THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Qll . Jfe8 V. 79 no. 1 Jan 2008 VOLUME 79 JANUARY 2008 NO. 1 Cover Photograph: Diana Fritillary (Speyeria Diana) Photo courtesy of: Bill Garland, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biologist, Anniston, Alabama. Photo was taken at the Talladega National Forest, Alabama. Editorial Comment: On behalf of the Alabama Academy of Science, 1 would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to the following for their valuable contributions in reviewing the manuscripts of this issue: Dr. Robert Angus, University of Alabama at Birmingham Dr. Pieter Baas, Leiden University (Nederland) Dr. James Bradley, Auburn University Dr. Elise Irwin, Auburn University Dr. Mark Meade, Jacksonville State University Mr. David Myer, Jacksonville State University Dr. James Rayburn, Jacksonville State University Dr. Heather Sutton, Kennesaw State University Dr. Elisabeth Wheeler, North Carolina State University Dr. David Whetstone, Jacksonville State University Dr. Michael Woods, Troy University Safaa Al-Hamciani Editor, Alabama Academy of Science Journal THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE VOLUME 79 JANUARY 2008 NO.l EDITOR; Safaa Al-Hamdani, Biology Department, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AE 36265 ARCHIVIST; Troy Best, Department of Zoology and Wildlife Science, Auburn University, Auburn, AE 36849 EDITORIAE BOARD; James T. Bradley, Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 David H. Myer, English Department, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL 36265-1602 Prakash Sharma, Department of Physics, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088 Publication and Subscription Policies; Submit all manuscripts and pertinent correspondence to the Editor. Each manuscript will receive at least two simultaneous reviews. For style details, follow instructions to Authors (see inside back cover). Reprints requests must be addressed to Authors. Subscriptions and Journal Exchanges; Address all Correspondence to the Chairman of the Editorial Board. ISSN 002-4112 BENEFACTORS OF THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The following have provided financial support to partially defray publication costs of the journal. AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY AT MONTGOMERY BIRMINGHAM-SOUTHERN COLLEGE JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIVERSITY SAMFORD UNIVERSITY TROY UNIVERSITY TUSKEGEE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM UNIVERSITY OF MONTEVALLO UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ALABAMA UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA UNIVERSITY OF WEST ALABAMA Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1 , January 2008 CONTENTS ARTICLES: Distribution of Canebrakes in 19"' Century Alabama John A. Barone, Jessica W. Beck, Matthew B. Potter, Susan R. Sneed, Karen E. Stephenson and Edgar J. Dollar 11 . 1 Torus-Bearing Pit Membranes in Seleeted Speeies of the Oleaceae Roland R. Dute, Steven Jansen, Charles Holloway and Kyle Paris . 12 Remediation of Enapl-Contaminated Sand by Using Humic Acid as a Surfactant David Steffy and James Rayburn . 23 BIOGRAPHY . 36 Dr. Ronald P. Kiene, Senior Marine Scientist at Dauphin Island Sea Lab, University of South Alabama MINUTES of the Executive Committee Meeting . 38 MEMBERSHIP LIST . 57 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79. No. I, January 2008 DISTRIBUTION OFCANEBRAKES IN 19'" CENTURY ALABAMA John A. Barone, Jessica W. Beck, Matthew B. Potter, Susan R. Sneed, Karen E. Stephenson and Edgar J. Dollar II Department of Biology, 4225 University Ave., Columbus State University, Columbus, Georgia 3 1 907-5645 Correspondence; Barone, J. A. (barone_john@Colstate.edu) ABSTRACT Canebrakes are single-species stands oi Aniudinaria gigantea, a native bamboo of the southeastern United States. Though canebrakes are now considered an endangered eeosystem, little is known about their historic distribution. Early survey maps and other historical sources were e.xamined to determine the extent and location of canebrakes in 19''^ century Alabama. About 78,900 hectares of canebrakes or probable canebrakes are indicated on the survey maps. These canebrakes were located predominately in the floodplains of the Alabama and Black Warrior rivers and their tributaries, with the greatest concentrations in Lowndes, Dallas, Wilcox and Marengo counties. A comparison of these canebrakes with a soil map of the state suggests that large canebrakes were most common on alluvial soils of river terraces as well as nearby slopes. Historical sources, such as travelogues, journals and diaries, eonfirm the presenee of extensive canebrakes in this part of the state but also suggest that other large canebrakes were likely present along the Mobile and Tombigbee rivers and across much of the Black Belt. Canebrakes appear to have been present but scarcer in the northern part of the state. INTRODUCTION Anindinaria gigantea (Walter) Muhl. is a native bamboo of the southeastern United States that frequently grows in dense, single-species stands called canebrakes (Hughes, 1951; Meanley, 1972; Marsh, 1977; Judziewicz et al., 1999). Growing from an underground stem, the upright culms or “canes” of A. gigantea can reach a height of 8m with a diameter of 2cm (Hughes, 1951; Meanley, 1972; Judziewiez et ai, 1999). The density of canes in a canebrake can reach 49,000 per hectare, though the understory is often open because of the thickness of the evergreen canopy and occasional flooding (Meanley, 1972). Contemporary canebrakes are typically found in mesic, fertile soils and are most common in elevated terraees along rivers where flooding is rare (Judziewiez et al., 1999). Historically, a variety of animals have used canebrakes as habitat, including bison, swamp rabbit, canebrake rattlesnake, black bear, and Bachman’s warbler (Remsen, 1986; Platt et ai, 2001). Extensive eanebrakes of A. gigantea covering many heetares were a common 1 Distribution of Historic Canebrakes feature of the historic landscape of the Southeast. A second species of cane, /I. (Walter) Muhl (sometimes regarded as a subspecies of ,d. gigantea) also occurs in the region and may also have been present in historical canebrakes. Over the last two centuries, these canebrakes have been mostly eliminated by ranching and agriculture (Hughes, 1966; Platt and Brantley, 1997; Brantley and Platt, 2001; Ethridge, 2003; Stewart, 2007). Noss et al. (1995) suggest that canebrakes have experienced a 98% decline in abundance since European settlement, making them a critically endangered ecosystem. However, little is known about either the current (Brantley and Platt, 2001) or the historical extent and distribution of canebrakes for any part of the Southeast. Early government land surveys are an important source of information on historic vegetation in the United States (Whitney and DeCant, 2001 ). Eor most of the southeastern states, these surveys were conducted by the federal General Eand Office (GEO) in the first half of the 19"’ century. Maps and notes produced during these surveys have been used by ecologists to describe a variety of historical landscapes (e.g. Delcourt, 1976; Schafale and Hareombe, 1983; Nelson, 1997; Bragg, 2003). Despite a variety of limitations (Noss, 1985; Whitney and DeCant, 2001), these surveys provide a starting point for developing maps of historical vegetation, including canebrakes. The goal of this study was to characterize the distribution of historic canebrakes in Alabama. Three approaches were used. First, data from early land surveys were compiled to create a map showing the location and extent of canebrakes in the first part of the 19"’ century. Second, this map was compared to a detailed soil map to determine what types of soils and circumstances favored the growth of extensive historical canebrakes. And third, other types of historical sources, such as letters, diaries, and travelogues, were reviewed for accounts of the location and size of historic canebrakes. Sueh sources confirmed the existence of many canebrakes on the survey maps and established the presence of canebrakes in other parts of the state. MATERIALS AND METHODS Data to create a map of historic canebrakes were taken from survey or plat maps produced by the GEO as part of the initial land surveys of Alabama condueted from the 1810’s to the 1840’s. In its surveys, the GEO used a rectangular mapping system that laid out six by six mile (9.7 by 9.7 km) townships in a grid across the state (Whitney and DeCant, 2001 ). As part of the surveys, a plat map was produced for each township, and these often included landscape features such as streams, rivers, swamps, prairies, and canebrakes (Whitney and DeCant, 2001 ). Areas of canebrakes on the plat maps show up as irregular, enclosed shapes, labeled by either the word “eane"” or “canebrake.” Digital versions of the plat maps for Alabama were accessed at the United States Bureau of Eand Management website (http://www.glorecords.blm.gOV). Every plat map for the state was examined. Plat maps that showed canebrakes were downloaded as MrSID files and then georeferenced using the Geographic Information Systems program ArcMap (ESRl, Redlands, CA). Areas of canebrake were then traced using ArcMap to create shape files which, in turn, were merged to make a composite map showing areas of canebrake for the state at the time the surveys were conducted. The areas of the canebrakes 2 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79. No. 1 , January 2008 were calculated from this map using AreMap. Soil map data for Alabama were produced by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (2006) and were downloaded from its website (http://soildatamart.nrcs.usda.gov). The distribution of canebrakes was examined across the entire state to determine the general soil conditions that favored growth of large historic canebrakes. A thorough search of historical sources for references to canebrakes in Alabama was condueted. The list of relevant citations in Platt and Brantley ( 1997) was expanded upon by ineluding additional pamphlets, journals, letters, diaries, scientifie publieations, histories, memoirs, travelogues and gazettes. The search was limited to sources from the 18"' and 19"’ centuries and emphasis was placed on eyewitness descriptions of canebrakes from known locations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Based on the plat maps from the GLO surveys, about 54,700 hectares of canebrake existed in Alabama from the 1 8 1 0’s to 1 840’s, with the largest areas along the Alabama and Blaek Warrior rivers and their tributaries, in central and west-eentral Alabama (Figure 1 ). However, an additional 23,600 hectares of probable eanebrakes were observed on the plat maps. This figure is for areas that were unlabeled but eontiguous with labeled canebrakes on neighboring plat maps. In some eases, no areas of eanebrake are indicated on adjaeent plat maps. As a consequence, some eanebrake areas on Figure 1 have straight edges (e.g. northern Marengo County). An additional 600 hectares on the plat maps were labeled as being a mix of eanebrake and other speeies, sueh as oaks. Thus, in total about 78,900 heetares of canebrakes, probable canebrakes and mixed canebrakes are indicated on the plat maps. A comparison of these eanebrakes with the soil map shows that about 87% of the large, historieal canebrakes were found on four general soil map units, eonsisting of 15 soil series (Table 1 ). These soil series all have moderately deep to very deep soils and are well-drained (Natural Resourees Conservation Service, 1998). Most of these soils are typieally found along rivers and streams, in flood plains or low terraees (e.g. Urbo- Mantachie-lzagora-Chrysler) but are subjeet only to brief, oceasional flooding (Natural Resourees Conservation Service, 1998). However, some of the soil series, such as the Luverne and the Oktibbeha, are usually found on ridgetops and side slopes. Together, these results suggest that canebrakes in 19"’ century Alabama were most common near rivers and streams, though in areas not subject to frequent floods, and that the eanebrakes would sometimes extend upward onto adjaeent slopes and ridges. One notable feature of the historie distribution of Alabama canebrakes on the plat maps is that none are located in the northern half of the state. Limitations of survey data may explain this (see below). Nonetheless, with the exception of a small area along the Cahaba River in Bibb County, none of the soils apparently favored by eanebrakes are found in the northern half of the state. Indeed, the two dominant soils map units for eanebrakes, the Vaiden-Sumter-Oktibbeha and the Luverne-Halso-Coneeuh, are found exclusively in the Black Belt and in the northern Timber Belt immediately to the south. Apparently, historic canebrakes were most common in the coastal plain of Alabama. 3 Distribution of Historic Canebrakes Figure 1. Historic canebrakes of Alabama, based on General Land Office surveys from the 1810’s to 1840’s. The insert map shows a close up of the region with canebrakes in the survey maps. Black areas are canebrakes in the survey maps; gray areas are probable canebrakes. Citations show the approximate location of descriptions discussed in the text. See text for details. 4 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1 , January 2{)()8 Table 1. Area.s of canebrake according to .soil map unit, ba.sed on General Land Office Plat maps. About 87% of the area of canebrakes were found in the top four general soil map units. _ (General Soil Map Units _ Hectares Vaiden-Sumter-Oklibbeha 33932 Luverrie-Halso-Conecuh 16234 I'rbo-Mantachic-lzagora-Chryslcr 9300 Riverview-Minter-l.eepei-Cantoii Bend-Cahaba Aiinemaine 8939 Malbis-Lucedale-Bama 3359 Mantachie-Lenoir-Lccper-Hoiilka 1 20 1 McQueen-Houlka-Bama 995 Savannah-Quitman-Mashulaville-Bama 938 Vaiden-Minter-Kipling-Angie 883 Uibo-Una 753 Water 673 Mantachie-Lenoir-Iuka-Bibb 575 Manlachie-Ellisville-Cahaba-Adaton 323 Sumter-Searcy-Oktibbeha-Deniopolis-Congaree-Brantley 1 56 Watsonia-Troup-Smithdale-Prim 1 48 Vaiden-Sumter-Faceville 136 Harleston-Escambia-Bayou 113 McQueen-Mantachie-Goldsboro-Congaree 80 Myatt-Mantachie-Kinston-Iuka-Bibb 47 Orangeburg-Luverne-Conecuh 46 Rains-Bonneau-Bethera-Benndale 38 Troup-Saffell-Orangeburg-Dothan 10 Luverne-Eucedale-Bama 9 However, the data from GLO surveys have many limitations when applied to ecological situations (Noss, 1985; Whitney and DeCant, 2001 ). In the present study, three issues are particularly important. First, the quality of the plat maps for the state is variable. While some maps, especially those for the Black Belt across central Alabama, include numerous landscape features, such as prairies and canebrakes, many plat maps are blank except for the locations of streams and rivers. Consequently, many canebrakes observed by surveryors were likely omitted from these maps. Seeond, errors in the placement of the canebrakes, either by the original surveyors or by the authors when georeferencing the plat maps, would have led to distortions of either the size or location of canebrakes. Third, there is no way of determining if the canebrakes observed by the surveyors were uniform stands of Ariinclinaria giganfea or whether other species were common. For these reasons, the areas and locations of canebrakes in Figure 1 must be regarded as tentative. A variety of other historical sources confirm the existenee of the large canebrakes indicated on the plat maps, as well as additional canebrakes in other parts of the state. These historical sources are reviewed below. The approximate locations described in these sources are shown on Figure 1 . Several authors note that the area from southern Greene County to northwestern Dallas County was often referred to as “the Canebrake” in the 19"' century (Pickett, 1851; Smith et cil., 1894; Cobb, 1961; Hubbs, 2003). Benjamin Riley (1887), author of several 5 Distribution of Historic Canebrakes books on the history of Alabama, noted that “the canebrake lands of Marengo are found in the northern end of the county and extend southward about ten or fifteen miles” and that “along the streams are dense brakes of cane.” In his 1 858 diary, the agricultural reformer and politician Edmund Ruffin (1972) also mentioned canebrakes in Marengo County: “I went home with Mr. Richard Adams, who resides in Marengo, in the midst of the best body of the cane-brake lands.” In a separate work, Ruffin (1852) wrote on the soils of Alabama and says that “A [soil] specimen of the very rich ‘cane brake’ lands in Marengo County, Alabama, contained sixteen per cent of carbonate of lime.” W. Brewer ( 1 872), an Alabama lawyer and congressman, in describing Marengo County, said that “the northern part is the canebrake region, a district extending over nearly three hundred square miles,” and that it is “covered with a thick growth of cane of marvelous size, and almost devoid of other vegetation.” This area of canebrake extended northward into southern Hale County on the plat maps. Riley (1887) observed that the southern portion of Hale County “is composed almost entirely of black canebrake land, which has a marvelous fertility.” These descriptions confirm the presence of canebrakes seen on the GLO plat maps. Significant areas of canebrake were observed elsewhere in the Black Belt. The British naturalist Philip Henry Gosse ( 1859), who stayed in Dallas County in 1838, found that “The steep banks of many of the winding creeks and branches are densely clothed, for considerable portions of their darkling course, with tall canes . . . .When the country was first settled, the cane-brakes were much more extensive, and only penetrable by means of the axe.” Riley (1887) also provided a brief description of the canebrakes in Dallas County: “In the western portion of the county is the famous canebrake region. . . .” John Witherspoon Dubose (1892), in a biography of Alabama politician William Lowndes Yancey, commented that in 1836-1837 in Dallas County, “Hundreds of wagon loads of cotton bales, each drawn by six great mules, over roads cut through the towering cane, walling the impenetrable sides, came to Cahawba.” Riley (1887) also confirmed the presence of canebrakes in neighboring Lowndes County: “[T]he dense brakes of cane, which prevail along the streams and in the marshy lowlands, make this one of the most desirable sections for stockraising.” Historical sources also describe large canebrakes that do show up on the plat maps, such as at the eastern end of the Black Belt region. In 1798, Benjamin Hawkins (1848), the United States Indian Agent, observed that the village of Ecunchate along the Alabama River, site of present-day Montgomery, was “on the right side, in the cane swamp.” He also noted that in what is now north Montgomery County “in the fork of the two rivers, Coo-sau and Tal-la-poo-sa, where formerly stood the Lrench fort Toulouse,” there was “a flat of low land of three thousand acres, which has been rich canebrake; and one-third under cultivation, in times past; the centre of this is rich oak and hickory, margined on both sides with rich cane swamp.” Charles Lyell ( 1849), the prominent Scottish geologist, visited central Alabama in 1 846. During a steamboat ride from Montgomery to Mobile, he observed that “The banks of the Alabama, like those of the Savannah and Alatamaha rivers, are fringed with canes, over which usually towers the deciduous cypress, covered with much pendent moss.” E. Dana (1819), who explored much of the Southeast during the early 1 9"' century, explained that “Bordering on the Alabama [River], are cane swamps, interspersed 6 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1, January 2008 with pine flats, eovered with soil suitable for sugar, cotton or corn.” W. Roberts (in Dana, 1819) worked as a surveyor in central Alabama. In deseribing streams of Montgomery County, he said: “The principal of these are the Catoma, Pinkahna, Pophlahia and Big Swamp creek, all of whieh afford extensive bottoms of rich cane brake and beech swamp.” As part of a description of the Alabama River in the central Black Belt, Roberts (in Darby 1818) eommented that “The river cane bottom land, we suppose to be equal in fertility to any on the eontinent, and may average in width a half to three-quarters of a mile; the river winding through it in a serpentine course, leaving the eane land sometimes on this side and sometimes on that.” About the same region, Dana (1819) wrote; “Between the dividing ridge that separates the waters of the Cuneeuh from those of the Alabama, and the latter river, is a tract of rich land, about 30 miles long and 20 wide; the timber of a large growth, and the cane abundant. . . .” Samuel Brown (1817) mentioned the same area: “Proeeeding towards the dividing ridge between the Alabama waters and those of the Coneeah, we pass over an extensive traet of rieh land, the timber large, and eane abundant, thirty miles long and twenty miles wide.” Several sources suggest that eanebrakes were extensive in Elmore County and further north. Wiliam Bartram (1791), the famous botanist, wrote of his visit to the area: “July I3‘'', we left the Apalachucia town, and three days journey brought us to Talasse, a town on the Tallapoose river. North East great braneh of the Alabama or Mobile river, having passed over a vast level of plain eountry of expansive savannas, groves. Cane swamps and open Pine forests.” Dana (1819) deseribed an area 60 miles (97 km) north of where the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers eombine: “The streams are margined with cane.” Brown (1817) remarked on the presenee of eane in this same area. Neisler ( 1 860), a Georgia botanist, briefly notes that he had observed large cane in Russell County: “. . .whilst I have seen oecasional [eane] speeimens cut from the swamps of the Uehee in Alabama, whieh, though not aetually measured, I should judge, could not have fallen short of forty feet.” Exeept for a single pateh in northwest Marengo County, no eanebrakes show up on plat maps of townships arrayed along the Tombigbee. Tensaw or Mobile Rivers in the southwestern portion of the state. However, a variety of other historieal sources make it elear that eanebrakes were abundant along parts of these rivers. For example, David Taitt ( 1771 ) produeed a map, based on his own surveys, of the areas adjaeent to these rivers. Aeeording to this map, extensive areas of eanebrake were present on both banks of the Mobile River, up to about 30 km from its mouth. The largest of these eanebrake areas was near Mobile Bay, extending about 16 km from the bay, with a maximum width of about 3 km. Similar large eanebrakes are also shown on both banks of the Tensaw River. As on the Mobile, these eanebrakes did not extend mueh more than 29 km from Mobile Bay. However, further north on the map the words “large eanes” appear in an area that lies between Gumpo Lake and Tensaw Lake, about 10 km east of Mt. Vernon, in Baldwin County. Other written sourees confirm the presence of eanebrakes in this part of the state. On Baldwin County, Riley (1887) wrote: “Along the streams and in the swampy lowlands there are extensive distriets of luxuriant wild eane. . . .” Northward, in Clarke County, 7 Distribution of Historic Canebrakes Riley ( 1 887) observed that “Along the streams are dense thickets of cane.” Lyell ( 1849) traveled by steamship from Mobile to Tuscaloosa up the Tombigbee and Black Warrior Rivers and noted that “We admired the canes on the borders of the river between Tuscaloosa and Demopolis, some of which I found to be thirty feet high.” Riley (1887), described canebrakes in Tuscaloosa County: “In low places, usually along the creeks, are found dense brakes of wild cane, which is greatly relished by stock.” In 1808, Edmund Pendleton Gaines (in Stone, 1971a) traveled down the upper Tombigbee River from Monroe County, Mississippi, to the river’s intersection with Noxubee Creek, in Sumter County, Alabama. In his survey diary, Gaines made 140 notes of canebrakes over 1 38 river miles. All are very brief, such as “thick Cane-brake both sides [of the river]” and “Rich Cane-brake low grounds on left & right”. These notes make it clear that canebrakes were ubiquitous along the river, except in areas with high bluffs. Bartram (1791) observed cane along the upper Tensaw River: “These islands exhibit every shew of fertility, the native productions exceed any thing I had ever seen, particularly the Reeds or Cane {Anindo gigantea) grow to a great height and thickness.” Near the confluence of the Alabama, Mobile and Tensaw Rivers, he saw “. . .Canes and Cypress trees of an astonishing magnitude, as were the trees of other tribes, indicating an excellent soil.” In the same area, Dana (1819) saw that “Along the Tensaw, are many pine and cypress trees; near the river are canebrakes and some cypress swamps.” He added: “Adjacent to the swamps, for a mile in width, is a sterile, stiff clay; the growth, pine and underbrush; further back, are broken pine barrens; and on the streams, cypress ponds and cane brakes.” The Reverend Lorenzo Dow ( 1859) traveled through this same region. He left from “the Tensaw settlement and went over the Alabama by the Cut-off, to the west side of the Tombigbee, through a cane brake or swamp, seven miles and found a thick settlement.” No canebrakes show up on the plat maps for the northern half of Alabama, and only a few historical sources describe them. One is the diary of Richard Breckenridge ( 1 8 1 6, in Halbert, 1 898-1899), which details a solo trip through northwestern Alabama after leaving from Columbus, Mississippi. The exact path of the trip is difficult to determine (Halbert, 1898-1899), but Breckenridge observed canebrakes in what is likely Marion County: “I have seen no good land since morning, except in the ereek bottom, where 1 had to cut my way with my tomahawk through a cane brake. I continued down the branch to a creek where 1 had to cut my way through another cane brake, in doing which I narrowly escaped being bit by a large rattlesnake.” Captain Edmund Pendleton Gaines ( 1807-1808, in Stone, 1971b) led a surveying party from Muscle Shoals on the Tennessee River to Cotton Gin Port on the Tombigbee, in what is now Monroe County, Mississippi. In the surveying notes, cane or canebrakes are mentioned 16 times, all in association with streams or rivers. None of these instances include detailed descriptions of the size of the canebrakes in Alabama, though several of them suggest that the canebrakes were relatively narrow and confined to the immediate vicinity of the creeks. Eor example, he wrote: “Thin Cane-brake, near a branch [of a stream], to the left”; “Narrow Cane-brake to the right”; “[A] narrow skirt of Cane-brake both sides [of a creek].” 8 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1 , January 2008 CONCLUSION The historieal evidenee suggests that eanebrakes were eommon and extensive in Alabama in the 19“’ century. The greatest density appears to have been along rivers in the Blaek Belt and in the southwestern part of the state. Most of the data from the plat maps and the historical descriptions suggest that large eanebrakes were assoeiated with streams or rivers, apparently growing best in alluvial soils along river terraees. The absenee of historieal deseriptions of eanebrakes from the northeastern and southeastern eorners of the state does not neeessarily mean that eanebrakes did not oceur in these regions. Historieal deseriptions of vegetation for these portions of the state are more diffieult to locate, likely reflecting travel and settlement patterns. Nevertheless, it does seem likely that eanebrakes were mueh more common in the coastal plain, where meandering rivers provided broader alluvial terraees for their growth. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the librarians of the Alabama Department of Arehives and Histoty for their assistanee and the Biology Department and the Environmental Scienee Program of Columbus State University for their support. David Whetstone, Miehael Woods, and one anonymous reviewer provided many helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Bartram, W. 1791 . Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, and East and West Florida. Reprinted in 1973 by Beehive Press, Savannah, Georgia, USA. Bragg, D. C. 2003. Natural presettlement features of the Ashley County, Arkansas area. American Midland Naturalist. 149: 1-20. Brantley, C. G., and S. G. Platt. 2001. Canebrake eonservation in the southeastern United States. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 29: 1175-1181. Brewer, W. 1872. Alabama: her history, resourees, war record and public men. Barrett & Brown, Steam Printers and Book Binders, Montgomery, Alabama, USA- Brown, S. R. 1817. Western gazetteer or emigrant’s direetory. H. C. Southwick, Auburn, New York, USA. Cobb, H. 1961. Geography of the vine and olive colony. Alabama Review. 14: 83-97. Dana, E. 1819. Geographical sketches on the western eountry. Eooker, Reynolds & Co., Cineinnati, Ohio, USA. Darby, W. 1818. Emigrant’s guide to the western and southwestern states and territories. Kirk and Mereein, New York, New York, USA. Deleourt, H. R. 1976. Presettlement vegetation of the North of the Red River land district, Eouisiana. Castanea. 41:1 22- 1 39. 9 Distribution of Historic Cancbrakes Dow, L. 1859. History of cosmopolite: or, the writings of Rev. Lorenzo Dow. J.B. Smith, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. Dubose, J. W. 1892. Life and times of William Lowndes Yancey. Roberts & Son, Birmingham, Alabama, USA. Ethridge, Robbie. 2003. Creek Country: the Creek Indians and their world. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. Gosse, P. H. 1859. Letters from Alabama, chiefly related to natural history. Morgan and Chase, London, England. Halbert, H. S. 1898-1899. Diary of Richard Breckenridge. Alabcuua Historical Society Transactions. 3: 142-153. Hawkins, B. 1848. Sketch of the Creek country in the years 1798 and 1799. Reprinted in 1938 by Georgia Historical Society Collection, Americus, Georgia, USA. Hubbs, G. W. 2003. Guarding Greensboro: a confederate company in the making of a southern community. University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia, USA. Hughes, R. H. 1951. Observations of cane (Arinulinaria) flowers, seed and seedlings in the North Carolina coastal plain. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 78: 113-121. Hughes, R. H. 1966. Eire ecology of canebrakes. Proceedings fifth annual tall timbers fire ecology conference. Tall timbers research station, Tallahassee, Florida, USA. .ludziewicz, E. J., L. G. Clark, X. Eondono, and M. J. Stern. 1999. American bamboos. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, USA. Lyell, C. 1849. Second visit to the United States of North America. Vol. 2. Harper & Brothers, New York, New York, USA. Marsh, D. L. 1977. Taxonomy and ecology of cane, Arinulinaria gigantea (Walter) Muhlenberg. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Arkansas, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA. Meanley, B. 1972. Swamps, river bottoms and canebrakes. Barre Publishers, Barre, Massachusetts, USA. Natural Resources Conservation Service. 1998. Soil survey of Wilcox County, Alabama. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, USA. Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. Digital general soil map of U.S. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fort Worth, Texas, USA. Neisler, H. M. 1860. Notes on the habits of the common cane {Arinulinaria macrosperina.. Michx.). American Journal of Science and Arts. 30: 14-16 Nelson, J. C. 1997. Presettlement vegetation patterns along the 5"' principal meridian, Missouri, \ ^\5. American Midland Naturalist. 137: 79-84. Noss, R. F. 1985. On characterizing presettlement vegetation: how and why. Natural Areas Journal. 5:5-19. Noss, R. F., E. T. LaRoe 111, and J. M. Scott. 1995. Endangered ecosystems of the United States: a preliminary assessment of loss and degradation. United State Department of the Interior, National Biological Service, Biological Reports 28. Pickett, A. J. 1851. History of Alabama. Reprinted in 1 962, Willo Publishing, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, USA. 10 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. I , January 2008 Platt, S. G., and C. G. Brantley. 1997. Canebrakes: an ecological and historical perspective. Castanea. 62: 8-21. Platt, S. G., C. G. Brantley, and T. R. Rainwater. 2001. Canebrake fauna; wildlife diversity in a critically endangered ecosystem. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society. 117; 1-19. Remsen, J. V., Jr. 1986. Was Bachman’s warbler a bamboo specialist? Auk. 103: 216-219. Riley, B. R. 1 887. Alabama as it is. W. C. Holt, Montgomery, Alabama, USA. Ruffin, E. 1852. An essay on calcareous manures. J. W. Randolph, Richmond, Virginia, USA. Ruffin, E. 1972. Diary of Edmund Ruffin. ESU Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Schafale, M. P., and P. A. Harcombe. 1983. Presettlement vegetation of Hardin County, Texas. American Midland Naturalist. 109: 355-366. Stewart, M. A. 2007. From king cane to king cotton: razing cane in the Old South. Environmental Histoiy. 12; 59-79. Stone, J. H. 1971a. Edmund Pendleton Gaines’ description of the upper Tombigbee River, January, 1808. Alabama Historical Quarterly. 33: 227-239. Stone, J. H. 1971b. Surveying the Gaines Trace. Alabama Historical Quarterly. 33: 135-152. Smith, E. A., L. C. Johnson, and D. W. Langdon, Jr. 1894. Report on the geology of the coastal plain of Alabama. Brown Printing Co., Birmingham, Alabama, USA. Taitt, D. 1771. Plan of part of the rivers Tombecbe, Alabama, Tensa, Perdido & Scambia in the province of West Florida. Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, Washington, DC, USA. Whitney, G. G., and J. P. DeCant. 2001 . Government land office surveys and other early land surveys. In: D. Egan and E.A. Howell [eds.]. Historical ecology handbook; a restorationist’s guide to reference ecosystems, 147-172. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA. 11 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79. No. I . January 2008 TORUS-BEARING PIT MEMBRANES IN SELECTED SPECIES OF THE OLEACEAE Roland R. Dute' \ Steven Janseir, Charles Holloway' and Kyle Paris' 'Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University 101 Life Sciences Building, Auburn, AL 36849, U.S.A. -Jodrell Laboratory, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3DS, United Kingdom ■^Correspondence: Roland Dute (duterol@auburn.edu) ABSTRACT Torus-bearing pit membranes allow water conduction between wood cells, but at the same time inhibit passage of air embolisms. These structures are common in Ginkgo and conifer woods but rare in eudicot woods. The genus Osmanthus of the Olive Family is one of the few eudicots whose wood possesses tori. In this study, wood from genera related to Osmanthus was investigated for the presence of torus-bearing pit membranes. Only the two species of Picconia, P. excelsa and P azorica, had these structures. Species of Nesfegis\ Notelaea. and Phillyrea did not. The structure, chemistry, and function of tori in P. excelsa and Osmanthus species seem identical. Further studies are needed to clarify whether the torus has evolved multiple times in the Olive Family, or whether it represents a shared, primitive structure. INTRODUCTION Bordered pit pairs connect water-conducting cells of plants. The anatomy of these structures is described in detail in Dute etal. (2001, 2004). In short, a porous pit membrane is “flanked on either side by a pit border containing an opening or aperture that provides access to an adjoining cell lumen” (Dute et a!., 2004). The pit membranes provide passage for water molecules but at the same time are able to prevent air bubbles (embolisms) from spreading. One mechanism by which these competing functions occur involves a pit membrane in which a porous margo region surrounds a thickened, impermeable torus. In the presence of an air bubble, the pit membrane is displaced from the air-filled cell and occludes the aperture leading to the neighboring intact, water-conducting cell (Zimmermann, 1983; Hacke et al., 2004). Tori are common in the intervascular pit membranes of conifers (Bauch et al, 1972) and Ginkgo (Dute, 1994), but at one time were thought to be absent from the wood of dicotyledonous angiosperms. Tori in intervascular pit membranes of eudicots were first observed by Ohtani and Ishida in 1 976. Among specimens investigated by those authors were three species of Osmanthus (O. fragrans, O. heterophyllus, and O. fortunei) from the Oleaceae. Subsequently, Dute 12 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 78, No. 3-4, July/October 2007 and Rushing (1987, 1988) observed tori in Osmanthus aniericamis, the only American species within the genus. This list was extended by Rabaey et al. (2006) who noted tori in O. serratulus and O. siiavis. The Olive Family (Oleaceae) eontains about 24 genera with 615 species (Stevens, 2007). Patel (1978) indicated that Osmanthus, Pliillyrea, Notelaea, and Nestegis have similar wood anatomy. Recent work by Wallander and Albert (2000) using ehloroplast DNA showed that these four genera, along with Picconia, were related. For these reasons, the possibility exists that tori might not be restrieted to Osmanthus but might also exist in the aforementioned related genera. The present manuscript presents the results of a search for tori in wood specimens from speeies of Pliillyrea, Notelaea, Nestegis, and Picconia. MATERIALS AND METHODS The specimens used in this study were reeeived from the Royal Botanie Gardens Kew, Surrey, United Kingdom, and from the Leiden branch of the National Flerbarium of the Netherlands (L) and are listed in Table 1. With two exeeptions, the speeimens represent braneh pieces of 2-5 mm diameter. Two speeimens (Picconia excelsa collected by Schweingruber [35] and Notelaea excelsa also collected by Sehweingruber [19]) represent sections of larger branches or trunks with diameters of 62 mm and 52mm, respeetively. Specimens were prepared for scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), or light microscopy. For SEM, branch pieces were split longitudinally to expose either radial or tangential surfaees. Specimens were then attaehed to aluminum stubs with carbon-impregnated double-stick tape and sputter-coated with gold-palladium vapor. Observations were made with a Zeiss 940 DSM operated at 15 kV or with a Zeiss EVO 50 operated at 20 kV. For light mieroscopy, material was hand seetioned transversely with a razor blade. The resulting slivers were plaeed in 95% ethanol and put under vacuum for two hours. Afterward, the specimens were infiltrated and finally embedded in JB-4 plastic over a two- day period. Transverse sections of 1-4 pm were cut with a glass knife on a Sorvall MT- 2b ultramicrotome, affixed to glass slides and stained with benzoate-buffered, aqueous toluidine blue O. Photographs were taken with a Nikon D70 digital camera attaehed to a Nikon Biophot microseope. Wood specimens of Picconia excelsa were prepared and viewed for transmission eleetron mieroseopy aceording to the method of Dute et al, ( 1990). Wood segments from herbarium speeimens were plaeed in three ehanges of acetone over a two-hour period followed by embedment in Spurr’s resin (Spurr, 1969). Embedded wood specimens were sectioned on an MT-2b ultramierotome at an approximate thickness of 80 nm and deposited on nickel grids. Seetioned material was stained for either 2 or 20 minutes with 1% KMnO^ in 1% sodium citrate (Donaldson, 2002) and viewed with a Zeiss EM 10 transmission mieroseope using an aecelerating voltage of 60 kV. Some material was left unstained and viewed in that condition. 13 rorus-bearing pit membranes in Oleaceae An investigation of the labels aceompanying the herbarium specimens indicates that two samples of Picconia might be misidentified. Originally Picconia was included within Notelaea but was separated by DeCandolle in 1844. There are two species of this genus: P. excelsa DC and P. azorica (Tutin) Knobl. Both species grow in Macaronesia. According to a number of authors (Humphries, 1979; Gomes, 1998; Arteaga et ai, 2006), P. excelsa is restricted to the Canary Islands and Madeira, whereas P. azorica is found only in the Azores. The specimen labeled Notelaea excelsa from Madeira is actually Picconia excelsa as Notelaea is not native to Madeira or any of the Macaronesian Islands (Sunding, 1979). Also, the specimen listed as Picconia excelsa {Ph 1 1 8, Leiden branch of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands) was collected from Pico Island in the Azores and must certainly be P. azorica. Table 1. Sources of wood specimens examined in this study. Taxon Herbarium Date of Collection Collector(s) No. Ne.'itegi.'i N. sp. L 8 Apr 1962 Melville 6867 N. apetala L 1 0 Feb 1 9?8,1 Balgooy 4397 (Vahl) L. Johnson N. cumminghamii L 16 Mar 1962 Melville 6736 (Hook. F.) L. Johnson N. cumminghamii L Mar 1909 Travers s.n. N. lanceolata L 6 Dec 1977 Orchard 499 1 (Hook. F.) L. Johnson N. lanceolata L 14 Feb 1979 Gardner 23 1 3 N. montana L 19 Aug 1974 Wright 662 (Hook. F.) L. Johnson N. sandwicensis L 23 Sep 1 975 Herbst 5472 (Gray) Knobl. N. sandwicensis L 28 Dec 1 933 St. John 13833 N. sandwicensis L 22 Jun 1985 Heller 2415 N. sandwicensis L 23 Oct 1932 Swezey s.n. N. .sandwicensis L 9 Feb 1930 St.John 10283 N. sandwicensis L 21 Dec 1947 St. John 22887 N. sandwicensis L 1 Jun 19782 Balgooy 4253 N. sandwicensis L 26 Mar 1 972 Spence 38 Picconia P. azorica (Tutin) Knobl. P. excelsa (Ait.) DC P. excelsa P. excelsa P. excelsa Kew L L L L 1894 14 Feb 1923 Mar 1906 Jun 6 1981 13 Mar 1987 Trelease 5 1 29 Cool 529 Pitard 655 Cancap Ph 1 1 8 Schweingruber 35 Notelaea N. sp L 25 Feb 1973 Craven 2403 N. sp L 25 Aug 19772 Webb s.n. N. excelsa L 10 Mar 1982 Schweingruber 19 Webb & Bert. N. francii L 17 Jan 1968 Schodde 5266 Guillaumin N. johnsonii L 30 Sep 19789 N. Gib.son 1118 P S. Green N. ligiistrina L 9 Dec 1973 Steenis 23432 Vent. 14 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1, January 2008 N. ligustrina L N. linearis L Benth. N. Iloydii L Guymer N. longifolia L Vent. N. iongifolia L N. longifolia L N. longifolia f glabra L N. longifolia f. longifolia L N. niicrocarpa L R.Br. N. niicrocarpa L N, niicrocarpa var. L tnicrocarpa N. niicrocarpa var, L veliitina N. neglect a L P.S. Green N. ovuta L R.Br. N. punctata L R. Br. N. venosa L F. Mucll, 7 Feb 1960 15 Sep 1977 R. Carolin 26894 Haegi 1404 18 Jul 1985 Self AQ 433720 27 Oct 1981 Kanis 2103 22 Nov 1966 s.d, 6 Aug 197? I 1 Oct 1966 I I Aug 1964 Pullen 4203 Mueller s.n. Durrington 755 Schodde 5094 Adam 1261 25 Oct 1947 21 Aug 1969 Smith 3552 Dunlop 609 25 Jul 1969 Clark 1726 Oct 1905 Maiden NSW 3363 24 Aug 1 9730 Hubbard 3757 24 Feb 1973 Adams 3066 8 Nov 1977 Coveny 9726 Pliillvrea P. latifolia L. Kew Campbell s.n. P. latifolia P. media L. P. media Kew"* Kew'* Accession Numbers 12872 12873 Kew'* 12874 ^Specimens taken from the wood collection in the Economic Botany Department RESULTS Ot the tour genera investigated in this study, only the Picconia species were observed to possess tori. '“‘Picconia speeies” in this instance includes the specimen labeled Nofelaea excelsa (Table 1 ). P. excelsa and P. azorica, therefore, represent new additions to the list ot torus-containing eudicot species. Tori in P. excelsa are common (Fig. 1 ), but tori are rare and difficult to locate in the P. azorica specimen from Kew (Fig. 2). The specimen listed as Picconia excelsa (Ph 1 18, Leiden branch ot the National tJerbarium of the Netherlands) (but in reality P. azorica) had wood with numerous tori. All other investigated species of Notelaea, Nestegia, and Phillyrea lacked a torus (Fig. 3). 15 Torus-bearing pit membranes in Oleaeeae As viewed with the light mieroscope, the torus of P. excelsa appears more or less spindle-shaped in transverse section (Fig. 1 ). Frequently, the pit membrane is aspirated and the torus blocks one of the apertures of a given bordered pit pair (compare Figs. 1 & 4 \’.v Fig. 5). This situation is to be expected in air-dried wood. Tori exist between conducting elements of both early and late wood. The conducting elements in the wood of P. excelsa consist of vessel members and tracheids (Baas el al., 1 988). However, it can be difficult to distinguish between narrow diameter vessel members and tracheids. These two cell types are herein referred to as narrow tracheary elements to distinguish them from the larger diameter vessel members. In P. excelsa wood, tori are found between vessel members and narrow tracheary elements, between narrow tracheary elements (Fig.l ), and between vessel members. Key to labeling: A = aperture in pit border; E = narrow tracheary element; L = cell lumen; M = margo of pit membrane; T = torus; V = vessel member. Figure 1. Transection of wood from P. excelsa showing tori (arrows) between a vessel member and narrow tracheary elements. Scale bar = 25 pm. Figure 2. Tramsection of wood from P. azorica. The single arrow indicates a torus between a vessel member and a narrow tracheary element. The double arrows show bordered pit pairs without a torus. Scale bar = 25 pin. Figure 3. Transection of wood from Notelaea linearis. Tori are not present in the bordered pit pairs (arrows) between water conducting cells. Scale bar = 25 pm. 16 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1 , January 2008 Close inspection with TEM of KMnO^-stained material shows the torus to consist of an electron-lucent layer sandwiched between two electron-dense pads (Figs. 4, 5). The margo portion of the air-dried pit membrane is collapsed and difficult to visualize even with TEM. Further information regarding tori can be gained by observing pit membranes of P. e.xce/sa in face view using SEM. Torus location on and structure of the pit membrane appear identical in Picconia excelsa and O. aiuericaniis (compare Fig. 6 in this manuscript with Fig. 1 in Dute & Rushing, 1987). The circular torus thickening is centrally located on each pit membrane (Fig. 6). The torus does not have a fibrillar appearance in contrast to the surrounding margo (Fig. 7). The mean horizontal diameter of the torus is 3.08 pm (range = 2.1 1—3.52 pm, N = 15). Figures 4, 5. Transmission electron micrographs of aspirated (Fig. 4) and nonaspirated (Fig. 5) pit membranes with tori in wood of P. excelsa. Scale bars = 0.25 pm (Fig. 4) and 0.5 pm (Fig. 5). 17 Torus-bearing pit membranes in Oleaeeae Fortuitous views in which a pit membrane is partially removed show clearly the type of pit aperture associated with torus-bearing pit membranes (Fig. 6). Also, the outline of the subtending aperture frequently can be seen in the aspirated torus. Such evidence indicates that the apertures vary from circular to elliptical and are smaller in diameter than their associated tori (Fig. 6). The intervascLilar pit membranes of species of the other three genera lack tori. The bordered pit pairs often appear empty (without a partitioning membrane) in cross-sections viewed with the light microscope (Fig 3). In herbarium specimens, the pit membrane collapses into a thin line that is hard to visualize with the light microscope. Also, the pit membrane is frequently pressed against the pit border (aspirated) and thus difficult to distinguish. Flowever, the pit membranes are clearly visible in face view in both radial and tangential longitudinal sections observed using SEM (Fig. 8). The entire surface of such membranes is fibrillar. Often the pit membranes are aspirated and torn over the site of the subtending aperture (Fig. 8). Figure 6. Scanning electron micrograph of longitudinal section of wood of P. excelsa. Pit membranes are observed in surface view. The two membranes on the left are intact; the two membranes on the right have been partially removed to expose the subtending apertures (arrows). Scale bar = 2.75 pm. Figure 7. A detailed view of a pit membrane from P. excelsa tSEM). Note the difference in texture between torus and margo. Scale bar = 1 .0 pm. Figure 8. A scanning electron micrograph of a pit membrane tin surface view) from the wood of Nestegis sandwicensis. No torus is present. Scale bar = 1 .0 pm. 18 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79. No. 1, January 2008 DISCUSSION Systematics In the past, confusion existed at the generic level within the Tribe Oleeae, with some species having, at one time or another, been classified in Nesfegis, Notelaea, or Osmanthiis (Green, 1 963). Wood anatomy confirms the close relationship among Phillyrea, Notelaea, Nestegis, and Osmanthiis (including O. americanus) (q.v. discussion in Patel, 1978). All four genera possess an oblique vessel pattern as well as spiral thickenings in vessel members and tracheids. Baas et ah, ( 1988) observed similar anatomy in Picconia and two species of Chionanthiis. Small ( 1933) separated Osmanthiis americana (sic) from the remainder of the genus as Amarolea americana based on coral loid inflorescences, subsessile flowers, introse anthers, and capitate stigma. In addition, O. americanus is hexaploid relative to other species of Osmanthiis investigated for chromosome numbers (Taylor, 1 945). In his review ofOleaceae, Johnson (1957) also commented on O. americanus being distinct from other Osmanthiis species. Cladistic analyses of DNA sequences from two chloroplast loci confirm the close relationship among Osmanthiis {sans O. americanus), Phillyrea, Picconia, Nestegis, and Notelaea ( Wallander & Albert 2000). O. americanus, in contrast, seems to be more closely related to Chionanthiis than to the aforementioned genera (Wallander and Albert, 2000). This being the case, the argument iox Amarolea americana becomes more persuasive. A generic hybrid between Osmanthiis and Phillyrea has been described (q.v. discussions in Sax and Abbe, 1932 and Taylor, 1945). It would be interesting to investigate such a specimen for the presence of tori. Johnson ( 1957) considered Picconia to be most closely related to Phillyrea according to both vegetative and floral characters. Phytogeography lends credence to this hypothesis as Phillyrea species are native to the Mediterranean and western Asia (Johnson, 1957). In contrast, Notelaea is restricted to eastern Australia (Johnson, 1957; Sunding, 1979). However, the geographic disjunction between Picconia and Notelaea might not be a significant problem as fossils of Macaronesian plants, including Picconia excelsa, have been found throughout southern and central Europe (Sunding, 1979). Structure/Function Removal of the thickenings (pads) in Osamanthiis americanus using sodium chlorite led to rupture of the pit membrane at the site of the aperture when the membranes were subsequently dried (Dute and Rushing, 1987). The authors felt that the presence of torus thickenings would inhibit rupture of the aspirated pit membrane where it contacts the aperture and would inhibit spread of air embolisms. A similar explanation was put forth by Wheeler ( 1983) to explain the selective advantage of pit membranes with tori in species of Uliniis and Celtis. When comparing air-dried herbarium specimens of torus-bearing and non-torus bearing pit membranes of different species in this study (Fig. 7 vi' Fig. 8), the efficacy of the torus in strengthening the pit membrane is evident. Treatment of T’ excelsa tori with KMnO^ showed a stain distribution identical to that found in O. americanus by Coleman et al. (2004); that is, heavily stained torus pads \’v 19 Torus-bearing pit membranes in Oleaeeae an unstained eompound middle lamella. This result was interpreted in Osmauthiis (in eonjuction with the results ofaeriflavin staining) as indieating the presence of lignin in the torus. The KMnO^ results in P. excelsa must be viewed with some caution as confirmatory experiments using other techniques have not been done. Nevertheless, the similarity in stain deposition between the two species is intriguing. In O. americcmiis the torus pads appear late in ontogeny and are associated with a microtubule plexus (Dute and Rushing, 1988). Because of the close relationship of Osmauthiis and Picconia, we would hypothesize the same to be true in Picconia spp. TEM studies of freshly preserved material are needed to confirm this hypothesis. Note in added proof: While preparing this manuscript, the senior author was asked to review another manuscript submitted to the lAWA Journal and entitled, “Micromorphology and systematic distribution of pit membrane thickenings in Oleaeeae: tori and pseudo¬ tori,” by Rabaey et al. In this article the authors present evidence for tori in pit membranes of Picconia excclsa and Chiouauthus retiisa. They found no tori in P. azorica. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Wewishtothank Mr. Curtis Hansen, curatorofthe John D. Freeman Herbarium at Auburn University (AUA), for his assistance in clarifying the taxonomic problems encountered in this study. Also, we wish to thank Dr. Pieter Baas for providing specimens. LITERATURE CITED Arteaga, M. A., G. Gonzalez, J. D. Delgado, J. R. Arevalo, and J. M. Fernandez-Palacios. 2006. Offspring spatial patterns in Picconia excelsa (Oleaeeae) in the Canarian laurel forest. Flora. 201:642-651. Baas, P, P. M. Esser, M. E. T. van der Westen, and M. Zandee. 1988. Wood anatomy of the Oleaeeae. International Association of Wood Anatomists Bulletin New Series. 9: 103-182. Bauch, J., W. Eiese, and R. Schultze. 1972. The morphological variability of the bordered pit membranes in gymnosperms. Wood Science and Technology’. 6: 165-184. Coleman, C. M., B. E. Prather, M. J. Valente, R. R. Dute, and M. M. Miller. 2004. Torus lignification in hardwoods. International Association of Wood Anatomists Journal. 25:435-447. De Candolle, A. 1844. Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. 8: 288. Paris, France. Donaldson, E. A. 2002. Abnormal lignin distribution in wood from severely drought stressed Pinus radiata trees. International Association of Wood Anatomists Journal. 23: 161-178. Dute, R. R. 1994. Pit membrane structure and development in Ginkgo hiloha. International Association of Wood A natomists Journal. 1 5 : 75-90. 20 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. I, January 2008 Dute, R. R., A. L. Martin, and S. Jansen. 2004. Intervascular pit membranes with tori in wood of Planera aquatica .1. F. Gmel. Journal of the Alabauia Academy of Science. 75: 7-21. Dute, R. R., M. E. Miller, and R. R. Carollo. 2001. Intervaseular pit structure in selected speeies of Thymelaeaceae. Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science. 72 14-26. Dute, R. R., and A. E. Rushing. 1987. Pit pairs in the wood of O.smantbus americanus (Oleaeeae). International Assoeialion of Wood Anatomists Bulletin, New Series. 8: 237-244. Dute R. R., and A. E. Rushing. 1988. Notes on torus development in wood of Osmantbus americanus (E.) Benth. & Hook, ex Gray (Oleaeeae). International Association of Wood Anatomists Bulletin. New Series. 9: 41-51. Dute, R. R., A. E. Rushing, and J. W. Perry. 1990. Torus structure and development in species of Daphne. International Assoeiation of Wood Anatomists Bulletin, New Series. 11:401-412. Green, P. S. 1963. The genus Nestegis from New Zealand. The Journal of the Arnold Arboretum . 44: 377-389. Gomes, A. B. A. 1998. Creating native displays at the Faial Botanic Garden, Azores, Portugal. http://www.bgci.org/congress/congress 1 998 eape/htm I/gomes. htm. Ilacke, U. G., J. S. Sperry, and J. Pittermann. 2004. Analysis of eircular bordered pit function II. Gymnosperm tracheids with torus-margo pit membranes. American Journal of Botany. 91: 386-400. Humphries, C. J. 1979. Endemism and evolution in Macaronesia. //? D. Bramwell [ed.]. Plants and Islands, 171-197. Academic Press, Eondon, United Kingdom. Johnson, E. A. S. 1957. A review of the family Oleaeeae. Contributions from the New South Wales National Herbarium. 2: 395-418. Ohtani, J., and S. Ishida. 1976. Pit membrane with torus in dicotyledonous woods. Journal of the Japanese Wood Researeb Society. 24: 673—675. Patel, R. N. 1978. Wood anatomy of the dicotyledons indigenous to New Zealand. 11. Oleaeeae. New Zealand Journal of Botany. 16: 1-6. Rabaey, D., E. Eens, E. Smets, and S. Jansen. 2006. The micromorphology of pit membranes in traeheary elements of Erieales: New records of tori and pseudo-tori? Annals of Botany. 98: 943-95 1 . Sax, K., and E. C. Abbe. 1932. Chromosome numbers and the anatomy of the seeondary xylem in the Oleaeeae. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. 13: 37-48. Small, J. K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora. Published by the author. New York, New York, USA. Spurr, A. R. 1969. A low viseosity epoxy resin embedding medium for eleetron microscopy. Journal of Ultrastructure Research. 26: 31-45. 21 Torus-bearing pit membranes in Oleaeeae Stevens, P.F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm phylogeny website. Version 8, June 2007. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb. Sunding, P. 1979. Origins of the Macaronesian flora. In D. Bramwell [ed.]. Plants and Islands, 13-40. Academic Press, London, United Kingdom. Taylor, H. 1945. Cyto-taxonomy and phylogeny of the Oleaeeae. Brittonia. 5; 337-367. Wallander, E., and V. A. Albert. 2000. Phylogeny and classification of Oleaeeae based on rpsl6 an trnL-F sequence data. American Journal of Botany. 87: 1827-1841. Wheeler, E. A. 1983. Intervascular pit membranes in Ulmiis and Celtis native to the United States. International Association of Wood Anatomists Bulletin, New Series. 4: 79—88. Zimmermann, M. H. 1983. Xylem structure and the ascent of sap. Springer- Verlag, Berlin, Germany. 22 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. I, January 2008 REMEDIATION OF LNAPL-CONTAMINATED SAND BY USING HUMIC ACID AS A SURFACTANT David Steffy' and James Rayburn- 'Department of Physical and Earth Sciences, -Department of Biology, Jacksonville State University, 700 Pelham Rd. North, Jacksonville, AL 36265-1602 Correspondence: Steffy, David (dsteffy@jsu.edu) ABSTRACT Humic acid (HA) can be used as an anionic surfactant which promotes the mobilization of the petroleum, which is a low-density, non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL), in porous aquifer material. Short-column tests of a HA solution at the critical micelle concentration (CMC) improved the LNAPL removal efficiency up to about 81%. HA developmental toxicity was also tested using the Prog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus (PETAX) methods. The 96-h LC50 was approximately 3.0 mg/ml and the 96-h EC50 (malformation) was approximately 8.5 mg/ml. Although malformations were observed, no significant teratogenic effect is evident for HA in Xenopiis embryos. Advantages of HA as a surfactant are that it is inexpensive, a naturally occurring substance, abundant, relatively low oxygen demand, and that it promotes the mobilization of LNAPL. Disadvantages of HA are that it is anionic, which results in the dispersion of clays that may lead to aquifer clogging of the pores, and that the HA has an LC50 in the vicinity of the CMC, which is the optimum concentration for using the HA as a surfactant. This indicates that the toxicity may be due to the disruption of cell membranes. INTRODUCTION Underground storage tanks commonly contain liquid fuels and chemicals, and many have leaked through the years. Prior to 1 970, most underground storage tanks were made of steel, which tends to corrode in a wet subsurface environment (Pitts, 2002). Some of these liquids were immiscible organic compounds when released tend to form and- distribute as a separate non-aqueous liquid phase in the subsurface porous medium. These released liquids or LNAPLs would partition themselves into the air, water, or soil phases based on their physiochemical characteristics. By partitioning, the LNAPL could impact an ever larger environment where humans, other fauna, and flora live. Remediation of this contaminated subsurface could involve the recovery of the LNAPL by pumping the porous medium. It is well known that some of the organic liquid remains behind as a residual LNAPL during the pumping effort. To increase the efficiency of the recovery, surfactants are injected into the subsurface to mobilize the LNAPL and to make more available for extraction. This study will examine the use of a natural Humic acid 23 Remediation of Lnapl-Contaminated Sand (HA) as a surfactant. Residual LNAPL typically occupies 10-50% of the available pore space (Chatzis et tiL, 1986). Commercial surfactants commonly remove up to 90% of the residual LNAPL in laboratory tests (Abdul et al., 1990). Two mechanisms can be involved in this improved recovery - the surfactant can: (1 ) increase the LNAPL mobility, and (2) increase LNAPL solubility in water. Humic acid is part of the humic substances that are e.xtracted as a by-product from peat processing. The generation of humic substances is an inexpensive, large volume source that could provide a cost effective source of needed surfactant. Using a naturally occurring humic substance such as HA may eliminate unwanted environmental consequences of using a surfactant in the remediation of a contaminated soil. The use of HA as a surfactant is an untested technique in the remediation of contaminated soil. A process has been developed for the production of low-cost HA from peat processing. HA appears to have proper surfactant capabilities and soil stabilization properties that could augment remediation of hydrocarbon contaminated sites (Steffy et al., 2001 ). The testing and quantification of HA characteristics and applications in remediation are needed so that the potential of these surfactants can be evaluated. Humic substances are nonvolatile, semi-polar polymers composed of a “chicken wire” pattern of aromatic carbon rings that are 10-^ to 10'’ mm (colloidal to molecular dimension) in length, with a molecular weight ranging up to 200,000 (Ghassemi and Christman, 1968). Surface activities of humic substances have been observed to be inversely related to the acidity of the humate and the pH of a humic aqueous solution (Chen and Schnitzer, 1978). Hence, some humic substances are readily soluble in dilute alkaline media (HA), but some are precipitated upon acidification (ftilvic acids). Humic solutions are described as having anionic-surfaetant characteristics and contributing to soil aggregation stability (Piccolo and Mbagwu, 1989). Tschapek and Wasowski ( 1976) found that the alkali-soluble fraction of humics are surface active; that is, they lower the surface tension of water, and appear to be dependent on ionic strength and on the extraction method of the HA. This dependency appears to be a function of the polydipsersive (heterogeneous) nature of the alkali-soluble fraction. To date, HA has had only limited application as a remediation tool for contaminated soils (Bickerton, et al., 2004). Bickerton et al. (2004) used a HA solution at a concentration of 3.66 mg/ml on petroleum-contaminated sands and silts in a controlled remediation effort. The results were inconclusive due to the lack of data. An earlier laboratory study by the same research group, found that HA solubilizes diesel contamination and also promotes the in-situ biodegradation process (Van Stempvoort et al., 2002). These promising results warrant further investigation of HA and its use in remediating contaminated soils. Information that needs to be acquired includes: its dispersive capabilities, flocculation behavior, interfacial tensions, viscosities, saturation-pressure relationships, toxicity, and effects on the mobilization of residual contaminants. There are problems associated with the use of surfactants, however. The following issues need to be addressed when using HA or any surfactant. Short-column tests of 24 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1, January 2008 surfactant application in a two-phase system (oil, surtactant) resulted in a non-unitorm distribution of residual LNAPL atter treatment (Ang and Abdul, 1991). Non-unitorm distribution may result in channeling, which reduces the surfactant’s effectiveness (Hornof and Morrow, 1987). Another concern is that certain surfactants hydrolyze to floes which can combine and disperse soil colloids, which in turn could lead to aquifer clogging (Abdul el ai, 1990). Surfactants act at liquid-liquid interfaces, but also at solid-liquid interfaces, where they may adsorb to the solid (Rosen, 1989). Alternatively, they may precipitate under certain conditions (Stellner and Scamehorn, 1989; Jafvert and Heath, 1991). Both sorption and precipitation will reduce surfactant availability. Temperature reduction can reduce surfactant effectiveness, critically so below the Krafft point (West and Harwell, 1992). Surfactants can partition into the LNAPL if their solubility in LNAPL is high enough. They can also separate chromatographically. Finally, surfactants must be acceptable environmentally. Laboratory studies reveal that recovery of LNAPL could be improved if HA were continuously pumped through the contaminated porous medium. Because of the large percentage of HA used, a toxicity/ teratogencity test was used to determine the effects of HA. The bioassay test was carried out independently of the surfactant testing. The frog embryo teratogenesis assay-Ac/?opz/5 (FETAX) was used to assess the developmental toxicity of HA. This assay has been used to evaluate the developmental toxicity of chemicals and mixtures for both human health and environmental health (Bantle el al. 1994; Rayburn et al. 1991 ). Clearly, surfactant selection is a multifaceted issue (Vigon and Rubin, 1989), although guidelines for proper selection are readily available (Rosen, 1989; West and Harwell, 1992). This study is directed towards characterizing the physical and chemical properties of HA developed from peat processing in terms of its surfactant capabilities and flocculent behavior. We also measured by laboratory column studies the effectiveness of utilizing HA as a surfactant in the remediation of hydrocarbon contaminated soil.. This study also investigated the dispersion of clays caused by the presence of increasing HA concentrations in the porous medium. Finally, we quantified the environmental acceptability of HA in terms of its toxicity. MATERIALS AND METHODS Humic Acid Extraction: HA was derived from shredded, dry peat that was harvested in Bemidji County in northern Minnesota. Production of the HA from the peat for the laboratory tests was a simple batch process of acid/base extraction. For bioassay work HA, the pH was adjusted to approximately 8 with an addition of a sodium hydroxide solution. HA was stored at 4‘'C until use. HA concentration was determined by gravimetric analysis. Critical Micelle Concentration Measurement; The critical micelle concentration (CMC) is the concentration of the HA solution at 25 Remediation of Lnapl-Contaminated Sand whieh the surfaee tension is the minimized (Lowe, 1999). Surface tensions of various HA solution concentrations were measured using a du-Nouy interfacial tensiometer (CSC Scientific Co., Fairfa.x, Virginia). A plot of HA concentration versus surface tension provides an estimate of the CMC. LNAPL Recovery Tests: Recovery of LNAPL was measured by a series of short-column tests. These test determined the relative performance of surfactant removal efficiencies. A contaminated soil with a known level of LNAPL saturation was flushed with a HA solution. The concentration of the solution was at the CMC . The efficiency of removal was measured by determing the amount of LNAPL that remained in the soil after flushing. Under the proper conditions, HA acts as a surfactant when flushed through unsaturated porous medium containing residual amounts of water and mineral oil. These tests followed the procedures of Ang and Abdul ( 1991 ) which provided guidelines for initial testing. The laboratory tests were conducted with homogenous fine-grained sand, packed in a 54-cm borosilicate tube with a diameter of 3 cm (Table 1 ). The resulting packed column had sand bulk densities of ~ 1 .00 g/cm^ and porosities ranging from 21 .5 to 24.7% (Table la). The LNAPL was a mineral oil dyed with Sudan IV (Sciencelab.com, Houston, Te.xas). The tests were initiated by establishing a water table condition in a vertical sand-packed column that becomes contaminated by the LNAPL. Three glass columns packed with silica sand were initially saturated with water; the water was then allowed to gravity drain to establish the specific retention of the porous medium. Then 50 ml of mineral oil was allowed to infiltrate from the top while the bottom of the column freely drained into a graduated cylinder. After the mineral oil was drained, an initial level of residual saturation was measured ranging from 10.6 to 39.9%. The column was then rotated horizontally and pumped with the surfactant at a constant rate. The amount and rate of LNAPL displaced was measured. One hundred ( 100) ml of a 10% HA solution (3.4 mg/ml) was flushed through the column from top to bottom. The amount of mineral oil flushed (recovered) was measured. Clay Dispersion Assay: An assay of HA’s ability to disperse clay in solution was evaluated. A disadvantage of using an anionic surfactant is that promotes clay dispersion, thus increasing the potential for aquifer clogging, and reduces the delivery of the surfactant to all areas of porous medium that contain residual LNAPL. The procedure of this assessment was to fill a glass vial with approximately 5 grams of kaolinite, a non-swelling clay. The clay was mixed with de-ionized, distilled water for 2 hours, after which the mixture was allowed to settle for 2 hours. The turbidity was then measured using a HACH 21 OOP Turbidimeter (Hach Co., Loveland, Colorado). The procedure was done 7 times for each fluid tested. Various concentrations of HA were used. The turbidity versus HA concentration was then plotted to depict their relationship. 26 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79. No. 1 . January 2008 Teratogenesis Testing: The Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopiis (FETAX) is a 96-h in vitro assay used to determine the developmental toxicity of compounds and mixtures (American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992). This assay uses embryos of the South African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. This assay exposes to embryos from the small cell blastula stage to a free living larvae to chemicals and mixtures to determine potential developmental toxicity. Adult Ac/7o/?//.v were purchased from Xenopus I (Ann Arbor, Ml) and kept in glass aquaria with recycled filtered water and kept on a 12 h:12 h light-dark cycle. They were fed high protein fish pellets with vitamins added. Adults were bred using human chronic gonadotrophin (Sigma, St. Eouis, MO), injected in to their dorsal lymph sacs; 200 and 500 units for males and females respectively. Adults were placed in a false bottom breeding chamber as described by (McCallum and Rayburn, 2006). Embryos were collected the next morning and the jelly coat removed with 2% E cystiene (Sigma, St. Eouis, MO). Embryos were double sorted and randomly placed into plastic Petri dishes (Fisher, Pittsburgh, PA). (60mm X 15mm) filled with control or test solutions. Three different experiments were performed with three different clutches of embryos. The experimental unit was 20 embryos per plastic Petri dish ( 8 ml of solution; 2 replicates per dose; 4 control dishes) for each experiment. Three experiments were performed with 8 to 1 1 concentrations used for each experiment approximately 520 embryos were required for each test. A single HA extraction was prepared and used for all three experiments. The embryos were then placed in an incubator at 24"C with static renewal of solutions every 24 h. The test duration was 96 h. The dead embryos were removed and counted every 24 h. At the end of 96 h, survivors were counted and scored for malformations, and lengths were measured. Statistical analysis began with a two way ANOVA using experiment as one factor, and dose as the second factor for length comparsions, followed by Bonferroni t-test multiple comparisons ToxTools, a software for dose-response modeling, benchmark dose estimation and risk assessment was used to calculate EC50 (lethal concentration to induce 50% mortality) and EC50 (effective concentration to induce 50% malformation) with standard errors (ToxTools, 2001 ). ToxTools was chosen because it has a Developmental Toxicity model that incorporates mortality, malformation and growth. ToxTools also analyzed all of the results together for each of the three experiments. The additive model was used for all calculations in this paper. Teratogenic index (Tl) is calculated by dividing the -9611 EC50/ 96 h EC50. A Tl ratio of greater than 1 .5 indicates an increase of teratogenic risk ( ASTM, 1991 ). A Bonferroni t-test was used to determine significant differences from controls for embi^o length comparisons. RESULTS Measurement of the CMC: Systematic measurement of the interfacial surface tension as a function of the concentration of HA solution reveals a break in its linear relationship. Generally, as the 27 Remediation of Lnapl-Contaminated Sand HA solution eoneentration inereases, the interfaeial tension deereases. A break in this relationship oeeurs at a eoneentration of 3.4 mg/ml (Fig. 1 ). The break provides an estimate of the CMC of the HA solution (Lowe et al., 1999). Concentration of Humic Acid Figure 1. Determination of the critical micelle concentration for humic acid (~3.4 mg/ml or about 10% humic acid solution). Figure 2. Comparison of oil displacement by a humic acid solution (surfactant) and by pure water. Recovery of LNAPL: HA was observed to quiekly mobilize the residual oil by redueing the interfaeial tensions of the water-oil system. Residual oil in unsaturated silieate sand with an approximate bulk density of 1 .0 g/em^ ranged from 30 to 42% (Table 2). Variations in both the residual water and oil saturations before flushing and the amount of recovered oil are probably due to uneven packing throughout the column which in turn could cause instabilities in fluid fronts and result in channeling. Figure 2 depicts the overall effectiveness of pumping a HA solution to mobilize LNAPL in comparison to water. At equal pumping rates, the final amount of oil recovered is 81% for the HA solution and 60% for water. This represents a 35% improvement in oil recovery Visual observations indicate that the HA solution mobilized the LNAPL (mineral oil) by decreasing the interfaeial tension between the LNAPL and water phases. The change in interfaeial tension is promoting the movement within the LNAPL continuum. Apparently, when the 1 0% HA solution was added to the column, the HA distributed itself as part of the water continuum rather than LNAPL changing its physical properties by dissolving the HA solution. Two tables 1 and 2 give the results of the recovery tests. Table I shows the basic characteristics of the columns used in the recovery assay. Table 2 shows the recovery of mineral oil with HA solution at 3.4 mg/ml. These results showed the proportion of mineral oil flushed was between 58% and 70% (Table 2). 28 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79. No. 1 , January 2008 Table 1. Physical characteristics of columns. Test Length of Column (cm) Bulk Density (g/cm3) Porosity (%) 1 52.0 1.00 21.5 2 52.3 1.02 24.5 3 53.1 1.00 24.7 Laboratory tests found that the pump rates showed no relationship to the amount of LNAPL reeovered (displaeed) (Fig. 3). However, in terms of pumping efficieney (amount of LNAPL recovered / amount of fluid pumped) - a low pump rate of 1 .41 em^/min was the most efficient. HA at its critical micelle concentration of 3.4 mg/ml was then used to increase LNAPL mobilization. When the HA solution was used, recovery was increased from 60% to 81% (Fig. 2), and effieiency was improved by over 1 80%. Table 2. Results of flushing tests. Test Pumping Rate (cm3/min) Initial Water Volumetric Saturation (%) Residual Oil (%) Recovered Oil (%) Efficiency (%/cm3/min) 1 3.55 21.5 42.0 58.0 16.3 2 2.13 24.3 30.0 70.0 32.9 3 1.41 24.7 40.0 60.0 42.6 Figure 3. Effect of pumping rate on oil displacement. Figure 4. Clay dispersion as measured by turbidity caused by bumic acid. 29 Remediation of Lnapl-Contaminated Sand Clay Dispersion Assessment: The HA aets as an anionic surfactant, and promotes the suspension of clay particles in solution. There is a rapid increase in the dispersive capability of the HA measured as turbidity up to a concentration of 1 0 % HA, after which the rate of increase in the dispersive capability drops of with increasing HA concentration (Fig. 4). This change in the dispersive capability of the HA solution occurs near the CMC concentration (3.4 mg/ml). Results of Toxicity Testing: A total of 1280 embi7os were used for the three experiments. Of these, 240 were control embryos with ASTM acceptable control rate of 6.24% for mortality and 7.62% for malformation. The 96 h LC50 was 3.729 mg/ml (Table 3). The 96 h EC50 (malformation) was 6.499 (Table 3). The LCIO (to cause increase of risk of 10% mortality) was 1.440 mg/ml and an EClO malformation of 2.060 mg/ml. The probability estimation curve for malformation (Eig. 5) indicates risk estimation reached 50% at the highest HA concentration used in this study. The average mean growth of control embryos over the 96 hr test duration was 9.45 mm (Eig. 6). There were only two concentrations with means significantly different from controls, I and 5 mg/ml (Fig. 6). Because means of the 2-4 mg/ ml concentrations were not significantly the different than controls, result for I mg/ml is most likely an anomaly. Only the mean of the highest concentration differed significantly from the control, indicating that the chemical did not cause significant growth reduction at concentrations that do not affect mortality. Tox-tools estimated a maximum risk of <0.01 (<1%) for the highest concentration of HA tested (data not shown). The Teratogenic Index (Tl) is the 96h EC50/ 96h EC50 which is 0.574 (Table 3) which also indicates that HA is not a weak teratogen. Few malformations were seen except at extremely high concentrations (concentrations greater than the EC50 value). These malformations included muscular kinking of the tail, reduced head, and gut malformations typical of non-teratogenic compounds (Fig. 7). 30 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1 , January 2008 Table 3. Ninety-six (96) h LC 10, 30, 50 and EC 10, 30, 50 values for HA aulc w?. i 11 96 h Risk Mortality (mg/ml) 11 AV, Mortality SE Malformation (mg/ml) Malformation SE Teratogenic Index* only for LC50 value LCIO 1.440 0.420 2.060 0.624 LC30 2.748 0.444 4.506 1.393 LC50 3.729 0.427 6.499 2.033 0.574 Teratogenic Index = 96 h LC50 / 96 h EC50. Figure 5. The summary concentration-response graph of humic acid for ail three experiments. Circles represent actual mortality with standard error for concentrations tested. Squares represent actual malformation with standard error for concentrations tested. The solid line and dotted lines represent mortality and malformation probability estimation from Tox-Tools respectively. Estimations are from the additive risk model. A Figure 7. Side views of (A) a control and (B) a humic acid (5 mg/mi) treated embryos. 31 Remediation of Lnapl-Contaminated Sand 1.00 0.95 £ 0.90 !■£ 0.85 ^ ^ 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.01 0.1 1 Concentration of Humic Acid (mg/ml) Figure 6. The overall growth graph for humic acid. The * represents significant difference from controls by Bonferroni t-test. Error bars are standard errors. DISCUSSION Laboratory studies show HA to have potential utility as a surfactant for use in the displacement of LNAPL in sand aquifers. At concentrations of >3.4 mg/ml, a critical HA micelle concentration occurs, disrupting the interfacial tension between the air-HA solution. When a HA solution at this concentration is delivered to the water phase of an LNAPL- contaminated sand, the interfacial tension is quickly reduced, allowing the movement of residual LNAPL globules to occur. Laboratory-scale pumping tests demonstrated that LNAPL recovery increased from 60 to 81% with addition of HA, a 35% improvement over water as the displacing fluid. The efficiency of this recovery also improved 180%. Therefore, the use of HA solution as a surfactant could improve the remediation effort both in terms of effectiveness and economics. Field-scale applications of HA in the remediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated sand aquifers have shown some promising results as well (Bickerton, ef al., 2004; Van Stempvoort, ef al., 2002). These studies indicate that recovery of LNAPL is enhanced by HA solubilizing the residual LNAPL globules; however, our visual observations found that the majority of the recovery was enhanced by the HA changing the interfacial tension between oil and water (HA solution). HA and fulvic acid are part of the naturally occurring dissolved organic carbon (DOC) component in water, and collectively are called humic substances. DOC commonly occurs at concentrations < 0.05 mg/ml in surface water areas such as wetlands, and 0.002-0.015 mg/ml in rivers and lakes (Drever, 1997). The DOC diminishes in concentration to < 0.002 mg/ml in groundwater systems because of degradation (Fitts, 2002). HA accounts for ~5% of the DOC (Drever, 1997). Therefore, the CMC HA concentration of 3.4 mg/ml used in this study is -7,000 higher than what is naturally occurring in water systems. As such, toxicity assessment of HA is warranted. 32 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1 , January 2008 Overall HA did not indicate an increase in teratogenic risk. The FETAX bioassay showed that general cytoto.xicity was observed with an LC50 of 3.73. It is interesting that the LC50 is very close to the CMC of 3.4 mg/ml. This would indicate that toxicity of HA may be due to surfactant changes of water induced by HA. CONCLUSIONS HA has many attributes that make it a promising surfactant to enhance the mobilization of trapped LNAPL in a sand aquifer. The CMC of HA occurs at a relatively low concentration of 3.4 mg/ml, although this is -7,000 times higher than is found in natural water concentrations. Applying HA at its CMC concentration insures that optimal surfactant effectiveness is realized in the remediation process. When applied through the aqueous phase, the HA quickly mobilizes the NAPE by reducing the interfacial tension in the LNAPL-water system. Laboratory testing of fine-sand material indicates that a simple continuous flushing recovered up to 81% of LNAPL, and that the higher pumping rates produced faster and larger oil recovery rates. However, recovery efficiency was optimized at a low pumping rate. Other advantages of using HA as a surfactant in the remediation of a sand aquifer are that HA is easy and inexpensive to produce, and places low oxygen demand on the natural aquatic system. A disadvantage of using HA as a surfactant is that it readily disperses clays that may promote pore clogging. Generally, the dispersive effect increases as the concentration of HA increases. In addition, the CMC concentration of HA is near the LC50 as determined by FETAX tests. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank the following JSU students for their work in data collection: Cody St. John, Melissa Bandy, and Daniel Grogan. The authors also would like to thank Jacksonville State University and the Faculty Development Grants that supported this research project. REFERENCES Abdul, A.S., T.L. Gibson, and D.N. Rai. 1990. Selection of surfactants for the removal of petroleum products from shallow sandy aquifer. Ground Water. 28(6), 920-926. Ang, C.C., and A.S. Abdul. 1991. Aqueous surfactant washing of residual oil contamination from sandy soil. Ground Water Monitoring Review, 1 1(2), 121-127. ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials). 1992. Standard Guide for Conducting the Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-AT/7o/;//5 (FETAX) E 1439-91. In Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 1 1.04. Philadelphia, PA, 1 199-1209. Bantle, J.A., D.T. Burton, D.A. Dawson, J.N. Dumont, R.A. Finch, D.J. Fort, G. Linder, 33 Remediation of Lnapl-Contaminated Sand J.R. Rayburn, D. Buchwalter, A.M. Gaudet-Hull, M.A. Maurice, and S.D. Turley. 1994. FETAX interlaboratory validation study: Phase 11 testing. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 13(10), 1629-1637, 1994. Bickerton, G., D.R. Stempvoort, J. Voralek, and S. Lesage. 2004. Remediation of a cold- climate petroleum spill in Moose Factory, Ontario. 4th International Groundwater Quality Conference, Waterloo, Ontario. Chatzis, 1., N.R. Morrow, and H.T. Lim. 1986. Magnitude and detailed structure of residual oil contamination. Society of Petroleum Engineering Journal . 23, 31 1-325. Chen, Y., and M. Schnitzer. 1978. The surface tension of aqueous solutions of soil humic substances. Soil Science. 125, 7-15. Drever, J.I. 1997. The Geochemistry of Natural Waters (3'^‘* Ed.). Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 113-119. Fitts, C.R. 2002. Groundwater Science. Academic Press, Boston, 288-290. Ghassemi, M., and R.F. Christman, 1968. Properties of the yellow organic acids in natural waters. Limnolog}' and Oceanography Bulletin. 13, 583-597. Hornof, V., and N.R. Morrow. 1987. Gravity effects in the displacement of oil by surfactant solutions. Society Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, Nov., 627-633. Jafvert, C.T., and J.K. Heath. 1991. Sediment and saturated - soil associated reactions involving an anionic surfactant (dodecylsulfate). 1. Precipitation and micelle formation. Environmental Science and Technology 25(6), 1031-1 038 Eowe, D.F., C.L. Oubre, and C.H. Ward. 1999. Surfactants and Cosolvents for LNAPL Remediation. Lewis, Boca Raton, Florida. McCallum, M. and J. Rayburn, 2006. A simple method for housing Xenopus during oviposition and obtaining eggs for use in FETAX. Herpetological Review. 37 (3), 332-332. Piccolo, A., and J.S.C. Mbagwu. 1989. Effects of humic substances and surfactants on the stability of soil aggragates. Soil Science, 147, 47-57. Rayburn, J.R., D.J. DeYoung, D.J. Fort, R. McNew, and J.A. Bantle. 1991. Altered developmental toxicity caused by three carrier solvents. Journal of Applied Toxicology’, Vol. 1 1(4), 253-260. Rosen, M.J. 1989. Surfactants and Interfacial Phenomena, 2”^' Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York. Steffy, D.A., D. Grogan, M. Bandy, and M. Satola. 2001. The use of humic acid to promote the remediation of a NAPE in porous medium. Proceedings of the Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Ground Water: Prevention, Detection, and Remediation, Houston, 200-214. Stellner, K.L, and J.F. Scamehorn. 1989. Hardness tolerance of anionic surfactant solutions. 1 . Anionic surfactant with added monovalent electrolyte, Langmuir, 5( 1 ), 70-77. Tschapek, M. and C. Wasowki. 1976. The surface activity of humic acid. Geochemistiy Cosmochim Acta, 40, 1 343-1 345. ToxTools 2001. Software for Dose-Response Modeling, Benchmark Dose Estimation 34 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1, January 2008 and Risk Assessment. User Manual Cytel Statistieal Software, Cytel Software Corporation, 675 Mass Av. Cambridge, MA 02139. Van Stempvoort, D.R., S. Lesage, K.S. Novakowski, K. Millar, S. Brown, and J.R. Lawrence. 2002. Humic acid enhanced remediation of an emplaeed diesel source in groundwater, - 1 Laboratory-based pilot scale test. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology. 52(3), 249-276. Vignon, B.W., and A.J. Rubin. 1989. Practical considerations in the surfactant-aided mobilization of contaminants in aquifers. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, 61(7), 1233-1240. West, C.C., and J.H. Harwell. 1992. Surfactants and subsurface remediation. Environmental Science Technology, 26, 2324-2330. 35 BIOGRAPHY of Ronald P. Kiene A native of Brooklyn, New York, Dr. Ron Kiene earned a B.S. degree from Saint John’s University (NY), where he also played baseball (as a pitcher). He completed the M.S. degree (1984) and Ph.D. degree (1986) from the Marine Sciences Research Center at SUNY, Stony Brook. He did post-doctoral work at the University of Miami and then spent five years on the faculty at the University of Georgia Marine Institute at Sapelo Island. He moved to Alabama in 1993 when he joined the faculties at the Department of Marine Sciences, University of South Alabama, and the Dauphin Island Sea Lab. V. Ron teaches graduate courses in Chemical Oceanography, Sediment Biogeochemistry, Ocean Variability and Global Change, Marine Microbial Ecology, Marine Biogeochemical Processes and Seminar in Marine Science. He has served as a mentor to 12 graduate students (7 M.S. and 5 Ph.D.). He has participated in thirteen major oceanographic cruises (for a total of 263 sea days) to the Ross Sea (Antarctica) and elsewhere. Ron was honored by receiving the University of South Alabama Alumni Outstanding Scholar Award (2000) and the Sigma Xi Award for E,\cellence in Research ( 1985). 36 Journal of Alabama Academy of Science Vol. 79, No. 1. January 2008 He is a frequent and popular speaker at many national and international meetings. He is listed as an author on 121 scientific presentations: USA, Canada, England, Spain, Denmark, The Netherlands, Germany, and Italy. Ron has pursued numerous professional collaborations with many scientists from around the world. Ron is among the top researchers in the world who study the connections of the ocean with the atmosphere, including biogeochemical cycling in marine environments. He focuses on the role of microorganisms in the cycling of organic matter and important elements (such as sulfur, nitrogen and carbon). This innovative research is conducted in local waters in Mobile Bay and on oceanographic cruises all over the world. The applications of Kiene’s research have advanced our understanding of microbial food webs, biogeochemical cycles, and how microorganisms in the ocean can affect atmospheric chemistry and ultimately global climate. Kiene is a member of the American Society for Microbiology, the American Society for Limnology and Oceanography, and the American Geophysical Union. He has served or is serving on the editorial boards of Marine Chemistry, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, and Marine Ecology-Progress Series. Furthermore, he routinely contributes as a reviewer for numerous other journals and funding agencies. Along with his collaborators (over the past 12 years), Ron has received more than three million dollars in research grants from NSF, EPA and other agencies. He is listed as an author in 91 peer-reviewed publications in scientific journals and books. Along with his coauthors, he has published multiple times in both Science and Nature. Certainly, Ron Kiene has made significant contributions in the area of biogeochemical cycling and microbial ecology in marine ecosystems. With his wife Julie and two sons Andrew and Dylan, Ron lives in Mobile, Alabama, where he actively contributes to local school activities (students and teachers). He greatly enjoys serving as a coach for his son’s youth baseball team. When he is not working, he enjoys catching and cooking fish. Most of all, he enjoys traveling to Alaska with his family on summer vacations. You can learn more about him on his university web page; WWW. Lisouthal.edu/marinesciences/fac_kiene.html. The Alabama Academy of Science congratulates Dr. Ron Kiene on his remarkable accomplishments and wishes him continuing success in all of his future endeavors. 37 IMINUTES OF THE ALABAMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FALL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING SAMFORD UNIVERSITY SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 3, 2007, 8:00 AM; Room 033, Sciencenter Call to Order 8:19 AM Attending meeting; Safaa Al-Hamdani, B.J. Bateman, George Cline, Mijitaba Hamissou, Richard Hutiburg, George Keller, Larry Krannich, Akshaya Kumar, Adriane Ludwick, Ken Marion, Mike Moeller, Mickie Powel, James Rayburn, Kenneth Roblee, Michelle Sidler, P.C. Sharma, Brain Toone, D.B. Thompson. Review of Minutes from spring meeting. Discussion Items not in written reports: 1 . Treasurer brought the possibilities of increasing dues to keep up with costs. To be investigated and discussed at next meeting. 2. Constitution and by laws need to be revised for Junior Academy to meet needs. Heni'y Barwood, Cathrine Shields, and Ludwick will arrange with Cline and Bateman and will investigate. Motions; 1 . To nominate David Nelson to Board of Directors to fill Vacancy. Seconded and Approved.. 2. The Editor is to provide to web master 1-3 issues to put on web temporally to investigate the interest in web base journal.. - Seconded and Approved. 3. Motion to change Mason Scholarship members that are appointed for 2 year term to 3 year term, and change in by-laws. 4. Motion to accept EBSCO contract for web documentation, seconded and approved THE FOLLOWING WRITTEN REPORTS WERE REVIEWED Agenda B Items: 1. Board of Trustees, Steve Watts - No Report 2. President - George Cline Eve spent the time since the meeting on a number of projects. The biggest project has been to find members for committees (See attached). My efforts have been moderately productive. Some holes have been filled, some old holes 38 remain, and some new holes have been ereated. I have chosen to fill as many holes as possible, regardless of who's responsibility based upon the Constitution, We need to discuss this at the meeting. I’ve asked David Nelson to fill the spot on the Board of Trustees that was vacated by the death of Ron Jenkins with David Nelson. This is a one year position. David has agreed, but we need to approve this move at the Fall meeting. I have been working with JSU’s administration about recruiting at the Junior Academy, and increasing JSU’s efforts at recruiting Gorgas Scholars. 1 have been meeting with the Treasurer, the Secretary, and the Editor to address issues as they arose. 3. President -Elect - Kenneth Roblee My primary activity so far has been in the planning of the symposium at our annual meeting. 1 brought up an idea as to the content of the symposium to George Cline; the idea was to create a symposium centered around computer/ information security (possibly just “computer-related issues”), because this is such an important issue for just about everybody, and there is much research done in this area, such as in cryptography. Then he wanted me to start checking around for possible speakers, which is what 1 have been doing since then. Although some people 1 contacted would not be available for the conference, at the moment, 1 have two “probables,” (a mathematician and a computer scientist). Also, related to computer issues is online courses; I am looking at getting a representative from the course management system “Blackboard” to give a talk. Beyond getting this together, 1 attended the site visit at Samford University during the summer, where some of the logistics and facilities were discussed. 4. Second Vice President Brian Thompson I have read through the eonstitution. I will be working with Ken Roblee and George Cline on nominations. 5. Secretary - James Rayburn 1 . I provided three sets of labels of current members to Safaa Al-Hamdani for the journal on May 21, 2007. 2. I provided the minutes were to Dr. Al-Hamdani after email review on June 5, 2007. 3. I emailed a copy of membership list as of August 8, 2007 to the executive committee. 39 4. As of October 24, 2007 we have 358 (of which 1 1 7 are paid for 2008) members including library and other members. Over the summer and fall we have taken in approximately $420 in dues (just turned in to treasurer). If membership stays stable we can expect $4,435.00 in dues. In 2006 membership dues were estimated at $5,290.00, and in 2007 we had an estimated $6,860.00 in dues paid. 5. On Oetober 26 1 sent out dues notiee statements for 2008 to members not paid for 2008. This mailing included those not paid for 2007 but they are dropped from the rolls of AAS. 6. We currently have on the rolls 135 Aetive members (41 paid; 30.3%), 17 emeritus (4 paid), 67 lifetime, 104 Student (5 paid; 99 not paid), 35 other members (none paid; see figure below). 7. Memberships by section are listed below. Section # Total # 1 no 1 30 3 3 4 5 5 84 6 4 7 5 8 12 9 37 10 14 1 1 6 12 3 77(other) 34 None selected 1 1 Paid members through 2008 as of October 24, 2007 Active Emeritus Lifetime Student Other Type of member # of members # paid 2008 8. The following are the current list that 1 have of paid and non-paid for 2008 AAS members for the exeeutive committee members and officers only. Please check the list, if there are errors please let me know. Everyone on list b will or should have received a due statement. Individuals on list c may or may not as 1 do not have information for all of them. a. The following Executive Committee members/officers are paid for 2008: George Cline, Steve Watts, Jim Rayburn, Houston Byrd, Marsha Griffin, Michelle Sidler, Larry Krannich, Larry Davenport, Mark Meade, Adrian Ludwick, Thane Wibbels, Roland Dute, Seott Brande, Prakash Sharma, Riehard Hudiburg, Ellen Buckner. b. The following Exeeutive Committee members/officers are not paid for 2008; Kenneth Roblee, Brian Thompson, Taba Hamissou, Safaa Al-Hamdani, Harry Holstein, Eugene Omasta, Sergey Belyi, Mike Moeller. 40 c. The following Committee members/officers are not paid for 2007: BJ Bateman, Virginia Valardi, Jane Nall, Mickie Powell, Mark Puckett, Greg Gaston, Karen Utz, Cheryl Bullard, Melinda Lawson, Brain Toone, Henry Barwood, Marietta Cameron, Troy Best,. 6. Treasurer - Taba Hamissou February 2007 - October 3 C, 2007 Feb 21, 2007 cd( 1 ) + cd(2) +cd(3) + cd(4) $56,560.38 Saving account $1,259.80 Money Market $2,837.58 Checking account (as of Feb. 21, 2007) $10,012.60 October 31, 2007 cd(l) + cd(2)+cd(3) $27,371.63 Saving account $1260.70 Money Market $275.18 Checking account $5,096.52 Total Assets all accounts (October 3 1 , 2007) $34,004.03 February 2007 - October 2007 IVIonthly Balances Previous Balance (21-2-2007) Expenses entered 2/2 1 /07 - 2/3 1 /07 February 2007 $ 10,012.60 1,276.72 Income and other transactions Expenses Balance 1,785.65 462.00 10,059.53 March 2007 Income and other transactions Expenses Balance 215.00 5,023.71 5,250.82 April 2007 Income and other transactions Expenses Balance 5,611.70 2,505.01 8,357.05 May 2007 Income and other transactions Expenses Balance 12,640.54 1,458.51 5,742 June 2007 Income and other transactions Expenses Balance 15,000 1,641.00 14,817.51 41 July 2007 Income and other transactions Expenses Balance 200.00 3,635.26 1,382.25 August 2007 Income and other transactions Expenses Balance 5,076.00 505.00 5,953.25 September 2007 Income and other transactions 4338.07 9990.80 300.52 Expenses Balance October 31, 2007 Income and other transactions 6796.00 2,000.00 5,096.52 Expenses Balance 7. Journal Editor - Safaa Al-Hamdani • Successfully released V. 78 Issue # 2-4 • Journals established a uniform organization among all the manuscripts published. • Biography issue is slowly coming from the number, therefore, we have not included in every issue. • I would like to reexamine the responsibility of the people assisting in releasing the journal. Especially those in the editorial board and the archivist. • I would like to suggest that we establish a webpage for the journal to include: guidelines to the author, pdf files for recent issues, and other materials. • April issue remains to have a few problems in regards to some abstract do not appear in print. Some presenters complained about their abstracts not being included in the journal. 8. Counselor to AJAS - B.J. Bateman State Officers/Counselors Meeting The State Officers and the State Counselors met at Troy University to discuss the State Officer’s roles for the upcoming year (2006-2007). Fall AAS Executive Meeting The State Counselor (B. J. Bateman) attended the Fall Executive Meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science. 42 Annual Meeting The 2007 Annual Meeting, like all previous meetings ot'AJAS, was shared jointly with the Alabama Academy of Science. The host institution was Tuskegee University. Prakish Sharma was the local arrangements for the AJAS, B. J. Bateman, Counselor to the AJAS, and Wanda Phillips and Henry Barwood, Associate Counselors, planned registration procedures, space needs, and arrangements for the AJAS- JSHS banquet and other activities. Registration was held at the Kellogg Conference Center. Highlights of the program were; ( 1 ) Paper Competition - The paper competition was conducted on Friday morning in L. H. Foster Hall with the finals Friday afternoon Clare Gamlin was chosen to be the overall winner and would therefore represent Alabama in national competition held at Huntsville, Al. The other four state winners (Ryan Dawson, Beth Clayton, Sarah Firing, Grant Snyder) and Catherine Shields accompanied Clare to Huntsville. (2) Banquet - More than One hundred students, teachers, university professors, and members of business, industry and government shared the Thursday night banquet. (3) Business Meeting - The customary AJAS business meeting was held on Friday afternoon. This provided a time for announcing the overall winner, the outstanding region, the outstanding teacher(s), and other awards. Winners and Awards 2007 Honorable Mention Biological Sciences . .... Abhi Haritha . . Altamont Humanities . .... Rebeca Daniels . . Brooks “Best with the Least” Biological Sciences . .... Clare Gamlin . . JCIB Engineering . .... R. T. Ayers . . Brooks Humanities . ....Rebeca Daniels . . Brooks Mathematics . .... Jessica Swinea . . Brooks Physical Science . .... Meredith Daniels . . Brooks Second Place Biological Sciences . .... Hannah Black . . Brooks Engineering . .... Brandon Kirkland . . JCIB 43 Humanities . . Nada Baalbaki . . Florence Mathematics . . Charlotte Kent . . JCIB Physical Science . . Linh Tranh . . JCIB First Place Biological Sciences . . Clare Gamlin . . JCIB Engineering . . Ryan Dawson . . JCIB Humanities . . Beth Clayton . . JCIB Mathematics . . Sarah Eiring . . JCIB Physical Science . . Grant Snyder . . Altamont Research Grant Award Robert T. Ayers . $35.00 Rebecca Daniels . $100.00 AAAS Award . William Brandon Kirkland Jessica Swinea Outstanding Teacher Award Catherine Shields Outstanding Region Central First overall Clare Ganilin Second overall Beth Clayton Third overall Sarah Firing Newly elected officers for 2007-2008: President Brandon Kirkland Vice-President Nada Baalbaki Treasurer Jessica Swinea Secretary Robert T Ayres JCIB School Florence High School Brooks High School Brooks High School JSHS Participants Attending the Annual Meeting 33 students, sponsors, and counselors attended the annual meeting as JSHS participants. Students Chris Phare Brandon Kirkland Clare Gamlin Ashley Getwan Events Coordinator JCIB JCIB JCIB 44 Brandon Kirkland JCIB Ryan Dawson JCIB Linn Trann JCIB Beth Clayton JCIB Charlotte Kent JCIB Sarah Firing JCIB Abhi Haritha The Altamont School Grant Snyder The Altamont School Robert T Ayres Brooks High School Hannah E Black, Brooks High School Rebecca Daniels Brooks High School Jessica Swinea Brooks High School Nada Baalbaki Florence High School Meredith Daniels President Liz Rabalais Secretary Marshall Everett Shoals Christian School Omar Ahmed Treasurer Brittney Bradford Vice President Adults Billy Sanders Assistant to the Counselor Gene Omasta Assistant to the Counselor Wanda Phillips Associate Counselor Henry Barwood Associate Counselor B. J. Bateman Counselor Linda Kanipe Northwest Regional Counselor Vicki Farina Brooks Catherine Shields Central Region Counselor Jeanene Daniels Brooks High School Chaperones Thomas Ayres Brooks High School Chaperones Dina Baalbaki Florence High School Chaperones 9. Science Fair Coordinator - Virginia Valardi This year seventeen student finalists, two student observers and their tw'enty - two accompanying adults traveled from six regional and one state science and engineering fair to Albuquerque, New Mexico on May 6-12 for the 2007 Intel/International Science and Engineering Fair. At this event, nearly 1,500 students from 47 countries competed for scholarships and prizes at the 58th Intel International Science and Engineering Fair. Science Service, in partnership with the Intel Foundation, announced awards at the Intel ISEF 2007 Awards Ceremony. Student winners are ninth through twelfth graders who earned the right to compete by winning top prize at a 45 local, regional, state or national science fair. The International Science and Engineering Fair is sponsored by Intel and has been administered by Science Service since its inception in 1950. Science Service is a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing the understanding and appreciation of science among people of all ages. 2008 Intel/ISEF will be in Atlanta, Georgia May 11-16 2007 w inners from the Alabama Delegation were: Materials and Bioengineering - Presented by Intel Foundation Intel will present Best of Category Winners with a $5,000 award and an Intel® Core''''^’2 Duo processor laptop computer. Additionally, a $1,000 grant will be given to their school and the Intel ISEF Affiliated Fair they represent. Second Award of $ 1 ,500 EN055 Carbon Fiber Makes a Pointe! Harper-Grace Niedermeyer, 16, Catholic High School, Huntsville, Alabama Electrical and Mechanical Engineering- Presented by Intel Foundation Intel will present Best of Category Winners with a $5,000 award and Intel® Core^'^2 Duo processor laptop computer. Additionally, a $1,000 grant will be given to their school and the Intel ISEF Affiliated Fair they represent. Fourth Award of $500 EE051 MEMS Accelerometer Pointing Device Christopher Thomas Phare, 17, Jefferson County International Baccalaureate, Birmingham, Alabama United States Coast Guard — For projects that relate to boating and water safet}\ First Award of $5,000 ET051 Effects of Renewable Gasoline Extenders on Fuel Fine Melissa Renee Snow, 1 7, Patrician Academy, Butler, Alabama 10. Science Olympiad Coordinator - Jane Nall Possibly the best kept secret in the State, many volunteers of Alabama Science Olympiad provide students the opportunity to participate and compete in Science Olympiad. Teachers, parents, coaches, bus drivers, university professors, university work study students, and other volunteers work to provide the students of Alabama the joys of “doing science” in an arena resembling athletic tournaments. Herculean efforts are made each year by staff and volunteers on several university campuses, and teachers, parents, and students of over 200 public and private schools, so they might experience the joys and thrills of doing lab hands- on science. 46 Presently, registration is in progress and tournament dates are being set. Direetor is working on ineorporating Alabama Scienee Olympiad and seeking additional volunteers to serve on the Board of Direetors. We are seeking additional campuses to sponsor tournaments. She is currently attending the SE Conference of Tournament and State Directors in Macon, Georgia and not able to attend this meeting. Placing 10"' in the nation for membership, Alabama Science Olympiad continues to grow in numbers of teams and participation at all levels. For several years now, because of the number of teams registering in Alabama, two teams in both Division B (grades 6-9) and Division C (grades 9-12) have advanced to the national competition following successfully winning at regional and the state tournaments. Only the top ten states in membership receive the second invitation at the secondary level to compete at the national tournament. The elementary levels compete at various local and regional tournaments. The University of West Alabama, Jacksonville High School and Auburn University host an A2 tournament (grades 4-6) and report they have a great time, and they are already planning this year’s tournaments. There will be five regional C tournaments (University of Alabama - Tuscaloosa and Huntsville, Auburn University, Jacksonville State University and the University of South Alabama) and four regional B tournaments (University of Alabama - Tuscaloosa and Huntsville, Auburn University, University of South Alabama. We really need at least one more B host! State Alabama B will be held at Huntingdon College and Alabama C will be on the campus of Samford University in April. Science Olympiad events address the National Standards for Science Education and comprise all areas of science including astronomy, meteorology, e.xperimental design, genetics, anatomy, process skills for life science and biology, chemistry and polymers, physics, earth science and fossils, and water quality and the environment, map skills, GIS and remote sensing as well as building events such as a Rube Goldberg-like device, robot, bottle rocket, plane, bridge and tower building, musical instruments. Alternating events in taxonomy include topics of trees, amphibians and reptiles, birds, insects. Director Nall is in search of more universities willing to host tournaments! Consider showcasing your campus and join us in the fun! The State Director is appointed by the Alabama Academy of Science. To date Alabama has been lead by two directors - 1985-1996 Mr. Steven Carey, University of Mobile and 1997-present Ms. Jane Nall, Spanish Fort High School and the University of Mobile. National this year will be in our Nation’s Capitol at George Washington University, May 30-3 1 . 47 11. Counselor to AAAS - Steve Watts The annual meeting for the AAAS affiliates will convene on February 14-18, 2007 in Boston, Mass. The general theme of this year’s meeting is Science and Technology from a Global Perspective. This theme emphasizes the power of science and technology as well as education to assist less-developed segments of the world society, to improve partnerships among already-developed countries, and to spur knowledge-driven transformations across a host of fields. All state Academies maintain an association with the American Association for the Advancement of Science. We are members of the Section on Agriculture, Food and Renewable Resources and the Section on General Interest in Science and Engineering. We welcome the opportunity for any AAS member to attend the AAAS meeting on our behalf. Information about the AAAS can be obtained at www. aaasmeeting.org. 12. Section Officers I. Biological Sciences — Mickie Powell Although I was unable to attend the 2007 Alabama Academy of Science meeting at Tuskegee, Brian Burns has sent me his information on the meeting. The Biological Sciences section of the 2007 meeting went very well. There were about 1 84 participants (posters and papers) total and the Biological Sciences included about 34 papers and 29 posters. The facilities at Tuskegee were excellent Brian Burns’ two years as Section Chair are over and I (Mickie Powell, UAB) will be rotating up into the position. There has been some talk about trying to get more involvement from UA Biology. 1 will be contacting the Biology department at UA as well as other schools to encourage participation by both undergraduate and graduate students. II. Chemistry - Houston Byrd No report III. Earth Science - Mark Puckett - No report IV. Geography, Forestry, Conservation &Planning Greg Gaston Six (6) people attended the Section IV session at the Spring 2007 Academy annual meeting. Half of the people in the room (two of my students and myselO were joined by one other professor (Dr. Izeagu ), his student and a lone graduate student from Alabama all of which made up the balance of Section IV. All six people presented papers. Section IV has a difficult time gaining a critical mass of participants to have a viable section meeting. Part of the problem is that the Academy annual meeting is held very close to the time of the AAG national meeting and most students are focused on that meeting. The universities in Alabama with geography, environmental management, and planning programs are UNA, UA, Samford, A&M, and JSU. These have all been contacted to participate, but participation is very low. 48 V. Physics & Mathematics - Brain Thompson At the 84"^ annual meeting of the AAS, we saw presentation of 15 papers and 9 posters. Personally, I found all the presentations quite interesting. At the business meeting, Akshaya Kumar of Tuskegee University was promoted to section chair, and Nirmol Fodder of Troy University was elected section vice-chair. VI. Industry & Economics - Marsha griffin - No Report VTI. Science Education - Karen Utz The science education section plans to have a full complement of papers at the annual meeting on the Samford University campus in March 2008. Because of current commitments, Karen Utz’s position as Chair of this section is going to be assumed by John Springer, Assistant Curator at Sloss Furnaces. John is e.xtremely well-versed in industrial technology, as well as science education. He will be assisted by Karen and Lori Cormier, past section chair, in recruiting paper/poster submissions and assembling the 2008 program. V HE Behavior & Social Sciences - Vacant. - No report IX. Heath Seiences - Melinda Lawson - No Report \. Engineering & Computer Science - Brian Toone While this has not been a particularly active year for this section, we do anticipate the upcoming activities: 1 . Organization of the program for Section X at the 2008 annual meeting. 2. Selection of a vice-chair to replace Brian Toone, who is now chair. 3. Organizational meeting with the newly selected vice-chair. XI. Anthropology - Harry Holstein - No Report XII. Bioethics & History/Philosophy of Science Michelle Sidler. As the new Section Chair for XII: Bioethics and History/Philosophy of Science, my primary goal for this year is to learn the administrative process and increase participation for the section. To increase participation, I am compiling a list of previous section participants’ contact information and soliciting proposals for AAS 08. In addition, I am contacting departments and colleges around Alabama who may have interested faculty to encourage their proposal submissions. At the AAS 08 meeting of Section XII, I plan to work with section participants to devise a list of goals for the next few years and to develop yearly themes that will provide a framework for submissions in the future. 13. Executive Officer - Larry Krannich Since March, 2007, I have been involved in the following activities as the Executive Director of the Alabama Academy of Science: 1 . Distributed the Local Arrangements Manual to the local arrangements committee at Samford to assist them concerning arrangements, program 49 booklet needs, and deadlines assoeiated with the annual meeting of the Academy to be held on the Samford University campus, March 19-22, 2008. 2. Prepared and distributed letters in early October to Alabama colleges and universities to solicit financial support for the Journal. 3. Prepared the Call for Papers for the 85‘'’ meeting of the Academy that will be distributed to all Section Chairs in hard and electronic copy after November 15‘'\ 4. Designed bookmarks advertising the Academy and participation in the annual meeting. These will be distributed statewide in late-November. 5. Requested from the American Chemical Society approval for co¬ sponsorship of the annual state-wide Undergraduate Chemistry Research Symposium. 6. Updated the fliers and letters being sent to all Alabama chemistry faculty to solicit the participation of undergraduates and Alabama college and university Chemistry faculty in the 4'’’ annual Undergraduate Chemistry Research symposium to be held in conjunction with the annual meeting of the Academy. 7. Contacted local sections of the American Chemical Society in the State to assess their willingness to again co-sponsor the state-wide undergraduate chemistry research symposium with the Academy. 8. Consulted with Brian Toone, Editor for Electronic Media, to develop an on¬ line submission of Executive Committee reports and generate a compiled document for distribution at the meeting and to the Secretary. Agenda Item C: Committee Reports 1. Local Arrangements - George Keller On-Site Visit Samford University, Birmingham, AE 35229 November 3, 2007 The local arrangements for the 85"’ Annual Meeting of the Academy were discussed with details included in the Appendix to these minutes. The registration fee structure will be the same as that used for the 84"’ annual meeting with the banquet fee set as $5 for pre-registrants. More than a sufficient number of rooms are available to host the various section meetings and wall boards in the hallways on all four floors of the Sciencenter will be used to accommodate the numerous poster sessions. All rooms are equipped with computers and ceiling mounted projection equipment, except for a couple of laboratories. The AJAS meetings will be held simultaneously with the AAS meetings in the Sciencenter. Because Samford University will be on Spring break, there 50 will be ample parking spaee. The Thursday night banquet will take place in the Samford Cafeteria located in the Ralph W. Beeson University Center. The availability of hotel space was discussed. All the information for the meeting will be posted on the web site in January 2008. 2. Finance- No Report 3. Membership - Mark Meade - No Report. 4. Research - Steve Watts This year 12 students (down from 19 last year) applied for travel awards to the Tuskeegee University meeting. All were presenting papers or posters. All students were from out of town and were each awarded $35. Budgeted amount for travel is $750 and we encumbered $420. In addition, 6 students applied for research grants. The committee evaluated the grants and all of these were awarded in full ($1,500 of the budgeted amount of $2,400). Support for book purchases are no longer allowed this year, nor is travel to other conferences (decided at last fall meeting). Only 12 students (down from 23 last year and 40 the previous year) have applied for the Research Paper/Poster Competition in several sections. New (slightly modified) evaluation forms and suggested criteria were sent to all section chairs and are now on the web. All categories of awards and activities were handled electronically for the fourth year. Several minor modifications may be needed for next year, but in general electronic submissions greatly improved the process and eliminated a gruesome paper trail. We suggest that the paper/poster competition will be held on Thursday only, with the banquet on Thursday night where winners will be announced. 5. Long-Range Planning - Adrian Ludwick - No Report 6. Auditing Senior Academy - Sergey Belyi - No Report 7. Aduiting, Junior Academy - Govind Menon July 2006- July 2007 Audit of Alabama Junior Academy of Science Financial Records This is a report of the Alabama Junior Academy of Science Auditing Committee for the July 2006-July 2007 financial year. 1 have examined the books provided by the Alabama Junior Academy of Science Treasurer, Dr. B.J. Bateman. We are satisfied ourselves that the receipts and expenditures, as presented to us, are correct and that all expenditures are legitimate expenses. The net worth as of June 30, 2007 is $1 1,855.47 8. Editorial Board & Assciate Journal Editors - Thane Wibbels - No report 9. Place and Date of Meeting - Mark Meade - No report 10. Public Relations - Roland Dute - No report 11. Archives - Troy Best We need to obtain photographs (especially of members of the Executive Committee), committee reports, minutes of the AAS Executive Committee 51 meetings, and any other materials that may be of interest to our membership. Items that may not seem of interest at present may be of great interest in the future. Photographs of officers and members at meetings are of special interest. If you have items that you believe may be worthy of inclusion in the AAS Archives, please send them to me or to Dr. Dwayne D. Cox, University Archivist, Auburn University Ralph B. Draughon Library, 231 Mell Street, Auburn University, AL 36849. Access to our AAS Archives is available 7:45-4:45 Monday- Friday. Dr. Cox has provided the following information relative to access. Archives materials do not go out on Interlibrary loan. Patrons can come in and use them according to the donor specifications. Some require special permission from the donating office or persons who made the donation or sometimes the archivist. Materials to be used at night or weekends need to have special arrangements made so they can be pulled before 4:30 in the afternoon (Friday afternoon for weekend use). Copies can be made in most cases and that can be done either by going through InfoQuest or contacting Dr. Cox or the reference desk at 334/844-1732. 1 encourage all officers and members of the AAS to donate significant documents, photographs, etc. to the archives. 12. Science and Public Policy - Scott Brande - No report 13. Gardner Award - Prakash Sharma The first meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science was held at Sidney Lanier High School, Montgomery, Alabama, April 4, 1924, in conjunction with the Alabama Educational Association Meeting. Wright Gardner was elected as an office bearer of the academy in this meeting. Through his early studies he became determined to make teaching and research his two goals for his life. The Wright Gardner Award was established, after the name of this great future looking scientist and educator, by the Alabama Academy of Science in 1984 to honor individuals whose work during residence in Alabama had been outstanding. Persons nominated for this award have included researchers, teachers, industrialists, clinicians, scholars and active members and office bearers of the Alabama Academy of Science. This is to request each and every member of this academy to publicize to individuals, heads of departments, deans and provosts of colleges and universities about this prestigious award. Please solicit nominations from individuals and different academic and industrial organizations for this award. The nomination should be forwarded to: Dr. P. C. Sharma, Chair, Wright Gardner Award Committee, Head of Physics Department 52 Tuskegee University Tuskegee, AL 36088. Phone: (334) 727-8998; Fax: (334) 724-3917 e-mail: pcsharma(^tuskegee.edu You are welcome to nominate by either e-mail or by mailing a hard copy. The nominations should consist of the following documents. (i) Formal Nomination Letter, (ii) vitae and at least three letters of references from peers, administrators and one by an expert in area of his/her research, and (iii) one page citation that will be used for presentation of the award. Anything missing from items (i, ii, iii) will result in rejection of the nomination. The closing date for nominations is January 5, 2008. The award will be presented in the “Joint Annual Meeting of Junior and Senior Alabama Academy of Science Meeting, 2008. 14. Carmicheal Award - Richard Hudiburg The committee looks forward to reviewing research articles published in Volume 78 of [he Journal of the Alabtuna Academy of Science in 2007. The Emmett B. Carmichael Award will be announced during the 85"’ annual meeting in March 2008. 15. Resolutions — Mark Meade No report 16. Nominating Committee - Brian Thompson 1 will be working with Ken Roblee and George Kline to identify nominations in time for the Spring 2008 meeting 17. Mason Scholarship — Mike Moeller Last spring the Committee reviewed four completed applications for the William H. Mason Scholarship. After assessing all application materials the Scholarship Committee offered the $1000 scholarship to Mr. Michael Hallman. Mr. Hallman accepted the award. The previous recipients of the William H. Mason Scholarship are: 1990-1991 Amy Livengood Sumner 1991-1992 Leella Shook Holt 1992-1993 Joni Justice Shankles 1993-1994 Jeffrey Baumbach 1994 -1995 (Not awarded) 1995-1996 Laura W. Cochran 1996-1997 Tina Anne Beams 1997-1998 Carole Collins Clegg 1998-1999 Cynthia Ann Phillips 53 1999-2000 Ruth Borden 2000-2001 Karen Celestine, Amy Murphy 2001-2002 Jeannine Ott 2002-2003 (Not awarded) 2003-2004 Kanessa Miller 2004-2005 (Not awarded) 2005-2006 Mary Busbee, Bethany Knox 2006-2007 Kelly Harbin 2007-2008 Michael Hallman Attached to this report is a copy of an announcement that the committee plans to be sending soon to deans in schools of science and education within Alabama. Members of the AAS Executive Committee are encouraged to copy and disseminate this information. $1000 FELLOWSHIP IN SCIENCE TEACHING FIFTH-YEAR PROGRAM The non-traditional fifth-year program is designed to offer individuals possessing a bachelor’s degree outside of education the opportunity to earn a master's degree in education with Class A certification. Further information, admission requirements and application procedures can be obtained from education departmental offices at Alabama colleges and universities offering the fifth-year program. AWARDS Recognizing the need for promoting superior science teaching at all levels, the Alabama Academy of Science has established an award to encourage scientifically trained students to enter the teaching profession. The William H. Mason Fellowship is $1000 for one year (non-renewable), and is tenable at any institution in the state of Alabama offering a teacher certification program. Awardees may choose to specialize in any area kindergarten through the 12th grade. Selection will be based on the extent to which the applicant shows promise for incoiporating quality science instruction in his or her classroom. 54 ELIGIBILITY Students who will have earned a B.S. or B.A. degree by the summer of 2008 are invited to apply for a William H. Mason Fellowship. Applicants must have the equivalent of a minor or major in a natural science, and must be applicants for a program leading to certification in teaching at any level K-12. Recipients will be required to teach in the state of Alabama for at least one year following the completion of the degree program for which the award is given. PROCEDURES A fellowship application form can be obtained from _ or by writing to; Dr. Michael B. Moeller Alabama Academy of Science Box 5049 University of North Alabama Florence, AL 35632 or by e-mail:or can be downloaded for the Academy’s website: mbmoeller@una.edu http://www.alabamaacademyofscience.org DEADLINE FOR RECEIPT OF APPLICATIONS IS FEB. 1, 2008 18. Gorgas Scholarship Program - Ellen Buckner 19. Electronic Media - Brian Toone. We report the following activities: 1 . Updated the main webpage for the AAS website and provided links to materials based on requests from the AAS president and Executive Director of AAS. 2. Complete the transmittal of the paper abstracts from the 84"’ annual meeting of AAS to the Editor of the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science. This process was completed in a timely manner. 3. Provided preliminary information and links for the 85"’ annual meeting to be held at Samford University. 4. Responded to various requests from the President of AAS, Executive Director of AAS and other members concerning changes to the AAS website. 5. Developed uploading capability of reports for the Fall Executive Committee meeting to the AAS website. Upcoming activities: 1 . Updating and adding information for the 2008 annual meeting 55 2. Updating the electronic submission page for the annual meeting 3. Online membership application and online meeting registration (subject to discussion at executive meeting) Agenda Item D - Old Business None Agenda Item E - New Business I. EBSCO Licensing Agreement for JAAS: Jeff Greaves, who is a Key Account Manager at EBSCO Publishing, contacted the Academy about wanting to include the Journal of the Alabama Academy of Science in the EBSCO Publishing databases that are sold to the library marketplace. In the Appendix to these minutes is a file that gives more detail about licensing {Licensing wif/i EBSCO Piihlishing)and what it would mean for the journal. More information can be found at http://www.ebscohost.com/for publishers. There are no costs associated w ith this licensing relationship. The only thing that is required is for us to provide them with the journal content. This could be by a subscription to the journal, sent to EBSCO Publishing. Also included in the Appendix is the standard non-exclusive Licensing Agreement. These were discussed and the Executive Committee agreed to enter into the EBSCO Licensing Agreement. Agenda Item E -Adjournment Adjourned 11:41AM 56 Members of Alabama Academy of Sciences (2008) Kassidy Alexander Lakisha Brown Safaa Al-Hamdani Lisa Buchanan Muhammad AH LW Buckalew Sherita Andrews Ellen Buckner Robert A. Angus Charles E Bugg Arthur G. Appel Shuntele N. Burns David Arrington Brian S Burns Jacary Atkinson Laura Busenlehner Shaina Attoh Gayle L. Bush Rebeeca Baggott Houston Byrd Mark and Karan Bailey Malori Callender Basil Bakir Leslie Calloway Laszlo Baksay Steven Carey Ronald Balczon S here 11 Carey Miehael Barbour Marcqueia L. Carson Wayne T. Barger Jan Case John A. Barone Ashley Kay Casey Amy Marie Barr Gail H Cassell William J Barrett Tanushree Chakravarty John Barrett Misty Chapman Brittani Batts Kristen Chappell Robert P Bauman Melissa Charles Janis Beaird Kimberly Childs TE Bearden Janese D. Christian Daley T. Beasley Cleary Clark John M Beaton Ben A Clements Lee R Beck George Cline Peter Beiersdorfer Andrew Coleman Sergey Belyi Loretta A. Cormier Helen H. Benford Megan Cox Troy L. Best Lonnie Craft IV Kamala N. Bhat Thomas L Craig Neil Billington Johnathan Crayton Benjie Blair Anne Cusic John Boncek J William Dapper Larry R Boots Larry Davenport Wiliam R. Bowen Cheryl G. Davis Coartney Boyd Lloyd Davis James T. Bradley Henry W. Davis Malcom Braid Richard Davis Scott Brande WR Davis Andre Braxton Lewis S Dean David C Brown Tom Denton 57 Alvin R Diamond, Jr Austin Dixon Adriane Dobson Keela Dodd Steve Donaldson Lydia Dorgan Tracy W. Duckworth Julian L Dusi Rosemai7 D Dusi Roland R Dute Hussain Elalaoui-Talibi Geraldine M Emerson Matthew English Oskar M Essenwanger Jenny Estes Jeremy Evans Whiney Evans P. Taylor Ezell Christine Feeley Joe M Finkel Sara Finley Wayne H Finley Sara Finley Wayne H Finley James H French Michael Froning Teshome Gabre Edward B. Garner Carolyn Gathright Brittany Gay Victoria K. Gibbs Keith Gibson Zachary Giffith Kenneth R Gilbert Fred Gilbert, MD Cameron W. Gill Leslie R. Goertzen Narendra Kumar Govil Lamesha D. Greene Wendy Gregory Marsha D Griffin Jan Gryko Robert T Gudauskas Pryce “Pete” Haddix James H Haggard Rosine W Hall Mijitaba Hamissou Sig Harden Shana Hardy Victor Harris Joseph G. Harrison Antonio Hayes Leven S Hazlegrove Qinghua He Paul Andrew Helminger Justin Hendricks B Bart Henson Donald Herbert Miriam Helen Hill Damian Hillman Damon Hillman Thandiwe Hlatywayo Emily Holden Richard D Holland A Priscilla Holland Dan C. Holliman Harry O Holstein Candice Howard-Shaughnessy Xing Hu Richard A Hudiburg Kelli Hudson Virginia Hughes Ronald N. Hunsinger Brenda W Iddins Issac E. Igbonagwam Thomas Jackson Thomas S Jandebeur Brandon P. Jarman Li Jiang Adriel D Johnson Ivy Krystal Jones Ruth W Kastenmayer Ellene Kebede Ashley D. Kennedy Constance A. Kersten Jong Hwa Kim 58 Duk Kyung (Daniel) Kim Steve Kimble Christopher King Natalie King Martha V Knight Lawerence F. Koons Larry K Krannich Srinivasarao Krishnaprasad Jeanne L. Kuhler Akshaya Kumar Bayo Lawal Anne Marie LeBlane Cherline Lee Aleck W. Leedy Pamela M. Leggett-Robinson Carol Leitner, MD Michel G LeLong Michael S Loop William K Love James R Lowery Adriane Ludwick Christy Magrath Fayeqiia Majid Ken Roy Marion Julia E. Massey Juan Mata Joseph Mathews Jr William K McAllister J Wayne McCain Amanda McCall Jim Mcclintock Vann McCloud Stuart W McGregor Teena M. McGuinness Matthew McGuire Ellen W. McLaughlin Bonnie Mcquitter-Banks Mark Meade Victoria Mechtly Joseph Menefee Wonda R. Mihtil Joe Mills Deanna Minisee Leana Mitchell Stacy Tyrone Mixon Michael B. Moeller David Mohammad Jack H Moore Debra Moore Teresa Kelley Moore Anthony G Moss Christopher Murdock Gerald Murray Henry David Muse Daivd H. Myer Marione E Nance Gwen Nance Juan M Navia David H Nelson Bradley R. Newcomer Ray Neyland Alfred Nichols Monica Norton Samuel C. Nwosu Lumumba Obika Florence Okafor Benedict Okeke Eugene Omasta Albert Osei William F Osterhoff Janna Owens Donald L Parker Scott C Parrish Robert Parrish Glenn D. Person Mikel D. Petty Robert E Pieroni James A Pittman, Jr Marshall Pitts Morgan S Ponder Duane Pontius Mickie Powell Nichole L. Powell Mohammed A. Qazi Samiksha Rant James Rayburn 59 Jarrod Rayford Gerald T Regan Philip D. Reynolds Velma Richardson Robin Roberts Janet Roberts Alexander Roberts B.K. Robetson George H Robinson Edward L Robinson James L. Robinson Kenneth Roblee Shirley Rohrer Frank Romano Donald Roush Bobby Rowe Robert Rowe Jane Roy Dennis R. Ruez, Jr. Albert E. Russell Gullo Safawo Kristina Schneider Eacoya Tyne Seltzer PC Sharma David E Shealy Richard C Sheridan RE Shoemaker Michelle Sidler Shiva P Singh Kenneth R Sloan Bruce F Smith Micky Smith Anita Smith Akeem Smith Lynessa V. Smith Angela Smith- Holloway Angela M. Spano Larry E. Spencer Lee Stanton Clyde T Stanton Ariel D. Stark Lauren A. Stephens James L. Stewart Samuel J Strada Kenneth Sundberg Arjun Tan Robert W Thacker Shamira Theodore Robert E Thomas Amy Thompson Jerry N Thompson D Brian Thompson Sue Thomson Trygve Tollefsbol Perry Tompkins Diane Tucker Charmaine Tutson Katherine Vandeven SL Varghese Nagiarajan Vasumathi John B Vincent Emanuel Waddell JH Walker Kris Walker Natalie Warren Stephen A Watts Clifford Webb BC Weber Laura Weinkauf Gylnn P. Wheeler Thane Wibbels WH Wilborn James C Wilkes Robert J Williams Shammah O.N. Williams Brandon Williams George Williams Mary Williams Edward L Wills Katie Wilson Herman Windham Patrick L. Witmer Michael Woods Emily Wright Douglas A. Wymer Lin Yang 60 ( <■ . A f M.- . Mliii ' • tipi N •3 I fc -ii5! it -1 Alabama Academy of Science Journal Scope of the Journal: The Alabama Academy of Science publishes significant, innovative research of interest to a wide audience of scientists in all areas. Papers should have a broad appeal, and particularly welcome will be studies that break new ground or advance our scientific understanding. Information for the Authors: • Manuscript layout should follow the specific guidelines of the journal. • The authors are encouraged to contact the editor (E-mail: sah@jsu.edu) prior to paper submission to obtain the guidelines for the author. • At least one author must be a member of the Alabama Academy of Science (except for Special Papers). • The author(s) should provide the names and addresses of at least two potential reviewers. • Assemble the manuscript in the following order: Title Page, Abstract Page, Text, Brief acknowledgments (if needed). Literature Cited, Figure Legends, Tables, Figures. What and Where to Submit: The original and two copies of the manuscript and a cover letter should be submitted to the following. Dr. Safaa Al-Hamdani Editor-Alabama Academy of Science Journal Biology Department Jacksonville State University 700 Pelham Road North Jacksonville, AL 36265-1602 Review Procedure and Policy: Manuscripts will be reviewed by experts in the research area. Manuscripts receiving favorable reviews will be tentatively accepted. Copies of the reviewers’ comments (and reviewer-annotated files of the manuscript, if any) will be returned to the correspondent author for any necessary revisions. The final revision and electronic copy are then submitted to the Alabama Academy of Science Journal Editor. The author is required to pay $100 for partial coverage of printing costs of the article. I III lll I o a> O) /< 'S# O oo t . 1 : 1 ,T , J ‘ 'd I 'll M 1 1 ’ 01 f i’ m r •< (. ) 1 » (n . * , J t; o> ; 1 V V O' f/j 1 ’ ' 1 i : V ^ 1 0^ III - 1 ( •> iM 1 : 01 • < 01 V 1 . 1 VI \\ ^ ( a* V : ;? O' t- (J) a» ^0 ^1, ( ' cu u C a 00 « 'u u C/O > Vh-i o H-H d d d ' o 00 o ^ O A l\ (U (Oh OJ • > d o U d