The existing curriculum in many of Alabama’s secondary and postsecondary schools may be inadequate to provide the education and training needed by students in order to meet the needs of the technological manufacturing industry. Education must be restructured if students are to be prepared to compete in an international job market. Auburn University Economic Development Institute, the State of Alabama, and the Appalachian Regional Commission, are using Project LEED (Linking Education and Economic Development) to create a collaborative linkage resulting in positive change within the education community. A Technology Preparation Team (TPT) designed strategies for working successfully with the community, for identifying the needs of high-technology manufacturing industries, and incorporating those knowledge, skills, and abilities into the course work of students at the secondary and post-secondary level. The delivery of the restructured curriculum to teachers through relevant and effective teacher training is a key element of the Project LEED prototype design. The improved skills of secondary and two-year college students in the area of computation, analytical ability, decision making, and communications skills will provide an improved quality of life for participating students, increased human resources, and a stronger economic base within Alabama. 136 Abstracts NATIONAL DEBT: HAVE WE SQUANDERED OUR FUTURE ALREADY? Tom Mather. Ph.D., Division of Business, Troy State University in Montgomery, | Montgomery, AL 36195. Some of the economic problems faced by the United States today are high levels of unemployment, the deterioration of the standards of I education, the high rates of violent crimes, the unacceptable levels | of foreign trade deficit and perhaps the most important of all, the ever increasing national debt. This paper addresses the issues of the national debt. At the end of 1979, the outstanding federal debt was $852 billion (35.3% of GNP). At the end of 1991, the debt was $3,820 billion (67.3% of GDP). One group of economists believes that the national debt is not a serious problem while a second group believes that it has become a very serious problem and should be dealt with without any further delay. The author presents statistical data to prove the seriousness of the problem including data on interest in absolute dollar amounts, as a percentage of the GDP, and as a percentage of the federal government outlays. The author emphasizes the effect of the size of the national debt and the interest payments (in spite of the current low interest rates) on the use of the fiscal policy as a tool in adjustments in business cycles. Various solutions are proposed by the author. Some of these are: increase in the marginal tax bracket, reduction in entitlements, increase in taxes in gasoline, tobacco and alcohol, elimination of certain subsidies to farmers, and reduction in defense related spending. In addition, elimination of wastes in the legislative and administrative branches of the government is strongly advocated. AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CONTINUING EDUCATION NEEDS OF MINORITY- AND FEMALE-OWNED SMALL BUSINESSES IN HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA. Marsha D. Griffin , Department of Marketing, and James G. Alexander, Department of Economics and Finance, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762. During the Fall of 1992, 44 percent of the entries in the Northeast Alabama Directory of Minority and Woman Owned Small Businesses were interviewed to determine their perceptions of need for training in selected areas and their feelings about the benefits of various services that could be offered by an economic development organization. Most of the sample had been in business between 5 and 10 years, employed 5 or fewer 'persons, classified themselves as "technical," were owned by white women, and had annual sales between $100,000 and $499,999. Respondents felt the greatest need for assistance in getting government contracts and marketing. They were least concerned about technical advice and assistance in loan packaging. The respondents thought business development meetings, referrals of new business, workshops/seminars, and a monthly publication would be most beneficial. They were least excited about courtesy discounts from fellow members of a development association and a minority/woman-owned business exposition. Of the 46% which belonged to the Chamber of Commerce, 54% thought the services provided by the Chamber were justified by the cost; 34% thought their membership was either "very beneficial" or "pretty beneficial." Of the 22.6% which belonged to the Minority Suppliers Development Council, 48% thought the membership fee was offset by the benefits provided; 32.5% felt their membership was either "very beneficial" or "pretty beneficial." Regarding a membership fee for a new minority/female business development organization, most felt $25 or less per employee was appropriate . 137 Abstracts THE GENERATIONS — GAP OR GULF? James G. Alexander. Department of Economics and Finance, and Marsha D. Griffin, Department of Marketing, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762. Each generation, almost congenitally, looks at its successor with eye askew — wondering why its children (and even younger siblings) differ from its own memory of childhood. This intergenerational dissonance reflects the combined effects of societal changes and flawed recollect ions . Technological and social dynamism as well as cataclysms such as wars and economic depressions exacerbate divergences of perspective and philosophy. Even intergenerational size differentials contribute. The Baby Boom generation, born in the early post-WW II period, has played a central role not only in defining the contours of social philosophy and debate for the past quarter century but also in a major socio-economic transformation favoring the old over the young. This large — and consequently powerful — generation which "gapped" from its elderly over civil rights, VietNam, and America's role in the world now finds itself faced with challenges from below. The coming-of-age of the Baby Boom generation has coincided with a historic shift, making the young materially disadvantaged to the elderly. This shift, and its attendant down-graded expectations, is part and parcel of the transforming composition, though not aggregate level, of demographic dependency. Today's middle-agers find themselves caught not in historically increasing overall dependency, but rather in a powerful trend toward aged rather than youthful dependency. (It should be noted, however, that very recent data suggest that this trend, too, is less firm than generally thought.) Instead of instigators of intergenerational conflict, Baby Boomers now find themselves in a position to play defense. The change of circumstances is perhaps best explained by the title of a recent Newsweek article: "First, Kill All the Boomers." Boomers must respond if the present gulf is to be reduced to the normal gap. DOGMATISM AND FIEDLER: AN EXPLORATORY INVESTIGATION. Kerry P. Gatlin and Charles Barrett, Department of Management and Marketing, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35631 A sample of one hundred sixteen management students completed questionnaires measuring their leadership style and the personality trait dogmatism. The leadership style survey identified trans¬ formational leadership and transactional leadership characteristics. The exploratory study's purpose was to determine if highly dogmatic students display leadership characteristics that differ from students with lower dogmatic personalities. The Chi Square test was used to test for significance. The study found that highly dogmatic students were significantly more likely to exhibit transactional leadership traits whereas students low in dogmatism were more likely to display transformational leadership characteristics. Given the rapidity of change in the business environment, the results suggest that further research into dogmatism might be useful inorder to better prepare students for an environment requiring that they be more flexible and adaptive. For those subscribing to Fiedler's contention that it is better to place the manager in an environment consistent with his or her personality, high dogmatism students may need to be advised to seek careers in mature industries where change is less dramatic and stability is an asset rather than a liability. 138 Abstracts U.S. AND U.K. MANAGEMENT STYLES: PERCEPTIONS OE BRITISH MANAGERS. Ke i th Absher . and Gerald Crawford, Dept,. of Marketing and Management, Univ. of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001, and Glee Whitsett, Productivity Center, Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486. This study was largely exploratory in nature. In- depth interviews were used to collect information from top level British managers. All of the managers had traveled widely in the U.S.. The interviews were conducted over a period of three summers. The British managers were ask to give their perceptions of the differences between U.S. and U.K. management styles and business practices. British managers consistently said: (1) U.K. companies are risk averse while U.S. companies take more risks. (2) British businesses are much less consumer oriented than U.S. companies. (3) U.K. companies do not lay off employees, they employ or fire. (4) U.K. companies are more open about their problems. (5) The quality of service is not as important in the U.K. as it is in the U.S.. (6) U.K. companies make little or no provisions for the handicap. (7) British companies have the restrictions of two separate political institutions to comply with (EEC and British). (8) Security measures are much tighter in the U.K. because of the threat of bombings. RUSSIAN FEDERATION: AN OVERVIEW OF THE MARKET ECONOMY. Veronica A. Free, Dept, of Economics and Finance, Univ. of N. Alabama, Florence, AL 35630. Maria Victoria Vitelli, Bradshaw H. S., Florence, A1 35630. The former Soviet Union has always been a textbook example of an economy that depends on economic planning to make basic economic decisions of what to produce, how much and to whom the product is distributed. However, the Soviet economy failed to achieve satisfactory levels of growth and efficiency. This prompted officials to develop a number of reforms commonly referred to as "glasnost" (openness) and "perestroila" (restructuring). These reforms, begun in the late 1980's, marked the demise of central planning and the movement toward "market socialism". The change to a market economy has not been without great cost to the Soviet citizens. In fact, while Gorbachev has been hailed as a hero abroad, at home he has met with stubborn resistance. The purpose of this paper is to study the economic path of change in the former Soviet Union from a centrally planned economy to the new Russian Federation with greater reliance on the market economy. 139 Abstracts RESEARCH TOOLS: SPSS CHA1D — A NEW USE FOR AN OLD FRIEND. Dennis W. Gibson Division of Business, Troy State University in Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36103-4419. The contingency table is an array of counting numbers in matrix form. The matrix serves as a tool to facilitate an analysis of the relationship between two or more qualitative variables. Fledgling researchers are exposed to the Chi-Square test of independence and the Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test early in their statistical methodology training. The training often then proceeds through a series of increasingly elaborate methods culminating with several exotic multivariate designs. The researcher is often left with the impression that good research is function of the elaborateness of the design. The Chi- Square technique is relatively easy for the consultant to explain and easily understood by the consumer. The new product by SPSS/PC+ entitled Chi-Square with Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) breatnes new life into this statistical method an elevates understanding by consumers to a new level. The primary output of the CHAID algorithm resembles a decision tree. The nodes of the tree represent only the significant relationships specified by the researcher and detected in the analysis. It is no longer necessary to visually search through pages of tables looking for the significant relationships. MANAGEMENT LISTENING SKILLS. Sandra K. Durham, Dept, of Office Systems Mgt . , Alabama A&M Univ., Normal, AL 35762 Listening is a managerial tool that ties together the managerial functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. It is an acquired skill that requires hearing plus discipline. It involves the development of a mind-set that shuts out internal and external barriers . Research indicates that listening is the primary communication activity in terms of the time it consumes. Poor listening habits bring about costly consequences in business operations. Development of comprehension and retention skills assist managers in determining the value of messages. Emphasis should be placed on categorizing listening skills into three types — concentrated, attentive, and casual — in order to improve the listening process. ACTIVITY BASED COSTING: A REVOLUTION IN COST ACCOUNTING. Jerry W. Ferry, Department of Accounting, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. Activity Based Costing (ABC) is a new technique for allocating overhead costs to individual cost objectives. ABC uses new cost drivers, new cost behavior classifications, and cause and effect analysis to develop more accurate cost information for managerial decisions. 140 Abstracts SCIENCE EDUCATION EXPERIMENTS AND DEMONSTRATIONS TO INCREASE STUDENTS' UNDERSTANDING OF INTERACTIONS IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS. Thomas E, Bilbo, Department of Biology, Mobile College, Mobile, AL 36663. During January of this year, fifty-six students, who were enrolled in an Introduction to Biology course for non-majors, completed an aqua¬ tic biology questionnaire. The ten multiple choice questions included on the questionnaire were designed to ascertain the students' level of understanding of interactions in aquatic environments; the students' responses revealed a lack of understanding among a large number of the students. Since these students are future voters and leaders, their lack of understanding is disappointing. The students' poor performance on questions that involved an understanding of dissolved oxygen was particularly disturbing. If almost half of the students responding felt that aquatic organisms could split water molecules to get the oxygen they needed, then omitting this topic from introductory biology courses could have serious consequences. Inexpensive laboratory exer¬ cises and demonstrations designed to increase students' understanding of the following topics will be discussed: (1) the impact of biodegrad¬ able materials on dissolved oxygen levels, (2) the decrease in satura¬ tion concentration of dissolved oxygen with increases in temperature, (3) the increase in the use of dissolved oxygen by aquatic organisms as water temperature increases, and (4) the impact of high levels of phos¬ phates and nitrates on aquatic environments. THE CURRICULUM BURDEN: TEACHERS KEEP PUSHING THAT BOULDER. Mary W. Paramore , Dep't. of English, Enterprise High School, Enterprise, AL 36330. Public school curriculum is increasingly burdensome due to the many rapidly-changing demands placed on it by a dysfunctional society. The traditional curriculum of science, math, social studies, language arts, and the fine arts was modified slightly in past decades as economic demands and social attitudes changed. Since the late 1980's a frantic public has relegated to the schools the social instruction previously provided by parents and the community, while concurrently demanding more academic and vocational instruction to enable graduates to compete in a global economy. Failure to fund these additions, along with vacillation about what curricular modifications are needed, has made the public schools' burden unmanageable. 141 Abstracts ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY IN THE LABORATORY: PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY. Mary Frances Dove, Division of Natural Sciences, Mobile College, Mobile, AL 36613 Water quality is determined in the environment by the measurement of certain essential parameters: dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, turbidity, pH, and the concentration of nitrate and phosphate. Many of these measurements can be made routinely in the field using commercial field kits and specific ion electrodes. However, the cost of field kits becomes expensive for a large class, and substitutes are desirable. Field kits are often based on standard procedures, such as the modified Winkler method for dissolved oxygen. These procedures are adaptable to the classroom laboratory. This presentation describes student activities in the Basic Environmental Technology laboratory at Mobile College, which uses both field and laboratory approaches for determining water quality. SCIENCE OLYMPIAD IN ALABAMA. Steven D. Carey, Division of Natural Science, Mobile College, Mobile, AL 36663. The Science Olympiad is an international nonprofit organization dedicated to improving science education, increasing student interest, competency, and literacy in science, and recognizing outstanding achievement in science education by students and teachers. These are accomplished through classroom activities, research, training workshops, and intramural, district, regional, state, and national Science Olympiad tournaments. The competitions are balanced between the disciplines of biology, earth science, chemistry, physics, computer science, and technology. Participants require a knowledge of science facts, concepts, processes, skills, and applications. Nationally, there are four Science Olympiad divisions: Division A1 (grades K-3); Division A2 (grades 3-6); Division B (grades 6-9) ; and Division C (grades 9-12) . Currently, the Science Olympiad program in Alabama is organized into six Division C and three Division B regional olympiads and a state olympiad for both divisions. The Alabama Science Olympiad program is affiliated with the Alabama Academy of Science. 142 Abstracts SOCIAL SCIENCES THE PEACE BALLOT IN ENGLAND, 1935. Peter F. Barty, Dept, of History and Political Science, Univ. of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. The British League of Nations Union organized the National Declaration on the League of Nations, or the Peace Ballot, in 1934 in an effort to force the British Government to follow a pro-League policy. While the Ballot was being administered and the votes tallied, public attention in Britain was focused on an abortive at¬ tempt by the League of Nations to deal with a major crisis in Abyssinia. Just as with today's crisis in the Balkans, the League seemed paralyzed and unable to act. 11,627,765 people cast ballots in this popular referendum. Proponents claimed that the results represented strong public support for League action, while opponents chose to read the results as indicating massive support for pacifi¬ cism. The effects of the Ballot on British politics were largely intangible and difficult to determine. They did figure in the delib¬ erations of the secret cabinet meeting held the day before Stanley Baldwin ditched his foreign secretary, Sir Samuel Hoare, for his role in formulating the Hoare-Laval Plan. Yet six months later Hoare was back in the cabinet, and in 1936 Baldwin was able to reject the Union's demands for oil sanctions against Italy with impunity. The Peace Ballot proved to be a financial disaster for the League of Nations Union. Conservatives in general resented the undertaking and many of them left the organization. Public attention was focused on the League in a moment of weakness. Disenchantment with the League was transferred to the Union, which thereafter lost whatever ability it may have had to influence the course of British politics . OUR TROUBLED CHILDREN: ADRIFT IN A SEA OF DARKNESS. Mary W_;_ Paramore , Dep't. of English, Enterprise High School, Enterprise, AL 36330. Society's failure of its children has left teachers so ineffective that many who care deeply about their students are leaving the classroom. Our children's spirits are filled with the darkness of ignorance, loneliness, and fear. Their ignorance results from parents' failure to provide them with a foundation for learning in childhood. Their loneliness results from parents' physical and/or emotional abandonment of their children. Their fear results from increasing violence in their real world as well as their fantasy world. Such darkness of spirit leaves them incapable of learning in the classroom. 143 Abstracts SALIVARY TESTOSTERONE IN CHILDREN WITH AND WITHOUT LEARNING DISABILITIES. S.W. Kirkpatrick. P.S. Campbell, R.E. Wharry, and S.L. Robinson, Depts. of Psychology, Biological Sciences, and Developmental Learning, The University of Alabama in Huntsville, AL 35899. Although there is an hypothesis that abnormal levels of testosterone in utero may result in later learning disabilities, no data exist which are suggestive of such a linkage. However, it is known that the sex steroids exert organizational effects upon the development of the CNS, particularly in regard to reproductive behavior, and more recent findings suggest that higher brain functions also may be affected by steroid hormone secretion during critical periods in development. Consequently, we explored the possible relationship between testosterone secretion and learning disabilities by collecting saliva and measuring salivary testosterone levels in control and learning disabled children in an Alabama public school system. Learning disability was categorized according to criteria established in 1986 by the Alabama State Department of Education, and salivary testosterone was measured by a competitive displacement radioimmunoassay. The data sample included a total of 296 prepubescent children ranging from 6 to 13 years old with 32 of the subjects classified as learning disabled. The presence of learning disabilities was significantly associated with higher salivary testosterone. This was true for both entire sample and matched sample analyses in which control subjects were randomly selected to exactly match the age, race, and sex characteristics of the learning disabled group. The testosterone level for nearly 85% of children with learning disability ranked above the median testosterone value of non-learning disabled children. Mean testosterone level for children with learning disability was 17.1 pg/ml, while the mean value for control children was 10.8 pg/ml. The association between salivary testosterone levels and learning disabilities may be relevant to the possible etiology of this impairment in some individuals. RECENT U.S. ARMED FORCES HUMANITARIAN MISSIONS. Col. Robert E. Pieroni , MC, USAR, Professor of Internal Medicine and Family Medicine, Dept, of Internal Medicine, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, and Chief of Professional Services, 75th Field Hospital, Tuscaloosa, AL 35401 In recent years, the U.S. military has become increasingly involved in peace-keeping missions as well as humanitarian relief operations. For example, after the liberation of Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War, U.S. forces engaged in Operation Provide Comfort in order to render emergency assistance to Kurds fleeing the Iraqi army. More recently, in Operation Restore Hope, thousands of U.S. troops are assisting the many Somalians threatened with starvation. Humanitarian efforts in Yogoslavia by U.S. military personnel are currently underway. In addition to these more publicized humanitarian efforts, U.S. forces continue to be engaged in scores of activities throughout the world which have tangibly benefited countless individuals and communities. As an example, Medical Readiness Training Exercise (MEDRETE) have greatly benefited numerous impoverished citizens, especially in Central and South America. We will discuss the mutually rewarding benefits accrued from our recent participation in such an exercise in an extremely poor, rural area of Argentina. Additionally, we will counter arguments proposed by some military commentators that humanitarian efforts could have tragic consequences on our forces' "fighting spirit," and that "peace-waging" should be left solely to non-military organizations. 144 Abstracts SELF-DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATES OF AVOWED HAPPINESS. Charles E. Joubert, Department of Psychology, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. Several situational and dispositional predictors of happiness have been previously reported by investigators. This research explored the relationship between self-definitional aspects of the self-concept and the subjective appraisal of happiness. The 216 subjects anony¬ mously and voluntarily completed a questionnaire in which they rated themselves on 2 1 self-descriptors, including happiness, using six- point Likert scales. Also, each subject completed the Social Desir¬ ability Scale. The results indicated that happier men and women tended to report themselves as being more relaxed, aggressive, cooperative, trusting, conforming, and sociable; but less timid and introverted. Happier men but not happier women also described themselves as being more practical, religious, conventional, tolerant, and studious; but less self-centered and cynical. Happier women but not happier men also described themselves as being less lazy. These results suggest that happier people tend to describe themselves in positive terms; it is, however, premature to state confidently whether these happier people are that way because they have these traits in greater abundance, or simply because they have a more permissive and tolerant view of them¬ selves. An overall implication of this research is that self-attribu¬ tions do relate to happiness. Therefore, psychotherapies which encourage more favorable self-attributions should increase happiness in the recipient. Gender differences in computer users' stress. Richard A. Hudiburg, Sara Brown, and T. Moms Jones, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL. Measurement of computer users' stress was based on the Computer Hassles Scale. The Computer Hassles Scale was developed to measure stress (computer hassles) specific to human-computer interactions. Preliminary psychometnc research, using a sample of college students enrolled in computer courses, with the Computer Hassles Scale showed it to be a moderately stable measure. The scale also showed initial convergent construct validity for measuring computer users' stress. The current study focuses on computer users’ stress in a sample of subjects who work with accounting software. A questionnaire was mailed to 1 13 accountants for manufacturing companies in Northwest Alabama. Sixty five questionnaires were returned. The questionnaire contained the Computer Hassles Scale, the somatic complaint items from the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist, and requests for information about gender, age, education, and computer expenences. The questionnaire was scored and pearson product-moment correlations were computed between the informational questions, computer expen ence questions, computer hassles, and somatic complaints. An overall analysis revealed that the more computer courses a person had the lower the level of computer users' stress. It was found that the higher the number of computer hassles the higher the level of somatic complaints. The latter result is indicative of reactions to stimuli and situations evaluated as stressful. The sample was divided based on gender to perform mean difference analyses and correlational analyses. There were no significant mean differences between females and males for either computer hassles or somatic complaints. The correlational analyses revealed that gender moderates the relationship between computer hassles and somatic complaints. Females' level of computer hassles was significantly correlated ( r = .60) with somatic complaints. For males the opposite was true; computer hassles were not significantly correlated ( r = 16) with somatic complaints. The moderating effect of gender has been found in other stress research. 145 Abstracts HEALTH SCIENCES CONCERNS OF WOMEN EXPERIENCING A CHRONIC ILLNESS DURING PREGNANCY: A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS. Sharon Hall, University of Alabama School of Nursing, University of Alabama at Birmingham, B'ham, AL 3529^-1210. Pregnancy has many transitional changes, both physiological and psychological. The psychological changes require the pregnant individual to use highly developed coping skills to adapt to this developmental milestone. What occurs when the stressor of chronic illness is added to the changes required to adapt to a normal pregnancy? What are the concerns of women who experience a chronic illness during pregnancy? How can health care providers assist the individual and her family to cope with these stressors? This study utilized a qualitative methodology to investigate these questions. Women with Type I diabetes were interviewed to ascertain their concerns and coping strategies during pregnancy. Based on semi- structured interviews of eight women preliminary results indicated ten major categories. The categories covered such a.reas uf concern as why they chose pregnancy, their knowledge base and source of knowledge, the actions of various health care professionals, and the feelings of the women, their husbands, their immediate families, and their co-workers. Additional categories included support systems, various physiological reactions, financial concerns, advice for others in similar situations, and their plans for future pregnancies. The most interesting finding was that subjects reported actions were taken by the husband to ensure their wives were at minimal risk from sudden hypoglycemic reactions while the husbands were unavailable. A disturbing finding was the perception of minimal professional nursing input into the informant's routine visits to their physicians' offices. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS OF HYPOMAGNESEMIA. Crystal Harris and Robert E. Pieroni, Dept, of Internal Medicine, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487 The importance of magnesium, an essential dietary mineral, is frequently overlooked by health care workers. This cation has been identified as a co-factor in more than 300 enzymatic reactions which involve energy metabolism, as well as protein and nucleic acid synthesis. Magnesium deficiency can result in numerous abnormalities, including severe weakness, seizures, cardiac dysrhythmias, as well as hypocalcemia and hypokalemia. Recently, we treated a middle-aged female with an extremely diminished serum magnesium level who presented with severe muscle spasms, low serum potassium and calcium levels, and cardiac tachyrhythmias . We found the etiology of her chemical imbalance to be multifactorial, including abuse of alcohol and carthartics, as well as diuretic use. Her hospital course will be discussed, as will the pivotal role magnesium plays in maintaining appropriate homeostasis. The principle causes, effects, and treatment of hypomagnesemia will be described in detail. 146 Abstracts A STUDY OF THREE FETOPLACENTAL MARKERS IN RELATION TO RACE, MATERNAL AGE, AND WEIGHT AND ESTIMATING DOWN SYNDROME. Larry R. Boots. Da- Chang Chu and Sue C. Bishop, Dept, of OB/GYN, The University of Ala¬ bama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. The detection of pregnancies associated with a Downs' affected fetus during the second trimester has changed dramatically over the past ten years. The least effective but also the oldest method was to perform an amniocentesis on women 35 years old or older and karyotype the fetal cells oftained. This method was effective but could detect no more than 20% of all Downs' affected fetuses. Currently, three markers, estriol, hCG and AFP are measured in the serum of the mother and by identifying an at-risk group, about 60% of such pregnancies can be detected. It is important, however, to carefully establish the normal characteristics of each of these markers in the region being tested and in relation to maternal age and weight and race. The pur¬ pose of this study was to determine these parameters for Alabama and to subsequently use these data to establish a prenatal screening pro¬ gram. The three markers were assayed in 852 blacks and 2370 whites ranging from 15-20 weeks of gestation. AFP levels for blacks in¬ creased from 32.7 ng/ml at 15 weeks to 67.7 at 20 weeks while for whites the range was 28.8 to 58.8. Similarly, hCG for blacks ranged from 49882 mlU/ml to 22340 and whites 36965 to 21125. Estriol levels for blacks were 0.75 ng/ml to 2.30 and for whites, 0.80 to 2.31. Significant correlations were also observed between maternal age and weight and each marker. These correlations will have to be factored into the calculations and considered when interpreting patient risk factors for Down syndrome. HICCUPS: OCCASIONAL SEVERE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS. Robert E. Pieroni, Dept, of Internal Medicine and Family Medicine, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Hiccups, or singultus, consists of spasmodic inhalations with closure of the glottis, accompanied by a peculiar characteristic sound. All of us have experienced hiccups at some time, and most episodes have been transient. Occasionally, individuals experience protracted episodes, and a variety of treatment modalities have been used with varying success. What is not well appreciated is that hiccups can occasionally signal a severe and/or potentially reversible disease state. For example, we have encountered hiccups as a presenting manifestation of diverse disorders, including severe hyponatremia, esophageal bleeding with gastric distention, and hepatic carcinoma. The literature has also associated singultus, sometimes intractable, with numerous other diseases, including Addison's disease, brain stem lesions, sarcoidosis, and brain abscess. We shall emphasize that hiccups is not always a benign phenomenon, and its presence may lead to early diagnosis of a panoply of disorders. Current clinical approaches to patients with singultus, including diagnostic and therapeutic interventions, will be described in detail. 147 Abstracts MATH ANXIETY AMONG UNDERGRADUATE NURSING STUDENTS. Lynn M. Stover & Ellen B. Buckner, University of Alabama School of Nursing, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 Math anxiety has been identified as a problem for undergraduate nursing students, by both students and instructors. The purpose of this study is to determine the causes of and probable solutions for math anxiety among undergraduate nursing students. The convenience sample of 55 students included 9 males and 46 females with an age range of 19-50 years old. The subjects completed checklists to identify causes of and solutions for math anxiety, as well as the "Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale" (MARS) to measure the current level of math anxiety. The mean MARS score, x = 219 + 64.4, corresponded to the published mean for the tool, xT = 215. 76% of the subjects identified negative math attitudes and limited math backgrounds as probable causes of math anxiety. 89% of the subjects identified basic math review offerings as a possible solution to math anxiety. There was not a difference in the level of anxiety between males and females. There was a difference in the anxiety level of subjects who had previously experienced math anxiety and those who had not ever experienced math anxiety (p < .001) with previously anxious students scoring higher anxiety. The level of anxiety decreased as the student progressed in class level. Further research should be directed towards developing a tool which measures math anxiety specifically related to math encountered in the nursing profession, evaluating the effects of math review sessions in highly anxious students and determining changes in anxiety which occur in calculation of dosage exams. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HOPE AND SELF-ESTEEM IN RENAL TRANSPLANT RECIPIENTS. Cassandra F. Warner , Organizational Development and Education, Univ. of Ala., Birmingham, AL 35233. The purpose of this study was to ascertain if there is a relationship between hope and self-esteem in renal transplant recipients. The research hypothesis stated there was no statistically significant relationship between the two variables. Orem's (1985) self-care deficit theory of nursing provided the framework for the study. The study design was descriptive and the sampling technique was convenience. Instruments used were the Miller Hope Scale (MHS) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) . The sample consisted of 35 subjects — 24 males and 11 females, who underwent first-time renal transplantation. Subjects' mean age was 36.6, and educational level ranged from 7 to 17 years. Scores were analyzed using the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient (Pearson's r) . An alpha of 0.05 was set as the level of significance. The mean scores obtained for self-esteem and MHS were 30.182 and 164.286, indicating high levels of self-esteem and hope in the respondents. A statistically significant relationship was found between hope and self«-esteem (£ = 0.0329). 148 Abstracts RELATIONSHIP BEWTEEN PERCEIVED STRESS, SOMATIC COMPLAINTS. SELF-ESTEEM. MOTIVATION, AND JOB SATISFACTION IN A COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH CENTER Pamela tv. Ahrens and Richard A. Hudiburg. University of North .Alabama. Florence. AL 35630 TIiis study addressed the relationship between perceived stress, somatic complaints, self¬ esteem, motivation, and job satisfaction m a commumty mental health center A questionnaire was administered to the 157 employees which consisted of informational questions u.e . gender, age. 10b title, and length of employment) and several psychological scales, including the Perceived Stress Scale. The Hopkins Symptom Checklist, the Coopersimth Self-Esteem Inventory - Adult Form, the Work Environment Scale, and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Eighty -two employees responded to the questionnaire. As mdicated by the pattern of significant correlations, those individuals who expenence perceived stress tend to have a higher level of somatic complaints and lower peer cohesion The intrinsic and general satisfaction of the employees were significantly correlated with the relationship and personal growth dimensions of then work environments. Intrinsic and general satisfaction was denved from the activity of the job itself and supervisor support Extnnsically satis tying activities are performed for external rewards, such as pay and praise. The dissatisfaction that appeared with extrinsic satisfaction was in conjunction with pay, with the amount of pay received for the amount of work performed being most frequently marked as dissatisfying or very dissatisfying on '72.2% of the questionnaires But extrinsic satisfaction ignored the fact that the employee could have been motivated by the job itself Based on other research, it was expected that tins study would show a significant correlation bewteen perceived stress and work pressure, but tins correlation was insignificant F Age 1 8 52 0.803 1.442 18 106 0.1275 Race 2 7.5 52 0.716 1.070 36 212 0.3718 M Age 1 8 52 0.766 1.789 18 106 0.0358 Marital 2 7 . 5 52 0.605 1.677 36 212 0.0137 YrsColl 1 8 52 0.804 1.430 18 106 0.1328 Occup 3 7.5 52 0.522 1.426 54 317 0.0343 Preg 1 8 52 0.835 1.163 18 106 0.305 LivChld 1 8 52 0.840 1.120 18 106 0.3438 Contra 1 8 52 0.812 1.359 18 106 0.1682 Hyster 1 8 52 0.864 0.924 18 106 0.5517 Hormone 1 8 52 0.690 2.639 18 106 0.001 Yeast 1 8 52 0.825 1.241 18 106 0.2433 PMS 1 8 52 0.742 2.046 18 106 0.0129 SRRS 1 8 52 0.609 3.771 18 106 0.0001 M Age* Marital 2 7.5 52 0.756 0.881 36 212 0.6658 M Age* Preg 1 8 52 0.792 1.545 18 106 0.0891 Preg* Marital 2 7.5 52 0.765 0.843 36 212 0.7239 SRRS* Occup 3 7 52 0.689 0.779 54 317 0.0867 SRRS* Hormone 1 8 52 0.766 1.797 18 106 0.0348 SRRS* PMS 1 8 52 0.960 0.240 18 106 0.9994 SRRS* Occup* PMS 3 7 52 0.710 0.713 54 317 0.9344 p < 0.05 202 Pitts TABLE 3 Final Model for MANOVA Wilks’ Lambda Criteria and Exact F Statistics for the 18 Scales of the Premenstrual Assessment Form (PAF) by Five Personal History Variables and the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) (n = 155). Source S M N VALUE F NUMDF DEN DF P > F M Age 1 8 65 O.SOO 1.849 18 131 0.0258 Marital 2 8 65 0.670 1.607 36 262 0.0196 Hormone 1 8 65 0.677 3.471 18 131 O.OOOl PMS 1 8 65 0.758 2.328 18 131 0.0033 SRRS 1 8 65 0.656 3.814 18 131 0.0001 p < 0.05 Relationships Between Personal History Variables, SRRS, and PAF. Five personal history variables and the SRRS were deemed appropriate for retention in the final model and provided the findings for all subsequent interpretations. The 18 dependent variables were the PAF scales. Reporting of univariate analyses of variance of sources having MANOVA significance for menstrual age, marital status, occupation, hormone, PMS, and the SRRS is justified, since each source has MANOVA significance in the composite 18 scale MANOVA analysis. The significance level was set at p <. 0.05. The ranges for the significance levels were from 0.0456 for the source of occupation and miscellaneous behavior scale (S17) of the PAF; to 0.0001 for the source SRRS on all scales of the PAF. Univariate analyses of variance for significant sources are reported by scales in Table 4. DISCUSSION The overall findings of this study support the relationships between the five remaining personal history variables, the SRRS, and the PAF. Differential effects were attributable to selected variables as sources of respondent differences in accounting for variation on the PAF scales. The PAF and the SRRS had the strongest relationship of all the variables. The SRRS, which measured the amounts of stress based on life events, yielded a significance level of 0.0001 with PMS symptomatology as measured by the PAF. Stress has long been touted as markedly affecting and exacerbating PMS, and these findings have been frequently reported in the literature (Harrison et al., 1985); (Wilcoxin et al., 1976); (Abraham, 1986); (Lewis, 1987); (Woods et al., 1985); (Ensign et al., 1988); (Bisson et al., 1989); (Peters, 1989); Menstrual age, or onset of menses, ranged from 12-15 years of age, which is a wider range than for the usual pubescent and may be related to underlying hormonal 203 Significance Levels for Univariate Analyses of Variances of Sources Having MANOVA Significance for Five Personal History Variables and the SRRS for the 18 PAF Scales. Manova Modeling of Personal History o 6 vi a 204 Pitts problems. Watts et al. (1985) reported that women with PMT tended to ovulate earlier and were more prone to miscarriages; thus, supporting this study that showed more pregnancies than living children. Married women with PMS symptoms seek assistance for PMS after experiencing rocky marriages and subsequent divorces (Winter, Ashton, and Moore, 1991); (Rattray, 1986); (Rose et al., 1983). In Wilcoxin et al. (1976) single college women reported increasing PMS during periods of stress. Occupation seems to exert an influence on PMS symptomatology since 64.5% of this sample were either professionals or attending college, both of which lend themselves to stressful situations as determined by the report on graduate student stress levels by Slaninka (1989). Hormone replacement therapy was used by 11.6% of the sample population and in a space for written comments on the PAF, these individuals expressed concern that oral contraceptives exacerbated their condition. Many health care providers have sought to stabilize hormone deficient women with oral contraceptives, which generally have been found to make PMS worse. This exacerbation of symptoms due to oral contraceptive use was reported by Madison Pharmacy Associates (1986). If the premise that PMS is related to low progesterone levels in controversial, then this hormone should be the examined as the treatment of choice as reported in Freeman et al., (1990). The study participants reported improvements in their general feeling of well-being after hormonal replacement therapy, which usually included some type of progesterone. This would support the theory proposed by Dalton (1984) that a deficiency of the hormone progesterone is the culprit inducing PMS symptoms. Most of the participants believed they had PMS before completing the PAF, and this belief was supported by the results of this study. PMS has been labeled as a chronic disease process and women having experienced the syndrome would be expected to score differently on any scale suggestive of non- cyclic well-being. PMS symptomatology is an exceedingly complex phenomenon. Also, the variables with which it is related are themselves highly intermingled and statistical modeling of the phenomenon is accomplished with difficulty. More global statistical models, for example, LISREL models, may clarify some of the complexities in PMS accountability as well as unravel relationships among variables that collectively account for variance through its capability for numerically specifying interesting indirect effects. LISREL would allow better assignment of variance to sources and would permit detection of specification errors in the modeling process. In conclusion, future research should include the determination of different severity levels of PMS symptomatology as related to physical, behavioral, and emotional changes in women according to positions in life and areas of employment. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author gratefully acknowledges Professors Norma J. Walters, Ph.D., RN and James Noel Wilmoth, Ph.D. for their assistance in the preparation of this article. 205 Manova Modeling of Personal History REFERENCES Abraham, G. E. (1986). Premenstrual blues. Torrence, CA: Optimox Corporation. Allen, S., McBride, C., & Pirie, P. (1991). The shortened premenstrual assessment form. Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 56(11), 769-772. Bisson, C., & Whissell, C. (1989). Will premenstrual syndrome produce a Ms. Hyde?: Evidence from daily administrations of the emotions profile index. Psychological Reports, 65(1), 179-184. Boyle, C. A., Berkowitz, G. S., & Kelsey, J. L. (1987). Epidemiology of premenstrual symptoms. American Journal of Public Health, 77(3), 349-350. Coyne, C. M., Woods, N. F., & Mitchell, E. S. (1985, November/December). Premenstrual tension syndrome. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic and Neonatal Nursing, 446-453. Dalton, K. (1984). The premenstrual syndrome and progesterone therapy. (2nd ed.). Chicago: Medical Publishing. 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Nursing Research, 34, 263-267. 208 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 3, July, 1993. SOCIOECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS UPON ACADEMIC MEDICAL CENTERS: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORANEOUS PERSPECTIVES1 Charles B. Rodning, M.D., Ph.D., F.A.C.S. Professor and Vice-Chairman Departments of Surgery and Structural and Cellular Biology J. Raymond Fletcher, M.D., Ph.D., F.A.C.S. Professor and Chairman Department of Surgery S. Michael Ludvigsen, B.S., M.B.A. Administrator, Dept, of Neurology Department of Medical Technology Medical Center, College of Medicine University of South Alabama Mobile, Alabama Clifford C. Dacso, M.A., M.D., M.P.H. Vice-Chairman, Clinical Affairs Department of Internal Medicine Baylor College of Medicine Chief, General Internal Medicine Methodist Hospital Houston, Texas Abstract: If physicians are to influence the quality, quantity, and direction of health and medical care delivery in our society, knowledge regarding the contingencies that impact upon that care must be discerned and acknowledged. A multiplicity of factors - biomedical, economic, ethnic, political, psychological, sociological - have determined the evolution of medical care and education as it is defined contemporaneously. The historical perspective conveyed in this essay provides a rationale for recommendations regarding the economic imperatives of medical care and education, particularly with respect to the relationship between indigent patient populations and academic medical centers. Physicians must educate their patients and all members of society 'Manuscript received 4 September 1992; accepted 14 July 1993. 209 Rodning, Fletcher, Ludvigsen, and Dacso regarding collective participatory and economic obligations and responsibilities in relationship to medical care, education, and research. Diseases desperate grown By desperate appliance are relieved, Or not at all. Hamlet (Act 4, Scene 3) Our remedies oft in ourselves do lie, Which we ascribe to heaven. All’s Well That Ends Well (Act 1, Scene 1) William Shakespeare (1564-1616) Among the approximately 2000 accredited colleges and universities within the United States of America there are 127 medical schools representing a very substantial socioeconomic entity. Wilson and McLaughlin (1984) have defined an academic medical center as "an organizational complex made up of a medical school, at least one and often several teaching hospitals, and sometimes additional semiautonomous research institutes and centers." Pragmatically, an academic medical center is a complex of facilities for medical care condensed by an institutional relationship where an attending faculty provides clinical service and performs education and research. For most of this century the growth and development of the academic medical center mutually sustained and paralleled the development of the medical profession in general. However, during the preceding three decades the goal of the profession and the goals of the academic community have diverged, because diverse socioeconomic forces have influenced the academy (Gk., academeia, L., academia , "gymnasium") to a different degree than the remainder of the profession. Several factors have impacted upon the current socioeconomic status of academic medical centers: an evolving system of medical education; public financial support of medical care; a changing focus of academia; specialization by physicians; and a modification of patient referral patterns. In this essay these factors are correlated with the current situation and status of a prototypical academic medical center and administrative plans to maintain its financial solvency. SYSTEM OF MEDICAL EDUCATION: Medical education in America in the Nineteenth Century was primarily proprietary. That was a major distinction from Western Europe where medical education occurred in distinguished institutions such as Guy’s Hospital in London, England and The Sorbonne in Paris, France. The establishment of medical schools in Philadelphia (1765), New York City (1769), and Boston (1783), for example, was 210 Academic Medical Centers an attempt by physicians (Gk., physika, L., physica, Fr., phisike, "medical" or "natural sciences") educated in Western Europe to recapitulate those "great centers of learning" in this country. Nonetheless, proprietary medical education continued to prosper, and the greatest influence of mature, well-established, and well-recognized medical schools was on the development of medical science rather than direct patient care per se (Garrison, 1929; Bettmann, 1956; Marks and Beatty, 1973; Lyons and Petrucelli, 1978; Wangensteen and Wangensteen, 1978; Cumston, 1987). Whereas in Western Europe medical education was based in the laboratory and taught by those who contributed to a corpus of knowledge, medical education in this country remained largely didactic, uncontrolled, unsupervised, and unoriginal until Johns Hopkins bequeathed seven million dollars solely for construction of a hospital and university in 1873. The significance of the founding of Johns Hopkins University in 1893 was the introduction by the faculty (L., facultas, "branch of learning or teaching") of the notion that medical education should be a field of graduate study. Faculty were recruited for their expertise rather than solely from the ranks of private practitioners. A residency system was also introduced permitting specialty education in an academic setting in which the basic and medical sciences were paramount. These factors set the stage for preeminent scholarship in a setting of an academic medical center. State licensing boards likewise increased their stringency and legislative mandates within several states eventually required formal certification of graduate physicians. Texas established the first State Board of Medical Examiners in 1873, and by 1901, 37 states required licensure to practice medicine and surgery (Starr, 1977, 1978, 1982; Association of American Medical Colleges, 1986; Raffel and Raffel, 1989). As university educated practitioners disseminated from their parent institutions pressure increased for reform of the American medical educational system because proprietary medical schools remained active and prosperous. Consequently, medical academicians prevailed upon the American Medical Association to establish a Council on Medical Education (AMA/CME), which enlisted Abraham Flexner and the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching to analyze the medical profession with respect to education. The well known A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching/Medical Education in the United States and Canada (Bulletin #4) was published in 1910. Flexner personally visited 155 medical schools and evaluated and critiqued facilities, faculties, finances, and administrations. He observed that the catalogues of many schools blatantly misrepresented the capacity of the respective institutions (Flexner, 1910, 1972): "Touted laboratories were nowhere to be found, or consisted of a few vagrant test tubes squirreled away in a cigar box; corpses reeked because of failure to use a disinfectant in the dissecting rooms; libraries had no books; alleged faculty members were busily occupied in private practice; purported admission requirements were waived for anyone who could pay the fees." 211 Rodning, Fletcher, Ludvigsen, and Dacso The Carnegie Foundation Report also proposed numerous changes: (1) medical schools should be modeled on Johns Hopkins University (high ranking schools, Class A); (2) middle ranking schools (Class B) should be improved; and (3) low ranking schools (Class C) should be eliminated. The AMA/CME supported the Carnegie Foundation Report since it was perceived that the country had an abundance of "poorly educated" physicians. The recommendations resulted in an ever-tightened relationship between hospitals and universities, as the university supplied basic science expertise and the hospital provided clinical experience. Concurrent with the growth of academic faculty, "clinical faculty" became desirable for their professional prestige and as an attractant for "private patients" (Starr, 1982). The integration of the laboratory, ward, and clinic was further refined with the establishment of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research (later to become Rockefeller University). That institution was established in New York City in 1901 and was supported by the income of the Standard Oil Foundation, which permitted the faculty to practice, discover, and teach on a full-time basis. Several authors have suggested that the establishment of Johns Hopkins and Rockefeller Universities represented the epitome of early modern medical care, education, and research in this country (Garrison 1929; Bettmann, 1956; Marks and Beatty, 1973; Lyons and Petrucelli, 1978; Wangensteen and Wangensteen, 1978; Cumston, 1987). COMPETITION: Prior to 1965 the academic medical center was characterized by relative stability. Although academic medicine was described as "threadbare and genteel" (Petersdorf, 1981), in fact support for the academic medical center increased from 1% to 5% of national medical expenditures between 1956 and 1966 (Wilson and McLaughlin, 1984). During the era of growth and expansion of the academic medical center patient care was not considered the highest priority for two major reasons: (1) funding, primarily from federal sources, was dedicated to the advancement of medical knowledge, thus the rewards for medical educators and researchers were not related to patient care; and (2) support from physicians within the community was not for the development of primary care delivery programs at the medical school. Community- based physicians opposed attenuation of their private practices by tax-supported institutions. Tolerance was maintained only when the academic medical center tacitly agreed to provide tertiary care facilities and accept patients on a referral basis from private physicians. The inevitable consequence was the education of physicians incompletely equipped to practice in a non-academic environment. Many of those physicians thus remained in academia educated from the perspective of evermore sophisticated technologies and seemingly unlimited resources (Rogers and Blendon, 1978; Igelhart, 1982; Friedman, 1984; Reiman, 1984; Wilson and McLaughlin, 1984; Commonwealth Fund, 1985). 212 Academic Medical Centers CONFLICTS WITHIN THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ESTABLISHMENT : Although not explicitly stated the American medical establishment was implicitly directed by and towards the health and medical care of affluent Caucasian males. Since the supply of physicians was reduced subsequent to the Flexner report, rural populations, the urban inner city disenfranchised, and the lower socioeconomic echelons were medically underserved (Pearl, 1925; Starr, 1982; Friedman, 1984; Flynt, 1989; Solomon, 1990). Private physicians’ incomes rose dramatically during that era averaging four to five times the median wage a level which has been maintained to date. There also occurred a dramatic change in the professional activities of the academic physician. Whereas previously the academy had co-opted and to a large extent depended upon the practicing physician for patient referrals, the Halsteadian/Oslerian model propounded that a full-time academician also be a primary care clinician as well, and an inherent conflict of a student in competition with his teacher resulted. A second conflict which arose from the elitist approach extant at the turn of this century was the limitation of enrollees into medical schools. By 1930 there were twice as many applicants as positions and that number has remained relatively constant to date. And a third conflict was the introduction of federal fiscal legislative controls. Governmental influence in the practice of medicine until the middle of this century was limited to the provision of medical care for the indigent and "tuberculus." Public city and county hospitals were tightly restricted in terms of funds and although there were periodic protests regarding inadequacies (Starr, 1982; Flynt, 1989; Solomon, 1990), the majority of the opposition to legislative regulation was by and on behalf of private physicians who viewed governmental financed health and medical care as intrusive upon their domain. The wedge that was inserted into that perspective was the passage of Social Security medical care entitlement legislation, the Hill-Burton Act, and the Veterans’ Administration Health Care System. These entities imposed governmental influence upon the quality and quantity of health and medical care of private citizens. The Social Security legislation was the embryo for Medicare and Medicaid ( vide infra)-, the Hill-Burton Act involved government in hospital construction which then mandated equitable access for all patients to those funded institutions; and the Veterans’ Administration Health Care System became a vast network of hospitals and clinics. Historically, the Veterans’ Administration was not the object of wrath of organized medicine to the extent of other governmental entitlement programs, probably a consequence of the political influence of veterans’ groups and the perceived support by the American populace for veterans’ care (Flexner, 1910, 1972; Starr, 1977, 1978, 1982; Association of American Medical Colleges, 1986; Raffel and Raffel, 1989). FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE AND EDUCATION : To briefly reiterate, the revisions that had occurred in medical education and funding for patient care during this century subsequently fostered intense competition: competition for student positions in medical schools; competition between medical 213 Rodning, Fletcher, Ludvigsen, and Dacso educators and their graduates for patients; and competition for funds for primary patient care. It was the latter that proved to be a turning point for the practice of medicine and the academic medical center in this country (Starr, 1977, 1978, 1982). Attempts to enact legislation permitting federal support for medical care expenses had been proposed by virtually every Congress since the "New Deal" era. Although factional disputes in Congress delayed this legislation until 1965, Social Security Amendment PL 92-67 was eventually enacted into law. The compromises necessary for enactment were substantive, but a three-tiered program under Title XIX of the Code of the United States of America emerged: Part A provided insurance for hospitalization to eligible elderly patients or patients with specific types of chronic illnesses (Medicare); Part B was a subsidized insurance program for physicians’ professional fees; and Part C became a state-administered insurance program for acute temporary medical care of indigent patients (Medicaid). Medicare allowed physicians to charge more than the limits of its reimbursement and to seek the balance from each patient, while Medicaid mandated acceptance of the reimbursement schedule as payment in toto. Virtually simultaneously, the premise of the "War on Poverty" and the "Great Society," introduced by the immense influence of then President L. B. Johnson, propounded the notion that there were too few physicians to care for the newly entitled patients. In 1963 and 1966 Congress passed a Health Manpower Education Act. So great was the perceived "crisis" that the Act established "physician-extender" programs which would educate and train paraprofessional personnel to perform some of the functions of a physician, and thus at least theoretically enable each physician to serve more patients. Capitation grants stimulated the enrollment of more medical students and mandated funding for "accelerated" educational programs, and this was wholeheartedly supported by many nationally prominent medical educators (Starr, 1982). FOCUS OF ACADEMIA: This health manpower legislation further and substantially modified the focus of academic medicine from the accretion of medical knowledge to the education of primary medical care delivery personnel (Freeman, 1985; Caper, 1986; Ginzberg, 1986; Light, 1986; Watt, et al., 1986; Johnson, 1987; Moser, 1987). All health manpower legislation until 1977 required expansion of enrollment of medical schools, unless it could be demonstrated that increases in enrollment would be deleterious to the quality of education delivered. The Office of Economic Opportunity also mandated the establishment of "neighborhood health care centers" which perforce required staff physicians. These free-standing ambulatory patient care centers were ostensibly established to serve indigent and isolated patients, but became a prototype for the independent "emergicenters" proliferating in suburbia today (Freeman, 1985; Watt, et al., 1986). In addition, in an attempt to redistribute physician manpower scholarship assistance available through the National Health Services Corps sought 214 Academic Medical Centers to place medical care personnel in underserved areas. All these initiatives forced medical schools to respond to the imperative of clinical service much as they had previously responded to the imperative for biomedical research. As the academic medical centers moved from basic science research and tertiary care into clinical research and primary care, an inevitable conflict emerged between the providers of care in the community and in the academic medical center. In order to fulfill its new clinical service-oriented missions the academic medical center began to encroach upon its constituency. In addition to each medical school competing for more patients, there were more medical schools (88 in 1966; 127 in 1989), more medical students (7,177 in 1950; 17,186 in 1980), and more full-time medical faculty (11,224 in 1960; 53,371 in 1982) (Starr, 1977, 1978, 1982). As funds for construction became scarce, academic medical centers perceived a need to expand their influence by affiliations with community hospitals primarily to provide sources of patients for undergraduate and graduate medical education. This technique of expansion by assimilation was successful as long as the financial underpinnings of patient care remained ascendant. However, the federal legislature responded to a societal perception that government was "too big" and entered a cost¬ cutting mode. In addition, the federal legislature changed its philosophy regarding medical care delivery from promoting access to containing cost, and the costs of providing medical care rose dramatically. Since the enactment of Medicare, patient generated income had grown to assume a proportion of medical school expenses at least equal to that provided by research grants. In essence, the Social Security Administration provided a major share of revenues required to operate an academic medical center (Rogers and Blendon, 1978; Inglehart, 1982; Friedman, 1984; Reiman, 1984). SPECIALIZE TION AND SUBSPECIALIZA TION : An additional factor in terms of the cost of medical care and competition for patient care funds was fostered by specialization and subspecialization by physicians, which resulted in increased utilization of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures and protracted tertiary care. Counterbalancing a professed desire to educate more primary care physicians, powerful academic and socioeconomic forces existed which promoted specialization (Starr, 1977, 1978, 1982): (1) rapid advances in knowledge and its application attracted physicians to ever-narrower specialties and subspecialties; (2) use of technologically intensive methods of diagnosis and therapy was more financially rewarding than methods of practice employed delivering primary care; (3) hospitals gained a market advantage by having specialty services for patient care; (4) academic prestige accrued to faculty in specialist rather than generalist activities; (5) neither teaching methods nor financial compensation developed adequately in terms of graduate medical education in ambulatory patient care settings, such that students would be attracted to them; and (6) the profusion of specialists and subspecialists outside an academic medical center further diluted its 215 Rodning, Fletcher, Ludvigsen, and Dacso constituency of referral, since competent experts in the private sector were unlikely to refer patients for medical care or procedures which they themselves were qualified to deliver or perform. PATIENT REFERRAL PATTERNS'. Nevertheless, academic physicians were often viewed as a resource of "last resort" by many patients and physicians within the community. The more critically-ill patients who required extraordinary attention tended to be referred to the academic medical center. In addition, the university hospital became a referral center for those patients unable to afford their medical care. The academic medical center thus received a reputation of attending only critically-ill or critically-poor patients. As patient care revenues surpassed research funding in providing financial support of the academic medical center, it became necessary to redesign and redirect the systems which supported the whole, since financial support for educational programs by public and private third-party payors no longer sustained the infrastructure. Medical education was not perceived to be a responsibility of the Health Care Financing Administration. That perception supported the notion that society had never de facto agreed to support medical education or the non-patient care activities of an academic medical center (Anderson, 1987; Easterbrook, 1987). Consequently, in order to support the services which permitted the generation of a large volume of income from patient care, the academic medical center was forced to engage cadres of physicians who were not desirous of fulfilling other academic responsibilities (Rogers and Blendon, 1978; Iglehart, 1982; Friedman, 1984; Reiman, 1984; Commonwealth Fund, 1985). CLINICAL FACULTY-. Clinical faculty engaged in large full-time practices are those who do not wish to be engaged in basic science research. The dichotomy of an academic physician primarily caring for patients had been a contentious point among private physicians who viewed that as unfair subsidized competition. Also, from the perspective of traditional academicians clinically oriented faculty do not fulfill the conventional criteria for promotion and tenure which rest largely upon published scholarship. Institutions attempted to remedy this imbalance by providing one or more additional "tracks" for advancement. Conversely, the academic medical center risked engaging in enterprises with no reasonable scholarly potential simply because those activities resulted in much needed income. This creation of "profit centers" to support the scholarly activities of academic medical centers has continued to widen the rift between community-based and academic physicians. It has also led medical school administrators to consider commercialization to keep their institutions financially solvent (Rogers and Blendon, 1978; Inglehart, 1982; Friedman, 1984; Reiman, 1984; Commonwealth Fund, 1985; Ginzberg, 1986; Schroeder, et al., 1989; Taksel, et al., 1989; Turner, 1989). 216 Academic Medical Centers PRO BONO HUMANI ET PUBLICO : Commercialization poses a dilemma, however, since the economics of medical care delivery rarely adheres to free-market principles. The concept that more physicians would reduce the cost of each individual physician’s work proved fallacious. The business and financial aspects of medical care delivery operate with greater similarity to a public utility than to a free-market system (Caper, 1986). The modus operandi of "hospital corporations" is relevant in that regard. Since J. D. Massey, in conjunction with Dr. Thomas Frist, formed the Hospital Corporation of America in 1968, several similar corporations have been established, but the goals of a privately held corporation differ from one responsive to public need. The "for-profit" hospitals generate a return-on-investment by increased utilization of reimbursable items and aggressive marketing strategies, while simultaneously providing lower visible charges such as bed costs, and thereby increase the degree of operating leverage by reducing fixed costs (Commonwealth Fund, 1985; Freeman, 1985; Caper, 1986; Ginzberg, 1986; Light, 1986; Watt, et al., 1986; Anderson, 1987; Easterbrook, 1987; Johnson, 1987; Moser, 1987; Enthoven, 1988; Taksel, et al., 1989). Even more problematic than "mixed motives" of physician ownership and "creative" accounting and marketing, was a "decomposition of voluntarism." As the market became tighter with less latitude for non-reimbursable effort and time, clinical faculty and practitioners rationed their commitments to teaching and care of the indigent (Starr, 1977): "The rise of the corporate ethos in medical care is already one of the most significant consequences of the changing structure of medical care. It permeates voluntary hospitals, government agencies and academic thought as well as profit-making medical care organizations. Those who talked about "health care planning" in the 1970’s now talk about "health care marketing." Everywhere one sees the growth of marketing mentality in health care. And indeed business school graduates are displacing graduates of public health schools, hospital administrators, and even doctors, in the top echelons of medical care organizations. The organizational culture of medicine used to be dominated by the ideals of voluntarism and professionalism, which softened the underlying acquisitive activity. The restraint exercised by those ideals now grows weaker. The "health care" of one era is the "profit center" of the next." For the academic medical center that trend was even more acute as the goals of faculty practicing in an academic setting were not necessarily congruent with those of operating an economically efficient hospital (Starr, 1982; Enthoven, 1988). Prior to entitlement programs referred to vide supra, indigent patients were frequently referred to a "charity hospital" or were cared for gratis by socially responsive 217 Rodning, Fletcher, Ludvigsen, and Dacso physicians. When "cost-shifting" was practiced community hospitals and academic medical centers could remain financially solvent while caring for indigent patients. Currently, this assumption of a "useful burden" is being deflected onto the academic medical center in the form of an expectation that it will assume the entire burden of uncompensated medical care. A survey by the Urban Institute/American Hospital Association in 1982 revealed that teaching hospitals provided 15% of all medical care delivered, but 43% of all "uncompensated care." That phenomenon exposed the academic medical center to a disproportionate share of the financial burden of indigent patient care. Should this share shift even further toward uncompensated care and third-party payors continue a trend of reducing cost-shiftable reimbursement, the academic medical center will become evermore tenuous in its fiscal base. Even more alarming is the perception among the private sector of the medical community that this is appropriate and acceptable (Flynt, 1989; Solomon, 1990). PROTOTYPICAL ACADEMIC MEDICAL CENTER-. Exemplary of the impact of these socioeconomic trends upon academic medical centers is the current situation and status of the Medical Center/University of South Alabama (Rodning, 1987; Rodning and Dacso, 1987; Berger, et al., 1989; Rodning, 1989; Salley and Rodning, 1989). This Medical Center is one of the oldest in the country, founded in 1704 by the Sisters of Charity (America). Although its name and location have been altered periodically since that time (formerly the Mobile City/County/General Hospital), the continuity of its service to the community has remained intact. The raison d’etre of the institution since its inception has been clinical service with care of the indigent patient population an acknowledged responsibility. Since the Medical Center became affiliated with the University of South Alabama, education and research have also become prominent components of its mission. The remuneration the Medical Center received for uncompensated medical care was provided by tax revenues generated from the municipality of Mobile, but that has never fully compensated for indigent patient care expenses (Anderson, 1987). The financial burdens were so onerous that the Sisters of Charity (America) relinquished responsibility for the facility to the municipality in 1959, and the municipality relinquished responsibility to the University of South Alabama in 1971 (Salley and Rodning, 1989). Financial support of the missions of the Medical Center - clinical service, education, and research - is predominantly via self-generated revenues provided by collections for patient care (90%). Only a fraction of that revenue is provided by municipal sources (10%). The dilemma that confronts this Medical Center is that although 60% of the patient care provided is compensable, 40% of the patient population is indigent. During fiscal year 1987-1988 the Medical Center expended approximately $46,845,000.00 for in-hospital indigent patient care, but received only $6,182,000.00 from the municipality for that care (Table 1). The figures quoted do not include physicians’ professional fees which were uncompensated. In addition, the Medical Center cares for the vast majority of indigent patients within the municipality 218 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA MEDICAL CENTER Academic Medical Centers t 9 m ^ !±! < iu * Z CD Q X X X X X r: co co ^ cm cm cm n X o co H Q HI < Z CD CD 111 O O O o o o o CD Csf O *“ 05 ** * in o o o o © o CO 05* IT) CD co cd CO* TT CM o o o o o o CD* O* O Vf) m cd co* cd* co n o O o O O CD o O o O o *— 111 UJ Q ©_ o cd © o O cc z CM* CO* 05* CO* < 3 o CM CO O Q o Ll GO 05 05 CO CM Z CM* CO* CM* CM* o o o CM CM CD CD 5 < z < CD 111 Q o < CD CO CO o> I co GO 05 CD cr < LU >- < o CD 5 111 CO o o o cr t- o o o O X CL C3 o o < UJ O* in* in’ > P U UJ CD h- O DC CO* CO* co* < CO Z o h- o o o m o o o 1- UJ o o_ o z Q CO* CO* o* UJ o Q < 05 ■'T _i o_ CO CO o CD CO* CO* CO* o O < t- m 1 1 1 8? in 05 vO 0^ CD CD o CO CO CO O O O LU O O O L_ CD O o o Q r— CD Z CO* CO* o* < UJ LU CD CM 05 CD o 0- in 05 X CD* CO* LU CM CM CM X O o O *2 o o o E o o o_ © N." o’ k— o c o & 05 © V co’ > o o o TO < s o o o © Q o o o CM CO CO TO CO CM <*“ © CO in o CD CO* co* Tf C a* a* o O o O O o o o o O O o o o o O O o © o“ 05* CD* co’ CO* in* CM co CO m m CD CM K o o CO O* nT o* o 05* CM CD CD 05 o CO m CD CD CD CO CD CO CO CD 05 05 05 05 05 05 T— ▼- I I I I I I CM CO ■'J' m CD h- CO CO CD CD CO CO 05 05 05 05 05 05 JD © Q TD © CD (A © D O’ © s © o *D © CD © z * 219 receipts and Indigent Care Fund receipts. Rodning, Fletcher, Ludvigsen, and Dacso (95%), the remainder provided by other hospitals within the community - Mobile Infirmary, Providence, and Springhill Memorial. In summary, as depicted in Table 1 and Figure 1, the Medical Center noted during that decade an increased percentage and expense of indigent patient care and decreased compensation for that care provided by the municipality that it serves (Berger, et al., 1989). To cope with this disparity, the Medical Center/University of South Alabama has contemplated several mechanisms: denial of unfunded and non-emergent patient transfers from other hospitals; close scrutiny of the justification for and the duration of hospitalization; investigate all potential sources of funding for indigent patients; decrease in the duration of hospitalization by transfer to a chronic care facility or return to the home setting with or without nursing supervision; maximize the utilization of procedures performed in the out-patient setting or as "day-of-surgery" admissions; adjust costs for certain services to compensate for revenue lost from others; cost-effective purchase of hospital supplies; encourage and facilitate cooperation among all hospitals in the community in terms of bed availability and utilization of new, expensive, and technologically sophisticated diagnostic and therapeutic instrumentation; establish liaison with health maintenance organizations; establish liaison with referring physicians, particularly from underserved rural and inner city urban communities, to provide both compensated and uncompensated care; solicit funds from the private sector (corporations, foundations, philanthropic entities, individuals) for the various programs that contribute to the welfare of the community (Table 2); and maintain dialogue with legislators at the city, county, state, and federal levels regarding uncompensated care. 220 Academic Medical Centers INDIGENT PATIENT CARE Funds and Expenses Fiscal Year Indigent Care Expenses Municipal Indigent Funds Figure 1: Indigent patient care funds and expenses, Medical Center, University of South Alabama, 1983-1988. 221 Rodning, Fletcher, Ludvigsen, and Dacso TABLE 2: CLINICAL PROGRAMS, MEDICAL CENTER, UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA Level I Trauma Center Regional Burn Center Children's and Women’s Hospital National Cancer Institute Member of Southwest Oncology Group and Pediatric Oncology Group Cardiovascular Diseases Center Cardiac Rehabilitation Program Sleep Disorders Center Restorative Care Intensive Care Units: Level III Neonatal Intensive Care Medical Intensive Care Surgical Intensive Care Coronary Intensive Care Neurotrauma Intensive Care Complex Wound Management Center National Institutes of Health/Comprehensive Sickle Cell Disease Center Accredited Mammography Center Allergic Diseases Center Digestive Diseases Center Computerized Medical Genetics/ Birth Defects Center Pain Management Clinic Infertility Program High-Risk Obstetrical Program Child, Adolescent, and Adult Psychiatnc Programs Continuing Medical Educational Program Pulmonary Laboratory Aeromedical Helicopter Transport Program Neonatal Transport Unit 222 Academic Medical Centers The Medical Center acknowledges its professional responsibility to the community it serves for the provision of health and medical care, education, and research; however, it cannot sustain that commitment without adequate compensation. SOCIETAL RESPONSIBILITY: This perspective of the Medical Center/University of South Alabama is not unique, as many public metropolitan academic medical centers have had at least , qualitatively similar experiences. That notwithstanding, it is disconcerting to realize that typically an insouciant attitude prevails throughout communities with academic medical centers (Flynt, 1989; Solomon, 1990). Although indigent patient care is often mandated by local governments for any hospital to serve with a community, most private hospitals prefer to limit that commitment, forcing the majority of the indigent patient population upon the academic medical center. One result of this financial burden upon the teaching hospital is a perception by the community of the academic medical center as a "charity hospital." Patients capable of paying for their medical care subsequently avoid and discriminate against the academic medical center. Community hospitals and the general population opt not to be associated with indigent patients and de facto deny their existence. Governmental officials are therefore unwilling to address the problem since that would imply expenditure of tax revenues. Denial of the problem further compromises the financial solvency of the academic medical center. RECOMMENDA TIONS: All academic medical centers responding to the needs of the constituencies they serve will need to address the issues outlined in this essay. The socioeconomic forces operating upon the academic medical center as substantive (Schroeder, et al., 1989). The following recommendations are worthy of consideration as attempts to maintain the financial solvency of these institutions. First, if the academic medical center is coerced to obey "free-market" economic forces, it should market its product and reap the financial reward of its production. Some institutions have recognized this and embodied it in an aggressive marketing policy. There should be no resentment if the academic medical center competes on the same ground using the same rules as private community hospitals. Second, the academic medical center should deal with education as its I economic product and mandate society to compensate its fair share for educating the physicians it will require. That would necessitate public financial support for indigent patient care. Third , advanced post-graduate medical education is a privilege not a right, and restriction of specialty and subspecialty educational opportunities is one mechanism of limiting the number of specialists and subspecialists. However, a decrease in the 223 Rodning, Fletcher, Ludvigsen, and Dacso number of specialists inevitably results in a concomitant increase in cost for each specialists’ clinical activities. If reimbursement formulae were modified to represent payment for expertise and not simply payment for technologically-intensive procedures that dichotomy would resolve. Fourth, medical care could be rationed by prioritizing services for all patients including the indigent. If financial resources for medical care are deemed by society to be finite, then society must bear greater responsibility for the ethical and moral decisions regarding allocation of those funds. Fifth, the academic medical center could serve as a coordinator of health and medical care throughout a community, facilitating cooperation among physicians, hospitals, and clinics within the academic and private sectors. Sixth, the academic medical center could focus its clinical programs on entities that are more cost- and labor-intensive, such as critical care, oncology, transplantation, and trauma; while utilizing community-based resources for primary care programs. Seventh, society must accept its collective participatory and financial responsibilities to support the welfare of the entire community. Medical care professionals must educate their patients and the public in that regard. Finally, even in the face of mounting pressures from without and within, doctors (L., doctor, "teacher") of medicine must reaffirm that the endeavors of an academic medical center represent those of a priestly profession: priestly, because it is dedicated to amelioration of the adversities conditio humani; and professional, because it is concerned with the advancement of knowledge and wisdom. To fulfill its obligations and responsibilities - clinical service, education, and research - the academic medical center must remain both philosophically and economically sound. "Between medicine and the love of wisdom there are no great differences; in fact medicine has all the things that lead toward wisdom:. ..reverence, modesty, reserve, sound opinion, judgment, calm, steadfastness, purity, knowing speech, knowledge of things useful and necessary for life, the dispensing of that which cleanses, freedom from superstition, preeminence divine." "Decorum" Corpus Hippocraticum (circa 400 B.C.E.) 224 Academic Medical Centers Acknowledgements: The authors gratefully recognize the expert preparation of the manuscript by Ms. L. Nan Johnson, Ms. Sherrie Lynn Arnold, and Ms. Betty J. Young. LITERATURE CITED: Anderson, J. R., 1987. Economics, frigonomics, and medical care: Alabama Medicine , v. 56, p. 30-34. Association of American Medical Colleges, 1986. Medical education, institutions, characteristics, and programs. A background paper: Washington, D.C. Berger, D., Bohanan, J., Fabre, H., Graham, D., Hartzes, M., VanMalderen, F., May 18, 1989. 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The comparative economic performance of investor-owned chain and not-for-profit hospitals: New England Journal of Medicine , v. 314, p. 89-96. Wilson, M. P., McLaughlin, C. P., 1984. Leadership and management in academic medicine: Association of American Medical Colleges, Washington, D.C. 227 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 3, July, 1993. THE LOST OF WETLANDS IN THE URBANIZED AREA OF MADISON COUNTY, ALABAMA-1979-89, AND FACTORS CONTRIBUTING THERETO1 Claudette Hall, Arthur Holmes, and Constance Jordan Department of Community Planning and Urban Studies Alabama A & M University P. O. Box 206 Normal, AL 35762 INTRODUCTION Wetlands, including inland, coastal, freshwater and salt water types, are recognized as some of the most important ecosystems on the earth today. Their importance is being given increasingly greater attention as ecologists, engineers, planners, government agencies, interest groups, and the public at large become aware of wetlands’ invaluable contribution of life. Any research on wetlands should be preceded by a definition of what they are, as too often it is not clear what constitutes a wetland. There are three main components in any wetland definition (Mitsch and Gosselink 1986, 15-16): 1. the presence of water at least periodically; 2. soils that differ from those of the adjacent uplands; and 3. vegetation that is adapted to wet conditions and tolerant to flooding. Any accepted definition is often dependent upon the purpose or objective for which it is needed. Where the objective is to determine boundaries so that wetlands can be inventoried, evaluated and managed properly, a multidisciplinary approach, as used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), is most meaningful. This definition is widely accepted as the national standard for identifying wetlands and is used for the purpose of this research. Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. For the purposes of this classification, wetlands must have one or more of the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes; 'Manuscript received 12 July 1993; accepted 28 July 1993. 228 Hall, Holmes, and Jordan (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soils; or (3) the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the growing season of each year (Cowardin et al. 1979, 3). The Values of Wetlands The values and functions of wetlands are as many and varied as the types of wetlands themselves. Their value as a fish and wildlife preserve has been a traditional one, and for decades this was the only value accorded them. It is only recently that recognition has been given to the many other vital functions performed by wetlands. Wetlands: 1. Serve as fish and wildlife preserves; 2. Facilitate the formation of some fossil fuels (mainly coal and natural gas); 3. Cleanse polluted waters and are natural purification systems for the hydrological and chemical cycles; 4. Moderate floods, protect shorelines, and recharge water to aquifers; 5. Help maintain fish populations; 6. Provide permanent habitats for birds and other wildlife including a number of endangered species; and are breeding, wintering and feeding grounds for migratory waterfowl and other birds; 7. Offer protective cover from predators and hostile environmental change; 8. Serve as sources of surface and ground water supplies; 9. Help reduce flooding, erosion, and storm drainage; 10. Yield numerous natural products, e.g. timber, peat, cranberries, blueberries, wild rice, and fur; 11. Facilitate and enhance educational and scientific research; 12. Provide outdoor recreation - boating, fishing, hunting, hiking, bird watching, nature observation, and photography. This list supports the fact that wetlands are indeed a vital part of the environment. The trend of wetlands destruction in the Urbanized Area of Madison County will not only have repercussions on the local environment, but on the regional 229 The Loss of Wetlands in the Urbanized Area of Madison County and national environment as well. Their loss will contribute to an eroding of a part of America’s natural heritage, lessening its economic well-being and its quality of life. It is on this premise that this research was conducted. It was not until the 1970’s that interest in wetlands protection began to surface, when scientists took the initiative to identify and quantify the many values of this ecosystem. It was then that federal and state programs were designed to protect wetlands as environmentally vital areas. Nevertheless, wetland loss continues at a rate of nearly 0.5 million acres per year (Tuxill 1990, 43). The Study The purpose of this research was to document the extent to which wetlands of five or more acres have been lost within the Urbanized Area of Madison County, Alabama between 1979 and 1989, and to identify some of those activities which have contributed to the loss. Another reason for undertaking this research was to alert people to the long¬ term effects of wetland loss. Because there is no documentation of this phenomenon in Madison County, these findings may well be of benefit to many local and regional planners, environmentalists, and the general public. As an original study, this research will add significantly to the body of knowledge on the subject of wetland loss from the planner’s point of view. The Area The designated study area boundary, as shown in Figure 1, was established by the Census Bureau based on the findings of the 1990 Census of Population and Housing. The study area covers an estimated 148.59 square miles and houses a population of 177,987 (Census Bureau 1990). The study area was chosen for a number of reasons. Madison County Urbanized Area has undergone significant growth in the past 10 to 15 years. It is the fastest growing county in the state of Alabama and one of the fastest growing in the southern United States. These changes have impacted both the natural and built environments, and there are visible signs that wetland loss has occurred, although this has not been documented. Hence, there is a need for careful analysis of the extent to which growth and other factors have led to loss of wetlands in this area. In light of the ecological and recreational values discussed above, documentation on the rapid loss of wetlands is necessary if they are to be saved. The regulatory agencies, developers, planners, environmentalists and the general public must become cognizant of the unwarranted loss of "nature’s kidneys" at it applies to the study area. 230 Hall, Holmes, and Jordan Prepared by Claudette Hall Dept, ol Community Planning Alabama AAM University, 1 992 Figure 1. Wetlands of the Urbanized Area of Madison County, 1979. 231 The Loss of Wetlands in the Urbanized Area of Madison County PROCEDURE Four tasks were undertaken in order to complete this research. Task 1 : National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) maps were used to identify the extent of the area’s wetland resources in 1979 using five acres as the minimum site size. The maps served as the base maps because they are the first and to date the only inventory of Madison County wetlands. The minimum site size is based on the NWI criteria used to inventory wetlands in Madison County. Only sites of five or more acres were consistently mapped (Storrs 1991). Task 2: To identify and determine the extent of the area’s wetlands in 1989, the latest available aerial photographs provided by the Madison County Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS) were used. Task 3: The 1979 wetlands were digitized using the ERDAS software. Wetland acreages were computed and displayed. The area’s wetland resources for 1989 were arrived at by combining photographic data with NWI map data, and a 1989 wetlands map of the area created. Task 4: To identify those land uses which have replaced wetlands over the period, both photographic interpretation and site investigations were utilized. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Wetland Losses: 1979-89 In 1979, the study area had an estimated total wetland acreage of 2,795.98. By 1989, there were 2,646,63 acres of wetlands. Between 1979 and 1989 the area lost 149.35 acres of its wetlands, reflecting a 5.34 percentage loss over the eleven year period. This approximated to an annual loss of 0.5%. If this rate of loss is allowed to continue, in less than 2 centuries the entire wetland resources of the study area will be lost. A total of 139 sites were initially identified in the study area as comprising five or more acres of undisturbed wetlands in 1979. Over the eleven year period on which the study is based, 22 sites had lost some or all of their wetlands to agricultural or urban development. These were direct losses due to either drainage, fill, or both. The southern sector of the study area lost the least amount of wetlands over the period under investigation. The central and western sectors of the study area experienced the greatest amount of wetland destruction over the 1979-89 period. In these sectors the loss was usually total site loss. 232 Hall, Holmes, and Jordan Factors Contributing to Wetland Losses Growth translates into new land uses, including commercial, industrial, residential and highway construction, and agricultural development, all of which have replaced wetlands over the years. Table 1 shows in detail the extent to which the various types of developments have contributed to the loss of wetlands in the Madison County Urbanized Area from 1979 to 1989. Table 1. Land Uses Contributing to Wetland Loss in the Urbanized Area of Madison County, 1979-89. LAND USE ACRES PERCENT Commercial 58.62 39.25 Residential 36.55 24.47 Highway 29.11 19.49 | Industrial 14.93 10.00 ! Agriculture 10.14 6.79 TOTAL 149.35 100.00 Source: Computed from data provided through aerial photos and site visits Field investigation showed that the majority of the urban development activity contributing to wetland losses was commercial. This development is clustered around the jordan Lane/University Drive area -- a commercial corridor located in the central portion of the study area. The growth thrust for the study area coincides with the areas that experienced the greatest loss. Commercial land use is responsible for the loss of 58.62 acres or 39.25% of the area’s wetland losses. This is followed by residential development which accounts for the loss of 36.55 acres (24.47%) of the area’s wetlands. Agricultural use, on the other hand, accounts for only 6.79% of the loss and is concentrated in the northern section of the study area. The replacement of wetlands by residential land use is most prominent in the north central and south west areas. The south western portion of the study area is within Madison city limits -- the fastest growing city in the state of Alabama. The research shows that due to the rapid population growth and demand for new housing over the period under investigation, wetland losses within Madison city limits occurred as a result of residential and infrastructural development. 233 The Loss of Wetlands in the Urbanized Area of Madison County CONCLUSION The research shows that 149.35 acres or 5.34% of the wetlands within the Urbanized Area of Madison County were lost between 1979 and 1989. This loss was due mainly to urban development and expansion which occurred during the 1980’s. Commercial and residential land uses were responsible for most of the area’s wetland losses -- 95.17 acres, a total of 63.72%. When compared to urban development, agricultural development had a relatively small impact on wetland losses in the study area. Public education is paramount to the survival of the remaining wetlands within the study area. If the public is to be effective in helping to preserve our wetland resources, it must be educated in regards to the values of wetlands and the part it (the public) can play in ensuring that such a vital ecosystem is kept in tact. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to express thanks to Benjamin A. Ferrill, Ph.D. and William McAllister, AICP for their assistance with this research. LITERATURE CITED Census of Population and Housing, Alabama 1990. U. S. Department of Commerce. 1990. Cowardin, Lewis M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet and E. T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States. FWS/OBS-31, Washington, D.C.: USFWS. Mitsch, W. J. and James Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Storrs, Charley, U. S. fish and Wildlife Service, NWI Coordinator. 1991. Personal communication, November 13. Tuxill, Jacquelyn. 1990. "Wetlands at the Crossroads." The Environment Magazine , (May-June): 43-45. 234 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 3, July, 1993. A REVIEW OF THE CRITICAL EVENTS LEADING TO MESODERM INDUCTION IN XENOPUS 1 Eleanor Josephson Department of Anatomy School of Veterinary Medicine Auburn University, AL 36849 The emergence of a complex, sentient animal from a single fertilized egg cell is a phenomenon almost beyond belief. Yet, vertebrate animals are living proof that such a developmental scheme does exist. Of all the thousands of steps in the process of vertebrate development, one of the first is the elaboration of axial mesoderm. In amphibian embryos, all mesoderm arises from animal pole cells that have been induced to change their fate by vegetal pole cells (Nieuwkoop, 1969). Some of these vegetal pole cells possess the unique ability to induce dorsal mesodermal structures, such as somite and the notochord (Smith and Slack, 1983; Gimlich and Gerhart, 1984; Stewart and Gerhart, 1990). What is the effect of vegetal pole cells on animal pole cells? Why is one region of mesoderm different from another? What are the signals that instruct these differences? This paper outlines the critical events that lead to the induction of axial mesoderm in the genus Xenopus. (For a review of mesoderm induction in mammals and Drosophila see Stern et al., 1992 and Leptin et al., 1992). Beginning with the foundation laid by cortical rotation in the Xenopus egg, a review of the spatial and temporal relationships between animal and vegetal cell types is followed by a discussion of some of the likely chemical mediators of mesodermal induction. Cortical Rotation of the Xenopus Egg A profound change in the organization of the cytoplasm in the Xenopus egg occurs within the first 100 minutes after fertilization. The outer cortex of the egg rotates approximately 30° relative to the inner cytoplasm (Gerhart et al., 1989; Danilchik and Denegre, 1991; Houliston and Elinson, 1991a). Visual evidence of rotation appears in the eggs of Rana species where, before rotation, the gray core pigment of the animal pole cytoplasm is hidden under the black pigment of the animal pole cortex; however, after rotation some of the gray pigment becomes visible through the clear cortex of the vegetal pole, creating the appearance of the gray crescent (Gerhart et al., 1989). Microtubules form parallel arrays at the cortical surface of the vegetal hemisphere, and kinesin may be involved in the rotational movement (Elinson and Rowning, 1988; Houliston and Elinson, 1991b). Disruption of microtubule assembly by drugs, such as colchicine or nocodazole, or by physical factors, such as ultraviolet irradiation of the vegetal hemisphere or cold shock, can prevent cortical rotation from occurring (Scharf and Gerhart, 1980; Elinson and Rowning, 1988; Gerhart et al., 1989). 'Manuscript received 15 June 1993; accepted 19 July 1993. 235 Josephson The importance of cortical rotation to the further development of the embryo is illustrated by experiments that halt rotation. When rotation fails to occur, the embryo fails to develop any dorsal features, retains its cylindrical symmetry and consists of just ventral cell types, such as blood islands, epidermis, and a short intestine (Gerhart et al., 1989; Stewart and Gerhart, 1990). More significant, though, is the fact that replacing two vegetal cells from a UV irradiated embryo with two vegetal cells from the region adjacent to the gray crescent region of a non-irradiated 32-64 cell stage embryo "rescues" the irradiated embryo from its ventralized fate (Gimlich and Gerhart, 1984; Gerhart et al. , 1989; Stewart and Gerhart, 1990). Alternatively, rotation in a UV irradiated embryo can be achieved by gravitational means, and the embryo goes on to develop a normal dorsal axis (Scharf and Gerhart, 1980). These results indicate that cortical rotation is a fundamental step in normal amphibian development that results in a change in the character of the cytoplasm in the vegetal cells adjacent to the gray crescent area. Thus, the cells that eventually contain that cytoplasm also possess the ability to induce the formation of dorsal axial structures. Vegetal and Animal Pole Relationships Cortical rotation alone is not sufficient to induce mesodermal structures, however (Nieuwkoop, 1969; Gurdon et al., 1985). The Xenopus blastula is divided into an animal pole and a vegetal pole and the spatial and temporal relationships between these two cell types are crucial for normal development. Animal pole cells that are cultured alone just form epidermis, an ectodermal derivative (Jones and Woodland, 1987), while vegetal pole cells in isolation form only endodermal structures (Nieuwkoop, 1969). However, when the two cell types are cultured together, the animal cells express actin mRNA a mesodermal marker (Gurdon et al., 1985). In addition, when animal pole cells are grafted onto vegetal cells, mesodermal structures such as muscle and notochord form (Nieuwkoop, 1969; Jones and Woodland, 1987). Using two Xenopns species that are histologically distinguishable, Jones and Woodland (1987) demonstrated that the mesodermal tissue is derived solely from the animal pole cells that are induced by vegetal cells. Vegetal cells have been shown to be capable of inducing mesoderm in animal cells as early as stage 6 (32-cell stage), continuing through stage IOV2 (early gastrula). Animal cells are able to respond to vegetal cells by stage 6V2 and lose competence by stage 10'/2 (Gurdon et al., 1985; Jones and Woodland, 1987). Thus, by the mid blastula stage (stage 8), vegetal cells are able to induce equatorial animal cap cells to form mesodermal tissue, instead of the epidermis they would form if cultured in isolation (Nieuwkoop, 1969; Smith and Slack, 1983; Smith et al., 1989). The vegetal cells themselves have differential abilities to induce mesoderm formation. Ventral vegetal cells induce ventral types of mesoderm, such as blood islands, while dorsal vegetal cells induce dorsal axial mesoderm structures, such as somites and notochord (Smith and Slack, 1983; Dale et al, 1985; Smith et al., 1989). Ventral vegetal cells that are transplanted 236 Mesoderm Induction in Xenopus into the dorsal organizer region of UV irradiated embryos are unable to induce axis formation, while transplanted dorsal vegetal cells are able to induce normal development in UV irradiated embryos (Gimlich and Gerhart, 1984). The unique ability of the dorsal vegetal cells to induce dorsal mesodermal structures relates back to cortical rotation. When rotation is less than 30°, there is incomplete formation of dorsoanterior structures (Gerhart et al., 1989). This relationship of the amount of dorsal vegetal inducer to the extent of dorsoanterior development was demonstrated by grafting varying amounts of dorsal animal-vegetal tissue, or organizer tissue, onto UV irradiated embryos; it was shown that there is a minimum amount of dorsal organizer tissue required to successfully induce a normal axis (Stewart and Gerhart, 1990). Ventral and Dorsal Mesoderm Inducing Factors The evidence presented demonstrates that dorsal and ventral vegetal cells are qualitatively different in the type of mesoderm they can induce. This would suggest that the signals they elaborate are also different, and the data presently available indicate that at least two factors are at work. Until recently, the most likely candidate for the ventral mesodermalizing factor was basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) (Slack et al., 1989; Christian et al., 1992); however, a new FGF, Xenopus embryonic FGF (XeFGF) appears more promising as the ventral mesoderm inducer (Isaacs et al., 1992). The best candidate for the dorsalizing factor is Activin B (Thomsen et al., 1990; Nakamura et al., 1992). Putative Ventral Mesoderm Inducer: FGF Fibroblast growth factor was first suspected as a factor in development when Jacobovits and others (1986) discovered that a gene for FGF (wnt- 2; Nusse et al., 1991) was activated by insertion of the mouse mammary tumor virus into the mouse genome. The proto-oncogene wnt- 2 is not normally expressed in the adult animal but transcripts are found in the early gastrula and are associated with cell migration (Slack et al., 1987; Dickson and Peters, 1987; Sudol, 1988; Wilkinson et al., 1988). A basic FGF-like molecule has also been isolated in Xenopus blastulae (XeFGF) (Slack et al., 1989; Isaacs et al., 1992), indicating that this molecule may be implicated in Xenopus development, as well. Although basic FGF (bFGF) does not have a signal sequence for secretion from the vegetal cell (Slack et al., 1989), XeFGF does have such a sequence and behaves like a secretory molecule (Isaacs et al., 1992), as would be expected from a molecule that is to have an effect on surrounding cells. In explant experiments, bFGF at a concentration as low as 2 ng/ml is able to induce mesoderm formation by animal cap cells, but it is usually the more ventral mesodermal structures, such as muscle (Slack et al., 1987; Christian et al., 1992). At high concentrations, bFGF occasionally induces notochord formation (Slack et al., 1989). XeFGF has mesoderm- 237 Josephson inducing properties similar to bFGF (Isaacs et al, 1992). This pattern of induction suggests that FGF, possibly XeFGF, is the ventral mesodermalizing factor (Slack et al, 1989; Christian et al, 1992; Isaacs et al., 1992). In order to function as an endogenous inducer though, FGF must not only cause mesoderm formation, but also must be present at the correct time during development, and at a sufficient concentration. In addition, the responding tissue must express a receptor for FGF at the appropriate time. Both maternal and zygotic XeFGF mRNA have been identified (Isaacs et al., 1992) and a mesoderm-inducing molecule has been purified from the Xenopus blastula at a concentration of 10 ng/ml, which is a quantity sufficient to induce ventral mesoderm (Slack et al, 1989). Thus, some form of FGF is available at the right time and in the right amount to influence induction and XeFGF fits the criteria for the endogenous ventral mesoderm inducer. Basic FGF, on the other hand, is found in the cytoplasm, instead of in the extracellular space at the time of mesoderm induction (Shiurba et al, 1991) A receptor that binds FGF has been cloned from the Xenopus oocyte and embryo and, like other FGF receptors, is a transmembrane protein with tyrosine kinase activity (Musci et al., 1990). The levels of FGF receptor in the responding tissue, animal cap ectoderm, rise to a maximum in the mid blastula stage (stage 8) and then gradually decrease, as shown by 125I-acidic FGF binding (Gillespie et al. , 1989). This corresponds to the pattern of competence seen in explants of animal cap cells (Gurdon et al, 1985; Jones and Woodland, 1987) which lends further support to FGF as the ventral mesoderm inducer. Putative Dorsal Mesoderm Inducer: Activin Induction of the dorsal mesodermal structures by dorsal vegetal cells apparently requires a signal different from FGF, since FGF cannot induce dorsal mesoderm except at very high concentrations. In 1987, Smith described a mesoderm- inducing factor (MIF) secreted by the Xenopus cell line XTC (Smith, 1987). The XTC-MIF was shown to be a dimeric protein and a member of the transforming growth factor-^ (TGF-/?) family (Smith et al. , 1988). While FGF needs to be in concentrations greater than 1 pg/m\ to induce dorsal axial structures, XTC-MIF can induce dorsal mesoderm at a concentration of 25 ng/ml (Smith et al. , 1988). Furthermore, animal cap ectoderm that has been treated with XTC-MIF can induce dorsal mesoderm formation when it is transplanted into the ventral marginal zone of the blastula, a region that does not normally contribute to dorsal mesodermal structures (Smith et al, 1989). Thus, XTC-MIF makes a strong case for being the dorsalizing agent of the dorsal vegetal cells. However, XTC-MIF is isolated from a highly artificial environment, an animal cell line, and any statements made about its activity must be evaluated in light of that fact. Knowing that XTC-MIF is in the TGF-/3 family, Asashima and others (1990) tested the mesoderm-inducing properties of other TGF-/3 molecules. They found that human Activin A can induce notochord, muscle and mesenchyme in explants. In fact, 238 Mesoderm Induction in Xenopus human Activin A and XTC-MIF appear to be homologues based on the fact that, like Activin A, XTC-MIF has erythroid differentiation activity and follicle-stimulating hormone-releasing activity (Smith et al, 1990; van den Eijnden-Van Raaij et al., 1990). Subsequently, Asashima and colleagues (1991) were able to isolate an activin homologue from Xenopus eggs and blastulae; however, mRNA transcripts for Xenopus Activin A do not appear in the embryo until the late gastrula stage (Thomsen et al, 1990) and animal cap cells lose the ability to respond to the vegetal cell signal at the start of the gastrula stage (Jones and Woodland, 1987). As a result, the requirement that the putative mesoderm inducer be present at the appropriate time is not met by Activin A/XTC-MIF. While Activin A may still be a factor in Xenopus development, it is not likely to be the endogenous dorsalizing agent secreted by dorsal vegetal cells (Thomsen et al., 1990). On the other hand, Activin B is another member of the activin gene family and its mRNA is found in Xenopus embryos at the late blastula stage (stage 9) (Thomsen et al., 1990). Like other members of the TGF-/? group, Activin B is a dimeric protein of Mr - 25,000. It exists at the same concentration in the cells as Activin A (Nakamura et al., 1992), but its activity in the FSH-stimulation assay and erythroid differentiation assay is lower than that of Activin A. As a mesodermal inducer, though, Activin B is as potent as Activin A and can induce a secondary axis when its mRNA is injected into a ventral blastomere of a 32-cell embryo (Nakamura et al., 1992; Thomsen et al., 1992). Using a mouse RNA probe, Mathews and others (1992) identified a cDNA in Xenopus that codes for an activin receptor (xActRII). The mRNA for this receptor is found in the egg and all the embryonic stages. The receptor has serine/threonine kinase activity (Hemmati-Brivanlou and Melton, 1992). Since Activin A and B are expressed at different times during development, this suggests that Activin A and B perform different functions during Xenopus development (Nakamura et al., 1992). Activin B may be the dorsalizing signal for mesoderm induction, while Activin A may signal some other change in cellular differentiation. Conclusions and Implications Many molecules in the FGF and TGF-/3 families have mesoderm-inducing properties, but the most compelling candidates known to date for mesoderm inducers are XeFGF for the ventral mesoderm signal and Activin B for the dorsal mesoderm signal. The early developmental event of cortical rotation appears to be indispensable for organizing the future dorsoventral axis as seen by the effect of rotation on the expression of dorsal mesodermal structures. Thus, while the evidence suggests that FGF potentially can have effects throughout the blastula, with or without cortical rotation (Slack et al., 1988; Gerhart et al, 1989; Gillespie et al., 1989; Smith et al., 1989), the dorsal mesoderm structures are not induced to form if rotation fails to occur (Gerhart et al., 1989). •; 239 Josephson Although information about signal transduction during the next phase of development, neural induction, is readily available (see Slack and Tannahill, 1992 for a review), little is known at this time about the signal transduction pathways activated in animal cap ectoderm by the FGF and Activin B receptor kinases. Presumably these receptors promote phosphorylation of cytoplasmic proteins that initiate a cascade of effects. The FGF receptor is known to be a tyrosine kinase receptor. Whitman and Melton (1990) demonstrated that tyrosine phosphorylation is sufficient to induce mesoderm formation by expressing a viral oncogene that is known to activate tyrosine kinase in Xenopus embryos. The gene product subsequently induced animal cap ectoderm to form mesoderm. The Xenopus Activin A receptor is a serine/threonine kinase, while that of the mouse has serine/threonine/tyrosine kinase activity (Nakamura et al., 1992). Activin A may act by a mechanism similar to that of lithium. Lithium chloride is known to mimic the dorsal mesoderm inducer and direct the formation of dorsal axial structures, perhaps by its effect on the polyphosphoinositide cycle (Busa and Gimlich, 1989; Christian et al , 1992). Or the pathway may be one such as that discovered in mouse embryo cells (Nanberg et al., 1990). At mitogenic doses, bFGF stimulates phosphorylation of a protein known to be a substrate of protein kinase C, but no accumulation of inositol triphosphate or calcium is detectable (Nfinberg et al., 1990). At the level of protein expression, one of the effects of these signal transduction pathways is the expression of the Xenopus Brachyury (Xbra) gene in cells of the blastopore lip (Smith et al., 1991). This gene was originally described in the mouse where its mutant form results in abnormal notochord development (Wilkinson et al., 1990; Smith et al., 1991). Both Activin and bFGF can induce expression of Xbra and its effects seem to specify posterior mesoderm (Cunliffe and Smith, 1992). Another interesting correlation with the onset of mesoderm induction is the restriction of gap junctional coupling to communication between cells having similar fates (Guthrie and Gilula, 1989). In fact, dorsal-fate cells have more permeable gap junctions than ventral-fate cells (Nagajski et al., 1989), and injection of Activin B into ventral blastomeres of 32-cell stage Xenopus embryos increases the gap junction permeability of these ventral-fate cells (Olson and Moon, 1992). This gap junctional asymmetry between dorsal- and ventral-fate cells may be a consequence of an inducing-signal effect (Nagajski et al., 1989). In summary, the process of mesoderm induction in Xenopus species requires the cortical rotation event in the egg, the elaboration of inducer signals, perhaps XeFGF and Activin B at least, and the expression of receptors on the target cells. The precise effects of these molecules and the possibility that other signals are acting concurrently are questions yet to be answered. 240 Mesoderm Induction in Xenopus REFERENCES Asashima, M., Nakano, H., Shimada, K., Kinoshita, K., Ishii, K., Shibai, H., and Ueno, N. 1990. Mesodermal induction in early amphibian embryos by activin A (erythroid differentiation factor). Roux’s Archives of Developmental Biology 198:330-335. Asashima, M., Nakano, H., Uchiyama, H., Sugin, H., Nakamura, T., Eto, Y., Ejima, D., Nishimatsu, S., Ueno, N., and Kinoshita, K. 1991. Presence of activin (erythroid differentiation factor) in unfertilized eggs and blastulae of Xenopus laevis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 88:6511- 6514. Busa, W. and Gimlich, R. 1989. Lithium-induced teratogenesis in frog embryos prevented by a polyphosphoinositide cycle intermediate or a diacylglycerol analog. Developmental Biology 132:315-324. Christian, J., Olson, D., and Moon, R. 1992. Xwnt- 8 modifies the character of mesoderm induced by bFGF in isolated Xenopus ectoderm. The EMBO Journal 11:33-41. Cunliffe, V. and Smith, J. 1992 Ectopic mesoderm formation in Xenopus embryos caused by widespread expression of a Brachyury homologue. Nature 358:427- 430. Dale, L., Smith, J. and Slack, J. 1985. Mesoderm induction in Xenopus laevis: a quantitative study using a cell lineage label and tissue-specific antibodies. Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology 89:289-312. Danilchik, M. and Denegre, J. 1991. Deep cytoplasmic rearrangements during early development in Xenopus laevis. Development 111:845-856. Dickson, C. and Peters, G. 1987. Potential oncogene product related to growth factors. Nature 326:833. Elinson, R. and Rowning, B. 1988. A transient array of parallel microtubules in frog eggs: Potential tracks for a cytoplasmic rotation that specifies the dorso-ventral axis. Developmental Biology 128:185-197. Gerhart, J., Danilchik, M., Doniach, T., Roberts, S., Rowning, B. and Stewart, R. 1989. Cortical rotation of the Xenopus egg: consequences for the anteroposterior pattern of embryonic dorsal development. Development Suppl. pp 37-51. Gillespie, L., Paterno, G. and Slack, J. 1989. Analysis of competence: receptors for fibroblast growth factor in early Xenopus embryos. Development 106:203-208. 241 Josephson Gimlich, R. and Gerhart, J. 1984. Early cellular interactions promote embryonic axis formation in Xenopus laevis. Developmental Biology 104:117-130. Gurdon, J., Fairman, S., Mohun, T. and Brennan, S. 1985. Activation of muscle- specific actin genes in Xenopus development by an induction between animal and vegetal cells of a blastula. Cell 41:913-922. Guthrie, S. and Gilula, N. 1989. Gap junctional communication and development. Trends In Neuroscience 12:12-16. Hemmati-Brivanlou, A. and Melton, D. 1992. A truncated activin receptor inhibits mesoderm induction and formation of axial structures in Xenopus embryos. Nature 359:609-614. Houliston, E. and Elinson, R. 1991a. Patterns of microtubule polymerization relating to cortical rotation in Xenopus laevis eggs. Development 112:107-117. Houliston, E. and Elinson, R. 1991b. Evidence for the involvement of microtubules, ER, and kinesin in the cortical rotation of fertilized frog eggs. Journal of Cell Biolog/ 114:1017-1028. Isaacs, H., Tannahill, D. and Slack, J. 1992. Expression of a novel FGF in the Xenopus embryo. A new candidate inducing factor for mesoderm formation and anteroposterior specification. Development 114: 711-720. Jakobovits, A., Shackleford, G., Varmus, H. and Martin, G. 1986. Two proto¬ oncogenes implicated in mammary carcinogenesis, int- 1 and int- 2, are independently regulated during mouse development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 83:7806-7810. Jones, E. and Woodland, H. 1987. The development of animal cap cells in Xenopus: a measure of the start of animal cap competence to form mesoderm. Development 101:557-563. Kimelman, D. and Kirschner, M. 1987. Synergistic induction of mesoderm by FGF and TGF-/1 and the identification an mRNA coding for FGF in the early Xenopus embryo. Cell 51:869-877. Leptin, M., Casal, J., Grunewald, B. and Reuter, R. 1992. Mechanisms of early Drosophila mesoderm formation. Development Supplement pp. 23-31. Mathews, L., Vale, W. and Kintner, C. 1992. Cloning of a second type of activin receptor and functional characterization in Xenopus embryos. Science 255:1702-5. 242 Mesoderm Induction in Xenopus Musci, T., Amaya, E. and Kirschner, M. 1990. Regulation of the fibroblast growth factor receptor in early Xenopus embryos. Proceedings of t he National Academy of Sciences of the USA 87:8356-8369. Nagajski, D., Guthrie, S., Ford, C. and Warner, A. 1989. The correlation between patterns of dye transfer through gap junctions and future developmental fate in Xenopus : the consequences of u.v. irradiation and lithium treatment. Development 105:747-752. Nakamura, T., Asashima, N., Eto, Y., Takio, K., Uchiyama, H., Moriya, N., Ariiumi, T., Yashiro, T., Sugino, K., Titani, K. and Sugino, H. 1992. Isolation and characterization of native Activin B .Journal of Biological Chemistry 267:16385- 16389. Nakamura, T., Sugino, K., Kurosawa, N., Sawi, M., Takio, K., Eto, Y., Iwashita, S., Muramatsu, M., Titani, K., and Sugino, H. 1992. Isolation and characterization of Activin Receptor from mouse embryonal carcinoma cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry 267:18924-18928. N&nberg, E., Morris, C., Higgins, T., Vara, F. and Rozengurt, E. 1990. Fibroblast Growth Factor stimulates protein kinase C in quiescent 3T3 cells without Ca2+ mobilization or inositol phosphate accumulation. Journal of Cellular Physiology 143:232-242. Nieuwkoop, P. 1969. The formation of the mesoderm in urodelean amphibians. I. Induction by the endoderm. Wilhelm Roux’ Archiv 162:341-373. Nusse, R., Brown, A., Papkoff, J., Scambler, P., Shackleford, G., McMahon, A., Moon, R. and Varmus, H. 1991. A new nomenclature for int- 1 and related genes: The Wnt gene family. Cell 64:231. Olson, D. and Moon, R. 1992. Distinct effects of ectopic expression of Wnt- 1, Activin B, and bFGF on gap junctional permeability in 32-cell Xenopus embryos. Developmental Biology 151: 204-212. Scharf, S. and Gerhart, J. 1980. Determination of the dorsal-ventral axis in eggs of Xenopus laevis : complete rescue of uv-impaired eggs by oblique orientation before first cleavage. Developmental Biology 79:181-197. Shiurba, R., Jing, N., Sakakura, T., and Godsave, S. 1991. Nuclear translocation of fibroblast growth factor during Xenopus mesoderm induction. Development 113:487-493. Slack, J., Darlington, R., Heath, J. and Godsave, S. 1987. Mesoderm induction in early Xenopus embryos by heparin-binding growth factors. Nature 326:197-200. 243 Josephson Slack, J., Isaacs, H. and Darlington, B. 1988. Inductive effects of fibroblast growth factor and lithium ion on Xenopus blastula ectoderm. Development 103:581- 590. Slack, J., Darlington, G., Gillespie, L., Godsave, S., Isaacs, H. and Paterno, G. 1989. The role of fibroblast growth factor in early Xenopus development. Development Suppl. pp 141-148. Slack, J. and Tannahill, D. 1992. Mechanism of anteroposterior axis specification in vertebrates. Lessons from the amphibians. Development 114:285-302. Smith, J. 1987. A mesoderm-inducing factor is produced by a Xenopus cell line. Development 99:3-14. Smith, J. and Slack, J. 1983. Dorsalization and neural induction: properties of the organizer in Xenopus laevis. Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology 78:299-317. Smith, J., Yaqoob, M. and Symes, K. 1988. Purification, partial characterization and biological effects of the XTC mesoderm-inducing factor. Development 103:591- 600. Smith, J., Cooke, J., Green, J., Howes, G. and Symes, K. 1989. Inducing factors and the control of mesodermal pattern in Xenopus laevis. Development Suppl. pp 149-159. Smith, J., Price, B., Van Nimmen, K. and Huylebroeck, D. 1990. Identification of a potent Xenopus mesoderm-inducing factor as a homologue of activin A. Nature 345:729-731. Smith, J., Price, B., Green, J., Weigel, D. and Herrmann, B. 1991. Expression of a Xenopus homolog of Brachyury (T) is an immediate-early response to mesoderm induction. Cell 67:79-87. Stern, C., Hatada, Y., Selleck, M. and Storey, K. 1992. Relationships between mesoderm induction and the embryonic axes in chick and frog embryos. Development Supplement pp. 151-156. Stewart, R. and Gerhart, J. 1990. The anterior extent of dorsal development of the Xenopus embryonic axis depends on the quantity of organizer in the late blastula. Development 109:363-372. Sudol, M. 1988. Expression of proto-oncogenes in neural tissues. Brain Research Reviews 13:391-403. 244 Mesoderm Induction in Xenopus Thomsen, G., Woolf, T., Whitman, M., Sokol, S., Vaughan, J., Vale, W. and Melton, D. 1990. Activins are expressed early in Xenopus embryogenesis and can induce axial mesoderm and anterior structures. Cell 63:485-493. van den Eijnden-Van Raaij, A., van Zoelent, E., van Nimmen, K., Koster, C., Snoek, G., Durston, A. and Huylebroeck, D. 1990. Activin-like factor from a Xenopus laevis cell line responsible for mesoderm induction. Nature 345:732-734. Whitman, M. and Melton, D. 1990. Signal transduction during mesoderm induction in Xenopus. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Supplement 42:249-254. Wilkinson, D., Peters, G., Dickson, C. and McMahon, A. 1988. Expression of the FGF-related proto-oncogene int-2 during gastrulation and neurulation in the mouse. The EMBO Journal 7:691-695. Wilkinson, D., Bhatt, S. and Herrmann, B. 1990. Expression pattern of the mouse T gene and its role in mesoderm formation. Nature 343:657-659. 245 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 3, July, 1993. BOOK REVIEW Laws, Edward A. (2nd ed.). 1993. AQUATIC POLLUTION, an introductory text. John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-58883-0, 611 p. Softcover, $54.95. This is a college undergraduate textbook, and its stated purpose is to educate both the lay public and policy makers about the scientific aspects of water pollution so that they can make informed decisions about issues related to water pollution. The book is admirably suited to this purpose, and is recommended reading for anyone who wants to know more about what can and should be done, either personally or societally, about various kinds of pollution. The book is organized as follows. Seventeen chapters cover topics such as Urban Runoff, Plastics in the Sea, and Radioactivity. Each chapter contains a simple explanation of the nature of the problem and most contain one or more case studies. The case studies are discussed in terms of their practical implications and with an eye towards determining what practices are safe/economical under what conditions. I found most of the case studies intensely interesting, and they are one of the best features of the book. The discussions of various toxins are about as complete as they can be in a book of this scope and length, but in some cases a little more information would be helpful. For example, in the discussion of PCBs, Laws does not mention the controversy in the popular press about whether PCBs are as dangerous to humans as has been reported. Also, he says "PCBs discharged to aquatic systems are presumably either degraded in the water column or buried in the sediments;" apparently unaware of the detailed studies conducted by Sanders (1989) and others, demonstrating that PCBs in the Hudson River are mostly buried in the sediment.. .and then are remobilized by flood events. The book has a few other problems of course. There seems to be a little anthropocentrism too, with emphasis on avoiding practices harmful to humans but not those that might harm only wildlife. One of the most irritating things about this book is the high frequency of passive sentence constructions. The book provides insufficient explanation of how some calculations are made; e.g., of toxicity levels used by the EPA. These calculations would probably be explained in more detail in a classroom, but the casual reader does not have this extra assistance. On the plus side, some topics that have been bandied about in the popular press, such as the methods used to determine whether chemicals are carcinogenic, are clearly explained in relatively few words in this book. The real problems with these studies are rarely mentioned, and probably not understood, by the talking heads who 246 Review attack the EPA, FDA, and other governmental organizations on TV and on the radio. Every layperson who reads Aquatic Pollution will come away with a much better understanding of why environmental problems are not as easy to solve as one might think. I only noticed a few factual errors, illustrations are for the most part very easy to interpret and relevant to the text, and I only counted eight typographical errors. Obviously the book was carefully edited. The book is informative, engagingly written, and not all that expensive. I recommend it. David C. Kopaska-Merkel Geological Survey of Alabama P.O. Box O Tuscaloosa, AL 35486-9780 REFERENCE Sanders, J. E., 1989, PCB-pollution in the upper Hudson River: from environmental disaster to "environmental gridlock:" Northeastern Environmental Science, v. 8, p. 1-86. 247 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 3, July 1993. UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM - SCHOOL OF MEDICINE 29th ANNUAL MEDICAL STUDENT RESEARCH DAY, OCTOBET 19, 1992 The following abstracts have been submitted by participants in the poster session of the Medical Student Research Day under the sponsorship of Dr. Wayne Finley. In the world of research we are expected not only to discover, but to discuss and defend our work. The Research Day provides a forum for the wide range of clinical and basic research our medical students have done in one summer; the Journal has offered to expand our audience and thus our participation in the world of research. The efforts of several of our students will be published in collaboration with their mentors. The First place prize winner will present his data at the National Students Research Forum in Galveston, Texas. The finalists were: 1st prize: Howard Masuoka - A Point Mutation in the Human Globin Locus Enhancer Alters the Expression of a Linked Reporter Gene. 2nd prize: Brian Hughes - Targeted Gene Expression in Human Melanoma Cells "In vitro" Using the Tyrosinase Promoter. 3rd prize: Agnes Cartner -An Animal Model to Predict the Immunogenicity of Murine V-regions in Man. 4th prize: Andrea Smith - Developmental Regulation of "Trypanosoma Brucei" Killing by Human High Density Lipoproteins. 5th prize: Thomas Evans - Napthol- D-Xyloside Restores Tumor Formation in a Heparan Sulfate-Deficient Chinese Hamster Ovary Cell Mutant. 6th prize: Charles Yang - Ascorbate Modulates Dompaminergic Agonist Binding. Special Awards were presented to: John E. Irby Award - Michael Callahan - Acetozolamide Prophylaxis Reduces Systemic Hypertriglyceridemia and Tumor Necrosis. Nephrology Research Award - Muthoka Mutinga - Heightened Sympathetic Response to Cold Pressor Test in Normotensive Blacks. NCR Award - Duncan Lill - 99mTc-HM-PAO Brain SPECT Evaluation of Autistic Disorder. 248 Charles D. Kochakian Award - Christi Klein - Determination of the Effects of FSH and TNF-AIpha on Aromatase Cytochrome P450 mRNA in Rat Granulosa Cells Using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Amplification. AMA/ERF Award - Jacinda Sampson - Purification of the gp70 Subunit of the Mason- Pfizer Monkey Virus. 249 ABSTRACTS CORONARY REACTIVE HYPEREMIA AND MYOCARDIAL STUNNING. V, S. Reddy. J. W. Kirklin MD, E. H. Blackstone MD, S. B. Digerness PhD, Division of Cardiovascular Surgical Research, University of Alabama School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 Cardiovascular surgery is one method used to treat a variety of heart diseases. An important issue associated with this intervention is myocardial management and preservation. We are presently conducting a series of pig studies to understand more completely the phenomena that follow global and regional myocardial ischemia. Three moth old pigs are placed on cardiopulmonary bypass (with their coronary circulation completely isolated) and instrumented in order to measure continuously their coronary flow, arterial-venous oxygen difference and myocardial oxygen consumption (MV02). Blood samples are used to measure pH, pC02, pO,, Hb and oxygen saturation. The experimental protocol consists of exposing the pigs to periods of normothermic, global myocardial ischemia followed by either normokalemic or hyperkalemic sanguinous reperfusion. Ischemic times are 0, 11.25, 22.5 and 45 minutes followed by 30 minutes of constant pressure (60 mmHg) aortic root reperfusion. Initial findings in the hyperkalemic reperfusion group show a sharply increased level of coronary flow and MVO, during the early phase of reperfusion for all periods of ischemia (except O’ ischemia). It is our hypothesis that repletion of ischemically depleted ATP and CrP is responsible for the observed increase in MVO,. We further hypothesize that this increase in MvOz represents the presence of a heterogenous population of myocytes consisting of dead myocytes, recovered myocytes, myocytes recovering with no mechanical activity and myocytes recovering with mechanical activity and an elevated MV02. This latter group of myocytes has been called stunned myocytes. 250 VARIATIONS WITHIN THE ATTACHMENT PROTEIN OF RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUSES: RELEVANCE TO VACCINE DESIGN. M. Colvin. University of Alabama School of Medicine; W. Sullender, M.D. Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital, Birmingham, AL Human respiratory syncytial virus is the major cause of pneumonia and bronchiolitis in children. There is at present no effective vaccine against the virus. Antigenic differences among respiratory syncytial viruses may play a role in the ability of these viruses to escape the immune system, as evidenced by infections occurring in the presence of maternal antibody and the fact that reinfections occur throughout life. Human respiratory syncytial virus has two major antigenic subgroups, A and B. In recent work, it has been shown that variation exists within each subgroup with the greatest variation found in the ectodomain of the attachment protein G. In this preliminary study, we analyzed a pair of subgroup A RS virus strains WV19983 and WV23836 which were isolated in 1987 and 1988 from a child who had repeat infections. The G protein ectodomains of these isolates were cloned and sequenced or sequenced directly, and their partial sequences were analyzed for variations in nucleotide and amino acid sequence. When compared to a subgroup A prototype virus (A2), WV19983 showed 94% amino acid identity and WV 23836 showed 86% identity. When WV19983 and WV23836 were compared to each other, they showed 82% identity. From 32% to 50% of the nucleotide changes among these genes resulted in amino acid changes. This finding is suggestive of selective pressure for change, which may be due to the host immune response. In summary, these data show an 18% difference in the partial amino acid sequences of the attachment protein G of viruses isolated from repeat infections of a child. These data support the fact that variation exists in the G gene within subgroups and that these variations lead to substantial changes in amino acid sequences. These variations in amino acid sequence may help to explain reinfections, and understanding the extent and location of these variations may aid in the design of a vaccine. 251 DEVELOPMENTAL REGULATION OF TRYPANOSOMA BRUCEI KILLING BY HUMAN HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS. Andrea Smith and Stephen Hajduk, Dept, of Biochemistry, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294 African trypanosomes cause both human and bovine diseases in large regions of Africa. The host range of the bovine parasite, Trypanosoma brucei brucei, is restricted due to its sensitivity to normal human serum. Studies have shown that a subclass of human high density lipoproteins (HDLs) contains a specific trypanosome lytic factor (TLF) which will kill Trypanosoma brucei but not Trypanosoma rhodesiense or Trypanosoma gambiense. Sensitivity to TLF changes during the developmental cycle, the bloodstream form being sensitive while the insect developmental stage, the procyclic form, is resistant. I have examined this differentiation process to see what other changes were occurring which might influence TLF sensitivity. Optimal conditions were established for differentiation. This was found to be when the trypanosome cell number was at 5xl07 to lxlO'°/ml of blood in a 3 to 4 day mouse infection. Differentiation required a temperature drop from 37 to 26 C. TLF sensitivity, rate of protein synthesis, cell number, and presence of the variable surface protein (VSG) coat were monitored throughout the differentiation process. Protein synthesis decreased about 3 fold in one hour but returned to normal in 4 to 24 hours. TLF sensitivity was lost in 8 to 16 hours and the VSG coat was lost in approximately 32 hours. Cell number began to increase after 24 hours. Differentiation to the procyclic form appears complete within 24 to 48 hours. Since protein synthesis inhibition occurs prior to the loss of TLF sensitivity, it may be involved in the resistance to TLF. 252 PURIFICATION OF THE GP70 SUBUNIT OF THE MASON-PFIZER MONKEY VIRUS. Jacinda Sampson. Susan Roberts and Eric Hunter, Dept, of Microbiology, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294 The Mason-Pfizer monkey virus is a type D retrovirus, capable of infecting both the B and T cells of its host, causing a global immunosupression. In the study of viral structure and life cycle, a source of the purified glycoprotein in its native glycosylation and folding states is useful. It facilitates the production of monoclonal antibodies for use in a range of assays, or it can be used directly for screening libraries for the viral receptor. A mutant form of the glycoprotein engineered by Dr. Brian Brody into a pSHRM vector was transfected into HeLa cells. Lacking eleven amino acids downstream of its cleavage site, the plasmid encodes a form of the Pr86 precursor that is properly synthesized, glycosylated and cleaved. The gp70 clavage product is shed into the culture supernatent. (Brody and Hunter, 1992) Sequential precipitation of the collected supernatents at 40% and 100% ammonium sulfate first partially purified and concentrated the gp70. The resuspended protein was desalted by gel filtration chromatography. It was further purified on a lentil lectin affinity column. The resultant eluent was concentrated and portions were labeled by fluoresceination and biotinylation. Preliminary results by ECL show binding of the biotinylated gp70 and its proteolytic fragments to HeLa cells at higher levels than biotinylated BSA. A FACS analysis of binding revealed higher binding of FITC labeled gp70 to HeLa cells than to MPMV-infected HeLa cells, which have been previously shown to down regulate their viral receptors. These labeled products will be used as probes for identification of the MPMV receptor. 253 CT, MRI, AND r-CBF SPECT FINDINGS IN AUTISTIC DISORDER. Duncan W. Lill and James M. Mountz, Division of Nuclear Medicine, Department of Radiology; Lelland C. Tolbert, Department of Psychiatry, University of Alabama School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, 35233. We report a unique methodology and preliminary results of a study utilizing the regional cerebral blood flow (r-CBF) tracer 99m-Tc-Hexamethyl-propyleneamine oxime (HMPAO) and brain single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) of four severely autistic subjects. Subtle anatomical abnormalities have been reported from CT or MRI studies and post mortem examination. Neuroimaging using either positron emission tomography (PET) or SPECT have the potential of detecting in vivo cerebral activity changes, but require the subject to remain still (without sedation) during scanning. High resolution SPECT was performed while the subjects were under general anesthesia. Because HMPAO is rapidly extracted and fixed in the brain 10 minutes post-injection, the scans reflected the subjects’ r-CBF while in their usual alert behavioral state. Autistic Behavior Checklist scores for the four subjects were 90, 71, 66, and 85. Average counts/pixel were analyzed by the asymmetry index (A.I.)= R-L0/(RR + L)/2) for cerebral cortical regions, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Values were considered abnormal if the A.I. was > 2 s.d. from age matched normals. Results showed decreased r-CBF involving the right temporal lobe in all subjects (-19.6,-16.1,-11.1,-19.7% respectively), and this decrease correlated with the symptom severity. This study highlights the advantages of using high resolution HMPAO r-CBF brain SPECT and general anesthesia in severely non-compliant subjects by capitalizing on the non-redistributive properties of HMPAO. In conclusion, these findings suggest that right temporal lobe dysfunction is a causative factor in Autistic Disorder. 254 THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF KERATAN SULFATE PROTEOGLYCAN IN ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE. Omar K. Danner, Dept, of Cell Biology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 A CNS-specific keratan sulfate proteoglycan (KSPG) was recently identified in our laboratory. Preliminary data indicated that this KSPG is related to the neuronal pathology associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and that it is also associated with the early phases of senile plaque formation. The association of our KSPG with the early phases of plaque formation suggested that the proteoglycan may be involved in amyloid deposition. One of the current hypotheses indicates that a proteoglycan is responsible for this deposition of amyloid. Since our proteoglycan is associated with the early phases of AD, we hypothesized that the KSPG is capable of interacting with the amyloid peptide. The KSPG was isolated form both human and rat brains. The mAb TED 15, which recognized the proteoglycan, was used to detect the keratan sulfate proteoglycan. ELISA methods were used to test binding to beta-amyloid and a reverse sequence peptide. Preliminary data suggest that the rat KSPG may specifically bind /3-amyloid relative to reverse sequence peptide. Further investigation will be necessary to confirm the interactions of the KSPG with the amyloid peptide. 255 EFFECTS OF FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH) AND TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA (TNFa) ON AROMATASE mRNA IN RAT GRANULOSA CELLS DETERMINED USING POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) AMPLIFICATION. CM Klein. BA Conway-Myers, CR Parker, Jr., MP Steinkampf. Department of OB/GYN, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama 35233-7333 The regulation of follicular recruitment and atresia is thought to occur through the coordinated actions of steroid and polypeptide hormones. The purpose of our study was to determine the effect of FSH and TNFa on estrogen production and mRNA levels for aromatase cytochrome P450 (P450AROM), the enzyme that regulates the conversion of C19 steroids to estrogens, on granulosa cells from follicles of differing sizes. Rat ovarian follicles were size-sorted [small (<200 jim), medium (200-400 jim), and large (>400 jrm)] by filtration with graduated Teflon sieves. Granulosa cells were then harvested and cultured (10s cells/well) for 48 hours in serum-free medium in the presence or absence of FSH (20 ng/ml), TNFa (1 ng/ml) or a combination of the two. P450AROM mRNA levels in cultured cells were assessed by isolation of RNA followed by reverse transcription with a 3’- oligonucleotide specific for the P450AROM mRNA. The cDNA was then amplified using PCR with primers specific for the P450AROM, and the PCR product was electrophoresed on a polyacrylamide gel and silver-stained for analysis. Aromatase activity was estimated by the conversion of [H3]-androstenedione to estrone and estradiol using column chromatography. Aromatase activity and P450AROM mRNA levels were increased with FSH treatment but were decreased with TNFa treatment compared to untreated cells. TNFa also inhibited the FSH-stimulated increase in aromatase activity and P450AROM mRNA levels. Granulosa cells from 200-400 jim diameter follicles showed the greatest changes in aromatase activity and P450AROM mRNA levels with FSH and/or TNFa treatment. We conclude that FSH and TNFa exert their effects on follicular development and estrogen production primarily in medium-sized follicles. 256 Noles Notes INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Editorial Policy: Publication of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms can be obtained from Dr. Larry R. Boots, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294. Subject matter should address original research in one of the discipline sections of the Academy: Biological Sciences; Chemistry; Geology; Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning; Physics and Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education; Social Sciences; Health Sciences; Engineering and Computer Science; and Anthropology. Timely review articles of exceptional quality and general readership interest will also be considered. Invited articles dealing with Science Activities in Alabama are occasionally published. Book reviews of Alabama authors are also solicited. Submission of an article for publication in the Journal implies that it has not been published previously and that it is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. Submission: Each manuscript will receive at least two simultaneous peer reviews. Include in your letter of transmittal the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of at least four qualified referees. Do not include names of individuals from your present institution. Manuscripts: Consult recent issues of the Journal for format. Double-space manuscripts throughout, allowing 1-inch margins. Number all pages. Submit the original and two copies to the Editor. Papers which are unreasonably long and verbose, such as uncut theses, will be returned. 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LIBR Received on: 01-04-94 5.06(76.1)8 NO. 4 OLUME 64 OCTOBER 1993 HE JOURNAL OF THE LABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 11 J68* stober 993 Special Issue HEALTHY ALABAMA YEAR 2000 dm *mi mmm COVER PHOTOGRAPH: The cover photo was contributed by Dr. Kennon Francis, Division of Physical Therapy, University of Alabama at Birmingham. THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE VOLUME 64 OCTOBER 1993 No. 4 EDITOR: James T. Bradley, Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn University, AL 36849 ARCHMST: C. M. Peterson, Department of Botany, and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849 EDITORIAL BOARD: Douglas Watson, Chairman, Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 James McClintock, Department of Biology. University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Lawrence C. Wt. College of Science and Mathematics, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 Wiliam Osterhoff, Department of Criminal Justice, Auburn University at Montgomery, AL 36193 Publication and Subscription Policies Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow instructions to Authors (see Inside back cover). Reprints. Requests for reprints must be addressed to Authors. Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD ISSN 002-4112 BENEFACTORS OF THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The following have provided financial suppport to partially defray puPlication costs of the Journal. AUBURN UNIVERSITY BIRMINGHAM-SOUTHERN COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF MONTBVALLO AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA TROY STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA TUSKEGEE UNIVERSITY MOBILE COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA SAMFORD UNIVERSITY CONTENTS ARTICLES Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives Lynn M. Artz ...... 257 Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000: Getting from Here to There Jeffrey Roseman, Linda Goodson, and Chuck Michelini. ...... 272 Progress Toward Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives: A 1992 Review Dianne Smith- Yoder and Jack Hataway. . . . 289 Progress Toward Nutrition-Related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives Barbara J. Struempler ..... 298 Physical Fitness and Healthy People 2000 Kennon Francis ...... 311 Membership Roll ....... 324 Index . 329 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 4, October, 1993. HEALTHY PEOPLE 2000 NATIONAL HEALTH PROMOTION AND DISEASE PREVENTION OBJECTIVES1 Lynn M. Artz, MD, MPH 1158 16th Avenue South Birmingham, AL 35205 INTRODUCTION Healthy People 2000 is a national initiative to improve the health of all Americans through prevention. The cornerstone of this effort is a set of national health promotion and disease prevention goals and objectives for the year 2000. Coordinated by the U.S. Public Health Service of the Department of Health and Human Services, Healthy People 2000 is an unprecedented collaboration of public and private sector groups committed to making prevention a national priority. The Need Many Americans are robbed of years of precious life. Our Nation is also heavily burdened by chronic illnesses and disabling conditions that diminish the quality of our lives. More than 60 percent of Americans die before age 65--and 20 percent of our days are spent disabled, injured, or ill. Premature deaths and chronic conditions carry a heavy toll in economic terms as well as human terms. The costs of medical care and lost productivity from our leading health problems runs to hundreds of billions. We have the potential to achieve dramatic health improvements in this country. But to do so, we must make prevention a higher priority. Research has identified behavioral and environmental risk factors for our major health problems and we have learned how to reduce our risks. Numerous preventive interventions have been developed and demonstrated effective. If applied broadly, these measures could eliminate nearly half of cardiovascular deaths and one-fourth of cancer deaths. It is estimated that 40 to 70 percent of premature deaths are preventable as is one-third to two-thirds of disability (13). The case for prevention is compelling. Yet of the half-trillion dollars spent for health care each year, more than 95 percent goes to treat rather than prevent illness and injury. 'Manuscript received 6 December 1993; accepted 13 December 1993. 257 Artz THE ORIGINS OF HEALTHY PEOPLE 2000 To make prevention a higher national priority, we have developed a national prevention agenda for the 1990s framed as goals and objectives: Healthy People 2000. This effort builds on an earlier set of goals and objectives that was initiated in 1979 (25,26). Despite progress in the 1980s, a nationwide commitment to disease prevention and health promotion remains to be achieved. Planning for Healthy People 2000 began in 1987. A consortium of nearly 300 national organizations was convened to help guide the process. Consortium members included professional organizations (e.g., American Dietetic Association, American Public Health Association, American Academy of Family Physicians), voluntary health organizations (e.g., American Lung Association, March of Dimes), other voluntary organizations (e.g., American Association of Retired Persons, Girl Scouts of the U.S.A.), trade associations (e.g., Produce Marketing Association, Group Health Association of America), and education institution associations (e.g., Association of American Medical Colleges, American Association of Colleges of Nursing). All State and territorial health departments were also members of the Consortium and active partners in the development of Healthy People 2000. Considerable effort was made to obtain public and professional input throughout the 3-year development process. Twenty-five public hearings were held across the country to solicit input. Then work groups were formed to draft new objectives. Draft objectives were widely circulated for review and revised. Thousands of individuals, agencies, and organizations participated in some way to craft the year 2000 objectives that are the cornerstone of Healthy People 2000. Several important criteria guided the year 2000 objectives development. The objectives were to be scientifically sound, to address the issues of greatest priority, to be quantified and measurable, and to be attainable. Attainability was a key criteria. The year 2000 objectives were to be challenging yet attainable targets, not commendable but unrealistic aspirations. Quantification and measurability were also key. For in addition to providing direction, the objectives would serve as a yardstick for measuring progress. In 1990, the year 2000 goals and objectives were published (27) and released to the Nation at a national conference. The Nation had a new set of health objectives--300 in all-and 3 broad overarching health goals. Although published in a government document, the objectives are not a Federal plan. They are national in scope and it will take a national effort to achieve them. HEALTHY PEOPLE 2000: THE VISION Healthy People 2000 is a statement of national opportunities. It is a vision of the future that challenges our Nation to strive for that which is within our grasp to 258 National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives achieve. Healthy People 2000 is a vision outlined through goals and objectives. It is a vision that can be achieved with national effort. The three overarching goals of Healthy People 2000 are to: increase the span of healthy life for Americans, reduce health disparities among Americans, and achieve access to preventive services for all Americans (see Table 1). Table 1: Healthy People 2000 Goals Increase the span of healthy life for Americans Reduce health disparities among Americans Achieve access to preventive services for all Americans The 300 objectives, the heart and soul of Healthy People 2000, are grouped into 22 priority areas for intervention (see Table 2). The objectives target improvements in health status, risk reduction, and services and protection. There are also sub-objectives for populations that experience higher rates of illness and injury- special population targets for racial and ethnic minorities, children, adolescents, older people, and people with disabilities. Table 2: Healthy People 2000 Priority Areas Health Promotion 1. Physical Activity and Fitness 2. Nutrition 3. Tobacco 4. Alcohol and Other Drugs 5. Family Planning 6. Mental Health and Mental Disorders 7. Educational and Community-Based Programs Health Protection 9. Unintentional Injuries 10. Occupational Safety and Health 11. Environmental Health 12. Food and Drug Safety 13. Oral Health 259 Artz Preventive Services 14. Maternal and Child Health 15. Heart Disease and Stroke 16. Cancer 17. Diabetes and Chronic Disabling Conditions 18. HIV Infection 19. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 20. Immunizations and Infectious Diseases 21. Clinical Preventive Services Surveillance and Data Systems 22. Surveillance and Data Systems It is difficult to summarize the goals and objectives of Healthy People 2000 in their entirety. Healthy People 2000— with its 3 broad goals, 22 priority areas for intervention, and 300 specific, measurable objectives-is a complex initiative which challenges us in many ways. The three goals challenge us in a broad sense. However, it is the 300 quantified and measurable objectives that best define the opportunities we have for improving services, reducing risks, and improving health outcomes. Furthermore, the objectives challenge us to attain these improvements-or be held accountable for our failure to do so. The Maternal and Infant Health objectives, for example, challenge us to reduce infant mortality from a rate of 10 to 7 deaths per 1000 live births and to reduce maternal mortality by half. To achieve these health improvements, the Maternal and Infant Health objectives challenge us to reduce risks such as low birth weight and to improve services such as increasing first trimester prenatal care. Thus the objectives present specific challenges-and also offer a blueprint for action. They identify important desired endpoints and in broad strokes begin to outline ways to achieve them. In some cases, the challenges posed by the objectives are new. In other cases, the objectives challenge us to persist and intensify our efforts where success has been elusive to date. Even where we have been successful, Healthy People 2000 urges us on to greater gains. For example, the death rate for coronary heart disease has declined by 40 percent over the past fifteen years. The stroke death rate has declined by 53 percent. While we celebrate these declines, the year 2000 objectives challenge us to reduce coronary heart disease and stroke mortality by another 25 percent and 35 percent respectively. Similarly, despite a steady decline in cigarette smoking prevalence, the year 2000 objectives challenge us to intensify our efforts in this area 260 National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives as well. Rather than accept a smoking prevalence among adults of 22 percent in the year 2000 (the projected prevalence based on current trends), we set as our challenge a prevalence of 15 percent. In reviewing the objectives as a whole, several themes emerge. First, while the objectives challenge us to reduce premature mortality, they also challenge us to reduce illness, injury, and disability--and to improve quality of life. Second, in keeping with the second goal to reduce disparities, the objectives challenge us to target our attention and resources towards those populations experiencing health problems with greater frequency or severity. More than 40 specific targets have been set for improving the health of Black Americans, for example, and 25 targets each have been set for Hispanic Americans and American Indians and Alaska Natives. These special population targets highlight the profound disparities that exist and challenge us to address these disparities, not hide them behind population averages. Third, although the objectives acknowledge the important role that behavior plays in determining health and illness, the objectives also acknowledge the contribution of the larger physical, social, and cultural environment. Multiple objectives challenge us to create safer roadways and housing and to reduce hazardous occupational and environmental exposures. They also challenge us to create physical and social environments that promote and support healthier lifestyles. The objectives also acknowledge the importance of clinical preventive services in promoting health and preventing disease. Numerous objectives seek to increase the use of screening tests, counseling interventions, and immunizations. Several objectives specifically address barriers that impede access to and use of clinical preventive services. One objective challenges us to increase to at least 95 percent the proportion of people who have a specific source of primary care for coordination of their preventive and episodic health care. Another objective challenges us to improve financing and delivery of clinical preventive services so that virtually no American has a financial barrier to essential preventive services. Fourth, the objectives challenge us to be varied and creative in our approaches. The objectives encourage educational, behavioral, environmental, policy, and legislative approaches. The objectives also challenge us to improve our surveillance systems. Finally, the objectives are intended to serve as a challenge to all sectors of American society. Government at all levels-Federal, state, and local--has an important role to play. Several objectives acknowledge the leadership role of state and local health departments. A number of objectives challenge communities to increase the availability and accessibility of fitness trails and facilities, community-wide health promotion and disease prevention programs, and healthy community environments. 261 Artz At least 14 objectives specifically challenge employers to ensure safe work environments and to offer worksite health promotion and disease prevention activities. More than 18 objectives challenge primary care providers to incorporate more preventive services into their practice. About 12 objectives specifically challenge schools to provide students with nutrition education and healthy school meal services, frequent, high-quality physical education, and age-appropriate instruction to prevent injuries, STD and HIV infections, and tobacco, alcohol, and other drug use. Two other objectives that address preschool education and high school graduation rates acknowledge the relationship of school achievement to good health-and the importance of intersectoral collaboration. NATIONAL ACTION Establishing objectives is only the first step. Action must be taken to attain them. Current prevention efforts must be intensified and new efforts must be initiated to accelerate progress where progress is needed. Though much remains to be done, considerable activity is already underway. Public HecAth Service Action U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) agencies in the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) coordinate the Federal government’s activities in support of Healthy People 2000. PHS agencies such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Institutes for Health (NIH) serve as lead agencies for each of the 22 priority areas. The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) is responsible for overall coordination of the initiative. Lead PHS agencies do not work alone to achieve the objectives for any one priority area. Through interagency workgroups, lead agencies work together with other PHS agencies, other DHHS agencies (e.g., Health Care Financing Administration), and other Departments (e.g., Environmental Protection Agency and Departments of Agriculture, Education, Labor, and Transportation). Collaboration with private sector groups occurs as well. The activities of the PHS agencies and their partners to achieve the objectives are numerous and diverse. Relevant programs of the eight PHS agencies and their plans for accomplishing the year 2000 objectives were outlined in the 1992 publication titled Healthy People 2000: Public Health Service Action (29). For example, the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR) has established new SBIR (Small Business Innovation Research) funding to stimulate the development of information systems to foster achievement of Healthy People 2000 objectives. Similarly, physical 262 National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives activity objective 1.12 provided the impetus for CDC’s National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion to fund a project to develop the protocols needed by physicians to assess and counsel patients about exercise, and to begin training physicians to use these protocols. The Assistant Secretary for Health monitors the implementation of plans to meet the objectives through regularly scheduled progress reviews. At each review, the focus is on one priority area. The PHS agency with lead responsibility for the priority area presents the review, with assistance from members of the interagency workgroup for that priority area and representatives of invited State agencies and private organizations. Each review addresses the following questions: a) What is the PHS strategy for achieving the priority areas’s objectives, b) Are PHS resources being used effectively, c) Have linkages been made with other Federal partners, d) Are key private sector organizations collaborating on implementation, e) What barriers could stand in the way of achieving the targets, and f) What strategies are being pursued to overcome the barriers? As part of the review, current data for the objectives for the priority area are compared with the baseline data and the year 2000 targets. The first reviews have been completed for all 22 priority areas. Several cross-cutting reviews (e.g., reviews of the objectives for American Indians and Alaska Natives, women, and Hispanic Americans) have also been conducted and more are planned. One-page summaries of the progress reviews are published as Healthy People 2000 PHS Progress Reports by the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) coordinates DHHS policy and program development in disease prevention and health promotion. ODPHP is the office responsible for the overall coordination of Healthy People 2000 including development, monitoring, and assuring that public and private sector programs to achieve the objectives are put in place. Through ODPHP’s National Health Information Center, ODPHP is the source of valuable information about health promotion in general and Healthy People 2000 in particular. A current publication list can be obtained from the National Health Information Center by calling (800) 336-4797 or (301) 565-4167. Callers may ask to be put on the mailing list for ODPHP’s newsletter, Prevention Report, and Healthy People 2000 UPDATE, a two-page supplement to Prevention Report. Recipients of Prevention Report also receive the PHS Progress Reports mentioned above. ODPHP has funded several cooperative agreements to stimulate programs to achieve the objectives for populations at increased risk (e.g., older adults, racial and ethnic minorities). Organizations such as the National Medical Association, the National Coalition of Hispanic Health and Human Services Organizations (COSSMHO), the Asian American Health Forum, and the American Indian Health Care Association received multi-year funding to develop programs to achieve the 263 Artz special population targets for Black Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, and American Indians and Alaska Natives respectively. Several innovative programs and helpful materials were created as a result. The Promoting Healthy Traditions Workbook is one example (3). ODPHP has also funded several cooperative agreements to catalyze prevention activities in important settings (e.g., worksites, communities). The Washington Business Group on Health received funding to establish The National Resource Center on Worksite Health Promotion. This Resource Center maintains a computerized database of successful and innovative worksite health promotion programs and has produced a series of publications including Healthy People 2000 at Work: Strategies for Employers (21-24). Similarly, the National Civic League received funding to stimulate healthy community projects. Through the Healthy Communities Action Project, the National Civic League has conducted training workshops for community representatives. They have also published the Healthy Communities Directory (18), Healthy Communities Handbook (19), and Healthy Communities Resource Guide (20). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), through the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) is the lead agency for the Data and Surveillance priority area. Early in the decade, NCHS convened Committee 22.1 to establish a set of health status indicators (Objective 22.1) for use at all levels of government. NCHS has also awarded 5-year grants to seven states to enhance their capacity to assess progress toward Healthy People 2000 objectives. NCHS will play a crucial role in tracking national progress toward the year 2000 objectives throughout the decade. The National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) has been redesigned to track many of the objectives. Official tracking data for Healthy People 2000 will be published annually in Health, United States. Congressional Action Congress has incorporated Healthy People 2000 into national legislation. In 1989, Federal Title V legislation mandated the incorporation of program activities and plans related to Healthy People 2000 in State Title V fiscal year 1991 Maternal and Child Health Services Block Grant Applications. With the 1992 authorization of the Preventive Health and Health Services Block Grant program, Congress again linked State grant-funded activities to the year 2000 objectives. Each state must have a plan specifying the populations to be served by the activities and programs. Each state also must agree to measure progress in improving the health status of the population and to develop sets of data for uniformly defining health status for tracking the year 2000 health objectives. 264 National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives The Indian Health Care Improvement Act (Public Law 102-583) also links the allocation of resources to Healthy People 2000 objectives. This law creates an annual reporting requirement for the Indian Health Service to inform Congress of the health status of American Indians and Alaska Natives. Consortium Action The Healthy People 2000 Consortium has grown to more than 375 members and continues to meet annually. The activities undertaken by Consortium members to support Healthy People 2000 are numerous and diverse. Nearly all Consortium members have publicized the objectives to their members. Many have highlighted the objectives and ways to achieve them at annual meetings. Some have developed new programs and materials to reflect a new emphasis on achieving national health objectives. Some of the many activities undertaken by Consortium members to support attainment of Healthy People 2000 objectives were summarized in the 1992 publication Healthy People 2000: Consortium Action (28). A Healthy People 2000 Consortium database is currently being developed by ODPHP to facilitate information sharing between Consortium members regarding prevention activities. Here are just a few examples of consortium member activities. The American Public Health Association (APHA) made the year 2000 objectives the theme for their 1990 annual meeting. The Association of State and Territorial Health Officials (ASTHO) sponsored the National Health Objectives Act to increase funding for states to pursue national and state health objectives. The American Hospital Association (AHA) published and distributed to all member hospitals a kit titled Healthy People 2000: America ’s Hospitals Respond (2). The American Association of School Administrators (AASA) published and distributed 19,000 copies of Healthy Kids 2000: An Action Plan for Schools (1). Wellness Councils of America (WELCOA) adopted the Healthy People 2000 worksite objectives as their organization’s agenda for the decade. An early activity was to publish Healthy People 2000 at the Worksite (31) which has been distributed to more than 5,000 business leaders and interested others. In 1991, WELCOA launched WELL CITY USA, a joint project with United Way of America. To help achieve the nutrition objectives for children and schools, the American School Food Service Association (ASFSA) developed an in-service training program for ASFSA members. Titled Healthy E.D.G.E. in Schools: Eating, Dietary Guidelines, and Education, this program consists of a motivational videotape and a companion "how-to" booklet (6). Several supplements, a participant’s manual, and a train-the-trainer course and materials have also been developed. In 1995, Healthy E.D.G.E. training will be required for school food service worker certification. 265 Artz The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) established a Healthy People 2000 committee to develop a multi-year program for the objectives. Hundreds of members have signed on as volunteer leaders for their states and communities. Volunteer and committee activities are reported in a regular column in ACSM’s quarterly magazine (7-10). ACSM’s Healthy People 2000 committee recently reorganized into an executive committee and five subcommittees: a) Primary Care Providers, b) Pediatric Fitness and Schools, c) Worksite, d) Public/Community Health, and e) ACSM Healthy People 2000 Awards. In 1993, the ACSM Foundation Board of Directors designated funding in amounts up to $5000 per project for grassroots projects promoting the Healthy People 2000 physical activity objectives. As many as three 1-year projects per regional chapter will be funded in June of 1994. In 1991, following a challenge by former Surgeon General Antonia Novella in her keynote address at their annual meeting, the National Association of Children’s Hospitals and Related Institutions (NACRI) formally resolved to embark on a campaign toward achieving the Healthy People 2000 objectives for infants, children, and adolescents. Focusing on immunizations in 1991 and injury prevention in 1992, the Association now sponsors an annual initiative in support of Healthy People 2000. State Action Most state health agencies have embraced the concept of health objectives. By December of 1991, 21 states (including Alabama) had developed state-specific health objectives. By December of 1993, 30 states had finalized state health objectives. Many states have formed state-wide coalitions and consortia to facilitate attainment of their objectives. Some states with published objectives have published implementation plans. A few have published first progress reports. In 1991, the Public Health Foundation compiled information about state objective setting activities. This information was summarized in Healthy People 2000: State Action (30). At the time of the survey, nearly all states and territories were working to develop state health objectives. Most indicated that their state objectives would guide program development, data collection activities, grant activities, legislative action, and budget-setting processes within the state health agency. Community Action Cities, counties, and communities are increasingly engaged in community-wide efforts to promote health and prevent disease. The approaches vary greatly from community to community. Some emphasize consensus-building, partnerships, and coalitions. Some involve extensive grass-roots organizing. Some apply social marketing principles. Others apply rational planning models and feature quantitative assessments, measurable objectives, and periodic evaluations of progress. Some have found the Healthy People 2000 framework helpful (e.g., Chico, California). 266 National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives Several resources are available to assist communities with community health promotion efforts. These include Healthy Communities 2000: Model Standards (4) and a Guide to Implementing Model Standards (5) as well as the Healthy Communities materials developed by the National Civic League (18-20). Cities participating in the California Healthy Cities Project provide excellent models. The approaches and materials of the community heart disease prevention projects (e.g., Stanford, Pawtucket) can be helpful. CDC’s PATCH (Planned Approach to Community Health) program materials may also be useful. Individual Action Healthy People 2000 has inspired many individual efforts. A few examples from academic settings are offered to convey a sense of the enthusiasm that Healthy People 2000 has generated. For example, Thomas MacFayden and a colleague developed a computer-assisted instruction program to teach medical students about the objectives and their role in achieving them. Julie Doidge analyzed the contents of several popular college health textbooks for their congruence with the national health objectives. Faculty at the University of Alabama at Birmingham have been particularly enthusiastic about Healthy People 2000. One faculty member provided the impetus for the series of articles that appear in this journal. Another spearheaded the conference and formation of the state-wide coalition described in one of the articles. Another faculty member has required graduate students in Public Health to review articles that introduce Healthy People 2000 and pertinent objectives to select professional audiences (12,14). Students then write similar journal articles for other professional groups (15). Most impressively, at the suggestion of Kathleen Brown and colleagues, the School of Nursing at the University of Alabama at Birmingham has recently revised its graduate level community health nursing curriculum based on the priority areas and health objectives in Healthy People 2000 (11). NATIONAL PROGRESS Progress toward the Healthy People 2000 objectives was recently reviewed in Health, United States, 1992 and Healthy People 2000 Review (16). As of 1992, 3 percent of the year 2000 objectives had been met and progress had been made toward another 28 percent. Three percent of the objectives showed no change and 4 percent (with multiple targets) showed changes that were mixed. Trends were in the wrong direction for 15 percent of the objectives. Twenty-eight percent of the objectives had no new data with which to evaluate progress. Ten percent of the objectives had new baselines where baselines did not originally exist. Baselines had yet to be obtained for 10 percent. The priority areas showing the most progress were Heart Disease and Stroke (with progress for 9 of 17 objectives), Unintentional Injuries (with progress for 11 of 267 Artz 22 objectives including 3 objectives that had met or exceeded their targets), and Alcohol and Other Drugs (with progress for 9 of 19 objectives including 1 objective that had exceeded its target). The priority areas showing the most movement away from the targets were Maternal and Infant Health (with 5 of 16 objectives in this category) and Diabetes and Chronic Disabling Conditions (with 6 of 20 objectives in this category). A total of 92 objectives had no new data since baselines were published in Healthy People 2000. The priority areas with more than half of their objectives in this category were Family Planning (with 6 of 1 1 objectives) and Oral Health (with 9 of 16 objectives). The Healthy People 2000 Review (16) described above also lists the revised baselines for Healthy People 2000. Baseline rates for some of the objectives were updated to reflect 1990 Census figures, the inclusion of all American Indians and Alaska natives (not just those living in states with reservations), and a change in the method for classifying the race of infants. The revised baselines for Healthy People 2000 can also be found in Statistical Notes (17). HEALTHY PEOPLE 2000 RESOURCES Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives- the Full Report and/or the Summary Report-can be ordered from the U.S. Government Printing Office by calling (202) 783-3238. Both documents contain a brief review of the state of the Nation’s health, the three goals, and a list of the 300 objectives. The Full Report also contains valuable commentary, trend graphs, data source information, and references. In the Full Report, an entire chapter is devoted to each of the 22 priority areas (e.g., Physical Activity and Fitness, Nutrition). The Full Report also lists personnel needs, surveillance needs, and research needs for each priority area and includes additional appendices. A Healthy People 2000 Publications List and Order Form can be obtained from ODPHP’s National Health Information Center by calling (800) 336-4797 or (301) 565-4167. The Summary Report, the 3-volume Healthy People 2000 Action Series , and Healthy People 2000 Priority Area Resource Lists are among the publications available through ODPHP’s National Health Information Center. Information specialists at the National Information Center can also provide source information for Healthy People 2000 materials developed by cooperative agreement recipients (e.g., the National Civic League’s Healthy Communities Directory ) or Consortium members (e.g., WELCOA’s Healthy People 2000 at the Worksite). Finally, callers may ask to be put on the mailing list for ODPHP’s newsletter, Prevention Report , and Healthy People 2000 UPDATE, a two-page supplement to Prevention Report. 268 National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives ODPHP’s Healthy People 2000 Coordinator can be reached by calling (202) 205-8583 or by writing to the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 330 C Street SW, Room 2132, Washington, DC 20201. Up-to-date lists of work group coordinators, state contracts, and Consortium contacts may be obtained from the Healthy People 2000 Coordinator. CONCLUSION Every American has a role to play in helping to achieve the goals and objectives set forth in Healthy People 2000. Each of us must define that role for ourselves given the arenas in which we function. Some can contribute as professionals. All can contribute as individuals, family members, community residents, and U.S. citizens. Each of us must do our part. To paraphrase the conclusion of the first Healthy People ... If the commitment is made at every level, we can attain our goals and objectives and Americans who might otherwise have suffered disease and disability will instead be healthy people. LITERATURE CITED 1. American Association of School Administrators. (1990). Healthy Kids for the Year 2000: Art Action Plan for Schools. Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators. 2. American Hospital Association. (1990). Healthy People 2000: America’s Hospitals Respond. Chicago, IL: American Hospital Association. 3. American Indian Health Care Association. (1990). Promoting Healthy Traditions Workbook: A Guide to the Healthy People 2000 Campaign. St. Paul, MN: American Indian Health Care Association. 4. American Public Health Association & Centers for Disease Control. (1991). Healthy Communities 2000: Model Standards. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association. 5. American Public Health Association & Centers for Disease Control. (1991). Guide to Implementing Model Standards. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association. 6. American School Food Service Foundation. (1991). Healthy E.D.G.E. in Schools: Eating Dietary Guidelines, and Education. Alexandria, VA: American School Food Service Foundation of the American School Food Service Association. 269 Artz 7. American College of Sports Medicine. (1993). Hundreds of Healthy People 2000 volunteers help to promote the Healthy People 2000 physical activity objectives. Sports Medicine Bulletin , 28(1), 28 &31. 8. American College of Sports Medicine. (1993). Healthy People 2000 news. Sports Medicine Bulletin , 28(2), 26. 9. American College of Sports Medicine. (1993). Healthy People 2000 making big strides. Sports Medicine Bulletin , 28(3), 26. 10. American College of Sports Medicine. (1993). Grants available in 1994 for Healthy People 2000 activities. Sports Medicine Bulletin, 28(4), 23. 11. Brown, K.C., Mattson, A.H., Newman, K.D., and Sirles, A.T. (1992). A community health nursing curriculum and Healthy People 2000. Clinical Nurse Specialist, 6(4), 203-208. 12. Kligman, E.W., Kamerow, D.B., and Artz, L.M. (1990). Year 2000 health objectives and the family physician. American Family Physician, 42(3), 851-854. 13. McGinnis, J.M. (1989). National priorities in disease prevention. Issues in Science and Technology, Winter 1989-1990, 46-52. 14. McGinnis, J.M., Kanner, L., and DeGraw, C. (1991). Physical education’s role in achieving national health objectives. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, June 1991, 138-142. 15. Mikatavage, M.A. (1992). Industrial hygiene and national health objectives for the year 2000. American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 53(8), 528-530. 16. National Center for Health Statistics. (1993). Health, United States, 1992 and Healthy People 2000 Review. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 17. National Center for Health Statistics. (1993). Revisions to Healthy People 2000 Baselines. Statistical Notes, Number 5, July 1993. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 18. National Civic League. (1992). Healthy Communities Directory. Denver, CO: National Civic League. 19. National Civic League. (1993). Healthy Communities Handbook. Denver, CO: National Civic League. 270 National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives 20. National Civic League. (1991). Healthy Communities Resource Guide. Denver, CO: National Civic League. 21. National Resource Center on Worksite Health Promotion. (1991). Healthy People 2000 at Work : Strategies for Employers. Washington, DC: Washington Business Group on Health. 22. National Resource Center on Worksite Health Promotion. (1992). Working for Good Health: Health Promotion and Small Business. Washington, DC: Washington Business Group on Health. 23. National Resource Center on Worksite Health Promotion. (1992). Directory of Worksite Health Promotion Resources. Washington, DC: Washington Business Group on Health. 24. National Resource Center on Worksite Health Promotion. (1993). The Worksite Health Promotion Sourcebook. Washington, DC: Washington Business Group on Health. 25. Public Health Service. (1979). Healthy People: Surgeon General’s Report on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 26. Public Health Service. (1980). Promoting Health/Preventing Disease: Objectives for the Nation. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 27. Public Health Service. (1990). Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 28. Public Health Service. (1992). Healthy People 2000: Consortium Action. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 29. Public Health Service. (1992). Healthy People 2000: Public Health Service Action. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 30. Public Health Service. (1992). Healthy People 2000: State Action. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 31. Wellness Councils of America. (1991). Healthy People 2000 at the Worksite. Omaha, NE: Wellness Councils of America. 271 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 4, October, 1993. ALABAMA’S HEALTH OBJECTIVES FOR THE YEAR 2000: GETTING FROM HERE TO THERE1 Jeffrey Roseman, M.D., Ph.D., M.P.H. School of Public Health University of Alabama at Birmingham 720 South 20 Street Birmingham, AL 35294-0008 Linda Goodson, R.N. Center for Community Health Resource Development School of Public Health University of Alabama at Birmingham Chuck Michelini Media Relations University of Alabama at Birmingham Simply having health objectives for Alabama for the Year 2000 is not enough. A strategy to achieve them is necessary. To catalyze the efforts to achieve the Objectives, the UAB School of Public Health Centers for Health Risk Assessment and Disease Prevention and Community Resource Development in cooperation with the Alabama Department of Public Health spearheaded a three-day conference beginning on October 28, 1991 entitled "Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000: Getting from Here to There." An Advisory Committee put the conference together (Table 1). It included not only representatives of the UAB School of Public Health, but also the Schools of Medicine, Nursing, Optometry, Dentistry, Health Related Professions and Education, the Injury Prevention Research Center, Center for Urban University Relations and Office of VP for Health Affairs at the University, the Alabama Departments of Public Health and Education and the Jefferson County Health Department, Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Veterans Administration, Cooper Green Hospital, and major voluntary health organizations [including the American Red Cross, American Lung Association of Alabama, March of Dimes, American Heart Association]. Several planning meetings were held in Birmingham. The conference was designed to provide up-to-date research on health and education issues, showcase effective program models and gain input, networking and commitment from attendees through action oriented work groups. It had three ’Manuscript 22 November 1993; accepted 6 December 1993. 272 Roseman, Goodson, and Michelini activities: speakers (Table 2), and caucuses (Table 3). Speakers were selected because of their prominent and effective role in programs or agencies with activities directed toward achieving the Objectives. Each speaker was asked to describe programs which were successful and what attributes made them so. The choice of workshops [Table 2] was designed to provide practical information on methods to bring about community objectives: behavior modifications, education, screening, coalition building, risk assessment and legislation. Two workshops focused on business. Caucuses were organized according to specific age groups (pregnant women and infants, children, adolescents, adults, and elderly), risk factors (tobacco, alcohol, drugs, exercise, access to care, sensory impairment, nutrition, toxic exposure, social support) and locations (community, home, worksite, school, church, health provider office). Caucus groups were designed to allow each participant to explore these areas with others representing a broad array of professionals with whom they would rarely come in contact in the course of their daily activities. Convened by a leader, each caucus was charged with the following two-part task: examine their topic in light of Alabama’s Year 2000 Health Objectives, and determine action steps to be taken to achieve them. Where appropriate, the groups were asked to address the needs of special groups, such as African-Americans. The conference brought together over 300 invited community and state leaders (agency personnel, educators, business persons, clergy) for interaction with researchers, academicians, practitioners and each other. The Alabama Department of Public Health used it to introduce Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000. This document was based on a series of statewide health forums to discuss "Healthy Alabama 2000" and a Taskforce established by the Department [see article in this issue]. In addition to the grass roots activism generated by caucus groups, several other continuing efforts from the conference are worth noting. First, two coalitions were galvanized by the conference - the Alabama School Health Coalition and the Healthy Alabama Nutrition Coalition. They have developed mission statements and strategic plans for future action. Second, an effort to establish baseline data on physical fitness has been initiated. Under the leadership of Ken Francis, physicians, students and their families statewide participated in a series of surveys and assessments of determine knowledge, attitude, behavior and personal levels of physical fitness. Finally, following the conference, a letter was sent to over 2000 persons of similar backgrounds to the conference participants. The letter informed them about the conference and asked them if they wanted a copy of Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000 and/or were interested in specific caucus groups. Over 200 responded. Mailing lists of these and other persons interested in specific caucus topics have been prepared and are available by calling 205-934-7132. 273 Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000: Getting from Here to There This paper is the distillation of the strategies and tactics which were identified by the speakers, workshops and caucuses as effective in attaining the Objectives. It is an action agenda. I. Overhaul the Healthcare System Both Earl Fox and Audrey Manley pointed out the necessity to overhaul the entire healthcare system to shift dollars from treatment to prevention. They pro¬ claimed that political action would be required. The Access caucus called for universal access as central to achieving the Objectives. Among the services for which improved access was recommended were screening, referral, immunizations, health education, and parenting education, growth and development assessment. Statewide initiatives which were identified included: 1) Create a Governor’s Council on Access to Care. 2) Expand the representation on the State Board of elude non-physicians. 3) Systematically address voluntary efforts by physicians bono with lawyers). II. Action Can Best Be Taken Locally While the national program, Healthy People 2000. provides the road map and the means of measurement, action could best be taken at the state, local, family and individual level. III. Employ a Community Approach The community approach is crucial because behavior is learned in the community, and reinforcement through peer pressure and advertisement are acting through the community. The community approach should: 1) Be comprehensive. 2) Have broad support from community leaders and health professionals. 3) Not disdain attention grabbing devices because they seem undignified. If funny costumes or contests get the preventive message across - do it. Health to in- (similar to pro 274 Roseman, Goodson, and Michelini 4) Form partnerships with the community. Look for these among park services (e.g. running tracks), libraries (cholesterol screening in book mobiles) and city services. 5) Use elderly and handicapped persons as volunteers. 6) Work with restaurants, especially chefs and caterers, to encourage them to promote healthy foods. 7) Put people in positions which fit their personalities. Use extroverts to staff tables; let introverts run the machines; encourage social types to meet the public. 8) Use church bulletins and industry newsletters to disseminate infor¬ mation. IV. Use Existing Educational Avenues Education was identified by almost everyone as one of the most expeditious ways of addressing the health promotion, health protection, and health services needs. Schools were identified as an important focus for education efforts. Not only were children the target for educational efforts in the school, but also adults through PTA and community education programs. V. Understand the Mores of Those to Whom the Prevention Message Is Addressed Philip Porter argued that in order to effect change, the mores of the culture must be recognized and respected. He used as his example, adolescent use of a School Health Clinic. Putting pre-season exams for the football team in the School Health Clinic, made it acceptable for use. VI. Target Sharon Ramey pointed out that we are not reaching the people we need to reach. There is a need to look at subpopulations and differential vulnerability. We need to focus on the intervention process - why people in grave need don’t seek out services or participate in intervention and outreach. Values and beliefs are at the heart of why many intervention and outreach efforts do not work for certain populations. Specifically target the hard-to-reach: rural 275 Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000: Getting from Here to There poor poorly educated minorities smoking households isolated elderly small businesses VII. Put Programs Where Those Who Need It Are As in real estate, the key is location. Again, schools were identified more than any other single agency as a point of contact to reach youth and families with programs and services that promote physical, mental, and social well-being. A goal of one school nurse for every 400 students was recommended. One example was a school health clinic in St. Paul which was put in the busiest part of school; easy to find, easy to reach. Daycare centers and housing projects were identified as other places to put programs. VIII. Make Programs More Effective with Limited Resources 1) Reorganize existing programs in a creative way. 2) Use existing personnel in a new way. The Substance Abuse Caucus recommended use of non-mental health professionals for the treatment of substance abuse. 3) Promote grass-roots efforts to enable leaders to develop their own resources. 4) Share resources. 5) Stop re-inventing the wheel. IX. Involve Others in Your Efforts Andrew McGuire suggested: 1) Come to know and love the bureaucrats who have power over the issues that are important to you. 276 Roseman, Goodson, and Michelini 2) Develop coalitions with people outside the healthcare field. 3) Involve persons who have been personally affected by your issue. Be tactful in dealing with them. Where appropriate use them as a spokesperson. X. Get Business Leaders Involved In opening the conference, Earl Fox said, "The biggest problem we have on the local, state and national level, is to get the word out to the people who need to hear it. And by that I mean business leaders." Tom Lasiter recommended working with the Rotary Club to gain entre’ to business. XI. Make Health Consciousness Part of the Corporate Culture William Baum suggested: 1) Setting a good health goal for the workers by corporations. 2) Revise health norms. For example, a) if cigarettes are sold on the work site, stop it b) add healthy items to the cafeteria c) encourage exercise The phases of norm-changing are: a) Start-up: Involve the employees. Help them recognize behaviors they need to change. b) Involvement: use multi-level chain strategies. c) Initiating change: Communicate! Send flyers home. d) Sustaining: This is the hardest and most important part. Do evaluations at all levels so that employees can appreciate their own successes. Foster competition, make programs fun, and allow freedom of choice. 277 Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000: Getting from Here to There The Worksite Caucus recommended improving surveillance of worker health status and worksite health and safety activities. XII. Establish Coalitions; Break Down Barriers to Interaction Policy makers should work to remove barriers to learning, by supporting health and education and human service agencies should be promoted. Tracy Stem recommended that states do the following to foster collaboration: 1) Provide incentives for community collaboration. 2) Combine funding streams through reallocation or redeployment of funds. 3) Implement case management strategies. 4) Combine budgets between sectors and agencies that service children and families. 5) Establish school based services for children and families. Among the coalitions recommended were Nutrition, Physical Fitness, Adolescents, School Health, and vision. XIII. Get on the Public Agenda Three state legislators developed the following points for getting bills on the legislative agenda: 1) Find a champion, preferably a member of the committee which will be hearing it. 2) Use lobbyists. They are effective tools. 3) Begin by developing support for the bill in your home district. 4) Call your legislator... Show up in person... more than once. 5) Educate your legislator. 6) Meet with legislators before crisis develops. Get to them before you really need them. 278 Roseman, Goodson, and Michelini Among the bills suggested were a Clean Indoor Air Act and vending machine restriction ordinances. XIV. Use the News Media to Get Your Point Across Among the points suggested by Tim Watkins of CNN: 1) Find ways to work with the media to get out its information. It is the role of the media to inform, not to educate. 2) Assist the news media with full information; prepare materials broadcasters can understand and interpret. Learn to use visuals. Keep the stories short. Use anecdotal evidence. 3) If necessary, hire someone who knows how to convey your message to the media. 4) Find a new angle on an old story. 5) Don’t depend on T.V. Send stories to daily, weekly papers, regional monthly magazines. Radio is direct, immediate and cheap. 6) Call in your stories. Be persistent. If the reporters are not interested, go to the publisher, write a letter to the editor, or do an op-ed piece. In addition, Andrew McGuire with the Trauma Foundation suggested: 7) Develop a personal relationship with people in the media. Get to know them before you need them. XV. Train Health Care Providers in the Importance of Prevention and the Skills to Assist Patients to Change Behavior Douglas Kamerow identified the following as important in putting clinical preventive services in practice: 1) Support financial reimbursement for preventive efforts. Preventive services should be covered with no deductibles. The College of Preventive Medicine has a primer of this subject "Paying for Preventive Care: Moving the Debate Forward" which can be obtained 279 Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000: Getting from Here to There from 202-789-0003. Urge modification of Medicare, Medicaid, and private health insurance plans to cover preventive services. 2) Professional education must emphasize preventive skills. Another important focus was continuing education for health professionals. In many of the areas, this was considered essential. 3) Make clinicians aware of what is available and what ought to be done. "Putting Prevention into Practice" is an effort by the federal government to do this. 4) Conduct a survey of health providers regarding counseling about risk factors and prevention screening. 5) Establish a statewide health promotion clearinghouse. 6) Set up a systematic method of reminders because the press of daily activities leads to forgetting to do preventive intervention. According to Linda Leininger, clinicians should: 1) Decide on their own prevention policy. 2) Work to change norms within organizations which influence practice patterns (Medical associations, HMO’s, etc.). 3) Use patient education materials. 4) Prompt patients to use preventive services. 5) Provide recall and reminders of follow-up and patient-held "mini¬ records". 6) Involve office staff in the planning for preventive care including identifying patients who need services, giving out literature and reminding patients of needed tests. XVI. Work with the Criminal Justice System Ronald Garrison pointed out that the United States incarcerates more of its people than any other country in the world. Many prisoners are youthful offenders. Children are our poorest class of citizens. With an aging society, less and less resources are directed to children. There is a need to have a paradigm shift in schools and communities. Garrison recommended: 280 Roseman, Goodson, and Michelini 1) Teachers must receive adequate training to deal with high risk youth. 2) Collectively, our community of adults must take responsibility for all children. 3) Communities must come together to collaborate on problems of youth 4) Vertical Tracking Systems (case histories from multiple agencies) must be established for case management of high risk youth The Tobacco caucus recommended increased enforcement of the law restricting tobacco sales to persons under age 19. XVII. Empower Patients to Care for Themselves According to John Renner, to do this: 1) Healthcare professionals should develop a partnership the patient. 2) Make sure any activity has consumer representation. Involve them in the decision making process. Others recommended: 3) Mandate structured, age appropriate (K-12) comprehensive health education curriculum. 4) Stimulate consumer awareness to ask for counseling and screening. XVIII. Use Your Numbers 1) Develop phone networks. 2) Write letters. 3) Hold rallies. XIX. Increase Manpower A need for more nurses, social workers, and registered dieticians was noted. In addition to these strategies to initiate activities, the speakers kept reminding the conference participants "to start is not enough." 281 Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000: Getting from Here to There XX. Follow-Through Is Important "Never, never, never, never give up." - Winston Churchill XXI. Evaluate Your Activities Sharon Ramey pointed out that as a democratic society we need to be selective in our decisions about funding programs. Research shows that offering a thin intervention program is not better than offering no program. Because time and money are limited in most settings, good evaluation provides the means to determine success and failure. This knowledge provides a basis for funding decisions and fine tuning program direction. It also allows identification of key elements for success that can have a positive impact on conservation of time. One way to do this is to have a yearly report card. XXII. Remain Aware of the Long View - Be Tenacious and Persistent Andrew McGuire reminded the Conference participants that his efforts to require fire retardant sleepwear took 20 years. This emphasis was supported by many of the speakers who urged tenaciousness and persistence. XIII. Take Small Immediate Steps, Don’t Wait ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The "Healthy Alabama 2000" conference was supported primarily through ' inkind/donated services. In addition financial support was provided by the President, UAB Geriatric Education, UAB Injury, Alabama Public Health Association, UAB Office of the Prevention Center, UAB Office of Media Relations, UAB Office of Health Extension, Public Service and Research, Hanna Steel Corporation, Cooperative Health Manpower Education Program, Institute of Educational Leadership, and National Health/Education Consortium. In addition to the Advisory Committee, speakers, workshop and caucus leasers, we are indebted to the following persons who made the conference a success: Judy Baker Pat Burchfield Connie Cooper Fletcher Harvey Kitty Norrell Dorothy Patterson 282 Roseman, Goodson, and Michelini Table 1 ADVISORY COMMITTEE Lynn Artz Jim McDermott UAB School of Public Health American Heart Association Robbie Barnes James McVay Jefferson County Department of Health Alabama Department of Public Health Vickie Barrett Max Michael UAB Occupational Environmental Medical Clinic Cooper Green Hospital Allen Bolton Chuck Michelini UAB Injury Prevention Research Center UAB University Relations Frank Brennan Ouida Myers American Heart Association Alabama Department of Education Raymer Clanton Katrina Parker American Red Cross Children’s Hospital Steve Cooley Marlon Priest UAB Governmental Relations UAB Office of Vice President for Health Affairs Wendy DiMicco James Raczynski UAB School of Nursing UAB General and Preventive Medicine Rebecca Falkenbcrry Sue Rafferty UAB Center for Urban Affairs Alabama Cooperative Extension Service Melissa Galvin Sheron Rose UAB School of Public Health Alabama Department of Public Health John Gever Jeffrey Roseman UAB University Relations UAB Center for Health Risk Assessment & Disease Prevention Jay Goldman Sharon Ryan UAB School of Engineering Administration UAB Occupational Medicine Program Linda Goodson Paula Stanton UAB School of Public Health UAB School of Public Health Jack Hataway J. Stokes-Holloway Alabama Department of Public Health Alabama Department of Public Health Sceiva Holland Barbara Struempler Veteran’s Administration Hospital Auburn University James Hughes Leroy 'Dyke’’ Tilt American Lung Association of Alabama March of Dimes Timothy Key Betty Ward UAB Occupational Medicine Program American Red Cross Robert Kleinstein Marilyn Wells UAB Department of Optometry Alabama Department of Public Health David Macrina Odessa Woolfolk UAB Department of Health/Education/Physical Education UAB Community Relations Allen Yoe Veteran’s Administration Hospital 283 Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000: Getting from Here to There TABLE 2 SPEAKER TOPIC Claude Earl Fox, State Health Officer, Alabama State Department of Health Healthy Alabama 2000 Audrey F. Manley, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Mobilizing for Action: A Blueprint for the 21st Century Philip J. Porter, Director, Healthy Children, The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Healthy Children: A Message of Hope and a Plan for Success William B. Baun, Manager, Health and Fitness, Tenneco Corporation Healthy Adults: Corporate Culture and the Bottom Line Mary S. Harper, Coordinator, Research and Development, White House Conference on Aging Healthy Older Adults: How to Protect a Natural Resource Tom Watkins, Producer, Medical Unit, Cable News Network (CNN) Health and the Media in the 21st Century Sandra J. McElhaney, Coordinator of Prevention, National Mental Health Association Mental Health in the Year 2000 Andrew McGuire, Executive Director, Thr Trauma Foundation San Francisco General Hospital Implementing Safer Technologies Douglas B. Kamerow, Director, Clinical Preventive Services Staff, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Clinical Services: Putting Prevention into Practice Linda S. Leininger, Research Assistant Professor, University of North Carolina Delivery of Effective Clinical Services for Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Michael D. Parkinson, Deputy Director, Division of Associated Dental and Public Health Professions, Human Resources Services Administration Financing Preventive Service John Renner, President, Consumer Health Information Research Institute The Educated Consumer/Patient WORKSHOPS Moderator: David Coombs, Associate Professor, UAB, School of Public Health COALITION BUILDING IN THE 90’S Vee Stalker, Technical Advisor, County Health Council, UAB School of Public Health County Health Councils Susan Jenkins, Extension Sociologist-Community Wellness Programs, University of Georgia Community-based Wellness Programs Sharon Farley, National Kellogg Fellow, - Wilcox- Lowndes Counties, Auburn University at Montgomery Developing Human Resources in Rural Communities Harry Brown, Director of Planning, United Way of Central Alabama Corporate Partnerships Moderator: Melissa Galvin. Co-Director. Center for Community Health Resource Development, UAB School of Public Health GETTING IT ON THE PUBLIC AGENDA Senator Jim Bennett, 19th District - Jefferson Senator Ted Little, 27th District - Lee, Tallapoosa Senator Henry (Hank) Sanders, 23rd District - Choctaw, Dallas, Greene, Hale, Lowndes, Perry, Sumter and Wilcox Legislative Panel 284 Roseman, Goodson, and Michelini TABLE 2 (continued) SPEAKER TOPIC Ronald W. Garrison, Consultant, Garrison and Associates: Child Advocacy Consultants Child Advocacy for the 21st Century Moderator Joyce Moore, State Department of Education EDUCATION AND HEALTH Tracy P. Stern, Staff Member, National Health/Education Consortium Crossing the Boundaries Between Health and Education Wanda Jubb, Comprehensive School Health Coordinator, Centers for Disease Control Comprehensive School Health Sharon L. Ramey, Co-Director, UAB Civilan International Research Center Effective Child and Family Intervention Moderator: Robert Meeks, Professor, UAB, School of Public Health ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT Charles Abernathy, Toxicologist, Human Risk Assessment Branch, Office of Water, United Slates Environmental Protection Agency The Government B. Suzi Ruhl, President and General Counsel, Legal Environmental Assistance Foundation The Citizens Jack Riggenbach, President, ERM-Enviroclean, Southeast The Consultants Moderator: Jeffrey Roseman, Director, Center for Health Risk Assessment and Disease Prevention, UAB School of Public Health SCREENING FOR DISEASE John Waterbor, Assistant Professor, Department of Epidemiology, UAB School of Public Health Cancer Elizabeth Lewis, Assistant Professor, Department of Preventive Medicine Clinic, UAB General and Preventive Medicine Heart Disease Robert N. Kleinstein, Professor and Chairman, UAB Department of Optometry Diabetes Conan Davis, Director, Dental Health Section, Alabama Department of Public Health Dental CHANGING BEHAVIOR - WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED James Raczynski, Associate Professor and Director of Behavioral Medicine Unit, UAB General and Preventive Medicine Thomas W. Lasater, Professor of Community Health, Brown University, Co-Principal Investigator, Pawtucket Heart and Health Program Memorial Hospital of Rhode Island Moderator Cathy Whitfield, American Heart Association, Alabama Affiliate DEVELOPING A HEALTHY WORKFORCE Margaret Beckham, Information Manager, Washington Business Group on Health National Resource Center on Worksite Health Promotion Susan Chcatwood, Nurse Practitioner, Health Services, Kimberly Clark Occupational Health Nurses 285 Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000: Getting from Here to There TABLE 2 (continued) LEADER TOPIC Michael Jarrett, Occupational Specialist for Public Health Nursing, Alabama Department of Public Health Worksite Health Promotion Mary Ruth Ayers, Assistant Administrator, Business and Finance Department, Fayette County Hospital Heart-at-Work BUSINESS AND HEALTH ISSUES Randy Richie, Assistant Director, State of Alabama Department of Industrial Relations Craig Donley, Assistant General Counsel, State of Alabama Department of Industrial Relations R. Craig Fulford, President, Health Services Review Rick Finch, Executive Vice President, Health Services Review Ada Hudson, Director of Provider Relations, Health Services Review 286 Roseman, Goodson, and Michelini TABLE 3 CAUCUS GROUPS LEADER TOPIC Dorolby Patterson, Coordinator of Avenues of Dialogue Between Adolescents, Parents, and Teachers (ADAPT), Jefferson County Health Department Leroy "Dyke" Tilt, Chapter Director, March of Dimes Pregnant Women and Infants Wendy DiMicco, Assistant Professor, UAB School of Nursing Children David M. Macrina, Coordinator of Health Education, School of Education, UAB Department of Health/Education/Physical Education Adolescents Lynn Artz, Former Senior Prevention Policy Advisor, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Adults Melissa Galvin, Associate Director, Center for Community Health Resource Development, UAB School of Public Health Older Adults Jack Hataway, Director, Center for Disability Prevention, Bureau of Health Promotion and Information, Alabama Department of Public Health Tobacco Charles Collins, Program Coordinator, Preventive Services, UAB Drug Free Program Alcohol and Drugs Max Michael, Chief of Staff, Cooper Green Hospital Access to Care Robert Meeks, Associate Professor, Environmental Toxicology Program, UAB School of Public Health Toxic Exposure Tom Struzick, Director of Continuing Education for AIDS Education, UAB School of Public Health Sexually Transmitted Diseases Robert Kleinstein, Professor and Chairman, UAB Department of Optometry Sensory Impairment Barbara Struempler, Nutrition Specialist, The Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn University Nutrition Kennon T. Francis, Professor, Division of Physical Therapy, UAB School of Health-Related Professions Exercise Miller Piggott, Program Coordinator, The Alzheimer Family Program, UAB Center for Aging Social Support Betty Ward, Director, Health and Youth Services, American Red Cross, Alabama Affiliate Community Marilyn Wells, Director, Division of Disease Prevention, Center for Disability Prevention, Bureau of Health Promotion and Information, Alabama Department of Public Health Home 287 Alabama’s Health Objectives for the Year 2000: Getting from Here to There TABLE 3 (continued) LEADER TOPIC Lynn Artz, Former Senior Prevention Policy Advisor, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Worksite Ouida Myers, Health Education Specialist, Elementary Instructional Services, Alabama Department of Public Health School Sceiva Holland, Director, Cooperative Health Manpower Education Program, TAHEC, Inc., Department of Veteran’s Affairs, Medical Center/Tuskeegee Church Jack Hataway, Director, Center for Disability Prevention, Bureau of Health Promotion and Information, Alabama Department of Public Health Health Providers Office 288 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 4, October, 1993. PROGRESS TOWARD HEALTHY ALABAMA 2000 OBJECTIVES: A 1992 REVIEW Dianne Smith-Yoder, M.S.P.H. Healthy Alabama 2000 Coordinator Jack Hataway, M.D., M.P.H. Cancer Division Director Alabama Department of Public Health Bureau of Health Promotion and Information 434 Monroe Street Montgomery, Alabama 36130-3017 ABSTRACT Striving to prevent and control disease is vital to our nation’s health. To assist in this endeavor, health care professionals throughout the nation developed health- related goals and objectives for the United States, known as Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives. In addition to the national initiative, Alabama’s health professionals felt that goals and objectives needed to be established for Alabama and these became known as Healthy Alabama 2000 - Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives For The Year 2000 - The Next Century Is Here. This article briefly describes Healthy People 2000 and Healthy Alabama 2000; however, the primary focus is on the objectives in Healthy Alabama 2000, including the baseline and update data and Year 2000 goal. Through this progress report, Alabama’s health professionals will have the opportunity to review the data to determine if the health care services need to be modified to better assist in reaching the Year 2000 goals. INTRODUCTION Healthy People 2000 Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives is a national strategy developed to set goals for improving our nation’s health by the year 2000. This document is a product of extensive public review and comment which included more than 10,000 people, nationwide. “Manuscript received 31 August 1993; accepted 6 December 1993. 289 Smith- Yoder and Hataway James Mason, M.D., Dr.P.H., the Assistant Secretary for Health, stated, "This set of objectives for the year 2000 makes an important, compelling point to us and to all health policy makers: we can no longer afford not to invest in prevention. From the perspective of avoiding human suffering as well as saving wasteful costs for treating diseases and injuries that could have been prevented, the 1990s should be the decade of prevention in the United States."1 Healthy Alabama 2000 Healthy Alabama 2000 - Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives For The Year 2000 - The Next Century Is Here is a statewide cooperative project which establishes a prevention agenda with quantifiable targets to improve health status, reduce risk factors for disease and disability, and improve services.2 Healthy Alabama 2000 is an offspring of the nationwide initiative, Healthy People 2000. Claude Earl Fox, M.D., M.P.H., former Alabama State Health Officer, stated, "This document (Healthy Alabama 2000 ) contains measurable health objectives to cut the direct and indirect costs of poor health and to improve the length and quality of life of all Alabamians. This is both an exciting and challenging time: people have never lived longer, and for human and financial reasons, we must see that they never lived healthier."3 Original Document. During the development of the original document of Healthy Alabama 2000, a consortium of individuals, agencies, and organizations, known as the Healthy Alabama 2000 Task Force, was created. Seven regional meetings were held to receive consumer input and recommendations on what the health objectives for the state should include. A statewide meeting was held in April 1991, at which working groups made the final decisions using the U.S. D.H.H.S. Healthy People 2000 document as a frame of reference. In October 1991, key political leaders, business persons, representatives from community organizations and agencies, and health professionals participated in a three-day statewide conference to seek their input and involvement in implementing the Healthy Alabama 2000 objectives. Healthy Alabama 2000 is divided into four sections, including 1) Chronic Diseases; 2) Communicable Diseases; 3) Environmental Health, Injury Control, and Occupational Safety and Health; and 4) Maternal, Reproductive, and Child Health. Each of the four sections is divided into at least two types of objectives: 1) Health Status and 2) Risk Reduction. Sections one and four have an additional type of objectives, Service and Protection. Progress Update Documents. The Healthy Alabama 2000 Progress Update Documents are tools to monitor change from the baseline data toward the Year 2000 goal. By observing the change, health professionals are able to determine the 290 Healthy Alabama 2000 Objective: A 1992 Review areas that need more attention and effort. This helps the health professional to better serve the public health sector. The update process included: 1) developing update forms, including all of the objectives, baseline data, blanks for 1990, 1991, and 1992 data updates, and the Year 2000 goals; 2) identifying and communicating with the data source contacts for the objectives with a baseline data source; 3) sending the update forms to the data source contacts; 4) receiving and entering the 1990, 1991, and 1992 data into the computer; 5) completing data verification; 6) working with graphic personnel to develop format, design, and graphics for the update publication; 7) completing the publication process; and 8) disseminating the final update publication to health professionals statewide and other persons who request the document. Healthy Alabama 2000 Mid-Course Review will include the data update and a discussion of the health promotion and disease prevention/control activities. Some health areas will be well established and others will develop during these years. Healthy Alabama 2000 Final Report will consist of the same type of information as the Healthy Alabama 2000 Mid-Course Review, discussions regarding the progress made during the 1990s, and the direction needed during the next decade. Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives This section is divided into three sub-sections according to the types of objectives in the Healthy Alabama 2000 document. These include: 1) Health Status Objectives, 2) Risk Reduction Objectives, and 3) Service and Protection Objectives. Each of the three sub-sections explains the purpose for that type of objective and provides an example of how the different types relate to each other. Health Status Objectives The Health Status Objectives are related to diseases, injuries, deaths, or teenage pregnancies. Table 1 lists the Health Status Objectives, the corresponding baseline data, update data, and Year 2000 goals. The primary data source for the Health Status Objectives in sections one and four is the Alabama Department of Public Health, Center for Health Statistics. This Center houses the vital records and statistics for the state of Alabama, including birth, death, marriage and divorce records. In the chronic diseases area, health professionals and medical scientists use mortality rates, usually presented as age-adjusted rates per 100,000. The purpose of monitoring those chronic diseases considered to be of great public health importance is prematurity of the illness, health care costs, or Years of Potential Life Lost. As an example of mortality rates, the coronary heart disease mortality rate for Alabama 291 Smith-Yoder and Hataway Table 1 : Healthy Alabama 2000 Health Status Objectives HEALTH STATUS 1989 1992 2000 OBJECTIVE BASELINE UPDATE GOAL 1.1 Cardiovascular Disease * a. Coronary Heart Disease 1 14.3 103.6 100.0 b. Strokes 35.7 32.4 30.0 1.2 Cancer * a. All Cancers 142.3 142.8 135.0 b. Lung Cancer 44.2 45.5 45.0 c. Breoet Cencxr 21.8 21.5 20.2 d. Uterine Cervix Cencer 4.0 3.5 2.0 e. Proetete Cencer 16.6 18.8 15.2 f. Coioreclel Cencer 12.8 11.9 11.9 g. Skin Cancer 3.0 2.9 2.5 h. Orel Cevity & Pherynx Cencer 2.6 2.0 2.1 1.3 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease * 20.2 20.1 25.0 1.4 Diabetes * 10.7 12.0 9.0 1 .5 Cirrhosis * 7.3 7.4 6.0 1.6 Chronic Disabling Conditions - Data in Percent (1985 Baseline) a. Proportion of Alabamians _> 65 years of age who have difficulty in 4.4 - Unavailable 3.75 performing 2 or more personal care activities 6.8 2.1 Incidence of AIDS - Data in Number of Cases (1990 Baseline) 240 438 >500 2.2 HIV Prevalence in Pregnant Women - Data in per 1,000 Live Births 1 0.9 >0.5 (1990 Baseline) (1992 Update Data in per 10,000) 2.6 Incidence of Gonorrhea " 508 436 330 2.7 Incidence of Primary and Secondary Syphilis * 35 25 16 2.8 Incidence of Congenital Syphilis * 1 1 19 1 2.9 Incidence of Tuberculosis (1990 Baseline) 11.3 10.3 4 2.10 Incidence of Vaccine-Preventable Disease (1990 Baseline) a. Diphtheria 0 0 0 b. Tetanus 2 1 0 c. Polio 0 0 0 d. Rubella 0 0 0 a. Measles 25 0 0 f. Pertussis 65 20 25 g. Mumps 19 114 0 3.1 Blood Load Level* - Data in Percent No Data 0.4 0 3.4 Unintentional Injury Deaths - Data in Percent * 47.3 44.6 35.0 3.5 Intentional Injury Deaths * a. Homicide • Total Population (Black males - Haa/thy Alabama 2000) 12.6 14.2 9.0 b. Suicide - Total Population (White males - Haalthy Alabama 2000) 11.9 12.0 8.3 3.6 Nonfatal Intentional Injuries a. Child Abuse • Data per 1,000 <18 32.2 Unavailable 28.1 b. Spouse/Companion Abuse • Data Per 1,000 Females 20*59 10.5 Unavailable 9.5 c. Aged/Disabled Adult Abuse * Data Per 1,000 18 + 2.4 Unavailable 2.4 d. Assaults - Data Per 1,000 3.9 6.2 3.5 e. Rapes • Data Per 100,000 Females 12 + 67.6 70.0 60.3 3.7 Alcohol-Related Motor Vehicle Crash Deaths - Data in Percent 47.0 36.9 25.0 (1989 Baseline - Corrected) 4.1 Infant Mortality Rate - Data in Per 1,000 Live Births (1990 Baseline) 10.9 10.5 8.0 4.2 Teenage Pregnancy • Data Per 1,000 Adolescent Females * 79.2 64.8 50.0 Note: Health Status Objectives 1.6 b-e, 1.7, 3.11, end 3.12 are not listed because these objectives have no state date at this point. * - Please note that the 1989 data is adjusted because the estimated 1989 population, used in the baseline, was higher than the 1989 population as indicated by the 1990 census. 292 Healthy Alabama 2000 Objective: A 1992 Review decreased from 114.3 per 100,000 in 1989 to 103.6 per 100,000 in 1991. Please note that the 1989 data is adjusted and different from the original document because the estimated 1989 population, used in the baseline, was higher than the 1989 population as indicated by the 1990 census. The year 2000 target for this disease is 100.0 per 100,000. To meet this goal, the mortality rate decrease by 3.6 per 100,000 according to the 1992 data is necessary. Please note that the 1992 data are substantially lower than the 1990 and 1991 data, respectively 113.9 per 100,000 and 113.1 per 100,000. This decrease is being reviewed at this time. By monitoring the trend in the rate, health professionals are able to track the progress toward the objectives. One way to decrease this is to provide more counseling regarding reduction of risk factors which have been demonstrated to have a strong relationship to the disease and the rate of occurrence. Risk Reduction Objectives The Risk Reduction Objectives set goals to reduce the prevalence of identified risk factors. Risk factors are specific characteristics which place individuals or communities at increased risk for a disease, decreasing their quality of life and health. Many diseases are totally preventable through vaccines. Genetics plays a role in the development of some diseases (e.g., cancer and cardiovascular disease); however, people have the ability to reduce their risk of getting many diseases through nutrition (such as decreasing fat intake), exercise (e.g., walking 30 minutes for three times a week), eliminating unhealthy behaviors (for example, smoking), and regular health examinations. The important concept to remember is that individuals play a major role in their own health through decisions about behaviors which substantially increase or decrease their risk of getting a disease. Table 2 lists the Risk Reduction Objectives, the corresponding baseline data, update data, and Year 2000 goal. These data come from many different sources. This paragraph includes an example of the connection between Health Status Objectives and the Risk Reduction Objectives. Cardiovascular diseases (discussed in the above section) have many risk factors. These include age, male sex, high blood pressure, family history, high blood cholesterol, smoking, stress, diabetes, and physical inactivity. Some risk factors are not adjustable, such as increasing age. However, the individual clearly has the ability to reduce risk factors, such as smoking. Smoking cessation has a demonstrated outcome of a marked reduction (estimated at 25%) in cardiovascular events at the community level. The relationship of the smoking level, or prevalence, helps gauge potential success in reducing this major disease. This information serves as a resource to specifically target individuals or groups who are not reducing their smoking levels. For example, adults (18 years and older) surveyed in Alabama who reported smoking decreased from 22.4% in 1990 to 21.8% in 1992. 293 Smith- Yoder and Hataway The year 2000 goal for this risk reduction is 15%. This suggests that more effort is necessary to achieve the Year 2000 target to reduce the tobacco prevalence in Alabama by 6.8%. Table 2: Healthy Alabama 2000 Risk Reduction Objectives RISK REDUCTION 1989 1992 2000 OBJECTIVE BASELINE UPDATE GOAL 1.8 Tobacco Use • Data in Percent a. Cigarette Smoking - adults aged 18 and over (1990 Baselinel 22.4 21.8 15.0 - adolescents aged 13-18 (1990 Baseline) (1991 Update) 33.7 27.8 15.0 b. Smokeless Tobacco Use - adults aged 18 and over (1988 Baseline) 6.8 5.6 4.0 - adolescents aged 13-18 (1990 Baseline) (1991 Update) 14.4 16.5 4.0 1 .9 Alcohol - Data in Percent 2.3 1.8 1.75 1.11 Blood Cholesterol Level - Data in Percent 24.0 Unavailable 20.0 1.12 Weight - Data in Percent 19.6 22.7 15.0 1.15 Physical Activity - Data in Percent a. adults aged 18 and over 8.4 Unavailable 30.0 b. adolescents aged 13-18 (1990 Baseline) 34.0 Unavailable 50.0 1.17 Dental Caries - Data in Percent - Children aged 6 - 8 (1990-91 Update) No Data 40.0 20.0 - Adolescents aged 15 (1990-91 Update) No Data 39.0 15.0 2.11 Immunizations. By Age 2 - Data in Percent (1990 Baseline) 50.0 73.0 90.0 (1992 Update) 2.12 Immunizations, Grades K-12 - Data in Percent 98.0 98.8 98 (1990 Baseline) (1992 Update) 3.8 Protective Equipment Usage in Vehicles - Data in Percent a. Child safety seats - aged 0-5 (1991 Baseline) 57.9 60.2 70 b. Seatbelts - aged 6 and over (1991 Baseline) 46.3 56.8 70 c. Helmet use - Bicycles (1 991 Baseline) 8.0 Unavailable 50 - Motorcycles (1991 Baseline) 60.0 100.0 80 3.10 Statewide Trauma System None None Establish 4.3 Incidence of Low Birth Weight - Data Per 1,000 Births 8.3 8.5 6.0 4.4 High School Graduation Rates - Data in Percent 68.0 Unavailable 90.0 4.6 Breastfeeding (July 1991 Baseline) 23.0 Unavailable 75.0 Note: Risk Reduction Objectives 1.10, 1.12, 1.13, 1.16, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 3.2, 3.3, 3.9, 3.13, 4.5, and 4.7 are not listed because these objectives have no state data at this point. Service and Protection Objectives The Service and Protection Objectives, located only in sections one and four, identify goals for health care providers and professionals to improve the diagnostic and treatment capabilities; thus, better serving Alabamians. The provision of specific 294 Healthy Alabama 2000 Objective: A 1992 Review preventive services improves an individual’s ability to stay healthy or increases the chances of detecting a disease early enough to correct or modify the disease’s course by altering health behavior to reduce the individual’s risk factors. Table 3 lists the Service and Protection Objectives, the corresponding baseline data, update data, and Year 2000 goal. Half of the objectives do not have identified baseline data. However, data sources are being investigated to answer these data needs. Table 3: Healthy Alabama 2000 Service and Protection Objectives SERVICE AND PROTECTION 1989 1991 2000 OBJECTIVE BASELINE UPDATE GOAL 1.19 Screening Tests - Data in Percent a Blood Cholesterol, within the last year, 43.2 56.8 50.0 adults aged 18 and over b. Blood Pressure, within the last year, adults aged 18 and over (1992 Update) c. Clinical Breast Exam & Mammogram 78.6 93.1 90.0 - Ever, females aged 40 and over 55.3 80.0 - Within past 1-3 years, females aged 50 and over 52.9 Unavailable 60.0 Unavailable 1.20 Pschogeriatric Services - Data in Percent >10.0 Unavailable 75.0 1 .21 Mental Health Services - Data in Percent - Proportion of adult Alabamians in Need of Mental 15.4 Unavailable 25.0 Health Care who Receive Mental Health Evaluation and No Data No Data 100.0 Therapy - Proportion of Counties in Alabama that have a Program for Mental Health Education and Destigmatization that includes a mechanism to monitor effectiveness 4.8 Prenatal Care - Data in Percent - Proportion of women who receive care in the first 73.1 77.1 90.0 trimester No Data No Data 90.0 - Proportion of women who receive risk-appropriate care - Proportion of women who receive screening and No Data No Data 90.0 counseling opportunities for fetal abnormalities 4.9 Newborn Screening - Data in Percent (1 990 Baseline) (1 992 Update) • Proportion of newborns screened by State-sponsored 95.0 98.0 99.0 programs for genetic disorders and other disabling conditions 85.0 89.0 90.0 - Proportion of newborns testing positive for cfisease who receive appropriate treatment 4.1 1 Primary Care Services - Data in Percent 50.0 73.0 90.0 'vlote: Service and Protection Objectives 1.18, 4.10, 4.12, 4.13, and 4.14 are not listed because these objectives have no state data at this point The purpose of the following example is to demonstrate the connection between Risk Reduction Objectives and Service and Protection Objectives. One Service and Protection Objective addresses routine counseling by primary care 295 Smith-Yoder and Hataway providers to patients about tobacco use cessation (Objective 1.8 reducing Tobacco Use is a Risk Reduction Objective), diet modification (Objectives 1.9 reducing the Intake of Alcohol, 1.13 reducing Dietary Fat Intake, and 1.14 increasing Complex Carbohydrates and Fiber-Containing Foods), and recommended screening tests. The provider needs to review the current level of counseling to determine the most appropriate staff to provide smoking cessation, nutrition, and other behavior modification counseling. This should result in an increase of the percentage of providers counseling with the most effective counseling programs. SUMMARY Health care entails more than prescribing medicine, administering shots/vaccines, and providing other treatments. The old saying "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" is very true. Much of the health care field is shifting from only treating disease to also trying to prevent disease. Health care is two-fold: 1) health care professionals and 2) the individuals. Both are vital components to increasing the overall health of Alabamians. Through monitoring Healthy Alabama 2000 objectives, Alabama’s health care professionals can review the data and determine which deficiencies they have the capabilities to address. For example, primary care physicians’ counseling practices can address Objective 1.18 (increase to at least 75% the proportion of primary care providers who routinely counsel patients about tobacco use, diet modification, and recommended screening tests). Alabamians must accept their share of responsibility for their health and realize that they have the ability to improve their health as well as the health of the community and the state. By addressing health through these two avenues (i.e., health care professionals and individuals), the probability of improving health and reaching the Year 2000 goals increases immensely. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Healthy Alabama 2000 data are collected from numerous sources statewide which allow the state to monitor these objectives. We thank all the people and organizations which provide data for this endeavor. Also, we thank Dr. Barb Struempler, Ms. Arrol Sheehan, and Ms. Melissa Harris for reviewing this document. REFERENCES 1. Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1991. DHHS publication PHS 91-50212. 296 Healthy Alabama 2000 Objective: A 1992 Review 2. A Time of Challenge - A Time of Opportunity, Annual Report of the State Health Officer. Montgomery, AL: Alabama Department of Public Health; 1991. ADPH publication ADPH-P-A-15/Rev.2/92. 3. Healthy Alabama 2000 - Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives For The Year 2000 - The Next Century Is Here. Montgomery, AL: Alabama Department of Public Health; 1991. ADPH publication ADPH-P-BHPI-182- 10-91. 297 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 4, October, 1993. PROGRESS TOWARD NUTRITION-RELATED HEALTHY ALABAMA 2000 OBJECTIVES1 Barbara J. Struempler, Ph.D. Extension Nutritionist Alabama Cooperative Extension Service Department of Nutrition and Food Science Auburn University, Alabama 36849 ABSTRACT The nutrition-related objectives of Healthy Alabama 2000 are located in two of the four main sections, including section one, Chronic Diseases, and section four, Maternal, Reproductive and Child Health. The following highlights the success of and the progress made toward select objectives: 1) colorectal cancer deaths and the proportion of Alabamians who receive cholesterol and blood pressure screenings - met; 2) cardiovascular deaths - significant reduction; 3) infant mortality rate of 10.5 - lowest ever but still 2.5 above the goal; 4) pregnant women receiving prenatal care during the first trimester - increased 4 percent between 1989 and 1992 which is 12.9 percent below the goal of 90; and 5) intakes for fat, complex carbohydrate, and fiber - Alabama data not available. Alabama health professionals responded to the need to address nutrition- related issues by forming the Healthy Alabama 2000 Nutrition Coalition. During the remainder of this decade, the Coalition will focus on the Healthy Alabama 2000 nutrition-related objectives. INTRODUCTION The overall goal of Healthy Alabama 2000 is to increase the life expectancy of Alabamians (1). Nutrition, too much or too little, influences one’s current and future health. The Surgeon General’s Report on Nutrition and Health (2) states, "that for the two out of three adult Americans who do not smoke and do not drink excessively, one personal choice seems to influence long-term health prospects more than any other: what we eat." Health statistics support this statement. Dietary factors are linked with five of the 10 leading causes of death: coronary heart disease, some types of cancer, stroke, noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, and atherosclerosis. Three other major lfillers--cirrhosis of the liver, unintentional injuries, and suicides-are associated with excessive alcohol intake. In general, yesterday’s under-nutrition has been replaced by today’s over-nutrition. ’Manuscript received 17 September 1993; accepted 6 December 1993. 298 Struempler This report presents information on two different aspects of Healthy Alabama 2000. First, the progress of nutrition-related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives is provided. It is readily apparent that nutrition is an underlying theme of the Year 2000 Objectives due to the number of nutrition-related objectives. Second, a brief history and current activities of Healthy Alabama 2000 Nutrition Coalition are presented. The Nutrition Coalition, organized from recommendations at the Healthy Alabama 2000 meeting, "Getting from Here to There," focuses on the nutrition-related objectives during this decade. This report illustrates that many of the nutrition-related objectives set forth at the kickoff meeting for Healthy Alabama 2000 in Spring 1991 are progressing toward the Year 2000 goals. In addition, Alabama professionals are cooperatively planning strategies to address these nutrition issues. NUTRITION-RELATED HEALTHY ALABAMA 2000 OBJECTIVES The Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives are organized under four health sections (1). The influence of nutrition is closely associated with only two sections: Chronic Diseases (Section 1) and Maternal, Reproductive, and Child Health (Section 4). Table 1 lists the nutrition-related objectives, 1989 baseline data, 1992 update data, and Year 2000 goals. The primary source for the 1989 and 1992 data is the Alabama Department of Public Health (ADPH), Center for Health Statistics. The prominence of nutrition-related objectives highlights the importance of nutrition in these two health areas. In contrast, nutrition relationships are virtually nonexistent for the two other health sections. There are no nutrition-related objectives in Communicable Diseases (Section 2). For Environmental Health, Injury Control/Occupational Safety and Health (Section 3), only a weak nutrition relationship exists. The Year 2000 target to reduce the prevalence of blood lead levels among children (Objective 3.1) has an insignificant link to nutrition. Chronic Diseases Four out of seven Health Status Objectives listed under Chronic Diseases have nutrition implications (Table 1). They are cardiovascular diseases (Objective 1.1); some types of cancer, such as breast cancer (Objective 1.2c) and colorectal cancer (Objective 1.2f); diabetes (Objective 1.4); and cirrhosis (Objective 1.5). Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), primarily coronary heart disease and stroke, continue to be the leading cause of death in Alabama. However, deaths from CVD have been reduced more than the other Chronic Diseases. Interestingly, the 1992 mortality rates for both coronary heart disease (103.6) and stroke (32.4) are quickly approaching the Year 2000 goals of 100 and 30 deaths per 100,000, respectively. 299 Progress Toward Nutrition-Related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives While there has been little change in death rate from breast cancer during the past three years, the Year 2000 target for colorectal cancer of 11.9 has been met. There is no explanation for the slight increase in the diabetes mortality rate from 10.7 deaths per 100,000 in 1989 to 12.0 deaths per 100,000 in 1992. Death rate from cirrhosis remains essentially unchanged since 1989 baseline value. It is widely accepted that changes in an individual’s lifestyle makes a difference in health. Of the 10 Risk Reduction Objectives associated with Chronic Diseases, six relate to nutrition (Table 1). These major modifiable risk factors include drinking alcohol only in moderation (Objective 1.9); controlling blood pressure (Objective 1.10); reducing blood cholesterol levels (Objective 1.11); achieving and maintaining healthy body weight (Objective 1.12); decreasing fat intake (Objective 1.13); and increasing consumption of complex carbohydrates and fiber-containing foods (Objective 1.14). It is evident that encouraging healthy choices in diet and weight control, as well as exercise and other risk factors for disease, are major themes throughout the Chronic Diseases Objectives. Although it is well recognized that chronic diseases are multi-factorial in origin, the effect of nutrition is often under-emphasized. Moreover, dietary intervention is often the cornerstone treatment for chronic diseases. For example, the major modifiable risk factors for CVD are high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and smoking. Once diagnosed with high blood pressure, dietary intervention includes limiting alcohol, sodium and fat intakes; losing weight or maintaining desirable body weight; and increasing complex carbohydrate/fiber intake. With the exception of sodium restriction, similar dietary guidelines are provided for those with high blood cholesterol levels. While it is impossible to provide a thorough discussion of these nutrition-related risk factors, all are Risk Reduction Objectives except for sodium (Table 1). In addition, other related Objectives to CVD include tobacco use (Objective 1.8), physical activity (Objective 1.15) and chronic disabling conditions (Objective 1.6), as well as diabetes (Objective 1.4). Alabamians and other Americans continue to lose the battle of the bulge. In 1991, 30 percent of Alabama’s adult population is considered to be overweight, according to ADPH, Risk Surveillance Division. There has been a steady increase in the total number of overweight individuals since 1986. At that time, 23 percent of Alabamians were overweight. The Year 2000 goal is to reduce the proportion of Alabamians age 18 and over who are overweight to no more than 15 percent (Objective 1.12). (For this discussion, overweight is defined as weight to height greater than 120 percent of the median.) Table 1 shows the proportion of Alabamians who are overweight based on body mass index. Fewer Alabamians are overweight when based on body mass index compared to weight to height. It is impossible to measure Alabama’s progress toward some Year 2000 targets due to insufficient data. Two examples are dietary fat intake (Objective 1.13) and 300 Struempler complex carbohydrates and fiber-containing foods (Objective 1.14). However, ADPH is making progress toward a data collection system. It is anticipated that mid-course and final Healthy Alabama 2000 reports will include information in these areas. Although baseline data is not available for dietary fat intake (Objective 1.13), the Alabama 2000 target mirrors national recommendations (3). Similar goals are for 30 percent or less of total calories to come from total fat and 10 percent or less of total calories to come from saturated fat. These goals parallel those in Dietary Guidelines for Americans (4), Food Guide Pyramid (5), and the new food labeling guidelines (6). National average dietary fat intake remains at 36 percent of calories from fat and 13 percent from saturated fat (3). Although Alabama baseline data do not exist for carbohydrate and fiber intakes, the Year 2000 goal is to increase dietary intake of complex carbohydrates and fiber-containing foods to five or more daily servings of fruits and vegetables and six or more daily servings of grain products (Objectives 1.14). This is similar to the national Healthy People 2000 Objective 2.6 (3). While there are unresolved issues related to the beneficial effects of fibers, current evidence suggests the prudence of increasing consumption of grain products, vegetables (including dried beans and peas), and fruits. In general, a high-complex carbohydrate/fiber intake helps manage body weight, controls blood cholesterol levels, assists in diabetes management, prevents constipation, and protects against certain types of cancers. It is interesting that the Year 2000 goals for dietary fat intake (Objective 1.13) and complex carbohydrates and fiber-containing foods (Objective 1.14) are for Alabamians age 2 and over. In contrast, most Chronic Diseases Objectives are targeted for those 18 years and over. It is generally agreed that a low fat, high carbohydrate/fiber intake is acceptable for all Americans age 2 and over. This philosophy is emphasized throughout Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives. For example, healthy eating needs to begin at preschool (Objective 4.13) and continue throughout one’s school years (Objective 4.14). Adults also need continuous training through worksite health programs (Objective 3.13f). Dietary modifications are usually not advisable for those less than 2 years of age. One method to improve health status of Alabamians is through the services offered by primary care providers. The Year 2000 goal is to increase to at least 75 percent the proportion of primary care providers who routinely counsel patients about diet modification and other topics (Objective 1.18). Alabama baseline data are not available for the primary care providers objectives (Tabl$ 1). The proportion of Alabamians who receive nutrition-related screening tests for cholesterol (Objective 1.19a) and blood pressure (Objective 1.19b) show excellent 301 Progress Toward Nutrition-Related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives progress. For cholesterol, the Year 2000 goal of 50 percent of Alabamians having blood cholesterol checked within the last year has been met (Table 1). In 1991, 56.8 percent of Alabamians reported having a blood cholesterol test. This compares to 43.2 percent in 1989. This 13-percent increase in cholesterol screening over a two-year period parallels the prevalence of cholesterol education programs throughout Alabama. Unfortunately, current information is not available on the proportion of Alabamians who have reduced blood cholesterol levels to less than 240 mg/dl. In 1989, 24 percent of Alabamians had blood cholesterol levels of 240 mg/dl or greater (Objective 1.11, Table 1). This blood cholesterol level is considered high-risk for coronary heart disease and is a risk factor which may be modified by nutrition intervention. Blood pressure screenings are still popular in Alabama. In 1992, 93.1 percent of Alabamians reported having a blood pressure check (Objective 1.19b, Table 1). This exceeds the Year 2000 goal of 90. While it is promising that most Alabamians have a blood pressure check, the compliance to hypertension treatment is equally important in terms of economic and human health. Data do not exist for hypertensives not controlled in Alabama; 88.9 percent of hypertensives were not controlled in the United States in 1986 (3). This statistic highlights an alarming health problem. The Year 2000 goal is to decrease by 10 percent the proportion of Alabamians age 18 and over with high blood pressure whose blood pressure is not controlled (Objective 1.10). Maternal, Reproductive, and Child Health The potential for a long, healthy life is affected by the period before birth and the years of childhood and adolescence. Adequate nutrition and sensible food choices during these periods are critical to the quality of later life. Therefore, nutrition-related objectives are prominent throughout Healthy Alabama 2000 Maternal, Reproductive, and Child Health (Section 4, Table 1). Infant mortality is a major health problem not only in Alabama, but also in the United States. In fact, the United States infant mortality rate remains higher than that of most other industrialized nations (7). Infant mortality rate is a broad indicator for a number of factors affecting the health of babies and their mothers. It has been called the "tip of the iceberg" of child health problems (8). While the rate actually indicates the number of babies that do not celebrate their first birthday, it ultimately reflects the availability and effectiveness of health care for a much larger population than those directly affected. In 1992, the infant mortality rate in Alabama was the lowest ever recorded in the state, 10.5 deaths per 1,000 live births (Objective 4.1, Table 1). This low rate is not 302 Struempler by chance, but rather by considerable statewide efforts. In 1986, Alabama had an infant mortality rate of 13.3--the highest rate of any state in the nation (Figure 1). When this sobering finding was announced, coordinated efforts by numerous Alabama agencies and organizations were developed. New programs and networks were created including nutrition-education and health-awareness classes for pregnant women, especially those of limited-income. Toll-free hotline numbers for pregnancy information and referral and coupon incentive programs were also established. In fact, the steady improvement in Alabama’s infant mortality rate has been credited to the conscientious and combined efforts of private health care providers and public agencies (9). The Alabama infant mortality statistics show disproportionately high rates among the non-white, mainly black, population (Figure 2). In 1992, the 15.8 infant mortality rate among blacks was well above the Alabama rate of 10.5. In contrast, the 7.5 infant mortality rate among whites is one-half the black infant mortality rate and below Alabama’s 2000 goal of 8. The infant mortality rates of black Americans have been approximately double those of white Americans for more than 45 years. Although the rates have declined for both populations, the disproportionately high rates for blacks are unacceptable. This issue is specially addressed in Healthy Alabama 2000. The Year 2000 goal for infant mortality rate among blacks is 11 per 1,000 live births or less (Objective 4.1a, Table 1). Teenage pregnancy occurs in all regions of the country, all ethnic groups, and all socioeconomic levels. In 1989, 79.2 per 1,000 adolescent females in Alabama became pregnant. By 1991, this number decreased to 75.5. No explanation is available for the major decline to 64.8 in 1992. Alabama still has a long way to go to meet the target to reduce pregnancies to no more than 50 per 1,000 females age 15 to 17 (Objective 4.2, Table 1). The most sobering aspect of teenage pregnancy is based on the report that one-fourth of teenagers who deliver a baby at age 16 or younger deliver a second baby within 24 months (10). Nutritional status is one of the more modifiable variables affecting the health of the pregnant adolescent and the outcome of her pregnancy. The position of the American Dietetic Association is "that pregnant adolescents as a group are nutritionally at risk and require nutrition intervention early and throughout the duration of their pregnancies" (10). In addition to the teenager’s normal growth requirement, the caloric and nutrient needs of the pregnant teenager must be sufficient to achieve optimum weight gain of the fetus. Low birth weight of infants (2,500 grams or less) is a majpr contributor to infant mortality. Alabama’s 2000 goal is to reduce the incidence of low birth-weight babies to 6 percent per 1,000 live births (Objective 4.3, Table 1). Although the incidence of 303 Progress Toward Nutrition-Related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives low birth weight in Alabama is more than 8 percent, it has not changed appreciably since 1989. Nutrition does influence on two major determinants of infant birth weight. They are prenatal weight gain and mother’s prepregnancy weight status. No statewide data exist for these indicators of infant birth weight. Statistics on the prevalence of mothers who breastfeed in Alabama are limited to mothers enrolled in the Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program through ADPH. Only 23 percent of low-income mothers breastfed in the postpartum period in July 1991. Alabama’s 2000 goal -- to have at least 75 percent of mothers breastfeed their babies during the six-week postpartum periods -- appears remote (Objective 4.6, Table 1). Nationally, 54 percent of mothers breastfeed at discharge from the hospital (3). Information is not available on iron deficiency in Alabama. Similar to the national goal (3), Alabama’s target is to reduce iron deficiency to less than 3 percent among children age 1 to 4 and among women of childbearing age (Objective 4.7, Table 1). Iron deficiency in childhood may have adverse effects on growth and development. It is more common in black children, compared to white children, and those of low income (3). Ways to reduce iron deficiency among children are to increase breastfeeding, increase use of iron-fortified formulas, and delay the introduction of whole cow milk feedings until 12 months of age. To reduce iron deficiency in women of childbearing age, nutrition education should encourage the selection of iron-rich foods and provide adequate iron supplementation during pregnancy. Alabama is making progress in the proportion of pregnant women who receive prenatal care in the first trimester. The Year 2000 goal is to increase to at least 90 percent pregnant women who receive prenatal care in the first trimester. In Alabama, the percentage of pregnant females who began care in the first trimester rose from 73 to 75 to 77 in 1989, 1991, and 1992, respectively (Objective 4.8, Table 1). Lack of or inadequate prenatal care is another major risk factor associated with low birth weight. Nutrition education is an important aspect of prenatal care. Healthy moms have healthy babies. The Healthy Alabama 2000 goal is for all preschool children to have access to high-quality and developmentally-appropriate programs (Objective 4.13, Table 1). In terms of nutrition, this means an increase in the proportion of child-care food services (and school lunch and breakfast services) with menus that are consistent with the nutrition principles in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (4). This federal document represents the best principles of healthy dietary practices and offers guidance for meal planning. The Year 2000 goal for school health programs is to increase to at least 50 percent the proportion of schools providing all students with a comprehensive school 304 Struempler health program (Objective 4.14, Table 1). This type of program includes six types of elements, ranging from environmental issues to counseling. Nutritious meals and nutrition education are components of a comprehensive school health program. Similar to the national goal (3), Alabama’s schools need to provide nutrition education from preschool through 12th grade as part of a qualityschool health program. At present, nutrition education is usually taught in health and home economic courses, although science and related curricula serve to reinforce principles and messages. However, it seems obvious that since nutrition impacts on health, the earlier the concept is taught to today’s youth, the earlier they will adopt healthy dietary practices. HEALTHY ALABAMA 2000 NUTRITION COALITION Healthy Alabama 2000 Nutrition Coalition is a cooperative effort by statewide agencies and organizations to address the nutrition-related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives. The mission of the Healthy Alabama 2000 Nutrition Coalition is to promote healthy lifestyles through positive changes in nutrition and physical activity to achieve the nutrition-related objectives. As concerned individuals and professionals, Coalition members feel that they can make progress toward meeting the Objectives. To make individual contributions most effective, activities that are supportive of the Objectives must be integrated into each member’s programs. The Nutrition Coalition was organized as a result of recommendations from the conference, Healthy Alabama 2000 "Getting from Here to There." During this October 1991 meeting, nutritionists and other health professionals recommended that a nutrition network be established in Alabama to facilitate nutrition-related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives. This recommendation was unanimously accepted by those in attendance. The Alabama Cooperative Extension Service at Auburn University was the lead organization. Only eight months after the recommendation for a Healthy Alabama 2000 Nutrition Coalition, the kick-off meeting was held in June 1992. Approximately 100 professionals, mainly school food service employees and those working with pregnant females, attended the statewide meeting in Montgomery. The goal was to begin communicating, exploring, sharing, and learning through and from those interested in nutrition-related health problems. Facilitators of the meeting were Auburn University (Alabama Cooperative Extension Service), ADPH (Bureau of Health Promotion and Information), and University of Alabama at Birmingham (School of Public Health). In October 1992, quarterly meetings of the Healthy Alabama 2000 Nutrition Coalition began. There are currently 31 members, representing organizations, agencies, societies, universities, worksites, and food producers. While many members are nutritionists/dietitians, a diverse membership is encouraged and includes nurses, 305 Progress Toward Nutrition-Related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives physical education specialists, health educators, and grocery store representatives. As the Nutrition Coalition bylaws state, "any individual or group that promotes healthy lifestyles through nutrition and physical activity can be a member." During its first year, the Nutrition Coalition is focusing on the two objectives of reducing dietary fat (Objective 1.13) and increasing complex carbohydrates and fiber-containing foods (Objective 1.14). The main activity to support these objectives has been to adopt and promote the "5 a Day" message of the National Cancer Institute (11). This educational and mass media program emphasizes five or more daily servings of fruits and vegetables. To promote this program, the Coalition members individually integrate the message into their daily practices, as well as collectively make the message a part of the Nutrition Coalition’s agenda. For example, all eligible members of the Coalition are sub-licensed through ADPH to distribute "5 a Day" materials. As part of the Coalition, the information is disseminated through committees to include schools, worksite/community, senior centers, and mass media. SUMMARY The prominence of nutrition-related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives indicates the importance of nutrition throughout the lifecycle. Most certainly, improved nutrition plays a major role in the improvement of public health. Alabama is making progress toward many of the nutrition-related Year 2000 goals. Deaths due to CVD are reduced. Alabama’s 2000 goals are met for deaths from colorectal cancer and screening tests for blood cholesterol and blood pressure. The overall infant mortality rate is the lowest ever with more pregnant females receiving prenatal care during the first trimester. The nutrition-related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives provide the opportunity for professionals to strategically address the issues over the next decade. Alabama is accepting this challenge. Healthy Alabama 2000 Nutrition Coalition provides the unique opportunity for professionals to network, plan strategies, and adopt messages that promote good health through improved nutrition. With limited budgets and manpower, nutrition and health professionals need to develop plans to integrate activities that support the Objectives into their program’s activities. It is only by working together that the contributions will be most effective. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Appreciation is expressed to Dianne Smith-Yoder, Healthy Alabama 2000 Coordinator, Bureau of Health Promotion and Information, ADPH, and Donna Reynolds, editor, Alabama Cooperative Extension Service. 306 Struempler REFERENCES 1. Healthy Alabama 2000 - Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives for the Year 2000 - The Next Century Is Here. Montgomery, AL: Alabama Department of Public Health; 1991. ADPH-H-BHPI-182-10-91. 2. The Surgeon General’s Report on Nutrition and Health. Washington, DC: Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1988. DHHS(PHS) 88-50210. 3. Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1991. DHHS(PHS) 91-50212. 4. Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1990. Home and Garden Bulletin 232. 5. The Food Guide Pyramid. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1992. Home and Garden Bulletin 252. 6. FDA Consumer, Special Report: Focus on Food Labeling. Washington, DC: Food and Drug Administration; May 1993. 7. State of America’s Children. Washington, DC: Childrens Defense Fund; 1992. ISBN 0-938008-92-7. 8. Daniel, W.A., D.A. Comely and M.C. McCormick. Statement of Infant Mortality. Pediatrics: 1986, 78:1155-60. 9. State’s Infant Mortality Rate Declines in ’92. Montgomery, AL: Alabama Department of Public Health: Alabama’s Health: June 1993, pg 2. 10. Position of the American Dietetic Association: Nutrition Management of Adolescent Pregnancy. Journal of the American Dietetic Association: 1989. 89:104-109. 11. 5 a Day Week Handbook. Newark, DE: Produce for Better Health Foundation, June 1993. 307 Progress Toward Nutrition-Related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives Table 1: Progress Toward Healthy Alabama 2000 Nutrition-Related Objectives 1989 1992 2000 Baseline4 Update* Goal 1. Chronic Diseases 1.1 Cardiovascular Diseases a. Coronary Heart Disease 1 14.3 103.6 100.0 b. Strokes 35.7 32.4 30.0 1.2 Cancer c. Breast Cancer 21.8 21.5 20.2 f. Colorectal Cancer 12.8 1 1.9 1 1.9 1.4 Diabetes 10.7 12.0 9.0 1.5 Cirrhosis 7.3 7.4 6.0 Chronic Diseases Risk Reduction Objectives 1.9 Alcohol - Data in Percent 2.3 1.8 1.75 1.10 Blood Pressure - Goal: a 10% Decrease in Baseline No Data Unavailable 10.0 1.11 Blood Cholesterol Level - Data in Percent 24.0 Unavailable 20.0 1.12 Weight (Body Mass Index) - Data in Percent 19.6 22.7 15.0 1.13 Dietary Fat Intake - Data in Percent No Data Unavailable 30.0 1.14 Complex Carbohydrates & Fiber Containing Foods - See this review for goals No Data Unavailable Chronic Diseases Service & Protection Objectives 1.18 Primary Care Providers - Data in percent No Data No Data 75.0 1.19 Screening Tests - Data in Percent a. Blood Cholesterol, within the last year, adults age 18 and over b. Blood Pressure, within the last year, 43.2 56. 84* 50.0 adults age 18 and over 78.6 93.1 90.0 (1991 Update: 91.5) 4. Maternal, Reproductive & Child Health 4.1 Infant Mortality Rate - Data Per 1000 Live Births 12.1 10.5 8.0 a. Infant Mortality Rate Among Blacks 15.9 15.8 11.0 4.2 Teenage Pregnancy - Data Per 1000 Adolescent Females (1991 Update: 75.5) 79.2 64.8 50.0 Maternal. Reproductive and Child Health Risk Reduction Objectives 4.3 Incidence of Low Birth Weight - Data Per 1000 Live Births 8.3 8.5 6.0 4.6 Breastfeeding - Data in Percent (Baseline: low-income mothers, July, 1991) 23.0 Unavailable 75.0 4.7 Iron Deficiency - Data in Percent No Data No Data 3.0 Maternal. Child & Reproductive Health Services & Protection Objectives 4.8 Prenatal Care - Data in Percent 73.1 77.1 90.0 4.13 Preschool Programs - See this Review for Goals 4.14 School Health Programs-See this Review for Goals a. Nutritious Meals b. Nutrition Education •Source: Alabama Department of Public Health, Center for Health Statistics •*1991 Update 308 1980 1986 1989 1990 1991 1992 Struempler c (/) J3 03 (D > 03 O’ 03 3 03 J3 a CD 309 Figure 1 : Infant Mortality Rates for Alabama and United States 1980 1986 1989 1990 1991 1992 Progress Toward Nutrition-Related Healthy Alabama 2000 Objectives Infant Mortality Rate Per 1 ,000 Births ro iv) o cn o cn o cn 310 Figure 2: Alabama’s Infant Mortality Rates By Race Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 4, October, 1993. PHYSICAL FITNESS AND HEALTHY PEOPLE 20001 Kennon Francis, PhD Division of Physical Therapy Room B41, SHRP Building University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, AL 35294 INTRODUCTION We are in a time of great change with regard to our health status. Americans seem to have more interest today than ever before in the state of their health and how they can prevent disease. This concern is driven partially due to the exponential rise in health care cost and the desire to remain healthy and avoid costly hospitalization. Today Americans spend more on health care than on either education or national defense (14,26). In 1988, six percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) was spent on health care (14). In the last two decades, the proportion of the GDP spent on education and national defense has decreased, while the proportion for health care has increased 50 percent, even after adjusting for economy-wide inflation (14,26). Not only is the general public interested in a healthier America, but the government is also making a strong effort to improve the health of the nation. In September 1990 Healthy People 2000 , the health promotion and disease prevention objectives for the nation for the decade of the 1990’s, was released (11). These 300 measurable objectives, established among 22 priority areas, serve as the nation’s public health agenda for the 1990’s. Because so much has been learned in the past 20 years about the importance of regular physical activity to health status, it is not surprising that in the development of the year 2000 health objectives, great emphasis was placed on reducing sedentary lifestyles and increasing moderate daily physical activity among Americans. IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY Physical activity that builds endurance and flexibility has been shown not only to protect against injury and disability but directly reduce the risk for several major chronic diseases as well as to catalyze positive changes with respect to other risk factors. For example, increased levels of physical activity has been shown to be associated with lower risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) (10,23,28,), diabetes (28), hypertension (9,12) colon cancer (28), stroke (23) and obesity (10,28). Caspersen (4) 'Manuscript received 20 September 1993; accepted 6 December 1993 311 Francis in a meta-analysis critique of 43 epidemiological studies assessing the relationship of physical activity to CHD, concluded that there is a direct relationship of lack of exposure of physical activity and the development of CHD. The lack of regular physical activity is an independent risk factor for the development of CHD and a sedentary person is 1.9 times more likely to develop CHD than and active one (4). Regular physical activity has been shown to reduce the risk of all-cause mortality by more than 25% (24) and to increase life expectancy by more than 2 years over the population average (27). Of the various independent risk factors, sedentary lifestyle has been ascribed as the most prevalent (58%) modifiable risk factor for reducing CHD, followed by cigarette smoking (25%), obesity (22%), hypertension (17%) and diabetes (5%) (4). These conclusions are important in light of the striking number of deaths from CHD that continue to plague Americans. Today, diseases of the heart remain the major cause of death in the United States. Recent mortality statistics reveal that in 1990, more than 934,000 Americans died from CHD which is more than died from all the wars during the last century (33). Data from a recent Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System survey (6) indicate the percentage of CHD deaths attributable to sedentary lifestyle in the individual state of Alabama in 1988 was 34%. If this risk factor had not been present in Alabamians, it is projected that almost 3000 deaths could have been prevented (6). Because of the significant impact that exercise has on the ability to directly reduce the risk for several major chronic diseases as well as it’s ability to catalyze positive indirect changes with respect to other CHD risk factors, Dr. William Foege, former Director of The Centers for Disease Control, suggest that physical activity may provide the "shortcut" that investigators have been seeking for the control of chronic diseases much like immunizations facilitated progress against infectious diseases (16). Accordingly 13 states, including Alabama, are currently promoting physical activity as an integral part of comprehensive cardiovascular disease prevention programs. Health Promotion Initiatives The concept of a national plan for improvement of the health of Americans is not new. Healthy People 2000 objectives are built on a public health initiative started during the previous decade called Promoting Health /Preventing Disease: Objectives for the Nation (29). This initiative was structured around 226 measurable objectives that were to be achieved during the 10 year period between 1980 and 1990 (17). A review of the accomplishments from this initiative indicates that significant progress was made in improving health status in a number areas. There were, however, some disturbing exceptions to the overall achievements. Weaknesses in improvement in physical activity and fitness were among the most prominent. Of the 11 physical activity objectives that were to be achieved by the year 1990, only four 312 Physical Fitness and Healthy People 2000 were accomplished, mainly in the areas related to improvements in data surveillance and evaluation (8,17). The objectives that were not achieved include those that target risk reduction by altering specific levels of activity among the various age groups. In light of the strong association between physical activity and optimal health, and given the favorable impact that exercise can have on disease progression and risk reduction, it is no wonder that physical activity was placed as the first priority of the seven health promotion objectives of Healthy People 2000 and was included as a significant component among the chronic diseases risk reduction objectives for the state of Alabama called Healthy Alabama 2000: Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives for the Year 2000 (1). Current Status of Physical Fitness Goals for the Nation On April 14, 1992, 20 months after the release of Healthy People 2000, the Public Health Service held it First progress review to determine the progress of the physical activity and fitness objectives and to place them in perspective to the nations’s previous 10 year progress in improving physical fitness (10). The initial two objectives target improvements in "health status" related to chronic diseases/conditions that are linked to lack of physical activity (16). The first objective shown in Fig. 1A is to reduce coronary heart disease deaths from the baseline of 135 per 100,000 recorded in 1987 to 100 per 100,000 by the year 2000 (11). There were 130 deaths in 1988 and 124 in 1989 (20). Whereas the decline is in the right direction and the goal looks promising for being met by the year 2000, slower progress is being met to decrease African American deaths. There were 163 deaths per 100,000 in 1987, 162 in 1988 and 159 in 1989, toward a target of 115 by the year 2000 (20). The progress towards reducing the percentage of overweight adults age 20 and older to a prevalence of no more than 20% (Figure IB) is not nearly so favorable. The trend as of 1990 shows a slight increase rather than a reduction. The percentage of overweight adults rose from a baseline of 26% in 1980 to 27% of in 1990 (22). The percentage of adult black women did show a slight improvement from 44% in 1980 to 42% in 1990 towards a goal of 25% by the year 2000 (22). The four objectives that address risk reduction through an increase in physical activity and sound nutritional practices are presented in Figure 2. The first goal proposes to increase to 30% the prevalence of people performing light to moderate activity. The second goal is to increase to 20% the percentage of people performing vigorous activity (11). The data presented in Figure 2A obtained by the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (2) and the National Health Interview Survey (21) indicates that the prevalence of individuals performing moderate physical activity appears to have decreased rather than increase from 22% in recorded 1985, to 20% recorded among those aged 18 and older in 1990 (Figure 2B) (2,21). More alarming 313 Francis however, was the report that 26% of American adults 18 and older are completely sedentary, up from the baseline of 24% recorded in 1985 and far from the projected goal of 15% by the year 2000 (11) (Figure 2C). Not only are Americans apparently reluctant to give up their inactive lifestyle, they are somewhat disinclined to adopt sound dietary practices as well. The goal as shown in Figure 2D is to increase to 50% the proportion of overweight people adhering to sound dietary practices combined with regular exercise to attain an appropriate body weight (11). The percentage of women actually declined from 30% in 1985 to 29% in 1990 and from 25% to 22% among men (21). Physical Activity and Children The beginning of this century was evidenced by a marked improvement in the health of American adolescents, but currently the trend appears to be reversing (19). Today’s teenagers are in poorer health than their parents were at the comparable age (3,18). It has been reported that as many as 60% of children in America today exhibit at least one modifiable adult risk factor for CHD by the age of 12 (3,34). For example, children today have significantly more fat than children in 1960 (19,25). Similarly the literature indicates an increase of more than 50% in the prevalence of obesity and nearly 100% increase in the prevalence of super-obesity in today’s youth (19,30). Because children’s risk factor status established early in life may persist into adulthood, good nutrition habits and physical activity patterns based on sound choices must be recognized as cost-effective means for normal growth and development during adolescence and for decreased risk for the development of chronic diseases into adulthood (3,30). The setting that appears to have the most promise of providing a public health impact is the school because virtually all children can be reached in school, and an existing mechanism is already in place for the facilitation of physical education and health education (18,30). With this considerations in mind, two of the physical fitness goals have been targeted for the school environment. The first of these goals is to increase the daily school physical education participation from 36% to more than 50% of proportion of youths in grades 1-12 engaging in daily school physical education (Figure 3A). The second goal is to increase from 27% to 50% the proportion of physical education class time that students spend in quality physical fitness activities (Figure 3B) (11). The results of the 1990 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (35) reveal the same disturbing trends recorded earlier with the National Children and Youth Fitness Survey (15). Rather than showing an increase, the percentage of high school students enrolled in physical education classes continued to decline from 1984 to 1990 (Figure 3C) (7). One bright spot in the newer survey however, revealed that even though fewer students were participating in physical education classes, the time devoted during the class time to quality physical activities increased from 27% in 1984 to 33% in 1990 (Figure 3B) (7). 314 Physical Fitness and Healthy People 2000 Current Status of Physical Fitness Goals in Alabama Alabama has only one physical activity and fitness goal as part of Healthy Alabama 2000. This goal is targeted to simply reduce inactivity and increase the proportion of Alabamians who engage regularly in light to moderate activity on a regular basis. Specifically the goal is to increase the proportion of Alabamians aged 13 - 18 to 50% and adults aged 18 and over to 30% who engage regularly, preferably daily, in light to moderate activity for at least 30 minutes a day (1). An exact determination of progress toward this goal is limited since there has not been an extensive and regular collection of physical fitness data over the past several years for the state of Alabama as there has been for the nation as a whole. It should be pointed out however, the data that has been collected for the state of Alabama has been both revealing and quite disturbing. The number of Alabamians 18 and over reporting a sedentary lifestyle is greater than the 25% reported for the nation. In the 1991 BRFSS survey as conducted by the Alabama Department of Public Health’s Bureau of Health Promotion and Information Surveillance Division (5), 56.6% of Alabamians reported they were sedentary (Figure 4A). Not only is this percentage very high, but the percentage of Alabamians reporting a sedentary lifestyle has remained relative flattened at 59% over the past 6 years. In addition, the number of adults aged 18 and over who reported engaging in daily, light to moderate activity for 30 minutes was only 8.4% of the state’s population (1) Increasing evidence suggest that light to moderate physical activity, below the level recommended for cardiorespiratory fitness can have significant health benefits (13,28). Even relatively modest increases in activity have been shown to be associated with measurable benefits in persons who have been inactive (12,23,28). In addition, individuals are more likely to comply with light to moderate exercise than more vigorous. Since a sedentary life-style is the most prevalent and modifiable cardiac risk factor, and given the impact that exercise can have on disease progression, from an optimal health perspective, increasing physical activity seems to be the most advantageous modification that Alabamians can make in risk reduction and enhancing their overall health. Conclusion Whereas it may seem difficult to influence a change in the exercise behavior of those who are currently inactive, at the same time it is important to realize that the conversion of such individuals to a more active lifestyle is essential. Motivation of individuals to make a substantial investment of personal time to increased activity 315 Francis can mean improvements in productivity, reduction of absenteeism, a decreased a demand for medical services, and most important, containment of health care cost. Progress towards attaining the fitness components of the state and national year 2000 objectives appears to be only marginal at best. The challenges are before us. If the goals as set forth in these two health documents are to be met, major changes in our lifestyles will have to take place in the next seven years. A concerted commitment is required with new initiatives, dissolving of previous barriers, intensified and perhaps realigned efforts at many levels and within many sectors. Achievement of the goals will require a collective action among government, business, labor, education and health professionals. Only with the sharing of talents and resources will the goals be met by the year 2000 resulting in a healthier nation and Alabama. REFERENCES 1. Alabama Department of Public Health. Healthy Alabama 2001: Health promotion & Disease Prevention Objectives for the Year 2000 October 1991 2. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, Center for Disease Control, Public Health Service. 1990 3. Berenson G., McMahon C., Voors A. Cardiovascular Risk Factors in children: The Early History of Atherosclerosis and Essential Hypertension. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980 4. Baranowski T., Bouchard C., Bar-Or O., Bricker T. Assessment, prevalence, and cardiovascular benefits of physical activity and fitness in youth. Med Sci Sports Exer 24:S237-s247, 1992. 5. Caspersen, J.C. Physical inactivity and coronary heart disease. Phys Sports Med 15:43-44, 1987 6. Center for Disease Control Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System 1992 as conducted by the Alabama Department of public Health, Bureau of Health Promotion and Information. Montgomery, Ala. 1991. 7. Centers for Disease Control. Coronary Heart Disease Attributable to Sedentary Lifestyle-Selected States, 1988. 1990. JAMA 261:390 - 1392. 8. Centers for Disease Control. Participation of high school students in school physical education - United States, 1990, MMWR 40:607-615, 1991 9. Centers for Disease Control. Progress towards achieving the national 1990 national objectives for physical fitness and exercise. 1989. MMWR 38:449-453. 316 Physical Fitness and Healthy People 2000 10. Hagberg J., Montain S., Martin W., Ehsani A. Effect of exercise training in 60 - 69 year old persons with essential hypertension. Amer J ?Cardiology. 64: 348- 353, 1989 11. Hartley, L.H. The role of exercise in the primary and secondary prevention of atherosclerotic coronary artery disease, in Exercise and the Heart, edition 2. N. K Wenger and A.N. Brest, editors. 1985. F. A. Davis Company, Philadelphia 12. Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and disease prevention objectives. 1990. Washington, D.C. Government Printing Office, DHHS publication no. (PHS) 90-50212. 13. Hickey, N., Mulcahy, R. and Bourke G. 1975. Study of coronary risk factors related to physical activity in 15,721 men. Br Med J 3:507-510. 14. Leon, A. S., Connett J, Jacobs D, and Raurrama R. Leisure-time phusical activity levels and risk of coronary heart disease and death: The Multiple risk factor intervention trial. JAMA 258:2388-2395, 1987 15. Levit KR, Lazenby HC, Letsch SW Cowan C. National health care spending. Health Aff 10:177-130, 1991 16. Mason J. A public health service progress report on Healthy People 2000: Physical Activity and Fitness. U.S. Department of Health and Human services. Public Health Service. 1992 17. McGinnis J.M. The public health burden of a sedentary lifestyle. Med Sci Sports Exer. 25:(6)supplement, S196-200, 1992 18. McGinnis J.M., Richmond J., Brandt E. Windom R., MasonJ. Health progress in the United States. Results of the 1990 Objectives for the nation. JAMA 268: 2545-2552 19. McGinnis J. M. Healthy schools 2000: Creating partnerships for the decade. J Sch Hlth. 61:292-2%, 1991 20. Meredith CN, Dwyer JT. Nutrition and exercise: Effects on adolescent health. Annu Rev Publ Health 12:309-333, 1991 21. National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics System, Center for Disease Control, Public Health Service. 1990 317 Francis 22, National Health Interview Survey, National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics System, Center for Disease Control, Public Health Service. 1990 23. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics System, Center for Disease Control, Public Health Service. 1990 24. Paffenbarger R., Hyde R., Wing A. Physical activity and physical fitness as determinants of health and longevity. In: Exercise, Fitness, and Health. C. Bouchard, Shephard R., Stephens T., Sutton J., McPherson B. (Eds.). Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics Books 1990 25. Paffenbarger R., Hyde R., Wing A., Lee I. The association of changes in physical -activity level and other lifestyle characteristics with mortality among men. New Eng J Med. 328:538-545, 1993 26. Parcel GS, Simons-Morton BG, O’Hara NM. School promotion of healthful diet and exercise behavior. An integration of organizational change and social learning theory interventions. J Sch health 57(4) 150-156, 1987 27. Patrick D, Erickson P. Health Status and Health Policy. Quality of Life in Health Care Evaluation and Resource Allocation. Oxford University Press. New York, pp 1-26. 1993. 28. Pekkanen J. , Marti B., Nissinen A., Tuomilehto J., Punsar S., Karvonen M. Reduction of premature mortalitry by high physical activity: a 20-year follow¬ up of middle-aged Finnish men. Lancet 1:1473-1477, 1987 29. Powel K., Caspersen C., Koplan J., Ford E. Physical activity and chronic diseases. Am J Clin Nutr 49:999-1006, 1989 30. Promoiting Health/ Preventing Disease: Objectives for the Nation. Washington, D.C. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 1980. 31. Sallis JF, Simons-Morton BG, Stone EF, Corbin CB. Determinants of physical activity and interventions in youth. Med Sci Sports Exer 24 (6) S248-S255, 1992 32. Simons-Morton B., Parcel G., Baranowski T., Forthofer R., O’Hara N. Promoting healthful diet and physical activity among children: Results of a school-based intervention study. Am j Public Health 81:986-991, 1991 318 Physical Fitness and Healthy People 2000 33. Siscovick D., LaPorte R., Newman J. The disease-specific benefits and risks of physical activity and exercise. Public Health Rep 100:180-188, 1985 34. U.S. Bureau of Cencus, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1991 (11th Edition) Washington, D.C. 1991 35. Williams C., Carter B., Wynder E. Prevalence of selected cardiovascular and cancer risk factors in a pediatric population: the "Know your Body" Project, New York. Pre Med 10:235-250, 1981 36. Youth Risk Behavior Survey, National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics System, Center for Disease Control, Public Health Service. 1990 319 Francis 320 Figure 1. Year 2000 goals for improving health status related to chronic diseases that are linked to physical inactivity. Physical Fitness and Healthy People 2000 321 Figure 2. Year 2000 goals related to coronary heart disease risk reduction through an increase in physical inactivity and sound nutritional practices. Increase Percentage of School Physical Education Class Increase Percentage of Children and Adolescents 7yme Qf Grades 9-12 Spent in Physical Activity Who Participate in Daily School Physical Education Francis CO r w £. O r 0) 0) "O (0 0 322 Figure 3. Year 2000 goals related to coronary heart disease reduction through an increase in physical activity in a school setting. Physical Fitness and Healthy People 2000 323 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 4, October 1993. 1993 Membership Roll by Section SECTION I BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Abee Christian R. Adams, Caroline Allan, Mary Ann Angus, Robert Appel, Arthur G. Beasley, Philip G. Beddingfield, Steven Bej, Asim K. Benford, Helen H. Best, Troy L. Beyers, Robert J. Bilbo, Thomas Bishop, Charles D. Bonds, Eldon D. Bowen, William R. Bradley, James T. Braid, Malcolm Breslin, Paul J. Broker, Thomas R. Brumlow, William B. Bryan, Patrick J. Buchanan, James V. Buckner, Richard L. Campbell, P. Samuel Carey, Steven D. Carter, Gregory A Cassell, Gail H. Casteel, Renee Chava, Kiran Chow, Louise T. Christopher, Gayle K. Clements, Ben A. Coley, Matthew W. Conway, Rebecca P. Curl, Elroy A Davenport, L. J. Denton, Tom E. Diamond, Alvin R., Jr. Diener, Urban L. Dindo, John Dixon, Carl Dobson, Terri L. Dodd, Thomas H., Ill Doeller, Jeannette E. Dorai-Raj, Susila Dusi, Julian L. Dusi, Rosemary D. Dute, Roland R. Eckroth, Marianne C. Emert, George H. Finley, Sara C. Folkerts, Debbie R. Folkerts, George W. Frandsen, John G Freeman, John D. French, Elizabeth Garstka, William Goodman, Steven R. Graves, Sharon M. Gudauskas, Robert T. Haberyan, Kurt A Haddock, Randall C. Haggerty, Thomas M. Hardy, Michael E. Hasan, Asfa S. Hayes, Chad Henderson, James H. Higginbotham, Jeri W. Higgins, Bryan L. Hileman, Douglas R. Hilyer, Barbara M. Hines, Gene A Holland, Richard D. Holliman, Dan Huffman, Donna H. Hunter, Eric Ivey, William D. Jandebeur, Thomas S. Jenkins, Ronald L. Johnson, Adriel D. Kittle, Paul Koopman, William J. Kraus, David W. Landers, Stephen C. Lartey, Robert Law, Robert M. Lee, Chi-Ying Lindsay, David S. Lisano, Michael E. Lishak, Robert S. Long, Calvin L Marion, Ken Roy Marshall, John E. Mathew, Saramma T. Mayne, Jeffrey McClintock, James B. McCollum, Bob McKee, Dorothy W. McKinney, Rose B. McLaughlin, Ellen W. Meacham, Connie A Meade, Mark E. Milly, Kat Mirarchi, Ralph E. Modlin, Richard F. Moore, Debra S. Moore, Jack H. Moore, Teresa Kelley Moriarity, Debra M. Mullen, Gary R. Myers, Lawrence J. Nancarrow, D. V. Nance, Marione E. Nelson, David H. Nelson, Fannie Newton, Gary L. Niedermeier, William O’Brien, Jack O’Hare, Sean P. Ogunbiyi, Peter O. Orban, Joseph I. Ottis, Kenneth Parks, Larry Parmalee, Paul W. Peterson, Curt M. Pierson, J. Malcolm Piller, Sabine Poirier, Gary R. Powell, Mickie L. Pritchett, John F. Quindlen, Eugene A Ramsey, John S. Raymond, Charles B. Regan, Gerald T. Reid, Robert R., Jr. Richardson, Terry Richardson, Velma B. Riley, Thomas N. Robinson, George H. Rostand, Katherine Rovatti, Bernardino Schnuelle, Karan A 324 Membership Roll Schwaner, Terry D. Gajiwala, Himansu M. Whitt, Carlton D. Shea, Catherine Gaunder, Robert Sheetz, Jim Gerdom, Larry SECTION III Shew, H. Wayne Gray, Gary M. GEOLOGY Shipp, Linda Haggard, James H. Alexander, Joe Singh, Narendra K. Hamilton, Tracy Batum, Melissa Spencer, Elsie Hayes, Edward Bearce, Denny N. Steedley, Dwight Hazlegrove, Leven S. Brande, Scott Strada, Samuel J. Ihejeto, Godwin Brosheer, Clinton J. Strickland, Richard C. Isbell, Raymond R. Carrington, Thomas J. Thompson, Larry E. Jotani, Kishor P. Coker, Janet Thompson, W. Joseph Kiely, Donald E. Cranford, Norman B. Thomson, Sue Kirkland, Dawn R. Dean, Lewis S. Truelove, Bryan Koons, L. F. Grimes, Jonathan Vawter, Nancy V. Krannich, Larry K. Henson, Sharon Venglarik, Charles J. Lambert, James L. Joiner, Thomas J. Walker, J. H. Lammertsma, Koop Jones, Tracy Watson, R. Douglas Ludwick, Adriane Kopaska-Merkel, David Watts, Stephen A. Lumpkin, Richard S. Kugler, Ralph Webber, Cliff Madura, Jeffry D. Lamb, James P., Jr. Wilkes, James C. Mahaffy, C.A.L Lamoreaux, P. E. Williams, Carol S. Mays, J. W. McMillan, Richard C. Williams, John W. McDonald, Nancy C. Neilson, Michael J. Wilson, Mack A. Moeller, Michael Powell, William Wilson, Thomas H. Morris, Philip E., Jr. Rheams, Karen F. Wit, Lawrence C. Morton, David W. Rindsberg, Andrew K. Zehren, Steven J. Mountcastle, William Salpas, Peter A Muccio, Donald Savrda, Charles E. SECTION II Muller, John H. Skotnicki, Michael C. CHEMISTRY Murray, Thomas P. Stock, Carl W. Arendale, William F. Nikles, David E. Thurn, Richard L. Asouzu, Moore V. Patil, Rahul D. Wolf, Lorraine W. Barrett, William J. Peters, Henry B. Beal, James B. Quagliano, Lidia M. SECTION IV Beasley, James Radel, Robert J. FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, Beck, Mary Jim Rawlings, Jill CONSERVATION, AND Bezoari, Massimo D. Riordan, James M. PLANNING Brouillette, Wayne J. Rohrer, Shirley Brown, Mary A. H. Salter, Edward A Aldridge, Amy Bugg, Charles E. Setzer, William N. Baucom, Thomas F. Cappas, Constantine Shakhashiri, Bassam Z. Boyer, William Chang, Ki Joon Sheridan, Richard C. DeVall, Wilbur B. Chastain, Ben B. Small, Robert Gibbs, George S. Coble, Dwain Tenney, Linwood P. Hall, Claudette Dillion, H. Kenneth Thomas, Joseph C. Harrison, Deborah Dove, Mary Frances Thomaskutty, Mary G. Henderson, H. A Dwarakanath, Ramesh Thompson, Davis H. Henderson, Jeffrey Ekman, Thomas A Thompson, Wynelle D. Hicks, David R. Finkel, Joe M. Watkins, Charles L. Himmler, Frank N. Finley, Wayne H. Webb, Thomas R. Holland, Mark Fisk, James D. Wells, David Holland, Priscilla Friedman, Michael E. Wheeler, G. P. Jeane, Gregory 325 Membership Roll Keys-Mathews, Lisa McAllister, William K Patterson, Emily F. Richetto, Jeffrey P. Rivizzigno, Victoria Stribling, H. Lee Tang, R. C. Taylor, Roger Thornton, Frank C. Venable, Ben Webster, Gerald R. Wilson, Deborah SECTION V PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS Aggarwal, Manmohan D. Alford, William L. Angelette, Clarence Baksay, Laszlo Barry, Hubert G. Bateman, B. J. Bauman, Robert P. Bearden, T. E. Beiersdorfer, Peter Berry, Daniel L. Boardman, William Byrd, Gene G. Cargal, James M. Carnevali, Antonino Carr, Paul Case, Jan O. Castillo, Oreste Chao, Chi-Chin Christensen, Charles Clark, R. Kent Clauelli, Louis J. Colvett, Robert Dee Comfort, Richard Constantine, Gavin Curott, David R. Dennis, Kim Destito, Lou Dubard, James L. Easterday, Kenneth Epting, Anthony M. Essenwanger, Oskar M. Forte, Aldo Furman, W. L. Gallagher, Dennis Gibson, Faison P., Sr. Gilbert, Crystal Glotfelty, Henry W. Harrigan, Lament Harrison, Joseph G. Hawk, James F. Hayes, Cathy Helminger, Paul Herring, Richard D. Horsfield, Christopher Howell, Kenneth B. Johnson, Gregory L. Johnson, Marcus Jones, Shomari Jones, Stanley T. Knight, Martha V. Lang, Victor L. Lester, William Lundquist, Charles A. Massey, Judy Massey, Julia E. Melton, Emily Y. Memauri, Haghdad Miyagawa, Ichiro Moore, Carey Myers, David L. Norwood, Dana L. Omasta, Eugene Plaatjie, Lungile Polan, Marvin Pompey, Christina R. Reid, William J. Reisig, Gerhard Robbins, Toby L. Roberts, Thomas G. Robinson, Edward L. Rolle, Anthony Ruffin, Paul B. Russell, Randy D. Rutlege, Steve Sharma, P. C. Shealy, David L. Shipman, Jerry R. Sibley, W. A. Smith, Micky Stamper, Archie L. Stewart, Dorathy A. Sulentic, J. W. Swinney, Kenneth R. Tan, Arjun Varghese, S. L. Ward, Alicia R. Warren, Cynthia G. Werkheiser, A. H., Jr. Wheeler, R. E. Wilbert, Caren L. Wilkinson, E. L. Wills, Edward L. Wise, Mack A. Woodson, Althea F. Young, John H. Zalik, Richard A. SECTION VI INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS Absher, Keith Alderman, C. Wayne Alexander, Paulette Bobo, James R. Briegel, Charles V. Buettner, Georgia Carpenter, Sandra Cheng, William Clark, Joy L. Crawford, Gerald Durham, Sandra K Ferry, Jerry W. Free, Veronica Gatlin, Keny P. Geer, William D. Gibson, Dennis W. Griffin, Marsha D. Heacock, Marian V. Holmes, Mac R. Jackson, Leslie T. Jones, Morris Koehler, William F. Lacy, Wayne Lisano, Brinda Mathew, Tom Rahimian Eric Sauser, W. I., Jr. Stewart, G. T. Suwanakul, Sontachai Viohl, Frederick A. Willhardt, John A. SECTION VII SCIENCE EDUCATION Allen, Diane E. Anderson, Trudy S. Baird, Bill Beavers, Theresa Bigham, Betty 326 Membership Roll Caudle, Sandra I. Croft, Paul J. Earnest, Nancy M. Fish, Frederick P. Froning, Michael George, Joseph D. Henrikson, Matthew T. Honnell, A. H. Kastenmayer, Ruth W. King, Mary N. Kyzar, Patricia Landers, John I. Ludwick, Larry M. Martin, Bill Mcalpin, Thomas Nall, Jane O’Brien, James M. Rainey, Larry Reynolds, Barbara S. Riggsby, Dutchie S. Riggsby, Ernest D. Rowsey, Robert E. Scott, Kandice Shepard, Susie H. Shumaker, Anne W. Smith, Edie J. Smith, Karl Dee Stover, Lynn M. Sunal, Dennis W. Warren, Bertie M. SECTION VIII BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES Ahrens, Pamela K. Barty, Peter F. Baskett, G. Dale Bates, Larry W. Brown, David C. Buckalew, L. W. Cantrell, Clyde H. Dunkelberger, John E. Gentle, Paul Hanks, Lawrence J. Haynes, Mike Hudiburg, Richard A. Johnson, James A. Kressley, Konrad M. Lechtreck, Roy Lee per, James D. Longnecker, Gesina L. Longnecker, Herbert E. Luskin, Joseph Mance, Angelia L. Norton, Emily G Mabry, Helen Osterhoff, William E. Paramore, Mary W. Taylor, Karen V. Vocino, Thomas Webber, Avery Weber, B. G Wheelock, Gerald C. Yeager, J. H. SECTION IX HEALTH SCIENCES Awtrey, Janet S. Banga, Ajay K. Barker, Samuel B. Baugh, Charles Beaton, John M. Beck, Lee R. Bennett, J. Claude Boerth, Robert C. Boots, Larry R. Brasfield, Milton S. Briles, David E. Britton, LaCrecia Brown, Jerry W. Bubien, James K. Buckner, Ellen Carlisle, Joan B. Clark, Grace L. Clelland, Jo Conary, Jon T. Cornwell, P. E. Cosper, Paula Cotton, Alisha L. Cusic, Anne Dansak, Daniel A. Darling, James L. Davis, Lloyd L. Davis, Richard Davis, W. R. DeRuiter, Jack Devivo, Michael J. Drummond, Lawrence C. Edwards, Margaret Elgavish, Ada Emerson, Geraldine M. Foster, Portia French, James H. Gardner, W. A., Jr. Gatrey, Lana Gaubatz, Jim W. Gibson, Deborah E. Gilbert, Fred Goldman, Corey Gwebu, Ephraim T. Hall, Sharon Harbin, Barbara R. Hefelfinger, David Henderson, Mary C. Herbert Donald Houserman, Virginia Jones, Allison B. Jones, Walter J. Joubert, Charles E. Katz, Judd A Keith, Robert E. Kilbum, Freda L. Kleinstein, Robert Knopke, Harry Lamon, Eddie W. Mann, Jean B. McCaleb, K. Alberta McCallum, Charles Miller, Donald M. Morgan, Alice H. Navia, Juan M. Owen, Joel S. Parsons, Daniel L. Peny, Nelson Phillips, J. B. Pieroni, Robert E. Pirkle, James A Pittman, James A, Jr. Poole, Victoria L. Reed, Linda Rodning, Charles B. Roush, Donald Rudd, Steven Schnaper, Harold W. Shoemaker, R. L. Skalka, Harold W. Smith, Anne C. Smith, Myra A Streit, Linda A Thompson, Jerry Tulli, C. George, Jr. Vacik, James P. Vezza, Anne E. Waddell, Stewart D. Waites, Ken B. 327 Membership Roll Walker, Brenda S. Warner, Cassandra Weese, Jean O. Westerfield, R. Carl White-Williams, Connie Wiggins, Stephanie Wilborn, W. H. Wilson, Graeme Winters, Alvin L. Zorn, George, Jr. SECTION X ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE Anumolu, Vivek Barrett, John Bayram, Zeki Oguz Beck, Oscar Brullman, August W. Bryant, Barrett Carter, William D. Carter, Zachary Craig, Thomas F. Craig, Thomas F. Dean, Susan T. Feinstein, David L. Freed, Latasha K. Garza, Gene G. George, Anthony E. Hayes, R. M., Jr. Hearn, William H. Hendrix, T. Dean Hendry, Wickliffe B. Hilyer, William A. Hollis, D. L., Jr. Jacobs, Paul L. Jones, Michael V. Kim, Hiryoung Krishnamraju, P. V. Kurzius, Shelby C. Li, Li Mitchell, Kenneth Moore, Roderquita Muthukrishnan, Prakash Natarajan, Sridhar Nichols, Roy J. Parker, Donald L. Parrott, Jerold Pitt, Robert E. Raju, P. K. Rindt, Donald W. Rogers, Montina Shaffer, Harry B. Sloan, Kenneth Sprague, Alan P. Taplin, Venzula D. Thomas Asedrick Thomas, Robert E. Venkatapathy, Chandrasekaran Vitton, Stanley Walters, J.V. Wisniewski, Raymond B. Workman, Gary L. SECTION XI ANTHROPOLOGY Driskell, Boyce N. Henson, B. Bart Hill, Cassandra Holstein, Harry O. Lumpkin, Rebecca N. Miller, Jill H. Mistovich, Tim Nance, C. Roger Oths, Kathryn Rhinehart, Gregory Rowe, Bobby Runguist, Jeannette Spry, Marla Jo Stine, Linda Strain, Susan C. 328 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 64, No. 4, October 1993. INDEX Aarons, David J . 79, 83 Abdullah, M . 74 Absher, Keith . 130, 132, 133, 139 Accounting information systems use among Shoals area manufactures . 132 Acrosome reactions in caput epididymal sperm . 79 Activity based costing: a revolution in cost accounting . 140 Adolescent female alcohol and other drug use . 152 Aggarwal, M. D . 126 Ahlstedt, Steven A . 98 Ahrens, Pamela K . 149 Al-N, Al-P, and Al-As compounds, use of RA1H to prepare . 106 Alabama’s health objectives for the year 2000: getting from here to there . 272 Aldose reductase inhibitors derived from fungi, structure- inhibition studies . 110 Aldose reductase inhibitors, n-benzoylaminophenylsulfonylamino acids . 109 Aldridge, Amy . 124 Alemayehu, M . 88 Alexander, James G . 131, 137, 138 Alexander, Paulette . 131, 134 Allison, Matthew . 73 Americans with disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, corporate perceptions of . 133 Andreoni, Mark . 129 Angular momentum in n dimensions . 127 Angus, R. A. . 93 Anumolu, Vivek . 154 Aquatic environment, experiments and demonstrations to increase students’ understanding of . 141 Arbor, Ann . 95 Archaeological pedestrian survey of portions of Northeast Alabama, 1992 . 164 Archaeological status in Alabama . 164 Archaeology of Old French Mobile . 163 Archie, S . 86 Armadillo in southern Alabama, seasonal dietary habits of . 84 Armed forces humanitarian missions, recent U.S . 144 Aromatase mRNA in rat granulosa cells, effects of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFa) on . 256 329 Index Artz, Lynn M . 257 Asouzu, Moore U . Ill, 112, 113 Attachment protein of respiratory syncytial viruses: relevance to vaccine design . 251 Australian crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus : optimization of growth in hatchling . 100 Authigenic quartz, norphlet sandstone, cathodoluminescence in . 117 Autistic disorder, CT, MRI, and r-CBF SPECT findings in . 254 Bachman’s sparrow ( Aimophila aestivalis ), nest-site selection, nest construction and nest entrance orientation in . 97 Bacillus thuringiensis, parasporal inclusions . 85 Ballard, Kimberlyn . Ill, 113 Barrett, Charles . 138 Barty, Peter F . 143 Base course materials, permeability of in Alabama . 155 Battered women, beliefs of emergency department nurses about . 153 Bayran, Zeki . 161 Bearce, Denny N . 116, 183 Bearden, T. E . 80 Beddingfield, Steven D . 102 Bej, A. IC . 77, 82, 89, 90, 91, 93 Bemker, Mary . 152 Benthic macroinvertebrates, species diversity of . 75 Benzil crystals grown by the Czochralski technique . 128 P -glucuronidase competitive inhibition from human synovial fluid . 89 Bezoari, Massimo D . 113 Bhat, K . 126 Biegler, Beth E . . . 79, 83 Biggs, Dwayne . 95 Bilbo, Thomas E . 141 Biotic survey of Village Creek, Jefferson Co . 76 Biotic survey of Cane Creek, Calhoun Co . 80 Biotic survey: of Jones Branch, Cleburne Co . 76 Bishop, C.D . 103 Bishop, Sherry L . 122 Bishop, Sue C . 147 Biswas, P. K. . 88 Blackstone, E. H . 250 Blair, Benjie G . 77 Blose, Anthony . ' . 126 Boardman, William J . 127 Book review, aquatic pollution . 246 Boots, Larry R . 147, 150 Bradley, James T . 74, 97 330 Index Bradshaw, H. S . 139 Brannon, Vicki . 150 Breastfeeding support emotional and informational, during the hospital postpartum stay . 153 Broomfield, James . 136 Brown, Sarah . 132 Bryan, Patrick J . 87 BSN programs, Delphi survey to identify attributes necessary for faculty to proclaim clinical competence . 149 Buchanan, James V . 90 Buckner, Ellen B . 148, 150 Business schools, what business wants college to teach . 130 C+ +, parallelization aspects of . 157 Calculus instruction in Alabama’s secondary schools . 18 Caldwell, Cathy . 150 Camp nursing for BSN student experiences . 150 Campbell, P. S . 83, 144 Carbonate rocks, Madison County, Alabama, tracer-dye techniques and ground-water flow in . 114 Carbonate rocks in Madison County, Alabama, environmental and engineering geology of . 114 Carbonate porosity classification . 115 Cardon, Betty . 136 Carey, Steven D . 142 Carnevali, Antonino . 126 Carpenter, Sandra S . 129, 130 Carwile, Jo . 134, 135 Cave development by seepage weathering in Pottsville Sandstone, Birmingham . 183 Cecchettini, A. . 74 Census data to support university needs in statistical mapping . 123 Central plank road; Montgomery to Winterboro . 166 Challenger learning center: developing a high-tech corridor in Alabama . 134 Chang, Hsien-cheng . 159 Chang, K. J . 126 Chappelow, Thomas E . 164 Chava, Kiran . 82 Chen, Xinhaua . 105 Chert pits to determine paleostream channels . 119 Children, troubled . 143 Chiral cyclitols, intermediates in the preparation of . 108 Christopher, G . 78 Chu, Da-Chang . 147 331 Index Cilia, monoclonal antibodies against Tetrahymena lowoffi . 82 Clark, C. Randall . 34, 49 Claxton, Jason . 118 Cold tolerance response, Vibrio cholerae . 82 Colvin, M . 251 Comfort, Richard H . 125, 127 Computer users’ stress, gender differences in . 145 Computer-based interactive demonstrations in physics . 126 Conner, A. . 128 Conway-Myers, B. A. . 256 CORAL (concurrent object-oriented applications language) . 159 Coronary reactive hyperemia and myocardial stunning . 250 Crawford, Gerald . 130, 132, 135, 139 Crayfish species, isoelectric focusing of total proteins in . 101 Crayfishes (Decapoda: Cambaridae) of Cahaba River system, burrowing . 90 Cretaceous birds of Alabama . 88 Crocker, Margie S . 135 Curriculum burden . 141 Currott, David R . 127 Cusic, Anne M . 92 Cutler, Horace G . 110 Dacso, Clifford C . 209 Danner, Omar K. . 255 Das Vishnu, B . 74 Das Vishnu, M . 74 Davis, R. Alan . 110 Dean, Lewis S . 115 Debro, LaJoyce H . 85 Deluna’s Coosa revisted . 162 DeRuiter, J . 34, 49, 110 DeVall, Wilbur B . 118 Digemess, S. B . 250 Disabilities, salivary testosterone in children with and without . 144 Doeller, Jeannette E . 98 Dogmatism and Fiedler . 138 Domensino, Marietta . 108 Dorai-Raj, Susila . 97 Dove, Mary Francis . . . 142 Dow, Jean . 133 Dowdle, Curry . 73 Down syndrome, fetoplacental markers in relation to race, maternal age, and weight . 147 Downtowns, renewed popularity of . 118 332 Index Duff, James A . 165 Durham, Sandra K . 140 Dwarakanath, Ramesh . 156 Easterday, Kenneth E . 18 Echinoderm body wall extracts, bioactive properties of . 87 Echinoderms in marine communities: role of steroids . 96 Echinoid Lytechinus variegatus Lamarck, recovery of gametogenic activity following nutrient deprivation . 103 Eckroth, Marianne C . 102 Ecosystems of the Bankhead National Forest, effects of clearcutting on . 122 "Ecstasy" (MDMA), synthesis, stability and analytical profiles of, derivatives of . 34 El-Sayed, Ashraf . 155 Elimia acutocarinata, lea (Mollusca: Gastropoda), ecology of . 86 EM radiation, cumulative biological effects . 80 Emmerth, Phillip . 99 Enzyme amplification, reduction of quinone at an enzyme- modified glassy carbon electrode . 113 Enzyme amplification, glucose oxidase/glucose dehydrogenase cycle . Ill Epidermal growth factor levels, estrogen effects . 83 Epoxy resin, new fluorine-containing . 110 Epps, Mary . 133 Error bounds for power series, geometric series development of . 126 Estradiol and testosterone in the circulation, protein- bound and unbound fractions of . 150 Estridge, B. H . 74, 82 Estrildid finches, domestic populations . 77 Estrogens in echinoderms . 75 Ethanol production technology . 120 Ferrill, Benjamin A. . 119 Ferry, Jerry W . 140 Fetuin: a zona mimic . 83 Fletcher, J. Raymond . 209 Floyd, Matthew . 73 Flying squirrel ( Glaucomys volans) in Alabama, population ecology of . 95 Folkerts, George W . 104 Follicle-specific protein, stick insect . 74 Foster, Portia . 152 Francis, Kennon . 312 Frank, Gerald . 85 Free, Veronica A . 135, 139 333 Index Freshwater snail, Helisoma sp., effects of salinity on the development and reproduction of . 92 Friedman, Michael E . 89 Fuzzy expert systems and neural nets, framework for integrations of . 155 Gajiwala, Himansu M . Ill Garner, Jeffrey T . 99 Garner, Trevor W . 127 Gaschen, Brian K. . 101 Gatlin, Kerry P . 138 Gatrey, Lana D . 153 Gauthier, Joseph J . 87 Generations--gap or gulf? . 138 Geography majors, educational requirements of the GIS industry . 122 George, B . 83 George, Joseph D . 73, 104, 159 German, Nina S . 81 Gibson, Dennis W . 140 Giorgi, F . 74 Glasscock, Lorraine . 129, 130 Goodson, Linda . 272 Gopher tortoise, burrow of . 87 Graham, Eva . 107 Graves, Sharon . 89 Gravitational theory, pseudo-Newtonian arising from energy density considerations . 91 Gravitationally induced oscillatory motion, Newton through Einstein . 81 Greening, Loma A. . 160 Griffin, Marsha D . 137, 138 Grissom, Rhonda . 122 Gyrographics: visualizing solids in calculus . 125 Hack, Steven R . 163 Haggerty, Thomas M . 97 Hajduk, Stephen . 252 Hall, Claudette P . 121 Hamilton, Tracy P . 112 Happiness, self-descriptive correlates of . 145 Harris, Crystal . 146 Harrison, Debbie . 119 Hart, S . 86 Hartzell, Matthew D . 164 Hasan, A. S . 84 Hataway, Jack . 290 334 Index Hatten, Suzie . 87, 95 Healthy people 2000, physical fitness and . 312 Healthy Alabama 2000 objectives, progress toward nutrition-related . 299 Healthy Alabama 2000 objectives: a 1992 review . 290 Heine, John . 101 Henderson, Jeffrey S . 123 Herbivore generalist, opportunistic carnivore? . 94 Heterogametic sex in mosquitofish, repetitive DNA sequences associated with . 93 Hiccups: occasional severe clinical implications . 147 Higginbotham, Jeri W . 77 Hileman, D. R . 88 Hines, Gene A. . 75, 84, 96 Holland, Priscilla . 124 Holstein, Harry 0 . 162 Hopkins, Thomas S . 87, 96, 102 HPLC separation of acetylcholine and choline, immobilization of choline oxidase and acetylcholinesterase on glyceryl- coated CPG and its application to . 112 Hudiberg, Richard A. . 132, 145, 149 Huluka, G . 88 Hunter, Eric . 253 Hutchinson, Francine . 76 Hypomagnesemia, clinical implications of . 146 Ibrahim, Taleb . 107, 109 Image study of a regional university . 132 Imagery: a potential possibility . 124 Index . 330 Interval graphs, two path problem on . 158 Jackson, James . Ill Jacobsen, P . 104 Jacyno, John M . 110 Jail classification: an important change . 167 James, Ann S . 136 Jamshidi, Hossein . 131 Johnson, Jacqueline U . 81 Johnson, Adriel D . 81, 85 Johnson, Jacqueline U . 85 Jones, D. D . 90 Jones, L. Faye . 160 Jones, Richard E . 100 Jones, T. Morris . 132, 145 Josephson, Eleanor . 235 335 Index Joubert, Charles E . 145 Kay, Michael . 94 Kelley, Christopher . 151 Kelly, Clayton . 130 Keratan sulfate proteoglycan in Alzheimer’s disease, potential role of . 255 Keys-Mathews, Lisa . 122 Kiely, Donald E . 108 Kilburn, Freda L . 153 Kim, Hiryoung . 158 Kirkland, Dawn . 113 Kirklin, J. W . 250 Kirkpatrick, S. W . 144 Klein, C. M . 256 Koerper, Phillip E . 166 Koopman, Mark C . 116 Kopaska-Merkel, David C . 1, 115, 246 Krannich, L . 106 Kraus, David W . 98 Krishnamraju, P. V . 155 Kugler, Ralph L . 117 Kyzar, Patricia . 151 Lagrone, C . 106 Laird, Kelley . 153 Lamb, James . 88 Land development, storm-discharge non-aggravation for . 158 Landslide characterization in Huntsville . 116 Languages, denotationa! semantics for objects oriented . 156 Law, R. M . 90 Lee, Chi-Ying . 93 Lee, Richard G . 104 Leopold, Rachael . Ill Lester, Rick A . 129, 130 Li, Li . 157 Lill, Duncan W . 254 Lindly, Jay . 155 Lindsay, David S . 96 Linguistic knowledge, object-oriented representation of . 157 Linking education and economic development (LEED) a prototye . 136 Lisano, Brinda . 136 Lolley, Terry . 166 Ludvigsen, S. Michael . 209 Ludwick, Adriane G . 105, 107, 109, 110 Ma, Keqin . 109 336 Index Mackie, Gerald L . 79 Magazine advertisements, high technology complexes as portrayed in . 123 Mahaffy, Christopher A L. . 105 Management styles: perceptions of British managers . 139 Management listening skills . 140 Mance, Angelia . 123 Mansfield, Shawn . Ill, 112, 113 Marion, Ken R . 75, 78, 87 Marshall, Elaine . 150 Mason-Pfizer monkey virus, purification of the gp70 subunit of . 253 Massey, Judy E . 125 Mathew, Tom . 137 Mathis, Milton . 107 Mayo, M . 82 McClintock, James B . 78, 86, 87, 94, 96, 101, 102 McMahon, Robert F . 92 Meacham, Connie A . 81 Meade, M. E . 94, 100, 101 Mechanics, visualization of . 154 Medical centers, socioeconomic constraints upon academic . 209 Membership Roll . 325 Menon, Govind K . 81 Mental health care, relationship between perceived stress, somatic complaints, self-esteem, motivation, and job satisfaction in . 149 Mesoderm induction in Xenopus, review of the critical events leading to . 235 Methamphetamine derivatives, clandestine synthesis . 49 Methane gas wells, archaeological survey of 11 . 164 Michelini, Chuck . 272 Microfossils from the Talladega Slate Belt, Aabama, scanning electron microscope study . 116 Microlithic data from the Bottle Creek site . 166 Micronuclei, induction in Chinese hamster cells . 74 Middle school science teaching, shoulder-top computer as a prime tool in . 159 Milliken, Kitty L . 117 Mineral production in Aabama . 115 Minutes . 168 Mitchell, Virginia M . 105 Modlin, Richard F . 99, 102 Molar Mass, microscale determination by mixed melting points . 113 337 Index Monosubstituted benzenes, accurate NMR parameters in . 108 Moore, Debra S . 75 Moore, J . 88 Moriarity, D. M . 83 Morton, David W . 108 Moser, Paul H . 114 Mountz, James M . 254 Mousel, Katherine A. . 83 Muth, Kenneth M . 95 Muthukrishnan, Prakash . 156 Nanney, Jimmy R . 105 Natarajan, Sridhar . 158 National debt . 137 Navidad River wreck (41-JK-9): historical and construction aspects of early steam vessel . 165 Nelson, David H . 84, 87, 95 Ng, Wee-Yao . 77 Nielson, Michael J . 183 NMR spectra of aromatic compounds, prediction of using statistical methods . 105 Noggle, F. T . 34, 49 North American free trade agreement . 135 Nurse administrators in baccalaureate nursing programs, managerial roles of middle . 151 Nursing students, math anxiety among undergraduate . 148 Nursing students, codependency in junior and senior . 152 Nursing and non-nursing groups, Manova modeling of personal history, social readjustment, and premenstrual assessment for . 194 Object-target matching problem, hybrid neural network implementation of strategy selection for solving . 154 Ogburia, Sylvanus S . 129, 133, 136 Olander, C . 104 Oligochaetes, temporary pond . 102 Osmoregulatory race with C. sapidus, portunid crab species Callinectes similis . 98 Osterhoff, William E . 167 Padgett, Sandra . 113 Pancreatic organ culture system: embryonic chick . 81 Paramore, Mary W . 141, 143 Pardo stone: a genuine artifact . 162 Parker, C. R . 256 Parks, Larry . 126 Patel, Praful G . 93 Patil, Rahul D . Ill 338 Index Patton, David C . 103 Peace ballot in England . 143 Pearson, Charles E . 165 Perihelion advances, effects of gravitational field energy density and solar oblateness on . 103 Perry, A. J . 91 Phenylcarbene, theoretical studies on the rearrangement of . 112 Photosynthesis of sweet potato, effects of elevated levels of carbon dioxide and nitrogen on . 88 Pica: pathophysiology and case reports . 151 Pieroni, Robert E . 100, 144, 146, 147, 151 Piller, Sabine C . 98 Pine beetles in bankhead, satellite imagery to detect . 121 Pitcher plant, Sarracenia rubra subsp. gulfensis, conservation status of the gulf red . 104 Pitts, Charlotte A . 194 Plant action potentials, preliminary observations on . 104 Plasma heating in the Earth’s ionosphere . 127 Poirier, Gary R . 79, 83 Poisson’s equation via spreadsheet . 127 Polycarbosilane synthesis, influence of boron on . 107 Polycarbosilanes, phenyl-containing . 109 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based detection of Salmonella spp . 90 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), detection of Corynebacterium jeikeium in blood by . 91 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in distinguishing live and dead bacterial cells . 89 Polynucleotide analog, synthesis from hydroxyethylthymine and poly(acrylyl chloride) . 107 Polynucleotide analogs, hypochromicity of uracil- and 5-fluorouracil-containing . 105 Potter, H. Downing . 150 Powell, Mickie L . 101 Pram models and algorithms, asynchronous . 158 Pregnancy: women experiencing a chronic illness during . 145 Prehistoric settlement pattern change in Central Oktibbeha County, Mississippi . 166 Presidential debates, geography of the 1992 . 120 Programming paradigms, integrating functional, logic and object-oriented . 161 pSa nuclease gene, expression in Escherichia coli . 77 Pulmonate gastropod physella cubensis and Australian crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus, polyculture of . 94 339 Index Pulmonate snail Physella cubensis, growth, food consumption, egg mass deposition, and embryogenesis in . 86 Quadrula metanevra (unionidae), reproductive biology of . 99 Rahimian, Eric N . 120 Rainforest, living in . 122 Reddy, V. S . 250 Reference streams between ecoregions, comparison using rapid bioassessment protocols . 99 Reid, Bill . 162 Ren, Jianxin . 110 Renal transplant recipients, relationship between hope and self-esteem in . 148 Retail pricing policies: a comparison of theory and practice . 133 Rheams, Karen F . 114 Rhinehart, Gregory C . 164 Rice, Robert T . 165 Richards, Phil G . 127 Richardson, V. B . 74 Riggsby, Ernest D . 73, 104, 159 Roberts, Susan . 253 Robinson, S. L . 144 Rodning, Charles B . 209 Romano, Frank A. . 76, 80, 86 Roseman, Jeffrey . 272 Russian Federation: an overview of the market economy . 139 Samir, Uri . 125 Sampson, Jacinda . 253 Satellites, ground receiving station for NOAA and GOES . 124 Schauer, Steven . 106 Schiff s bases for nonlinear optics . 126 Schloesser, Don W . 95 Science olympiad in Alabama . 142 Sea cucumber ( Cucumaria ferrari), reproduction and population biology of an antarctic brooding . 101 Sea star astropecten articulatus, prey electivity in . 102 Sex steroids, biosynthesis in the echinoid Lytechinus variegatus (lamarck) . 84 Sexual harassment policies and procedures, characteristics of organizations with formal . 136 Sexual harassment in the shoals area, perceptions of . 129 Sexual jokes in the workplace: humor or harassment? . 129 Shaddix, Roy D . 76 Shelton, Darryl . 124 Shelton, Sue . 136 340 Index Shop scheduling in a flexible manufacturing shop . 131 Signs, their purpose, type, and use . 118 Simcity in a planning class, usefulness of . 123 Sims, Teresa . Ill Slattery, Marc . 101 Small businesses in Huntsville, continuing education needs of minority- and female-owned . 137 Small businesses in North Alabama, qualities desired in employees of . 135 Smith, Andrea . 252 Smith, Anne C . 149 Smith- Yoder, Dianne . 290 Snail predation on sand dollars . 78 Solid-waste management in Alabama, new federal regulations for municipal solid-waste landfills affect . 160 Southwood, A. . 82 Spacecraft wake, statistical analysis of ion depletion in . 125 Spermatozoa, motility and post-thaw viability of frozen buck . 85 Sprague, Alan . 158 SPSS CHAID-a new use . 140 Stanfield, M . 104 Steam bioassessment . 73 Steinkampf, M. P . 256 Stewart, William S . 130, 132 Stewart, Joseph . 113 Stover, Lynn M . 148 Strachan, R. C . 88 Struempler, Barbara J . 299 Sullender, W . 251 Sundermann, C. A. . 78, 82, 96 Suspended-growth bioscrubbers, integrated theory of . 159 Sutherland, Cynthia L . 120 Tan, A. . 128 Tax reform in Alabama . 131 Taylor, Roger . 121 Teaching science . 73 Teaching science in "included" settings . 104 Technology and arachaeology: total station use in terrestrial and underwater applications . 165 Tennessee River, influence on settlement patterns in northwest, Alabama . 123 Tetrahymena (Ciliophora), two-mouthed . 78 Thermally stable polymers, synthesis and characterization . Ill Thomas, D. L . 86, 94 341 Index Tolbert, Lelland . 254 Torrence, S. M . 74 Toxoplasma gondii from the Alabama bobcat, characterization of a new isolate . 96 Trimm, Robert . 135 Trypanosoma brucei killing by human high density lipoproteins, developmental regulation of . 252 Tumor necrosis factor (TNF): recent advances . 100 Tuple space interface, implementation of a reliable and user friendly . 156 U.S.S. Essex, Donald McKay’s . 163 U-238 series of elements, real hazards of . 106 Ubiquitinated yolk proteins in insects . 96 Vaidyanathan, Viswanathan . 157 Valaer, A. K. . 34 Van Houten, R. S . 96 Venkatapathy, Chandrasekaran . 159 Visual pore-system analysis . 1 Vitelli, Maria V . 139 Vitellin from the blue crab, polyclonal antisera against . 93 Vitton, S. J . 116, 154 Volunteer management, factors to consider when managing volunteers . 134 Voogt, Peter A . 75 Walter, James V . 158, 160 Wang, Kedi . 89 Wang, W. S . 126, 128 Ware, Maurice . 113 Warner, Cassandra F . 148 Warren, Jackie . 129 Waselkov, Gregory A. . 163 Water quality, environmental chemistry in the laboratory . 142 Watkins, C . 106, 108 Watson, R. Douglas . 93 Watts, A . 75 Watts, S. A . 84, 87, 94, 96, 100, 101, 103 Webber, Cliff . 73, 99 Webster, Gerald R . 120 Webster, Roberta Haven . 123 Weninegar, Loretta L . 80 Wester, E. E . 96 Wetlands in the urbanized area of Madison County, loss of . 121 Wetlands in Huntsville, Alabama, GIS and remote sensing analysis of . 119 342 Index Wharry, R. E . 144 Whetstone, R. David . 76, 80 White, Lisa L. . 84, 87 Whitehead, Alan . 92 Whitsett, Glee . 139 Whitt, Carlton D . 106 Wigginton, John D . 104 Williams, Selena S . 81 Wilson, Deborah . 119, 123 Wood, Brian . 133 Wood, Tim . 150 Working women, gender neutral attitudes toward . 130 Xie, Xinjian . 107 Yancey, Donna . 133 Young, J. H . 81, 91, 103 Zebra mussel infestations, control options for . 92 Zebra mussels in the Great Lakes, ecological impacts of . 95 Zebra mussels, control of . 79 Zebra mussels in the Tennessee Valley: current situation and prognosis . 98 343 Notes Notes Notes INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Editorial Policy: Publication of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms can be obtained from Dr. Larry R. 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THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE VOLUME 65 JANUARY 1 994 NO. 1 EDITOR: James T. Bradley, Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn University, AL 36849 ARCHMST: C. M. Peterson, Department of Botany, and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849 EDITORIAL BOARD: Douglas Watson, Chairman, Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 James McClintock, Department of Biology. University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Lawrence C. Wit, College of Science and Mathematics, Auburn University, Auburn. AL 36849 William Osterhoff, Department of Criminal Justice, Auburn University at Montgomery, AL 36 1 93 Publication and Subscription Policies Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow instructions to Authors (see Inside back cover). Reprints. Requests for reprints must be addressed to Authors. Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD ISSN 002-4112 BENEFACTORS OF THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The following have provided financial suppport to partially defray publication costs of the Journal. AUBURN UNIVERSITY BIRMINGHAM-SOUTHERN COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA TROY STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA TTJSKEGEE UNIVERSITY MOBILE COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA SAMFORD UNIVERSITY CONTENTS ARTICLES Long-Term Effects of Exercise on Transplantable Neoplastic Tissue Growth in Rats F. Stephen Bridges, Daniel J. Lindow, and R. Carl Westerfield. ..... 1 Additional Pleistocene Mammals from Bogue Chitto Creek, Dallas County, Alabama Steven M. McCarroll and James L Dobie. . . 16 Self- Ascribed Traits in Relation to Avowed Happiness Charles E. Joubert ...... 28 Ergonomics Applied to Forest Operations: A Cooperative Research Program Leo A. Smith, Robert E. Thomas, Jr., and Robert B. Rummer . . . . . 41 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 65, No. 1, January, 1994. LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON TRANSPLANTABLE NEOPLASTIC TISSUE GROWTH IN RATS1 F. Stephen Bridges Department of Exercise Science /Wellness Education Florida Atlantic University P.O. Box 3091 Boca Raton, Florida 33431-0991 and Daniel J. Lindow Center for Educational Research and Services Northeast Louisiana University Monroe, Louisiana 71209-0240 and R. Carl Westerfield Area of Professional Studies The University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487-0312 ABSTRACT The long-term effects of exercise upon: 1) frequency and incidence of neoplastic lesions by preselected categories, 2) number of neoplasms by morphologic type, anatomic site and weight, 3) body and selected organ weights and 4) survival experience was determined in rats receiving a transplantable pancreatic carcinoma. Seventy-two, Lewis strain rats were assigned to either an exercise or sedentary group. Exercise animals received thrice weekly aerobic training on a motorized treadmill. The pre-inoculation period was 482 days. Pre-inoculation exercise duration was 60 minutes per bout and post-inoculation was 60 minutes for the first 20 weeks, 30 minutes for the next 9 weeks and 15 minutes thereafter. Body and relative and absolute pancreas, liver, kidney, and spleen weights were statistically treated through two-way ANOVA with initial body weight as a covariate. The frequency and incidence of neoplastic lesions were measured by a visual scoring procedure. Kolomogrov-Smironov test, T-test, Chi-square and Mann-Whitney U test were utilized for statistical analysis. In addition the Lee-Desu D was employed to determine significant differences between survival curves. The exercise subjects demonstrated 'Manuscript received 9 June 1993; accepted 4 January 1994. 1 Bridges, Lindow, and Westerfield a significant greater frequency and incidence of multiple anatomic sites involved with neoplastic lesions than sedentary subjects. The exercise subjects had a significantly greater total number of discrete, fused, both discrete and fused neoplasms and different anatomic sites of fused neoplasms than sedentary controls. There were no significant differences between the groups in body weights at necropsy. Exercise subjects had significantly heavier relative liver weights than sedentary controls. Results indicated no significant differences between groups in survival rates. Exercise’s purported beneficial role in decreasing the frequency and incidence of neoplasms, limiting the number of neoplasms by morphologic type, anatomic site and weight, maintaining body and organ weights and in prolonging the survival experience in tumor-bearing rats was not demonstrated. Introduction The research concerning the effects of physical exercise in enhancing immuno- competence and resistance to tumor growth is ambiguous and conflicting. Several researchers, [1-3] have shown exercise to increase susceptibility to disease and reduce immune responsiveness in humans. Several animal studies [4-7] failed to demonstrate beneficial effects, where other studies [8-9] have shown regular aerobic exercise to improve immunologic competence and decrease susceptibility to disease. Research evidence by Hanson et al. [8] and Hedfors et al. [9] suggest that one of the ways in which exercise provides resistance to tumor growth may be by stimulating an increase in natural killer cells and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, thereby enhancing cellular immunity and host defense capacity against proliferating tumor cells. Purpose The purpose of this study was to investigate the long-term pathophysiologic effects of exercise upon frequency and incidence of neoplastic lesions in preselected categories, number of neoplasms by morphologic type, anatomic site and weight, selected body and organ weights, and survival experience of rats receiving a transplantable pancreatic carcinoma. Materials and Methods Treatment and Management of Subjects. Seventy-two male, 60 day old rats of the Lewis strain were randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups: exercise (N=36) or sedentary (N=36). The experimental cell sizes were a function of the number of running lanes available and the labor-intensive nature of the exercise regimen. The subjects were housed in identical environmental conditions: temperature 21.1°C, humidity 50%, and 12L:12D. Food and water were offered ad libitum. The subjects were fed a diet composed of standard rat food pellets (Purina Rat Chow). 2 Long-Term Effects of Exercise Sedentary subjects were assigned to standard rat cages (20.3 cm X 25.4 cm X 45.7 cm) and remained limited in physical movement throughout the study. The exercise protocol and intensity were patterned after previous research by Deuster [10] and Thompson [11]. A motor-driven treadmill with a belt speed 1.2 km/h was used to provide the physical conditioning. To ensure that the belt speed was uniform throughout course of the experiment, the treadmill was recalibrated once a month or as necessary. Exercise subjects received one week of training on the treadmill prior to the exercise treatment period to ensure familiarity and proficiency. Initially, exercise subjects received 1 hour of aerobic conditioning on a thrice weekly basis with at least one day of rest between each session. The pre-inoculation exercise regimen was 325 days in duration and commenced when subjects were about 74 days of age. Post-inoculation exercise bouts were 60 minutes in length for a time period of 20 weeks, whereafter a 30 minute regimen was adopted. After two-hundred days of post-inoculation exercise a 15 minute regimen was adopted. There were 469 total days available for the post-inoculation exercise regimen and the total amount of pre- and post-inoculation exercise conditioning possible, excluding familarity training, was 794 days. Body weights were measured every third day. If at any time during the 325 day pre-inoculation exercise conditioning period, the subjects became moribund or lost more than 15% of their maximum attained weight, then the sujects were elimi¬ nated from the study. Experience had shown that these subjects would not live. After transplantation of tumor cells, all subjects continued to receive physical condi¬ tioning until such time that the onset of hypophagia or states of weakness and fatigue were observed, or the subjects were moribund. The subjects were then forced to retire from the exercise treatment and were returned permanently to their cages. In some cases, change in motor performance on the exercise treadmill came about rather abruptly, occurring often about 1-7 days before death. The study was terminated after 794 days, when all subjects had died. The last subject to die was 868 days old. Tumor Cells and Challenge Dose. Tumor cells used for challenge were obtained from an established tumor repository (NCI-Frederick Cancer Research Facility, Frederick, MD). All rats received a suspension of minced tumor cells. The tumor used was pancreatic carcinoma DSL62-38 and was originally induced by azaserine in Lewis rats. Tumor lines were titrated in syngeneic rats and the challenge dose chosen for tumor implantation was that which grew in approximately 60% of the control rats. Implantation of tumor cells occurred after 325 days of the experimental regimen, when the subjects were 399 days old. Preparation and Transplantation of Tumor Brei. An 18-gauge needle was utilized for intraperitoneal injections of tumor brei. The donor animals were sacrificed and immersed in a 0.1% Zephiran (benzalkonium chloride) solution prior to transplantation. Tumor tissue was excised, stripped of normal fascia, and debrided 3 Bridges, Lindow, and Westerfield of any necrotic tissue prior to mincing with scissors. Small solid pieces of tumor tissue were then filtered through a sterile, 40 gauge steel mesh, by rinsing with an ice- cold (4°C) Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum. The tumor cells were briefly maintained in a sterile beaker surrounded by an ice bath. The dissociated tumor cells were counted by hemocytometer and a sufficient amount of sterile, balanced salt solution was then added to the beaker, so as to yield a 5 to 10 x 106 cells/ml of cell suspension. Viability was determined by the utilization of the trypan blue dye exclusion test. A tumor cell suspension of 1 x 10* cells, as determined by earlier titrations in control rats, was utilized as the challenge dose. A maximum of 30 minutes transplantation time was allowed. Measurement of Body and Organ Weights. Body weight at necropsy (BWN) was measured by utilization of an electronic scale. At necropsy the entire pancreas, liver, kidneys, spleen were excised and weighed on an electronic scale. Measures of the absolute weight, in grams, of the pancreas (APANWT), liver (ALIVWT), kidneys (AKIDWT), and spleen (ASPLWT) were obtained by using an electronic scale. Relative weight measures of the pancreas (RPANWT), liver (RLIVWT), kidneys (RKIDWT), and spleen (RSPLWT) were calculated by dividing the absolute organ weight by the BWN. Necropsy. Consequent to visual examination for gross pathological changes in any body organ or tissue, suspected tissue(s) were excised and the morphologic characteristics, anatomic location(s) selected weight(s) were recorded. Measurement of the Number of Neoplasms by Morphologic Type, Anatomic Site and Weight. The specific criteria utilized for determination of the number of neoplasms, morphologic types, anatomic sites and weights are as follows: Number of Neoplasms: the numerical totals for seven categories of neoplastic lesions are: (1) total number of rats with tumors (TNR); (2) total number of discrete tumors (TND); (3) total number of fused tumor masses (TNF); (4) collective total number of discrete and fused tumor masses (CTNDF); (5) total number of different anatomic sites with discrete tumors (TNDASD); (6) total number of different anatomic sites with fused tumors (TNDASF); (7) total weight of discrete tumors (TWD). Morphologic types : the intraperitoneal route of administration of tumor cells, will in a some cases, result in multiple organ masses fused by the growth of neoplastic tissue. Morphologically, these fused masses are characterized as being composed of multiple organs or tissue types, while discrete masses are considered to affect only a single body organ or primarily one tissue type. Anatomic sites: the specific anatomic location(s) of grossly visible and discrete neoplastic lesions affecting any body organs or tissues, excluding the pancreas, liver, kidney, and spleen, are recorded prior to weighing. 4 Long-Term Effects of Exercise Weights: neoplastic lesion tissue of the fused type is weighed exclusive of the organs involved. Along these same lines, some organs will have to be dissected free of fused neoplastic lesion masses, in which they had become embedded, before individual organ weights can be ascertained. Measurement of Neoplasms by Lesion Category. Testing procedures derived from previous studies [12, 13, 14] were used to detect and subjectively measure the frequency and incidence of neoplastic lesions. A subjective scale consisting of three categories of neoplastic lesions was used to measure both the frequency and incidence of neoplasms. The categories were: 1= minimum of one lesion; 2= multiple lesions of the same anatomic site (i.e., in one subject’s liver, 4 lesions); and 3=multiple ana¬ tomic sites involved with the same or different lesion(s) (i.e., in one subject a single large lesion mass enveloping the pancreas, spleen and mesentery proper or in one subject’s kidney(s), teste(s) and retroperitoneum, each organ with one or more lesions, respectively). The incidence of neoplastic lesions was determined by scoring each animal once in the category of the highest grade lesion found. In an effort to measure the multiplicity or presence of lesions of more than one category in a single subject, the frequency of lesions was determined as well, by scoring each animal, in each lesion category, every time applicable. A blind coding procedure was utilized and each specimen was graded twice, once by the investigator and once by the coinvestigator. The ranked scores were then averaged by each subject. Finally, the vasa deferentia were examined for confirmation of the vasectomy status of each specimen. Statistical Analysis. Data from BWN and organ weights were statistically treated through two-way analysis of variance with initial body weight as a covariate. Multiple comparisons of group means were performed by utilization of the Duncan method as already reported [15]. In addition, the Kolomogrov-Smirnov two-sample statistical test was utilized to further determine any significant differences between experimental groups in organ weights. Since a significant difference in an organ weight between two experimental groups may be ascribed to a higher incidence of organs demon¬ strating preneoplastic lesions or gross changes suspected of being tumors; statistical examination of the organ weights in the upper portion of the sample distribution of each of the six experimental groups was warranted. The Kolomogrov-Smirnov procedure was utilized, in a manner similar to Anderson [12], to establish the optimal cut-off point for ascertaining significant differences in organ weights. The number of organ weights equal to or greater than the derived cut-off weight were summed for each group. The frequency of neoplastic lesions by category were analyzed by the Student’s t-test (pooled variance estimate) and the incidence data of the same by utilizing Chi- square test with Yates correction for continuity. Numerical neoplastic lesion data by morphologic type, anatomic site and weight were analyzed by the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test and expressed as a probability value. 5 Bridges, Lindow, and Westerfield Two methods of survival analyses were performed. These analysis procedures were provided by the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, II. Life Tables, based on the methods of Berkson [16], produced cumulative survival rates for each of the treatment groups. Secondly, pairwise comparisons of the surviv¬ al experience for the cases in the experimental and control groups was performed using the methods of Lee [17]. For each of these two methods, two survival analyses were performed. One included all the rats in each group, the other included only those rats which developed at least one neoplastic lesion. Results Body and Organ Weight. There were no statistically significant differences in body weight between the two experimental groups at the commencement of the study. The RLIVWT mean for the exercise subjects (group 1; 28.85 +. 2.12) was significantly higher than the mean of the sedentary subjects (group 2; 26.70 ±_ 1.53). Analysis using the Kolmogrov-Smirnov statistical test found that more exercise rats than sedentary (67% versus 17%; P < 0.02) had heavier livers, relative to their body weights (sum of organ weights >27.57 gm cutoffs). Frequency and Incidence of Neoplasms By Lesion Category. The sedentary (group 2) had an frequency of neoplastic lesions of multiple anatomic sites that was significantly lower than that found among exercise subjects (group 1; p < 0.01). Similarly, the incidence of multiple anatomic sites involved with lesions among sedentary controls (group 2) was significantly lower than that found for the exercise subjects (group 1; p = 0.01). Number of Neoplasms by Morphologic Type, Anatomic Site, Weight and Histology. The numerical neoplastic lesion values for morphologic type, anatomic site and weight of the two experimental groups are presented in Table 5. Differences in the numerical lesion values were analyzed for significance using the Mann-Whitney U test. There were significant differences between the experimental groups in TND, TNF, CTNDF, and TNDASF. Data analysis by the Mann-Whitney U test of measurements of TNR, TNDASD, and TWD indicated no significant differences between groups. The exercise subjects (group 1) had a significantly greater TND, TNF, CTNDF than did the sedentary controls (group 2; p< 0.02). Similarly, a comparison between these groups for the TNDASF found the exercise subjects to have significantly more fused tumor masses (p< 0.01). Survival Experience. Post-inoculation survival ranged from 41 to 469 days with a twenty-fifth percentile of 125 days, a fiftieth percentile of 229 days and a seventy-fifth percentile of 358 days. The mean survival experience was 238 days. Utilization of the Lee-Desu D statistic revealed no significant difference in the survival curves for the two treatment groups. Further pairwise comparisons for equality of the survival curves indicated no significant differences. 6 Long-Term Effects of Exercise Table 1. Mean values of body and organ weight at necropsy Experimental Groups 1 2 Site 00 II Z N=27 BODY WEIGHT 396.2 401.7 +23.5 + 16.8 ABSOLUTE WEIGHTS Pancreas 2.62 2.88 +0.30 + 0.17 Liver 11.03 10.72 +0.68 +0.86 Kidney 3.75 3.94 + 1.03 + 1.22 Spleen 0.91 1.41 +0.18 +0.44 RELATIVE WEIGHTS Pancreas 6.70 7.16 +0.64 +0.29 Liver 28.85 26.70 +2.12 + 1.53 Kidney 10.02 11.99 +3.05 +5.25 Spleen 2.23 3.37 +0.38 +0.97 7 Bridges, Lindow, and Westerfield Table 2. Frequency of neoplastic lesions in each experimental group by lesion category. Experimental Groups" 1 2 Category of lesion (N=18) (N=27) Minimum of one lesion 17 22 Multiple lesions (same 8 8 anatomic site) Multiple anatomic sites c 12 8 a Frequency is determined by scoring each animal, in each lesion category, every time applicable. b 1 = exercise and 2 = sedentary. c Significant difference at 0.01 level utilizing T-test (pooled variance estimate). 8 Long-Term Effects of Exercise Table 3. Incidence' of neoplastic lesions in each experimental group by lesion category. Experimental groups" 1 2 Category of lesion (N=18) (N=27) Number of tumor-bearing animals 17(94)c 22(81) Minimum of one lesion 3(17) 11(41) Multiple lesions (same anatomic site) 2(11) 3(11) Multiple anatomic sites d 12(67) 8(30) a Incidences are based on scoring each animal once in the category of the most advanced lesion. Multiple anatomic sites is the most advanced lesion category. b 1 = exercise and 2 = sedentary. c Numbers in parentheses are percentages. d Significant difference at 0.01 level, utilizing Chi-square test with the Yates’ correction for continuity. 9 Bridges, Lindow, and Westerfield Table 4. Number of Neoplasms by Morphologic Type, Anatomic Site and Weight j Experimental Groups" 1 2 l No. of rats 18 27 Total No. of 17 22 rats with tumors (discrete (15/0) (22/0) /fused) Total 37 36 No.(mean) of discrete tumorsbd (2.1) (1.3) Total 3 0 No.(mean) of fused tumor massesbd (0.2) (0) Total 40 36 No.(mean) of discrete and fused tumor masses' (2.2) (1.3) Total No. of different anatomic sites with tumors (discrete/fused)d 26/3' 24/0 Total (mean) 377.1 260.0 weight of discrete tumors (gm) (21.0) (9.6) j 10 Long-Term Effects of Exercise * 1 = exercise subjects and 2 = sedentary controls. Discrete = a tumor of a single body organ or primarily one tissue type; fused = a tumor mass composed of mutiple organs or tissue types. one fused mass in one subject involving: testes, epididymus, seminal vesicles, and testes, mesentery proper and retroperitoneum and in another subject, one fused mass involving: esophagus, kidney, liver, pancreas and spleen. Significant differences at the 0.02 level using Mann-Whitney U test, corrected for ties, between groups 1 and 2 for total number of discrete tumors, total number of fused tumors and for number of different anatomic sites with fused tumor masses. Significant difference at 0.01 level between groups 1 and 2 for a collective total number (mean) of discrete and fused tumor masses. Discussion The results of this study partially support the hypothesis that exercise may exert pathophysiologic effects on the growth of transplantable neoplastic tissue. The observation that exercise subjects (group 1) had a greater frequency and higher incidence of neoplastic lesions, found in multiple anatomic sites, as compared to sedentary subjects (group 2) would appear to indicate that exercise may accelerate transplantable neoplastic tissue growth. Similarly supportive of such a detrimental effect was the finding of a greater TND, TNF, CTNDF, TNDASF in exercise subjects as compared to sedentary controls. These findings were in agreement with an investigation by Thompson [11], who while using rats, noted that treadmill exercise increased the frequency and incidence of chemically-induced cancer. In contrast, earlier rat and mouse studies [18-23] provided evidence of exercise-induced inhibition of tumor growth, despite considerably shorter experimental time frames. These studies reported that physical exercise either inhibited the growth of transplantable tumors or the incidence of chemically-induced or spontaneous tumors. Similarly conflicting, are more recent investigations [10, 24-29] that have shown prolonged endurance exercise to reduce tumor size and incidence in mice and rats. The results regarding the lack of significance of BWN were unexpected as the mean necropsy weight of the exercise subjects (group 1) was no different than that of sedentary controls (group 2). Exercise subjects (group 1) were able to preserve their body mass as well as sedentary controls (group 2). Any effects on tumor host metabolism by exercise may be related to these findings, but do not explain why the BWN of the exercise subjects (group 1) were not significantly heavier than that of sedentary controls (group 2). Longnecker [30] reported the growth of intraperitoneal transplants of pancreatic tumor tissue in the small bowel mesentery, omentum, retroperitoneum, and in the region of the pancreas in Wistar/Lewis rats. In addition, 11 Bridges, Lindow, and Westerfield these researchers reported that preneoplastic lesions appeared to be metastatic in the livers and spleens of their subjects, with large intraperitoneal masses also observed at necropsy. In the current study, most of the the large intraperitoneal neoplastic tissue masses were categorized as multiple anatomic sites involved with neoplastic lesions. The exercise group demonstrated a significant greater frequency and incidence of neoplastic lesions involving multiple anatomic sites than did the sedentary group. Similarly, the exercise subjects (group 1) had a greater number of TND, TNF, CTNDF, and TNDASF as compared to the sedentary subjects (group 2). However, despite these significant quantitative and qualitative differences in neoplastic lesions, TWD differences between the exercise and sedentary groups were not found to be statistically different. Usually, tumor-bearers gain weight when the tumor grows large enough, although the carcass invariably loses weight [31]. In the present study, the reasons for the lack of BWN differences between the exercise subjects (group 1) and the sedentary subjects (group 2) seems inconsistent with previous research [31]. It is unclear as to why the TWDs were not significantly heavier in the exercise subjects (group 1) as compared to the sedentary controls (group 2). In the past neoplastic growth has been used as an indicator of the effects of stress on immunocompetence. Promotion of experimental tumor growth as a consequence of stress has been noted [32-33]. Exercise-induced stress has been shown to produce increased plasma concentrations of adrenal corticocoids with consequent impairments to cell-mediated and humoral immunity [34]. Another study reported an increase in tumor frequency and progression among stressed rodent and murine models [32]. Ferry [7] found chronic, treadmill-exercise to induce immunomodulations in rats and speculated that the impairment of some measures of cell-mediated immunity were initiated by the release of cortico-steroids. This may be possible explanation for the failure of exercise to exert any beneficial effect(s) on the growth of transplanted neoplastic tissue in rats. The increase in RLIVWT in the exercise subjects (group 1) as compared to the sedentary subjects (group 2) was accompanied by large standard errors indicating that organ weights varied considerably within these groups. Extrapolation of the findings of Woustersen [14] suggest that this variability may be due to a gross changes suspected of being tumor. The survival experience was not significantly different in any of the two groups within the 807 day experimental time frame. Significant differences in mortality among the experimental groups could have affected the overall neoplastic lesion inci¬ dence. Conclusion In conclusion, exercise’s beneficial role in decreasing the frequency and incidence of neoplasms, limiting the number of neoplasms by morphologic type, anatomic site 12 Long-Term Effects of Exercise and weight, maintaining body and organ weights and in prolonging the survival experience in tumor-bearing rats was not demonstrated. Considering that recent animal research has provided some evidence of a possible link between exercise and selected cancers, the present study should provide impetus for continued longitudinal studies of potential risks. References 1. F. Blecha and H. C. Minocha. Suppresed lymphocyte blastogenic responses and enhanced in vitro growth of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus in stressed feeder calves. Am. J. Vet. Res. 44: 2145-2148 (1983). 2. M. P. Reyes and A. M. Lemer. Interferon and neutralizing antibody in sera of exercised mice with coxsackievirus B-3 myocarditis. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 151: 333-338 (1976). 3. B. Gatmaitan, J. L. Chason and A. M. Lemer. Augmentation of the viru¬ lence of murine coxsackievirus B-3 myocardiopathy by exercise. J. Exp. Med. 131: 1121-1124 (1970). 4. A. E. Cabinian, R. J. Kiel, F. Smith, K. L. Ho, R. Khatib and M. P. Reyes. Modification of exercise-aggravated coxsackievirus B-3 murine myocarditis by T lymphocyte suppression in an inbred model. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 115: 454-462 (1990). 5. J. R. Simpson and L. Hoffman-Goetz. Exercise stress and murine natural killer cell function. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 195: 129-135 (1990). 6. M. A. Pahlavani, T. H. Cheung, J. A. Chesky and A. Richardson. Influence of exercise on the immune function of rats of various ages. J. Appl. Physiol. 64: 1997-2001 (1988). 7. A. Ferry, B. Weill and M. Rieu. Immunomodulations induced in rats by exercise on a treadmill. J. Appl. Physiol. 69: 1912-1915 (1990). 8. P. G. Hanson and D. K. Flaherty. Immunologic responses to training in conditioned runners. Clin. Sci. 60: 225-228 (1981). 9. E. Hedfors, G. Holm and B. Ohnell. Variations in blood lymphocytes during work studied by cell surface markers, DNA synthesis and cytoxicity. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 24: 328-335 (1976). 10. P. A. Deuster, S. D. Morrison, R. A. Ahrens. Endurance exercise modifies cachexia of tumor growth in rats. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 17: 385-392 (1985). 13 Bridges, Lindow, and Westerfield 11. H. J. Thompson, A. M. Ronan, K. A. Ritacco, A. R. Tagliaferro and L. D. Meeker. Effect of exercise on induction of mammary carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 48: 2720-2723 (1988). 12. D. J. Anderson, N. J. Alexander, D. L. Fulgham, and J. L. Palotay. Spontaneous tumors in long-term vasectomized mice: increased incidence and association with antisperm immunity. Am. J. Pathol. Ill: 129-139 (1983). 13. T. J. Curphey, E. T. Kuhlmann, B. D. Roebuck, D. S. Longnecker. Inhibition of pancreatic and liver carcinogenesis in rats by retinoid-and selenium-supplemented diets. Pancreas 3: 36-40 (1988). 14. R. A. Woutersen, A. van Garderen-Hoetmer, J. Bax and E. Scherer E. Modulation of dietary fat-promoted pancreatic carcinogenesis in rats and hamsters by chronic coffee ingestion. Carcinogenesis 10: 311-316 (1989). 15. D. B. Duncan. Multiple range tests for correlated and heteroscedastic means. Biometrics 13: 164-174 (1957). 16. J. Berkson and R. Gage. Calculation of survival rates for cancer. Proc. Mayo Clinic 25: 270-274 (1950). 17. E. Lee, M. Desu. A computer program for comparing K samples with right-censored data. Computer Progs. Biomed. 2: 21-35 (1972). 18. S. A. Hoffman, K.E. Paschkis, D.A. DeBias, A. Cantarow and T. L. Williams. The influence of exercise on the tumor growth of transplanted rat tumors. Cancer Res. 22: 597-599 (1962). 19. O. Muhlbock. Influence of environment on the incidence of mammary tumors in mice. Acta-Unio. Int. Contra Cancrum 7: 351-353 (1951). 20. H. A. Rashkis. Systemic stress as an inhibitor of experimental tumours in Swiss mice. Science 116: 169-171 (1952). 21. H. P. Rusch and M. S. Kline. The effect of exercise on the growth of a mouse tumor. Cancer Res. 14: 116-118 (1944). 22. W. S. Bullough. The effects of high and low temperature on the epidermal mitotic activity of the adult male mouse, Mus musculus. J. Exp. Biol. 26: 76-81 (1949). 23. C. Moore, P. W. Tittle. Muscle activity, body fat and induced rat mammary tumors. Surgery 73: 329-332 (1973). 14 Long-Term Effects of Exercise 24. H. W. Lane, P. Teer, R. E. Keith, M. T. White, S. Strahan. Reduced energy intake and moderate exercise reduce mammary tumor incidence in virgin female B ALB/c mice treatrd with 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene. J. Nutr. 21: 1883-8 (1991). 25. P. L. Daneryd, L. R. Hafstrom and I. H. Karlberg. Effects of spontaneous physical exercise on experimental cancer anorexia and cachexia. Eur. J. Cancer 26: 1083-1088 (1990). 26. P. A. Deuster. Effect of exercise on muscle turnover in cancer cachexia. College Park, MD: University of Maryland; Dissertation, 1982. 27. G. deRosa and N. R. Suarez. Effect of exercise on tumor growth and body composition of the host. Fed. Proc. 3: 1118, (1980). 28. R. A. Good and G. Fernandes. Enhancement of immunologic function and resistance to tumor growth in BALB/c mice by exercise. Fed. Proc. 40: 1040 (1980). 29. R. C. LaBarba. Experiential and environmental factors in cancer: a review of research with animals. Psychosom. Med. 32: 259-276 (1970). 30. D. S. Longnecker, H. S. Lilja, J. French, E. Kuhlmann and W. Noll. Trans¬ plantation of azaserine-induced carcinomas of pancreas in rats. Cancer Letters 7: 197-202 (1979). 31. G. Costa, and J. F. Holland. Effects of Krebs-2 carcinoma on the lipid metabolism of male Swiss mice. Cancer Res. 22: 1081-1083 (1962). 32. V. Riley. Psychoneuroendocrine influences on immunocompetence and neoplasia. Science 212: 1100-1109 (1981). 33. L.S. Sklar and H. Anisman. Stress and coping factors influences tumor growth. Science 513-515 (1979). 34. F. S. Bridges and L.E. Thomas. The immunomodulatory effect of measured physical exercise: implications for eustress and the wellness model. LAHPERD J. 49: 37 (1987). 15 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 65, No. 1, January, 1994. ADDITIONAL PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS FROM BOGUE CHITTO CREEK, DALLAS COUNTY, ALABAMA1 Steven M. McCarroll Department of Geology Field Museum of Natural History Chicago, IL 60605-2496 Dr. James L. Dobie Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science Auburn University, AL 36849-5414 Abstract Collections of Pleistocene vertebrate fossils from Bogue Chitto Creek, located in the coastal plain of Alabama in Dallas County yielded 14 taxa of mammals not previously known from these deposits: Holmesina septentrionalis, Dasypus bellus, Megalonyx jeffersonii, Glossotherium harlani, Vulpes vulpes, Carnivora indeterminate, Castoroides ohioensis, Castor canadensis, Ondatra zibethicus, cf. Lepus sp., Equus sp., Tapirus veroensis, Odocoileus virginianus and Artiodactyla indeterminate. Previously, only Elephas imperator, Mammut americanum, and Equus leidyi had been reported from these deposits. Based on these additional taxa, the age of these deposits, previously thought to be Aftonian, is here revised to the Rancholabrean. The taxa reported here indicate that during the time of deposition winter conditions were no cooler than those at present. In addition, habitat including forests, wetlands and a significant amount of grassland was present. Introduction In the summer of 1985, the authors began collecting vertebrate fossils from an unnamed Pleistocene alluvium along Bogue Chitto Creek, in Dallas County, Alabama (Figure one). Hay (1923) reported Elephas imperator, Mammut americanum and Equus leidyi from Bogue Chitto Creek and it was our hope that a more diverse fauna could be collected. Collection efforts yielded a total of 15 taxa: Holmesina septentrionalis, Dasypus bellus, Magalonyx jeffersonii, Glossotherium harlani, Vulpes vulpes, Carnivora indeterminate, Castoroides ohioensis, Castor canadensis, Ondatra zibethicus, Lepus sp., Equus sp., Tapirus veroensis, Odocoileus virginianus, Artiodactyla indeterminate and Mammut americanum. In addition, numerous unidentified specimens were found. All specimens have been catalogued in the collection of the Auburn University Museum of Paleontology (AUMP). 'Manuscript received 8 August 1993; accepted 22 November 1993. 16 McCarroll and Dobie Figure 1. Map showing study area in relation to Selma, Alabama. Detail shows localities (solid triangles) along Bogue Chitto Creek. U. S. Highway 80 is shown near the top of the detail map. Localities near the Southern Railroad tracks were reached by parking along Dallas County Road 3 and walking along the tracks to the creek. Bogue Chitto Creek is approximately 19 kilometers long with its head waters in Perry County, Alabama, and its mouth in Dallas county, Alabama where it enters the Alabama River. Approximately 6 kilometers from its headwaters, Bogue Chitto Creek becomes incised into the underlying Mooreville and Demopolis Chalks. No fossil material was found upstream from this point. In addition, no fossil material was found down stream for approximately the last 6 kilometers of the stream. 17 Additional Pleistocene Mammals Collection efforts were concentrated on four productive sites along the creek (Figure one). All fossil material was found on streambed gravel bars or within the stream banks. Material from the banks was collected by screening bulk-sediment samples. These sediments are fluvial and are assumed to represent older deposits of Bogue Chitto Creek. In addition to the Pleistocene mammals; turtles and a snake, Pleistocene freshwater gastropods and macro-plant detritus, as well as reworked Late Cretaceous vertebrate bone and invertebrate steinkems were found. Because the majority of specimens from Bogue Chitto Creek were found in streambed gravel bars it is assumed that the fossils had been reworked at least once. In addition, the incomplete nature of the material screen-washed from the stream banks also indicates at least one reworking episode. The reworked nature of the specimens indicates that temporal mixing from several different time periods may have occurred. At present, no taxon whose temporal range ends prior to the Sangamonian has been recovered from Bogue Chitto Creek. This indicates that if temporal mixing has occurred, it is limited to Sangamonian through Recent time. The fossils are more common within streambed gravel bars than in the stream banks. The concentration of fossils within the streambed probably occurs as the creek meanders across its flood plain (Behrensmeyer, 1982). The sudden appearance of fossils downstream is thought to represent the stream cutting into the first sediments that contain Pleistocene fossils. Upstream from this point the stream reworks more recent sediments. Systematics Order Edentata Holmesina septentrionalis AUMP 3263 AUMP 3263 is a dermal scute assigned to H. septentrionalis based on its overall size and morphology. It compares well with those reported by James (1957). Dasypus bellus AUMP 3222, 3173, 3209, 3277, 3214 Thirteen dermal scutes are assigned to D. bellus, they resemble the scutes of extant D. novemcinctus but generally are larger. Kippel and Parmalee (1984) report overlap in the size of small D. bellus and large D. novemcinctus scutes. A plot of scute thickness versus width (Figure two) shows that specimens reported here fall well within the range of D. bellus (see Martin, 1974; Klippel and Parmalee, 1984). 18 McCarroll and Dobie 14 12 _ 10 E E, X 8 l- Q £ 6 4 2 0 Figure 2. Scute width versus thickness for Dasypus bellus dermal scutes. Symbols as follows: triangles = individual scute from AUMP collection; circle = Irvingtonian composite; diamond = Bancan composite; square = Rancholabrean composite; star = Dasypus novemcinctus Recent composite. Non-AUMP data taken from Klipple and Parmalee (1984). Magalonyx jeffersonii AUMP 3245 AUMP 3245 is a partial tooth assigned to M. jeffersonii based on its simple trapezoid shape and its internal structure. The teeth of M. jeffersonii are simple box like trapezoids compared to the simple, but more convoluted, teeth of Glossotherium harlani. The internal structure consists of an inner cementum, two layers of dentine and one enamel layer. In contrast, G. harlani possesses only one dentine layer (Stock, 1925). Glossotherium harlani AUMP 3179, 3180, 3203 All materials of G. harlani is represented by postcranial elements. They include a mesocuneiform (3180), and phalanx I (3203, 3179). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 THICKNESS (mm) 19 Additional Pleistocene Mammals Order Carnivora Vulpes vulpes AUMP 2955 AUMP 2955 is an edentulous right dentary missing the posterior portion of the ramus. The specimen is referred to V. vulpes based on its general shape and measurements (length of tooth row minus canine = 53.0 mm; depth of dentary at M/3 = 14.8mm), which fall within observed ranges (Anderson, 1968). Vulpes vulpes is extant in the study area but AUMP 2955 has the same general degree of preservation as most non-dental fossil material and is not thought to represent recent input to the stream. Carnivora indeterminate AUMP 3238 AUMP 3238 is an isolated terminal phalange. This specimen is well preserved and is not thought to represent recent input to the stream. This, however, cannot be definitively shown. Order Rodentia Castoroides ohioensis AUMP 3259 AUMP 3259 is an incisor fragment. The grooved incisors of C. ohioensis are diagnostic for the recognition of the species (Martin, 1969; Erickson, 1962). The fragment is small, but shows five grooves one of which is noticeably wider than the others. Castor canadensis AUMP 3172, 2971 Castor canadensis is extant in the study area and represented here by a LM/lor2 (3172) and RM/lor2 (2971). These specimens have the same degree of preservation as the other fossil teeth and are not thought to represent recent input to the stream. 20 McCarroll and Dobie Ondatra zibethicus AUMP 2959, 2969 AUMP 2959 is an isolated M2/, AUMP 2969 is the anterior half of a LM/1. Both specimens were compared to recent O. zibethicus dentitions and slight differences were seen. In the recent material reentrant angles are slightly more narrow and the buccal salient angle and the lingual salient angles are smaller. Both of these features, however, are highly variable and AUMP 2959 falls within this variation. In addition, measurements of AUMP 2959 (L=4.0mm, W=3.1mm, H- 11.0mm) fall within measurements reported for O. zibethicus (Stephens, 1960). Order Lagomorpha cf. Lepus sp. AUMP 2948 Distinguishing between isolated dental material of Lepus and Sylvilagus is difficult. High variability in the dentitions, even at the generic level, make confident identifications elusive. Comparisons with recent material show Lepus to be larger and thus more like AUMP 2948 than to recent Sylvilagus. Six other isolated lagomorph teeth were recovered but cannot be confidently identified to the generic level. AUMP 2948 is most similar in size and morphology to L. americanus but is also morphologically similar to L. townsendii and L. alleni. Order Perissodactyla Equus sp. AUMP 2957, 3241, 3253, 3166, 3167, 3181 Numerous teeth, tooth fragments and an isolated terminal phalange are represented. Hay (1923) reported Equus leidyi from Bogue Chitto Creek based on a single tooth. We refrain from making any species-level identification (see Kurten and Anderson, 1980, p.283) as the sample size of complete teeth is small. Tapirus veroensis AUMP 2942, 2966, 3169, 3170, 3171, 3198, 3215, 3216, 3217, 3244, 3284, 3285, 3286, 3945, 3946 Simpson (1945) recognized two common eastern North American species of tapir, T. veroensis and T. copei. Tapirus copei was erected by Simpson (1945) to 21 Additional Pleistocene Mammals replace the name T. haysii, then used for the larger easter North American species. Simpson (1945) argued that ambiguous use in the published literature of T. haysii and questionable locality data of the type specimen justified doing so. This change in nomenclature was observed until Ray and Sanders (1984) re-erected T. haysii after re-establishing the locality of the type specimen. Here we followed Ray and Sanders (1984) in the differentiation of T. veroensis and T. haysii. Table one gives length and width measurements for all post-canine upper tapir teeth recovered from Bogue Chitto Creek. The measurements are within the observed ranges published for T. veroensis (Ray and Sanders, 1984; Lundelius and Slaughter, 1976; Simpson, 1945) and indicate that all teeth belong to T. veroensis rather than T. haysii. Table 1 Dental measurements for specimens of upper molars of Tapirus veroensis. AUMP # Position PW AW L 2966 LM3/ 23.2 27.4 24.2 3170 LM1/ 24.5 27.4 23.1 3171 LM2/ 24.1 29.2 26.1 3198 LP2 / 21.4 19.8 18.0 3215 LM1/ 23.9 25.6 22.0 3216 RP?/ 23.4 .... .... 3244 RM3/ 21.3 26.9 23.7 3284 RP3/ 21.7 22.3 18.7 3957 LP4/ 23.5 24.2 20.4 Order Artiodactyla Odocoileus virginianus AUMP 3168, 3197, 3292, 3295, 3825 These specimens compare well to Recent specimens of O. virginianus. The degree of preservrtion (lighter in color, softer roots) of one specimen (AUMP 3168) indicates that it n. ay be a more recent addition to the streambed. 22 McCarroll and Dobie Artiodactyla indeterminate AUMP 3175 AUMP 3175 is a partial lower molar. This specimen is too large to be Odocoileus and is probably a camelid. The fragmentary nature of the specimen limits its identification. This specimen is well preserved and is not thought to represent recent input to the stream. This, however, cannot be definitely shown. Order Proboscidea Mammut americanum AUMP 3178, 3199 AUMP 3199 is a first metatarsal and AUMP 3178 is a first terminal phalange. These elements are assigned to M. americanum based on their overall size. Measurements are as follows: AUMP 3 199, L=98.9mm, W=70.8mm; AUMP 3178, L= 52.5mm, W= 67.6mm. In addition to these two elements, numerous enamel fragments in the AUMP collection are assigned to M. americanum. Conclusion Hay (1923) assigned an Aftonian age to the deposits along Bogue Chitto Creek based on the presence of Elephas imperator, Mammut americanum, and Equus leidyi. The Elephas imperator specimen reported by Hay (1923) is an incomplete lower left molar. We have not examined this specimen by question its identification based on the current practice of not assigning species level identifications to isolated Mammuthus molars (Maglio, 1973; Kurten and Anderson, 1980; Roth, 1989). At present there are four recognized North American species of Mammuthus: M. meridionalis, M. columbi, M. jeffersonii, and M. primigenius. Elephas imperator has been synonymized with Mammuthus columbi (Kurten and Anderson, 1980). The temporal range of M. columbi is middle Irvingtonian through middle Rancholabrean, still consistent with Hay’s assignment of an Aftonian age. Alternatively, the specimen may belong to M. jeffersonii which is thought to be Wisconsinan in age. We have discovered no new Mammuthus material from Bogue Chitto Creek and consider Hay’s assignment of his specimen to E. imperator as insupportable. Hay’s (1923) assignment of an isolated upper right molar to Equus leidyi is also thought to be insupportable. Current practice once again avoids species level identifications based on isolated equid molars (Kurten and Anderson, 1980). In addition, E. leidyi is itself poorly supported as a distinct species (see Hay, 1913) and is probably synonymous with another more common species of Equus. The addition taxa reported here allow the age to be revised to the Rancholabrean. The known temporal distributions for the taxa reported here are shown in Table 2. The presence of Megalonyx jeffersonii and Tapirus veroensis allow 23 Additional Pleistocene Mammals the age to be narrowed to the Rancholabrean (temporal ranges taken from Kurten and Anderson, 1980). Table two shows the absence of taxa with last occurrences prior to the Sangamonian, this indicates to us that deposition of these deposits probably occurred after the Illinoian. Deposition of Pleistocene stream deposits along the Gulf Coastal Plain most like occurred during marine transgressions (Webb and Wildens, 1984). Marine transgressions occurred during glacial to interglacial transitions, with such a transition occurring in the latest Wisconsinan. Table 2 Temporal distributions for all taxa reported here. Letters at rop represent standard North American Land Mammal "Age" and glacial-interglacial terminology. Abbreviations as follows: IR V= Irvingtonian NALMA, RAN = Rancholabrean NALMA, N=Nebraskan, A=Aftonian, K=Kansan, Y=Yarmouthian, I=Illinoian, S=Sangamonian, W= Wisconsinan, R=Recent JEY _ RAN. TAXA N A K Y I s w R Holmesina septentrionalis X X X X X X X Dasvpus bellus X X X X X X Meealonvx ieffersoni X X X Glossotherium harlani X X X X X X Vulpes vulpes X X X Castoroides ohioensis X X X X X X Castor canidensis X X X X X X X X Ondatra zibethica X X X X Lepus sp. X X X X X X X X Equus sp. X X X X X X X Tapirus veroensis X X Odocoileus virginianus X X X X X X X X Mammut americanum X X X X X X Alternatively, the absence of taxa with last occurrences prior to the Sangamonian may be an artifact of preservation, collection or both. In addition, many of the taxa listed in table two have first occurrences prior to the Sangamonian and their presence may be due to reworking of older deposits. The fauna reported here suggests that several ecological habitats were close to the site of fossil preservation. Ondatra and Castor are known to inhabit wetlands (Nelson and Semken, 1970; Chapman and Feldhamer, 1982). Likewise, Castoroides is inferred to occupy the same habitat. Tapirus is known to occur in wooded or grassy habitats as long as water is abundant (Hershkovitz, 1954). The abundance of Equus 24 McCarroll and Dobie remains indicates that grass lands, suitable for grazing were present. In addition, many other taxa (Mammut) are known or inferred to at least occasionally inhabit grasslands. The presence of D. bellus is believed to indicate mild winters ("no more severe that is found in North Central Texas today") with rainfall greater than twenty inches per year (Slaughter, 1961). Just as a more precise age assignment is prevented by the probability of reworking in the past, so to the presence of contemporary ecological habitats may be an artifact of reworking. Acknowledgments We thank Dr. David King, Dr. Gary Mullen, Daryl Anderson, Joan McCarroll, Jeff Gaston, Edward Hooks, Christopher Leary, Kerry Nester, David Reynolds, and Alan Mullen for their help in collecting fossil vertebrates from Bogue Chitto Creek. We appreciate the review of the manuscript by Drs. Troy Best and Craig Guyer of Auburn University. We thank Dr. Bruce Patterson (Department of Zoology) of the Field Museum of Natural History for the examination of recent mammal specimens in his care. We thank Elaine Zeiger for typing portions of the manuscript. We thank an anonymous reviewer whose comments greatly improved the manuscript. Literature Cited Anderson, E. 1968, Fauna of Little Box Elder Cave, Converse County, Wyoming: The Carnivora. Univ. Colo. Stud. Ser. Earth Sci. 6:1-59. Behrensmeyer, A. K., 1986, Time resolution in fluvial vertebrate assemblages. Paleobiology, 8:211-227. Chapman, J. A., and Feldhamer, G. A., eds., 1982, Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Economics. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1147 p. Erickson, B. R., 1962, A description of Castoroides ohioensis from Minnesota. Minnesota Academy of Science, Proceedings, 30:7-13. Hay, O. P., 1913, Notes on some fossil horses, with descriptions of four new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 44:569-594. Hay, O. P., 1923, The Pleistocene of North America and its vertebrated animals from the states east of the Mississippi River and from the Canadian provinces east of longitude 95°. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 322:1-499. Hershkovitz, P., 1954, Mammals of northern Colombia, preliminary report no. 7: tapirs (Genus Tapirus ), with a systematic review of the American species. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 103:469-496. 25 Additional Pleistocene Mammals James, G. T., 1957, An edentate from the Pleistocene of Texas. J. Paleont. 31:796- 808. Klippel, W. E., and Parmalee, P. W., 1984, Armadillos in North American late Pleistocene contexts, pp. 149-160 in Genoways, H. H., and Dawson, M. R., eds, Contributions in Quaternary Vertebrate Paleontology: A Volume in Memorial to John E. Guilday. Special Publications of Carnegie Museum of Natural History, n. 8. Kurten, B., and Anderson, E., 1980, Pleistocene Mammals of North America. Columbia University Press, New York, 442 p. Lundelius, E. L., Jr., and Slaughter, B. H., 1976, Notes on American Pleistocene tapirs, pp. 226-243 in Churcher, C. S., ed., Essays on Paleontology in Honor of Loris Shano Russell. Royal Ontario Mus., Life Sci. Misc. Publ. Athlon. Maglio, V. J., 1973, Origin and evolution of the Elephantidae. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. NS 63(3): 1-149. Martin, R. A., 1969, Taxonomy of the giant Pleistocene beaver Castoroides from Florida. J. Paleont. 43:1033-1041. Martin, R. A., 1974, Fossil mammals from the Coleman ILA fauna, Sumpter County, pp. 35-99 in Webb, S. D., ed., Pleistocene Mammals of Florida. University Presses of Florida, Gainesville. Nelson, R. S., and Smken, H. A., 1970, Paleoecological and stratigraphic significance of the Muskrat in Pleistocene deposits. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 81:3733-38. Ray, C. E., and Sanders, A. E., 1984, Pleistocene tapirs in the eastern United States, pp. 283-315 in Genoways, H. H., and Dawson, M. R., eds., Contributions in Quaternary Vertebrate Paleontology: A Volume in Memorial to John E. Guilday. Special Publication of Carnegie Museum of Natural History, n.8. Roth, V. L., 1989, Fabricational noise in elephant dentitions. Paleobiology. 15(2): 165- 179. Simpson, G. G. , 1945, Notes on Pleistocene and Recent tapirs. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 86:37-81. Slaughter, B. H., 1961, The significance of Dasypus bellus (Simpson) in Pleistocene local faunas. The Texas Journal of Science, 13:311-315. Stephens, John J., 1960, Stratigraphy and paleontology of a late Pleistocene basin, Harper County, Oklahoma. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 71:1675-1702. 26 McCarroll and Dobie Stock, C., 1925, Cenozoic gravigrade edentates of western North America with special reference to the Pleistocene Megalonychidae and Mylodontidae of Rancho La Brea. Carnegie Institute Washington Publication 331:1-206. 27 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 65, No. 1, January, 1994. SELF-ASCRIBED TRAITS IN RELATION TO AVOWED HAPPINESS1 Charles E. Joubert Department of Psychology University of North Alabama Box 5255 Florence, AL 35632 Abstract Several situational and dispositional predictors of happiness have been previously reported by investigators. This research explored the relationship between self-attribution of traits and the avowal of happiness. Initially, 84 persons rated the desirability of 21 traits, including happy, then, 216 different subjects completed a questionnaire in which they rated themselves on these same 21 traits using six-point Likert scales. Also, each subject completed the Social Desirability Scale. The results indicated that happier men and women tended to report themselves as being more relaxed, aggressive, cooperative, self-confident, trusting, and sociable; but less timid and introverted. Happier men described themselves as being more practical, religious, conventional, tolerant, and studious; but less cynical and self-centered. Happier women described themselves as being less lazy. These results suggest that happier people tend to describe themselves in more positive terms; however, they do not indicate whether happier people are that way because they possess more desirable traits and fewer undesirable traits, or whether happier people are more self- tolerant. Since self-attributions do relate to happiness, it is possible that psychotherapies which encourage more favorable ones should increase happiness in the recipient. In his Nicomachian Ethics , aristotle concluded some 2300 years ago that humans seek happiness more than anything else. In subsequent years there have been many theories of happiness and prescriptions for its attainment. There is a natural tendency to look for situational determinants of that desired state; some of the situational variables that have been found to impact on happiness are presented in Table 1. An emphasis on situational determinants of personality may result in an equation of seeking happiness through obtaining pleasure and avoiding pain. Jeremy Bentham essentially adopted this view in his Utilitarianism political movement (Hergenhahn, 1993). A most primitive form of hedonism may be described as sensualism. 'Manuscript received 14 September 1993; accepted 5 January 1994. 28 Joubert Table 1 Situational Factors Correlated with Happiness Situation Direction of More Happiness Reference 1. Friendship Having more friends Larson, 1978 2. Love Being/having a lover Braiker & Kelley, 1979 3. Unemployment Not being unemployed Warr & Payne, 1982 4. Marriage Being married Veroff, Douvan, & Kulka, 1981 5. Leisure Enjoying more Campbell, Converse, & Rodgers, 1981 6. Physical attractiveness Being more attractive Bersheid & Walster, 1974 7. Personal competence Being more competent Headey & Wearing, 1976 8. Pay/salary Receiving more Argyle, 1987 9. Promotion opportunities Having more available Argyle, 1987 10. Social class Belonging to a higher social class Warr & Payne, 1982 11. Health Being healthier Okun, Stock, Haring, & Witten, 1984 12. Age Being youthful Kuhlen, 1948 13. Parents’ happiness Parents being happier Wilson, 1960 14. Family adjustment Having better adjustment Wilson, 1960 15. Occupational status Having higher status Inkeles, 1960 A problem with equating happiness with obtaining pleasure and avoiding pain is that people tend to readjust their assessments of the positive or negative hedonic tone of situations based upon what they have become accustomed. Even more troublesome is the idea from the opponent-process theory of acquired motivation 29 Avowed Happiness which suggests that frequently indulged pleasures tend to become less pleasurable with time (Solomon, 1980). This notion would necessarily cast doubts on the long¬ term efficacy of strategies for seeking happiness through sensual means alone: in order to keep constant the apparent magnitude of sensual pleasure, some corres¬ ponding increase in the objective magnitude of the sensory experience would be necessary. Some persons, notably Epicurus, have counseled seeking happiness through the avoidance of pain rather than through the active pursuit of pleasure. He advocated living a life of moderation and detachment from worldly affairs (Copleston, 1964). Leading this life of moderation reduces the likelihood of many of the problems of adaptation that would stem from sensualism, including the opponent processes that modify pleasures and pains. However, it is hard to delineate where moderation ends and excess begins. Still, this view might effectively dissuade persons from adopting more extreme styles of pleasure-seeking, such as through alcohol, food, drug, or sexual excesses. It is also noteworthy that one of the noble truths of Zen Buddhism asserts that unhappiness is caused by craving (Mikulas, 1978). In fact, the Zen Buddhist philosophy regarding happiness prescribes withdrawal from the endless cycle of desire and satisfaction and desire again. Other approaches to happiness have stressed the importance of dispositional factors (traits). As Table 2 indicates, many of these have been identified. Among the many significant predictors of a person being happy is having higher self-esteem, being extroverted, being optimistic, believing that one has strong control over one’s life, and having a self-image that is closer to one’s ideal self. Several of these variables are aspects of the self-concept (Wylie, 1979). Of particular interest is the report by Wilson (1967) that happier people had smaller discrepancies between their ideal selves and their self-images. Happier people should, therefore, evaluate themselves more favorably. Earlier Laxer (1964) presented some evidence supporting this notion. The purpose of this research was to study possible relationships between reported self-perceptions and subjective assessments of personal happiness. We tentatively hypothesized that happier people would report themselves in the more favorable direction on traits. A possible confounding factor in this research is that persons’ self-ratings may be affected by the social desirability motive (Crowne and Marlowe, 1964). Accordingly, this study also looked into the relationship between social desirability and happiness and tried to control this extraneous variable. Method Initially 59 women and 25 men rated a list of 21 traits that were selected by the researcher as to their desirability using a five-point scale in Likert format (5: very desirable, 3: neutral; 1: very undesirable). 30 Joubert Table 2 Personality Traits Correlated with Happiness Trait Direction of More Happiness Reference 1. Self-esteem Higher self-esteem Campbell, 1981 2. Introversion- Extraversion Being more extraverted Costa, McCrae, & Norris, 1981 3. Self-image and ideal self Having less discrepancy Wilson, 1967 4. Optimism Being more optimistic Matlin & Gawron, 1979 5. Neuroticism Being less neurotic Costa & McCrae, 1980 6. Loneliness Less loneliness Peplau & Perlman, 1982 7. Locus of control Internal locus of control Diener, 1984 8. Religiousness Being more religious Wessman, 1956 9. Self-consciousness Being less self- conscious Watson, 1930 10. Aspiration level Having a modest level Wilson, 1960 11. Evenness of temper Being more even- tempered Sailer, 1931 12. Self-descriptions Having more favorable ones Laxer, 1964 13. Attitudes toward time Having more positive attitudes Wessman & Ricks, 1966 14. Psychological reactance Having less reactance Joubert, 1990 A different set of 137 women and 70 men college students from general psychology classes anonymously and voluntarily participated as subjects: most were in the 18- to 25-year-old range, and about 90% were Caucasian. Each person filled out a questionnaire performing self-ratings on the same 21 traits including happiness, using a six-point scale in Likert format for each (0: very much unlike me; 5: very much like me). 31 Avowed Happiness Additionally, each person responded to the 33-item Social Desirability Scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1964). This scale measures the need for approval, a motive to present oneself in a favorable light to other people. An example of an item from this scale is "I never resent being asked to return a favor." Sixteen additional persons were eliminated due to their failure to rate themselves on all of the self-descriptors or to complete the Social Desirability Scale. Results A trait was deemed "desirable" or "undesirable" if its mean desirability rating was significantly greater than or less than 3.00, respectively. Ratings of the desirability to traits indicated that both sexes viewed thirteen of the traits as desirable and three as undesirable. Additionally, men (but not women) rated the trait aggressive as desirable and women (but not men) rated the traits cynical, dogmatic, and introverted as undesirable. These traits and their desirability ratings are shown in Table 3. Comparison of the mean desirability ratings of the traits for the sexes indicated that women rated more so than did men the traits of happy and religious as more desirable and the trait of self-centered as less desirable. The means and standard deviations of the self-ratings of traits used in this study are reported in Table 4. Men described themselves as being more relaxed, creative, and introverted than did women; but women described themselves as more cooperative, trusting, religious, and studious than did men. Because sex differences in average ratings on several of these self-descriptors occurred, it was deemed desirable to employ separate-sex Pearson correlational analyses. The results of these separate analyses, as well as the overall correlational analyses of these self-descriptors with avowed happiness, are presented in Table 5. This same table also presents the correlations between these self-descriptions and social desirability for the two sexes. These results indicate that both men and women who described themselves as being happier also described themselves as being more relaxed, aggressive, cooperative, trusting, self-confident, and sociable; but less timid and introverted. Men (but not women) who were happier also saw themselves as being more practical, religious, conventional, tolerant, and studious but less cynical and self-centered. Happier women also described themselves as being less lazy. Considering the relationship between reported happiness and self-descriptors, the self-described happier people (irrespective of sex) described themselves as being more relaxed, practical, aggressive, cooperative, trusting, religious, self-confident, conventional, tolerant, sociable, and studious but less timid, introverted, lazy, self-centered, and cynical. 32 Joubert Table 3 Desirability Rating of Traits Men Women Trait Mean SD Mean SD t df P A. Traits viewed as desirable by both men and women Happy 4.56 .77 4.88 .38 -2.58 82 <.02 Relaxed 4.60 .58 4.36 .78 1.40 82 Practical 4.16 .69 4.00 .70 0.47 82 Cooperative 4.48 .59 4.73 .52 -1.93 82 Trusting 4.48 .65 4.58 .99 -0.45 82 Self-confident 4.36 .91 4.34 .61 0.12 82 Creative 4.40 .64 4.24 .82 0.89 82 Conventional 3.64 .91 3.44 .77 1.03 82 Religious 3.96 1.02 4.49 .75 -2.87 82 <.01 Intelligent 4.60 .58 4.53 .70 0.47 82 Tolerant 3.92 .58 4.20 .76 -1.67 82 Sociable 4.28 .68 4.37 .64 -0.60 82 Studious 4.00 .87 4.10 .80 -0.52 82 B. Traits viewed as undesirable by both men and women Self-centered 1.96 1.31 1.34 .71 2.81 82 <.01 Timid 2.04 .79 2.24 .92 -0.94 82 Lazy 1.79 .83 1.53 .92 1.23 81 C. Traits viewed as undesirable by women only Cynical 2.88 .88 2.59 1.21 1.07 82 Introverted 2.96 .91 2.60 .92 1.62 79 Dogmatic 2.68 .90 2.62 .97 0.26 81 D. Traits viewed as desirable by men only Aggressive 3.60 .96 3.14 1.18 1.74 82 E. Traits viewed as neither desirable nor undesirable Anxious 3.24 1.05 2.92 1.29 1.11 81 Note: Ratings of the desirability of these traits were measured using five point Likert scales with 5: very desirable, 3: neutral, and 1: very undesirable. 33 Avowed Happiness Table 4 Self-rating of Traits Men Women Trait Mean SD Mean SD t P A. Traits viewed as desirable by both men and women Happy 4.03 .93 4.18 .77 -1.34 Relaxed 3.80 1.08 3.47 1.05 2.20 <.05 Practical 3.68 .83 3.90 .92 -1.71 Cooperative 4.05 .77 4.31 .65 -2.61 <.01 Trusting 4.05 .92 4.40 .84 -2.86 <.01 Religious 3.33 1.41 3.84 1.08 -2.98 <.01 Self-Confident 3.58 1.07 3.37 1.12 1.35 Creative 3.56 1.02 3.07 1.27 2.89 <.01 Conventional 3.10 .94 3.21 1.02 -0.79 Intelligent 3.76 .66 3.74 .65 0.24 Tolerant 3.62 1.04 3.52 .99 0.72 Studious 2.98 1.09 3.42 .94 -3.13 <.01 Sociable 3.77 .97 4.00 .85 -1.80 B. Traits viewed as undesirable by both men and women Self-centered 1.95 1.39 1.67 1.30 1.50 Lazy 2.38 1.38 2.37 1.30 0.08 Timid 1.80 1.29 2.04 1.48 -1.24 C. Traits viewed as undesirable by women only Cynical 2.27 1.38 2.00 1.16 1.51 Introverted 2.28 1.48 1.68 1.43 2.93 <.01 Dogmatic 2.17 1.16 2.19 1.33 -0.14 D. Traits viewed as desirable by men only Aggressive 3.13 1.28 2.85 1.36 1.49 E. Traits viewed as neither desirable nor undesirable Anxious 3.54 1.05 3.45 1.19 0.62 F. Social Desirability 14.87 5.20 15.66 5.22 -1.07 Note: Personality self-ratings were measured on a six-point Likert scale with 5: very much like me and 0: very much unlike me. The Social Desirability Scale contained 33 true-false items. 34 Joubert Table 5 Correlates of Social Desirability and Self-reported Happiness Social Desirability Happiness Men Women All Men Women All Social desirability .17 .26c .23c A. Traits viewed as desirable by both men and women Relaxed .17 .16 .15' .37' .43' .39' Practical .42' .16 .25' .39' .13 .24' Cooperative .20 .34' .29' .23* .29° .27' Trusting .33' .34' .35' .40° .25' .33' Self-Confident ,32c .17* .21 .52' .36' .41' Creative -.02 .07 .03 -.11 .10 .01 Conventional .13 .03 .06 .33' .08 .18° Religious .05 .14 .11 .40° .10 .26' Intelligent -.00 .19 .12 -.09 -.01 -.04 Tolerant .22 .25' .23' .31' .17 .22' Sociable ,27b .20* .23' .59* .47' .53' Studious .22* .17* .20* .36' .04 .19° B. Traits viewed as undesirable by both men and women Self-centered -.26* -.25' -.26' -,26b -.07 -.16' Timid -.26* .07 -.04 -.38° -.24' -.28' Lazy -.42c -.20* -.28° -.08 -.21b -.16* C. Traits viewed as undesirable by women only Cynical -.21 -.13 -.17b -.30° -.07 -,1& Introverted -.16 -.00 -.07 -.46' -.24' -.34' Dogmatic -.18 .03 -.04 -.06 -.04 -.00 D. Traits viewed as desirable by men only Aggressive .18 -.08 .00 .35' .17* .23' E. Traits viewed as neither desirable nor undesirable by either sex Anxious -.07 -.20' -.15* -.15 -.05 -.09 Note: df = 77 for men; df = 135 for women; df = 214 for all subjects ap < .05; bp < .02; cp < .01 35 Avowed Happiness For the men, 13 of 16 traits correlated with happiness in the predicted direction. For women, 8 of the 18 did so. Only one trait (aggressiveness for women) significantly correlated in a direction different from the expected one. The mean scores on the Social Desirability Scale indicated that men and women did not differ on that measure, t = -1.07. Table 5 presents the correlations between Social Desirability Scale scores and self-ratings on the traits. Persons with higher social desirability correlated self-rating of being more trusting, sociable, and studious and also less self-centered and lazy. Additional significant social desirability- trait correlations were observed for one sex but not the other. Because many of the self-ratings significantly correlated with social desirability, a further analysis was completed using the partial correlational coefficient in which the Social Desirability Scale scores were controlled. The results of this analysis were essentially similar to those found before partialling out for social desirability: the one exception was that the correlation between avowed happiness and cooperativeness was significant for women (r135 = .22, p < .01) but not for men (r^ = .20). Discussion As predicted, happier people tended to employ more favorable self¬ descriptions, implying that they have better over all self-concepts. It is not presently clear whether these trends are due to happier people being that way because they possess more desirable traits that enhance their self-esteem, or whether they are simply more tolerant in their self-evaluations. They might be less harsh in self- evaluations of their weaknesses and more favorable in self-evaluations of their strengths. Some parallels may be drawn from the literature on depression: depressed people tend to have attributional biases that dispose themselves toward feeling unhappiness (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989). Also, they are more likely to attribute their successes to external causes and their failures to internal causes. Matlin and Gawron (1977) reported earlier that happier people were more optimistic. Additionally, research on the effects of mood on memories indicates that people with positive moods are more likely to remember successes while people with negative moods are more likely to remember failures (Wright and Mischel, 1982; Seidlitz & Diener, 1993). The optimistic mood of happy people may result in a mood-congruent bias which causes them to evaluate themselves as possessing more positive traits. Happier people reported themselves as being more sociable and less introverted; results similar to those found by Costa, McCrae, and Norris (1981). Also, these happier persons were more religious, a result similar to that reported by Wessman (1956). 36 Joubert It is not surprising that the more timid were less happy: their less venture someness would lead to fewer reinforcements and greater feelings of self-deprecation which would detract from the general quality of their lives. Several specific traits correlated with happiness in the expected direction. Happier people were more relaxed, sociable, cooperative, self-confident, and trusting but less introverted and timid. Happier people also reported themselves as more aggressive. Perhaps this is due to their interpreting "aggressive" as equivalent to "forceful" or "assertive" (as in advertisements calling for "aggressive" salesmen). This is noteworthy because earlier research (Joubert, 1990) indicated that people who were higher in psychological reactance tended to be less happy; psychological reactance involves an aggressive or forceful defense of one’s personal freedoms. Somewhat interesting is the fact that happier women did not report being less self-centered or more practical. These relationships merit possible replication to determine what might be behind them. An additional curiosity is that happier men were more conventional. This could be because these conventional men tend to experience fewer social rebuffs and therefore experience more happiness. We might wonder, therefore, if conventionality serves as a very useful trait rather than one to be deplored, as an occasional view within psychology has sometime suggested. Nevertheless, there was a lack of a significant relationship between conventionality and happiness for women. The mean social desirability scores observed in this study correspond well with the means from Crowne and Marlowe’s norms (1964). Not surprisingly, several of these self-descriptors correlated with social desirability. A possible limitation of this present study is that it used a single-item measure of happiness; however, single-item happiness measures have been extensively used (e.g., Andrews & Whitey, 1976; Cantril, 1965; Gurin, Veroff, & Feld, 1960; Hartman, 1934), and have some empirical support. Andrews and Whitey (1976) reported that their single-item happiness measure contained 65% of the valid variance of subjective well-being. Also, a single-item measure corresponds with the popular view of happiness as a global condition. It should be noted, however, that the literature of happiness and "subjective well-being" is replete with alternative, multi-item measures (e.g., Campbell, Converse, & Rogers, 1976; Fordyce, 1977). A replication of this research, using one of these multi-item measures, seems indicated. While several issues are yet unresolved, these results suggest that psychotherapies that seek to increase these traits in a person or to enhance self- evaluations of these types might also increase happiness. While the situational and trait factors in happiness should not be discounted, improving self-attributions or self- evaluations might also improve happiness. Some of the suggestions of cognitive or 37 Avowed Happiness attributional theorists (e.g., Beck, 1976) could be directed toward the enhancement of happiness in non-depressed persons as well as easing the burden of unhappiness in those that are depressed. Acknowledgement The writer thanks Dr. Michael B. Moeller and the anonymous reviewers for their very helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper. References Abramson, L. T., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, G. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. 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Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 40 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 65, No. 1, January, 1994. ERGONOMICS APPLIED TO FOREST OPERATIONS: A COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM1 Leo A. Smith and Robert E. Thomas Jr. Department of Industrial Engineering College of Engineering Auburn University, AL 36849-5346 and Robert B. Rummer Southern Forest Experiment Station USDA Forest Service Auburn, Alabama 36849 Abstract Ergonomics research related to forest harvesting in the southeastern United States and sponsored by the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Forest Experiment Station during the 1980 to 1993 time frame is described. A total of 13 studies relating to physiological job demands, heat stress, vibration exposure, and equipment design are reviewed. Anticipated future research activities are indicated. INTRODUCTION The forest products industry is one of the largest employers in the southern United States. Forest harvesting activities, the first step in the overall forest products production system, employ numerous individuals on manual, semi-mechanized, and fully mechanized tasks. These tasks are physically stressful and unfortunately associated with relatively high accident/injury frequency and severity rates. Harvesting in the region is accomplished primarily by numerous small scale independent contractors. In addition, several large forest products companies operate a relatively few "company" harvesting crews. Although still requiring the performance of strenuous manual task elements, harvesting is rapidly evolving into a highly mechanized activity utilizing expensive equipment. It is critical that harvesting be accomplished in a cost effective, highly productive manner so as to minimize this aspect of overall wood products production system costs. It is equally important that harvesting be accomplished without imposing undue physical stress and bodily injury and health risks on the workforce. ‘Manuscript received 29 June 1993; accepted 10 February 1994. 41 Smith, Thomas, and Rummer In the fall of 1979 the Auburn University Department of Industrial Engineering in cooperation with the university’s Engineering Experiment Station and the USDA Forest Service Southern Forest Experiment Station initiated a research program with the overall purpose of enhancing southern forest harvesting productivity through ergonomics research. Ergonomics is the discipline that seeks to assure compatibility between the capabilities and limitations of people and the demands imposed by their work tasks and work environments. Ergonomics is currently commonly identified in the press as being primarily concerned with the prevention of cumulative trauma disorders of the upper extremity and/or the design of personal computer workstations. This characterization is much too limiting, however, as ergonomics is concerned with a broad scope of workplace design - worker interface issues including physiological stress prevention, environmental stress prevention, worker/workplace accommodation, equipment design, and human error minimization. Thus all aspects of forest harvesting, or any other human work activity, could potentially be benefited by ergonomic evaluation, problem identification, and problem resolution. The first cooperative study undertaken (Smith and Sirois; 1980, 1982) evaluated the available literature relating to forest harvesting ergonomics in terms of its implications to U.S. southern harvesting activities. The literature reviewed was divided into five general topic areas: work physiology, heat stress, vibration and noise stress, equipment design including maintenance, and safety, it was concluded that although considerable ergonomics research had been accomplished outside of the United States its application to the conditions and procedures used in the southern U.S. was limited. It was further concluded that research needed to be performed specifically directed toward southern U.S. harvesting including: 1) assessment of the physical demands of harvesting work, 2) development of an activity guide for work under various thermal environment conditions, and 3) ergonomic evaluation of commonly used harvesting equipment. During the last ten years research has been performed relative to each of the identified topics. The research program has included an evaluation of the physiological demands of six common southern forest harvesting tasks, an evaluation of the effects of summer time heat stress on the productivity of both manual and mechanized harvesting tasks, the development of a heat stress prevention activity guide for use by harvesting managers, an evaluation of the noise and vibration stress experienced by the users of a newly designed two cylinder chainsaw, an evaluation of the whole body vibration exposure of skidder operators, development of a protocol for the ergonomic evaluation of forest machines and its application to mobile chippers, an evaluation of the adequacy of workplace design and seating in grapple skidders, documentation of the work postures assumed by skidder operators and the anthropometric characteristics of the souther harvesting workforce, and evaluation of factors affecting the selection and use of chainsaw operator leg protection devices. A study currently in progress does not involve harvesting operations but nevertheless relates to woods workers; it is developing and 42 Ergonomics Applied to Forest Operations evaluating a new wildland firefighter protective garment. This paper briefly reviews these past and current studies and provides recommendations for additional needed research. EVALUATION OF PHYSIOLOGICAL DEMANDS To provide basic data relative to the physical demands of southern harvesting tasks, a study (Smith, Wilson, and Sirois; 1982, 1983) was undertaken to document the physiological stress, as measured by working heart rate levels, imposed upon typical employees by their work activities and work environments. Particular attention was given to the stress imposed by summer thermal environment conditions. Data were collected during the summer of 1981 from four different harvesting crew/harvesting site combinations in east-central Alabama on persons performing the common tasks of chainsaw felling, cable skidding, bucking and trimming prior to loading (job referred to as "landing saw man"), and knuckle-boom loader operating. Data were also obtained at one site on feller-buncher and grapple skidding activities. The heart rate data were obtained without any significant artificial restrictions being placed on the harvesting crew members being observed (Smith and Wilson, 1983), and represented a total of 17 harvesting crew members and a total of 53 hours of actual harvesting activity. Environmental conditions were assessed by measurement of the wet-bulb globe-temperature (WBGT) and ranged from a WBGT of 20°C (68°F) to 34.4°C (94°F). The data indicated that southeastern forest harvesting tasks performed in summertime environmental conditions place physiological demands on the worker that often equal or exceed the maximum levels typically considered acceptable in occupational activities. Based on the data, the tasks considered may be ranked in decreasing order of physiological demands as follows: (1) landing saw man (heavy work), (2) chainsaw felling (moderate to heavy work), (3) cable skidding (moderate work), (4) grapple skidding (light work), (5) feller-buncher operation (light work), and (6) knuckle-boom loader operation (light work). The environmental conditions were dichotomized into hotter (WBGT > 26.1°C (79°F)) and more moderate conditions (WBGT < or = 26. 1°C). On average, work under the hotter environmental conditions resulted in a heart rate increase of approximately 5 BPM when compared with the lower temperature conditions. Furthermore, the number of very stressful cardiac instances (heart rate response greater than 120 BPM) was substantially greater under the higher WBGT level. In addition to the basic demands data generated, the study results included an important observation which led to later studies of heat stress. The amount of increase in the average work heart rate when work was performed under hot conditions as compared with more moderate conditions was not as great as might reasonably be expected. This suggests that the harvesting employee may perform his work so as not to experience what to him is unacceptable physiological stress by 43 Smith, Thomas, and Rummer reducing the amount of muscular work performed. The manner in which the crew member reduces his muscular work per unit time may not be obvious to the casual observer; indeed, it may not even be conscious on the part of the crew member. For instance, it was observed that when temperatures were hotter more "hidden rest period" events, such as hung-up saws, occurred. These events lowered the physiological stress being experienced but also resulted in reduced productivity. As a result of this observation, later research was directed toward determining the relationship between heat stress and worker productivity on southeastern forest harvesting tasks. HEAT STRESS ASSESSMENT Three studies have been sponsored by the Southern Forest Experiment Station directly related to heat stress effects on forest harvesting activities. The first (Smith, Seay, and Sirois, 1985) examined productivity on a variety of harvesting tasks and was a direct outgrowth of the physiological demands study. The second (Rummer and Smith, 1990) examined the productivity implications of air-conditioned harvesting machines. The third (Smith and Rummer, 1988) proposed a guide for use by harvesting managers to assist in the prevention of heat stress events. The objective of the first study was to evaluate the relationship between worker productivity and the level of environmental heat load present during the work activity for commonly performed southern forest harvesting tasks. The tasks evaluated were chainsaw felling, cable skidding, bucking at the landing, feller buncher operation, and bucking bunched thinnings. Historical production data covering a period of 806 crew/days were evaluated for three logging crews from one company in south Alabama. Direct observation data were also obtained from these crews and a thinning crew during the months of July, August, and December. Two feller buncher operators employed by a second company were also observed for one week in August. The direct observation data were obtained by the work sampling technique and totaled 20,661 observations. Environmental conditions were assessed by the Oxford Index (0.85 wet bulb temp. + 0.15 dry bulb temp.) for the historical data and the WBGT for the direct observation data. The measure of productivity utilized in the historical data evaluation was pounds harvested per man-hour worked. The production behavior variables evaluated by the direct observation study were percentage productive activities, percentage (operator controlled) unproductive activities, worker effort level, worker efficiency, percentage unsafe behavior, and percentage non-use of personnel protection equipment. The results indicate that logging crew productivity as a whole and the productivity of chainsaw fellers and cable skidder operators in particular experience productivity decreases of 5 to 15% in environmental conditions characterized by the 44 Ergonomics Applied to Forest Operations Oxford Index exceeding 25°C (77°F) or the WBGT exceeding 26.1°C (79°F). Neither type of bucking performance was significantly degraded by the hotter environmental conditions perhaps due to these individuals being underutilized in the harvesting crews observed. The feller-buncher operators experienced a 2 to 3% decrease in percentage productive activities under the hotter conditions. Both of the companies cooperating in this study have active occupational safety programs which strongly encourage appropriate work behavior. None of the observed crew members had unsafe behavior rates greater than two percent. Although there was a tendency for about one-half of the men to engage in more unsafe behavior under higher temperature levels, they did not radically modify their behavior. It must be noted, however, that those individuals exposed to the most direct solar load, the buckers at the landing, tended to neglect their personal protective equipment under the hotter conditions. It was suggested that harvesting management should be alert to this possibility and apply appropriate supervisory controls. The data did not provide support for a previously published (Axelson, 1974) mathematical model purporting to describe the relationship between reduction in productivity and the temperature of the work area. It appears likely that too many variables in addition to the thermal environment affect harvesting productivity to permit its modeling as a continuous function of an environmental parameter. It thus seems best to evaluate productivity with respect to an environmental "threshold" such as the 25 C Oxford Index value utilized in this study. When thermal conditions exceed the "threshold" level, harvesting managers should expect negative productivity effects to occur. The second study related to heat stress and productivity, Rummer and Smith (1990), examined the utilization of feller-bunchers to determine if air conditioning affected the way the equipment was used. While it intuitively appears that air- conditioned forest harvesting machines would minimize heat related health and productivity problems, air conditioning is not commonly utilized in the southeastern U.S. There has been a general perception that air conditioning is a high maintenance luxury option rather than a cost/effective part of a harvesting system. It was hypothesized that higher cab temperatures in non air-conditioned machines would reduce productivity by affecting the utilization of the machine rather than the production rate itself. Since the physical demands of machine operation constitute "light work" the metabolic component of the overall work heat load is low. The operator of a non air-conditioned machine, wishing to reduce his exposure level, would have to remove himself from the work task, thus reducing the utilization of the machine. Time study data and temperature measurements were collected on five air- conditioned and five non air-conditioned feller-bunchers. Although estimated cab WBGT levels in the non air-conditioned machines exceeded levels recommended by various occupational health agencies, the data indicated that length of workday and 45 Smith, Thomas, and Rummer crew differences were the only factors that significantly affected machine utilization. Other benefits of utilizing air-conditioned machines were noted however. Increased workplace comfort may make it easier to recruit and retain skilled operators, and exclusion of dust, insects, and noise improve the overall quality of the employee’s work environment. These intangible benefits may be sufficient to justify the expense of air conditioning. The third heat related study, Smith and Rummer (1988), had been recommended as being needed by Smith and Sirois in their 1982 ergonomics research needs report. This study drew from data collected in the previous work physiology and heat stress studies and developed a work practices guide entitled: "Guide to the Prevention of Heat Stress in Forest Harvesting Tasks" intended for use by harvesting managers. The Guide permits assessment of the risk of heat stress occurrence utilizing either measured WBGT values or media reported levels of the Heat Index and dry bulb temperature by consulting conveniently designed tables. Manual, semi- mechanized, and mechanized harvesting tasks are covered by the Guide. The Guide includes discussion of suggested work practices that may be followed so as to reduce the risk of heat stress, discussion of certain "special situations" in which the risk may be higher than usually indicated by the meteorological conditions, discussion of heat illnesses and actions that should be taken if symptoms are observed, and a discussion of the effects of hot working conditions on safe work behavior. A compressed version of the Guide was published by the American Pulpwood Association and distributed to APA members (Smith and Rummer, 1993). The usability of the Guide has not been tested in the field by actual harvesting managers to date. VIBRATION EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT Occupational vibration exposure is typically considered in two categories: segmental and whole-body. The greatest health concern in the area of segmental vibration is the occurrence of "hand-arm vibration syndrome" (HAVS) among users of powered hand tools including chainsaws. HAVS is a composite of vascular and neurological disorders that are manifested by pain, numbness, tingling, and eventual necrosis of the fingers. Whole-body vibration is associated with less-specific problems such as discomfort, reduced work proficiency, and a variety of generic physical symptoms including back pain and nausea. Whole-body vibration is typically experienced by forest workers operating off-road vehicles and other machinery. Four studies examined vibration exposures in forest work including: chainsaw vibration, whole-body vibration on rubber-tired skidders, and whole-body vibration in logging trucks. Rummer, Smith, and Stokes (1985) compared the vibration and noise exposures associated with the use of two models of single-cylinder chainsaws and a two-cylinder chainsaw. Both static bench and dynamic bucking tests were performed. The results indicated the new two-cylinder design had the lowest vibration level. The 46 Ergonomics Applied to Forest Operations latency period before there was a 50% chance of developing HAVS from using the saws four hours per day was estimated to be more than 26 years for the two-cylinder design and less than 12 years for the one-cylinder saws. Noise levels for all of the saws exceeded recommended limits. Under constant speed conditions, the two- cylinder saw had one of the quieter levels of noise; under operator selected speed conditions the noise levels were equivalent. The operators appeared to actually use the noise level produced to establish the speed at which they ran the saws. If this phenomenon is generalizable, it has significant training implications. Most of the reported studies of whole-body vibration in forest equipment operation have concentrated on measuring vibration exposure levels and comparing them to various exposure guidelines. Many of these studies have been conducted in Scandinavian countries and Canada where harvesting operations may differ from those in the southeastern United States. Rummer’s (1988) study surveyed workers’ attitudes toward whole-body vibration on forest machines and developed and validated a computer ride simulation model that could be used to improve the design of forest machines with respect to vehicle ride. The operator survey documented demographic data about forest machine operators as well as subjective assessments of work environment factors. On average, the respondents were in their late 30’s with approximately 12 years experience as woods workers. It was found the typical workday includes substantial (1.5 hours) travel time to the harvesting site; thus vibration exposure in the crew truck is likely a significant component of the total daily vibration exposure. The survey responses indicated that whole-body vibration is one of the most discomforting aspects of the forest equipment workplace; the top three workplace related job dis-satisfaction factors were reported to be (1) climate, (2) vibration, and (3) exposure to exhaust fumes. The survey did not reveal evidence of physical injury resulting from long-term whole-body vibration exposure. Thomas and Smith (1991) measured whole-body vibration on current rubber-tired skidder models and found that little improvement had been made in equipment design. The computer ride model developed by Rummer was validated by comparison with vibration levels measured on an actual machine traversing a test track. Results of the test track runs were analyzed to evaluate the effects of travel speed, tire size and inflation pressure, a "bump" in the track, and vehicle operator on the level of whole-body vibration. Travel speed was the most significant factor. An example of the application of computer ride simulation to forest equipment design was developed and the design process was reviewed. It was concluded that use of computer ride simulation fits in well with the iterative nature of the equipment design process. Whole-body vibration was also investigated in conjunction with USDA Forest Service tests of central tire inflation (CTI) systems for logging trucks. CTI systems permit the driver to reduce tire pressure during low-speed off-highway operation. Reducing tire pressure increases traction and increases road surface life. As part of the evaluation of this technology, whole-body vibration was measure to determine 47 Smith, Thomas, and Rummer whether ride was improved at lower tire pressures. Logging site tests (Rummer et al, 1990) indicated that vibration exposure on the seat was minimized at an intermediate tire pressure setting. However, lower tire pressures were also associated with higher travel speeds, suggesting that the operators drove the trucks at speeds that produced a constant level of discomfort. It was also apparent from the data that there are complex interactions between truck, tire, and seat suspension affecting driver vibration exposure. HARVESTING EQUIPMENT DESIGN North American forest equipment has historically been designed for functional capability, reliability, and minimal unit cost with only modest consideration given to the capabilities and limitations of workers that must use the equipment. Ergonomics research in a variety of settings has demonstrated that when operators are required to use inappropriately designed information displays and machine controls, maintain strained body postures while attempting to work in poorly arranged equipment cabs, or experience too much heat, noise, dust, and vibration, the overall performance of the entire production system is degraded. As part of the cooperative ergonomic research program, three studies have been conducted and one is in progress to examine various aspects of forest equipment design from an ergonomics perspective. Smith, Helm, and Rummer (1988) and Bellingar (1993) investigated user factors in the design of personal protective equipment; Smith, Adsit, and Rummer (1990) developed a checklist protocol for the ergonomic evaluation of mobile forest machines; and Thomas and Smith (1991) evaluated workplace design and seating in grapple skidders. A large percentage of logging accidents involve the use of chainsaws. Chainsaw user leg protection is available in several varieties and could be used to prevent or mitigate many chainsaw user injuries. Unfortunately, leg protection has not been widely used by loggers in the southern United States. The Smith, Helm, and Rummer (1988) study sought to contribute to increased leg protection use by evaluating several factors influencing its selection, acceptability, and use. Factors studied were: protective ability, appearance, cost, thermal comfort, mobility, durability, and style. Leggings, protective pants, work pants with safety insert pads, and chaps along with regular work pants as a control were evaluated in both laboratory and job site studies by five subjects at each test location. A paired comparison test and a ranking test were used to obtain subjective opinions about the leg protection. In the laboratory a forest harvesting task simulation obstacle course was negotiated by the subjects wearing each of the leg protection types at two different temperature conditions: 23°C and 35°C (73.4°F and 95°F). Motion restrictions imposed by the leg protection and leg skin temperature responses were measured during each trial and subjective opinions were obtained by the use of a questionnaire following each trial. 48 Ergonomics Applied to Forest Operations The job site subjects were encouraged to wear the protection equipment for a week and reported their subjective opinions by responding to a questionnaire. The results suggest that protective ability and thermal comfort are the two factors considered most important in leg protection selection followed closely by mobility. Interestingly, although subjects rated appearance of the equipment as least important of the factors evaluated, all of their informal comments focused on the leg protection’s appearance thus suggesting it is an important factor. The effect of the leg protection on worker mobility was not consistent suggesting that different types of leg protection affect mobility in different ways for different people. Based on this study it would appear that anyone promoting the use of chainsaw user leg protection devices should provide a choice of fabric colors, should demonstrate that it is protective, and attest that it is neither too hot nor too restrictive of mobility to be uncomfortable and inconvenient to wear. In cooperation with Dow Chemical Company, an Auburn University textile researcher developed a new carbon fiber with highly flame resistant insulating properties (McCullough and Hall, 1990). The application of this fiber in the design of clothing worn by forest fire fighting personnel is currently being accomplished by Ms. Teresa Bellingar, an Auburn industrial engineering graduate student (1993). The goal of Bellingar’s research is to develop, fabricate, and test in laboratory simulations and actual field use a prototype wildland firefighter clothing ensemble that will increase the safety, mobility, and comfort of wildland firefighters. Cooperating in this project are four Auburn University academic departments: Industrial Engineering, Consumer Affairs, Textile Engineering, Health and Human Performance; two USDA Forest Service laboratories: Auburn and Missoula, MT; and Terry Manufacturing, Inc., an Alabama based apparel company. The 1990 study by Smith, Adsit, and Rummer sought to compile an evaluation protocol to facilitate the ergonomic analysis of forest machines based on information available from current ergonomic design references, literature reports of related equipment evaluation studies, and government and industry design standards. Once developed, the protocol was applied in a study of mobile chippers. The evaluation protocol was developed in the form of a checklist. Specific areas of ergonomic concern treated were cab access, cab interior dimensions, operator seat dimensions, control location, control actuating forces, instrumentation, visibility, cab climate, air quality, noise, vibration, and maintenance. In addition to the checklist itself, a questionnaire was developed to obtain subjective information from the operator. Six mobile chippers were evaluated in the case study and the results indicated there are several areas of ergonomics deficiencies associated with the models evaluated. Most notable were cab access system dimensions and operator seat characteristics. In some models the visibility from the cab, the cab thermal climate, 49 Smith, Thomas, and Rummer and the cab noise level were also found to be inadequate. The responses to the subjective questionnaire reinforced these findings. The goal of the Thomas and Smith (1991) study of the grapple skidder workplace was to reduce operator back injuries by incorporating ergonomic design features in both existing and future grapple skidders. The study included evaluation of existing skidder designs by cab layout analysis, documentation of operator work postures, and measurement of whole body vibration levels. The study included anthropometric assessment of grapple skidder operators. Recommendations for retrofitting existing machines and improving future designs were developed. Three current skidder models were evaluated: John Deere model 648E, Timberjack model 450B, and Caterpillar model 518. Data were collected at twelve harvesting sites in Alabama and Georgia. Results indicated that grapple skidder operators spend from 27% to 54% of their time in twisted postures that are associated with higher rates of back injury. The variability in "twisted" work posture frequency was a function of both skidder design and operator preference. Placement of grapple controls within proper arm reach envelopes appeared to have potential for significantly reducing operator twisting. Twisted postures also appeared to exacerbate existing interface problems between operators and their control systems. Opportunities for significant design improvement, from an ergonomic standpoint, exist with respect to seating design (especially adjustability), control placement, control actuation force requirements, cab access design, and general cab design. The results of the anthropometric assessment indicated that southern (USA) skidder operators are generally taller with regard to stature, sitting height, seated eye height, and seated shoulder height than the SAE J898 (SAE, 1993) and ILO (Jurgens, et al, 1990) design reference values. Study operators were also heavier than the reference values in those design standards. FUTURE RESEARCH The ergonomics research activities reviewed have focused primarily on harvesting systems with a significant manual labor component manned by employees utilizing very little if any personal protective equipment. Forest harvesting in the southern U.S. will become more and more mechanized as new equipment is introduced to perform traditional activities and demand increases for activities (large scale thinning) and products (chips for fuel) which can only be accomplished with mechanized harvesting systems. Additionally, new safety regulations will mandate the use of appropriate personal protection equipment ensembles. Accordingly, the next phase of the USDA Forest Service/Aubum University ergonomics research program will likely focus upon mechanized harvesting systems and enhancing the design and use of personal protective equipment. Possible studies include an expansion of the previous heat stress and vibration exposure studies to further document the exposure 50 Ergonomics Applied to Forest Operations of mechanized equipment operators to heat, vibration, noise, and dust hazards and to develop methods to minimize the negative effects of this exposure on operator safety, health, and productivity. The previous anthropometric study should be expanded so as to enhance the development of a southern woods worker anthropometric data base for use by equipment designers. Similarly there should be additional ergonomic evaluation of existing machines so as to suggest improvements in work place design and design for maintainability. Research relative to personal protection equipment design and utilization should lead to ensembles which provide appropriate protection and are acceptable to the workforce. Because they are being increasingly utilized in the woods, the efficacy of currently popular (but unproven) "workstress reduction" devices such as back support belts and wrist/forearm supports must also be examined. CONCLUSIONS Ergonomics is a discipline that encompasses the entire range of human- workplace/equipment interaction. By properly incorporating ergonomic principles in the design of systems and equipment, the efficiency of the overall system can be improved. The studies conducted under this cooperative ergonomic research program have touched on ergonomic issues ranging from physical workload and manual materials handling to control location and subjective comfort. The results of these studies have provided new insights into ways to improve forest operations. This model of a broad, coordinated ergonomic research program could be applied to many industrial classifications. LITERATURE CITED Axelson, O., 1974. Heat stress in forest work. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 31 pp. Bellinger, T., 1993. Development of prototype wildland firefighter protective clothing. Doctoral Dissertation Proposal, Department of Industrial Engineering, Auburn University, Alabama. 37 pp. Jurgens, H. W., Aune, I. A. and U. Pieper, 1990. International data on anthropometry. Occupational Safety and Health Series No. 65. International Labour Office, Geneva. 113 pp. McCullough, F. P. and D. M. Hall, 1990. Method of improving the flame retarding and fire blocking characteristics of a fiber tow or yam. U.S. Patent # 4,950,540. 51 Smith, Thomas, and Rummer Rummer, R. B., 1988. Whole-body vibration exposure of forest equipment operators in the southeastern United States. Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Industrial Engineering, Auburn University, Alabama. 227 pp. Rummer, R. B., Ashmore, C., Sirois, D. L. and C. L. Rawlins, 1990. Central tire inflation: demonstration tests in the south. Gen. Tech. Rpt. SO-78, USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station: New Orleans, 11 pp. Rummer, R. B. and L. A. Smith, 1990. Utilization of air-conditioned feller/bunchers. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 5,: pp. 293- 302. Rummer, R. B., Smith, L. A. and B. J. Stokes, (1985). Two-cylinder chain saw vibration and noise test. Technical Release 85-R-13, American Pulpwood Association, Inc. 2 pp. Smith, L. A., 1980. Final Report No. 19-353, USDA Forest Service, New Orleans, LA. Vol. 1: Assessment of the ergonomics literature to identify productivity improvement applications and research needs pertinent to southern forest harvesting. 49 pp. Vol. 2: an annotated bibliography of selected forest harvesting ergonomics literature. 155 pp. Smith, L. A., Adsit, D. A., and R. B. Rumer, 1990. An ergonomic evaluation of forest machines: development of an evaluation protocol and case study of mobile chippers. Final Report No. 19-88-074. USDA Forest Service, New Orleans, LA. 76 pp. Smith, L. A., Helm, S. M., and R. B. Rummer, 1988. Evaluation of factors affecting the selection and use of chainsaw leg protection. Final Report No. 19-86-048. USDA Forest Service, New Orleans, LA. 117pp. Smith, L. A., and B. Rummer, 1993. Heat Stress: A summertime risk for woodsworkers. Technical Release 93-R-61, American Pulpwood Association, Inc. 2 pp. Smith, L. A., and R. B. Rummer, 1988. Development of a heat stress prevention activity guide for use by southern forest harvesting managers. Final Report No. 19-87-065. USDA Forest Service, New Orleans, LA. 49 pp. 52 Ergonomics Applied to Forest Operations Smith, L. A., Seay, M. R., and D. L. Sirois, 1985. Evaluation of the effect of heat stress on worker productivity for selected southern forest harvesting tasks. Final Report No. 19-82-082. USDA Forest Service, New Orleans, LA. 40 pp. Smith, L. A. and D. L. Sirois, 1982. Ergonomic research: review and needs in southern forest harvesting, Forest Products Journal. 32(4): pp. 44-49. Smith, L. A. and G. D. Wilson, 1982. Equipment note: an inexpensive system for remote monitoring of work heart rate, Ergonomics. 26(7): pp. 719-722. Smith, L. A., Wilson, G. D., and D. L. Sirois, (1982). Assessment of the physiological stress of selected forest harvesting activities in the southeastern United States. Final Report No. 19-80-407, USDA Forest Service, New Orleans, LA 128 pp. Smith, L. A., Wilson, G. D. and D. L. Sirois, (1983). Work physiology evaluation of southern forest harvesting tasks, Forest Products Journal. 33(9): pp. 38- 44. Society of Automotive Engineers, 1993. Control locations for off-road work machines - SAE J898 OCT87. SAE Handbook Vol. 4. Warrendale, PA. pp. 40.395-40.404. Thomas, Robert E. and L. A. Smith, 1991. Reducing back injuries in grapple skidder operators through ergonomic design. Project No. 19-91-033, USDA Forest Service, New Orleans, LA 200 pp. 53 Notes i Notes INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Editorial Policy: Publication of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science is restricted to members. Membership application forms can be obtained from Dr. Larry R. Boots, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294. Subject matter should address original research in one of the discipline sections of the Academy: Biological Sciences; Chemistry; Geology; Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning; Physics and Mathematics; Industry and Economics; Science Education; Social Sciences; Health Sciences; Engineering and Computer Science; and Anthropology. Timely review articles of exceptional quality and general readership interest will also be considered. Invited articles dealing with Science Activities in Alabama are occasionally published. Book reviews of Alabama authors are also solicited. Submission of an article for publication in the Journal implies that it has not been published previously and that it is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. Submission: Each manuscript will receive at least two simultaneous peer reviews. Include in your letter of transmittal the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of at least four qualified referees. 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Do not use the number 1 for footnotes; begin with 2. Skip additional footnote numbers if one or more authors must have their present address footnoted. Illustrations: Submit original inked drawings (graphs and diagrams) or clear black and white glossy photographs. Width must not exceed 15 cm and height must not exceed 20 cm. Illustrations not conforming to these dimensions will be returned to the author. Use lettering that will still be legible after a 30% reduction. Designate all illustrations as figures, number consecutively, and cite all figures in the text. Type figure captions on a separate sheet of paper. Send two extra sets of illustrations; xeroxed photographs are satisfactory for review purposes. Tables: Place each table on a separate sheet. Place a table title directly above each table. Number tables consecutively. Use symbols or letters, not numerals, for table footnotes. Cite all tables in the text. Literature Cited: Only references cited in the text should be listed under Literature Cited. Do not group references according to source (books, periodicals, newspapers, etc.). List in alphabetical order of senior author names. Cite references in the text by number or by author-date. The Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science AM. MUS. NAT. HIST. LIBRARY Received on: 05-23-94 5. 06(76. 1 ) B Ill J68« 85 no. 2 April 1994 HE Y OF SCIENCE VOLUME 65 APRIL 1994 COVER PHOTOGRAPH: The Ralph Wyatt Adams Administration Building on the campus of Troy State University, host to the 1994 annual meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science. This building provides offices for the major administrative units of the TSU system that consists of four Alabama campuses and sites on approximately 40 military bases around the world through contracts with the U.S. Department of Defense. THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE VOLUME 65 APRIL 1994 NO. 2 EDITOR: James T. Bradley, Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn University, AL 36549 ARCHMST: C. M. Peterson, Department of Botany, and Microbiology, Auburn University, AL 36849 EDITORIAL BOARD: Douglas Watson, Chairman, Department of Biology. University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 James McClintock, Department of Biology. University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Lawrence C. Wt, College of Science and Mathematics, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 Wiliam Osterhoff, Department of Criminal Justice, Auburn University at Montgomery, AL 36193 Publication and Subscription Policies Submission of Manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow instructions to Authors (see Inside back cover). Reprints. Requests for reprints must be addressed to Authors. Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all correspondence to the CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD ISSN 002-4112 BENEFACTORS OF THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The following have provided financial suppport to partially defray publication costs of the Journal. AUBURN UNIVERSITY BIRMINGHAM-SOUTHERN COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA TROY STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA TUSKEGEE UNIVERSITY MOBILE COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA SAMFORD UNIVERSITY CONTENTS ABSTRACTS Biological Sciences ..... Chemistry ...... Geology ...... Forestry, Geography, Conservation, and Planning Physics and Mathematics .... Industry and Economics .... Science Education ..... Behavioral and Social Sciences Health Sciences ..... Engineering and Computer Science Anthropology . . . . . MINUTES OF ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING 54 77 86 88 96 102 114 118 122 137 145 149 ' Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 65, No. 2, April, 1994. ABSTRACTS Papers presented at the 71st Annual Meeting Troy State University Troy, Alabama March 23-26, 1994 BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES BACTERIAL CYTOCHROME ( vO IS REDUCED BY SULFIDE IN THE GILLS OF THE CLAM LUC1NA FLOR1DANA. C. Stephen Powell. Jeannette E. Doeller. and David W. Kraus. Dept, of Biologv. Unix . of AL at Birmingham. Birmingham AL 35294. The clam. Lucina floridana inhabits the sediments of St. Joseph Bax . FL where pore water sulfide lex els are approximately 10 /(M. Thex were collected at sediment depths of 22-45 cm. far removed from grass beds. Optical spectrophotometry of intact gill tissue demonstrated the presence of a functional hemoglobin at 10-20 // M. Bacterial cytochrome 0552 was also identified at a comparable concentration. Of the total pool of cytochrome 0552. 50 - 60% w as reduced under anoxic conditions. The remaining 40 - 50% was onlv reduced under anoxic conditions w ith the addition of I torr hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and show ed reoxidation w hen H2S w as removed. Thus exposure of excised gills to I torr H2S resulted in further reduction of bacterial cytochrome ('552 above that due to endogenous substrates in the absence of oxxgen. Supported in part bv NSE lBN9fl8048to DWK. DIATOM VALVE ABERRATIONS IN THREE SPECIES IN CONTINUOUS CULTURE. Anne M. Estes and Roland R. Dute , Dept, of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849. Three species of diatoms (Achnanthes brevipes Ag. , Nitzschia palea (Kiitz.) W. Smith, and Svnedra ulna, Ehrenberg) from Carolina Biological Supply Company culture collections were observed using scanning electron microscopy. These cultures had high percentages (87%, 29%, 14% respectively) of morphologically aberrant valves. A direct relationship was noted between years in culture and percent of valves showing aberrations. Aberrant valves were classified as those having displaced, misaligned, or fragmented raphes, an offset stauros, obscured or misaligned punctae, or displaced r imoportulae . Valve lengths were extremely small as compared to those reported in the literature. Restriction of the cytoskeletal system due to exceedingly small cell size is believed to be responsible for morphological malformations. 54 Abstracts POLYAMINE LEVELS IN TISSUES OF THE SPINY DOGFISH SHARK, SQUALUS ACANTH1AS. Brian K. Gaschen, Stephen A. Watts, and James B. McClintock, Dept, of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL. 35294-1170. Total polyamine concentrations were estimated in the liver, testes, intestine, stomach and spleen of Scjualus acanthias collected off the coast of Massachusetts in December, 1993. Excised tissues were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after collection, and transported on dry ice to UAB. Polyamines were extracted from tissue homogenates by perchloric acid, and the extracts derivitized with dansyl chloride. Concentrations of putrescine, spermidine, and spermine were estimated using HPLC. An unusual pattern of high putrescine relative to low spermidine and spermine concentrations was found in all tissue types, with putrescine/spermine ratios ranging from 3.6:1 in the liver to 17.9:1 in the intestine. The high levels of putrescine found in S. acanthias may be related to a high turnover of spermidine, as suggested previously in mouse brain tissue. Spermidine, when conjugated with a bile salt intermediate, comprises squalamine, which exhibits both fungicidal and bactericidal activity. This compound has been found only in S. acanthias to date. Consequently, spermidine could be utilized as a precursor for squalamine. Supported in part by NSF EHR- 9108767 to J.B.M. and S.A.W. FLUCTUATIONS IN STEROIDOGENIC CAPACITY IN STOMACH AND GONADAL TISSUES OF LYTECHINUS VARIEGATUS IN RESPONSE TO FEEDING. K.M. Wasson, G.A. Hines, J B McClintock, S.A. Watts. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1 170. During the non-gametogenic stage of the gonadal cycle, Lytechinus variegatus were starved for 35 d and then fed ad libitum for 32 d. On days 0,4,8,16, and 32 of feeding individuals were sampled, stomachs and gonads were excised and were incubated for 0.5 h with 3H-androstenedione. Steroid metabolites were suggestively identified by TLC using several solvent systems and product derivitizations. Following starvation, stomach and gonad indices were minimal and microscopic evaluation of gonadal smears did not reveal any developing germ cell populations. During subsequent refeeding, stomach indices increased 4-fold. The percentage of precursor conversion to aqueous and organic soluble products in stomach tissues did not increase significantly. However, the 1 7jS-hydroxysteroid dehyrogenase activity index increased 3-fold while both the 5a-reductase and combined 3a//3-keto-reductase activity indices decreased The major steroid metabolite in stomach tissues was testosterone. Gonadal mass did not increase substantially until after day 16, but mass indices remained below 1%. In contrast, the percentage of precursor conversion to aqueous and organic soluble products in gonadal tissues increased ca. 2-fold. The 170-HSD, 5a-reductase, and 3a//5-keto- reductase activity indices increased slightly with feeding. The major steroid metabolite of gonadal tissues was testosterone. No sex specific differences in steroidogeneic capacity were apparent. Supported by NSF EHR-91 08767. 55 Abstracts CLONING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF A COLD-INDUCIBLE GENE, cspS, FROM Salmonella typhimurium. Wee-Yao Ng*, Robert M. Law, and Asim K. Bej. Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. A gene from S. typhimurium that encodes for a cold-inducible protein (CSPS) and its upstream regulatory element was cloned in the plasmid vector pCR II by PCR amplification using degenerate oligonucleotide primers designed from the cspA gene of Escherichia coli. Nucleotide sequence analysis showed that the regulatory element and the gene to be a 0.480 kbp region with CSPS having a molecular weight of 7.4 kDa. The CSPS was found to have 98.6% amino acid homology with the E. coli cspA protein. In addition, the upstream regulatory region of cspS contains a "fragment 7" region which differs from that of cspA by 6 nucleotides. Cold induction of S. typhimurium at 4°C in the presence of 35S- Methionine exhibited a significant increase in the production of a 7.4 kDa protein as compared with the protein profile in SDS-PAGE of cells grown at 37°C . The upstream regulatory element together with cspS was subcloned into the promoter expression vector pCB 267 creating a protein fusion with /3-galactosidase. Comparing clones grown at 37°C with clones grown at 4°C showed a 300-450 fold increased CSPS production as determined using the /3-galactosidase assay. This study suggests that the cold-inducible protein may be conserved in many enteric bacteria. STIMULATION OF ECDYSTEROIDOGENESIS BY SMALL PROTHORACICOTROPIC HORMONE: ROLE OF CALCIUM (L Chadwick Haves and R. Douglas Watson, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AJ 35294. “ The secretion of ecdysteroid molting hormones by insect prothoracic glands is regulated by neuropeptide prothoracicotropic hormones (PTTH). In the tobacco homworm, Manduca sexta , PTTH exists as two size variants, big PTTH (~ 25.5 kDa) and small PTTH (~ 7 kDa). Both size variants employ cAMP as a second messenger; stimulation of ecdysteroidogenesis by big PTTH is calcium-dependent. In the present investigation, prothoracic glands from Day 3 last instar M sexta larvae were incubated in vitro in the presence of agents selected to perturb intracellular calcium levels; the effect of the agents on ecdysteroid secretion was determined by radioimmunoassay. Basal ecdysteroidogenesis was not affected by calcium channel blockers (verapamil or lanthanum). Treatment of glands with a calcium ionophore (A23 1 87 or ionomycin) produced a dose-dependent stimulation of ecdysteroidogenesis. Finally, the stimulation of ecdysteroidogenesis by small PTTH was inhibited by a calcium channel blocker (verapamil). The results indicate that basal ecdysteroidogenesis is not calcium- dependent and suggest that small PTTH-stimulated ecdysteroidogenesis is mediated by an influx of calcium. 56 Abstracts PROGRESS IN THE MOLECULAR CLONING OF A CDNA ENCODING MOLT INHIBITING HORMONE FROM THE BLUE CRAB CALLINECTES SAPIDUS. Kara J. Lee, R. Douglas Watson, Stephen A. Watts, and Asim K. Bej, Dept, of Biolgy, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham. AL. 35294. Terry S. Elton, Dept, of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL. 35294 The secretion of ecdysteroid molting hormones by crustacean Y-organs is regulated by molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH), a peptide produced by neurosecretory cells in eyestalk neural ganglia. To facilitate investigation of the structure and function of MIH, we have initiated studies directed at the molecular cloning of a cDNA encoding MIH from the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers were designed based on the amino acid sequence of MIH from the shore crab, Carcinus maenas. PCR amplification, using cDNA from eyestalks of C. maenas (but not C. sapidus) as template, yielded an amplified fragment of the expected size (approx. 169 base pairs).The PCR-amplified DNA was cloned into a plasmid vector and used for transformation of competent Escherichia coli cells. A Southern blot analysis of EcoRI- restricted plasmid DNA, using an internal oligonucleotide probe, showed specific hybridization to the cloned fragment. DNA sequencing (dideoxy method) revealed a 165 base pair open reading frame corresponding to amino acids 3-57 of C. maenas MIH. A Northern blot analysis using the cloned fragment of the C. maenas MIH gene as probe showed specific hybridization to a single band of RNA from either C. maenas or C. sapidus. These results indicate that the 169 base pair fragment can be utilized as a probe to screen a C. sapidus eyestalk cDNA library. Supported by MS/AL Sea Grant NA16RGO 155-03. POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE GOPHER TORTOISE (GOPHERUS POLYPHEMUS) IN MOBILE COUNTY, ALABAMA. David H. Nelson, Lisa L. White and I. Suzanne Hatten, Department of Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Population structures for gopher tortoises were assessed at four locations in Mobile County using pitfall traps. Tortoises were captured, marked and released from June to October, 1993. Data recorded for each specimen included age, sex, body dimensions and weight. Specimens and burrows were measured using tree calipers. Turtles were marked by drilling holes in the marginal scutes. Pitfall traps (13-17) were maintained at each site; they were open for a total of 12 days at each location. There were 109 captures of 48 individual tortoises at the 4 locations. Analysis of all captures revealed a mean carapace length of 24.7 cm (SD=3.74), mean wt of 2912 g (SD=890) , and a mean age of 18.2 years (SD=5.97). Recapture rates ranged from 44 to 66% per site (X=56) . A majority of recaptured specimens were encountered 3 times. Sex ratios (M/F) at the four sites ranged from 0.57 to 1.33 (X=0.88). For females (N=64) , capture data revealed a mean carapace length of 25.7 cm (SD=2.90), mean weight of 3179 g (SD=829) , and a mean age of 18.4 years (SD=6.20). For males (N=39) , the mean carapace length was 24.2 cm (SD=1.56), the mean weight was 2691 g (SD=547) , and the mean age was 19.1 years (SD=3.81). Although most specimens captured were adults, two juveniles and one hatchling were encountered . 57 Abstracts POTENTIAL HYBRIDIZATION IN CLOSELY-RELATED CRICKET FROG SPECIES: PRELIMINARY RESULTS-DEFINITIVE SPECIES IDENTIFICATION USING ISOELECTRIC FOCUSING. Debra S. Moore. Mickie L. Powell, and Ken R. Marion, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, Al 35294. The genus Acris is represented in Alabama by two closely-related species of cricket frogs, Acris gryllus and Acris crepitans, who share a broad area of overlap in the state. The coexistence of closely-related species requires some type of reproductive isolating mechanism. Many populations of the two species appear to coexist and share the same breeding season, while historically remaining genetically separate. In recent years, however, there are indications of increasing hybridization in the Fall Line Hills region of the state. Morphologically indeterminate individuals have been reported who cannot be placed in either species. To assess the occurrence and the degree of hybridization in these morphologically similar species, a definitive method of identification must be developed. The use of isoelectric focusing for total proteins has provided species-specific banding patterns for the two species. A distinct difference exists between A. crepitans and A. gryllus. In addition, patterns for A. gryllus collected from two different regions of the state remain consistent, decreasing the possibility that the differences reflect geographic variation. This method will be used to aid in the identification of hybrids and the analysis of factors influencing the potential breakdown of reproductive isolation in these two species. HISTOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF A WHOLE ORGAN EMBRYONIC CHICK PANCREATIC CULTURE SYSTEM. Connie A. Meacham. Nina S. German, Selena S. Williams, and Adriel D. Johnson. Dept, of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899. Histological studies were conducted using an embryonic chick pancreatic culture system to evaluate time-dependent changes in exocrine tissue. Organ cultures were prepared, using 18-day old embryonic chicks, and were incubated for periods ranging from 2 to 48 hours. After each incubation period, the pancreas was fixed, dehydrated, and embedded; then paraffin sections were prepared histologically using hematoxylin and eosin stains. Histological integrity remained functional with minimal loss of tissue characteristics up to 8 hours of incubation. During the 12 hour incubation period pancreatic lobules revealed localized degenerative changes, structural breakdown of capillary networks within the acinar tissue, and evidence of interstitial edema. After 16, 24, and 48 hours of incubation the pancreas revealed tissue fibrosis, increased tissue separation due to interstitial edema, and loss of organized capillary networks. Cross-sections of the exocrine tissue showed that the peripheral regions remained viable while the centro-lobule acinar tissue appeared progressively non- viable. Additionally, lactate dehydrogenase, an indicator of cellular membrane damage, revealed both non-specific and specific release after 12 hours, which corresponded to the observed histological tissue changes during the incubation periods. There was no observation of total necrosis or atrophy of the exocrine tissue during any incubation time. The histological evaluation indicated that this organ culture system remains functional up to 12 hours before any degenerative processes leading to loss of lobular architecture occurs. Future uses for this system will involve immunohistochemical localization of digestive and pancreatic components; and characterization of digestive pancreatic function in response to various neurotransmitters, hormonal agents, and cholinergic drugs known to alter exocrine function. 58 Abstracts COMPARATIVE ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION BIOLOGY OF LYTECHINUS VARIEGfiTUS IN SAINT JOSEPH' S BAY, FLORIDA. Steven D. Beddingf ield and James B. McClintock, Dept, of Biology, University of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Populations of Lytec hinus variegatus from three discrete sha 1 1 ow-water microhabitats in St. Joseph's Bay are being studied in an ongoing investigation to determine how environmental influences affect individual and population characteristics of the sea urchins at different sites. Sea urchins are feeding on different foods at all three study sites. Differences exist in population densities at the three sites throughout the year. Gonad indices show varia¬ tions in both the amplitude and number of seasonal peaks between sites. Substantial recruitment of juveniles oc¬ curred only at one site ( Thai assia testudinum seagrass bed) in 1993. Migration of older individuals may be the major influence on density and size frequency at a second seagrass ( Syringodium fill forme) site. Limited recruitment occurred at a third site characterized by a sand and shell hash sub¬ strate. The majority of small (<10mm) juveniles are found in association with adults. Larger juveniles (>10mm and <25mm) are most often found aggregated together in groups of 2-5. Predation on adult sea urchins by seabirds and crabs occurs at all three sites, however low temperatures may be the most important mortality factor for L . variegatus in St. Joseph's Bay. Preliminary movement studies indicate that sea urchins found on sand flats have higher movement rates than those inhabiting seagrass beds. Supported by the UAB Department of Biology & NSF EPSCoR grant #EHR 9108761 to J. McClintock. THE EFFECTS OF NEOTROPICAL PHYTOCHEMICALS ON EXOCRINE PANCREATIC SECRETION. Nina S. German. Adriel D. Johnson, Connie A. Meacham, Robert O. Lawton, Debra M. Moriarity, Dept, of Biological Sciences, William N. Setzer, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899. Extracts prepared from three tropical plant species, Didymopanax pittieri, Oreopanax xalapensis, and Oreopanax oerstedianum, of the ginseng family (Araliaceae) collected from the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, Costa Rica, exhibit cholecystokinin-A (CCK-A) receptor binding activity. These extracts may serve as probes for elucidation of regulatory mechanisms of gastrointestinal functions. An embryonic chick organ culture system was used to test the effects of these extracts on pancreatic amylase release. Four extract concentrations of 5, 10, 20, and 40 ul/ml were added to the culture medium. Organ cultures were incubated for 4, 8, 12, and 24 hours in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 at 37° C. Preliminary data suggests that each extract may stimulate total amylase release and amylase release per unit weight of tissue during the short term incubation time. Identification of natural products which behave as CCK-A agonists or antagonists may be useful in identifying models for new drugs which can serve to treat eating and digestive system disorders. These natural products may also serve as regulators of herbivory and should, therefore be investigated as potentially favorable " satiety drugs " for agricultural use. 59 Abstracts RAPID AND SENSITIVE DETECTION OF Corynebacterium jeikeium - A CAUSATIVE AGENT FOR BACTERIAL ENDOCARDITIS. Ann Michele Brewer*, Meena H. Mahbubani, Wee-Yao Ng, and Asim K. Bej, Dept, of Biology, Univ. Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Corynebacterium jeikeium (Group JK) has been identified as an etiologic agent for bacterial endocarditis, especially in patients who have had open heart surgery. Conventional microbiological culture method for the detection of this microbial pathogen is time consuming. Therefore, a genetic-based rapid detection of this pathogen in blood by using polymerase chain reaction DNA amplification method has been developed. A portion of the thymidylate synthase (ts) gene from C. jeikeium has been cloned in a PCR 1000 plasmid vector by PCR amplification using degenerate oligonucleotide primers that are located within the conserved regions of this gene in other bacterial species and some eukaryotes. Two oligonucleotide primers, LCK-1 and RCJK-1 with Tm values of 76°C and 74°C, respectively, were selected from the deduced nucleotide sequence of the cloned C. jeikeium ts gene fragment for PCR amplification. Three strains of C. jeikeium from ATCC and eight isolates of C. jeikeium from pateients with endocarditis were PCR amplified with these primers and a 0.288 kbp DNA bands were detected in an agarose gel. None of the non -Corynebacterium spp. and non-JK Corynebacterium spp. showed positive PCR amplification confirming the specificity of the primers for the target pathogen. Sensitivity of PCR-based detection of C. jeikeium was < 40 cells per 0.5 ml blood. The PCR-based detection of C. jeikeium in blood can be used for routine monitoring and early detection of this pathogen, and possibly other bacterial pathogens, thereby reducing the risk of bacterial endocarditis. DOLPHIN ANOMALY: FIRST REPORT OF A PYGMY KILLER WHALE (Feresa attenuala ), IN ALABAMA. Sean P. O’Hare. Department of Biology, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Gerald T. Regan, Department of Biology, Spring Hill College, Mobile, AL 36608. The partially decomposed carcass of a male, delphinid, cetacean, found on the western end of Dauphin Island, AL, (30 degrees 19.5 minutes North latitude, 88 degrees 13.9 minutes West longi¬ tude), was examined, measured, photographed, and the head collected by the authors, on November 30, 1993. The specimen, SHCM200, had a total length >191 cm, and tooth counts were: left upper, 11; left lower, 12; right upper, 10; right lower, 12. The teeth were fully erupted from the gums and had signs of wear, and bones of the skull were well ossified, indicating the animal was beyond neonatal age at death. The flukes and dorsal fin were damaged and there were several shark bites. The tail stock was tapered posteriorly to the peduncle, and the flippers were rounded at the tips. Data and photographs were compared to standard cetacean identification guides, (Leather wood 1976, Geraci 1993) and correlated well with literature descriptions of Feresa attenuata: upper tooth counts, 8-11 each side; lower tooth counts, 11-13 each side; body slender at peduncle; flippers con¬ vex on anterior margin and rounded at tips; adult size, 240-270 cm. The patterns of foramina on the maxilla, premaxilla and dentaries, were similar to those observed on TX-C88, an F. attenuata skull recovered from a mass, live stranding event, in Port Aransas, TX in 1983. TX-C88 is part of the collection of Texas A and M University in Galveston, TX. The authors gratefully acknowl¬ edge the assistance of the volunteers of the Alabama Marine Mammal Stranding Network, Elsa Haubold, and the Texas Marine Mammal Stranding Network. 60 Abstracts PI 3-Kinase Involvement in Neurite Outgrowth. Christina R. _ BurgaA, Andrea Wolf\ Ira Blader\ Trevor R. Jackson*, and Anne B.TheibertA ANeurobiology Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. *AFRC Babraham Institute, Babraham, Cambridge CB2 4AT, UK. Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) is an enzyme that transfers a phosphate group from ATP to the membrane phospholipids phosphatidyl inositol (Ptdlns) and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns-4,5-P2) . Phosphorylation of the phospholipid occurs at the 3-hydroxyl on the inositol head group and the products are PtdIns-3-P and PtdIns-3,4,5-P3. Recently, this PI 3-kinase and its product PtdIns-3,4,5-P3 have been intensively studied because of their possible roles as messengers in cell growth and differentiation. Hormones, growth factors, cytokines, and neurotrophic factors activate PI 3-kinase and stimulate the production of PtdIns-3,4,5-P3 very rapidly after binding to their receptors. Our laboratory is focused on identifying the role of the PI 3-kinase and its product PtdIns-3,4,5-P3 in neurons. We have examined a well characterized neuronal model cell line, the pheochromocytoma, PC 12. PC 12 cells respond to nerve growth factor (NGF) with a variety of morphological and biochemical changes. One dramatic morphological response is the outgrowth of processes, called neurites, which resemble axons and dendrites. We have asked the question: is the activation of the PI 3-kinase part of the signal cascade that produces this neurite outgrowth response to NGF. To address this question we have used two methods to block the activation of this enzyme, a chemical inhibitor and transfection of a dominant negative mutant enzyme. In both manipulations, the inhibition of the PI 3-kinase activity results in a dramatic decrease in the neurite response to NGF. This result demonstrates that the PI 3-kinase activation and the resulting increase in PtdIns-3-P or PtdIns-3,4,5-P3 is an essentia] molecular component of the neurite outgrowth response. ACR0S1N ACTIVITY OF MURINE SPERMATAZOA. Jan R. Holliday and Gary R. Poirier, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Acrosin, a proteolytic enzyme of the mammalian acrosome, has been implicated in a number of fertilization events, including sperm-zona binding, the acrosome reaction and zona penetration. Natural inhi¬ bition of acrosin isolated from seminal plasma may regulate acrosin activity during these early events. Because proper functioning of both the enzyme and its inhibitors is crucial to fertilization, an assay that would determine their activity would be useful in predicting the fertilizability of a semen sample. Using BAPNA as a substrate to indicate the amidase activity of murine sperm, it was demonstrated that the activity of acrosin is concentration, time and pH dependent. Furthermore, this enzyme activity is blocked by proteinase inhibitors, including that isolated from the seminal vesicle of mice. This data suggests that murine sperm amidase activity can be readily quantified using a simple spectrophotometric assay. 61 Abstracts RAPID AND IMPROVED DETECTION OF Salmonella spp. IN ARTIFICIALLY CONTAMINATED CHICKEN USING POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR). Sharon M. Graves’*1, Meena H. Mahbubani, Daniel D. Jones, and Asim K. Bej, Dept, of Biology, Univ. Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Consumption of foods such as chicken meat contaminated with Salmonella spp. can cause enterocolitis, gastroenteritis, and septicemia. A rapid, reliable and sensitive detection of total Salmonella spp. and pathogenic Salmonella spp. has been developed by a genetic-based primer-mediated Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) DNA amplification method. Total Salmonella spp. and the pathogenic strains of Salmonella spp. were detected by using oligonucleotide primers specific for the hns and the spv gene segments, respectively. Exponentially growing pathogenic and non-pathogenic Salmonella spp. were seeded in 10 g of chicken meat. Following pre-enrichment for 3 h in buffered peptone water (pH 7.2), multiples of 1 ml samples were collected, cells were pelleted by centrifugation; total genomic DNA was released by alkaline lysis; purified with phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol, and precipitated with ethanol. The purified DNA was used directly for PCR amplification. PCR amplification using primers for both hns and spv targets simultaneously generated DNA bands of molecular weights of 0. 152 and 0.247 kbp, respectively. Sensitivity of PCR-based detection for both pathogenic and non- pathogenic strains of Salmonella spp. was < 10 cells in 10 g of artificially contaminated pre-enriched chicken meat samples. The entire detection method takes approximately 8 h. This rapid and sensitive PCR-based simultaneous detection of total Salmonella spp. and pathogenic strains of Salmonella spp. can be used for routine monitoring of meat samples, thereby reducing the risk of disease outbreaks. Some electrical characteristics of tomato seedlings IV. Effect of mechanical injury. B Edwards, J. Reeves, R. Lee and C. Olander. Department of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville AL 36265. Using a common variety of tomato, electrical activity was recorded from electrodes implanted in the stem after varying degrees of mechanical injury(i.e. pinching with plastic or metal tweezers cutting with plastic or metal scissors or cutting with a blade ). The types on responses their duration and amplitude will be described. Mean values of the amplitude and conduction velocities of these potentials in response to mechanical injury is reported Data typically obtained will be presented. It was noted that the excitability level between similar plants on the same day and in the same plant on different days is variable and undergoes periodic changes. 62 Abstracts DETECTION OF MULTIPLE MICROBIAL PATHOGENS IN ARTIFICIALLY CONTAMINATED OYSTER MEAT USING POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR). Lynn Beasley*, Daniel D. Jones, and Asim K. Bej, Dept, of Biology, Univ. Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. A rapid and sensitive method for simultaneous detection of Salmonella spp. and Vibrio spp. in seafood has been developed involving multiplex PCR DNA amplification and gene probe hybridization. Oysters were seeded with < 10- 106 cells of each of the following species: Salmonella ryphi, Salmonella typhimurium, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio vulnificus. The oyster meat samples were processed with 18% ChelexTm 100 and 2.5 M NH4OAC, and purified with chloroformiisoamyl alcohol. The supernatant from each oyster meat sample consisting of DNA from target microorganisms was further purified and concentrated in a microconcentrator. Multiplex PCR amplification of each of the purified samples was performed simultaneously using five sets of of primers specific for the hns , spvB, ctx, tl and a-hemolysin gene in S. tyhpi, S. typhimurium, V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, and V'. vulnificus, respectively. The multiplex PCR amplification was optimized using variable molar quantities of each set of primers and 4mM MgCl2. After amplification, the amplified DNAs were analyzed by their molecular weights using agarose gel electrophoresis. The amplified DNAs from the processed oyster meat, which were contaminated with these microbial pathogens, were detected at a sensitivity of < 10 cells per pathogen. Detection takes <36 hours and is useful for epidemiological survey, distribution, source, identity and routine monitoring for these pathogens in contaminated shellfish and other seafood. VARIATION AMONG NORTHEASTERN ALAEAMA POPULATIONS OF LINDERNIA ALL. James T. Tipton and Jeri W. Higginbotham, Dept, of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Four populations of L i n d e r n i a All. from northeastern Alabama were examined electrophoretically to determine the extent of differentiation among putative L i n d e r n i a s a x i c o 1 a Curtis and L^ mo nt i co 1 a Muhl. ex Nuttall relative to L^ d u b i a ( L . ) Pennell. Leaf measurements of field collected specimens were taken as well. Eight enzyme systems were assayed. Populations exhibited apparent fixed heterozygosity for many enzymes. Variation of enzyme phenotypes was partitioned among populations with little to no variation observed within populations. Leaf measurements, also, varied more among populations than within populations. These results are consistent with the population structure expected of a predominantly self-pollinating species with widely disjunct populations. The conclusion that L^ s a x i c o 1 a is a distinct species cannot be made from our results. 63 Abstracts SPECIES-SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION OF Escherichia coli BY POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) FOR MONITORING DRINKING WATER QUALITY. Jon P. Southworth* and Asim K. Bej, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Routine monitoring of Escherichia coli as an indicator microorganism for fecal contamination of drinking and potable waters is required by Federal agencies for protection of public health. Previously, PCR methods using oligonucleotide primers that amplified a 0. 147 kbp segment of the uidA gene were used as an alternate approach for detection of E. coli in water. However, these primers also amplified DNA of all Shigella spp. The 0.147 kbp segment of the uidA gene from E. coli, Shigella sonnei, S. flexneri, S. dysenteriae, and S. boydii were cloned and sequenced. Comparisons of the nucleotide sequences between E. coli and Shigella spp. showed a mismatch nucleotide of the 3 ’-end of the upstream primer, and a new primer incorporating this mismatch was designed. Another primer was selected further down stream of this gene segment. PCR DNA amplification using these primers generated 0.927 kbp DNA fragment from E. coli, S. sonnei, and S. flexneri, but no amplification was seen in 5. boydii, or S. dysenteriae. With elimination of two strains of Shigella spp., the 0.927 kbp DNA fragment from the uidA gene were subsequently cloned and sequenced in order to investigate other possible mismatched nucleotides in the uidA gene between E. coli and Shigella spp. Primers will be designed based on the 3 ’-end mismatched site, and tested for amplification of E. coli DNA without any amplification of Shigella strains. PCR-based assay using these oligonucleotide primers for the amplification of a segment of the uidA gene will provide an alternate method for specific detection of E. coli as an indicator microorganism for water quality monitoring. Some electrical characteristics of tomato seedling : I Spontaneous electrical activity and electrode placement. C. Qlander, R. Lee, P. Jacobsen, G. Brown and M. Stanfield. Department of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville AL 36265. Electrical activity in plants has been known for over one hundred years, but its physiologic function or underlying molecular mechanism is still not well understood. It is assumed that electrical activity in plants (ie. action potentials, variation potentials and voltage transients) can be a mechanism both for signal transmission and for the regulation of various physiologic processes both at the molecular and whole organism level. The use of digital data acquisition devices with computer storage has greatly facilitated the analysis of these electrical events. The set up and use of computers, the types and placement of recording electrodes and their effect on the recordings of spontaneous electrical activity of tomato seedlings will be demonstrated. Upward and downward conduction with various electrode placement are compared. It was noted that the excitability level between similar plants on the same day and in the same plant on different days is variable and undergoes periodic changes. 64 Abstracts SELECT POPULATION PARAMETERS OF A THREATENED SPECIES, CYPRINELLA CAERULEA (JORDAN), IN THE LITTLE RIVER DRAINAGE. Terri L. Dobson, Department of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. This study of Cyprinella caerulea (Jordan) is part of a study of the fishes of Little River Drainage in northeast Alabama (September 1992 to the present) . Little River is one of only two watersheds in Alabama that this species is known to be found, the other being Choccolocco Creek. In this study, a range extension in Little River has been documented. This new record is located 3.7 km upstream of the last known record which was made by J. Malcolm Pierson in 1982. The blue shiner is known to occur in the lower 6.5 km of main channel habitat in Little River between the new record location and Alabama Highway 273. It is commonly collected with Campostoma oligolepis, Cyprinella callistia, Notropis stilbius, Hypentelium etowanum, Lepomis auritus, Percina nigrofasciata, Percina palmaris, and Etheostoma jordani. The monthly number and standard length of the blue shiners at Station one of the study have been recorded. Length frequency distributions and mean monthly length have been calculated as well as percent relative abundance of this species in relation to other species of fishes found with the blue shiners in this study. The blue shiners seem to prefer a habitat with cool, slow-moving water, nearby vegetation, and a sand-rock substrate. This project was supported in part by a grant from the Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Fund of the American Museum of Natural History. TORUS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN BOTRYCHIUM DISSECTUM. THE COMMON GRAPE FERN. Angela C. Morrow and Roland R. Dute , Dept, of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn Univ. Auburn, AL 36849. Tracheary elements in most gymnosperms and a few angiosperms contain torus -bearing pit membranes. The torus is a circle of impermeable wall material surrounded by a permable pit membrane (the margo) . In the presence of an air embolism, the pit membrane is aspirated and the torus blocks the pit aperture thus confining the air bubble. A torus and a half torus (between tracheid and parenchyma cell) were identified in 1920 from light microsopic studies of the fern genus Botrvchium . We have confirmed the presence of the torus and half torus in Botrvchium dissectum using transmission electron microscopy. Immediately after maturation (death) of the associated tracheid, matrix material is lost from the margo. With time the amount of matrix material within the torus decreases, and it loses its electron-opaque appearance. The amount of hydrolysis and the manner in which it occurs is not uniform in this fern. The half torus develops on the tracheid side of a blind pit adjacent to a parenchyma cell. When the tracheid is mature, the margo region facing the tracheid loses its matrix material, but the hydrolysis does not extend through the adjoining wall of the parenchyma cell. Studies are underway to determine those subcellular structures associated with torus ontogeny. 65 Abstracts MOLECULAR SEROTYPING OF PATHOGENIC Escherichia coli USING ARBITRARILY-PRIMED POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (AP-PCR). Patrick W. Lett*, Daniel D. Jones, and Asim K. Bej. Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Recent outbreaks of food poisoning associated with Escherichia coli have increased public concern about the safe consumption of red meats . As a result, there has been increasing pressure put on regulatory agencies to improve monitoring techniques for the detection of these bacterial pathogens. A desirable detection method would not only be able to detect the presence of E. coli, but would also be able to discriminate among the various strains of pathogenic E. coli. We have examined the use of AP-PCR in generating DNA Fingerprints characteristic of various pathogenic E. coli serogroups, thereby allowing for detection and discrimination among pathogenic E.coli strains. AP-PCR is characterized by the use of a single, relatively small (10-20 nt), randomly designed oligonucleotide primer in the PCR reaction, as opposed to conventional PCR where a pair of primers is designed to match a particular DNA target. We used an arbitrary primer (RPSE) 16 nt long to generate DNA fingerprints for eight E. coli serotypes that were representative of non-pathogenic, enteropathogenic, enteroinvasive, and enterohemorrhagic E.coli classifications. Our results showed that AP-PCR generated unique DNA fingerprints that were effective in both the detection of pathogenic E. coli as well as the identification the particular strain as belonging to a specific serotype. The AP-PCR approach of detecting and differentiating various pathgenic strains of E. coli will facilitate epidemiological studies, as well as improve medical diagnosis. VITELLOGENESIS IN THE BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES SAPIDUS: IN VITRO STUDIES OF VITELL1N SYNTHESIS. Chi-Ying Lee and R. Douglas Watson, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. To determine the sites of yolk protein synthesis in the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus 3 tissues (ovary, hepatopancreas, gill) from adult female crabs were incubated in vitro with [ S ] me thionine . Tissue extracts were separated by SDS-PAGE and radiolabeled proteins visualized by autoradiography. Two proteins (109 and 86 kDa) synthesized by the ovary co-migrated with the major subunits of vitellin (Vn) . A Western blot analysis confirmed the proteins were Vn-immunoreactive . Proteins from hepatopancreas and gill were not immunoreactive . In vitro incorporation of [ 35s]methionine into ovarian proteins was inhibited by an extract of eyestalks; the inhibition was dose dependent and tissue specific. Autoradiography of the electrophoretically separated ovarian proteins revealed the eyestalk extract inhibited incorporation of [ 3->s ] me th ionine into most proteins, including the major Vn subunits. The results suggest that the ovary is a site of Vn synthesis, and that the eyestalks contain a factor or factors that directly inhibit the synthesis of Vn and other ovarian proteins. Supported in part by AAS and MS/AL Sea Grant NA16RG0155-03. 66 Abstracts BIOLOGICAL CONTAINMENT OF GENETICALLY ENGINEERED MICROORGANISMS USING A CONDITIONAL SUICIDE SYSTEM. Sharon M. Graves1*, Wee-Yao Ng1, Soren Molin2, and Asim K. Bej1, 1 Dept. of Biology, Univ. Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170; 2 Dept. Microbiology, The Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Lyngby, Denmark. A conditional suicide genetic system using the staphylococcal and the Serratia nuclease genes ( st-nuc and sr-nuc, respectively) under the control of P ^JOHacT1 and P ^HacO/lacF has been constructed in pSE420 and pSM1088 plasmid vectors for containment of genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) relesed in the environment. These plasmid constructs were tested in Escherichia coli for their killing efficiencies of the host strain upon induction, and it has been found that the st-nuc is more effective than the sr-nuc. The st-nuc was further tested in a number of enteric bacterial species such as Enterobacter cloacae, Hafnia alvei, and Salmonella typhimurium. Viable plate counts on the DNAse test agar following induction indicated the lethal effect of the nuclease gene in the host cells. In E. coli, the kinetics of the st-nuc induction showed reduction of initial cell number from 3 x 104 to < 1 cell per ml within first 1 h. In other enteric bacterial species, the lethal effect of the st-nuc expression caused a 3-fold reduction in cell number within the first 3 h of induction. Currently, the use of this "built-in" self-destruct genetic system in GEMs that are capable in degrading xenobiotics is being tested in soil microcosms. Following completion of their intended functions, the microbial conditional suicide genetic system has the potential to reduce the risk of long term persistence and possible adverse effects of GEMs which are deliberately or accidentally released into the environment. THE USE OF OXYGEN FLUX MEASUREMENTS TO DETERMINE GROWTH EFFICIENCIES FOR HATCHLING AUSTRALIAN CRAYFISH, Cherax quadricarinatus, AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND SALINITIES. Mark E. Meade and Stephen A. Watts. Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, UAB Station, Birmingham, AL 35294. The Australian freshwater crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus, inhabits many areas in which temperature and salinity fluctuations occur. Studies using newly hatched crayfish in the 10-15 mg fresh weight size class were initiated to examine the effects on growth and metabolism at temperatures ranging from 12 to 36°C and salinities ranging from 0 to 30ppt. After ten weeks in freshwater, optimal growth was observed at 28°C with hatchlings averaging 922.8 ± 93.3 mg fresh weight. Above and below this temperature, growth was reduced before reaching the lethal limits of survival at 34 (LTSO^^) and 12°C (LT50^2d)- Reduced growth was also observed at increasing salinities before reaching a lethal limit (LCSOyj) of 25ppt salinity" at 28°C. Metabolic rates (oxygen flux) were temperature-dependent, with rates increasing as temperature increased over the range of 20 to 32°C. Metabolic rates did not appear to differ with acclimation to different salinities in the 0 to 20ppt range. Calculated growth efficiencies (growth rate/ oxygen flux) demonstrate optimal conditions for growth in the 26-28°C range and Oppt salinity, suggesting maximal rates of growth relative to energy utilization. We hypothesize that similar growth efficiency measurements can be used to assess the optimal growth potential of Cherax quadricarinatus as well as other crustacean species under a variety of environmental conditions. 67 Abstracts SYNTHESIS OF A NOVEL ANDROGENIC METABOLITE IN THE TESTES OF TILAPIA. Adam B. Keeton, Gene A. Hines and Stephen A. Watts. Dept, of Biology, Univ. Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Previous studies have shown that, among the vertebrates, 11-oxygenated androgen derivatives are produced predominately by teleost species. For example, the steroid 11-ketotestosterone is thought to be the major androgen regulating salmonid reproductive physiology. We have initiated a series of studies to evaluate the major androgens produced in tilapia. Testicular minces from reproductively mature Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus were incubated with 3H-androstenedione as a precursor for 0.25, 1 and 4 h in order to determine steroidogenic capacity. The resulting metabolites were identified utilizing thin layer chromatography with several organic solvent systems and chemical derivitizations. Androstenedione was converted into a variety of steroid products typical of teleosts, including testosterone and 5(3-reduced androgens. Further, approximately 30% of the precursor was converted into water soluble steroid conjugates within 4 h. We have tentatively identified a seemingly novel metabolite, which appears to be related to the 11-oxygenated androgens based on its relative chromatographic mobility, but it is not 11- ketotestosterone. This compound is often the major steroid produced by tilapia testes and may represent an alternative androgen involved in regulating the physiologically significant androgenic pool in fish. Supported by the Environmental and Applied Aquaculture Institute. ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS OF SALMONELLA TYPHIMURIUM OMPC PORIN. shree R. Singh 1, Yvonne U. Williams 1, Phillip E. Klebba ~Z , and Shiva P. Singh 1 . 1 . Alabama State University Montgomery, AL 36101, 2. Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226. Salmonella typhimurium OmpC porin was isolated from SH 7457. The monomer was subjected to CNBr-TFA cleavage SDS -Electrophoresis of CNBr peptides revealed eight bands when visualized by silver staining. CNBr fragments were electrophoresed and transferred to PVDF membrane. The N- terminal sequencing was performed using a pulse phase sequencer. The results of these analyses indicated high homology with £^. typhi sequence. CNBr peptides were screened in western immunoblot with anti-OmpC MAbs . All of these MAbs reacted with monomer antigen. Nine MAbs were specific for buried epitopes and three for cell surface epitopes. These MAbs recognized five antigenic regions within the regions of CNBr fragments. It appears that S. typhimurium like other gram-negative bacteria contains several beta strands. The antigenic sites recognized in this study can be effectively used to immunize the animals against Salmonella and other gram-negative bacteria. 68 Abstracts ALLOZYME VARIATION WITHIN AND AMONG POPULATIONS OF GOPHER TORTOISES (GOPHERUS POLYPHEMUS) IN SOUTHERN ALABAMA. Susannah T. Williams and Terry D. Schwaner, Alabama School of Mathematics and Science, Mobile, AL 36604. David H. Nelson, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of S. Ala., Mobile, AL 36688. Craig Guyer, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849. Blood samples from 40 (captured and released) Gopher Tortoises, representing five isolated populations, 4 in Mobile Co. and one in Escambia Co., AL, were surveyed for one non-enzymatic and 19 enzymatic proteins, representing 22 presumed genetic loci, using Cellogel and starch gel electrophoresis. Five loci were polymorphic, each with two different alleles. Frequencies of alleles for polymorphic loci varied among populations, with fixation or near-fixation of alternate alleles in some samples. Although small (6-12 individuals), sample sizes represented 40-82% of the estimated numbers of tortoises in each population. A log-likelihood analysis falsified the null hypothesis of no difference in observed and expected allele frequencies among populations for four loci. A dendrogram constructed from Nei's unbiased index of genetic similarity closely grouped the Mobile Co. populations separate from the Escambia Co. tortoises. Genetic differences between the Mobile Co. and Escambia Co. populations were related to their distance and separation by the Alabama River. These results are similar to those obtained in a previous study of the Western Gopher Tortoise (G. agassizi) . However, low amounts of detectable variation in tortoise populations, generally, and in our samples, specifically, suggested that more meaningful insights into the genetics of the species in Alabama will require a more direct analysis of their DNA. PRELIMINARY POPULATION STUDIES OF THE BLACK LAND CRAB, GECARCINUS LATERALIS , ON SAN SALVADOR ISLAND, BAHAMAS. Ken R. Marion and James B. McClintock, Biology Dept., Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Little is known concerning the population dynamics and demographic structure of the black land crab, Gecarcinus lateralis. This Caribbean burrowing species is highly territorial. We conducted a preliminary demographic study on San Salvador Island, Bahamas, during June, 1993. The study site was a strip of open shrub-brush habitat with sandy substrate running parallel to and within 50 m of the beach. Sherman small mammal traps were baited with sardines and placed in pairs at 9 m intervals along a transect. Each pair was 2 m apart. Traps were checked and rebaited every morning and evening. Captured crabs were individually marked with indelible ink and released. The Schnabel formula for estimation of population size indicated a density of 0.23 crabs/m2. Nearly all recaptures occurred in the same trap. Captured crabs showed a sex ratio of 9M:1F. The impending egg-iaying season may have influenced sex ratios. This study will be continued for several years to determine temporal changes in population dynamics. 69 Abstracts EXPRESSION OF ZETA- PROTEIN KINASE C IN CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT. Starla E. Hunter f Michael L. Seibenhener, and Marie W. Wooten, Dept, of Zoology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 The developmental expression of the atypical protein kinase C (PKC) isoform, zeta (£) was examined m rat brain. Western blot analysis using affinity purified isoform specific antisera to C-PKC revealed peak expression at both 4 da pre-birth and 2-3 da post¬ birth. In adult rat brain (-PKC was enriched in cerebellum, while both thalamus and cerebellum displayed iirmuno reactivity in the developing brain. Differential sucrose gradient centrifugation was employed to examine the subcellular distribution of £ -PKC in developing brain. Equal distribution was observed between cytoplasm and membrane fractions, while the growth cone fraction was enriched in £-PKC. Endogenous substrate proteins were characterized in the subcellular fractions. Several specific substrates were localized in the growth cone fraction: pp70, pp60 doublet, pp50 and pp45. Our findings reveal a unigue developmental expression pattern for £-PKC in brain compared to other PKC isoform proteins and suggests that (-PKC may function in neuronal differentiation. Supported by Auburn University Howard Hughes Life Sciences Scholar's Program (SEH) . HEMIDACTYLUS SPP. (5AURIA: GEKKONIDAE) , A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF POTENTIAL GENETIC MARKERS TO DISTINGUISH FOUR EXOTIC, INTRODUCED SPECIES IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. C. Lockett Allbritton and Terry D. Schwaner, Alabama School of Mathematics and Science, Mobile, AL 36604. Brian Butterfield, Dept, of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 36849. Richard Thomas, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, PR 00931. Allozyme electrophoresis on Cellogel was used to survey four species of geckos, genus Hemidactylus (H. turcicus , H. mabouia , H. f renatus and H. garnoti) , all exotic introductions into the Southeastern United States. Thirteen presumed genetic loci representing 11 enzymatic proteins were clearly detected and scored for two to five individuals of each species. Fixed allelic differences (frequencies = 1.00) between all four species were found at 8 loci (PEP A, PEP C, PEP D, PK, MPI, CA, IDH1 and IDH2) . Fixed allelic differences for PEP B distinguished H. turcicus and H. mabouia; similarly, AAT and ME distinguished the latter two species and H. garnoti. H. garnoti had a unique allele for 6PGD. Several other loci (MDH, ADH, GPI, and PGM) that were too difficult to score on Cellogel may distinguish these taxa on starch gels. Identification of these morphologically similar species is facilitated (if tissues are available for comparisons) by electrophoretic examination of their enzymatic proteins. 70 Abstracts HERPETO FAUNAL SURVEY OF LITTLE RIVER CANYON IN ALABAMA. Melissa J_. Dunaway, Dept, of Biology, Jacksonville St. Univ. , Jacksonville, AL 36265. Little River Canyon has recently been designated a national preserve by the National Park Service. With no formal surveys in northeastern Alabama, there is a need for baseline data. Due to the ruggedness of the terrain, several collection methods were utilized. Five sites were visited every month for one year, during the day and night. Tributaries into the canyon were also explored. Twenty-six species of amphibians were found, including one of special concern, the green salamander (Aneides aeneus) ; this was about 87% of the expected species of the area. Twenty-seven species of reptiles were found. This was only 59% of the expected species. Only 36% of the expected snake species were found. This via.y be due to the low small-mammal diversity, extermination by local residents, and sampling biases. The most common species were Fowler's toad (Bufo woodhousei fowleri) , American toad (Bufo americanus) , two-lined salamander (Eurycea cirrioera) , green anole (Anolis carolinensis) , and Eastern fence lizard ( Sceloporus undulatus) . Although herptiles can be found all year, seasonal observations show that summer was the peak season, with May, June, and July being the peak months. Seasonal abundances were compared across related taxa. Comparison of Procedures for Total Protein Determination of Plant Tissues — Christy Cox & Wayne Shew, Dept, of Biology, BSC, Birmingham, AL 35254 — A variety of procedures are used for the determination of total protein content in plant tissues. However, some of these proce¬ dures give falsely high protein concentration values because of their reactivity with phenolics which are prevalent in plant tissues. We compared four procedures commonly used in total protein determination; Biuret, Bicinchoninic Acid (BCA), Bradford, and Lowry. We wanted to determine which of these would be least sensitive to phenolic and other nonprotein compounds and thus give a mere accurate measure of total protein content in plant tissues. Leaves from six species of plants were used as samples in the investigation: Vaccinium sp., Lactuca sp. , Vitis sp. , Brassica olearacea, Cakile constricta and £. edentula. The samples were ground in 0.1 5M phosphate buffer using a mortar and pestle and then centrifuged to remove sand and large pieces of debris. The supernatant was removed, diluted appropriately and the total protein content determined using each of the four procedures listed above. In addition to testing these plant tissues, the phenolic compounds eugenol, guaiacol, and pyrocatechol as well as several free amino acids (alanine, phenylalanine, tyrosine) were tested using these procedures. Our findings indicate that Bradford is least sensitive to the presence of phenolic compounds and is the assay procedure of choice for total protein determination in plant tissues. The popular BCA assay gave results similar to the Lowry procedure and should not be used routinely in total protein determination of plants. 71 Abstracts EXPRESSION AND IMMUNOGENICITY OF PHASE-SPECIFIC 44-KILODALTON ONCO¬ FETAL ANTIGEN ON RODENT AND HUMAN FETAL AND TUMOR CELLS. Shirley IK Rohrer , Division of Natural Science, Mobile College, Mobile, AL 36663. Raymond B. Hester, Adel L. Barsoum, James W. Rohrer and Joseph H. Coggin, Jr., Dept, of Microbiology and Immunology, Univ. of South Alabama College of Medicine, Mobile, AL 36688. Oncofetal antigen (OFA) is a conserved, tumor and fetal tissue- restricted, cell surface-associated auto-immunogen. OFA is expressed in a phase-specific manner during normal rodent fetal development (as demonstrated by the decreased immunogenicity of late gestation fetal cells in cell-mediated tumor challenge assays) , and is absent from normal adult tissue. An IgM monoclonal antibody to OFA (MoAb 115), developed by the immunization of adult mice with midgestation fetal cells from primaparous, syngeneic pregnancies, or a control antibody was used in an indirect immunofluorescence assay to determine OFA expression as measured by flow cytometry. Microscopic cell inspection revealed typical rimmed fluorescence. OFA was demonstrated on 9 and 13 day gestation murine fetal cells and on WI-38, a human embryo cell line, but was greatly diminished on term murine fetal cells. Adult thymocytes did not express significant OFA. The vast majority of I tumor cell lines tested expressed significant OFA regardless of their initial method of induction — chemical, viral or radiation or of their tumor cell type. In murine radiation- induced thymic lymphoma, OFA expression preceeded clear histologic evidence of malignant T-cells or clinical symptoms. T-cell clones, specifically reactive to purified OFA, were generated from mice following immunization with syngeneic thymic lymphoma cells or fibrosarcoma cells. Rudbeck i a aur i cul ata (Perdue) Krai: ITS STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION. Alvin R. Diamond, Jr., and Terry W. Owens , TSU Arboretum, Troy State University, AL 36082. Rudbecki a aur i cu 1 ata (Perdue) Krai, is a perennial herb in the Aster family confined to permanently moist sites. It was originally described as a species in 1975, and is restricted in its distribution to seven Alabama counties. Six of these counties are in the Coastal Plain Province and the other is in the Ridge and Valley Province. Extensive searches have failed to locate add¬ itional populations either in Alabama or adjacent areas of Florida and Georgia. A total of seventeen individual populations are known. Most populations consist of less than twelve flowering stems, and occur on roadside or powerline right-of-ways. Threats to the continued exist¬ ence of Rudbecki a auriculata (Perdue) Krai include construction, the use of herbicides, habitat conversion, poor seed formation, and lack of seedling recruitment. It is recommended that this species be raised from C3 to threatened status by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 72 Abstracts SEXUAL DIMORPHISM OF BOX TURTLES (TERRAPENE CAROLINA) : A MORPHOMETRICAL ANALYSIS. Jeffrey T. Dunaway, Dept, of Biology, Jacksonville St. Univ. , Jacksonville, AL 36265. Sexual dimorphism has been noted in box turtles for eye color, claw length, tail size, and presence or absence of concavity of the plastron. While clutch size is related to body size in may reptiles, the strength of this relationship is not as strong in turtles. Natural selection may tend to favor larger body size in females to accommodate larger clutches of eggs. On the other hand, territorial behavior in males may favor larger body sizes in that sex. This study investigates morphometric variation in male and female box turtles from Alabama. Preliminary results indicate that there are no differences between males and females in carapace length, carapace width, carapace height, and total volume (t- test, p>0 . 05 ) . Comparison of the height of the anterior and posterior portions of the carapace indicate no differences between sexes (t-test, p>0.05). The posterior portion of the carapace of females is higher than the anterior portion, while in males, the anterior portion is higher than the posterior portion (t-test, p>0.05). This suggests that the rear portion of the box turtle shell in females to accommodate eggs. These data are preliminary but they do suggest some interesting evolutionary trends. SOYBEAN: EARLY ENDOSPERM DEVELOPMENT, ENDOSPERM FAILURE. Roland R. Dute and Curt M. Peterson, Dept, of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL 36849. Normal endosperm development within the soybean ovule begins with the process of double fertilization; the fertilized egg becomes the embryo, and the primary endosperm nucleus becomes the endosperm. The primary endosperm nucleus undergoes a series of mitoses to form a free-nuclear phase. Accompanying this process is a loss of starch and increased vacuolation in the endosperm cytoplasm. The cytoplasm at this stage is metabolically active. Transfer wall ingrowths increase in number along the lateral walls of the central cell as well as at the chalazal region. Endosperm cellularization first occurs when the globular embryo proper is distinct from the suspensor. Cellularization begins at the micropylar end of the central cell as anticlinal walls projecting into the endosperm cytoplasm from the central cell wall. Vesicles, microtubules, and endoplasmic reticulum are associated with the growing ends of these walls. Periclinal walls, initiated as cell plates during mitosis, complete the cellularization of parts of the endosperm. Instances exist where no fertilization or only single fertilization (of the egg) occurs. These ovules abort at an early stage. During single fertilization the fertilized egg develops into a proembryo but goes no further. Such instances prove that a properly functioning endosperm is necessary for continued embryo development. 73 Abstracts INTRACELLULAR EXPRESSION OF THE STAPHYLOCOCCAL NUCLEASE GENE IN Escherichia coli. Wee-Yao Ng*, Sharon Graves, Soren Molin, and Asim K. Bej. Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, A1 35294-1170. The staphylococcal nuclease gene without it’s signal sequence (jiuc-as) was cloned under the control of P -pJlacO/lacI and P ,JlacOllacP in the plasmid vectors pET24d and pSE420, respectively following PCR amplification of uuc-as. The nuc-AS cloned in pET24d and pSE420 showed a 5 amino acid insertion after the ninth amino acid residue and a point mutation causing a transition from an Adenine to a Guanine on the 43rd and 146th nucleotide positions. Computer analysis of the mutated huc-as did not show any alteration of the predicted active sites of the staphylococcal nuclease (SNUC). Induction of clones with IPTG did not show any extracellular expression of SNUC on DNase test agar plates. Upon induction, intracellular expression of SNUC was detected by Western Blot analysis. Intracellular stability of SNUC in the clones was up to 2 h as determined by ELISA assay. The insertion and point mutations did not seem to alter the intracellular enzymatic activity of SNUC. Following induction, the clones showed a decrease in cell number from 1.0 x 106 to < 1 cell per ml within the first 2.5 h. Retention of wild type SNUC activity intracellularly in the mutated SNUC could help to understand the regulation of genes that code for extracellular proteins, particularly in Staphylococcus aureus and possibly other pathogenic bacteria. DIATOM VALVE ABERRATIONS IN THREE SPECIES IN CONTINUOUS CULTURE. Anne M. Estes and Roland R. Dute, Dept, of Botany and Microbiology, Auburn Univ. , Auburn, AL 36849. Three species of diatoms (Achnanthes brevipes Ag. , Nitzschia palea (Kiitz.) W. Smith, and Svnedra ulna . Ehrenberg) from Carolina Biological Supply Company culture collections were observed using scanning electron microscopy. These cultures had high percentages (87%, 29%, 14% respectively) of morphologically aberrant valves. A direct relationship was noted between years in culture and percent of valves displaying aberrations. Malformations in aberrant valves (depending upon species) included: displaced, misaligned, or fragmented raphes, an offset stauros, obscured or misaligned punctae, or displaced rimoportulae . Valve lengths were extremely small as compared to those reported in the literature. Restriction of the cytoskeletal system due to exceedingly small cell size is believed to be responsible for morphological malformations. TEACHING SENSITIVE SUBJECTS— PROSTITUTION . Lyle L. Shook, Dept, of Justice and Public Safety, Auburn Univ. at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36117-3596. Prostitution, for some people, is a sensitive subject. This paper presents the results of teaching a new Scholars course at AUM about prostitution. 74 Abstracts TUMOR ANTIGEN SPECIFICITIES OF T CELL CLONES DERIVED FROM TUMOR-IMMUNE MICE. Shirley D . Rohrer, Dept, of Life Sciences, University of Mobile, Mobile, AL 36663. James W. Rohrer, Adel L. Barsoum and Joseph H. Coggin, Jr., University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Sarcomas, lymphomas and carcinomas in several species express a common 44 kDa glycoprotein antigen that is also expressed on mid- gestational fetal cells. We have termed this antigen oncofetal antigen (OFA) . Cross-reactive anti-tumor immunity induced by immunization with tumor or fetal cells expressing this OFA can be adoptively transferred with cell populations containing T lymphocytes. We describe here the establishment and characterization of two types of T lymphocytes with distinct specificities that are induced by immunization with syngeneic tumor cells in two mouse strains. We find that 5 of 8 T cell clones derived from spleens of BALB/c mice immunized with MCA1315 fibrosarcoma cells are specific for an antigen shared by MCA1315 and MCA1321 tumor cells. The other 3 T cell clones from the BALB/c mice are specific for an antigen present on MCA1315, but not MCA1321 cells. Also, none of the clones are reactive with the OFA-negative BALB/c plasmacytoma MOPC-315. Only 25% of the T cell clones from spleens of RFM mice immunized to the RFM thymoma 5T proliferate in response to both 5T and 4T RFM thymomas. The remaining RFM clones respond only to 5T thymoma cells. The cross¬ reactive clones from both BALB/c and RFM mice specifically respond to purified, MCA1315 fibrosarcoma-derived 44 kDa OFA in the presence of syngeneic, irradiated antigen-presenting cells and IL-2. All of the clones from both mouse strains are CD3+, CD4+, alpha-beta TCR+ T cells that secrete gamma interferon upon antigen stimulation. Some electrical characteristics of tomato seedlings : II. Effect of electrical stimulation. jL Lee, J. Reeves, and C. Olander. Department of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville AL 36265. Using a common variety of tomato, electrical activity was recorded from electrodes implanted in the stem after varying degrees of electrical stimulation. The types on responses their duration and amplitude will be described. Mean values of the amplitude and conduction velocities of these potentials in response to nondamaging electrical stimuli is reported. Data typically obtained will be presented. It was noted that the excitability level between similar plants on the same day and in the same plant on different days is variable and undergoes periodic changes. 75 Abstracts DOLPHINS DEAD IN MOBILE BAY AT THE WRONG TIME OF YEAR. Gerald T. Regan, Department of Biology, Spring Hill College, Mobile, AL 36608. Sean P. O’Hare, Department of Biology, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. The number of Atlantic bottlenose dolphins found dead in Alabama during 1993 was 46, the record for a year being 59 (1990), but 72 per cent were found in the last six months of the year, contrasting with a 35 per cent mean for 1988-1992 (range 27-42). All but one occurred in Mobile Bay or in nearby Mississippi Sound. Of those tested for the presence of dolphin distemper virus (Paramyxoviridae: Morbillivirus), 4 out of six were positive. The lengths of the dolphins that were positive ranged from 153 cm to 204 cm. Their sex ratio (m:f) was 1:1. The lengths for the whole year 1993 ranged from 95 to 266, and the 1993 sex ratio was 1:0.8. Neonates (length < 110 cm) made up 8.5 per cent of the 1993 total, neonate percentages in five previous years having fallen in the range 8.3-37.5. The 1993 percentage of dolphins with shark bites was 15, compared to the previous percentages: 1988:0; 1989:27.2; 1990:6.8; 1991:12.5; 1992:12.5. Correlates of the unseasonal mortality of 1993 were: 1) unusually high discharge from the Mississippi River after a 100-year flood; 2) an unusually cold interval in March; and 3) elevated fecal coliform counts off the east shore of Mobile Bay. Before the detection of distemper in Mobile Bay, the only other detection of it in the Gulf of Mexico was near Panama City, Florida, in June, 1993. The authors collected tissue samples from freshly dead dolphins for histopathologic study by T. P. Lipscomb of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. Consultation reports resulting from such studies, together with information from other sources, suggested the following model. The virus is closely related to canine distemper virus but not to feline distemper. Dolphins contract the distemper virus in the form of an aerosol transported through the air from previously infected dolphins. Blood carri* the virus throughout a dolphin’s system. The distemper virus induces im¬ munosuppression which predisposes a dolphin to infection by a fungus consistent with Aspergillus, the spores of which are presumably ubiquitous. The immediate cause of death is severe fungal pneumonia. Some electrical characteristics of tomato seedlings : III. Effect of injury by burning. M Stanfield, R. Lee, B. Edwards and C. Olander. Department of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville AL 36265. Using a common variety of tomato, electrical activity was recorded from electrodes implanted in the stem after varying degrees of injury by leaf burning. The types on responses their duration and amplitude will be described. Mean values of the amplitude and conduction velocities of these potentials in response to burning stimuli is reported. Data typically obtained will be presented. It was noted that the excitability level between similar plants on the same day and in the same plant on different days is variable and undergoes periodic changes. 76 Abstracts CHEMISTRY SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF TITANIUM-CONTAINING COPOLYMERS FOR USE IN LASER FUSION EXPERIMENTS AT LLNL . K. Branham, G. Gray, J. Mays, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. R. Cook, G. Overturf, R. Sanner, Lawrence Livermore National Labortory, Livermore, CA 94550. Soluble Ti-containing polymers are very useful diagnostic materials for studying nuclear fusion in laser fusion experiments. Incorporation of a Ti-containing copolymer in the inner layer (the mandrel) of the laser fusion target provides a spectroscopic probe for studying the fusion process through K-shell spectroscopy of the Ti atoms in the plasma. The extreme reactivity of most Ti compounds makes the development of reliable methods to prepare Ti-containing monomers and soluble Ti-containing polymers very difficult. Most polymeric systems containing Ti are catalyst/support materials or insoluble resins unsuitable for mandrel production. Soluble Ti-containing copolymers have been prepared by copolymerizing styrene with Ti-containing methacrylates. Laser fusion experiments using materials made by this method have been conducted at LLNL. We have also attempted to make Ti-containing copolymers by functionalizing copolymers prepared from styrene and some methacrylate derivatives with titanium reagents, but this method does not allow preparation of copolymers suitable for mandrel production. All soluble copolymers were characterized using :H NMR, C and H elemental analyses, and Size Exclusion Chromatography. AN IMMUNOELECTRODE BASED ON A JEFFAMINE-MODIFIED GLASSY CARBON ELECTRODE. Sean Elliot, Deborah W. Manning, Stacy H. Du Vail, Christine Jefnigan, Edward Williams, and Moore U. Asouzu, Trov State University, Troy, AL. The surface of an electrochemically treated glassy carbon electrode was reacted with Jeffamine EDR-148 to provide the amine functionalities needed to immobilize biotinylated goat anti-rabbit IgG through reaction of biotin with neutravidin. The immunoelectrode was incubated with peroxidase-labeled and unlabeled rabbit anti-goat IgG. Cyclic voltammetry was then used to detect enzymatically- generated oxygen from the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. The application of the immunoelectrode to other antigens that have specific antibodies developed in rabbit was demonstrated with the azidothymidine (AZT) molecule. Using the immobilized goat anti-rabbit antibody to anchor rabbit anti-AZT antibody and peroxidase as the enzyme label for AZT, we were able to measure AZT at a concentration of 4.68 x 10“ M. The immunoelectrode was used for more than 100 voltammograms during a 1-month period with little degradation. 77 Abstracts ELECTROPHORESIS WITH ON-COLUMN TRANSIENT ISOTACHOPHORETIC PRECONCENTRATION. Chao-Chenq Wang and Stephen C. Beale, Dept, of Chemistry, University of Alabama, at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Capillary zone electrophoresis ( CZE ) is an efficient separation technique for analyzing ionic species based on differences in the electrophoretic mobilities. Typically in CZE, capillaries with inner diameter of 20-1 00pm are used and only 1-30nl of sample are injected. Although CZE provides an impressive mass detection limit, the detectable sample concentrations are limited to 10-6 M for UV detection. Isotachophoresis ( ITP ) is another electrophoretic separation technique carried out in a discontinuous electrolyte system formed by a high- mobility leading electrolyte and a low-mobility terminating electrolyte. During the ITP step, the concentration of all ionic components of the sample are rearranged according to the concentration and mobility of the leading electrolyte; the highly concentrated components are diluted and trace components concentrated. By proper selection of electrolyte system, on-line CZE with ITP preconcentration can provide a significant improvement in the detection limit for trace analysis. Quantitative analysis of adenosine by CZE with on-column transient isotachophoretic preconcentration and LIF detection was studied. Borate buffer was used to convert the neutral ethenoadenosine derivative into the anionic borate complex. The borate system also functions as the terminating electrolyte for ITP and background electrolyte for CZE. Since isotachophoretic preconcentration allows injection volumes as large as 50% of the column volume, ITP-CZE concentration detection limits were two orders of magnitude lower than CZE. This approach provided quantitative analysis of adenosine at concentrations as low as 10'9M. SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF Me3AI AND Me3Ga ADDUCTS OF SECONDARY AMINES. Raiiv Gala and Craig Lagronne, Birmingham Southern College, Birmingham, AL 35254; and Charles Watkins, Larry Krannich, and Steven Schauer, Univ. of AL at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. The reactions of (Me^l^ and Me3Ga with eleven (1 1 ) secondary amines (Me2NH, Et2NH, Pr2NH, PH2NH, Bun2NH, Bu^NH, C4H8NH, C5H10NH, C6H12NH, CH3NC4H8NH, and Bzl2NH, where Bzl = PhCH2-) have been carried out to give the respective group 1 3/1 5 adducts. These have been characterized using IR, NMR, EI-MS, and elemental analysis. NMR data confirm the formation of an adduct. A comparison of 13C a-C chemical shift data indicates that the magnitude of the chemical shift change upon adduct formation is similar for the analogous Al and Ga species. A strong correlation exists between the a-C 13C data of the free amine versus that of the adducted species, with the exception of C4H8NH and Pi^NH. In an attempt to correlate calculated and experimental IR data, molecular modeling of these adducts has been carried out using SPARTAN 3.0. AMI and PM3 semi-empirical methods were employed. These results, as well as calculated geometries, will be discussed. 78 Abstracts METHCATHINONE: SYNTHESIS, STEREOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND ANALYTICAL PROP¬ ERTIES. Jack DeRuiter1, F. T Noggle2, Lisa Hayes , Allen Valaer and C. Randall Clark1, ‘Department of Pharmacal Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, AL 36849, 2Alabama Department of Forensic Sciences, Wire Road, Auburn, Alabama 36831, 3Howard Hughes Future Life Science Scholar, Auburn University. Methcathinone or "cat" is an amphetamine-type designer street drug that has been encountered recently in several northern states of the US. Like the amphetamines, methcathinone contains a chiral center and the central nervous stimulant activity resides primarily in the S- enantiomer. Methcathinone is prepared in clandestine labs from readily available starting materials such as the ephedrines and pseudoephed- rines, and our studies have shown that each individual enantiomer of ephedrine and pseudoephedri ne produces homochi ral methcathinone via conservation of configuration. Thus lR,2S-ephedri ne and IS ,2S-pseudo- ephedrine yield S-methcathi none while IS ,2R-ephedri ne and lR,2R-pseudo- ephedrine produce R-methcathi none. The enantiomers of methcathinone were separated by gas chromatography as the di astereomeri c amides following deri vati zati on with S- (-) -N- (tri fl uoroacetyl ) prolyl chloride (TPC). The GC-MS analysis of underi vati zed methcathinone shows a major chromatographic peak with a mass spectrum characteristic of the parent molecule as well as a secondary component which yields a molecular ion two mass units less than that of the major peak. Deuterium labeling experiments showed this minor component to arise through the thermal oxidation of the 2,3-carbon-carbon bond of the side chain to yield the 2,3-enamine. The presence of this minor component is significant since it may complicate the analysis of clandestine methcathinone samples. STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF AZAPHOSPHIRANE. Sara J. Strand and Koop Lammertsma, Dept, of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, UAB Station, Birmingham 35294. The synthetic and theoretical interest in three-membered ring structures is driven by their special reactivities that make them so versatile in many (bio)chemical reaction schemes. Here we report on ab initio molecular orbital studies on the new azaphosphirane system to support efforts for their synthesis in the laboratory. The high level studies at the MP2/6-31 G* theoretical level give credence to the possible synthesis of azaphosphiranes. The parent azaphosphirane is the global energy minimum of the various investigated isomeric structures and is significantly more stable than the ring-opened structures, the bis(ylene)phosphoranes. An analyses of the bonding features of thee compounds will be presented. We also report on the transitions for transformations and isomerizations at similarly high theoretical levels. Inversion barriers will be compared with those well established for trivalent nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. H H V c -N... trans 79 Abstracts SOLVATION OF THE PEROXYNITRITE ANION. Hui-Hsu Tsai and Tracv P. Hamilton, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. The vibrational frequencies of peroxynitrite (ONOO ) are computed from first principles and compared with Raman spectra of ONOO in solution and in potassium nitrate crystals. Theory results for the cis isomer are in excellent agreement with experiment, except for the torsional band which is predicted to have a vibrational frequency at least 100 cm 1 below the observed peak. We have investigated various possibilities for this discrepancy. The ONOO’ in experiment experiences either solvent or crystal field effects, so the effect of solvent was calculated using the self- consistent reaction field method (which uses a spherical cavity in a dielectric medium). Since the torsion peak is strongly broadened by the solvent, we also performed quantum simulations of 0N00‘»H,0 and ONOO *2H20. Ion-molecule binding energies of 15 kcal/mol are predicted, but the solvent effect on the torsion frequency is minimal. Anharmonicity has also been taken into account using perturbation theory, with the result that the vibrational frequency is lower than the harmonic vibrational frequency (the usual case). Efforts are currently being made to determine if water molecules can hydrogen bond in a manner that will result in a ring structure (which will inhibit twisting and thereby increase the torsional potential barrier.) A more sophisticated solvent model in which a realistic cavity is used and the solvent is polarizable by the charge on the anion is also being considered. Hydantoins with Conformationally Restricted Phenyl Rings: Correlations with Sodium Channel Binding. Milton L. Brown and Wayne J. Brouillette, Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Diphenylhydantoin (DPH) binds to a site located in the neuronal voltage-sensitive sodium channel. Previous studies have suggested that the DPH binding site may require a specific aromatic ring orientation. We are interested in determining the optimum aromatic orientation for tight binding to this site, by measuring the in vitro allosteric inhibition of 3H-batrachotoxinin A 20-oc-benzoate for conformationally restricted 5-alkyl- 5-phenylhydantoins. We have designed and synthesized spirocyclic hydantoins 1-4 which are estimated by Dreiding models to confine torsion angle C5, C6, C7, N1 to 70° (1), 10 to 1 10° (2), -20 to 140° (3) and -30 to 150° (4). Comparisons of the binding activities for these compounds revealed a preferred torsion angle range estimated to lie between -30 to 10° and 1 10 to 180° We employed SYBYL, a molecular modeling program from Tripos Associates, St. Louis, MO., to design probes which can further refine the estimated torsion angle ranges and investigate potential receptor preferences for new phenyl ring orientations. All analogs were energy minimized with the Tripos force field and relative energies over conformational space were determined using search routines (GRID and SYSTEMATIC) within SYBYL. For each global minimum, a range of conformers within 2.0 kcal/mol were considered. In this manner we designed hydantoins 5-8, which constrained the phenyl ring orientation to different regions of space than 1-4. 80 Abstracts REACTIVITY STUDIES OF PHOSPHINIDENE TUNGSTENPENTACARBONYL COMPLEXES. Bing Wang and Koop Lammertsma, Dept, of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, UAB Station, Birmingham 35294. Phosphinidenes [R-P-W(CO)s] are carbene like species. The applications of this experimentally elusive intermediates have increased rapidly in the past decade. Our research concentrates on characterizing the reactivity of these new species. Here we report on the Hammett reaction constant of the methoxy derivative (Eq. 1) and on the rearrangement of various cyclodiene-phosphinidene adducts (Eq. 2). The Hammett value will be compared with those of carbenes and other phosphinidenes. The transformation of the diene adducts will be discussed in terms of competing concerted and biradical pathways leading to [1,2]- and [1 ,4]-adducts. inr.\ w syn- + anti RADON, DIOXIN, AGENT ORANGE, TRICRESYLPHOSPHATE , TRYPTOPHANE, ETC. Carlton D. Whitt, 601 Schilling St. Athens, AL 35611-2931. The 14 member uranium series of elements are very deadly poisons, not nuclear hazards. Radon, no hazard to man being less than 0.1 pCi per liter of air even in uranium mines. Justifying calculations presented. Dioxin no health hazard to man. Ten year test at plant site city in Italy on 400 people exposed to dioxin and similar group in same city unexposed showed exposed group better than unexposed group in every item in 10 yr. multi-range testing. TCP has been added in small amounts to gasoline and larger amounts to motor oil esp. for large planes and high speed jet planes. USAF leaving Libya, auctioned off motor oil, much was blended with some cheap cooking oil. Estimated 30,000 or more people were crippled for life and died soon; several merchants were executed from reports at that time. Alpha amino acids tyrosine and tryptophane: the gateways to alkaloid syntheses along with phenolic groups. Many people have very serious consequences from eating too much tryptophane recently. Brief comments on Agent Orange, absinth, metal organic compounds in medicine, super phosphate, tritium and hazards from our nuclear technology. 81 Abstracts DETECTION ASPECTS OF CAPILLARY ISOELECTRIC FOCUSING. Sara Jane Sudmeier and Stephen C. Beale, Dept, of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Capillary isoelectric focusing (CIEF) is a powerful separation technique used for the analysis of complex zwitterion samples based on isoelectric point (pi) differences. In a conventional CIEF system, the zwitterions to be separated are mixed with a solution of ampholytes having various pis. The mixture is added to a fused silica capillary tube, typically with an inner diameter of 50 to 200 pm, and an electric field is applied to establish a buffered pH gradient in the capillary. During the focusing process, zwitterions move to their equilibrium position along the gradient where pH = pi. The entire gradient is then mobilized past the UV detection window for detection of zwitterion bands. The technique is able to resolve zwitterions which differ in pi by less than 0.01 pH units. Quantitative aspects of the CIEF separation process, such as precision and accuracy, were examined. Calibration data were collected for three proteins, myoglobin, trypsinogen and p-lactoglobulin B, with mobilization in the cathodic direction. Nonlinear calibration data suggests mobilization of focused zones results in irreproducibility in migration time and peak area. The mobilization process unavoidably causes distortion of focused zones and results in loss of resolution. Elimination of the mobilization step by further development and refinement of the instrumental design will be discussed. USE OF A REGENERABLE IMMOBILIZED SECOND ANTIBODY TO DETERMINE AZIDOTHYMIDINE IN A FLOW SYSTEM. Stacy H. DuVall, Deborah W. Manning, J. Zhao, and Moore U. Asouzu. A regenerable immobilized second-antibody reactor was used to measure azidothymidine (AZT) by competitive enzyme immunoassay in a flow system. The immobilized antibody was generated 4 times with little loss of immunospecif icity . A residual enzymatic activity of about 7% of the total response was obtained with horseradish peroxidase as label. AZT was measured below the nanomolar level by allowing competition to proceed for about 2 min. A limit of detection of 6.57 x 10-^ ± 1.56 x 10-H M AZT was obtained when the concentration of AZT-peroxidase conjugate was 0.125 ng/mL. This system was used to determine azidothymidine in Retrovir capsule with good results. In replicate measurements, RSDs of 5.51% and 2.44%, n = 6, were obtained at 7.48 x 10“H and 3.74 x lO-^ m AZT, respectively. 82 Abstracts MONTE CARLO CHEMOMETRICS WITH SPREADSHEET PROGRAMS. Jerry T. Gautney, Brian R. Hopkins, Michael B. Moeller and Brian D. Riley, Department of Chemistry and Industrial Hygiene, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. Monte Carlo chemometrics involves stochastic modeling of experiments with the goals of optimizing experimental design, estimating the uncertainties in the results, and testing analytical methods for bias. The growing familiarity and widespread use of computer spreadsheets present an opportunity for more workers to employ this technique. Crucial to the process is a method for generating normally distributed random deviates. These can be conveniently provided by a Box-Muller transformation. If xi and x2 are independent standard uniform deviates, then deviates z with standard Gaussian distribution are generated by: z = (-2 ln(xi )) 5 cos(2rt x2). This paper examines two situations commonly encountered in analyzing data. The first situation involves the calibration of responses y to standards x and then using the line obtain from least squares analysis to estimate an x value for a sample with an observed y. The precision of the values obtained by assuming a y = mx + b model is found generally inferior to values obtained if a y = mx model is assumed. The second situation investigated in this work concerns the application of ordinary linear least squares (OLS) to data containing errors in the x values. The bias in the slope was found to be considerably less with the y = mx model than with the y = mx + b model. SYNTHETIC APPROACHES TO THE DIASTEREOMERS OF 2-HYDRO XY-3- (TRIMETHYLAMMONIUMJCYCLOHEXANECARBOXYLIC ACID, CHLORIDE. Tracy U Hutchison. Ashraf Saeed, and Wayne J. Brouillette, Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Carnitine, 3-hydroxy-4-(trimethylammonium)butyrate, is important in cellular metabolism as a donor and acceptor of acyl groups. In order to study carnitine's protein binding sites, rigid cyclohexyl carnitine analogs, 2-hydroxy-3- (trimethylammonium)cyclohexanecarboxylate, have been designed. Of the four possible diastereomers for these analogs, two were prepared as the major diastereomeric products resulting from the reduction of ethyl 5-chloro-3-nitrosalicylate. Two approaches were pursued for the preparation of a third diastereomer. The first involved Mitsunobu inversion of the P -hydroxy group. When this failed, a stereoselective synthesis was designed that incorporated regioselective ring opening of the epoxide of trans- methyl 2,3-epoxycyclohexanecarboxylate with NaN3. (Supported by NIH grant HL44668) 83 Abstracts GC-MS ANALYSIS OF AMPHETAMINE PRODUCTS SYNTHESIZED FROM 1-PHENYL- 2-NITROPROPENE. Jack DeRuiter1, F. Taylor Noggle2 and C. Randall Clark1. 'Department of Pharmacal Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Auburn Univer¬ sity, Auburn, AL 36849 and 2Alabama Department of Forensic Sciences, Wire Road, Auburn, AL 36831 With tighter federal control of the precursor chemicals used for the manufacture of amphetamines, clandestine laboratory operators have begun to explore alternative methods for the synthesis of these drugs of abuse. One such method encountered in recent years involves the use of 1-phenyl -2-ni tropropene (PNP) as a key precursor. PNP is prepared by treating benzaldehyde with butyl amine and nitroethane. PNP may be reduced directly to amphetamine, or converted to another versatile intermediate, 1-phenyl -2-propanone (P-2-P), which may be aminated to a yield a number of related amphetamine-type compounds. In the present study, GC-MS analysis was used to investigate the conversion of PNP to amphetamine derivatives under a variety of reaction condition. These analyses revealed that amphetamine is produced as the major product when PNP is subjected to catalytic hydrogenation or hydride reduction with a large excess of lithium aluminum hydride (LAH). The conversion of PNP to P-2-P by partial reduction and hydrolysis was also studied and found to proceed cleanly and in good yield. Amination of P-2-P under Leuckart and reductive amination conditions provided amphetamine as the principle product. GC-MS analysis revealed that samples from these reactions also contain several by-products that are character¬ istic of these routes of synthesis. PROGRESS IN PHOSPHINIDENE CHEMISTRY - NEW PHOSPHIRANES. Steffen Krill and Koop Lammertsma, Dept, of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, UAB Station, Birmingham 35294. Our studies aim to explore the carbene-like chemistry of phosphinidenes and to develop the synthetic potential of phosphiranes, which are their olefin addition products. In this pursuit we concentrate on the synthesis of strained systems, which are targeted for rearrangement and ring opening studies, and new phosphorus heterocycles. We report here on the syntheses and properties on several such new ring structures. Trapping of the terminal phosphinidene complex [Ph-P-W(CO)5] (1) with hexamethyl-Dewar benzene results in the exceptional tricyclic 2. Equally exciting is the synthesis of the highly strained bicyclophosphabutane 3 of which the sterochemistry could be established by a single X-ray crystal structure determination. Trapping of complex 1 with a phosphole afforts the dicomplexed bicyclic structure 4. Preliminary results wil be presented on the ring opening of azaphosphiranes to generate 5, which are formal [2+1] cycloaddition products with imines. 2 3 4 5 84 Abstracts REFRACTIVE INDEX MEASUREMENT OF SOME ORGANIC MATERIALS AND WATER*. Anthony Wilson and K. J. Chang, Department of Chem- stry, Alabama A&M University, Normal, Alabama 35762. Benjamin G. Penn and Donald 0. Frazier, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama 35812. Refractive index of a substance depends on the intensity of incident light and affects polarization, hence optical behavior of nonlinear optical materials. Thus, refractive indices of these materials should be determined for study and application of the materials in electrooptical devices. In this work, refractive indices and film thicknesses of nonlinear optical organic materials with different substra- o tes have been measured with He-Ne laser of 6328 A by using a computer-controlled Gaertner ellipsometer . Also, the ac¬ curacy of the result obtained using our liguid sample cell is shown by comparing the refractive index of water measur¬ ed in our lab with published literature values. *This work has been supported by NASA Grant No. NAG8-173. A MODEL FOR MULTI-ANTIGEN DETECTION. Deborah W. Manning, Stacy H. DuVall, Christine B. Jernigan, and Moore U. Asouzu, Troy State University, Troy, AL . Enzymes have been used as labels in immunoassays to improve sensitivity and selectivity, and as substitutes to radioactive labels. In enzyme immunoassay, an unlabeled antigen competes with an enzyme-labeled antigen for available antibody binding sites. Then, bound enzyme activity is determined and related indirectly to the unlabeled antigen concentration. We will present a model for multi-antigen determination with an immunoelectrode to demonstrate the feasibility of measuring more than one antigen in a single assay in these systems. Our system uses alkaline phosphatase and horseradish peroxidase as model labels for IgG. The products of the enzymatic reactions involving these enzymes will be detected by Cyclic Voltammetry. The use of glucose oxidase as label will be proposed. 85 Abstracts GEOLOGY NEURAL-NETWORK PREDICTIONS OF PERMEABILITY FROM POROSITY. Samuel Joe Rogers, Department of Geology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0338. Predicting permeability in uncored wells is one of the central problems in reservoir characterization. Two main reasons are behind this difficulty: (1) it is not yet possible to quantitatively describe the heterogeneity of porous media and (2) the flow field is the solution of a set of partial differential equations which are difficult to compute. One solution to this problem is to use porosity measurements from well logs to predict the perme¬ ability values in uncored wells. Porosity logs are much less expensive to obtain than cores, and porosity often correlates with permeability. Unfortunately, the poor agreement between observed and predicted permeability val¬ ues has plagued this approach. This study is concerned with providing a viable alternative to the prediction of permeability from porosity logs through the use of neural networks. This non-statistical method does not require sophisticated mathematics or large amounts of statistical data; neural networks learn from examples. The porosity and permeability values from cored wells provide examples to train the neural network so that it can predict the permeability values of neighboring wells using only their porosity well log values. Preliminary results using two cored wells from the Big Escambia field to train a neural network to predict the permeability from porosity values in a third well has provided better results than those achieved by traditional methods. MICROBIAL REEFS IN THE SMACKOVER FORMATION OF ALABAMA. David C. Kopaska- Merkel. Geological Survey of Alabama, PO Box 0, Tuscaloosa AL 35486-9780. Small-scale bioherms and biostromes (reefs) in the Upper Jurassic Smackover Formation in Alabama are dominated by microbial stromatolites. Oncoids ("algal balls") over- and underlie reefs and are incorporated within reefs. Oncoids and reefs probably represent microbial responses to differing energy regimes. Subspherical oncoids form under conditions of regular and frequent overturn, whereas flattened oncoids have been interpreted to form under conditions of infrequent overturn. Upwardly expanding oncoids appear to form when subspherical oncoids are grounded for extended periods, and are interpreted to record the incipient stages of reef formation. Grounded oncoids that avoid burial eventually become small microbial reefs or microreefs. This takes place by expansion of single oncoids, by coalescence of oncoids, by trapping of sediment particles among oncoids, and by microbial overgrowth of multiple oncoids and interstitial material. Small microreefs may coalesce to form larger ones, which consequently exhibit a complex internal fabric. The microreefs described here are centimeters thick and centimeters to tens of centimeters wide; some microbial boundstone bodies in the Smackover of Alabama are much larger. The demise of microreefs appears to involve burial by oncoidal pellet packstone/grainstone, with or without erosion of the top of the microreef. These features and relationships are illustrated with examples primarily from Uriah field in the Manila embayment. 86 Abstracts GEOLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS IN THE FERN CAVE SYSTEM, JACKSON COUNTY, ALABAMA. Karen F. Rheams, Geological Survey of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486 Geologic, hydrologic, and biologic studies by the Geological Survey of Alabama for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to delineate the geographic extent of Alabama cave shrimp habitats in north Alabama have now been expanded to include Jackson County. The Fern Cave system, which is located on Nat Mountain just northwest of the town of Paint Rock, is comprised of three mutually joined caves: Fern Cave, New Fern Cave, and the Morgue. The entire system is under the protection of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and access is through a restricted number of permits issued annually. Fern is an extremely complicated cave system composed of both a vertical and horizontal maze with over 12 separate levels that are interconnected by pits and canyons that appear to be strongly joint controlled. The Fern Cave system is the longest cave in Alabama with a surveyed length of more than 15 miles. With the uppermost entrance near the Bangor Limestone/Pennington Formation contact and the lowermost stream resurgence at the Tuscumbia Limestone/Monteagle Limestone contact, the cave system vertically traverses over 500 feet of stratigraphic section. Three major levels of cave passage have been recognized and indicate a complex formation history for the system. Speleothems and secondary calcite deposits are abundant throughout the Fern system making differentiation of the carbonate units difficult, but marine fossils are well preserved in some areas of the cave. A planned 5-year mapping program by the Fern Cave Project (FCP) has included studies by multidisciplined scientists with horizontal and vertical caving skills and experience. Recent mapping on Nat Mountain and within the upper and middle sections of Fern by the author for the FCP may provide insight into the geologic history of the area and the speleogenesis of this complex cave system. TEACHING CHILDREN ABOUT THE EFFECTS OF HURRICANES AND TROPICAL STORMS. David C. Kopaska-Merkel and David J. Davies, Geological Survey of Alabama, PO Box O, Tuscaloosa AL 35486-9780. As a part of the Geological Survey of Alabama's mission to provide the public with earth-science information, we are preparing a 35-mm educational slide set about hurricanes. The slide set focuses primarily on the effects of hurricanes and tropical storms and is aimed at children of school age. The slide set is accompanied by a brief report that describes hurricanes and summarizes the history of hurricane activity in Alabama. It also describes the effects of hurricanes (through the action of storm surge, high winds, waves and currents, rainfall, tornadoes, and secondary damage), and lists sources of advice about hurricane safety. The report also includes descriptions of each slide, and a ready-to-use classroom activity on hurricanes that K-1 2 teachers can use without help from an earth scientist. The 44 slides illustrate these same topics with specific examples. The slides compose a self- contained caption-driven presentation that can be used without reference to the report. The complete slide presentation takes about one-half hour. The report that accompanies the slide set could be read and understood by middle-school and high-school students. However, the slide presentation can be readily geared to children of almost any age. The classroom activity and student worksheet are most appropriate for elementary-school children. The hurricane slide set is one example of the kinds of educational materials that can be prepared on a wide variety of topics by earth scientists. We urge all earth scientists to take the time to translate their own expertise into fun and informative educational materials in the widest possible variety of formats. 87 Abstracts FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, CONSERVATION, AND PLANNING GROUND DRAWINGS IN THE PROVINCE OF NAZCA, PERU. Wilbur B. De Vail, Proxy Services, Ltd., Auburn, AL 36830. Ground drawings are of two general types, rock alignments and gravel effigies. The former consist of rows of rocks in a wandering configuration. The latter are produced by raking aside the darker top soil to expose a paler subsoil. Both types are abstractions and/or representational of sacred projects rather than secular amusements. The formations were created much like drawing imaginary lines between stars in the sky to portray the well-known constellations. The Nazca Lines of southern Peru range from straight lines running for miles to geometric quadrangles, triangles, trapezoids, and spirals. Others are symbolic of giant creatures including birds, reptiles, whales, monkeys, and spiders. Because some of the figures resemble those used in decorating Nazca pottery, archeologists attribute the lines to the Nazcas, a coastal people whose culture rose, flourished, and declined between 100 B.C. and A.D. 700. Dr. Paul Kosok, the first scholar to study the markings after they were first discovered from the air in the late 1920's speculated that they may have constituted a giant astronomical calendar or almanac for farmers. Frau Maria Reiche, a German mathematician, photographed and chartered las lineas for many years which resulted in her publication "Mystery on the Desert" in 1968. The markings lie along the Pan American highway and north of the town of Nazca ranging over an air-line distance of more than five miles. Lines mn up and down slopes as well as along the flat desert floor. The National Geographic Society financed one of her studies and published an article in the May 1975 issue of the National Geographic titled "Mystery of the Ancient Nazca Lines" with photographs in color. Researcher Reiche presented the author of this paper with a copy of her 1976 book during a visit with her in 1987. Ethnohistory and Archaeology: A Study of Upper Creek Settlement Patterns. Terry Lolley, Panamerican Consultants, Inc., P.0. Box 40930, Tuscaloosa, AL 35404. A relatively large amount of ethnohistoric data is available on the Upper Creek Indians of Alabama, which can be combined with arch¬ aeological evidence to enhance our understanding of their lifeways. The aim of this paper is to provide an ethnohistoric model of Upper Creek settlement patterns, which can then be used in a settlement analysis through comparison with historical accounts and maps, modern topographic maps, and archaeological data. The model should manifest itself archaeologically in several ways: site locations, site organ¬ ization, and inter-site patterning. The archaeological data is deriv¬ ed from surveys along the Coosa River by Dr. Vernon J. Knight of the University of Alabama. 88 Abstracts DETERMINING THE VALUE AND OPTIMAL MARKET CONFIGURATION OF PCS LICENSING: A GEO-DEMOGRAPHIC MODEL. Jeffrey P. Richetto, Dept, of Geography, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Mark D. Mullane, Dept, of Geography, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Increasingly, a fundamental prerequisite for the evolution of economic development at the regional, national and global level is the development of technologies which readily overcome the frictions of space and time. The two most important of such 'enabling technologies' include communications and transportation. Time and relative cost of transporting material, products and people have fallen dramatically as the result of technological innovations in transport media. However, such developments have depended on parallel improvements in communications technology. Communication systems are the means by which information, in the form of ideas, data and images, is transmitted across the landscape. The emerging telecommunication technologies are the electronic high¬ ways of the informational age. Personal Communication Service, PCS, is a new form of wireless telecommunication that is technologically superior to conventional cellular. It operates in an all digital environment, requires less power, is independent of existing cable infrastructure, and has the capability of handling a greater capacity loading. Because of these and other characteristics cell sites are smaller and a greater number are required to create an integrated communication system. In turn, the number and geographic placement of cell sites help to determine the market value of a PCS license. It is within this context that this study will develop a geo-demo¬ graphic model determining the value and optimal location of PCS licensing . THE UNITED STATES SENATE, THE UNITED DAUGHTERS OF THE CONFEDERACY AND THE CONFEDERATE FLAG: THE POWER OF AN ICON. Gerald R. Webster, Dept, of Geography, Univ of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Roberta H. Webster, Dept, of History, Political Science and Geography, Samford Univ., Birmingham, AL 35229. In July, 1993 the United States Senate voted against renewing the design patent for the insignia of the United Daughters of the Confederacy. Objections to the renewal centered on the appearance of the flag of the Confederate States of America (CSA) on the insignia, to some a symbol associated with slavery and racism. The central purpose of this paper is to examine the electoral geography of the Senate's votes on the patent renewal. This paper first considers the flag as an element of the South's iconography. Using statistical and cartographic means, it then examines the regional character of the Senate's votes on the patent renewal. It finds that Senate voting behavior was most impacted by each Senator's party affiliation, but that there were strong regional dimensions to the Senate's rejection of the patent renewal . 89 Abstracts THE GHANA FERTILIZER POLICY SUPPORT SYSTEM: A PROTOTYPE FOR FUTURE SYSTEMS. Glenda Smallwood, Graduate Student, and T. Morris Jones, Professor, Department of Management and Marketing, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001. The Ghana Fertilizer Policy Support System was developed at The International Fertilizer Development Center in Muscle Shoals, Alabama. The specific objective of this system is to provide a set of guidelines that may be used to establish a manageable fertilizer database that can then be used to develop and analyze fertilizer policies in Ghana. A broader objective of this system is to serve as a prototype for future comprehensive policy information systems which will be individually tailored to the specific needs of particular countries. Also, having useful and organized information is the key to designing effective government policies and actions. The system was designed by a process approach. It has a very flexible structure which will make it be easily adaptable to the various needs of its users and operators. It presently contains eight modules which can be easily modified to support any future needs that emerge and have to be defined. Future work is also necessary to find, collect, and verify data to test the performance of the various modules. It should be emphasized that the development of any such comprehensive information system requires this type of process approach. Geoarchaeological reconstruction of the recent fluvial history of Cane Creek, northern Alabama. Kelly D. Gregg, Dept of Geography and Archaeology, Jacksonville State University, AL 36265 As part of a long-term study of the fluvial geomorphology of the Coosa River system, a soil-geomorphic evaluation of the "Wright's Farm" site (lCal8) was undertaken in conjunction with archaeological excavations. This site borders Cane Creek, a major tributary of the Coosa. In addition to traditional soil and stratigraphic description, archaeological evidence, historical records and oral interviews were used to help reconstruct recent fluvial history. The evidence suggests that this portion of Cane Creek has been very dynamic during the last 150 years, starting as a single-channel bedload stream, changing to a silt-choked, multiple-channeled braided system and now functioning as a rapidly incising single¬ channel carrying a large sediment load over a muddy bottom. These changes have apparently been the result of variation in patterns of land use. 90 Abstracts TERRITORIALISM IN AMERICAN CITIES. Lewis A. Shumaker, Dept, of Geography, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Jeffrey P. Richetto, Dept, of Geography University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. The subject of territorialism is of vital interest to geography, in general, and urban geography, in particular. At its most funda¬ mental level territorialism refers to the 'behavior by which an organ¬ ism characteristically lays claim to an area and defends it against members of its own species'. The underlying behavioral processes of territorialism manifest themselves in the urban environment both from an organizational and landscape perspective. On the one hand, individuals may organize themselves into representative groups (e.g., neighborhood organizations, the Chamber of Commerce, local civic clubs, etc.) in an effort to influence community planning decisions that may impact on their quality of life. On the other hand, the urban landscape is comprised of numerous tangible by¬ products of territorialism (e.g., symbolic marking of property, architectural and landscape design, graffiti, brick wall enclosures of neighborhood space, etc.) that impose visual and physical barriers limiting spatial mobility, constraining locational choices, and encouraging the creation and maintenance of defacto territories. It is within this context that this study investigates the nature and role of territorialism as it influences the evolution of the American urban landscape. To this end, the debate on territorialism from the field of anthropolgy is briefly reviewed and varying levels of territorial behavior exhibited by different ethnic groups, socio¬ economic classes, suburban versus inner city resident, and the role of territorialism in shaping the American city are explored. FORREST AND GEOGRAPHY. Chris to2her_p_;__Coker , Dept, of Geography, Univ. of N. Ala., Florence, AL 35630. On June 10, 1864, Confederate general Nathan Forrest attained his greatest victory by defeating Union general Samuel Sturgis in the battle of Brice's Crossroads, near Baldwyn, in north Mississippi. Forrest systematically organized this battle by using the geography of the area to his advantage. Although his forces were half the size of the Union force, he believed the dense wooded area around the battle site would be an advantage to his guerilla style warfare. The torrential rains that had fallen the night before made travel to the battle site much more difficult for Sturgis' larger force than Forrest's smaller force. The hot, humid sun the morning of the battle suffocated the unadjusted northern soldiers and took a comparatively smaller toll on the southern troops. Forrest allowed Sturgis to cross the deep Tishomingo Creek before pinning him against this hazard. The only avenue of retreat across the Tishomingo was a narrow bridge, and when the Union forces were routed, the bridge became clogged with panic-stricken horses and men. Many Union soldiers were shot while trying to swim the creek. It is highly unlikely that Forrest could have won this battle without utilizing the geographic features such as the climate, the wooded area, and the Tishomingo Creek. This is only one of many instances where Forrest maximized the geography of an area to win a battle. 91 Abstracts ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS OF THE ALABAMA PIEDMONT. Jonathan W. Mies, Department of Physics, Geology, and Astronomy, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Chattanooga, TN 37403. Lewis S. Dean. Geological Survey of Alabama, 420 Hackberry Ln„ Tuscaloosa, AL 35486. Ultramafic rocks are a unique suite of igneous rocks associated with mobilized orogenic belts around the world. In the Appalachian orogen, the southernmost exposure of ultramafic rocks is in the Alabama Piedmont. A summary overview of all identified ultramafic rocks in terms of mineralogy, chemistry, and structural relations has been made to evaluate the probable origin and tectonic history of these bodies and to provide a basis for future geologic investigation and mineral resource assessment In the northern Alabama Piedmont, ultramafic rocks are restricted to and are a minor constituent of the eastern Blue Ridge belt. Several small, concordant ultramafic bodies occur among units of the Ashland supergroup in close association with interdigitated amphibolite. In Cleburne and Clay Counties, ultramafic bodies (Needmore, Red Hill, Poe Bridge Mountain) are composed of homblendite with relic olivine and orthopyroxene; minor constituents include Mg-chlorite, Cr-pleonaste, ilmenite, magnetite, and serpentine-group minerals. Metapyroxenite at the interior of each body is coarse grained, whereas that at the peripheral margins is finer grained and schistose. Schistosity in ultramafic tectonite is ap¬ proximately parallel to schistosity and compositional layering in adjacent country rock, indicating co¬ evolution of rock fabric. The limited development of tectonite fabric in ultramafic bodies is consistent with their having been more competent than country rock during deformation (emplacement ?). In the Inner Piedmont of Alabama, ultramafic rocks are associated with mafic rocks which are a major con¬ stituent of the Dadeville complex. Eighteen ultramafic bodies and clusters of bodies (complexes) are presently delineated in the Inner Piedmont of Tallapoosa and Chambers Counties. These ultramafic rocks were investigated as early as the 1850's, and several sites exhibit prehistoric use by Native American Indians who recognized the value of this material for manufacture of bowls and other utensils. Inner Piedmont ultramafic rocks are typically dike- or sill-like bodies of metapyroxenite (with associated metagabbro and metanorite) enveloped by amphibolite. In the Dudleyville area of Tallapoosa County, ultramafic rocks (and associated alteration products of talc-anthophyllite) contain the only identified megascopic cumulate textures in layered chromite pods. Chromite is also a common to abundant detrital mineral in streams draining the Dudleyville area. HOUSING VALUE CHANGE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN TUSCALOOSA COUNTY, ALABAMA, 1980 - 1990. Jeffrey P. Richetto, Dept, of Geography, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Cynthia L. Sutherland, Dept, of Geography, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Important to the maintenance and economic growth of a community is the continued location and development of a balanced mix of public/ private projects. While there exists many types of economic develop¬ ment including retail/commercial, office, industrial and public works, it appears that the impact accompanying these developments varies in magnitude , type and areal extent. As a result, mapping and analyzing such spatial change across a community's landscape represent key components for a community planner in monitoring and coordinating development activities that will increasingly improve the residential and economic environments. In particular, by exploring the relation¬ ship between economic development and spatial/temporal changes in housing values may assist in identifying areas in a community of economic growth and economic decline. It is within this context that this study examines the type, magnitude and geographic extent of impacts on housing values caused by different types of economic development. Specifically, the study employs a cartographic analysis to determine trends in the spatial variation of housing values for Tuscaloosa County, Alabama between 1980 and 1990. Data collected at the census tract and block levels form the basis for the analysis. 92 Abstracts GEOLOGIC APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING. Deborah L. Wilson, Dept, of Geography, Univ. of N. Ala., Florence, AL 35632-0001. The use of remotely sensed data is important in geologic appli¬ cations because much of the information is not directly accessible from the surface of the earth. Many different systems can be used to meet the specific needs, with most applications involving the use of several different data sources. This study examined the different types of remotely sensed data available, and how they met the needs of the various geologic applications. The information was then examined further to recommend a sensor that could be used for a broad spectrum of applications. The cost, resolution, and availability of the data, as well as the requirements of specific applications, were examined. Global positioning systems, seismic data and other types of sensing systems are important geologic tools but are not applicable to use with broad spectrum applications. Aerial photography represented the widest range of uses for the lowest cost, while still retaining very good resolution. This type of imagery does have its drawbacks in that it is not suitable for applications requiring multiple bands of dif¬ fering spectral reflectances. For these geologic applications the use of satellite imagery is recommended. As technology changes, sensors will be developed for use in geologic applications that not only have the capabilities of multispectral satellite images but also the reso¬ lution and lower costs of aerial photography. HERITAGE TOURISM IN THE "BLACK BELT" OF WEST CENTRAL ALABAMA. Tom L. Martinson, Department of Geography, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849. The "black belt" of west central Alabama (Butler, Petry, Lowndes, Wilcox, and Dallas counties) has many attractions appropriate for heritage tourism, including the remains of the- antebe I I urn plant. at ion economy, especially its mansions, and ethnic tourism sites, especially the monuments and memotials to the civil rights movement. Development of both these elements of the landscape will contribute to the growth of this distinctive region. 93 Abstracts INTEGRATING GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM. Andy R. Bradford, Dept, of Geography, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001. Since the 1992 Alabama Social Studies Course of Study mandates teaching a history/geography framework, it is essential that courses be developed for preservice teachers so they can be shown how these two subjects can be integrated into the public school curriculum. This presentation, a model syllabus, represents one approach to a design of an integrated course that captures the essence of the history and geography content areas. Organized around themes and ideas which have influenced the world and its inhabitants economically, physically, politically, and socially, the course provides for analysis of the context, consequences, and connections of such ideas in both the temporal and spatial dimensions while seeking to develop a sense of perspective whereby events are interpreted locally and globally in terms of pattern and scale. Vital to the course is an identification and examination of char¬ acteristics that make a territory important, thereby demonstrating the concepts of absolute and relative location and place. By tracking the movement of people about the earth, preservice teachers will be assisted in understanding concepts such as overpopulation and cultural diffusion and how they are associated with circumstances including job opportunity, climate, and transportation capabilities. THE USE OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY TO DETECT POLLUTION LEVELS IN THE CAHABA RIVER BASIN. Mark Brewer, Cresha Cason, and Christopher Newton, Department of History, Political Science, Geography, Samford University, Birmingham, AL 35229. Because of its importance to the Birmingham area, the Cahaba River became the subject for our analysis on various freshwater pollution levels as determined through remote sensing and field investigation. The project centered on three study areas that we believed would reflect different pollution levels in the river. Study area 1 is located near Riverchase and has been subject to heavy development over the past 12 years. Study area 2 is located in Leeds, a location that has also experienced much development in the last few years. Study area 3 is in Lake Purdy, one of the main natural recreational sites in Alabama. Qur original hypothesis was that site 1 would be moderately polluted, site 2 to be heavily polluted, and site 3 virtually pollution free. We utilized aerial photographs and field investigation to test this theory. 94 Abstracts MONEY VS. CONSCIENCE: THE DISAPPEARANCE OF AMERICAN OLD-GROWTH FORESTS. Angelia L, Mance, Deptf. of Geography, Univ. of N. Ala., Florence, AL 35632-0001. Old-growth forests are virgin forests containing massive trees that are often hundreds of years old. Examples include forests of Douglas fir, western hemlock, and giant sequoia in the western United States and loblolly pine in the Southeast. These forests contain a much greater diversity of plant and animal life than secondary forests. Since 1620, an estimated 95 to 97 percent of these old-growth forests that once covered much of America's lower 48 states have been cleared away. The few remaining fragments that have not been cut down are those in public lands in the northwestern United States. Approximately 80 percent of the area of these remaining old-growth forests is slated for logging. This has led to an intense struggle over the fate of these irreplaceable ecosystems that are nonrenewable on a human time scale. Politically powerful officials of timber companies want to cut these trees for short term profit and replace them with fast growing trees that can be harvested every 45 to 65 years, instead of the at least 200 years required for the growth of a secondary forest after a virgin forest has been cut. Environmentalists believe that most of these diverse ecosystems should not be destroyed to serve the interests of these corporations. The destruction of these American old-growth forests truly is a matter of money vs. conscience. G.P.S.: ITS USES AND APPLICATIONS. Jason Shaneyfelt, Dept, of Geography, Univ. of N. Ala., Florence, AL 35632-0001. Global Positioning System (G.P.S.) was merely a new idea in 1985. Since that time, G.P.S. has developed and become a great asset to many different fields of work, especially in the field of geography. G.P.S. receivers have the ability to communicate with special satellites, which through the process of triangulation, can calculate within 30m the longitude, latitude, and altitude of any given area. This ability has great potential for locational applications during wartime which was exhibited during Operation Desert Storm. 95 Abstracts PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS A NON-DESTRUCTIVE LIPP METHOD FOR STUDYING THE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION IN DIELECTRICS. W. Wayne Yeh. Dept, of Physics, Tuskegee University, AL 36088. In the past few years, several non-destructive methods have been developed to directly measure the electric field (or space charge) distribution of dielectrics. In this study, one of the methods, Laser-Induced Pressure-Pulse (LIPP) method, is employed to measure the electric field distribution inside a Mylar sample. The idea of LIPP method is to introduce a pressure wave generated by the impact of a laser pulse on a target layer to the sample surface. The sample is compressed as the pressure wave travels through. In the compressed region, first, the space charges that follow the atomic lattice are displaced. Second, the dielectric constant changes due to the variation of local space charge. These effects produce induced charges on the electrodes. Depending upon the load impedance, open-circuit or short-circuit, the induced charges produce a voltage difference across the electrodes or a current flow in the external circuit. The time dependent voltage or current contains information on the spatial distribution of charge of the sample prior to the compression. A direct measurement of the electric field distribution inside a Mylar sample has been performed by using the Laser-Induced Pressure-Pulse (LIPP) method. The results showed that, first, the magnitude of the electric field (or space charge) increased with increasing applied voltage. Furthermore, the direction of the electric field inside the sample (or the polarity of the space charges near the sample surfaces) reversed as the applied voltage was removed. THE CHAUVENET CRITERION FOR EXPERIMENTAL DATA: A CRITIQUE. Larry D. Parks, Mathematics and Physics, University of Mobile, Mobile, AL 36663-0220. This paper presents an analysis and statistical critique of the chauvenet criterion: a "standard" acceptance/rejection technique for experimental data. The collection of experimental data for analysis, prediction and mathematical modeling requires an acceptance/rejection criterion due to the stochastic" nature of data collection. The chauvenet criterion is derived and then compared with other criterion (eg. least squares, min. - max. etc.) for data acceptance/rejection. Lastly, a simple criterion is derived as a competetor for the chauvenet criterion. 96 Abstracts THE FRAGMENTATION OF SOLWIND -- A U.S. ASAT EXPERIMENT IN SPACE. A. Tan, Dept, of Physics, Alabama A&M Univ., Normal, AL 35762. F. Allahdadi and S. Maethner, Phillips Lab., Kirtland AFB, NM 87117.* The planned fragmentation of Solwind P78-1 satellite is perhaps the first and only U.S. ASAT experiment against a live target in space. This event is analyzed from the USAF and NORAD radar data on the fragments obtained following the experiment. The three orthogonal components (radial, down-range and cross-range) of the velocity perturbations received by the fragments were calculated from the orbital elements of the target and those of the fragments, from which the angular distribution of the fragments were obtained. Scatter plots of the velocity components reveal groups of 3 or 4 fragments having similar velocity changes, which indicates that these fragments probably originated from the same parts of Solwind. The angular distribution of the fragments show a primary and a secondary area of concentration of the fragments, the latter possibly indicating the entry point of the ASAT into its target. A study of the radar cross-section data indicates that both Solwind and the ASAT underwent thorough fragmentations during the encounter. The velocity of the ASAT at the moment of impact and the angle of encounter are estimated by different procudures. The possibility that 3 fragments ejected with the greatest velocity perturbations into the highest energy orbits were parts of the ASAT which ricocheted off Solwind is discussed. *This study was supported by AFOSR Contract F49620-90-C-09076 through the Subcontract 93-7 from Research & Development Laboratories. DYNAMICS OF A RIGID BODY IN THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF A ROTATING MASS. Govind K. Menon and J.H. Young. Univ. Al . at B'ham., Birmingham, AL 35294. Induced rotations of extended rigid bodies by Newtonian gravitational gradients have long been understood. The post-Newtonian gravitational field, resulting from weak field approximations of the Einstein field equations expressed in terms of three dimensional vectors, offers certain gravitational characteristics which have no Newtonian counterpart. Features of Einsteinian gravity are easily accessible in this development, as the grav¬ itational field equations are presented in a coupled system which is virtually identical to Maxwell's equa¬ tions. A rotating spherical mass, for example, will produce a dipole-like field component in addition to the dominant radial component much like a charged, rotating sphere would produce a magnetic dipolar field in addition to a radial electric field. Motions of a rigid body in the field of a rotating mass will be dis¬ cussed and illustrated by a dumbbell. Special atten¬ tion will be paid to the non-Newtonian effects result¬ ing from the rotation of the central mass. 97 Abstracts A DEGENERATE FOUR-WAVE MIXING STUDY OF THIRD-ORDER OPTICAL NONLINEARITY OF TRANSITION METAL CONTAINING ORGANIC COMPLEXES. Tianvi Zhai. Chris Lawson and Michael Lewis, Dept, of Physics, and Gary Gray, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. The third-order nonlinear optical property for samples of molybdenum (Mo), palladium (Pd), platinum (Pt), rhodium (Rh), and tungsten (W) complexes has been measured by the degenerate four-wave mixing technique. Most of the complexes have a molecular. structure of C = O and phosphine ligands coordinated on the metal atom Analysis indicates that the nonlinear optical mechanisms that lead to these y values are nonresonant. The results show that the electron donor/acceptor ability of the substituents on phosphine ligands does not affect the mono(phosphine) Mo complex's third-order nonlinear optical response at all, while its effect on the bis(phosphine) complex is limited. The major factor that dramatically enhances second-order molecular hyperpolarizability is the 71-electron structure of the substituentson in the phosphme ligands. It has been found that the larger the number of the substituents of a re-electron structure on phosphine ligands, the larger the observed third-order nonlinearity. For molybdenum complexes, the magnitude of the second-order molecular hyperpolarizability increases approximately as the 5th power of the number of substituents having a 7t-electron structure. It is also observed that for the complexes with the same type phosphine ligand, the cis- type complexes yield a larger y value than that of the complexes with the trans- type coordination geometry. The type of metal does affect the measured second-order molecular hyperpolarizability, though the effect is not as drastic as that of the 7r-electron structure substituents on ligands INTERACTIVE DIGITIZED VIDEO USED IN TEACHING PHYSICS. Clarence J. Angelette, Dept, of Physical Sciences and Engineering, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Images from analog video sources can be digitized and these images or images from digitized video sources can be captured by a Macintosh computer as a QuickTime movie. Single frame video or movie clips (with audio) can be edited into QuickTime movies using Adobe Premiere software. Using X-Commands, a HyperCard stack can control the accessing of single frame video or play the movie clip as QuickTime movies and incorporate these in an instructional program. The playback speed can vary from one frame per second to 30 frames per second. HyperCard stacks can also control and incorporate single frame video or movie clips from external sources such as video disks into the instructional program. Each digitized frame can be set up for measurement that includes coordinates, length, time, angles and light intensities among other parameters. Using National Institute of Health software, NIH Image measurements can be stored and transmitted to a spreadsheet for analysis. All this at the touch of a button on a HyperCard stack card. 98 Abstracts OBLIQUE HYPERVELOCITY IMPACT AND RICOCHET PHENOMENON IN SPACE. A. Tan, Dept, of Physics, Alabama A&M University, Normal_, AL 35762. F. Allahdadi and S. Maethner, Phillips Lab., Kirtland AFB, NM 87117.* The analysis of Solwind P78-1 satellite fragmentation data reveals the existence of three fragments which were thrown out with extremely large velocity boosts in the forward direction into the highest energy orbits among all fragments. Whether or not these represented ricochet fragments resulting from oblique hypervelocity impact between Solwind and the ASAT is discussed. The velocities of Solwind, the ASAT and the fragments are calculated from their respective orbital or suborbital trajectories. The angles of encounter, impact, incidence and ricochet are defined and determined. The possible area of impact and the probability density of impact are estimated. The observed angle between the ASAT and the ricochet fragments suggests that incidence near 45° was possible. The significantly higher ricochet speeds compared with the relative speed between the target and the projectile are not inconsistent with computational results obtained from MAGI Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamic Codes. The possibility that the three fragments were actually parts of the ASAT which ricocheted off Solwind could not be ruled out. If true, this would be the first documented case of hypervelocity impact and ricochet phenomenon recorded in space. ★This study was supported by AFOSR Contract F49620-90-C-09076 through the Subcontract 93-7 from Research & Development Laboratories. INFLUENCE OF SUBSTITUENTS ON HYPERPOLARIZABILITY OF SUBSTITUTED BENZYLI DINE- ANILS*. K. Bhat. K.J. Chang, M.D. Aggarwal, W.S. Wang Dept, of Physics, Alabama A&M University, Normal, Al 35762. Mohan Sanghadasa and T.A. Barr Jr., Dept of Physics, Univ. of Ala. Huntsville, Huntsville, N.B. Laxmeshwar, Institute of Science, Bombay, India, Benjamin G. Penn and Donald O. Frazier NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center, Al 35812. Substituted benzylidene-aniline derivatives with different substituents at para position to the imine linkage on the aniline moiety indicate that hyperpolarizability increases with the type of acceptor group substituent. The sp3 hybridization connecting the hetero atoms in the bridge -CH=N- linkage gives a tetrahedral geometry. This does not allow efficient overlap between the lone pair containing donor orbitals and the n orbitals of the benzene ring. Introduction of acceptor groups is found to be more effective with -CN, -N02, -CONH2 groups in increasing order. Results from EFISH measurements verify this observation. Amide substituent is found to be comparable with nitro substituent in asymmetric polarizability. The proper hybridization and longer extension of the benzene conjugation may be the reason for the effectiveness of the acceptor group. * Work was supported under NASA grant NAG8-125 99 Abstracts POST-NEWTONIAN GRAVITY: CHARACTERISTICS AND CONSE¬ QUENCES. J.H. Young, Dept, of Physics, Univ. A1 . at B'ham, Birmingham, AL 35294. The similarity of the Poisson equations separately obeyed by the static electrical and gravitational potentials led Heaviside (1893) to speculate on further analogies between the two fields. In particular, if Newtonian gravity were made time-dependent, perhaps an additional field characteristic would emerge analogous to the creation of a magnetic field by a time-varying electric field. The emergence of Einteinian gravity some twenty five years later brought on the realization of numerous non-Newtonian gravitational effects, although the mathematical complexity of Einsteinian gravity made the unmasking of such effects difficult. Recent efforts have been made [e.g. , Braginsky, Caves, and Thorne, Phys. Rev. , 15(8), 2047 (1977] to elucidate the nature of the Einstein field equations by repre¬ senting them in three dimensional form in weak field cases. The results have been to provide a system of equations strikingly similar to Maxwell's equations, and virtually identical to those proposed by Heaviside. A discussion of that system will be presented along with a description of the dynamics of particles sub¬ jected to particular examples of such fields. USING THE CASIO 7700 IN TEACHING PRECALCULUS. Dr. Judy Massey, School of Science and Mathematics, Livingston University, Livingston, AL 35470. Livingston University has required student use of a graphing calculator in College Algebra, Pre- Calculus/Trigonometry, and higher mathematics courses for about three years. We now have overhead versions of the Casio 7000, the Casio 7700 and the TI-81. Beginning students' visualization skills are weak. Students are fascinated with calculators and are excited by the magic they produce from the first day of class. This produces a positive atmosphere in the classroom and keeps students motivated. Students are eager to experiment with their machines. I have successfully written and used several programs to help teach translations and other changes in polynomial functions, exponential and logarithmic functions, trigonometric functions, polar graphing and parametric graphing. Several graphs may be superimposed on the screen, allowing comparisons to be made. 100 Abstracts INTERACTIVE DIGITIZED VIDEO USED IN TEACHING PHYSICS. Clarence J. Angelette, Dept, of Physical Sciences and Engineering, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265. Images from analog video sources can be digitized and these images or images from digitized video sources can be captured by a Macintosh computer as a QuickTime movie. Single frame video or movie clips (with audio) can be edited into QuickTime movies using Adobe Premiere software. Using X-Commands, a HyperCard stack can control the accessing of single frame video or play the movie clip as QuickTime movies and incorporate these in an instructional program. The playback speed can vary from one frame per second to 30 frames per second. HyperCard stacks can also control and incorporate single frame video or movie clips from external sources such as video disks into the instructional program. Each digitized frame can be set up for measurement that includes coordinates, length, time, angles and light intensities among other parameters. Using National Institute of Health software, NIH Image measurements can be stored and transmitted to a spreadsheet for analysis. All this at the touch of a button on a HyperCard stack card. QUANTIZATION OF LATTICE VIBRATIONS.* S.R. Roy and P.C. Sharma, Department of Physics, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, Alabama 36088. The computation of the possible mode of vibration of a real three dimensional solid is extremely difficult but the essential ideas for understanding the general properties of normal modes has been derived by considering a linear chain of atoms. We consider a single linear chain consisting of N identical atoms of mass M, held together by harmonic force acting only between adjacent atoms and constrained to move along the length of the chain. Here it has been shown that the vibrational energy of a lattice is quantized and yeilds an infinite conductivity . *This research work was supported by the Strategic Defense Initiative by it's Office ef Innovative Science and Technology through contract with the NSWC and DNA. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION AND THE TOWERS OF HANOI Gene G Garza, Dept. Of Mathematics, Univ. Of Montevallo, Montevallo, AL 35115. Mathematical Induction is a difficult concept when first encountered by freshmen in a pre-calculus course. To make it more understandable (and possibly even enjoyable) a “visual” example may be used. The Towers of Hanoi puzzle can serve as an excellent resource for this purpose Assuming P(k-l) (i.e., k-1 disks can be moved in 2k"’ moves) and using that to show, physically, the minimum number of moves for k disks allows for an association which should add significantly to understanding and later recall of this important concept 101 Abstracts INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS THE BABY-BOOMER SANDWICH. James G. Alexander, Department of Economics and Finance, and Marsha D. Griffin, Department of Marketing, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762. No generation in American history has had a larger — or more self- conscious--impact on society than the "baby boomers" born in the aftermath of World War II. The high birth rates from 1946-1964 added 76 million youth to a newly — and also self-consciously--emergent dominant world power. America's (belated) acceptance of the mantle of world leadership coincided with a period of unprecedented prosperity, creating an ideal incubator for the birth of a generation whose sights were set on possibilities rather than limitations. This, of course, vastly differentiated the baby-boomers from their elders who had experienced the constraints imposed by a decade and a half of depression and war. Now this first post-WW II generation is moving into the nation's leadership spotlight in government, corporations, schools, and other institutions. As it does so, there are doubts about its capacity and its outlook. The group which was supposed to be not only the largest, but also the best educated, least inhibited, most creative — in short, the best and the brightest — appears less focused, more fragmented, than expected. How it responds is a matter of great national and international importance, especially inasmuch as this generation is assuming national leadership at a comparatively early age. The baby-boom generation, leaders and others, has found itself sandwiched in a variety of ways. The now commonly recognized sandwich phenomenon is demographic: not only caught between old and young, but also caught there in circumstances calling for substantial simultaneous material support in both intergenerational directions while facing uncertainty concerning its own old-age security. Beyond this demographic aspect, however, the sandwich also has economic, cultural, and philosophical dimensions. Competition for places on the upward economic escalator has intensified, socio-cultural role definitions have been modified, and the very existence of a "public interest" has been called into question. How these issues are resolved will prove to be critically important not only for the baby-boomers, but for the nation as well. Market Segmentation Via Factor Analysis. Keith Absher, Gerald Crawford, and Claude A. Hale, School of Business, Department of Marketing, Management, and Computer Information Systems, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. This research identifies market segments based on student's classification of influence variables in the selection of a college or university. The study has identified, through the use of FACTOR ANALYSIS, nine principal factors which meet pre-established statistical criteria. The factors were broken down according to size and were given descriptive names. There were two major segments that accounted for fifty-five percent of all students ("warm friendlies" and the local classroomers") . The other 45 percent are divided among seven minor segments ("socialities," "advice seekers I and II," "recruits I and II," "money matters" and "extras oriented".) 102 Abstracts ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR BURNOUT AT THE UNITED STATES AIR FORCE SENIOR NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS ACADEMY. Richard R. Robold, Director, Student Operations, USAF Senior NCO Academy, 550 McDonald Street, Maxwell Air Force Base, Gunter Annex, AL 36114-3107. Many researchers conclude that education is a profession marked by high levels of stress or the experience of "burnout." This study examines the burnout experienced by the academic instructors (AI) assigned to the USAF Senior NCO Academy and includes burnout research and data gathered by the author in an original study in 1991 and a follow-up study in 1993. In both studies, the problem was to identify contributors to AI burnout and make recommendations. The purpose of the 1991 study was to design, implement, and evaluate a method of relieving the instructor burnout. In that study, the hypothesis was that a reduction in instructor/student contact hours would reduce burnout symptoms. To achieve this reduction, a change in the utilization of instructors was accomplished through the use of a roving instructor to teach a module of instruction which resulted in an 8 to 16 percent reduction in contact hours. Measurement of success for the 1991 intervention involved three methods: a burnout survey, participant critiques, and student academic performance. The intervention was well received and achieved a reduction in the measured burnout indicators; however, this reduction was not statistically significant (.05). The 1993 follow-up study updated the literature review and administered the burnout survey to a new population of AIs. The 1993 results showed a mean tedium score rise of .35, a median rise of .50, and a mode rise of 1.68. The follow-up study did not support the 1991 results due to uncontrollable intervening variables which produced internal validity flaws. ECONOMIC DIVERSIFICATION AND FOREST RESOURCE DEPENDENCE: A LITERATURE REVIEW. William K, McAllister. Department of Community Planning and Urban Studies and Eric N. Rahimian, Department of Economics and Finance, Alabama A & M University, Huntsville, AL 35762. This review of literature focuses on forest dependent communities and their successes in local economic diversification. Interest in this subject is strong because qf several factors including the impact of the Endangered Species Act on all forest lands, the application of ecosystem management principles to the U.S. National Forest System, and the technological innovations in timber harvesting and processing. Each factor has considerable impact on the resource dependent local workforce and, in turn, on the economies of the surrounding areas. Existing research comes primarily from sociology in the areas of community leadership and self¬ development and from economics in development and welfare dependency. Welfare impacts on a community are influenced by exogenous factors such as changes in world prices of forest products and changes in timber supply. Unlike many examples of decline, losses of jobs in the relatively higher paying timber industry can be particularly traumatic. Literature on community economic diversification does not sufficiently address forest dependency and its relationship to the evolving purposes of the 191 million acre National Forest System imbedded in ecosystem management. Literature suggests that diversification of the economy of a forest dependent community reduces dependence on forest extraction activities. New policy directions encourage tourism, recreation, cooperatives, locally controlled industrial development and incubator or small business enterprises rather than a single dominant employer. 103 Abstracts A STUDY OF CURRENT RECORDS MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES IN BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY, 1992-1993. Margie S. Crocker, School of Business, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001. Data for this study were gathered during the academic year 1992-1993. Enterprises were categorized as either profit or non-profit and then were subdivided according to size of the staff in the office responsible for records management. Profit making enterprises such as manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, and service providers were included. Non-profit organizations such as churches, philanthropic agencies, public schools, various departments of city and county governments, and various departments of the University of North Alabama were surveyed. Students in the Administrative Office Services Department Records Management classes did the interviewing. Inter-interviewer reliability was care¬ fully controlled through the use of an interview form and training sessions prior to the execution of the interviews. Of the 100 profit and non-profit organiz¬ ations interviewed, 96.0 percent filed alphabetically, 57.0 percent numerically , 58 percent by subject and 8.0 percent geographically. A combination of these approaches was used by 73 percent of the organizations surveyed; 24.0 percent used manual methods only, and 3.0 percent used computers only. This confirms previous research that approximately 95 percent of all office data continues to be stored on paper. FAIRNESS IN THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL: BEYOND THE REVIEW SESSION. Henry M. Findley, Dept, of Management, Troy State University, Troy, AL 36082. William F. Giles and Hubert S. Feild, Dept, of Management, Auburn University, Auburn University, AL 36830. Perceived fairness has been identified as a major determinant of the extent to which performance appraisal systems are accepted by employees. However, little research has been conducted which specifically attempts to identify fair procedures in addition to those used in the appraisal review session. Based on the literature, this cross-organizational study developed appraisal dimensions for the review session and two other contextual domains. The contextual domains were: (a) the structure, policies, and support characterizing the formal appraisal system, and (b) the appraisal-related interactions that occur throughout the year between supervisors and subordinates. Next, the relationships between these appraisal dimensions and the two fairness outcome dimensions were assessed. Procedures from the session and "system" domains were found to most useful for predicting the fairness criteria. 104 Abstracts SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF POPULATION GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES VS. SUDANO- SAHELIAN REGION OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA. Eric N. Rahimian and Fesseha Gebremikael, Dept, of Economics and Finance, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762. This study is a comparative analysis of the socio-economic implications of demographic changes in the United States and the four countries of the Sudano-Sahelian Region of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSR of SSA) . The latter countries are: Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya and Nigeria. Data from the World Bank Development Report and the Statistical Abstract of the United States have been compiled and used as the basis of information. Some demographic variables such as population growth, education and nutritional status for the years 1980 and 1990 have been compared. The United States and the selected SSR of SSA countries have different geographic and socio-economic conditions. The United States is a developed society ,with low population growth, a high standard of living and progressive technological production base. The selected SSR of SSA countries, on the other hand, are plagued with demographic problems, poverty, and malnutrition, which restrain their economic development. The results of the study indicate that the population of the developing nations (SSR of SSA) is increasing at a rate of 4 percent per year, while the United States population growth is only about 1 percent per year. The United States has more physicians per thousand population, and more and better health care services and hospitals. The SSR of SSA countries do not have a Medicaid plan for the poor and needy, and have limited access to physicians. The school enrollment rate in the U.S. is high, whereas school enrollments in the SSR of SSA countries are too low, and the educational options are very limited. Several recommendations are made to improve the socio-economic conditions of the four countries. Briefly, the population and welfare policies must be strengthened and integrated into the national policy of the nations. MANAGING GATT THROUGH MULTINATIONAL COORDINATION. Uchenna I. Elike, Dept, of Economics and Finance, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762 Since its inception in 1947, with its many amendments and additions adopted in many phases of negotiations over the years, GATT's membership has grown from an initial set of 22 countries to 116. GATT has proven to be a success in international economic cooperation. During the past 47 years of GATT's history, the world's economy has grown faster than ever. Over the years, however, GATT has experienced a myriad of problems ranging from trade disputes among member countries to many countries sliding toward protectionist trade policies. Unfortunately, GATT has no enforcement powers. Presently, with the down-turn of the world economy following the end of the Cold War and the emergence of strong economic powers in Asia and South America, the need for global economic integration has even become greater. Along these lines, GATT provides the framework by which businesses make global invest¬ ment decisions. For GATT to become the cornerstone of a new world trading order, member countries should work together in a coordinated effort to enhance the process of global economic integration and growth. 105 Abstracts POOR SCHOOLS, CAPACITY, TASTE, AND TAX EFFORT. James G. Alexander, Department of Economics and Finance, and Marsha D. Griffin, Department of Marketing, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762. Paulette Alexander, Department of Management and Marketing, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. Alabama's system of public school finance is inadequate, inequitable, and unconstitutional. Of singular importance is the general level of underfunding. Low per pupil expenditures are often explained on grounds of the state's low tax capacity, but this is at best only a partial explanation. Whereas 1990 Alabama per capita income was 80 percent of the national average, per pupil public school spending was only 67 percent. According to the ACIR, Alabama's tax effort was only 84 percent of the national average and on a downward trend. Not only is the "poor state defense" insufficient justification for low school spending, it is also counterproductive since educational improvements are essential to modernizing the economic structure and raising income levels. Alabama's historic utilization of the low- skill, low-cost strategy of economic development provides a poor advertisement for this approach as evidenced by the state's low ranking on many economic indicators. Even if it had worked in the past, however, it no longer can as Americans increasingly face competition from extremely low-cost labor in China and elsewhere. Interdistrict comparisons within Alabama indicate that, for city school cts in particular, per pupil spending correlates with both capacity (e.g., per capita income) and with taste (e.g., local property tax rates), with capacity playing the larger role. Districts which provide the largest local revenue supplements to state funding are rather consistently characterized by high per capita income rankings (capacity) but low per pupil expenditure to per capita income ratio rankings (taste). Inequities among districts can, of course, be addressed either by state-mandated reductions in expenditure variation or by reductions in effective tax capacity variation through a power- equalization mechanism. COMMUNICATION NETWORK AUDIT AS A POTENTIAL ASSESSMENT TOOL. Kerry P. Gatlin and William C. Farley, Dept, of Management and Marketing, University of North Alabama, Florence, A1 35632. This study involved conducting a communications network audit among sixteen engineers and technical employees working for a defense contractor. Each employee completed a questionnaire identifying which colleagues they (1) communicated with most frequently, (2) socialized with most often on-the-job, (3) turned to with work-related problems, and (4) consider to be a part of their immediate work team, regardless of formal assignment. The supervisor of the sixteen person work group was also asked to identify the four employees (top quarter) who were most technically qualified, the four who were the best 'team players', and the four who were the 'peace makers' or 'human relations specialists' among the work team. A comparison of results indicates that the communication network audit holds a great deal of promise for improving the validity of evaluations where subjective ratings on the part of supervisors are required. The results of such an audit are objective and graphic. Employees who review the results are able to see with little perceptual bias the actual interaction within a work group. In addition to improving the validity of supervisory ratings, the audit also involves co-workers indirectly in the evaluation process, further strengthening the overall process. 106 Abstracts How Progressive is "Progressive Discipline"? Sylvanus S. Ogburia and Bonita M. Conner, School of Business, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762 Discipline is a management tool used to correct un¬ desirable behavior. It is applied as a means of getting employees to conform to acceptable standards of performance in the workplace. Generally, discipline is imposed in a progressive manner. By definition, progressive discipline is the application of corrective measures by increasing de¬ grees . In this study, an attempt was made to measure the im¬ pact of progressive discipline on productivity among the sampled firms and to ascertain if progressive discipline has changed any since the last ten years. Of the 120 ex¬ ecutives pooled, 85% of them said that progressive dis¬ cipline has, indeed, helped to boost their productivity. In regards to the second research question, 90% of the sampled population said that their progressive disciplinary process has not changed. Progressive discipline has been around for decades and has worked itself into many different contracts. Be¬ cause of its longivity, many experts are advocating the use of "the hot stove rule". Still others are recommend¬ ing team disciplinary measures or letting coworkers deal with infractions rather than the boss. Notwithstanding these suggestions, progressive discipline is still a widely accepted method of maintaining an orderly state of behavior in the organization. EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION: MANAGEMENT TOOL OR LABOR ORGANIZATION?. Dennis K. Gibson Division of Business, Troy State University Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36103-4419. While quality may be .iob one at some companies, quality and participation is word one at other companies. Everyone from industry leaders, to the Business Council of Alabama, to the professional journals of management and human resources, is advancing employee participation and empowerment as the wave of today that will carry the United States business enterprise into the future. The objectives of the quality effort are twofold; first to increase productivity and second to establish and/or open communications channels. The tension between the quality movement and the National Labor Relations Act ( NLRA ) became apparent in the recent Electromat ion and DuPont National Labor Relations Board decisions. Company unions are prohibited by the NLRA. Furthermore, companies are prohibited from interfering with or dominating the activities of workers who want to exercise their rights under the law. The current word: Quality efforts have been held to be labor organizations regardless whether a union is present or not. If the quality effort; 1.) invo Ives employee participation, 2.) has a purpose of dealing with the employer, and 3.) deals with conditions of employment the employer is at risk of violating the NLRA. 107 Abstracts THE MACROECONOMY AND ALABAMA. Linda A. Carr, Department of Business, Livingston University, Livingston, AL 35470. Paulette Alexander, Department of Management and Marketing, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. James G. Alexander and Marsha D. Griffin, School of Business, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762. No economy, like no man, is an island. Economies exist in an environment of relations to other economies, and the success of an economy reflects, among other things, how it manages these relationships. To benefit from environmental circumstances, an understanding of economic structures and linkages among economies is necessary. Alabama's economy is in a historic bind between its old low-wage, low-tax basis and the requirements for success in the contemporary global economy, including vastly improved public education. Slow adaptation to changing conditions — e.g., technology, demand, and trade relations — can impede advantageous structural economic adjustments. Moreover, failure to recognize regional ties can lead to failure to promote real interests. During the 1980s, for instance, Alabama's location quotient increased for some declining industries, notably textiles and apparel. Contrary to conventional wisdom, this manufacturing rather than services sector development had adverse wage effects. Furthermore, reliance upon traditional industries encouraged substantial resistance in Alabama to NAFTA. Awareness of inter-regional economic connections, however, might well lead to different public policy positions. Correlation between Alabama and U.S. income growth suggests that strong national economic performance supports the state's interests. Recent differential structural developments, however, have contributed to some degree of de-coupling between the state and national economies. It is also useful to recognize that the Alabama economy is more closely tied to some regions than to others. The Southeast and Southwest stand out as particularly correlated to Alabama; it is therefore likely to be in the state's interest to support policies beneficial to these regions. The Far West and Plains economies, in contrast, correlated much less closely with Alabama's income performance. NORTH ALABAMA REGIONAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS. leshome Gabre, Chukudi Izeogu and Eric Rahimian, Dept, of Community Planning and Urban Studies and Dept, of Economics and Finance, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762. The North Alabama Region has a diverse economic climate consisting of agriculture and manufacturing, as well as production of high-tech goods and services. Its geographical location in the Southeast, access to the Tennessee River, and availability of human and physical resources provide great opportunities for development. This paper compares the development of the North Alabama Region with the State of Alabama using selected demographic characteristics and economic variables such as age, race, employment, per capita income, industrial and agricultural growth. The State and county data were compiled and analyzed from the last two decades of Population Census, Alabama County Data Books (1984-1992) and the Statistical Abstract of the United States (1992). Our analysis indicated that the population of North Alabama Region had 5% higher growth rate compared to the State. It was also found that the region accounted for 24.9% of the employ¬ ment, 37.6% of the cash receipt from farm markets, 32.4% of the value added from manufacturing and 34.9% of the capital investment in the State of Alabama. In general, North Alabama performed better than the State, but some parts of the region lacked a diversified economic base. Balanced socio-economic development will require stimulating investments in these areas. 108 Abstracts IMPACTS OF TECHNOLOGY ON HIGHER EDUCATION FINANCIAL OPERATIONS Paulette S Alexander, Department of Management and Marketing, University of North Alabama, Florence AL 35632. Computerized management information systems can and should have a profound impact on the management of financial operations of a college or univer¬ sity in two ways. First, the timeliness, completeness, and accuracy of the data available to and from the system should be significantly improved Second, the capability to perform detailed analyses allows the reporting, budgeting and plan¬ ning processes to be dramatically enhanced. During the early history of computer¬ ized financial systems, emphasis was placed on the first type of impact — how to do a rather specific job faster and more accurately. Now the systems have evolved to utilize computerization to find better ways to do other critically needed jobs. Implications of computerization are seen in changes in the nature of the presentation of and use of financial statements, and in operations management, budgeting and planning of higher education programs. Auditing of financial re¬ cords of institutions will also be significantly affected by the expanded operation of computerized accounting systems. The "catch-22" is that acquisition of the hardware, software and personnel to accomplish all that computerization might do is costly in both financial and human resource terms. Although systems are being installed around the country, higher education is in the midst of significant downsizing and the personnel in place are not typically disposed toward retraining for the type of re-engineering necessary to accomplish the goals of a full-fledged computerized "management information system." PUBLISHED NEWS AND SECURITY RETURNS - AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS. William Cheng, School of Business, Tuskegee University, AL 36088 Most previous studies find a negative relations between excess returns and level of information. This paper will examine the impact of the level of published news and portfolio performance by using a new proxy measure — the frequency of stories reported in The Wall Street Journal. Can a mutual fund manager earn economic profits be¬ tween 1975-1985 by forming portfolios based on the level of published news? The answer is no based on this study. The findings reject the hypothesis that firms with little news published outperform firms with more news published in terms of risk-adjusted excess returns. The negative relationship between returns and the level of published news exists only when firm size is not controlled for. The relation between the level of published news and returns is either reversed or disappeared when firm size is allowed to interact. This contradictory finding leads us to conclude that more rigorous studies are needed to disentangle capital market anomalies associated with the level of information . 109 Abstracts ATTITUDES OF PRIVATE DONORS TOWARD UNIVERSITY GIVING. Gerald L. Crawford. Professor of Marketing, R. Keith Absher, Professor of Marketing, and Claude A. Hale, Assistant Professor of Computer Information Systems, School of Business, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632 . A study was done on private contributions of more than $100 to the University of North Alabama. The purpose was to learn more about individuals that made these gifts, their relationships with the school, and how they would like their gift(s) to be spent. Most had attended UNA, and live within 50 miles of the campus. The largest subgroup attended more than 30 years ago. Almost half of the respondents had majored in Business. The largest reason for contributing was "Just started thinking about it (several years ago,) and decided to repay the debt." Almost all had been "properly thanked" for their gift(s). Most rated academics "above average," and campus atmosphere "very good." Alabama, Auburn, and UAH were ranked behind UNA as "most deserving of private community support." Respondents wanted their gifts spent on: (a) more scholarships, (b) more resources for the Business School, (c) new buildings and upgrading of physical plant, (d) more marketing of UNA, (e) increased alumni ties, (f) improved faculty salaries, relations, (g) improved computer offerings, equipment, teaching, and (h) stricter admissions and academic standards. PREPAID AFFORDABLE COLLEGE TUITION (P.A.C.T). Charles Baddley, Robert Trimm and Veronica Free, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001. In 1989 the Alabama Legislature passed the Prepaid Affordable College Tuition (P.A.C.T) program. P.A.C.T is designed to encourage residents to prepay college tuition today for a student that will attend college at some future date. Individuals may purchase a P.A.C.T contract using one of three payment methods. This contract guarantees the payment of up to four years of undergraduate tuition at any Alabama public college or university. The focus of the paper is to examine all aspects of the P.A.C.T contract. The contract is compared with other investment options that could be used for the purpose of funding college tuition. These comparisons will take into consideration both return on invest¬ ment and any risk factors involved. Research will also examine how the funds paid into the P.A.C.T program by contract holders are invested by the P.A.C.T fund managers. 110 Abstracts MULTIMEDIA: DISCOVERING THE NEW WORLD OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION. Glenda Smallwood, Graduate Student, Sarah Brown, and T. Morris Jones, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632-0001. Since the beginning of time, man has searched for better ways of communication, and he has recently discovered a "new world" of effective communication: multimedia . Television and video games attract us far more than books because they "engage" us and allow us to take control of our own learning. In fact, recent statistics have shown that all of us retain 20% of what we hear, 40% of what we see, and 75% of what we see, hear, and do. Studies have also proven that retention rates go up when multimedia (the use of sound, still images, animation, motion video, text, and graphics in a single application) is the medium for the message. For education, multimedia is the next logical step and is leading the way in an evolution of learning. The use of multimedia transforms students from passive recipients of information into active participants in a media-rich environment. It also allows for greater flexibility in adapting content to suit learning styles and often contains real life experiences that are more meaningful to students. In addition, the blend of different media makes the learning experience richer and more stimulating. SPREADSHEETS FOR ACADEMICS. Jerry W. Ferry, Dept, of Accounting, Univ. of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. Spreadsheet design can be used to reduce the number of hours needed to program two or more related accounting problems. Accounting problems often consist of two parts. One is to prepare a statement such as an income statement. The second is to find a missing value using algebra. This second aspect means that many different questions can be constructed for every basic concept. Spreadsheets can be used to solve these variations very quickly — if they are designed properly. The key is to create a UNIVERSAL DATA AREA (UDA) which consists of all the data needed to solve a problem, then solve the problem based on the data in the UDA. For each new variation, only the missing data in the UDA must be calculated, then the spreadsheet will automatically complete the solution. This simple design will save many hours of spreadsheet programming. Ill Abstracts ENVIRONMENTALISM AND THE MARKETPLACE. Marsha D. Griffin. Department of Marketing, and James G. Alexander, Department of Economics and Finance, Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762. The objectives of this research were to: 1) examine current green product usage patterns of consumers, 2) study prevailing attitudes and behaviors of consumers about environmental issues, 3) consider consumers' contemporary stated tolerances of price increases for greener products/policies, and 4) test today's consumers' knowledge about green terms and their trust of product labels and company advertising featuring environmental claims. The data were provided by a 1994 convenience sample of 256 Huntsville, Alabama, consumers. The environmentally friendly products purchased most often were non-aerosol anti-perspirants , pump hair sprays, and energy-efficient light bulbs. Consumers were most likely to consider energy consumption and useful life/updating capacity when purchasing products. Most of the consumers recycle; materials most likely to be recycled were cans and newspapers. Proportions agreeing that they were environmentalists, that they thought the environment had deteriorated over the last decade, and that they felt the environment should be protected at any cost were 37%, 68%, and 62%, respectively. Respondents were asked about their willingness to pay more to protect the environment. Propositions receiving the most support were: paying an extra $50 in taxes and paying an extra $600 for a less-polluting car. Most of the respondents knew which terms from a list of terms were most easily defined. They were also aware of the store retailer and manufacturer with the most environmentally sound images. Over 55 percent distrusted product advertising and product labels which make environmental claims. Responses regarding attitudes, price-increase tolerances, and environmental knowledge were indicative of concern with the environment. Behavior patterns, as expected, lagged behind these expressed interests, however, especially where material incentives were lacking . CURRENT INDUSTRY PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL PRACTICES AND CURRENT EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES. Henry M. Findley, Dept, of Management, Troy State University, Troy, AL 36082. Many of the new employee involvement techniques implicitly assume that management is already obtaining optimal effectiveness from traditional supervisory practices such as conducting proper performance evaluations and providing timely performance feedback. Recent evidence suggests that this assumption may not be true. The current study found that while some components of the traditional appraisal system are working well there is room for significant improvement in many areas. For example, supervisors are frequently disrespectful to employees during the appraisal review session, criticize employees in front of others, play favorites, and often fail to discipline poor performers. These problems are often more pronounced among women employees. The study also found that often large companies are in as much need of appraisal audits as are small companies. 112 Abstracts COMMUNITY CONFLICT CIRCLES: A PROPOSAL FOR THE ELIMINATION OF BLAME IN LABOR DISPUTES. R^ Brian Willi ams and Rick A. Lester, Dept, of MKT/MGT, Univ. of North Ala., Florence, AL 356 32 The purpose fo this study was to investigate the existence of any variable responsible for the placing of blame in a 1 a b o r / ma n a g e me n t conflict situation. S e n i o r / J u n i o r level business students at a regional state university were used as subjects. The students were given a packet that was divided into three sections. A locus of control question¬ naire was presented to see if students were external or internal. Secondly, three hypothetical situations based on National Labor Relations Act Section 8(b)(1)(B) were developed and given to measure blame placing in management/ labor conflicts. Lastly, a short demographic questionnaire was administered to determine: sex, age, income, union membership and employment classification. If a variable was found, a plan was to be formulated as a tool to reduce the friction that these conflicts could create. A Community Conflict Circle, designed to provide an avenue to eliminate 1 abor /management conflict, was developed by the author to fulfill this need. It is the hope of the author that this community approach will enable communitites to enjoy a more fruitful existence and expand the productivity of it's businesses . Determinants in Selecting a Senior Institute by Community/ Junior College Students. Ms. Jo Carwile, Ms. Beverly Dyer, Dr. Keith Absher, and Dr. Gerald Crawford, School of Business, Department of Marketing, Management, and Computer Information Systems, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632. The purpose of this research is to identify determinants that community/ junior college students used in selecting a two year college to attend. This is contrasted to the determinants they are using in the selection of the four year college or university they plan to attend. Students were randomly sampled from community / junior colleges in a five county area in Northwest Alabama for this study. Issues investigated included: tuition related issues; scholarships; academic reputations; faculty qualifications; advice of parents, relatives, friends, and teachers; advertising; location; and other issues relevant in their choices. 113 Abstracts SCIENCE EDUCATION Teaching Science Through Multicultural Children's Literature. Br . Elizabeth Rhodes Offutt, School of Education, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama. 35229. Every child has a family heritage to learn about. This may be a key to improving not only science instruction but increasing our under¬ standing of ourselves within our complex and interconnected world. Our country is in need for improved instructional methods in the area of science. Science instruction in elementary schools can be greatly enhanced by children's literature. Traditionally, science has been taught using textbooks and worksheets. The content is often broken down into isolated bits of information having little meaning and relevance to the child's everyday life. Children's literature can be used as the foundation of science instruction. Children may be more comfortable following the story line than understanding and applying facts as presented in a textbook. Science can be abstract to a child and must be seen as part of their own life if they are to understand and remember the concepts. A typical story can do this by putting the facts and general concepts into a plot that encourages children to form a hypothesis, predict the outcomes of their experiments, and test their own personal theories. Using multicultural children's literature to teach science concepts provide many unique and valuable educational, social and cultural benefits. According to recent reports on science achievement, native americans, african americans and hispanics were more highly represented in the lowest quartile and more underrepresented in the upper quartile. These statistics reinforce the importance of helping minority children in the area of science. Multicultural children's literature may be the key to motivate and interest many children in the area of science. EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES FROM THE ALLIANCES FOR MINORITY PARTICIPATION PROGRAM. Adriel D. Johnson. . Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama in Huntsville Huntsville, Alabama 35899. Alliances for Minority Participation (AMP) are multi¬ disciplinary national programs established to increase the number of minorities receiving baccalaureate degrees in science, engineering, and mathematics (SEM). The AMP program provides opportunities for scholarships, tutorial support, and summer research internships to enhance student retention, provide hands-on research experiences and to increase the number of minority students entering into graduate school. The Alabama AMP is presently comprised of 10 collaborating institutions. At the University of Alabama in Huntsville the AMP program works collectively with several academic units to develop and implement mechanisms which address educational concerns of minority students in SEM. 114 Abstracts THINKING ABOUT MISCONCEPTIONS IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE. Ernest D . Ri ggsby , Joseph D. George, and Dutchie S. Riggsby. Columbus College, Columbus, GA 31907-5645. Over several years of teaching and preparing papers and reports on that teaching, we have noted many instances and circumstances in which students have responded in discussions, on tests, and in laboratory activities in such manner as to indicate that misconceptions and reversed cause-effect situations have been learned. This brief paper is an effort to illustrate (describe) three of these incidents. It is hoped that we may be able to build into teaching and laboratory involvement some techniques or insurance to prevent or reduce such misconceptions. It if suggested that rushed study, earlier experiences, and acceptance of what may seem obvious with less than desired or required comprehensive study all may contribute to the development of misconceptions. Moreover, a stock of misconceptions held by teachers may be mirrored by their students. The three misconceptions used for illustration are contained within these laboratory involvements: buoyancy (raisins in carbonated water); air current detectors (pin-wheels); and the visible spectrum (examining a prism and sunlight). HONORS IN CHEMISTRY AT HUNTINGDON COLLEGE - TAXOL, A NOVEL CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENT. Bryan Vining and Massimo Bezoari, Dept, ol Chemistry, Huntingdon College, Montgomery, AL 36106. The Honors in Chemistry course at Huntingdon College provides students with an opportunity to carry out a research project in an area of their own interest. Students benefit by gaining research experience which is comparable to that of a lirst year graduate student, and by increasing their knowledge in an area of their choice. In addition to a survey of selected literature, the student may be expected to give a formal presentation of the work to the department, or at a local scientific meeting. This project was a survey of the chemistry of Taxol, a chemotherapeutic agent which has been receiving much attention due to its anti¬ cancer activity and mode ot action. Recently, the work of two research groups that have succeeded in synthesizing the molecule was publicized, although a commercially viable synthetic method remains to be developed. 115 Abstracts Rural Secondary Science Teachers' Perceived Needs: A Multi-state Survey William E Baird, Dept, of Curriculum & Teaching, Auburn University, AL 36849- 5212. J. Preston Prather, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903; Kevin Finson, Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL 61455; J. Steve Oliver, Science Education Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602 A 100-item survey was distributed to science teachers in eight states in order to determine characteristics of teachers, schools, programs, and perceived needs. Results from 2414 teachers indicate that secondary science teachers perceive the following to be among their greatest needs: (1) to motivate students to want to learn science, (2) to discover sources of free and inexpensive science materials, (3) to learn more about how to use computers to deliver and manage instruction, (4) to find and use materials about science careers, and to (5) improve problem solving skills among their students. In contrast with non-rural teachers, rural science teachers do not perceive much need for help with multicultural issues in the classroom or maintaining student discipline. Rural teachers report using cooperative learning groups in their classrooms less often than non-rural teachers. More rural than non-rural teachers report problems with too many class preparations per day and a lack of career role models in the community. Among all secondary science teachers, the most pronounced problems reported by teachers were [in rank order] : (1) insufficient student problem solving skills, (2) insufficient funds for supplies, (3) poor student reading ability, (4) lack of student interest in science, and inadequate laboratory facilities. Other demographic parameters of teachers will be discussed. HONORS IN CHEMISTRY AT HUNTINGDON COLLEGE - COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. Chris Frost and Massimo Bezoari, Dept, of Chemistry, Huntingdon College, Montgomery, AL 36106. The Honors in Chemistry course at Huntingdon College provides students with an opportunity to carry out a research project in an area of their own interest. Students benefit by gaining research experience which is comparable to that of a first year graduate student, and by increasing their knowledge in an area of their choice. In addition to a survey of selected literature, the student may be expected to give a formal presentation of the work to the department, or at a local scientific meeting. This presentation summarizes the initial part of a study of how various properties of aqueous solutions, including vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure, are affected by dissolved substances. The complete study spans the work of Arrhenius, van't Hoff, Raoult, and Debye and Hiickel and how their contributions have affected our understanding of solution chemistry. 116 Abstracts USING CONCEPT MAPPING TO ENHANCE STUDENTS'- UNDERSTANDING. Thomas E. Bilbo, Dept, of Life Sciences, Univ. of Mobile, Mobile, AL 36663. Teachers who understand Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives realize the importance of developing test questions that require students to use higher level thinking processes. However, a study conducted recently at Boston University determined that science and mathematics textbooks and standardized tests that are currently being used emphasize lower level thinking skills. Ninety five percent of the mathematical items on standardized test were lower level questions that did not require the use of conceptual knowledge or problem solving abilities. David Asubel's Learning Theory stresses that learning is impossible if material is learned by rote, and that meaningful learning can take place only when it is linked to what the learner already knows. J. D. Novak developed concept mapping to allow students to visually represent relationships between concepts. It involves students in active learning since they analyze material and fit new concepts into a framework with material that they already understand . During Spring of 1993, students at the Univ. of Mobile taking the Introduction to Biology (non-majors) course enrolled in one of four laboratory sections. The students were given a biology pretest and the laboratories were paired so that there was no significant differ¬ ence in the pretest scores of the study groups. Two of the laboratory sections constructed concept maps of the materials covered during laboratory sessions, and the other two laboratory sections took weekly quizzes. Performance of the two study groups was examined, and students in the concept mapping group were asked to write their opinions of concept mapping and discuss its advantages and disadvant¬ ages. The results will be presented during the AAS Annual Meeting. ESTABLISHING SCIENCE PROGRAMS FOR DIVERSE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEARNERS. Joseph D. George, Ernest D. Riggsby, and Dutchie S. Riggsby, School of Education, Colurrbus College, Colurrbus, Georgia 31907. Collaborative learning and inclusion. Both are here to stay. Both require the Middle School science teacher to work with diverse learners in "one room schoolhouse" type settings. This paper investigates this type setting and offers suggestions for its impl indentation. 117 Abstracts BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES Cosmetics Use and Impression Management. Richard A. Hudiburg. University of North Alabama; Pamela K. Ahrens, Middle Tennessee State University; and Larry Bates, Auburn University This study investigated cosmetics use and impression management in a sample of undergraduate and graduate female students. The amount and situational and temporal patterning of cosmetics use was measured. Two scales were used to evaluate two different styles of impression management. The Lennox-Wolfe Revised Self-Monitoring Scale (RSM) measured the acquisitive style — used to enhance undefined favored treatment in unknown future circumstances— and the Concern for Appropriateness Scale (CFA) measured the protective style — the desire to avoid significant losses in social situations. The subjects in the study reported moderate levels of cosmetic products used and situational cosmetics use, which were in line with previous research. Correlational analyses were performed on indicators of cosmetics use and the impression management variables. It was found that the use of cosmetic products and situational use of cosmetics were significantly correlated with the measure of the protective style of impression management — Concern for Appropriateness. The measure of the acquisitive style — Revised Self-Monitoring Scale — was not significantly correlated with any of the indicators of cosmetics use. Additionally, cosmetics use was unrelated either to reported self-esteem or social avoidance To determine whether age affected the relationship of impression management and cosmetics use, a median split of the sample into two age groups (under 23 versus 23 and older) revealed that only younger students adopted the protective impression management style. The Truthfulness of Troy State Honors Students: A Validity Study. Misti Kelley, Fred Gorter, Becky Quandt, and Brian K. Payne, Department of Criminal Justice and Sociology, Troy State University, Troy, AL 36082. Validity and reliability are just two concepts which social science researchers spend a great deal of time examining. This paper specifically examines the validity of questions asking students to report their ACT scores. The validity of scores on five dimensions is assessed: Natural Sciences, Social Sciences, Math, English, and Total ACT scores. Using data from a national demographic collegiate survey, this research examines the validity of 106 students' responses. Preliminary results indicate that students 1 responses are accurate on only one dimension: the Total score. Implications are provided in the conclusion. 118 Abstracts HUMAN GENOME PROJECT AND ITS EFFECTS ON CRIMINAL JUSTICE. Carolyn Simmons, Dept, of Psychology, Auburn Univ. at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36117. William E. Osterhoff, Dept, of Justice and Public Safety, Auburn Univ. at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36117. Mapping of the human genome is probably the most important project medical scientists have ever undertaken. It will enable doctors and scientists to pinpoint the exact location of where a disease or defect in the body originates. Once the defective gene is located, scientists may be able to neutralize it through medication. Most scientists, however, agree that finding cures will come more slowly than finding defective genes. In the meantime, there should be an awareness that this knowledge can potentially cause discrimination in schools, workplaces, insurance companies, and even the courts. Ways of preventing genetic based discriminatory policies and practices that occurred in the past from being repeated in the future were suggested. Potential impacts of the genome project in terms of classical, positivist, and other criminological theories were presented . ALABAMA RULES OF EVIDENCE: THE IMPACT OF THE PROPOSED RULES. C. Suzanne Bailey, Dept, of Justice and Public Safety, Auburn Univ. at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36117-3596. The Alabama Supreme Court recognized the need for a compilation of Rules of Evidence. In the late 1980s, the Court appointed an Advisory Committee to draft the proposed rules. As a model, the Advisory Committee used the Federal Rules of Evidence, the Uniform Rules of Evidence, and evidence rules of other states. The Alabama Rules of Evidence with Commentary were submitted in April, 1993, and are currently under review by the Court. This paper explores the proposed rules, the changes the proposed rules will have on the practice of law in Alabama, and the ways in which an attempt has been made to integrate traditional Alabama case and statutory law with the proposed rules. For this exploration, the Alabama Rules of Evidence with Commentary, the Alabama Code, Alabama case law, and articles from the Alabama Law Review have been used. Due to the length of the proposed rules, three major topics, Hearsay, Best Evidence, and Judicial Notice, will be explored in detail. HOUSING CONDITIONS OF FT. PERL Y BLACKS IN RURAL SOUTH. William Cheng, School of Business, Tuskegee University. Donald W. Bogie, Dept, of Sociology, AUM. Troy M. McQueen, Dept, of Architecture, Tuskegee University. Using data from 1980 and 1990 Census, this study analyzes and evaluates the housing conditions of elderly blacks residing in the rural area of three southern states - Alabama, Georgia and Mississippi. Findings indicate that rural black elderly are more likely to rent and to live in older dwelling units that are structurally inadequate than their white counterparts. They are also less likely to have such amenities as complete plumbing, telephones, and a vehicle at their disposal. 119 Abstracts THE CURRENT STATE OF THE LAW ON SEXUAL HARASSMENT. Henry M. Findley, Dept, of Management, Troy State University, Troy, AL 36082. Harassment has increasingly become an issue in the work place that must be addressed and monitored by company management. Under the law there are two identifiable forms of sexual harassment. These are quid pro quo and hostile environment. Quid pro quo is the exchange of favors based on sex. Hostile environment is defined as conduct that unreasonably interferes with an individual's work performance or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment. Hostile environment cases are the most difficult to understand and the easiest to commit for seemingly "innocent" behavior. The key determinants of hostile environment cases are: (a) conduct must be unwelcome by the victim and (b) offending behavior is sufficiently severe or pervasive to change the conditions of the work environment to one that is abusive. In general, less severe behaviors such as unwelcome jokes usually must be repetitive in order to constitute sexual harassment and more severe conduct such as unwelcome touching need only occur once to be a violation of the law. Recommendations for employers to limit and prevent liability are provided. A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE ALABAMA DEPARTMENT CAMP PROGRAM. Jerald C. Burns, Department Criminal Justice, Alabama State University 36101. OF CORRECTIONS' BOOT of Criminology and Montgomery, Alabama The purpose of the paper is to provide a statistical analysis of the Alabama Department of Corrections' Boot Camp Program in relation to its alternatives through the testing of hypothesis pertinent to recidivism, net-widening, cost and ability to reduce prison overcrowding. As a result of the analysis the author concludes that the boot camp is not statistically better as far as recidivism than its alternatives, but that there is no evidence of net-widening. As to cost and reducing prison population, the paper presents realistic data that indicates a savings in both areas. The paper concludes that the boot camp data in Alabama supports the conclusion that it is a viable concept. INTERSTATE COMPARISONS OF THE DETERMINANTS OF POVERTY IN SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Uchenna N. Akpom, College of Business and Commerce, Livingston University, Livingston, AL 35470. Despite efforts by various governments to combat poverty , the levels have remained relatively stable over the years with more than ten percent of American families falling below the poverty level. Nowhere is this more true than in the Southern United States. Policies designed to deal with poverty are doomed if the determinants of poverty are not properly understood. The differences in the nature of poverty between regions also have to be understood. This paper uses a multiple regression analysis to study the determinants of poverty in the Southern United States. A comparison of the relative importance of the determinants is presented. 120 Abstracts A DEMOGRAPHIC PORTRAIT OF TROY STATE HONORS STUDENTS. Cliff Render, Labett White, Tonya Bodenheimer, and Brian K. Payne, Department of Criminal Justice and Sociology, Troy State University. Troy, AL 36082. Much past research has used college students as samples. Interestingly, many of these past studies use students simply because the students provide an easy, captive sample. The currect research examines one type of college student--the honors student. Using data from the 1990- 1991 National Demographic Survey, this paper paints a portrait of 120 Troy State University honors students. Comparisons with students from the general population will be made. Through this, it is hoped that a better understanding of colleqe students will be provided. UNDERSTANDING NUCLEAR ARMS PROLIFERATION: TOWARD A TECHNOLOGY DIFFUSION MODEL. Konrad M. Kressley, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Feeling threatened by the continuing spread of nuclear weapons throughout the world, the major powers have devised a series of treaties, conventions and international agencies to halt the process over the past half century. This legalistic "gun control" approach, however, appears doomed to failure since the spread of nuclear weapons follows a process of diffusion which characterizes the growth and development of other technologies in the world. Specifically, factors such as globalization, modernization, dual use technologies and the personal mobility of scientists and engineers are making nuclear technologies more common place. Fortunately, the evolving post- Cold War international system makes large scale nuclear conflicts extremely unlikely. CRIME AND CORRECTIONS: TRENDS IN THE 1990'S. William E. Osterhoff, Dept, of Justice and Public Safety, Auburn Univ. at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36117. A brief history of American correctional policies and practices was presented. Corrections also was discussed in the context of social control. Data reflecting the numbers and demographics of individuals currently under community-based and constitutional control were presented. Against this background, anticipated trends in corrections policies, populations, and management practices for the remainder of the 1990's were proposed, as were current and anticipated trends in the extent of court involvement in corrections and the growth of professionalism in the field. Significant problems, challenges, and opportunities for corrections during the remainder of the decade were suggested. 121 Abstracts HEALTH SCIENCES HUMAN INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTOR AND BINDING PROTEIN LEVELS IN MATER¬ NAL SERUM AND AMNIOTIC FLUID DURING THE SECOND TRIMESTER. Da-Chang Chu, Medical Genetics, L.R. Boots, Dept, of OB/GYN, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Growth is partially regulated by the effects of growth hormone on insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and their complementary binding pro¬ teins (IGFBPs) . Since pregnancy represents a complex state of growth, and many complications of pregnancy are the result of abnormal growth, it is important to study growth factors during pregnancy. We studied IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 levels in maternal serum and amniotic fluid from se¬ cond trimester pregnancies to investigate correlations with growth. Weekly IGF-1 levels from normal pregnancies of gestational age 14-20 weeks were (meansls . d . ) : 31±29 , 24±29 , 37±29 , 29±29 , 34±32 , 26±28 , and 68± 58, respectively. Maternal serum IGFBP-3 levels from normal pregnan¬ cies of gestational age 14-18 weeks were 67±33 , 80±50 , 97±55 , 85±48 , and 78±47, respectively. IGFBP-3 levels in amniotic fluid from normal pregnancies of gestational age 14-20 weeks were 33±21 ,37+16,87+51 , 100± 59 , 98±49 , 1 13±75 , and 93±50, respectively. No patterns were observed for maternal serum IGF-1 in normal pregnancies. However, amniotic fluid IGFBP-3 levels increased to peak levels at 18 weeks and dropped there¬ after. Similar patterns of maternal serum IGFBP-3 were observed for whites and blacks although the highest value of IGFBP-3 appeared at the 16th week for the white but the 17th for the black population. Results from 172 amniotic fluids from complicated pregnancies indica¬ ted that the majority had diminshed IGFBP-3 levels when compared to normal pregnancies. Pregnancies complicated by spina bifida, trisomy 13,18,21 and 22, Turner syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome were also studied. Twenty-three out of 31 (74.2%) of these patients had de¬ creased amniotic fluid IGFBP-3 levels. ASSOCIATION OF NEUROSYPHILLIS WITH AIDS. Robert E. Pieroni, School of Medicine, Univ. of AL. , Tuscaloosa, AL. , 35487 Since the appearance of AIDS, numerous infectious diseases which health care workers previously infrequently encountered have become more prevalent. Diseases such as tuberculosis which had been declining each year began to rise, and subjects with newly discovered TB are now routinely checked for HIV status. Many AIDS patients are at risk for STD's such as syphilis, a disorder with protean manifestations. In about 30% of untreated syphilitics, late CNS or cardiac disorder, or disease involving other organs, is found. Among HIV positive patients, because of their immunocompromised status, such systemic involvement is likely to be more widespread and severe. We will present the case of a male diagnosed with neurosyphilis and found to have AIDS. The relationship of these two disorders will be discussed in detail, and germane literature reviewed. 122 Abstracts PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EXPANDED AFP PROFILE PRENATAL SCREENING TEST IN THE BIRMINGHAM OBSTETRICAL POPULATION. Larry R. Boots, Dept. OB/GYN, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birming¬ ham, Alabama, 35294. Prenatal screening for the detection of congenital anomalies has become a routine part of obstetrical care. The measurement of maternal serum alphaf etoprotein (AFP) for detection of open neural tube defects (spina bifida and anencephaly) and the combined measurement of AFP, unconjugated estriol (UE3) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to detect Trisomy 21 have become routine. However, establishing these procedures requires extensive development of normative data for subse¬ quent diagnostic interpretation. These data from 4556 white and 1650 black patients demonstrate the necessity of establishing extensive control data. Median AFP levels ranged from 22.4 ng/ml at 14 weeks of pregnancy to 78.0 ng/ml at 22 weeks for white patients. For black pa¬ tients, the same range was 24.4 to 90.6. At 14 weeks, black patients have AFP levels 8.9% higher than whites and at 22 weeks, 12.5% higher. Since the rate of change in AFP levels is not constant over weeks of pregnancy and since the weekly medians are higher to start with for blacks, normative data must be established for each race. The patterns of hCG are more complex with blacks having higher values at 14 weeks but lower values at 22 weeks. The decline in hCG levels from 14-22 weeks was 68% for whites and 79% for blacks. Again, separate normative data is necessary. For UE3 levels, both races are similar and do not require separate normal values. In addition to race being a factor, all three markers must be corrected for maternal weight since signifi¬ cant correlations were observed for each. Utilizing these data, 2.70% of the test population was reported positive for open neural tube defects and 4.03% positive for Trisomy 21. SURVEY OF AIDS POLICIES IN COUNTY GOVERNMENTS. W. J. Jones, DHAP , Medical Univ. of South Carolina 29425. J. A. Johnson and Robert E. Pieroni, School of Medicine, Univ. of AL. 35487 We recently surveyed the county governments of a Southeastern state to ascertain the extent to which they had developed AIDS policies and provided AIDS education for their employees. Of the 32 responding counties, 28 have some formal AIDS policy in place. However, the sur¬ vey also uncovered significant deficiencies in some aspects of county government AIDS education efforts. Only 50% of counties provided gen¬ eral AIDS education to their employees, and even training for special¬ ized personnel tends to be uneven. In addition, the AIDS education provided is usually not comprehensive. Scientific/medical and legal aspects, and occupation safety issues, are usually examined, but only six counties covered the issues of insurance/benefits or counseling for HIV- infected employees and coworkers. Data indicate that some progress in aspects of AIDS education has been made by public health officials and educators. Nevertheless, the findings make equally clear the pressing need for more complete and relevant AIDS education for the state's county government personnel. 123 Abstracts UTILIZATION OF EVALUATION PROCESS. Portia Foster, College of Nursing, Jacksonville State Univ., Jacksonville, AL 36265. Donna Johnson, Graduate Student, Emory Univ., Atlanta, GA 30322 Registered Nurses performances are evaluated informally everyday. Formal evaluations may occur quarterly and/or annually. Socialization into acceptance and participation in the evaluative process is an important part of the professional life of a nurse. The appropriate process of how to perform or complete an evaluation is often neglected in nursing education. The evaluation process should be incorporated into nursing curricula and nursing students should be encouraged to actively participate in both formative and summative evaluations. Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to make decisions. Two phases are included in the evaluation process: the process phase and the product process. Evaluations are given to improve performances. They should be conducted objectively and fairly. Faculty members complete formative and summative evalua¬ tions of student nurses. However, only summative evaluations of faculty are completed by students. The investigators recognized that students were only participating in half of the evaluation process. The decision was made to invite senior student nurses in one course to participate in an investigation of the utilization of the evaluation process. A concerted effort was made in the Fall semester of 1993 to improve the student nurses understanding and utilization of the evaluation process. Senior nursing students were introduced to the idea of evaluating faculty members formatively and summatively . Students utilized the evaluation process effectively. The data gleaned from the evaluations were beneficial to both students and faculty . ANGIOEDEMA ASSOCIATED WITH ACE INHIBITOR THERAPY. F. Wayne Kelly. School of Medicine, Univ. of AL. , Tuscaloosa, AL. 35487. Robert E. Pieroni, Univ. of Al. 35487. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors are widely used because of their beneficial effects in patients with hypertension and conges¬ tive heart failure. Several side effects, including cough, broncho- spasm and angioedema, have been noted. Recently a 71 year old hyper¬ tensive male was referred to us after neurologic evaluation for a possible stroke. The patient had taken enalapril (Vasotec) sporadical¬ ly the previous year. He was switched to fosinopril (Monopril) 5 months previous to admission. For the past 3 weeks weakness and dizzi¬ ness had been noted. Mild non-pitting edema of the right side of his tongue had developed prior to admission resulting in dysarthria. A CNS work-up was negative but rapid swelling of his left tongue and marked dysarthria developed. The ACE-inhibitor was discontinued and a calcium channel blocker started. He was given SQ adrenalin, as well as oral antihistamines and prednisone. No respiratory compromise de¬ veloped. The characteristics of this potentially life-threatening phenomenon will be discussed with special emphasis on prevention, mechanism of action, and possible treatment modalities. 124 Abstracts PARENTING AND CHILDREARING ATTITUDES AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS: EFFECT OF A CHILD ABUSE PREVENTION UNIT. Elaine Marshall, Ellen Buckner and Charles Childs, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Janet A1 exander, Samford University, and Rose Fiorella, Ramsay High School, Birmingham, AL 35294 Reported cases of child abuse in the U.S. exceeded 2 million in 1990. The purpose of this study is to assess changes in parenting attitudes among high school students from before to after a unit on child abuse prevention within students' health class. The Adult- Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI) by Bavolek was used to measure students attitudes on four scales associated with possible abuse: 1) Inappropriate developmental expectations of the child 2) Lack of empathetic awareness of the child's needs 3) High value of physical punishment and 4) Tendency to reverse parent-child roles. The sample consisted of 108 experimental and 54 control subjects, predominantly 9th grade students in one high school which was a competitive alternative school for a metropolitan area. A child-abuse prevention unit was conducted as part of students' health class for the intervention group. The unit included content on developmental expectations of children, management of parental anger and positive parenting techniques. Students scores were evaluated using paired t-tests for pre and post tests. Higher scores indicate less abusive, more nurturing attitudes. All students demonstrated generally healthy attitudes with sten scores in the average range, 4-6. Experimental subjects scores increased more than controls in empathy and summary scales. Low scoring students (n=4) increased more with intervention than without intervention. Recommendations include expanding study to a more diverse school population. RANITIDINE: EFFECT ON THEOPHYLLINE METABOLISM IN ETHNIC KOREANS LIVING IN CHINA. Charles D. Sands, School of Pharmacy, Samford Univ. , Birmingham, AL 35229. Daniel W. Jones, Univ. of Mississippi Medical School, Jackson, MS 39216. Han Hae Lan, Yanbian Medical College, Yanji, P.R. China 133000. The objective of the study was to determine if concurrent administra¬ tion of ranitidine (interactor drug), 150mg bid x 7 days, would impair the metabolism of orally administered sustained release theophylline (effector drug), lOmg/kg/day x 7 days, and change pharmacokinetic parameters in healthy ethnic Koreans in China. A double-blind, placebo controlled, two-way crossover, pharmacokinetic drug inter¬ action study design was employed. Steady state plasma theophylline concentration data was evaluated for differences in Cp-ss average, c-max, t-max, kd, vd, and total body clearance between treatment and placebo groups. Six healthy ethnic Koreans (3 males, 3 females, average age, weight, and height: 21.8 years, 55.9 kg, 165 cm) living in China who met the inclusion criteria were enrolled and completed the study. Results showed no statistically significant differences between group means in any of the pharmacokinetic parameters. It was concluded that ranitidine has no effect on theophylline disposition in ethnic Koreans in China. 125 Abstracts AGUILERA’S CRISIS MODEL APPLIED TO CAREGIVERS OF ELDERS RELOCATING TO NURSING HOMES. Brenda Rilev. School of Nursing, Troy State University, Troy, Alabama 36082. Aguilera’s crisis model was applied to caregivers of elders relocating to nursing homes. The study ascertained the differences between caregivers who experienced relocation of an elder as a crisis and those who did not. Differences were examined in caregivers’ perceptions of elders relocating to nursing homes, situational support received by caregivers when elders were in the process of relocating, coping mechanisms used by caregivers, and selected demographic characteristics. The sample consisted of 65 caregivers who were providing care for an elder who was 65 years of age or older. Due to missing data, 46 cases were used in the discriminate analysis to test the hypothesis. The null hypothesis stating that there were no differences in the two groups of caregivers was rejected. The findings indicated that there were differences in marital status, years of school, perception, and ways of coping. Wilks’ lambdas and significance levels for the discriminating variables are as follows: primary appraisal, .89, .028; distancing, .83, .028; marital status, .79, .019; years of school, .75, .018; accepting responsibility, .72, .022; and escape avoidance, .69, .019. Scores for situational support did not discriminate between the two groups of caregivers. Since differences were found in the two groups, it was concluded that Aguilera’s model was supported by this study. SUCCESSFUL AGING: DESIGNING A COURSE FOR HEALTH PROFESSIONALS. Linda A. Strelt and Virginia Dare Domico, Georgia Baptist College of Nursing, Atlanta, Georgia 30312 The rapidly increasing older adult segment of our population has been a topic of immense discussion. Persons over the age of 65 currently represent more than 12% of the United States population and by the year 2020 this statistic is expected to rise above 20%. But as people age, are health care professionals preparing persons for the life event changes which occur as one ages. In addition to preparing others, are they preparing themselves? The purpose of this presentation is to provide a framework for assisting health professionals in designing courses which enhance awareness of aging. The course cited as an example is entitled, "Successful Aging." This course was designed to increase the student's understanding and appreciation of normal aging processes and age related physiological changes. An emphasis was placed on positive developmental attributes and creative approaches that enrich life processes and encourage independence and function. The presentation will encompass teaching/learning methods developed for the course and student generated projects. 126 Abstracts EFFECTS OF OXYGEN RADICALS AND CAEV INFECTION ON CAPRINE SERUM ANTIOXIDANT ENZYMES. Shirita Calhoun. Emmanuel Mdurvwa & Peter Ogunbiyi, Schl. Vet. Med., Tuskegee University, Tuskegee AL 36088 Oxygen radicals such as superoxide (O2*') and hydroxyl (OH*) radicals, have been proposed as playing an important role in various human diseases including ischemic reperfusion injuries, rheumatoid arthritis and AIDS. Virus infections are known to activate the release of these oxygen radicals by blood leukocytes. In this study, we examined the effect of C>2#‘ or caprine arthritis encephalitis virus infection (CAEV) on goat serum antioxidant enzymes' activities. Blood was obtained from normal and CAEV- infected goats by venipuncture. Serum was separated by centrifugation and exposed to O2*' (generated by xanthine/xanthine oxidase) for 15-30 min. Serum superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activities were then assayed. Serum clinical chemistry was also examined. Activities of GPX (means +/- SD, U/ml) were significantly reduced by O2*' (56.33 +/- 27.78) or CAEV (75.78 +/- 5.13) when compared to the controls (86.22 +/- 7.4). Both total and CuZn SOD activities were similarly reduced by O2*' or CAEV than in controls. Infected goats showed elevated levels of sorbitol dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and gamma glutamate transferase. The serum levels of these enzymes were reduced by 02*’ exposure. Results demonstrate a significant decrease in serum antioxidant enzymes' activities due to CAEV infection or oxygen radical exposure. This may indicate an impairement of a major defense mechanism during CAEV infection or other conditions involving the release of oxygen radicals. VISUAL HALLUCINATIONS DURING COMBINED USE OF A MUSCLE RELAXANT AND ASA. Robert E. Pieroni , School of Medicine, Univ. of AL, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Dan Rodman, Pharm. D., School of Medicine, Univ. of AL, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487 Drug interactions, which play an important role in clinical med¬ icine, all too often go unrecognized. Some medications have a pro¬ pensity to bind to serum albumin. There may be competition for binding sites when several drugs are used, with resultant higher free plasma levels. Low serum albumin can exacerbate this phenomenon and lead to potentially toxic reactions. A 71 year old male with rheumatoid arthritis who had been taking frequent aspirin developed severe muscle spasms for which cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril) was prescribed. Within a week the patient developed prominent confusion and visual hallucina¬ tions. These resolved shortly after discontinuing cyclobenzaprine. Although serum levels of acetylsalicylic acid were slightly sub-thera- putic, those Df cyclobenzaprine were over twice the toxic level. The patient had normal renal and liver functions but very low serum albu¬ min levels. We feel that salicylate occupied his limited albumin re¬ ceptor sites resulting in toxic levels of cyclobenzaprine and the con¬ sequent CNS abnormalities. Such an interaction has not, to our know¬ ledge, been previously reported and should be further investigated. 127 Abstracts EPIDEMIOLOGY OF ELEVATED BLOOD LEAD LEVELS IN ALABAMA. Najmul H . Chowdhury , M.B.B.S., M.P.H. and Charles H. Woernle, M.D, M.P.H. Alabama Department of Public Health, Montgomery, AL 36130-3017. Elevated Blood Lead Levels (EBLL) is a preventable condition that is readily diagnosed and for which practical methods of control are available. Based on the national average (11% to 17%) for children having blood lead levels of 10 mcg/dl or greater, it is estimated that 39,546 to 61,117 children in Alabama are at risk for EBLL. Alabama Department of Public Health's (ADPH) Lead Surveillance System is funded by two separate cooperative grants from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . The goals of the surveillance system are to describe the magnitude of EBLL in children and workers, monitor trends in the occurrence of these conditions, identify new or unrecognized sources of lead exposure, focus public health attention on the problem, and effectively target high risk homes, worksites, and living environ¬ ments. In 1993 the ADPH received 2,466 reports on 1,792 new cases of children under six years of age and 1,929 reports on 1,096 adults (> = 17 years of age) with EBLL>=15 mcg/dl, an increase of over 47% compared to 1992. This increase is attributed to several factors, including: increased awareness among Alabamians; encouraged testing by Medicaid of EPSDT children; increased testing by private physi¬ cians; and improved screening programs and compliance by industries and companies. Whereas children were primarily exposed to lead via paint in old houses, adults were exposed principally at their work¬ place. The geographic pattern of EBLL cases varied with age. The highest case rates among children under six years of age occurred in west-central and south-central counties, whereas among adults the geo¬ graphic distribution of cases reflected the location of lead-related industries . AGGREGATION OF PROTEINS AND ITS PREVENTION BY CARBOHYDRATE EXCIPIENTS. Manohar Katakam and Ajay K. Banga, Department of Pharmacal Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, AL 36849. Aggregation or self association of proteins can result easily, leading to reduced bioavailability or other formulation problems. Moisture-induced aggregation of proteins in solid state and its prevention by carbohydrate excipients for albumin, gamma globulin and insulin was investigated. The likely mechanism of the resulting aggregation was covalent linkages formed due to intermolecular thiol disulfide interchange. A bell shaped curve for percent aggregation was observed with increasing moisture content for bovine serum albumin. When mixed with carbohydrate excipients in a 1:1 ratio, aggregation was reduced for both bovine serum albumin and gamma globulin. For bovine and human insulin, soluble aggregates resulted which were analyzed by a light scattering technique. SEC chromatographic analysis of the aggregated samples indicated that no covalent aggregates were formed. All four carbohydrates excipients minimized the moisture-induced aggregation of bovine insulin, with dextrose and Emdex® being the most effective. In addition to moisture-induced aggregation in solid state, aggregation upon passage through a needle, upon shaking and upon lyophilization were also investigated. The carbohydrate excipients used were found to minimize such aggregation as well. 128 Abstracts BEHAVIORAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF 7, N,N- TRIMETHYL-5-METHOXY-TRYPT AMINE (7,N,N-TMp. John M. Beaton, Dept, of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, UAB, Birmingham, AL 35294-0017. Philip E. Morris, Jr., Biocryst Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Birmingham, AL 35244. Much interest surrounds the study of the indolealkylamines, especially the hallucinogenic ones, and their role as possible endogenous agents in normal and abnormal CNS functioning. 7,N,N-TMT, a new indolealkylamine which combines some of the structural features of the hallucinogens lysergic acid diethylamide, N,N- dimethyltryptamine (DMT), 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (OMB) and 2,5- dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine, was tested for behavior disrupting effects and for its ability to bind at CNS receptors. The lethality of 7,N,N-TMT was measured in mice, as was its effect on locomotor activity. The ability of 7,N,N-TMT to disrupt conditioned behaviors (water-reinforced and shock avoidance) was measured in rats. The compound was also tested on a battery of receptor binding assays by the Nova/NIMH screening program. The lethality of 7,N,N-TMT was similar to that of DMT and OMB. The behavioral tests indicated that 7,N,N-TMT did not induce behavior disruption similar to that seen with other hallucinogenic drugs. At low doses 7,N,N-TMT induced stimulant-like effects and at higher doses the effects were more similar to those of a CNS depressant. It was also less potent than the other indolealkylamines. In the binding studies 7,N,N-TMT showed no inhibition of uptake, or receptor binding, for the dopamine or norepinephrine systems. It was, however, a potent inhibitor of serotonin (5-HT) uptake into rat brain synaptosomes. It also inhibited the binding of tritiated ligands at the following 5-HT receptors in the following order of potency: 5-HT2>5-HTlc>5-HTla. The slight modification in the structure of OMB, by the addition of the methyl group in the seven position, resulted in not only a reduction in activity, but also a modification of this activity. (Supported in part by NIDA, contract #271-90-7303). A STUDY OF THE CIRCULATING STATE OF ESTRADIOL AND TESTOSTERONE IN HUMAN SERUM. Tim Wood, H. Downing Potter and Larry R. Boots, Dept. OB/GYN, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Testosterone circulates in the blood as either free hormone, bound to albumin or to bound sex-hormone-binding-globulin (SHBG) . Estra¬ diol also competes for binding to these proteins and may therefore, regulate testosterone levels. It has also been debated whether free testosterone is the only biologically active form of the hormone or whether the albumin-bound fraction is also active. In seeking to diag¬ nose the cause of hyperandrogenicity and hirsutism in women, generally only the total and free fractions of testosterone are evaluated. Be¬ cause of the other potential interactions, we studied both hormones in all of their binding states. Serum samples from 105 patients were assayed for total testosterone (103±105 ng/dl), total estradiol (96± 61 pg/ml) , free testosterone (0.915±1.14 ng/dl), free estradiol (0.905 ±0.63 pg/ml), SHBG (28.6X10~8 M/L) , albumin-bound testosterone (43±49 ng/dl or 41.5% of total testosterone) and albumin-bound estradiol (51± 37 pg/ml or 53% of total estradiol). Of interest were significant cor¬ relations between total testosterone and both free and albumin-bound testosterone. Total testosterone did not correlate with either form of estradiol. The same relationships were true for total estradiol and its binding properties. Other relationships were also studied that might contribute to our overall understanding of testosterone: estradiol relationships. 129 Abstracts BACCALAUREATE NURSING STUDENTS: CRITICAL THINKING AND DECISION MAKING. Jan B. Corder , School of Nursing, Northeast Louisiana University, Monroe, LA 71209-0460. Critical thinking and clinical decision-making skills are accepted attributes of practicing nurses. An exploratory, descriptive design was used to examine the association among critical thinking, clinical decision¬ making, and selected demographic characteristics in generic baccalaureate nursing students. A convenience sample (n=195) in four nursing schools in three states participated in the study. Critical thinking skills were assessed using the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. Clinical decision-making abilities were assessed with Jenkins' Clinical Decision Making in Nursing Scale. Demographic data, RNEE score, and GPA were collected with an investigator-designed Demographic Data Form. Findings indicate that academic and demographic characteristics differentiate beginning baccalaureate nursing students. Two groups, traditional and non- traditional, emerged from analysis of the data. Significant differences found between the groups indicated that the non-tradi tional group was older, had worked longer prior to beginning nursing school, had a longer time lapse between high school and college, had more children, and scored higher on the clinical decision¬ making scale than their younger counterparts. PRODUCTION OF SINGLE-STRAND AND DOUBLE-STRAND DNA DAMAGE BY THE ANTITUMOR ANTIBIOTICS ESPERAMICIN A1 AND C. Rachel E. Harrison and Terry D. Schwaner, Alabama School of Mathematics and Science, Mobile, AL 36604. Peter Dedon, Dept, of Pathology, Mass. Instit. Tech., Cambridge, MA 02139. The esperamicins are a group of extremely toxic antitumor antibiotics whose toxicity is thought to be derived from their tendency to damage DNA molecules by single-strand and double-strand lesions. Previous studies indicated that esperamicin A1 produced few double-strand lesions, while esperamicin C produced many more. These studies did not consider, however, the possibility of double¬ strand breaks containing abasic sites, which become apparent after treatment with putrescine. We treated samples of plasmid pBR322 with esperamicin A1 and its analog esperamicin C and compared the ratios of single-strand damage with and without putrescine treatment. Results indicated that esperamicin Al produced more double-strand lesions than were previously reported and that approximately 80% of these lesions included abasic sites. Esperamicin C was found to produce almost entirely double-strand damage. These results are important for understanding the toxicity of the esperamicins and their potential for cancer chemotherapeutics . 130 Abstracts VERY LOW BIRTHWEIGHT INFANT TEMPERAMENT 6 TO 8 MONTHS OF AGE ON FAMILY UNIT HEALTH. Deborah B, Nelson. D.S.N., School of Nursing, University of Mobile, P.O. Box 13220, Mobile, A1 . 36663-0220. The purpose of this study was to determine if differences in family unit health existed between family units with a very low birthweight (VLBW) infants when compared with full-term infant family units. Thirty-seven mothers of second born children were recruited for study. Included were 15 family units of 6 to 8 month-old VLBW infant and 22 full-term infant family units. An ex¬ post facto descriptive design was selected to examine infant behavioral style and its relationship of family unit health within the two family units. Barnhill's theory provided the organizing framework for this study and examined family dynamics across six dimensions of health and psychopathology. These dimensions included: (a) individuation- enmeshment , (b) clear communication- unclear communication , (c) stability-disorgani zation , (d) flexibility-rigidity, (e) mutuality-isolation, and (f) role reciprocity-role conflict. Five dimensions of Carey and McDevitt ' s (1978) infant temperament scale were employed to examine infant behavioral style and included: rhythmicity, approach, adaptability, intensity, and mood. Full-term infant family units were found to be healthier on all six dimensions of family dynamics; however, statistical significance was not achieved at the .05 level. When the behavioral styles of the two infant groups were compared, statistical significantly differences did not exist on any of the five dimensions of infant behavioral style at the .05 level. Family dynamic scores and behavioral style scores were combined for the two family units and correlations determined. Approach correlated with stability-disorganization J_r = 3.77, p = .022) and role reciprocity-role conflict (r = .466, p = .004) . Adaptability correlated with stability- disorganization (r = .328, p = .028) and mood with role reciprocity-role conflict (r = .403, p = .013) . Nine statistically significant correlation coefficients were generated from this study and included four with clear communication-unclear communication, stability-disorganization (r = .494, p = .002) , flexibility-rigidity (r = .426, p = .009) , mutuality- isolation (r = .792, p =.000) , and role reciprocity-role conflict (r = .705, p .000) . Stability- disorgani zation correlated significantly with mutuality- isolation (r = .505, p = .002) . Two significant correlations existed with flexibility- rigidity, mutuality-isolation (r = .347, p = .035) and role reciprocity-role conflict (r = .547, p = .000) . By improving one dimension of family dynamics other dimensions are improved thus supporting a system of mutual causality. DEBILITATING CMV MONONUCLEOSIS SYNDROME IN A PATIENT ON STEROIDS. Robert E. Pieroni, School of Medicine, Univ. of AL. , Tuscaloosa, AL. , 35487-0326 Infectious disorders caused by herpes-type viruses such as cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Ebstein-Barr virus, (infectious mono¬ nucleosis) , are relatively common and usually well tolerated except in immunocompromised patients. Both viruses can result in somewhat sim¬ ilar clinical pictures with hepatitis, atypical lymphocytosis, skin lesions, pharyngitis, cephalgia and malaise. Recently, a 39 year old female presented, on several occasions, to a emergency department with severe headaches and malaise. A head CT scan and lumbar puncture were unrevealing. Previously her physician had prescribed oral steroids for a skin rash. Excruciating headaches, nausea and severe malaise persisted and we were consulted. Lab tests revealed elevation of liver function tests and prominent atypical lymphocytosis. Splenomegly was noted on physical exam and confirmed by abdominal ultrasound. Both CMV and EBV IgM titers were positive. The patient was treated sympto¬ matically and gradually improved. The potential untoward effects of steroid use in patients with herpes-type viral disorders will be dis¬ cussed in detail. 131 Abstracts TRANSDERMAL IONTOPHORET1C DELIVERY OF PEPTIDE/PROTEIN DRUGS Ajay K. Banga and Ruchira Mitra, Department of Pharmacal Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, AL 36849. Biotechnology-derived peptide/protein drugs cannot be adminstered by mouth due to degradation in gastrointestinal tract. Also, due to their short lives, repeated injections are required if delivered via parentral route. Thus, alternative delivery systems are being investigated. These drugs do not normally pass through the skin, but they can be forced into the skin by an imperceptible small electric current, a technique called transdermal ionto¬ phoresis. Glass diffusion cells were supplied with less than a milliampere of current via silver/silver chloride electrodes from a software-driven PC based power supply. Transport of amino acids, glycine, phenylalanine and arginine, was investigated across human cadaver skin. Permeation was highest for arginine, which was highly charged at pH used. A higher cumulative transport was observed under anode as compared to cathode or passive transport, for all amino acids. Iontophoretic delivery of the peptide/ protein drugs, vasopressin, calcitonin and insulin was also investigated using hydrogel formulations. Iontophoretic transdermal delivery of insulin could provide a noninvasive route for insulin requirements of diabetics. However, several problems need to be overcome for such use. For example, while vasopressin delivery was found to be reversible, insulin formed a depot or reservoir in the skin upon iontophoresis. Modulation of drug delivery was also found feasible by changing the iontophoresis parameters such as current density, This can help to design a biofeedback drug delivery system or to achieve pulsatile administration of peptide/protein drugs. NMR AND CD STUDIES OF B TO Z TRANSITIONS IN DNA OLIGONUCLEOTIDES. Mary E. Higginbotham. Dept, of Physics, Patricia L. Jackson and N. Rama Krishna, Dept, of Biochemistry, Univ. of Ala. at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Phosphorus NMR and Circular Dichroism Spectroscopy were used to study DNA oligonucleotides ranging from 13 to 17 base pairs in length. These oligonucleotide sequences were designed to facilitate the formation of a B-Z junction under certain experimental conditions. Both NMR and CD spectra of the sequences under low salt conditions (50mM P04 , lOOmM NaCl, pH 7.0) were indicative of predominately right-handed, B-DNA helical structures. Under high salt conditions (50mM P04\ 4M NaCl, 25% to 70% methanol), the NMR and CD spectra showed some characteristics of the left-handed, Z-DNA helical formation. Some of the sequences produced NMR and CD spectra possessing properties of both right-handed and left- handed DNA formations. When they both exist in the same duplex, a B-Z junction is formed. Experimental conditions which favor the formation of B- Z junctions can also cause aggregation and precipitation which complicate spectroscopic characterization of such junctions. Of the sequences studied, those which form stable B-Z junctions, detectable by NMR and CD, without such complications are identified. 132 Abstracts THE ULTRASTRUCTURE OF MOUSE EOSINOPHILS: EARLY EVENTS OF DEGRANULA¬ TION? Richard Jones , UA, SOM, Tuscaloosa, AL 35401. Robert Pieroni, MD, UA, SOM, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Stephen Kayes, Dept, of Struct¬ ural & Cellular Biology, USA SOM, Mobile, AL 36617. Eosinophils are thought to be important immune effector cells in a variety of pathologic states, most notably in helminthic infections. Mice infected with the canine ascarid Toxocara Canis display a peri¬ pheral eosinophilia and, in addition, develop an intense eosinophilic pneumonitis. Bronchalveolar lavage (BAL) of such mice can be used to harvest a population of inflammatory cells which is typically 90% eo¬ sinophils. We used this method to investigate the distribution of surface Fc receptors on mouse eosinophils and the functional potential of these receptors to induce eosinophil degranulation. We determined that mouse eosinophils express only the type II receptor for IgG. By treating the eosinophils with a monoclonal antibody to this receptor and then exposing treated cells to rabbit anti-rat IgG antisera, we effectively cross-linked the IgG receptors and provided a stimulus for degranulation. Cells with cross-linked receptors were examined for ultrastructural features. Secondary granule concatenation and early exocytic vacuole formation were noted in many cells. However, an unusual attribute of several eosinophils was the presence of peri¬ nuclear vacuoles which appeared to be associated with granule pro¬ cessing for exocytosis. To our knowledge, these unusual vacuoles have not been described. Further work to clarify the nature of these perinuclear structures is required. SUBJECTIVE MENTAL WORKLOAD OF CRITICAL CARE NURSES. Andrea C. Gregg, D. S .N . , R .N , College of Nursing, University of Florida, Jacksonville Campus, Jacksonville, FL 32209 Subjective mental workload (SMW) was introduced for study in nursing out of concern that current workload measures fail to capture the cognitive demands of patient care. Information processing theory and research from other disciplines served as the basis for measure¬ ment and variable selection. A two-phase study was undertaken. Two delphi survey rounds with ten nurse experts yielded a content valid instrument (CVI = 1.00), Nursing TLX. Cronbach alpha was subsequently assessed at 0.82. A descriptive correlation study was conducted to examine the relationship among SMW, experience, and education of cardiovascular critical care registered nurses. Seventy nurses re¬ ported an average SMW of 4.3 [l=low, 10=high] following the first four hours of nursing care to patients with select diagnoses. No significant (p .05) relationship among SMW, education, or experi¬ ence was found. Post hoc analyses revealed significant relationships between SMW and diagnosis, volume of assigned patients, and number of days off prior to measurement. Implications of these findings for nursing workload measurement and work redesign are discussed. 133 Abstracts PROLACTIN LEVELS IN MATERNAL SERUM AND AMNIOTIC FLUID DURING THE SE¬ COND TRIMESTER OF NORMAL AND ABNORMAL PREGNANCIES. Melissa D. Kahsar, Medical Genetics, Larry R. Boots and Katharine Wenstrom, Dept. OB/GYN, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. The role of prolactin during pregnancy has not been studied in sufficient detail to draw conclusions related either to prenatal pre¬ diction of pregnancy complications or to its role in abnormal develop¬ ment. In this study we measured prolactin levels in matching maternal serum and amniotic fluid from 616 normal and 189 complicated pregnan¬ cies between 14 and 20 weeks. Normal ranges were established and used for comparison with complicated groups. Comparisons were also made between pregnancies with male or female fetuses. Median values (ng/ml) comparing blacks and whites from 14-20 weeks of gestation in amniotic fluid were 1036/964, 1571/1478, 1696/1832, 3880/2509, 4048/3157, 6055/ 3828, 6388/3608 and in serum 40/28, 41/30, 52/36, 57/36, 59/47, 58/37, 48/36. Blacks had consistently higher values than whites. When preg¬ nancies bearing male or female fetuses were compared, males generally had lower values but ratios varied dramatically with gestational age. Most of the pregnancy complication groups had lower prolactin levels than did normals, including Trisomy 21, 47XXX (amniotic fluid only) and Turner's syndrome. Notable exceptions were spina bifida, 45X0/46 XY and Trisomy 13 and 15 (the latter three in amniotic fluid only) . While these preliminary data suggest that certain genetic disorders may be associated with abnormal prolactin levels, further study will be necessary to determine whether prolactin levels would be useful for prenatal screening. HYPOBETALIPOPROTEINEMIA: LITERATURE REVIEW AND CASE REPORT. Edward B. Perry , School of Medicine, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Robert E. Pieroni, MD, School of Medicine, Univ. of Ala., Tuscaloosa, AL 35487 Hypobetalipoproteinemia is an autosomal codominant disorder in which the plasma concentrations of apolipoprotein B and LDL, which are recognized risk factors for the development of artherosclerotic coronary heart disease, are decreased or absent. Heterozygotes are characterized by relatively low apo B and LDL-cholesterol levels and are usually clinically asymptomatic, while homozygotes have extremely low or undetectable apo B and LDL-cholesterol levels and may exhibit fat malabsorption, acanthocytosis , retinitis pigmentosa, and neuro¬ muscular degeneration. We shall present a case study of a family whose members have lipoprotein, cholesterol, and triglyceride levels consistent with hypobetalipoproteinemia, and describe recent progress in research on the disorder, which has focused on delineation of apo B gene mutations and alteration of lipoprotein metabolism. 134 Abstracts A PROSPECTIVE STUDY COMPARING THREE FLUSHING SCHEDULES TO MAINTAIN HICKMAN CATHETER PATENCY. Joan M. Lundebiera. Wilma Geels, Madeline Harris, Richard Taylor, and Lindsey A. Trammell. UAB Comprehensive Cancer Center, Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294. Although central venous catheters are in widespread use for cancer patients, no research based standard method currently exists for maintaining the patency of these catheters. The purpose of this randomized prospective study was to compare three catheter flushing regimens using heparinized saline: weekly flush, twice weekly flush, and three times weekly flush. The study involved 35 patients with Hickman catheters. Three partial occlusions and one total occlusion occurred in the group flushing weekly. No occlusions resulted in the group flushing twice weekly, while one partial occlusion existed in the three times weekly group. No statistically significant difference was evident among the three groups. However, when the twice weekly and three times weekly flushing groups were combined and compared with the once weekly flushing group, the p value 0.052 was slightly significant at a 0.05 level. Given these numbers, the researchers suggest that the pilot study be repeated using a larger sample size in an effort to obtain reliable statistical significance. CONTROVERSIES IN CANCER. Richard Jones and Robert Pieroni, Depts. of Medicine and Family Medicine, UASOM, Tuscaloosa, AL. 35487. It is a commonly held belief by many, including medical profes¬ sionals, that cancer results from defective immune mechanisms and, further, that disease may be eliminated from cancer patients by appro¬ priate immune stimulation. Phenomena such as spontaneous tumor regres¬ sion, efficacy of immune-stimulating drugs in treating cancer patients, and the increased incidence of cancer in immunocompromised patients are cited as proof of these suppositions. However, alternative explana¬ tions exist for these observations. It remains debatable whether the hypothesis of immune surveillance adequately accounts for the growth or inhibition of transformed cells in a given individual. 135 Abstracts REGULATION OF VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR SECRETION IN BRAIN TUMOR CELLS. Corev K. Goldman. Jui -Chang Tsai and G. Yancey Gillespie, Division of Neurosurgery, UAB, Birmingham AL 35294. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and malignant primary brain tumor in humans. New blood vessel growth or angiogenesis is a prominent histopathologic feature of this tumor that may contribute significantly to the inexorable growth that characterizes these uniformly fatal neoplasms. Blockade of new blood vessel growth is a potential therapeutic option that should slow tumor growth. We have identified Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) in 9/9 GBM cell lines and in most surgical specimens. We sought to determine the regulation of VEGF secretion at the cellular level in U-105MG, a well characterized GBM cell line. Three peptide growth factors. Epidermal growth factor, basic Fibroblast growth Factor and Platelet Derived Growth Factor BB were all capable of enhancing VEGF secretion by U-105MG cells