THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE VOLUME 76 JULY/OCTOBER 2005 NO. 3-4 Cover photograph: Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) at Wreck Bog in the Conecuh National Forest in Covington County, Alabama. THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE VOLUME 76 JULY/OCTOBER 2005 NO. 3-4 EDITOR: Safaa Al-Hamdani, 700 Pelham Rd North, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265-1602 ASSISTANT TO THE EDITOR: Sue C. Bradley, 2073 Evergreen Drive, Auburn, AL 36830 ARCHIVIST: Troy Best, Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn University, AL 36849 EDITORIAL BOARD: Thane Wibbels, Chair, Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Davis H. Myer, English Department, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL Prakash Sharma, Department of Physics, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088 Publication and Subscription Policies Submission of manuscripts: Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence to the EDITOR. Each manuscript will receive two simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow instructions to Authors (see inside back cover). Reprints. Requests for reprints must be addressed to Authors. Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges: Address all Correspondence to the CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD ISSN 002-4112 BENEFACTORS OF THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The following have provided financial support to partially defray publication costs of the journal. AUBURN UNIVERSITY BIRMINGHAM-SOUTHERN COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA TROY STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY SAMFORD UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA TUSKEGEE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. CONTENTS ARTICLES Abiotic Stress Sensing and GABA Response in Plants T. Wayne Barger and Robert D. Locy . 164 Scoliosis Screening: A Review of a Legislatively Enacted Program for the Public Schools of Alabama T.E. Denton, J.R. Nanney, D.A. Deinlein and F.M. Randall . 181 Deadly Science Gerard Elfstrom . 1 87 An Anatomy of a Political Science Internship William E. Kelly . 1 96 Synthesis and Characterization of Trinuclear Chromium(III) Carboxylate 4,4’- Bipyridine Assemblies Chika Nishijima and John B. Vincent . . . 21 1 Gymnosperms of Southeast Alabama Michael Woods, Alvin R. Diamond, Jr. and Marion Montgomery . 224 BOOK REVIEW Biology Meets Ethics: The Controversy Behind Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Bethany A. Jacobs and James T. Bradley . 239 BIOGRAPHY . 244 James T. Bradley, Editor of JAAS 1 990-2005 INDEX . 246 GORGAS AWARDS . 255 MINUTES 257 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. REVIEW: ABIOTIC STRESS SENSING AND GABA RESPONSE IN PLANTS T. Wayne Barger* Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources State Lands Division, Natural Heritage Section 64 North Union Street Montgomery, AL 36130 Email: wayne. alabama.gov Department v,. sciences Life Sciences Building, Auburn University, AL 38649 Email: locyrob@aubum.edu ABSTRACT Abiotic plant stresses are common and can have devastating effects on plants. To combat these stresses, plants have developed numerous defenses. Mechanisms of signal perception and subsequent responses to stress are complex and consist of cascades of multiple reactions. These signaling cascades and metabolic responses are of great interest to plant biologists. A better understanding of plant stress responses can lead to improved plant breeding strategies (or transgenics) resulting in better plant performance and increased crop yields under disadvantageous conditions. In this review, changes in cellular cytoplasmic membranes, cytoplasmic calcium, and plant accumulation of gamma- aminobutyric acid (GABA) are discussed in response to abiotic plant stress. GABA, a mammalian neurotransmitter inhibitor, is a metabolite of glutamate that accumulates within the cytoplasm in response to stress. GABA is synthesized in a reaction catalyzed by the calmodulin modulated enzyme glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) that is activated, in part, by stress-induced increases in Ca cyt and has an optimum pH similar to those occurring in response to stress conditions. Accumulations of GABA are known to be large and rapid. However, studies have shown that GABA is then catabolized within the mitochondria of plant cells. Many studies on this phenomenon have been performed, but large areas of stress-induced accumulation of GABA are still unexplored, and the definitive role of GABA in plants has yet to be elucidated. * Author to whom correspondence should be directed. Stress and Response in Plants INTRODUCTION Abiotic plant stresses cause many major changes in metabolic pathways, plant growth, and productivity and yield (Sabehat et al., 1998; Kaplan et al., 2004; Sakamoto et al ., 2004). Some abiotic plant stresses include, but are not limited to: osmotic (water) stress, salt stress, chilling stress, freezing stress, mechanical stress, anaerobic stress, and heat stress. Biological and environmental stresses are major limiting factors to productivity in agricultural settings. These stresses, singly or in combination, are likely to be enhanced due to impending global warming forecasts. Producers lose millions of dollars yearly to these stresses that occur on a daily basis. Studying plants subjected to stressful conditions can help better predict how plants survive inclement environments. A plant stress is generally defined as any external factor that exerts a negative impact upon the plant (Taiz and Zeiger, 1 998). Plants have evolved a myriad of responses to alleviate stressful conditions. It has even been suggested that every plant has the encoded capability located within its genome to tolerate stresses (Bohnert et al., 1995). A few plant responses to stress include: osmoregulation (Allard et al., 1998; Kerespi et al., 1998; Kaplan et al., 2004), heat shock protein production (Howarth and Ougham, 1 993; Scharf et al., 1 998), alterations of metabolic pathways (Knight et al., 1 998; van der Luit et al., 1999; Sakamoto et al., 2004), modifications of plant membrane characters (Murata and Los, 1997; Logue et al., 1998), and decreased efficiency of photosynthesis (Loggini et al., 1999; Allakhverdiev et al., 2000). The purpose of this literature review is to familiarize the reader with a plant’s: 1) perception of stress, 2) signal transduction, and 3) subsequent responses to stressful conditions. PART 1 : PLANT STRESS PERCEPTION, SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION, AND RESPONSE Plant Membranes and the Recognition of Environmental Stresses The nature of stress signaling mechanisms has classically been thought of as a cascade effect where the initial signal is perceived by a membrane-bound protein (Horvath et al., 1998). This major triggering protein then somehow stimulates production of other signaling molecules that can turn on/off genes that enable the plant to better cope with the deleterious effects of the stress. This cascade-like effect is an efficient way to quickly initiate many changes within the cell. One specific example of how this might work was proposed by Murata and Los ( 1 997). They suggested that phase transitions occur in microdomains of the cell membrane upon a shift in temperature. The putative sensor protein would detect such a change within the membrane and could then undergo conformational changes, phosphorylation, or dephosphorylation as an event to begin transduction of the abiotic stress being present. Another theory proposed in E. coli, as discussed by Van Bogelen and Neidhardt (1990) suggests ribosomal sensing of stresses by virtue of the increased translation of stress proteins. These responses were induced by antibiotic-mimicked heat and chilling stress in E. coli. Whatever the active mechanism is, every plant studied has the ability to sense changes in its environment and can make some adjustments accordingly. With only the cell wall separating them, biological membranes may act to transmit information from the environment to the plant cell (Horvath et al., 1 998). Therefore, it is logical that the primary sensory mechanism for the plant would originate from a stimulus being detected by the 165 Barger and Locy membrane. Membranes are composed of a lipid bi-layer with integrated proteins found throughout (Quinn et al., 1989). This lipid bi-layer is a dynamic “fluid” system, and its form can be readily changed (Ohlrogge and Browse, 1 995). In plants, fatty acid synthesis and lipid assembly begin in the chloroplast or endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Miquel and Browse, 1 998). The mechanism of transfer for these fatty acids in order to assemble lipids (and the subsequent integration of lipids into membranes) is unknown (Miquel and Browse, 1998). The overall pathway for fatty acid synthesis in plants is similar to that in other organisms; however, in plants the reactions are all catalyzed by individual proteins rather than a multifunctional peptide and are highly compartmentalized (Somerville and Browse, 1991). The initial saturation level of the fatty acids used to make lipids is controlled by substrate-specific fatty acid desaturases (FAD) found in the cytoplasm (Murata and Los, 1 997). The overall saturation of fatty acids within plant membranes can vary greatly from species to species. It is a crucial factor for survival, and is even specific for the different membranes within the plant (Ohlrogge and Browse, 1 995). For example, photosynthetic (thylakoid) membranes of plants are generally more unsaturated than vacuolar, mitochondrial, or other cellular membranes (Hugly et al ., 1989). The importance of the saturation of plant membranes lies in the role it plays in maintaining a proper membrane integrity under adverse conditions. Because of the physical properties of fatty acids, even small differences in the degree of saturation of membranes can contribute largely to the integrity of membranes (Hugly et al., 1989). This is, in part, because of the melting points of the fatty acids contributing to a phase shift from gel to liquid. Unsaturated fatty acids melt at lower temperatures than saturated fatty acids. Therefore, a more saturated membrane would, theoretically, be able to maintain the proper membrane fluidity at high temperatures better than a more unsaturated membrane (Nishida and Murata, 1 996). Daniell et al. ( 1 994) showed that cowpea cultures grown at 45°C had a much higher degree of membrane lipid saturation than those that were grown at 26C. It has also been reported that membranes of plants which have been grown at higher temperatures (45°C) are much less fluid than those grown at lower temperatures (20°C) because of large amounts of saturated fatty acids found within their membranes (Raison et al., 1 982). Much research has been performed correlating cold tolerance and the benefit of unsaturation of plant membranes (Moon et al., 1995; Nishida and Murata, 1996); however, the relatively little information available on the correlation of heat stress and the role of saturation within membranes is not as clear-cut. Cytoplasmic Signaling Mechanisms to Abiotic Stress As previously noted, plant response to stress is common. For example, it is well known that plants alter concentrations of ions and solutes in response to osmotic stress. These ions and solutes can have drastic effects on cytoplasmic pH and the signaling mechanisms of the plant. Cytoplasmic calcium levels have also been known to increase in response to environmental signals including: heat stress (Gong et al., 1998; Locy et al., 2000), chilling stress (Knight et al., 1991; Cholewa et al., 1 997) , osmotic stress (Knight et al., 1 997), salt stress, (Kalaji and Pietkiewicz, 1 993; Pardo et al., 1 998) and mechanical stress (Knight et al., 1991). Cytoplasmic calcium has also been implicated as acting as a messenger (Ling et al., 1 994; Carratu, et al., 1 996; Cholewa et al, 1 997; Gong et al, 1 998). With calcium’s exact role in response to environmental stimuli signaling pathways still being examined (Arazi et al, 1995; Webb et al, 1996; Knight et al, 1998; Trewavas and Malho, 1998; Romeis et al., 2000), it becomes a crucial focal point in understanding how plants function under less than ideal conditions. 166 Stress and Response in Plants One method by which calcium acts as a signal is through its binding to specific proteins. One such example of this regulatory role is calcium’s binding of calmodulin. Once bound with calcium, calmodulin then undergoes a conformational change that leads to its activation and subsequent binding of target proteins (Roberts and Harmon, 1 992). This binding of proteins can lead to the activation of certain sets of enzymes and proteins (Roberts and Harmon, 1 992). However, very few plant proteins are known to be modulated by calmodulin. The ones that are known include: an NAD kinase (Anderson and Cormier, 1 978), a Ca2+ATPase (Briskin, 1 990), a nuclear nucleoside triphosphatase (Matsumoto et al. , 1984), a vacuolar ion channel (Bethke and Jones, 1 994), a root-expressed glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) enzyme (Ling et al. , 1994), and a shoot-expressed GAD enzyme (Zik et al., 1998). Calcium/calmodulin related events will be discussed in greater detail in regard to 4-aminobutyric acid (GABA) accumulation later in this discussion. A second group of proteins that are activated by calcium are calcium dependent protein kinases (CDPK). Roberts and Harmon ( 1 992) suggested that these proteins contain a calcium binding domain and a kinase domain which could detect changes in calcium levels and translate these changes into the regulation of protein kinase activity. Specifically, CDPK kinase activity has been found to occur in response to osmotic and metabolic stress (Takahashi et al., 1997; Iwata et al., 1 998), but strong evidence of its exact role has been elusive. Induction of mRNA has also been found (Tdhtiharju et al., 1 997), but only recently has clear evidence shown that CDPKs participate in a defense-related signaling mechanism. Romeis et al. (2000) discovered a 68-70 kD CDPK in tomato which was activated after addition of an elicitor and suggested it was involved in plant defense. Much research into CDPKs continues, with exact roles still being investigated. A much less well-known and understood group of calcium-activated proteins arecalcineurin B-like proteins. Found in Arabidopsis, these small calcineurin B-like proteins (AtCBL) have a strong similarity to the calcineurin B subunit and neuronal calcium sensor from animal systems (Kudla et al., 1 999; Shi et al., 1999). Possibilities as a player in plant stress responses in signal transduction have been suggested due to upregulated genes in response to osmotic, cold, and mechanical stresses (Kudla et al., 1999). Specific Stress Response Mechanisms The saturation/desaturation of membranes is one response that some plants may employ to alleviate environmental stresses (Vigh et al., 1998). As mentioned earlier, a common response to abiotic stresses is the accumulation of solutes. It is well known that plants can accumulate metabolites such as polyols, sucrose, nitrogen-containing compounds (including amino acids), and oligosaccharides (Bohnert et al., 1995). The alterations of biochemical pathways leading to the production of these solutes result in shifts of carbon and nitrogen stores. These shifts can be vital for the survival of a plant undergoing stress. A few specific examples of solute accumulation in response to abiotic stresses include: accumulation of carbohydrates and glycine betaine in response to chilling stress (Kishitani et al., 1 994; Gusta et al., 1 996), betaine accumulation in response to freezing stress (Allard et al., 1 998), polyol and quaternary ammonium compound accumulation in response to salt stress (Hanson et al., 1 994; Bohnert et al., 1 995), simple sugars in response to water stress (Mullet and Whitsitt, 1 996), and accumulation of amino acids in response to heat, salinity, or osmotic stress (Mayer et al., 1 990; Ashraf and Harris, 2004). The synthesis of some of these solutes appears to have a function which can be easily explained, whereas some pathways (or a particular solute’s role) have yet to be explained. The 167 Barger and Locy classic example of solute accumulation is proline accumulation in response to water stress. It is known that the accumulation of proline, and solutes in general, will result in a lowering of the water potential within plant cells. This lowering of the water potential, commonly referred to as osmotic adjustment, enables the plant to either take up water from the soil medium or to more efficiently hold on to the water it has already acquired. Another classic response to stress is the production of heat shock proteins (HSP). Heat shock proteins are produced in all organisms that have been studied and are generally synthesized when organisms are placed at a growth temperature that is 5-10 C above their normal growth temperature (Howarth and Ougham, 1993). The functions of HSPs are known to include: protein transport, folding of proteins, chaperoning, and providing proteins resistance to denaturing under extreme conditions. Heat shock proteins are synthesized from newly transcribed mRNA, and their production follows a large reduction of the total proteins being synthesized (Sabehat et al., 1 998). Heat shock proteins are known to be synthesized from exposure to water stress, chilling stress, salt stress, heat stress (Grover et al., 1999), anaerobic stress, and heavy metal stress (Sabehat et al., 1998). The synthesis of HSPs, elicited from heat stress, is believed to allow a plant to acclimate to higher temperatures and resume normal growth under conditions that may not be favorable for plant growth (Howarth and Ougham, 1993; Viswanathan and KJhanna-Chopra, 1996). Although this phenomenon is not fully understood, it is hypothesized that the accumulation of HSPs in response to a stress other than heat stress also benefits plants by protecting the plant from damage or helping to repair the damage caused by this stress (Sabehat et al., 1 998). Another class of stress-induced proteins is a group known as late embryogenesis abundant (lea) proteins. These genes were first identified as genes that were expressed during maturation and desiccation phases of seed development (Baker et al., 1988). Since then, six classes have been discovered (Dure, 1993) and have been found to be expressed in vegetative tissues during water stress, salt, and chilling stresses (Bray, 1 993). Their functions, based on amino acid sequences, have been proposed to include: renaturation of unfolded proteins, protection of proteins from denaturing, protection of membranes, and sequestration of ions (Bray, 1993). As previously noted, alterations in photosynthetic machinery (which is known to be very heat labile) or physical properties (such as membrane composition) can play an important role in stress tolerance. The photosynthetic machinery of a plant is very sensitive to stressful conditions, becoming less effective or completely shutting down in response to stress. This has been well documented for most stresses, including: osmotic stress (Mullet and Whitsitt, 1 996; Allakhverdiev et al., 2000), salt stress (Kalaji and Pietkiewicz, 1 993; Delfine et al., 1 998; Delfine et al., 1 999), chilling stress (Moon et al., 1995; Schneider et al., 1995; Janda, 1998), and heat stress (Chauhan and Senboku, 1996; Srinivasan et al., 1996; Jagtap et al., 1998; Talwar et al., 1999). Plants normally receive light energy and then have the challenge of figuring out what to do with the energy they have captured. Because stresses, particularly heat stress, can perturb membranes, plants may emit the light energy as fluorescence (Srinivasan et al., 1 996). Plants naturally re-emit a small amount of light energy as fluorescence. However, with the plant’s photosynthetic machinery being sensitive to stressful conditions, a stress-induced increase in the amount of fluorescence being emitted is an expected response. This re-emission of light energy is believed to originate from the dissociation of the light-harvesting complex (LHC) in photosystem II (Hugly et al., 1 989 and references therein). The stability of the LHC, therefore, becomes a critical issue in a plant’s ability function in times of stress. Much of this stability lies within the composition of the thylakoid membrane where LHCs are found (Hugly et al., 1 989; Kunst etal., 1989; Gombos et al., 1994;). Depending on the plant species in question, it has been reported that thylakoid 168 Stress and Response in Plants membranes have been found to contain up to 85% unsaturated fatty acids (Hugly etal., 1989). It has also been reported that the tolerance to some stresses may reside in the particular ratios of saturated versus unsaturated fatty acids within specific plant membranes (Kunst et al., 1989; Somerville, 1995). Plant membranes can be modified and reorganized when placed in stressful environments (Howarth and Ougham, 1993; Carratu et al, 1996). One modification plants can make lies in the saturation level of the fatty acids composing the membrane (Chen and Burris, 1991; Vigh et al., 1993; Murata and Los, 1997; Logue et al., 1998). Changes to these fatty acids are catalyzed by enzymes known as fatty acid desaturases. These desaturases are part of a biochemical pathway in which the saturation level of fatty acids and the proteinrlipid ratio within the membranes of the plant are modified (Quinn et al., 1 989). Many studies have been performed where membrane composition and the changes within a cell were analyzed in plants (Behl et al., 1996; Chauhan and Senboku, 1 996; Srinivasan et al., 1 996). Major differences, such as the overall lipid composition and ratios of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids, in plant lipid profiles of plants grown in different climates have also been shown (Cherry et al., 1 985). Plant function under stress also has been studied in regard to maintenance of photosynthetic capabilities and membrane saturation (Hugly et al., 1989; Gombos et al., 1 994; Behl et al., 1 996). Screening genotypes based on their relative membrane thermostabilities and photosynthesis under stressful conditions is a useful technique and has been explored (Chauhan and Senboku, 1 996). Acclimation to Stresses and Cross-Tolerance To Stresses An additional facet of the plant stress phenomenon is the acclimation of plants to abiotic stresses. Plants that have previously been subjected to a stress and have undergone some metabolic response will be more resistant to subsequent stresses. Gradual changes in environmental conditions (or a prior acclimation to a stress) induce tolerance to more extreme environments. This acclimation of plants to stress has been linked to the adaptation of signaling molecules and metabolism that respond to stresses (Bohnert et al., 1 995; Knight et al, 1 998). One specific example of metabolic changes for acclimation was reported in Ca2+ signaling responses to environmental stress. Evidence suggests that cellular calcium responses encode a “memory” from previous stresses that allow the plant to better cope with subsequent abiotic stresses. This type of calcium response has been linked to the expression of genes that are protective in nature under stress conditions (Knight et al., 1 998). Trewavas (1999) suggests this “memory” is evidence of an unexpected type of cellular intelligence. Researchers have reported results of acclimation in almost every imaginable scenario. Specific examples include acclimation to chilling stress in cereals crops (Bridger et al., 1994), acclimation of Arabidopsis to chilling stress (Gilmour et al., 1 988), adaptation of tomatoes to water stress (Rhodes et al., 1986), and adaptation of Arabidopsis to drought stress (Knight et al., 1 998). As mentioned earlier, acclimation to some stresses has also been found to provide cross-tolerance to other stresses. A few specific examples of reported cross tolerance include: salt stress inducing chilling tolerance, mechanical stress inducing chilling tolerance, water stress conferring chilling resistance, and heat stress inducing endurance to heavy metal toxicity, salt stress, water stress, and reducing chilling injury (Sabehat et al, 1998 and references therein). Acclimation and cross¬ tolerance to stresses are complex physiological features. It has been hypothesized that there exist interconnections or signal crossover between pathways that lead to memory of and cross-tolerance to stresses (Bray, 1 993; Sabehat et al, 1998). Isolation of non-acclimating mutants of Arabidopsis have been analyzed at the molecular level to help understand acclimation response in greater detail (Hughes and Dunn, 1 996). 169 Barger and Locy PART 2: THE SYNTHESIS AND ACCUMULATION OF 4-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID (GABA) IN PLANTS AS A RESPONSE TO STRESSFUL ENVIRONMENTS The Accumulation of GABA In Response to Plant Stresses First discovered in plants (potato tubers) (Steward et al., 1949), 4-Aminobutyric (GABA) acid is a four carbon, non-protein amino acid that serves as a major neurotransmitter inhibitor in mammalian systems (Nathan et al., 1994). In plants, it is produced in the cytoplasm through the decarboxylation of glutamate (Cote’ and Crutcher, 1991). GABA synthesis is known to occur in many higher plants and is commonly reported as increasing dramatically in response to conditions of environmental stress (Snedden and Fromm, 1 999; Bouche and Fromm, 2004). These accumulations of GABA have been reported in many plants and in response to numerous stresses (Bouche and Fromm, 2004). Examples include: 1 ) rice subjected to anaerobic stress exhibited ten-fold increases in GABA within 24 hours (Aurisano et al., 1995); 2) in asparagus cells subjected to low temperatures, a 100 per cent increase of GABA was reported within 16 minutes (Cholewa et al., 1997); 3) cowpea subjected to heat stress exhibited a doubling of GABA within 15 minutes, quadrupling within an hour, and a 64-fold increase in 24 hours (Mayer et al., 1990); 4) soybean subjected to mechanical stress exhibited a 20-fold increase in GABA (Wallace et al., 1984); 5) soybeans subjected to osmotic stress had a GABA increase of 230% (Serraj et al., 1 998). Accumulations of GABA in response to heat stress are known to be large and rapid with increases up to 40-fold within five minutes (Wallace et al., 1984). These increases are known to occur concomitantly with decreases in glutamate, increases in cytoplasmic calcium (Ca2+cyt) levels, and decreases in cytoplasmic pH (Bown and Shelp, 1 997). Also, studies showing localization of GABA accumulations within different plant tissues such as roots, shoots, germinating seedlings, cultured plant cells, tubers, flowers, fruits, and leaves have been described (Snedden and Fromm, 1 999; Kinnersly and Turano, 2000). These findings, and the characterization of two distinct GAD isoforms which are expressed in separate plant tissues, lead to speculation about differences in GABA accumulation within multifarious plant tissues in response to various environmental stresses. Plant tissues of various ages have also been shown to exhibit varying GABA accumulations (Lahdesmaki, 1 968). However, GABA accumulations across many environmental stresses, tissue differences, and age differences have not been thoroughly investigated in a single species. Also, comparison across several species of plant tissues has yet to be thoroughly investigated. The reaction leading to GABA formation is catalyzed by the enzyme glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) (Bown and Shelp, 1997; Fait et al., 2005). GAD is widely distributed in nature, and is found in virtually all organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals (Satya Narayan and Nair, 1 990). In a scenario common to all plants that have been investigated, G ADs are modulated by Ca2+cy, through interaction with calmodulin. Plant G ADs are completely inactive in the absence of calcium and calmodulin, and are fully active in the presence of such (Arazi et al., 1 995; Baum et al., 1 996). In-vitro studies have shown that in the presence of calcium and calmodulin the activity of GAD is greatly stimulated (Johnson et al., 1 997). Abiotic stresses typically lead to an increase in Ca2+cy, levels (Knight et al., 1998) and a lowering of cytosolic pH (Yoshida et al., 1999). GAD has an acidic pH optimum and is almost completely inactive at a neutral pH in the absence of Ca2+cy, and calmodulin. Two functional calcium/calmodulin modulated isoforms of GAD are known to exist in some plants (Zik et al., 1 998; Snedden and Fromm, 1999). GAD1 is expressed in root tissues only, while GAD2 is expressed in 170 Stress and Response in Plants roots, leaves, inflorescence stems, and flowers (Zik et al., 1 998). GAD expression has been shown in tissues that accumulate GABA (Bown and Shelp, 1 997). The GABA Shunt As previously mentioned, GABA is synthesized from a decarboxylation of glutamate in a reaction catalyzed by GAD (Reaction 1 , Fig. 1 ). The synthesis of glutamate can occur through many different pathways in plants including catalysis via glutamine synthetase (Reaction 2, Fig. 1 ) (followed by subsequent deamination reactions) and glutamate synthase (Reaction 3, Fig. 1 ). An alternate route is via a transamination reaction of 2-ketoglutarate, from theTCA cycle, with alanine being converted to pyruvate (Reaction 4, Fig. 1 ). In this GABA shunt, the glutamate is then decarboxylated by GAD in a reaction that consumes a cytosolic proton and yields GABA (this has been implicated as a mechanism by which the pH of the cytoplasm may be raised as a result of proton influx due to stress) (Carroll et al,. 1 994; Crawford et al., 1 994). Via this pathway, and in response to abiotic stresses, GABA can be accumulated. Additionally, evidence has shown an increase in the carbon flux through the GABA shunt when glutamate availability was enhanced, suggesting that glutamate levels and availability also influence GAD activity (Scott-Taggart et al., 1 999; Fait et al., 2005). When GABA is catabolized, succinate semialdehyde and alanine are produced via a pyruvate-dependent transaminase (Reaction 5, Fig. 1 ). This alanine accumulation is thought to be an indicator of GABA degradation in tissues that are rapidly breaking down GABA. In plants, pyruvate-dependent GABA transaminase (Reaction 5, Fig. 1) is an enzyme that is specific to the mitochondria of plants (Breitkreuz and Shelp, 1995). In animal systems a different transaminase exists that utilizes 2-oxoglutarate instead of pyruvate (Kim and Churchich, 1989). Succinate semialdehyde is toxic to plant cells; therefore, plants must also have an active succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (Reaction 6, Fig. 1 ) to quickly synthesize succinate in tissues that are degrading GABA. It is believed that at this point the succinate would enter the TCA cycle, thereby completing the G ABA-shunt off of the TCA cycle. Proposed Role of GABA Synthesis in Plant Cells Essentialness for normal plant development, pH regulation, Kreb’s cycle bypass, a deterrent for insect herbivory (Bloomquist, 2001; Fait et al., 2005), and its use as a signaling molecule (Coleman et al., 2001) have all been speculated as possible justifications for GABA synthesis (Snedden and Fromm, 1 999). Recent analysis has shown that there is a possible requirement of GABA for normal plant development. Plants which had a truncated GAD gene, lacking the calmodulin binding domain, exhibited higher GABA levels, lower glutamate levels, less stem elongation, male sterility, incomplete maturation, and other aberrations (Baum etal., 1996). Coupled with studies showing that GABA promotes root branching and leaf formation (Locy et al., 2000), Snedden and Fromm (1999) go on to state that these findings indicate that GAD is important for glutamate metabolism and postulate a role for GABA in regulation of plant growth and development. This sentiment is echoed in the most recent analysis available as reported by Fait et al. (2005). Possibilities for GABA as a potential modulator of ion transport and amplifier of plant stress via signaling mechanisms have also been proposed (Kinnersly and Lin, 2000). GABA accumulation and 171 Barger and Locy FIGURE 1. Figure 1. The metabolic pathway of GABA synthesis and its regulation in plants. For clarity, only reactions directly involved in the TCA Cycle or GABA synthesis are shown. the subsequent expulsion of major portions of GABA from cells have also led to speculation that GABA may function as an intercellular signaling molecule (Chung et al., 1992). pH regulation has been proposed to result from GABA synthesis because of the GAD mediated reaction (L-Glu + H+ -> GABA + CO2) which consumes an FT in the production of GABA. This raising of cytoplasmic pH has been confirmed by several researchers using techniques such as fluorescent pH probes (Crawford et al., 1994) and NMR spectroscopy (Carroll et al., 1994) to observe changes in cytosolic pH. In both examples, increases of GABA concentrations coincided with increases in pH. The formation of GABA as a Kreb’s cycle bypass has also been suggested. As discussed by Wiskich and Dry (1985), the possible mechanisms which may prevent succinate from entering the TCA under stressful conditions would be bypassed by the GABA shunt and likely allow succinate to enter the TCA cycle. Consistent with these findings, others have shown that flow through the GABA shunt is increased when mitochondrial electron transport is impeded (Popova etal., 1995). However, 172 Stress and Response in Plants metabolism of glutamate through the GABA shunt is less energetically favorable, producing only one NADH instead of NADH and an ATP (Snedden and Fromm, 1999). GABA has also been discussed as a phytotoxin with the possibility of reducing insect predation. It has been proven to exhibit a myriad of detrimental effects on the growth, development, and survival of insect larvae (Ramputh and Bown, 1996; Bloomquist, 2001). Theoretically, the defensive mechanism for the plant would lie in the rupturing of the cell’s vacuole that would lead to a decrease in the cytoplasmic pH and increased calcium levels. This, in turn, would provide conditions suitable for GABA formation/accumulation. If ingested by an insect, GABA, with its neurotransmitter inhibitory properties (Nathan etal., 1994), could be absorbed bythehemolymphof the predator and cause temporary muscle paralysis (Ramputh and Bown, 1 996). CONCLUSION While many questions remain unanswered, current knowledge about plant signaling and responses to abiotic stress is becoming clearer. Research involving membranes and cytoplasmic calcium along with “cell memory” of prior stresses is ripe for investigation. With world populations exploding and the need for higher yielding crops in less than ideal agricultural settings, the study of accumulating solutes, such as GABA, is needed for a better understanding of how these metabolic pathways function under stressful conditions. Plants exhibiting a high degree of stress tolerance and an increased yield in stressful environments are highly desirable in both breeding programs and transgenic research. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank Dr. Narendra Singh and Dr. Joe Cherry for their critical readings of the initial versions of this manuscript. Also, warm thanks are extended to Ms. Lynn Libous-Bailey and Ms. Becky Fagan for their technical assistance throughout the course of preparation of this manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Allakhverdiev, S. I., A. Sakamoto, Y. Nishiyama, and N. Murata. 2000. 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Two isoforms of glutamate decarboxylase in Arabidopsis are regulated by calcium/calmodulin and differ in organ distribution. Plant Molecular Biology. 37: 967-975. 180 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. SCOLIOSIS SCREENING: A REVIEW OF A LEGISLATIVELY ENACTED PROGRAM FOR THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF ALABAMA T.E. Denton, Department of Biology J.R. Nanney, Department of Mathematics Auburn University Montgomery P.O. 244023 Montgomery, AL 36124 D.A. Deinlein F.M. Randall Orthopedic Specialists 880 Montclair Road Birmingham, AL 35213 ABSTRACT A population of 283,439 adolescents in grades 5-9 of Alabama’s public schools was screened for scoliosis and other spinal curvatures. Parents of children who screened positive were notified to seek a second screening from a physician of their choice. Those who were diagnosed with scoliosis were subsequently monitored for various periods of time. Adolescents with curve progression were treated by bracing or by surgery. Data pertaining to the prevalence and treatment of this spinal disorder in Alabama is presented and analyzed. INTRODUCTION Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) is the most common form of spinal curvature and is manifested primarily during adolescent growth prior to skeletal maturity. Since there is no known cause, prevention, or cure for this lateral bending of the spine, treatment consists of trying to stabilize curvatures after they have developed by bracing or by partially correcting and stabilizing the curves with surgically placed metal rods attached to the spine. The disorder appears to be transmitted within families, but its exact mode of inheritance is still in question. Adolescent scoliosis is further complicated by rotation of the spine in addition to lateral curving. Ribs on the convex side of the rotation move posteriorly, causing a prominence along the back, while ribs on the concave side are carried forward to create a prominence of the chest wall. Both curving and rotation are inseparable and sometimes are associated with kyphosis (humpback) and lordosis (swayback). School screening had its origins in the 1960’s and spread rapidly around the world in the 1970’s and 1980’s (MacEwen and Shands, 1967; Winter and Moe, 1974; Lonstein, 1977; Lonstein et al., 1982). According to the Scoliosis Research Society, Alabama is one of 26 states to have a mandated scoliosis screening program. In 1984, legislative action approved scoliosis screening in grades 5-9 (ages 1 1-14 years). There are 128 public school systems in the 67 counties of Alabama, and at the start of 2004, some 300,000 children were in this age group. This number of adolescents represents only 89% of the children in the state. The remaining 1 1%, approximately 35,000, attend private or home schools and are not subject to 181 Scoliosis Screening required state screening. The screening of this targeted age group was designed to detect adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (A1S) as well as other perceived spinal irregularities, including kyphosis and lordosis. During adolescence, spinal curves may be detected early. The bane of scoliosis screening is the inability to determine which curves will progress to require treatment status. Most students who are screened and diagnosed with AIS will not qualify for prescriptive treatment. Adopted by the Scoliosis Research Society, the baseline for monitoring curves that may continue to progress is 10 degrees as measured using spinal x-rays. Curves approaching 25 degrees are usually braced using an assortment of types, and those reaching 50 degrees usually undergo spinal fusion surgery where metal rods are used to reduce and stabilize existing curves. Curves may be upper (thoracic), lower (lumbar), or a combination of the two (thoracolumbar). Primary scoliosis screening is a non-invasive process to estimate curves in excess of 10 degrees. Children who screen positive are referred to a physician for a more accurate evaluation. Alabama testing for scoliosis and other spinal asymmetries eventually became a joint effort between the Alabama Department of Public Health and the Alabama Department of Education. Over two million adolescents have been screened since the program’s implementation in 1985. This report presents the results of scoliosis screening for a large population sample during the four-year period from 2000 through 2003. The size of this cohort represents one of the largest ever to be reported. This report also provides perspectives on outcomes related to the overall screening process specific to the State of Alabama. MATERIALS AND METHODS A selected population of 283,439 adolescents was screened for scoliosis and other spinal irregularities from 2000 through 2003. This cohort represents random selects from northern, central, and southern Alabama. Data for this period was made available by the Public Health Nursing Unit of the State of Alabama and presents information relative to scoliosis referral rates, prevalence, diagnosis and treatment. Referral rates denote the number of children identified at school sites who may have scoliosis. Prevalence is defined as the occurrence of scoliosis in a defined population. Diagnosis is the number of adolescents whose curvatures are 10 degrees or more as measured by radiographs, and treatment is the use of bracing for 25 degree curves and surgery for curves that have progressed to 50 degrees. Primary scoliosis screening was conducted by trained health nurses assigned to a particular school system in Alabama. Parents were apprised of the results, and if their child had screened positive, it was recommended that he or she undergo a second medical screening by a physician of their choice. Results of this secondary screening, along with any treatment regimen, were reported back to school nurses who forwarded the information to a central nursing unit in Montgomery. Methods of primary screening at school sites included the Adams forward bending test (FBT) where nurses examined children’s backs for unusual topographies and asymmetries of the spine. Additionally, a scoliometer with a threshold of 5 or 7 degrees was used. Essentially this instrument is an inclinometer that estimates the angle of trunk rotation (ATR) when placed at different levels up and down the spine (Bunnell, 1993). Both FBT and scoliometer tests are low cost measurements and have become the standard for large scale scoliosis screenings. In addition to side-to-side curves (scoliosis), screeners also reported any other irregularities associated with the spine, including firont-to-back curves such as kyphosis or lordosis. 182 Denton, et al. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Data in Table 1 details values for scoliosis referrals, prevalence, diagnosis, and treatment for a cohort of 283,439 adolescents in Alabama over the four-year period 2000- 2003. Approximately 3% (95CI:2.94%-3.06%) of all children screened were referred for secondary screening by physicians. Unfortunately, less than half of those referred reported back to primary screeners. However, this lack of feedback did not necessarily mean that the unreported half failed to receive medical screening by a physician. If all of the referrals had responded, the data could be extrapolated to give a prevalence value for scoliosis of 1.41% (95%CI: 1.37-1. 45%). To estimate maximum occurrences, this adjusted prevalence value will be used as a base for calculating other outcomes of the screening process contained in this report. It is simplest to evaluate outcomes of scoliosis screening as they occur per 10,000 students screened. In other words, for every 10,000 adolescents screened at school sites, approximately 300 (3%) will be referred by nurses. Of this number, 141 (47%) will be diagnosed by physicians as scoliosis positive. Of this number, 1 1 (8%) will be braced and 5 (4%) will undergo surgery. It is noteworthy that 126 out of the 141 who screened positive (89%) will only be observed by physicians but will not require either bracing or surgery. To put it another way, 625 adolescents in Alabama would need to be screened to identify one to be treated by bracing or surgery. It isn’t understood why, but females were 2.5 times more likely than males to be diagnosed with AIS. False Positives and Negatives Bunnell (1993) predicted that 3% of adolescents would be referred for AIS diagnosis when using a scoliometer with a threshold of 7 degrees. This was precisely the referral rate for Alabama. The average referral rate for other studies was 3.5% (Morais and Turcotte, 1985; Alastair et al., 1996; Soucacos et al., 1997; Karachalios et al., 1999; Velezis et al., 2002; and Kim et al., 2003). Prevalence values from these studies averaged 1.68%. Thus, a prevalence value of 1.41% and a referral rate of 3% in Alabama were less than the averages of other studies and yielded 59% false positives compared with 63% for comparative studies. The excessive number of false positives can largely be attributed to the use of subjective methods of measurement. Also, screeners are apt to be liberal in their evaluations for fear of missing someone with AIS. Due to harmful side effects, the more accurate measurement using radiology cannot be employed at school sites for screening purposes (Dickman and Caspi, 2001). It is not known in the Alabama screen how many adolescents had scoliosis but were not referred. Neither the forward bending test nor the scoliometer is capable of detecting false negatives. Within the 97% of those predicted to be negative for AIS (274,936), some would be expected to be missed by the primary screen. False negatives have an inverse relationship to false positives. When false positives increase, false negatives decrease and vice versa. It is generally concluded that school screenings produce far more false positives than false negatives. While combined FBT and scoliometer tests at school sites are not accurate enough to minimize both false positives and false negatives, it can also be concluded that annual screening reduces the likelihood that most students with progressive curves would be missed after being examined as many as 5 successive times during their adolescence. 183 Scoliosis Screening Table 1. A summary of scoliosis screening in a cohort of adolescents in Alabama public schools from 2000 through 2003. Description Male Female Total Per 10,000 Number screened (Grades 5-9) 144732 138707 283439 - Number referred 3260 5099 8359 300 Scoliosis positive* 476 (1175) 1147 (2833) 1623 (4008) 58 (141) Outcomes of positives* Observation 440 (1086) 1002 (2475) 1442 (3561) 51 (126) Bracing 24 (59) 102 (252) 126 (311) 5 (ID Surgery 12 (30) 43 (106) 55 (136) 2 (5) Prevalence (%) 0.3 (0.8) 0.8 (2.0) 0.6 (1.4) 58 (141) ^Values in parentheses represent upward adjustments to include referrals (95%CI:58.52%- 59.86%) that were lost to follow up. Cost Estimations Monetary costs associated with AIS screening in Alabama are difficult to determine because of varying medical charges throughout the state from year to year. However, direct costs can be estimated if certain reasonable assumptions are made (Fryer et al., 1997; Montgomery et al., 1 990). If it is assumed that an average hourly wage for screeners is $ 1 8, and screeners can examine 20 students per hour, then the cost of primary screening would be approximately 90 cents per student. Therefore, it would cost $270,000 to screen the targeted 300,000 adolescents in Alabama each year. Assuming diagnosis and observation of referred but untreated adolescents (7,912) to consist of multiple office visits totaling $400, an additional $3,164,800 would be required. Finally, assuming a $4,000 charge for bracing (311) and $40,000 for surgery (136), then treatment costs would total $1,244,000 and $5,440,000 respectively. Based on the projected data in this report, the grand total for the annual 184 Denton, et al. screening and treatment of 300,000 students would approach 10 million dollars. From these calculations, it can be seen that the referred but untreated group (7,912) is responsible for almost one-third of the total cost of screening. As noted previously, this group also represents mostly false positives. As with most diseases and disorders, these approximations do not include unknown expenses for clerical costs, travel, loss of time, or events associated with psychosocial morbidities. Also, there are no estimations that would compare costs of scoliosis treatment with and without early detection. Kyphosis and Lordosis In addition to scoliosis, screeners reported a total of 208 children (96 males and 1 12 females) with possible kyphosis or lordosis. This referral rate represents approximately 7 per 10,000 screened. Treatment dispensation is not known for this group, but if the number requiring treatment is similar in proportion to those for AIS, then 612 students would need to be screened in Alabama to identify a student with either AIS, kyphosis, or lordosis. Should School Screening for Scoliosis be Eliminated? The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) in 2004 released its opinion on AIS screening. It altered its earlier opinion (1993) to conclude that the harmful effects of scoliosis screening outweigh its benefits. Both the Scoliosis Research Society (SRS) and the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons (ASOS) disagree with these opinions. Statements by the USPSTF are not interpreted to mean that bracing and surgical intervention for patients with progressive scoliosis are harmful. Most clinicians will agree that bracing works in some cases and that spinal fusion during adolescence can provide a better quality of life. Most of the criticism is directed toward the screening mechanism itself. Some of the criticisms include the lack of an accurate, low cost, and noninvasive screening tool that minimizes false positives and false negatives; the inability to identify which curves are progressive; and the lack of an effective plan to place children with scoliosis in contact with orthopedists. In light of such criticisms, it is understandable why some would conclude that scoliosis screening should be abandoned. Another option is to modify the screening process to mitigate the existing problems until there is a change in the landscape of knowledge about spinal asymmetries during adolescence. Discovering the etiology of AIS would effect such a change. In the meantime, instituting methods that reduce losses to follow up after referrals, reducing the frequency and scope of screenings, and increasing awareness and vigilance by parents, are some of the ways to reduce current screening problems. For example, both the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons and the Scoliosis Research Society indicate that a reasonable approach to lower costs of early detection is to screen girls only twice in grades 5 and 7 and boys only once in grade 8 or 9. These rationales are based on times of bone maturation during adolescence. Since AIS screening is only a part of the network for health care in public schools in Alabama, current primary screening costs are minimal. Also, the targeted population includes many disadvantaged adolescents in cities and rural areas who lack access to health care providers except through schools. Despite screening’s limitations, it is probably more responsible to err on the side of caution and to maintain screening in some form until the greater medical community decides what is best for the hundreds of children in Alabama who exhibit spinal asymmetries that meet requirements for prescriptive treatment. 185 Scoliosis Screening REFERENCES Alastair, J., D.H. Stirling, P.A. Millner, S. Sadiq, M. Phil, D. Sharpies, and R.A.Dickson. 1996. Late-onset idiopathic scoliosis in children six to fourteen years old. A cross- sectional prevalence study. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 78: 1 330-1336. Bunnell, W.P. 1993. Outcome of spinal screening. Spine. 15 (12): 1572-1580. Dickman, D., and O. Caspi. 2001. Diagnosis and monitoring of idiopathic scoliosis: overview and technological advances. Clinical Application Notes. Feb: 1-7. Fryer, G.E., J.B. Igoe, and T.J. Miyoshi. 1997. Considering school health program Screening services as a cost offset: a comparison of existing reimbursements in one state. Journal of School Nursing. 13(2): 18-21. Karachalios, T., J. Sofianos, N. Roidis, G. Sapkas, D. Korres, and K. Nikolopoulos. 1999. Ten-year follow-up of school screening program for scoliosis. Spine. 24: 2318-2324. Kim, M.J., T.F. Alamin, G.H. Lee, K.S. Choi, S.B. Park, J. Hong, and B.S. Woo. 2003. Prevalence of adolescent scoliosis in a Korean urban middle and high school students. The Spine Journal. 3(5): 98. Lonstein, J.E. 1977. Screening for spinal deformities in Minnesota schools. Clinical Orthopedics. 12: 33 — 42. Lonstein, J.E., S. Bjorklund, M.H. Wanniger, and R.P. Nelson. 1982. Voluntary school screening for scoliosis in Minnesota. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 64: 48 1 — 448. MacEwen, G.D., and A.R. Shands. 1967. Scoliosis: a deforming childhood problem. Clinical Pediatrics. 6: 210-216. Montgomery, F., U. Persson, G. Mpolsci, G. Benoni, S. Willner, and B. Lindgren. 1990. Screening for scoliosis. A cost-effectiveness analysis. Spine. 15: 67-70. Morais, T., M. Bernier, and G. Turcotte. 1985. Age and sex specific prevalence of Scoliosis and the value of school screening programs. American Journal of Public Health. 75: 1377-1280. Soucacos, P.N., P.K. Soucacos, K.C. Zacharis, A.E. Beris, and T.A. Xenakis. 1997. School-screening for scoliosis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 79: 1498-1503. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. 1993. Screening for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Policy statement. Journal of the American Medical Association. 269: 2664-2666. Velezis M.J., P.F. Sturm, and J. Cobey. 2002. Scoliosis screening revisited: findings from the District of Columbia. Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics. 22: 788-791. Winter, R.B., and J.H. Moe. 1974. A plea for the routine school examination of children For spinal deformity. Minnesota Medicine. 57: 419. Yawn, B.P., R.A. Yawn, D. Hodge, M. Kurland, W.J. Shaughnessy, D. Ilstrip, and S.J. Jacobsen. 1 999. A population-based study of school scoliosis screening. Journal of the American Medical Association. 282: 1427-1432. 186 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. DEADLY SCIENCE Gerard Elfstrom Department of Philosophy 6080 Haley Center Auburn University Auburn, AL 36849-5210 elfstga@auburn.edu ABSTRACT Bill Joy is among the most distinguished software engineers in the United States and is one of the founders of Sun Microsystems. He caused a considerable stir several years ago when he argued that certain types of scientific research should not be performed because of the enormous risk to humanity. His presentation sparked considerable interest and a great volume of critical, sometimes outraged, literature. However, so far as I am able to discover, no one has sought to work his arguments out in detail and analyze them. I propose to do so here. Whether or not Joy’s arguments convince, they raise important and intriguing issues. INTRODUCTION The 21s* century technologies — genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics (GNR) — are so powerful that they can spawn whole new classes of accidents and abuses. Most dangerously, for the first time, these accidents and abuses are widely within the reach of individuals or small groups. They will not require large facilities or rare raw materials. Knowledge alone will enable the use of them. [Emphasis added.] (Joy, 2000a) The message is that biotechnology in the twenty-first century is as dangerous as nuclear technology in the twentieth. The dangers do not lie in any particular gadgets such as nanorobots or autonomous agents. The dangers arise from knowledge, from our inexorable growing understanding of the basic processes of life. [Emphasis added.] (Dyson, 2003, p. 1 1) Twice in the 20th Century science provided humanity with means to destroy itself and much of life on earth. Nuclear weapons came first. Thirty years later, recombinant DNA technology arrived on the scene. Whether through prudence, dumb luck, or some combination 187 Deadly Science of the two, we have thus far avoided extinction. Recently, however, an extremely bright and knowledgeable individual. Bill Joy, has become convinced that self-replicating nanorobots will soon be the greatest threat to life on earth. Further, he believes that they will inevitably be produced and misused once human beings possess the knowledge to create them. In consequence, he asserts that research which may produce the knowledge to create these artifacts should be forbidden. Joy is well aware of the implication of his thinking: It is a direct challenge to an idea which has been commonplace since the time of Francis Bacon, the belief that scientific research, and the understanding it brings, are inevitably good. In a recent interview, Joy is reported to have said. We should instead question the bedrock assumption that good science equals beneficial science. Good science, he says, is the discovery of truth — for example, an experiment that yields an accurate result and that is repeatable. But science may not be good for us anymore if it yields a bad outcome. ‘The Greeks knew better,’ Joy says. ‘Oedipus was destroyed by truth. He looked like he had a happy life until he learned one too many things. That’s the cautionary tale.’ (Gertner, 2004, p. 32) If Joy’s ideas are accepted, they will require a fundamental shift in our thinking about science. In my view, he is seeking to come to terms with two exceedingly important features of contemporary scientific activity. First, the knowledge scientific research yields has greatly expanded the power human beings command. Second, the line between pure scientific research and applied science is often vanishingly thin. In this circumstance, it is obviously possible that powerful scientific knowledge can explode and do so with devastating consequences for humanity. Though Joy has addressed this theme in a variety of articles and presentations, he does not develop his arguments in crisp and orderly fashion. While his ideas have sparked intense discussion, I have found no one who has reconstructed and carefully analyzed Joy’s arguments. I believe Joy has two arguments. One is more detailed, specific and ominous, but more vulnerable. The second is at once more general and more limited than the first, but likely more profound and worthy of careful consideration1. I will present the arguments separately. THE DETAILED ARGUMENT Joy has received considerable notoriety for repeatedly asserting that we should not undertake research that will yield the knowledge to create self-replicating nanorobots. As I see it, his argument for this proposition is as follows: 1) Certain programs of research can yield the understanding which will allow human beings to secure the knowledge required to produce self-replicating nanorobots. 2) Once this knowledge is available, it is inevitable that someone will employ it to create self-replicating nanorobots. 3) It will be impossible to control the use or misuse of these artifacts once human beings are able to create them. 4) Misuse of these devices, or simple accident, will very probably result in the destruction of humanity and much of life on earth. .'. We should not engage in these programs of research, and we should not allow anyone else to pursue them. 188 Elfstrom The argument above is an example of a slippery slope argument. That is, it is grounded on the claim that the initial step of gaining the knowledge to allow construction of self-replicating nanorobots will spark an uncontrollable cascade of events that will ultimately result in disaster for living beings on earth. This argument is both robust and tight. By ‘robust’ I mean that, if the premises are true, the conclusion indeed follows. If this research is likely to initiate a chain reaction of events resulting in the destruction of life on earth, then I venture to say we have excellent reason to avoid it. By ‘tight’ I mean there are no superfluous links in the argument. Each premise serves as a necessary link in the chain of events Joy believes leads to the destruction of life on earth. However, this argument’s lean character also makes it fragile since, if any one of Joy’s premises is doubtful, the chain the argument posits is broken, and the argument fails. So, to evaluate Joy’s argument properly, we must examine each premise. Joy’s first premise is that scientific research will soon yield the knowledge to develop self-assembling, nanotechnology robots. To support his claims, he notes several researchers who are convinced nanotechnology investigations will quickly yield astonishing results (Joy, 2000a). This research is sufficiently promising that both governmental and commercial organizations are keenly interested in it — not to mention the stock exchanges (Feder, 2004). It is thus reasonable to presume that nano scale devices will soon proliferate. But, Joy’s anxiety is aroused by the next step he envisions after the introduction of nanorobot devices, that of making self-assembling nanorobots— that is, nanorobots that replicate of their own accord, without human intervention, and possibly contrary to human desires2. Joy believes nanorobot self-assembly will be within reach in perhaps 30 years (Joy, 2000a)3. This, however, seems a large step. Miniscule, one-celled creatures do indeed reproduce and do so robustly and (more or less) accurately — as those beset by bacterial infections are all too well aware. However, the marriage of self-assembly to nanotechnology would have to be exceedingly well crafted to possess the stable and robust nature Joy fears. At least one commentator points out that self-assembling technology is nowhere on the horizon, and it is unclear how it would be accomplished (Dyson, 2003, p. 12). One of the most knowledgeable observers of nano research, Richard Smalley, argues that nanorobot self- assembly is impossible in principle (Smalley, 2001 and Baum, 2003)4. At any rate, self- assembly at present, and for the near future, exists only on the level of rumination. Thus, it is far too early in the game to determine whether Joy’s first premise will ever be true. Since his chain argument hangs from this first premise, its questionable truth weakens the whole argument. Nonetheless, the other premises merit examination because we may at some point find ourselves faced with the imminent prospect of technology with the properties Joy envisages and because these premises raise questions which we will then have to address. His subsequent premises raise two interlinked issues, those of the dangers posed by new technologies and those of the human ability to control them. Even potentially very dangerous technologies which are easily controlled would be little threat to humanity. On the other hand, uncontrollable but innocuous technology would also pose little danger to us. Needless to say, the possible combination of the two is worrisome indeed, and the prospect of this combination arouses Joy’s concern. Joy’s second premise is that someone will make nanorobots once the knowledge to do so is in hand. Joy believes the step from theoretical insight to practical application will be short and simple. He is also convinced this technology will not require complex, expensive, or sophisticated manufacturing processes. Should these assumptions prove true, it is plausible to assume someone will find a reason for producing self-replicating nanorobots — particularly given the wealth and power these devices promise. 189 Deadly Science Joy’s third premise is that we will be unable to control the use or misuse of this technology once it becomes available. His claim is based on several features of nanotechnology. The first is that nanotechnology is being actively developed by private industry, and many businesspeople are convinced it will prove extraordinarily profitable (as well as useful). This, according to Joy, places nanotechnology in stark contrast to atomic weaponry, which was developed by governments and remains largely under their close control (Joy, 2000a). Governments typically guard their expertise jealously, particularly when it gives them some perceived military advantage. Business, in contrast, profits only when technology is spread around. Hence, this technology is far more apt to be widely disseminated than technology devised by governments. And, because of its promise of great utility, there will be strong incentive to spread the technology widely. Furthermore, Joy believes that it will be extremely easy for anyone to obtain this technology or for it to escape responsible control as the result of accident or negligence. At first glance, this concern seems far fetched. Nanotechnology involves the construction of devices atom by atom, and this process is unlikely to be simple or cheap. In addition, nanorobots will be complex, sophisticated machines and therefore difficult to fabricate. But Joy has a quick answer to this argument: self-assembly. If self-assembly is joined to nanotechnology, the devices would construct themselves, and no costly or precise manufacturing would be needed. Thus, should theft, loss, or inattention release even a few of these devices into the environment (which could occur easily due to their vanishingly small size) they will continue to replicate on their own and will likely replicate out of control. Joy also has a ready rejoinder to those who claim we could simply develop the nano equivalent of antibiotics to extinguish errant nano devices, and if the threat were serious, simply organize nano pest control organizations to combat the problem. Joy’s response is that these technologies would of necessity be as powerful, and hence as dangerous, as the nano offenders (Joy, 2000a), because the defending agents would have to function on the nano scale and would require the same abilities the rogue self-assembling devices enjoy. Hence, he asserts that the technology we devise to address the threat of nano extinction would only compound, not eliminate, the hazards they pose. Apparently he is willing to entertain the idea that this technology could possibly be kept from mischief if all human beings could agree on which applications to support and which to ban, and then agree on the measures necessary to control it. However, he says that humanity has not achieved this level of unanimity and is not apt to do so (Joy, 2000a). It is clearly true that humanity is not in general agreement on the proper use of technology nor on the appropriate measures necessary to manage it successfully. One terrorist group or solitary nihilist would, Joy fears, have the means to destroy humanity. Joy’s fourth premise is that the misuse of, or misadventure involving, this technology is likely to result in the destruction of humanity and much of life on earth. This premise rests on another assumption about self-replicating nanorobots that is critically important for the force of Joy’s argument. Joy assumes that these devices will be able to reproduce accurately without any significant limit (that is, excessive reproduction will not eventually result in a population crash — as occurs with natural organisms) and will successfully exploit the resources of their environments without human intervention — and perhaps contrary to human desires. This is an exceedingly bold and unusual claim, since human artifacts are commonly unstable and require constant human nurture to maintain their integrity. In point of fact, the more complex and advanced a piece of technology is, the less robust it is likely to be. To achieve the qualities Joy fears, nanotechnological robots would have to be far different than 190 Elfstrom our other complex technological devices. Hence, it would appear the odds weigh heavily against nanotechnological robots developing these qualities. Furthermore, the hazards Joy envisages require that these devices be able to successfully compete with biological life forms for access to energy and living space and, in consequence, drive them from existence. He cites one researcher who points out that certain of these devices may have more efficient means to transform sun light into useful energy than the means, i.e., chlorophyll, possessed by plants (Joy, 2000a). In consequence, they will have a significant advantage over them and may drive them to extinction. This prospect seems unlikely, and it is notable that Joy’s concerns are shared by engineers and computer scientists rather than biologists. Even if these devices came to have a significant advantage in one area, it is not necessarily the case that they will also enjoy advantages in other domains. In particular, they are vastly less likely to enjoy the flexibility and resourcefulness displayed by living beings. Also, Joy’s concern rests on the presumption that these devices will be able to function with equal success under any and all environmental conditions, whether cold and damp, hot and dry, bright and sunny, or grey and dark. Furthermore, they would have to be able to cope with quick and radical shifts in environmental conditions, as living beings commonly do5. Since previously devised human artifacts are woefully lacking this sort of adaptability, it is unlikely Joy’s nanorobots will be different. In addition, one astute observer, Freeman Dyson, has pointed out that devices of such extraordinarily small size would be greatly disrupted by even slight disturbances in environmental conditions, such as very slight air currents or miniscule pockets of humidity (Dyson, 2004, p. 11). If Dyson is correct, the devices could not have the global presence Joy fears. They would be able to survive only in sheltered pockets of the environment and move abroad only slowly and with hesitation. Viruses and other microbes are able to transport themselves across the globe with unnerving speed, but this is because they hitch rides in humans with a propensity for jet travel. Nanorobots are unlikely to develop such mechanisms. Hence, even if these devices are created, it is implausible to believe that they will pose the mortal threat to life on earth Joy envisages. Joy’s argument is therefore less than entirely persuasive. It is unclear whether the self-assembly he fears is possible even in principle. His second premise is on firmer ground. Given the benefits nanorobots promise, and the anticipated ease of producing them, it is reasonable to presume they will be constructed once the knowledge exists to do so. Joy’s third premise deserves more serious discussion than it has thus far received. At first glance, should these devices have the properties Joy envisages, it seems entirely plausible to presume it will be extraordinarily difficult to manage them. However, one commentator. Freeman Dyson, believes they could be managed by a regime similar to that devised to control recombinant DNA research (Dyson, 2004, p. 12). Though a non-expert, 1 am inclined to agree with Joy’s assessment of the difficulties of controlling these devices should they come to exist. His fourth premise, however, is less persuasive. Self-replicating nanorobots would need to have survival abilities far superior to those of any human artifact created thus far. It is possible time will prove Joy correct on these matters, but it is not obvious that it will do so. THE GENERAL ARGUMENT As noted earlier, I believe there is a second argument embedded in Joy’s writing. It is more general than the first but in several ways more profound and intriguing. It proceeds as follows: 191 Deadly Science 1) Some types of knowledge carry the means to produce deadly products without costly or complex apparatus. 2) Knowledge is far easier to disseminate and far more difficult to control than physical artifacts. 3) This knowledge will be available to individuals — many thousands (or millions) of them. 4) Human individuals — given contemporary circumstances of porous national borders, easy mobility and anonymous cities — cannot be controlled in the manner of governments or institutions. 5) Some individuals will have malevolent intent, whether from ideology or personal pathology. 6) Some of these individuals will employ scientific knowledge to create deadly products. /. This knowledge will inevitably yield the destructive power it holds. The above is not a slippery slope argument. It does not claim that gaining the knowledge postulated in the first premise will initiate a chain reaction. Rather, it posits a set of conditions which, once in place, will produce a most unhappy result. I believe this argument is also robust: If the premises are true, the conclusion indeed follows. I am persuaded it is also tight in the sense that all the premises are needed to produce the conclusion Joy fears (though it is possible other premises could be substituted for some of them and produce the same conclusion). There is an important and disconcerting difference with the earlier argument. It is that premises 2 through 5 are clearly true, and premise 6 is entirely plausible. So, in this case, the key premise is the first. Do we presently, or will we in the near future, possess knowledge which can be used achieve terrible ends without the need for complex and costly devices? The example Joy employs is instructive. He says, “The knowledge of how to produce smallpox virus is also the ability to produce it (World Economic Forum, 2001).” At present, this is partly true. Researchers have indeed constructed polio virus employing knowledge of its structure (Orwant, 2002). However, it is no easy matter to construct a simple virus even with complete knowledge of its structure. Furthermore, laboriously fabricating one or a handful of such viruses in the laboratory is insufficient to create a plague. Billions would be required. Hence, techniques to allow mass production would be necessary. Nevertheless, this technology is both enormously intriguing and potentially hugely valuable — since the techniques could be employed for the mass production of vaccines or other materials with carefully controlled qualities, for example. So, it is likely the process will soon be simplified and will then become more common. If so, Joy has put his finger on a pressing difficulty. Of course, release of smallpox, while potentially devastating, is a far cry from the destruction of all life on earth. So, though Joy’s second argument is more viable than his first, the consequences of its truth are also less ominous. The issue is further complicated by the fact that there are less arduous ways to produce lethal agents than constructing an entire organism. A salient example is the instance of the Australian researchers who recently made what they expected to be a minor change in a mouse pox virus that instead transformed it into a lethal killer ((Nowak, 2001). Even so, Joy has touched a sensitive nerve. Should cases arise in which scientific knowledge of how to produce lethal agents also allows their actual production, then, given present circumstances, it is likely they will be produced and perhaps unleashed on the world. 192 Elfstrom WHAT IS TO BE DONE? If Joy’s second argument persuades, or the first gains plausibility, the next question is to determine how to respond. That decision must follow an evaluation of the alternatives. The first possibility is to seek to halt all research which may yield knowledge which can be readily employed to create lethal agents. This is the alternative Joy embraces, at least for research designed to achieve self-replication (Joy, 2000a and 2000b). Presumably, he would also embrace this alternative in the instance of harmful organisms such as smallpox. A typical rejoinder to this is to assert it is impossible to prevent the research from taking place, and an attempt to do so will only drive it underground (Powell, 2000, p. F4). It is difficult to determine whether or to what extent this claim is true. Though self-replicating devices may easily escape control once the first batch is constructed, the research necessary to produce the initial seed batch will likely be difficult, sophisticated, and expensive. If so, there will be a manageable handful of institutions capable of undertaking it. In that circumstance, the research should be amenable to control. Such control would require the wholehearted efforts of international governmental and scientific communities, though such unanimity has proven elusive in the past. Nonetheless, if the threat is sufficiently great, the relevant groups would have strong incentive to act decisively. Of course, it is entirely possible that such efforts will not be completely successful. However, the possibility of failure is not a convincing rationale for shunning the effort, particularly when the stakes are as high as Joy believes. The second option is to construct a system of control and oversight of research akin to that devised 30 years ago in a conference at Asilomar, California by researchers poised to begin work with recombinant DNA. Their first step was to declare a moratorium on recombinant DNA research until a suitable response could be generated. Then a national oversight board was established, composed of scientists, ethicists, and bureaucrats. The board’s task was to review proposals for research projects and determine which were largely innocuous, which required stringent safety measures, and which posed too great a hazard to be allowed. Freeman Dyson favors this alternative, presumably because it does not categorically bar any type of research and because scientists have central roles in controlling research (Dyson, 2004, p. 12). There is much about this approach that is attractive. Dyson, for one, notes there has been no significant deadly incident resulting from recombinant DNA research, and he attributes that record to the procedures of control developed 30 years ago. However, Dyson’s position faces several difficulties. First, it is true that no disasters have resulted from recombinant DNA research since the Asilomar regulatory structure was established. But Dyson has not demonstrated that this happy outcome is the result of the Asilomar regulatory structure rather than a matter of simple luck. Further, several of the participants in the original Asilomar meeting doubt its success could be replicated at the present time (Berg, 2002, Davatelis, 2000, and Russo, 2000). In that day, recombinant DNA research was confined to a few laboratories in academic institutions, largely in the United States. It was a simple matter to congregate the major participants to determine how to address the problem in responsible fashion. At present, nano research is undertaken by a considerable number of organizations, many of which are private businesses, and the research is fueled by the prospect of enormous financial gain. Conditions are vastly more complex at present, and it is far less likely that a binding consensus would unite all or even most researchers. Finally, it is quite possible that an Asilomar-like regulatory structure would also ban the research that concerns Bill Joy. Such a body would have the authority to reject research it deemed overly hazardous. If Joy’s arguments are accepted, then it would have ample reason to bar the research that worries him. Hence, it is not obvious that the 193 Deadly Science construction of Asilomar-like regulatory structures would yield results different from those Joy endorses. Further, there is little reason to expect that Joy would oppose the construction of such a regime. He may well welcome it. The final option is simply to prepare for an outbreak and take steps to contain the damage. If an attempt at a ban should prove ineffectual and an Asilomar-like regulatory structure prove unworkable, this is the only remaining option. Obviously, it is not the most desirable of the possible responses. Of course, these three options are not mutually exclusive. All three might be adopted, and that may be the wisest course for humanity. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dr. Philip Shevlin, Professor of Chemistry Emeritus, Auburn University, read the manuscript and made a number of important suggestions and comments. I am most grateful for his assistance and sound judgment. LITERATURE CITED Baum. R. 2003. Nanotechnology: Drexler and Smalley Make the Case For and Against "Molecular Assemblers'. Chemical c£ Engineering News. 48: 37—42. http://pubs.acs.0rg/cen/coverstorv/8 148/print/8 148counterpoint.html. Downloaded 05- 28-2004. Berg. P 2002. Asilomar and Recombinant DNA. The Scientist. 6: 19. Davatelis. G. N. 2000. The Asilomar Process: Is It Valid9 The Scientist. 7: 5 1. Dyson. F. J. 2003. The Future Needs Us! The New York Review of Books. 2: 1 1—13. Feder. B. 2004 (Published May 24, 2004). Going Public without Profits or a Product? Yes. in 2004. The New York Times : C4. Gertner. J. 2004. (Published June 06. 2004) Proceed With Caution. The New York Times Magazine : 32. Joy. B 2000a. Why the Future Doesn't Need Us. Wired. 8.04. http://www. wired. com/wired/archive/8.04/iov pr.html Downloaded January 22. 2003. _ . 2000b (Published Apr. 18. 2000) Technology Check. The Washington Post: A 29. Nowak. R. 2001. Killer Virus. New Scientist. http://new scientist. com/article. ns?id=dn3 1 l&print=true. Downloaded March 31. 2005. Onvant. R. 2002. Scientists Build Polio Virus from Scratch. New Scientist. http://new scientist. com/article.ns9id=dn2539&print=t rue. Downloaded March 31, 2005. Powell. M. 2000 (Published April 6, 2000). Are Humans Doomed? The Washington Post: F3— F4 Russo, E. 2000 (Published Apr. 3. 2000). Reconsidermg Asilomar: Scientists See a Much More Complex Modern-Day Environment. The Scientist. 7: 15. http://www.the- scientist.comAT2000/apr/russo p 15 000403 htinl. Downloaded June 14. 2003. Smalley, R. 2001. Of Chemistry. Love and Nanobots. Scienti fic American. 3: 76—7. Weiss. R. 2004 (Published Feb. 1. 2004). For Science. Nanotech Poses Big Unknowns. The Washington Post: A1 . 194 Elfstrom World Economic Forum 2001. Are We in Control of Our Technology? World Economic Forum, http:/Avmv.\veforum.org/site/knou ledgenavigator.nsf7Content/9B4DD0D7770AC 125 6ADB00479: Downloaded October 14, 2004 1 1 have organized the Joy’s ideas into structured arguments. He certainly endorses the premises and the conclusion of each argument. It is possible that he may wish to formulate the arguments differently. However, even if the arguments formulated here are not precisely the arguments Joy wishes to develop, 1 believe they are worthy of examination in their own right. 2 In the discussions under examination, Joy does not discuss nanomaterials and their possible hazards for health and the environment. Nor does he express concern about nanorobots themselves. He may well share the worries others have expressed on these matters, but his focus is on the perils of self- assembly. For a concise discussion of nanomaterials and their dangers, see Weiss, 2004. 3 Joy accepts Ray Kurzweil’s view that by 2030 we will be able to construct computers with intelligence equivalent to ours. He is convinced this will allow the construction of intelligent robots and that self-replicating robots will be within reach a few years thereafter (Joy, 2000a). 4 The exchange between Richard Smalley and Eric Drexler in Chemical & Engineering News is illuminating. Smalley argues that the process of nano self-assembly could not be a matter of simple mechanical construction. It would of necessity be a chemical process. If that were true, the precise mechanical assembly that Drexler forsees — which is a necessary requirement for artifacts as sophisticated as nanorobots — would be impossible. Smalley then argues that the only approach to self assembly with any prospect of success would be attempting to mimic biological processes by employing something equivalent to enzymes. However, if the process mimicked biological assembly, the artifacts Drexler forsees could not be created. Drexler employs both the imagery of mechanical assembly and of quasi-biological assembly in his responses to Smalley. Hence, the issues are not cleanly addressed. However, it does appear to this nonscientist observer that Smalley’s concerns merit close examination. It remains to be seen whether Smalley’s objections can be overcome (Baum, 2003). 5 Natural organisms have been successful because they both mutate and die — as Darwin recognized. Death of a single organism makes way for another. Mutations are a mechanism for creating differences that may better suit an organism for particular conditions. Biological organisms must accomplish the feat of replicating accurately but also providing space for slippage to allow potentially useful mutation. These qualities, plus the benefit of billions of years of trial and error, are the keys to the adaptability and resilience of biological organisms. Joy gives no hint of awareness of this, nor does he explain how his robots may come to possess the ability to reproduce with mutation but also die. Of course, his robots would not have the benefit of billions of years of evolution to achieve these feats. They would have to adapt extremely quickly or die out. 195 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. AN ANATOMY OF A POLITICAL SCIENCE INTERNSHIP William E. Kelly Political Science/Criminal Justice Internship Director Auburn University, AL 36849 ABSTRACT This article is written primarily for one who has responsibility for directing a political science internship program. Hence, it should be of benefit to the political science professor who is most likely to be the individual who has responsibility for directing such a program. However, many of the observations and findings will be of interest to anyone who has an interest in internships on the college level. This includes students, internship agency site representatives, college advisory officials, and those who may in the future be assigned a responsibility for directing an internship program. The comments in this article are based on experiences resulting from directing more than a thousand interns over a thirty year career as an intern director at a major state university. A political science internship can be described in many different ways. Perhaps the most obvious way is to describe it as a learning experience outside of a formal classroom environment where a student is able to obtain knowledge about activity that is related to government or political science. For example, there is no doubt that in a classroom setting a student can certainly learn a great deal about the legislative process, but by serving as an intern with a congressman’s or a senator’s office, the student will obtain a different type of education that can only be obtained by being present in that office. Some might also say that the student in this situation will experience a contrast between reality and theory in terms of the legislative process. In describing the internship experience one source has noted the following: An internship is a process. It’s thoughts and actions. It’s facts and feelings. It can be a valuable and enjoyable experience. It’s looking back and laughing at how hard it was to write your first letter, now that you’re a seasoned pro of six weeks. It’s realizing that although a portion of the work you do is less than intellectually stimulating, it’s got to be done. It’s learning that while you may never touch the “glamorous” side of substantive policy, you’re making a useful contribution to the office and that counts. It’s a lot more. You can view your internship as: an assignment or a lark or “just a job” or a chance to be caught up in something exciting, even though it means a lot of filing . . . It’s a process. A lot of your internship is what you make it. (1) 196 Political Science Internship It’s also important to note that an internship is different from a co-op program. Cooperative education is a professional development program that enables you to alternate sessions of full-time paid employment with sessions of on-campus study. You will have to extend your education to a five-year curriculum to accommodate an alternating schedule. Internships, on the other hand, allow you to earn academic credit and work experience on a semester by semester basis, and offer the flexibility that allows you to graduate with a four- year period. (2) Yet, there are a number of advantages as a result of participating in an internship program or a co-op program. One source does a good job of identifying these advantages: Gain practical experience in your chosen career field Receive college credit toward your graduation requirements Earn money for tuition and other expenses Have the opportunity to form decisions about job compatibility Acquire work experience to list on your resume Establish valuable contacts for letters of reference Gain confidence in your abilities (3) It is important to realize that a political science internship learning experience differs in a number of ways from a traditional college level learning experience. Obviously, it is carried out in a different environment when compared to a college or university atmosphere. For example, being physically present in court during an important legal proceeding is quite a bit different from reading about the court case or a similar court case in a text, or for that matter hearing a professor lecture about the legal process. Thus when the intern sits in a courtroom and observes the behavior of trial participants; namely, the judge, jury, district attorney, and defense attorney — what is learned in this environment cannot really be duplicated in a college lecture or by reading a text about the criminal justice process. Another way that internship participation differs from traditional classroom activity is that the intern is not subjected to numerous lectures as is characteristic of the situation when one attends classes on campus. Thus, while interning a student will learn from observing, listening, and doing something unique to a particular environment such as actually speaking to one who is involved in a real life situation. One should also remember that the political science intern will often associate with different types of individuals who are found in a traditional classroom situation. Unlike a typical university or classroom setting where an intern’s primary associates are usually of the same age and educational background, a political science internship environment is often characterized by older individuals, more experienced professionals, and people who come from a different background. In fact, many of the individuals that students will encounter while serving an internship will be as old as their parents. Realistically, interns are also often perceived differently while serving with an agency than they are in a classroom situation. How one looks in terms of dress code and physical characteristics are often important when serving an internship, unlike they are in a traditional classroom setting where more than a hundred students may be in attendance. In addition, the regular full time employees of an agency may view the interns quite differently than does a political science professor. For example, at times they may have more expectations of students in terms of meeting their responsibilities. This means that interns who fail to fulfill their responsibility of being present 197 Kelly at a time in which they should be could very well be asked to terminate their internship, unlike students who fail to attend class on a regular basis and only show up in class a few times a semester, primarily for exams. A different type of an education is often given to the political science intern than one receives in a structured classroom environment. In a sense it is more practical and realistic because in many cases one is actually learning how to perform in a particular working environment where the rules and norms are different from those found in a classroom environment. For example, it is not unusual for an intern to handle the same types of documents which he or she will be working with in some future professional setting as a full time employee. A good example of this is evident when a student serves as an intern with a law firm or in a public office such as that of the district attorney. In describing an internship opportunity, one lawyer sent a letter to this author which noted: My firm is a small, but expanding practice which includes work in areas of personal injury, family law; including divorce and juvenile law, criminal prosecution ... as well as the general practice of law. Consequently, this will give students an excellent opportunity for involvement in the legal field. (4) This author also received a letter from a district attorney’s office regarding internment involvement: Interns involved in this program can be expected to be exposed to all facets of the criminal justice system, including investigations, warrant screening procedures, district court, grand jury and circuit court proceedings, the operations of our Worthless Check Unit and our Victims Service office. The interns will be assigned to each of these areas so that they can directly learn the overall operation of a prosecutor’s office. The intern will have the opportunity to work personally with support staff and prosecutors. We will evaluate the intern’s performance at the end of the internship and report our findings to your office. This internship should prove invaluable in teaching the intern the practical application and aspects of the academic theories and principles which are studied in the classroom. (5) A state circuit court judge also described the value of an internship: The nature of the internship is that Ms. . . . will participate in all phases of Court activity while serving as an intern. She will receive training in the areas of Court work, pre¬ trial procedure, (and) phases of the judicial field. I am of the opinion (that) the educational value as to Ms. . . . will depend to a great extent on her powers of observation and participation. If she is conscientious in observing and participating I believe the experience will be such that it will be a lifetime benefit to her. (6) There are also different inputs into the evaluation of a student’s performance as an intern when compared to being evaluated as a student in a classroom situation. Perhaps the most obvious difference is the fact that an agency supervisor usually has some important input into how the student has performed in the internship learning experience. Just how much effect this supervisor will have on the final grade for the student as an intern will probably vary. Nevertheless, it could be an important factor. Political science internship directors will find that a well defined written standard evaluation form submitted to them from the intern 198 Political Science Internship agency site director will be a big help. Using this form, agency directors could be asked to rate a student in various categories such as responsibility, attitude, and performance. It is also a good idea to have room on the evaluation form so that additional comments about the student and the program can be made by the agency supervisor. Of course, if a faculty intern director can visit the internship site and meet with the individuals who work around the intern and discuss the program with them additional valuable information can be obtained to evaluate not only a particular intern but the program itself. Internship opportunities often provide different important answers and raise different questions for students than for those students who learn in a typical classroom setting. For example, by serving a political science internship a student is more likely to find out if a particular career is what he or she really wants to pursue in life. This is so because students are more likely to see and experience the reality of a career than they would by reading about it in a textbook or hearing about it from a professor in class. In addition, interns are more likely to realize that certain situations are more complicated in terms of human behavior than they are presented in textbooks. For example, the political science internship environment is often influenced by different personalities and value systems which are not always noted in a classroom environment. Hopefully, an internship paper submitted by a student to the internship director will indicate that the internship has been a valuable learning experience. This indication can come about in many ways. For example, a student could simply indicate in writing what he or she noted about a particular political science activity that has not been previously made known by reading a text or being present at a class lecture. A student could also be asked to write in the paper about a structural-functional analysis of the internship agency and also to submit a commentary about how he or she would change the agency if given the chance to do so later in life as a full time employee supervisor. It is also beneficial for the student to comment in the intern paper about how the internship experience has affected a possible future career. For example, has the internship experience reinforced an initial interest of the student to continue with the pursuit of a particular career? On the other hand, an internship experience may lead the student to conclude that a future career in the internship area is one to avoid. Should this be the case, this is not necessarily a negative experience because it may prevent the student from later investing valuable time and energy into a career that one should not have entered into in the first place. There are a number of ways that an internship director can help agencies secure some of the best students to serve as interns. For example, a professor often has the chance to observe students in class who demonstrate important characteristics needed to serve as interns. Thus, a student who demonstrates maturity, responsibility, intelligence, and good communication skills would probably do quite well as an intern. In addition, a professor should determine the future professional interests of students and give serious consideration to these interests when recommending students for internship positions. For example, when a professor interviews a student for an internship position, the professor should ask the student a basic simple question: “What do you want to do with your life?” If a student answers that he or she wants to be a lawyer, then the internship director should direct the future intern to an agency characterized by the presence of a legal environment. Of course, it is always advantageous to seek out information from an agency in regard to what is expected from an intern. In some cases, this may be the possession of certain skills such as being computer literate or having had prior experience working with the general public. An interesting and important difference at some times between participating as a political science intern and attending a classroom setting is that on occasion an intern is paid 199 Kelly while serving with an agency. Of course, students would like to be paid while they serve as interns, and it is recommended that they do if this is possible for an agency. However, not all internships are paid, but those which are have the appreciation of students for a variety of reasons. For example, paid internships as opposed to unpaid internships could make the difference for some students in choosing one agency site over another. In addition, even if the amount of money received by the student intern is small, it could have an important effect on limiting certain costs for interns in terms of travel and clothing that may be necessary to serve an internship in a particular environment. For example, if a student has to travel some distance to intern with a law firm or a judge’s office, it is expected that the student will wear clothing appropriate to the atmosphere of the agency. What is worn in that office by individuals associated with it will probably be quite different from what is acceptable in a classroom environment. However, one intern noted that “an internship is priceless for the student and should be considered a course requirement. An unpaid internship would be easier to obtain and is worth the sacrifice.” (7) Serving as a political science intern also means that a student will be interacting with a number of important individuals other than the political science director. (8) For example, there will be an intern agency supervisor who is usually in charge of the intern’s office in some way. This person is important for a number of reasons. He or she is usually the contact person within the agency who communicates with the political science internship director about present and future interns. This person will usually be the one who will evaluate the student’s performance at the agency. He or she could be a judge, district attorney, office manager, or even the office intern coordinator if an agency has one which is characteristic of some agencies. There will also be a number of other individuals at the intern agency site with whom the intern will probably have close contact. These are usually the full time employees associated with the agency. In addition, there may be people outside of the internship agency who will be coming into contact with the intern because they have an appropriate reason to be at the agency. For example, a student serving an internship with a law firm will usually meet the clients who come into the office. One source notes that the term internship has often been associated with the fields of medicine and education. However, it also recognizes that they are more common in the liberal arts area because of high tuition costs and the downsizing that has forced some companies to look with favor toward internships. (9) Of course, the types of political science internships available to students are quite diverse. They are available in the public and private sector, and can also be found at all levels of government. One source noted that “some internships have been in place for decades, but there have been more openings since President Clinton signed the School -to- Work Opportunities Act in 1994. The legislation encourages career-training programs by giving money to states and local business partnerships.” (10) How difficult it is to obtain a particular type of an internship will vary with availability, the time available to the political science director to devote to the program, and certainly the motivation of a student. Nevertheless, there are enough agency sites around to provide an excellent educational experience for political science students. Of course, a political science internship director has the responsibility for determining whether a particular agency is appropriate for an internship. This determination can be done in a number of ways. If one is a new political science internship director, one should take a look at a list of agencies which were used by the former internship director. If you do not have this advantage stop and think about what you want the student as well as the agency to receive from their association with an internship program. For example, asking a student 200 Political Science Internship about their future professional interests might be a good way to determine which particular agency is best for a student. Thus, a student who plans on becoming a lawyer might be better served by interning in a legal environment such as with a law firm. On the other hand, if a student would like to enter politics upon graduation it seems that an internship in a political campaign would be useful. Political science internship directors should also evaluate an agency regarding the placing of interns. First, the director should ascertain the probability of the intern benefiting from the agency. Second, the internship director should determine how much cooperation the agency is willing to make to help the internship program become a success. These suggestions can come about in a number of ways. For example, the internship director should request a job description from the agency before actually allowing an intern to serve at an agency. This “job description” should have some commentary concerning the educational value of the internship for the student. In addition, internship directors should pay special attention to what is written in student internship papers or reports. Student comments either verbally or in writing go a long way in helping an internship director decide whether to continue or discontinue an internship program with a particular agency. Students obtain internships in various ways. Perhaps the most obvious manner is by visiting the professor assigned to direct internships within a particular academic environment. One source notes that “for college students, the best source for finding internship information is the university’s internship coordinator.” (11) When you do this be prepared to inform the faculty internship coordinator about your future professional plans because the coordinator will probably have knowledge about different types of internship sites. For example, if the student is planning on attending law school, the internship director should be informed about this. The internship director could then suggest a number of different intern sites which would benefit a student who plans to attend law school upon graduation. These sites could include law firms, judges, district attorneys, or any other site which would give a student the opportunity to observe how a lawyer operates in a particular environment. In addition, if a student believes he or she would like to intern in a specific type of environment such as with a prosecutor’s office, it is advantageous to note this interest. This way the internship director can direct a student to a more specific type of internship such as one dealing with criminal law. On the other hand, if a student is planning on seeking employment upon graduation in an environment different from that of a law office or a judge’s office, the internship director should be informed of this interest on the part of the student. For example, a student might hope to work with a congressman’s office, a local city government agency, or with a special type of interest or pressure group. In this situation, the intern director could call attention to the student about the availability of a number of appropriate intern positions which might be of interest to the student. However, generally a student who is planning on attending law school would probably benefit by serving as an intern in a legal environment such as a law firm as opposed to serving in an environment which has less of a legal orientation to it. One should note that even though a college or university does not have a political science internship director, a student should visit the political science office and make an inquiry in regard to any information that may be provided by it concerning internships. To do so could be helpful because many political science departments receive information about internships in terms of advertisements, and they often post this information on their bulletin boards. However, one should not just be limited to visiting the political science department because a number of departments in the social science field also receive advertisements regarding internships. A student should peruse poster boards usually found outside and near 201 Kelly these offices because they sometimes are good sources as to where a student might make an inquiry regarding the securing of an internship position. Another way of securing an internship is by going directly by oneself to a particular agency and making a request to determine if indeed the agency does accept interns or is willing to do this in the future. One source gives some sound advice: “Schedule as many interviews as you can.” (12) Sometimes an agency has never had an intern before, and when it is approached by a student seeking the opportunity to serve as an intern, the agency could consider this to be an advantageous opportunity. This particular approach is especially valuable for a student who desires a particular type of an internship in a specified area. For example, suppose a student would like to intern during the summer in his or her home town, and would like to serve an internship with a law firm in that vicinity. Under these circumstances the student could contact the local law firm and make a request to serve as an intern with it. If this particular method is used, it would be a good idea for the student to be assertive, in the sense of suggesting to the individual in charge of the proposed intern site why it should make an internship opportunity available to the student. If the student is willing to intern without financial compensation, this should also be noted because it often is an important factor in an agency offering internship positions. Depending on economic conditions, some agencies may be quite willing to accept interns if they do not have to pay them. For example, interns in Alabama have been used to fill gaps by cuts in financial resources for the judicial branch. (13) The advent of the internet has become a benefit to those interested in securing an internship. (14) This is especially true for those students who would like to serve an internship with a government agency in Washington, D.C. Students could use a general term such as federal internships as a basic guide to finding a host of possible opportunities. In addition, many government agencies are using websites which indicate how an internship could be arranged for them. One source notes that “... if you type the words ‘internship program’ in an internet search engine, you could get a list of more than one million sites.” (15) Although this has not been the experience of this author, he has been able to secure quite a bit of information concerning internship programs to make the use of his computer regarding this matter quite valuable. Of course, should a particular agency not have a website, a letter of inquiry from a student to its personnel director could bring beneficial results. Sometimes having an association with someone in the nation’s capitol could be advantageous. In fact, one source suggests that “the easiest way to get a Washington internship is through connections. Monica Lewinsky got her internship through an old family friend, a major Clinton contributor.” (16) A university or college library is also a possible source for information about the availability of internships. There are a number of books or publications which allude to internship opportunities. They are especially helpful when information found in them cannot be ascertained by the use of a computer. Commonly one finds in these sources the names of particular agencies which are likely to offer an internship position and the address of the particular agency. In addition, a number of books may contain pertinent information about internships in terms of what to expect, what some particular advantages of one agency over another agency are, and how to go about applying for a particular internship position. Some books may also contain actual samples of resumes and letters of inquiry which are quite helpful to students. It is also not uncommon for a student to discover the opportunity to serve as an intern by associating with a classmate who is presently engaging in an internship or one who has done so in the past. Often student interns will be found discussing their experiences and 202 Political Science Internship observations with other students. Hence, it is not unusual for a professor to be visited by a student who has a request for information about an internship as a result of speaking with a present or past intern. It is also a good idea for students who hear about other students serving as interns to take advantage of the ability to ask these interns what they are doing and how they feel about their internships. In addition, this situation also provides the opportunity for students interested in serving as interns to use current interns as a means of being introduced to someone at the agency. For example, a student who is currently serving as an intern could offer a prospective intern the chance to accompany him or her to the internship site for a possible visit or a day of observation. This particular internship director uses a combination of methods to inform students about the availability of internship positions, and it has worked quite well for him. In addition, he makes announcements in class about the availability of internships. He also requests that other professors announce in their classes that particular types of internship opportunities are available. Notices of internship opportunities are also placed on bulletin boards found in the buildings associated with the College of Liberal Arts because this is the college which sponsors the political science internship program. The campus newspaper and the campus radio station have also agreed to make appropriate announcements about his internship program. Using a combination of these approaches has resulted in numerous advantages. For example, it calls attention to the fact among students that various internship positions are available. It is also a beneficial method of helping agencies obtain some of the best students to serve as interns. In addition, it results in an intern director obtaining the maximum number of students to participate in the internship program. It also creates a sense of favorable public relations for the institution because it calls attention to the fact that students are able to obtain valuable learning experiences in a non-traditional method. Most universities and colleges will also probably have a placement center or a career center. Basically, these centers are offices which help students in regard to securing employment in the future. However, there may be additional important sources on campus which could be used to make an inquiry regarding the availability of internships. Hence, students should consult the career center. (17) It may not only provide them with information about an internship, but also make available other information regarding post-graduate plans. In finding an internship position, timing is an important factor. It is best to start early. Although some students do wait until their graduating semester to intern, one could increase the chances of receiving an internship and a particular choice of an internship by seeking one earlier in their career. One source suggests that the best time to search for an internship is during the sophomore year.( 18) It will give a student the opportunity to peruse the availability of internships, and perhaps better prepare a student for the chance to later engage in an internship. It will also be an opportunity for an internship director to “keep an eye out” for a student in terms of finding an appropriate internship site. In addition, by starting early the political science director will have a better chance to keep in mind just how many interns he or she will be monitoring during a particular semester. Once a student decides to serve as an intern at a particular agency, the student might want to consider advice given to prospective interns. It includes researching the agency and reading books about the subject area. In addition, a student should learn how to create a resume and have it critiqued by a professional. It is also a good idea to complete a formal application with a cover letter and a resume. Then, the student should follow up with an inquiry regarding an interest in serving as an intern with the agency. Finally, a student should send a handwritten thank you note. (19) 203 Kelly It is important to be realistic about securing an internship. Not every agency that a student would like to serve an internship with is going to accept the student. In life, students will find that many of the important decisions affecting them personally and professionally will be made for them by the rejections they receive even after diligent effort on their part. However, it is important for them to exert serious effort and try their best to obtain their goals. Students and agency sites are not the only beneficiaries of a political science internship program. The university or college which provides such a program may also benefit from its availability. Obviously, the mission of a university or a college is the providing of the best type of education for its students, as well as the preparation of students for a future career. Hence, the availability of students to serve internships helps the institution in its quest to complete this important mission. Many universities and colleges also have placement centers which are responsible for helping students obtain jobs upon graduation. However, the placement center is not the only place on campus from which a student is able to obtain help in securing employment in the future. Thus the university through its internship program complements the efforts of a placement office in helping students who are interested in obtaining future employment opportunities. The successful activity of a political science internship program also makes it known to the general public and to others that the university or college which sponsors it is doing a “good thing.” Thus when the public comes into contact with a student intern performing a valuable task at an agency, it has a greater appreciation of the university’s role in providing service to the public. However, this is not the only way the university is able to demonstrate its value to the community as a result of sponsoring a political science internship program. Often newspaper articles accompanied by pictures of student interns at their agency site project a positive role of the university. It is an excellent type of public relations for the institution which sponsors the internship program. Hence, when a faculty advisor is able to publicize the worthwhile aspects of the political science internship program, it should be done because there are many benefits from doing so. There is also an expectation that the university via its faculty should perform a public service or engage in outreach activity. (20) Hence, it would seem that helping students secure internships with public agencies would be a fine example of a faculty member engaging in a type of public service in view of the considerable amount of benefits accruing to the public and to a state’s students. The political science internship program also results in a better relationship between community leaders and university personnel. For example, when public officials such as judges, legislators, and city managers associate with student interns, there is often a resulting favorable contact with university personnel such as deans, department heads, professors, and secretaries. In addition, it is not uncommon for some officials in a Liberal Arts Dean’s Office to become aware of what a public servant such as an agency site director can do to help out a student in terms of accepting a student for an internship because this liberal arts official is often involved in the paperwork accompanying internship activity. Department heads and deans are also afforded the opportunity to become acquainted with public and private agency site directors as a result of their students becoming involved in internships. Political science internships also have the potential to make the university or college aware of agencies that may be of help to them in the future. For example, when students return to campus after completing an internship they sometimes inform officials that particular agencies can render a valuable service to them. One example is when a student reports to a campus official that an agency is willing to accept future interns on a regular basis, and that 204 Political Science Internship they learned a great deal during their internship experience. Therefore, this could cause a university official to be made more aware of a possible future internship site to be recommended when asked by a student where one might be able to serve as an intern. It is also possible that the university or college which sponsors the political science internship program may benefit in another way because sometimes agency supervisors are quite willing to serve on certain committees composed of university personnel as well as individuals from the community. For example, a prominent judge who accepts interns may be asked to serve on a dean’s advisory committee as a result of becoming associated with the political science internship director. The expertise of such agency directors may bring special insights into the process of solving various problems encountered by the institution of higher learning. A university of college also receives a financial benefit from sponsoring a political science internship program. This is a result of the simple fact that students have to pay tuition to receive credit for an internship. In fact, the amount of money generated from the political science internship program may in some cases, not only cover the cost of paying the professor who directs the interns, but also provide additional money to pay for the cost of another instructor who has a very low enrollment in their course for the semester. Such as situation occurred one summer when this political science internship director brought in enough money to the university to cover his salary for directing the program and help the department with its other expenses. One source notes that “charging full tuition for internship credit cuts the cost of hiring experienced instructors, classroom facilities, and other activities that students expect to receive on campus.” (21) The university also benefits from the political science internship program because satisfied students are more likely to have a greater appreciation for what the institution has done for them. Student satisfaction can come from many sources. It is not only the grade and the academic credit that are meaningful to the student, but also a sense of accomplishment and the opportunity to have learned a great deal about a particular profession. For example, in commenting about the effect of serving an internship at a law firm, one student noted in her required internship paper that: In relation to my overall experience, some characteristics I acquired included self- confidence when faced with a difficult or unfamiliar situation, the ability to converse with individuals from different backgrounds, the responsibility of being where you are, when you are suppose to be there, acting in a professional manner, and promptly addressing matters of universal concern. In addition, this experience helped me put into perspective what 1 wanted to do with my life and my chosen career field. In the beginning, I was completely convinced that I had enrolled in yet another college and career field that I would ultimately be unhappy with. I shared the views of the general public, viewing attorneys as modern-day shysters whose main objective was to take advantage of the poor while defending the rich and powerful. However, now as a result of my personal experience, I recognize that this viewpoint was severely skewed. (22) It is not only these types of comments which demonstrate that the university or college is fulfilling its mission of educating a student. There is also the possibility of a student receiving full time employment with an agency after graduation as a result of serving as an intern. For example, one student who interned under this political science director received employment with the district attorney’s office after interning with that agency. Another student received employment with the sheriffs office after completing his internship. (23) Perhaps the offering of employment to a student after serving as an intern can be explained by the fact that the agency has had the opportunity to see what contributions the student could make later in the organization as an employee. 205 Kelly Political science internship programs also allow students to find alternative ways to graduate from a college or university. Specifically, this means that a student may receive a college degree without having to enroll in courses which are all of the traditional lecture type found in a classroom setting. The internship experience provides something important but different in terms of what is needed to obtain a degree. Not all students need to have all of the college or university courses made available to them in the traditional mode, and a political science internship can provide a useful complimentary method of graduating. Sometimes having served as an intern can facilitate graduation in a number of other ways. For example, an internship experience could be substituted for a required course that is not being offered at a time that is convenient for the student. Thus, serving an internship with a private law firm where the student is exposed to both civil and criminal matters could be an appropriate substitute for a course in the legal process. In addition, sometimes an internship can be coupled with another non-lecture course to help the student obtain enough credits for graduation. For example, at one time this political science internship director allowed students to enroll in a readings course along with the internship. The total amount of credits obtained with a combination of these two types of courses could help students in certain situations when they need just a few more hours to meet graduation requirements. Political science internships also help create a better understanding between the university and the public and private sectors. This comes about because sometimes the university environment can be a closed society in various ways. However, when students go out of the university environment and pursue an internship off campus, they are often able to inform non-university individuals about the problems of the university and suggest how they can be solved or lessened by outside help. In some cases this can be quite advantageous for the university because it may create a better appreciation of the university’s or college’s needs. The university or college which sponsors the political science internship program also brings reality into the educational experience which is a valuable service. Institutions of higher learning are constantly looking for ways to make their educational offerings more meaningful for students. The reality of government activity which becomes known to political science students as a result of serving as interns contributes substantially to the mission of the university or college in terms of educational objectives. Political science internships can genuinely help students obtain these goals. NOTES/ ADDDITIONAL READINGS 1. Intern Owner’s Manual, Second Edition, by: Sue Grabowski, associated with the Congressional Management Foundation Guidebook Series. (Basically, an early description of internship activity useful for one who serves an internship in Congress.) 2. “Internships and Co-Op Programs, A Valuable Combination for Collegians,” by Cates-Mclver, Linneda, Black Collegian. October 1999, Vol. 30, Issue 1, p. 84. 3. “Opportunities for College Students,” Black Collegian. October 1998, Vol. 29, Issue l,p. 3. 4. Letter from Gregory K. Morgan to Dr. Bill Kelly, August 21, 1995. 5. Letter from Valerie L. Teaque to Dr. Bill Kelly, January 16, 2003. 206 Political Science Internship 6. Letter from Jacob A. Walker, III, to Dr. William E. Kelly, Ph.D., April 21, 2004. 7. “The Rewards of Internships,” American Libraries, Vol. 34, Issue 7, p. 40. 8. One source notes that there are three key players in any internship program: the student, the internship coordinator, and the company (the internship site). It notes: “The student is looking for credits and experience, maybe a new job offer. The internship coordinator wants to attract new students and community support for the program. The company wants to ensure productivity and develop potential employees.” See: “Making your Internship Program Pay Off,” by Liddy, Elizabeth D., Thomas, Patricia, Network Computing, 8/6 2001, Vol. 12, Issue 16, p. 88. 9. “Working for Credit,” by Tooley, Jo Ann, U.S. News & World Report, 1 1/17/97, Vol. 1213, Issue 19, p. 88. 10. “Forget Study Hall, More Students Opt for Internships,” by Farah, Samar, Christian Science Monitor, 12/28/99, Vol. 92, Issue 24, p. 2. 1 1 . “Internships Help Get A Foot In The Door,” by: Terry-Azios, Dianna A., Hispanic, July/ August 1999, Vol. 12, Issue 7/8, p. 102. 12. Internships and Co-ops,” by Daugherty, Sharon N., Black Collegian, October 2001, Vol. 32, Issue I, p. 36. 13. “Court Interns Fill Gaps Left by Cuts,” Montgomery Advertiser, by: Walker, Jessica, March 5, 2004, p. 3B. 14. “Little Known Internships Can Fast-Forward Your Career,” by: Rifkin, Jane M., Hispanic Times Magazine, December 97/January 98, Vol. 1 9, Issue I, p. 46. 15. “Internships Help Get A Foot In The Door,” loc. cit. 16. “Summer of the Intern,” by Marsh, Katherine, Rolling Stone, 9/27/2001, Issue 878, p. 29. 17. “Interns, Get Moving,” by Weisser, Cybele, Chatzky, Jean, Time, 10/27/2003, Vol. 162, Issue 17, p. 82. 1 8. “How to Prepare for Success Using Internships and Co-Ops,” by Daugherty, Sharon N., Black Collegian, October 2002, Vol. 33, Issue 1, p. 109. 19. “Goldmining For Internships,” by: Johnson Raelvn C.. Black Enterprise, December 2003, Vol. 34, Issue 5, p. 6. 20. For example, Auburn University expects and encourages its faculty to engage in outreach activity. 207 Kelly 21. “Internships: Too Much of a Good Thing,” by: Krasilovsky, M. William, Lendt, C.K., Billboard, 1/20/96, Vol. 108, Issue 3 (Use Internet for this source) 22. Student Intern Paper — “A Taste of the Real World,” submitted to Dr. Bill Kelly, April 25, 2003. BOOKS/ DIRECTORIES/REPORTS Criminal Justice Internships : Theory into Practice / Gary R. Gordon, R. Bruce McBride. -- 3rd ed.— Cincinnati, OH : Anderson Pub. Co., cl 996. xi, 141 p. : ill. ; 26 cm. Internships : A Directory of Career- Finders / Arco. New York : Macmillan, cl995~v. ; 24 cm. 1st ed.- Intemships / [edited by Ronald W. Fry], 2nd ed. -Hawthorne, NJ : Career Press, cl990— v. <1- 2 > ; 23 cm. Internships.— Cincinnati, Ohio : Writer's Digest Books, c 1 98 1 -c 1 993. 14 v. ; 21-28 cm.-1981-1994. Internships for Dummies / by Craig P. Donovan and Jim Garnett ; foreword by Marshall Loeb.— New York, NY : Hungry Minds, c2001. xxiv, 310 p. : ill. ; 24 cm. Internships in Council-Manager Government: The Program and Reports of its Operation, by Herbert W. Thompson, Robert E. Giltner [and] Marvin A. Andrews, interns. Edited by Gilbert Y. Steiner.— Urbana [Ill.] Institute of Government and Public Affairs, 1955.— 18 I. 28 cm. Internships: Perspectives on Experiential Learning :A Guide to Internship Management for Educators and Professionals / edited by Andrew Ciofalo. Original ed.— Malabar, Fla. : Krieger Pub. Co., 1992. xi, 263 p. ; 24 cm. Internship Success : Real-World, Step-bv-Step Advice on Getting the Most out of Internships^ / Marianne Ehrlich Green.— Lincolnwood, Ill., U.S.A. : VGM Career Horizons, cl 997. xii, 176 p. ; 24 cm. Internships: The Promise and the Problems [by] Thomas P. Murphy. Internships: An Appraisal [by] Patricia M. Reilly.— Jamaica, N.Y., Dept, of Government and Politics, St. John's University, New York, 1974. 14 1. 28 cm. The Back Door Guide to Short-Term Job Adventures : Internships, Extraordinary Experiences, Seasonal Jobs, Volunteering, Work Abroad / by Michael Landes. 3rd ed.— Berkeley : Ten Speed Press, 2002. xii, 420 p. : ill. ; 28 cm. The Complete Guide to Washington Internships / edited by Jeffrey Parness. 2nd ed.— Holbrook, MA : B. Adams, cl 990.— xxii, 284 p. ; 23 cm. 208 Political Science Internship Peterson's Internships— Princeton. NJ. : Peterson's, cl994-c2000. 7 v. ; 28 cm.- 15th ed. (1995)-21st ed. (2001). Preparing to Lead : The College Women's Guide to Internships and Other Public Policy Learning Opportunities in Washington, D.C. / student authors, Kim Compoc, Carla Lewis, Mary Beth Weaver ; staff author and project director, Sharon A. Stoneback.— [Washington, D.C.] : Public Leadership Education Network, cl 992. xi, 123 p. ; 28 cm. The Insider's Guide to Political Internships : What to Do Once You're in the Door / edited by Grant Reeher and Mack Mariani.— Boulder : Westview Press, 2002. xxv, 235 p. : map ; 23 cm. The Princeton Review student advantage guide to America's top internships. New York : Random House, 1996.— 1 v. ; 27 cm.— 1997 ed. WEBSITES Exciting political science internships. Ian internships, government internships and other internships give you valuable political experience ... \Yww. gwu.edu/~srw Federal Internships. Intern Opportunities within the Federal Government ... undergraduate and graduate students within the federal government. The information listed was provided by ... www. house. gov/bishop/Federallntemship.html Home > Welcome. Welcome. Welcome to lntemshipPrograms.com. a service of WetFeet! Candidates ... our extensive database of internships, read internship review s or create your own real-intern ... to advertise your internship program or individual internship openings to over 100 ... www. internshipprograms.com/ Intern Opportunities. Within the Federal Government. This is our ninth annual publication of internship opportunities w itliin the federal gov ernment for undergraduate, graduate and law students. ... is an independent federal agency. It provides ... federal policy, programs and activ ities that affect historic and archaeological resources. The Council has no paid internships www.house.gov/watt/intem03.htm Over 2.000 internships available on CareerBuilder.com. Search & apply online, www . careerbuild er . com Political Jobs - Political Career Resources . . . a Think Tank. Political Parties, or another branch of die government. DC internships offer you an ... an excellent complement to your education and/or your political aspirations ... www politixgroup.com/dcintern.htm 209 Kelly POLITICAL SCIENCE. Political Science internships are currently available with the following companies/agencies/organizations: Company Name. Internship Location. Internship Period. Rising Star Internships O 1997 - 2005 www .rsinternslnps.com/applications/job_sectors ph Search in . . . Companies Careers Articles. Advanced Search wetfeet.internshipprograms.com/ The Washington Center provides internship programs and academic seminars to college students in Washington. D C. In addition, offers scholarships and housing. ... Now in its 30th year. The Washmgton Center for Internships and Academic ... opportunities to work and learn in Washington. D C ... The Washington Center Partners with The U S ... wvvw twc.edu/ Washington D C. Internships in Elections. Political Parties and Action Groups. Organizations below marked with an (*) asterisk have paid internships career '.ucsd.edu/sa/ElectionsInternship.shtml 210 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF TRINUCLEAR CHROMIUM(III) CARBOXYLATE 4,4’-BIPYRIDINE ASSEMBLIES Chika Nishijima John B. Vincent1 Department of Chemistry and Coalition for Biomolecular Products The University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0336 E-mail: jvincent@bama.ua.edu ABSTRACT Techniques have been developed for the synthesis of complexes with the bifunctional ligand 4,4’-bipyridine of the type [Cr(III)30(02CR)6(4,4’-bipyridine)3]^ where R=methyl, ethyl, or phenyl. These complexes have been characterized by a number of techniques including electronic, infrared, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies and mass spectrometry. These complexes can potentially serve as the core upon which to build polymers and dendrimers of multinuclear chromium(III) carboxylate assemblies. INTRODUCTION Although the basic carboxylate complexes of Cr(III), with general formula [Cr30(02CR)6L3]D, were first reported over a century ago (Cannon and White, 1988 and references therein), they remain an area of current research interest. One area of interest lies in their use as models of the oligopeptide chromodulin, which has been proposed to have a role in insulin signaling (Vincent, 2000). One such complex, [Cr30(02CCH2CH3)6(H20)3]+, has been shown in vitro to stimulate the kinase activity of insulin-stimulated insulin receptor (Davis, et al., 1997). Additionally, the complex has in vivo effects when given by gavage administration to healthy and model diabetic rats (Clodfelder, et al., 2005). At levels of 250, 500, or 1,000 pg Cr/kg body mass, the complex lowered fasting plasma insulin, triglycerides, total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels of healthy rats while having no effect on plasma glucose or HDL cholesterol. The maintenance of glucose levels with less insulin indicates increased insulin sensitivity. Similar effects were observed in diabetic model rats, although glycated hemoglobin levels decreased for these rats as well. These trinuclear Cr(III) complexes have served as models to test theories of magnetic coupling between metal ions in multinuclear assemblies (Cannon and White, 1988 and references therein). Larger, more complex systems are required to further test and extend these theories. This is especially important as assemblies become appreciably larger such that the paramagnetic/superparamagnetic/ferromagnet boundaries can be studied. Discrete, multinuclear Mn and Fe carboxylate assemblies have been found to approach properties of 211 Nishijima and Vincent superparamagnetism, and some have actually been shown to behave as single molecule magnets at low temperature (Sessoli, et al., 1993). One method to construct larger assemblies is by linking pre-existing assemblies together with appropriate bridging bifunctional ligands. While reports have appeared with manganese and other metals (Eppley, et al., 1997), this approach appears to have been overlooked with chromium. This laboratory has started a program to synthesize such linked multinuclear Cr(III) assemblies. The bifunctional ligand of choice for these initial experiments is 4,4’-bipyridine. Pyridine has been shown under appropriate conditions to be able to substitute for other terminal ligands on basic carboxylate Cr(III) assemblies (Harton, et al., 1994 and references therein). Thus, use of 4,4-bipyridine, rather than pyridine, if the degree of substitution can be controlled, should result in the formation of compounds with one pyridyl ring coordinated to a Cr(III) center of a trinuclear assembly, leaving the other pyridyl group available for further coordination. Herein are described the synthesis and characterization of a new class of Cr(III) basic carboxylate complexes using as the terminal ligand 4,4’-bipyridine, which has the potential to serve as a bridge to other multinuclear Cr assemblies (Figure 1). Figure 1. Structure of trinuclear Cr carboxylate 4,4’-bipyridine cations. R=Me, Et, or Ph. MATERIALS AND METHODS Syntheses Reagents were obtained commercially and used as received unless otherwise noted. Caution: Appropriate care should be taken whenever perchlorate salts are heated. [Cr30(02CCHi)6(4,4 '-bipyridine) jJPF63.3 H?0 (1) Chromium(ill) acetate hydroxide (2.00 g, 3.30 mmol) was added to an excess of 4,4’-bipyridine (2.56 g, 16.0 mmol), and this mixture was heated to 100°C for 20 min. The Synthesis of Trinuclear Chromium(III) molten 4,4’-bipyridine served as the solvent. The product was allowed to cool to room temperature and dissolved in 75 mL H20 using a sonic heater. This gray solution was filtered, and KPF6 (0.800 g, 4.30 mmol) was added. A gray-brown precipitate formed, which was filtered, washed with deionized water, and dried in vacuo. Yield 7.2 % based on Cr. Anal. Found: C, 41.88; H, 3.96; N, 7.20; F, 9.53. Calc. For CrsO^Rw^NeFfiP: C, 42.06; H, 4.08; N, 7.01; F, 9.51% [Cr 30(02CC H£H}) 6(4,4 ’-bipyridine) 3]C104HC104 3 H20 (2) [Cr30(02CCH2CH3)6(H20)3]N03 was prepared by the method of Eamshaw and coworkers (Eamshaw et al., 1966). An excess of 4,4’-bipyridine (1.17 g, 7.50 mmol) was added to 1.09 g (1.50 mmol) [C^O^CCF^CHs^FEO^JNCE, and the mixture was heated to 100 °C for 20 min. The product was allowed to cool to room temperature and dissolved in 100 mL EtOH. This grayish brown solution was filtered, and a solution of NaC104 (6.00 g, 43.0 mmol/ 200mL H20) was added. A brownish gray precipitate formed, which was filtered, washed with deionized water, and dried in vacuo. Yield approximately 11 % based on Cr. Anal. Found: C, 43.12; H, 4.37; N, 6.21; Cl, 4.86. Calc. For Cr3024H6IC48N6Cl2 : C, 43.25; H, 4.61; N, 6.30; Cl, 4.86 %. Purple brown crystals could be obtained from layering a CH2CI2/CHCI3 solution (50:50) with diethyl ether. [Cr30(02CPh)f,(4,4 ’-bipyridine) 3] NO} 0.25H2O (3) [Cr30(02CPh)6(H20)3]N03 was prepared as previously described (Harton et al., 1994). An excess of 4,4’-bipyridine (0.92 g, 5.9 mmol) was added to 0.60 g (0.59 mmol) [Cr30(02CPh)6(H20)3]N03, and the mixture was heated to 100 °C for 20 min. The product was allowed to cool to room temperature and then extracted with 1 00 mL EtOH. Undissolved brown solid was isolated by filtration, washed with EtOH and deionized water, and dried in vacuo. Yield 56 % based on Cr. Anal. Found: C, 60.02; H, 4.09; N, 7.14. Calc. For Cr3016 25H54 5C72N7: C, 60.32; H, 3.83; N, 6.84 %. Instrumental Methods Electrospray ionization mass spectra were obtained using a Micromass LCT (ESI-TOF type) mass spectrometer. Each solution (10 pM in acetonitrile) was sprayed at 600 pL/h. Every sample was measured in the positive mode, and Nal was used for correction. MassLynx 4 1 Ver. 3.5 was used to process the data. H NMR spectra were obtained using a Bruker AM-360 spectrophotometer at approximately 23 °C. Chemical shifts are reported on the Sscale (shifts downfield are positive) using the solvent protio-component signal(s) as reference. FT-IR spectra were collected on a Bio-Rad FTS 7 Fourier transform spectrophotometer; samples were prepared as KBr pellets. A Hewlett-Packard 8451 A spectrophotometer was used to obtain ultraviolet-visible spectra. Fast atom bombardment mass spectra were obtained using a VG Autospec high resolution mass spectrometer in the positive mode. Elemental analyses were performed by Galbraith Laboratories, Inc. (Knoxville, TN). Nishijima and Vincent RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Synthesis Initially, the preparation of basic carboxylate Cr(III) assemblies was performed by reacting freshly prepared chromic hydroxide with the appropriate carboxylic acid or the oxidation of Cr(II) acetate (unstable to air) by ozone or air, yielding green oils or syrupy solids, probably comprised of polymeric arrays of the desired trinuclear units bridged by carboxylates; recrystallization in the presence of anions or mineral acids yielded the desired trinuclear cation with terminal aquo ligands (Earnshaw et al., 1966; Uemara, et al., 1973; Symanska-Buzar and Ziolkowski, 1976; Johnson, et al., 1981; Cannon and White, 1988; and references therein). Obtaining assemblies with alternative terminal ligands (most notably pyridine or substituted pyridine) was then accomplished by heating a solution of the appropriate preformed trinuclear cation or polymeric oil with an excess of the desired terminal ligand. Subsequently, this laboratory developed a one-pot synthesis of a variety of these trinuclear cations utilizing non-aqueous solvents, chromic salts, and carboxylic acids (Harton et al., 1994). Cations with terminal ligands other than water could be prepared using the terminal ligand as solvent (if the ligand were a ligand such as pyridine) or by dissolving an excess of the desired terminal ligand in the nonaqueous solvent. Unfortunately, these one-pot reactions using a variety of organic solvents, carboxylic acids, and 4,4’-bipyridine:Cr(III) ratios yielded intractable, presumably polymeric, solids. Additionally, attempts to prepare these type trinuclear cations with terminal 4.4- bipyridine ligands by terminal ligand exchange with preformed trinuclear cations possessing terminal aquo ligands unfortunately met with similar results. However, recent reports of the preparation of related trinuclear Cr(III) cation with terminal nicotinamide ligands using molten nicotinamide at 120 °C as the solvent (Lieberman, et al., 2000) suggest an alternative synthetic route. The synthesis of the trinuclear core in the presence of a large excess of the 4,4-bipyridine (i.e., as the molten solvent) could in theory tie up every free terminal coordination site with 4.4- bipyiridine, preventing the formation of intractable polymeric solids. This synthetic procedure has been found to indeed yield the desired basic carboxylate Cr(III) cations for the carboxylates acetate, propionate, and benzoate, although in relatively low yield. Infrared Spectroscopy The infrared spectra of basic carboxylate complexes of Cr(III) with acetate and formate and deuterio analogues have been carefully analyzed and assigned by Cannon and coworkers. Assuming D3h for the Cr30 unit, the unit should possess four fundamental vibrational modes (Johnson, et al., 1981). The highest in energy of these is doubly generate, E; this band was assigned to a strong transition at 640-660 cm'1 and was found to split if one of the Cr(III) centers was replaced with Fe(III) (Johnson, et al., 1981). Vincent and coworkers have taken a similar approach to identify this vibrational mode in basic carboxylate complexes of Cr(III) with benzoate where the vibrational also occurs at -640 cm'1 (Harton, et al., 1994). This band is found at -655 cm'1 in complexes (1) - (3), consistent with retention of the basic carboxylate-type structure in the compounds after replacement of the terminal ligands with 4,4’-bipyridine (Table 1). 214 Synthesis of Trinuclear Chromium(III) Table 1. IR spectra (cm1) of trinuclear Cr assemblies (1), (2), and (3).* (1) Assignment (2) (3) 1573 (vs) 02CPh 1617(vs) 1619(vs) 1613 (vs) Vas(COO') 1457(vs) 1454(s) 1419(vs) vs(COO) 1355(w) 1353(w) 5(CH3) 1222(s) 1222(s) 1219(m) bpy 1 177(m) 02CPh 1 096(br, vs) C104 1070(m) 1070(m) bpy 1047(w) 02CMe 1025(m) 02CPh 959(w) 961(w) 943(w) v(C-C) 842(vs) pf6 809(s) 8 1 0(s) 809(m) bpy 733(w) 733(m) bpy 720(s) 02CPh 681(m) 02CPh 654(br, s) 655(br, s) 655(br, s) v(Cr3-0) 625(s) 625(vs) 625(s) Tt(COO) 573(w) 574(w) 575(w) bpy 558(s) pf6 526(s) 02CPh 5 1 2(s) 02CPh 498(br) 02CEt 447(m) 02CMe 445(m) 02CEt 419(m) 419(m) 4 1 9(m) 02CMe/Et/Ph *- KBr disk. The acetate and propionate complexes’ spectra display very strong bands around approximately 1620 and 1410 cm'1, representing v^COO) and vs(COO ) modes, respectively (Table 1). The difference in energy between the symmetric and asymmetric carboxylate stretches can be used to establish the coordination mode of the carboxylates (Deacon and Phillips, 1980) and is approximately 160 cm1 for compound (1) and 165 cm'1 for compound (2). For compound (3) with benzoate ligands, these stretches are shifted in energy (Table 1). These differences in energy between the symmetric and unsymmetric stretches are typical of bridging carboxylate ligands (Deacon and Phillips, 1980). Mass Spectrometry Fast atom bombardment (FAB) mass spectra of each of the trinuclear 4,4’-bipyridine complexes as acetonitrile solutions display a distinctive set of ions with masses corresponding to the series [Cr30(02CR)x]+ where x = 3, 4, 5, or 6 (Table 2), regardless of the nature of the 215 Nishijima and Vincent Table 2. FAB mass spectra of trinuclear Cr assemblies* Compound mass Assignment Relative height(%) [Cr30(02CMe)6(bpy)3] (1) 838 [Cr30(02CMe)6(bpy)2]+ 14.5 682 [Cr30(02CMe)6(bpy)]+ 38.9 526 [Cr30(02CMe)6]+ 100 467 [Cr30(02CMe)5]+ 13.9 408 [Cr30(02CMe)4]+ 4.98 349 [Cr30(02CMe)3]+ 5.61 [Cr30(02CEt)6(bpy)3]+ (2) 922 [Cr30(02CEt)6(bpy)2]+ 20.0 766 [Cr30(02CEt)6(bpy)]+ 58.8 610 [Cr30(02CEt)6]+ 100 537 [Cr30(02CEt)5]+ 21.9 391 [Cr30(02CEt)3]+ 6.31 [Cr30(02CPh)6(bpy)3]+ (3) 1210 [Cr30(02CPh)6(bpy)2]+ 6.42 1054 [Cr30(02CPh)6(bpy)]+ 22.8 898 [Cr30(02CPh)6]+ 100 777 [Cr30(02CPh)5]+ 32.6 656 [Cr30(02CPh)4]+ 13.7 551 [Cr30(02CPh)3]+ 9.09 CH3CN solvent; bpy - 4,4’bipyridine. 216 Synthesis of Trinuclear Chromium(III) carboxylate. This clearly establishes that the [Cr30(02CR)x]+ core has been maintained. Additionally, ions corresponding to the core plus one or two bipyridine ligands are also observed, while the parent ion is not. Loss or partial loss of terminal ligands is generally observed for basic carboxylate Cr assemblies (Harton, et al., 1994). To attempt to observe the parent ions, a more gentle ionization technique, electrospray (ESI) mass spectrometry, was utilized (van den Berg, et al., 1993) (Table 3). The parent ion and an ion from loss of one terminal 4,4’-bipyridine ligand were observed in each case, confirming the composition of the cations of compounds (1) - (3). Table 3. ESI Mass spectra of trinuclear Cr assemblies* Compounds mass Assignment Relative height(%) [Cr30(02CMe)6(bpy)3]+ 993.8 [Cr30(02CMe)6(bpy)3]+ 100 837.8 [Cr30(02CMe)6(bpy)2]+ 8.93 [Cr30(02CEt)6(bpy)3]+ 1078.1 [C r 30(02C Et)6(bpy )3] + 100 922.0 [Cr30(02CEt)6(bpy)2]+ 23.0 [Cr30(02CPh)6(bpy)3]+ 1367.1 [Cr30(02CPh)6(bpy)3]+ 100 - CH3CN solvent; bpy - 4,4-bipyridine. Electronic Spectroscopy The visible spectra of pseudo-octahedral Cr(III) complexes display two dominant bands, corresponding to the spin allowed 4A2g"^4T2g and 4A2g"^4T|g(F) transitions. Complexes (1) - (3) are not exceptions with bands at 41 5 - 435 nm and 555 - 575 nm (Figure 2 and Table 4). A series of weaker transitions at lower energy corresponding to formally spin-forbidden transitions results in weak bands between approximately 670 and 730 nm. A third spin allowed d-d transition is expected in the ultraviolet region but cannot be resolved from the ligand 7i->7i transitions. Two additional features appear as shoulders or weak bands between 340 and 370 nm. These features have been assigned previously to double excitation transition (Dubicki and Day, 1972; Blake, et al., 1985). These features are characteristic of basic carboxylate-type Cr(III) assemblies (Harton, et al., 1994) and indicate that the structure of the basic carboxylate core has been retained upon substitution of the terminal ligands with 4,4-bipyridine. While the nature of the bridging carboxylate ligand has little effect on the visible spectrum, the nature of the terminal can appreciably affect the spectrum. For example, complexes with terminal pyridine ligands possess larger ligand field splittings than complexes with aquo ligands (Dubicki and Martin, 1969; Harton, et al., 1994); the effect is clearly observed when aquo ligands are replaced with 4,4-bipyridine as well (Figure 2 and Table 4). 217 Nishijima and Vincent Figure 2. Electronic spectrum of [Cr30(02CEt)6(4,4-bipyridine)3]C104 (2) (2.04 mM) (solid line) and [Cr30(02CEt)6(H20)3]N03 (1.80 mM) (dashed line) in CH3CN solution. 218 Synthesis of Trinuclear Chromium(III) Table 4. UV- Vis spectra of trinuclear Cr assemblies _ Compound (nm) (e/Cr) (NT'cnT* 1 * * * *) Ref. [Cr30(02CMe)6(bpy)3]PF6 (1)* [Cr30(02CEt)6(bpy)3]C104 (2)*‘ [Cr30(02CPh)6(bpy)3]N03 (3)** [Cr30(02CMe)6(H20)3]+*** [Cr30(02CMe)6(py)3]+“* 426(67.5), 56 1 (44.6), 677( 1 6.4), 723(9.8 1 ) This work 348(167), 360(117), 426(78.5), 558(40.7), This work 680(12.5), 722(5.76) 350(1 26), 360(93.5), 434(65.3), 573(40.3), This work 680(13.9), 727(6.86) 332, 339, 358, 442, 585, 656(sh), 671(sh), 702(sh), 717 (Harton, et al., 1994) 351, 361, 435, 565, 678, 703, 724 (Harton, et al., 1994) [Cr30(02CPh)6(H20)3]N03** [Cr30(02CPh)6(py)3]C104**** 348(79.8), 358(59.3), 442(57.8), 590(49.7), ~660(sh), ~720(sh) (Blake et al., 1985) 352(124), 362(99.1), 434(79.0), 568(47.1), 682(15.8), ~710(sh), ~730(sh) (Blake, et al., 1985) - DMSO solvent; - CH3CN solvent; - diffuse reflectance; - DMF. bpy - 4,4’-bipyridine; py - pyridine. NMR Spectroscopy Despite the long electronic relaxation time of chromic ions, the 'H NMR spectra of oxo-centered Cr(III) carboxylate assemblies possess readily discernable signals; the ability to observe these broad signals is aided by the antiferromagnetic coupling between the chromic centers, effectively reducing the magnetic moment per Cr (Glass, et al., 1993; Belmore, et al., 1994; Harton, et al., 1994; Watson, et al., 2003). As shown in Figure 3 and Table 5, compounds (1) - (3) all possess paramagnetically shifted and broadened resonances in their 'H NMR spectra, although the signals resulting from protons in closest proximity to the metal centers are broadened beyond detection. Comparison of the spectra with those of previously characterized basic carboxylate Cr(III) assemblies with acetate, propionate, and benzoate ligands readily allows the distinctive proton resonances from the bridging carboxylates to be assigned. Similarly, the proton resonances from the pyridine ring of the 4,4’-bipyrdine ligands bound to the Cr(III) centers can readily be assigned by comparison to the signals from similar trinuclear Cr(III) cations with terminal pyridine ligands. This leaves only two paramagnetically broadened resonances to be assigned at ~+5 and ~+10 ppm. The signals at ~+5 ppm are sharper than those at ~10 ppm; as dipolar broadening drops off as function of f6 (where r is the distance from the paramagnetic center to the nuclei of interest), the sharper signal at ~+5 ppm can be assigned to the 3’-position proton of the non-coordinated pyridine ring of the 4,4’-bipyridine ligands, leaving the resonance at ~+10 ppm to be assigned to the 2’-position proton of this ring. 219 Nishijima and Vincent The alternating sense of the paramagnetic shift between the 2’- and 3’-position protons (upfield and downfield of the corresponding signals of the diamagnetic free ligand, respectively) is consistent with a dominant n delocalization mechanism, as expected for a t2g3 ion (Glass, et al ., 1 993; Harton, et al., 1 994). (Note also that dipolar contributions to the isotropic shift should be minimal for a t2g3 ion.) (ppm) Figure 3. H NMR spectrum of [Cr’,0(0;CEt)fs(4.4'-bip\ridjne)i]C104 (2) in d,-MeCN. Numbers mdicate 4,4-bipyridine ring positions: numbers with primes represent pyridine ring not coordinated to Cr. * - solvent protio impurity: bpy - free 4.4-bipyndine. 220 Synthesis of Trinuclear Chromium(III) Table 5. 'H NMR of trinuclear Cr assemblies. Complex H Chemical shift (ppm) Ref. [Cr30(02CMe)6(H20)3]+ o2cch3 +36.2 (Glass, etal., 1993) [Cr30(02CMe)6(py)3]+ o2cch3 +36.2 (Glass, et al., 1993) py 2-H n.o. 3-H +11.2 4-H -14.4 [Cr30(02CMe)6(bpy)3]+(l) o2cch3 +37.1 This work bpy 2-H n.o. 3-H +13.1 2’-H +4.9 3’-H +9.8 [Cr30(02CEt)6(H20)3]+ o2cc//2ch3 +42.2 (Glass, et al., 1993) o2cch 2ch3 -0.1 [Cr30(02CEt)6(bpy)3]+ (2) o2cc//2ch3 +47.6 This work o2cch 2ch3 +0.5 bpy 2-H n.o. 3-H +13.2 2’-H +4.9 3’-H +9.8 [Cr30(02CPh)6(H20)3]+ 02CPh o n.o. (Harton, et al., 1994) m +7.4 P +0.5 [Cr30(02CPh)6(py)3]+ 02CPh 0 v.b. (Harton, et al., 1994) m +7.4 P +0.5 py 2-H n.o. 3-H +11.2 4-H -14.4 [Cr30(02CPh)6(bpy)3]+ (3) 02CPh o n.o. This work m +7.4 P +0.47 bpy 2-H n.o. 3-H + 13.3 2’-H +9.9 3’-H +5.0 (bpy - 4,4’-bipyridine; py - pyridine) 221 Nishijima and Vincent CONCLUSION Using the molten bifunctional ligand 4,4’-bipyridine as solvent allows access to a series of basic carboxylate type chromium(III) assemblies with the general formula [Cr(III)30(02CR)6(4,4’-bipyridine)3]4. Each bipyridine ligand has one pyridine nitrogen available for coordination to additional metal centers, including those of other multinuclear metal assemblies; thus, these trinuclear cations could potentially be used to link to three additional metal centers. Currently, work in this laboratory is focused on utilizing these cations as cores for the construction of dendrimers and polymers of trinuclear Cr(III) carboxylate assemblies and also exploring the use of other ligands as potential linkers between these assemblies. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ESI mass spectra were collected in the Masuda laboratory, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Japan. This research was funded by the Civilian Research and Development Foundation, MC1-2522-CS-03 (J. B. V.). LITERATURE CITED Belmore, K., X. J. Madison, A. Harton, and J. B. Vincent. 1994. I3C nuclear magnetic resonance studies of oxo-centered trinuclear Cr(III) complexes of the general formula [Cr30(02CR)3(L)3]+ (R = Me, Ph; L = H2O, py). Spectrochimica Acta. 50A: 2365-2370. Blake, A. B„ A. Yarari, W. E. Hatfield, and C. N. Sethulekshmi. 1985. Magnetic and spectroscopic properties of some heterotrinuclear basic acetates of chromium(III), iron(III), and divalent metal ions. Journal of the Chemical Society ; Dalton Transactions. 2509-2520. Cannon, R. D., and R. P. White. 1988. Chemical and physical properties of triangular bridged metal complexes. Progress in Inorganic Chemistry. 36: 195-297. Clodfelder, B. J., B. M. Gullick, H. C. Lukaski, Y. Neggers, and J. B. Vincent. 2005. Oral administration of the biomimetic [Cr30(02CCH2CH3)6(H20)3] increases insulin sensitivity ! and improves blood plasma variables in healthy and type 2 diabetic rats. Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry. 10: 1 1 9-130. Davis, C. M., A. C. Royer, and J. B. Vincent. 1997. Synthetic multinuclear chromium assembly activates insulin receptor kinase activity: Functional model for low-molecular-weight chromium-binding substance. Inorganic Chemistry. 36: 5316-5320. Deacon, G B., and R. J. Phillips. 1980. Relationships between the carbon-oxygen stretching frequencies of carboxylato complexes and the type of carboxylate coordination. Coordination Chemistry Reviews. 33: 227-250. Dubicki, L., and P. Day. 1972. The electronic spectrum of trinuclear chromium(III) acetate. Inorganic Chemistry. 11:1 868- 1 875 Dubicki, L., and R. L. Martin. 1969. The ligand field spectra of trinuclear chromium(III) and iron(III) basic acetates. Australian Journal of Chemistry. 22: 701-707. Eamshaw, A., B. N. Figgis, and J. Lewis. 1966. Chemistry of polynuclear compounds. Part VI. Magnetic properties of trimeric chromium and iron carboxylates. Journal of the Chemical Society (A). 1656-1663. 222 Synthesis of Trinuclear Chromium(III) Eppley, H. J., N. deVries, S. Wang, S. M. Aubin, H.-L. Tsai, K. Folting, D. N. Hendrickson, and G Christou. 1997. [Mn30(02CPh)6(py)2]2(4,4-bpy) and [Mn907(02CCH6H4-p-OMe)i3(4,4’-bpy)]2: New multinuclear manganese complexes. lnorganica Chimica Acta. 263: 323-340. Glass, M. M., K. Belmore, and J. B. Vincent. 1993. Nuclear magnetic resonance studies of multinuclear chromium assemblies. Polyhedron. 12: 133-140 Harton, A., M. K. Nagi, M. M. Glass, P. C. Junk, J. L. Atwood, and J. B. Vincent. 1994. Synthesis and characterization of symmetric and unsymmetric oxo-bridged trinuclear chromium benzoate complexes: Crystal and molecular structure of [Cr30(02CPh)6(py)3]CI04. lnorganica Chimica Acta. 217: 171-179. Johnson, M. K., D. B. Powell, and R. D. Cannon, 1981. Vibrational spectra of carboxylato complexes - III. Trinuclear ‘basic’ acetates and formats of chromium(III), iron(III), and other transition metals. Spectrochimica Acta. 37 A: 995-1006 Lieberman, R. L., A. Bino, N. Mirsky, D. A. Summers, and R. C. Thompson. 2000. Synthesis, structure and magnetic properties of a chromium(III) — nicotinamide complex [Cr30(02CCH3)6(na)3]+ (na=nicotinamide) lnorganica Chimica Acta. 297: 1-5. Sessoli, R., H.-L. Tsai, A. R. Schake, S. Wang, J. B. Vincent, K. Folting, D. Gatteschi, G Christou, and D. N. Hendrickson. 1993. High-spin molecules: [Mni20i2(C>2CR)i6(H20)4]. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 115: 1804-1816. Szymanska-Buzar, T., and J. J. Ziolkowski. 1976. g3-oxo trimetal carboxylates of the d elements; electronic structures and catalytic properties. Soviet Journal of Coordination Chemistry. 2: 897-912. Uemura, S., A. Spencer, and G Wilkinson. 1973. g3-oxotrimetal acetate-complexes of chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, rhodium, and iridium. Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions. 2565-2571. van den Bergen, A., R. Colton, M. Percy, and B. O. West. 1993. Electrospray mass spectrometric study of [M30(RC00)6L3]+ cations (M=Cr, Fe; L=H20, MeOH, py). Inorganic Chemistry. 32: 3408-3411 Vincent, J. B. 2000. Elucidating a biological role for chromium at a molecular level. Accounts of Chemical Research. 33: 503-510. Watson, H., J. Hatfield, and J. B. Vincent. 2003. 'H NMR studies of Cr(III)-imidazole complexes: Can ‘H NMR be used as a probe of Cr-guanine DNA adducts? lnorganica Chimica Acta. 344: 265-269. 223 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. GYMNOSPERMS OF SOUTHEAST ALABAMA Michael Woods and Alvin R Diamond. Jr. Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences Troy University Troy. Alabama 36082 mwoods <7 trov.edu Illustrated by. Marion Montgomery Anniston Museum of Natural History Anniston. Alabama 36202 ABSTRACT Gymnosperms of southeast Alabama are represented by two families, five genera, 12 specific and four infraspecific taxa. Pin us is represented by eight taxa. Taxodium and Juniperus are each represented by two taxa. Chamaecyparis and Cunninghamia are represented by one taxon each. The area delineated as southeast Alabama includes Barbour, Butler, Coffee, Conecuh, Covington, Crenshaw, Dale, Escambia, Geneva, Henry, Houston, and Pike counties. Dichotomous keys and descriptions are based upon material deposited in the herbarium of Troy University (TROY). Distribution records are based upon specimens deposited in the Troy University Herbarium (TROY), Auburn University Herbarium (AUA), and The University of Alabama Herbarium (UNA). INTRODUCTION Gymnosperms (literally, “naked seed”) are a group of vascular plants whose seeds are not enclosed by a ripened ovary (fruit). The gymnosperms in the United States include 20 genera and 1 15 species (Flora of North America, 1993a). Most classification systems today separate the extant gymnosperms into four distinct divisions: Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, and Gnetophyta (Flora of North America, 1993b). Of these, only the Pinophyta (Coniferophyta) contains native or naturalized taxa in Alabama. The Pinaceae and Cupressaceae are the only families in the Pinophyta with representatives in the state (Flora of North America, 1 993a). In the Pinaceae, eight species, all in the genus Pinus, are represented in southeast Alabama. All eight taxa are placed in the subgenus Pinus, Section Trifoliis, Subsection Australes (Price et al., 1998). Subgenus Pinus, known commonly as the “typical” or “hard pines”, is characteristized by having the umbo dorsal and cone scales with a sealing band adjacent to the apophysis where the scales meet on the closed cone. The wing of the seeds are 224 Gymnosperms of SE Alabama articulate, easily separated from the seed, to weakly adnate, not easily separated. The fascicles have 2-6 leaves and the sheaths are mostly persistent. Vascular bundles of the leaves are doubled and the stomata more or less equally distributed on all surfaces (Richardson, 1998). In the Cupressaceae, four genera, Chamaecyparis, Cunninghamia, Juniperus and Taxodium, are represented in southeast Alabama. All four genera have seed cones in which the bract-scale complexes are fused for most of their common length. The seeds, 1-5 per scale, are wingless in Juniperus and Taxodium but consist of two narrow, lateral wings in Chamaecyparis and Cunninghamia (Eckenwalder, 1976; Flora of North America, 1993a). Since 1961, three studies have addressed the gymnosperms of Alabama. Trees and Shrubs in the Heart of Dixie (Dean, 1961) provides excellent illustrations and general information on the gymnosperms. It does not, however, contain keys, and the distribution of each taxon in the state is incomplete. Alabama Trees (Davis and Davis, 1963) includes dichotomous keys, illustrations and descriptions. The distribution data is general, and the taxonomy, in many cases, is outdated. Clark (1971), in The Woody Plants of Alabama produced the most comprehensive and detailed work on gymnosperms of the state. Although illustrations are not included, the dichotomous keys and county distribution maps are useful. Since these publications are over 30 yr old, additional records are needed to adequately document the diversity and distribution of gymnosperms found in southeast Alabama. Spaulding et al. (2002) recognized the need for a more current gymnosperm flora and published Gymnosperms of Northeast Alabama and Adjacent Highlands. The objectives of this study included the development of dichotomous keys and county distribution maps for the gymnosperms of southeast Alabama. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA The area delineated as southeast Alabama includes Barbour. Butler. Coffee. Conecuh. Covington. Crenshaw. Dale. Escambia. Geneva. Henry . Houston, and Pike counties (Fig. 1). The entile study area lies within the Coastal Plain Province and has an area of 2 664 849 ha. The northeast comer of Butler County’ and the northern sections of Crenshaw . Pike and Barbour counties are in the Blue Mail Region. Most of the central section of the study area occurs in the eastern and western portions of the Southern Red Hills. Houston County and parts of Geneva and Covington counties in the southeast section of the study area are in the Lime-Sink Region. The southwest section of the study area occurs primarily in the Southw estern Pine Hills. One exception is a small region of central and southeastern Conecuh County’, which is located in the Lime Hills (Harper. 1943). The topography of the study area ranges from low rolling hills in the north to flat or gentle sloping ridges in the south. Three major watersheds drain the study area. From east to west thev include the Chattahoochee, Pea/Choctaw hatchee. and the Conecuh (Mettee et al .. 1996). The warm-temperate, moist climate of the study area has an average growing season ranging from 240 to 250 day s. The Gulf of Mexico has a regulating effect on the climate and helps keep the temperature extremes at a minimum. The average annual temperature is approximately 20°C. Average temperatures duiing January’, the coldest month, are 10.5°C. while July , the wannest month, averages 26°C. Precipitation ranges from 132 cm to 142 cm throughout most of the study area. The exception occurs in the southwestern section of the study area (Conecuh and Escambia counties) where the average ranges from 142 cm to 162 cm (Cartographic Research Laboratory . 2004). 225 Woods and Diamond MATERIALS AND METHODS This treatment includes all taxa of gymnosperms known to occur naturally and those that have become established and are reproducing in southeast Alabama. The dichotomous keys and descriptions are based upon material deposited in the herbarium of Troy University (TROY). Distribution records are based upon specimens deposited in the Troy University Herbarium (TROY), Auburn University Herbarium (AUA), and The University of Alabama Herbarium (UNA). Additional distribution data was obtained from Clark (1971). Nomenclature follows Flora of North America ( 1 993). RESULTS The gymnosperms of southeast Alabama were found to be represented by two families, five genera, 12 specific and four inffaspecific taxa. The largest family, Pinaceae, is represented by one genus, Pinus, and eight specific taxa. Of the eight species, only one, P. virginiana Miller, is non-native to the study area. The other family, Cupressaceae, is represented by four genera, four specific and two infraspecific taxa. All members of this family are native to the study area except for Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lambert) Hooker, which is native to SE Asia. 226 Gymnosperms of SE Alabama KEY TO GYMNOSPERM FAMILIES 1 . Photosynthetic leaves needlelike, in fascicles of 2-4 . 1 . Pinaceae 1 . Photosynthetic leaves scalelike or needlelike, afasciculate . 2. Cupressaceae 1. PINACEAE Lindley PINUS Linnaeus • Pines* Evergreen trees; leaves dimorphic, scale leaves short, on current year’s growth only, needle leaves in bundles of 2-4, persisting 2-12 years; pollen cones, elongated, non- woody, short lived; ovulate cones conic or cylindrical, woody, persistent for two to many years; seeds with a single wing. 1 . Needles in bundles of 2 . 2 1 . Needles in bundles of 2-3(4) . 5 2. Bark of three year old twigs rough, exfoliatin . 3 2. Bark of three year old twigs smooth, not exfoliating . 4 3. Needles in bundles of 2, <7 cm long, strongly twisted; buds red-brown . 1. P. virginiana 3. Needles in bundles of 2-3, >7 cm long, straight to slightly twisted; buds gray . . 2. P. echinata 4. Needles not twisted; tips of seed cone scales with a conspicuous horizontal ridge, cones scale with well developed erect to curved spines, upper cone surface darker brown at tip . 3. P. clausa 4. Needles twisted; tip of seed cone scales without a horizontal ridge or faint ridge only, cone scales with short spines, early deciduous, upper cone surface uniform brown throughout . 4. P. glabra 5. Needles >25 cm long, fascicular sheath >2 cm long; ovulate cones > 1 5 cm long . . 5. P. palustris 5. Needles <25 cm long, fascicular sheath <2 cm long; ovulate cones <15 cm long . 6 6. Ovulate cones <6 cm long; seeds <6 mm long . 7 6. Ovulate cones >6 cm long; seeds >6 mm long . 8 7. Needles 7-13 cm long; seeds 4-6 mm long; wing <15 mm long; upland, dry soils . . 2. P. echinata 7. Needles 15-25 cm long; seeds 3-4 mm long; wing >15 mmlong; lowland, poorly drained soils . 6. P. serotina 8. Needles in bundles of 2 and 3 on the same tree; ovulate cones with pedicels 20-30 mm long . 7. P. elliottii 8. Needles in bundles of 3; ovulate cones sessile to pedicels <10 mm long . . 8. P. taeda 1. P. virginiana Miller - VIRGINIA PINE. Figure 2. Occasionally planted and naturally reproducing along roadsides. 2. P. echinata Miller - SHORTLEAF PINE. Figure 3. Common. Dry uplands. 3. P. clausa (Chapman ex Engelmann) Sargent - SAND PINE. Figure 4. Occasionally planted and reproducing. Sandhills. Synonym: P. inops Aiton var. clausa Chapman ex Engelmann; P. clausa var. immuginata Ward. 4. P. glabra Walter - SPRUCE PINE. Figure 5. Common, though normally scattered and pure stands are rare. Mesic woodlands, floodplains. 227 Woods and Diamond 5. P. palustris Miller - LONGLEAF PINE. Figure 6. Common. Flatwoods, xeric clay hills, dry sandy uplands and sandhills. Synonym: P. australis F. Michaux. 6. P. serotina Michaux - POND PINE. Figure 7. Scattered. Floodplains, swamp borders and bogs. Synonym: P. rigida Miller subsp. serotina (Michaux) R.T. Clausen; P. rigida var. serotina (Michaux) Hoopes. 7. P. elliottii Engelmann - SLASH PINE. Figure 8. Common, often planted in pure stands. Lowlands to upland woodlands, old fields. Synonym: P. heterophylla (Elliott) Sudworth; P. taeda Linnaeus var. heterophylla Elliott. 8. P. taeda Linnaeus - LOBLOLLY PINE. Figure 9. Common, often planted in pure stands. Mesic woods, swamp borders to dry uplands. 2. CUPRESSACEAE Bartlett Evergreen shrubs or small trees; leaves four-ranked, opposite or whorled, needlelike or scalelike, 1-70 mm long; pollen cones terminal, spherical to oblong, simple (terminal panicles in Taxodium), solitary (rarely in clusters of 2-5); ovulate cones 3-50 mm long, berrylike or woody; seeds not winged or with 1-3 symmetrical or asymmetrical wings. 1 . Leaves >2.5 cm long; ovulate cone with leathery, imbricate scales . 1 . Cunninghamia 1 . Leaves <2.5 cm long; ovulate cones fleshy or with woody, valvate scales . 2 2. Leaves alternate, needlelike, deciduous; ovulate cones woody . 2. Taxodium 2. Leaves opposited or whorled, scalelike to subulate, evergreen; ovulate cones fleshy . 3 3. Stems four-angles in cross section; branchlets erect to pendulous; ovulate cones without scales, blue black to brownish blue, resinous . 3. Juniperus 3. Stems flat in cross section; branchlets flattened, fan-shaped; ovulate cones with scales, bluish purple to reddish brown, aresinous . 4. Chamaecyparis 1. CUNNINGHAMIA R. Brown ^Chinese Fir* Evergreen trees, monoecious; leaves spirally arranged, sessile, lanceolate or linear- lanceolate, serrulate, 3-7 cm long; pollen cones narrowly oblong in 1-5 terminal fascicles, each with 8-20 cones; ovulate cones globose, ovoid, or cylindric-ovoid, 3-5 cm long and wide, scales sessile, imbricate, leathery; seeds flat, with 2 narrow, lateral wings. 1. Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lambert) Hooker - CHINESE FIR. Figure 10. Rare, escaped from cultivation in Henry County. Well drained soil along roadside. A monotypic genus native to SE Asia (Bailey, 1924). Synonym: C. sinensis R. Brown ex Richard & A. Richard; Pinus lanceolata Lambert. 2. TAXODIUM Richard *Cypress* Deciduous trees; pneumatophores normally present; leaves two-ranked on short shoots, alternate, linear to linear-lanceolate, flattened, 3-17 mm long; pollen cones globose in pendent axillary racemes or panicles; ovulate cones 20-50 mm in diameter, subglobose, 5-10 scales, valvate, thin and woody; seeds trigonous, wingless. 2. T. distichum (Linnaeus) Richard - BALD CYPRESS. Two varieties grow in the study area. 228 Gymnosperms of SE Alabama 2a. T. distichum var. distichum - BALD CYPRESS. Figure 1 1 . Short shoots pendent to horizontally spreading; leaves linear, 5-17 mm long, spreading, free portion contracted and basally twisted; pneumatophores with acute apex. Common. Swamps, floodplains, rivers, ponds and lake shorelines. 2b. T. distichum var. imbricarium (Nuttall) Croom - POND CYPRESS. Figure 12. Short shoots ascending; leaves lanceolate, 3-10 mm long, appressed and overlapping, free portion not contracted and basally twisted; pneumatophores with obtuse apex. Uncommon but scattered throughout the southern portions of the study area. Sinks and wet, poorly drained depressions. Synonym; T. distichum var. nutans (Aiton) Sweet; T. ascendens Brongniart. 3. JUNIPERUS Linnaeus »Cedar» Dioecious trees; juvenile leaves 3-6 mm long, sharp pointed, entire, adult leaves appressed, scalelike, overlapping, 1-3 mm long, entire; pollen cones terminal, single, 3-5 mm long, consisting of 3-7 sporophylls; ovulate cones berrylike, pedunculate, globose to subglobose, 3-9 mm long; seeds 1-2, rarely 3 or 4, per cone, 1 .5-4.0 mm long. 3. J. virginiana Linnaeus - RED CEDAR. Figure 1 3. Two varieties grow in the study area. 3a. J. virginiana var. virginiana - EASTERN RED CEDAR. Figure 13a. Ovulate cones 4-6 (- 7) mm; crown narrowly erect to conic or round; scale leaves acute at apex; pollen cones 3- 4 mm. Common. Well drained mesic to xeric woods, fields, fencerows. More common on basic soils. Synonym: J. virginiana var. crebra Fernald & Griscom; Sabina virginiana (Linnaeus) Antoine. 3b. J. virginiana var. silicicola (Small) E. Murray - SOUTHERN RED CEDAR. Figure 13b. Ovulate cones 3-4 mm; crown flattened; scale leaves bluntly obtuse to acute at apex; male cones 4-5 mm. Rare. Sand dunes, river sandbanks, xeric woods. Synonym; J. silicicola (Small) L.H. Bailey; Sabina silicicola Small. 4. CHAMAECYPARIS Spach •White Cedar* Dioecious trees; leaves 1. 5-3.0 mm long, entire, glandular abaxially; pollen cones terminal, single, 1-2 mm long, consisting of 2-4 opposite sporophylls; ovulate cones woody, 5-9 mm broad, 5-7 scales; seeds winged, 1-2 per fertile scale, 2-3 mm long. 4. C. thyoides (Linnaeus) Britton, Stems & Poggenburg - ATLANTIC WHITE CEDAR. Figure 14. Rare. Swamps and floodplains. Synonym: C. henryae H.L. Li; C. thyoides subsp. henryae (H.L. Li) E. Murray; C. thyoides var. henryae (H.L. Li) Little; Cupressus thyoides Linnaeus. 229 Woods and Diamond 230 Gymnosperms of SE Alabama Figure 2. Pinus virginiana- Virginia Pine. From: Spaulding et al. (2002). Figure 3. Pinus echxnata- Shortleaf Pine. From: Spaulding et al. (2002). Key to symbols is as follows: Filled circle (•) - documented at Troy University Herbarium (TROY); tilled square (■) - documented at another herbarium; open circle (o) = documented in literature. 231 Woods and Diamond Figure 4. Pinus clausa- Sand Pine. Figure 5. Pinus glabra- Spruce Pine. 232 Gymnosperms of SE Alabama Figure 6. Pinus palustris- Longleaf Pine. From : Spaulding et al. (2002). Figure 7. Pinus serotina- Pond Pine. Woods and Diamond Figure 8. Pinus elliottii- Slash Pine. Figure 9. Pinus taeda- Loblolly Pine. From : Spaulding et al. (2002). 234 Gymnosperms of SE Alabama Figure 10. Cunninghamia lanceolata- Chinese Fir. Figure 11. Taxodium distichum var. distichum- Bald Cypress. From : Spaulding et al. (2002 235 Woods and Diamond Figure 12. Taxodium distichum var. imbricarium- Pond Cypress. Figure 13. Juniperus virginiana- Red Cedar. a. var. virginiana- Eastern Red Cedar. From: Spaulding et al. (2002). b. var. silicola- Southern Red Cedar. 236 Gymnosperms of SE Alabama Figure 14. Chamaecyparis thyoides- Atlantic White Cedar. 237 Woods and Diamond ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the curators of herbaria at Auburn University (AUA) and The University of Alabama (UNA) for providing useful information during this study and making us welcome during our visits. The first author would like to thank the Troy University Faculty Development Committee for awarding a Summer Research Grant to support this project. LITERATURE CITED Bailey, L. H. 1924. Manual of cultivated plants. The MacMillan Co., New York, New York, USA. Cartographic Research Laboratory. 2004. Climate Maps of Alabama. URL: http://alabamamaps.ua.edu/alabama/climate/index.html. Clark, R. C. 1971. The woody plants of Alabama. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 58: 99-242. Dean, B. E. 1961. Trees and shrubs in the Heart of Dixie. Coxe Publishing Co., Birmingham, Alabama, USA. Davis, D. E., and N. D. Davis. 1963. Alabama trees. Auburn Experimental Station, Auburn, Alabama, USA. Eckenwalder, J. E. 1976. Re-evaluation of Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae: A proposed merger. Madrono 23: 237-256. Flora of North America Editorial Committee (eds.), 1993a. Flora of North America North of Mexico, vol. 2. Pteridophytes and gymnosperms. Oxford University Press, New York, New York, USA. Flora of North America Editorial Committee (eds.). 1993b. Flora of North America North of Mexico, vol. 1. Introduction. Oxford University Press, New York, New York, USA. Harper, R. M. 1943. Forests of Alabama. Alabama Geological Survey Monograph. 10: 1-230. Mettee, M. F., P. E. O’Neil, and J. M. Pierson. 1996. Fishes of Alabama and Mobile Basin. Oxmoor House, Birmingham, Alabama, USA. Price, R. A., A. Liston, and S. H. Strauss. 1998. Phylogeny and systematics of Pinus. P.49-68. In: Ecology and Biogeography of Pinus. Richardson, D. M. (ed.). Cambridge University Press, New York, New York, USA. Richardson, D. M. (ed.). 1998. Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University Press, New York, New York, USA. Spaulding, D. D., J. M. Ballard, and R. D. Whetstone. 2002. Gymnosperms of northeast Alabama and adjacent highlands. Alabama Academy of Science Journal. 73: 38-54. 238 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. BOOK REVIEW BIOLOGY MEETS ETHICS: THE CONTROVERSY BEHIND HUMAN EMBRYONIC STEM CELL RESEARCH Bethany A. Jacobs* and James T. Bradley Department of Biological Sciences Auburn University Auburn, AL 36849 Human Embryonic Stem Cells: An Introduction to the Science and Therapeutic Potential , A. A. Kiessling and S. C. Anderson, 198 pp. plus Glossary and Index. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury, Massachusetts, 2003. Jose Cibelli, Professor of Animal Biotechnology at Michigan State University, writes the Foreword for Human Embryonic Stem Cells , and in it he asks the reader to “dream of the possibility of an unlimited supply of cells capable of generating any tissue in the human body” (p. xiii). The cells he speaks of are embryonic stem cells (ESCs), and they fuel one of the most controversial and contentious debates at the interface connecting modern science and society. Derived from 5-day-old embryos smaller than the head of a pin, ESCs have the potential to replace lost cells, regenerate damaged or diseased human tissues, and prevent the devastating effects of age-related illnesses such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease. Human Embryonic Stem Cells was written in response to the human embryo research debate, which intensified in August 2001 when the Bush administration prohibited the use of federal funds for the creation of new ESC lines. During subsequent and nearly continuous debate on the subject, one thing has been conspicuously lacking - a thorough and widespread understanding by the general public of the biology related to stem cell therapies. Kiessling and Anderson offer readers the opportunity to gain this understanding. Non-scientists often think of scientists as modern versions of Dr. Frankenstein - working secretly in their laboratories on dangerously dubious projects. Too often, non¬ scientists mistakenly assume that things scientific are beyond their comprehension. This book meets the needs of those within and without the scientific world including medical students, nurses, physicians, writers, politicians and teachers by providing a comprehensive and non¬ technical look at the principles behind stem cell research. Throughout the book, two things are made clear: First, there is no substitute for knowledge when debating the moral and social implications of ESC research; and second, such knowledge is within the grasp of nearly everyone. The authors have combined their professional training and experience in assembling this very readable, informative book. Kiessling, Associate Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School, holds a Ph.D. in biochemistry and biophysics from Oregon State University and has published more than one hundred scientific papers. Scott Anderson has been writing 239 Stem Cell Research about cutting-edge biotechnology for fifteen years. He is editor and primary author of Science for People , a website with a collection of articles on the most recent science news, research, and regulations, without the jargon that makes some scientific articles seem impenetrable. It is his opinion that “everyone deserves a regular dose of the exciting news bubbling out of laboratories around the world.” Kiessling and Anderson collaborated previously to produce educational videos about the biochemistry of egg maturation and AIDS infection. By providing a brief history of the experimental underpinnings for stem cell biology, such as early animal cloning done by transplanting frog somatic cell nuclei into enucleated frog eggs, they show readers how basic biological research can lead to advances in the quality of human life. Other important parts of the book are the charts, graphs, and drawings by Elizabeth Morales, the illustrator, who clarifies otherwise difficult concepts discussed in the text. There are five parts to the book, each comprised of several chapters. In addition to the information in the text of each chapter, there are sidebars that detail specific experiments related to the subject under discussion. Examples of sidebars include “Bone Marrow Transplantation” and “Developmental Potential of Transplanted Nuclei." The glossary defining scientific terms in simple, uncomplicated language is especially helpful for people without a strong science background. In part I, the four different categories of stem cells are discussed. Adult stem cells are populations of cells that survive throughout childhood and into adulthood. These cells are present in tissues such as bone marrow and the lining of the gut. Fetal stem cells are the precursors to the fetus’s tissues and organs. ECSs are cells derived from the blastocyst stage embryo, a hollow ball of cells containing an inner mass of cells that can differentiate into any organ or tissue in the body except the fetal component of the placenta. Finally, nuclear transplant ESCs are derived from blastocysts produced by the transfer of somatic cell nuclei into enucleated egg cells that are then stimulated to divide in a laboratory setting. Part I concludes with a thorough description of the mechanics, regulation and molecular biology of the cell cycle. In part II we learn about mammalian egg biology. The authors discuss meiosis, egg growth and maturation, egg activation by sperm, and division of the egg to create an embryo. In addition, they provide an overview of transcription and translation, the genetic processes that use the information in DNA and the surrounding environment to create an embryo, a fetus, and ultimately a fully developed individual. Embryonic stem cells, the focus of this book, are discussed in part III. Kiessling and Anderson give great attention to detail when discussing the creation of ESC lines from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst and the developmental potential of ESCs. The normal fate of the blastocyst inside the uterus is also described. Implantation and development of the blastocyst are detailed, including a week-by-week description of embryogenesis through the sixth week of development. Animal cloning is also included in this section, along with a discussion of Dolly, the cloned sheep. In part IV the authors apply information given in the former sections to a discussion of the extraordinary medical potential of ESCs. Possible future therapies for some of today’s most devastating diseases and injuries are discussed. For example, stimulating undifferentiated ESCs in culture to grow the specific type of neurons that are lost from the brain of a Parkinson’s patient is considered a realistic possibility. Already, mice with a condition similar to Parkinson’s disease have been cured by mouse ESC therapy. Diabetes types l and 2, cardiomyopathy, liver failure, certain cancers, hemophilia, and even 240 Jacobs and Bradley Alzheimer’s disease are projected to be curable or treatable using ESC therapy. Charles F. Stevens writes, “It is absolutely vital to continue research using embryonic neural stem cells. It may be that, for reasons we don’t yet understand, adult stem cells will never be useful in therapy and that we will always need embryonic cells. Or, it may be the other way around. We just don’t know.” (p. 164) Finally, part V focuses on the religious, legal, ethical and scientific debate surrounding ESC research and use. The authors point out contradictions inherent in the actions of some anti-abortion activists. Certain “right-to-life” groups protesting clinics that perform abortions sometimes even make “hit lists” of doctors who perform the procedures and of scientists doing research with early human embryos. An irony is that if individuals who make such threats were to become better informed, they might take a different view on ESC research. Aims of ESC research include increased understanding of causes for birth defects and development of in utero strategies for their prevention and cure. Realization of these goals would almost certainly reduce the incidence of abortions. Religious belief and doctrine inform many persons’ views on ESC research, and the diversity of religious beliefs is reflected in official church positions on the use of human embryos for biomedical purposes. The position of the Roman Catholic Church on ESC research is closely tied to its view on abortion. Official church doctrine maintains that the special moral status of human beings derives from their possessing a soul, and ensoulment is presumed to occur at the moment of conception. Interestingly, prior to 1869 the Catholic Church adopted the position of Aristotle, via Thomas Aquinas, who believed that uniquely human ensoulment did not occur until 40 days after conception. The Church now vehemently opposes ESC research since derivation of ESC lines requires the destruction of human embryos. Similarly, the governing bodies of the Lutheran, United Methodist, and Southern Baptist churches take the position that human embryos at any stage possess full moral status and should be protected. By contrast, Judaism maintains that the fetus is sacred and inviolable but that the full moral status of personhood is not acquired until the infant takes its first breath. Judaism’s strong belief in helping the sick and infirm overrides its reverence for early human embryos so that most Jewish scholars and teachers support ESC research for its potential to relieve human suffering. The Presbyterian Church supports ESC research, maintaining that the “prohibition of the derivation of stem cells from embryos would elevate the showing of respect to human embryos above that of helping persons whose pain and suffering might be alleviated.” Islamic and Buddhist positions on ESC research are not as clearly defined as for other religions. Islam generally teaches a theory of delayed ensoulment similar to that of Aristotle and Aquinas. Buddhists revere all forms of life, yet generally agree that decisions about abortion belong to the mother. Positions on ESC research vary among modern Buddhists. Legal issues arising from ESC technology are complex. Although most western nations have moved toward a separation of church and state, the religious values of politicians often make their way into the legislative and even the judicial realms of government. For example, George W. Bush cites his own religious values as reason for his 2001 prohibition of federal funding for the creation of new lines of ESCs. Since the publication of this book, another event occurred that could influence the legal landscape for human embryo research occurred. In 2004, cell biologist Elizabeth Blackburn was suddenly dismissed from the President's Council on Bioethics, an advisory agency to the President that makes policy recommendations. Blackburn's apparent mistake was to disagree with the conservative majority position of the Council on ESC research. The Council has been and continues to be criticized for prioritizing the religious values of a majority of its members and 241 Stem Cell Research the President over scientific information, and as of late 2005 it does not have a cell biologist or an embryologist in its membership. For decades, complicated political and religious forces have helped to shape the legal landscape for performing research on human tissue and human beings. Kiessling and Anderson competently discuss the history and current dynamics of these forces in the context of human embryo research. Their discussion includes the 1973 United States Supreme Court decision in Roe vs. Wade and its societal ramifications. What about the scientific state of human ESC research in the United States? When President Bush announced his moratorium on federal funding for producing new human ESC lines, there reportedly were either 64 or 78 existing cell lines, depending on the information source, available for researchers to use. Quickly it was revealed that all but 15 of these were useless to researchers for various reasons ranging from unusual growth characteristics of the cells or loss of their ability to differentiate into specialized cell types to bureaucratic problems in distributing the cell lines. Then the 1 5 cell lines became reduced to about a half dozen, and all of these are absolutely worthless for use in human therapy since they were cultured in the presence of mouse cells. The possibility that the human ESCs may have acquired some mouse antigens, which would make them immunologically incompatible for humans, or even some non-human mammalian viruses renders them too dangerous for human clinical trials. In response to an antagonistic legal atmosphere toward human ESC research in the United States, many researchers and companies have moved their ESC work overseas to less restrictive countries such as England, Singapore, Israel, and Japan. Also, California and New Jersey, under the leadership of their respective governors, have begun to promote funding for stem cell research on a statewide level, superseding President Bush’s executive order. Whether these moves by the states will be challenged in federal courts remains to be seen. The authors point out that scientists are not cavalier in their arguments for using human embryos for biomedical research. They recognize the sacredness of human life. The consensus from the scientific community is that it is justifiable to use human embryos under 1 4 days old in laboratory research. This is the point at which the embryo becomes committed to develop into one and only one individual. Prior to 14 days, embryos developing in a woman's uterus have the potential to split to form identical twins. No scientists advocate removing a living embryo at any stage of development from a woman's uterus for the purpose of research. Adult stem cells, including stem cells from umbilical cord blood, have been widely heralded by opponents of ESC research as having therapeutic potentials equivalent to ESCs. Yet, if this were thought by most cell biologists to be true, researchers would be flocking to the study of adult stem cells, bypassing the human embryo debate entirely. Neil Theise, a researcher of adult stem cells at New York University Medical School, states that “losing the opportunity to study embryonic stem cells could mean that we could lose out on some of the enormous therapeutic potential offered by these cells." (p. 195) This outstanding book was written to inform the general public about the biological and societal dimensions of human ESC research. Kiessling and Anderson have argued that "scientific ignorance is the driving engine for the anti-ESC research movement.” Certainly, this book offers persons unversed in biology the opportunity to develop informed opinions on ESC research and use. The introductory descriptions of cell division, the structure and function of DNA, and the biology of human reproduction and early development are written at a level that ought to be accessible to most high school graduates. This material prepares the reader for the subsequent discussions of ESC biology, therapeutic potential and moral controversies. 242 Jacobs and Bradley As the public becomes better informed, it seems to become increasingly favorably disposed towards ESC research. A substantial majority of Americans polled now favor supporting human ESC research. Human Embryonic Stem Cells contributes significantly to the resources that citizens now have for informing themselves about this important 21s1 century biomedical issue. *Bethany A. Jacobs is a recent graduate in Microbiology at Auburn University. This review was written for a senior level Bioethics Research course with mentoring and editing by James T. Bradley, Department of Biological Sciences, 331 Funchess Hall, Auburn, AL 36849. 243 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. BIOGRAPHY of JAMES T. BRADLEY Jim Bradley assumed the editorship of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science (JAAS) in late 1990, shortly after the sudden death of Professor William H. Mason. Dr. Mason had been president of the Academy and was the longstanding editor of the JAAS. When the call came from AAS President Dr. Michael E. Lisano, Bradley says, “I remember being very surprised and flattered at the request to complete Dr. Mason’s term as editor. I had such tremendous respect for Bill Mason as a colleague, teacher, textbook author, mentor to graduate students and as editor of the JAAS. Bill had worked hard over many years to develop the JAAS into a highly regarded, rigorously peer reviewed journal for the Academy. That I would ever be editor for a scientific journal had never occurred to me.” Bradley accepted the challenge and remained editor for the JAAS for the next 1 5 years. In addition to all the nuts and bolts of editing the journal, Dr. Bradley initiated the publication of book reviews and also organized a new section for the AAS: Bioethics and History & Philosophy of Science. Jim Bradley has had a long and distinguished career since accepting his position at Auburn University in 1976 after earning his PhD in Developmental Biology from the University of Washington, Seattle. During his time at Auburn, Bradley has authored 43 refereed scientific articles and book reviews as well as a laboratory manual for cell biology. He has also edited two volumes of readings from original sources in science and the humanities which serve as texts for an interdisciplinary, undergraduate course in world history. Since 1994 Dr. Bradley has been the director of the Human Odyssey Program that established this course of study to examine the connections between science and the humanities. Among the awards and recognitions for his outstanding teaching and leadership are: W. Kelly Mosley titled Professorship in Science and Humanities Academic Freedom Award, AAUP, Auburn University Chapter Chair, University Senate and Faculty, Auburn University College of Science and Mathematics Outstanding Teacher Award, Auburn University Auburn Alumni Association Undergraduate Teaching Excellence Award Most Outstanding Faculty Member in the College of Science and Mathematics awarded by Student Government Association, Auburn University Recipient of competitive, 3-month Visiting Professorship at the University of Pisa, Italy 3-time winner of the Carmichael Award of the AAS for best research article Dr. Bradley continues to explore new avenues of research, writing and teaching. He is currently authoring a book for the general public about the ethical issues associated with 21st century biotechnologies including cloning, stem cell research, gene therapy, genetic 244 enhancement, human life extension and transgenic agriculture. His book title is: Twenty-First Century Biotechnology and Human Values. Along with colleagues at Auburn University, AUM and Tuskegee University, Bradley is collaborating on an NSF grant titled “Ethics of the Nonoscale”. The project will develop undergraduate training in the science and ethics of nanotechnology. In addition. Dr. Bradley is developing and will teach a bioethics course called Genethics for upper level undergraduate and graduate students in the life sciences at Auburn University. The Alabama Academy of Science expresses its deep gratitude for the diligence Jim Bradley has demonstrated through all his years as editor of the JAAS. His contributions have maintained high standards and academic excellence. 245 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. INDEX Abbott, G.A . 134 Abiotic Stress and Response in Plants . 164 Absences in University Algebra Classes . 135 Absher, Keith . 1 27, 1 29 Adolescents and Their Issues . 1 43 Air Pollution Rainbows in Photographic Prints . 1 20 Alexander, Paulette . 128 Ammons, Ryan W . 130 Amsler, Charles D . 109 Angus, Robert . 101 Antarctic Sponges, Palatability of . 109 Anthony, Anish . 1 53 Antibiotic Resistance Patterns of Fecal Coliforms . 1 12 Archaeological Complex Homestead, Historic Background of Davis Farm . 124 Archaeology at the Davis Farm Slave Site . 1 59 Archaeology of the Shelton Mound Complex . 1 59 Arthritis Self-Management . 137 Asthma Camp, Outcomes of Young Teen . 139 Asthma Camp, Young Teen Outcomes . 144 Asthma Responsibility and Psychosocial Outcomes . 141 Astronomy Exams, Student Performance on . 132 Azasteroid on Leydig Cells in Vitro, Effect of an . 141 Bacterial Antibiotic Profiles in Surface Waters . 99 Bacterial Populations in an Aerobic Digester . 1 14 Baehne, Ashley C . 1 20 Baker, Bill J . 109 Ball, Beverly . 99 Ban, Heng . . . . 1 57 Ban, Heng . 149 Base Pairs in the DNA, Calculate Potential Damage to . 1 1 8 Bezier Curves,, A Novel Representation Using . 148 Bibb, Melissa . 139, 144 Billington, Neil . 104, 107 Biology Teachers Courses, Designing . 131 Birefringent Particles, Rotating with an Optical Tweezers . 124 Blair, Benjie . 110, 131 Blankinship, Lisa Ann . 1 14 Blose, Anthony P . 132 Borden, Joel A . 108, 111, 112 Boyd, Amy . 101 246 Index Bradley, James T . 163, 239 Brakefield, Jennifer A . 139, 141, 144 Brassinosteroid, 24-Epibrassinolide, Effects of on the Mitotic Index of Onion Root Tips . 1 14 Brassinosteroids and Plant Growth . 142 Brassinosteroids, Effect on Plant Growth . 1 03 Bresett, Michael . 99 Briles, D.E . 142 Brine Shrimp as Test Animals . 1 1 3 Brooks, Amy L . 143 Bryant, Barrett R . . . 1 54 Buckner, Ellen B . 76, 97, 137, 139, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148 Bullard, Cheryl K . 135 Burchfield, P . 101 Bumes, Brian S . 99, 112 Business, Schools of . 129 Camacho, Frank A . 1 1 3 Cameron, Marietta E . 1 5 1 Cao, Pan . 147 Capillary Tubes on the Spun Microhematocrit, Effect of . 145 Carthy, Ray . 99 Chandrachood, Shripad V . 153 Channel Catfish, Fat Distribution in Fed and Starved . 105 Chen, Wei-Bang . 149 Chen, Zin . 1 52 Cherokee Removal and the Trail of Tears . 1 59 Chika Nishijima . 2 1 1 Choosing Gamma, Methods for . 1 5 1 Christensen, Don . 1 27 Church Members’ Beliefs and Background, Effects on Mission Activities . 136 Clark, Ashley . 1 1 8 Clark, Ashley . 1 1 7 Clayton, Chris B . 123 Clegg, Jeffrey M . 124, 125 Cline, George . 106, 107 Clinical Errors . 1 44 Coale, Benjamin M . 104 Cohen, Glenn M . 1 1 5 Communications, Taking to the Next Level . 128 Computer Hassles Scale, Analysis of. . 136 Conflict Perceptions on the University Campus . 1 35 Consortium for Teacher Education in Environmental Studies . 97 Cordell, Mitchell . 1 1 6 Cormier, Loretta A . 1 32 Cotney, Katherine R . 1 22 Cox, Ritchie C . 145 Creech, Ronald E . 1 07 Critically Ill Patients, Needs of Family Members . 143 247 Index Cunningham, Adele W . 1 05 Cunningham, Brent . 121 Cyanide in Plant Tissue, Test for . 109 Cytochrome P-450 in Xenopus laevis Embryos . 48 D. A. Deinlein . 181 Darters, The Urban Life of . 1 04 Davenport, L.J . 1,131 Davis, Rakesha . 98 Deadly Science . 160, 187 Delecki, Anissa . 106, 107 Delecki, David . 107 Diamond, Alvin R., Jr . 224 Discordant Data, Investigation of . 1 1 9 Discordant Point, Testing for in Data Fit to a Straight-line Model . 1 1 7 Dodd, Keela L . 1 02 Doorenbos, Norman J . 100, 113, 120, 132, 137, 141, 161 Downey, Jason D . 1 1 9 Drennen, Daniel J . 1 04 Duncan, R. Scot . 123 Ebersole, Jun A . 130 Economic Dynamics of South Alabama . 126 Ehrhart, Llewellyn . 99 Elfstrom, Gerard . 160, 187 Embryonic Stem Cell Research . 239 Ernest, Cheryl A . 145 Erwin, Patrick M . 103 Estes, Jennifer . 99 Eutropication Detection Using Remote Sensing . 122 Evans, Brandi R . 1 12 Ezell, P. Taylor . 104. 107 F. M. Randall . 181 Faunal Analysis of the Desoto State Park . 158 Feeley, Christine A . 139, 141, 144 Ferguson, Mary Helen . 1 09 Field Biology, Teaching with Photography . 131 Fish Larvae, Growth Performance of. . 110 Fishes and Macroinvertebrates . 1 Fishes of A lahama . 95 Flex Dollar Program, Effects of Information and Incentives on a University . 128 Forest Management Practices . Ill Freshwater Amphipod, Survivorship of . 1 13 Frizzell, Laura A . 139, 144 Frogs on Herbal Ecstasy . 110 Gafford, Jerome . 128 Gale, T.K . 1 57 Garcia, Nelly . 1 40 Garmon, Wren . 97 248 Index Gaston, Janet . 107 Gauthier, Joseph J . 1 1 4 Gebremikael, Fesseha . 126, 127 Gene Expression Data, Component Analysis for Clustering . 155 Gene Expression, Component Analysis for . 1 50 Genetic Research, Metaphors and Change in . 1 6 1 Gibbs, V.K . 100, 106 Gibson, Greg . 48 Gibson, Linda . 141 Gilbert, Amanda . 117, 118 Governor George Wallace . 1 37 Gray Treefrom, Metabolism in . 106 Gregory, Brian W . 1 20 Gryko, Jan . 1 1 9 Gunda, Veera P . 155, 156 Gymnosperms of Southeast Alabama . 224 Hailey, William A . 1 26 Halli, Anne D . 146 Halli, Robert W . 87 Hamissou, Mijitaba . Ill, 131 Hammer, H.S . 100, 105, 106 Hanson, Pamela . 1 1 8 Harrison, Joe . 129 Hasanbelliu, Erion . 128 Hawkins, Ashley K . 139, 141, 144 Hays, M. Peggy . 1 44 Hazelhoff, Roald . 133 Health Grid, Forging a . 157 Heard, Chinita A . 69 Herbicide Control of Cannabis sativa L. and Papaver somniferum L . 1 00 Herrmann, Amber N . 124, 125 Hierarchical Design, Issues in . 1 52 Hill, M. Cassandra . 1 60 Hofer, Scott C . 1 54 Hollinghead, S.K . 1 42 Holstein, Harry . 124, 159 Honors College: Auburn University . 64 Honors Curriculum: Stillman . 69 Honors Engineering: UAB . 90 Honors Nursing: UAB . 76 Honors Program: UAB . 56 Honors Program: UAH . 66 Honors Program: University of Alabama . 87 Homer, Ryan . 113 Housing Unit Change in Huntsville . 121 Howell, W. Mike . 1 , 1 03, 1 1 4, 1 42 Hudiburg, Richard A . 1 36 249 Index Hughes, Virginia C . 145 Human Osteology at the Hammonds . 1 60 Hunsinger, Ronald N . 1 14 Image Retrieval, Learning Approach for Content Based . 1 52 Implant or English as Second Language . 1 47 Integrations from the Calculus . 125 J.R. Nanney . 181 Jackson, Daniel . 1 16 Jacobs, Bethany A . 239 Jannett, Thomas C . 1 52, 1 53 Jenkins, Ronald . 97, 114, 131 Jensen, Ron E . 107 Jerkins, William . 148 Jiang, Chen . 1 1 5 John B. Vincent . 21 1 Johnson, Adriel D . 98 Johnson, Chris . 99 Johnson, Jacqueline U . 98 Johnson, Lavonda . 139, 144 Johnson, R.J . 1 17 Johnston, Tanya J . 107 Jones, W. T . 100, 105, 134 Jones, William T . 157 Joshi, Parag . 152 Jowers, Leonard J . 148 Kastner, Ivy N . 99 Kelly, William E . 1 96 Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtles, Variation in Sex Ratios of. . 101 King, Gail . 159 Kirkpatrick, J. Diane . 1 14 Langford, Gabriel J . 108, 111, 112 Lawrence, A.L . 1 00, 106, 115 Lawrence, J.M . 100, 106 Lawson, Melinda . 98, 147 Lawyer, Scott . 1 29 Lin, Bochuan . 1 49 Lin, Yuehua . 150 Lira, D.R . 101 Little, Veronica . 102 Liu, Shih-hsi . 1 54 Liu, Suyi . 149 Loggerhead Sea Turtle, Simultaneous Comparison of Temperature on Nesting . 99 Long, Ada . 56 Long, Hayden C . 138 Longleaf Pine Communities of Oak Mountain . 123 Lynch, Adam . 116 Mack, Brett A . 104 250 Index Magnetic Anisotropy in Thin Films and Membranes . 1 16 Majid, Fayequa B . 125 Major, C. Smoot . 1 12 Marihuana, Early Adventures with . 1 6 1 Marine Biology Classroom, Modeling/Visualization in . 134 Marine Fish, Comparative Osteology of . 1 1 9 Martin, R. Erik . 99 Mathematics Courses, Approach to Enhance Teaching in Undergraduate . 125 Matte, Jacqueline A . 132 Mayas of Guatemala: Ancient People in the Modem World . 160 McAllister, Sara M . 1 43 McAllister, William K . 121 McClintock, James B . 109 McKinney, Steven B . 122, 154 McLaughlin, Ellen . 1 1 4 Meade, Mark . 102, 106, 110, 131 Mebane, John S . 66 Medical Decision-Making, Impact of Governmental Mandates on . 162 Medication Use in Elderly Patients . 1 39 Melas Syndrome . 138 Melvin, Paul D. Ill . 101 Memory, Smell and Structure, Unraveling the Molecular Choreography of. . 1 17 Mercury Analysis of Plants and Soil . 1 16 Mercury Speciation in Coal Combustion Systems . 157 Merem, Edmund C . 123 Metabolic Syndrome and Overweight Adolescents . 98, 1 47 Microinjection, Experimental Study of . 149 Migrant Workers and Gender Roles . 1 34 Mincher, Wade . 1 18 Mississippi Diamondback Terrapin, Activity of. . 108 Model Transformations, Framework for . 150 Moeller, M.B . 117, 119 Molecular Sequences Classification . 149 Montgomery, Marion . 224 Moore, Nikkya . 1 22 Morin, Dustin . 1 02 Morse, Kevin J . 1 Moser, Bernice . 110, 119 Mosquitofish Gills, Effects of Ionic Stress on . 1 15 Moss, Jacqueline . 143 Mowa Choctaw, History of . 158 Mullins, Dail . 56 Murdock, Chris . 1 02 Murphy, Maureen K . 1 1 7, 1 1 8 Murray, Anna Kate . 1 40 Muscarinic 3 Receptor Subtype in the Embryonic Chick Pancreas, The Effects of Cholinergic Agents on . 98 251 Index Nagy, Tim R . Nara, Yukio . Natural History Collections . Nelson, David H . 108, 111, Nichols, David Steffy . Nurses’ Attitude and Confidence . Nutritional Supplement Therapies . Olander, Charles . Optical Tweezers, Optimizing . Ortmann, Leonard W . Ousley, Amanda . 1 1 7, Owens, Janna Y . Park, Amber . Parkes, Larry D . Payne, Dorothy B . Pediatric Oncology Patients, Techniques Used by . Peer Presentations Through Technology . Pena, J. V . Perchlorate on Duckweed, Effects of . Personhood, Choice-Making as a Criterion . Peters, Kevin J . Pezzementi, Leo . Phloxine B, Copper Sulfate, and Formalin, Effects on Growth of Tetrahymena pyriformis . Pieroni, Robert E . 138, 139, Pitt, Robert E . Political Science Internship . Porter, Roland . Poverty and Crime in East Alabama . Powell, M.L . 1 00, Pregnant Women in a Substance Abuse Treatment Program . Prescribed Fire on the Herpetofauna, Effects of. . Pressure Ulcers, Guidelines for Management of . Preston, Taylor . . . Psychosocial Needs and Heart Surgery . Public Education in Social Science . QC-RT-PCR Assay for Evaluating SOX9 Expression, Development of . Quality Culture, Measuring an Organization’s . Ragan, Suzanah . Rahimian, Eric . 126, 127, Rayburn, James . 48, 1 06, Real Pain in the Joints . Reasoning Design Requirements . Redden, Chris . Reproductive Cycle of Lytechinus variegates, Proximate Composition of the Gonad Varies. .. Residential Growth in Madison Co. Al, Analyzing . Retailer, Super: The Good, The Bad and The Ugly . Rex, Aisha . 105 156 130 112 116 146 132 102 125 162 118 122 101 125 142 148 130 101 111 163 109 133 102 146 156 196 127 127 106 140 112 138 118 145 132 102 126 134 129 110 140 154 116 105 122 127 134 252 Index Rhabdomyolysis Secondary to Polypharmacy . 146 Ridley, Rebecca Turley . 1 58 Rigney, Doug . 90 Riley, Bettina H . 1 46 Robert D. Locy . 164 Roebuck, Jim D. Ill . 135 Rogers, Jack . 64 Ross, Jill Allard . 148, 162 Roundabouts and Conventional Intersections Designs . 155, 156 Ruthenium-based Cytotoxins on Saccharomyces cerevisiae . 118 Rypel, Andrew L . 95 Salgado, A.Q . 1 0 1 Scardamalia-Nelson, Cynthia . 1 08 Scarpino, Russell . 99 Science Courses for Non-Majors . 133 Scientific Fact with Ethical Value, A Model for Combining . 162 Scoliosis Screening: Legislatively Enacted Program for . 181 Scott, Jason . 99 Sea Urchin, Role of Copper in . 1 00 Sea Urchin, Selenium Toxicity in the Regular . 1 06 Seay, Marietta . 1 39, 1 44 Sediment Transport in Grass Swales . 1 56 Sedimentation Modeling in GIS . 1 54 Sewatynowicz, James . 160 Shelar, Kedar . 151,153 Shew, H. Wayne . 109 Shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei and Sea Urchin Lytechinus variegates, Polyculture of. . 1 15 Shroeder, B . 101 Siccardi, Anthony J. Ill . 1 1 5 Sidler, Michelle . 161 Simmons, Sharon W . 139, 141, 144 Sisiopiku, Virginia P . 1 55, 1 56 Sloan, Kenneth R . 151 Social Security Dilemma . 129 Song, Zhourui . 149 Sperm Production in Gambusia affinis as a Biomarker for Endocrine Disruption . 101 Sponge- Associated Bacteria, Significance of . 1 03 Static Analysis and Design of Fiber Reinforced Panel . 151, 153 Stinson, Charles . 1 1 6 Streptococcus pneumoniae and the Evolution of International penicillin Resistant Strains . 1 42 Stultz, Laura K . 1 1 8 Sun, Ying . 151 Surface Mole Fractions in Mixed Films, Quantitative Determination of. . 120 T .E. Denton . 1 8 1 T. Wayne Barger . 164 Thacker, N.C . 1 1 7 Thacker, Robert W . 103, 113 253 Index Thomas, Jennifer J . Thompson, D. Brian . Thrower, Tasha Niquel . Timmons, Joe . Trinuclear Chrominun(III) Carboxylate 4,4’-Bipyridine Assemblies Troyer, Rebecca . Turtle Species, Similarity in Carapace Shape Among . Twumasi, Yaw A . Uddin, Nasim . Underwater Distributed Sensor, Simulation of An . Urban-Rural Fringe, Leapfrog Analysis at . Vega, L.M . Vertebrate Road-kill Survey . W. Mike Howell . Wakoko, Florence . Walker, Scott . Walleye and Sauger, Introgressive Hybridization Between . Warren, Natalie Jennings . Waterbodies, Trophic State Index for . Watts, Randy J . Watts, S.A . Wei, Chun . Wellness Garden, Birmingham’s . Wibbels, Thane . Wildlife Habitat Conservation . Williams, Rich Q . Windham, R. Jeannine . Wood, J. Lynn . Wood, Linda F . Woods, Michael . Wy;neken, Jeanette . Xiong, Ying . Yancie, Konard . . . Young, Britt . Young, Christopher . Zhang, Chengcui . . 137 . 124, 125 . 136 . 130 . 211 . 159 . 107 . 123 . 151, 153 . 153 . 121 . 101 . 108 . 131 . 135 . 115 . 107 . 103, 142 . 104 . 105 100, 105, 106, 115, 134 . 150, 155 . 133 . 99, 101, 102 . 123 . 123 . 158 . 1 . 131 . 224 . 99 . 145 . 1 . 110 . 124 . 152 254 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. GORGAS SCHOLARSHIP AWARDS April 1, 2005 Today the Gorgas Scholarship committee announced the rankings of the finalists of the 2005 Alabama Science Talent Search. The Search was held at the meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science at Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham, Alabama. The winner of the first-place tuition grant of $4000 was: Alexander William Dillard, 109 Stoney Creek Drive, Florence, AL 35633, Florence High School, 1201 Bradshaw Dr. Florence, AL 35630, Teacher-Lori Chittam. First alternate and winner of a tuition grant of $3000 was: Tia Filhiol, 11795 Redland Road, Tallassee, AL 36078, Wetumpka High School, 1251 Coosa River Parkway, Wetumpka, AL 36092, Teacher-Virginia Vilardi. Second alternate and winner of a tuition grant of $2000 was: M. Andrew Nix, 7129 61s' Avenue East, Cottondale, AL 35453, Paul W. Bryant High School, 6315 Mary Harmon Bryant Drive, Cottondale, AL 35453, Teacher-Greg Thompson. Third alternate and winner of a tuition grant of $1 500 was: MaryMarie Elise McClanahan, 7736 Dr. Kennedy Drive, Killen, AL 35634, Brooks High School, 4300 Hwy 72, Killen, AL 35645, Teacher-Vicki Farina. Fourth alternate and winner of a tuition grant of $1000 was: David Cornelius Points, III, 3815 Williamsburg Drive, Huntsville, AL 35810, J.O. Johnson High School, 6201 Pueblo Drive, Huntsville, AL 35810, Teacher-Rebecca Brown. 255 Gorgas Awards (F) National Finalist, (S) National Semi-finalist Unranked Finalists: Nirmil V. Choradia, 2488 Magnolia Place, Birmingham, AL 35142, The Altamont School, 4801 Altamont Road, Birmingham, AL 35222, Teacher-Margaret Trent. Sarah Marie N ikies, 104 70th Way North East, Tuscaloosa, AL 35404, Paul W. Bryant High School, 6315 Mary Harmon Bryant Drive, Cottondale, AL 35453, Teacher- Warren Brown. Vivian Yeh-Shih Want, 1312 Hiwan Trail, Huntsville, AL 35802, Virgil I. Grissom High School, 7901 Bailey Cove Rd., Huntsville, AL 35802, Teacher-Debbie Ormond. The rankings were established by a panel of judges consisting of department heads, deans and professors from many of the leading universities and industries in Alabama. Winners and finalists in the Gorgas Contest receive offers of tuition scholarships to colleges and universities in Alabama for the study of science. The Gorgas Scholarship Program is named for General William Crawford Gorgas, the Alabama physician who conquered yellow fever in the Panama Canal Zone and later became the Surgeon General of the United States Army. The purposes of the Gorgas competition are to promote interest in science and to aid in the education of promising students. 256 Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 3-4, July/October 2005. Minutes AAS Spring Executive Committee Meeting Birmingham Southern College Birmingham, AL March 31, 2005 Call to Order and Approval of Minutes (A) President Ron Jenkins called the meeting to order at 6:37 p.m. Minutes of the October 30, 2004 meeting at Samford University provisionally approved with final approval to be obtained after being sent electronically to members of the committee. Officer Reports (B) 1. Eugene Omasta (Board of Trustees) had no written report. • Introduced trustees who were present • Reminded members that luncheon here on Thursday 2. Ron Jenkins (President) submitted the following written report: The following items have been accomplished in recent months. • In collaboration with members of the executive committee, the Executive Director and the local arrangement committee at Birmingham Southern planned the arrangements for the spring 2005 meeting. • The following activities were coordinated with the President-Elect, Larry J. Davenport, in the organization of the Stem Cell Symposium scheduled for April 1, 2005. a. By December 31, 2004 five speakers were secured to provide 30 minute presentations: Dr. Dennis Sansom, Samford University; Dr. Tim Townes, UAB; Dr. Kevin Roth, UAB; Dr. James Bradley, Auburn University; and Dr. Chris Klug. b. A symposium flyer was developed and circulated to AAS members, to local news papers, television stations and WBHM radio station. High schools with AP biology programs in the Birmingham area were invited to attend the symposium. c. Dr. Davenport and I hosted the speakers to an organizing lunch on March 21, 2005. • In coordination with the President-Elect, Larry J. Davenport, and the Second-Vice President, I worked to recruit new officers to replace retirees. • With the approval of the AAS Executive Committee in October 2005, 1 interacted with Safaa Al-Hamdani of the Department of Biology Jacksonville State University and James Bradley on the transition of the editorship of the AAS Journal following the March annual meeting. 257 Minutes 3. Larry Davenport (President Elect) submitted the following written report for activities for the past year: • Attended site visit at Birmingham-Southern College, 20 July 2004 • Assisted President Ron Jenkins with decisions of the Academy, including replacement of Treasurer and Editor of the journal • Attending meeting of Symposium speakers, 22 March 2005 • Contacted committee chairs to renew their positions Davenport also discussed the importance of the upcoming Symposium and the role of the Academy in educating the public on current regional and national topics. Davenport stressed the need for the Academy to have a Symposium at every meeting and to coordinate our efforts to present the best possible program. • Ellen Buckner inquired as to the possibility of taping the Symposium • Clyde Stanton will see if taping possible • B. J. Bateman offered the use of the Junior Academy’s video camera 4. David Nelson (Second Vice-President) reported: • Process underway of contacting individuals committed to Academy who would be available to serve as incoming second vice-president • Announced that the four current trustees will graciously continue as trustees 5. M. Peggy Hays (Secretary) submitted the following report. The following activities were completed as part of the duties of the Secretary: • Transferred all checks/cash received for dues to the Treasurer after recording information on the master roll • Provided transmittal log to Treasurer each time checks forwarded • Provided editor of Journal with membership rolls, section lists, and mailing labels as requested • Made requested mailing addresses and/or email address changes to the master roll upon receipt of information from individual members • Provided membership rolls to Membership Chair as requested • Compiled minutes and reports for fall 2004 Executive Committee meeting and forwarded to Journal editor • Corresponded with individual members per email/phone with questions re/membership, dues, annual meeting, and paper and poster presentations • Sent electronic Dues Statement for renewal to members per request of Executive Director • Sent electronic Call For Papers to members as requested by Executive Director • Distributed letter from Executive Director per electronic format • Sent electronic message per Executive Director to notify members that program booklet and pre-registration for annual meeting available on website • Facilitated, with the assistance of Ina Warboys, in Math Magic setting up a display in the vendor exhibits at the Annual Meeting. Math Magic contributed $75.00 toward the expenses of one of the break sessions. 258 Minutes 6. Taba Hamissou (Treasurer) reported: • Appreciated the efforts of Betsy Dobbins, previous treasurer, and Peggy Hays, secretary, in assisting him in beginning the treasurer’s position • Forwarded written report to Eugene Omasta • Summarized that monies received from Academy dues decreased Larry Davenport suggested that Section Chairs ensure that at least one of the authors is a member. Eugene Omasta reminded that the monies received from dues have decreased over the past five years. Discussion followed as to how to accomplish the dues process and the follow up • Michael Moeller suggested a list be distributed at the fall meeting • Richard Hudiberg volunteered to investigate electronic submission • Ron Jenkins concluded that by the fall meeting Richard Hudiberg will explore online payment with a credit card 7. Jim Bradley (Journal Editor) submitted the following written report: The final issue of Volume 75 (2004) is now with the printer. This issue contains full length papers from last year’s inaugural meeting of Section XII, Bioethics and History & Philosophy of Science. The January, 2005, issue (Vol. 76 No. 1) will contain papers from last year’s symposium on Honors Programs plus several other research papers and book reviews. This issue will be ready for the printer in about one month. I will then turn over the editorship to the new editor so that the first issue for the new editor to oversee will be the 2005 meeting abstract issue (April, 2005; Vol. 76 No. 2). The new editor will of course imprint his unique mark upon the Journal. As outgoing editor, I will take the liberty of suggesting two things: 1) that book reviews continue to be solicited and 2) that institution of a “Letters to the Editor” section be considered. I believe that the latter would increase the interest of the membership in the Journal. I greatly appreciate the honor of having served as editor for the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science for these many years. Any success that the Journal has had under my editorship is due largely to 1) what I learned by observation from Professor Bill Mason who edited the Journal before me, and 2) the conscientious and dependable assistance of Sue Bradley in getting each issue to the printer in good form. Bradley discussed the written report with the reminder that abstracts are to be sent to the new editor. • Prakash Sharma inquired if papers published in this journal can be referred to as “refereed” • Consensus: This is a refereed journal 259 Minutes • Prakash Sharma recommended a notice be sent to each university provost as a reminder of the status of the journal Ellen Buckner stated that the Journal Editorship has been one of the most stable positions of the Academy. She offered her salute to Jim Bradley as the Journal Editor. 8. B. J. Bateman (Counselor to AJAS) reported: • Competition has not yet begun but already several concerns • There is a conflict with state science fair on Friday morning so AJAS moved to Thursday evening • The number of schools who are involved is only five. Ellen Buckner and he met to discuss the systematic decline in numbers over 20 years • There is a need for the review of the event structure in order to increase the number of entrants • Two judges needed for the 7:45 p.m. competition; judges receive a stipend plus expenses • Discussion followed: • Bateman reported that one of the difficulties for students is completing the projects in a three-month period • Ellen Buckner suggested including students who were home schooled; Bateman replied that that might help and is under consideration • Bateman stated that one item under exploration is greater use of the web site • David Nelson reminded that science interest has decreased in his area • Eugene Omasta proposed that in the planning that the Academy consider the Science Olympiad as it does “fun stuff” 1 1 . Stephen Watts (Counselor to AAS) submitted the following report: The annual meeting for the AAAS affiliates convened on February 18, 2005 in Washington DC. All state Academies maintain an association with the American Association for the Advancement of Science. We are members of the Section on Agriculture, Food and Renewable Resources. The summary of minutes from the meeting included the following: “Dr. Gil Omenn, President elect of AAAS and Program Chair for the 2006 meeting in St. Louis, stopped by for comments. The theme for the 2006 AAAS Annual meeting in St. Louis is “Grand Challenges.” Dr. Omenn discussed many different aspects of the 2006 Grand Challenges theme. He also thanked the section for its participation in the 2005 meeting. Some discussion items were — different ways of thinking, society issues, science literacy, why does public not accept scientific method and evidence and others. He indicated that present 260 Minutes budget projections for research and development funding for the next few years will be tough.” We welcome the opportunity for any AAS member to attend the AAAS meeting on our behalf. Information about the AAS can be obtained at www . aaasmeetin g , or g . 12. Section Officers: No written reports were submitted by Section Officers. 13. Larry Krannich (Executive Director) submitted the following report: Since the last Executive Committee Meeting, my activities have focused on the following: • Major efforts have been made promoting the 2005 annual meeting of the academy — meeting/communicating with BSC hosts, preparing and distributing the annual call for papers/posters, working with section chairs to solicit papers/posters, and distributing the URL’s for Alabama colleges and universities for developing e-mail contact lists. URL’s are given at the end of this report. • A new initiative this year was the organization of the inaugural Alabama Chemistry Undergraduate Research Symposium to be jointly hosted by the Academy and local sections of the American Chemical Society and held in conjunction with the annual Academy meeting. Working with the Section II Chair, Dr. Jan Gryko, fliers were developed and distributed to all Alabama colleges and universities, personal e-mails were sent to all chemistry faculty, contacts were made with student chemistry groups to promote the symposium, and support was obtained from ACS local sections in Alabama. Three ACS local sections (Alabama, North Alabama, and Wilson Dam) contributed a total of $1,500 to support the symposium with travel awards, competition awards, and mementoes. Memento tote bags and certificates have been designed and produced for all participating students. • January and February were spent coordinating with section chairs, symposium chair, junior academy, science fair coordinator, science Olympiad coordinator, and general program chair in the development of the program and program booklet for the 82nd Annual Meeting of the Academy. The program booklet for the 82nd annual meeting was constructed, posted on the web by mid-February, and printing supervised to assure a March 10th delivery. The electronic version has been continually updated and is the official version of the program. • Discussions have been carried out with Ellen Buckner about future directions of the Gorgas competition, because of the withdrawal of INTEL from involvement in statewide competition. We are meeting on Wednesday, March 30th, with the Gorgas committee to discuss and finalize plans for 2006. • Troy University and Tuskegee University will host annual meetings of the Academy in 2006 and 2007 respectively. Ken Sundberg will serve as the local chair for the meeting. 261 Minutes URL's of Alabama Colleges and Universities Alabama A & M Umv Alabama State Umv. Athens State Umv. Auburn Univ. Auburn Univ. Montgomery Birmingham Southern College Columbus State Univ. Huntingdon College Jacksonville State Univ. Judson College Miles College Oakwood College Samford Univ. Spring Hill College Stillman College Talladega College Troy Univ. Troy Univ. Dothan Troy Univ Montgomery Tuskegee University University of Alabama University of Alabama at Birmingham University of Alabama in Huntsville University of Mobile University of Montevallo University of North Alabama University of South Alabama University of West Alabama http://www.aamu edu/ httpV/www.alasu edu/ http:/Av\v\v. athens.edu/ http://www.aubum.edu/ http :// ww w . aum . edu/ http://www. bsc.edu/ httpVAwvw. colstate.edu/ http:/Av\vw. huntinudon.edu/ http://www.i su . edu/ http://www.iudson.edu/ http ://www. miles . edu/ http :/A vwvv.oakwood.edu/ httpVAvww. samford. edu/ http :// www . she . edu/ http://stillman.edu/ http://talladega.edu/ http://www.troY, edu/ http://www.tsud.edu/ httpVAvww. tsum.edu/ http://www. tuskegee. edu/ http:/Avww ua.edu/ http://www.uab.edu/ http://www.uah.edu/ http://www. umobile.edu/ httpV/www. montevallo. edu/ http://www. una.edu/ http.VAvww. southalabama.edu/ http://www. uwa.edu/ Discussion followed regarding the second bullet point. Stephen Watts suggested adding the URL’s of Alabama colleges and universities to the website. Richard Hudiberg will add to website. Committee Reports (C) 1 . Local Arrangements (Clyde Stanton) reported: • Completed checks on all audio visual equipment today • Explained available audio visual equipment, including the ability to support jump drives and Macintosh computers • Fifty six (56) presenters used the online registration form • Registration in place and ready 262 Minutes 2. Finance (Eugene Omasta) submitted the following report: The Alabama Academy of Science continues to be in excellent financial condition with total assets of $74,610*. The assets for the past five years as reported at the Fall Executive Committee meetings and Annual Spring meetings of the Academy and the dues revenue for the same periods are listed below: Period Assets Change Period Assets Change (End of Period) (End of Period) 1/1 - 10/16/2000 $72,814 1/1 - 12/31/2000 $74,049 1/1 - 10/12/2001 $1,764 $71,763 -$1,051 1/1 - 12/31/2001 $75,813 1/1 - 10/12/2002 -$3,000 $72,197 $434 1/1 - 12/31/2002 $72,813 1/1 - 10/12/2003 $1,987 $71,403 -$794 1/1 - 12/31/2003 $74,800 1/1 - 10/12/2004 $74,610*.... $74,265 . -$190 $2,862 1/1 - 12/31/2004 Period Dues Change 1/1 - 12/31/2000 $3,935 1/1 - 12/31/2001 $11,180 $7,245 1/1 - 12/31/2002 $9,920 -$1,260 1/1 -12/31/2003 $7,785 -$2,135 1/1 - 12/31/2004 $4,930* -$2,855 Although the assets of the Academy have remained stable during the past five years, the dues revenue indicates a declining trend. 1 recommend we explore ways of increasing revenues and in particular increasing membership. * Estimated At the meeting, Omasta discussed the decline. Ron Jenkins suggested the need for more publicity. Stephen Watts reminded that information on the Academy would be important to teachers and students as abstracts published. Jenkins suggested further exploration of this issue. 3. Membership (Mark Meade)— No report. 4. Research (Stephen Watts) submitted the following report: This year 19 students (down from 26 last year) applied for travel awards to the Birmingham Southern meeting. All were presenting papers or posters. Awards ranged from $15 to $35 depending on apparent need (distance to meeting). All are presenters. Budgeted amount is $750. In addition, 8 students (down from 10 last year) applied for research grants. The committee is evaluating the grants and most of these will be awarded partially or in full 263 Minutes (budgeted amount is $2,4000). Support for book purchases was no longer allowed this year. Several students have asked if they could apply for funds to attend other meetings, and this should be discussed further. An additional 40 students (up from 26) have applied for the Research Paper/Poster Competition in several sections. New (slightly modified) evaluation forms and suggested criteria were sent to all section chairs. All categories of awards and activities were handled electronically for the second time. Several minor modifications may be needed for next year, but in general electronic submissions greatly improved the process and eliminated a gruesome paper trial. • Watts discussed the written report: ■ Question raised as to whether students should be funded to go to other meetings ■ Ron Jenkins stated that students need to ask those organizations for funds ■ Consensus: Students will be unable to obtain funding to attend other meetings 5. Long-Range Planning (Ken Marion) submitted the following report: Committee Members: Ken Marion (Chair), Dan Holliman, Adriane Ludwick, Eugene Omasta The Long-Range Planning Committee continues to believe that our primary long-term focus should be on membership recruitment and retention. Accordingly, in support of this goal, we recommend the following: 1 ) Continue to organize special symposia on topics that have appeal or interest to students and the general public. 2) Continue to secure most future meeting locations that are near the central part of the state. 3) Place abstracts on-line before the meeting. 4) Examine possible changes in format and timing of meeting events (especially the banquet). 5) Explore the possibility of our larger sections having an undergraduate symposium or research competition (with prizes, etc.) weaved into the meeting. 6) Initiate periodic mass information e-mails to members and prospective members. We recommend that an Ad Hoc Committee or task force examine these possible actions as part of a structured plan for the recruitment/retention of members. The viability of the Academy ultimately rests on positive steps in this direction. At the meeting, Marion discussed the written report including changing the format of the meeting structure and the possibility of a Chemistry symposium. • Recommended mass emails to select group of colleagues 264 Minutes • Recommended next president charged with increasing membership Discussion followed: • Stephen Watts suggested sending message to faculty and graduate students regarding upcoming meeting • Ron Jenkins suggested Section Chairs send the announcement • Jenkins charged the Membership Committee with forwarding the list of members to each Section Chair who would individualize the list according to the faculty at the specific colleges/universities • Eugene Omasta cautioned that individuals will delete electronic messages if sender unknown 6. Auditing-Senior Academy (David Schedler) — No report. 7. Auditing- Junior Academy (Govind Menon) — Report given to B. J. Bateman. 8. Editorial board and Associate Journal Editors (Thane Wibbels) -No report. 9. Place and Date of Meeting (Thomas Bilbo) — No report. 10. Newsletter — Open. 1 1 . Public Relations (Richard Buckner) — No report. 12. Archives (Troy Best) — No report. 13. Science and Public Policy (Dail Mullins) — No report. 14. Gardner Award (Prakash Sharma) — The Wright Gardener Award Committee has unanimously selected Eugene Omasta as the recipient of this year’s award. The prestigious award will be presented at the Annual Meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science during the banquet on Friday, April 1, 2005, at 7:00 p.m. 1 5. Carmichael Award (Richard Hudiberg) submitted the following report: The article selected for the E. B. Carmichael Award for 2004 is “Intervascular Pit Membranes with Tori in Wood of Planera aquatica J. F. Gmel” by Roland R. Dute, Angela L. Martin, and Steven Jansen. This article appeared in the January 2004 issue of The Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science 75( 1 ):7-2 1 . There were thirteen articles reviewed by the committee. These articles were either in the January 2004 (5 articles) or July/October 2004 (8 articles) issues of volume 75 of The Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science. The committee extends appreciation to Dr. Velma Richardson who has served as chair of this committee for several years. Dr. Richardson has served beyond the call of duty, including coordinating the review process this year even though her term on the committee had expired. 265 Minutes 16. Resolutions (Priscilla Holland) — Resolutions will be presented at Banquet. 17. Nominating Committee (David Nelson) — No report. 1 8. Mason Scholarship (Michael Moeller) submitted the following report: We had six complete applications for the William H. Mason Fellowship this year. After considering the application material, the committee selected Ms. Bethany Knox for the $1000 fellowship. She has been notified of this award and has accepted the conditions of the Fellowship. Ms. Knox will receive her B.S. with a major in physics and minors in mathematics and psychology from Samford University. She is enrolling at the University of Alabama in Birmingham for her teacher certification program. Because of the truly outstanding pool of fellowship applications we received in 2005, the Committee respectfully requests the Executive Committee consider awarding two Mason Fellowships for this year. This has been done once before, in 2001. The committee chairperson is very appreciative of the work of Dr. Malcolm Braid and Dr. Sandy Caudle in reading and rating the applications. At the meeting, Moeller discussed the written report, especially the awarding of two fellowships this year. • Stephen Watts moved that a second fellowship be awarded this year; Ken Marion seconded • Motion carried 19. Gorgas Scholarship Program (Ellen Buckner) submitted the following report: The Gorgas Scholarship Competition is undergoing major changes. The committee met this afternoon to consider changes for the 2005-2006 competition. The Intel National Science Talent Search has discontinued its affiliation with the State Science talent Search. Our Gorgas competition was one of only 3 active state competitions. I am continuing to work with Kathryn Silkin of Science Service to explore options and will pursue this further. However at this time it is imperative that we establish an alternate mechanism for applications. Effective 2005-2006 the Gorgas Competition will accept its own applications. The deadline for those applications will be January 2nd of each year. Applications will be submitted electronically but with an additional signature page assuring student compliance with policies and rules of the competition and a teacher endorsement of the application. A research report and transcript will be required but other materials will be reduced compared to the current Intel application. Materials specific to individual projects may include human participants approval or other documentation. Students may also submit copies of the Intel application submitted nationally. A flier announcing the changes is being circulated to teachers and student representatives at this meeting. Applications to the Gorgas competition are limited to High School seniors. The Committee is looking at developing its own website which can be linked to the AAS site and other State Department of Education web pages. Kay Worley of the Alabama 266 Minutes Power Foundation has joined the committee for Art Beattie. The APF Legacy fund also funds expenses of the competition and could assist with website and other expenses. We look forward to working with Richard Hudiburg in these new procedures. Judging procedures will be expanded to include earlier review in January from which to designate finalists. We will adhere to the rules for Intel and other national high school student competitions for disqualifications. Finalists will be notified in February with final competition in conjunction with the AAS meeting as is currently done. We are working with B.J. Bateman and the AJAS-JSHS and Science Fair competitions to encourage participation. The finals of the Gorgas Competition will be held Friday, April Is' in Room SSC 105/108 of the Stephens Science Center on the Birmingham-Southern College campus. Finalists were named from seven high schools from across the State. The Committee would like to recognize the outstanding teacher-sponsors of these finalists. Their work in encouraging students to enter the competition is instrumental to both the success of the program and to the success of the students. These are as follows: Brooks High School Florence High School The Altamont School Virgil I. Grissom High School J. O. Johnson High School Paul W. Bryant High School Wetumpka High School Vicki Farina Lori Chittam Margaret Trent Debbie Ormond Rebecca Brown & Rachel Purnell Warren Brown & Greg Thompson Virginia Vilardi I would like to thank Dr. Rodney Dunning for his excellent assistance in preparations for the Gorgas competition and recruitment of judges from Birmingham-Southern College. I would like to thank the many judges who read papers and will be assisting in the final judging on Friday. Please attend the open viewing of Gorgas exhibits from 3:00 to 5:00 in Room 105/1 08 of Stephens Science Center. The winners will be announced at the Joint Banquet. Attachment: Flier At the meeting, Buckner discussed the report with attention to the State Science talent search. Buckner emphasized the need to: • Establish new criteria and an application process • Develop a web site • Expand the competition so that open to more individuals • Advertise available scholarships Buckner asked for comments/discussion regards these major changes. • Stephen Watts asked for clarification regarding which colleges offered Gorgas • B.J. Bateman and Buckner discussed the scholarships awarded and the restrictions • Buckner thanked Clyde Stanton for his assistance with the competition 267 Minutes 20. Electronic Media (Richard Hudiburg) submitted the following report: 1 . Revised and updated on-line paper and poster title submission forms for each section of the Alabama Academy of Science for the 82ud annual meeting. The forms are on the Academy website: http:/Avww. alabamaacademvofscience.org. The web site has the on¬ line submission forms for the committee on Research paper and poster competition and travel. Submission results for 2005 annual meeting and in parenthesis are last year’s submissions: • There were 171 (174) paper and poster on-line submissions to various sections. • There were 48 (33) paper and poster competition on-line submissions. • There were 27 (34) travel request submissions. 2. In consultation with the Executive Director of AAS, developed electronic submission procedure for the INAUGURAL ALABAMA STATEMWIDE CHEMISTRY UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH SYMPOSIUM There were a total of 23 titles submitted on the AAS website. 3. Updated information on the AAS website for officers and committees. Established links for 82nd annual meeting information to the Birmingham Southern College meeting website. 4. Responded to various requests from the President of AAS, Executive Director of AAS and other members concerning changes to the AAS website. 5. Linked a downloadable PDF file or Word File of the 82nd meeting program provided b> the Executive Director of AAS. A link was placed on the AAS web page to a downloadable copy of membership form to the AAS. 6. During the next year the AAS website will be redesigned to change its look and operation. At the meeting, Fludiberg discussed the report. • Asked if any discussion regarding improvements • Suggested consideration be given to instituting an automatic “dues due” form instead of the current labor intensive format D. Old Business (D) There was no old business. E. New Business (E) There was no new business. F. Adjournment (F) The meeting was adjourned at 9:32 p.m. M. Peggy Hays Secretary 268 Alabama Academy of Science Journal Scope of the Journal The Alabama Academy of Science publishes significant, innovative research of interest to a wide audience of scientists in all areas. Papers should have a broad appeal, and particularly welcome will be studies that break new ground or advance our scientific understanding. Information for the Authors • Manuscript layout should follow the specific guidelines of the journal. • The authors are encouraged to contact the editor (E-mail: sah@isu.edu) prior to paper submission to obtain detailed guidelines for the author. • At least one author must be a member of the Alabama Academy of Science (except for Special Papers). • The correspondent author should provide the names and addresses of at least two potential reviewers. • Assemble the manuscript in the following order: Title Page, Abstract Page, Text, Brief Acknowledgments (if needed), Literature Cited, Figure Legends, Tables, Figures. What and Where to Submit The original and two copies of the manuscript and a cover letter should be submitted to the following. Dr. Safaa Al-Hamdani Editor- Alabama Academy of Science Journal Biology Department Jacksonville State University 700 Pelham Road North Jacksonville, AL 36265-1602 Review Procedure and Policy Manuscripts will be reviewed by experts in the research area. Manuscripts receiving favorable reviews will be tentatively accepted. Copies of the reviewers’ comments (and reviewer-annotated files of the manuscript, if any) will be returned to the correspondent author for any necessary revisions. The final revision and electronic copies are then submitted to the /Alabama Academy of Science Journal/ Editor. The author is required to pay $100 for partial coverage of printing costs of the article. EP a O | S i Q_ C \ o , The Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science. 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