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FOR EDVCATION
FOR SCIENCE
LIBRARY
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THE AMERICAN MUSEUM
OF
NATURAL HISTORY
| JOURNAL:
OF THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.
VO ET Eee |
PART II. (NATURAL History, &c.)
(Nos. I to [1V.—1893.)
WITH INDEX
EDITED BY THE
NatTurRaL fiisTORY p ECRETARY.
——erEernnr-e eeeereeeeeeeeeesee
“Tt will flourish, if naturalists, chemists, antiquaries, philologers, and men of science
in different®*parts of Asza, will commit their observations to writing, and send them to
the Asiatic Society-at Calcutta. It will languish, if such communications shall be long
intermitted ; and it will die away, if they shall entirely cease.” SIR WM. JoNgs,
CALCUTTA:
PRINTED AT THE BAPTIST MISSION PRESS,
AND PUBLISHED BY THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY, 57, PARK STRERT.
1898.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
Axcock, A.;—On some Newly-recorded Corals from the Indian Seas
(Plate V.) . sg0qeenne0 004 no. coN0CUNOOGGIOCN
On some Ruciitatiersin an the indian Sas nog do ann 06s
Natural History Notes from H. M. Indian Marine
Survey Steamer, ‘Investigator, Commander C. F, Oldham,
R. N., Commanding. Series II., No. 9. An Account of the
Deep Sea Collection made during the Season of 1892-93.
(Plates VIII. and IX.) .
Hetnie, R. L. ;—Blind Hoot-auclers of ae eae Plate VL. )
Hozzianp, THomas H. ;—The Petrology of Job Charnock’s Tombstone
——__-———_ On a slab of Chinese Agglomerate lava
bearing a Chinese Inscr Be discovered in St. John’s ee
Calcutta. (Plate VIL.) . ac
Kine, Gzorce. ;—Materials fn a Sakae of tre) Malayan Bnei
IN@> Wo ceocoogo000b00c00e00000000000000N00 660 s00nt6000
———————Ditto No. aes
On some Indian Spies of Gian (Plates x
@ AGOGO sue siueves seen
NICEVILLE, Tioany D DE; On eer an Orienioh genus oa Satyrid
Butterflies ... eke waaues
Prain, D. ;—Two species “of sEesRgntlerse ‘(Plates L and i). seGieaesee
Novicie Indice VI. A review of the genus Colqu-
InGaN, Gaboac ve
On the Flora of Naweondar and “Bareen, Helend
(Plates TI. and IV.) . és
Note on some methods of preparing Ce speci-
mens, communicating Memoranda by Messrs. C. Maries and
R. Pantling .. Saelsiear ae as
WATERHOUSE, J. pa Siieiaiions. ae ie Electrical: here of
Tight upon Silver and its Haloid Compounds wiscecscrsrsevecrvace
Page
138
151
169
162
153
10
. Sie
ea!
Dates of Issue. Part I, 1893.
I,—Containing pp. 1-38, with Plates I. and Il. was issued on
June 3rd, 1893.
. I1.—Containing pp. 39-150, with Plates III. IV. and V. was issued
on August 12th, 1893.
. I1].—Containing pp. 151-168, with Plates VI. and VII. was is-
sued on November 27th, 1893.
. [V.—Containing pp. 169-262, with Plates VIII. IX. X. XL.
XII. and XIII. was issued on March 6th, 1894.
LIST OF PLATES.
No. “I.—Pedicularis diffusa, Prain.
Ene. “1l.—
| No. VIV.—
9)
99
flaccida, ,,
9) 39 99 99
“No. V.—Corals from the Indian Seas.
No. “III.—Sketch Map of the Andaman Sea.
Group.
“No. VI.—=Blind Root-suckers of the Sunderbans.
vNo. VII.—Quartz in Chinese Acid Rocks.
No. VIII.—Indian Echinoderms and Corals.
vy No. 1xX,.—
99
Deep sea fishes.
_No. X.—Canariwm bengalense, Roxb.
-No. XI—
~ No. XII.—
~ No. XIII.—
”?
99
99
strictum, ‘
sikkimense, King.
reziniferum, Brace.
oe
\ ou
sa
:
JOURNAL
OF THE
PoreliC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.
ey oe
Part II.—NATURAL SCIENCE.
No. J.—1893s8.
I.—On Erires, an oriental genus of satyrid butterflies :—By
Lionen pe Nicr’vitie, F. H.S., C. M. Z. 8S,
[Received 16th February ;—Read 1st March, 1893. ]
The genus Hrites at the present date contains five species only,
(six if H. ochreana is held to be a distinct species, I have not seen it),
found in Assam, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Labuan,
Borneo, and the Philippines. To these I now propose to add a sixth.
All are closely allied, and very similar in general aspect. They
are extremely delicate butterflies, semi-transparent, of a brownish-
ochreous shade, sometimes just tinted with violaceous on the upperside.
All possess a submarginal series of ocelli to both wings, more or less
visible on the upperside. These ocelli vary greatly in size, in some
species they are large and prominent, in others quite small and incon-
spicuous. On the underside there are usually two discal bands, often
more or less angled. These butterflies are found only in virgin forests
as far as I am aware, and fly weakly close to the ground amongst the
brushwood under the great trees and in open paths through the forests.
Their transformations are unknown. The males have no secondary sexual
characters. The females differ only from the males in ‘the wings
being somewhat broader, and in having the apex of the forewing more
rounded.
J 1s. 1.
ae L. de Nicéville—On Erirss, an oriental ' [Nou
I give below a key by which the several species may be distin-
guished :—
Key to the species of Hrites.
A. Forewing with five equal-sized ocelli.
1. #. elegans, Borneo.
B. Forewing with the posterior ocellus very muck larger than the others.
a. Forewing with the large ocellus on the upperside prominently pupilled
with white. The apex of the wing falcate.
2. Z£. falcipennis, Assam; Burma,
b. Forewing with the large ocellus on the upperside blind or nearly so.
The apex of the wing rounded.
1, Both wings with all the ocelli prominent and well-formed on the
underside.
a*, Forewing with three small apical ocelli only in addition to the
large anal one.
3. ££. medura, Java; Philippines.
b2. Forewing with four apical ocelli in addition to the large anal
one.
a®, The inner discal band on the hindwing straight.
A. H#. argentina, Labuan; Borneo; Malacca.
63, The inner discal band on the hindwing highly angled out-
wards in the middle.
5. E. angularis, Burma; Malay Peninsula; Sumatra.
bl, Both wings with all the ocelli inconspicuous except the anal one in
the forewing, reduced to black dots only.
6. HE. rotundata, Burma.
1. Erires ELEGANS, Butler.
E. elegans, Butler, Cat. Diurn. Lep. B. M., Satyride, p. 147, n. 2, pl. ii, fig. 4,
female (1868); id., Druce, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1873, p. 340, n. 2; id., Staudinger,
Ex. Schmett., p. 280, pl. Ixxxii, male (1887).
Hasirat: Borneo (Butler, British Museum; Druce ; Staudinger) ;
three males Borneo, one female Padas River, North Borneo (collection
de Nicéville).
2. RITES FALCIPENNIS, W.-M. and de N.
E. falcipennis, Wood-Mason and de Nicéville, Butt. of India, vol. i, p. 237, n. 230
(1883); idem, id., Journ. A. S. B., vol. ly, pt. 2, p. 351, n. 80, pl. xvi, fig. 2, male
(1887).
Hasirat: One male Silcuri, August; one male, Nemotha, September
—hoth in Cachar, Assam (Wood-Mason, collection Indian Musewm) ; one
male, Fort Lungleh, Lushai Hills, October, 1890 (R. Pughe, collection de
Nicéville); one female, Karen Hills, Burma, April (collection Phayre
Musewm, Rangoon).
1893.] genus of satyrid butterflies. 3
3. Erires mepura, Horsfield.
Hipparchia medura, Horsfield, Cat. Lep. Mus. H. I. C., pl. v, fies. 8, 8a, female
(1829) ; Erites medwra, Marshall and de Nicéville, Butt. of India, vol. i, p. 236 (1883) ;
id , Pagenstecher, Jahr. des Nass. Vereins fur Natur., vol. xliii, p. 96, n. 15 (1890) ;
#. medura, var. ochreana, Staudinger, Iris, vol. ii, p. 88 (1889); H. ochreana, Semper,
Schmett. Philipp. Inseln, p. 326, n. 497 (1892); Satyrus (Hrites) madura (sic),
Westwood, Gen. Diurn. Lep., vol. ii, p. 392, n. 47 (1851); Hrites madura, Horsfield
and Moore, Cat. Lep. Mus. EH. I. C., vol. i, p. 229, n. 484 (1857); id., Hewitson,
Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zoology, vol. viii, p. 145 (1865); id., Butler, Cat. Diurn.
Lep. B. M., Satyridx, p. 146, n. 1 (1868).
Hasirar: Java (one female, Horsfield collection in the British Museum) ;
Hast Java (Pagenstecher) ; Palawan, Philippines ‘Stawdinger).
Mr. Hewitson (1. c.) describes a variety of this species as follows :—
“ Male and female. With five ocelli on the anterior wing, one large
and four small. Sumatra; Singapore.” This almost certainly equals
E. angularis, Moore, which undoubtedly occurs in the Malay Peninsula,
and also in Sumatra, as Dr. L. Martin, of Deli, Sumatra, informs me.
Mr. Hewitson also describes another variety thus :—“ Male and
female. With the five ocelli of the anterior wing small and of equal size,
Singapore; Sarawak.” This can only refer to H elegans, which cer-
tainly occurs in Borneo, but very doubtfully in Singapore, at any rate
it is not recorded from thence by Mr. Distant in “ Rhopalocera Malay-
ana,” nor have I seen a specimen from any part of the Malay Penin-
sula.
4, ERITES ARGENTINA, Butler.
H. argentina, Butler, Cat. Diurn. Lep. B. M., Satyride, p. 188, n. 5, pl. v, fig. 8,
female (1868) ;id., Druce, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1873, p. 340, n. 1; id., Distant,
Ann, and Mag. of Nat. Hist., fifth series, vol. xix, p. 48, n. 21 (1887).
Hasitat: Labuan, an island off the N.-W. coast of Borneo
(Butler, in coll. British Musewm) ; Borneo (Druce and Distant) ; Borneo;
Malacca (Staudinger) ; S.-H. Borneo (collection de Nicéville).
Unfortunately I possess no specimen of H. medura; but comparing
the figures of H. medura and Hi. argentina, both taken from female
specimens, and a single male of the latter in my collection, the only
point of difference I can discover between them is that H, medura
lacks a small ocellus in the second median interspace of the forewing
which is present in H. argentina.
5. Hrirns anquiarts, Moore.
E. angularis, Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1878, p. 825 ; id., Distant, Rhop.
Malay., p. 46, n. 1, pl. v, fig. 8, male (1882) ; id., Marshall and de Nicéville, Butt. of
India, vol. i, p. 286, n. 229, pl. xvi, fig. 50, female (1883).
Hasirat: Taoo plateau, 3,000—5,000 feet, Upper Tenasserim
4 L. de Nicéville—On Eritns, an oriental [No. 1,
(Moore) ; Perak (Distant); Meplay Valley, January ; Thoungyeen forests,
March ; near Moulmein, October (Marshall and de Nicéville); Yoonzaleen
Valley, November; Myitta, January, both in Burma; Rawan, Selangor,
Malay Peninsula, December (collection de Nicéville). ;
In this species there are four small equal-sized ocelli and one large
ocellus to the forewing, the ocelli of the hindwing prominent; the inner
band of the hindwing strongly outwardly angled in the middle; the outer
band is twice outwardly angled, once in the middle, and once where
it is crossed by the second subcostal nervule, this feature being only
found in the otherwise quite distinct species, 7. elegans.
6. ERITES ROTUNDATA, N. sp.
E angularis, Watson (nec Moore), Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. iii, p. 19,
n. 38 (1888).
Hapitat: Burma.
Expanse: of, 2°70 to2:1; 9, 2:2 to 2°4 inches.
Description: Mane. Upprrstpe, both wings semi-transparent,
brownish-ochreous. Forewing with the two discal bands of the underside .
showing through by transparency ; a large, almost round (slightly oval)
black ocellus in the first median interspace and extending slightly into
the two interspaces beyond, obscurely pupilled with plumbeous, and sur-
rounded with an ochreous ring. Hindwing with a prominent discal
ochreous band, outwardly angled in the middle; four large round blind
black ocelli, surrounded each by a very wide ochreous ring, the rings
touching, thus forming a continuous band, one ocellus in each interspace
from the first median to the second subcostal nervule ; two fine ochreous
and two fine fuscous marginal lines. UnpersIpE, both wings finely striated
with purplish-fuscous; the four apical ocelli present in the forewing of
B. angularis, Moore and the five of the hindwing reduced to minute
black dots in this species. Forewing with the fifth large ocellas much
as above, but the black portion is smaller, the ochreous ring wider, and
the pupil prominent and silvery ; two prominent discal deep ochreous
bands outwardly sharply defined by a black thread commencing close
to the submedian nervure, the inner band straight, crossing the dis-
coidal cell obliquely about its middle, and becoming lost before reach-
ing the subcostal nervure ; the outer band curved and bounding the
wide ochreous outer ring of the large ocellus in the first median
interspace, the band ending on the third median nervule. Hindwing
with faint traces of two discal bands, the inner one straight, the outer
one angled outwardly once only, as in all the species of the genus
except H. angularis ; the marginal lines as on the upperside. Frmae
hardly differs from the male, except that the wings are broader,
1893.] genus of satyrid butterflies. 5
the apex of the forewing is more rounded, and the forewing has similar
fine marginal lines as are found in the hindwing of the male. This
species differs structurally from H. angularis in that the tooth or angu-
lation at the termination of the second median nervule of the hindwing
is as great or greater than that at the third; in H. angularis this tooth
is quite small.
In one specimen in my collection from the Pegu Yoma, taken in
December, the markings are almost as prominent on the underside
as in HH. angularis, there are two apical well-formed ocelli to the
forewing, and five ocelli to the hindwing, the discal bands well-marked,
but as the inner band of the hindwing is straight (not outwardly strongly
angled in the middle), and the outer band is once outwardly angled only
(instead of twice), I have no hesitation in placing this specimen under
E. votundata rather than under FH. angularis. Another specimen in my
collection taken at the same place and time is quite typical H. rotundata.
In the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London for 1891,
page 268, Mr. H. J. Elwes records H. medwra, Horsfield, from Hast Pegu,
Upper Burma, and places L. angularis, Moore, with a query as asynonym
of that species, and makes the following remarks :—
‘“‘Numerous specimens were sent by Doherty from Hast Pecu,
taken at about 1,500 feet [during March and April], of which several
females and one male were by him supposed to be, and marked as, a
distinct species. These correspond to the female taken in the Thoun-
gyeen forests by Major Bingham, and described by Marshall and de
Nicéville, ‘Butt. of India,’ vol. i, p. 237,* as nearer to H. medura of
Java than to H. angularis.”
“ After examining the series closely and comparing them with one
Javan specimen, I do not see how to separate the two species | H. medura,
Horsfield, and H. angularis, Moore], for, though in the supposed new
* “ A female taken in the Thoungyeen forests in Mareh differs from our other
female specimens in the ocellus on the upperside of the forewing being very nearly
round, not oval, with a distinct yellow iris of equal width throughout ; the outer
fascia of the hindwing much broader and very distinct ; four large black spots —
beyond twice the size of those in the other specimens, the yellow irides prominent
and touching. On the underside of the hindwing the two discal fasciz have
almost disappeared, and the five submarginal ocelli are very minute. This speci-
men differs only in the following particulars from Horsfield’s fieure of E. medura:
The outer margin of the forewing is not quite so evenly rounded, being in fact
slightly concave ; the large ocellus is not quite so large as in H. medwia, and the
iris is less wide. On the underside the apical ocelli on the forewing are smaller,
and on the hindwing the ocelli are minute, and the fasciz are obsolete. This
specimen, however, is much nearer H. medura than #. angularis.” (Marshall and
de Nicéville, 1. c.)
6 L. de Nicéville—On Erirns. [No. 1
species the ocelli on the upperside of the hindwing are much larger
than in the other form from the same locality, whilst on the underside
both the ocelli and the bands are almost obsolete, J am rather inclined
to suspect seasonal dimorphism, and to think that this form is the last
of the first brood, and the others, among which males are far more
numerous, are the first of a second- brood. In the Javan specimen we
have the hindwing lke one form below and the other above. Further
observations are requisite to decide the question.”
FE. medura and FE. angularis are abundantly distinct. The former
has three apical ocelli in the forewing, the inner discal band straight,
the outer band apparently once outwardly angled in the hindwing;
while the latter has four apical ocelli, the inner band outwardly angled
in the middle, the outer band twice outwardly angled.
Mr. Elwes suggests that seasonal dimorphism may occur in the
genus. At present I see no indications of the appearance of this
phenomenon, at any rate if the usual form of seasonal dimorphism
observable in the Satyrine is understood. I possess the strongly ocellated
B. undularis taken in January, October, November, and December, ail of
which months (except occasionally October) are dry months, when the
ocelli should be obsolete: while the two type specimens of H. falcipennis
were taken in the height of the rainy season, August and September, but
have minute ocelli, instead of the normal rainy-seasonal large and well-
developed ocelli. I append a note by Mr. W. Doherty on the subject,
which bears out my opinion, and I may add that it is at his suggestion
that I have described L. rotundata.
“The prehensors of Hrites are slender and simple, and of the usual
satyrid type, resembling those of most of the species of Lethe (Debis), to
which the genus seems allied, the true Lethe (europa, Fabricius) being
exceptional in having the upper organ without branches. Seen from the
side, the upper organ (uncus, tegumen) of LH. angularis is unusually
straight ; that of H. rotundata is much more depressed terminally. In
both species the lower organ (clasp, harpago) is truncate at the tip, but
in EB. angularis it is cut square, while in EH. rotwndata the end is
concave, so as to form a distinct scallop.”
“ Apart from these differences in the prehensors, I think Mr. Elwes’
supposition, that H. rotundata may be the dry-season form of F. angularis,
an unlikely one. No seasonal variation has yet been observed in the
genus. I found H. angularis, which should be the wet-season form,
commoner in the dry-season than H. rotundata. Finally, the dimorphism,
if it exists, must be of a new type. Dry-season forms are distinguished
by obliterated ocelli and angular wines, but here the non-ocellate form
99
has the wings abnormaliy rounded.
1893. ] D. Prain—Two species of Pedicularis. 7
IT possess the following examples of H. rotundata. One male and
one female from Beeling, Upper Burma, taken on 27th March, 1886, two
males on the 29th idem, one female on the 14th April, by Lieut.
HK. Y. Watson ; two males taken in the Pegu Yoma, Burma, by a native
collector employed by the Phayre Museum, Rangoon, in December ;
one female from Quaymoo, Tenasserim, captured in March and another
in November, in the Yoonzaleen Valley, also in Tenasserim by Major
C. T. Bingham.
Two species of Pedicularis.—By D. Prat.
(With Plates I and I1.)
[Received March 9th—Read April 5th. |
In 1889 (Journ. As. Soc. Beng. lviii pt. 2, p. 255) the writer had the
honour to communicate to the Society descriptions of a number of new
Indian species of this genus. Since then a considerable number of new
species have been reported from China and Tibet and have been described
in various periodicals by Messrs Maximowic, Hemsley and Franchet, and
by the writer. Now, another new Indian species has been reported ; of
this a description is given below and the present opportunity is taken
of describing an allied new species from Szechuen.
1. PHDICULARIS DIFFUSA Prain, sp. nov. (PL. I.)
Hlata simplex vel e collo diffuse ramosa, radice debili ramosa collo
esquamato, caulibus gracilibus simplicibus, foliis radicalibus longe petio-
latis mox evanescentibus caulinis 4-natim verticillatis laminis gla-
brescentibus ovato-oblongis pinnatisectis, segmentis 5—8-jugis ob-
longis obtusis inciso-serratis ; floribus verticillatis verticillis numerosis
inter se remotis, bracteis foliaceis oblongo-ovatis petiolatis pinnati-
fidis et inciso-serratis; calycis breve pedicellati campanulati mem-
branacei inflati totius reticulati antice vix fissi dentibus majusculis
inaequilatis anticis et lateralibus ovatis inciso-serratis illis duplo his
4-plo summo deltoideo integro latioribus ; corollae roseae tubo sursum
ampliato calyce duplo longiore basi infracto, labio 3-lobo lobis oblongo-
ovatis margine sinuatis lateralibus medio dimidio majoribus, galea
leyiter arcuata tubo subcontinua apice subincurva erostri; staminibus
ex adverso summi ovarli insertis filamentis anticis superne hirsutis;
ovario ovoideo stigmate parum exserto, capsula anguste lanceolata apice
acuta calyce duplo longiore, seminibus ovoideis testa nigrescente minute
reticulatis.
oa)
D. Prain—Two species of Pedicularis. [No. 1,
In Himaraya orrentanl: Sikkim, Mt. Tankra, 11,500 p. s. m.; G. A.
Gammie !
Caulibus 40-60 cm. longis, foliis caulinis 2—2°5 cm. longis his
075-1 cm. latis, seementis 5 mm. longis 3 mm. latis, petiolis 0'5—-1 cm.
longis ; calyece 6 mm. longo hoc 3°5 mm. Jato; corollae tubo 10 mm. longo
apice 4mm. lato, galea 5 mm. longa, labio 8 mm. lato; capsula 12 mm.
longa 5 mm. lata.
This species is most nearly related to P. verticillata Linn. and P.
refracta Maxim. but besides differing greatly in habit and foliage from
both it differs from P. verticillata in having a calyx with large teeth
and with a tube reticulated throughout, while it differs from P. refracta
in having the anterior and lateral calyx teeth serrate and not entire ;
frcem both it differs in having acute, not muticous, anther-cells.
Of Indian species, it in habit much resembles P. flewwosa Hook. f.,
though it is glabrescent while that species is hirsute, but the plant that
it imitates most closely is P. gracilis Wall. var. macrocarpa Prain, the
likeness being so great that though in flower they differ so widely, it is
not easy to distinguish fruiting specimens of the two.
2. PEDICULARIS FLACCIDA Prain; sp. nov. (Pl. II.).
Ascendens glabra caulibus gracilibus corymbosim ramosis, foliis
ramisque J—4-natim verticillatis radicalibus mox evanescentibus cau-
linis breve petiolatis ovatis pinnatifidis segmentis 5-6-jugis obtusis
inciso-serratis ; floribus in verticillis 4-floris paucis remotisque dispositis,
bracteis foliaceis calycem excedentibus; calycis glaberrimi parvuli
campanulati antice parum fissi 5-dentali segmentis omnibus oblongis
integris tubo costato nec reticulato; corollae tubo sursum am pliato
calycem 38-plo excedente basi infracto, labio 3-lobo lobis lateralibus
ovatis medio orbiculato basi constricto 3-plo majoribus, galea leviter
arcuata tubo subcentinua apice subincurva erostri, staminibus ex ad-
verso medii ovarii insertis omnibus glabris, antheris contiguis muticis;
ovario ovoideo stigmate exserto.
In Curya occipentaLi ; Szechuen occident. prope Tachienlu, Praté n.
471!
Caulibus 20-25 cm. longis foliis caulinis 1 cm. longis his 0:7 em,
latis segmentis 2 mm. longis 1 mm. latis, petiolis 0°5 em. longis ; calyce
25 mm. longo hoc 2 mm. lato ; corollae tubo 8 mm. longo apice 4°5 mm.
lato, galea 4 mm. longa, labio 7 mm. lato.
Like the preceding species this is also closely related to P. verti-
cillata Linn. but differs considerably in habit, and though it has the
calyx tube ribbed and not reticulated just as P. verticillata has, it differs
in having the calyx distinctly toothed and extremely small. The stamens
also differ in being all glabrous whereas in P. verticillata the anterior
1893.] D. Prain—Two species of Pedicularis. 9
pair are hirsute ; the anthers though muticous.as in P. verticillata ave
contiguous and not discrete. The fruit is unknown.
As both these species belong to one natural group it may be useful
to provide a key, modified, so as to admit of their reception, from the
key already published by the writer (Ann. Roy. Bot. Garden, Calcutta,
ii, 94), in which the relative position of these and of the previously
known species is shown.
VERTICILLATAE.
Galea less than half the length of the lip —
Bracts flabellate, spike long, dense ; calyx
small, subglobose, not cleft, teeth small,
entire : anterior filaments hairy Pier RS UCaLM.
Substitute for pages 9, 10, 15 and 16, in No. : of
Pt. I., Journal for 1893.
Undo UP Yee yp wes en wn ==
Calyx distinctly cleft, teeth entire :—
Margin of galea even; anterior fila-
ments hairy fon
Margin of galea toothed ; filaments
not hairy nor we P. szetschuanica.
P. refracta.
Explanation of the Plates.
Puate J. Pedicularis diffusa Prain.
1, Flower with bract; 2, calyx with ovary and style; 3, half of corolla show-
ing staminal insertion; 4, stamens; 5, capsule ; 6 seed: 1, 2,3 and 5 magnified +;
4 and 6 magnified +.
Prats II. Pedicularis flaccida Prain.
1, Flower with bract; 2, calyx with ovary and style ; 3, half of corolla showing
staminal insertion : all magnified 2.
Jen 2:
10 Waterhouse—Llectrical action of Light upon Silver. [ Nort:
Some Observations of the Electrical action of Light wpon Silver and tts
Haloid Compounds :— By Coionel J. Waternouse, 1.8. C., Assistant
Surveyor General of India.
[Received April 20th : Read May 8rd. |
In my paper on “ Electro-chemical Reversals with Thio-carbamides,’’
read at the meeting of the Society in April 1891, it was shown that
the peculiar reversals of the photographic image produced by the
addition of very minute quantities of a thio-carbamide, or sulpho-
urea, to an eikonogen developer appeared to be connected with and
accompanied by electro-chemical action, if not actually brought about
by it. It was remarked also that the experiments brought forward
pointed to the conclusion that, at any rate as regards the haloid salts
of silver, the formation and development of the photographic image
is to a very great extent influenced by electrical action, more so per-
haps, than has generally been recognised, although the fact of pho-
tographic action being accompanied by electrical phenomena has been
known since the earliest days of photography. It was suggested that
a further investigation into the theory of photography based on electro-
chemical laws, might be of value in throwing light upon much that
is now obscure and uncertain as regards the formation and development
of the invisible photographic image formed by the exposure to light
of silver haloid compounds.
Since that time I have given a good deal of attention to the
subject and tried several experiments in various ways with the object
of ascertaining the electrical action of light, in connection with photo-
graphy, on plates of pure silver immersed in various fluids as well as
on dry plates and other forms of silver haloid compounds in ordinary
photographic use. Also on the action of electrical currents in forming
developable compounds of silver haloids similar to those formed by
light, and, further, on the electrolysis of ordinary photographic develo-
pers and on the currents produced during the development of the
photographic image. These observations are not yet sufficiently com-
plete to found any sound deductions upon, but I hope to complete
them later. In the meantime, I have thought that a short note on
some observations I have lately made on the electrical action of
light upon plain silver plates in various solutions, might be of interest
and forma suitable introduction to any further notes on this subject I
may be able tobring before you. It does not pretend to be complete
or exhaustive, and can only be considered as a contribution towards a
systematic investigation of the question.
/ GUAR. g
1893. ] Waterhouse—Hlectrical action of Light upon Silver. 11
A great many observations have been made from time to time of
the electrical influence of light on metals immersed in water and various
saline solutions, and before going further, it seems desirable to give a
brief summary of these observations, and more particularly of those re-
lating to silver and its salts.
More than half a century ago, in 1839, Edmond Becquerel was the
first to show that the electrical action accompanying the chemical
changes brought about by the influence of light upon various substances,
including several metals and the silver haloids, could be observed with
the aid of a very delicate galvanometer. He found that this action was
quite independent of any calorific radiation or heating of one electrode
more than another, but was powerfully affected by the different rays of
the spectrum, the greatest action being produced by the violet, indigo and
blue rays, while with the green, yellow and red rays there was little or
no action. Becquerel’s observations are fully summarized in his work,
“Ta Lumiere, ses causes et ses effets,’ Vol. Il. To observe these effects
he used a covered vessel divided into two parts by athin membrane. In
each of the compartments he placed a plate of platinum or gold, previously
made red-hot to remove all impurities, the plates being connected with
the poles of a very sensitive galvanometer, and laid horizontally in the
apparatus. Hach compartment had a moveable cover. He found that
when the two compartments contained an alkaline solution, the plate
exposed to the solar rays took negative electricity, while the reverse
occurred if the solution were acid. With alterable metals, such as silver
or brass, analogous effects were obtained and the electrical effect could
be largely increased by giving the plates a preliminary polarisation by
plunging them in water and then placing them in connection with the
positive pole of a battery. When two silver plates were immersed in
water acidulated with nitric acid exposure to light of one plate only
produced a very weak current and the exposed plate was always positive.
Tf the gold or platinum plates had been thoroughly cleaned, had
remained in strong nitric acid and had been made red hot, the differ-
ent parts of the spectrum were almost powerless to produce electric
currents. With well cleaned silver plates which had been heated
several times the effects were also almost nil, though not quite absent,
and from this fact 1t seemed possible that when the plates were not in
this state the effects produced might be due to the action of light upon
corpuscles of organic matter adhering to the plates which become
oxidised by the action of light, the water supplying the oxygen. It
this effect did not take place and there was no alteration in the plates
themselves the light must produce a disturbance of the particles, but
the former supposition seemed most probable. He found that when
12 Waterhouse—Electrical action of Light upon Silver. [No. 1,
silver chloride, iodide or bromide, precipitated in a thin layer on sheets
of platinum or gold, was exposed to ight as above, the exposed plate
was positive, and that the initial action was much stronger with the
bromide than with the chloride; though the intensity of the currents
observed was variable and depended on the thickness of the film of bro-
mide, moreover the electrical action was soon exhausted. With the
iodide the current was almost as strong as with the chloride, but did not
remain constant so long.
When plates of silver were employed, instead of platinum or gold,
as a support for the haloids, the effects noted were stronger and more
regular, but it was found that the direction of the current depended
on the thickness of the films; with thin coatings the exposed plate
was positive, and with thick coatings negative. This was markedly
the case with plates of silver exposed to the vapours of iodine. With
vapour of bromine the exposed silver plate was negative, the initial
current, even with diffused light, was very strong, but after remaining
exposed to light for some minutes then protected from light and again
exposed to its influence, it was found that the current was very weak.
A film of silver chloride prepared by exposing a silver plate to the
vapour of chlorine gave only a very weak effect, but plates coated with
the violet subchloride behaved very well in these trials and yielded
for a long time results from which comparisons could be made.
On the basis of these experiments Becquerel invented his electro-
chemical actinometer which was practically a voltaic element or
cell composed of two plates of very pure silver coated usually with
the violet subchloride of silver and plunged into a conducting fluid
composed of two parts of monohydrated sulphuric acid in 100 parts
of water. The apparatus was so arranged that all light was excluded,
except from an adjustable opening on one side by which one of the plates
could be exposed to light while the other remained in darkness.
When diffused daylight or sunshine acted upon one of the plates,
more or less deviation of the needle was observed which remained constant
so long as the light remained of the same intensity and the surface was
sufficiently sensitive. If the light was shut off, the needle returned to zero
or somewhat beyond it, but soon regained its original position. If the
light remained of the same intensity and the plate was again exposed, the
electrical effect was the same as before, always provided that the sensi-
bility of tle plate remained the same, for which purpose the sensitive
coating should be sufficiently thick. Under favourable conditions the
sensibility of the instrument might be preserved for a whole day and
thus several consecutive observations might be made.
The deflections of the needle could not, however, be considered as
1893. ] Waterhonse—Llectrical action of Light wpon Silver. ¥3
proportional to the intensity of the chemical action exerted on the
substance and consequently to the active luminous intensity ; they only
shewed whether this luminous intensity was greater or less in one cir-
cumstance or in another.
With this instrument Becquerel observed the effect of different
rays of the spectrum on silver iodide and violet subchloride, and found
that in both cases the maximum of action was in the green about D
2H; but while with the chloride the action decreased on both sides
of this point, and ceased at A and H, with the iodide that had already
been exposed there was a second maximum in the indigo blue about
G 2H, and thence the action decreased to P in the ultra-violet. In
neither case was any reversed action observed in the red rays, as ob-
served with sensitive papers, but that might be due to the fact that in
one case the sensitive surface was In water and in the other im air.
Becquerel has not recorded any corresponding observations with silver
bromide.
About 1840, Robert Hunt repeated Becquerel’s experiments with
many modifications, and the results he obtained (Phil. Mag., XVI, 1840),
completely confirmed them. More careful trials with the spectrum on
plates of different metals made later showed that every ray of the
spectrum produces an electrical disturbance. The rays, however, at the
least refrangible end, produce a deflection of the needle in one direction,
whilst the most refrangible rays set up a disturbance in an opposite
direction. There are many indications of a condition analogous to
polarity in the action of the prismatic rays. (Jtesearches on Light, p.
295.) Hunt also remarks that “This action is only to be regarded
as one of the evidences of chemical disturbance, exciting electrical
currents; yet at the same time, it opens the question of the identity
of the agent producing this disturbance and electricity.”
In 1858, Grove (Phil. Mag., XVI., (4), p. 426.) recorded that he
had succeeded in obtaining a deflection of the galvanometer needle by
allowing a beam of light suddenly to impinge on a daguerreotype plate
in a trough of water, the plate being connected with one pole of the
ealvanometer and a gridiron of silver wire in front of the plate with the
other. In experiments with platinum plates he came to the conclu-
sion that the action of heht was always in the direction of the polarisa-
tion current, though further experiments by Becquerel and others have
shown that this is not the case.
In 1863, Pacinotti found that when pairs of plates of copper, zinc,
iron or lead were Immersed in solutions of certain salts of the same
metals, the exposed plate was always negative, but with plates of silver
immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver the plate exposed to sunshine
14 Waterhouse— Electrical action of Light upon Silver [No. 1,
was positive, whereas if exposed to the rays of a petroleum lamp, or of a
heated thick iron plate it was negative, as were also the other metals.
(Cimento, XVIII, p. 363.)
In 1875, Hankel published a series of observations on this subject
(Wied. Ann., I, 1877) in which he showed that the electrical behaviour
of the metals under the influence of light depended very much on the
condition of their surfaces; consequently, in such observations it is
necessary to consider separately each state of surface. His observations
were made on copper in different states, tin, brass, zinc, platinum and
silver. With regard to the latter, he records that when two plates of
fairly pure silver were immersed in filtered tap water, the plate ex-
posed to the light of white clouds was negative. When the plates
had been left a day in the water the rays of the setting sun still gave
a pretty strong negative impulsion. Platinum plates coated with silver
were slightly positive with white or blue light, while red light pro-
duced no effect. Silver plates coated with platinum, (old platinised
silver battery plates) which were slightly negative when coupled in
circuit with plain platinum, were found to be very sensitive to light,
and the exposed plate was positive. With coloured glasses the action
was strongest under blue glass, but was also quite strong under yellow
and red glasses; gaslight also produced a pretty strong deviations
of the galyvanometer needle, andit was found that the action under _
dark red and blue glasses was stronger than under a light green
which was much more transparent.
In 1878, Professor Dewar published a preliminary note on “ Experi-
ments in electric photometry,” (Proc. Roy. Soc., XXVII, 1878, p. 364)
in which he dealt principally with the construction of the best form of
cell for the general investigation of the electrical actions induced by
light on fluid substances. He found that the list of substances that
may be proved to undergo chemical decomposition by light, was very
extensive, some of the most active being the ferro- and ferri-cyanides of
potassium and the nitroprusside of sodium, tartrate of uranium and a
mixture of selenious and sulphurous acids in presence of hydrochloric
acid. The complete paper does not appear to have been published.
In 1876, M. Egoroff published a note (Comptes Rendus, Acad. Franc.,
LXXXII, 1876) on a differential electro-actinometer for the purpose
of determining the absorption of the ultra-violet rays by different
media. The instrument consisted of two of Becquerel’s electro-acti-
nometers placed one above the other and arranged so that the current
of one might be neutralised by the other. In some preliminary obsery-
ations with iodised silver plates he found that the intensity of the
current was proportional to the width of the opening through which
1893. ] Waterhouse— Electrical action of Light upon Silver. 15
light was admitted. It was also inversely proportional to the square
of the distance of the source of light from the apparatus. An oil lamp
was used. The instrument appeared to show an exact proportionality
between the intensity of the light and that of the current, and its
great sensitiveness and precision would enable it to be used as a very
delicate photometer. In these experiments he found that the electro-
motive force exerted by the November sun upon iodised silver plates
through an opening 30 mm. wide was 7; of a Daniell cell; witha
petroleum lamp, at 8 inches distance, it was only 0°004 Daniell.
Dr. J. Moser afterwards, in 1887, in working on Hgoroff’s plan
found that the photo-electric current might be greatly increased by
treating the chlorised, iodised or bromised silver plates with solutions
of erythrosin, benzo-purpurin and other dyes, and in sunlight he
observed currents of a strength equal to half a volt (Hder’s Jahrbuch
der Phetographie, §c., 1888, p. 297.)
At the meeting of the British Association, in 1880, Professor G. M.
Minchin gave an account of his experiments on the generation of
electric currents by the action of light on silver plates which were
eoated with emulsions of bromide, chloride, iodide and other salts of
silver in gelatine and collodion, as well as with eosine, fluorescine and
various aniline dyes, the object of these experiments being the solution
of the problem of producing a photographic image of an object at a
distance. A detailed account of these and other interesting experiments
on light-cells was read before the Physical Society, and published in
the Philosophical Magazine, for March 1891.
He found that when two pieces of clean silver foil attached to
glass plates were coated with an emulsion of chloride of silver in
collodion and immersed in distilled water containing a few grains of
common salt, the plates being connected with the terminals of a
Thomson’s galvyanometer and one of them screened from the light,
that on exposing the unscreened plate there was an electric current
produced, and the exposed plate was negative to the unexposed. The
same effect was observed with plates coated with emulsions of silver
bromide in water containing a little potassium bromide. When the
plates were coated with iodide of silver in collodion by the wet silver-
bath method, the liquid being water containing a little potassium
jodide, there was a reversal of the nature of the exposed plate, it being
positive to the unexposed. With coloured glasses in front of the
exposed plates it was found that the red rays produced comparatively
feeble currents, while those produced in the blue and violet rays were
very great, but the directions of the current were the same for all rays.
This agrees with Becquerel’s observations. With plates coated with
16 Waterhouse—Hlectrical action of Light wpon Silver. [No. 1,
an emulsion of silver sulphide in potassic sulphate, the exposed plate
was positive, the direction of the currents being the same for all rays,
the strength of the current being least for the rays passing through
the green glass.
With plates coated with an emulsion of silver nitrate in gelatine
ina weak solution of barium nitrate, the exposed plate was positive.
The effect of the red rays was very small, and of the blue rays very
great.
One of the most important points in Professor Minchin’s observa-
tions is his discovery of the formation of an invisible developable
deposit on silver plates coated with an emulsion of silver bromide, by
the action of the electrical current from a single bichromate cell passing
through the plates when immersed in water containing a little potassium
bromide. He found (1) that the plate connected with the carbon pole,
the cathode, was without the employment of any developer visibly black-
ened in its immersed part, (2) that no visible change took place on the
other plate attached to the zinc, but when the plate was developed
with an ordinary pyrogallic acid developer its immersed portion was
also blackened. These effects were entirely due to the passage of the
current and were strictly confined to those portions of the sensitive
plate through which the current passed.
The special bearing of these observations upon the formation and
composition of the invisible or visible developable photographic image
formed by the action of light, does not appear to have been generally
recognised. I began last year a series of observations on this subject
which quite confirmed Professor Minchin’s: unfortunately they were
interrupted before completion, but I hope to resume them in due course,
after the completion of the present series, and bring them before the
Society on a future occasion.
Professor Minchin also found that by coating silver plates with
eosine and gelatine, comparatively strong currents were obtained and
the plates were very sensitive to variations in the light. The current
generated by daylight in one of these eosine cells was sufficiently
strong to produce the photographic action on a silver bromide plate
without any preliminary exposure of the bromide plate to gaslight.
He also describes a curious case of inversion of the current occurring
in the eosine and other cells, which I have also noticed, the initial
current being such as to make the exposed plate positive to the other.
This current, however, was of very short duration and was succeeded
by a steady and much stronger normal current in the opposite direction,
the exposed plate being negative to the unexposed. On suddenly
shutting off the light from the plate the instantaneous effect was to
1893. ] Waterhouse—Hlectrical action of Light upon Silver. 17
increase the existing current, the effect being merely impulsive, after
which the current generally disappeared. This cell having been kept
in the dark for a fortnight, it was found that while the inverse currents
were produced as before, the initial current on exposure was enor-
mously increased in magnitude and duration. It then disappeared
gradually and was succeeded by a current in the reverse direction.
When one of these plates was removed from the cell and immersed in
water in presence of a clean silver plate, it was at once on exposure to
light negative, like a silver plate coated inthe ordinary way with an
emulsion of eosine. In preparing these eosine-gelatine films, it was found
to be an advantage to immerse them for a few minutes in a strong
solution of alum in order to prevent the dye from washing out of the
film too readily.
With silver plates coated with napthalene red and gelatine the
effects were not so strong as with eosine; the exposed plate was positive
and with strong red rays there appeared to be a reversal of the sign
of the HE. M. F.
Plates coated with iodine green and exposed to sunshine gave
currents with an H. M. F. amounting to about ,, volt.
M. F. Griveaux, experimenting on silver plates coated with a film
of silver iodide, plunged into solutions of iodine of different strengths,
circulating through the cell, found that the maximum value of the
H. M. F. developed by light acting on one of the plates decreased
as the strength of the iodine solution increased, till a certain point
was reached at and above which the H. M. F. was nil. Also that this
point was regulated by the distance of the plates from the source of
light ; the nearer the plates the higher the concentration point of the
solution and vice versdé. The same effects were observed with silver
chloride and bromide. (Comptes Rendus Acad. Franc., CVII, 1888,
p- 837.)
I have entered somewhat fully into these previous experiments
because very little appears to be generally known about the subject
and it seemed desirable to bring together the scattered observations.
In carrying out my experiments I have used two kinds of cells,
one horizontal and one vertical, more usually the latter. I+ consists
of a glass cell in which the plates can be coupled face to face or back
to back, one being screened from light by the other and by one or two
interposed screens of ruby or yellow glass, the cell being covered all
round except at an Opening on one side. This glass cell is enclosed in
a wooden box with a shutter on one side sliding in front of an open-
ing about 1:5” x ‘5’, corresponding to the one in the glass cell. In
front of this shutter there are grooves in which coloured glasses can
Jo Wi, Bb
18 Waterhouse—Hlectrical action of Light upon Silver. [No. 1,
be placed in front of the opening. The upper part of the wooden
case is open, but can be closed by a lid, through which, if necessary,
a funnel may be passed to admit of solutions being poured into the
cell without letting in light. The silver plates used with this cell are
4 inches long, and 17 inches wide, other plates, such as photographic
sensitive dry plates or celluloid films, being about the same size or
smaller.
The other cell is a modification of the form used by Becquerel
in his earlier experiments, and consists of a wooden trough divided
into two compartments by a double wooden screen which allows the
free circulation of the electrolytic fluid, while completely shutting off
light from the unexposed compartment. This trough is covered with
a lid, having two large openings fitted with hinged shutters, to the
underside of which mirrors are attached for the purpose of re-
flecting light at will on to one or other of the sensitive surfaces in
the compartments below. By this arrangement the whole of the
sensitive plate can be exposed to light, instead of only part of it, as
in the vertical cell, and at the same time the perfect protection of the
unexposed plate from strong light is better secured than it is in the
vertical cell. This horizontal trough is constructed to take two plates
oy” x 44” or smaller. ;
In most cases, even under favourable conditions, the light-currents
observed, are exceedingly weak, and therefore a very sensitive form
of galyanometer is necessary. The one I have used is the latest modi-
fication of the Rosenthal micro-galvanometer made by Hdelmann, in
Munich. Itis said to be the most sensitive form of galvanometer
made, enabling currents of about a billionth of an ampére to be read
with a resistance in the coils of only 1,000 ohms. It is fitted with a
telescope by which direct readings are made off the mirror from a
millimetre scale placed at one metre from it. In this position and
without the directing magnet, using the =55 shunt, with a total external
resistance of about 60,000 ohms in circuit, the deflection caused by one
gravity-Daniell cell is one millimetre division of the scale. By using
the directing magnet the normal sensitiveness of the instrument can
be very greatly increased, though in most of the experiments it has
been found sufficiently sensitive without the magnet, and when used,
the increase of sensitiveness has been limited to about five times the
normal. The instrument can be set up in any position, is simple in con-
struction and I find it very sensitive, convenient in use and easy to ob-
serve with fair precision, considering the difficulty there is in obtaining
freedom from shake and tremor in a city like Calcutta built on a bad
foundation of mud. In reading the scale which is 50 centimetres long,
1893. ] Waterhouse—LHlectrical action of Light upon Silver. 19
sub-divided into millimetres, I have usually fixed the zero point at 30, so
that the readings above or below it may as far as possible show
different signs of EH. M. F., and the direction of the currents has been
so arranged that a change in the position of the index to the apparent
left from 30 to O shall indicate that the exposed plate is negative to
the unexposed, as copper to zinc, while a change to the apparent right,
30 to 50, shows that it is positive, or as zinc to copper.
The coloured glasses used have been of the kinds ordinarily met
with in the bazar. A deep ruby, a brownish yellow, a medium green,
anda dark blue, and conditions being favourable it has generally been
possible to observe some trace of a current even with the deep ruby in
strong sunshine.
When observations were made with the spectroscope, whether with
a Rowland’s diffraction grating or prisms, it was found that the
amount of light admitted through the slit for ordinary work, was quite
inadequate, even when the slit was open at its widest; and it was
therefore necessary, in most cases, to use a much wider slit, or to
dispense with its use altogether; also to use the directing magnet on
the galvyanometer to increase the sensitiveness.
In all cases sunshine has been reflected on to the sensitive plates
by means of a heliostat, as it was not convenient to use the direct rays
of the sun. With the flat cell there were thus two reflections, but
any loss of light was amply made up by the increased surface exposed.
As is usual in such experiments, there were almost invariably
more or less strong local or polarisation currents generated between the
plates themselves, especially when they were freshly immersed in the
solutions, and it was generally found desirable to leave the cell from 12
to 24 hours before use, so as to give time for these currents to subside.
Sometimes, however, from half an hour to an hour, or even in some cases
a few minutes is sufficient. It was found, too, that even if there was
no polarisation current at the commencement of an experiment, the
action of light occasionally gave rise to fairly strong currents quite
independent of, and sometimes opposed to, the currents produced by
exposure to sunshine, while at others they were in the same direction.
Thus it was sometimes difficult to ascertain how far the currents
observed were due to light or to polarisation. The only test was the
retrograde movement of the needle after shutting off the light.
Another difficulty in making these observations may be noted, and
that is, the apparent reversals of current which are due in many cases
to decrease in the strength of the light, though the decrease may be
almost imperceptible. For the same reason, if coloured glasses be
applied without first completely shutting off the light after the plates
20 Waterhouse—LZlectrical action of Light upon Silver. [No. l,
have been exposed to sunshine, there is an apparent reversal due to the
loss of power in the light, and not to change of direction of the H. M. F.
As a rule my observations with coloured glasses or the spectrum have
agreed with Becquerel’s and Minchin’s that no reversal of sign is produced
by any of the coloured rays. At the same time, I have found that in
some cases the blue rays appear to have a reversing tendency, as might
be anticipated from their very strong reversing action on certain forms
of sensitive photographic plates containing iodide or bromo-iodide of
silyer. This point, however, requires much more complete investigation
with the aid of the spectroscope, and will be further considered when
dealing with the silver haloids. During the time I have been engaged
with these observations, the weather has been unusually changeable and
cloudy for the time of year, and hence it has been difficult to compare
the results of observations on different days. For this reason it has
been impossible to give more than general indications of the amount
of deflection caused by the action of light in the cases recorded: exact
observations would have to be made with a standard light.
It seemed desirable to commence the observations with experiments
on plain silver plates in different fluids. The plates used were not
quite pure, having been reduced from various silver residues, and were
about ‘974 touch. They were four inches long and one and a quarter
inch wide, and were usually cleaned with fine emery powder, or with
emery cloth immediately before and after use. It is, however, better to
make sure of the purity and cleanliness of the surface of the plates
for each operation by heating them red-hot and then immersing them
in dilute sulphuric acid. As facilities for doing this with thick plates
were not readily available, it has been omitted in all the following
observations. As arule, the plates were immersed in the solutions to
a depth of from 2 to 23 inches, care being taken to avoid moistening the
upper unimmersed parts by capillary action or otherwise, and so exposing
them to irregular currents from this cause. The plates were about
half an inch apart, being kept separated by two wooden blocks with a
dark ruby glass plate between them,
I. Sitver PuLates 1n Water.
Distilled Water.
Distilled water being almost a nonconductor, the currents observed
were naturally exceedingly weak and could only be clearly seen with
strong sunshine. The deflection observed without the magnet varied
from *5 to 3 divisions of the scale, and in nearly all cases the exposed
plate was positive to the unexposed, and formed the anode or dissolving
plate of the couple. In some cases the exposed plate became more
1893. ] Waterhouse—LHlectrical action of Light upon Silver. 21
sensitive after the first exposure, but after a few exposures lost all
sensitiveness. The current being so small, it was not thought necessary
to experiment with coloured glass or the spectrum. With the direct-
ing magnet placed as before described the deflection was increased to
about 6°5 divisions.
Tap Water.
The tap water used was the filtered Hooghly water, supplied in the
town mains. Itis fairly pure and free from lime salts, but chlorides
are present in moderately large proportion, the amount of chlorine
varying from °5 to 14 parts per 100,000, and at the time of the
experiments it would be about 1 to 1:2 parts per 100,000. The total
hardness varies from 3:15 to 11°5 parts and would be about 9 parts per
100,000 at the time of the experiments. In most of the cases observed
the exposed plate was distinctly positive to the unexposed, as with
distilled water; but in some cases it was negative, and in one or two
instances the action was irregular. The plates were rather more sen-
sitive than they were in distilled water, the normal deflections without
the directing magnet varying from 1 to 7 divisions of the scale, but
usually they were between 2 and 4.
In one case in which the plates had been in the cell for about 38
hours, and there was only a very slight cell-current, exposure to sun-
shine gave a deflection of + 4°5 divisions without the magnet, but with
it the deflection in bright sunshine rose to + 20 divisions, and even in
diffused light was + 5 divisions. Exposing under ruby glass gave a
deflection of + °5; yellow glass + ‘7; green glass+1; blue glass + ‘5 in
diffused light, and + 75 in sunshine. Trials were also made with the
grating spectroscope without the directing magnet, but the results were
not conclusive and the unsettled weather has, so far, prevented their
being repeated with the galvanometer in its most sensitive state. The
plates were found very sensitive to changes in the strength of the light,
but after repeated exposure to sunshine they seeemed to lose sensi-
tiveness. By the action of the water a greyish deposit of chloride
was formed and in some cases a darkened image of the exposed part
of the plate could be seen. It may be noted that my experience does
not agree generally with that of Hankel, who found that, of two silver
plates immersed in water the plate exposed to white clouds, or to the
setting sun, was negative, I find, however, that on one occasion when
fresh plates were exposed to daylight, the exposed plate was negative,
the deflection being about — 1°5 divisions of the scale. On again exposing
the same plates to sunshine the exposed plate was positive, and remained
so afterwards on further exposure. On two other occasions of expo-
22 Waterhouse—Electrical action of Liyht upon Silver. [No 1,
sure to daylight, the exposed plate was also negative. When exposed
tu sunshine the plates were almost invariably positive. I have noticed
this difference with plates in other solutions,
IJ. SILVER PLATES IN DILUTE ACIDS.
As we have seen above, Becquerel found that with plates of gold
or platinum, immersed in acid solutions, the plate exposed to the light
was always positive. The same rule seems to apply to silver plates
in most cases, but not in all.
Dilute Sulphuric Acid.
The action of dilute sulphuric acid upon silver plates under the
influence of light seems to be rather irregular, but I find on looking
through all the experiments made, that in nearly all cases the first
exposed plate of each pair had a negative tendency when first exposed,
though it might become positive by subsequent exposures and in the
same way the second plate of the pair, which was screened during the
first exposure, might also be positive on first exposure. The general
tendency was undoubtedly positive. The irregularities may be partly
due to the plates not being quite pure.
With silver plates immersed in distilled water acidified with about
a drop of acid in some 60 ce, of water, the exposed plate was generally
positive when exposed to bright sunlight, the deflection without the
directing magnet varying from 1to4°5 divisions of the scale, some-
times increasing after repeated exposures. In one experiment, however,
the exposed plate was distinctly and uniformly negative, even after
the position of the plates had been reversed, but subsequent exposure
of the reversed plate made it positive. In another it was negative on
first exposure and then positive.
With a pair of plates in tap water, acidified in the same way, the
plate exposed to sunshine was first negative with a deflection of —3
divisions on the scale, which increased to—6 divisions by subsequent
exposures. Exposure under coloared glasses also gave a negative de-
flection, amounting with red glass to—1, with yellow and green glasses
to—2; with blue glass to—5, and exposed to sunshine again—6, as
before. The same plates being again exposed to sunshine later on
were also negative at first, but became positive and much more sensi-
tive. Under coloured glasses the deflections were also positive and very
much larger than on the first exposure of the plate. After reversal,
so that the former unexposed plate became the exposed plate, the
deflection was again negative, amounting to—7 divisions, and increasing
with the exposure. These plates were very sensitive to changes in
1893. ] Waterhouse —Electrical action of Light upon Silver. 23
light, and there was a perceptible deposit of chloride (?) on their
immersed surfaces.
With plates immersed in a 1 per cent. solution of sulphuric acid in
distilled water, it was found that if the plates were exposed to sunshine
avery short time after being immersed in the dilute acid, they were
at first negative and fairly sensitive to light but afterwards became
positive; whereas in a case when the plates were left standing for 24
hours to reduce the polarisation, they were positive, and much less sen-
sitive than the plates which were negative. After a short time they
seemed to lose all sensitiveness.
In tap water containing the same proportion of acid, the exposed
plates were generally positive on opening the shutter; but the current
quickly decreased, and with some plates after several exposures they
gave a negative deflection.
With plates immersed in distilled water containing two per cent.
of acid the deflections were usually positive and the plates seemed to
become less sensitive by repeated exposure and by keeping.
With plates'immersed in dilute acid at 5 per cent., which had been
allowed to stand for 24 hours, and showed a very small cell-current,
the first plate of the pair was distinctly negative when exposed,
the deflection being —4, decreasing with exposure to —2, but the second
plate when exposed after reversal of the plates in the cell was positive
with a deflection of +6. Two other pairs of plates in freshly-mixed acid
were positive on first and subsequent exposures. The addition of acid
lowered the sensitiveness of the plates considerably.
All the plates showed a slight grey deposit or stain on the im-
mersed ends. but no trace of an image.
Dilute Nitric Acid.
With nitric acid the exposed plates are nearly always positive and
the action is far more uniform than with sulphuric acid, especially
when an appreciable quantity of acid, as one per cent. and over, is
used. Becquerel also found the exposed silver plate positive in dilute
nitric acid.
With distilled water acidified with about 1 drop of acid in 70 cc,
the exposed plate was positive on first exposure, but afterwards
became negative. The plates were not very sensitive, the deflections
without the directing magnet varying from 1 to 3 divisions of the scale.
With 1 per cent. of nitric acid, sp. g. 1250, in distilled water, after
14 hours standing, the exposed plate was uniformly positive, and more
sensitive than with the acidulated water, the deflections in sunshine
being from 3°5 to 5°5 divisions, without the directing magnet. There
24 Waterhouse—Flectrical action of Light upon Silver. [No. 1,
was a slight greyish deposit on the plates, but no image on the exposed
part.
With three per cent. of the same acid in distilled water, after 22
hours standing, the first plate exposed in weak sunshine first showed
anegative deflection of 2 divisions, and after that was positive, the
deflection of repeated exposures being steadily about + 5 divisions,
without the magnet. With the directing magnet, the deflection was
about + 20 divisions with the 100 ohm, or 34, shunt.
After the experiment the solution was found to contain silver.
Dilute Phosphoric Acid.
With dilute phosphoric acid the deflections were almost always
positive. Plates freshly immersed in a mixture containing 1 per cent.
of the acid, sp.g.1°750, in distilled water and exposed to sunshine, gave
an initial deflection, without the magnet, of + 23 divisions, but this
quickly decreased with further exposure. After shutting off the light
the cell-current was found to have increased, and on again opening to
sunshine the deflection seemed slightly negative, but the action generally
was irregular. Subsequent exposures with the same cells or after the
plates had been reversed showed positive deflection and the plates were
less sensitive than at first.
With the same acid at 5 per cent. the deflections were uniformly
positive. With plates exposed to sunshine after 16 hours, the deflection
without the magnet was + 8 divisions, but, as in the former case, it was
less on subsequent exposure. The same decrease of sensitiveness after
exposure was noticed with the plates after reversal in the cell.
Dilute Hydrochloric Acid.
With 1 per cent. of hydrochloric acid, sp. g. 1°150, in distilled water,
the exposed plates have shewn themselves uniformly positive, and
owing to the formation of a deposit of chloride they are much more
sensitive to light, than are plates immersed in acids which do not form
a sensitive compound with the silver. The deflections with sunshine,
without the directing magnet, were from + 6 or +7, when the plates were
first exposed, to + 36, when they had been kept for some hours longer
and then exposed. The plates were covered with a greyish deposit of
chloride on the immersed parts, and there was a distinct darkened
image on the part of the plate exposed to light. Coloured glasses
all gave positive deflections, the red being the smallest, and then the
green.
With 3 per cent. acid, after 22 hours resting, the plates exposed to
sunshine were positive. The increase of acid seemed to reduce the sen-
1893.] Waterhouse—LHlectrical action of Light upon Silver. 25
sitiveness very much, the highest deflection in sunshine, without the
directing magnet, being + 16, while after the plates had stood for 37
hours it was only + 11.
There was a dark grey deposit of chloride on the immersed parts of
the plates, which took a violet or purple colour on exposure to light,
and gave off an odour of chlorine.
Dilute Hydrobromic Acid.
With dilute hydrobromic acid containing 10 cc. of the ordinary
pharmaceutical dilute acid, of 10 per cent., to 100 cc, distilled water, the
plate exposed to sunshine or diffused daylight was uniformly negative
and extremely sensitive to light, the first deflection in bright sunshine
being about — 187 divisions, without the directing magnet, decreasing
to a steady reading of about 140 divisions. Hven coloured glasses
gave fairly large deflections; red, — 13; yellow, — 54; green, — 64;
blue, — 103.
With dilute acid of double the above strength, the exposed plate
was also uniformly negative, but the plates did not seem so sensitive,
the deflection in sunshine, without the magnet, being only — 82; but
the readings depend very much on the strength of the light, and this
was variable at the time of observing.
In both these cases the plates were coated with a grey-greenish-
yellow deposit of bromide, which turned dark on exposure, and formed
a visible image of the exposed part of the plate.
Dilute Hydriodic Acid.
As pure hydriodic acid is somewhat troublesome to prepare, I
roughly made up asolution of it by precipitating one gramme of barium
iodide, dissolved in water, with sulphuric acid and adding water to make
up 100 c.c. There was, however, a considerable quantity of free iodine
present, the solution being of a light sherry colour.
The cell containing two clean silver plates immersed in this solu-
tion was left standing for 15 hours. The plate exposed to sunshine
was then found strongly negative, the deflection, without the directing
magnet, being — 110 divisions of the scale, afterwards going up to
— 130 divisions. The plate was, very insensitive to weak daylight,
the reading being only 12 divisions when the sun was hidden behind
clouds. With coloured glasses fairly large deflections were obtained,
always in the same negative direction; red glass giving — 15 with
daylight, and — 16 with sunlight; yellow — 16°5 with daylight, and
— 20 with sun; green — 14 with daylight, and — 19 with sun; blue
~ 16 with daylight, and — 80 with sun. By keeping, the plates
J. u. 4
26 Waterhouse—Electrical action of Light upon Silver. [No. 1,
became less sensitive. They were covered with a strong loose deposit
of iodide, under which the silver surface was darkened. A faint
image of the exposed part was visible.
Dilute Glacial Acetic Acid.
With plates freshly immersed in dilute glacial acetic acid of 1 per
cent., the plate exposed to sunshine was positive, the deflection being
about + 65 divisions, without the magnet; a second exposure gave a
deflection of + 8'3 divisions. By keeping for 24 hours the plates were
less sensitive, but remained positive.
Plates immersed in dilute acid of 5 per cent. and kept 24 hours
before exposure were less sensitive than the above, the deflection with
sunshine being only + 3 divisions without the magnet, and they became
less sensitive by further exposure, but were always positive.
Dilute Formic Acid.
The only other organic acid I have yet tried is formic acid, one per
cent. in distilled water. After the cell had been standing 24 hours, ex-
posure to sunshine gave a deflection amounting to about 8 divisions, the
exposed plate being positive. The same plates after another 24 hours
standing were found to have become very insensitive, the deflection
being only one or two divisions of the scale, the exposed plate still being
positive.
TIT. Sitver PLATES In ALKALINE SOLUTIONS.
Becquerel found that when platinum or gold plates were immersed
in alkaline solutions, the plate exposed to light was negative. So far
as my experience goes, this rule does not hold good with silver, the
sign of the exposed plate being almost always positive. I have not
tried these solutions very thoroughly, but the results obtained with
potash and other salts used seem conclusive.
Solution of Potassium Hydroaide.
With a solution of one per cent. of caustic potash in distilled water,
the cell having been standing 22 hours, the cell current was nil.
Exposure to bright sunshine gave a deflection of about 9°5 divisions
without the magnet, the exposed plate being positive. With the
magnet the deflection was about + 45 divisions in sunshine, and + 9
divisions in daylight. With sunshine under blue glass the deflection,
with the magnet, was + 3l; under green + 9; yellow + 8; red +
4-5. There was no deposit on the plates and no image of the exposed
parts,
1893. ] Waterhouse—EHlectrical action of Tight upon Silver. 27
Solution of Potassium Carbonate,
With a solution of one per cent, of anhydrous potassium carbonate,
the cell having been standing for about 14 or 15 hours, the cell-current
was very small, and the plate exposed to light, either daylight or sun-
shine, was found to be positive, the deflection in the former case being
+ 22, and in the latter + 63°5, without the magnet.
With tap water made alkaline with afew drops of ten per cent.
solution of the carbonate in about 60 c.c. of water, the exposed plates
were also positive and very sensitive on first exposure, but the current
decreased with further action of light, and in subsequent exposures
the plates were less sensitive to light, They also lost sensitiveness by
being kept in the cell.
Solutions of Sodium Carbonate.
With silver plates exposed shortly after immersion in I per cent.
solution of anhydrous sodium carbonate in distilled water, the plate
exposed to sunshine was positive, the deflection being about + 5 divisions
without the magnet. In subsequent exposures the plates were less
sensitive, but remained positive.
With a stronger solution, at 5 per cent., the results were similar, but
the plates seemed somewhat more sensitive.
Solution of Inthiwn Carbonate.
With plates exposed shortly after immersion in a I per cent. solution
of lithium carbonate in distilled water, the plate exposed to sunshine
was positive, the deflection being about + 6 divisions without the
magnet. The plates lost sensitiveness after the first exposure as well
as by keeping for 34 hours, but remained positive.
Dilute Solution of Ammonia.
With a solution of 4 c.c. of strong liquid ammonia in 100 «. e. dis-
tilled water, the cell having been left standing some 14 or 15 hours,
the plates were found to be exceedingly insensitive to light ; even with
the magnet the deflections in sunshine were only about 2 divisions, the
exposed plates being positive.
Another pair of plates immersed in a freshly-mixed solution,
containing 2c. c. of liquid ammonia in 100 ¢. ec. of water, and exposed soon
after immersion, were also found insensitive, but not so much so as
the last ; the deflection on first exposure in sunshine being about 3
divisions, without the magnet. The current, however, decreased on
further exposure, and the same effect was observed in subsequent
exposures, After a short time no current was perceptible,
The immersed parts of the plates showed no deposit.
28 Waterhouse—Llectrical action of Light wpon Silver. [No 1,
Potassium Cyanide.
With a solution of potassium cyanide in distilled water, about 1
per cent., there was a strong negative polarisation current in the cell
when first prepared, which took several hours to subside. When fresh-
ly immersed the exposed plate was negative, but not very sensitive,
the deflection without the magnet being only — 4 divisions for sunlight.
By keeping the cell 24 hours the polarisation current subsided entirely,
and the plate exposed to sunshine was again negative with a deflection
of — 35 divisions. A slight movement of the cell, however, seemed to
cause a reversal of the current with a deflection of - 6°5 divisions
which further continued for another 6°5 divisions after the lght had
been shut off. The same effect was observed on subsequent exposures,
first the plate was negative then positive, while the polarisation current
increased in the same direction. After a time the plate seemed to
become quite insensitive to light.
With the same plates reversed there was again a very large initial
negative polarisation current. On first exposure of a plate to sunshine
the deflection was — 144 divisions, without the magnet. On shutting
off the light, the negative polarisation current was found to have very
largely increased. On second exposure the plate was first negative and
then positive. On shutting off the lght the current continued + 2:5
divisions in the same direction and then turned back in its original
direction. The plates were coated with a dark grey deposit, thicker at
the upper part of the plates than at the lower. About the immersion
line there was a yellowish-white deposit, and the plates were deeply
corroded, but no sign of an image of the exposed part was visible.
From the above experiments it would appear that as a general
rule sunlight has an oxidising or dissolving effect on silver, whether in
acid or alkaline solutions, the exposed plates being nearly always posi-
tive and consequently forming the anode of the voltaic couple. With
solutions decomposed by silver and forming sensitive compounds the
action is variable.
IV. Puarn Sinver pLates pry.
When a comparatively large silver plate about 5 x 4 inches, not
immersed in any solution, but with its ends connected by silver bands to
the terminals of the galvanometer, the directing magnet being specially
placed so as to increase the normal sgensitiveness about 13 times, was
exposed to light so that the upper half remained unexposed, it was
found possible to detect a slight current between the exposed and un-
exposed halves of the plate; the exposed half being positive to the
unexposed. With an uncleaned plate that had lain in a drawer for
1893. ] Waterhouse—LHlectrical action of Light upon Silver. 29
some months, the deflection in sunshine was fairly large, amounting to
about 10 divisions, or rather more than the deflection caused by the con-
tact of dry zinc and copper. When, however, the same plate had been
earefully cleaned with a solution of cyanide of potassium followed by the
usual rubbing with emery cloth, the deflection was found to be still posi-
tive, but much smaller, being only about 1°5 divisions on first exposure,
and by repeated exposure it was reduced to about 25 division.
With subsequent exposures the deflection was generally in the
same direction, but once, after fresh cleaning, it was negative. With
a plate of pure silver deposited on glass, freshly polished, the first
exposure gave after a short interval, a fairly strong negative deflection,
but with subsequent exposures at intervals the deflections have been
sometimes negative and sometimes positive, but always very small, so
that the observations are somewhat uncertain. Plates of almost perfect-
ly pure silver, 999°5 touch, obtained through the kindness of the Mint
Master, Lt. Col. Baird, R. H., F. R. S., gave also rather indefinite results,
owing to the smallness of the currents, and though the deflections were
generally positive on first exposure of the plates, they were sometimes
negative, or became so by prolonged exposure. The general tendency,
however, appeared for the plates to be positive under the influence of
light, and, if this is the case it would seem to point to some slight
oxidising action on the surface. At the same time, the results obtained
with pure silver and the fact that in so many cases the deflections have
been first positive and then negative, appear to favour the conclusion
that such plates are really negative. It was clearly ascertained that the
currents produced were not due to the action of heat, because with the
plate first observed and with the purest silver plates, the action of heat
applied at the exposed end of the plate was to give a positive deflection,
but with the less pure silver plates used in the cells and others largely
alloyed with copper, the heated end of the plate was always negative
tothe coolend. The deflection invariably increased with the continuance
of the heating, and was always in the same direction on repetition of it.
The light currents, on the other hand, showed a decrease of deflec-
tion from repeated exposures and sometimes a change of sign in a
direction contrary to the heat currents shown by the same plates. The
observation is rather a difficult one and requires further repetition under
more favourable conditions of light, in order to obtain definite results.
Thave also tried the effect of solutions of alkaline haloid salts
upon silver plates, but as this paper is already beyond the usual
limits, it may be well to defer the account of these and other
experiments on photographic plates containing the haloid salts of silver
to a future paper.
2
30 D. Prain—A review of the genus Colquhounia. [No. 1,
Novicize Indice VI. A review of the genus Colquhounia.—By D. PRatn.
[Read May 8rd.]
Writing in 1885 (Flora of British India, iv, 674) Sir Joseph
Hooker had to say of this genus:—‘‘I am quite unable to distinguish
the first three species,* or to reconcile their specimens, descriptions
and published drawings with one another.” And in 1890, when enga-
ged in arranging the Calcutta Herbarium material of the natural
order Lanratz to which the genus belongs,t the writer, after consider-
able study came to the same conclusion, Since then, however, the open-
ing up of the hill-country to the east of the Irrawaday has enabled
the Calcutta Herbarium to send native collectors into hitherto unknown
portions of the Shan Hills. One result has been the communication
of suites of specimens that have helped to clear up some of the doubtful
points. Briefly stated, the result of a renewed study has been that there
seems to be no necessity for recognising more than two species in the
genus; both these species are, however, very variable, and include be-
tween them seven more or less distinguishable and definable forms.
The present paper consists of a short bibliographical review of these
with diagnoses of all of them, and with an account of their distribution
appended.
The genus CongunounrA was founded by Wallich in 1822,¢ on
specimens collected by himself in Nepal, in honour of his friend Sir
Robert Colquhoun, Bart., of the H. C.’s service. His diagnosis,
and yoluminous description of Colguhounia coccinea, the species then
proposed, he republished, practically unaltered, two years later,§ giving
at the same time a coloured plate which represents however, not the
typical plant originally described, but a variety with smaller flowers.
In a note at the end of this second description, Wallich distinguishes
by name and by a general diagnosis a second species, CO. vestita. This,
he says, comes from various localities in Nepal, at a higher elevation
than the stations for C. coccinea, and occurs also in Kamaon. He says
that CO. vestita flowers in the height of the rains, 0. coccinea at the end
of the rains and in the cold weather; the main distinction given, how-
ever, is one of tomentum ; this is described as being in C. coccinea scaly-
stellate, rusty, dense and friable, in C. vestita soft, white, thick and
separable.|| The flower-spikes and flowers are admitted to be similar;
plainly therefore the distinction is not a far-reaching one.
* Colquhounia coccinea Wall., C. vestita Wall., C, elegans Wall.
+ Jowrn. As. Soc. Bengal, lix, 2, 294,
{ Trans. Linn. Soe., xiii, 608.
§ Tent. Flor. Nap., i, 12 t. 6,
Tent. Flor Nap., i, 14.
1893. | D. Prain—A review of the genus Colquhounia. 51
The Lapiarm of the H. E. I. Company’s Herbarium were distri-
buted by Wallich in 1829;* Bentham, who revised for Wallich the
naming of this particular order, treated these two species somewhat
differently. In C. coccinea he recognized three distinct forms :—+
(1). C. coceinea proper ; the pink-flowered plant originally des-
eribed in Trans. Linn. Soc., and re-described in Tent.
Flor. Nap.
(2). var. 8. major Benth. ; the Nepalese plant from higher levels
and with denser tomentum, treated by Wallich as identical
with the plant from Kamaon that he distinguished specifi-
cally from C. coccinea.
(3). VAR. y. parviflora Benth.; an orange-flowered plant, not
clearly differentiated by Wallich in either of his descrip-
tions, but figured by him in the Tentamen as typical C.
coccinea.
On the other hand the name C. vestita was strictly limited to the
plant from Kamaon already referred to, which had been communicated
to Wallich by Blinkworth,f and a new species from Burma, C. elegans,
was for the first time mentioned. In the same year Bentham in
another place defined the genus, mentioning all three species, but
not there distinguishing the varieties of C. coccinea.||
In 1832 Wallich again dealt with these Colquhounias, figuring both
O. vestita and C. elegans.] He diagnosed C. vestita from C. coccinea by
its “ ovate-oblong much attenuate acuminate leaves, very densely hoary
tomentose below, as are the branches,’ adding that this character
comprises all the points in which C. vestita differs from C. coccinea.
From the original specimens itis evident that this figure of C. vestita
was taken from one of Blinkworth’s Kamaon specimens; Wallich did
not however adopt Bentham’s limitation of C. vestita to that locality, for
he replaced in the species the Nepalese plant that forms. Bentham’s
CO. coccinea VAR. major. In immediate sequence come the definition and
figure of C. elegans, the Burmese species ; of this he mentions having
only seen one shrub; the best distinction, Wallich says, between this
and CO. coccinea, which it much resembles, is the colour of the flowers—
orange, dotted with crimson specks, instead of red. The plant is des-
cribed as having leaves very softly tomentose on both surfaces, an idea
* Lith. Cat. n. 2084—6.
+ Wall. Lith. Cat. n. 2085/1, 2085/8, 2085/y-
{ Wall. Lith. Cat. n. 2086.
§ Wall. Lith. Cat. n. 2084.
|| Bentham, Synops. Labiat, in Bot. Reg., xv, sub 1292.
Gf Plant. As. Rar., iii, 43, tt, 267, 268.
32 D. Prain—A review of the genus Colquhounia. [No. 1,
by no means conveyed by the figure, which represents a plant that, as
Sir Joseph Hooker says,* cannot be distinguished from CO, coccinea VAR.
parviflora. These two plants are however remarkably dissimilar in
tomentum, the hairs being stellate in var, parviflora, as they are in all
the other forms of C. coccinea, but simple in C. elegans. As regards
the degree of tomentum of C. elegans it is the description that is accurate,
the figure that is misleading.
In 1834 Bentham again dealt with the genus}, and on this occasion
still confined O. vestita to the Kamaon plant of Blinkworth, though in
C. coccinea he now recognized only two forms :—
(1). ©. coccinea proper, which now includes the original
plant described by Wallich, as well as the Nepalese portion
of Wallich’s C. vestita ; this variety therefore now includes
the original C. coccinea and Bentham’s own C. coccinea
VAR. major.
(2). var. 8. parviflora Benth., which is the same as the plant
so named in 1829.
The Burmese C. elegans is defined in the Wallichian sense.
In 1848 Bentham{ followed in the main his treatment of 1834, but
as regards OC. coccinea confined the Wallichian number 2085 to var.
parviflora alone, although, as we have just seen, this number applies in the
Catalogue to every specimen of Colquhownia collected in Nepal. Under
O. vestita also Bentham diverged somewhat from his previous treat-
ment by admitting into the species a plant sent by Griffith from Assam.
This is, however, a plant that must be kept specifically apart from Q.
vestita if O. vestita deserves to be held specifically distinct from (.
coccinea ; while, even if OC. vestita and C. coccinea be conspecific, this
Assam plant is still varietally distinct from both.
In 1850 Sir William Hooker figured§ as (. coccinea a plant raised
at Kew from seed sent by Wallich from Nepal. This is the plant
originally figured by Wallich in the Yentamen, and therefore is not
exactly the one originally described by him there and in the Linnean
Society’s Transactions; it is not typical C. coccinea, but is Bentham’s
C. coccinea VAR. parviflora.
In 1851 Schlechtendal deseribed|| as C. mollis a plant whose origin
he was unable precisely to trace. His description is, however, so full
* Flora of British India, iv, 674.
+ Labiat. Gen. § Sp 644.
{ DC. Prodr., ii, 457.
§ Bot. Mag., \xxvi, t. 4514,
\| Linnaea, viii, 681.
1893.] D. Prain—A review of the genus Colquhounia. 33
and clear as to leave no room for doubt that his plant is identical with
the Assam one referred by Bentham to C. vestita.*
In 1873 Houllet figured as C. tomentosat what appears to be the
‘same plant.
In 1876 Bentham and Hooker speak of the possible existence of a
fourth speciest ; it is not clear whether by this fourth species be meant
Schlechtendal’s C. mollis, which is cited indirectly through a reference
in Walpers; or a Burmese plant collected by Mason, Parish, Anderson
and Kurz since published as C. tenuiflora Hook. f.§ but which in 1877
Kurz|| described as C. elegans. Kurz wrote under the disadvantage of
only knowing Wallich’s plant from the figure which Wallich gives of it ;
that figure, as has already been said, is quite misleading.
The next account to be noticed is the most important of all—that
by Sir Joseph Hooker in the Flora of British India. Here four species
are described :— 2 ; i es
1. ©. coccinea Wall.; with Bentham’s var. parviflora excluded.
2. C. vestita Wall.; limited, in the sense. adopted by Bentham
in 1848, to the Kamaon plant of Wallich and the Grif-
fithian plant from Assam,/—the Nepal plant originally
included in C. vestita being excluded and Schlechten-
dal’s C. mollis not being referred to; the identity of
C. vestita as a whole with typical C. coccinea is suggested.
3. C. elegans Wall. ; limited to the original Wallichian plant
from the Taone Doung Mts; its identity with C.
coccinea YAR. parviflora Beuth., is suggested.
* There are two minor references to the genus by Walpers, Annales iii, 363
(1852) where he mentions C. coccinea ; and Annales v, 689 (1858) where he gives
Schlechtendal’s diagnosis of C. mollis: this last reference is cited in the Genera
Plantarum though the original description in Linnaea is not.
+ Houllet, Rev. Hortic. (1873) p. 131. It should, however, be pointed out that
Sir Joseph Hooker does not agree with the writer’s view in this respect. He
refers Houllet’s plant to C. coccinea (and it may be that form of OC. coccinea
called by Bentham var. major); Griffith’s plant is referred in the F. B. I.—as
Bentham referred it—to C. vestita ; OC. mollis is not quoted in Sir Joseph’s article.
£ Genera Plantarum, ii, 1208.
§ Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 674. This form—apparently more common than true
CG. elegans—extends from Tenasserim to Yunnan. In, the Calcutta Herbarium
it is in evidence that at one time Kurz thought this distinct from the C. elegans of
Wallich’s description—of which he had no specimen—and proposed naming it C. mar-
tubanica. Later, he decided that it must be the C. elegans, of Wallich’s figure,
which it resembles, as to tomentum, rather more closely than the true plant does.
|| For. Flor. Brit. Burma, ii, 278.
{ In Mr. C. B. Clarke’s Herbarium this Assam plant is distinguished from the
Kumaon C. vestita proper, as C. vestita var. rugosa C. B, Clarke MSS.
Ai, ie ag
34 D. Prain—A review of the genus Colquhounia. [No. 1,
4, (C. tenuiflora Hook. f.; the new species referred to above.
Two more recent references to the genus have now to be noticed.
Mr. Hemsley in his Index Sinensis* mentions one species; this he
identifies, though rather doubtfully, with C. coccinea. The plant comes
from Hupeh, South China, and the same form has more recently been
collected in the Kya Valley, Upper Burma, by Genl. Gatacre. It is not
C. coccinea, but is much more nearly allied to C. elegans ; though a very
distinct form, it is probably quite sufficiently differentiated if treated
as a variety of the last named species.
Sir Henry Collett and Mr. Hemsley in a paper On a Collection of
plants from Upper Burma and the Shan States} mention two species :—
1. C. elegans Wall. ; the true Wallichian plant, never met with
since it was collected by Wallich till 1t was obtained in
1887 by Genl. Collett, who speaks of it as certainly the
most beautiful Labiate of the Shan Hills. Like C.
coccinea VAR. mollis (CO. mollis Schlecht.) this is always
an erect shrub;f as regards colour of flowers there are
two distinct forms, one with pale salmon-coloured, the
other with dark red corollas.
2. ©. vestita Benth., not of Wallich; not the true Wallichian
plant, but Schlechtendal’s C. mollis, Mr. Clarke’s C. vesti-
ta VAR. rugosa.
The generic descriptions given by Wallich, Bentham, Schlechtendal
and Hooker are so accurate and full that nothing can be added to them,
and little is necessary beyond providing brief diagnoses of the various
forms met with in the genus. Of these last there are altogether seven,
and though in this paper they are treated as only of varietal rank, it
may well be that other writers will find it necessary to consider them
distinct species; indeed, as species at present go in the natural order
Lasiata, it cannot be denied that forms so very distinct as the real C.
vestita of Kamaon and as Hooker’s C. tenuiflora are well entitled to the
higher ranks. But what has to be pointed out very distinctly is that
on those who may feel compelled to give this higher rank to these
species of Wallich and of Hooker, it will be incumbent to recognise also
* Journ. Linn. Soc., xxvi, 299 (1890.)
+ Journ. Linn. Soc., xxviii, 1-150 (1890),
{ Genl. Collett remarks (Journ. Linn. Soc. xxviii, 8) on the discrepancy between
this fact and the definition by Kurz (For. Flor. Brit. Burma, ii, 278) of C. elegans as
‘s scandent or half-scandent shrub.’ Kurz’s definition however does not in the
least refer to Wallich’s original plant but to that other form collected by himself in
Pegu, named by Sir Joseph Hooker C. tenuiflora, which is always a scandent
plant.
1893.] D. Prain—A review of the genus Colquhounia. 35
Schlechtendal’s C. mollis, and to give specific rank to that very distinct
new form collected in Northern Burma by Gatacre and in South China
by Henry.
It is remarkable that the character from tomentum which has
been mainly relied upon—and with rather unsatisfactory results—in
diagnosing the various species, should still prove the most effective and
reliable. It has, however, to be noted that hitherto only the degree of
tomentum and not its nature has been referred to, the difference between
the simple hairs of the C. elegans series and the stellate hairs of the C.
coccinea series of forms having been overlooked.*
COLQUHOUNIA Watt.
Nat. Orv. LABIATAE.
Tribe. STACHYDEAE.
Tall, robust, rambling herbs with rounded branches. Leaves ovate,
margins dentate or crenate, petioled, acute or acuminate, base cuneate,
rarely truncate or cordate, tomentose, as are the branches, with stellate
or simple hairs. Whorls axillary, or in dense or lax-flowered spikes
or racemes, of pink, orange, or scarlet, concolorous or spotted flowers.
Calyz distinctly 10-nerved, equally 5-toothed, throat naked. Corolla
tube incurved not annulate, throat inflated; galea entire or more rarely
notched, shorter than the almost equally 3-lobed lower-lip. Stamens
4, ascending under the upper lip, the lower pair longer; anthers con-
niving in pairs, the cells divaricate, confluent. Disc equal; style shortly
2-fid with subequal lobes. Nutlets oblong, compressed, with the tip pro-
duced as a submembranous wing.
1. CoxrguHounta coccinea Wall., ampl.
Tomentum of stellate hairs on stems and leaves; hairs on the
corolla many-celled, glandular at the tip; wings of nutlets sub-lacini-
ate, not longer than body of nut; calyx teeth triangular.
Himataya: Inpdo-CHIna.
var. a. typica; leaves dentate-crenate, tomentum white,
usually sparse, ultimately almost disappearing; flowers
large, pink or red. C. coccinea Wall., Trans. Linn. Soc.,
xiii, 608 (1822); Tent. Flor. Nap., 1., 13, fig. eacl. (1824) ;
Cat. n. 2085/1 (1829); Benth., Bot. Reg., xv., sub 1292
(1829); Lab. Gen. & Sp. 644 (1¢34): DC. Prodr., xii,
457 (1848); Walp., Ann., ili, 268 (1852): Hook. f., Flor.
* The co-ordinate difference in the nature of the glandular hairs on the corolla,
which is as striking, was pointed out to the writer by his friend Mr. Briihl, who
kindly went over the forms after they had been sorted out.
36 D. Prain—A review of the genus Colquhounia, [No. ],
Brit. Ind., iv, 674 (1885), CO. coccinea var. B. major Benth. in
Wall. Cat. n. 2085/68 (1829). OC. vestita Wall., Tent. Flor.
Nap., i, 14, (1829), and Pl. As. Rar., 111, 45 (1832), i part
and excluding the Kamaon locality and the figure.
Nepal; on Gossain Than, Wallich! Scully! and Sheopore, Wal-
lich! Stxxum: Jongri, King’s collector ! and Lachen, Hooker ! G. Gammie !
Kuasta: Mairung, Hooker and Thomson! Mann !
A shrub 8-]0 feet high, ereet when standing alone but of sprawling
habit and semi-scandent when growing with other species. In the form
originally issued as var. 8. major Benth., the tomentum is white as in
C. vestita, and unusually dense, while the flowers are generally of a
rather paler pink than in the specimens originally intended as typical,
where the leaves are often ultimately quite glabrous from an initial
rusty pubescence, and the flowers are dark red. Both forms have, how-
ever, similarly shaped dentate-crenate leaves, and in both the wings
of the nutlets are nearly as long as the body of the nut. These are the
forms to which, in spite of his figure, it would be necessary to restrict
Wallich’s name C. coccinea, if C. vestita and the others are distinct species.
yar, f. vestita Prain; leaves (sometimes cordate at the base)
crenate, crenations large, tomentum dense, floccose, white,
separating in patches but not disappearing completely ;
flowers large pink. CO vestita Wall., Tent. Flor. Nap., i, 14
(1824) in part, the Kamaon plant only; Pl, As. Rar., 11, 43,
t. 267 (1832) as to fig.; Wall., Cat. n, 2086 (1829): Benth.,
Bot. Reg., xv, swb 1292 (1829) ; Lab. Gen. & Sp. 644 (1834) ;
DC, Prodr., xii, 457 (1848) evel. the Assam plant: Hook.
f., Flor., Brit. Ind., iv, 674 (1885) the Kamaon plant only.
Kamaon; Srinagar, Blinkworth! Naini Tal, Anderson! Mussoorie,
King! Kali valley, Duthie n. 3308! Cuumpr; at Tak-Chang, King’s
collector !
Like the preceding this is according to circumstances erect or semi-
scandent. The flowers are pale red as in C. coccinea 8. major, where also
the tomentum is white. The leaves, however, (which in C. vestita are
crenate, none of the crenations being sharp pointed) enable us to dis-
tinguish easily the two forms. The gathering from Chumbi has the
thinner tomentum of C. coccinea B. major, but the leaf-margins are
crenate not serrate; it thus serves to connect C. coccinea with C. vestita.
vAR. y. parviflora Benth.; leaves and flowers smaller than in
the type, tomentum rusty, flowers orange or golden yellow,
with orange red lobes. C. coccinea Wall., Tent. Flor. Nap.,
i, t. 6 (1824) the fig. only; Hook., Bot. Mag. t. 4514 (1850).
C. coccinea var. parviflora Benth. in Wall., Cat. n, 2085/y
eae
1893. ] D. Prain—A review of the genus Colquhounia, 37
(1829); Lab. Gen. & Sp. 644 (1834); DC. Prodr., xii, 457
(1848).
Nepat; on Sheopore, Wallich !
Scandent; this variety is represented only by specimens collected
by Wallich; the leaves have larger teeth and somewhat resemble those
of C. elegans, which is however always a shrub. It is quite as entitled
to specific rank as is C. vestita; if treated asa species it ought to be
known as C. parviflora.
var, 6, mollis Prain; leaves crenate, crenations very small,
tomentum dense, rusty, permanent; flowers large, orange
or red, OC. mollis Schlecht., Linnaea, viii, 681 (1851) ;
Walp., Ann., v, 689 (1858). OC. tomentosa Houllet, Rev.
Hortic., (1873), 131. OC. vestita Benth., DC, Prodr., xii, 457
(1848) not of Wall, the Assam plant only: Hook, f., Flor.
Brit. Ind,, iv, 674 (1885) excluding the Kamaon plant ; not of
Wall.: Collett & Hemsley, Journ, Linn, Soc. xxviii, 116
(1890) ; not of Wall., C. vestita var. rugosa C. B, Clarke Mss,
Sikkim; Balasun, King’s collector! Booran; Griffith! Musut;
Griffith nu, 4028 (Kew Dist.) ! Kuasta; Mairung, Simons! Oldham ! Clarke
n, 16138! Shillong, Mann! Collett! Dingling, Clarke n, 5900! Cherra,
Hooker and Thomson ! Clarke un, 5322! Manrpur ; Kassome, Waté n, 5123!
Burma; Shan hills at Pwehla, Colleté !
An extremely distinct form, always a shrub, and easily recognised
by its stout virgate habit and by its nutlets with very short wings.
This might be still considered specifically distinct even if C. vestita were
merged in C. coccinea, and if looked upon as a good species it ought to
bear the name C. mollis Schlecht. The leaves differ from those of
C. coccinea in being always crenate, and from those of C. vestita in the
small size of the crenations, and in the rusty, not white, tomentum.
2, CoOLQUHOUNIA ELEGANS Wall., emend,
Tomentum of simple hairs on stems and serrate leaves; hairs
on the corolla few-celled, glandular at the base; wings of nutlets entire,
acute, longer than body of nut; calyx teeth acuminate.
Inpo-cHina; S. Cuina,
VAR, a, typica ; whole plant densely,.softly tomentose; flowers
in very deuse many-flowered axillary heads; corolla dark-red
or salmon-coloured, with or without crimson spots, tube
long, throat wide. OC, elegans Wall., Cat. n. 2084 (1829);
Benth., Bot. Reg., xv, swb 1292 (1829); Wall., Pl. As. Rar,,
ii, 43, t. 268 (1832): Benth., Lab, Gen. & Sp, 645 (1835);
DC, Prodr., xii, 457 (1848) : Hook, f. Flor. Brit. Ind., iv, 674
(1885); Collett & Hemsley, Journ. Linn, Soc. xxviii, 116
(1890). :
ws
os)
D. Prain—A review of the genus Colquhounia. [No. 1,
Manipur; Sirohifurar, Watt n. 7443! Burma; Taong Doung Mts.,
Wallich : Shan Hills at Toungye, Collett! at Mone, Manders! Fulton!
at Lwekaw, Manders! Ruby Mines district, frequent, King’s collectors !
A shrub, 8 to 10 feet high, and apparently never scandent; the
flowers are sometimes red (Collett, King’s Collectors) sometimes salmon-
coloured with crimson spots (Wallich) sometimes uniformly salmon-
coloured (Collett, Fulton, Manders).
yar. 8. pauciflora Prain; almost glabrous throughout, flowers
in loose few-flowered axillary heads; corolla red, tube very
short, throat wide. OC. coccinea Hemsl., Journ, Linn. Soce,,
xxvi, 299 (1890) not of Wall.
S. Cuaia; Ichang, A, Henry n. 3334! Burma ; Kya Valley, Gatacre !
A very distinct, always scandent form, with a much more slender
habit than the preceding; the nutlets are however not distinguishable,
and the tomentum is of precisely the same character, though so much
slighter in degree. If this is treated as a distinct species, which will
be necessary if specific rank continues to be claimed for OC. tenuiflora, it
might be known as C. pauciflora.
var. y. tenuiflora Prain; sparsely hairy throughout, flowers in
loose many-flowered long axillary racemes ; corolla red, tube
very long, throat narrowed. C, tenuiflora Hook. f., Flor.
Brit. Ind., iv, 674 (1885). C. elegans Kurz, For. Flor. Brit.
Burma, ii, 273 (1877) not of Wallich. OC. martabanica Kurz
Mss. in Herb. Calcutta.
S. Cuiya; Yunnan, Anderson ! Burma; Poneshee Anderson! Pegu,
Kurz! Karenni, Mason! Tenassertm; Moulmein, Parish !
Also a very distinct form ; in habit exactly like the last, but with
much longer flowers than even in the type, and with an absolutely, as
well as relatively, narrower corolla-throat. Distinct, however, though
the form is it is not convenient to give it specific rank, as this would
necessitate the recognition of C. parviflora, C. mollis, and C. pauciflora as
distinct species also.
Pia
Mukerjei lith.
C.
£\.
\
- wets
PRAIN, Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1893, Vol. LXIl, Pt IL
PEHDIGULARIS DIFFUSA Prain.
PRAIN, Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1893, Vol. LXII, Pt ll. PLATE IL
A.D. Malla delt. — A.C. Mukerjei lith,
PEHDICULARIS FLACCIDA Prain.
Novice.
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1893.] G. King—WMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 87
Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula.—By Grorce Kine, M. B.,
LL. D., F.R.S, C.LE., Superintendent of the Royal Botame Garden,
Calcutta.
[Read June 7th].
No. 5.
Orper XVI. DIPTEROCARPHA.
Resinous trees, rarely climbing shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple,
quite entire, rarely sinuate-crenate, penni-nerved, the main nerves
bold; stipules usually small and inconspicuous, sometimes larger
and persistent, or fugitive, leaving an annular scar, (absent in
Ancistrocladus). Flowers in few- or many-flowered, axillary and terminal
racemes or panicles. Bracts usually minute or 0, rarely larger and
persistent. Sepals free, or cohering into a tube surrounding but free
from, or more or less adnate to, the base of the ovary and fruit. Petals
contorted, connate at the base, or free. Stamens o, 165, 10 or 5, hypogy-
nous or sub-perigynous, free, connate, or adnate to the petals ; filaments
short, often dilated at the base; anthers 2-celled, the outer valves
sometimes larger, connective often aristate or with an obtuse append-
age. Ovary slightly immersed in the torus, usually 3- rarely 2- or
1-celled ; style subulate or fleshy, entire or with 3 minute stigmatic
lobes; ovules anatropous, 2 in each cell, pendulous or laterally affixed
(solitary and erect in Ancistrocladus). Fruit usually nut-like, its peri-
carp leathery or woody, l- rarely 2-seeded, surrounded by the variously
accrescent calyx of which two or more sepals or lobes are usually developed
into linear wings. Seed exalbuminous (albumen fleshy and ruminate in
Ancistrocladus) ; cotyledons fleshy, equal or unequal, straight or more
or less plaited and crumpled, sometimes lobed ; radicle directed towards
the hilum, usually included between the cotyledons.—Disrris. Confined
(except a few Tropical African species) to Tropical Hastern Asia ;
genera about 18, species about 250.
Sect. I. Eu-Drererocarpe®. Ovaries 3-celled, each cell 2-ovuled :
stigmas united, more or less 3-lobed : seeds usually exalbuminous
the outer segments of the fruiting calyx usually enlarged: trees
or erect shrubs, mostly stipulate.
Fruiting calyx with 2 or more of its segments
or sepals produced into long membranous,
reticulate, nerved wings much longer than
the fruit; pericarp leathery, (woody in some
sp. of Shorea).
Bley Tih, alr
Go
os)
fo)
Fruiting calyx with a distinct tube.
Calyx-tube quite free from the
SEAEEUS AS 300 Son
Calyx-tube adherent to the fruit
Sepals united at the base only, the short
calyx-tube either quite free from the
fruit or slightly adherent to it, the
calyx-segments or sepals valvate or
nearly so.
Stamens with a single, long apical,
appendage from the connective
Stamens with 4 apical append-
ages from the anthers and 1
from the connective
Sepals free, imbricate.
The three outer sepals always,
and one or both of the inner
two occasionally, winged in the
fruit; anthers with a short
apical appendage from the con-
nective Sp 500
The two outer sepals winged in
the fruit, the three inner not
longer than the fruit and close-
ly embracing it; stamens with
a terminal appendage from the
connective longer than the
anther 20 500
Sepals of fruiting-calyx all enlarged but not
exceeding, or only slightly exceeding, the
fruit ; pericarp leathery or woody.
Fruiting calyx embracing the fruit but
not adherent to it.
Sepals of fruiting calyx slightly
thickened,
Sepals of fruiting-calyx ob-
long, nearly equal, usually
shorter than the fruit, re-
flexed or erect 600
Sepals of fruiting-calyx
rotund, unequal (the inner
two smaller), reflexed
G. Kine—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. [No, 2,
1 Dipterocarpus,
2 Anisoptera.
3 Vatica,
4, Pentacme,
5 Shorea.
6 Hopea.
7 Retinodendron,
8 Isoptera.
1893.] G. King—WMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 89
Sepals of fruiting calyx much
thickened and woody at the
base.
Calyx forming a cup at the
base of the fruit, but not
adhering to it: pericarp
woody coe .. 9 Balanocarpus.
Calyx adherent to the fruit: pericarp
thickly leathery ne ... 10 Pachynocarpus.
Sect. IJ. AwnctstrocLapEx. Ovary 1-celled with
a single ovule; stigmas 3, distinct: Seeds
with copious ruminate albumen. LHxstipulate
climbers. ... o00 500 wv» Ll Ancistrocladus.
1. Drererocarpus, Geertn. f.
Lofty trees, stellately pubescent or more or less clothed with
fascicled hairs. Leaves coriaceous, entire or sinuate-crenate; lateral nerves
connected by marginal loops and transverse reticulations ; stipules large,
valvate, enclosing the terminal bud, finally caducous and leaving an
annular scar. Flowers large, white or reddish. Calyzx-tube free. Petals
usually pubescent externally, especially on the outer margin. Stamens
oo ; anthers linear, equivalved, acuminate. Ovary 3-celled; style filiform ;
ovules 2 in each cell. Fruit nut-like, 1-seeded, enclosed in the accres-
cent calyx-tube, free; accrescent calyx-lobes 2, erect. Seed adnate to
the base of the pericarp; cotyledons large, thick, unequal; radicle
inconspicuous.—Distris. Tropical H. Asia; species about 60.
Ripe fruit spheroidal or ellipsoidal, neither angled nor winged.
Young branches, petioles, under surfaces of the midribs, and
nerves of the leaves covered with coarse stiff fasciculate
hairs.
Fruit glabrous... 300 cee lee cnviaitas:
», stellate-pubescent ... . 2. D. Scortechiniz.
Young branches deciduously pubescent.
Leaves with 12 or more pairs of nerves.
Leaves oblong-elliptic, their under sur-
faces sparsely stellate-pubescent ... 3. D. Skinnert.
Leaves elliptic or ovate-elliptic, their
under surfaces puberulous or quite
glabrous iis ne we A Dz turbinatus,
Leaves with 8 to 10 pairs of nerves,
All parts quite glabrous... an 0} D. Kerrit.
90 G. King— Wuterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. [WNo. 2,
gs : ]
Ripe fruit with 5 angular tuberosities on its
upper portion aK 299 .» 6. D. cornutus.
Ripe fruit 5-angled :
Calyx-tube glabrous; leaves 2°5 to 3°25 in.
long sob 300 . €. D fagmeus:
Calyx-tube densely stellate-tomentose ;
leaves 6 to 8 in. long Use .. 8. D. oblongifolius.
Ripe fruit with its 5 angles produced into wings :
Leaves glabrous :
Young branches at first scurfy-puberulous,
ultimately quite glabrous : buds ovoid,
minutely pale canescent . 9. D. grandiflorus.
Young branches as in the last, but with
conspicuous tawny-tomentose, oblique
annuli; buds cylindric, hoary-canes-
cent ves 500 a LOD DS Kansilenn
Young branches minutely tawny-pubes-
cent, not annulated and never gla-
brous ; buds ovoid, densely sericeous 11. D. Griffithi.
Leaves minutely stellate-pubescent on the
lower surface :
Flowers about 1 in. long; leaves with
rounded or sub-cordate bases ; young
branches very stout, with ovoid buds ;
the accrescent lobes of the calyx
1:5 in. broad 450 .. 12. D. incanus.
Flowers 1°5 in. long ; leaves with rounded
or cuneate, not sub-cordate, bases:
young branches moderately stout with
cylindrie buds: acerescent calyx-lobes
‘7 to 8 in. broad 500 1.) Lon DNalatius:
1. Drprerocarpus crinitus, Dyer in Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I. 296.
A tree 90 to 150 feet high: young branches, petioles, under surface of
midrib and nerves, pedicels and outer surface of bracts of inflorescence
clothed with stiff yellowish-brown fascicled hairs. Leaves very coria-
ceous, ovate or more usually obovate, acute, the base rounded or sub-
acute ; the edge entire, fringed with fascicled hairs, recurved (at least
when dry) ; both surfaces sparsely hispid when young, glabrescent when
old; main nerves 12 to 18 pairs, spreading, rather straight, very
prominent on the lower, depressed on the upper, surface ; length 3 to
5 in., breadth 1°75 to 2°75 in., petiole 1 to 1:25 in. Racemes about 6-
flowered. Flowers nearly 2 in. long. Calyx glaucous, glabrous. Petals
1893.] G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 91
puberulous, linear, blunt. Stamens 15. Fruit (immature) ellipsoid, wing-
less, glaucous, smooth; the enlarged calyx-lobes linear-oblong, blunt, 3-
nerved, inconspicuously reticulate, shining, 3°5 in. long and ‘6 to ‘8 in.
broad. Dyer in Journ. Bot. 1874, p. 103. D. hirtus, Vesque, Comptes-
Rendus, 1874, 78, p. 627; Journ. Bot. 1874, p. 151; Dyer lL. c. 154,
Malacca; Maingay (Kew Distrib.) No. 196.
Perak ; Scortechini, No. 1955. Disrris. Borneo: (fide Dyer), Beccari,
779, 1883.
Burek (Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, Vol. 6, p 196) reduces this to
D. Tamparan, Korth. Korthals however describes the fruit of that
species as having accrescent calyx-lobes 15 inches long by 3 broad.
2. Diprerocarrus Scorrecuinu, King, n. sp. A large tree: young
branches rather stout, densely clothed, (as are the short cylindric buds,
the petioles and racemes) with large tufts of coarse, brownish, shining
hairs. Leaves coriaceous, elliptic-ovate, or sometimes elliptic-sub-ovate,
sub-entire, abruptly and shortly acuminate, slightly narrowed to the
rounded base; upper surface glabrous or glabrescent, the nerves sparse-
ly stellate-pubescent, the midrib tomentose; under surface sparsely
stellate-pubescent, the nerves (and especially the midrib) with long
silky hairs intermixed: main nerves 16 to 18 pairs, straight, oblique,
very prominent beneath : length 6 to 7°5 in., breadth 3 to 3°5 in, petiole
1 to 12in. Racemes few-flowered, short. Fruit (P immature) ovoid,
contracted under the mouth, glaucous, stellate-pubescent, °75 in. long
and ‘) in. in diam; accrescent calyx-lobes linear-oblong, reticulate,
slightly narrowed in the lower half, the apex obtuse, obscurely 3-
nerved (the middle nerve bold, the two lateral faint), 4 to 5 in. long and
8 to 1 in. broad.
Perak ; Scortechini, No. 1813,
This is closely allied to D. crinitus, Dyer, to which Scortechini
doubtfully referred it. It differs from D. crinitus in its larger leaves
and stellate-pubescent fruit. It has also a different time of flowering;
for, as Scortechini remarks in his field notes, this 1s in immature fruit
in the beginning of March, while D. crinitus does not come into flower
until the end of April.
3. Drprerocarpus Skinneri, King, n. sp. A tall tree; youne
branches thin, deciduously tawny-pubescent. Buds cylindric, narrow,
golden-sericeous. eaves oblong-elliptic, narrowed in the upper half or
third to the acute or shortly acuminate apex, slightly narrowed to the
rounded base, upper surface glabrous or sparsely adpressed-pubescent,
the midrib tomentose, the lower sparsely stellate-pubescent, the midrib
and 16 to 19 pairs of straight oblique nerves adpressed-sericeous ;
nerves prominent on the lower, faint on the upper, surface when dry :
92. G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. [No. 2,
length 5 to 8 in., breadth 2°25 to 3 in.; petiole ‘7 to ‘9 in., tomentose.
Racemes simple, short, 2- or 3-flowered, pubescent. Flowers 2°5 in. long.
Calyx with narrowly campanulate tube, covered outside with minute,
pale, stellate tomentum. Petals linear-oblong, blunt, more or less pubes-
cent outside. Fruit (Pimmature) globular-ovoid, glabrous, ‘65 in. in
diam.: accrescent calyx-lobes glabrous, reticulate, linear, blunt, con-
tracted at the very base, nearly 5 in. long and about °75 in. broad.
Penang; at the back of West Hill, at an elevation of 1,000 feet.
Curtis No. 1403.
A very distinct species known only by Mr. Curtis’ scanty speci-
mens. I have named it in honour of Mr. Skinner, Resident Councellor
of Penang.
4. Di preROCARPUS TURBINATUS, Gaertn. f. Fruct. III. 51, t. 188.
A tree 80 to 100 feet high: young shoots rather slender, at first minute-
ly velvety, pale grey, afterwards glabrous: buds cylindric, softly pale
pubescent Leaves thinly coriaceous, elliptic or ovate-elliptic, acute
or shortly acuminate, the base rounded or sub-cordate, the edges
slightly undulate, sometimes sub-crenate; both surfaces glabrous, or
the lower puberulous especially on the midrib and nerves: main nerves
12 to 18 pairs, straight, oblique, prominent on the lower surface;
length 4°5 to 11 in., breadth 2°5 to 5°25 in.; petiole 1 to 1°5 in., glabrous
or pubescent: stipules tawny-velvety in the lower part but pubescent to-
wards the apex. acemes 3- to 5-flowered. Flowers 1:25 to 1:5 in. long.
Calyz-tube obconic, glabrous, smooth, not winged, Petuls linear-oblong,
obtuse, more or less canescent. rwit ellipsoid-ovoid, tapering to each end
when young: globular when ripe and ‘75 in. in diam., with neither
wings nor ridges ; the two accrescent calyx-lobes glabrous, conspicuously
reticulate, obscurely 3-nerved, oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, 4 to 4°5 in.
Jong and 1°25 in. broad ; the three small lobes of the calyx deltoid, very
short. Roxb. Hort. Beng. 42; Fl. Ind. II. 612; Corom. Plants ILI.
10 t. 213. Ham. in Mem. Wern. Soc. VI. 300: Wall Cat. 952; A. DC.
Prod. XVI. 2, 607; W. and Arn. Prod. 85; Dyer in Hook. fil. FI.
Br. Ind. I, 295: Journ. Bot. 1874, p. 102 t. 143, fig. 18: Kurz. For. FI.
Burm. I. 114. D. laevis, Ham. 1. c. 299.; A. DC. 1. c. 607. W. and A.
Prod. 85: Kurz, 1. c. 114. ?D. indicus, Bedd. Forest. Rep. 1864-5,
17 cum tab.; Flora Sylvat. t. 94.
Assam, Cachar, Chittagong, Burmah, S. India.
Var. andamanica : enlarged calyx-lobes linear-oblong, not oblanceo-
late, ‘75 in. broad ; leaves broadly ovate, sub-cuneate at the base.
South Andaman: common.
Following Dyer, I have included under this the plant named D.
laevis by Buchanan Hamilton in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society,
1893.] G. King—MWMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 93
Vol. VI. p. 299. Hamilton distinguishes his species D. laevis by its
flattened branchlets, and perfectly glabrous leaves and petioles, while
D. tuberculatus Gaertn. has terete branches and pubescent leaves and
petioles. The former (called Dulia Garjan, by the natives of Chitta-
gong) yields, he says, no wood-oil; while the latter (called Telia
Garjan) does. The materials before me do not enable me to differen-
tiate the two as species. Moreover, specimens sent to me by Dr. H.
Thurston, Reporter on Economic Products to the Government of India,
(and which had been collected by the Forest Officer of Chittagong
under the vernacular names Dulia and Telia Garjan) appear exactly
alike. Careful investigation in the field may however prove that there
is some better basis for Hamilton’s view than the trifling differences
which he has noted in the outline of the branchlets and the pubeszence
of the leaves. I am not at all satisfied that the Southern Indian tree
named D. indicus by Beddome is rightly reduced here. Better Herba-
rium specimens than any which I have seen, and investigation in the
field, are I think required to settle this point also.
5. Diprerocarpus Kerri, King, n. sp. A tall tree; all parts,
except the petals, glabrous; young branches thin, slightly flattened
at the tips, not annular. Buds narrow, cylindric. Leaves coriaceous, ovate-
elliptic, acute or very shortly and bluntly acuminate, the edges undulate,
the base cuneate; main nerves § to 11 pairs, oblique, straight, bold and
shining on the lower surface; length 3 to 4 in., breadth 2 to 2°5 in.,
petiole ‘9 to 1:1 in. Panicles short, spreading, few-flowered. lowers
15 in. long. Calyx-tube glaucous. Petals linear-oblong, obtuse, more
or less pubescent or tomentose towards their middle externally. Pruitt
turbinate, smooth, 1 to 115 in. in diam. ; accrescent calyx-lobes linear-
oblong, blunt, reticulate, 3-nerved, 4°5 to 5 in. long, and 1:25 to 1-5 in.
broad : minor lobes very short, broad, rounded.
Malacca ; Maingay (Kew Distrib.) No. 199, Griffith 727, Derry 1032.
Pangkore; on Gunong Yunggal, Curtis No. 1561.
Mr. Curtis describes this as a very large tree yielding an oil. It
resembles D. Hasseltii, Bl., but has much smaller leaves.
I have named this species in honour of Dr. Kerr, an enthusiastic
Botanist much interested in the Malayan Flora. Closely allied to this,
and perhaps identical with it, is the tree represented by Mr. Curtis’
specimen (Waterfall, Penang) No. 1653. The young wood of the
latter is however paler than that of D. Kerrii from Pangkore and
Malacca, and the leaves are puberulous, not glabrous, beneath. I have
seen no flowers of it.
6. Diprerocarpus cornutus, Dyer in Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I, 296.
A tree 50 to 70 feet high: young branches stout, compressed, minutely
94 G. King—WMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. (No. 2,
rufous-tomentose with a few scattered longer hairs. Leaves large,
coriaceous, oblong, blunt at each end, the edges undulate or obscurely
sinuate-crenate: upper surface glabrous, the midrib and nerves pale
when dry: under surface densely covered with minute, pale, stellate
tomentum : main nerves 16 to 20 pairs, prominent, spreading, straight,
the transverse veins rather distinct: length 9 to 14 in., breadth 5 to 8
in., petiole 2 to 3 in.; stipules rufous-sericeous, the hairs fascicled.
Racemes 7- or 8-flowered. Flowers 1°75 in long. Calyr-tube 5-winged,
canescent, the short lobes very obtuse. Petals oblong or sub-spathulate,
stellate-canescent. Fruit about 1 in. long, sub-globular, with 5 thick
short wings in its upper half; enlarged calyx-lobes linear, obtuse, 5 or
6 in. long and 1:25 to 1°75 in. broad, shining, boldly 3-nerved, reticulate.
Dyer in Journ. Bot. 1874, p. 103, t. 143. fig. 15. Parinariwm dilleni-
folium, RB. Br. Wall. Cat. No. 7520. Petrocarya dillenifolia, Steud.
Nomencl. II, 309.
Singapore: Wallich. Malacca: Maingay (Kew Distrib.) No. 197.
Penang: Curtis No. 1402. Perak: Wray, No. 4160.
It was Sir Joseph Hooker who first pointed out that the Walli-
chian plant No. 7520, issued as Parinariwm, belongs really to this
species.
7. DuprerocaRrPUs FAGINEUS, Vesque in Comptes-Rendus, tome 78,
p- 626: Journ. Bot. for 1874, p. 149. A tree 40 to 80 feet high : young
branches slender, at first minutely pulverulent tawny-pubescent, ulti-
mately glabresent or glabrous and dark-coloured, the buds cylindric.
Leaves coriaceous, elliptic-ovate to elliptic-lanceolate, acute, the edges
entire or sub-undulate-crenulate, the base cuneate, both surfaces puberu-
lous especially on the midrib and nerves; main nerves 10 to 13 pairs,
straight, oblique, prominent on the sub-glaucous lower surface; length
9°5 to 3°25 in., breadth 1°3 to 1°75. Racemes slender, 1- to 4-flowered.
Flowers about 1°25 in. long. Calyax-tube campanulate, not constricted
at the mouth, 5-angled. Ripe fruit ellipsoid, tapering more at the base
than at the apex, 5-angled, glaucous, 1 in. long: accrescent calyx-lobes
linear-oblong, obtuse, contracted at the base, 3-nerved, 2°5 to 3 in.
long and about ‘75 in. broad. WD. prismaticus, Dyer Journ. Bot. 1874.
pp. 104, 152. t. 144 fig. 17. Dipterocarpus, sp. Hook. fil. in Linn. Trans.
XXIII, 161.
Perak: King’s Collector No. 3527, Scortechini. Penang; Curtis
No. 1401. |
D. fagineus, Vesque, has been collected hitherto only in Borneo
(Beccari No. 3008 and Motley No. 143,) and the leaves are described
by Dyer as being papyraceous in texture and having about 8 pairs of
lateral nerves. ‘The leaves of the Perak tree which I now refer to this
1893.] G. King—WMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 95
species, are coriaceous and have 10 to 13 pairs of nerves. The Perak plant
may therefore belong to a distinct, but closely allied, species. Curtis’
Penang specimens (No. 1401) are quite glabrous in all parts except the
petals.
8. DIPTEROCARPUS OBLONGIFOLIUS, Blume, Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. II,
36. 2%
dodecandra, Griff. Plant. Cantor 12. TI. cuneata, Mig. Fl. Ind. Bat.
Suppl. 484 and Hook, fil, Fl. Br, Ind. I, 416. I. obovata Hook. fil. Fl, Br.
Ind. I, 417. Gordonia? peduncularis, Wall. Cat. 4409. Hypericinea
dentata, Wall. Cat. 4832. Pierotia lucida, Blume Mus. Bot. i. 180.
Brewstera crenata, Roem. Synops. 1. 141. Macharisia icosandra, Planch.
MSS. Ivonanthes sp. Griff. Notul. iv. 498; Ic. Pl. Asiat., t. 589, f. 2.
In all the provinces except the Nicobars and Andamans; very
common.
This is rather a variable plant as to leaves, and to two of the
forms specific names have been given. I cannot, however, discover any
tangible differences in the flowers or fruit, so I have treated all the forms
4
192 G, King—WMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. [No. 4,
as belonging to Jack’s I, icosandra. The fruit is only imperfectly 10-
celled in this species, the vertical processes from the back walls of the
cells of the capsule being incomplete. In the next species they are
nearly quite complete, and its capsules are really 10-celled.
2. IXONANTHES RETICULATA, Jack in Mal. Miscel. II, No. 7, 51; Hook.
Comp. Bot. Mag. 1.154. A small tree, occasionally ouly a shrub. Leaves
coriaceous, not black when dry, elliptic, sometimes elliptic-rotund, the
apex blunt, the base cuneate; main nerves 7 or 8 pairs, slightly pro-
minent when dry, interarching ‘25 in. from the edge; length 3°5 to 5
in., breadth 2 to 2°75 in., petiole ‘6 to "8 in. Cymes on stout peduncles,
few-flowered. Flowers ovoid to ovoid-rotund, scarcely opening, °3 in.
long, petals broadly elliptic; stamens about 10, the filaments much
longer than the petals. Capsule 1:35 to 1°75 in, long, 5-valved, 10-
celled. Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I, 417; Griffith Plant. Cantor, 11.
Hypericinea macrocarpa, Wall. Cat. 4833. Gordonia decandra, Roxb.
Fl. Ind. ii., 573; Wall. Cat. 4408.
In all the provinces except the Nicobar and Andaman Islands.
Distrib. Sumatra.
In this species the 5 cells of the fruit are converted into 10 by
a dissepiment springing from the wall of each valve. I have never seen
the seeds, all the capsules I have met with being empty.
Orper XXI. MALPIGHIACEA.
Trees or shrubs, often climbing. Leaves (in the Indian genera)
opposite, quite entire; stipules small or 0. Inflorescence axillary or
terminal; pedicels articulate, usually 2-bracteolate. Flowers middling-
sized or small, white or yellow, more rarely red, yellow, or blue, herma-
phrodite, regular or irregular. Calyx usually 5-partite; segments im-
bricate or valvate, l or more (never all) furnished with a large gland,
rarely eglandular (Aspidopterys). Petals 5, clawed or not, often fim-
briate, imbricate. Disc obscure. Stamens 10, hypogynous or subperi-
gynous, equal, or 1 or more much larger than the others, filaments free
or connate below, anthers 2-lobed. Ovary 3-celled; styles 1-3, rarely
4, straight or circinate, stigmas capitate or punctiform or lateral ; ovules
solitary in each cell, micropyle superior, raphe ventral. Fruit (in all
the Asiatic genera except Brachylophon) of one or more winged samaras.
Seed exalbuminous; embryo straight or curved, radicle superior.—
Disrris. An order, largely represented in America, but scantily in Asia ;
genera about 50, species about 620,
Styles 1 rarely 2; calyx glandular.
Fruit of 3, united, many-winged samaras ... 1. Tristellateia.
Fruit usually of a single 3-winged samara.,, 2. Hiptage.
—
138
1893.] G. King—WMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 198
Styles 3 rarely 4; calyx eglandular.
Samaras with large membranous reticulate
wings ... Sop ey 3. Aspidopterys.
Fruit of 2 or 3 turgid almost wingless cocci 4. Brachylophon.
1. TrisTevLareta, Thouars.
Woody climbers. Leaves opposite or whorled ; petiole 1—-2-glandu-
lar at the apex; stipules minute. Flowers yellow, in terminal or lateral
racemes. Calyx 5-partite, eglandular, or with minute glands. Petals
5, clawed. Stamens 10, all perfect; filaments rigid, truncate and
articulate at the top, anthers acute. Ovary 3-lobed; styles 1-2, slender,
one or more reduced to small papille. Ripe carpels 3, each with about
3 or more wings, the whole forming a stellate fruit. Seed obovoid,
testa membranous; cotyledons fleshy, hooked.—Disrris. About 8
species, natives of tropical Africa, Asia, and Australasia.
1. TRISTELLATEIA AUSTRALASICA, A. Rich. Sert. Astrol. 38t. 15. Gla-
brous; leaves elliptic, ovate, or oblong, acute, the base cuneate or rounded ;
main nerves 4or 5 pairs, forming wide arches far from the margin, faint;
leneth 1°75 to3°5 in., breadth °75 to 1°25 in., petiole *25 to 35 in., eglandu-
lar or with only one gland. Racemes 2 to 6in. long, few-flowered, terminal.
Flowers 1 in. in diam., their pedicels opposite, minutely 2-bracteolate
towards the base. Petals ovate. Frwit*5 in. in diam., its wing linear-
oblong, coriacious, recurved or spreading. Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I, 418;
Benth. Flor. Austral. I. 286. Platynema laurifolium, W. & A. in Hdin.
New Phil. Journ. 1833, 179; Prodr. 107.
Singapore; Wight, Kurz, Anderson. Pangkore, Scortechini. Pahang,
Ridley. Duisrris.—Malayan Archipelago, Australasia.
2. Huiprace, Gertner.
Climbing or suberect shrubs. Leaves opposite, quite entire, coria-
ceous, eglandular, or with a row of remote intramarginal glands be-
neath; stipules 0. Racemes terminal or axillary, simple or compound ;
peduncles erect, bracteate, jointed to the 2-bracteolate pedicels. Oalyzx
5-partite ; glands adnate to the pedicel, large. Petals 5, clawed, un-
equal, white, the odd one discoloured. Stamens 10, all fertile, declinate,
one much larger than the others; filaments connate at the base. Ovary
with 3 appendiculate lobes; styles 1 or 2 bearing stigmas, the others
rudimentary, all circinate. rwit winged. Seed sub-globose, the
cotyledons unequal, thick. Dusrris: four tropical Asiatic species.
Main nerves of leaves about 4 pairs, inflores-
cence tomentose or sericeous, flowers °35 to
‘Dd in. in diam oA 7 gry LS) EL. sericea.
J. I; 20
194 G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. [No. 4,
Main nerves of leaves 4 to 6 pairs, inflorescence
adpressed-pubescent ; flowers -75 to l in., in
diam. ... eid 396 .» 2. H. madablota.
1, Hrerace sericua, Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I, 419. A woody climber,
the branches and inflorescence more or less covered with soft brown,
villous pubescence; lateral branchlets slender, short. Leaves elliptic-
ovate or cblong, acuminate, glabrous ; main nerves about 4 pairs, ascend-
ing; length 2 to 6in., breadth ‘9 to 3 in., petiole °25 in. Racemes 2 to
3°5 in. long, axillary and terminal, sometimes much crowded, minutely
tomentose or sericeous, many-flowered. Flowers 35 to ‘5 in. in diam.,
pedicels thickened at the apex, *25 to ‘5 in. long. Petals clawed, the
odd one much lobed, all more or less villous especially externally ;
central wing of carpel oblanceolate obtuse, with a central ridge near
its base, 1:55 to 2 in. long, the lateral much smaller. 4H. parviflora,
Wight Cat. 358. Clerodendron sericeum, Wall. Cat. 1814.
Penang: Wallich, King’s collector, No. 1454. Singapore, Ridley.
Pahang, Ridley No 2386. Malacca, Griffith, Derry. Maingay, (Kew
Distrib.) No. 272. Perak, King’s collector No. 4097.—Distris. Burmah.
Gallatly, No. 890.
This is a very variable plant as to leaves, some of the forms having
narrowly oblong, while others have broadly elliptic leaves ; the nervation
is, however, alike in all. As regards vestiture there is also variation,
the inflorescence being in some villous, in others minutely tomentose or
pubescent. This must come very near, if it be not actually identical
with, H. javanica, Blume. The Burmese form of this species has not only
narrowly oblong leaves, but racemes 6 inches long and more slender
than in Malayan specimens. I propose to name it VAR. longe-racemosa.
2. HrpraGE MADABLOTA, Gertn. Fruct. II, 169, t. 116. A glabrous
woody climber, the young parts and inflorescence hoary or adpressed-
tomentose, the branches stout. Leaves coriaceous, ovate-lanceolate, oblong
or oyate-oblong, acute or shortly acuminate, the base rounded or cuneate,
both surfaces glabrous: main nerves 4 to 6 pairs, oblique, slightly pro-
minent beneath ; length 4'5 to 6in., breadth 1:5 to3 in., petiole -25 to
‘4 in. Racemes 1 to 6 in. long, axillary, sometimes leafy, adpressed-
pubescent. Flowers +75 to 1 in. in diam., fragrant. Sepals obtuse, less
than half as long as the petals. Petals fimbriate, the odd one dashed
with yellow. Fruit with three coriaceous spreading wings, the middle
one oblanceolate, obtuse, 1 to 2 in. long, the 2 lateral linear and half as
large. Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I, 418; Kurz For. Flora Burma 1], 173 ;
Migq. Fl. Ind. Bat. I, Pt. 2, 585; DC. Prod. I, 583 ; W. and A. Prod. 107 ;
Wight Ill. t. 50. Molina racemosa, Lamk. Dict. TY. 227; Cav. Diss. IX.
t. 263. Geertnera racemosa, Roxb. Cor. Pl. I. t. 18; Fl. Ind. II, 368.
1893.] G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 195
Banisteria bengalensis, Linn. B. wnicapsularis, Lamk. 8B. tetraptera,
Sonnerat Voy. II, t. 135. Rheede Hort. Malab. VI, t. 59.
In all the provinces. Dustris. British India, China, Malayan
Archipelago.
3. AsprpopTeRys, A. Juss.
Shrubs, usually climbing. Leaves opposite, eglandular, quite entire ;
stipules 0. Flowers in simple or compound axillary and terminal pani-
cles; peduncles bracteate, jointed at the top, pedicels often minutely
2-bracteolate. Flowers small, yellow or white. Calyx short, 5-partite,
eglandular. Petals 5, not clawed, spreading or reflexed, quite entire.
Stamens 10, all perfect, filaments connate or distinct at the base. Ovary
3-lobed, lobes flattened at the back, sides winged; styles 3, glabrous,
stigmas capitate, Fruit of 1-3 samaras; nucleus sometimes crested
or winged at the back, and surrounded with a broad oblong or orbicular
wing. Seeds oblong, subterete; embryo, straight, cotyledons equal,
radicle short—Distris. Species about 15; all tropical Asiatic.
Leaves ovate or obovate, more or less orbicu-
lar; panicles slender, lax, with short few-
flowered lateral branches: samaras ovate,
narrowed and retuse at the apex Te lArconcatias
Leaves ovate or elliptic, narrowed apmands:
not orbicular; panicles spreading, the bran-
ches umbellate, many-flowered: samaras or-
bicular ... 40 .. 2 A. Helferiana.
1. ASPIDOPTERYS Concava, A. Jee in Archiv. Mus. Hist. Nat. ITT,
509. A climber; young shoots rusty-puberulous, soon becoming glab-
rous. Leaves ovate-elliptic or elliptic, bluntly and shortly acuminate,
the base rounded or very slightly narrowed: both surfaces glabrous,
the lower minutely dotted when young; main nerves 4 to 6 pairs,
curving, ascending ; length 3 to 4:5 in., breadth 1°5 to 2°3 in., petiole
*5 to 65 in. Flowers in spreading lateral umbellate panicles. Samaras
orbicular, membranous, pale, reticulate, the veins radiating, the nucleus
winged, about 1:25 in. in diam; their pedicels slender, minutely brac-
teolate, often 1°5 in. long. Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I, 420; Kurz For.
Flora Burmah, I, 175. Hiraea concava, Wall. Pl. As. Rar. I, 13; Cat.
1061. H. merguensis, Wight. Ill. I, 139.
Penang; Curtis No. 138, 798. Distris. Burmah.
2. Aspipoprerys Hexreriana, Kurz Journ. As, Soc. Bengal, Pt. 2,
(1874), 137, 14; For. Flora Burma, I., 176. A climber, the young
shoots tawny-pubescent. Leaves membranous, orbicular-ovate to orbi-
eular-obovate, the apex shortly cuspidate, the base rounded or shghtly
196 G. King—WMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. (No. 4,
cordate, glabrous; main nerves 4 or 5 pairs, curved, ascending; length
3 to 5'5 in., breadth 2°5 to 5 in.; petiole °5 to 65 in., puberulous or
glabrescent. Panicles axillary or yormanal slender, ane rusty-puberu-
lous when young, the lateral branches distant, few-flowered ; ovary quite
glabrous, lobes of dise scarcely rugose. Samaras ovoid, narrowed
towards the retuse apex, membranous, pale brown, with many radiating
nerves, reticulate, glabrous, 1 in. or more in length, nucleus with
oblong wing. Hiraea indica (?) Wall. Cat. 1057.
Andaman Islands. Distris. Burmah.
The type of this species is one of the things included under Wall.
Cat. 1057, with which the Andaman specimens in the Calcutta Her-
barium agree very well. Kurz has however also referred to this species
certain Burmese specimens, viz., Falconer’s No. 72 (from Upper Weingo
Valley) and Helfer’s No. 923, which, although agreeing with each other,
hardly agree with the Wallichian No. 1057 from Neidann. By the
way! this sheet from Neidann is not included im Wallich’s hthographed
and published list.
4, BracHyLopnon, Oliver.
Glabrous shrubs. Leaves opposite, entire. Inflorescence terminal,
racemose or corymbose, bracteolate. Hlowers yellow. Calya 5-partite,
eglandular. Petals 5, imbricate in bud. Stamens 10, all perfect, the
alternate shorter ; filaments longer than the anthers, flat, conjoined at the
base into a short disc: anthers linear, basifixed, opening by 2 apical
pores. Ovary deeply 3—4-lobed, 3-4-celled; Styles 3 or 4, elongate,
slender, divergent: ovules solitary in each cell, pendulous, anatropous.
Fruit usually 5-, sometimes only 2-lobed; separating when ripe into
turgid cocci; each coccus keeled along the back, and at the apex pro-
duced into a very short wing. Seed unknown. Distris. Three species ;
all Malayan.
Rachides of the racemes ‘d in. long or less,
leaves coriaceous... 5 .. Ll B. Hullettia.
Rachides of the racemes 2 in. or more in
length. .
Main nerves of leaves 7 to 8 pairs, oblique 2 B. Curtisii.
Main nerves of leaves 15 to 15 pairs, sub-
horizontal He . .. o& B, Scortechini.
J. BracuyLorHon Honertii, ne n. sp. Leaves coriaceous, shining,
minutely reticulate, narrowly elliptic, shortly and abruptly acuminate or
acute, the base cuneate: main nerves 10 to 12 pairs, rather prominent
beneath, sub-horizontal, interarching far from the margin; length 4 to
n., breadth 1°8 to 2°5 in., petiole *1 in, Racemes terminal, the
7
1893.] G. King—WMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 197
rachis less than'5 in. long, 4-to 8-flowered; pedicels 75 in. long, brac-
teolate at the base. Sepals ovate, blunt.
Malacca: on mount Ophir, Hullett.
An imperfectly known plant, easily distinguished from both the
other species by its much shorter racemes and more coriaceous leaves.
2. BracuynorHon Courtisi1, Oliver in Hook, Ic. Plantar. t. 1566.
A shrub 3 to 6 feet high. Leaves membranous, narrowly elliptic to
ovate-rotund, acuminate, the base cuneate; upper surface glabrous,
the lower scaberulous ; main nerves 7 or 8 pairs, not much more promi-
nent than the intermediate, oblique, interarching ‘15 in. from the edge ;
length 3°5 to 7 in., breadth 2 to 2°25 in., petiole ‘lin. Racemes corym-
bose, 1 to 2in. long. lowers "75 in. in diam.; pedicels slender, °8 to 1:2
in. long, bracteolate at the base. Petals yellow, oblong, obtuse, entire,
shortly clawed, °5 in. long. Ripe fruit ‘35 to °5 in. long, ‘25 in. broad.
Penang: Curtis No. 231.
3. BRACHYLOPHON ScCORTECHINII, King, n. sp. A shrub 3 to 6 feet
high. Leaves membranous, oblong-lanceolate to oblong-elliptic, some-
times oblong-oblanceolate, tapering from the middle to each end, both
surfaces glabrous : main nerves 15 to 15 pairs, rather faint, sub-horizontal,
interarching ‘15 to -2 in. from the edge: length 5 to 1] in., breadth 2
to 4 in., petiole ‘15 in. Racemes corymbose, terminal and axillary, 2
to 3 in. long, many-flowered, the rachis tuberculate. Flowers about °6
in. in diam.; pedicels slender, °65 to 1 in. long, bracteolate at the base.
Calyx-teeth oblong, obtuse, puberulous, the edges ciliolate. Petals ovate,
obtuse, entire, glabrous, ‘5 in. long. Milaments flattened, unequal but
all much longer than the petals. Ovary 3- to 4-lobed, or 3- to 4-celled :
styles 3 or 4, as long as the filaments, spreading, cylindric. Fruit un-
- known. Ryssopteris elliptica, Scortechini MSS.
Perak : Scortechini, Wray, King’s collector.
I have not seen fruit of this. In its flowers it closely resembles
B. Curtisvi, Oliver, but its leaves are larger, more membranous, and have
more numerous nerves than those of B. Curtisit.
Orper XXII. GHRANIACEA.
Herbs, undershrubs, or rarely trees; glabrous or more usually
pubescent and glandular. Jeaves opposite or alternate, usually 2-
stipulate. Peduncles usually solitary and axillary, 1- or more flowered.
Flowers umbelled, cymose or racemose, usually showy, hermaphrodite,
regular or irregular. Sepals 5, rarely 4 or 2, free or united to the
middle, imbricate or rarely valvate, the posticous sometimes spurred.
Petals as many as the sepals or fewer by suppression, or 0, hypogynous
or subperigynous, variously imbricated, rarely contorted, Torus scarcely
198 G. King—WMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. [No. 4
expanded into a disc, with 5 glands alternating with the petals, or
without glands, raised in the centre into a beak, rarely flat. Stamens
as many as, or double, or treble the sepals, or fewer by suppression ;
filaments filiform or dilated, or connate into a ring; anthers 2-
celled; cells parallel, opening lengthwise. Ovary 3-5-lobed, 3—5-celled,
rarely 2-lobed, of 3-5-carpels, united with the axis as far as the insertion
of the ovules, sometimes lengthened into a beak-bearing style or
styles, which are free or more or less united ; stigmas capitate, linear
or ligulate; ovules 1 or 2 or rarely more, horizontal or pendulous or
ascending. Fruit capsular, 3-5-lobed, lobes 1-seeded, often separating
from the axis, septicidal or loculicidal, rarely berried. Seeds pendulous
or horizontal, albumen 0, or scanty or fleshy ; embryo straight or curved ;
cotyledons flat, convex or variously folded, foliaceous or thick or
fleshy ; radicle either short and near the hilum, or longer and inflected,
or incumbent on the cotyledons.—Distris. Genera 20, with about
800 species, chiefly inhabiting temperate climates.
OxALipp®.—Leayves compound, flowers regular.
Herbaceous.
Leaves 3-foliolate 500 fo Oxalise
Leayes pinnate ..,. G00 .. 2, Biophytum.
Woody.
Shrubs or trees, not scandent, fruit pro-
bably indehiscent Ga . 9. Connaropsis.
Scandent shrubs, fruit certainly ohieeeat 4, Dapania.
BALsAMINE#®.—Leayes simple, flowers irregular.
Lateral petals connate in pairs, fruit capsular. 5. Impatiens.
Lateral petals free: fruit drupaceous ... 6, Hydrocera.
1. Oxatis, Linn.
Acid herbs, rarely shrubby. Leaves radical or alternate, stipulate
or ex-stipulate, compound, usually 3-foliolate. Flowers on axillary, 1-
or more flowered peduncles, regular. Sepals 5, imbricate. Petals 5,
hypogynous, contorted. Glands of the disc 0. Stamens 10, free or united
at the base, all anther-bearing. Ovary 5-lobed, 5-celled; styles 5,
distinct ; stigma terminal, captitate, 2-fid or laciniate: ovules 1 or more
in each cell. Capsule with loculicidal dehiscence, valves persistent
to the axis. Seeds with an outer fleshy coat which bursts elastically,
testa crustaceous, albumen fleshy, embryo straight.—Distris. Species
about 200, chiefly tropical and temperate S, American and 8. African.
1. Oxatis cornicunata Linn. DC. Prod. I, 692. A diffuse, creep-
ing, adpressed-pubescent herb with long-petioled 3-foliolate, stipulate
1893.] G. Kinge—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 199
leaves; the leaflets obcordate, the stipules adnate to the petiole.
Flowerssub-umbellate on 2- to many-fid, setaceously bracteolate peduncles.
Sepals obtuse. Petals obcordate, yellow. Fruiting pedicels often de-
pressed. Capsules sub-cylindric, tomentose, many-seeded. Seeds trans-
versely striate. Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I, 436; Mig. Fl. Ind. Bat. I,
pt. 4. p. 1385; Boiss. Fl. Orient. i. 866; Wall. Cat. 4347; Roxb. FI. Ind.
i. 457; W. & A. Prodr. 142. O. repens, Thunb; Wight Ic. t. 18;
Blume Bijdr. 243. O. pusilla, Salisb.; Roxb. l.c.
Perak: by the sides of damp foot-paths near the bases of the hills.
Penang: on Government Hill, Curtis.
2. Biopnuytum, De Cand.
Annual, rarely perennial herbs, with simple or branched stems.
Leaves abruptly pinnate, fascicled or almost whorled at the top of the
stem ; leaflets opposite, oblique; petiole swollen at the base. Peduncles
terminal, pedicels umbelled. Flowers small, yellow, or white. Sepals
5, lanceolate, acuminate. Petals 5. Stamens 10; filaments free, 5 outer
smaller. Styles 5, stigmas notched at the apex or 2-fid. Capsule ovoid
or oblong, or subglobose, splitting loculicidally sometimes to the base
into 5 spreading valves. Seeds as in Oxalis——Distris. Tropical Asia,
Africa, and America. Species about 20.
Leaflets 8 to 20 pairs, equal-sided, glabrous,
their bases truncate, slightly oblique : flower-
pedicels usually shorter than the sepals, petals
yellow ... . I. B. sensitivum.
Leaflets 18 to 25 pairs, 3 dnedder mica Saateely
hispid on upper surface, their bases obliquely
truncate; flower- ae longer than the
sepals, petals white.. .» 2. B. adiantoides.
j. Btopaytum sEnsitivum, DC. Brad T, 690. Stem 4 to 10 in. long,
hispidulous, erect or decumbent, bearing at its apex 8 to 20 pinnate
leaves 15 to 5 in. long; leaflets 6 to 15 pairs, the lower pairs oblong,
the upper pair obovate-oblong, the apices of all obtuse, sometimes
mucronate, the bases truncate, subequal, glabrous, -25 to °5 in. long.
Peduncles variable in length, sometimes nearly as long as the leaves,
puberulous, each bearing at its apex a bracteolate umbel of 10 or 12
flowers; bracteoles setaceous, as long as the flower pedicels, pedicels
pubescent, as long as the sepals. Petals yellow. Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind.
I, 436; Roxb. Fl. Ind. IJ, 457; W. and A. Prod. 162; Bot. Ree. XXXT,
t. 68; Wall. Cat. 4343 C. H.
Malacca: Griffith. Penang, on the coast, Curtis; and probably in
the other provinces.
200 G. King—WMaterials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. | No. 4,
2. BiopHytum ADIANTOIDES, Wight ex Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. T, 437.
Stem from 6 to 12 in. high, erect or decumbent, pubescent, bearing
at its apex 10 or 12 pinnate leaves 4 to 7 in. long; leaflets 18 to 25 pairs,
oblong, obtuse, unequal-sided, the apex mucronate, the base obliquely
truncate, sometimes auriculed at the upper margin, sparsely strigose on
the upper surface. Peduwncles more than half as lone as the leaves,
pubescent, each bearing at its apex a densely bracteolate umbel of
6 to 12 flowers; bracteoles short, setaceous: flower-pedicels slender,
puberulous, longer than the sepals. Petals white, the claws yellow.
Perak: on the banks of the Kamha river, King’s collector, No. 931;
on the Plus river, Wray No. 3363. Goping, Scortechini, No. 1999.
Distris. Burmah.
3. Connaropsis, Planch.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves pinnately 1—-3-foliolate ; leaflets coriaceous,
quite entire, strongly nerved, triple-nerved at the base, margined.
Flowers minute, regular, in terminal and axillary panicled cymes..
Sepals 5, imbricate, connate at the base. Petals 5, imbricate. Glands
0. Stamens 10, filaments united at the base, the altermmke shorter.
Ovary 5-angled, 5-celled; styles 5, subulate, more or less united below,
stigmas apiculate; ovules 2 in each cell. Frwit fleshy, 5-lobed or
5-angled with succulent epicarp and fibrous endocarp, 1- or 2-celled
and 1- or 2-seeded by abortion, indehiscent. Distris. Five species, all
Malayan.
Leaves 3-foliolate ... 308 soo) 6 (05 Giraginlin.
Leaves 1-foliolate.
Leaves 2 to 3°5 in. long ... .. 2. OC. monophylla.
Do. 6 to 12 in. long ... .. oO} CO. macrophylla,
J]. Connaropsis Grirritai, Planch. in Hook. fil. FJ. Br. Ind. 440.
A small tree; young shoots glabrescent, dark-coloured when dry.
Leaves pinnately trifoliolate, coriaceous, glabrous ; leaflets elliptic-lanceo-
late, acuminate, the base cuneate; main nerves 4 pairs, ascending:
length 2 to 3°5 in., breadth *5 to 1 in., petiolule ‘15 in. Panicles termi-
nal, minutely ferruginous-tomentose, 1°5 to 2 in. long. Fruit unknown.
Malacca: Griffith, No. 1667. Maingay (Kew Distrib.), No. 274.
2. CoNNAROPSIS MONOPHYLLA, Planch. Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I., 440.
A shrub or small tree; young shoots minutely ferruginous-pubescent.
Leaves 1-foliolate, coriaceous, glabrous, ovate, acuminate, the base
rounded or sub-cuneate: main nerves about 6 pairs, faint; length
2to 3°5in., breadth ‘8 to 1°5in.; petiole ‘6 to 8 in., thickened and
pointed towards the apex, Panicles terminal or lateral, 2 to 4 in. long,
ferruginous-tomentose ; the branches erect and spike-like; flowers
1893.] G. Kinge—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula, 201
crowded. Fruit ovoid, glabrous, obtusely 5-angled and furrowed, ‘3
in. long.; endocarp fibrous, sarcocarp fleshy.
Malacca; Griffith No. 947; Maingay (Kew Distrib.) as 273. Perak,
Scortechini, King’s collector, Wray.
3. CONNAROPSIS MACROPHYLLA, King n. sp. A shrub or small
tree: young branches glabrescent or glabrous. Leaves 1-foliolate,
coriaceous, glabrous, oblong, acute or shortly acuminate, scarcely
narrowed to the rounded sub-truncate or sub-emarginate base; main
nerves 8 or 9 pairs, spreading, the reticulations distinct beneath:
length 6 to 12 in., breadth 2°35 to 3°65 in.; petiole °5 in., jointed above
the middle. Flowers in two or three terminal or lateral spikes which
are sometimes united to forma kind of panicle. Spikes glabrescent,
2 or 3 in, long. Flowers crowded. Fruit ovoid, apiculate, glabrous,
about °3 in. long. :
Perak: King’s collector, Nos. 433, 3124; Ridley No. 3087. Pro-
vince Wellesley ; Curtis No. 4:74.
4, Dapanta, Korthals.
Woody climbers. Leaves alternate, simple, coriaceous, entire, the
petiole jointed about the middle. Flowers small, regular, sometimes
unisexual, in slender spike-like racemes which are solitary, or in fas-
cicles, axillary or from tubercles on the stem. Sepals 5, connate at the
base, imbricate. Petals 5, hypogynous, imbricate, longer than the sepals.
Stamens 10, the alternate 5 shorter, all united at the base into a
shallow tube. Ovary deeply 5-lobed, 5-celled, each cell usually with
1 (sometimes with 2) pendulous ovule from an axile placenta. Fruit
clavate, the calyx persistent but not enlarged, deeply 5-lobed,
the epicarp slightly fleshy, the endocarp fibrous, 5-celled, 5-seeded,
dehiscing loculicidally so as to form a five-rayed fibrous star with
aseed attached to the central ridge (placenta)of each segment. Dis-
TRIB. About 4 species; all Malayan.
1. Dapanta scanpens, Stapf in Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 1997. A glabrous
climber 50 to 100 feet long. Leaves ovate-elliptic, acuminate, the base
rounded; main nerves 4 or 5 pairs, ascending, faint, length 3 to 5 in.,
breadth 1°25 to 2 in.; petiole ‘25 to °35 in., jointed about the middle.
Racemes slender, puberulous, about 1°5 to 2°5 in. lone. Flowers some
hermaphrodite and some with stamens only, 1 to -15 in. long, each with
a minute ovate bracteole at the base of its short pedicel. Calyx-lobes
obtuse, ciliolate. Petals oblong, ob-lanceolate, twice as long as the calyx.
Fruit 3 in. long, dehiscing into a flat star-shaped mass 4 in. in diam.
Connaropsis dioica, Scortechini MSS. in Herb. Calcutta.
Perak: Curtis. Scortechini, Wray, King’s collector.
By far the majority of the flowers have stamens only, the pistils
J; i 26
202 G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. [No. 4,
being either quite rudimentary or absent: these male flowers are about
half as long again as the hermaphrodites. The genus Dapania was
founded by Korthals to receive the Sumatran plant which that author
called D. racemosa. Of this, there is an authentic specimen in the
Calcutta Herbarium ; but unfortunately it has neither flowers nor fruit.
Amongst Forbes’ plants collected in Sumatra, No, 1217 agrees so per-
fectly with Korthal’s D. racemosa in foliage, as to leave no doubt that
it belongs to the same species ; and on Forbes’ specimens there are ripe
fruits. These ripe fruits, as well as its leaves,show D. racemosa to be quite
distinct from D. scandens, Stapf, the leaves being thinner in texture,
and the fruits longer than those of D. scandens. The seeds of Forbes’
specimens do not, however, show the curious aril (laciniate and almost
2-lipped) which Korthals describes: and, as the seeds of D. scandens
show no trace of an aril, I agree with Dr. Stapf that Korthals
probably described the existence of an aril as the result of some
confusion. The majority of the ovaries dissected by me have only a
single ovule: in one or two cases, however, a second (as figured by
Dr. Stapf) has been found. In no case, however, have I found two seeds
in a loculus of the fruit. There is no doubt that, as Dr. Stapf points
out, the genus Connaropsis comes very near Dapania; and it may
become desirable, as both genera became better known, to reduce
Connaropsis (which dates only from 1862) to Dapania which was
published in 1854. In the meantime the fruit of Connaropsis is not
properly known, and there is no evidence that itis dehiscent. The
fruit of C. monophylla is very like that of Dapania scandens, but no
specimens that I have seen show any sign of dehiscence; while that of
C. macrophylla is but little angled externally and the appearance of all
the specimens I have seen is suggestive of indehiscence. Moreover, all
the species of Dapania appear to be scandent ; while all those of Conna-
ropsis are shrubby or arboreous. Concerning the structure of the seeds
I can say nothing, not having met with good seeds of either. The two
genera remain at present separated chiefly by these two points of
difference, viz., dehiscence of the fruit and habit. Whether others may
be found remains to be seen when better materials shall be obtained.
Beccari’s specimen (P. S. 900) appears to belong to a species
slightly different from either D. scandens or D. racemosa. And, as I
understand from Dr. Stapf, the same Collector’s No. 2951, from Borneo
(which I have not myself examined), belongs to still another species.
5, Impatiens, Linn.
Herbs, rarely shrubby at the base. Leaves opposite or alternate,
in some whorled, in others all radical, simple, exstipulate, or with
1893] G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 203
stipular glands atthe base of the petiole. Flowers in scapes, or in
axillary or terminal 1-2 or many-flowered peduncles, irregular, resupinate.
Sepals 3, rarely 5, imbricate; 2 anterior when present minute; 2 lateral
small, flat, usually green; posterior (anterior in flower) large, petaloid,
produced into a hollow spur or sac. Petals 3 (or 5); anterior (outer
in bud) large; lateral 2-lobed (or 2 connate). Stamens 5, filaments
short, broad; anthers cohering. Disc 0. Ovary oblong, 5-celled; stigma
sessile, 5-toothed ; ovules many, l-seriate in each cell. Capsule loculici-
dal; valves 5, elastically springing away from a placentiferous axis.
Seeds smooth or tubercled, glabrous or hairy, albumen 0; embryo
straight.—Distris, Mountainous parts of Trop. Asia and Africa, rare
in Temp. Europe, N. America, N. Asia, and S. Africa ; species about 200.
Flowers yellow: stem fleshy, several feet high
and more than a foot in diam. at the base ... 1. LI. mirabilis.
Flowers lilac, purple or white: stems herbace-
ous, slender.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, the upper
whorled, the lower in pairs, opposite... 2. I. Griffithit.
Leaves linear-oblong to obovate or ro-
tund, all opposite 608 .. oo I. chinensis.
1. Impatiens MIRABILIS, Hook. fil. in Curtis’s Bot. Mag., t. 7195.
Stem fleshy, cylindric, 3 to 5 feet high and 18 to 20 in. in diam. at the
base, branched above. Leaves thinly fleshy, crowded at the ends of
the branches, much narrowed to the base, obovate to ovate,
crenate, with a thick fleshy midrib and 13 or 14 pairs of faint pinnate
nerves, both surfaces glabrescent: length 5 to 7 in., breadth 3°5 to 4°5
in., petiole 1 to1°5 in. Racemes axillary, as long as, or longer than the
leaves, slender, and few-flowered. Flowers yellow, 1°75 in. long, sepals 3 ;
the lateral elliptic-oblong, acute; the posterior widely hemispheric
with a short incurved spur; anterior petal rotund, transversely oblong,
the lateral petals united into a single 3-lobed piece.
Langkani: Curtis No. 1678.
The above description of this very remarkable species is chiefly
copied from Sir Joseph Hooker.
2. Impatiens GrirFrituit, Hook. fil.and Thoms. in Journ. Linn.
Soc. IV, 120: Fl. Br. Ind. I, 446. Herbaceous; stem a foot or more in
height, erect, terete, sparsely puberulous. Leaves linear-lanceolate, much
narrowed towards the base, those in the lower part of the stem in
pairs, opposite and petiolate; those in the upper part narrower, in
whorls of three and sessile; all remotely serrate-toothed, 1°5 to 4 in.
long; the texture rather thick, the lower surface pale and glabrous,
the upper sparsely hairy. Pedicels solitary, rarely paired, slender,
204 G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. [No. 4,
1 in. or more in length. Flowers 1 in. in diam., flattish, rose-lilac.
Sepals ovate-oblong, acuminate: standard broadly obcordate with a fili-
form spur behind, the wings broadly bi-lobed. Capsule elliptic, turgid
in the middle.
Malacca: on Mount Ophir, Gerai, &c.; Griffith, Maingay.
3. InpaTIENs CHINENSIS, Linn. Herbaceous: stem 4 to 18 in. long,
suberect, decumbent and rooting at the base, angled. Leaves subsessile,
varying from linear-oblong to obovate or almost rotund, acute or obtuse,
sharply serrate, always opposite, the base acute or rounded, often
auricled ; texture rather thick, glaucous beneath, glabrous or sparsely
hairy, ‘5 to 4in. long: stipules setaceous, glandular, recurved. Flowers
‘5 to | in. in diam., flattish, purple, or white. Pedicels solitary or
fascicled, sometimes longer than the leaves. Sepals linear: standard
orbicular, the wings semi-obovate, entire, auricled at the base; spur
slender, long, incurved. Capsule *5 to ‘75 in. long, elliptic, turgid in the |
middle.
Malacca; Griffith, Duisrris. China, British India.
6. HyprocrerdA, Blume.
A glabrous erect marsh herb. Leaves narrow, alternate. Flowers
in short axillary 1-2-flowered peduncles, irregular. Sepals 5, coloured,
imbricate; 2 outer lateral, flat; posticous one produced into a short
hollow spur. Petals 5, the anticous outer, very large, concave. Disc-
glands 0. Stamens 5; filaments short, flat; anthers slightly cohering
around the pistil. Ovary 5-celled; stigmas 5, sessile; ovules 2-3 in
each cell. Drupe baccate, endocarp bony, truncate, 5-celled, cells 1-seeded,
Seeds curved, corrugated, albumen 0; cotyledons plano-convex, thickish,
radicle short, superior.—Disrris. One tropical Asiatic species.
1. Hyprocera rrirtora, W. & A. Prod. I, 140. Annual; the stem
often floating, fistular, often flexuose and rooting at the nodes; branches
erect, 1 to 2 feet long, 5-angled. Leaves linear-lanceolate, serrate,
attenuated into a petiole at the base, stipulate, glands two. Flowers
Jin. in diam., red white and yellow. Drupe globose, *75 in. in diam.,
smooth, red, when dry 5-angled and truncate. Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind.
I, 483; Mig. Fl. Ind. Bat. I, Pt. 2,132; H.f. & T. in Journ. Linn. Soe.
iv. 156. H. angustifolia, Blume Bijd. 241. Impatiens triflora, Linn. DC.
Prodr. i. 687; Wall. Cat. 4756. I. ? natans, Willd. ; DC, Prodr. i. 687;
Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 652; Wall. Cat. 4755. Tytonia natans, G. Don, Gen.
Syst. i. 749. Balsamina angustifolia, Burm. Thes. Zeyl. t. 16 fig. 2
(inaccurate).
In all the Provinces except the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Distrizp. Malayan Archipelago, British India, Ceylon.
1893.] G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 205
Orper XXIII. RUTACEA.
Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs, abounding in pellucid glands filled
with essential oil. Leaves opposite or alternate, simple or compound,
exstipulate. Flowers in axillary or terminal cymes or panicles, never
spiked, usually bisexual and regular in the Indian species. Calyx
of 4-5 small lobes or sepals. Petals 4-5, hypogynous (in the Indian
genera), valvate or imbricate. Stamens 4-5 or 8 or 10, rarely more
(Citrus, A’gle); filaments usually free, hypogynous ; anthers 2-celled,
opening inwards. Disc within the stamens, crenate or lobed, some-
times large or long. Ovary of 4-5 free or connate carpels; styles
as many, free or variously united; stigmas terminal, entire or lobed ;
ovules usually 2in each cell. Hrwt a capsule, berry or drupe, or
1-4 capsular cocci. Seeds usually solitary in the cells, testa various,
albumen fleshy or 0: embryo straight or curved, radicle superior.—
Distris. Tropical and extratropical. Genera 83, and about 70 species.
Ripe fruit separating into dehiscent cocci or
follicles,
Flowers generally unisexual; disc free or
absent ; ovaries partially united ; styles
basilar or ventral, free at the base ; cells
2-ovuled.
Leaves opposite.
Stamens 4 or 5 00 so) LeHivod tan
Stamens 8, four perfect opposite
the sepals, alternating with four
imperfect opposite the petals... 2. Tetractomia.
Stamens 8, all perfect . Melicope.
Leaves alternate, stamens3to5 .,, 4. Zanthoxylum.
Ripe fruit indehiscent.
Flowers polygamous: petals 4, stamens 8;
disc free : ovaries and styles 4, united,
the cells 2-ovuled; fruit syncarpous,
4-celled, indehiscent, seed albuminous ;
leaves 1-foliolate ade ww» 0. Acronychia.
Flowers hermaphrodite, petals and _sta-
mens free or connate, ovaries and
styles completely united, cells 1-to many-
ovuled: fruit a berry, sometimes with
but little pulp, seed exalbuminous
Unarmed.
Style ‘short, persistent; leaves
1 to 5-foliolate ... ue
CO bo
fp)
. Glycosmis.
206 G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. [{No. 4,
Style deciduous, leaves pinnate.
Cotyledons leafy, crumpled ;
petals valvate; filaments
linear-subulate, not dilated
at the base ... ... %. Micromelum.
Cotyledons fleshy, plano-con-
vex, petals imbricate.
Filaments not dilated at
the base... .. 8. Murraya,
Filaments dilated at the
base Loe ... 9. Clausena.
Armed ; leaves 3-to 8-foliolate.
Calyx 3-lobed, petals 3, stamens 6 10. Triphasia.
Calyx cup-shaped, entire or obs-
curely lobed: petals 4, stamens
8 to 10 ise ... Ll, Luvunga.
Armed or unarmed ; leaves 1-foliolate.
Anthers linear-oblong, disc cylin-
dric forming a gynophore’_... 12. Paramignya.
Anthers ovate-oblong, sometimes
cordate, the filaments free or
conjoined into a tube; disc
cupular as .. 13. Atalantia.
1. Evop1a, Forst.
Trees or shrubs, unarmed. Leaves opposite, simple or 1-3-foliolate
or imparipinnate, quite entire. Flowers small, in panicled axillary
cymes, unisexual. Sepals 4-5, imbricate. Petals 4-5, sessile, valvate
or slightly imbricate. Stamens 4-5, inserted at the base of the disc,
filaments subulate, anthers oblong. Ovary deeply 4-lobed, 4-celled ;
style basilar, stigma 4-lobed, ovules 2 in each cell, collateral or super-
posed. Fruit of 2 to 4 coriaceous 1 to 2-seeded cocci; endocarp horny,
elastic. Seeds oblong or globular, testa bony or crustaceous, shining ;
hilum linear, albumen fleshy; embryo straight, cotyledons ovate.—
Distrrs. About 25 species, natives of tropical Asia, the Pacific, the E.
African Islands, and Australia.
Leaves 3-foliolate.
Leaflets usually more or less obovate:
cymes Wroad pyramidal or corymbose,
much branched.
Lower surface of leaflets pubescent... 1. H. latifolia.
1893.] G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. 207
Lower surface of leaves glabrous.
Apices of leaflets acuminate or
apiculate, main nerves rather
faint, sub-horizontal or slightly
ascending ; cymes pyramidal... 2. H. Roxburghiana.
Apices of leaflets shortly and
abruptly acuminate, main
nerves rather faint, sub-hori-
zontal or ascending, cymes
corymbose wet 3. EH. glabra.
Apices of leaflets obtuse, nerves
very prominent beneath, cymes
corymbose 4. H. robusta.
Leaflets oblong or elliptic- siiloten not ae
all obovate, tapering little to the ends:
ripe cocci “4 in. long a6 o. H. macrocarpa.
Leaflets oblong-elliptic, biGlort ing to bach
end : cymes few-branched, very tomen-
tose: flowers in globular masses .. 6, H. pilulifera.
Leaflets oval to elliptic, obtuse or sub-
acute, very coriaceous, the edges revolute
when dry: cymes small, flowers °25 in.
long ee 50 .. %. EH. pachyphylla.
Leaves I-foliolate Soe 8. H. pedunculosa.
1, Evopra tatirouia, DC. Prod. Th, 724, A ‘nes 15 to 20 feet high :
young branches stout, obscurely 4- anelodl flattened at the nodes, rusty
or tawny-puberulous. Leaves 3-foliolate, membranous, the petiole
4 to 6 in. long, usually angled, puberulous; leaflets obovate-elliptic to
elliptic, acute or shortly acuminate, the base cuneate; main nerves
13 to 18 pairs, spreading, curving, prominent beneath ; upper surface
glabrescent or glabrous except the tomentose midrib and nerves, the
lower softly pubescent, sometimes becoming glabrescent when old ; length
5 to 9 in., breadth 2°5 to 4°5 in. (the middle one usually the largest) ;
petiole 2to-4in. Cymes axillary, broad, with opposite spreading rusty-
tomentose branches on stoutish puberulous peduncles 1 to 2 in. long.
Flowers less than ‘1 in. long, densely crowded ; sepals sub-acute, pubes-
cent outside ; petals glabrous except a few hairs on the back outside ;
ovary villous. Cocci 2 or 3 from each flower, broadly ovate, blunt, sub-
glabrous, ]—2-seeded: seed black. Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I., 489; Mig.
Fl. Ind. Bat. i. pt. 2,672; Ann. Mus. Lugd. Bat. iii, 244. Zanthorylum
Bumphianum, Cham. in Linnea v. 58.
In all the provinces, except the Andamans and Nicobars: Distr1s.
Malayan Archipelago.
208 G. King—Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. [No. 4,
In its flowers and fruit this closely resembles #. Roxburghiana,
Benth., but the leaves are different.
2. Evop1a RoxsurGHIANA, Benth, Flora of Hong-Kong, 59. A small
tree; branches glabrous, opposite. Leaves glabrous, 3-foliolate, the
petiole 2 to 5 in. long, terete; leaflets thinly coriaceous, shortly petio-
lulate, obovate, oblanceolate or oblong, the apex rounded acuminate
or apiculate: main nerves 12 to 18 pairs, horizontal or slightly ascend-
ing, not prominent; length 2°5 to 6 in., breadth 1:25 to 3°25 in., the
middle leaflet the largest; petiolule -15 to ‘25 in. Oymes pedunculate,
spreading; the branches opposite, minutely bracteolate at the base:
peduncles 2 to 3in. long: cymes about 2°5 to 3in.in diam. Flowers
densely crowded, whitish, ‘1 to ‘15 in. long; the anthers exserted,
shortly pedicelled, sepals very obtuse, ovary pubescent. Cocci about
2 from each flower, ovoid, pointed, 1-to 2-seeded, ‘2 to °3 in. long.
Seeds black, shining. Hook. fil. Fl. Br. Ind. I, 487; Kurz Fl. Burm.
I, 180. £. triphylla, Bedd. Flor. Sylvat; Anal. Gen. xli. t. vi. f. 2.
EH. Marambong, Miquel Ann. Mus. Bot. i. 244. Fagara triphylla, Roxb.
Fl. Ind. i. 416 (? of Linn.). FF. Lunur-ankenda, Geertn. Carp. i., 334, t.
68. f.9. Xanthozxylon triphyllum, Wight Ic. t. 204; Dll. i. 169; Grah.
Cat. Bomb. Pl. 36; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Flor. 45. X. Roxburghianum,
Cham. in Linnea v. 58. X. zeylanicum, DC. Prodr.i., 728. X. nila-
giricum, Miquel Herb. Hohenack.
In all the Provinces: common. Distriz. Malayan Archipelago,
British India.
A widely distributed species very common in most parts of the
Malayan Peninsula, and varying a good deal in the size of the leaves
and in the degree of density of the cymes. In some cases the latter
are lax and open, but in the majority they are condensed. There is
some doubt as to what name this plant should bear. Sir Joseph Hooker
(F. B.I.1.c.) has written an excellent note on its synonymy which
should be consulted. The species, except in the matter of size, differs
very little from LH. triphylla. DC.
3. Hvyopia GLABRA, Blume Bijdr. 245. decandra, 48, 69
» Rohituka, 50, 69.
Amorphophallus, 48, 49, 80, 85
bulbifer, 80
campanulatus, 80
oncophyllus, 80
rex, 8O
tuberculiger, 80
; virosus, 80
= 3 (Candarum) vex, 79
AMPELIDEA, 69
Amyris punctata, 221
sumplicifolia, 226
sb ‘sumatrana, 221
ANACANTHINI, 180
ANACARDIACES, 70
Anamirta Cocculus, 50, 65
ANCISTROCLADES, 89
2”?
i
(yar. setosa, 82
costatwm var. deltigera, 82
Ancistrocladus, 87, 89, 157,
extensus, 137
var. pinangianus
137
guineensis, 137
ss pinangianus, 137
sagittatus, 234
Ancistr ‘olobus, 137
ANDESITE, 166
Anisoptera, 88, 96, 100
Curtisii, 100
33 As var. latifolia, 106
Bs odorata, 101
Anodendron paniculatum, 50, 73
Anthogorgia, 171
ANTHOZOA ACTINIOMORPHA, 169
5 ALCYONIOMORPHA, 171
Antiaris, rufa, '76
a tonicaria, 48, 76
Antitaxis calocarpa, 50, 68
APOcYyNEA, 73
Apodytes andamanica, 50, 69
ARCHASTERIDA, 171
Ardisia humilis, 47, 55, 72
Aristolochia Tagala, 50, 74
ARISTOLOCHIACEA, 74
AROIDEA, 79
ARTHROPODA, 176
Artocarpus Lacoocha, 48, 76
Arum campanulatum, 80
Arytera macrocarpa, 236
ASCLEPIADACE®, 73
3)
” »?
”
| Aspidopterys, 192. 198, 195
concava, 195
ss Helferiana, 195
Asplenium faicatum var. wrophyllum, 82
> nidus, 50, 82
pe urophyllum, 48
ASTEROIDEA, 171
ASTROPECTINIDA, 172
ASTROPHYTIDE, 173
LSMOSIOED E> 169, 1738
flosculus, 173
ieee 206, 224
a floribunda, 225
5 longispina, 224
* macrophulla, 225
5 monophylla, 225
re platistigma, 225
re)
264
Atalantia Rowburghiana, 225
AURANTIACEA, 219
Avicennia officinalis, 160
Balanocarpus, 89, 180, 132, 1838, 134, 185.
~ anomalus, 1380, 132
i Curtisii, 130, 131, 132
s . Heimii, 131, 183
3 : Hemsleyanus, 131, 184
S % maximus, 131, 133
E j penangianus, 130, 131
Wrayt 131, 184
Balanophyllia, 144,
scabra, 144, 149
Balsamina angustifolia, 204,
BALSAMINE#, 198
Banistiria bengalensis, 195
a tetraptera, 195
.. anicapsularis, 195
Barringtonia racemosa, 158
speciosa, 47, 5h, 7b
Bathyactis, 148, 149
x stephan ws, 149
synvmetrica, 149
“4 * Baihypereis, 177
platyrhynchus, 178
een 178
Bergera integerrima, 219
BIGNONIACER, 74
Bioxits, 166
Biophytwm, 198, 199
a adiantoides, 199, 200
sensitivum, 199
Blachia andamanica, 48, 75
Blumea glomerata, 4/7, 72
» laciniata, 72
E Ae ay 50, 72
Behmeria malabarica, 50, 76
Boerhaavia, 47
repens, 48, 56, 74
Bombaz, 48, 65, 68
55 anceps, 66, 67
os asiaticz, 65
= cambodiense, 67
es festivum, 67
55 insigne, 66, 67, 68
= 3 var. alba, 66, 67
a = », anceps, 66
» imsigne var. andamanica, 67
‘3 a ,, cambodiensis, 67
” ” » genuina, 67
. » larutensis, 68
aps 5 5, polystemon, 65, 67
” ” » typica, 67
” ” »5 Wightii, 67
55 malabaricum, 66, 68
5 var. albiflora, 66
5 pentandrum, 66, 68
Brachylophon, 192, 198, 196
- Curtisii, 196, 197
%) Hullettii, 196
it Scortechinti, 196, 197
Index.
Bregmaceros, 181
5 MacClellandii, 181
Brewstera crenata, 191
Breynia, 49
» Rhamnoides, 48, 75
Bridelia tomentosa, 48, 75
EPID EI, 174
5 Oldhami, 174
Brucea, 226, 228,
3 anil, 228
» sumatrana, 228
Bryum coronatum, 50, 56, 83
BURSERACES, 68, 235
Cactus, 157
Cexsalpinia Bonducella, 48, 70
Calllbasier, 172
a mamillifer, 172
oe "pa arborea, 50, 54, 55, 74
Callionymus, 178
Calophyllum inophyllum, 49, 65
Calothria, 58
Calothria pulvinata, 83
% tasmaniea, 55, 83
Canariwm, 184, 185, 236, 237, 238, 246,
250, 255
5 altissimum, 257
ws bengalense, 184, 185, 186, 187,
188, 242
» Bennettii, 250
ayes caudatum, 238, 240
A coccineo-bracteatum, 239, 246
. commune, 239, 246
99 denticulatum, 249
y dichotomum, 243
3 Euphyllum, 68, 188, 238, 241,
247
96 eupteron, 258
- glaucum, 239, 249
99 grandiflorum, 238, 242
hirtellum, 239, 243, 244,
x Kadondon, 239, 24/7
Ai ee Kunstleri, 239, 248
Pr levigatum, 257
33 laxwm, 255
ae Manii, 239, 247
3 nitidwm, 240, 241, 251
oblongifolium, 258-
. parvifolium, 2388, 240, 241, 251
o piloswm, 239, 243
Planchoni, 238, 240
Dp purpurascens, 289, 245
5 reziniferum, 188
ah rubiginosum, 239, 248
- rufum, 239, 243, 244, 250
os secundum, 239, 250
(an ear sikkimense, 187, 188
i strictum, 184, 185, 186, 187,
188
es sub-repandum, 258
Canavalia turgida, 48, 70
* Candarwm rex, 79
Index. 265
Cansjera Rheedei 48, 69 Colquhounia, tomentosa, 33, 37
CAPPARIDER, 65 6%) vestita, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36,
Capparis sepiaria, 48, 49, 50, 56, 85 37
+ oF var. grandifolia, 65 5p var. rugosa, 33, 34, 37,
o tenera, 49 Colubri ina asiatica, 48, 49, 66, 69
s var. latifolia, 65 COMBRETACE®, 70
Carapa moluccensis, 69, 158 ComMELINACE® 77
Carica Papaya, 78 Composita, 72, 84, 85
Caryota, 865 Congromurena, 183
55 mitis, 50, 77 3 longicauda, 188
3 sobolifera, 77 % megastoma, 183
CASSIDULIDA, 173 oe ue nasica, 183
CERIANTHINEA, 151, 153, 169 3s squaliceps, 183
Cerianthus, 153, 169, 170 ConirERa, 153, 155
3 americanus, 153 Connaropsis, 198, 200, 202
ae. andamanensis, 153 ss aifoice, 201
Be tenebrarum, 169 ss Griffuthii, 200
Ceriops Candolleana, 158 # 51) macrophylla, 200, 201, 202
Chalcas paniculata, 220 . monophylla, 200, 202
» sumatrana, 220 Conus, 143
CHALCEDONY, 165 Convolvulacex, 73, 84
CHAMPAK, 1538, 154 Convelvulus parviflorus, 47,73
* CHARNOCKITE, 164 Cookia graveolens, 221
Cheilanthes tenuifolia, 54, 82 Crustacna, 176
Chionotria monogyna, 217 CucursBitacea, 71
x rigida, 217 Cyathohelia, 169, 171
Chorisia, 68 s axillaris, 171
Citrus, 205 Cyclea peltata, 55, 65
» angulata, 224, Cycloseris, 147, 148
Clausena, 206, 220 % cyclolites, 147
excavata, 220 9p discus, 147
i simyplicifolia, 215 aeiloh mycoides, 147, 149
Cleisostoma, 157 me sinensis, 147
Clerodendron inerme, 49, 74 Cyclostemon assamicus, 75
55 sericeum, 194 5 macrophyllus, 75
Cocos, 56 Cyminosma Ankenda, 215
» nucifera, 77 . pedunculata, 215
C@LENTERATA, 169 CYPERACER, 81
Cenopsammia, 146 Cyperus pennatus, 47, 81
s¢ wrvillit, 146 Dalbergia monosperma, 48, 70
Collema nigrescens, 83 i tamarindifolia, 54, 70
Colquhownia, 30, 31, 32, 35 Dapania, 198, 201, 202
£ coccinea, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, rl racemosa, 202
36, 37, 38 ry scandens, 201, 202
» % var. major, 31, 32 | Davallia solida, 81
33, 36 Pp spelunce, 50, 81
Fe Dp » mollis, 34, 87 | Debis, 6
5 : » parviflora, 31, | Decapopa, 176
32, 33, 36 Dedaelea griercina, 83
% “ » typica, 35 Dendrobium, 55, 76
ie vestita, 36 Pier ardi, 157
5 elegans: 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, Dendr ophytlia, 146, 171
37, 38 Fr, gracilis, 146
of oe var. paucifiora, 38 56 nigrescens, 171
a - » tenuiflora, 38 Derris scandens, 70
r i » typica, 37 Desmodium polycarpon, 47, 55, 70
i martabanica, 33, 38 Diaseris, 147, 148
» mollis, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38 » distorta, 147
es parviflora, 37, 38 Eu fragilis, 148, 149
a paucifiora, 38 op freycineti, 147, 148
3 tenuiflora, 33, 34, 38 Dilleniacea nervosa, 122
206
Drorite 166
Dioscorea, 55, 56, 85
5 glabra, 77
“a sativa, 49, 77
DioscoREAces, 77
Diospyros Kurzii, 48, 73
* Dipsacaster, 172
* 33 pentagonalis, 172
5 sladeni, 172
DIPTEROCARPER, 87, 121, 137
Dipterocarpus, 88, 89, 94, 98, 99
alatus, 90, 98, 92
5 angustifolius, 99
3 Blanco, 95
cornutus, 90, 93
costatus, 98, 99
y crinitus, 89, 90, 91
3 Dyeri, 96
+, fagineus, 90, 94, 99
3 gracilis, 99
grandiflorus, 90, 95, 96, 97
Grifithi, 90, 96, 99
Hasseltii, 98
hirtus, 91
imcanus, 90, 97, 98
imdicus, 92, 93
intricatus, 99
Kerrii, 89, 93
* . Kunstleri, 90, 96
laevis, 92, 93
lamellatus, 99
Lemestlei, 99
i Lowti, 99
Motleyanus, 96
oblongifolius, 90, 95
pilosus, 99
prismaticus, 94
pterygocalyx, 96
. retusus, 96
e : Scortechinti, 89, 91
Skinneri, 89, 91
stenopterus, 95
Tamparan, 91
trinervis, 96
tuberculatus, 93
turbinatus, 89, 92
var. andamani-
ca, 92
Dischidia nummularia, 50, 73
a Uscobrochis, 142
imvestigatoris, 142, 149
¥
ae
3)
” »
Dodonza, 86
5s viscosa, 54, 69
Doona, 126
Dracena angustifolia, 47, 77
Dryobalanoidea, 123, 125
Dysomma bucephalus, 184
HBENACER, 73
Ecutnoperma, 169, 171
Bchinogorgia, 171,
EcHINOIDEA, 173
Index.
Dene nolange: 169, 173
castanea, 173
spheroidalis, 174
Entada scandens, 49, 70
Epizoanthus, 152
Fy stellaris, 152
Eranthemum succifolium, 47, 74
Hriodendron, 68
anfractuosum, 66
Er ioglosswm edule, 45, 69
Hrites, 1, 2,6
anguleris, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
argentina, 2, 3
» elegans, 2, 3, 4
falcipennis, 2, 6
medura, 2, 3, 5, 6
iy ef var. ochreana, &
ochreana, 1, 3
* rotundata, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7
undularis, 9
Er “ythrs ina indica, 47, 70
Erythroxylon, 189, 190
buninena cue 190
retusum, 190
sumatranum, 190
Eu-DiprEeRocaRPE®, 87
Eugenia Jambolana, 55, 71
Eu-Hopea, 123, 126
EUPHORBIACEA, 75, 84, 86
Eupsammia, 144:
ben iar regalis, 144, 149
Hupsammipm, 144, 171
EuRITE, 165, 166, 167
Eurycoma, 227, 229
apiculata, 229, 230
longifolia, 229, 230
merguensis, 230
e tavoyana, 230
Hu-santiria, 237, 288
Eu-shorea, 108.
Hutaxits, 165
HUTHEMIDER, 231
Euthemis, 231, 234
elegantissima, 235
leucocarpa, 234, 235
at minor, 234, 235
Eu-Vateria, 127
Bu-Vatica, 101, 102
Ewodia, 205, 206
eunewron, 209
glabra, 207, 208, 209
latifolia, 206, 207, 209
3)
”
»
”
2
”
* , macrocarpa, 207, 209
» Marambong, 208
* ., pachyphylla, 207, 210
» pedunculosa, 207, 211
* ,, pilulifera, 207, 210
robusta, 207, 209
Roxburghiana, 207, 208, 209
triphylla, 208
Bececaria agallocha, 158
:
Y,
‘
Index.
Fagara Lunur-ankenda, 208
= triphylla, 208
Ficus, 48, 50
», Benjamina, 76
brevicuspis, 49, 76, 83
callosa, 49, 76
» comosa, 48
cuneata, 190
cuspidifera, 56
>» gibbosa var. cuspidifera, 75
glaberrima, 50, 75
» hispida, 48
yar. demonum, 76
typica, 76
2? ”»
” oy) ”
> nervosa, 76
nitida, 48, 56
retusa var. nitida, 76
Rumphii, 48, 56, 76
variegata, 76
FILices, 81
Fimbristylis, 55
diphylla, 58, 81
ferruginea, 47, 54, 81
Flabellum, 138
aculeatum, 138
japonicum, 170
laciniatum, 170
oweni, 1388
spinosum, 138
stokesi, 138
var iabile, 138
Flueggia, 73
“ microcarpa, 53, 5A, 75
Funeip, 147
Founevs, 50, 56, 83
GapDiIp&, 180
Gezrtnera racemosa, 194
Gallesioa graveolens, 221
GaRNET, 162, 163, 164
Garuga pinnata, 49, 55, 68
Gela lanceolata, 215
Geloniwm bifarium, 48, 54, 56, 75
GERANIACE, 197
Globigerina, 177
Glochidion calocarpwm, 48, 56, 75
Gloriosa superba, 56, 77
Glycosmis, 205, 216
op arborea, 216
5 chylocarpa, 216
cyanocarpa var. sapindoides, 218
5 macrophylla, 217
Pe nitida, 217
pentaphylla, 48, 68, 216, 218
”
a on var. longifolia,
217
2S 5 » macrophylla,
917
» » », macrorachis,
” puberula, 216, 218
oe Retzii, 216
267
Glycosmis, sapindoides, 216, 217
PA triphylla, 217
Gomphia, 231, 232
angustifolia, 233
Hookeri, 282, 233
5 a var. corymbosa, 233.
pulcherrima, 233
sumatrana, 232, 235
op sumatrensis, 233
Gonocitrus angulatus, 224;
GooDENOVIEA, 72
Gordonia decandra, 192
Fs peduncularis, 191
Gorgonacea, 171
Gorgonella, 171
Gouania leptostachya, 50, 69
GRAMINEA, 81
GRANITE, 136
GRANILITE, 166
Grewia, 49
¥ levigata, 49, 68
Guettarda, 48
speciosa, 47, 72
GUTTIFERS, 65
Gyrocarpus Jacquinit, 49, 71
Harrisonia, 226, 227
Brownii, 227
Her itiera fomes, 158
ye littoralis, 50, 53, 68
Heterocyathus, 141, 146, 148
Sp zquicostatus, 141, 142
ah phillippensis, 141, 142
% - wood-masoni, 141, 149
LELSTOLSTE 141, 145, 146, 148
3 aphr odes, 145, 149
* geminata, 145,
5 ovalis, 145
rotundata, 145
IgE Aans tiliaceus, 47, 48, 49, 56, 65
Hipparchia medura, 3
Hiptage, 192, 193
javanica, 194:
madabrota, 194
56 parviflora, 194
sericca, 193, 194
<5 var. longe-racemosa, 194
Har: ma concava, 195
» tndica, 196
i merguensis, 195
Hirneola polytricha, 83
Homo.ips#, 177
Hopea, 88, 115, 123, 124, 125, 126
» cernua, 125
* ,, Curtisit, 123, 124
» Dryobalanoides, 125, 126, 127
» faginea, 105
» grandiflora, 101
» gratissima, 115
* ,, intermedia, 123, 125, 126
maranti, 121
y Mengarawan, 125, 126
”
268
Hopea, micrantha, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127
* , nervosa, 123, 124
53 Singkawang, 123
Hoya, 85
» diversifolia, 73
» orbiculata, 47, 73
parasitica, 73
Hyalonema, 152
Hydrocera, 198, 204
angustifolia, 204
5 triflora, 204
Hypericinea dentata, 191
55 macrocarpa, 192
HYPERSTHENE, 162, 163, 164
Hypsophrys, 177
superciliosa, 177
Tcicopsis, 237
Impatiens, 198, 202
_ chinensis, 203, 204
» Griffithii, 208
i mirabilis, 203
natans, 204
triflora, 204
Ipomza biloba, 47, 48, 538, 73
53 denticulata, 48, 73
7 grandiflora, 4/7, 73
» Lurpethum, 49, 73
» vitifolia, 48, 73
Trvingia, 227, 230
» malayana, 230
Tsauxis, 102, 127, 135, 186
Ischemum, 85
.s muticwm, 54, 31, 85
Tsoptera, 88, 129
5 borneensis, 129
Ixonanthes, 189, 191
55 cuneata, 191
a dodecandra, 191
icosandra, 191, 192
~) obovata, 191
reticulata, 191, 192
Ieora brun nescens, 47, 49, 56, 72
» cuneifolia, 55, 72
Jambolifera pedunculata, 215
Juncella, 171
LABIATAE, 30, 31, 34, 35
Leea sambucina, 48, 69
LEGUMINOS&, 70, 84
Lenzites platyphyllus, 83
Lethe, 6
5 europa, 6
LICHENEsS, 83
LILIAcEs, 77
Limonia angulata, 224
“n arborea, 216
5 diacantha, 221
. leptostachya, 214
0 monophylla, 225
*y pentaphylla, 216
~ scandens, 222
Ss trifoliata, 221
Index.
LInEz, 189
Lophins, 179
i mutilus, 179
Lophohelia, 143
Lovenia, 175
cree gregalis, 175
Luvunga, 206, 221
50 eleutheranthera, 222
3 scandens, 222
iS tavoyana, 222
LYCOPODINEA, 81, 84
Lycopodium cernum, 54, 81
Macaranga, 86
4 Tanarius, 50, 55, 75
Macharisia icosandra, 191
Madrepora awillaris, 171
Madreporaria aporosa, 170, 171
MAGNETITE, 162, 163
Magnolia, 154
MAGNOLIACE®, 153
Mallotus, 86
» andamanicus, 48, '75
MALPIGHIACER, 192
MALVACE®, 65
MELASTOMACER 71
MELIACEm, 69
Melicope, 205, 212
5 Helferi, 212
9p tetrandra, 212
Memecylon edule, 48, 71
Menisciwm deltigerum, 82
MENISPERMACES, 60
MiIcROoLIn#e, 162, 164
Micromelum, 206, 218
. hirsutum, 218, 219
* pubescens, 218, 219
Mitreola, 85
5 oldenlandioides, 58, 73
Mocanera grandiflora, 96
Molina racemosa, 194
Mottuvusca, 176
Morinda, 48
33 bracteata, 47, 50, 56
- citrifolia var. bracteata, 72
Mucuna gigantea, 48, 70
MvR-zNIDA, 183
Murex palmarose, 176
Murraya, 206, 219
“5 brevifolia, 220
3 Burmanni, 221
my exotica, 220
F Gleniewi, 220
; paniculata, 220
sumatrana, 220
Musa, 85, 86
» sapientum, 77
Mosci, 82
Mussenda macrophylla, 54, 71
Myristica glauca, 50, '74
Myristicacem®, 74
| Shorea, stellata, 109, 120
MyrsINnex, 72
Myrrace®, 71
Myzxospermum chylocarpum, 217
Nacula, 176
Neckera, 84
“A rugulosa, 50, 82
NEMATOPHORA, 169
Neobythites, 181
* $3 steatiticus, 181
Nephrodium terminans, 50, 82
Nephrolepis tuberosa, 54, 55, 82
Nipa fruticans, 158
NyYcTAGINEAE, 74
Nympheza, 154
Ochna, 231
» andamanica, 232
» erocea, 233
» nitida, 232
» obtusata, 282
» squarrosa, 232
> stvpulacea, 232
» Wallichii, 231, 232
OcHNACES, 231
OcHNEZ, 231
OcuLINIDs, 143, 171
Odina Wodier, 49, 70
Odontostomus, 169, 182
atratus, 182
eee 69
Oldenlandia, 85
corymbosa, 54, 71
Oleoxylon balsamiferum, 98
OLicocLAsE, 162
Onychium auratum, 55, 82
OPHIDIIDaz, 181
OPHIUROIDEA, 173
Oplismenus, 85
Burmanni, 55, 81
ORCHIDACER, 76, 153, 155
Orozylum indicum, 48, 55, 74
ORTHOCLASE, 162
OXALIDES, 198
Ozxalis, 198, 199
> corniculata, 198
» pusilla, 199
» repens, 199
Pachira, 68
Pachychlamys, 109
Pachynocarpus, 89, 102, 135, 136
53 Stapfianus, 135, 186
Wallichii, 135
deri fetida, 49, 72
PALME, 77
PANDANACEA, 79
Pandanus, 45, 48, 538, 54, 56, 77
- odoratissimus, 47, 48, 79
eC acyathus, 139
3 cavatus, 139, 149
~ crassus, 139
% 5 fulwus, 139, 149
Fp mdieus yar. gracilis, 189
Index. 269
*Paracyathus, porphyreus, 140 149
ah pulchellus, 140
Paramignya, 206, 223
a angulata, 224
armata, 223
Ms » var. andamanica, 223
5 longispina, 223, 224,
monophylla, 224
Par ashor ea, 120
5 stellata, 120
Parinarium, 94
mp dillenifolium, 94
Parthenope, 177
spinosissima, 177
PARTHENOPIDR, 177
CERN, a
5 diffusa, 7, 9
, ip flaccida, 8, 9
np flexuosa, 8
a gracilis var. macrocarpa, 8
7 likiangensis, 9
" lineata, 9
FA refracta, 8, 9
5 spicata, 9
i szetschuanica, 9
verticillata, 8, 9
PEDICULATT, 179
Peniophora papyrina, 83
Pemtacme, 88, 107
i malayana, 107
PENTAGONASTERIDE, 172
Petalandra, 126
micrantha, 126
Petrocarpa dillenifolia, 94:
Phajus alba, 157
Phaseolus adenanthus, 48, 70
Phenix paludosa, 158
Pholidota imbricata, 54, 77
Phos, 176
Phyllanthus reticulatus, 54, 75
Physalis, 85
minima, 55, 74
Physiewlus, 18C
i argyropastus, 180
35 roseus, 180
Puysostom1, 182
Picea, 155
Picrasma, 226, 227
ne andamanica, 228
4 javanica, 227, 228
5 nepalensis, 228
Pierotia lucida, 191
Pierrea, 134
» penangiana, 133 184
Pimela dichotoma, 243
» stricta, 186
Pipturus velutinus, 50, 76
Piscss, 177
Pisonia aculleata, 48, 74.
», alba, 49, 74
» excelsa, 49, 74
ho
70
PLAGIOCLASE, 162, 165
Platynema laurifoliun, 193
Pleurotoma, 176
atractoides, 176
Pluchea indica, 47, 56, 72
Plumieria, 154
Pogonatherwm, 85
. saccharoidewm, 55, 81
Pollia, 85 oad
», Aclisia, 50, 77
2 LIEVLtiMSs 143
andamanensis, 143 149
Polypodium adnascens, 50, 82
x irioides, 50, 82
5 quercifolium, 82
Polyporus australis, 83
zanthopus, 88
Pongamia glabra, 53, 70
Pothos scandens, 50, 81
Premna, 48, 49
s integrifolia, 48, 50, 56, 74
Pseudarchaster, 171
mosaicus, 171
Psiotum triquetrum, 54, 81
Pteris biawrita, 55, 82
» longifolia, 55, 82
PYROXENITE, 163
Quadrella, 177
5 coronata, 177
QuARTZ, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167
RANINID, 177
Raninoides, 177
personatus, 177
Retinodendron, 88, 102, 127, 135
banca num, 129
a Kunstleri, 127, 128, 129
pallidiwm, 128
pauciflorum, 127
; Rassak, 127, 128
* : Scortechinii, 128
RHAMNE®, 69
Ehsepirochus, 170
53 crateriformis, 170
Stine osama 146
carinata, 146, 147
socialis, 147
”
bP)
RuHYOLITE, 166
Rhytisma, 83
Richetia, 132
4) penangiana, 132
Rostellaria delicatula, 176
Roucheria, 189
, Griffithiana, 190
RUBIACES, 71, 84
RutTAcez, 68, 205
Ryssopteris elliptica, 197
Saccolabiwm, 157
Salmalia malabarica, 67
Santiria, 236, 237, 238, 252, 255, 259
a apiculata, 253, 259
conferta, 253, 259, 261
Index.
| Santiria, costata, 253, 260
fasciculata, 252, 255, 256, 261
* floribunda, 252, 254
Grifithii, 252
levigata, 253, 257
lawa, 252, 254
* longifolia, 253, 258
* macrocarpa, 253, 256
Maingayi, 258
multiflora, 254, 261
oblongifolia, 253, 257
Planchoni, 237, 238, 240
puberula, 253, 256
tomentosa, 262
* Wrayi, 258, 259
SAPINDACE, 69
Sapindus tr avancorensis, 246
SApPoTaceaz, 72
SATYRIDA, 2, 3
SATYRINA, 6
Satyrus (Erites) medura, 3
Scevola Kenigii, 47, 56, 72
Scirpearella, 171
ScrtaMINneas, 77, 157
Sclerostylis macrophylla, 217
pentaphylla, 216
x Roxburghii, 226
ScoPELiIpaA, 182
ScROPHULARINEA, 74
Selas lanceolatwm, 215
Semecarpus heterophylla, 50, 55, 70
Shorea, 87, 88, 107, 115, 122, 123, 135
acuminata, 108, 113
astrosticta, 110
awriculata, 114
brachyptera, 123
bracteolata, 109, 117
i ciliata, 109, 118, 120
zs costata, 109, 119
Curtisii, 108, 111
5 disticha, 1138
eximia, 109, 121, 135
foveolata, 117
* glauca, 109, 117
gratissima, 108, 115
Hemsleyana, 135
ai Kunstleri, 109, 116
lacunosa, 112
leprosula, 108, 110, 135
macroptera, 108, 113
maranti, 109, 120
Martiniana, 123
a Mazwelliana, 108, 109, 114, 116,
parviflora, 125
parwifolia, 108, 112, 126
”
| * pauciflora, 109, 116,
pinangiana, 105
| # Ridleyana, 109, 115
scaberrivma, 123
8 scutulata, 108, 110
sericea, 108, 111
Index. 271
Shorea, stenoptera, 123
» sub-lacunosa, 121
mie altura, LOL
* ,, Thiseltoni, 110, 122
utilis, 109, 119
Sideronylon ferruginewm, 72
Sigaretus, 176
SIMARUBER, 226
SoLaNnacEa, 74
Solenocera Heztii, 176
Sonneratia acida, 158
x apetala, 158
SPATANGIDR, 174
SPATANGOIDA, 173
SPHENOPID#, 151, 152
Sphenopus, 152
x arenaceus, 152
ey Cy var. barnettii, 152
oe marsupialis, 152
e pedunculatus, 152
Spongodes, 171
SPuRGE, 157
STACHYDES, 35
Stemoporus Wightii, 127
Sterculia rubiginosa, 47, 56
5 var. glabrescens, 68
STERCULIACER, 68
Strychnos acwminata, 50, 73
Synaptea, 100, 101, 102, 135
> Dyeri, 106
“> faginea, 105
op grandzlora, 101
or odorata, 101
Tellina, 176
» Murrayi, 176
Terminalia Catappa, 47, 49, 55, 56, 70
Tetractomia, 205, 211
oF majus, 211
5 Roxburghii, 211, 212
Tetramerista, 231, 233
5 glabra, 233
paniculata, 212
Thelephora incrustans, 83
Thespesia populnea, 47, 49, 68
Thysanolena, 85
A acarifera, 47, 181
TILIACER, 68
Toddalia mitis, 214
TRACHINIDA, 177
TRACHININA, 177
TRAPEZIIDA, 177
Trema amboinensis, 50, 54, 5, 75
Trichilia spinosa, 225
Trichomanes, 47, 84
pyxidiferum 50, 81
Trichosanthes palmata, 50, 71
Trigonochlamys, 236, 237, 288, 251
Griffithii, 251
Triomma, 235, 236
mmalaecensis, 236
a 206, 221
Triphasia, awrantiola, 221
rf sarmentosa, 222, 223
trifoliata, 221
Tristellateia, 192, 193
99 austr alasica, 193
TURBINOLID®, 138, 170
Turrea virens, 225
Tylophora, 49
56 globifera, 49, 73
Tytonia natans, 204
URTICACER, 75 84
Vanda, 157
Vandellia, 85
, crustacea, 54, 55, 74
Vateria, 127
oy Ceylonica, 127
A indica, 127
* lanceefolia, 127, 128
Rozburghiana, 101, 127
Vatica, 88, 100, 101, 102, 104, 106, 122
127, 135
3 bancana, 129
as bantamensis, 103
af chinensis, 101
* Vatica cinerea, 102, 104
90 Curtisii, 102, 105
3 Dyeri, 102, 106
as exvmia, 121
5 faginea, 102, 105
5 grandiflora, 101
ie laccifera, 101
i lanceefolia, 128
* , Lowiti; 102, 103
Be Maingayi, 102, 103, 104
FO) es mitens, 104
* nitida, 102
yi pallida, 128
ees perakensis, 102, 103
ares reticulata, 103, 106
vi Rozburghiana, 101
4 ruminata, 136
x scaphula, 127
My sub-lacunosa, 121
Hs verrucosa, 136
“ Wallichii, 186
VERBENACEA, 74,
Vernonia divergens, 47, 72
VERTICILLATA, 9
Vigna lutea, 48, 70
VIOLARIE, 65
Vitis carnosa, 69
», lanceolaria, 48, 69
» repens, 55, 69
Wedelia scandens, 47, 56, 72
Xanthoxylon nilagiricum, 208
5 Roxburghianwm, 208
Pee triphyllum, 208
3 zeylanicum, 208
Ximenia lanceolata, 215
Zanthoxylum, 205, 213, 214
_ glanduloswm, 214
myriacanthum, 213, 214 —
ovalifolium, 213
Rumphianum, 207
= undulatum, 214
ZOANTHESR, 151
*
_ ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL. |
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a
JOURNAL
fant fi cama ? ~ ( » :
OF THE f | ) 2 ae at
ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.
VOR. xu
PART III. (ANTHROPOLOGY, &c.)
(Nos. I-ITI.—1893): wir Inpex.
EDITED BY THE
ANTHROPOLOGICAL PECRETARY,
{
NU Nee
‘Tt will flourish, if naturalists, chemists, antiquaries, philologers, and men of science
in different parts of Asza, will commit their observations to writing, and send them to
the Asiatic Society at Calcutta. It will languish, if such communications shall be long
intermitted ; and it will die away, if they shall entirely cease.” SIR WM. JONES.
een eS eee
CALCUTTA:
PRINTED AT THE BAPTIST MISSION PRESS,
AND PUBLISHED BY THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY, 57, PARK STREET,
1896.
ae
\
A
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Aa
| et:
praik selet
25~449§~ Wed 2
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
Das, Sarat Cuanpra ;—The Marriage Customs of Tibet, Parts I
and IT
JARRETT, H. S. ;—Modern Gaeioine among ‘ye Bedowins of the eure an.
Edited and translated by ..
Mirra, Sarat CHANDRA ses some Beliefs ¢ in a Bia or tee
which is supposed to Guard Hidden Treasure Be
;— On some Superstitions regarding Drown-
oe
ing and Drowned Bence ue
Ristey, H. H. ;— An Huperetse Instr notions Appendix 1
——, -_——_;— Measurements of Cingalese Moormen and Tamils,
>
taken at Ceylon in November, 1892
,- ;— Notes on Anthropology ... 308 Lee
Wise, James ;—The Hindus of Hastern Bengal. From the papers
of the late Dr. oc aa “oe feed
Page
8
Aq
33
95
mad Fa
Dates of Issue. Part III, 1893.
No. I.—Containing pp. 1-46, was issued on December 2nd, 1893.
No. II.—Containing pp. 47-94, was issued on December Sth, 1893.
No. I11.—Containing pp. 95-111, with Appendix pp. 1-19 and
Figures I-IV, was issued on January 3rd, 1894.
INDEX
TO
JOURNAL, ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.
Vou. LXII, Part III, ror 18938.
Acharya, an inferior class of Brahmans,
2.
Apistra, introduces priests to reform
and educate Hindus, 1.
Africa, Tshi-speaking people of, worship
Prah, 101.
African Bushmen, classification of, 98.
Agradana, an inferior class of Brahmans,
2.
Ainos, nature-worship by, 100.
, throw images into rivers when
crossing dangerous places, 105.
At Asmat, a famous lexicologist, 49.
Ancient marriage customs of Tibet, 8.
Animism, origin of, 100.
ANTHROPID&, 98.
Anthropology, notes on, by H. H. Risley,
95.
Ants eaten accidentally secures against
drowning, belief in Bengal, 104.
Antya-ja, or inferior, epithet applied to
certain castes in Bengal, 6.
Antyavasayin, or dwellers outside the
town, term applied to certain castes in
Bengal, 6.
Apes and men, differences between, 95.
Asmat, a celebrated philologer, 49.
Asmaiat, poems, styled by Arabs, 49.
Astrologers, application to, during mar-
riage ceremonies in U, Tsang and
Sikkim, 11, 22, 27.
AUSTRALIOID, a group of mankind, 98.
AVALOKITESVARA, invocation of, during
marriages in Sikkim, 12.
Baaiai, a pure Hindu caste according to
Ballal Sen, 5.
Badar, Badar, ery of Bengali boatmen
when in danger of capsizing, 100.
Badawiyah, Bedouin poems, 49.
BaLtat Sen, belonged to the Vaidya
caste, 4.
——.-, Hindu Monarch, 1.
——., introduces reform, 1.
Baoti, a Hindu caste intermediate be-
tween Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Baqqal, a Hindu caste intermediate be-
tween Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Bedouins of the Hauran, Betrothal among
the, 78.
, Captivity among
the, 88.
———, Death among
the, 86, 94.
—-——., Hospitality
among the, 84.
—————_-——_, Hostility among
the, 87.
-—— -—— — , Law among the,
90.
—_—_——____-_—,, Marriage among
the, 80, 94.
, Modern Customs
among the, edited and translated by
H.S. Jarrett, 47, 78.
————., Mourningamong
the, 86, 94.
——-—— —————,, Oaths among
the, 98.
——_ ——.——, Theft among
the, 85.
Bengal, belief in, a single female among
male passengers in a boat brings grief,
108.
; , ants eaten accidentally
secures against drowning, 104.
. - ,convolutions of hair,
denote death by drowning, 104.
, tanks haunted by.
Valens, 10)
——_, , water-spirit in the form
of an old hag, 102.
, ceremony of appointing a Yakh
to guard hidden treasure in, 109.
, river-goddesses worship in, 100,
104.
Berua, a Hindu caste intermediate be-
tween Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Betrothal among the Bedouins of the
Hauran, 78,
Vill
Betrothal in Purang, 10.
————- in U, Tsang and Sikkim, 11.
Bhat, a Hindu caste intermediate be-
tween Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Bhilla, epithet Antya-ja applied to, 6
Bhiinmali, a Hindu caste excluded from
the temple of Jagannath, 6.
Bimana, 97.
Boddhisattvas, invocation of the, during
marriages in Sikkim, 26, 30.
Bohemia, antipathy towards saving
drowning persons in, 106.
Brahma Chaturmukha, invocation of,
during marriage ceremonies in Sikkim,
12.
Kayika Devas, invocation of,
during marriage ceremonies in Sikkim,
13.
Brahman, one of the Pancha-vartta, 5.
BuppHAs, invocation of, during marriages
in Sikkim, 21, 26, 30, 32.
Captivity among the Bedouins of the
Hauran, 88.
Castes, Hindn, lists of, 5, 6.
———, ——---, reasons for degradation
of, 4.
Caul worn round the neck secures against
drowning, 104.
Cesta, 98.
Celts, classification of, 99.
Chamar, a Hindu caste excluded from
the Jagannath temple, 6.
Chandal or Doém Brahman, lowest grade
of Brahmans, 3.
CHANGsEM, invocation of, during mar-
riages in Sikkim, 12.
Chimpansee, 96, 98.
China, antipathy towards saving drown-
ing persons in, 102.
Cingalese Moormen and Tamils, measure-
ments of, taken at Ceylon in Novem-
ber 1892, article on, by H. H. Risley,
33.
Classification of men and monkeys, 97.
Customs, modern, among the Bedonins
of the Hauran, article on, edited and
translated by H. S. Jarrett, 47, 78.
Di. S. C., author of Marriage Customs
of Tibet, 8.
Death among the Bedouins of the
Hauran, 86, 94.
DHARMA, invocation of, during marriages
in Sikkim, 21.
Dhoba, a Hindu caste excluded from the
Jagannath temple, 6.
, one of the Pancha-vartta, 5.
Index.
Dém, a Hindu caste excluded from the
Jagannath temple, 6.
—.-, term Antydvasdyin applied to, 6.
——- Brahman see Chandal.
Doveuty, C. M., Arabic Monograph on
the Customs of the Bedonins of the
Hauran, sent by, 47.
Dravidians, classification of, 98, 99.
Drowned persons, corpses of, discovered
by a chip of cedarwood, 108.
, corpses of, discovered by a
lighted taper stuck into a loaf, 108.
» corpses of, discovered by a
loaf of rye bread tied in a shirt, 107.
, corpses of, discovered by a
loaf weighted with mecury, 108.
——-, corpses of, discovered by
shirts, 108.
——, -———, strips of
parchment with cabaeae letters, 108.
, corpses of, searched for with
a cock, 109.
> +)
sheep,
109.
————, Spirits of, haunt wells and
tanks, 103, 107.
———-—, time when bodies of, float
up, 107.
Drowning, convolutions of hair denote
death by, 104.
—, Japanese amulet which saves
from, 105.
———_-,, ———— god who saves from,
105.
—, secured against,
ants, 104.
by eating
5; SS Weare
caul round the neck, 104.
Drowning and Drowned Persons, On
Some Superstitions regarding, by S.C.
Mitra, 100.
Drowning persons, antipathy towards
saving, in Bohemia, 106. -
———,, ————_,, China, 102.
<=, >, Conmamy, i106.
> ———., Kamschatka,
: , Orkney, 102.
, , Russia, 106.
> ———., Shetland, 102.
——_——— , Solomon Isg-
lands, 101.
——
> ——_——., Zetland, 101.
ff, aridah =a wedding procession, 82.
Female, a single, in a boat containing
male passengers brings grief, 103.
Females having children not to put
water in a vessel containing lime, 104,
Flying Dutchman, belief in, 103.
Index. ix
Germany, antipathy towards saving
drowning persons in, 106.
Gibbon, classification of, 99.
Gop-Goala, a pure Hindu caste according
to Ballal Sen, 5
Gorilla, 96, 98.
Great Britain, well-worship in, 100.
Hair, convolutions of, denoted death by
drowning, 104.
Halwah Das, a Hindu caste intermediate
between Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Hari, a Hindu caste excluded from the
Jagannath temple, 6.
, term Antydvasayin applied to, 6,
_Hauran, Bedouins of the, Modern Cus-
toms among the, edited and translated
by H.S. Jarrett, 47, 78.
, Betrothal among the Bedouins
of the, 78.
, Captivity ——_——_-—_, 88.
, Death —————_———_, 86, 94.
, Hospitality — —, 84.
, Hostility ——., 87.
, Law —-_———— , 90.
, Marriage —————_-—, 80, 94.
, Mourning —-—, 86, 94
, Oaths -————_ , 93.
, Province of, on the frontiers of
Trak and Syria, 49.
, Theft among the Bedouins of
the, 85.
Hauraniyah, poems of Hauran, 49.
Hidden Treasure, On Some Beliefs i in a
_Being or Animal which is supposed to
Guard, 109.
Hindu castes, reasons for degradation
of, 4.
Hindus of Eastern Bengal, article on,
from papers of the late Dr. James
Wise, 1.
, Yiver-spirit worship by, 101, 104.
Hlo-bon = Head Lama, 31.
Homo sapiens, 97.
—_— americanus, 97.
-———— asiaticus, 97,
—— asser, 97.
————_— europxus, 97.
I, OT
——— monstruosus, 97.
sylvestris, 97,
troglodytes, 97.
Hospitality among the Bedouins of the
Hauran, 84.
Hostility
ba Sg
“eas, classification of, 99.
Ireland, well-worship in, 100.
2
epee mountain-worship in, 100.
, nature-worship in, 100.
Japanese amulet saves from drowning
and choking, 103.
worship a god who saves from
drowning and accidents, 105.
JARRETT, H. S.. article on Modern Cus-
toms among the Bedouins of the
Hauran, edited and translated by, 47.
Java, corpses of drowned persons search-
ed for with a sheep, 109.
Jogi, a Hindu caste excluded from the
Jagannath temple, 6.
Kater: a Hindu caste excluded from the
Jagannath temple, 6.
Kaistyah = poems of the tribe of Kais, 49.
Kakhyens, worship of Khakoo Kha-nam
by, 105.
——_, Ndong Nat by, 105.
Kamar, a pure Hindu caste according to
Ballal Sen, 5.
Kamschatka, antipathy towards saving
drowning persons in, 102.
Kanaujiya, a tribe of Hindustani Brah-
mans, 2.
Kandho, a Hindu caste intermediate
between Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Kapah, a Hindn caste intermediate
between Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Kapita MUNI, invocation of, during
marriages in Tibet, 12.
Karni, a Hindu caste intermediate
between Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Karral, a Hindu caste intermediate
between Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Kasidas=poems composed by Wastern
Arabs, 49.
Kawali, a Hindu caste intermediate
between Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Kayath, a Hindu caste, 3.
, denies enrollment among the
Navasakha, 3.
Kuaxkoo Kua-NaM, god of water, 105.
Khonté = debased, term applied to certain
Hindustani tribes, 7.
Kumar, a pure Hindu caste according to
Ballal Sen, 5.
KUNG-FU-TSE, invocation of, during mar-
riages in Tibet, 12.
Deane marriage customs of, 30.
Law among the Bedouins of ‘the Hauran,
90.
LEIOTRICHI, a division of mankind, 98.
Lemur, classification of, 97, 98.
Lohait Kori, a Hindu caste intermediate
between Sudra and Nicha, 6.
x Index.
e
Maan, classical language of, lingering
in remote parts of Arabia, 49.
Madhu Napit, a pure Hindu caste accord-
ing to Ballal Sen, 5.
ManA MATRIKA, invocation of, during
marriages in Tibet, 13.
Mahomedans pray before journeying by
water, 105.
Malakar, a pure Hindu caste according
to Ballal Sen, 5.
—, one of the Pancha-vartta, 5.
Man, place of, in Nature, 95.
Mansu Sri, invocation of, during mar-
riages in Tibet, 12.
MAN-TSUN CHEN-MO, invocation of, dur-
ing marriages in Tibet, 13.
Mir =snake, 111.
, guarding hidden treasure, 111.
Marmosets, classification of, 98.
Marriage among the Bedouins of the
Hauran, 80, 94.
, application _ to
during, 11, 22, 27.
, by capture in Purang, 9.
, — elopement ;
ceremonies of Tibet, 16.
customs in Sikkim, 20.
of Ladak, 30.
— Tibet, by S. C.
astrologers
Das, 8.
preliminaries in U, Tsang and
Sikkim, 11.
MELANOCHROI, a group of mankind, 99.
Men and Monkeys, classification of, 97.
————., differences between,
95.
Me-va-gu=nine mystic figures, invocation
of, during marriages in Tibet, 13.
Mirra, 5. C., On some Beliefs in a Being
or animal which is supposed to Guard
Hidden Treasure, 109.
, On some Superstitions re-
garding Drowning and Drowned Per-
sons, 100.
Mongolians, classification of, 99.
MonGoLoIp, a group of mankind, 99.
Mountain-worship in Japan, 100.
Mourning among the Bedouins of the
Hauran, 86, 94.
Mupak, classical langnage of, lingering
in remote parts of Arabia, 49.
Nica RAJA, invocation of, during mar-
, riages in Tibet, 12.
Nag-chang, a Tantrik priest, 17, 19.
Nama-Sudra, a Hindu caste excluded
from the Jagannath temple, 6.
Napit, a pure Hindu caste according to
Ballal Sen, 6.
Napit, one of the Pancha-vartta, 5.
Nar, a Hindu caste intermediate between
Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Nata, epithet Antya-ja applied to, 6.
, one of the Pancha-vartta, 5.
Nature, place of man in, 95.
worship by Ainos, 100.
in Japan, 100.
Nava-sakha=the nine inferior castes,
3, 5.
Noone Nat=God of the Ontside of
Home, 105.
Negritos, classification of, 98.
Negroes, 5 oS
Norway, corpses of drowned persons
searched for with a cock in, 109.
Notes on Anthropology by H. H. Risley,
95.
Oaths among the Bedouins of the
Hauran, 93.
Orang-otang, classification of, 98.
Orkney, antipathy towards saving drown-
ing persons in, 102.
Pama SAMBHAVA, invocation of, during
marriages in Tibet, 12.
PALGON, invocation of, during marriages
in Tibet, 13.
Pan, term Antydvasdyin applied to, 6.
Panch-Piriya creed, followers of, 8.
Pancha-vartta = five brothers, 5.
—_—_—_—_— , Services of the, 5.
Parasara Das, a Hindu caste intermediate
between Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Parha, eight gnomons on the chart of
divination, 138.
Patial, a Hindu caste intermediate be-
tween Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Patit Brahmans, cause of loss of rank
of, 3.
— , Spread of the Hindu re-
ligion through, 3.
Persians, ancient, hidden treasure
guarded by Mar and Tilism, 111.
Phantom Ship, belief in, 108.
Pholha= Tibetan household god, 17.
PitHEca, 98.
Pleiades, invocation of, during marriages
in Tibet, 13.
Pniik = water-spirit in Siam, 102.
Polygamy and the buying and selling of
wives among Brahmans, 2.
‘Prah=great spirit, 101.
- worshipped by
people of Africa, 101.
Primates, 95, 97.
Purang, betrothal in, 10.
——-, marriage by capture in, 8.
Tshi-speaking
Index. xi
Purang, marriage by elopement in, 9.
-, parents arrange marriages in,
Quaprusana, oe
Riaj-vansi, a Hindu caste excluded from
the Jagannath temple, 6.
Rarhi, a tribe of Bengali Brahmans, 1, 2.
Rieé-sum Gonpo, invocation of, during
marriages in Tibet, 12.
Ristey, H. H., Anthropometric instruc-
tions, Appendix 1.
, Measurements of Cin-
galese Moormen and Tamils taken at
Ceylon in November 1892, 33.
, Notes on Anthropology,
b]
99.
River-spirit worship by Hindus, 101, 104.
Riyal Fransah=a dollar, 80.
Rizku’llah Azzun, acknowledgment to, 50.
Russians, antipathy towards saving
drowning persons by, 106.
ra
NaNenA, invocation of, during marriages
in Sikkim, 21.
SaNeyr, invocation of, during marriages
in Tibet, 12.
Sankhari, a pure Hindu caste according
to Ballal Sen, 5.
Sapta-sati, an inferior class of Brah-
mans, 2.
Scandinavians, classification of, 99.
Shaykh=Head of a Mohamedan tribe,
87.
Shetland, antipathy towards
drowning persons in, 102.
Siamese believe in water-spirit, 102.
Sipawaih, a famous Mohamedan gram-
marian, 49.
Sikkim, marriage customs in, 20.
;U and Tsang, application to
astrologers during marriages in, 11,
22, 27.
2
saving
——, marriages in, 11.
> ——— —, parents arrange
marriages in, 11.
Simia, 97.
SIMIADS, 98.
Sioux Indians believe in water-spirit, 102.
Slavonians, classification of, 99.
Solomon JIslands, antipathy towards
saving drowning persons in the, 101.
Spiritism, origin of, 100.
Spiti, ceremony of divorce in, 9.
—- , polyandry not recognized in, 9.
Sudra Brahmans, a grade ministering to
the Nava-sakha, 3.
—— pure, does not exist in Bengal, 4.
Sunri, a Hindu caste excluded from the
Jagannath temple, 6.
Superstitions regarding Drowning and
Drowned Persons, On Some, by S. C.
Mitra, 100.
Sutar, a Hindu caste intermediate be-
tween Sudra and Nicha, 6.
Tamils, Measurements of Cingalese
Moormen and—taken at Ceylon in
November 1892, by H. H. Risley, 33.
Tanka=a Tibetan rupee, 20.
Tanti, a pure Hindu caste according to
Ballal Sen, 5.
Tasi-kyi Lama=chief priest of the vil-
lage, 25.
Tawil=a Bedouin poem measure, 50.
TEN-MA CHUNI, invocation of, during
marriages in Tibet, 13.
Teutons, classification of, 99.
Theft among the Bedouins
Hauran, 85.
Tibet, ancient marriage customs of, 8.
——-, marriage customs of, 8, 16.
Tilism guarding hidden treasure, 111.
Tiyar, a Hindu caste excluded from the
Jagannath temple, 6
Treasure, On Some Beliefs in a Being or
Animal guarding hidden, 109.
Tsang, Sikkim and U, application to
astrologers during marriages in, 11,
22, 27.
> ———_, marriages in, 11.
—-, - , parents arrange mar-
riages in, Ll.
Tshi-speaking people of Africa worship
Prah, 101.
Tsi-thang=a Tibetan astrological chart,
12.
of the
a :
U, Tsang and Sikkim, application to
astrologers during marriages in, 11,
22, 27.
—, ————__,, marriages in, 11.
—, ————, parents arrange marriages
in, Ll.
’ ULOTRICHI, a division of mankind, 98.
Unk-tahe, Sioux Indian name for water-
demon, 102.
Waidika, an inferior class of Brahmans, 2.
Vaidya, a Hindu caste, 8.
, denies enrollment among the
Nava-Sakha, 3.
Vaisya, a Hindu caste, 3.
, denies interference of Ballal Sen
with their regulations, 3.
*, position of, 3.
Xil Index.
Vajra-pdni, invocation of, during mar- WIsr, JAmMrEs, The Hindus of Hastern
riages in Tibet. 12. Bengal, from papers of the late, 1.
Varendra, a tribe of Bengali Brahmans,
1, 2.
Varnds, epithet Antya-ja applied to, 6. Xanrurocurorc, a group of mankind, 99.
Vespertilio, 97
Vijaya, invocation of, during marriages
in Tibet, 12 Y akh. ceremony of appointing a, 109.
I bas
, tanks in Bengal hannted by, 110.
Wet-worship in Great Britain and Zetland, antipathy towards saving
Treland, 100. drowning persons in, 101.
NS Soe ene
JOURNAL
OF THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.
ia-O-e—
VOL, LXII, Part II1.—ANTHROPOLOGY AND
COGNATE SUBJECTS.
No. I.—1898.
——__—__~
The Hindus of Hastern Bengal.—From the papers of the late Dr.
James Wisk. LHdited by the Anthropological Secretary.
The Hindus of Bengal claim to be pure Aryans, but the Hindus of
Upper India repudiate any relationship with them. The Aryan immi-
gration extended gradually throughout Bengal, and the tie which bound
the settlers to their faith and peculiar usages was relaxed by residence
among aliens. The example of races untrammelled by caste or religious
scruples also led them to shake off all bonds and assert greater freedom
of action. The priesthood formed illegal connections and neglected their
religious duties, while the mixed offspring observed none of the Brah-
manical ordinances. In the tenth century corruption and irreligion
being universal, Adistira introduced priests, trained in the orthodox
school of Kanauj, to reform and educate the people. But the arrival of
a small body of religious teachers did little towards elevating the Brah-
mans, or laity, and in the twelfth century Ballal Sen found only nine-
teen families of the Rarhi Brahmans living in strict obedience to all
that their religion demanded These families were raised to the high-
est rank, but those who had forfeited all respect and formed illegal
marriages were reduced to secondary, or even lower grades. The inno-
vations made by this monarch only affected the Rarhi and Varendra
dis eiayiml|
2 Dr. J. Wise—The Hindus of Hustern Bengal. [Nioz=is
Sreni, or orders, for the Vaidika and Bhat, refusing to be classified by
a Vaidya, retired into the hill countries of Sylhet and Orissa; and the
other tribes, who had become hopelessly demoralised, were left un-
touched.
The chief object of the reform organised by Ballal Sen was the
creation of an aristocratic and powerful hierarchy, placed in such a posi-
tion of dignity, that no misdemeanour and no immortality could deprive
it of hereditary privileges, or the reverence of the lower classes. An
illegal marriage was the only transgression entailing loss of rank and
forfeiture of respect. No provision was made in this new code for the
elevation of the lower ranks when families became extinct ; consequent-
ly, as Kulin houses disappeared, the difficulty of procuring husbands
for daughters vastly increased, and when the third recognisation of
the order was made by Devi Vara, in the fourteenth century, polygamy
and the buying and selling of wives was the engrossing occupation of
the twice-born Brahmans.
In spite of these successive endeavours for securing the purity of
the Bengali Brahmans, it is remarkable that Kanaujiya, and other
Brahmanical tribes of Hindustan, have always despised and repudiated
any connection with their Bengali brethren. In their religious and
domestic ceremonies, habits of life, and mode of living, Bengali Brah-
mans are quite distinct from any of the other tribes, and the only point
of attachment between them is when outcast Kanaujiyas marry Srotriya
maidens and become absorbed into their ranks. Although clinging with
characteristic pertinacity to all the prerogatives of their order, modern
ideas are gradually undermining their bulwarks, and the exclusive rules
are step by step yielding to education and the progress of the nation.
Kulin Brahmans are now found adorning the bench, the bar, and the
medical profession, and, while proving useful members of society, exert
a rare influence for good over their Hindu countrymen.
Besides the Rarhi and Varendra tribes, there were in Bengal four
inferior classes of Brahmans left out of the organisation of Ballal Sen,
namely, the Vaidika, Sapta-sati, Acharya, and Agradana. The three
first claim to have been resident in Bengal before the reign of that
monarch, and the services of all the four are still required by the Rarhi
Sreni at many important ceremonies. The Vaidika is the only division
that has preserved an honourable position; but whether this is owing
to their being descendants of Kanaujiya Brahmans, to the respectability
and decency of their lives, or to their independence of character, is very
doubtful. They decline to give their daughters in marriage to the
Kulin Brahmans of Bikarampur, and refuse to act for any clean Stidra,
or Brahman, unless his family can trace their origin to Kanauj. The
1893. ] Dr. J. Wise—The Hindus of Hastern Bengal. 3
Sapta-sati, undoubtedly one of the oldest Bengali septs, is gradually be-
ing absorbed by the Srotriya, and few confess they belong to it. In a
few years they will be sought for in vain. The Acharya and Agrada4na
are Brahmans only in name. The former are chiefly employed in secular
occupations, and in discharging duties useful, but unknown, to the Vedas
or Purdnas. The Agradana, claiming to rank above Acharya, is the
most despised of the sacred order, and clean Sidras, as well as Patit
Brahmans, would be degraded by eating with them.
The Patit Brahmans are the most active representatives of the
Hindu hierarchy, having fallen from their high estate by neelecting
religious duties, officiating in Sidra temples, marrying into inferior
grades, or acting as Purohits to the Varna Sankara.! The loss of rank
has m some respects been mitigated by the affection and devotion of the
laity, and by the high social position given by the caste for which they
officiate. It is to this class, abandoned by the Kulins, that India owes
the spread of the Hindu religion among the wild tribes of the Tarai,
Assam, and Hastern Bengal, and the conversion of the semi-Hinduised
aborigines throughout Bengal. Bad and immoral many of these
Sidra Brahmans are, but as a class their lives are not one long course
of depravity and selfish indulgence, as is too often the case with the
Kulins. Education has made no progress among them, and holding
the position they do, concession to the wants of the age is not to be
expected. Their hold over the men is slowly loosening, but the women
still obey and worship them, and while this subjection lasts, Hindu caste
and Hindu exclusiveness will remain.
Though not recognised in books, many social grades are found
among these fallen Brahmans. Those ministering to the Nava-sikha,?
popularly called Sidra Brahmans, occupy a position of comparative
distinction ; but at the bottom of the scale Brahmans appear, who are
accounted lower than the vile caste they serve; while such an indivi-
dual as the Chandal, or Dém Brahman scarcely deserves to be called
by that proud title.
The Vaisya caste, standing next the sacred order, occupies a very
anomalous and strange position. Their claim to be genuine Vaisyas is
admitted by the higher classes, but the Ballali Vaidya and Kayath
refuse to touch food prepared by them. This small caste deny that
Ballal Sen reorganised or interfered in any way with their regulations,
and for this reason it remains isolated and unrecognised by Hindus,
The two next castes are the Vaidya and Kayath, who repudiate
the name of Stidra, and maintain that Ballal Sen did not enroll them
1 Literally, mixture of colours: hence mixture of castes.
2 Or Naya-Say4ka, the nine inferior castes.
4 Dr. J. Wise—The Hindus of Eastern Bengal. [No. 1,
among the “ Nava-Sakha.” Both are satisfied to rest their title of
superiority on the fabulous births of their reputed ancestors. Ballal
Sen belonged to the Vaidya caste, and it is to his partiality that it
secured pre-eminence. On one section the Brahmanical cord was be-
stowed, although the caste profession was a dishonourable one, and
Ghataks were engaged to preserve the family purity. There has al-
ways existed much latent jealousy between the Vaidya and Kayath, but
the latter acknowledge some inferiority, although the cause of this
difference is never defined.
The Kayath is undoubtedly one of the oldest tribes in Bengal, but it
is unnecessary to believe all that is said of Adistira and the five servants
of the five Kanaujiya Brahmans. One branch, the Bangaja,! has been
settled for many generations at Hdilpur, along with the caste Ghataks,
and Kulin Kayath families are as punctiiious and as vain of their birth
as any Ganguli, or Mukharji, although the Lalas of Mathura and Agra
laugh at such pretensions, and will not recognise them as Kayaths at
all.
The Kevyala, or pure Stdra, does not exist in Bengal. All castes
below the Brahman belong to the “ Varna Sankara,” being the offspring
of parents of different tribes.
The recognised authorities on castes are the Institutes of Manu, the
Jati Nirnaya chapter of the Brahma-Vaivartta Purana,? and the Jatimala,
According to the Brahmans it was the wickedness of Vena, the Rajarshi,
who ordered that no worship should be performed, no oblations offered,
and no gifts bestowed on Brahmans, and caused the people to disobey
the laws and intermarry with prohibited classes. Until his era
Brahmans only married Brahmans, Sidras, women of their own rank,
and Chandals followed their own tribal customs. It was natural for
the priests to attribute the irreligious propensities of the people to a
cause like this ; but there is no doubt that laws prescribed by the Brah-
mans for maintaining the purity of their order must have been soon
violated by those in whose favour they were enacted. Although marri-
ages between individuals of different tribes gave origin to the Varna-
Sankara, or mixed castes, the Puranas give other explanations. Accord-
ing to the Brahma-Vaivartta Purana, the gardener, blacksmith, shell-
cutter, weaver, potter, and brazier are descended from the offspring of
Visvakarma, the celestial architect, and Ghritachi, an Apsara, or nymph
of heaven, and hence it is that all Karus, or artisans, worship their
progenitor with exceptional reverence. ‘The reasons, again, why certain
1 Banga, or Vanga-ja, Bengali born.
2 A synopsis of this is given in the Calcutta Review, vol. xv, p. 60.
1893. | Dr. J. Wise—The Hindus of Eastern Bengal. 5
eastes are degraded are often quite ludicrous, but this does not cause
their rejection. The Siitradhara lost rank for refusing to supply the
Brahman with sacrificial wood ; the Chitrakara for painting execrably ;
and the Suvarnakara for stealing gold given him to mould an idol.
The modern Sunri moreover, does not resent being told that his ancestor
was created from the chips of the mutilated trunk of Ganesa, nor the
Kuméar that Siv transformed a waterpot into the first potter.
According to the classification of Ballal Sen, as interpreted in Eastern
Bengal, the nine following castes are considered pure, and the so-called
Sudra Brahman officiates for all :—
Sankhari. Kumar. Gop-Goala.
Tanti. Malakar, Madhu Napit.
Kamar. Napit. Baaai
Judging, however, by traditions still surviving, the position of a
caste in the new roll depended chiefly on its usefulness and importance
to the community at large. The profession which had proved itself
essential to the comfort or welfare of the Hindu hierarehy was at once
promoted to a higher level, while the less important was reduced. Thus,
the Tanti, unclean in Bihar, became clean in Dacca, and the indispensable
barber was raised to the same social level as the Kayasth. The relative
position of the various castes is still a burning question in Bengal, and
in large villages where any caste predominates, its claims to superior
rank are usually conceded. For instance, the Gandha-banik, Telf,
Tambth, and Kansari often assert, to good purpose, the right of being
enrolled among the nine, and if their voice be sufficiently loud and in-
fiuential it will be heard.
The Nava-Sakha have five servants, or Pancha-vartta, attached to
them in common, who possess the prescriptive right of attending at all
caste and family celebrations, The five servants are the Brahman,
_ Malakar, Dhoba, Napit, and Nata, or musician, who are presumed to be
_ exclusively engaged in the service of the Stdras, but they also earn
money by waiting on lower castes. Hven now-a-days some work for the
Surya-vansi, who ten years ago were not Hindus in name, while others
readily work for the Baoti, Kapali Kawali, Pardsara Das, and other
tribes of doubtful origin. Where the fisher castes are numerous and
cannot be overlooked, no difficulty is found in engaging their services.
They work indeed for all castes employing a Patit Brahman, but the
utterly vile tribes, the Bhtinmali, Chamar,- Patni, and Stnri, havine
Brahmans of their own, are not served by the Pancha-vartta. To this
general rule, however, there are exceptions. The worshipful barber,
for instance, condescends to shave, but will not pare the nails of the
Saha rice merchant.
6 Dr, J. Wise—The Hindus of Hastern Bengal. [No. 1,
Although caste is no longer revered as an old institution sanctified
by religion and immemorial usage, and is disappearing before the as-
saults of modern civilisation, a tendency to the formation of new castes
still exists. Semi-Hinduised races are being enrolled among Hindus
and old established castes are being split up by adopting new occupations.
But if this new occupation be not dishonouring, the Purohit continues
his ministration. For instance, the great Chandal tribe has given off
eight branches, yet the Chandal Brahmans officiate for all. On the
other hand, the agriculture Kaibarttas, having taken to a base employ-
ment, are obliged to support a Purohit of their own.
Between the Sudras and the Nicha, or vile castes, many tribes,
organised by degraded Brahmans, or united by the exigencies of modern
civilisation, are found occupying an uncertain position, exposed to the
sneers of the exclusive and conservative Stdras.
These intermediate castes are—
Baoti. Kandho. Lohait Kori.
Baqqal. Kapali. Nar.
Bhat. Karni. Parasara Das.
Berua. Karvral. Patial.
Halwah Das. Kawalt. Sutar.
Tn the Tantras,! the epithet Antya-ja, or inferior, is applied to the
following seven tribes :—washerman, currier, mimic (Nata), fisherman,
“Meda,” or attendant on women, cane-splitter ( Varuda), and mountaineer
(Bhilla). The term Antydvasayin, or dwellers outside the town, was
given to the Dém, Pan, Hari, and other sweeper castes.
We, however, possess a very correct list? of the outcaste tribes in
Bengal in the roll of pilgrims excluded from the temple of Jagannath.
If prohibited castes are distinguished from professions there are only
eleven castes so utterly disreputable that they dare not enter the sanc-
tuary. These are the—
Saori. Kahar. Tiyar.
Nama-Sudra. Raj-Vansi. Bhiinmali.
Dhoba. Chamar. Hari.
Jogi. Dom,
Much information regarding caste, as understood in Bengal, is obtain-
ed by comparing the relative position of Hindustanis who reside, or
temporarily sojourn there, with that of castes native to the province.
Permanent residence is always attended by social expulsion, but a
stay of a few years is with some castes a disqualification, with others it
+ Colebrooke’s Essays, ii, 164.
? Harington’s Analysis, iii, 213; Hunter’s Orissa, i, 186.
1893. ] Dr. J. Wise—The Hindus of Hastern Bengal. 7
is not so. For example, the Ahir, Surahiya, and Kanaujiya Brahmans,
who keep up communication with their kindred and marry from their
own homes, are reckoned pure; but the Kahar, Ahir, and Kandi domi-
ciled in Bengal forfeit all claim to be considered stainless. By adopting
local Sudra customs and marrying with women of the country Hindus-
tani tribes are stigmatized as “‘ Khontd,” or debased. The Kanaujiya
Brahman, again, expelled by his family for these delinquencies, finds
shelter in the ranks of the Srotriya; but above this he cannot expect to
rise, and his children must be content with a very ambiguous position.
The steps by which a Hindustani caste loses its original rank and
gains a new one may be traced in the case of the potters. The Kumhér
of Bihar is always unclean in Bengal, but if he marries a kinswoman he
may return to his home without loss of rank, The Raj-Mahallia potters
however, being in an intermediate state, have neither risen to an equali-
ty with the Bengali Kumar, nor remained unclean like the Kumhar,
The Stdras of Bengal drink from their water-vessels, and, still more
blessed, the Sudra Brahman ministers unto them. Lastly, the Bengali
Kumar, originally of the same stock, has become in the course of ages
a pure Sidra and one of the Nava-Sakha.
In no instance, however, is the separation between kindred castes
so striking as with the Chamars and Rishis. Both belong tothe same
tribe, both are equally vile in the eyes of Hindus, and both live apart
from all other castes, yet similar occupations not only excite jealousy
and enmity, but prevent all friendly intercourse between them.
Occupations, moreover, which a Hindustani may engage in at home
without stain or obloquy, are sometimes unbecoming when the habitation
is in Bengal. Thus the Démni and Chamain, professional musicians in
Upper India, are disgraced by playing for hire in Bengal, while on the
other hand, such menial work as the Mungirya Tantis perform in Dacca
would be considered very debasing in their own district.
Although continuous residence at a distance usually repels, a
brief sojourn sometimes draws together, disunited sub-divisions. Thus
the different branches of Ahirs and Chhatris intermarry in Bengal and
lose caste, although debarred from doing so in Hindustan.
The Brahmanical order to which the Purohit belongs is generally
a nice test of the rank accorded toa Hindustani caste. Among the
lower tribes the Guru belongs either to one of the Dasnami orders, or he
isa Vaishnava Bhagat, who visits his flock at regular intervals, con-
firming the old, and teaching the young the rudiments of their faith.
Maithila Brahmans, on the other hand, ordinarily act as Purohits to
Kurmi, Chhatri, Kandé, Ahir, Chain, and Kewat; but Chhatris are
occasionally found with a Sarsut, or Sarasvati, Brahman, and Kurmis
8 S. C. Das—The Marriage Customs of Tibet. [No. 1,
and Dosadhs with a Sakadvipa. The Kanaujiya tribe again ministers
to Binds, Tantis, and Gadariyas. In the case of the Randa Khatris,
whose parentage is equivocal, the strange phase is found of a Kanaujiya
acting as Purohit, a Srotriya of Bengal as Guru.
A most important distinction between Hindustani and Bengali castes
ef similar origin, is the religious belief found among them. It may be
said with perfect truth that Vaishnavism, in one or other of its diverse
forms, to the exclusion of Saivaism and all other creeds, is the faith
professed by the agricultural, artizan, and fisher tribes of Bengal. The
worship of Krishna has for obvious reasons attracted well nigh all the
Goala and other pastoral tribes of India. The teaching of Chaitanya
and his suecessors has made little progress among Hindustani castes,
but the sympathetic creeds of Kabir and Nanak Shah have attracted
multitudes of disciples. The Kurmis and Dosadhs especially patronise
Kabir; the Kewats, Kumhars, and many Dosadhs enroll themselves
under the banner of Nanak.
It is among castes from Northern Bengal, such as the Kandu
Bind, Muriari, and Surahiyd, that the followers of the strange Panch-
Piriya creed are to be met with. Other curious sects, unknown to
Bengal, are also found in their ranks. The Tirhutiya Tantis are mem-
bers of the Buddh Ram communion. Kurmis often profess the doctrines
taught by Darya Das, and many Dosadhs those of Tulasi Das. Still
more worthy of notice is the existence among them of an old prehis-
toric cultus. The apotheosis of robber chiefs by Dosadhs, the deifica-
tion of evil spirits, as Rahu by the Dosadhs, Kasi Baba by the Binds,
and Madhu Kunwar by Tantis, and the animistic idea, endowing with
life and personality the destructive energy of the Ganges, are all forms
of belief unknown to castes native to Bengal.
The Marriage Customs of Tibet—By Sarat Cuanpra Das, C.1.E.
PART I.
Tue Ancient MarriacGe Customs or Treet,
(As now prevailing in Purang, Nah-ri, and the country round Lake
Manasarovara.)
Marriage by capture, as it now, to some extent, prevails in Purang
and the country round Lake Manasarovara, existed in former times in
Tibet and in the Cis-Himalayan countries. In U and Tsang compara-
tively few remnants of this ancient custom now remain, though in
Sikkim, Bhutan, and the Himalayan district of Spiti, near Kulu, a
1893. ] S. C. Das—Marriage Customs of Tibet. 9
survival of it may be traced in the part played by the kién-chan (thief)
in marriage ceremonies.*
In Purang when a young man wishes to marry a girl, he watches
her movements, and carefully ascertains the places where she frequently
goes for agricultural or pastoral work. When he finds a good
opportunity, he comes, accompanied by one or two of his friends, and
tracks her te the field, or to the pasture where she happens to go, and
finding her alone carries her by force to his house. He keeps her con-
fined in a separate house so as to have abundant opportunity of soliciting
her favours. He provides her with good food and nice clothes and re-
mains near her to coax her and to win her love. When he goes out of
the house he leaves some one of his trusted friends to guard her against
seductions of other men and the attempts of her parents to take her
away. Sometimes her parents comein search of her, or send men te
fetch her home. If the girl be unwilling to live with her captor, or
if her parents do not permit her to marry him, the matter is settled
by the village elders or the tribunal of the Jong-pon (district chief). If
they permit the union, an auspicious day is fixed for the marriage when
a good deal of chang (wine) is consumed. The entertainment on the
marriage occasion is therefore called chang-thing (drinking of wine).
Marriage by elopement—When a girl has given her heart toa
young man, but her parents will not let her marry him, she elopes with
him. He is helped in the elopement by two or three sturdy friends, who
accompany him to prevent a rescue on the part of the parents and to see
the couple safely through. Having brought her to his home he accom-
modates her in a good house engaged for the purpose. Here he conceals
her and enjoys the honey-moon, by taking care to employ a number of
strong men to guard his bride from being carried away by other men or
* Sprtt. Polyandiy,—Marriage customs.—In Spiti polyandry is not recognised,
as only the elder brother marries, and the younger ones become monks. But there
is not the least aversion to the idea of two brothers cohabiting with the same
woman, and, I believe, it often happens in an unrecognised way, particularly among
the landless classes who send no sons into the monasteries. I heard in Spiti, that
when the bridegroom’s party goes to bring the bride from her father’s house, they
are met by a party of the bride’s friends and relations who stop the path: here-
upon a sham-fight of a very rough d escription ensues, in which the bride-
groom and his friends, before they are allowed to pass, are well drubbed with good
thick switches.
In Spiti there is a regular ceremony of divorce which is sometimes used when
both parties consent. Husband and wife hold the ends of a thread, repeating
meanwhile :—‘ One father and mother gave, another father and mother took away:
as it was not our fate to agree, we separate with mutual good-will.” The thread
is then severed by applying alight to the middle, After a divorce a woman is at
liberty to marry whom she pleases. (Crooke’s Notes and Queries, Sc.)
Al, iii, %
10 S. OC. Das—Marriage Oustoms of Tibet. [No. 1,
by the friends of her parents. In the meantime his friends, or father, or
relations go as léng-mi (begging men) to the house of the girl’s father.
They take with them some presents for him, and also provisions for their
own use during the time they remain there. They do not venture to go
near the house of the bride’s parents, but remaining at a distance of about
a hundred yards or more from it, swing a khatag (salutation scarf) to say
that they have come to humbly propose the auspicious marriage of their
daughter. At first the parents and their friends take no notice of this
and decline to look at them. The léng-mi continue their silent entreaties
for three or four days, and do not leave the place until by their impor-
tunity they have moved the hearts of the bride’s parents. The father
of the girl then brings them before the elders of the village, and asks
the latter to inflict on them the punishment they deserve for having
stolen his daughter.
If the léng-mi abide by their decision and pay the fine immediately,
the marriage proposal is formally received by the bride’s parents. In
the meantime the bride returns to her father’s house. Then an auspi-
cious day is fixed for the wedding entertainment which is called chang-
thing, when the friends and relatives of the bridegroom come to fetch
the bride to the bridegroom’s place. The bridegroom being conscious
of his guilt dare not visit the house of the bride’s father, till a long time
after the completion of the marriage. If he indiscreetly happens to go
there he is given the appellation of ktén-chan (thief), and dealt with
accordingly.
Among the upper classes in Purang parents generally arrange for the
marriage of theirsonsand daughters. First of all comes the betrothal.*
When the parties betrothed reach the proper age, 7. e., about two or three
years after attaining to puberty, they are married. The bridal party;
* Among Ladakis, betrothals, which are the occasion for a little drinking of
tea and chang, are arranged by parents in consultation with relatives. Having
fixed upon a match, which, from a worldly point of view, seems desirable, they
then refer to the Lids, to see if the destinies of the proposed couple suit. If they
are found to be unsuited the betrothal is given up. A youthis betrothed when he
is about 20 years of age, and a girl perhaps two years earlier. After the betrothal
or “‘tea chang stdr ches,’ the wedding, or ‘“ Pagston’? may take place within a
month, or it may be put off for ayear or more. Ifa male child possessing pro-
perty, is left alone in the world, he is betrothed at once to some fully grown woman,
who acts as his nurse during his childhood, and as his wife during his later years.
This is not found an inconvenient practice, as a Tibetan may have two “little
wives”’ in addition to his original “‘ Pagston”’ wife. The dowry (kinto) is fixed
at the time of betrothal, but it is not given till the marriage takes place, and some
times even after that. This dowry is paid by the bridegroom to the father, or other
near relative of the bride.—“ Captain Ramsay's Western Tibetan Dictionary,” p. 10.
1893.] 8S. C. Das—Marriage Customs of Tibet. 11
which consists of the kinsmen and relations of the bridegroom, carrying
with them presents of clothes fer the bride, and provisions for the mar-
riage entertainment, proceed on an auspicious day to fetch the bride
from the house of her father. The friends of the bride erect nine stone
eairns called tho-do in the way, each about a hundred yards apart from
the other. The bridegroom’s party wait at the ninth tho-do which is
farthest from the house of the bride’s father, and in the hearing of the
bride’s friends, who come to meet them there, describe the personal
beauty and accomplishments of the bride and the bridegroom, and also
pointing to the tho-do say that it is the first barrier that the demons
have set up and that it bars their way like a mountain. If they depart
from the customary description of the gods and the demons, or commit
any mistake in the manner of describing the tho-do, the friends of the
bride become angry and break down the mound. Then the bridegroom’s
party must apologise and again describe the mound and the couple to be
united. Inthis manner they halt at every one of the tho-do and describe
them according to the custom of the country. At the last tho-do which
is consecrated to the gods, they sing the praise of the bride, her parents
and their tutelary deity, and say that as they have come thus far after
haying surmounted the nine valleys and nine mountains (la-gu and
ling-gu) they hope that the gods will help them in their mission.
At the house of the bride’s father they are received with kindness
and entertained with tea, chang, barley flour and the three kinds of
meat, cooked, dry and raw. They present a milch yak with her calf
to the bride’s mother as the price of the bride, called nw-rin (price of
the mother’s milk), and also two milch yaks to the father as the
nah-rin (price for (his) back). They also make presents of money and
scarves to the relations of the bride’s parents, and return to the bride-
groom’s house with the bride and her dowry, &c.
PRELIMINARIES OF Marriage in U, Tsana AnD SikKIM.
Parents generally arrange for the marriage of their sons and
daughters, when they have passed the age of puberty. At the outset
of a marriage proposal, it is necessary for the parties to be furnished
with the names of the years in which they and their respective
parents were born. This is considered essential for the purpose of
ascertaining the thun-tst calculation of the harmonious conditions of
marriage in the partiés to be united, For this object two or three
astrologers are employed to arrive at independent results, working on
different astrological data.
The application to astrologers for calculation is generally accompanied
by some presents, consisting of swm-tshan (articles of three varieties), a
12 S. C. Das—Marriage Customs of Tibet. [No. I,
tray full of rice, a quantity of barley flour and a few bottles of wine.
Receiving these presents the astrologer spreads his astrological chart,
called tsi-thang, on a little table, and places in front of it a jug full of
wine to offer serkem (libation of golden drink) to the gods, a miniature
flag called the dah-dar (a silken flag of five colours attached to the sharp
end of an arrow), and burning incense. He then puts a few white and
black balls, of the size of a pea, on the chart, and throws them on it
in the manner of dice to ascertain the good and bad luck of the parties
to be married. After noting down the years of birth of the parties he
gravely sits on a cushion to perform the ceremony of den-dar (the
Test of Truth) of his calculations, and makes the following invocations :—
“T pay homage to Buddha—his Law, and the Church, and vow to be
under their protection, till I shall have entered the state of supreme
enlightenment. By the moral merits of my good deeds, such as charity,
forbearance, &c., let all the living beings of the world be benefited, and
thereby let me attain to Buddhahood. Let all the animate beings of
the world come under the influence of TrutH, and the causes of Trurn,
and also be free from misery, and the causes of misery. Let them also
not be devoid of TRrurH, which is free from misery, and abide in that
even state of mind, which is free from corruption, partiality and passions.
Let me gain perfection as quickly as possible, that I may work in the
cause of all living beings of the world. It is with a view to serve
them in respect of the sciences of astrology and divination, that I now
undertake to perform this religious service.’ With this introduction
the officiating astrologer invokes the aid of all the gods of the ten
quarters, Buddhas, Boddhisattvas, sages, saints, &e., to help him in the
work of mystic calculation :—
“OQ holy Lamas who have passed away, are now present, and
will appear hereafter in this world, pray, bear me out in this test of
Trurx! O infallible prince of the Sakya race, O sage of Udy4na,
Padma Sambhava! O ye masters of the Sttras, Tantras and the mantras,
lend me your help in this test of divination, for nothing in this world
is hidden from you.
“OQ Rig-sum Gon-po (Maju) Sri, Vajra pani, and Avalokitesvara,
Sangye (Buddhas) Changsem (Boddhisattvas), the science of numbers
and of the stars, the Stitrantas and the sacred works on divine pro-
phecies !—Judge ye all of my skill.
“© Brahma Chaturmukha (thou with four faces)! O Naga Raja
whose head is formed of seven serpents! O mighty Vijayd, the god-
dess who rules over the elements! O sage Kapila Muni! O Kung-fu-tse
(Confucius), the miraculous prince of China! O saints and Vidyé-
dharas!—Ye are all witnesses to my work.
1893.] S. C. Das—Marriage Customs of Tibet. 13
“O the four great sages of China, the four saints of Tibet, and the
Pandits and Lochavas of India and Tibet!—Help me in this test of
TRUTH.
“QO ye five kinds of Brahma-Kayika Devas, who rule over the
fire in the South, over the wood in the Hast, over the adamantine moun-
tains in the West, over the Ocean in the North, and over the ethereal
space in the middle region !—Bear me out.
“The eight great planets, the sun and moon, the Pleiades and the
78 constellations !—Do you all test the truth of my science.
“The great gods including Brahma, the eight ndga demons
headed by Nanda, the four Maharaja Kayikas, the guardian kings of
the world, and the seventy Palgon (the noble spirits who defend Bud-
dhism) !—Help me in drawing true conclusions from astrology and the
science of divination.
“The four celestial nymphs called Man-tsun Chen-mo, (Maha
Matrika) who preside over medicine, the twelve sylvan goddesses called
the Ten-ma Chufi, who under a solemn compact have become protectors
of Buddhism in Tibet, the local gods and demigods, together with your
attendants, the kings and ministers !—Bear ye all witness to my work.
“The nine mystic figures called the Me-va gu and the eight gno-
mons on the chart of divination called the Parha and the cycle of sixty
years !—Receive homage from me.
“The grey tiger that keeps the farthest end of the Hastern Quarter,
the blue dragon of the South, the red huge bird of the West, and the
golden tortoise of the North !—Receive your share of respect from me.
“T make this religious service which is threefold, being exoteric,
esoteric and mystic, to honour you, and I make offerings to you for grant-
ing me power to arrive at accurate results in calculating astrological
events and to divine correctly. Will you, therefore, explain to me the
science of divination, and demonstrate every fact and figure connected
with it as clearly as reflections fall on a mirror of polished silver ?
“To-day we are to ascertain whether the youth and the maiden to
be united are possessed of the ten virtues of matrimonial concord (mthun-
sbyor); the twenty characteristics of demeanour (hgro-lam); If they
will deserve the ten kinds of dowry, and also the services of five men
necessary for conducting wedding ceremonies. O Venerable Lamas
and learned elders! Shew unto me all that is essential for astrology,
and correct me when I err.”
Then taking the names of the years of the birth of the males and
females of both sides, the astrologer ascertains the chances of life, 7. e.
(longevity), accidents to the body, power (wang-thang), and prosperity
(by observing the Rlun rta wind-horse or fortune), and by setting these
14. S. C. Das—Marriage Customs of Tibet. [No. 1,
four against each other by the throw of the back and white balls on the
chart. The good and evil of life, and the wind-horse of the male’s year
being calculated, are set against those obtained from the female’s year.
Again the body and power of the female’s year are set against those
calculated from the male’s year. If in the throw of the globules the
white ones turn up in favour of the parties to be married, good luck is
prognosticated, and the thwn-tst is ascertained.
If the good and evil of the life of the male harmonize in the
calculation with those of the life of the female, longevity is counted
upon. If not, the happiness of the couple will be short-lived.
If in the calculation the accidents to the body of the male agree
with those of the female, the astrologer declares that the marriage will
be happy in respect of issue. Want of harmony in the persons of the
parties indicates barrenness.
If the wang-thang (power) of the male corresponds with that of the
female, the astrologer declares that the parties will be prosperous in
reference to wealth. Want of harmony in wang-thang in the parties
indicates poverty and waste of wealth.
If the wind-horse (fortune) of the male agrees with that of the
female, the marriage is predicted to be a very happy one, as love and
concord are sure to attend them, and to be the guiding principles of
their life. If the wind-horse of the one run counter to that of the other,
the marriage is pronounced to be unlucky and unhappy, as the parties
would then constantly fall out.
When parties are anxious to be married in spite of adverse astro-
logical results standing against the union, the astrologer ascertains
how many of the circumstances are favourable to the parties, and
how many against them. If they agree in three-fourths of the cireum-
stances, religious observances are necessary to avert the dangers con-
sequent on the disagreement in the remaining one-fourth; but when at
least one-half of the circumstances stand against the parties, no reli-
gious observance is supposed to be of sufficient efficacy to avert the
dangers of an inauspicious union. The proposal is then dropped, and
another maiden is sought.
The Tibetans use different kinds of astrological charts and calculations
which are based on Indian and Chinese methods. The astrologer failing
one kind of calculation tries another. When astrology fails, divination,
by deciphering the mystic marks on the back of the fabulous golden
tortoise is resorted to. In this manner the astrologer of Tibet makes a
busy trade of his craft, the like of which is seldom seen either in India
or China. Among the priestly crafts of Tibet none is considered so
lucrative as that of the astrologer.
1893. ] . 8. C. Das—Marriage Customs of Tibet. 15
As soon as the astrologer declares that the thwun-tst, 7, e., the circum-
stances of harmony necessary in the marriage are favourable, the
parents consult their friends and relations in order to ascertain the suit-
ability of the match, and send one or two bar-mi (go-betweens) to ascer-
tain the views of the maternal uncle of the maiden selected regarding her
marriage. He generally withholds his opinion under various excuses.
According to the customs of the country the Shazgpo (maternal uncle)
of a maiden is the real arbiter of her fate in the matter of marriage. No-
thing can be settled without reference tohim. When his leave is secured
the marriage proposal can be formally made to the maiden’s parents.
The bar-mi with the permission of the Sha#gpo, on an auspicious
day during the increasing lunation of the month, proceed to the house
of the parents of the maiden to present them with the léng-chang
(in Sikkim nang-chang) and therewith formally make the proposal
of marriage. The word léng-chang is derived from léng, to beg or apply,
and chang, wine, meaning the present of wine to apply for marriage,
In Sikkim the candidate for the maiden’s hand accompanies the bar-mz.
but in Tibet the case is otherwise. On the way they observe omens and
prognostics. If they see any empty vessel they turn back.
The léng-chang consists of the following: at least a gallon of wine,
a silk scarf, five silver coins, and five or nine kinds of things placed
onatray. The loéng-chang is required to be carried by a man who has
been the father of several sons and daughters. Under no circum-
stances is a widower, or one whois childless, or whose children have died,
allowed to carry it. The parents of the maiden receive the bar-mi
with politeness, and serve them with wine andtea. After emptying one
or two cups of tea the bar-mi present them with a scarf, and beg for
leave to state their mission. The parents at first shew some indiffer-
ence to their request, and try to turn the conversation on some current
topics of the day. The bar-mi press the point they are interested
in, and say that they have come with the ldng-chang to beg for the
gem (their daughter). They are then told that the giving up of the
norbu (gem) is no trifle, and so they should not be too sanguine about
getting it.
If, after repeated entreaties, they succeed in getting any assurance of
good will from the maiden’s parents they open the wine bottle belonging
to the long-chang and pour wine into the cups of the friends and
relations of the parents who happen to be present on the occasion. At
this stage the parents make the following remarks :—
** According to the common saying of the country the maternal
uncle is the owner of one half of the person of his niece or nephew, just
as half the cloth of a robe belongs to the sleeves. Accordingly if the
16 8. C. Das—Marriage Customs of Tibet. [No. 1,
maternal uncle of our daughter, and also her relations and friends, agree
to the proposal, it will be possible for us to accept the long-chang ; but
otherwise we must return it.”
It is therefore necessary first of all to arrange the marriage
business with the maternal uncle. The proverb says, ‘‘ Both in marriage
and merchandise there should be no kind of solicitation.” So the party
that has won the maternal uncle over to his side need not shew any
anxiety for the acceptance of the long-chang.
If the bar-mzi can any how induce the parents to drink a cup of
wine from the léng-chang the betrothal is effected. But they studiously
avoid partaking of anything pertaining to the long-chang before con-
sulting the maternal uncle.
MarriaGe Ceremonies or Tiner (U anp Tsanc).
After accepting the léng-chang the parents of the maiden in consul-
tation with the léng-mi, called bar-mi in Sikkim, and the astrologer fix
an auspicious date for celebrating the marriage.
The bridegroom remains at home. His friends and _ relations
proceed to the house of the bride’s parents to fetch her. No music
nor dancing mark a Tibetan marriage at the outset.
On the appointed day the parents of the bride make the necessary
preparations for receiving the bridegroom’s party who come dressed
in their best apparel. Being seated on low or high cushions, accord-
ing to their respective rank and position, the guests are regaled with
tea and wine and dainty dishes. A quantity of barley flour, red
potatoes, biscuits and cakes in wooden trays, and meat (boiled, dried
and raw) in brass and silver trays, are placed before the principal guests.
In the meantime the bride is taken to her toilet. First her hair
is washed, to which she reluctantly submits, shedding tears at the
idea of separation from her parents and friends. These try to console
her with kisses and show of affection. Her nearest female relations
come to soothe her mind with kind words. The bridesmaid (sent from
the bridegroom’s parents), comes to help her in her toilet; She plaits
her hair and dresses the locks in the form of a crown decorating them
with strings of pearl, and turquoises. She then puts on her ornaments of
gold and silver, coral, amber, ruby and other precious stones.
The marriage festivities generally last for three days at the house
of the bride’s parents, when their friends and relations avail themselves
of the opportunity of shewing their good-wishes to them by making
presents to her. The parents first arrange for the dowry, then the rela-
tions send their presents, and last of all come the personal friends and
acquaintances of the bride to make the bridal gifts and to wish her a
1893. ] 8S. C. Das—Marriage Customs of Tibet. 17
long conjugal life, of prosperity and happiness. The presents are then
collected and made over to the best man with a list of them. As soon as
he comes to receive them, the companions of the bride by way of
of a joke, secretly remove his earring, head dress, wrapper or any other
article they can get hold of belonging to him. At the time he takes no
notice of their jokes, but on the following morning he complains to them
about the loss of his things, and offers a reward for their recovery. A
present of three to four srang (ounces of silver) to them secures him the
return of the lost things.
A Tantrik priest called Nag-chang performs the ceremony of
propitiating the Pholha (the household god) with incense burnt at
a conspicuous place. ‘The representative of the bridegroom now makes
a present of five or nine varieties of articles to the mother of the bride,
and says that as the usage of the country sanctions the offering of
what is called the nu-vin (the price of mother’s milk) she must accept it.
When the bride leaves the house of her parents which is usually
done a little before the dawn, the N ag-chang burns some incense to
please the naga demons who (are supposed to) live underground
within the premises of her parents. These unseen beings are believed
to be often attached to some individual member of a family so as to
follow them like a dog wherever they happen to go. It is the duty of
the Nag-chang to keep them back by the efficacy of his charms and pre-
vent their following the bride to her husband’s place.
The su-mi (the bridegroom’s people who come to escort the bride)
and kyel-mi (men who escort her to her hasband’s place), and the bag-
yog-ma (female attendant of the bride), proceed to the altar of the house-
hold god of the family to take leave of him. They make three saluta-
tions to him each time taking their hats off.
Then coming out of the house they seat the bride on a stool placed
at the door. A priest (of the Bon religion) now performs the ceremony
of yangiig (invoking good luck) by reciting some mystic charms and
walking round her from right to left in the manner of a Bon religious
circumambulation. When this is done, a small arrow studded with five
precious stones and with five scraps of silk of five colours attached to its
pinnacle, is fixed on the neck of her dress, its point touching the top of
her head-dress. She is then placed on the back of a pony and slowly
led to her future home. The parents with tears in their eyes now come
to bid her farewell, and present her with the auspicious scarf called
tashi-khatag. They send the kyel-chang (farewell wine) to be served to
her at a short distance from the gate of their residence.
The bridal party then proceeds towards the bridegroom’s house,
being heralded by what is called ta-kar mi-kar (a man in white
J i. 3
18 S. C. Das—Marriage Customs of Tibet. [No. 1,
riding on a white horse). An amulet containing some mystic charms to
protect her against evil influences and the evil spirits of the ten quarters,
is now worn by the bride. This is considered very essential for her well-
being at this time. When a bride proceeds to her future home unprovided
with this indispensable safeguard she is sure to fall under the malignant
influence of evil spirits. For during her journey from the place
where the farewell wine is served, 7. e., where she parts company with
her parents and friends, and the place where she is first received with
what is called the welcome-wine, she is not accompanied by the guard-
ian spirit either from her father’s side or from the bridegroom’s
quarter. As soon as the bride approaches the house of the bridegroom, a
second batch of sw-mz (people sent to receive the bride), dividing them-
selves into three parties, wait at three different stages on the way to
refresh her with the welcome-wine. At each of these places she stops
a few minutes to receive the welcome-wine and the auspicious scarves.
As soon as the bridal party arrives at the gate of the bridegroom’s
house, his friends, fearing lest some evil spirits may have followed the
bride from her father’s place, make arrangements to drive them off. For
this purpose they bring the devil’s effigy made of cloth or barley, painted
with coloured butter, and throw it on the ground before the bride. The
kyel-mi, i. e., those who have come from her parents’ house to escort her,
here take offence at this demonstration of groundless fear on the part of
the bridegroom’s people. They keep a sharp eye on the man who throws —
the devil’s effigy, and, if possible, catch him in the act and tear his
clothes to pieces by way of punishment. They let him off on ex-
tracting from him the promise of the payment of a fine of two or three
srangs. In their turn they now try to find fault with the arrangements
made for the bride’s reception. It is customary to hanga piece of long
silk scarf from the top of the gate on the occasion of the arrival of the
bride. The bridegroom’s people let the scarf drop for a moment and then
lift it up. The bride’s friends try to catch it and take it away to the
bride’s parents in token of their triumph over the bridegroom’s party.
Then the officiating Tantrik priest recites afew benedictory verses, &c.,
describing the door, house, &c., of the bridegroom,
“ Hail, self-existent Dharma! Let there be happiness to all living
beings. The lintel of this door is yellow, being made of gold. The door-
posts are cut out of blocks of turquoise. The sill is made of silver.
The door frame is made of lapiz lazuli. Opening this auspicious door
you find in it the repository of five kinds of precious things. Blessed
are they who live in sucha house. Let them enjoy long life without
being troubled with sufferings and dangers. Prosperity be theirs, and
let there be no limit to their wealth, O, happy couple! If you wish to
1893.] S. C. Das—Marriage Customs in Tibet. 19
found a family you should first do homage to the three Holies (Buddha,
Dharma, and Sangha). Secondly, you should extend your charity to the
poor and the fallen. Thirdly, your compassion to all living beings should
be unlimited. We come from our fatherland, the country of gems, to
open the mines of five precious metals, and to plant the root of genera-
tion. We have come indeed to execute a high mission, so do not close
the door against us. Open it that we may enter.”
Then the mother of the bridegroom, dressed in her best apparel,
with a tray containing the dah-dar and some barley flour mixed with
butter, in her right hand, and with a jar full of milk in her left hand,
comes to receive the bride and to present her with the tashi-khatag and
che-mar (the buttered barley). The bride helped by two female at-
tendants alights on a stool which is covered with a rug containing the
figure of the swastika. She is conducted by her mother-in-law to the
marriage altar, and seated to the left of the bridegroom.
The carpet on which they sit usually contains the figure of the
swastika and the floor of the room is painted with a paste made of wheat-
flour, and water. The bridal party consisting of the kyel-m7i and the su-mz
then enter the reception hall after tasting a little che-mar (buttered
barley), at the threshold. The friends of the bridegroom sit in the left
row, the seats on the right row being reserved for those who come on
behalf of the bride’s parents. A sumptuous dinner is served to them.
In the meantime the friends and relations of the bridegroom come to
offer their tashi-khatag (auspicious scarves) to the married couple, and
to make presents to them. It is customary with them to supply the
provisions necessary for the entertainment of the first day. On this
occasion all the neighbours of the bridegroom also take part in the festi-
vities and make presents of cloth, gold, silver, &c., with auspicious
scarves according to their means and taste.
Music and singing are kept up throughout the day. Then when
the auspicious hour of solemnizing the marriage arrives the Nag-chang
makes offerings to the gods, and gives a new name to the bride, con-
necting it in some manner with the name of her mother-in-law. When
this is performed a small piece of wood, about six inches long, is held
to the lips of the bridegroom. The bride now sits in front of her
husband, and takes the other end of the wood between her lips.
In the meantime a tuft of wool is placed in the hands of the
bridegroom who draws out the fibres to some length. The bride takes it
from his hands and twists it into a thread. This is called the ceremony
of the first work of harmonious union. Then the party of the bride
separate from that of the bridegroom, and sitting in rows of seats
facing each other sing repartee songs. When the festivities terminate
the bridegroom dismisses the kyel-mi with suitable presents.
20 S. C. Das
Marriage Customs in Sikkim. [No.1,
PART If.
MarrRiaGeE Customs In SIKKIM.
The marriage ceremony takes place generally a year after the accep-
tance of the Nag-chang though it is not unusual with the rich to have
it performed after six months when the parties to be united are of proper
age. On this occasion too, the influence of the Ashang (maternal uncle)
continues to be paramount. The party of the bridegroom entertains
him with rich food and wine to obtain his final sanction to the marriage.
The-entertainment that is given to him is called den-chéing. The suitor,
however poor he may be, must, at least, contribute a roast fowl to
the dainty feast that is prepared for him.
The bar-mi (intermediators) settle the price of the bride with
her parents, who say that the gem in question being very valuable
cannot be parted with easily. At last the price is settled, which among
the poor people of Tibet living in the frontier generally comes to a few
score of tankas or srangs, according to the resources of the bride-
groom. The bar-mi then take the permission of the bride’s parents to
appoint an auspicious day for celebrating the marriage ceremony.
This done their duties are at an end.
The maternal uncles of the parties or their representatives now come
forward to conduct the marriage as dodag (managers). In Sikkim
and Bhutan the dodags are furnished by the respective parties with what
is called bar-zen (the mediator’s fee) usually estimated at ten per cent.
of the price of the bride.
So long as the marriage is not completed, the position of the
bridegroom is considered to be that of a suppliant beggar. In Tibet he
is received with some consideration, but in Sikkim and Bhutan his position
is far from bemg enviable. But as soon as the marriage is settled,
and the price of the bride fixed, his maternal uncle begins to assume a
position of equality with that of the bride’s maternal uncle.
He cites the common saying. “ Da-va mé-na ten mi-kyab.” Where
equality (of position) is wanting there should be no marriage.
The question now arises where should the two parties meet to
conduct the wedding ceremony. The suitor’s maternal uncle en-
deavours to have it done according to the old customs of the country
at an intermediate place between the residences of the two parties, but
the bride’s party do not agree to this. At last the former yields to the
latter, and the wedding takes place at the residence of the bride’s parents.
On the day of marriage the bar-mi again meet for the definite
settlement or payment of the price of the bride. They are paid the
usual mediation fee of five rupees or srang from each side,
If the bride belongs to the higher class, 7. e,, the nobility, she is
1893. ] S. C. Das—-Marriage Customs in Sikkim. 21
valued at 18 ponies (each pony being valued at Rs. 50), and a present of
nine articles called the gu-tshan consisting of the following :—a gold
mohar, eight ounces of silver, a silk robe, a matchlock, a robe of
thick Tibetan serge, called purug-go, khamar (wrapper made of raw
silk), baborma (a good milch cow with a calf), a silk scarf of superior
quality.
The price of a bride among the middle class is estimated at 12
ponies and a present of five different articles.
In the case of the poor the price of a pony is estimated at 50 ibs. of
butter. If it is understood that the bride will bring with her a male
and female slave her price is raised by two ponies, and the entire carcass
of a pig or sheep thrown in.
The value of a bride among the common people is fixed at four
ponies with a present of three things called the swm-tshan.
According to the common saying of the country, the price of a
bride isin fact due to the mother. In Tibet itis called nu-rin (the price
of mother’s milk). The mother does not personally accept it on any
account, but when parents do receive it according to the usage of the
country, it is understood that double the amount of the price received
should be given to the bride as peejong (dowry). This dowry becomes
peema—the personal property of the bride, and corresponds with what
is called str¢dhan in India.
When the marriage takes place at an intermediate place, the pro-
visions necessary for the entertainment are supplied by both the parties—
the largest share being borne by the bridegroom. In Sikkim he is
required to furnish what is called shya-gyu—the carcass of a bull slaugh-
tered for the occasion. When the marriage takes place at the house of
the bride’s parents they entertain their relations, friends and neighbours
for one whole day with rich dishes and chang. The wedding cere-
mony takes place at or before noon, when the don-ier or khalenpa
delivers a harangue to the assembled people—and invokes the gods and
the spirits of the ten quarters.
A respectable man of the village, who is blessed with sons and
daughters, and has means, is appointed to perform the khalen as
follows :—‘‘ The three Holies (Buddha, Dharma and Safigha), the united
body of the sainted Lamas, the spirits of the ten quarters, the guard-
ian gods and defenders of Buddhism, the four great spirit kings,
the snowy mountain Himalaya, the divine keepers of the sacred places
and sites, the tutelary deities and guardian angels, and such other gods
and spirits whom the parents of the bridegroom and bride propitiate, and
ye celestial beings henceforth protect this married couple, named
and From this day he will be hers and she his. They will be
mutually responsible to each other for their respective conduct.
92 8. C. Das—Marriage Customs in Sikkim. [No. 1,
“ He will not allow her to be ravished, or seduced by another man,
nor will she allow him to fall under the influence of another woman.
He will not in any way deprive her of her personal properties, nor
allow other men more or less powerful than himself to rob or purloin
her personal effects. They are united together this day in our presence,
and ye gods and saints bear witness to their wedding.” To this the
couple, seated by each other’s side, nod assent when the don-iier throws
a fine white silk scarf called tashi khadag on their heads.
Then the relations and friends of the bride and bridegroom present
them each with a silk scarf, and in terms of affection wish them a happy
life. This ends the first stage of the marriage ceremony called fen,
marriage. Though the price of the bride has been paid, and the khalen-
pa has announced the wedding to the public, yet the married couple are
not permitted to enjoy the honeymoon until a year has expired, or till
the festivity of chang-thting (drinking) has been performed. During
this time the bridegroom is required to make frequent visits to his
father-in-law’s house with fancy presents for his spouse. In fact, this
is the period of courtship with Tibeten-speaking people. Among the
agricultural tribes of Sikkim and Bhutan this period is called dor-gyug
(the period of servitude). The common saying among them is that “a
son-in-law, though he is not a slave, must serve his father-in-law and
mother-in-law, for at least three years before he can enjoy the person
of his bride.” This term of three years in the case of the lower classes
is counted from the time of léng-chang. Among the higher classes
betrothal, marriage and chang-thing are all finished within a year. It
is in the case of the middle classes that these ceremonies extend over
two years. The period of dor-gyug among the humbler classes can be
conveniently shortened by payment of money, or by the present of five
varieties of articles to the bride’s parents
CHANG-THUNG (THE FESTIVAL OF DRINKING).
This final ceremony of marriage generally takes place one year
after the wen (formal marriage). The bridegroom again sends two
bar-mi to ascertain the wishes of the bride’s parents regarding the time
of chang-thing. This is considered the most delicate part of the mar-
riage business, or behu bwmot lon joi as it is called in Sikkim and
Bhutan. The parents and friends of the bride try on the slightest
pretence to postpone it indefinitely in order to extract more service
from the bridegroom. The bar-mi therefore exert themselves with much
tact and care to ensure success in inducing the bride’s parents to agree
to chang-thing. This being arranged, they consult the astrologer to fix
an auspicious day for commencing the festivities and to prepare the
1893.] 8S. C. Das—Marriage Customs in Sikkim. 23
bride’s horoscope. The marriage hour called bag-kar, (the marriage-
stur) occurs only once in a month, so the day in which the auspicious
hour falls is selected for the wedding.
The festivity of chang-thiing extends over six days, the entertain-
ment of the first three days takes place in the house of the bride’s parents,
and that of the remaining three days in the bridegroom’s place.
The first day of the festivity is called the déng-chang, 1. e., the day
of the first drinking, when the don-iier again invokes the gods and spirits
in the terms stated above. The second day of the festivity is called
chang-thting-chenpo, 1. e., the day of grand drinking when also the khalen
is made with much warmth. As soon as the don-fer finishes his
harangue, the Tasi-kyi-Lama begins his work—the ritual of auspicious
offerings to the gods and spirits. These offerings, called tashi torma are
made of barley flour and wheat decorated with wafers made of coloured
butter, in the shape of chaityas and fancy temple-like structures. With
these the head of the bride is first touched and then they are thrown
towards the spirits, who are supposed to have assembled in space at the
exhortation of the Lama. ‘The third day of the festivity is called Chang-
ser, t. e., the day of the golden drink.
On the evening before the dong-chang the bridegroom’s people
proceed to fetch the bride. The party consists of one or two valets of
the bridegroom, four or five of his relations, including the Ashang
(maternal uncle) who generally performs the réle of the best man, two
or three men called the na-thi (guides of the bridal party), the pag-ré
(bridesmaid) the hhyting bag-ko (the maid of honour), the bride’s
page who carries the bride’s jewellery, &c., and a number of servants.
- The bridegroom’s valet performs the part of the thief (kiin-chen) which
is considered a dishonorable and odious duty in the marriage affairs
of these cis-Himalayan countries. The bridesmaid sits by the side of
the bride and covers her lap with a piece of silken wrapper called the
pang-khep. All these people who form the bridal party, are selected ac-
cording to the directions supplied by the astrologer, and are supposed to
be well-to-do people of good fortune. No widower, widow, or tshang-nag-
pa (husband and wife, to whom no son has been born) or rab-ché (those
who are barren) are ever allowed to join a bridal party.
In the morning preceding the day of déng-chang, the order and
arrangement of seats for the people coming from the bridegroom’s house,
and also for those belonging to the bride’s parents are settled. The
si-mt come in the evening of that day, but the kiin-chen knowing how
he will be dealt with by the bride’s friends, loiters behind to seek for an
opportunity to enter the house of the bride’s parents in a secret manner.
In his endeavour to do so he is assisted by the bridegroom, who having
9A S. C. Das—Marriage Customs in Sikkim. [No. 1,
been in the house of the bride’s father, has become acquainted with
every detail of it. The fencing round the house of the bride’s parents
is covered with the branches of thorny plants and nettles. Two addi-
tional fences are erected at some distance from the house for the purpose
of stopping the kén-chen and also to prevent his running away from
the place.
Guards are stationed at each of these fences to watch the move-
ments of the kzim-chen who nevertheless succeeds in entering the house
either by scaling them, or by some kind of strategy. With the excep-
tion of the pag-pon and one or two of his respectable companions, the
rest of the party are treated with sham contempt and mockery. When
others are served with good chang, bad chang, refuse and coarse kind of
food, intended for pigs, &c., are placed before them. These not unfre-
quently exchange sharp words with the female friends and companions
of the bride, who sometimes in the way of joke, sometimes in earnest,
seek an opportunity to annoy them. If they be a quiet sort of people
they generally settle the sham difference with these women by a bribe
called mag-log (the fee of defeat).
The kéin-chen iu the dead of night, when all the guards are asleep,
makes his way to the place of the bride’s parents by either scaling the
fences or breaking through them. He comes provided with a pair of
leather, or felt boots, and some woollen, or thick sackcloth. On his
arrival at the door of the house, he finds that it has been closed from
within.
At this time the bridegroom tries all his resources to get him inside
the house. He calls the hiin-chen by signs or by a whistle to enter the
house by lifting up some of the loose planks of the floor from under-
neath the hog-khang, where pigs and cattle are kept. Sometimes he points
out to him the weak part of the roof or a bamboo wall of the house
through which a passage is possible. If possible the bridegroom quietly
comes out of the house to help the kiéin-chen. If the female relatives of
the bride happen to be awake, they light torches called (bag-zi) to
beat him. Some among them being friendly, or brought to his side by
a bribe, try to extinguish the light. As soon as the kiin-chen enters the
house he at once wraps himself up with all the clothes that he can get
hold of therein. The women now come headed by the bride’s sister to
beat him with switches and thorny twigs in their hands. In spite of the
help that he can obtain from those that are friendly to him, he gets a
thorough beating. The more violent among the women beat him mer-
cilessly, as if he were the real enemy of the bride. Unable to bear the
beating the kin-chen sometimes abuses them, and sometimes he falls on
his knees to beg for forgiveness. Sometimes he feigns exhaustion, and
1893.] S. C. Das—Marriage Customs im Sikkim 25
falling prostrate on the ground, salutes them saying, ‘“‘O merciful ladies
forgive me. I shall pay the mag-lég (the fee of defeat)”’ If they do
not beat him severely, he remains on the ground as motionless, or
half dead, and does not pay the mag-lég, and at the end appropriates to
himself the articles of mag-ldg which the bridegreom gives him to
compensate his supposed loss in the way of mag-log.
Sometimes the kiin-chan behaves very humbly towards the female
friends of the bride, in consequence of which they treat him with less
severity, but under no circumstance can he escape the beating alto-
gether. In the morning of the first day of chang-thing called the
dong-chang, he is placed ina conspicuous place in the reception-room,
wrapped up in blankets and other thick stuffs.
Dong-chang:—In the morning at about 8 o'clock, the guests con-
sisting of the relations, friends, neighbours, &c., begin to assemble in
the marriage hall. They bring with them each a basketful of chang,
a bag of rice, and a potful of barley flour, Hach guest, as he enters the
hall, strikes the kiin-chan lightly with the switch kept there for the pur-
pose. The kén-chan expresses his painin loud shrieks. Sometimes when
wanton boys apply the switch freely to his body, ke willrush at them
furiously. When the kiin-chan goes out to attend the call of nature,
he is surrounded by the female friends of the bride, and is forced to sit
on a log of the tree called sam-shing, the raw bark of which produces a
blister when it touches the skin. The log is covered with nettles and
ether thorny plants so as to look like a horse. If he can be made to
sit on the wooden horse they will hoot him with shrieks and laughter.
Jf he does not sit upon it they beat him with nettles tiil he enters the
room.
Chaug-thing chenpo:—On the second day of the festivities the
neighbours, friends and relations of the bride’s parents are entertained
with wine, rice, meat, &c, The guests headed by the chief priest of the
village, called Tashi-kyi Lama, present their respective scarves, together
with silver coins, clothes, metal utensils, and tashi-kha-tag to the bride
and express their good wishes for her. Some among the guests, who are
near and dear to the bride, will present her with two or more scarves,
saying that they present this scarf, called the kyider (the scarf of hap-
piness), that scarf, called gadar (the scarf of joy ), to wish her gladness, ard
soon. The guests also make presents of tang-dar, i. e., a scarf with a Ti-
betan tanka or a rupee, to the pag-pon, 1. e., the best man and the brides-
maid. As scon as the scarves and other presents are brought the
don-ier (veceiver of guests) announces the name of each donor, The
money presents are deposited in a silver pot kept for the purpose on
a small table before the bride. Then some one from among the
J. 111. 4
26 S. C. Das—Marriage Customs in Sikkim. [Nore
bridegroom’s friends acknowledges the presents, &c., by saying thug-je
che (great mercy). At this time the kiin-chan remains in his solitary
seat, but unmolested by anybody. ‘Till midday he finds himself
very solitary as no one talks to him or makes any fun with him.
When the presentation of scarves and tang-dar is finished, the guests
sit at dinner, and drink chang to their heart’s content. After dinner the
guests touch the kiin-chan’s head with their sticks. Some beat him
lightly with the switch, This is called solgyab (after-dinner beating).
The guests are served with chang and tea in the aftenoon when they
again play the same kind of practical jokes with the kin-chan. This
is called the chang-gyab (beating after drinking). In the evening butter-
ed tea is served to them with barley flour or parched Indian-corn. Again
they beat the unfortunate kiin-chan lightly with their sticks. This
is called after evening-tea beating. When he has quietly undergone
these indignities, the women taking pity on him cease to beat him
any more. They ask him to drink chang. Sometimes a wooden bucket
filled with chang is givento him. A servant then hands over to him a
china-cup called yangtse with which he draws wine from the bucket. Then
a trayful of half-baked beef or fowl, mixed with red pepper and kitchen
soot, is placed before him. The female friends of the bride again come
to annoy him. This time, catching him by his ears they force a quantity
of under-done beef into his mouth. Some make him drink chang. Then
the principal guests sing some benedictory songs, and offering their
prayers to the Buddhas and the Boddhisattvas, to bless the married
couple, they return to their respective homes,
Chang-ser :—On the third day of the festival, called the golden
drinking, the neighbours and relations of the bride’s parents again
assemble to a grand dinner and drinking, when large quantities of beef
and pork are given to them to eat. ‘Two or more oxen or pigs, that have
been slaughtered on the previous day, are cooked in large cauldrons with
red-pepper and salt. The beef and pork so prepared, are called shya-
gyw and sha-phag, respectively. At midnight of the third day the kin-chan
runs away quietly, Jf the women can catch him while running away
they give him a good heating, which is called dol-non (the beating
before he escapes). It is for this reason that the mother of the bride
takes especial care of him and secretly arranges for his flight. The
kin-chan having effected his escape, proceeds to the rest-house that has
been especially erected for the bridal party midway and waits there.
Here he changes his clothes and becomes transformed into a great
man called the tha-pon. The bride’s mother sends some wine, beef
and rice for his refreshment.
When the festivities at the house of the bride’s parents terminate,
4893.] S. C. Das—Marriage Customs in Sikkim. 27
the officiating Lama makes offerings to the gods at the auspicious
moments cailed the du-tsi jor Gn Sanskrit Amrita yoga), the moments
ealled chi-jor, the conjunction of the malignant stars, being avoided.
The offerings are first applied to the heads of the bride’s parents
and then thrown away, generally at the junction of two roads. At the
Same auspicious time the bride sets off for her future home. The
astrologer new furnishes instructions on the following points :—
1. In what direction the bride should first look on starting.
2. What feod or thing she should taste on her arrival at her
husband’s house.
3. What should be the year of birth of the woman who dresses
her hair.
4. To what work the bride should put her hands first.
5. What should be the year of birth of pag-pon, the best-man.
6. The name of the man, who should first serve the bride wit! food.
7. The name of the man who should conduct her to her husband’s
house.
8. What should be the colour of the horse to be used for her con-
veyance.
9. The colour of the cushion, on which she should sit on arriving
at her husband’s house,
The bridal party start early in the morning. The bride is now
surrounded by her friends and female relations, who shed tears on parting
with her. The pag-pon (best-man,) the bridesmaid, khyiin-bag-ko, and
other attendants who form the sé-mi, take charge of her from her parents.
Some of her father’s relations and friends join the party to escort her safely
to the bridegroom’s house All the people who form the bridal party are
called kin-don. If the bridegroom’s house be a day’s journey distant the
kiin-don halt at some convenient place midway for refreshment, where a
tent or temporary shed has been erected for the purpose. At this time
they are not allowed admission into any dwelling-house. It is believed
that a malignant spirit called dong-ser-geg always walks before the bride,
and those who fall in his way suffer all kinds of danger. It is for this
reason that passers-by turn aside when they happen to come across a
bridal party.
Here the kéim-chan, now transformed into a great man, waits for the
bridal party. He is called the tha-pon (hawk-chief), for having come
out of the ordeal successfully, 7. e., having snatched away the bride from
the midst of her parents and friends like a hawk. Here he becomes the
leader of the party, his position being second only to that of the pag-pon
(best-man). Ru
In the meantime the bridegroom sends another party of st-mz with
28 8. C. Das—Marriage Customs in Sikkim. [No. 1,
chang-gytg (wine for welcoming) to recetve the bridal party. These
dividing themselves into three parties, wait on the way in three stages.
They carry with them a number of bamboo bottles of boiled chang,
and reeds for sucking the liquor from them, and one or two heavy loads
of fermented chang (mur-wa beer). At each stage they burn incense to
the gods in large quantities for the purpose of purifying the atmosphere
and also to drive away the evil spirits.
The first division of sié-mt, that meet the bridal party midway
inform the ¢ha-pon of the health of the bridegroom and the arrange-
ments for their reception, and the the-pon in a short speech asks them
to partake of the welcoming wine sent for their reception and refreshment.
He first invokes the gods, &e., then drinks chang. The invocation con-
sists of the following :—
“The highest reverence is due to the three Holies. The guardian
deities and tutelary deities claim our adoration with precious objects,
By the blessings of the Lamas and the kind advice and predictions of —
the Dakinis, angels that soar on high, we succeed im all our worldly
undertakings. The secrets of our success are supplied by the tutelary
deities, and the Dharmapalas protect us by driving away the evil spirits
from our neighbourhood. Let all the dangers and accidents to life that
await us be averted! Listen to our prayers, and in return for the
service we haye rendered to you grant us health, wealth and all that
the married couple may be in need of. O extend your helping hands
to them at all times!”
Those who wait at the second stage raise a bower of green branches
and leaves of trees for receiving the bride. Here a fire is kept
burning and water boiling in a large cauldron. This is called the
thab-so (keeping of the hearth). A kid is kept tied to a post at
the entrance of the bower. Two or three long bamboo bottles called
padéim, filled with water and decorated with wreaths of flowers, are also
kept outside the entrance of the bower. Here the bridal party is
regaled with chang and tea.
The last place where the bridal party is given the most cordial
welcome is the tangra (outer courtyard) of the bridegroom’s house,
Here a man waits with a wooden tray containing the chang-ki yang-tse
(a large cup full of wine) on the brim of which are stuck five crumbs of
buttered barley called the yaga, a quantity of chemar (butter and barley
flour mixed together), and the dah-dar (arrow with the five-coloured
flags at its pinnacle). The bridal party as they enter the courtyard
touch the wine and other articles at the entrance.
In the bridegroom’s house his mother makes the necessary arrange-
ment for the reception of the bride and the kin-don (bridal party). She
tt”
1893.] 8. C. Das—Marriaye Customs in Sckkim. 29
prepares the marriage-cake service, called the ama-kha-don (mother’s
first entertainment). This consists of cooked rice, buttered barley flour,
a ball of butter, cakes and some fruits. In a separate vessel is kept the
food intended for the bride, which she is to taste first according to the
directions of the astrologer.
The Tashi-kyi-Lamda, who has constructed some fancy cakes painted
with coloured butter for offering to the gods and the spirits of the ten
quarters, now draws some mystic figures on a small table for the yang-
gég (invoking the goddess of luck and fortune). ] U : 5 Ge
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6 | Shaikh Jum do. i do. 25 770 | 1754 | 1660 | 830 | 1220 | 1244 181 |146 | 80°6
: |
7 |Shaikh Katoun| do, ... | Tinnevally ... 35 \850 | 1852 | 1724 | 806 | 1246 | 1320 | ... [176 \145 | 82°3
S India.
§ | Sinon Seal todo: i: Colombo... be 770 | 1642 | 1604 | 720-| 1182 | 1210 | ... }181 |149 | 82-3
9 | Mandi Nayna| do. ... |... | Kalapore ., {25 |830 | 1720 | 1642 | 854 | 1236 | 1286 | ... |188 140 | 74-4
S. India,
10 | Muhamad ...| do. ... | «. | Colombo... |25 790 | 1720 | 1680 | 850 | 1236 | 1250 | ... [182 |142 | 78-0
31 | Nather Sha-| do. sevillboos Salem ... [40 }840 | 1612 | 1584 | 320 | 1188 | 1182 | .., [184 |148 | 77-7
heb. S India.
12 |Marasa ...| do. | «ee | Colombo — ,,, |25 |880 | 1736 | 1690 | 850 | 1232 | 1280 | ... |183 /148 | 781
13 |Adumi ,..| do. aves: do. 25 |770 | 1726 | 1674 | 816 | 1220 | 1264 | ... 1176 |140 |'79°5
14 | Hyder Hosain| do. .. |... | Malabar... [35 |840 | 1663 | 1580 | 804 | 1552 | 1170 | ... |193 /133 | 68-9
S India.
15 | Cuhi wa. | dO. | «. | Colombo — ,., [26 |800 | 1712 | 1694 | g49 | 1206 | 1222 | ... 1177 |142 | 80-2
i
16 | Salema Cebe do. Pe iit do. 25 |720 | 1630 | 1574 | 790 | 1162 | 1182 | .., |178 |144 | 80-8
17 | Hosaini ...| do. Sn ea do. 30 |S80 | 1806 | 1684 | 846 | 1286 | 1284 | ... /193 |150 | 77-7
1g | Kasim ayy) Pe Baye | eo do. 30 |S40 | 1654 | 1592 | 821 | 1178 | 1184 | ... |169 |140 | 82-8
19 | Saidahamid..| do. we | a. | Tundi ... {35 |860 | 1692 | 1550 | 812 | 1182 | 1196 | ... |186 |150 | so’6
S. India,
90 | Fakir «| do. «- |... | Colombo... {25 |800 | 1650 | 1581 | 794 | 1153 | 1192 | ... |178 /155 | 89°5
91 |Abdool ...| 40. Jesh ees do. 26 |860 | 1800 | 1752 | 874 | 1278 | 1306 | ... 182 |153 1836
92 | Asonlobe «.| 40. «|. | Molialim ... 40 [850 | 1622 | 1510 | 782 | 1184 | 1112 | ... |180 /147 |s1-6
S. India. |
ci 2|\ele\2 | TSab ee
Average «.. 5 & © 3 3 a ealpcou an z |
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A co nm © oO » & 2 «O 0 2 =
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fol 6 @ SSeS SSS Behe hos eee Se &
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5 oo eyes 5 é Sa © S&S & = ;
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8 ™ lonemogiz1q wnuxey| OA A A te ee ee ee Oe a
oo Ss rag
: mor ar *nAAH DAM OH &
a § a mend | FSSSaesSSRRSSREASHRESSES S GF SRS S £-10T
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es
40 [No. 1, ©
Measurement of 56 Singalese
I Lamanaidilagé.
Q Wanepu kaugergé.
J Bolalisinhalegé.
R Tamolegé.
K Jairatmagé.
S Khoratholegé.}
L Indrabaragé.
T Disanegé.
1 2 | 3 4 | 5 6 jr] s 9 | 1 nf ae | as fas] |r| a
E 2 3 E 2 iy: ire)
: ce | ae Eas e/ 2/8 |2\e/3]4
= sel? S e| 83 2) 2/23/32 ie
edt fe) | oe he a #/2(2 | a |ale |e |Flelele
pices, Ue A) ee el beeen oa LS LS
1 | Tegisapuhani | Goigomd A |Colombo ... las 820 | 1710 | 1667 | sso | 1980 | 1220 185 |14g |80°0
2 | Jusiapu tics B | Panadu 28 /780 | 1620 | 1574 | 823 | 1165 | 1185 184 |144 | 78°2
8 Adria —... | Goigomaé C | Matra 30 |850 | 1680 | 1661 | ss6 | 1940 | 1240 191 145 | 75°9
4 | Jakolis oa D | Colombo _ ,.., [30 |850 | 1800 | 1710 | 873 | 1260 | 1270 185 [143 |77°2
5 | Eliasappu , aa do. 25 |850 | 1740 | 1675 | 865 | 1298 | 1310 197 |133 | 685
6 | Charles Nakati Galle 28 |810 | 1730 | 1668 | 870 | 1233 | 1300 183 [145 | 79°2
7 | Abranguapu | Goigomé E | Colombo 42 |850 | 1660 | 1620 | 869 | 1195 | 1220 183 |140 | 76°5
8 | Piris it. Abisawella ,,. {80 |870 | 1790 | 1681 | 885 | igs0 | 1248 202 |142 | 70°2
9 | Somaranark dip. Galle ... [42 |800 | 1540 | 1595 | 857 | 1183 | 1190 179 |i5y | 84°9
10 | Jonapu ab F | Colombo 25 |820 | 1680 | 1660 | 845 | 1999 | 1240 173 |150 |86°7
11 | Netorisa Nakati G | Tangal 28 |810 | 1710 | 1718 | s90 | 1935 | 1290 171 [136 |79°5
12 | Abiashami ... | Goigoma Matara __,,, (85 {770 | 1810 | 1709 | g44 | 950 | 1270 178 |145 |814
18 | Andris db. H do. 35 |800 | 1650 | 1591 | 845 | 1178 | 1190 | «-- |183 [148 |80°8
14 | Kirinaidé db: I | Colombo 35 |825 | 1745 | 1700 | 944 | 194a | 1255 187 |146 |79°1
15 | Pudisinh AD: J do. 30 1800 | 1600 | 1528 | 798 | 1146 | 1130 171 |142 | 83°0
16 | Seodoris pafhaes K | Galle 25 |760 | 1630 | 1610 | g06 | 1196 | 1198 182 |150 | 82°
17 | Karalisano ... | Nowandan L | Colombo 30 815 | 1678 | 1616 | 780 | 1180 | 1194 193 |149 | 73°
18 | Batapu_,.. | Goigoma M do. 40 1790 | 1712 | 1640 | 836 | 299 | 1220 179 |149 | 78°2
19 | Devi li-Mtps N do 30 |875 | 1816 | 1712 | 896 | y979 | 1254 185 |153 | 82°7
20) | Tonisapu ingepane ra) do 30 7740 ! 1658 | 1570 | 770 | 1154 | 1164 177 |151 |85°0
21 | Sangalilam Goigoma P do. 35 |865 | 1770 | 1710 | 886 | 1976 | 1244 197 |144 | 73°0
22 | Konesperis... do Ravanagar ... |82 |830 | 1690 | 1576 | 772 | 1140 | 1170 191 | 139] 72°9
23 | Publish do. Colombo _ ... 25 |785 | 1604 | 1563 | goo | 1174 | 1122 182 |138 | 75°8
24 | Patusinh do. Q do. 30 |s15 | 1748 | 1712 | $35 | 1963 | 1296 192 |148 |77°0
25 | Indikapn do. D do. 45 |820 | 1608 | 1686 | 802 | 1160 | 1148 183 |141 |77°0
26 | Antonis Julam R do. 26 |770 | 1700 | 1578 | 780 | 1170 | 1162 185 |145 [783
27 | Aglis Radhare S do. 30 |790 | 1692 | 1604 | 803 | 1192 | 1221 | ... 176 |147 | 83°5
28 | Bhaudra Goigoma T | Kandy 25 |790 | 1630 | 1624 | 840 | 1200 | 1223 196 146 | 75°0
29 | Hemdikapu do. U | Colombo _... |80 |780 | 1686 | 1588 | 780 | 1146 | 1164} ... 180 134 | 744
|
Velatnaérachigé. B Palamandadige. C Senarayekge. D Veerasingara.
1893.)
taken in Ceylon in November 1892.
18 | 19 | 20 | 21) 22| 28 | 24) 2 | 5 By | OR | TPB) iy |i Bil |) By | 33) |) 34) |) 85
| I |
ej | & |s e on rem iea
= SI = Been be fz
So S = : Ses ial K ‘2 cay =
ele | 3 g gale |s Elegie |2|s
Ee | 8 le | 3S) ee ee Se ee |e
ee if eee ii |. Ne Oe ES ee Ea a hees elites |) el
zB SSeS b= | See escuboe ls | ele | eee ies Z
S2\es » | 21s} 3 | 4] 3 = |&5/4,./¢6 ee 3 a | os S =o
Sa l|es] 8 |sle| € | 4% = Ss S 5 5 |) = =e |ee2 | 2 | 2s
as|&s|/ 3 Ee s 5 a Se |e] Be] 2 s SB | so q Se
a2|ese Sees! jes is } S) "eoe | es | ecg | 8 op é | 2 | 62
aj sa!| s |aiea| 8/2] 8 2 |s8|ss|ao| 8 3 BRS) 2 | em
3) = Ss |4/42/ 4 |8]/] 2 qa | x isn} ] 5 1 ° ° = “
3 2 : 2 ae Ep =
S g = | | 25 eS 3 y g GH
5 ° _ | ; P Ke |) = 32) g + o 2
= 2 2 | re 2! o 2 2 iS = 4s
3 & 3 | g & mp, | & |) = ws 8 2 3
= 5 | 3 | a >a 2 a || 9S a
S 2 g es e "2 2 a=} = g g : ml c= fou oO
& S | & | Sq eee | ei S| Bee ie Sie | = B | ie
See le leiai 2 |e esl. i2 | & | s 1s ee) 2
Bles| 6 |S /F\4/ 8] & g |ssal|esie2.] = as a | Se |)
& a 2 a] Ss isis|s } 3 "ep yee ee: Bc Sp Ep co | 8
aS aa S a Be |e a a ‘oo | BS | So S 5 A ao | #
a | a Fy Z2\424/4\|a' & Pea |\ fa5| a x ey =| = i Ss
102 | 185 766 | 58 | 37 |63-7|107 | 122 |114°2 69
107 | 185 | 79:2] 60 | 89 |65-0/111 | 120 /108-1 69
105 | 134| 78°3| 59 | 38 |644l103 | 118 1145 | 70
106 | 135 | 78°5 | 58 | 35 |60°3) 98 | 122 |124-4 72,
100 | 127 | 78°7| 64 | 35 |54°6/101 | 116 |114°8 | 66
100 | 134 | 74:6] 58 | 40/689} 98 | 106 /108°1 | 66
110} 182 | 83°3} 52 | 35 |67-3/103 | 114 |110°6 | 68
See} Ss fs | ole ie |-@ | | 5
S 3 fF /si/o;sis] & 4 | 2
i] i
taken at Calcutta.
| | cas
| 113} 144 | 78:4 | 62 | 40 |64°5/114 | 136 [119-2 | a
100 | 181 | 76°3 | 53 | 88 |71°6/105 | 122 [1161 63
105 | 142 | 73°9| 55 | 40 |72°7|111 | 128 |115°3 65
111 | 144 | 77-0 | 54} 88 |70°3\112 | 130 /116°0 | a
111 | 144 | 77-0 | 51 | 38 | 74°5/104] 118 |113-4 |
116 | 145 | 80°0 | 52) 40 |76°9)111} 124 /112-6 | 68
109 | 138 | 78°9 | 52 | 37 | 711/110 | 122 /110°9 | 62
104} 135 77-0 | 50 | 87 | 74°0/110 | 120-/109-0 | 67.
105 | 136 | 77°2 | 50 | 39 | 7879104 | 114 |109-6 17
nN io.0) oD | iS] Ye.) Cc for) < (or) |
Peale eee oo fee lca | Sul es | % |
S =) Nm |S fo] eo = |
rc mc ret Lon! |
taken at Calcutta.
11} 141 | 787) 53) 87 69°8|110 | 180 |118°1 HAN cep |
106 | 185 | 78°5 | 53 | 37 698/105 | 124 |118°0 | 7d? ee | |
108 | 137 | 78°8 | 54 | 39 |72°2/109 | 128 |117-4 MO || cee
711 | 144 | 77.0 | 58 | 37 63°7/101 | 116 |114°8 70) eS |
| 110] 141 | 780 | 55 | 88 69°0/108 | 122 |112°9 | 65 |
107 | 129 | 82°9 | 52] 36 |69-2/109 | 126 |115°5 66
© ce) QP | A | 2 | @ e eo) dq @
g 55 Z| ei seiesleie <| 6
rc J‘ inn Lol Lol rc
ov ots neha gansta cen hence SoMa
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ene ee
JOURNAL
OF THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.
>> e@ @ acs
Vol. LXII. Part III.—ANTHROPOLOGY AND
COGNATE SUBJECTS.
No. I1.—1898.
Modern Customs among the Bedouins of the Haurdn, edited and translated
by Cotonen H. S. Jarrerr.
INTRODUCTION.
The following monograph in Arabic, treating of the customs of
the Bedouin tribes that visit the Hauran, or dwell there during a great
part of the year, was sent to the Asiatic Society by the distinguished
author of * Arabia Deserta,’ Mr. C. M. Doughty, from Italy in the spring
of last year. The letter accompanying the communication thus ex-
plains the origin and expresses the interesting character of the manu-
script illustrative of customs of which details so circumstantial and
exact are rarely within the opportunities of ordinary travellers to
observe.
Villa Meglia, San Remo.
I have procured that a Lebanon Arabic school teacher, who was many years
stationed in the Hauran, beyond Jordan, and who in that time was much with the
nomad tribesmen, should write an account from his own observation of the customs
ef those Bedawin, and from his own (Syrian) point of view. He knows no other
than the Arabic language. The result is a manuscript of about 40 pages in Arabic,
which I should think will be found of considerable interest, especially if the text be
printed with a translation. I consulted Professor Sprenger as to publishing it (he
has not seen it). He responded it might be best to put myself in communication
with you, as you have the means of publishing the original, and it might form an
article in your Jowrnal. I offer it therefore for your acceptance.
I am, dear Sir, Yours sincerely,
8th April, 1892. Cuas. M. Doveuty.
eerie 7,
48 H.S. Jarrett— Customs among the Bedouwins of the Haurdn. [No. 2,
However honourable to the writer of this lively sketch may be
the industry and powers of observation it displays, its style and accu-
racy in point of language are scarcely creditable to the schoolmaster.
Gray, writing to Horace Walpole regarding Boswell’s Journal of a
Tour to Corsica, which had not long before been published says: ‘ The
pamphlet proves what I have always maintained, that any fool may
write a most valuable book by chance, if he will only tell us what he
heard and saw with veracity.” This opinion toned down in the politer
phraseology in which Walpole subsequently expressed it, cannot fairly
be resented by any writer to whom it may be applied. ‘Mr. Gray, the
poet has often observed to me, that if any person were to form a book
of what he had seen and heard, it must, in whatever hands, prove a
most useful and entertaining one.” As there is no reason to doubt the
veracity of the following narrative, its value as a description of modern
life among a historic race, lingering for centuries on the fringe of civi-
lization yet untouched by it and still associated with the romance
of desert chivalry, should need no literary ability to recommend it.
This it certainly does not possess. As will be seen from the numerous
foot-notes to the text, the solecisms are frequent and though the con-
stant repetitions of phrase, wearisome without lucidity, savour of the
school-room, the gross deviations from grammatical rules suggest
that the educational staff of the province is itself in need of the
training it professes to supply. This fault is, however, common, as
Palgrave tells us, at the present day not only in Hijaz and Yemen,
but more marked in Egypt and Syria, and most at Baghdad and
Mausil, where the current speech is defective, clipped and cor-
rupted in desinence, accent and phraseology. This is not due to
dialectic change but to absolute degeneracy in form and character,
noticeable in the meagre and artificial elocution of even those suffi-
ciently educated to avoid the low provincialisms and errors of the
illiterate. Asa contrast to this base and degraded speech, he notices
the pure well of Arabic undefiled that pours spontaneously from the
lips of ragged urchins throughout Jabal Shomer and in the uplands
of the Nejd country, as correct in expression as any rhythmical
challenge of war or dirge of grief chanted in the desert in the Time
of Ignorance. It is not to be expected that the language of Shanfara
and Nabiglia, of Imrul’ Kais and Labid, of men whose verse and ordi-
nary speech were identical in substance if not in form, and who
‘jisped in numbers, for the numbers came,’ is to be found even among
the Bedouins of the Decapolis, much less in the mouths of Syrian
pedagogues of the Lebanon. Nota single instance, observes Lane, is
said to be known of any individual’s having acquired a perfect knowledge
ee,
S.
ce
1893.} H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hauran. 49
of the grammar of classical Arabic, otherwise than by being bred among
those who preserved it uncorrupt. Muhammad himself was sent to the
desert to be nursed by the tribe of Saad Ibn Bekr Ibn HawaAzin,
descendants of Mudar though not in the direct line of the Kuraysh,
and from this teaching he claimed to be the most chaste among the
Arabs in speech. Hven the famous lexicologist, Al Agsmai, and the
equally famous grammarian his contemporary, Sibawaih, were reckoned
by some purists to have erred in grammar. This classical language
of Maad or Mudar, as it is termed by the Arabs, is said to linger
in some remote parts of Arabia. One of these is held to be Akad, near
Zebid on the western sea-board of Hl Yemen, the people of which
suffer no stranger to remain with them more than three days, the
prescribed legal period of hospitality, for fear of the corruption of their
speech. The writer of this account has evidently not visited this for-
tunate spot even within the tolerated limits of a traveller’s sojourn, but
though his language fails to attain even the ordinary level of journalis-
tic writing and its interest les exclusively in its subject, there is
nevertheless, in spite of grammatical defects, a simplicity of narrative
which recommends it as the evidence of a straight-forward, unaffected,
though not very intelligent eye-witness. Whether he has correctly
quoted the two specimens of verse sung by the girls at the marriage-
festivities is perhaps doubtful, and it would have been more to the utility
of his deseription had he explained the meaning of the first of these
which is much in need of a gloss. Its metre appears to be a rude form
of hazaj, depending more upon accent than prosodial rule, resembling in
its character the class of ballad first in vogue among the Umayyads of
Spain about the ninth century, of which specimens are given by Ibn
Khaldin in his Prolegomena. The province of Hauran, situate on the
frontiers of Irak and Syria, is expressly mentioned by him as occupied by
nomad Arabs who had roamed over its plains and continued to encamp
there even in his day and who apparently still make it their annual
pasturage. The province has given its name to the poems, or Kaszdas
composed by the Hastern Arabs which commonly begin with the name
of the writer and pass on to the praise of the poet’s mistress. These
poems were termed Baddwiyah or Bedouin, and Haurdutyah or of Hauran,
and Kaistyah after the tribe of Kais ordinarily dwelling in that country.
They were chanted to some simple airs which paid little regard to the
canons of harmony and were known as Haurdniyah. The Western Arabs
styled this class of poems Asmgidé after Asgmai, the celebrated
philologer and collector of the disjecta membra poetarwm, who was a
complete master of the idiom of the desert Arabs, and a living treasury
of their verse, and who was said to have known by heart sixteen
50 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hauran. [No. 2,
thousand verses in the metre of rajaz alone. Ibn Khaldin has fur-
nished us with an example of a poem of the Haurani Bedouins com-
posed by a woman whose husband had been assassinated, and who had
sent this appeal through the tribe of Kais urging them to vengeance.
Tt is written in the measure of Tawzl and follows, at a very long
distance, the style of the ancient models. Such specimens, he observes,
abound among the Bedouins and are transmitted ag records of poetic
distinction. Though some tribes affect this class of composition, he
adds, it is disdained by others, such as those of Riyah and Zughbah of
the Bani Hilal and by the great tribe of Sulaym.
In my notes to the translation I have avoided any comment
beyond a strict elucidation of the text, and I do not think it necessary
to enter here into any general disquisition on the history or ethno-
graphy of the Bedouins. Such a course would be beyond the scope
of this introduction to a writer who is the teller of his own tale which,
as his personal testimony, is the only reason for its publication in this _
journal.
I have to express my acknowledgements to Mr. Rizku “Mah Azzuin
the Professor of Arabic to the Board of Hxaminers, who has copied
out and corrected the MS. for the press and assisted me with the benefit
of his experience in determining the form and orthographical value of
certain incorrect colloquialisms that occur in the text. The manuscript
itself is clearly and neatly written, though the orthography is occasion-
ally as little to the credit of the schoolmaster as his grammar. His
deficiencies in this respect shall be concealed in the obscurity of his own
language. I trust that his undoubted merits will not be unrecognized
in mine.
H. 8. JARRETT.
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hauran,. 51
ibs
BSG teste dic al ai), adil di) lal JBL be ake JY
l5,) Carry wad) Corr 69 Lrydte y Wty 4 dal Ew usle sas
Gd Wal gall) G6 y sbuihel ol astyad wah s bal) Sands Lilt
Sdol] CLF Uk, Leil , laglal po Haber gba) qydy lopadiay ge Spitleall
II) Gpfa gle phil? “yyday RLM, GLa) ty Rell Ry!) 20
iy) day pd - Udeie cat adlay dyed Solel) SU, Udall,
dhige 49) Gal, 35 daly!) 358 GY Syybhyy AL yl 5 Agel)
MIS) Gare sce Bi) SG al bs 4) tall, oye oni ae |
wre 3 ae Dre? wy bhee » apes “bm s) Ses} 5632» Rom JS
elonete Lwaity cas gle uglady Le dhad 209) Ml ews
ere we eer sts erizt® Os Rilel £3 Ay'5) oy “ ie wk oy &
ps) RDS gyda? yill gle y prale day, le mol ed uptniy »
By) yystbe 5 datall brawy 69 JW) gyeyds y Slee’) wo 5 Ell yj
Ledind bas Baby gle JS 3 tells jad Catal ol wynhos 5
9 9
e x ao ° : ho sc
3) 235,43 w > yiind Y GA) COV Jobo y Alas bady edyass wth} dal
Lorie OS} OS 9 > whbay 3 wih,
4 This word ig erroneously duplicated. B agit
g
a asd
52. H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Haurdn. [No. 2,
ss) Coole ai bk Z ‘yy “4315 )! esos] platy 1SK2, 4 chai 9
aay kath zele 4] okt Cul) le Sich! easall Cole wh KS
csphng Coo pt C8 tythog y sy) Coad yo! aid pl) Jabal
. 3 5 9
823 9s yG usa Be yal BS? ww) 2 Kdeontol] bay ght Alena, y
g :
ile Big x23 3 dy we eas pul 5s wily 5 29.0) cel bauySl 58
Leable ols] wy” =, J) usits 2" = 5 Ae pa! le 6 (398 er) RSs
4 ° . /
Une ety dadl] 50 Ja) i Bs andy 4 aly slo put) Saar CHAI
\,=43)] ees 5 re 5) Le saJ] Leale J=,J) Bi, 3 ks. thias
nbs I) LI) Ye JSG) is ita? lll cle Ibsas ® hel tymtall che
Sd
esas IglS Iylaas ed Oy8t ey S ug oni kstj os Fol) al 6 Jats
wd 5 ols] de wy? DBS, ak poets ne sys ae le MS,
writes, Vass!) lee prdic a pd 5 Geile yay eat! us op
1
029 Neyyhaall ye Mu dghy Le lord pas My, geball ye baz ys! be yas
I
1 ibe for Erbs, st being a dialectic variety of esbs! in
common colloquial use.
2 éSly) amare Jans é The «eo better omitted.
* > 5 Scat 6 oi 7 mt
8 ging © &hsy 10 oaks LL Ladys ceyrdond
” e
1892.) H.S Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Haurdén, 53
ce Lona w wr? hod er Lode 3 5S Faeey cle SS us? Lwdses ’
ws st Lio wee e ‘wy 3 Leal) raya) as? pret! wo rtrd | xbany wl
wyrts 3 ENeQ~o oll da], Js ESR) dzd wer 3 ples! 5 5 fy) 3]
g ae Wine Meee es
as O92 3 *hygbs)_o as! toghal) ,.) yee e ‘yy Baits 5A Syq5)]
dy | B43) ot! Leen hose (aa J2 53 |dle rn yal 9) as cp 2s SS a) yi!
BS rye Coil call wats] bk, OS oa: 852 CBI pte ded
rN
om
3) Cass? bl (ol S$) erga Ndto (iw a3) AI IKa0 ee Qow
ora Co) uy 2) Pip wn yr 2
_ sitll Typblee Sart tye Cal ge ye I) US ayil
che lye play Gye ULild J OK; MY) Lal, Rye Bloat Li
pig LISS aba! ged 5 GSI, apead te Cashel gl Cagly Syleel
oll ye gutta!) woo Gail, eas iA) Gt dol, Js
erste s pals rag ot Js LA obey) Casal
ahs) Ure uy std 3 ysis ra ool dala oftne Sle byl
lsat} hod &)) cots hom yy ly 5 Je, 1 EButo Lgle wets ,
1 Omit. 2 ssf 3 Omit.
* These two words should be reversed in order to be in harmony with
the grammatical construction of the sentence.
6 For Slsla a not uncommon colloquialism. The alif appears super-
finous.
6 Omit. 7 &ablse 8 oJ WU
54 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hauran. [No. 2,
us! Bards J) Cr gpd) Dal pee pede s Cea) bal ‘yyy low dey,
cA) tage wpe dubs io Bibl sis Cele
ed wyherz 9 Kalin ola, Os ray hs] ‘erg bas abs) Los
t—osyS Way. IK Chin > a> wp Stde slated] Cans, asle dey wy) 4 (ly 1,S]
Col ctiybll yas Mole Hopi] GF Bat, Spal pptre go? ugh ches
7 we) 59) plese LS) atk: yl
EEE Oe
A=*) if
I Z a
pes) 8 8ST Cay D2) ot Lad Cpmayall ho! beeps Dy)
ost eles pili Jye> = 92 poe a Mae? 3 ae dy 4y3 sila }
Cs
etae] vey Sas!) paces ey ie 19 ypdBdbe 5 Urls}
Aarile | gles ydely padl, yool pm ly ye staat Soa’) gyonals
ee us wyy%2s 5 U))] das! My san0 a) at wy blag eI
ustile Col
3 5 am Ba} yo] SAS wyrs 5 col iss! w” el ees a5 0 om JS
g
BS = dal, es > >) Beha o> Js , em ue Cy hhhe als ge
1 ears ® 3 gue 8 apitlas 4 Let St
ww,
es B ertytie Tyas 5 crgaogslo 8 ss hay
Wena 1 aya 12 SWy5.nar0 13 Mess
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hawran. 55
wise Eydle phat Rhyl! Slos!) » ULSI pyee yl der y Sal Pye
Slay Pdal, Spe wyyyhony y Tpyllem jy SU plypd dr Sey!
5 S31 aptly daly!» Brall seep! cgi dae) yb Cole oral
gle lis] Ge , wpeatyy ) Sp hty Jus! ] Jr wht cle) Ls § olisl
Usitae = as Lotta ah al &
Je els” oP yi aes gle Jy Line]
all gl) Ipbey cia stl) 9 eligi], ob bill 3 S59 Sead,
NdSe0 wy) ge elas alli Spe) o3U , ie Lek us!
go) J) eat yg ell, ley!) 3 Nd day 5 acl Was
ae yet de ca eye Slay» lil, Geyyall a Uyaryell
eal a gp gth Chacha Col pe ate Kamm gle alp!l pd yyy det
yp Ua) Lads alsty Le dees Cpeyyall » UT II fay 5 eA
10 slanty 9 5 Le AR QyyhOe y MA AT j= cs!) paral My ddl
12
os? eye MS Sophy wes Se we “ratte Mdpwrle » Cuysll
likm slisdl
pha] rts Sony oo a) ent lin ght
1 pyellen IS yee 3 foaty * Ens
Ee, 6 Sopagadt 7 Omit. 3 woah y
3 Zz
9 ee ) 10 ; J Rs 9 ll Lgdmals y 12 Legale
13 sls 14 5
Aj. Tati, 4
56 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Haurdn. [No. 2,
d=) ei 4 Since yo) ety & uslve
esa Coy8y Slay ape er ly Coline
csllelldg i yl Sang 56 csllyell andy by lve
Coal ores cole yr SUM s lsd ye® Sey Gi ed aye
be ey a Telyd) sb ye ML) OS ‘rere 9 Sete? ght Coy yb
g) aS RU) 4) dae BA) 4) LAT AY) ) EE) She Geasall opt ye Bi
CF TYLA Slay Gal, Ge aly y SptIl uptiny » ULE YI
Bali Spall 132 upon 9 algal pr Cad \Lghsd tially Qa) yc
coda 9 dad coli) » Gaald Jysc!) Riybll sda gle yylay y Haye cl
lial), Kel gt Myldre ylang FU y pal) ky cle Inlet,
wrlday ll, Slay Gps? 208 ax 5 - colyd) pee 2 omy Mba}
CH eyege gry 8) yh olpe!) Bledel en JT gyal
irene Mes p Ed ye Med ey y= zs 2 wis!) eis 2 thes
Te Burkey Slay plas Maude edz y Fiky lopale paul) oekany y MyLsS
ry) al oe ° past JS) wy” e)al day y list) , gy] das
celle Ee yaey dad, fyb degh Sly Chal lade waey aay
ibe . a
‘eed
1 Metathesis for Kao} 2 sas : Bip
4 | dv0 B sS 0 8 {daty 4 waits
8 Edy 9 Erszy 10 Uy ouye a sae
12 Gs? 3 13 Sa} 4 Li 16 ents
16 [Quadve V7 (Sendo 18 Supply Oa}y
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hauradn. 57
cole SD dey daly pddiy Ide 5 yal Tbr gt & hile all) Cale
Leg) coligll y staal! Spadiy Foy dol J, ght) So Hdyghll side
elit}, slal) arom Yale? ia lo ba > Sal bas Jam 4 ails &
” I .
Blo jl) .R) J] (0 Adgnossd Lo KS Mb 8 USgauny Fdla] whe
5 ae bs PYM Cy? Migros degen ee pea 3
a5] tay) a Sh) e23 brbos) Shs w” colts!) and poe 1h gene om
SSB 3 Cry) ws! 4 eiohons s bys wre Uma wt us erly] >
Cole! Ey pasa] Coll Edel hel fly pd grade comi Salal]
Si esl Dsl yey ebay Ie? yl ddl alll MU V0
Ae I
bale) 5 4 alae price Eyasiall Col Slay eist delu poh odhll
k=l) 65 as! Ogagel mba!) yylady ys Mayl Ayise deydd $55.0
p Csb wyldlag 9 JW) a Blo Ran, che yy pcte/] Jlall a8, Oe
sf
Lisle yydgzy D elele hay) ya! Ugh EBAlll ada, ie che che
1 ledjs 2 4dd 9 8 Jl 4 X32 4
wan g ° Cs
5 Omit. 8 pars 7 yRIOS 9 8 ¥ddy
9 Gale 10 [kgs Nga oe 18 Lays
13 [gland y 18 ysdhiso 15 y 18 fos)
a7 ure 1B tana 19 Omit. ae &yI
58 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hauran. [No. 2,
e 4 wo «
wy —S JW LD Woe te She 6965 il=!) SG, Sill “aol, ie
eis) cle Waid] P=) let ay ym teil, Sleyll, RGU S548
cst ph!) aga slip! Sl Dey y pled gl atonal day esedie
E_yrbel] Jods } BR, L eles ror che ede) wry 32 >) eye
yes wt Sika, J as =) SL ee dle Paya We) pas e* 3 by gv wyrtbs
plas) AR) 5 Audie! Papa es Sdal, bl 533 Am juye dn d0 FOSS)
OU) ye EL), stad!) 0 had g} MAI y=) 9, amt Rls] sda
dy us? » baal) , as! 5 esl M4 prdic le ys] "8 yhons ) eg
ES phe algal) Stell gle Sytal od Payphone y broll 3
> ple UrmyS te yl ete tadind Byday ECS Ore Ur by oil S353 ost
ls), shunt] Ja)! wt A g-Op8y 9 dg lat Yoda) Body 0] whee
rd 3] May) gt SIyhell Ida gle Idike Sxl pay . clail ll
ee 3) Sles® pyans cle uptstla lil], stall , Slay cole
Jey clon] w” ys) Bas Rslont] CSL slas} ce
° o F
1 (ym 2 foals 3 1 bso 4 (=e
apener se 6 da, 7 (bjs 8 fdaty
2 wypaaytd 10 dsc? H&J 12 wf
1B wlaw)) 14 Updos B pldory 18 Gplodays
IT yesd ys 18 pels 19 Gphvoye 9 Fis
Bl slag #2 eygrogd 9 23 es yf
#
-1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hauran. 59
eal) Ceye ayt pi bt yl dass shall yo eljyas crbail JI slaill ,
ey? Salgel) Sales! bay oS Gyan 3 patie joall Utle Jay Jday
SaaS lad ly Ene pirle Be pole ayo glelr pf 9 Slay]
Vary Kil oI] beake pydaly ddl y yletel » Halll Shy
Laer, By All Be eye Rely pedyiS wl Loy) Coitlll pyall Ogi ola
wrens 9 lepaday cle Aad) bad ee wo? Gy! 1898S wy csr gad)
SE po KN dary pedis ooh Geel le gyal) Gyyb fare
Bee gS gil Spall pel Oss , G5 Gs G8) de gyulet Hal
aol Cah pd Saye alte ll Sal, IS epiyak: ll yt oars od
wre 9 Syl] GUE)» ML" egsall ake LI oytly y uyradee Stil
JI) ye Wpbdr yl Saad glad CT UL ST pad gle aakell ad urysal
wphery SIS Any 5 dolsis Meal es ,il sia) el werey2 2 pat] 9
slat], dol, ake yyhall ply) dnaw slate yy] 25 Cmgyall oll Keze
= Ty) esi etal Basand} dx >! dhe slot] » dal, dhe
at 2ll ect
Lerale VI—re pra Lok sie 9.4.2) rere lo dhe
yp 5 rye] eo fas Grewyarenr ye) she Silay Br0s3 cle Wess]
1 Supply »4s 2 oss 9 3 Omit. 4 Omit.
6 ptt 9
60 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hauran. [No. 2,
Sill tale das mals Ji tow Ut poe saad
Jrity yl) gle y aay] dikes 3 wennall aye pund dary!) Qyed syiy ‘
sll oF ye BAI CI pbs 5 Hyd A ohaye lary 2 Sp Hl | yodesd, LUI
ASTI) day LA Sad ally oot Hyydst HB) dary wyydls!l
2 pals] Grail Udi eo. gill abl gle Syyedhy Spel
ati wl cole et] Gale uyepe: be dhe y Haal Cale ol)
she lyst) ely Grell phan be Sly» Sd Udsyy ali! che aye
BLAS yo Sty» Cpxol) pddly Geydle!l ateo Myylily Le dass Ipliaas
j=, =; dx 9 FSH) Giatd yd oe) 8d2 oy plabll
wy? 3) rts yy 2 Bunko si Bigthuny » SE eye) eet Mee 5p Joss hong
C3 grbll deny che lll uymde y eld ye IFT yh 9 drary Gnd
gy ded!) plod “Usd? go Coyle!) AS Cimdsll Colle de Myady
shel) 19 5 wyily plabll MIyschsee gl ad y HAA Fyn) So SY cpoumng
wry bay gd pabll yrds Foye GHaall Coal! Unt Jad
Bed] I) Cprell aby y Ciudall day cle adady y role] poonlly
1 pee y 2 Sey 3 Omit. 4 woot
aLee 8 poks 7 wyydl} ® Laly
9 cs! 10 JSL ll Bk} 12 yy denims
4 wes 9 ly oe? 1b Igyax? 16 ’
17 Omit. 18 PE er: J
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hawrdn. 61
ust Gee wyphyds eyidbay y Benkell S18 yywilt 4 yyrdiad all
¥S Bam cle lgilbny » ody ui cde 5% wyptieS yi] Col 26
giles Cmnsss y Aad oI yea » ia! palall ed y lpi yb tis T
Laas] Fyd yyS glad Uday lard y OH 3) Ede shel yydr loley 5
penn) Vpnpem Saal) SU gb gyyclall of ISU Yana Sughe yt
esd! Kal gil GuBihe uyity Baal, dais Babel dle Curl
CM STI gly aly (65 Sb JS col ST tomy gKe Bb MS 4 gle
JS GIs oh IS HUT asl Ly gia Iya “ple 5 alte
yeu ag LAat gd» Syduyz plabll aay Qo youll bot Le abe
wp s!l om Ipmddig yl Daeg cphlS)) 8,85 ye TVyo eerkandy poll
wy? pend phos les! cpl) Banda AT oye Sly y eas Gerale pa
hrdll 6h 13, aul waked i) pall ye Ley tl ie
cole AYU Gad aa Kas, duryd ll “pple whey starall
SAL, Byron] ole ym 5 —atal] wilye flo wy? 9 bby Sd padi stl Sates)
Y
BS Sylz plabll gle Galle!) yo daly pyly Le ake Cail, "8b J
ala ball Jp8, Colls!] day y AAU vd cle QB Y du jae)
e plabll gle lywhed 6 adil wypdle! yo if char y pl) yo
ac 55) de BS ud? jis! _, 5 Rigla” wzral) bd LG eas]
1 Yyb = ce pahoe 3 ladys 4 ls,
5 lly 8 pap Rh 7 (315 0 8 ale
62 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Haurdn. [No 2,
SAI) lose) gil SSS oddest 752 Gold tLe SSIs Shay 5,8)
Jas: elf irae isle cle DY be Ayyne Sab) Uy? B4a)) duu usta
aa; wy wats Id) Gi), a wyral] agdy sda) ws” a3, jb us vr
Gy 23 alli Sila al Gas way, rs ye Sly gpd!
peel) GBs ig - y)) pre!) Ge bdmy siti zroll abe Sywall
SUL Casal ar Sinn, ats ctl ys *iasb Aik ust ole
w 3 bl3) wy” Usd Mrye> $28 9 ra] LenS ys BsyR0 (Sak) (90 By Qaw
sia] ls We BS yagi 9 Kel baal] 3 rade ee sll psPoy 5 a5 yeite
sibs | i liiste » py bil Ps oP sill pyall o5 Und yb
wy? wii st) Uyse Vi wy JS) wl N35 gy yilw 5 Gal wy” Js! “ustel
23) ore us! asle Lerwnd Ashe Jas] Lo ake , sitll Ko] esi eheye
= wh ae iicte ght yilenve ‘e) Wyse! das, Udkhe lass ws
ox! , us saie] J>,/I s\yy Uetbad) Face eo oe - as dey)
Syed] ga Tho ye ast Gb aye tela Aobinyy Wala aicakees
« %e) 9 Bhs (le Coy) Hythe » BU, Une aise de Lpdakeall
Ley Cd rds) ee jlere Coll rds) Eolas] Fadi 1d) ,
uf? ea pro!) go BF ol (Sa 3 ertbed wy? Pyherell pad aad
loa? wis Stay sles Saag wisa)] UF! 3 cshiysties] wht y= aE SK)
le GES 2 be yi} 3 &bs} yo 4 et
B oot 6 Omit. 7 dha 2 (rvs
9 le”),
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hauran. 68
: e 9
Keil Le bie ap) sol Age ws” piluy a5} we bs.2J} 59h ws” 3 leer haeal|
g
weil 5) Ayre etry baal yd ips CUS Gans 1d}, thal
P)
ral 0S cole Soy Sia, toe phe Leite dle del iol ;
‘)
# —? i] ere 5 thas’)
w >=!
‘ened yas ¥ pdt] us? J>) _e, Le AYY- # eryell ds},aJ)
Be acs SO} cla anit ede 5 Cs ahaa Uae uss
She) eb AY Sey es
By wT wp*P3 3 pls colt Bigndy 5) wtol] colt wltdy p) Aes
Bypoll Sopstlel 3 9 Spauptle tly collyyc “yi: lad], arile che
day y ley Th Fro tal)» Cds!) Led 5 Uodyll us? Pup dkas 5
Ney wyreye GLU) Eel) Saye ol des edi Col oysndy 0S
ws” all eve > evel eos IIS 3) y Wetes) ew call slodh
we? OPE!) dad dl ares! Chulicl] dtl, ssl) nl Coss
wre) Uy ws slant) — Ba5 9 Liye us! Jel eda elabal) Js!
ee. ste uyySF Bodo] Js? 5 Leys ry) call eal asw ye bd0
1 leoyd 2 oil 3 Erguegnvo 4 ool © Epoday 5
6 slid} z) T Saaw 8 Iyyloe 9 Pa
Je m1 9
Gh EFS. Jarrett Customs among the Bédbutne of Ieee a es
gril 3 Kal) wie Bll p28) aye Wgdgiall Dey! 6 ISG egal! ple
SS oF 5 ple dagw Sel) yy ppAll yd Ve wS Jd), ts “wprs) ashe
ui ely BB) g ryt UST godly sell 2) ppl Sao) sdm
wy? Fda) OG Cold dary Slpdts} stead!) grass! elo LW oe SS
LUT ye Og 9} Coke) Kanal Fre) SS Iyed.ds yl Gesell Jal etal,
Tym Beye 3 ym Sho a} ye yeh 5 oe Sy Cap Able Sie
K—ANS oF las slahed) ye gl S ghd) pe eel) yl dda ld} ,
os 5 Byoe5 9 Ses DS aye ot) Lass ala] la ydas? sl Ros SS]
cst prdslye Mem Gyo yo. BAI “ugumoty Bylo 6 utyds phe
we ame JS past laa yb] slike Tais ° giphall th os
esr) yt al phil ye BUS pre opts y Ryall Lod age!
ee Col) sey!) wiptles be Qk 5 hardye 5) Baad Sldl OSU ayatng
co) asl, etd 218 Je layla ust) eles as es ped]
ASS yo she Bi UY dys ayamll y JE yal gah ye hulle cle dyyaall
# ge y8l] Bole ewe Cotte) O65 ahd wig JS)!
shel "giglall eee pm gil sla] gl LA) pratense y
45,4) Shand 3 43) ye) 3 Bisa) 9 sid] in eee y) Aas) w” a) sil Ul
1 Syiel} ® raat! 8 psily # ley
5 aptamer 9 6 stxhelt 7 Omit. 8 ays
9 pass 10 52 631g} 1 g9yigd} 12 Gy
1893. ] H. §. Jarrett— Customs among the Bedouins of the Haurén. 65
g
Bysiiell gales) stl Kw syyo day y "pailiSl ghey Mpydyany clo eau’
SAN SI 9 pop Fore Balbo wyyoshs » conned] easy Cg!) shal y Ula,
* Kian!) pled chew wyphr2y Axe 5 8) SJhayJ wpsdds
eon pli 5 gel) Heljlye ang eid gill Retest ,
2 15
csizhel] ll Kunito prdse
9 pall dae us?
16g j3i Bade Madi Ledic y lade: pl ylyall ye Slibe yall
PP) pre Aad aly gree isle ashy ub obyall ead Coady oS
saz Le dass itll ony gl wy) tas) as! dihass! pty] ASI pacts
Bayly eel Jyh Sls od) eelr& Gale JS be 0 hile] by yd pel
p> A) Cpa gl gle Hint Mel a6, 2d ill oF Gall
lsd hel eee Ibe Jue cqud ul 5 HAilall Coa ps Ao agen
ell= = eSilys eee lyoko) ap dy, acl RSM) das 3 ¥ Ass Litas!
6S @ opddgdse 3 yd ral bls 4 Os3 et
: ols 8 Qyr22 9 T GyGrgey 3 Upedstgc
2 ody: 10 erarog’y MM Crdsay 12 yal dS
13 Yley 1b §f stg0 15 steel} 18 43.33
IT ot 18 wyd9aye 1 pee 20 edge
66 HS. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hawrdn. [No. 2,
‘yp hSd gill yall, O89) Cg Dae!) gem cole! panel gall Gog
paints Coll palyeey dhe 5 Abd Coll daly SS pgat® she yo copa ty)
eps dash pal phy Sileal] day y BLS pliers » aye goset pahe us
dnoke* as] Neb yyS Genet _ gilall Spgs 5 158 whe i Kites) yal
wy? ydaed) led gest ly “ep Jad IS 5 aise oS} US wy rass lpaten
Kb y Lay) Bays ISD paaitll yo ply Ley aus Jed, “ sey Isl
os? Sd US, daly Yyper Garon psc) COS BUT nell apall
Bsalo ls) 0 Cepas? Yay 0 oo US , “ie de ated
Latam Cfigas!l Folsd JAI yy 5 TS) prdke camt Sls!) Kb ,
€
Stax] FF che) ESI] Mad & edi) 5 Iya) Sass!) Sm & oil
As} SU gy) Coil Ue Uae) 1, Bi), Aas) GS) I) Nana
csty oS ete prulddl Cotte Feld Use!) Lard 25 a) ie
coll eed why - 485 eS apes) wT vd ee OSS] sos
8 dhe = Use Syahy 5 Lent Ler us Jas!) tS wes gra) d-c)
His 5 gal] Cyt ws” hy 0 wight ly yhney Arce enpte TVS 52 ), ra10e
1 OS ys3 @ 93%) 5 pot 4 ashly
P Wyapne 2 [oats ED 5 at
G xals 190
revere) 1) Eiws 12 wi52
1893.| H.S. Jarrett—Oustoms among the Bedouins of the Haurdn. 67
es ye cleall 5 de ete > eyell Jed alts go pb
Pahl) yl Rs51 J) Us!) Cod Leddad ailgcy dye Ryall J) tlyall
eS Fd pre) SE LSS ccyell BaelS Eyal) ype Grad
3) Agta R=) CM yey) ae wl Tedgast Ded ppilye Syd
op dolF wysnds 5 Ja!) tiem eS, By ght be} dsaJ) WS). O18
fall ty) etal Yaar uybsl aeaSy) LaF ply) uprdy bode » Cf bl
Bolu Bilao cle cithyall IF gle gla le lo 4 ( Skell Gin
J, pelypd yow us! Bi SAb 4 dahon Pye) proses Hla! yplsy
wa S IS styl ols) 6 te] ez Coie elt) 9) Uses
alts lind) Cae, Iaed) ay Lo palit Gale! lb ord ghee
coy I) Sas!) Uae] AGF km 35) 4) boyy Sal sly, Uae!) tb
oA lyal] olsel edS) 180 ol, b , Gy!) ule GAiyb!l yh Gea: ,
us ees pial Stas ye bd Gal be gayied jhalid) 5 i.)
EINE Cel prey peels Aue, jal) cle Mo alan) , sll
yh be oll pM) eas et Cad) 5 “bab d iN gd Hela ph yaa
35 Byyb Nike hay dilyall yo prac Ley crys} yal bil fae 5
rf) pene ae oe BJdda 9 Batam o| d=”? Myo Adyd yl Lav yls ns LS}.3)
HFS 3) Sic *al) _ 20 Bese 3e; 4 sel SF gc) x0] J jp8, V4)I1 3S
1 >a all wi 2 aU} 3 wagyley 4 Was}
B Ie
68 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Haurdn. [No. 2,
Adyoug 9 1 yl) Dey 3 BEG » tule Qc paidall pital Yyst
Othe lal Sys y Bie Arye dT y katlw GAL: yl day Lyle aolas
Bile Col) Nyy!) E—hyy che *Hi) 9 saw) Blgm Bp8s 5 sla glo
ety eld gah Uhec aly lad CS))) 63 Faye ast Us) Udo
eazy SIU Go iliy dehy , $a] SK us md) dey) Ks
we daby Baabe ypu Slay wySl HS NS go, she Fs) od _ ole
Alga yt py MS LAI » SSI) oye als ond A wyoads ppg Sy dud
eS) a gd Cn Baus alae clad ad delu Jae Spiel) yo
JSG Jay aujle 5 yedsll Bike yh ernst] ole! Card, bo die y
CHE aye) gd YA) ye Bae Las! le ¢ at yl dary ayo UT
Laas Sula!) ems §,0=)] Cs Bay y TAS) 5 dusldy gay yrs
bile gydicdy glia] Garr, Mls!) MU le pry ru) rges wlio tI
B39 et yesl ote les Kis ym rte Jd} Gil, alssw glee ,
wy? a Rial) BAA yay We duly oyabdy 5 Yabo oh Cod! Darl
esd tad, SUB Foley ST loli Gass Sul 18) Laz) gradlge
SI yall ll re pxg ceahe 1b2 5 al Stel Seite al Spy Zyl
%Gaal) Bie Calb Lodi] Culall Qe Bry dll peaihel) ata) ad 618
ys) tel eye py Fake Im 5 pllany Genrdl OF laa) alll a SpBy
1 ger a) 8 dhe, 4 pdatve
PANS Be © yaa Re aby 5 siya
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Haurdn. 69
Llee V6 eso) pas] patil gph pda] wd Sails Pym Lenndy J als
&sl3) %gpdal 4} ake 1 2c] usa) lal) dy Ls) 299 Caly)) Byoll
Lally oss? tse prado goa Ihr 5 Egiiy Ryd Vy pyhe *_otas
co Fell Slay ol GS! Coll pS aon tye Cool aH
Gaubell 5 aby!) g staal pyre, phe gill Sles!l fo pyc pls]
LIK sly ass 53) gle exile sill As!) Sus) bide Jas!
be Ohad paQBily UI ees dhe yah yl byl ded dye’ pe gl daub
ed IE BG plea gle fleas!) Po) GS ale Que) Jai
Jad pedly s Bath Se ol gtlyall olsel 5 lapse 5 ams] Alle
HS) ey glee d) Cdar gh 9 gall gle eS ol bil 5 pyaitl,-< posts!
eptd Seal ES Waid Qe] bey 1a), Je) sash) oy oe pol
wa eel gare Rew Sasi) eo Sarl easy otha pith Maat y
cd WpBU) , Baile Ryall 53) ye deol) Uae) IE Jd) Lay) prailyc
ae 9 Assad ple al) Oe hh usiel get tel ust ol Jay
Ym dada!) OS are? Jat LoS Op y Das!) aade - oi) Sfpall
ids) Sax) ase use! wal] Pe = Ja Jp CNa.a) Cosy ,
16 he 3) Slam y& yl eons) ayo pand MS dalial) a poly Wea? Gd)
1 Wc 8 oat B gQxy 4 Omit.
5B not 8 rsd 7 Wyola 8 Gavlbussiz2Y
9 ES) 10 oie 11 yas 12
13 Iyey g day 4 15 Vig 16 [gis
70 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Haurdn. [No. 2,
Jeo a2 OS) Gsm Syl NS pas oS lI) Garr us’ 5
« La) rc wy? 13S 5 Ts 3) Ly akS el yyy Le yas — cle
pei gg fab gall 03. gl Saat lal peste Gay
Me yo ghey CU) dsc) Cel Casi SU Li , aalar)
das? wll atom pl pertee wlll Slo ye Und > ettll oI doy
Le pd2; pglla yo gyros » tle ash) les} yas why 9 eye
Wd oy G g2ddlye wt3 glen yf bndbe ed Uybay y thew
em Bai Ley lu, BS) 4p Kamae ydhy wb] ur sul dake
Jcry SM Le Nery pated ydy Ruy Soe] OS 9 Ja! cle asl]
# SSlyaJ] vd gle dead Eire NS
d,0 pit! oumnilyd ( ass
pee ee
Lai) Sy EAL) I, Est BN yyiyng I dw ylyall abe SLAB! yl
sd Fwphahy BAR) sym, Chlu 0c RA Eyl yy 25) dark, yy ddty
le dle» abs ge Lsd US uybss » eth) oa Cosleul ss?
ashe Ty dh be gle yyyaty J Rr Ball poled) 65 Cprhaiel) sLaail y} bl
Usd lyoko *Lssled wt Jee) Loe Flay iptrayioll pill Jem tas
1 Ma] 195) 85 aitde 9 2d) gy) bdaT: Ray rtl) els Vc pal le
133 8 Lage Bs LR 4 (DIS Bb eyphidiy 6 Ctioity
Tob, 8 gles ytydt = 19 Cagyahs 1L Supply bi
g
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Oustoms among the Bedowins of the Hauwran. 71
Sdal,J] dol, 02 Osi UF Wy Mapdland Wy) dsdalls y dol, a 6! wySlaw
Ways Keil “sa dS} a) badge y stl eo, eydII 4 76 eras
wesla Lo My ad) 5 dell ol Cols Cl Hand , Kil p) Ykabew
Lely) Qabl) Iy-aly gy} yall Sle 0, aie UL! rads 5 al
yBI] Sse) 2 Maley 6d pall CNS shinve us 5 Bll Aigas ity y
wd Pole Sy Sey NS coydas (le SU slat) (0 Sal, U6
we aS Sle) 5 AL) end, (lal yl CyaF Eade!) oy] 6!
Lpley rysAT OTIS BG bere Cot, OUR) aitays Lailet call ofp]
ts 39) usttel io) wl, aid) nnd, shih 9 Sd] nd, UI Oily
Lele, ude cede plas eeritsii] ids 3) asl stl ils,
vs ctill oll labdy o) evil HS laryals pidysibe gait bend)
yt) jade dddkad Lop les laos 4 esti oll Capit apes abe!
C259 Gide Sih blake Ly si], aM) aye JS usd wy es (lest oy) di]
25) lela cad Give whee gh Ader Upplie ous Sis
jg SRI) eal) y} dake ¢ yd dine lade (A) ol Cagle oe
wl dpe 9 hs!) Wye gpl I HAS 1S) Lad JE, SIT ol,
wy) HeSl) 8 rdad , 886 Jed Qyall ake y) Cae I, Rlek) Gla)
BleS)) ysis Ne Shaw, us? Lo) 22 9 wy oa) coals | wy BroS ea:
1 Wssld 2 LSS 3 est 4 PESIER
5 Lodls 6 ds T legars slave 3 Laas das
J. 11. 10
72 #H.S. Jarrett— Customs among the Bedouins of the Haurdn. [No. 2,
ret d>es lao ys) Add geval] dgayJ } Bi aul keris wy pales yl
phuw A IERS) ay) 3 aM), we? yw Sol MJ] wl Ripka ws cpio]
# Uyol ol) BAM, dyads!) aod oJ]
a it3 3d
Led) ley Lead ASU), he Boal!) Gstel cyhe dey
Doll pl Const all she Kpuull |i Bly Sle chloe Cl #01
J de) yl teal kil, Bal) dhe dll ey) gdp) SU Qe 35)
sey! has] ia nas CO yiJ) 5 pil dS) 4 My!l Ibm Hagel ol
Beall ce Hl LEY oneal) = TA Nl, leg, si eed eas
aia] ABS) y Lab) gi gle (aay Lends 5 Hyyill fll) KE ys
Kowm glas Ue Lab See y eae) oo MID al Grey Lodiad lash
cleal) Aiki, ail da ae elas Vale! ply y Urrdye GUyl
ad> oth) yy plas] asi g dst) 8f el SS al patil » lapdas
mals etl] ry oil pas 2S SE ae ee
Blyod Jd-0 eee JS', Ipsrdi eroe? ee Ztail] dhe a NV osmdy yl
Sic wy) ase) BUS Js y dai) ade ol,J] ne 52a) teorlle Shido
1 gods 2 esos 3 ably sty 4 Omit,
1893.] H.-S. Jarrett—Customs among. the Bedouins of the Hauran: 73
g of
ps) Maatled 18) Megt Sie lb) IE Jone Si) Gite) day!
she Cts abe Fo) OF EIS Ceayll 5 5,8 gle lanl): pay
oS gd, el py cel okey Go!) Col) opadl (yh JG
usted y eee otyya] oad Kemme Bae Shes Ugh Sul ude Br aS
Bes) 3 Kewicr Pc ¥ yaw wpe eae) | ) BY Uitas wel) 2,h4J] way) wy”
}do has) usr” Ly 9 303] akalo] SJ esl cyst esl] Ide
) wohl Li. des w lyst] wr Usb ‘Bas) 3 Jabll _, stl eled iI
steel tod Ly JG dail I ai) I asd 9 tat este del
Ey pail che Hail) FoI) | geakal yey!) ay ast isstylell
Se] SJ sis ili] 3D 5 H yil 4asilas |d] 3 egy Kio lb] J
les Kul) le anill , Sigh gtd a} oily Ulead Ui) yl duyd abe
b iia 85 katy NX alas] Sy 2s ee 84, 23) SG ladies US yd pre]
J)! Gl, Gye bye gaol us’ laa al wt ta wy” 7 72J] bawvys
Bd sly > werd) A JE, Llpe tay © dle) ceata) OF a! ands
ye Lyess! of Lys Le.n5) lo Bs Vode 9 Weghal] sl ute! si, od}
Laewli Rog FoI) vba yo Galley Sly! 6d gl gdtall a all Ida
—n
1 hae % kiles D) Kee 4 &iles
: eos! | es
74 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hauran. [No. 2,
Boye Syed) dm yle phot dS pall) che Ipbste) Copal] Aorsl aye
ES, Lede gael Ul Tye) gt ot pialel Spy ste ili!
eee) asl) Ide ati SH Ie pyrree yleyall plel she yydy Liye
Le sabi EAA wryly Lpelad Cope y dyp I Anigay Sake yl ale
* lady es
eres ol uy 3 Bayh oi silane 9m y Sry Si lye vols]
ile usze oJ] ‘yls si 4i3)) als ili!) SAD Ky) sal ee wy”
wl Vy Be ol pS og ele) piel] opts s giddy wl probed UAS*) Ramod
os! , stl Used Iyliivo] Uedind Fisza Joc te ay i IpJpbs
Ort Saye yl ete y pried ones merpee day gidel] ves
get) Bau daz ai) pth] ye) Copa® daly le Coyeal] SU eolsi
a] 21) lb yeti) Biol dagd Cite! gle ako!) & AI
ee ares
Jay cilet Ue) pyprdz 9 baste) faye idl ulyall pyoe gost yl
yg Stl w) Le eya2 eaytsls se ines ¢PJsd0 _ gle tide! weel 5
CF gS pls AFIS SI sTe-ed) Sale Cast 6618) 8 plety dg
cebte ye US lay 8,3) Lediad Bai atols ALG) ay )) BU aro!) Jal
Lanw 5 4 mys Bile eI] wy” dA Bydwo gle Kmnilo iy dydy Laila
1 fycols| 2 da; 3 lbsla 4 Low yd
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Haurén. 75
w85, O13 OI gai erste Intel bytJ) lam be pilaf YU, l=),
gly bide! syyoe'l ple) laytile? yall desl y peel y gla
x Bul) Qe allbc Je py? H5ye UW) ye LJ cle 92d es etl] hss 5
Band pty gall) yl a8) Sib Ua! pall Col eda on! iG
Ba} y ALB) , rod) paais alle bed duly cle ayay aby ey Id)
Bisey gle Joy! MS 31 Hab Uylse vey Gayl dle dad » yal
# apSorol) 8S pd enkiww
elena ot
wtp WLS phyale] us? Als) wyleainy dally!
ust yyemly y des” Holey Fade Ilyo alll , aly yybily » I Bae
prdic tale nal] SyloyI] lel anaie HUAI yy dW ply Sole BWI saa
Spm ) Ide 52 Foye!) prljlas asia piles lee Biglaniony Foal 5
us praal esa AF 5 (41d Gyl ylerhy EBA 4 dyrnel] Corll 5 dgall
ent Stsl ple) CEN de Fla dy pause» ¥by gb Tye Kanes atoall Ido
Lapp 13 31 11,56) dll pg] SII) pled Creal] Mldm gli dine ,
cal eH ea, dope Mester Cot gilill plel papa ale 5 ayle
lees Gatsll Gay Copdall Gel UF BE sti aiths Cala!
1 onsole 2% slg Ores 4 bale
B sts 8 Llphasdans 7 wd (63 5 5
9 yaa 10 43a LL Sis 9) IR ygdgS 13 gley
7
76 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Haurdn. [No, 2,
prilad rye!) ple) cote) adm Baly yl dass sTygall 4 sTydel) 4 pads)
wylaniany Lay) y Ee leo I, Helles yay pod | cds y Rel yilly dhina
csi Cplering “Lodi S139) wd eye 4 caune UEs3 5 omy BLT pad
pres ee pylileles gaae f bled) thm gle wiplsiy y eaill » als’]
e—enlly BS5 yy ded) (ye Gyglol] eihins CrOY ey vphydions Cdasll
epbalag pal dy Sydekall ppl yas allyall gm US gems LUS yyay
thy Ate elem ye lat) jailel) GGUS jaar I, ppdny
* BlasusS) phil i]
a %e iF x)
Bel ad
abe MS yey kes)» Lod ye wyyily be day pil.
slaKJ) pbs Ke yon Lasy) (=e 5 Ba) as) — gle lyaite Urge!) ays (Stew
digest Coral) 608 oS Cod Boll OI ayy Sb ye 1ST ,
day 5 SLs} os5 ugh hyeld be Spel a) © want wale Ley trate bla
pou Ve me 25,5] 3 slisd] ws” 8 erty yl day 43] 529 doy! Fale
Sy, ye Pde g Cryell LS Col HLS! Ob de Ceayell updiys
1 &sy3 2 Ul 3 cpttonadalt
4 Metathesis for bats) 5 Lars 6 Lyot
7 Lets 2 bgpbis 9 Ailes os y
1893.] H. S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hawran. 77
sei 3s shy Shige 3 ey a3) J) sase she ),
w= ets
yp—bast Le Sd po8h LU ype!) dy5 Nylors yl dee gil
Gy!) cshe eis? wy 5 yas! ott Bele] us? LoS elyt] Lge daSal]
pdiine cial] cle up yold pte pile lak Lets dl yyla, Lesic
BA) wyplioss ergy us? sail ew) drat lvoe pos? Lental) ly
tee *slac .) dblu | dbo rte wold ce!) Krale diinst
Ny Fy) CS pads uae ete ull Gay aye ts] Jahr 4 youre
Jplnsy yl daz sing ad) pehe onl, IS yaks y alt syle, 613
wy cts) pdaky , Ban) caydle) yo dal, Korey col rill gle ayo)
ol whe epddhes ysl Asal) press! wyledy » yaZll gle dalyd “daly
wy? A J be SS omy Ceetell gly floc yal us Bssly S55 ¢!
# lapse , Sho) U5 553
1 ven 2 Ssloc 3 [doles Joofy
78 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Haurdn. [No. 2,
MODERN CUSTOMS AMONG THE BEDOUINS OF THE
HAURAN.
BrTrRoTHAL.
A young man seeks in the first place a suitable girl to whom
he may pay his addresses. He then makes repeated visits to her
father’s tent where he occasionally eats and drinks and may at times
impose on the girl the trouble of washing his head and combing his
hair. Thus the two have free intercourse with each other without the
slightest objection on the part of her people. But throughout the
whole of this period, notwithstanding the complete freedom of inti-
macy between the youth and the girl, they scrupulously adhere to
the injunctions of propriety and honour, following in this the custom
of civilized communities. When their mutual attachment is assured
and they are satisfied that there exists between them similarity of
tastes, the youth requests his father to solicit her betrothal to him
The father readily comples and invites the principal men of his
tribe and they all mount their horses and proceed to the house of
the girl’s father who rises to meet them as they approach with the
rest of his relatives that may be present. They are helped to dismount
and the best carpets at hand are spread for them. Some cow-dung
and camel-dung is now quickly brought and a fire kindled in the
middle of the tent. Coffee is then prepared and poured out to the guests
in cups, each cup containing but a sip. As the oldest among them
takes a cup, he places it in front of him, saying to the girl’s father,
“ We will not drink of thy coffee unless thou give her to me.” The
rest of his companions repeat the same thing inturn. The master
of the house, 7. e., the father of the girl or one of the chief men of
his tribe then addresses them, saying; “ Drink your coffee and it shall
be as you wish.” Upon this, each one takes his cup and drinks it off.
In the meanwhile the master of the house orders a sheep or a goat
to be slaughtered, the flesh of which is cut into pieces of about half an
ounce! weight each, and these are boiled in milk till they are thorough-
ly done and then placed in a large dish of burghui# not less in quantity
1 An ounce, 5 5 (from the Greek ovyyta or ovykia) is one-twelfth of a 7it/ or
pound of twelve ounces; measured in dirhams, it was formerly equal to forty,
but at the present day it varies in most cities: In Syria, according to the Majani
*L Adab, the ounce equals 66% dirhams.
2 This is the name of the ordinary dinner of the Arab peasants. It consists
of boiled wheat, dried and husked, prepared with fat or butter, and eaten with
sour milk or meat.
—
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hauran. 79
than half a mudd! which is equivalent to a weight of five thousand
six hundred dirhams.
This dish is set in the midst before the guests, and about two
thousand dirhams weight? of cold clarified butter is brought and placed
in the dish over the burghul. One of the relations of the master of the
house then comes forward with a ewer of cold water in his hand and
lightly washes the hand of each of the guests. The master of the house
then turns to his guests and says to them, ‘“‘ Welcome to what has
been provided,” that is, “ partake of the meal.” They reply, “‘ We will not
eat of thy food unless thou give her to us,” upon which, if he desires to
give his daughter in marriage to their son, he rejoins, “‘ Be pleased to
eat your meal and it shall be as you wish.” ‘They then proceed to eat
with their hands, using neither spoon nor bread. Some of their habits
in eating are curious: for example a man will take as much meal and
flesh-meat as the hand can grasp, probably more than sixty dirhams
weight, and shape it into the form of a ball, and put it into his mouth
without touching it with his other hand or masticating it, and catching
it upon his tongue, at one mouthful swallow it whole.2 When
they are satisfied, they wipe their hands on the side of the tent
and they clean whatever remains of grease there may be left, upon their
beards. They then return to their seats and take coffee a second
time. The father of the youth then turns to the girl’s father
who* says:—‘‘Be happy, she is thine.” On this the former asks
what dower he demands for her. The girl’s father answers, ‘“‘ I must
1 There is a discrepancy in these weights. If the mudd be calculated at the
ordinary dry measure of 13 to 2 rifls, half a mudd would be ridiculously little to
place on a large dish before hungry Arabs. Taking the equivalent calculation
of 5,600 dirhams, at 66% to an ounce, it would give exactly seven rif/s or pounds of
twelve ounces, which is perhaps a sufficient meal. Or taking 40 dirhams to the
oz, the ancient weight, this would give 113 as representing 5,600 dirhams. The
mudd must therefore be an error in the text. In Syria and Egypt at the present
day, 12 mudds are equal to 63 kilogrammes, which would make a mudd=12 of an
English pound avoirdupois.
2 Two and a half ritls or pounds of 12 oz., but the rfl varies somewhat.
v. Lane. “Mod. Egypt.,”’ p. 572.
3 This manner of eating is at least as old as the ‘ Arabian Nights.’ “ Jawan the
Kurdee stretched forth hig hand to the dish, and it resembled the foot of a raven ;
and he ladled the rice with it, and took it forth resembling the foot of a camel.
Then he compressed the handful into the form of a ball, so that it was like a
great orange : he threw it rapidly into his mouth and it descended into his throat
making a noise like thunder.”—“ Story of ?Ali Sher and Zumurrud.’’ Lane. IT. 413.
4 The grammatical construction is here faulty. Hither the positions of the
fathers of the youth and girl must be inverted in the sentence or the relative
pronoun introduced to give the sense of the passage.
Jeomine. Wl
80 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hauran. [No. 2,
have fifteen thousand piastres.” Those present then address the
father of the bride, one by one beginning with the oldest, saying, “‘ What
wilt thou deduct for my sake ?”’ The bride’s father replies, “‘ For thy sake
I abate of what is due to me, one thousand piastres.” The next then
requests him to lessen the sum by 900, and in the same way he abates
800 for the third, and so on until he reaches the customary amount
according to the established usage among them.! When the confer-
ence is concluded, the bridegroom’s father and the father of the bride
rise and kiss each other on the moustache and such of the relatives of
both families as may be present stand up and address the fathers of
the bride and bridegroom saying, “‘ May their union be blessed; may
it be life long.” An animal is then slaughtered at the expense of the
bridegroom and a dish of burghul is prepared therewith and all the
relatives of the bride are invited to partake of it. The bridegroom’s
party then rise to depart, inviting all the members of the bride’s family to
accompany them to a feast at the tent of the bridegroom. Both? parties
then mount and proceed thither. The relatives of the bridegroom
welcome them with expressions of delight and pleasure and receive them
with all possible honour. Some wealthy man may also on such occa-
sions slaughter a camel worth perhaps twenty gold pieces (liras).
Both families continue to pay each other visits in this fashion till the
marriage contract is duly signed.
MARRIAGE.
The bridegroom’s family first send word to the family of the bride
informing them of the day on which they require the bride. On the
appointed day a party of them mount their horses taking their spears
and swords, and some ten girls of the bridegroom’s family or of his rela-
tives are decked out and dressed in their best apparel, wearing orna-
ments of silver or brass and haying their hair dressed with camel’s
urine which gives a bright gloss to its colour. And they choose the
best of their camels and clothe them with silk trappings of red, green
and yellow, and from both sides of each camel long tassels hang reach-
ing to the ground. Hach camel likewise carries a seat accommodating
2 According to Burton, this is usually about thirty Spanish dollars which were
most prized in El Hejiz, in Yemen, the Maria Theresa. The Spanish Government
refused to perpetuate its Pillar-dollars, at one time a great favourite in the Hast.
The dollar was called Riyal Fransah. Mecca—III. 82. Hdit. 1856.
2 The word in the text is KS yb, probably a clerical error for Coie mean-
ing wls ybIy.
® Burton observes that the Bedouin hair becomes coarse from exposure, not a
little increased by the ust J» or wash alluded to in the text. The only cosmetic
is clarified butter freely applied both to the body and the hair,
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Haurin. 81
two girls, which they call fasrah. The girls are placed two and two on
the camels each of which is led by a poor man who receives about six
piastres for his hire. When all the horses and the caparisoned camels
are ready, the men mount the horses and the girls their camels and
they form a cavalcade, the men on horseback brandishing their swords
and spears and feigning attacks on each other, while the girls on their
litters on the backs of the camels sing with shrill screams of joy some
such strain as the following! :—
* % co *
The men never cease attacking each other in mimic combat and the
girls to sing till they reach the house of the bride. The horsemen
continue their sports for the space of half an hour before the house,
after which the men and girls dismount and enter the apartment which
the bride occupies, but the girls? and men sit in another apartment
where the customary food is brought to them, consisting of barghul and
meat, and portions thereof for the girls and the bride. After the
repast the girls rise and take the bride into a private apartment and
heating a cauldron of water they bathe and dress her in garments of
wool and silk and lead her forth singing as follows :—
Walk proudly, O daughter of the Emir,
Thy affianced is the first of horsemen.
Walk proudly, O daughter of the Bedouins,
Thy spouse is the slayer of his enemies.
Walk proudly, O daughter of the Arab,
Thy lord is hospitable to the stranger.
Walk proudly, O daughter of princes
Thy affianced is Abu. Zayd al Hilali.3
The men then mount their horses and the girls their litters, the
bride being seated on one that is decorated and distinguished from the
others by its ornamentation. She is accompanied by one of the bride-
1 T leave the translation of these distiches, of which I can make no decent sense,
to greater scholarship or ingenuity than mine. and
, ’
lira,
1 The Kintar according to Dozy (the French quintal from the root of the Lat.
centum) is a weight of a hundred pounds and is still of that measure in Syria.
2 As a unit of value, it is a piece uf five piastres (from the Turkish besh, five, and
the termination lik (eV) or lik (H); signifying function or quality), but local
variations no doubt account for the difference in the text.
3 This is said honoris causa, to magnify the amount of the gift. The Turkish
lira (gold) was current at 302 to 333 krans to the pound sterling in ‘Turkish Arabia in
1891, the Indian rupee at 23 krans, varying of course according to the relative value
of the metals. The ghursh or piastre is a corruption of the German groschen.
4 Plural of bs nakat, pieces of money given to musicians at a féte or to the
bride at a wedding, as in this instance. y. Lane, ‘‘ Mod. Neypt.,” XXVII.
5 This term occurs in the “Arabian Nights” (715th night) pronounced Shobash
(Up9 ) in Eeypt, and Shuwbdsh in Arabic, derived from the Persian Shdh-bdsh,
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hauran. ~~ 83
is meant as an assistance to the bridegroom. After this, a quantity
of fire-wood and cow-dung is collected, and the whole of it is placed
in a large meadow, and about an hour after sunset all the men, that is,
the whole tribe, assemble, armed with old pistols loaded with powder,
and they set fire to the wood collected in the meadow at one time so that
the flame shoots up to the height of five or six yards. All the men
present then form a circle round the fire, and begin to shout the word
hawalahk, hawalah, hawalah, which they repeat continuously for about four
hours without adding to it a single syllable. This ring presents a most
inspiriting sight for the fire is generally in full blaze and the men stand
around it one beside the other, shoulder to shoulder, the right foot
advanced and the left set back, like troops in order of battle, and they
clap their hands together in such a manner that a spectator would be
unable to determine whether it was a single stroke or.the union of
many, for they lower them together and raise them together: and
notwithstanding the number of men in the circle, it would be impossible
to discover one man in advance of another by a finger’s breadth, as if
they were proficients in geometrical science. When the circle is formed,
some three or four women and girls of the bridegroom’s relations, wearing
their richest apparel and decked with ornaments and trinkets of silver
and each with a sw ord 1 in her hand, enter the middle of the ring and begin
to dance, brandishing their swords and directing their points towards
the men forming the circle as though attacking an enemy. Upon this
the men get wild with excitement like savage animals and draw their
pistols loaded with powder, pointing them at the feet of the women
and girls as they dance. This performance continues for about four or
five hours, the men and the women and the girls vehement and impas-
sioned like camels or excited steeds; and all the while the perspiration
pours down from the persons of the men and the dancing women as if
from a spout of water. When their strength is exhausted with fatigue,
some notable advanced in years, enters the circle formed by the men
and calls out in a lond voice, ‘‘ They are under your protection, O youths,
they are under your protection ;” upon which they cease their sport
and excitement and take rest, and if one were to look at the hands of
some of the youths next morning, they would be found swollen from
excessive beating and at times their colour blue from the clapping
together of the palms and itis often long before they are able to touch
anything with their hands.
When all this severe exercise is concluded, they sit in companies
and is synonymous with nukit. The allusion is to the buffoon’s ery at an Egyptian
feast, ‘“Shobash ’alayk, ya Sahib al faraj,” ¢.e., ‘a present is due from thee, O
giver of the feast.’ v. Lane, “ Mod. Keypt.,” XXVII,
84 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Haurdn. [No. 2,
on the ground and coffee which has been prepared for them is brought,
after drinking which they depart, each one to his house. On the
following day they re-assemble and return to the bridegroom, singing
and firing off their pieces. The bridegroom prepares a repast in honour
of the youths and after they have eaten and drank, they set to singing
and dancing throughout the rest of the day. After this, the bridegroom
is feasted in their houses for the space of seven days, breakfasting with
one, dining with another and supping with a third until at the con-
clusion of the seven days the festival terminates.
HOSPITALITY.
When a stranger approaches the tent of his host, its owner rises
and hastens to meet him, holds the bridle of his horse and assists him
to dismount and ties up the animal. Then with all expedition he brings
out his best carpets and spreads them in an apartment of the tent not
occupied by the women. A fire is quickly lighted and coffee is
brought and he prepares a coffee-pot and offers it first to his guest and
afterwards to any others present. After the coffee, some food is brought
for the guest and when the guest or guests have eaten, the relatives of
the host that may be present partake of the food that the guests have
left. Should they invite the host to join them, he refuses, saying, “ the
host may not serve his own interests—be pleased to eat.” When all
present have eaten, the host comes and partakes of what food remains.
Meanwhile an animal will have been killed and after a little, the host
produces a dish of burghul and serves it on a platter of brass or
wood of not less than a yard in width, and slices the meat in pieces upon
the burghul and places upon the side of the platter the fat tail of the lamb
together with the leg, before the guest. This large piece of meat goes by
the name of Shazdt. Before the meat is served, some water is brought
that the guests may wash their hands, after which the meal is placed in
the middle and some cold clarified butter is brought and placed on
the top of the dish. The host then looks at his guest and says,
“Partake, O stranger, of what has been provided,” and he invites also those
of his relatives who are present, who come forward and sit round the
dish and begin to catch up portions in their palms; that is, they take
a handful and shape it intoa ball, fashioned somewhat oblong and
placing the thumb below it, put it into their mouths and pressing it
with the tongue, swallow it without the slightest chewing or mastication.
Some of these balls occasionally equal a weight of sixty dirhams.
When those present at the meal are so many that they cannot find room
to sit at the dish together, they wait till a place is vacant, and as one
vacates a seat, another takes his place and so on until all have eaten.
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hauran. 85
Meanwhile, that is during the repast, if the butter on the dish should
run short, they add more, and one may sometimes see the butter
streaming from the hands of the eaters as from a spout. When all
present have had their fill, the host comes forward and eats from the side
of the dish which often contains portions of food foul from the hands
that have been stretched overit. Ifa guest stays till evening, fodder
is given to his horse and another animal is killed, according to the
manner above described.
It is customary for the guest when he is at table, to take some
meat and give a piece to each of those present who are not seated
at the meal in the first instance. When one of those seated at
table rises, the host says to him,—‘ Fill O such a one, this vacant
place.”’ When the meal is done, the guest says to the host,—‘ Many
thanks to the host; be this followed with lawful recompense.” Meanwhile
coffee is continuously being made and whenever one coffee-pot is emptied,
another is produced until the guest departs. After his departure he
continues still under the hospitality of his host who is responsible for any
harm that may befall him, but should he become the guest of others on
the road and partake of their hospitality and an accident subsequently
occur or he be robbed, it is a charge on the later host and the
responsibility of the first determines.
The rights of the host against the robber of his guest are based
on prescribed rules. If it happen that the guest be plundered when on
his journey from his host’s roof, the latter rides with a number of
horsemen of his kindred and tribe and visits the chief of the tribe to
which the robber belongs and thus addresses him, ‘‘ Such and such a
one was our guest on such a day and he is a traveller on the road and
our salt was in his stomach, (1%. e., he partook of our food) and he departed
and before he had eaten of the salt of others, he was set upon by such
a one of your tribe at a certain place. And when the man attacked
him, he informed him that he was our guest and notwithstanding his
protest that he was travelling under the protection of our salt, he robbed
him nevertheless. Now we demand our due.” Thereupon the chief of
the plunderer’s tribe sends after the offender and recovers the whole
of the property robbed and makes it over to its owner. He then charges
him with an indemnity for the host whose guest has been robbed, con-
sisting of a male and female camel, ten head of sheep, a sword and
a spear.
If the tribe of the robber refuse the demands of the guest's enter-
tainers and will not give up the property plundered nor pay the indem-
nity to the host of the stranger, hostilities ensue between the tribes and
occasionally many lives are lost.
86 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hauran. [No. 2,
Among the rights of the guest is that he shall leave his host’s roof
as he entered it and if, as sometimes happens, his horse is stolen from
his host’s house or should die, the host must provide another for him.
In fine, the respect and reverence paid to a stranger among the Arabs are
very great, which is a proof of their generous spirit, their magnanimity
and sense of honour.
Moornine.
The customs observed on occasions of death. When a tribes-man
dies all the men of his clan assemble and those who possess horses mount
them and engage in a tournament as if they were on the field of battle.
In about half an hour’s time, the horsemen dismount and tie up
their horses and approaching the dead man, lay him out on a bed and
place his weapons by his side. The women then advance attired in
their best garments, with swords in their hands and begin to dance,
brandishing their swords and singing for the space of about six hours,
after which they follow to the interment. When the burial is over, the
men and women return to the tent of the deceased and animals are
killed and food prepared at the expense of the relatives of the deceased.
The dishes are handed round to all present and after the repast, the
men return to their houses and the women to the house of the deceased,
where they remain during a period of from seven to forty days, the
length of their stay depending on the position of the deceased. If he be
among the chiefs of the tribe, the mourning and lamentations continue
throughout forty days, but if he be of humble station, the period does
not exceed seven days. During the whole of this time the relatives of
the deceased must furnish the food and drink, coffee and tobacco, three
times a day to all the women present.
On the expiry of this period, it is imperative on the relatives of
the deceased to present each woman with some wearing apparel, that
is, a garment such as a vest or petticoat of cloth, or head-dress or
vesture ! of silk, or a red boot.
Should the deceased happen to be one of the chiefs or of the
richer class of the tribe, the expenses incurred by his people for food,
drink, coffee and tobacco, sometimes exceed one hundred and fifty liras.
Among their customs also is the following:—When news of a death
reaches the neighbouring Arab families, each family repairs to the
tent of the deceased to offer their condolences and take with them
sheep and goats for slanghter which they term kaydah.?
1 The word is éba. which I do not find in any dictionary, and is not noticed
by Dozy in his “ Dict. des noms des Vétements chez les Arabes.”
21 transliterate with diffidence: the vowel-points are not given and the word
—
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Oustoms among the Beduuins of the Hawran. 87
On arrival at the house of the deceased, all the animals that have
been brought are killed, even to the very last, and are served up to the
mourners upon dishes of burghul over which the butter flows liquid as
water and the mode of eating is by pressing the food into balls, as is
the custom on festive occasions. Another of their customs is that the
women who are blood-relations of the deceased, such as his sister, his
daughter, his wife or the wives of his brothers and uncles, tear their -
cheeks with their nails till the blood flows and rend their garments and
throw dust upon their heads. Another custom is to let their hair loose
over the face and shoulders. After the Japse of six months, the men
and women of the tribe assemble at the house of the deceased and
mourn for him during the day, at the close of which they visit the grave,
and this ceremony is also performed on the anniversary of the death.
The animals slaughtered after the interment of the deceased are called
“a solace to the deceased.”
Hostite Incursions.
By the word ghazw is signified the hostilities of Arab tribes against
each other. When one tribe intends a foray against another, the
Shaykh of the tribe warns the whole of his clansmen three days
previous to the expedition. Upon this their leaders meet at the
Shaykh’s house, who, after performing the duties of hospitable entertain-
ment and furnishing the horses with provender, thus addresses them,—
“© chiefs of the Arabs, I have certain information that such and such
a tribe of Arabs is encamped at a certain spot, and their gathering is
extremely small and we mean te attack them after three days. There-
fore warn your people to be in readiness, and at the appointed time let
the horse assemble in such and such a district, and at such and such a
spot.”
Thereupon the leaders quit their chief, each one departing to his
own party, and when they reach their tents, each of them assembles
his men and entertains them and after the entertainment he addresses
them as follows :—‘‘ We intend to attack such and such a tribe, at such
and such a spot, on a certain day, and all the horsemen must be there
assembled.” The men then severally depart to their tents and every
horseman must provide the requisites for the march in food and water
for himself and his horse and the needful amount of barley for his horse,
and on the appointed day, the horse assemble in one body, every horse-
man haying his things laden on a camel and each camel led by a picked
is unknown to me in this sense, though Kaud ( 33 ) and Kdédat have the mean-
ing of a present or contribution of horses or camels, either as gifts or in token of
vassulage.
de Tne Me
88 H.S, Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hauran. [No. 2,
man of its owner’s relations; these camels are called by them rakb
(camel-troop). The leader of the whole expedition is the Shaykh of
the tribe, whom all obey. When the whole force is assembled, the Shaykh
thus addresses them: “ Ride forth, O horsemen, and you, O camel-drivers,
go to a certain spot and there await the horsemen till they come to
you.” Upon this. the horsemen set forth, making for the enemy’s
cattle where they may be grazing on the plain, and the camels march to
the appointed place and lie in concealment. Let us now turn to the
horsemen.
When they arrive within six or seven hours from the habitations
of the enemy, the horsemen lie in ambush in a certain defile. A detach-
ment of about ten of them then set out and march on till they
near the enemy’s tents and lie in ambush during the whole day
and night, and in the morning they watch the direction taken by the
cattle and the herdsmen to pasture. And as cattle must necessarily be
sent with the drover to the plain, as soon as the horsemen on the
look-out observe the herd leaving the tents for the pasturage, the
detachment make for the ambush of their own people to give them
notice that the cattle are moving towards a certain quarter. Upon this
the Shaykh rides with the whole of his force after the cattle, having, as
they put foot in stirrup, uttered some such words as, ‘May God
provide for our families!” When they arrive within an _ hour’s
distance of the cattle, they scatter in pursuit and collect all the cattle
together and drive them forward in front of their horses. It is not
long before the news reaches the owners of the cattle, who mount
their horses to save their property from the hands of the enemy.
Sometimes the pursuit by these horsemen of those of the enemy con-
tinues a whole day or more, until the one body overtakes the other,
when the scales of fray and contest are balanced between the two
forces. Should the owners of the cattle prevail, they recover the
plundered camels and sheep and return with song and chants of victory
and triumph and their women come out to meet them an hour’s dis-
tance from the encampment with dance and pans of joy. We shall
now describe a few incidents of their skirmishes and attacks and the
customs they therein observe. When a horseman overtakes another and
wounds him with his lance or sword and hurls him from his horse to the
eround, the latter calls to his overthrower: ‘I am under thy protec-
tion; spare me, as may God spare thee’ The victor then dismounts
from his horse and binds his fallen adversary, driving him in foot in
front of him after despoiling him of his weapons, and remounting, leads
the horse of his captive behind him till he reaches his own people. He
then digs a pit in the ground before his tent, about a yard in depth,
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Haurdn. 89
and places his captive in it and fills it up partially with earth and sets
a covering over the pit. The feet of the captive are, meanwhile,
fettered with iron, and every day he is given a little food and he is
also daily taken out of the pit for about an hour for the usual necessi-
ties of nature. As often as he goes beyond the tents, his arms are
pinioned and he is guarded by an armed man. When his needs are
satisfied beyond the encampment, he returns with his guard behind
him, who sets him in the pit as before. Sometimes the prisoner dies
under this treatment and at others they take pity on him and set him
free. But if another war breaks out between the two tribes, and the
man captured again falls into their hands, they strike off his head at once
without mercy. Another custom is the following; when one horseman
meets another on the field of battle and cuts him down, the other
eries out, ‘‘ Spare me, as may God spare you: this shall be to me as a day
of the days of the Arabs.”! Upon this the victor stays his stroke
from his suppliant enemy and exclaims, ‘ God has given thee life; go
im peace and this shallbe to thee as a day of the days of the Arabs,”
But if in subsequent hostilities between the tribes, the vanquished
horseman is victorious and the one who had previously given him
quarter or any of his relations falls into his power, he spares them and
does notin any way molest them. This conduct is called by them an
interchange of courtesy, but the honour rests with the first.
The narrative must now revert to the “ RakB,” that is to the men
before-mentioned, who were leading the camels and were in hiding with
the water, provisions and fodder for the horses, awaiting the arrival of
the foragers. These, whether successful or otherwise, must necessarily
pass the camel-troop expecting them, and as soon as the horse-
men arrive, the former mount their beasts. If the horsemen are
driving their booty before them and the owners of the cattle are in
pursuit to recover the cattle and the fight is going on, (they join)?
against the enemy. Sometimes the defeat of the enemy is due to the
camel-riders. But if the horsemen reach the camel-troop in defeat
and not victorious, the latter accompany the horsemen returning to their
people. Another of their customs is as follows: should the horsemen
be returning from the foray with their booty and meet a man or a
woman, the traveller, whether man or woman, will look towards the leader
of the horsemen and say, “‘ Brand the foot,” and he will reply, ‘‘ Welcome,
welcome,”? Thereupon the man will say to the Arab Shaykh, the leader
1 The word “day” in this sense signifies a day of battle, and the “ days of
the Arabs,” the recital of their engagements.
2 These words are omitted and the ellipse mars the sense,
8 In the text wisy 9 dls for tha yoy dba},
90 H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouwins of the Haurdn. [No. 2,
of the horsemen, “ A share of the plunder, a share of the plunder ;” upon
which the leader will order a portion of the booty to be given him,
whether of camels or of sheep. Sometimes the man’s portion may be
from one to ten camels, according as the plunder was much or little,
and so likewise of the sheep. Another custom is this: should the
expedition be successful in the capture of booty and carry it away,
and the herds! that are harried belong to one or two individuals and
not tothe tribe in general, the whole tribe assemble and ascertain
the number of camels that have been taken and collect of their own a
number equal to that plundered, and give it to them in place of their
camels. The share of the leader of the foray is customarily five times
the amount allotted to individual horsemen. The remainder is divided
equally between the cavalry and the camel riders without distinction
of persons.
These customs are common to all the tribes.
Some Usaces or Law.
The Judges among the Arabs are plain, blunt men, unable to read
and write, inheriting the office from father to son. They settle the
claims of litigants with prompt decision, giving to each one his due;
and in my opinion the regular judges versed in the science of juris-
prudence, fail in effecting what is accomplished by these uncivilised
tribunals.2. And here I will cite some instances of their decisions,
arrived at by the exercise of common sense and not by the aid of
treatises on law. Two married brothers in poor circumstances once
lived in the same house, and it happened that both their wives were
delivered on the same day, one giving birth to a boy, the other to
a girl. While the mother of the boy was asleep, her sister-in-law,
the mother of the girl, arose, and going to her bed took the child from
her side and placed her own girl in its place. Now it is a custom
among the Arabs toswathe their infants for some days and not to remove
their bands. In the evening of the same day, when their husbands
returned from pasturing their herds, each of the wives said to her hus-
band :—* Good tidings, husband, I have been given a boy.” Now the boy’s
real mother was aware that her sister-in-law had been delivered of a
girl, and straight-way unswathing the child by her side, she discovered
1 ists plur. of Las, literally, a shepherd’s staff, and derivatiyely a flock of
sheep (generally 400), committed to his charge. v. Dozy. Art, yes, Here it is
used synonymously with dssy, a herd of grazing camels.
* The Kazi el Arab observes Burton, was almost always some sharp-witted
grey-beard, with a minute knowledge of genealogy and precedents, a retentive
memory and an eloquent tongue. Mecea, ii. 45,
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hawrdn. 91
that it was a girl and not a boy: upon this she told her husband that
she had brought forth a male, and her sister-in-law a female child,
whereas now she found the female with herself and the male by the
side of her sister. A contention arose, therefore, among them till the
matter was carried to the Shaykh of the tribe, who directed them to
proceed to the Kadhi who should judge between them. They presented
themselves before the Kadhi and stated their case. The Kadhi there-
upon ordered that a determinate measure of milk should be taken from
the breasts of both the women, and he then weighed the milk of the
one against the other in accurate scales. The milk of the boy’s mother
weighing somewhat heavier than that of the mother of the girl, he
decided that the heavier milk belonged to the mother of the male child.
He added that if they would not accept this decision, he would be com-
pelled to put it to the test of the louse. Now lice are very common
with the Arabs, and his intention was to place some of the milk of the
male-child in a dish and to put a louse in the middle of it, whence it
would not be able to extricate itself from the milk of the male owing
to the presence of greater viscidity than is found in the milk of the
female. Whereas if the louse be set in the milk of the female child,
it will crawl out without difficulty, from the absence of this viscous
matter. After the decision was given, an investigation and a close
enquiry proved that the male child was stolen from his mother and in
accordance with the sentence, the boy was restored to his true mother
and the girl to hers,
A Seconp Instance.
A man married two women. One proved barren, the other not go.
The latter gave birth to a son, for which reason her husband preferred
her to the other. A violent jealousy took possession of the rival
wife and she concealed in her heart a determination to destroy the child
and she watched a favourable opportunity to commit the evil deed,
One day, when the boy’s mother setforth from the house to collect
camel’s-dung in the desert, the wicked woman placed her hand upon
the child’s mouth and nose and suffocated it. When the child’s mother
returned she found her son dead and the body turned blue whereupon
she set up a shriek and kept wailing, “Alas, why hast thou done this to
me,” and a clamour arose between them, each wife’s people taking her
side and the altercation became violent till a war was imminent between
them. At this juncture the chief arrived and quieted the tumult and
ordered them to go before the Kadhito decide between them. They
duly presented themselves and set forth their plaints. The Kadhi called
the mother of the boy aside and said to her,—‘‘ 1 know that thy wicked
92 4#.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedouins of the Hauran. [No. 2,
rival has killed thy son through envy. Now I require thee todo a thing,
to which if thou consentest, I will lay the charge of murder against
thy rival and her relations.” The woman replied,—“ What is it thou
requirest of me?’’ He answered, ‘“ Go to the farthest end of the en-
campment and take off thy garment and wrap it round thy head so that
thy shame be seen before all the Arabs, and walk from the end of the
camp to this tent without any covering on thy body, after which I will
decide in thy favour.” The woman answered,—-“‘ No, my lord, I will
not do this; rather will I forego the vengeance for the blood of my child
and preserve my honour among the Arabs, or I shall lose both my
child and my honour. I will never do this; never, never.” The Kadhi
replied—‘ Retire and rest in the women’s apartment.” He next called
the other wife aside and said to her,—‘‘I require thee to do something,
which if thou dost, I will absolve thee from this crime.” She replied.
“Tam at thy orders; what dost thou wish me to do?” He rejoined,
“Thou must take off thy garment and wrap it round thy head,” &c.,
as he had spoken to the rival wife. She answered at once: “This ~
is easy, I will do it with willingness on condition that thou acquittest
me.” He said to her,—‘ Go to the end of the encampment and gird up thy
garments and run through the midst of the Arabs, from thence hither,
that all may behold thy shame and I will acquit thee,” Upon which she
set forth ; whereupon the Kadhi summoned a respectable man and said
to him, “ Go after this woman to the end of the tents and if thou seest
her uncovering her person, make her put on her garments and forbid
her and bring her hither.” The man did as he was ordered and after
this, the Kadhi decided that the blood of the child should be demanded
of the wicked woman. Some of the tribal chiefs objecting to sentence
being passed against the woman in a crime of this nature without evi-
dence, he replied that a woman who would sacrifice her reputation and
immodestly uncover her shame before all the tribe, would undoubtedly
be capable of so base a deed. They answered that his sentence was
just, and she was condemned to death by strangulation, such as she
herself had perpetrated with her own hands.
A Turrp INSTANCE.
A number of persons were suspected of the murder of a traveller
on his journey, but it was not known which of them was guilty of the
crime. The relatives of the murdered man prosecuted five of them,
from the knowledge that feelings of enmity had existed between
them and the deceased, but they were not able to say definitely that
this particular individual had killed that. When they appeared before
the judge and he interrogated them searchingly, he found that all of
1893.] H.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hauran. 93
them repudiated the charge and as there were no witnesses to prove
the case against any particular person, he declared that he would
bring the criminal to justice in six months. After the lapse of the six
months, the Kadhi requested the chief of the tribe to assemble the
people on a large plain and place them side by side with their hands
folded upon their breasts in the form’of a cross. The chief told them
in a loud voice that the Kadhi desired to whisper something to them,
to which they should listen. Upon this the Kadhi whispered in the
ears of all of them saying, “I wish to say but two words only, and
when I speak them everyone who keeps his arms crossed on his
breast, shall receive from the Emir a present of a horse, a sword, and
a spear. Do you accept this condition?” he added. They all assented,
and the Kadhi with the Emir and the other chiefs in attendance, stood
before the assembled crowd, while the Kadhi thus exclaimed in a
loud voice: “O, Arabs! I know that he whose fillet of rope! shall
fly off his head, is the murderer of Ibn u’l Badin,” (the name of the
murdered man). Before the Kadhi had closed his lips, a man raised his
hand to his head and felt his band. Thereupon the Emir, the Kadhi,
and the chiefs came forward and laid hold of him, and he, after much
questioning, confessed that he had killed the unfortunate man with
his own hand.
THEIR OATHS.
The Bedouins constantly make use of oaths in their conversation.
They cannot string a sentence together without b’’llah or ta’liah fre-
quently reiterated, or Salat-Muhammad. ‘These words are used in
adjuration whether they speak truly or falsely, which makes no dif-
ference to them. But the oath which they regard as reliable and
which they employ in their tribunals, and in important cases, is the
following :—‘“ By the staff and the adored Lord, and the geomancy? of
Solomon, the son of David.” Before taking this oath, the man grasps
a staff in his hand and describes therewith a circle upon the ground
in front of the bystanders, after which he takes this oath before the
company, who thereby become witnesses against him. When they ap-
pear before the Kadhi in any important case, and the point is to be
decided by oath, the Kadhi addresses him saying, ‘‘ Say, O Bedouin, by
I This is the band of rope (¢kdl) which serves to fasten the kiifiyyah or kerchief
of cotton or silk. which the Bedouin wears round his head. Burton transliterates
this word incorrectly, as Aakal, in his Hl. Misr. I., 346. ed. 1855.
2 BS or b=); ps, equivalent to oJ} ale or geomancy.—These are lines
made in sand, and even on paper, by the diviners; an ancient practice, according
to Lane, still carried on at the present day, and employed to discover secret
thoughts and things unknown and the like.
94 A.S. Jarrett—Customs among the Bedowins of the Hauran. [No. 2,
the stars and the planets, and the heavens and the earth.” On his pro-
nouncing these words before the assembly, the indemnity is paid,
and the case is decided without further contention or dispute. They
also employ other words, such as—‘ By the tomb of Isa and of Misa.”
Such are the expressions they make use of in their oaths and assevera-
tions. They pronounce these words in all their dealings with each
other, and if one should borrow of another, the lender is satisfied with
the oath alone without the written bonds customary among civilised
communities. Experience shows that they keep due faith with each
other and it is rarely that any differences arise between them. Praise
be to God who has made them contented with their simple institutions !
SUPPLEMENT TO THE OBSERVATIONS ON MaRRiAGE.
When the dancing and singing and the ceremonies previously
mentioned are over, the bridegroom rises to his feet, and rushes
quickly through the women, taking any that may come on his way
to the apartment occupied by the bride. He then strikes the bride —
with a staff, bruising her head, in the belief that he thereby acquires
power over her and that she will never dispute his authority as long
as she lives. Another custom is as follows: when the song and dance
are over as above described, they make the bridegroom stand at the
door of the bridal apartment, while two vigorous youths come up behind
and push him with all their force. Should he fall on his face, they make
merry over him and do not suffer him to marry that night, but if he
does not fall, they depart to their homes and only his near relatives
remain with him and the ceremonies are concluded. .
SupPLEMENT TO THE OBSERVATIONS ON Movurnina.
When the mourning ceremonies are concluded, as above-mentioned,
they carry the corpse upon wooden boards, as is customary with people
in the towns. As they proceed and pass by any tent on their road, they
feign inability to advance as if the deceased were dragging them by
force to the tent they are passing, and so they carry him toit. The
master of the house brings out for the corpse a vesture, a jacket or
cloak, such as he may happen to possess, and this takes place from tent
to tent till they reach the cemetery. They then bury him and return
home after washing their hands upon the grave. This is done by one
of the men present taking a ewer, while the rest step forward one by
one to the grave and wash their hands, invoking the merey of God upon
him. They believe that the soul continues to abide in the left ear,
and that the deceased hears all that is said to him whether prayers or
aught else.
JOURNAL
OF THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.
=<2-O—C»
Vol. LXITI, Part III.—ANTHROPOLOGY AND
COGNATE SUBJECTS.
No. II1.—18938.
NOTES ON ANTHROPOLOGY.
By H. H. Ristny, Hsq,, Indian Civil Service, Companion of the Indian
Hmpire; Officier d’ Académie Frangaise ; Director of Ethnography,
Bengal.
CHAPTER I.
THe Piace or Man 1n Nature.
Tn the first attempt to classify the animal kingdom, Linneeus placed
men and monkeys side by side in the order of mammals which he
designated Primates. In our own time there has been much discussion
of the question whether the differences between the two correspond to
the distinction between an order and asub-order. Owen thought he
had proved that in man alone the lesser brain is completely surpassed
in size by the larger ; but his theory, which would have given to man
an indisputably higher structural rank than the most advanced apes,
is now generally admitted to have been based upon erroneous observa-
tions. ;
Even the standard distinction between man as an animal with two
hands, and apes as creatures with four, has been swept away by recent
13
96 H. H. Risley—Prolegomena Anthropologica. [No. 3,
investigations. Professor Huxley* has shown that in all important rela-
tions of number, arrangement and form, the tarsal bones of the gorilla
resemble those of man. The only difference is, that in the gorilla the
metatarsal bones are relatively longer and more slender, while the great
toe is comparatively shorter and weaker, and along with its metatarsal
bones is joined to the base of the foot by a looser and more pliable joint.
But although the gorilla’s hind member must be admitted to be struc-
turally a true foot, its functions differ from those of the human foot,
and this fact alone raises the morphological status of man far above
that of the highest apes. Status in this sense depends upon specialisa-
tion of function. The more purposes a given member has to discharge
the lower is its morphological rank. Thus a man’s foot can only be
used for walking; while a gorilla’s foot, although a true foot in virtue
of its anatomical character, is also a prehensile organ and therefore less
specialised and of a lower type. Apes walk either on the outside edge of
their feet, or, like the ourang-outang and chimpansee, on the upper surfaces
of their toes, which are folded down when the erect position is assumed.f
Differences of habit again lead to modifications of structure. The
upright position leads to the shortening of the arms, which are no
longer used for locomotion, though they retain their power of prehen-
sion, and causes the pelvis to asume the dish-like form adapted to
support the intestines. The relatively capacious skull is evenly balanced
on the vertebral column, and if, as is the case with the Negro, the jaws
project greatly, the correlative development of the cerebellum serves to
maintain equilibrium.
Embryological differences must not be left out of consideration.
Eighty years ago Johann Friedrich Meckel, of Halle, discovered that
durivg the period of immaturity, which lasts from the fertilization of
the ovum to the first manifestations of sexual aptitudes, every animal
passes through all the various stages of development which characterise
the lower forms of life during their whole existence. At birth the
difference between the human infant and the monkey is comparatively
smal]. It takes an expert to distinguish the skull of a child from that
of achimpansee. In point of size there is little to chocse; but an ape’s
brain does not grow much, Although it resembles the human brain in
structure, its development follows quite a different course. The brain
of the ape has, asarule, stopped growing by the time the animal has
got its second set of teeth, which is just the time when the real develop-
ment of a child’s brain begins. Per contra, the facial bones of the ape
grow more rapidly, so that the biggest monkeys have the brain of an
* Huxley, The Place of Man in Nature, p. 105.
+ Darwin, Descent of Man, i, p. 120.
i
1893.] H. H. Risley—Prolegomena Anthropologica. 97
infant combined with the jaws of an ox. So also the inter-maxillary
bone disappears earlier in the human embryo than is the case with
monkeys. lt follows from all this that continued development can
never turn a monkey into a man, for the evolution of the two types
goes on in different directions, and the degree of divergence would
therefore tend constantly to increase. In some of the lowest monkeys,
whose development has been arrested, as is the case with the marmoset
of Hastern Brazil, the brain-case approaches the human type more closely
than that of the anthropoid apes.* It is therefore a vulgar error to sup-
pose that the evolution hypothesis traces the descent of man to one of
the four higher varieties of apes. Neither Darwin nor any of his
followers have ever said anything of the kind, but have always main-
tained that the ancestors of the human race must have diverged from
some long extinct variety of the catarrhine group in the early part of
the tertiary epoch. In order to verify this hypothesis intermediate
forms must be discovered connecting the eocene apes with the men of
the present day. The chain of structural modification will then be
complete. This missing link, however, will probably be found, not in
Hurope, which man seems first to have entered after his present stage of
organization had been reached, but in Asia or Hquatorial Africa, regions
more likely primd facie to have been the cradle of the human race.
We have spoken thus far only of physical characters, which entitle
man merely to rank in the animal kingdom as a sub-order of the Pri-
mates. These are what determine his place from the scientific point of
view, which is all that we are now concerned with. In the later papers
we hope to deal with some of the higher distinctions between men and
animals.
In illustration of the different phases through which the question
has passed the most notable classifications of men and monkeys are
shown below.
Order of Primates.
Linneus—1735.
Ferus, (savage)
Americanus
Huropeeus
Species sapiens4 Asiaticus
| Asser (negro)
| Monstruosus (abnormal)
Species sylvestris or troglodytes : Orang, ete.
Ist genus. Homo
2nd genus. Simia.
Sid genus. Lemurs.
4th genus. Vespertilio.
* Virchow, Menschen wnd Ajffenschidel, p. 25.
98 H. H. Risley—Prolegomena Anthropologica. [No. 3,
Cuvier—1828.
lst order. Bimana: Man.
2nd order. Quadrumana
F Cana ar. lst tribe. Monkeys of old world.
Abi furl Lakes 1 2ud tribe. Monkeys of new world.
2nd family. Marmosets.
3rd family. Lemurs.
Huxley—1871.
1. Anthropide: Man.
Oataredhing ( Anthropomorphic.
ae oe Cynomorphice,
2. Simiade Platyrrhine
Arctopitheca.
3. Lemurs.
Broca—1870.
[st family. Man.
2nd family. Anthropoids (chimpansee, gorilla, orang, and gibbon).
3rd family. Pitheca (semnopitheca, or sacred monkeys of India).
Ath family. Cebia.
Sth family. Lemurs.
Broca—1877-—1880.
. . {( A. Man.
lst: Anthropomorphi { 2), Auatingamnandl
{ C. Pitheca.
D. Cebia.
According to Huxley, the different races of mankind fall naturally
into two primary divisions: the Ulotrichi, with crisp or woolly hair ;
and the Leiotrichi, with smooth hair.
Among the Ulotrichi the colour of the skin ranges from yellowish-
brown to the deepest charcoal-black. The hair and eyes are almost
invariably dark, and the entire group, with the exception of the Anda-
manese, is dolichocephalic. The Negroes and Bushmen of Africa, and
the Negritos of the Malay region, and of the Papuan islands belong to
this stock. Some writers have proposed to include the Dravidians of
India among them, but it may be doubted whether the physical charac-
teristics of this type have yet been determined with sufficient certainty
to enable the question to be finally settled.
The Leiotricht or smooth-haired division are further divided into
four groups :—
1. Australioid with dark skin and eyes, wavy, black hair and long
prognathous skulls with well developed brow ridges. The Australians
2nd: Monkeys
1893:]~ H. H. Risley—Prolegomena Anthropologica. 99
are the chief representatives of this type, and Huxley also includes in
it the inhabitants of the Dekhan and the ancient Egyptians. As re-
gards the people of the Dekhan a doubt may be suggested, whether the
data available are ample enough to justify this conclusion. One may
also fairly ask what is meant by the phrase inhabitants of the Dekhan.
Presumably the Dravidians, but the category is so large and indefinite
that it may well give rise to some misapprehension. One is tempted to
surmise that the people of the Dekhan have been included in this type on
the strength of an examination of a limited number of Museum specimens,
about the least trustworthy kind of evidence that can be resorted to. No
one who is acquainted with the conditions which govern the collection and
preparation of skulls in India, can fail to regard with profound distrust
any of the ordinary collections ; for the simple reason that in nine cases
out of ten there is, and from the nature of the case can be, no guarantee
whatever that the skulls are what they are represented to be. Pending
therefore the fuller examination and determination of the Dravidian type,
which may perhaps be looked for, we may be permitted to suspend jude-
ment on the question whether it should be included in the Australioid
group.
2. Next in order comes the Mongoloid group, with usually yellowish-
brown or reddish-brown skins and dark eyes, the hair being long, black,
and straight. The characteristic Mongolian skull is brachycephalic ; in
fact the most pronounced cases of brachycephaley are found among this
group, and all Asiatic Mongols are markedly brachycephalic. On the
other hand, the American Mongols are usually dolichocephalic.
3. The Xanthrochroic group is marked by fair skins, blue eyes, and
abundant fair hair. The skulls of the most typical members of the group
are almost invariably dolichocephalic, indeed Penka (Die Herkunft der
Arier ) regacds this as one of the chief characteristics of the Xanthrochroie
Scandinavians ; but in Southern Hurope the brachycephalic representa-
tives of the type out-number the dolichocephalic. Teutons, Scandinavians,
Slavonians, and the fair Celts are the chief members of this group ; but
distant off-shoots are also found in North Africa and Western Asia.
4.- The Melanochroi, or dark whites, have pale complexions, dark hair
and eyes, and usually long, but sometimes broad skulls. In Hurope they
are represented by the Iberians and “ black Celts ” of Western Europe.
Professor Huxley is inclined to think that they are not a distinct group,
but result from the mixture of Australioids and Xanthrochroi.
100 S. C. Mitra—Drowning and Drowned Persons. [No. 3,
On Some Superstitions regarding Drowning and Drowned Persons.—By
Basu Sarat Cuanpra Mirra, Pleader, Judge’s Court, Chupra.
Anthropologists have come to the conclusion that the principle of
Animism has its origin in the belief that every locality has its presiding
spirits. This stage of belief is a characteristic of savage races and still
survives as a relic of primitive faith among peoples who have now
become civilised. Primitive men believed every mountain, rock and
valley, every well and stream and lake, to be the abode of some spirits.
This belief again originates from the association of the idea of personal
life with that of motion, just as the swaying of a tree appears to the
mind of primitive man to be a proof of personal life like the flight of
birds or the movements of animals. This idea became gradually
developed and, in conjunction with dreams during sleep, reminiscences
of the dead and accidental associations of motionless objects with motion
(as of a rock in the midst of a rapid or eddy) gave rise to Animism or
Spiritism. Primitive man was awe-struck at the majesty and grandeur
of 2 mountain and, inwardly reflecting that this must be caused by
spirits or beings superior to himself, believed the mountain to be the
local habitation of these beings.
Relics of savage Animism are still to be met with among civilized
races: such as the mountain-worship of the Japanese, the well-worship.
prevailing in the different counties of Great Britain and Ireland, and
the river-worship of the Hindus. The Ainos, who are the aboriginal
inhabitants of Japan, profess “the rudest and most primitive form of
nature-worship, attaching a vague sacredness to trees, rivers, rocks, and
mountains, and vague notions of power for good or evil to the sea, the
forest, the fire, and the sun and moon.’* ‘This belief still survives
among the modern Japanese who worship mountains. Miss Bird says
(page 108 of Vol. I of her work): ‘‘ Mountains, for a great part of the
year clothed or patched with snow, piled in great ranges round Nantaisan,
their monarch, are worshipped as a god.” At page 122 of the same
volume, she again says: “ The mountain-peak of Nantaisan is. worshipped,
and on its rugged summit there is a small Shinto shrine with a rock
beside it on which about one hundred rusty sword-blades lie—offerings
made by remorseful men whose deeds of violence haunted them till they
went there on pilgrimage and deposited the instruments of their crimes
before the shrine of the mountain-god.”
In the same manner, primitive man believes that every river has
* Miss Bird’s Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, Vol. II, page 94,
a
#
4
*
:
A
1893.] S.C Mitra—Drowning and Drowned Persons. 101
its presiding spirit, and instances of this belief are still to be met with
among peoples of savage culture. The T'shi-speaking peoples of Africa
belisve in a great spirit Prah who presides over rivers and to whom
they offer human sacrifices—one adult male, and one adult female—in
the belief that the spirit can do harm to the people through the agency of
the rivers. By the principle of substitution, offerings of flowers, fruits,
sweets, cereals, and incense which the Hindus of Bengal offer every year
to the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Padma, Nerbudda and other rivers, have
taken the place of the human sacrifices which are offered by savage
peoples to the great River-Spirit.
Traces of the belief that every river, sea, and other bodies of water
have presiding spirits, and that they require human sacrifices, are to be
found even at the present day in the shape of various superstitions about
drowning and drowned persons which are prevalent among civilized
peoples. Hence the reluctance displayed by some peoples to save a
man from drowning if he falls into the river or the sea. In the Solomon
Islands, when a man falls into the river and is attacked by a shark, he
is neither helped out of the water nor is he assisted in warding off the
attack of his marine assailant. If the person any how manages to escape
from the jaws of the shark, his fellow-tribesmen throw him back into
the water so that the shark may make a meal of him. This they do
under the impression that the victim is destined to become a sacrifice
to the river-god.* Another form of this antipathy to saving a drown-
ing man obtains in Scotland and has been recorded by Sir Walter
Scott in “The Pirate.’ In that story the peddler Bryce refused
to assist Mordaunt in saving the life of the shipwrecked sailor from
drowning and even rated him roundly for attempting to do such a
thing. I will reproduce the conversation which took place between
the two, because it shows the motive for not assisting a man from
getting drowned. Bryce said, ““Are you mad, you that have lived
sae lang in Zetland, to risk the saving of a drowning man? Wot
ye not if ye bring him to life again, he will be sure to do you capital
injury?” The origin of this belief is stated by some to be the idea that
the person rescued from being drowned will, some day or other,
do a mischief to the man who saves his life. Others say that it has
its foundation in the belief that, as rivers and seas are entitled to
human sacrifices, the presiding spirits of those bodies of water will
wreak their vengeance on those who prevent them from getting the
victims, as is illustrated by the item of folklore from the Solomon
Islands or by that prevailing in the Orkneys and Shetlands. It is said
* Codrington’s Zhe Melanesians, page 179.
102 S. C. Mitra—Drowning and Drowned Persons. [ No. 3,
that “among the seamen of Orkney and Shetland it was deemed unlucky
to rescue persons from drowning since it was held as a matter of religi-
ous faith that the sea is entitled to certain victims, and if deprived
would avenge itself on those who interfere.’
The superstition that the water-spirit, if despoiled of his victim,
will wreak vengeance on the person who deprives him of the sacrifice
due to him, is prevalent, in one form or another, among many races in
various parts of the world. It exists among the sea-faring population
of Great Britain and Ireland and especially among those of Cornwall.
The sea-faring community of France, the boatmen who ply their voca-
tion on the River Danube and the common peasant folk of Russia also
share in this belief. Formerly a superstitious belief was current
amongst the Bengalis that a water-spirit in the form of an old
hag—called seast—haunts tanks and ponds, and when any person
goes thereto, she fetters that person’s feet with an invisible chain.
The victim is allowed to go wherever he likes, dragging the invisible
chain, long as the daylight lasts, but as the shades of evening
begin to fall, the weast begins to withdraw the chain, and, therewith,
the victim is gradually drawn into the waters of the tank and drowned.
This superstition, is now fast vanishing before the progress of Hnglish
education and enlightenment and now only lingers as a rele in the
threat with which Bengali infants are frightened, namely, that, should
they become naughty, the segs} will catch them and take them away.
Another mythical being, named sf@, was believed to exist in Bengal
formerly. It was supposed to guard hidden treasure and to reside in
tanks. It was also said of this being that if anybody went to take the
treasure in charge of the HW, he was dragged into the water by that
spirit and killed by being submerged in it. This bit of folklore is
also disappearing. The Siamese believe in a water-spirit called Pnik,
who, they say, seizes those who go to bathe in the water and drags
them down. The Sioux Indians entertain a similar belief in-a water-
demon whom they call Unk-tahe and who, they believe, kills men by
dragging them underneath the water in a way similar to the Siamese
Spirit. The Kamschatkadales refuse to help a drowning man out of
the water, on account of some similar superstitious scruples. If such
a man was anyhow rescued, no one of his fellow-tribesmen would allow
him to enter his house or give him food, but, on the other hand, would
take him for one who is dead. The Chinese also display & similar sort
of reluctance to save a drowning man because they believe that the
spirit of the drowned man hovers over the water till 1t succeeds in
* Tudor’s Orkney and Shetland, page 176.
a
1893. ] 8S. C. Mitra—Drowning and Drowned Persons. 103
lulling a fellow-creature by dragging him underneath the water and
drowning him. It is alse popularly believed by the Hindus of Bengal
that the spirits of persons who have come by their deaths from drown-
ing, haunt the tanks and wells in which they have been drowned. Per-
sons are afraid of going to such tanks and wells after nightfall, from a
superstitious dread that the ghost of the drowned man would be sure to
appear to him, orsome other evil would happen to him. ‘The waters
of such tanks and wells are considered impure and unclean until those
receptacles of water are reconsecrated and thus rendered pure, by per-
forming some ¥t# or sacrifice, or some Jagna. Like the Bengalis, the
Japanese also consider the water of wells wherein persons have been
drowned asimpure. Miss Bird, at page 184 of Vol. I of her above-
quoted work, says: “I have passed two wells which are at present
disused in consequence of recent suicides by getting drowned in them.”
There is a belief current among the people of Bangalore in Mysore, that
the spirits of those persons who have been drowned possess women.*
There are some omens which are superstitiously believed to prog-
nosticate death from drowning. Before the days of the Suez Canal, when
ships used to come to India by the route round the Cape of Good Hope.
EKuropean sailors believed thata “ Phantom Ship,” which they called the
“Flying Dutchman,” used to sail near the Cape and would appear to
passing vessels in times of storms. Sailors believed that the vessel
which sighted the ‘‘ Phantom Ship” would surely come to grief, and
all the crew on board the vessel would be drowned. Captain Marryat
has founded the plot of a novel upon the legend of the “ Flying Dutch-
man.’ There is a superstition in Bengal among the lower classes of
Bengalis, that if a single female goes in a boat in which there are male
passengers only, the boat would come to grief and the passengers drowned.
In order to obviate this evil, the single female passenger must tie a knot in
her cloth and must call to mind the name of another female. I once saw
a curious illustration of this superstition. In May or June 1884, I had
occasion to goover to Seebpore on the other side of the River Hooghly.
LT hired a boat from the Colvin’s Ghat, Calcutta, and was crossing the
river. While in midstream, the wind began to blowa regular gale,
and the boat was tossed to and fro. My fellow-passengers assured
me that the rough weather was the consequence of the presence of
a single female who was a passenger in the same boat with us. On
a previous occasion also, while going to Seebpore, I was accompanied
by asingle female—a relative of mine, and, when stepping into the
* “Note ona Mode of Obsession, which dealt with the Belief in a part of
Bangalore in the Possession of Women by the Spirits of Drowned Persons” by
BF. Fawcett, in the Journal of the Anthropol: Soc: of Bombay, Vol. I. No. 8.
J. iu. 14
104 S. C. Mitra—Drowning and Drowned Persons. [No. 3,
boat, I saw her tie a pice in a corner of her cloth, mentioning the
name of another female, as there was no other female passenger in
that boat. This she did to obviate the consequences of the popular
belief that a boat with a single female passenger would come to
grief. There are also the Bengali superstitions that women who have
got children must not put water into a vessel containing lime, after
taking their meal, otherwise their children will get drowned.* Also a
person who dreams that he is drowned in mire, ought to know that
such dream prognosticates an early death to him.* The Bengali
Hindus also believe that those persons who have got convolutions of
hair (peculiar growth of the hair ina spiral form, which is called in
Bengali FBCIUA), are sure to get drowned. I came across a curious
instance of this superstition lately. In the beginning of August last,
a nephew of a Bengali pleader of the Chupra Bar got drowned while
bathing in the River Saraju which flows past that town. While on a
visit of condolence to the bereaved gentleman, another Bengali gentle-
man—also a pleader of the local bar—asked one of the uncles of the
drowned boy whether the deceased had got a convolution of hair on his
head. On being informed that he had got one, the gentleman told us
all, that since the deceased had such a convolution of the hair, he was
sure to have died by drowning. The aforesaid gentleman also informed
us that his second son had also got a similar convolution of hair, and
that he was afraid lest he should also get drowned. He further told
us that, in consequence of his son’s possessing such a convolution, he did
not allow him to go to bathe either in a tank or in the river.
There are also certain processes which, if had recourse to, would
prevent a person from getting drowned. The performance of certain
religious ceremonies is also supposed to have the same effect. Sailors
believe that if a portion of the caul which covers the face of some
children at the time of birth, be worn as an amulet round the neck, the
person wearing it will not get drowned. In Bengal, it is sometimes
believed that if a person accidentally eats ants along with sweets or
other eatables, he will not get drowned. When a person is about to
go to a distant part of the country and will have to cross rivers,
the Hindus of Bengal, previous to the starting offer pujas to the
goddesses of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, Padma, Nerbudda,
&c., &e., so that no mishap may occur. In our own family at
Calcutta, I have observed similar pujas offered to the family idol
Narayana (who in this case is supposed to represent those river-
goddesses), before any member of the family undertakes a journey
* Vide items Nos. 150, 155 and 189 in paper “On Popular Superstitions in
Bengal,” published in the Journal of the Anthrop: Soc: of Bombay, Vol. I., p. 354,
1893.] S. C. Mitra—Drowning and Drowned Persons. 105
to a distant part wherein he will have to cross rivers, simply for the
purpose of appeasing the river-goddesses who will, therefore, preserve
him from all accidents in the rivers. The Bengali boatmen cry “ Badar,
Badar”’ when a boat is in danger of capsizing, in the belief that doing
so would cause the vessel to reach its destination safely. The Ainos,
who are the aborigines of Japan, believe that if they throw the images
of their gods, which are nothing but wands and posts of peeled wood,
whittled nearly to the top, from which the pendent shavings fall down
in white curls, into rivers, streams, rapids and other dangerous places,
they will be able to cross them safely.* The Japanese worship a god
who, they believe, saves men from drowning and accident. They have
also an amulet which saves persons from drowning. Miss Bird says,
“The amulet which saves from drowning is a certain cure for choking,
if courageously swallowed.’’+ The Kakhyens of Burma worship a Nat
called the Khakoo Kha-nam, the god of water—on the occasion of any-
one getting drowned. They also worship another Nat named the Ndong
Nat (Aing-peen Nat of the Burmese)—the God of the Outside of Home,
who, they believe, resides in the house, but 7s worshipped by them outside
if one of the family ts killed by drowning.{ The Mahommedans, when
undertaking journeys by water utter, as a protective from drowning,
the following formula which is contained in Swrah Nooh of the Koran :—
pity! 725 coy ol Lure 9 less? SUE poms
The whole may be transliterated in Roman characters thus: “ Bis-
millAheh majrih4 o mursaha inna rabi-il-ghafur ur-rahim.” The origin
of this custom is contained in the following legend which runs thus
narrated in Urdu :—
witb LB ald? 52 oh yyw WF pllal) syle oy) wyde UUrb das
ae leg got bpm Cl ELI] cyygile Cut pe pale dele & 9) wyBe tpt eyyih
s co wayar (IG) Si! 45 che S55 a9d ply eo HAS Agilos L oyy2as
& ole rt wo be Ws wre ey eld be Ge L Gilesb Gre & Ge
pat Caly> OF SS mod waysS yof oly wd (S55 Jat 12 YL il SS onvle va
pratt coy wl poy? s Ley? at ms by? esl pSm eop® Cugzle & PAESS
Elsi Mt ByS Glut wilste came (Snes! ddd G= BS Ob} oy GS oe
# Ip wdy890 WlSpb yg) AB (545 Sy! & OSs Let hit
The legend in Urdu may be thus translated into English :—
“The story of the Deluge of the Patriarch Noah—on whom be
peace—is well-known. The long and short of itis that when the Deluge
* Mrs. Bird’s Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, Vol. II, p. 95.
+ Op. cit. Vol. I., p. 379 and p. 380. f} Anderson’s Mandalay to Momien, page 457.
106 S. C. Mitra—Drowning and Drowned Persons. [No. 3,
commenced, the Patriarch Noah took a pair of each kind of animal and
then repaired with his nearest relatives to the Ark. The rest of the
people, as also a son of the Patriarch Noah were drowned on account
of disobedience. The whole of the earth was flooded, and when the
waters rose to the height of 40 yards above the trees and mountains,
the inmates of the Ark, on account of the terrific storm and the fury
of the waves, became senseless with fear and despaired of life. Then
God ordered :—‘ Whoever will utter the words, Bismillaheh majriha
o murs&éhé inn& rabi-il-ghafur ur-rahim,* the Almighty God will
deliver him from all difficulties. The Almighty God will, by the
benign influence of His Name, preserve him from drowning. And the
storm was allayed.”
The Russians also beheve that saving the life of a drowning man
excites the wrath of the water-spirit. An illustration of this item of
Russian folklore is given by Mr. Barry, in his novel entitled ‘“ Iyan
at Home,” which is descriptive of Russian life :—‘“ Once upon a time, a
drunkard fell into the water and disappeared. Some speetators who
stood close by on the shore, did not shew any inclination whatever to
save the drowning man. The man was drowned. The villagers held
a court of enquiry, to investigate into the matter of that man’s death
from drowning. In the course of the enquiry it was elicited that no
cross had been found on the neck of the deceased. The village Daniels,
who sat to enquire into the matter, quickly returned the verdict that
the man had got drowned because he had no cross upon his neck.” The
fisherfolks of Bohemia also display a similar kind of reluctance to save
a man from drowning, under the impression that the presiding spirit
of the water would get angry at thus being deprived of his victim, would
give him bad luck in fishing and soon get him drowned. The same super-
stition also obtains in Germany, and, when a person comes by his death
from drowning, the German peasants say, ‘‘ The river-spirit claims his
annual sacrifice,’ and sometimes also, ‘The nix has taken the drowned
man.” Mr. Jones, in his ‘ Credulities Past and Present,” ofters an ex-
planation to the effect that ‘a person who attempts to rescue another
from drowning, is considered to incur the hatred of the uneasy spirit,
which is desirous, even at the expense of a man’s life to escape from its
wandering.” Dr. Tylor, in his “ Primitive Culture,’ explains the super-
* This formula may be translated into Urdu as follows:
poe KJ} I ps0 Y) a aes? Kg! B5@) By Keo! We cst & al} eb Sgilas
# os? Wy? ry! Ty
The above may be translated into English thus. “The moying and the stopping
(of this boat, 7. e., Noah’s Ark) depends upon the influence of the Name of God.
or in truth, our God is preéminently, a Pardoner of sins, and Merciful.”
1893. ] S. C. Mitra—Drowning and Drowned Persons. 107
stition by saying that such reluctance is only a relic of the ancient belief
that the water-spirit very naturally used to get angry on being deprived
of his intended victim and, consequently, bore ill-will towards the per-
sons who ventured so to deprive him, and would try to wreak vengeance
on him at the first opportunity.
There is another class of popular beliefs as regards the time when
the body of a drowned man would float up. In past times, it was
popularly believed that the body of a drowned man would float up on.
the ninth day. This belief is prevalent in the county of Durham,
as we are informed, on the authority of Mr. Henderson. Sir Thomas
Browne, the author of the ‘“ Hydriotaphia” and the “ Religio Medici,”
has also discussed this popular belief in his Pseudodovia Epidemica.
In ancient times, people believed that the spirits of those persons
who had been drowned in the sea, wandered for one hundred years,
owing to their corpses not having been properly buried with all the
rites of sepulture. Relics of this belief are to be found even at the
present day. The belief still lingers among ignorant fisherfolk in some
parts of England, that the spirits of those sailors who have been drowned
by shipwreck frequent those parts of the shores near which the ship-
wreck took place, and some of them even assert that they have heard
the spirits of the drowned sailors ‘“ hailing their own names.” Hunt,
in his ‘‘ Romances of the West of England,” refers to this belief, and says,
that fisherfolks are afraid of walking in such localities after nightfall.
This belief is similar to the Bengali superstition, described above, that
the spirits of drowned persons haunt those tanks and wells in which
they have been drowned, and has its counterpart among other races of
people all over the world.
Lastly, there are some curious popular beliefs about the methods by
which the corpses of drowned persons may be discovered. One of these
methods is to tie up a loaf of ryebread in the shirt of the drowned per-
son and set it afloat in the water, near the place where the person was
drowned. It is believed that the loaf of bread will float until it reaches
the spot where the body of the drowned person lies, and then sink
The Indian Mirror of Thursday, the 29th September 1892, gives the
following account of a search, in the aforesaid way, after the body of a
drowned boy :—
“‘A novel method was adopted at Springfield, Illinois (United
States of North America), in searching for the body of a drowned boy.
The searchers tied up a loaf of ryebread in the lost boy’s shirt and set
it adrift in the water above the place where the lad was drowned, the
theory being that the loaf would float until it came close to the body.
The package in this case is said to have floated until it reached a certain
108 8. C. Mitra—Drowning and Drowned Persons. [No. 3,
point, when it suddenly sank. The boy was found within a few feet of
the spot.”
This belief is to be found in other forms in many countries. Another
form of it consistsin floating a loaf weighted with mercury, whichis be-
lieved to float at once towards, and stand over, the spot where the corpse
lies. A writer in an American paper gives the following instances of this
belief: ‘‘Some years ago, a boy fell into the stream at Sherborne, Dorset-
shire, and was drowned. The body not having been recovered for some
days, the mode of procedure adopted was thus: A four-pound loaf of best
flour was procured, and a small piece cut out of the side of it, forming
a cavity, into which a little quicksilver was poured. The piece was
then replaced, and tied firmly in its original position. The loaf thus
prepared was thrown into the river at the spot where the body fell, and
was expected to float down the stream till it came to the place where
the body had lodged. But no satisfactory result occurred.” In another
form, this belief is also prevalent among the aboriginal Indians of
North America. Sir James Alexander, in his work on Canada, says:
“The Indians imagine that in the case of a drowned body, its place
may be discovered by floating a chip of cedar wood, which will stop
and turn round over the exact spot. An instance occurred within my
own knowledge, in the case of Mr. Lowery, of Kingston Mill, whose boat
was overturned, and himself drowned near Cedar Island, nor could the
body be discovered until this experiment was resorted to.” The writer
in the American paper, from whom I have quoted the above, says: “ Not
many months ago a man was drowned at St. Louis. After search had
beed made for the body, but without success, the man’s shirt, which he
had Jaid aside when he went in to bathe, was spread out on the water,
and allowed to float away. For a while it floated, and then sank, near
which spot, it is reported, the man’s body was found.” Another modi-
fication of the theory of the discovery of a drowned man’s corpse by a
loaf, is current in Brittany. When a man gets drowned in Brittany
and his corpse cannot be recovered, a lighted taper is stuck into a loaf
of bread, which is then set adrift in the stream. Wherever the loaf of
bread stands over, still, there, it is believed, the corpse hes underneath
the water. Another modification of this belief consists in tying round
a wisp of straw, a strip of parchment having on it some cabalistic letters
written by the parish priest, and setting it afloat in the stream.
Wherever it will stop still, there, it is believed, the body is sure to be
found. A correspondent of Notes and Queries says that the corpse of a
drowned person was recovered by this means.
In some other countries, a living animal is employed for the purpose
of recovering the body of a drowned man. It is believed that the
1893.] S. C. Mitra—Some Beliefs in a Being or Animal. 109
animal will either cry out or sink at the exact spot where the corpse
lies. In Norway, the people searching for the body take a cock with
them in the boat and row with it hither and thither. It is believed by
them that the cock will crow when the boat reaches the spot where
the body of the drowned man lies. Ina similar manner, the Javanese
throw a living sheep into the water, when the corpse of a drowned man
has sunk. They believe that the spot where the sheep sinks is the
place where the dead body is sure to be found,
ne
On Some Beliefs in a Being or Animal which is supposed to Guard Hidden
Treasure.— By Sarat CHANDRA Mirra, M.A., B.L., Pleader, Judge’s
Court, Chupra.
Among some races of men there still lingers the belief that treasure,
either kept concealed by men, or lying embowelled in the recesses of
mines underneath the earth, are guarded by some mythical beings or
animals, This belief seems to have been prevalent among the ancient
Persians, for allusions to it are to be found in some of the classical works
of their literature. Sometimes artificial means were resorted to by
other races of people, as for instance the Bengalis, of killing a human
male child and appointing his manes to be the guardian of the treasure
which was made over to his charge and was hidden under the earth.
This is a relic of the belief still prevalent among primitive men like the
savage races of Africa, that the manes of the wives, slaves and horses
killed at the funeral of a deceased chieftain, would accompany him in
the next world, and that the hunting implements and other articles used
by the deceased in his life-time, if buried with his corpse, would be of
service to him in the life beyond the grave. In olden times in Bengal,
““ When the good old rule, the simple plan,
That he should take who has the power
And he should keep who can,”
was the order of the day, the people of Bengal resorted to the expedient
of concealing their surplus treasure underneath the ground and ap-
pointing a Yakh (4@), to keep watch and ward over it. The word
Yakh (@@) is a corruption of the Sanskrit word @@ (Yaksha)—a
name applied to a class of beings who were supposed to people the
upper regions, and allusions to whom are frequently to be met with in
Sanskrit literature.
The ceremony of appointing a Yakh (4@), may be described thus:
A male child was kidnapped without his parents knowing of it. The
child was then bathed and clad in a new dhoti. Garlands of flowers
were put round his neck. He was then worshipped. Then an excava-
110 S. C. Mitra—Some Beliefs in a Being or Animal. [No. 3,
tion was made in the ground, sufficiently large to accommodate the would-
be Yakh and to contain the treasure, which was put into a number of
ghadas (48t), or pitchers of bell-metal. ‘he child was then made to
sit in this excavation, and the ghadas containing the treasure were
arranged in it. A lamp containing a wick in some gii or clarified butter,
was lighted and kept burning near him. Then an invocation was made
to the Yakh, that the treasure was being made over to him and that he
should keep strict watch and ward over it. Then the excavation was
closed by placing some planks over it, and earth was then thrown over
it. Thechild gradually became drowsy, owing to asphyxia, and remained
alive so long as the lamp kept burning. Ultimately the child used to
die of suffocation. The spirit of the dead child, thus, became the
guardian of the hidden treasure.
This practice was frequently resorted to in the olden times, and
even after the establishment of British Rule in Bengal. It is now no
longer heard of. If the parents of the missing child any how got scent
that their child had been kidnapped and was being made a ¥@, and if
they got any clue to his whereabouts, they immediately went thither,
rescued the child from a horrible death, and appropriated the treasure
to themselves, for the real owner thereof did not dare appear and prefer
a claim to it, for fear of being punished for kidnapping and attempted
manslaughter. Hence all the ceremonies were performed secretly so
that the parents of the kidnapped child might not know of it.
Many tanks in Bengal had the evil repute of being haunted by
Yakhs. I recollect having heard, in my childhood, from my mother and
grandmother, many a mythical story to the effect that the Yakhs used
to come up to the steps leading into the tanks, and place thereon the
ghadas containing the hidden treasure, and disappeared within the
depths of the tank as soon as a human being appeared on the spot, the
ghadas also vanishing into the water. Whoever attempted to appro-
priate the money was killed by the Yakh.
This practice has now fallen into desuetude owing to the security of
property and wealth, enjoyed under the aegis of British Rule, to the
fear of prosecution for kidnapping and attempted manslaughter, and,
above all, to the spread of education and the consequent enlightenment
of men’s minds from superstitious beliefs. Traces of the belief in qe
still survive in several Bengali proverbial expressions. A thing which
is highly prized by its owner and which he is loth to part with, is spoken
of as being a Wat wa or the treasures of a Yakh. A person carefully
watching a thing or anxiously waiting for some other object, is spoken
of as fat Waa Tq Ble or as sitting like a Yakh.
Similar beliefs about a mythical animal keeping watch and ward
1893. ] S. C. Mitra—Some Beliefs in a Being or Animal. 111
over hidden treasure are also to be met with among other races of men.
The ancient Persians had a belief prevalent amongst them to the effect
that hidden treasure was guarded by a Mar ( je ) or snake. An allusion
to this belief is to be found in the Gulistan of Sheikh Sadi, which was
published in 656 A. H. (A. D. 1258). The story stands 13th in number,
in Chapter V. of that work, and is as follows :—
ale » wll ole wy woe y i eh dS yy Slee Gale «)} Ly s&s
. (sosovo} wry? wily! ae iby 8 3 gods 8)! > 9! wb gl mf dy * dilys Soho
aS ea yigaso wy w) EG wet x 5s yy sll =5) [2.0 bh Km wot GS!
* Osler ylo OMS 19 oJ e * sles Ld 5) cb a3 JS *% Ww) yale ro O55
The above may be translated thus: A person had a beautiful wife,
who died. The mother-in-law, an old woman, remained a fixture in the
house, on account of the dowry. His neighbours, perceiving no remedy,
came in a body to him ona visit of condolence. One of them asked
how he was faring in that state of separation from his beloved wife.
He replied that the separation from his wife was not so intolerable as
the presence of his mother-in-law. “The rose has been plucked and
the thorn left. The treasure has been carried away and the snake left.”
There was also another belief prevalent among the ancient Persians
to the effect that hidden treasure is guarded by a mythical creature
named poke (Tilism), which neither enjoys the treasure nor permits
anyone else to enjoy it. There seems to be a difference of opinion about
the meaning of the word poole ( Tilism, from which is derived the English
word Talisman). Davy, in his well-known Persian-English Dictionary,
gives the following enplanation of this word :
peak Tylsem. A Talisman, or magical image, upon which, under
a certain horoscope, are engraved mystical characters, as charms against
enchantment, or fasciuation. They use Talismans as preservatives in vart-
ous ways, particularly in burying then with treasure, to prevent it from
being discovered.
There are allusions to this latter belief in Sheikh Sadi’s Bustan, Chap-
ter II., on Beneficence (erbne| )® ¢98 ©) in the story of the Miser and his
Ey ndival Son (4 9 ¥ S53 5 Uns? yoy w3Sa). The couplets are as follows :
pro =. sf cod wn deed * (33 gl—tyos Sigh Os
Cyr? we certb diy) 8S i) Ilys G* (J lvs wb
They may be translated thus:
The miser, rich in dinars and silver,
Is a tilism dwelling over the treasure.
His gold remained years, for the reason
That such a tilism trembles over its head.
, aay hs4 oe, Agere He
‘
Penn
Cephalic.
AeA Maximum antero-posterior diameter from glabella or eminence
above root of nose (A).
B. Approximate starting point for maximum transverse diameter B—B
. oes B...B x 100
Cephalic Index = Sa AeA
Nasal.
Ce, Cs Height of nose from nasal spine to root of nose, from one to
three millimetres below transverse axis of eyes.
ibe B) Maximum width of nose outside nostrils, without depressing
(See figure 4.) flesh.
Nasal Index = a ;
Vertical proportions of the head.
Le Tees Height of head from vertex to intersuperciliary point, 7.e., to
centre of a line drawn at a tangent to the curvature of the eye-
brows. ;
lel ae Height of head from vertex to tragus.
eee,
Height of head from vertex to bottom of chin,
Reg. No. 646; Bengal, Gl. —Jan. 93 —1,500 Litho, 8 I. O., Calcu'
ib
ANTHROPOMETRIC INSTRUCTIONS.
By THE Hon’BLE H. H. RISLEY, ©.1£.,
HONORARY MEMBER OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY,
PRESIDENT, ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF BoMBAY,
SECRETARY, ANTHROPOLOGICAL BRANCH, ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL,
es
In selecting subjects, only adults between the ages of 25 and 45
should be taken. Accurate determination of age being of course
impossible, those persons must be rejected who are obviously
not fully grown, or who appear to be over 45, deformed persons,
dwarfs, cripples, and men who have suffered from any disease
affecting the form of the nose. In measuring the higher castes it
is as well also to reject persons of very black complexion and with
very broad and depressed noses, as in such cases there is at least
a suspicion of the intermixture of low-caste blood. Similarly among
the lower castes, men of very fair complexion and high-caste type
of feature should be rejected. The object is to determine the
standard type of each caste, and for this purpose individuals of
clearly exceptional colouring and feature should be excluded.
The subjects to be measured should be made to sit down in line,
and great care should be taken that this order is not disturbed, and
that if a man gets up and goes out he returns to his proper place in
the line. If this rule is not observed, the subjects will get mixed,
and the dimensions recorded under one serial number will belong to
different individuals. The risk of this is not so great if all the
measurements required are taken consecutively on each subject.
But, after trying both plans myself, I think the simplest and most
expeditious plan is to take all the measurements for which the same
instrument is required on each subject in order. For instance, all
the subjects should be measured in order with the cephalometer,
each man after measurement returning to his own place, then with
the nasometer, then with the graduated square and steel pointer,
and last of all with the goniometer. If the services of an assistant
are available, he may be told off to watch the subjects, to see that
they do not change places, and to bring them up in order for
measurement.
The points from and to which each measurement is taken are
shown in the appendix, and the instructions given there are illustrated
by plates. I will now add a few remarks on each measurement,
derived from my own experience.
Cephalic dimensions.—These are taken with the cephalometer
(compas d’épaisseur de Broca). ‘The subject should be seated on
a chair or stool. For the antero-posterior diameter (A—
——
Bigoniac breadth.
Maximum breadth of zygomata (posterior arches of cheek-
F
bones).
E... E x 100
Maxulary-zygomatic
Index
Bi-malar breadth.
Mi
M...N...M! or
N...M x 2
Naso-malar breadth.
so-malar index.
= Na
Naso-malar line x 100
Bi-malar line.
Calcu'
Litho, 8 1.0,
Reg. No. 646, Bengal, G1. —J an. 93 —1,500.
SENET
mae
Fig. 5.
ar
Naso- Malar Index on Living Subject.
Reg No. 66, Bengal, Gl.—Nov 92.—1,500. < Photo-litho.,S I. 0., Calcutta.
M...M’............-......-2 Bi-malar breadth,
M,..N...M’ orM x 2 = Naso-malar breadth.
(9)
Nasal dimensions.—These are taken with the instrument which,
for convenience of reference, I may call the nasometer (compas
glissiére de Broca). The lower point for the height of the nose is
easily found. The nasometer being opened to the approximate
height of the nose, the pointed end of the lower limb should be
placed at the junction of the central nasal cartilage with the upper
lip and pressed inwards and upwards until it meets with steady
resistance from the nasal spine. The upper point also is easy to
find in persons who have the root of the nose well defined. By
feeling with the finger one can readily fix the point at which the
bridge of the nose meets the frontal region of the skull and forms
a depression or valley, the deepest point of which determines the
measurement. This point can be either felt for and marked with
red pencil or red ink before the instrument is applied, or can be ascer-
tained by moving and adjusting the upper limb of the instrument
itself. Vide C—C! in figure 1
Some races, however, notably Mongolians, such as Tibetan,
Limbus and the like, have no well-defined depression at the root of
the nose. In such cases a close inspection of the root of the nose
will disclose either one or two transverse folds or wrinkles of skin
running at right angles to the direction of the nose. Where there
are two folds, the point of the instrument should be placed between
them ; where there is only one, the instrument should be placed on
the fold. The folds are usually to be found about two millimeters
above the transverse axis of the eyes.
The width of the nose (D—D in Fig. 4) should be measured
with the blunt ends of the nasometer. ‘The object is to get the
maximum width of the nostrils. The instrument therefore should
just touch the skin on either side without depressing it.
I may mention here that all authorities agree in considering
the dimensions of the nose the most valuable race characteristic
that can be tested by measurement. Special care should therefore
be taken in measuring these, the more so as, the figures being
comparatively small, the averages will be more liable to be thrown
out by any error. The measurements are, however, easy to take,
and if carefully done show little variation in the hands of different
operators on the same subject.
Naso-malar dimensions.—First make a pencil or red ink dot
on the most posterior point on the front surface of the outer
edge of each orbit. The normal situation of these points is shown
at M and M? in figures 4 and 5. ‘They can readily be ascer-
tained by feeling with the finger. Then make a similar dot on
the centre of the bridge of the nose at the most posterior point.
See the point marked N in figures 4 and 5. This point will
correspond exactly with the “upper point” of the nasal height
described above. Care must of course be taken to place the dot
exactly in the centre of the nose.
Having made the three dots in the manner described above,
measure with the nasometer the distance between the two orbital
(a)
dots (M and M!) im a direct line. This will give the “bimalar
breadth,” and should be entered in column 24.
Then measure with the same instrument the distance from either
of the orbital dots (M or M7") to the nasal dot (N), and double
the result. This will give the “‘naso-malar breadth,’ and should be
entered in column 25. It will perhaps be the safest plan to test
the distance from each dot (M and M') to the dot N before
doubling.
Figure 5 shows the points for the index on the living
subject.
The index is
Naso-malar breadth x 100
~ _Bimalar breadth
to be entered in column 26,
Vertical proportions of the head.—These are the only measure-
ments which present any serious difficulty, and after several
experiments I hope that a mode of overcoming this difficulty has
been discovered. The measurements are taken with the graduated
T—square (Equerre céphalométrique), and the smaller steel sliding
scale or the wooden triangular slide. Their accuracy depends
upon the subject’s head being exactly upright, and being kept in
that position while the measurements are going on. There appear
to be two recognised methods for placing the subject’s head in an
upright position. The first, devised by Dr. Barclay in 1808, consists
in making the subject hold with his teeth a flat plate of metal
mechanically levelled. Topinard discusses this plan and condemns
it as too complicated. For use in this country it is open to the
further objection that unless all the subjects operated on at the same
time belong to the same caste and sub-caste, the plate of metal
would have to be continually washed in deference to caste prejudices.
It also appears to me that if aman has got a plate of metal between
his teeth, the height from the top of his head to the bottom of
his chin cannot be correctly measured, and will in practice vary
considerably. The second method, which Topinard prefers, “consists
in’ directing the subject to look steadily at the horizon, and in
correcting the position of his head if by accident or through
nervousness he does not look straight before him in the natural
manner.” In this manner, Topinard adds, the head will be adjusted
in accordance with the plane of vision, and will necessarily assume
a correct position for the purpose of measurement.
We must, I think, take it on Topinard’s authority that the
head can be correctly placed by following these instructions. We
are met, however, by the further difficulty that after the correct
position has been ascertained the subject cannot keep his head
absolutely still, and that every movement, however slight, materially
affects the measurements. Having got the correct position, we want
(7202)
to fix it, in order that there may be no movement while the measure-
ments are going on, and in order that the position may, if necessary,
be reproduced for the purpose of repeating and testing measurements
already taken. For this purpose I have had a small clamp, with
a horizontal bar attached to it, made by the Mathematical Instrument
Department. The clamp runs on the height measure which is in
the box, and is used in the following manner.
Adjust the subject’s head correctly by the plane of vision
as explained above. Then place the height measure with its
plummet attached on the left side of the subject, and see by
observing the plummet that the measure is upright. Run the
clamp up until the horizontal bar attached to it touches the central
cartilage of the subject’s nose, and renders it impossible for him to
depress his head. Then screw the clamp tight. The bar will rest
exactly at the junction of the upper lip with the central cartilage—at
the point, in fact, which forms the lower starting point for the
measurement of the height of the nose (C—C! in Fig. 1). So
long as the subject rests his nose on this bar he will be in the
correct position as previously ascertained; and if the height of
the bar on the graduations of the height measure is noted, the
position can be reproduced at any moment. In fact the sources of
error are reduced to one—the possibility of the subject raising his
head—and this can be easily guarded against by seeing that his
nose is tightly pressed against the horizontal bar.
It will be seen the horizontal bar in no way interferes with
the process of measuring. It may even assist it, if the vertical
arm of the [—square be steadied against the horizontal bar in
taking the dimensions from vertex to tragus.
The position of the head being thus secured, a few remarks
may be added on the details of the measurements.
Height from vertex to intersuperciliary point (H—I in Fig. 1).—
The intersuperciliary point is defined by Topinard as “ situated
in the centre of a line drawn at a tangent to the convex surfaces
of both eyebrows.” It can be ascertained by laying the smaller
metallic slide across the eyebrows, and drawing a line with red
pencil along its upper edge, or simply by turning the slide slightly
and pressing in the upper edge, so that it makes a slight depressed
mark in the skin. The mark will last long enough to enable the
measurement to be taken, and is perhaps more accurate than a
pencil line. On the other hand, if a pencil line is made, the
measurement can be repeated with greater certainty.
Height from vertex to chin.—This dimension is entered in column
29 of the register. It can, however, be most conveniently taken
immediately after the height from vertex to intersuperciliary point,
as the '[—square is in exactly the same position throughout. Care
must be taken to read from the upper edge of the slide in measuring
the chin dimension. The lower edge gives the reading for the
intersuperciliary point if (as should be the case) the sharp point
Cr8)).)
of the slide is touching the line drawn at a tangent to the convex
surfaces of the eyebrows.
Height from vertex to tragus (H—K in Fig. 1).—According
to Topinard, the point to be measured to is the centre of the tragus.
K in Figure 8 is therefore a trifle too low.
Facial angle of Cuvier (ONX in Fig. 6).—A special instrument
is provided to measure this angle. The subject holds between
his teeth the small projection in the centre of the instrument:
the bosses are put into his ears and held there; and the indicator
is adjusted so that the round knob at the end of it touches the
glabella. The angle is then read off on the scale. It should be
observed that the upper front teeth are the point which determines
the angle. If by reason of any malformation of the teeth the
subject cannot grip the instrument himself, the operator should hold
the instrument so that the projection is in contact with the upper
front teeth. Care should be taken that the flexible band of steel
which passes through the ear bosses is drawn fairly tight, and the
instrument should be given time to settle before the angle is read
off. When persons of different castes or sub-castes are being
measured at the same time, each subject should, if he wishes to do so,
be allowed to wash the part of the instrument which touches his
teeth, after it has been used by another person. The instrument
must not be roughly handled or bent in the process of washing, and
must be oiled very thoroughly afterwards.
Circumference of the chest.—This is measured with the tape, the
lower edge of which should rest on the nipples, the arms being raised
while the tape is adjusted and afterwards lowered. The ends of the
tape are held by the operator standing behind the subject. Care
must be taken that the tape is in a true horizontal plane perpendi-
cular to the axis of the thorax. The dimension should be read
when the breathing is at
rest, midway between in-
halation and expiration.
Grande envergure or
length from third finger
to third finger, the arms
being fully extended at
right angles to the body.
This is best taken by
making the subject ex-
tend his arms against a
wall and marking the
points which his fingers
reach. The distance
between the points can
then be measured with
the standard, not with
Fig. 7.—Grande envergure. the tape. Vide figure rh
XYZ. Facial angle of CAMPER.
ONX. Facial angle of CuvIER, recommended by ToPINARD
for the living subject.
Reg. No. 648, Bengal, Gl.—Jan. 93.—1,500. Litho, S I. 0, Caloutta.
Ce)
Height sitting.—Make the subject sit against a wall, so that the
| whole of his back, from the
sacrum to the shoulders, shall
be in contact with the wall,
as in Fig. 8. Measure with
the standard from the ground
to the top of his head. He
should not be allowed to sit
on the ground, but on some
article of known height, such
as the box of instruments, the
height of which, 10 centi-
metres, should be deducted
from the measurement ob-
tained. The legs should be
extended and parallel.
Height kneeling.—Make the
Ree subject kneel on both knees,
Fy Gas eee taking care that the thigh is
perpendicular to the ground and that there is no stooping. Then
measure to the top of the head with the long standard.
Height to junction of sternum and ribs—Make the subject stand
with his back to the wall and measure with the long standard from
the ground to the fourchette sternale, i.e., to the junction of the
sternum with the ribs. The point to be taken is the lower end of
the gladiolus, not the ensiform cartilage, which lies below and is not
so easily reached.
Bigoniac breadth.—Measure with the cephalometer the maximum
breadth of the outer surfaces
of the inferior maxillary bone
from one angle to the other
(E—E in Fig. 1). Plate
No. 56 at page 55 of the ninth
edition of Gray’s Anatomy
shows the angle, which is
the point to be taken.
Length of the fore-arm.—
Measure with the sliding scale
(glussiére anthropometrique)
from the olecranon process of
the ulna to the end of the
middle finger, the left arm
being laid on a table as in
figure 9. Vide plate 220
in Topinard’s Eléments @’
Anthropologie Générale.
Fig. 9.—Length of fore-arm.
Length of left foot.—Measure maximum length from toe to heel
with the sliding scale (glissiére anthropomeétrique) as 1n figure 10.
Fig. 10.—Length of left foot.
Length of middle finger of left hand.—Measure with sliding scale
(glissiére anthropométrique) as in figure 11.
Fig. 11.—Length of middle finger of left hand.
Maximum breadth of the shoulders.—Measure with sliding scale
(glissiére anthropométrique) from the external face of the head of the
humerus where it is covered by the deltoid muscle.
Co.)
Maximum breadth of hips.—Measure with sliding scale (glissiére
anthropométrique) the maximum breadth from the external surfaces
of the spines of the ilia (crétes diaques in Topinard’s plate 212).
General.—In reading all the instruments fractions of a millimeter
should be disregarded, and the nearest whole figure taken. In
practice it rarely happens that the indicator exactly divides a
millimeter.
Minute accuracy in measuring is the one essential point. Inaccu-
rate measurements are not merely worthless and misleading in
themselves, but will throw out the averages of the whole set of
figures concerned. If therefore a doubt arises as to the accuracy of
any particular dimension, the measurement should be repeated. If
after several trials the results still vary, an average should be struck,
and that average entered in the form.’
All the instruments should be carefully oiled after use with crude
Rangoon oil or vaseline.
A specimen of the hair of each caste or tribe measured should
be sent up for examination. It should be about 2 inches long
and cut from the middle of the head, tied round with tape, ticketed
with the name of the caste or tribe securely fastened to the tape,
end placed in an envelope with the name of the caste legibly
written on it in Roman character.
DARJEELING, H. H. RISLEY.
The 20th September 1886.
( 10 )
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.
I.—SCHEDULE.
Or OBSERVATIONS OF HxTERNAL CHARACTERS.
Preliminary Particulars.
HN Qc uueee 3 eo e Daher us. ca see asec
of eb: 7 tac eee i Aa Aves it din SE abel aies
awibe. Rhee Bee locality’: eee eee
General condition—
(1) Stout. (2) Medium. (38) Thin.
Descriptive Characters.
A.—Colour of skin on parts not exposed to the airP—
Absolute (1).
Black ee {Sooty (2).
eddish (3).
Brown a { Yellowish (4).
Red (5).
Yellow (6).
neloyee (7).
: rownish (8).
White ae Fe (9).
Rosy (10).
B.—Colour of eyes P—
Dark of all shades m: ‘
' All medium shades, except green (2).
Medium "=" ? Green (3). Ia IS )
All light shades, except blue (4).
Light "=? Blue (5).
C.—Fold of skin at inner angle of eye P—
(0) Absent. (1) Vestige remaining. (2) Covering 4 to } the
caruncle. (3) Covering the caruncle.
D.—Colour of hair —
(1) Black. (2) Dark brown. (3) Medium. (4) Blond or fair of
all shades. (5) Red.
(If possible, a lock of hair should be attached to the schedule.)
E.—Character of hair P—
(1) Straight. (2) Undulating or wavy. (3) Curly. (4) Woolly.
F.—Amount of hair ie a ay?
(0) Absent. (1) Scarce. (2) Medium. (8) Abundant.
( ll )
G.—Shape of face P
(1) Long and narrow. (2) Medium. (3) Short and broad. (4) Py-
ramidal,7.e., narrowing upwards. (5) Wedge-shaped, 1.¢.,
pointed towards chin.
H.—Profile of nose —
(1) Straight. (2) Aquiline. (3) Concave or turned up. (4) High
bridged. (5) Sinuous or wavy. (6) Chinese type. (7) Negroid
type. (8) Australoid type.
I.—Prognathism or prominence of the region of the mouth ?
(0) Absent. (1) Slight. (2) Moderately marked. (3) Consider-
able. é
J.—Lips—
(1) Thin. (2) Medium. (3) Thick. (4) Everted.
K.— Prominence of face transversely ?—
ny areas peeve (1).
cheek bones not perceptible). eae a (3)
Platyprosopic (face flat, cheek { Well marked (4).
bones conspicuous). Hixcessive (5).
II.—EXPLANATION OF SCHEDULE.
The “Preliminary Particulars” require some explanation. The
age may offer some difficulty on account of the person not being able
to express it ; in such cases the observer must indicate it to the best
of his judgment, inserting the word “about” before the number
he enters for it.
The condition of the body is to be noted, as it may explain some .
peculiarity in the measurements which might be thought to be due to
error. ‘To save time and trouble in writing, numbers within brackets
are attached to each of the conditions, so that if the person is thin,
it will be sufficient to write “3” in the blank column. This plan
is also to be followed in recording the descriptive characters which
foliow.
The “ Descriptive Characters” are next to be recorded, and while
this is being done the observer may engage the subject in conversation,
so as to gain his confidence and overcome any fear or repugnance he
may have tobe measured. When the colour or form in the subject does
not correspond to any in the schedule, but is intermediate between
two colours or forms, the two numbers between which it lies should be
entered in the blank column. If any difficulty is found in answering
the questions in the schedule, reference should be made to the section
Descriptive Characters for further explanation.
III.—DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERS.
In the following sections the various particulars regarding the
Descriptive Characters asked in the Schedule are explained, and
others supplementary to them which may with advantage be noted
by the traveller are given.
( 12 )
Skin.
The colour of the skin should be indicated on Dr. Topinard’s
system as follows :—
Is the skin—1. Black, coal-black? 2. Sooty-black? 3. Dark
reddish-brown, chocolate? 4. Dark yellow brown, dark olive?
5. Red, copper-coloured ? 6. Yellow, olive? 7. Yellowish-white?
8. Brownish-white? 9. Pale white? 10. Florid or rosy ?
A very convenient part to observe in clothed persons is usuaily
the outer part of the upper arm. The part chosen should be stated
im any case.
1. Is the skin smooth and velvety, or coarse and rough ?
2. Is the oily excretion abundant ?
3. Do the parts covered differ much in colour from those
exposed to the sun ?
4. Do different castes or sections of the population differ
notably in colour ?
5. What is the prevailing colour or complexion in parts not
habitually exposed ?
6. And what in those habitually exposed to weather and sun-
shine? Do freckles occur?
Lye.
The colour of the iris is very important; next in importance are
the form and position of the opening.
Topinard’s plan of denoting colour recognises four classes :—
1. Dark.—Including those which are called black-brown, dark
hazel, &e.
2. Medium or Neutral.—Such as cannot at once, in a good
light, be distinguished as light or dark. Among these are the dark
greys; most of the greens; those with a predominance of orange
towards the centre, but of grey and light green elsewhere, &c.
3. Other than blue (light grey, very light, green,
Light &e.)
( 4. Blue.
What are the relative proportions of these four classes? The
eyes should be examined from a moderate distance, so as to geta
general impression of the colours.
Forms and positions :—Are the eyes placed with their long axis
nearly in one horizontal plane (as in most Europeans), or are their
outer angles more or less visibly elevated (as in many or most
Chinese) ? Are they deeply set, or d fleur de téte, prominent ?. Is the
upper eyelid thick ? Does it turn down at the inner angle, covering
more or less the caruncle? Does the outer angle of the opening
appear compressed and pointed, so as to suggest an almond shape ?
( 1s )
Hair.
1. Is the colour in adults—1. Black, coal-black? 2. Dark
brown? 8. Medium, chestnut brown? 4. Fair blond, yellow, or
flaxen? 5. Red auburn ?
Only adults whose hair has not begun to turn grey should be
selected for this purpose. The shades are best discriminated not in
sunshine, but in the shade on a bright, clear day.
2. If the hair in adults is always or usually black, what colours
prevail among children ?
3. Is the natural colour of the hair interfered with in any way ?
Some races dye the hair.
4, Is there any colour which is preferred to others ?
5. Obtain specimen locks at different ages, if possible, viz., (a)
at birth, (b) between 1 and 2 years, (c) 2 and 4, (d) 4 and 8, (e) 8
and 16, (f) adult.
6. Is the hair straight, slightly or much waved, curly or frizzly,
or what is called woolly ?
7. If curly or frizzled, is this due to nature or art ?
8. Is it in great quantity ?
9. What length does it attain, whether measured by the appa-
rent distance between points and roots of the locks, or by stretching
individual hairs ?
10. Does it grow in separate tufts ? or is it uniformly scattered
over the hairy scalp ?
11. Are the hairs coarse or fine in texture P round, flattened or
kidney-shaped in section ?
12. Have the males any beard ? If not, are they beardless by
nature, or do they pluck out or otherwise destroy the beard ?
13. On what parts of the body besides the head, armpits, and
pubes does hair grow? at what age does it begin to grow on the
different parts P and in what quantities ?
14. What is the difference between male and female in this
respect ?
15. What difference is observed in the quality and colour of
the hair on different parts of the body ?
16. In what direction does the hair grow ou different parts of
the body, hands, arms, legs, &c. ?
17. At what age do greyness and baldness appear ? and in what
parts first ?
Form of Face.
Where exact measurements of the facial features cannot be ob-
tained, answers to the following questions may supply their place :—
1. Is the face, in a front view, square, oblong, round, elliptic,
short-oval, long-oval, shield-shaped (like an escutcheon), or wedge-
shaped ?
2. In profile is it convex or concave ?
3. In profile also, are the chin, the nose, the mouth, the eye-
ridges markedly prominent? and of the supra-orbital region are
(1)
the eye-ridges proper, or the glabella (central boss) the more promi-
nent ?
4, Is the nose straight, aquiline, hooked, concave, high-bridged
(usqué), clubbed, or sinuous ? or has it the Chinese type (straight
but flat), or the negroid (short, broad, nearly straight), or the Aus-
traloid or Papuan (broad, with the lower part forming a flattened
and depressed hook) ?
5. Is the chin broad, narrow, angular, or round ?
6. Are the cheekbones broad, prominent forwards, or inconspi-
cuous ? or is the face in this region flat ?
7. Are the lips thin, medium, or thick, or is the upper lip
turned upwards and the lower lip turned downwards ?
8. Are the ears large or small, flat or outstanding, simple or
finely developed ?
9. Are the lobes large or absent, attached or detached ?
Further notes on the same subject.
Proprosopic and platyoprosopic are terms used to indicate
whether the middle part of the face, between the level of the lower
part of the nose and the supra-orbital level above, projects forward
or is flat. In the former the breadth of the face at the level of the
cheekbones appears diminished by these bones receding or being as
it were pressed inwards; so that the face curves regularly forward
from the ears to the nose, the latter is consequently prominent and
appears as a keel on the top of the arch. In the second the face is
broad and flat in appearance, the cheekbones are prominent, and in
extreme forms the side and front of the face are almost at right
angles to one another, the bend of the angle being at the cheekbones,
and the nose appears as if projecting from an almost flat surface.
Extreme forms of the first type are frequently seen amongst English
people, while the most marked type of the second is met with in the
Eskimo and of the Chinese.
MEDICAL SECTIONS.
1.—Reproduction.
1.—-Manners and customs affecting the sexes previous to marriage.
(a) Relating to males :—
Is there any evidence of special physical training for sexual pur-
poses before or after puberty and preparatory to marriage (e.g., cir-
cumcision, the “ mika” operation, ¢.e., artificial hypospadias, &c.) ?
Is there any minimum limit of age? Is any proof of virility
required ? Is promiscuous intercourse, with or without precautions
against pregnancy, permitted before marriage? If so, what steps
are taken to enforce the rules, and what punishment follows their
breach ?
( 15 )
(6) Relating to females :—
Ts there any special interference with the sexual organs in girls
previous to puberty (e.g., dilatation of organs, closure of vulva, &c.) ?
Is there any minimum limit of age? Is connection permitted
before marriage, or what steps are taken to ensure chastity or
prevent pregnancy ?
I!.—Menstruation.
At what age does menstruation usually occur? Are there any
special customs or superstitions connected with (1) ordinary, (2)
precocious, (3) deferred menstruation? Is purification practised
subsequent to each menstruation ?
Ill.—Marriage.
What is the average age of both sexes at marriage? Note
any special customs relating to marriage ceremonies?
IV.— Pregnancy.
What means are adopted for determining that a woman is preg-
nant? Is she debarred from cohabitation or otherwise secluded
during pregnancy? Note any special diet or other customs during
pregnancy relating either to husband or wife (e.g., the “ couvade,”
&e.) ?
V.—Labour.
What preparations are made in anticipation of labour (e.7., as
to food, dwelling, bed, assistance, seclusion, &c.)? What position
is usually adopted? Note exceptions and reason for the same.
What is the average duration of labour? Note any customs or
superstitions regarding the caul, treatment of cord, disposal of
placenta, &c. Are difficult labours common? ‘To what are they
chiefly due? How and by whom are complications treated? If a
woman dies undelivered, are any means taken to save the child ?
Vi.—The Puerperium.
How long is a woman confined to bed? Isshe subject to any
special diet, system of purification, &c.?
ViI.—Lactation.
What is the average duration of suckling? Is any special diet
enforced ? Is she restrained from sexual intercourse during this
period ?
Vill.—The Child.
How is the child treated immediately after birth? How are
still-born children resuscitated? Is there any special treatment of
( 16 )
the head? Are there any special customs with regards to twins or
preternatural births? Are there any customs or ceremonies connect-
ed with the naming of the child akin to baptism ?
[X.—General.
What is the average number of a family? What is the relative
proportion of sexes? What is the greatest number in a family ?
How many have been produced by one mother, and of these how
many grew up? JDo twins or triplets, &c., occur frequently ?
Ascertain, if possible, the total number of boysand girls respectively
born in one given area or tribe. (‘This is of importance in districts
where polyandry exists.) Are there any restraints on population ?
Is sterility in woman common? Is want of virile power complained
of by men ? Are drugs or other means used to produce abortion or
stimulate sexual desire and power? If so, what are they? Are
births out of wedlock common? What is done with the children ?
Whether do the lower or upper classes produce the larger families ?
Does population seem to be increasing, or the reverse, judging by
extent of occupied land, size of cemeteries, ruins of villages, &c., as
well as by report? Can the ratio of births and deaths in a commu-
nity of known population be obtained.
' Notr.—The above questions and instructions have been taken,
with slight modifications, from the second edition (1892) of Notes and
Queries on Anthropology, edited for the Council of the Anthropo-
Icgical Institute, by John George Garson, m.p., and Charles Hercules
Read, F.s.A.
(/ le)
Form I.
members of the
Measurements of
1 2 3 4 5 6 a 9 |}10/11]12| 13 i 15 ae
*xOpUT o1[VTdoD
“Ug pBorg ot[VyydepH
*YpsuE] Olpeydep
*spunod Ul 4YS10\\
“SnpoIpyls
jo puo WOM, 4YSIOH
*SUILOOUY JUSI0 A
So ee ee ae
“BUIYYIS SION
“70310
“sue popuey
-xo Yj}IA yUonLemnsvoy,
‘qsoYd pUNOL JUSMLOANSBOTAL
‘On
"Y}TIG, JO FOLTYSIC.
*SHOUL
-e30xo ydes 10 ‘uWory0eg
“snoulresopuo
aqtay-qns 10 ‘oysBo-qng
*“aqlay 10 04S¥D
*OULVNT
*TOQUINU [BLOG
TOTAL ...
Gr tor th)
189
on the
caste taken at
34
‘sdry JO TppRerq WNT pL
33
“prey, gyoy Jo
OSsuy e[pprur jO YSuery
SS eee
*JOO} 470] Jo YSuT
“ULLB-O.10F JO Sur]
“O[SUB [RIOR
“uIT[O
0} XOJIOA UWOIT YUsIO
“Ssn3BIy
0} XopIOA UWlOIT FYSIOR
‘quiod Arerjtoredus.104
“UL O} XO}IOA WOT FUSIOH
uo
19
18
*XOpUL IV[VU-OSBNT
"Ug pVvoiqg IvpeUl-oseN
“YUYpVaIg repemig
*XOPUL [VSBAT
“TUF PTA [SUNT
“qUSloy [BseNT
*“XOpul oreumtosfz- Arex
“YF pvorq
o1yeuloskz1q, UINOUIXB YL
"TZ pBeTq
dBIMOZIQ 10 Ari ixvug
. J. & RB. D’R.—Reg. No. 3696J—1,500—26-1-93,
Te eres
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a
SIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGA
+
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ok PART Vit |
‘TITLE PAGE AND INDEX
cee, t
“NOL, LX 0 - CCox XII.
JOURNAL
ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL,
Vol. LXII, Part III, No. 1.—1893.
EDITED BY
Tue ANTHROPOLOGICAL pPECRETARY,
“ The bounds of its investigation will be the peonraphival limits of Asia: and
within these limits its inquiries will be extended to whatever is performed by
man pe erode’ by nature.’—Sir WiLLiam JoNuEs.
* Communications should be sent under cover to the Secretaries, Asiat. Soc.,
to whom all- orders for the-work are to be addressed in India; or care of
Messrs: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Tr iibner and Co., Ld., Paternoster House,
— Charing Cross Road, London, W. C. or Mr. Otto Harrassowits, Leipzig, 3
- Germany.
CALCUTTA:
PRINTED AT THE PaPTist Mission PRESS,
AND PUBLISHED BY THE
psiatic Society, 57, PARK STREET,
po 1898.
ee ee
Price in England, 3 Shillings,
ies aad b pecatnnen,: 1893. = ge aa
JOURNAL,
OF THE
_ ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.
i : Ae ; i t : = op
a ‘PART HL _-ANTHROPOLOGY AND COGNATE
i SUBIRCTS( 4)
Nop b1e908" 53
| | _ CONTENTS.
Beer et ti Pal €
eh The Hindus of - Eastern Bengal. From the papers of ‘the late ‘De. ri
Bs «Jams Wise.—Edited by the Anthropological Secretary ie be
Rg The Marriage Customs of Tibet, Parts T and aT, es Base Sana
; Cuanpra Das, ¢. 1. B.. san Canoes ae has
"Measurements of Cingalese Muormen and Tamils, taken at Ceylon in
November 1892. Pe the Hon’ BLE a H. Ristey, Capen ey aay
'
CONTENTS OF VOL. LXI, FOR 1892.
PART I. _HISTORY, LITERATURE, &e.
N o. 1 iw adde 11, Buddhist Remains at Mount Uren.—Lamaic Ro-— 7
va -saries.—The ‘ Tsam-chho- -dung’ of the Lamas. Chakravar ti,
_ Troy weights and General currency of ancient Orissa. Smith,
_ Greco-Roman Influence on the Civilization of Ancient India.
eae ~ Second Paper:
of No. .2—Kielhorn, The Dindjpur Grane Plate ein of Mahi-
pala. Raverty, Muhammadan Coins collected by the Afghan
Boundary Commission. Theobald, A symbolical Coin of. the
Wethali dynasty of Avakan. Chakravarti, Rdma-tankis.
Wilson, The Topography of the river in the 16th century from —
Hugi to the Sea. Beverid ge, Rajah Kans.—The date of Nur
Qutb Alam’s death. Crooke, Vocabulary of the Korwa lan-
: guage. Driver, The Korkus. © |
N o. 3.—W addell, The Buddhist Pictorial Wheel of hife. Ravert y;
4 _ The. Mibran of Sind and its Tributaries. ,
4.—R averty, The Mihrén of Sind and its Tributaries, Contd.
PART IL —NATURAL SCIENCE.
: _ ‘No. Lb. Sey. in S Materials for a flora of the Malayan Pane
3 Or. rain, Novicie Indicie V. An undescribed Mezoneuron from the
ee - Andaman Group.
‘No. 2 —Bi igot, Catalogue of the tee of the Oriental Region
a Ae Parts Il and Ill.
No. 0. 3—Ni ic éville,. ‘Note on the Indian Butterflies comprised i in the :
at sub- -genus Pademma of the genus Huplea. Peal, The Communal
Barracks ‘of Primitive Races, Brihl, De Ranunculaceis Indicis
ss Dapuennts,
us
FOR SALE AT THE.
ya ommmal, Naat eee Lee ons Vols. XIth to XVII (18e8
to 1848) ; Vols. XIX to XXIL (1850 to 1852) ; Vols. XXVI,
XXVIT.(1857,, 1858), and d Vols. XXXII to XLVI, ‘ase
toOASBap I Goi . oo
- Asiatic ess from Nels v1 x1, and Vols XVII to XX,
each at se E Mae kde ine ovens eae
and Indexes, by H. Bilnehinan, M. a etinns oe!
The Tabagat-i-Naciri. . Translated by Majo or 3 H G.I .
; 10 fase. . oe rea ee ne temo gee, 2 ey
JOURNAL
~ ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL,
Voi: LXI, Part 1H, No.2 1893.
_ EDITED BY
ee The Fotis of its Suveutiontion will be the Benen phical limits of Asia: ad
_ within these limits its inquiries will be extended to whatever is performed by
man or Saas by nature." —SIR WiLtiam JONES. -
1
* nae Communications should be sent aiheeronCebbeD to the Bouretorsee! Asiat. ‘Soc.,
to whom all orders for the work, are to be addressed in Indias or care of
'- Messrs. Kegttn Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co., Ld., Paternoster House,
Charing Cross Road, "London, W. C. or Mr. Otto Harrassowits, Leipzig,
Garant:
Hi
‘
“CALCUTTA:
PRINTED | AT THE BAPTIST Mission Press,
AND PUBLISHED BY THE
_ psranic Roce rs, cate FARK STREET,
1898.
\
ane
igi
OF THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL,
CONTENTS OF VOL. LXI, FOR 1892.
PART I.—HISTORY, LITERATURE, &c.
No. 1l—Waddel 1, Buddhist Remains at Mount Uren.—Lamaic Ro-
saries.—The ‘ Tsam-chhé-dung’ of the Lamas. Chakravar ti,
Troy weights and General currency of ancient Orissa. Smith,
Greco-Roman Influence on the Civilization of Ancient India,
_~ Second Paper.
No. 2—Kielhorn, The Dinajpur Copper-Plate Inscription of Mahi-
pala. Raverty, Muhammadan Coins collected by the Afghan
Boundary Commission, Theobald; A symbolical Coin of the
Wethali dynasty of Arakan. Chakravarti, Rama-tankis.
Wilson, The Topography of the river in the 16th century from
Hiueli to the Sea. Beveridge, Rajah Kans.—The date of Nur
Qutb Alam’s death. OCrooke, Vocabulary of the Korwa, lan-
suage. Driver, The Korkus.
- No. 3.—Waddell, The Buddhist Pictorial Wheel of ye Raverty,
The Mihran of Sind and its Tributaries.
No. 4—Ravert y, The Mihran of Sind and its Tributaries, Contd.
PART Il—NATURAL SCIENCE.
i No, Pet ae: Materials for a flora of the Malayan Peaincalen
= ike hectare alas Sac Ste" ie aoe
P rain, Novicie Indicie V. An undescribed Mezoneuron from the
Andaman Group.
No. 2.—Bigot, Catalogue of the Diptera of the Oriental Region,
- Parts II and III.
e No, 3.—Nicéville, Note on the Indian Butterflies comprised in the
sub-genus Pademma of the genus Huplea. Peal, The Communal
Barracks of Primitive Races, Brith], De Ranunculaceis Indicis
- Disputationes. |
“Tonal, Asiatic. Soler, Tee ion Vole. XII to XVIT (1883 |
"to 1848) ; Vols. XIX to XXII (1850-to 1852) ; Vols. XXVI
XXYVIT (1857, 1858), and Vols. XXXII to XLVIM, (1864
to 1881).
Asiatic a from Vols. VI 6. XL, and oe XVII to XX, cee
each at eee resecre ses orn o(mp is/Pi9 aie. ple 4 niy ie [#919 hE ays icchaes alee se atem
10 ee 7
JOURNAL
-ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL,
Vol. LXII, Part III, No. 3 1893.
- BDITED. BY
_ JHE acs lame PECRETARY,
SN ee
co
1
i
———
4
i z a
ite ivi es um =
Ss The Pounds of its investigation will be the geographical limits of Asia: and {
within these limits its inquiries will be extended to whatever is performed by
man or produced by nature.”—Sir WILLIAM JONES,
a
* # Communications should be sent under cover to the Secretaries, Asiat. Soc.,
e440
“to whom all orders for the work are to be addressed in India; or care of
Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co., Ld. Paternoster House,
Charing Cross Road, Honor W. C. or Mr. Otto Harrassowits, Leipzig,
- Germany.
CALCUTTA:
PRINTED AT THE BAPTIST MissION PREss,
AND PUBLISHED BY THE
fsiatTic SOCIETY, 57, PARK STREET,
1898.
“
OF THE
a "pan nt -anranorouacy ap coe
be SUBJECTS,
tay
j
Now II ae -
¥
YIN ns i
a *,
2h \Se iso
+ a 7 i v ¢
t a Vv
i
; Be AN to rae z y eect
ae re
; : d ’
oe 4 paw i
=A Be “yew
J re
GY:
Notes on agin aps - H. ier ne Indian ( Civil Serpe
Companion of the Indian Empire; ie T Académie Frang a ;
Director of Ethnography, Bengal Behe MOR ise CORR Neate .
eae Nee ‘On some Superstitions regarding Leal) ae Drowned | Peet. 2
dapat 3 ae Basu SARAT ees Mitra, mM. Ay I B.L., Pleader, Tudge’s Court, ‘
or baeerh > Chupra is ae ooo ; Matyas ‘ eee
ty re a EO On. some digas in a Being or Animal which § is pad to ou
Pleader, Tug 8 Court Choupra os as y a
AppENDIX— eae :
| Anthropometric iapailline ApH HL icin Bees Fs |
Service; Companion of. ‘the Indian Empire; Wied a Ac oa me
eines Director a Enegeei Poul.
JOURNAL
OF THE
“ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL,
No.
CONTENTS OF VOL. LXI, FOR 1892.
PART I.—HISTORY, LITERATURE, &C.
1.—W addell, Buddhist Remains at Mount Uren.—Lamaic Ro-
saries.—The ‘ 'T'sam-chho-dung * of the Lamas. Chakravar ti,
Troy weights and General currency of ancient Orissa. Smith,
Greco-Roman Influence on the Civilization of Ancient India.
Second Paper.
.2—Kielhorn, The Dinsipur Copper- Plate Inscription of Mahi-
pala. Raverty, Muhammadan Coins collected by the Afghan
Boundary Commission. . Theobald, A symbolical Coin of the
Wethali dynasty of Arakan. Chakravarti, Rdma-tankis.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
Wilson, The: Topography of the river in the 16th century from
Higli to the Sea. Beveridge, Rajah Kans—The date of Nur
Qutb Alam’s death. Crooke, Von of the Korwa lan-
suage. Driver, The Korkus.
3.—W addell, The Buddhist Pictorial Wheel of Life. Raverty;
The Mihran of Sind and its Tributaries.
4,—Raverty, The Mihran of Sind and its Tributaries, Contd.
PART IT. —NATURAL SCIENCE.
1.—Kin on, Materials: for a flora of the Malayan Peninsula.
Prain, Novicie Indicie V. An undescribed Mezoneuron from the
Andaman Group.
2.—Bigot, Catalogue of the a neers of the Oriental Region,
Parts IT and ITT;
3.—Nicéyill e, Note on the Tndian Butterflies comprised in the
sub-genus Pademma of the genus Huploa. Peal, The Communal
Barracks of Primitive Races, Brih1, De Ranunculaceis Indicis
Disputationes. —
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Ditto, ditto, Index . eect
AMNH LIBRARY
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