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BORG TH ESP EO PIee 
FOR EDVCATION 
FOR SCIENCE 


LIBRARY 
OF 


THE AMERICAN MUSEUM 
OF 


NATURAL HISTORY 


J 0 URN Wok, 


OF THE 


ASTATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, 


VOL. XXXIV. 


PARLE IE 


Nos. I. to [V.—1865.. 


EDITED BY 


THE NATURAL HISTORY SECRETARY. 


RA ne 


“Tt will dourish, if naturalists, chemists, antiquaries, philologers, and men 
of science in different parts of Asia, will commit their observations to writing, 
and send them to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta. It will languish, if such 
communications shall be long intermitted: and it will die away, if they shall 
entirely cease.’ 

Sir Wn, JONES, 


PLDI IOI 


CALCUTTA : 


e 
PRINTED AT THE BAPTIST MISSION PRESS. 


1865. 


eS Maes. 


Vere els te. 


; 5 5 a eC ei 


The Editor requests that the reprint of Captain Basevi’s paper on 
the “Pendulum Operations” be substituted for the copy which 
appeared in Part II. No. IV. of 1865. 


Ae 


ae 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN PART II. 1865. 


Plate. 
v I.—Asthenurus Atripinnis, 


“I.—Gegological sketch map of the ieee hte or en 


Gras: in Bunnoo, 
III.—Section across the above, 
TV .—Section near Buxa, 
V.—Map of the Yoonzalin Tretnen 

Vi. Boulder Temple at Kyik-hteo,... 

NVII.—Kyik-hteo-Galay boulder pagoda, 
VIli.—Kyik-hteo boulder pagoda, 
IX.—Paludine and Melanie, 


SAPP LPP LLP IIIS LLLP III INI 


Page 


2 
35 


49, 
43 
106 
146 
146 
146 
146 
274. 


CONTENTS. 


= BOQ OQce~ 


No. I. 
(Published 31st May, 1865.) 


Notes of a tour made in 1863-64 in the Tributary Mehals 
under the Commissioner of Chota-Nagpore, Bonai, Gang- 
pore, Odeypore and Sirgooja— By Lt.-Col. T. Darton, 

Description of a supposed new Genus of the Gadide, Arakan.— 

By Lieut.-Col. S. R. Ticket, Bengal Staff,................66 

On the degree of uncertainty which Local Attraction, if not 
allowed for, occasions in the map of a country, and in the 
Mean Figure of the Harth as determined by Geodesy; a 
method of obtaining the Mean Figure free from ambiguity 
by a comparison of the Anglo-Gallic, Russian and Indian 
Ares; and Speculations on the constitution of the Harth’s 
Onist_biy, ARCHDEACON PRAUT 0. bs. cccse0ahs-rencinereue cece 

Notes to accompany a Geological map and section of the Lowa 
Ghur or Sheen Ghur range in the district of Bunnoo, 
Punjab: with analyses of the Lignites—By Aubert M. 
Mremermerie Discs ME Dy yo onecn sts endive gs aicee sees svoignape es 

Scientific Intelligence, ........ 

Abstract of the Results of the Hones Tideeobetelt Gua 
tions taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, for 
the month of January, 1865,..............., Me vela noses aras Baad 


No. II. 
(Published 22nd July, 1865.) 


Remarks on the Vegetation of the Islands of the Indus River.— 
By J. H. T. Arrenison, M. D., F.R.C.8.E., F.LS., Extr. 
Member, Royal Med. Soc., Hdin., &c., Asst. Surgeon, 
eH Meg soe aie gers (i iden etindi isan da paranenieesfes 


Page 


iv Contents. 
: Page 
Observations on certain Strictures by Mr. H. F. Buanrorp, on 

W. Tueopatp’s Jr. Paper on the distribution of Indian 

Gasteropoda in J.A.8., No. CCLXXXIX. Page 69.—By 

W.. THEOBALD SS tise cis shen Saeed woe sede s ose eee ae Pee 60 
Note relating to Sivalik Fauna.—By H. B. Mepuicorv,......... 63 
Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. V., Descriptions of 

new land shells from Arakan, Pegu, and Ava; with notes 

on the distribution of described species—Ry Witir1am T. 

Branrorp, AUR. S. Mel GS ..) y ccce sees cues cack cee eae 
Notes on the Sandstone formation, &c., near Buxa Fort, 

Bhootan Dooars.—By Captam H. H. Gopwin Austen, 

F.R.G.S., Surveyor, Topographical Survey. Plate IV.,... 106 
Note on Lagomys Curzonie, Hodgson.—By Dr. F. Srotrozka, 108 
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observa- 

tions taken at the Surveryor General’s Office, Calcutta, for 

the months of February and March, 1865.,...............c0.08 1x 


No. III. 
(Published 23rd October, 1865.) 


Notes on Central Asia.—By M. Szemenor (Communicated by 


Lieut.-Colonel J. I. Wanker, WR. We 2. os. .-cenene sees Sonata Als 
Notes of a trip up the Salween.—By Rev. C. Parisu,............ 135 
Notes of Observations on the Boksas of the Bijnour District. — 

By Dr) J. Uy Stewart, said lars cca eee 147 
Religion, &c., among the Karens.—By Rev. F. Mason, a De 

Mee to the Karen people; Js..scncns seen eee 173 
Wotes and Queries, 5.0 ie ciescsenes ocess ate see sa aieetteeee eae eee eee 189 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorologieal Observa- 
tions taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, for 
the month of April, 1865, ............. AreBcOdAdccmnabotade ade nat RON, 


No. IV. 
(Published 6th February, 1866.) 


Religion, Mythology, and Astronomy among the Karens. ia 
Rey. EF; Mason, D, D.,. .cisisssisascesisstipsass> ssctunne enya 


Contents. 


On the Pendulum operations about to be undertaken by the 
Great Trigonometrical Survey of India; with a sketch of 
the theory of their application to the determination of the 
earth’s figure, and an account of some of the principal 
observations hitherto made—By Capt. J. P. Baservt, 
R. E., 1st Assistant, Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 

Notes on a collection of Land and Freshwater Shells from the 
Shan States—Collected by F. Frppren, Esq. 1864-65.— 
By W. THeopap, Jr. Hsq., ........s000. Sas ecbauieis aee'e sin serene 

RU seE NRE ME EIOMEERETIC OD: « 2occhc sae ec fiva vs cade cpascee dines ves ool sc agains ° 

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observa- 
tions taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, for 
the months of May and June, 1865,........0006ccesecccsecsnes 

Meteorological Observations taken at Gangaroowa near Kandy, 
Ceylon, for the months of March and April, 1864,........... 


LILLIE 


Vv 


Page 


XXXL 


Or Gaow: Irom 


ie Me to Coren 


cs 


o.. S82" wihak DA en tatins ooriialhelT 

1 2 ReTRENURUS ATRIPININE: Bia 
Th. —Geeboy ces Bee ae Power Chun 
“he mi owa by Pesan sr cigeagssuasene 

a o “Boxa- BRorkane Deora - 


livtod reat 


V. “M é Nactonasb dies” se ima ee 
whee Dovteey 13 Vee Neat kyik-Hhes ! ie 
W- Ky Lek Hren-Calay: ra 
‘ar- Kk ne ies Rovldey 


a rt 


The Geological Map will be issued with Part II. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


meee tic SOCIETY 


—}— 
Part I.—PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 


No. I.—1865. 


NN a a 


Votes of a towr made in 1863-64 in the Tributary Mehals under the 

Commissioner of Chota-Nagpore, Bonai, Gangpore, Odeypore and 

Sirgooja—By Lr.-Cou. T. Darron. 

[Received 2nd September, 1864: | 

Bonai is a small hilly district lying very snugly isolated from all 
civilization, between Sarundah the wildest part of Singbhoom and the 
Tributary Mehals of Keonjhur, Bamra, and Gangpore. It is 58 miles 
in greatest length from east to west and 37 miles in greatest breadth 
from north to south, with an area of 1,297 square miles. It is for 
the most part a mass of uninhabited hills, only 14th. of the whole 
being under cultivation, but about its centre, on both banks of the 
Brahmini river, which bisects it, there is a beautiful valley containing 
the sites of upwards of twenty good, and for the most part cotermin- 
ous villages, the houses well sheltered by very ancient mango and 
tamarind trees, with a due proportion of graceful palms. The tal and 
date appear to grow very luxuriantly in the valley, and sugar-cane 
thrives there. Many of the villages lie close to the river and their 
luxuriant groves meet and form long undulating lines of high and 
well-wooded bank. On all sides, at the distance of a few miles, are 
hills, some nearly three thousand feet above the level of the valley, 
and thus a very pleasing and varied landscape is disclosed at every 
turn of the broad and rapid reck-brqken stream. 


I 


bo 


Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


The Brahmini river in its progress from Gangpore has forced its 
way through the barrier of hills separating the two districts, and 
enters the valley I am describing, after a course of eight miles through 
a beautiful glen, in a succession of rapids and loughs, the latter swarm- 
ing with alligators. The shortest route from Gangpore to Bonai is by 
a rugged path through this pass; but is only practicable in the dry 
weather. 

Bonaigurh, where the Rajah resides, is in the valley, occupying a 
bend of the river in latitude 28° 49’ N. and longitude 85° H., being 508 
feet above the sea level. It has the river on three sides, and is sur- 
rounded by a mud wall and moat, within which are about-150 houses, 
including those of the chief, his court-house, and jail: the village 
altogether, inside and outside the gurh, contains about 300 houses, 
but nothing that can be called a bazar. The inhabitants are the 
Brahmins and other retainers of the Rajah; his own family, including 
most of the collateral branches, legitimate and illegitimate; people 


practising trades 


workers in brass and pewter, potters, weavers, 
smiths ; and people of low caste, Gonds, Pahans, Ghassees and Domes. 
Ooriah is the language spoken, and the costume and customs followed 
are those of the Orissa provinces. This includes a lavish use of 
saffron in their ablutions, hair neatly dressed with silver ornaments, 
and a general tidy appearance. They have good features and rather 
fair complexion. The young girls, till they attain the age of puberty, 
are very scantily dressed. The only garment usually worn by them 
is a “ kopin’’—a scarf, round the loins and between the legs. This is 
national and classical, as we find from the images of the oldest temples, 
that it was the favourite costume of the Hindu goddesses, who thus 
enjoyed the full play of their limbs. The young people of both sexes 
are fond of adorning themselves with wreaths of bright yellow flowers. 

There are 217 inhabited villages in Bonai, and from the number of 
houses returned by the topographical survey recently completed, the 
population may be estimated at fifteen thousand six hundred souls. 
About one half of the agricultural population is of the “‘ Bhooya’ 
caste or race. They are doubtless the earliest settlers, and it was from 
their hands that the ancestor of the present Rajpoot Rajah first ob- 
tained his insignia as chief. The Bamra and Gangpore Rajahs are 
reported to have in the same manner derived their chieftainships from 


1865. ] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 3 


the Bhooya aborigines, and when a succession to the Raj takes place 
in any of these districts, the acknowledged head of tho Bhooya clan 
goes through a ceremony of making over to the new chief the country 
and the people. The person who claims this prerogative in Bonai is 
titularly called “‘ Sawunt.’”’ He holds, at the very trifling quit-rent of 
Rs. 18 a year, twelve villages with their hamlets, and claims to be the 
hereditary Dewan of Bonai, but the chief neither employs nor acknow- 
ledges him as such. There are two other similar tenures with the 
titles of ‘ Dhunput’ and ‘ Mahapater,’ and subordinate to them are 
certain privileged heads of villages called Naiks. Under the Sawunt, 
Dhunput, or Mahapater, the subordinate officers of the Bhooya militia, 
—all the able-bodied males of the tribe are bound at the requisition 
of the chief or of the Government, to turn out for service fully 
armed and equipped. ‘There are no military tenures in the hands of 
people of any other caste. The Bhooyas thus have great power in the 
little state. Nor is it only in consequence of their being thus orga- 
nized as a military body; I find they have also charge of the oldest 
temples and shrines, and discharge the duties of Levites to the exclu- 
sion of Brahmins. Yet the temples are dedicated to Hindu gods. 
Whatever their origin may be, the Bhooyas are now completely Hin- 
duized. They have no peculiar language or customs of their own. 
In Bonai and the southern parts of Gangpore they speak Ooriah. In 
the northern parts of Gangpore and Jushpore, Hindi. They are a 
dark-complexioned race, with rather high cheek-bones, but with 
nothing else in feature or form to distinguish them as of extraneous 
origin. According to their own traditions, they were once a great peo- 
ple in Hastern India and had a king of their own, but were dispersed 
by invasion from the west. They are now found in all the districts 
between Cuttack and Behar, but they are most numerous in this and 
the adjoining estates, and here may be found the most civilized and 
respectable and the most primitive of the family. While in the low- 
lands, they dwell in villages, clothe themselves decently, and otherwise 
follow the customs, adopt the manners, and, I may add, the intriguing 
nature of the more civilized Brahminical races. In the hills of Bonai 
they are found as naked, as simple, as truthful and unsophisticated as 
the wildest of the Cole tribes. There are a great number of Bhooyas 
in the Singbhoom district, and it is said that they were driven out of 
the west portion of it, by the advance and spread of the Lurka Coles. 


4 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


The Bhooyas call themselves ‘ children of the wind’ ‘ Pawun buns,’ 
this would establish their affinity to the Apes, as Hunooman is called 
“ Pawun-ka-poot,” the son of the wind.* 

The Bonai hills shelter some thousands of the race commonly called 
Coles, who all represent themselves as having at some period emi- 
grated from Singbhoom or Chota-Nagpore. They have not benefited 
by the change. Their brethren on the Chota-Nagpore plateau and in 
the plains of Singbhoom are better off and better looking. The emi- 
grants must be the most unimprovable of the race, who, finding that 
the old country is becoming too civilized for them, fly from the clear- 
ances they have made, hide themselves in the hill forests, and relapse 
into the condition of savages. 

Amongst the races of Bonai yet to be noticed, are the Kolitas, a 
very enterprising and respectable class of cultivators, that are found in 
these regions, Sumbulpore, and strange to say, Assam. 

A very large proportion of the purely Hindu part of the Assa- 
mese population are Kolitas, and in accounting for the different races 
that are found in that province, the antecedents of the Kolitas have 
always been a difficulty. They have none of the peculiarities of the 
Indo-Chinese stock. They are considered, in Assam, as of very pure 
caste, next in dignity to Kaists, and are on this account much in re- 
quest amongst the higher classes as house servants. Another difficulty 
in Assam was te account for what was called the Bhooya dynasty, of 
which traces are found all through the valley, and it is recorded in 
their history, that the north bank of the Brahmapootra above Bish- 
nath was known as the country of the Barra Bhooya, long subsequent 
to the subjugation of the districts of the southern bank by the Ahoms. 
It appears to me, that there is a strong reason for supposing that the 
purely Hindu portion of the Assamese Sudra population was originally 
from this part of India. There is, in idiom especially, a strong resem- 
blance between the Assamese and Qoriah languages, and though the 
Moriah written character did not take root in Assam, this may be 
owing to all the priestly families having been introduced from Bengal.+ 


* They very probably formed a division in Rama’s army, hence their adoption 
of Hunooman’s pedigree, and their veneration for “ Mahabir.”’ 

+ In a paper in the Asiatic Society’s Journal for June 1848, the Assam 
Kolitas are described by Col. Hannay as‘having the high and reoular features 
of the Hindu, and many of them with the grey eye that is frequently found 
amongst the Rajputs of Western India. 


1865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 5 


The appearance of the Bonai Kolitas reminded me very much of the 
Assam Kolitas, and I may mention that Ram Chunder, the seventh 
Avatar, is the favourite object of worship with both. 

Of the mineral and other resources of Bonai, I have not much to 
say. Iron is produced, but the hills are for the most part quite unex- 
plored, and their riches, if they possess any, unknown. The popula- 
tion, with so much room for expansion, does not increase. There are 
83 deserted village sites, and what are now small hamlets appear to 
have been at one time large villages. The cause is not apparent, as 
the people of the more civilized class are well to do and content, and 
rent is very low, and as in all the Tributary Mehals, fixed. It is 
Rs. 2-8 for a hull of 17 khundees. Nevertheless the chief tells me 
he is obliged to grant all manner of extraneous indulgences to his 
ryots to induce them to remain. 

Wild beasts are very numerous, and in their ravages lies one great 
difficulty that villages bordering on or in the jungles have to contend 
against—the ryots complain not of loss of life but of the destruction of 
crops. They say they have to raise grain for the beasts of the forest 
as well as for their own families. On this account very little cotton 
is cultivated, though the soil is well adapted for it. 

The store of Sal timber in Bonai is immense, but the isolated and 
almost inaccessible position of the forests will prevent their being 
utilized for years to come, except for the resin, to obtain which, so 
many noble trees are girdled and killed. Together with the Sal, are 
found vast quantities of the Asan tree on which the tusser silk-worm 
feeds, and a considerable quantity ot the wild tusser is exported from 
Bonai, but it is not much cultivated as the mass of the population 
look upon it as an impure or unorthodox occupation, and none but 
people of the lowest castes, the Domes, Ghassees, Pahans and Gonds 
practice it. (The Gonds are out of their element in Bonai and are 
thus classed.) 

We meet with no Rajpoot or Khettree family except that of the 
chief. Nothing can be more absurd than the tradition handed down 
to account for this possession of power by one Khettree family over 
an alien population. The Nagbungsi family of Chota-Nagpore admit 
that they are sprung froma child found by and brought up in a 
“ Moondah’’* family, and that this child was made chief of the whole 

* Kole. 


6 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


Moondah race. It is I think highly probable that the chiefs of Bonai 
and Gangpore were originally Bhooyas who becoming leaders of their 
people and Rajahs, and allying themselves by marriages with other 
Rajahs were gradually admitted into the fraternity of Rajpoots or 
Khettrees. It may be said indeed of both of them, that the inter- 
marriage with families of better certified Khettree descent has not yet 
obliterated their Bhooya lineaments, for they bear a very remarkable 
likeness to that race in feature. 
GANGPORE. 

This is a very extensive estate lying between Chota-Nagpore, Jush- 
pore, Oodeypore, Sumbulpore, Bamra, Bonai and Singbhoom. It is 
kidney-shaped. Its greatest length from east to west is about 97 
miles, and in breadth from north to south it varies from 15 to 50 
miles. The topographical survey of the estate is not yet complete and 
its area cannot therefore be computed with accuracy, but I estimate it 
at double the size of Bonai or about 3000 square miles. Of this area 
not more than a tenth is under cultivation. 

The Sunkh and Koel rivers from the plateau of Chota-Nagpore, 
unite near Gurjun in Gangpore and form the Brahmini. The Keb, 
another river of some magnitude, flows through Gangpore south on its 
way to the Mahanuddee. ‘The ordinary level of Gangpore is about 
700 feet above the sea; the highest hill yet noted by the topographical 
surveyor is 2,240, not much above the general level of the Chota-Nag- 
pore plateau. The descent, however, from the plateau to the ordinary 
level of Gangpore is gradual, and there is a tolerable road. As in 
Bonai, the majority of the population are Bhooya, and they were no 
doubt the first settlers. All the zemindars under the Rajah are of that 
race, and hold their estates as fiefs at low fixed rates and terms of ser- 
vice. Consequently the Rajah is under the necessity of adopting a con- 
ciliatory policy towards some of them at least. There are generally 
one or two in opposition, but fortunately for the Lord Paramount, the 
great vassals are too jealous of each other readily to combine. The 
largest estate is held by the vassal who bears the title of Mahapater. 
It borders on Singhbhoom, extends to the Brahmini river and com- 
prises 100 villages for which the Mahapater pays only Rs. 200. This 
part of Gangpore was at one time more densely populated than it is 
at present, but all the more peaceably disposed of the old inhabitants 


1865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 7 


including, it is said, several colonies of Brahmins, were slaughtered or 
driven out of the country by the Lurka Coles. To the south, another 
great vassal, under the title of Gurhoutea, holds the Hemzeer estate, 
consisting of 84 villages, and an unlimited run of hill and forest. 
Gungadhur the Gurhoutea, boasts that he can travel twenty-four miles 
in a direct line over his own ground without seeing a human habita- 
tion, all through hill and forest, which, united to enormous tracts of 
hill and forest of Raigurh and Sumbulpore, forms perhaps the most 
extensive uninhabited region in all India. The third of these vassals 
has his estate on the north-west of Gangpore and holds the passes into 
the country from Jushpore and Chota-Nagpore. This estate is in 
advance of the passes, and looks as if it had been filched from Jush- 
pore, to which from the geographical features it ought to belong. 

The chief is of the ‘ Seekur’ family and claims connectionship with 
the Rajah of Pachete. His ancestor the first Rajah of Gangpore, was, 
we are told, invited by the Bhooyas to take charge of their country ; 
from which, it is said, they had just expelled a Rajpoot family called 
the ‘‘ Kaiserbuns ;” but as I stated above, I think it more probable that 
the ruling family are descended from the original Bhooya chiefs. The 
traditions, assigning to them a nobler birth, are founded on the sup- 
position that the Rajpoots or Cshetryas were the only class qualified 
to rule, that where there was no one of this class over a nation or a 
people, “the Guddee”’ was vacant, and a Cshetrya had only to step 
in and take it. The Cshetryas must have wandered about like knights- 
errant of old, in search of these vacant Guddees, as we do not find in 
the country any descendants of the followers whom they must have 
had, if they came in other fashion to oust the native chiefs and seize 
the country. 

It was admitted to me that until these Tributary Mehals came 
under British rule, a human sacrifice was offered every third year 
before the shrine of Kali at Suadeeh, where the present Rajah resides. 
The same triennial offermg was made in Bonai and Bamra, Bhooya 
priests officiating at all three shrines. This fact appears to me to be 
confirmatory of the theory that the Hindus derived from the abori- 
ginal races the practice of human sacrifices. 

In the above named districts, the practice of widows going “ suttee”’ 
was also generally followed in the family of the chiefs and in Brah- 


8 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals, [No. 1, 


min families, up to a recent date; many of the grandmothers of the 
present generation of chiefs and Brahmins having so distinguished 
themselves. One man was pointed out to me as having lost his mother 
by the rite of suttee. He would not say ‘lost ;’ he no doubt regards 
her as canonized by the act. 

A rather romantic story of a suttee that occurred some fifty years 
ago in Gangpore is related. 

A Brahmin took a dislike to a girl he had just married, and turned 
her out of doors, a wedded maid. She took refuge with her parents 
who were poor, and who soon after died, leaving her destitute; then 
she wandered from village to village subsisting on alms and leading a 
wretched widowed life. Her husband married a second time, and sons 
and daughters were born to him and grew up about him, and in the 
fullness of years he died. His second wife had preceded him, so his 
corpse was placed alone on the funeral pile, and the torch was about 
to be applied to it, when a poor emaciated and meanly clad female 
stepped forward, and as the first, the faithful and only surviving wife 
of the deceased, claimed the right of suttee. Her request was com- 
plied with. Bathed, anointed, clothed, and adorned with flowers like 
a bride, she ascended the pile and clinging to the corpse of the hus- 
band who had so cruelly discarded her, and for the first time in her 
life pressing her lips to his, the flames arose and their ashes were 
mingled together ! 

There is no doubt still a strong sentiment in favour of suttee in the 
Tributary Mehals, and States under native government. Its prohibition 
has not been long enforced in the eastern parts of Rewa. Not long 
ago, in that territory, on the death of a Brahmin, his widow, notwith- 
standing the prohibition, was so vehement in her desire to join her 
husband on the pyre, that her relatives as the only method of restrain- 
ing her, locked her up. When the ceremony was over they proceeded 
to release her, but found that her spirit too had fled. She had attained 
her object, as my informant declared, by a special interposition of 
Providence in her behalf. 

Proceeding north-west from Nugra and the banks of the Brahmini 
river, you enter the Nuagurh division of Gangpore and come to 
Lainggurh, near the confluence of several streams, which was once the 
capital and promises to be so again, as the present Rajah is just now 


1865.) Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 9 


building there. It is very prettily situated, and the gurh ona little 
hill in the centre of the valley has a commanding position, but I fear 
it is not a healthy site, from the number of enlarged spleens and cases 
of skin-disease I observed amongst the people. There are many fine 
old village sites in Nuagurh, now occupied by impoverished squatters, 
mostly Oraons from Chota-Nagpore. 

The old inhabitants have died off or removed to more civilized and: 
securer regions further south. The shabby huts of the squatters hud- 
dled together under the shade of the grand old trees, the monuments 
oi the more civilized race that. preceded them, look as much out of 
place as mud cabins in a street of palaces. The Rajah and other 
zemindars give these new settlers, when they first come, three years of 
absolute immunity from demands of every kind. In the fourth year: 
they are called on to pay a light assessment. It is difficult to describe 
on what principle it is imposed, but in old settled villages of Oraons 
it does not amount, including rent and contribution, to more than 
Rs. 1-8 per house or family. The soil in this part. of Gangpore ap- 
pears very fertile, and there is still available much of the slightly 
swampy, rich looking land, that gives the best crops of rice. I find 
“ Sirosha”’ now in flower, growing in great luxuriance, It is sold here 
at one maund for the rupee. 

The Coles are evidently a good pioneering race, fond of new clear- 
ings and the luxuriant and easily raised crops of the virgin soil, and 
have constitutions that thrive on malaria; so itis perhaps in the best 
interest of humanity and cause of civilization that they be kept mov- 
ing by continued Aryan propulsion. Ever armed with bow, arrows 
and pole-axe, they are prepared to do: battle with the beasts of the 
forest, holding even the king of the forest, the ‘Bun Rajah,” that, is 
the tiger, in little fear. Mixed up with them are numbers of the 
Kherria tribe, who are as-yet a mystery to me, and I will say nothing 
more about them till I learn more. Jam. assured that they have no 
affinity with either Moondahs or Oraons, ¢. ¢. with those who are 
generally called Coles. 

Borgaon, near the Mahabeer hill on the borders of Bamra, is the 
largest village Gangpore possesses on this side. It contains 160 houses— 
20 of Brahmins, 20 of ‘ Telis,’ oil-pressers, 22 of various Hindu 
Ooriah castes, and the remainder Oraons and Kherriahs, The two 

2 


10 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


latter coming in contact with Brahmins, have at once succumbed and 
become their farm labourers. It appears to make little difference in 
the condition of Oraon emigrants, whether they are farm servants or 
farmers on their own account : they have the same wretched huts, scanty 
apparel, and generally uncared-for appearance, as if they had in despair 
given up all ideas of rendering themselves attractive; but the wonder 
is that they remain in this dependent position, when they can get land 
on such easy terms and become farmers themselves. 

The village pays direct to the Rajah a rent of Rs. 34, magun or 
contribution Rs. 34!, and 64 maunds of rice. The price of rice is from 
one maund to two maunds for the rupee. On births, deaths and mar- 
riages in the Rajah’s family, the villagers are called on for additional 
contributions, and when that family, as it is just now, is a large one, 
the extra charge comes to from Rs. 30 to 40 a year. The total demand 
is therefore about Rs. 160 a year, and from the extent of land under 
cultivation, I do not think this would amount to more than 3 annas a 
beegah on the cultivated area. It is evidently a very old village site, 
surrounded by extensive groves of mangoes, and with several tanks of 
very insalubrious water overgrown with water lillies. Hills are seen 
on all sides, but the most remarkable feature in the landscape is the 
great Mahabeer hill; a mass of rock tilted up, and shewing towards 
Borgaon, an uneven wall of disrupted ends, forming a cliff of fantastic 
outline, nearly 2000 feet high. 

The tutelary deity of this hill is a favourite object of worship with 
the Bhooyas, and is more or less revered by all the country. The top 
of the hill or rock being difficult of access, Mahabeer has studied the 
convenience of his votaries, and entered an appearance down below in 
the form of a stone, in a sacred grove or ‘Surna’ at the foot of the 
hill. The idea of a ‘ Surna’ is pretty and poetical. It is or ought to 
be a fragment of the primitive forest left when the first clearance was 
made, as a refuge for the sylvan deities whom the clearing might have 
disturbed. The best villages and most thriving portion of the popu- 
lation in Gangpore are found on both banks of the Heb river, as we 
approach the boundaries of Sumbulpore. Here the very industrious 
and respectable looking caste called Agureahs are first met with. They 
are found in Gangpore, Sumbulpore, Raegurh, Raipore and Rutten- 
pore. They number about 5000 in the three first places named. 


1865. ] Notes of a towr in the Tributary Mehals. 1 


According to their tradition, they are called Agureahs from having, 
ages ago, come from Agra. 

They were a proud Cshettrya or Khettree family, a stiff-necked 
generation, and refusing, when making an obeisance, to bow their 
heads, the Rajah lowered some of them summarily by cutting them 
off. They therefore left Agra and wandered south through Central 
India till they came to Sumbulpore, and eventually settled in these 
regions. Acquiring lands, and determining to devote themselves 
entirely to the tilling of the soil, they divested themselves of their 
“‘ paitas’’ making them over to the Brahmins, and no longer styling 
themselves or being styled Khettrees, they became known as Aguriahs. 

They bury their dead, and for this departure from the usual custom 
of Hindus, they can assign no specific cause, but that they gave up 
the practice of incremation when they resigned their pretensions to be 
esteemed Khettrees. They nevertheless now profess to be Vishnoovis, 
divided into two denominations, ‘ Ramanundyas’ and ‘ Kubeer pun- 
thees.’ The Vishnoovi doctrines they have probably taken up, since 
their migration to tracts bordering on Orissa and approximating the 
great fane of Juggernath. They say they gave up the worship of 
Kali when they resigned their ‘ paitas’ and took to the plough. It is 
probable that they were Boodhists, obliged to leave the Gangetic pro- 
vinces for refusing to conform to Brahminism. 

Their physique decidedly supports the tradition of their Khettri 
extraction: they are distinguished amongst the dark, coarse-featured 
aborigines of this country, as a tall, fair, well-made and handsome race, 
resembling the Rajpoots in every thing but swagger. That went with’ 
the ‘ paitas,’ as a farewell offering to Kali. The women, who are not 
very jealously secluded, have good features and figures, and a neat and 
cleanly appearance. 

The latter are subjected to no field labour, their sole business being to 
look after the domestic arrangements, to gin cotton and to spin. They 
do not weave. Their spun thread is made over to the weavers, who 
are paid in kind for their labour. Their villages, laid out in streets, are 
comparatively well kept, and their own houses in these villages sub- 
stantial, clean, and comfortable. Munguspore, near the Sumbulpore 
boundary, is, 1 think, the largest. It contains 200 houses, those of 
the Aguriahs occupying the centre of the village, surrounded by huts 


12 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


of Coles and others of the primitive races, whose services they have 
secured as their farm labourers, and who are not allowed to hold Jands, 
but are paid for their labour at the rate of three seers of dhan per 
diem, and a modicum of clothing doled out annually. 

The soil in this part of Gangpore is exceedingly rich, producing 
magnificent crops of sirosha, sugar-cane, and tobacco, besides the staple 
rice. The plants of the country tobacco grown by the Aguriahs are 
the finest I ever saw, and they grow more cotton than they require for 
their own use, though they do not stint themselves in raiment. J am 
certain the soil and climate is well suited for the finer kinds of cotton. 

Proceeding north up the Heb from this, the Arabia Felix of Gang- 
pore, we came again upon untidy Bhooya villages, and their patches of 
cultivation, separated by miles of the monotonous Sal forests, and there 
is no change in the features of the country or the population, till we 
come to the -estate of Bhugwan Manjee, which, as above mentioned, 
does not appear as if it belonged to Gangpore, as it is separated by a 
range of hills, and approached by a very narrow and difficult pass. We 
are still amongst Bhooyas, but here they speak Hindi instead of 
Ooriah, and the peculiarities of Ooriah cestume and decoration are 
rarely met with. 

J USHPORE. 

The small state of Jushpore, though specially mentioned as a cession 
to the British in the agreement taken from Appa Sahib, after his 
defeat at Setahbuldee in 1818, has hitherto found no place in any pub- 
lished map. In the very latest issued from the Surveyor General’s 
office, a few scattered villages of Jushpore are inserted as if contained 
within*the boundaries of Sirgoojah, but the name of the estate is not 
given, and the chief town, where the Rajah now lives, is not down. It 
is singular how old the information must be, from which some names 
have been inserted on the maps of the unsurveyed parts of India. 

Konkale appears in large letters in about the centre of the tract 
which should be called Jushpore. It is now an insignificant hamlet, 
but there is the trace of a fort, where resided an ancestor of the 
present Rajah. The present capital, Jugdispore, is about two miles to 
the north and west of it. 

Jushpore is bounded on the north by Burway of Chota-Nagpore ; 
south by Gangpore and Oodeypore ; east by Chota-Nagpore; and west 


4865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 13 


by Sirgoojah. It is about 50 miles in length from north to south, and 
30 in greatest breadth from east to west, and may comprise about 
1000 square miles. It contains upwards of 200 villages, exclusive of 
the hamlets or detached huts of migratory hill savages; the population 
is about 30,000, and the total income of the Rajah from all sources 
may be estimated at about Rs. 6000. With this moderate income he 
maintains a very becoming state, and so rules as to be greatly beloved 
by all his people. 

Jushpore is about equally divided into highlands and lowlands, 
*Oopur Ghat’ and ‘Heth Ghat.’ The highlands consist of a mag- 
nificent plateau, a continuation of the great tableland of Chota-Nag- 
pore, averaging upwards of 2000 feet above the level of the sea, and 
fringed by hills, rising in places 1000 feet higher. The lowlands lie 
im steppes descending towards the south, broken by low ranges of hills 
isolated bluffs, and masses of granite, sometimes semi-globular in form, 
and without vegetation, bare and round as an old man’s bald pate, 
and hence the most conspicuous of them is called the ‘ Boora.’ 

The Heb river has its sources in the Jushpore highlands, and grows 
so rapidly into a respectable stream, that when it reaches the brink of 
the plateau, it bounds into the lowlands with a roar that is heard 
for miles. It is, shortly after, joined by another stream, the Maini, 
which also rises in the J ushpore heights. There is a story that, years 
ago, an invisible spirit in a visible light canoe ascended the Heb, water- 
fall and all, to its source, and there the boat is still waiting for the 
spirit’s return. I did not see it. 

It is also called the ‘ Heera’ river, as diamonds are found in its bed, 
and it is probably the source of the diamond stores of the Maha 
Nuddee, as I understand that none have been found above the con- 
fluence of the two streams. It is auriferous, and from time immemorial 
its sands and deposits have been explored by hereditary gold-washers, 
called ‘‘ Jhorahs.”” These gold-washers do not, however, confine their 
operations to the bed of the river. They find it more profitable to 
penetrate the soil some distance from its banks, and on both sides you 
find tracts honey-combed with shafts, sunk by successive generations 
of gold seekers. 

These shafts are from 10 to 30 feet in depth, and three in 
diameter. The Jhorahs excavate till they cut through the upper 


14 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


‘stratum of vegetable mould and the red soil beneath it, and come 
to a layer of pebbles and fragments, chiefly of quartz, forming a 
dirty damp gravel; this they remove and wash. I have watched 
their operations close along the banks of the river, and at some 
miles distant from the stream, and the process and result was much 
the same in both places. Near the river, five pits or shafts had been 
recently sunk by as many families of Jhorahs, for they work in 
families, women and children assisting. They had one washing trough, 
called a‘ dooin,’ to each family, andthewashing commenced in my presence. 
The stuff selected is either of a dirty drab or of a reddish colour, with 
occasional small white spots, little balls of particles of decomposed 
felspar, adhering together from moisture, and drying into powder. 
The Jhorahs regard these white spots as the surest indication that the 
gravel contains gold. The stratum of gravel which they were working 
on this occasion was not more than a foot in depth. It rests on 
decomposed granite, which crumbles when taken in the hand, and the 
gold-washers assured me that this contained no gold, but I insisted on 
having some of it washed, and found their statement not strictly cor- 
rect. It contains gold, but is less rich in the mineral than the gravel 
above. When the gravel immediately under the shaft is all removed, 
they scoop out from the sides all round, as far as they dare venture to 
penetrate laterally, and in this way sometimes connect the shafts, but 
they take no precautions, and sometimes, going too far, have to be dug 
out, not always alive! There appear to have been several accidents of 
the kind, but with all this danger and labour, the pursuit does not 
return sufficient to support them, and they are farmers as well as gold- 
washers. 

They are greedy and reckless in taking advances, trusting much, no 
doubt, to the facilities their remote situation gives them, of evading 
payment, and some of them are enormously in debt. One man was 
pointed out to me as owing Rs. 1000! He grinned as the sum was 
mentioned, asif exulting over his victim. The greed for gold and the 
gambling nature of the pursuit is surely a great corrupter of human 
nature, for in the midst of a population generally remarkable for 
honesty, truthfulness and simplicity, these gold-washers are menda- 
cious and unscrupulous rogues. 

Some years ago, a trader came amongst them whilst they were at 


1865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 15 


work, accompanied by his wife, hoping to obtain some return for the 
advances he had made. He dunned and worried them, and to get rid 
of his importunity, they knocked him on the head and popped him 
into one of the 30 feet shafts, where he was told to seek gold for him- 
self! The unfortunate woman was similarly disposed of. The crime 
was, however, brought home to the delinquents, who were all transported. 

The yield of these pits in gold is of course very uncertain. The 
out-turn obtained in my presence from the five pits, in about four hours, 
would not have given to the individuals employed, more than half an 
anna a head, but they admitted that they sometimes obtained as much 
as half a tolah of gold from one ‘ dooin’ in a day, and this would 
give about Rs. 2 a head to the hands employed, and make up for many 
blank days. From their mode of washing, there must be great waste. 
I observed it is only very palpable particles of gold that are retained. 
The grains are irregularly shaped, with sharp angles, and do not 
appear to have undergone any disturbing process since they were 
evolved from their original matrix. There is no indication of flatten- 
ing or rolling out. 

The northern portion of Jushpore, bordering on Burway and 
Sirgoojah, is a wild mountainous region called Khooria, inhabited 
chiefly by Korewahs ; some, utterly savage and almost nomadic ; 
others, somewhat more civilized, living in villages; but all invariably 
armed with bow and arrows and a battle-axe. 

In 1818 when Sirgoojah and Jushpore were ceded to the British 
Government by Appa Sahib, the chief of Khooria, himself a Kore- 
wah, and claiming to be hereditary Dewan of Jushpore, was in rebel- 
lion against his Rajah ; and for several years, by savage raids at the 
head of his Korewahs, both on Sirgoojah and Jushpore, gave much 
trouble. In one of these expeditions, his son Muniar Singh was cap- 
tured and detained as a hostage by the British authorities till the 
death of the old chief, when a reconciliation was, effected, between the 
Rajah and Muniar Singh, who was restored to his possessions and 
hereditary office. The policy adopted on the occasion has proved very 
successful : the dewans Korewahs have ever since conducted themselves 
peaceably. 

Having expressed a wish to see some of the wild hill Korewahs, 
the present zemindar of Khooria, a nephew of Muniar Singh’s, ap- 


16 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. I, 


peared in camp with forty warriors of the tribe. Their costume way 
nothing in particular, except that they had very shaggy heads of hair, into 
which their store of spare arrows were stuck by the barbs. They each 
carried in one hand a very powerful bow and two or three arrows, and 
in the other the gleaming long edged battle-axe of the country. The 
arrows are carefully made with flat bright heads of iron, 9 inches long 
and 23 in breadth, with long barbs, the edges and points all carefully 
sharpened. These are attached to light reeds, the other ends of which 
are neatly spirally feathered. 

The men were mostly short of stature but with well knit muscular 
frames, springy and energetic in action, better looking and of lighter 
complexion than the Oraons of the plateau. There was no remark- 
able protuberance of the maxillary processes nor lowness of forehead. 
Those who were old enough had beards and moustaches. They evinced 
no timidity, but immediately on seeing me, gruffly vociferated that 
they had had nothing to eat all day, and they wanted immediately, 
rations of rice, dal, oil, salt, tobacco and pig, and expected as they 
had come so far to see me, that they were each to be presented with a 
cap, a coat and a waist cloth. 

I placed a small earthen pot on a peg, and offered it as a mark to 
those amongst them who wished to shew their skill in archery. In 
great excitement, all eagerly volunteered, bows were instantly strung, 
and though they did not once hit the small target, they all planted 
their arrows close to it, and aman in the same position would not 
have escaped. I tried them afterwards at a tree at 40 yards, and almost 
every arrow told. Their bows are very powerful, and arrow after 
arrow was delivered with a force and rapidity that made one feel a 
very profound respect for this, owr once national weapon. In bush 
warflare it is more formidable than the matchlock, and I do not doubt 
that the Korewahs could render a hostile entry ito their country, 
a difficult and dangerous task. 

There is every point of resemblance between them and the wilder 
section of the Lurka Coles, and so little do the languages of the two 
tribes differ, that my slight acquaintance with that of the Coles, enabled 
me to understand what the Korewahs, on first appearing, were demand- 
ing; and a Cole chaprassee of mine kept up a conversation with them. 

It is almost unnecessary to seek for further proofs of affinity, but they 


1865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 17 


are to be found in the identity of many of their customs. Their 
sacrifices in eases of sickness, their songs, their dances, their mode of 
disposing of the dead—all these shew them to be of kin to the ‘ Ho’ 
or Lurka of Singbhoom, the Moondahs of Chota-Nagpore, and to 
the Sonthals. It is not possible to trace the similitude through all the 
relations of life. The Singbhoom Coles live in large communities 
and have an organization unattainable by the hill Korewahs, who prefer 
to dwell apart. Except on great occasions, when there is a ‘ gathering 
of the clan,’ the Korewah has only his own family to think of and 
associate with. The head of the family is chief and priest—the god 
to whom he sacrifices, the spirit of his father. 

The Korewahs are found also in the wildest parts of Sirgoojah, and 
in the ranges of hills between Sirgoojah and Palamow. Many of them 
have abandoned their free mountain life, and have formed settlements on 
the skirts of hills, near villages ; and where this is the case they appear 
to be losing their own language and peculiar habits, and becoming 
Hinduized. 

The Hill Korewahs live in wretched little detached huts, in the 
midst of the patch of hill forest they have partially cleared and are 
then cultivating, shifting every three or four years as the ground be- 
comes exhausted. They cultivate very little rice. Their crops con- 
sist of pulses, millet, pumpkins, cucumbers,* melons, sweet potatoes, 
and yams. They also grow and prepare arrow-root, and thereis a wild 
arrow-root which they use and sell. The grain they store for winter 
use is secured in small parcels of the leaves of a plant called ‘ muhoo- 
lain,’ sown together by fibres of the same, and these parcels they 
bury. The grain thus preserved remains for years unimpaired. They 
have no prejudices in regard to animal food, and they drink freely 
of an intoxicating beverage prepared by themselves from millet. 
They are as devoted to songs and dances as the Moondahs and Son- 
thals, and have the same steps and melodies. They bury or burn their 
dead, whichever they find most convenient, but the practice of mark- 
ing the spot where the body or ashes are deposited, iscommon to both. 

The Khooria Korewahs resort in large numbers to an annual fair 
held at Muhree on the borders of Sirgoojah, and give in barter for salt 


* They have a gigantic cucumber about a foot and a half in leneth and 
ten inches in diameter ! 


3 


18 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [ No. 1, 


and other necessaries, wax, arrow-root, resin, gums, honey and stick 
lac, and excellent iron smelted by themselves. The Korewah iron, 
roughly fashioned as battle-axes, is greatly prized by the inhabitants 
of all the neighbouring States. 

Whilst conversing with the Rajah about these savages, he men- 
tioned to me that there existed a tribe called Birhores, whom he accused 
ofa sort of interfraternal anthropophagy, of feeding literally on their 
blood relations. 

They are alluded to by the late Col. Ouseley, in a paper that ap- 
peared in the Journal of the Society for January 1848, but he relates 
the story, as of the Korewahs, calling them inhabitants of Mynepat 
in Sirgoojah. The Korewahs repudiate all affinity with the Birhores, 
nor could I hear of either Korewahs or Birhores on the Mynepat: the 
latter are found in some of the wildest parts of Chota-Nagpore and 
Jushpore, but they are of rare occurrence. With much trouble some 
were caught and brought to me. They were wretched looking objects, 
but had more the appearance of the most abject of one of those 
degraded castes of Hindu, the domes or pariahs, to whom most flesh 
is food, than of hill people. Assuring me that they had themselves 
given up the practice, they admitted that their fathers were in the 
habit of disposing of their dead in the manner indicated ; viz. by feasting 
on the bodies, but they declared they never shortened life to provide 
such feasts, and shrunk with horror at the idea of any bodies but 
those of their own blood relations being served up at them! The 
Rajah said he had heard that, when a Birhore thought his end was 
approaching, he himself invited his kindred to feast on his body. The 
Birhores brought to me did not acknowledge this, but they spoke on 
the subject with a degree of reticence that made me think it might be 
true. I told the Rajah to enquire particularly about it, and gave out 
that if the horrid rite was still practised, it must be discontinued. But, 
query,—‘ would not Saturday reviewers regard my order as an injudi- 
cious interference with a time-honoured custom, on a point that natives 
the disposal of their dead 2?’ 

The Birhores speak a jargon of Hindi, which I found intelligible ; 
and have no other language. 

Nine-tenths of the population of the remaining portion of the Jush- 
pore highlands are ‘* Coles.” Chiefly Oraons, there are very few Moon- 


were so peculiarly tenacious of 


1865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. T9: 


dahs amongst them ; the Jushpore Oraons are the ugliest of the race, 
and appear to me utterly destitute of all ambition to rise into respect- 
ability of appearance. With foreheads “ villainous low,” flat noses 
and projecting maxillaries, they approach the negro in physiognomy, 
much closer than do their brethren in Chota-Nagpore. 

Jushpore produces an excellent iron, much prized for making wea- 
pons and implements of husbandry. Amongst its exports may be 
included about ten thousand maunds of cotton. 

The lowland villages of Jushpore have a sprinkling of the tribes 
from all the surrounding districts. Of the Orissa type are ‘ Makoors”’ 
from Keonjhur, the most thriving people in these parts, well dressed, 
and occupying good houses. They have great herds of cattle, like the 
Aheers and Gwallas. Then there are a few of the Gangpore Bhooyas, 
intermingled with a good many Khairwars from Palamow, (of which. 
caste is the Rajah,) and Gours or Gonds from the south and west, and 
as we approach Oodeypore, we come for the first time on the Kawrs. 

The Kaurs form a considerable proportion of the population 
of Oodeypore, Sirgoojah, Korea, Chang Bhukar, and Korbah of 
Chutteesgurh, and there is this point of interest in them, that 
they claim to be the descendants of the ‘‘ Kooroos” who fought the 
Pandavas, who, when defeated and driven from the scenes of the war, 
found a safe retreat in these mountainous and densely-wooded regions. 
In appearance they more resemble the aborigines than the Hindu 
tribes. They are, in fact, next to the Jushpore Oraons, the ugliest 
race I have seen in the course of my tour: dark and coarse-featured, 
broad noses, wide mouths and thick lips. They resemble the Khair- 
wars of Palamow, especially that ill-favoured section of them called 
Bhogtahs, in features, but in nothing else, as the Kaurs are an exceed- 
ingly industrious and thriving people. Their houses are unusually neat 
and commodious, built ike bungalows, with verandahs on two or more 
sides. Of these there is one to each married member of the family, who, 
however, meet and eat together in the largest, belonging to the head. The 
houses are placed so as to form a small court-yard, which is kept scru- 
pulously clean. The Kaurs do not strictly conform to Hinduism: they 
rear and eat fowls, and have no veneration for Brahmins. The “ Nau,” 
the village barber, whom they sometimes call Thakoor, is their priest, 
and officiates as such at all marriages and other ceremonies, The 


20 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


combination of priestly functions and operations with the easy shaving 
line, is singular; but it arises from the fact that the great ceremonial 
law of the Kaurs is all comprised in the act of shaving. At births, 
deaths and marriages, the parties immediately interested, and all con- 
nected with them, are clean shaven all round. In regard to the 
disposal of the dead by this tribe, they tell me that they bury those 
that die unmarried, while the bodies of married folk are burnt m 
orthodox Hindu fashion! I wonder if matrimonial interests are ad- 
vanced by this invidious custom. The tonsure of the males is ‘pecu- 
liar; the hair is allowed to grow long on the crown of the head and 
collected in a knot, but the forehead is shaven to the knot, and there 
is a shaven ring round it as if to facilitate the operation of scalping ; 
the back of the head is also shaven, but over the ears and temples the 
hair is worn long. 

They worship Shiva under the denomination of Mahadeva, and 
Parvati as Gouree, and they have a festival in the year for each, at 
which they dance and sing, men and women. In some villages there 
is a Baiga who offers sacrifices at these festivals ; but this Baiga is 
not a Kaur. He belongs to one of the aboriginal tribes, and it is a 
remarkable feature in the religious ceremonies of the people of the 
Tributary Mehals, that the aborigines should have a monopoly of such 
offices. The new settlers dread the malignancy of the local spirits, 
and to appease them, naturally rely on the aborigines, who have longest 
known them. The zemindar of Korbah in Chutteesgurh is a Kaur, 
and as far as I can learn is the most influential person of their caste 
existing: there was a Kaur zemindar in Sirgoojah formerly, called 
Kumol Singh, but he rebelled and came to grief. 

Most of the “ Khalsa” villages in Oodeypore are held in farm by 
‘ Kaurs’ and two-thirds of the population of these villages are Kaurs. 
With one exception all the permanent service tenures of Oodeypore 
are in the hands of Gours, and the people in those estates are for the 
most part Gours. We find therefore, that the Gours have, in Oodey- 
pore, a position similar to that held by the Bhooyas in Bamra, Gang- 
pore and Bonai, and the right to the office of Dewan and to instal a 
new Rajah, claimed in those districts by certain Bhooyas, is in Oodey- 
pore claimed by one of the Gour zemindars, Bhowany Singh of 
Kourajah. Thus we find the Gours or Gonds, who in Bonai were 


1865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 21 


classed amongst the most degraded of the people, (and in Gangypore 
not held in much higher estimation,) holding a high position in 
Oodeypore. 

I have insensibly glided into Oodeypore. In no published map are 
the boundaries of that district defined. It has to the north the great 
tableland of the Mynepat, as a massive barrier between it and Sirgoo- 
jah, to the west Korbah of Chutteesgurh or the Belaspore district, to 
the south Raigurh, and to the east Gangpore and Jushpore. It is 
about 64 miles in length by 40 in breadth, and contains about 1800 
square miles. There are 220 villages. The population may be roughly 
estimated at 25,000. The only river of consequence is the Mand, an 
affluent of the Mahanuddee. It rises near Girsa in Sirgoojah, and re- 
ceives the streams that flow south from the Mynepat. Near Rabcope, 
which, though not much of a place, we may call the chief town, it has 
cut its way through a great mass of sandstone rock, and now flows 
without obstruction through a narrow pass with perpendicular or 
rather overhanging cliffs, on the highest portion of which the former 
Rajahs of Oodeypore, like Barons of the Rhine, had their castle. The 
site was occupied by the leader of the Oodeypore insurgents in 1857- 
58, and had he not abandoned his position on the approach of a force 
sent against him, he might have given us much trouble, as the rock is 
or might easily be made as inaccessible from the land as from the river 
side. The river has generally a deep cut channel, flows in alternate 
rapids and pools, and is not navigable in any part of its course. The 
country north of Rabcobe rises in steppes to the base of the Mynepit, 
but the suriace is everywhere undulated by masses of sandstone rock, 
forming hills, dividing and enriching the culturable lands, as the rocks 
have many springs, from which fertilizing streams are ever flowing 
over the terraced plains. But with all these advantages the country 
is sparsely populated, the villages small and ‘ far between,’ and there 
appears little prospect of improvement, as the districts all round are in 
much the same condition. 

There is at present but one weekly market held in Oodeypore, at 
Dukree, 24 miles due south of Rabcobe. This is attended by people 
from Raigurh, Chutteesgurh, Sucktee, &c. The chief exports are lac, 
cotton, resin, oil seeds, rice, wild arrow-root, iron, and a small quantity 
oi gold. 


99 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


The production of the precious metal is restricted by the limited 
number of gold-washers. There are now only six families of that pro- 
fession on the estate. The same cause may be assigned for the limited 
production of iron, as there are not more than ten families of smelters 
in all Oodeypore. I saw the gold-washers at work in pits similar to 
those I inspected at Jushpore. The deposit sought and the method of 
working it is the same in both mehals, but the deposit in Jushpore is 
supposed to be the richer of the two. In Oodeypore, the gold-washers 
produced, as the result of a day’s labour, only 3 grains of gold to each 
“‘ Dooin” or trough, but I am satisfied from what I saw of the quan- 
tity of gold exhibited at each washing-out of the trough, that they 
must have obtained very much more than they thought proper to pro- 
duce. The Rajah was with me; he wishes to obtain a monopoly of 
the gold trade; and it did not suit them that he should see a better 
yield. 

The export of ‘lac’ from Oodeypore is said to amount to about 
2000 maunds annually. I have not been able to gain any information 
in regard to other produce, but the heavy expense of carriage and 
consequent low prices offered, are very discouraging to the producers. 
Amongst the mineral resources not yet utilized, is coal; seams have 
been observed at Baisi south-west of Rabcobe, and other places. Lime- 
stone is found under the Mynepat. 

SIRGOOJAH. 

I entered Sirgoojah from the north-west corner of Oodeypore, as- 
cending the Metringa Ghat and passing along a ridge, a cyclopean wall 
of sandstone that actually divides the sources of the Rehur, an affluent 
of the Soane, from some feeders of the Mand, an affluent of the Maha 
Nuddee ; and near the same point the boundaries of Sirgoojah, Oodey- 
pore and Chutteesgurh meet. Clear of the Ghat, which is very steep 
and difficult, I find myself at the western extremity of the great Myne- 
pat, which rises majestically fromthe plain in a succession of bold 
headlands and promontories, as our own proud islands rise from the 
sea; and as the eye follows what so much resembles a long coast line, 
the mind is filled with the idea that the ocean must once have rolled 
where the Sal trees now wave, and this is strengthened when we turn 
to the isolated bluffs having all the features of the mainland, from 
which they appear to have been cut off, rising abruptly like islands 


= 


1865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 23 


from the sea, not less than 2000 feet above the plain, or appearing in 
the distance, from the parallel markings on the face of the rock, like 
huge casemated batteries protecting the coast. 

The country teems with architectural remains of a race who 
appear to have left no other trace of their existence. On the 
banks of the Rehur, in great heaps of carved stones, shafts, bases, 
capitals, friezes, architraves, lie the ruins of numerous temples of a 
very ancient type. (The Rajah’s cousin, Lall Mohessuree Persad Singh, 
on whose estate they lie, is very irreverently using them up in the 
construction of a sporting lodge). The fragments appear to have been 
put together as children build with wooden bricks, all in parallel 
courses, with nothing but their weight and adaptation of the parts to 
keep them in their position; and thus their overthrow, which from the 
studied mutilation of all the idols could not have been accidental, was 
easily effected. There is no indication of any kind of cement or of 
iron bindings having been used in the structures. 

Amongst the isolated hills mentioned above, the most conspicuous 
is that of Rama or Ramgurh, which rises from the plain about 8 miles 
west of the Mynepat. From one distant aspect, the upper portion of 
the hill alone appearing above the Sal forest, its resemblance to a 
monster fort with a cupola roof is very striking, so regular is its form 
and so abruptly precipitous are its sides. Approaching it, however, it is 
seen to have a variety of outworks of its own. 

The ascent commences from the north side, proceeding up and along 
narrow ridges of one of these outworks, till you reach nearly to the 
base of the great rock itself, and there are the ruins of a very ancient 
stone gateway. The lintel now lying on the ground is adorned with 
the image of ‘ Gunesh’ as the Janitor. Inside, between the gate and 
the rock, there is a level path both east and west. Proceeding westward, 
you come to an ample space of level ground affording room for a small 
encampment, in deepest shade, under a perfectly perpendicular portion 
of the huge rock, reminding one of the description of ‘ Sinai,’ the 
mount that could be touched with the hand but must not. The ap- 
proach to this spot from the gateway was originally protected by a 
stone breastwork now fallen, and the importance of protecting it is 
obvious, as here the rock sends out a jet of perfectly pure water, just 
such as one could suppose to have issued by Divine command at the 


24 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


touch of Moses. The temperature of the water was, strange to say, 
much higher than that of the air, but cooled in a soraz it was delicious. 
A broad seam of coal is here seen underlying the sandstone. It burns 
well, but I say no more about it,as the Sirgoojah coal from this 
vicinity has been fully reported on by my predecessor Col. Ouseley. 
To continue the ascent of the hill, you repass the gate, and proceed by 
an easy path three parts round the hill to its southern face, and then 
as best you can wp, by an exceedingly difficult zig-zag path, some- 
times a mere ledge cut out in the rock. Just at the commencement 
of the difficult part of the ascent, you pass a large boulder of sand- 
stone with nothing to distinguish it externally from many others that 
are lying about, but which has been hollowed into a chamber of suffi- 
cient capacity to allow of a man sitting in it at his ease, and with an 
aperture just large enough fora slender man to creep in by. The open- 
ing is not seen from the path ; so that an unconscious pilgrim might find 
himself exhorted by a voice from the bowels of a rock in a manner 
truly awe-striking. Crowning the most difficult part of the ascent, 
so perched that you cannot obtain a good view of it without looking 
right up to the sky, from a position that makes it unpleasant to throw 
your head back to the necessary angle, isa second gateway, which is in 
better preservation, and is the best executed and most beautiful architec- 
tural antiquity of the entire region, Though its origin is equally 
unknown, it is unquestionably a more modern work than the other 
gateways and temples on the hill. It belongs to that description of 
Hindu architecture which bears most resemblance to the Saracenic. 
Tnstead of a flat lintel over the gate, we have an arch formed of three 
voussoirs of stone. The soffit of this arch is cut into a wavy scroll, 
terminating on the abutments, in heads of some animal not clearly 
discernible. There is an exterior and interior arch of this description, 
springing from fluted pilasters, and the space of about three feet be- 
tween them is covered in by another loftier arch similarly formed. 
Entering, you find yourself ina small court, at the bottom of a flight 
of steps. A projection of the rock has been scarped to form this 
resting place, and from it a most extensive view south and west is 
obtained. The steps are to the right as you enter, to the left there is 
a projection with stone breastwork used as a look-out. Opposite the 
entrance, there was a covered colonnade, but this has fallen in, 


1865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 25 


In the thickness of the gateway wall, a niche four feet in depth and 
about eight feet in height and breadth, is divided by a column still in 
position, shewing how the fragments of the columns of the ruined 
colonnade should be restored. The shaft and base are octagonal and the 
bracket-like projections of the capital are crouching human figures, so 
placed, that head, arms, hands and back all appear to support the 
abacus. There is one well executed figure in this enclosure, of a man 
Imeeling on a coiled cobra, and with snake heads peering over each 
shoulder. 

A flight of 48 cut stone steps leads from this resting place to 
another mass of ruins which appear to have been a temple and gateway 
combined. There is here an image of Durga with 20 arms, another 
with eight, and a large figure of Hunooman, all more or less mutilated. 
We are now on the ridge forming the top of the hill. Bare as are 
the sides of the rock, there must be here a great depth of soil, as it 
supports a variety of large forest trees and shrubs, which are growing 
luxuriantly. On the highest part of the ridge and about the centre 
of the hill, is the temple, which contained no doubt the principal object 
of worship. It consisted of a small fane, the inner crust of which, 
constructed of parallel courses of roughly cut stone, is still standing, 
with a detached portico on columns. It is small and insignificant, but 
no doubt immensely old ; it is impossible to say to what idol or object 
of worship the temple was originally dedicated ; at present, on the old 
“argha” or stand, thereis a group of Vishnu with his wives, but the 
group does not fit the pedestal, is of more elaborate workmanship than 
the figures that are lying about, and whilst all the old figures are mu- 
tilated, this one is perfect. I conclude that it was placed in the temple 
aiter its partial destruction, and the mutilation of the original images. 

I found the air on the hill keen and invigorating. There is space for 
several houses on the saddle back ; and as it is an independent isolated 
mountain, it commands an extensive view, shewing that all this part 
of Sirgoojah, which the maps make out to be a mass of hills, from 
the foot of the Mynepat, as far as the eye from this elevation can 
penetrate westward, is, thus seen, a plain slightly undulating, but on 
the whole well adapted for the Railroad, which, I am confident, will some 
day be made through it, connecting, by the most direct route, Calcutta, 
Central India and Bombay. 

4 


86 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


The tableland called the Mynepat is 50 miles in length by 40 in 
breadth, with an elevation of 3,700 feet above the sea level. Its soil, 
like that on the Ramgurh hill, is deep and rich, and it possesses numer- 
ous springs and streams. It abounds in game; gaur, buffalo, tigers, 
leopards, and deer, and some of the streams are large enough to give 
the angler gentler sport. The day must surely come for the fructifi- 
cation of all these natural advantages, and the tract now occupied by 
a few herdsmen and savages, may become the head-quarters of a divi- 
sion, or the seat of a Government. 

Not iar from the summit of the Ramgurh hill, an attempt has been 
made to construct a tank, but it probably was not a success, and it is 
now nearly filled up with light vegetable mould, of not less than three 
feet in depth.and quite dry. In another direction, a descent of a few 
hundred feet brings you to a pool of good water percolating a 
seam of white calvareous clay. A party defending themselves on the 
rock could not be cut off from this supply, as it is perfectly maccessible 
from below, but it would not be adequate to the supply of a large 
party, and the next nearest source is the spring near the first gateway. 

But the great curiosity of the Ramgurh hill has yet to be described. 
Two of the spurs of the great rock, themselves rocky and precipitous, 
forming buttresses on the northern face, instead of gently blending 
with the plain like others, have their bases truncated, and then united 
by a vast natural wall of sandstone rock, 150 yards thick and 100 to 
150 in height. A semi-circular or rather horse shoe shaped nook is 
thus formed, which, from the height and precipitous nature of the. 
sandstone rock enclosing it, would be almost inaccessible, had not na- 
ture provided an entrance by a natural tunnel through the subtending 
wall. This is called the ‘‘ Hathphor.” The waters collected from 
springs in the nook form a little stream that flows out through the 
tunnel. At its mouth it is about twenty feet in height by thirty in 
breadth, but at the inner extremity of its course of 150 yards, it is 
not more than eight feet by twelve. A man on horseback could ride 
through it. The sand of the stream in the tunnel was impressed with 
old and recent foot-prints of a whole family of tigers, who had taken 
up their abode in this pleasant and secure retreat, but we did not find 
them at home. The horse shoe embraces an acre or two of ground, 
well wooded and undulating, so that a considerable body of men could 


1865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 27 


conveniently encamp there. In the face of the great rock opposite the 
entrance, two large caves have been excavated by human labour, the 
largest of the two, sufficient to afford accommodation for forty or fifty 
people. The entrance, about 30 feet wide, opens into a gallery of double 
that length, with recesses at the extremities, intended for more private 
apartments, probably for females. The excavation is made so as to 
leave a platiorm of stone, extending through its whole length, and also 
in the recesses, for the occupants of the cave to sit and sleep on. The 
floor is some fifteen feet above the ground, but is accessible by steps 
cut in the rock. In both caves I found inscriptions carved on the rock 
in ancient ‘ Pali’ character, and I made the best transcript of them I 
could : this is now in the hands of Babu Rajendra Lal Mitra, and it 
will, I trust, throw some light on the history of the retreat. 

Since writing the above, I have seen Col. Ouseley’s brief notice of 
the Ramgurh hill in the Asiatic Society’s Journal No. CLXXXVI. for 
January 1848. He does not appear to have observed the inscriptions, 
and I do not recollect having seen in the caves any of the stone figures 
that he noticed there. They may have been since removed. Col. Ouseley 
calls these antiquities cave temples, but there is nothing now to indi- 
cate that they were intended as places of worship. ' 

There are many other interesting collections of ruins in Sirgoojah. 
Those to the west, in the Pal Pergunnahs, noticed by Col. Ouseley, I 
have not seen, but he found there a stone with an inscription on it, 
which I think must be in the Society’s museum. On the banks of the 
Kunhur river in Tuppah Chulgalee, there is a large collection of 
temple ruins. Three distinct heaps of fragments were at my request 
opened out, till the foundations of three large temples dedicated to 
Shiva and Durga were disclosed. The object of worship in the largest, 
was a huge Lingum, five feet in length, which we found divorced from 
its appropriate ‘‘ Yoni” as if it had been blown up. The latter was 
smashed into several pieces by the destroying force, whatever it may 
have been, and the numerous sadly maimed gods and goddesses that 
were found in the debris, are further memorials of the barbarous zeal 
of some uncompromising iconoclast. I observed a Shib’s bull in good 
preservation, as large as life, a well executed figure of ‘ Parvati’ 
three feet high, and a grand, colossal, four armed figure with one foot 
resting on a broad-edged axe, not unlike what is still the national 


28 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


weapon of the tributary mehals. Close to the temples there is a stone- 
faced tank. : 

Six miles to the west of the above ruins at Sirnidee there is another 
small temple which appears to have been overlooked by the destroyer. 

The dome over the fane is still standing, and part of the vestibule, 
the latter a pyramidal roof supported on columns. The stones forming 
the lintels and uprights of the entrance to the fane are elaborately 
earved with minute representations of all the principal Hindu gods. 
Shiva and his wife on Nandi occupying the place of honour in the 
centre of the lintel, 

The Ruksale Rajpoot family who now hold Sirgoojah, have no 
tradition regarding the antiquities Iam describing, but they tell me 
that under the Mahratta rule, their ancestors often availed themselves 
of the retreat of the Hathphor to save their property from pillage and 
their women from dishonour. 

The ruins of an ancient castle of the Ruksale Rajahs of Sirgoojah 
are to be seen on a hill near Bisrampore, and this appears to be the 
Sirgoojah, marked as the chief town on the map, shewing again the 
antiquity of the information from which the maps of these unsurveyed 
tracts had been filled in. 

‘ According to the tradition preserved in the family, the first Ruksale 
was called into existence by a ‘Muni’ or sage, to destroy a demon 
that troubled the holy man in his devotions. The hero thus created 
was the ancestor of the lovely Rukmini carried off by Krishna. In 
about Samvat 251, a lineal descendant of Rukmini’s brother, Ruk- 
man, entered Sirgoojah and fought with and killed the Rajah of the 
place called ‘ Balind,’ and became Rajah in his room. The present 
Maharajah Inderjeet Singh has a family tree to shew that he is the 
111th in descent from the conqueror of Balind ! but I have been told 
there is a popular tradition assigning to the family a local origin, and 
considering there are no Ruksales in any other country, it is not un- 
likely that it is the most truthful of the two. If so, it is probable 
that the family are derived from the same stock as the ‘ Gours,’ the 
most influential and numerous of the races now inhabiting Sirgoojah. 

In A. D. 1758, a Mahratta army in progress to the Ganges 
overran the district of Sirgoojah, and the chief was compelled 
to acknowledge himself a tributary of the Berar government, but 


1865.] Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. 29 


beyond a fine imposed at the time, and engagements taken for the 
security of the roads from Mirzapore, Benares and Gya to the capital 
of Nagpore, no proofs of submission were exacted. 

In the year 1792, Sirgoojah first engaged the attention of the British 
Government, in consequence of its Rajah Ajeet Singh having invaded 
and taken possession of Burway, a Pergunnah of Chota-Nagpore. At 
the requisition of the Governor-General, the Rajah of Berar interposed; 
but ineffectually, as about this time, on the death of Ajeet Singh, his 
third brother Lall Sungram Singh usurped the chieftainship, murdered 
Ajeet Singh’s widow, and not only retained possession of Burway, but 
assisted a rebellion in Palamow against the British Government. This 
led to an expedition into Sirgoojah under Col. Jones by order of 
Marquis Wellesley, which resulted in the restoration of Burway to 
Chota-Nagpore, and Sirgoojah itself became a dependency of the 
British empire by treaty with Appa Sahib in 1818. 

Sirgoojah has not been surveyed, and it is therefore impossible 
to give its area with any degree of accuracy. It is about 90 
miles from east to west and 80 from north to south; is divided into 26 
tuppahs and contains 1197 villages, and according to a return of 
houses made some years ago, a population of 1,30,000, one hundred 
and thirty thousand souls. About one-sixth of the whole are of 
the Gour tribe: the Khairwars, Kawrs, Kisan Rajwars, Kore- 
wahs and Coles number from 5000 to 7000 each: there are about 2000 
Bhooyas, and about as many of the hill tribe found in greater numbers 
further west, called Boyars : the remainder of the population are for the 
most part Sudras. The ruling race, Rajpoots, number only 505 souls, 
and there are only 369 Brahmins. 

Of the Gours, I have already observed that they are the same as the 
Gonds of the south. Of this there can be no doubt, as we find amongst 
the Gours of Oodeypore and Sirgoojah, blood relations of the Gonds 
down south; and they intermarry. It is only a different way of pro- 
nouncing the name of the tribe. They have always I believe been 
considered as amongst the aboriginal races of India, but in Sirgoojah 
and Oodeypore they are completely Hinduised, retaining neither the 
language nor any other characteristic of their own race. 

The Kaurs and Korewahs have already been disposed of; the 
Coles must have a chapter to themselves; the characteristics of 


30 Notes of a tour in the Tributary Mehals. [No. 1, 


the Rajwars and Kisans I have not yet had an opportunity of study- 
ing, and shall conclude with a few words about the Khairwars. They 
are found in many parts of this province but are most numerous and 
have been longest resident in Palamow. They are said to have 
migrated from the hills west of Rhotas ; there is a place there, called 
Kyra, supposed to be named after them, and they are found about the 
Kymoor hills. The Rajah of Turki in that vicinity is a Khairwar. 
In this division several of our great men are said to be of Khairwar 
extraction, but they are all now undergoing that process of being 
refined into Rajpoots which I have described as likely to have occurred 
in other families, by intermarriage with Rajpoot maidens. They have 
to pay very high for the honour, but by giving large dowries with their 
daughters, they sometimes obtain for them also the distinction of 
Rajpoot alliances. 

The two races appear to blend well; a handsomer and more ener- 
getic stock is the result; so the aspiring families I allude to, have 
gained something by their outlay in marriages, as the ordinary or pure 
Khairwars are generally a dark, ill-favoured race, with coarse features 
and of lazy unimprovable habits, 

The people called Bhogtahs are a Khairwar tribe. There was a 
small clan of them in Palamow, who long defied the power of the 
British Government. They lived on a narrow plateau, with the Sir- 
goojah mountains behind them, and a range of hills with difficult 
passes in front of them; and with the cattle and property of their 
neighbours, they did very much as they pleased; and as they had 
wonderfully contrived retreats amongst the hills and rocks for them- 
selves and their plunder, they defied all efforts to capture them. At 
last the wild country they occupied was given to them at a nominal 
rent, on condition of their living honest and peaceful lives. This kept 
them quiet for many years, but when the mutinies broke out in 1857, 
the two chiefs, Lilumber and Pitumber, headed an insurrection in Pala- 
mow and came to unmitigated grief. Qne was hanged and the other 
was transported for life and died in the Andamans. 

The actual income of the Rajah of Sirgoojah from all sources is not 
more than Rs. 30,000 a year: the estates held by members of his 
family are worth in addition about Rs. 23,000, and other vassals hold 
estates worth annually about Rs. 20,000. A fixity of tenure is the 


1865.] Notes of « tour in the Tributary Mehals. 3h 


predominating feature in the revenue system of all the Tributary 
Mehals, and will no doubt be found to prevail in all parts of Hindu- 
stan where ancient landmarks have not been swept away by the tide 
of conquest. In these mehals, the great mass of the cultivators are 
the descendants of those who first occupied and tilled the soil, and to 
them, (says Malcolm in his Central India,) according to the most 
revered texts of the sacred writers, the soil in the first instance belongs ; 
and where a monarchy or chieftainship is by some process eliminated, 
the peasant proprietor contributes for the support of the sovereign a 
moderate share of the produce of his land. This accounts for the 
lowness of rates of rents that prevail in these districts. The actual 
rent does not exceed 2 annas a beegah in Sirgoojah, and this is un- 
changeable. It probably represents the proportion of the produce first 
assigned to the chief, and both the cultivating classes and heads of 
villages in this province aré exceedingly tenacious of their right to 
pay no more than-one fixed rate of rent. The hereditary village head- 
man pays no more on this account, and collects no more than the old 
fixed rate, but it does not now suffice for the requirements of the chief, 
and as noticed before in treating of Gangpore, a practice has ‘arisen of 
giving as an ordinary contribution, a sum equal to the amount paid as 
rent, whilst extraordinary contributions are often exacted, and demands 


made for unpaid labour, which must greatly hamper the productive . 


industry of the cultivators.. In Sirgoojah I.asked the Rajah and 
zemindars if all these irregular demands could not be done away with > 
and a fair fixed rent taken in lieu. They expressed their willingness 
to abide by any arrangement of the kind that I could make, but refer- 
red me to the rent-payers and village headmen. They, with one con- 
sent, reiused to acquiesce in any enhancement of rent. 


32 On a New Genus of the Gadide. [No. 1, 


Description of a supposed new Genus of the Gadide, Arakan.—By 
Lieut.-Col. 8. R. Trcexetn, Bengal Staff. Plate I. 


[ Author’s date, October, 1862. ] [Received 8th June, 1864. ] 


Order. MatacopreryGir SUBBRACHIATI. 
Family. Gapip&. 
Genus. AsTHENURUS (mihi). 

(acGerijs feeble and Ovpa Tail). 

Body rounded—very little compressed—head small, muzzle short, 
mouth wide with a single row of minute teeth in each jaw, and a 
band across the anteal part of the palate. Scales of a medium size. 
No lateral line visible. Fins; two dorsals and two anals, joined by 
intermediate detached rays, which are partially membraned. The 
anterior dorsal and anal, quadruple the height of their posterior 
fellows. Ventrals jugular and filiform. Caudal bilobed and very small. 
Brancheostegous rays 7. 

Astusenurvs Arripinnis. Tickell. 

Specimen 52” long. The largest of 4 or 5 observed, Akyab harbour. 
Avakan. October 15th, 1862. 

Structure. See above for Genus. Body lengthened in the portion 
of the tail behind the Ist dorsal. Head small; snout short and blunt. 
Gill plates smooth and smooth-edged, their divisions not very distinct : 
but suboperculum large: scales medium-sized, semitransparent and 
deciduous. Along the back, from occiput to Ist D, a mesial groove, 
with a ridge along each side for the whole length of the fish to caudal. 
A deeper groove along mesial belly, in which the ventrals can lie 
encased. Intermaxillary long and narrow, and set with a row of 
minute pointed teeth jammed close together. Mandibles with a similar 
row, smaller still. Rest of mouth smooth. Tongue short, round, tied 
down to floor of mouth. Scales round at free edge, concentrically 
furrowed; about 67 from gill cover to base of C and 14 tiers. Air 
bladder large. Its shape and that of the intestines could not be ascer- 
tained, as the specimen examined had been a long time in spirits. 

Fins. 1st D 20, detached rays 15—2nd D 20,—P, 21.—V 5.— 
A 20, detached rays 12—2nd A 26.—C 6-13-6, 


(714x914) 
“SINNIdId1Y = SMYNNAHLSY 


/ 3ZIS :LWN 


5991 AVW 'VLiIM91v90 9 S HLIWS WH AB SHLIT / WaZV¥S 1 4 AW UNOISNO 


VIET WON ATRIA -pEUsatang ay speuatar 


es 


LS 
BS 


Sars 
a 

e 
hice 


1865. ] On w New Genus of the Gadide. 33 


1st D and 1st A have their 5th and 6th rays as long as the greatest 
depth of the body, the fins decreasing rapidly to the first and last 
rays. The 2nd D and A are much shorter rayed and close to ©, and 
the space between them and their preceding fins is occupied by a row 
of short rays each with a basal membrane. Pectoral, small, broad, and 
pointed. C very small, and bilobed, the lower lobe blunter and 
shorter than the upper. Ventral, 3 first rays filiform, the 2nd 
reaching to the space between the two anals; Ist and 3rd a little 
shorter; 4th and 5th ordinary and membranous. 

Colowr.* Pale ochreous grey, or horn colour, blackish along back, 
from minute dots powdered along edges of scales. Snout and head, red 
earneous. Iris, greenish silver. Fins black, with whitish bases, 
except Vs which are fleshy white. A rectangular patch of black 
above gill plates. Gill plates nacreous. 

The specimen here figured is the largest of 4 or 5 obtained in the 
fish market of Akyab. The fish is not described by Cantor in his 
ichthyological catalogue of the Straits, and Cuvier and Valenciennes’ 
great work, which is incomplete, does not include the Malacopterygii 
Subbrachiati. None of the Gadide (Cod family) have as yet been 
noticed in India, and the present subject is one of peculiar interest on 
that account: that is, if my allocation of it should prove correct, of 
which I think there can be little doubt, on an examination of the 
structure of the fish. In the synopsis of Cuvier’s Regne Animal there 
is no genus amongst the Gadide which resembles it : but it may rank 
next to Phycis (Artedi.) 

It does not appear uncommon. In October 1862 I procured four 
or five specimens from the estuary of the Koladyn at Akyab, and from 
Kyoukphyoo. Two of these I do myself the pleasure of forwarding 
to the Museum of the Asiatic Society. The alcohol in which they 
are preserved, has very little affected their natural colour. 


* Fresh specimen, 


OO OOOO 


34 On Local Attraction. [No. 1, 


“On the degree of uncertainty which Local Attraction, if not allowed 
jor, occasions in the Map of a Country, and in the Mean Figure of 
the Harth as determined by Geodesy ; a Method of obtaining the 
Mean Figure free from ambiguity by a comparison of the Anglo- 
Gallic, Russian, and Indian Ares; and Speculations on the 
Constitution of the Earth's Crust.” —By Arcupnacon Pratt. 


[Received 4th August, 1864. | 


To the Secretary of the Asiatic Society. 

Srr,—l beg to forward to you a copy of a Paper lately printed in the . 
Proceedings of the Royal Society (No. 64) on the topics notified at 
the head of this letter. Two years ago you accepted from me a 
“Series of Papers on Mountain and other Local Attraction in India,” 
and published in your Journal a memorandum, regarding the effect - 
of local attraction upon the operations of the Great Trigonometrical 
Survey of this country. The present Paper is not confined to India ; 
but appertains to the globe in general. But as the results of the 
Indian Survey occupy an important position in the calculations, you 
may deem it to be not irrelevant to the objects of your Journal to 
publish some account of it. 

The state in which the question of local attraction was left in my 
former communications to the Royal Society was this :—That in India 
the deviation of instruments of observation from the true vertical 
caused by the Mountains and by the Ocean is very great, far greater 
than had ever been supposed; that this deviation might be much 
increased or diminished by the effect of variations of density in the 
solid crust of the earth, but that of the amount of this we have no - 
means of judging, as we are entirely ignorant of the constitution of the 
crust: and that the effect of local attraction on the Map of India 
constructed from the Survey would fortunately disappear as far as 
regards the relative position of places laid down, but that the precise 
position of the Map on the terrestrial spheroid could not be discovered, 
as it would depend upon the unknown total resultant local attraction 
arising from all causes at the station from which the Survey operations 
commence. 


1865.] On Local Attraction. 35 


M. Otto Struve has lately called attention to similarly important 
deflections caused by local attraction in Russia—and especially to a 
remarkable difference of deflection at two stations near Moscow, only 
about eighteen miles apart, which is attributed to an invisible 
unknown cause in the strata below. 

Tt has become, therefore, an important inquiry :—What degree of 
uncertainty does Local Attraction, if not allowed for, introduce into: 
the two problems of geodesy, viz. (1) obtaining correct Maps of any 
country, and (2) determining the Mean Figure of the Harth. 

These matters are discussed in the present Paper; and I would. 
here observe, that the paper is complete in itself, and does not require 
a study of the previous communications. 

2. With regard to the construction of Maps from. Survey operations. 
I show, as before in India, that no map in any other part of the 
world will be affected except in the way already stated, if the length 
of every measured arc of latitude is not greater than twelve degrees: 
and a half, and of every measured arc of longitude not greater than 
fifteen. Now in point of fact, however long the great arcs (such as: 
the Anglo-Gallic, the Russian, and the Indian) may be, they are. 
always broken up into much smaller portions, so as to bring them 
very far within the above-mentioned limits. Hence the maps 
constructed from geodetic operations will always be relatively correct, 
in themselves ; but the precise position of the map. on the terrestrial. 
spheroid will be unknown by the amount of the unknown deflection. 
oi the plumb-line in latitude and longitude at the place which fixes 
the map. 

In India the effect of the Himalaya Mountains and the Ocean, 
taken alone, would throw out the map by nearly half a mile. And, 
as already stated, there is no way of discovering with certainty how 
much this is increased or diminished by the effect of variations of 
density in the crust. If, however, the calculations which I give in 
the third section of this Paper are accepted, they show that the effect 
of variations in the density of the crust below almost entirely 
counteracts that of the mountains and ocean at Damargida in 
latitude 18° 3’ 15’, and the displacement of the map is almost 
insensible if fixed by that station. If fixed by the observed latitude 
of any other station, the map will be out of its place by the local 


36 On Local Attraction. [No. 1, 


deflection of the plumb-line at that station. This, in the Indian 
Great Arc, will not exceed (supposing my reasoning as described 
below is accepted) one-thirteenth of a mile at any of the stations 
where the latitude has been observed. It appears also from these 
calculations, that, except in places evidently situated in most dis- 
advantageous positions, the local attraction is rarely of any consider- 
able amount. 

3. In the second section of the Paper I proceed to ascertain the 
degree of uncertainty introduced, by our ignorance of the amount of 
local attraction, into the great problem of the Mean Figure of the 
Earth. 

Bessel was the inventor of the method now in use for solving this 
problem. His method enables us to bring all the ares which have 
been measured in any part of the world to bear simultaneously upon 
the solution. He made use of arcs measured in eight parts of the 
earth’s surface ; called the Anglo-Gallic, Russian, Indian II, (or Great 
Arc), Indian I, Prussian, Peruvian, Hanoverian, and Danish Ares, 
the first three of which are very long. For each of these ares he 
made use of an algebraical symbol to represent the unknown error of 
the precise position of the are on the meridian. In his method he 
treats these eight quantities as independent variables; which is 
tantamount to ignoring local attraction altogether. The calculations, 
therefore, of the Mean Figure of the Harth hitherto made have left 
this most important element out of consideration. T’o remedy this 
has been my object. By a change, I venture to call it a correction, 
of Bessel’s method I have succeeded in obtaining formule for the 
semiaxes and ellipticity of the Mean Figure, which involve expressions 
for the unknown local deflections of the plumb-line at the standard or 
reference-stations of the several arcs. 


Ii a and 6 represent the semiaxes and e the ellipticity, the following 
are the results arrived at :— 
a=20928627 + 1057:°8¢, + 342°9¢, + 152°3¢, + 27°3¢, + 93:6¢, 
+ 8°8t, + 63°7¢, + 62:91, feet. 
b=20849309—3762-6t, — 334:3¢, —661:3¢, —101:5¢, —372'6¢, 
— 14:01, — 249°3t, — 249-14, feet. 
From these we may easily deduce the ellipticity 


1865.] On Local Attraction. 37 


{ 1+0:06087, +0-0085¢,-+-0:0103¢,+-0:0016¢,++0-0059,, 
+ 0:0003¢, + 0:0039¢, + 0:001639¢, }. 


where t, t, ... t, are the eight unknown deviations of the plumb-line 
from the true vertical at the standard stations of the eight ares arising 


=a50 9 


from local attraction. 

These formule for the semiaxes and ellipticity of the mean figure 
of the earth show us, that the effect of local attraction upon the final 
numerical results may be very considerable : for example, a deflection 
of the plumb-line of only 5” at the standard station (St. Agnes) of the 
Anglo-Gallic are would introduce a correction of about one mile to the 
length of the semi-major-axis, and more than three miles to the semi- 
minor-axis. Ii the deflection at the standard station (Damargida) of 
the Indian Great Arc be what the mountains and ocean make it 
(without allowing any compensating effect from variations in density 
in the crust below, which no doubt exist, but which are altogether 
unknown) viz. about 1724, the semiaxes will be subject to a 
correction, arising from this cause alone, of half a mile and two miles. 
This is sufficient to show how great a degree of uncertainty local 
attraction, if not allowed for, introduces into the determination of the 
mean figure. As long as we have no means of ascertaining the 
amount of local attraction at the several standard-stations of the arcs 
employed in the calculation, this uncertainty regarding the mean 
figure, as determined by geodesy, must remain. The effect of our 
ignorance in this case is far more serious than that already noticed in 
mapping a country with minute precision. 

4. The third section of the Paper is occupied in devising means 
for removing this ambiguity. Although it has been necessary to 
assume one step in the argument, I think that the sequel shows that a 
very high degree of probability exists that the process is a correct one. 

Each of the three great arcs—the Anglo-Gallic, the Russian, and 
the Indian—is divided into a number of subordinate arcs. I therefore 
take each of these three great arcs and apply the method described in 
the last section to find the semiaxes of the ellipse which best 
represents that arc. The expressions for the semiaxes involve one 
unknown quantity, viz. the amount of deflection at the standard 
station of the arc. In this way I obtain the semiaxes of three ellipses, 


38 On Local Attraction. [No. 1, 


involving three unknown quantities. The assumption which I then 
make is, that the Mean Figure of the Harth is a spheroid; that is, 
that these three ellipses are all the same. The effect of this is to give 
me four equations of condition, involving the three unknown 
quantities. These I solve by the method of least squares. The result 
is that the unknown deflections all come out very small; and the 
semiaxes of the three ellipses come out remarkably near each other in 
value. The first part of this result shows, what I have intimated in 
para. 2, that the local attraction arising from invisible causes hidden 
in the solid crust of the earth must be such, as very nearly to 
compensate for the effect produced by visible causes at the surface 
existing in mountains and oceans. And the second part of the result 
gives a very satisfactory solution of the problem of the Mean Figure 
taking local attraction into account, making the semiaxes 


20926189 and 20855316 feet 

ue 

2953 

5. In the fourth or last section of the Paper I enter into specu- 


and the ellipticity = 


lations regarding the Constitution of the Harth’s Crust, suggested by 
the result of the preceding section. The following extract will best 


represent my views on this interesting subject :— 


“The first thing I observe in the results given in the last paragraph is 
the very small amount of the resultant deflections at the two extremities of 
the Indian Are—Punnee close to Cape Comorin, and Kaliana the nearest 
station to the Himalaya Mountains ; whereas the effect of the Ocean and 
the Mountains has been shown to be very large. This shows that the effect 
of variations of density in the crust must be very great, in order to bring 
about this near compensation. In fact the density of the crust beneath the 
mountains must be less than that below the plains, and still less than that 
below the ocean-bed. If solidification from the fluid state commenced at 
the surface, the amount of contraction in the solid parts beneath the 
mountain-region has been less than in the parts beneath the sea. In fact, 
it is this unequal contraction which appears to have caused the hollows in 
the external surface which have become the basins into which the waters 
have flowed to form the ocean. As the waters flowed into the hollows thus 
created, the pressure on the ocean-bed would be increased, and the crust, so 
long as it was sufficiently thin to be influenced by hydrostatic principles of 
floatation, would so adjust itself that the pressure on any couche de niveau 


1865.] On Local Attraction. 39 


of the fluid should remain the same. At the time that the crust first 
became sufficiently thick to resist fracture under the strain produced by a 
change in its density—that is, when it first ceased to depend for the 
elevation or depression of its several parts upon the principles of floatation— 
the total amount of matter in any vertical prism, drawn down into the 
fluid below to a given distance from the earth’s centre, had been the same 
through all the previous changes. After this, any further contraction or 
any expansion in the solid crust would not alter the amount of matter in 
the vertical prism, except where there was an ocean; in the case of greater 
contraction under an ocean than elsewhere, the ocean would become deeper 
and the amount of matter greater, and in case of a less contraction or of an 
expansion of the crust under an ocean, the ocean would become shallower, 
or the amount of matter in the vertical prism less than before. It is not 
likely that expansion and contraction in the solid crust would affect the 
arrangement of matter in any other way. That changes of level do take 
place, by the rising and sinking of the surface, is a well-established fact, 
which rather favours these theoretical considerations. But they receive, 
I think, great support from the other fact, that the large effects of the ocean 
at Punne and of the mountains at Kaliana almost entirely disappear from 
the resultant deflections brought out by the calculation. 

This theory, that the wide ocean has been collected on parts of the earth’s 
surface where hollows have been made by the contraction and therefore 
increased density of the crust below, is well illustrated by the existence of a 
whole hemisphere of water, of which New Zealand is the pole, in stable 
equilibrium. Were the crust beneath only of the same density as that 
beneath the surrounding continents, the water would be drawn off by 
attraction and not allowed to stand in the undisturbed position it now 
occupies. 

I have, in what goes before, supposed that, in solidifying, the crust 
contracts and grows denser, as this appears to be most natural, though, 
after the solid mass is formed, it may either expand or contract, according 
as an accession or diminution of heat may take place. If, however, in the 
process of solidifying, the mass becomes lighter, the same conclusion will 
follow—the mountains being formed by a greater degree of expansion of 
the crust beneath them, and not by a less contraction, than in the other 
parts of the crust. It may seem at first difficult to conceive how a crust 
eould be formed at all, if in the act of solidification it becomes heavier 
than the fluid on which it rests; for the equilibrium of the heavy crust 
floating on a lighter fluid would be unstable, and the crust would sooner or 
later be broken through, and would sink down into the fluid, which would 
overflow it. If, however, this process went on perpetually, the descending 


40 On Local Attraction. [No. 1, 


crust, which was originally formed by a loss of heat radiated from the 
surface into space, would reduce the heat of the fluid into which it sank, 
and after a time a thicker crust would be formed than before, and the 
difficulty of its being broken through would become greater every time a 
new one was formed. Perhaps the tremendous dislocation of stratified 
rocks in huge masses with which a traveller in the mountains, especially 
in the interior of the Himalaya region, is familiar, may have been brought 
about in this way. The catastrophes, too, which geology seems to teach 
have at certain epochs destroyed whole species of living creatures, may 
have been thus caused, at the same time breaking up the strata in which 
these species had for ages before been deposited as the strata were formed. 
These phenomena must now long have ceased to occur, at any rate on a 
very extensive scale, as Mr. Hopkins’s investigations on Precession appear 
to prove that the crust is very thick, at least 800 or 1,000 miles ; and this 
result has been recently confirmed by Professor W. Thomson in a paper on 
the ‘ Rigidity of the Earth.’” 


These results meet with some confirmation from an examination of 
the direction of the deflection of the plumb-line at several coast- 
stations where it is drawn towards the sea. The amounts of deflection 
are, however, so small that much cannot be built upon this. This, 
at any rate, may be said, that they present no obstacle to the theory 
so remarkably suggested by the facts brought to light in India, viz. 
that mountain-regions and oceans on a large scale have been produced 
by the contraction of the materials, as the surface of the earth has 
passed from a fluid state to a condition of solidity—the amount of 
contraction beneath the mountain-region having been less than that 
beneath the ordinary surface, and still less than that beneath the 
ocean-bed, by which process the hollows have been produced into 
which the ocean has flowed. These coast-stations do in fact in several 
instances tend directly to favour the theory, as they seem to indicate, 
by excess of attraction towards the sea, that the contraction of the 
crust beneath the ocean has gone on increasing in some instances still 
further since the crust became too thick to be influenced by the 
principles of floatation, and that an additional flow of water into the 
increasing hollow has increased the amount of attraction upon stations 
‘on its shores, 

‘T am, your’s faithfully, 
Calcutta, August 2, 1864. Joun H. Prarz, 


1865. | On Local Attraction, 41, 


Postscrupt. 
[Received 29th April, 1865.] 

Ii the raw or uncorrected results of the Surveys in India and 
Europe (I mean uncorrected for local attraction) are made use of, 
they bring out meridians of a slightly different curvature in these 
different parts of the earth. If these were the true forms of the seve- 
ral meridians the result would be that the equator could not be a circle 
and the figure of the earth not a spheroid of revolution. A few years 
ago, General T. F. de Schubert calculated the form of an ellipsoid of 
three unequal axes which would best suit the observations. Captain 
Alexander Clarke, R. HE. (Memoirs Roy. As. Soc. Vol. XXIX, for 
1860,) went through the same calculation, following Bessel’s method. 
His result was thatthe equatorial radius-in longitude 14° or there- 
abouts is one mile longer than that in longitude 104°. He speaks 
with hesitation regarding the result, on the ground that the data are 
far too scanty to lead to a conclusion to be relied upon. He appears, 
however, not to shrink from the hypothesis on which he works, from 
the true grounds of distrust, viz. (1) the @ priori improbability 
that the earth’s mean figure is not one of revolution, as the evidence of 
the fluid-origin of that figure is overwhelming* and (2) that the effect 
of local attraction is altogether overlooked by him. General de Schubert 
indeed in a subsequent paper (See Monthly Notices of Royal Astrono- 
maical Soc. for 1860, p. 264, where it is noticed) does anticipate that 
local attraction may modify and altogether destroy the data on which 
he rested the argument of an ellipsoidal figure. The Paper which I 
have sent to the Society and have noticed in this letter gives, for the 
first time, a method for estimating the effect of local attraction and 
proves (in the third section) that so very moderate an allowance as 1” 
or 2” for local attraction will altogether destroy the disparity between 
the curvature of the different meridians. When the arguments in this 
paper are impartially weighed I feel convinced that the improbable 
ellipsoidal theory will be abandoned altogether. 

* The evidence, with full details, is given in the third edition of my treatise 


on the “ Figure of the Harth” now passing through the press at Cambridge 
and a copy of which when published,J purpose sending to the Society. 


6 


42 On Local Attraction. [No. 1, 


From the above letter it will be seen, that I come to the conclusion 
that the earth’s crust below the mountains is somewhat less dense than 
below the plains; and still less than below the ocean-bed. Mr. Airy 
(Phil. Trans. for 1854, p. 101) came to the former part of this conclu- 
sion. But his argument requires that the crust should be thin—and 
so thin as to be influenced for its position by the principles of floata- 
tion. But Mr. Hopkins’ and Prof. W. Thomson’s results show that 
the crust cannot be thin. Moreover Mr. Airy’s line of reasoning does 
not lead to the latter part of the result, in that the crust is more dense 
below the ocean-bed. For these reasons I have not alluded to Mr. 
Airy’s hypothesis in my Paper. The argument therein explains both 
these phenomena without requiring that the crust should be thin, but 
rather the contrary. 


Notes to accompany a Geological map and section of the Lowa Ghur or 
Sheen Ghur range in the district of Bunnoo, Punjab ; with analyses 
of the Lignites—By Avert M. Vurcuzre, Ese., M. D. 

[Received 10th June, 1864. ] 


Description of the Section, Pl. ILI. 

1. Hillocks or morraines formed by the pebbles and boulders of 
miocene conglomerates and sandstones which have been removed by 
the effect of the rains: the sand is carried away to the plain, but the 
boulders and pebbles are left behind and form a morraine. The 
stones have arranged themselves in layers resting against the miocene 
beds, with an inclination towards the plain (W) of 20°. 

2. Miocene (?) sandstone, very friable, grey or rather salt and 
pepper ; calcareous and often so soft that it can be crumbled in the 
hand. It contains boulders and pebbles, well rounded and worn, 
generally arranged in bands. It is these boulders and pebbles which 
form No. 1, as No. 2 is being destroyed. The pebbles and boulders 
are greenstone, quartzite, quartzose porphyry, gypsose agglomerate, 
carboniferous and nummulitic limestone, etc. 

3. Similar to 2, but a little harder, and contains occasionally bands 
of slate in a state of disintegration. Carbonized wood found here, 
(seldom,) in an iron-stained sandstone. 


Vol. XXXIV. Part I. Pl2. 


ve 


Gungee Wan 


—————— == 


Moral \la wan 


aa ee) 


( / 
NN \ 

\ ad 
\\ 


Section, 
Soollan Khel er Surrnng 
PA (5 Miles from the tidus) as 
\ €0. opical 


Sheteh Map 
of 
THE LOWA GHUR on SHEEN GHUR, 
in the district of 


BUNNOO 


—— oe. —— 


[SSF Diluvial Talus 
Miocene(?) Sandstone 
[SSF Nummullitic Limestone 


Carbonaceous Shales with 


+) 


beds of “Rol” and lignite 


AM Verchere 


Seale: Two English Milea te One Inch. 


ee 
8 


e Vol xxxtv. Part 0. Plat. 
Journ As: Soc: Bengal x 1 fate 5. 


Section across the Lowa Ghur or Sheen Ghur 
false called lecally Srunya, Maidand, Meslakid er Mittah Rok or Puhar) 
from Snuwa to near Seoltankel Direction: WNW—-ESE (True Sectien) 


The Nummutilie Cermaticn is here’ 

will displayul; ik hat a tal thickness of #500 fist 
The Seocene? Sandstone anst Canglemirate ure! much: 
Vaulbyl the fults being parallel te the Strike: 


SCALE 2000 FEET TO 1 INCH 
Byes oe = F oe re ue 7 topes reer HALT? 
4357 (® above the Sex 
mits U3 H in 3 aes 
Plain of Burmoo Valley 
2 
1 oy 
B30 F* akeve the Sex Soe 
a > eee LL ae Elent 
W.N.W. : a ——— 
Highest 
S e) 
= Summit of Range 
/ / ‘ ‘ Datum Line, the Bank of the Indur 
a ioe ff ie 782 feet above the Sea. 
20. f $6. 50. 5 
7 5 


On Transfer Paper by Shoik Munneeraddcen 


LTH) MY HM SMITH SUAVSCENES OFFICE CALCUTTA WAY Ihu6 


1865.] Notes to accompany a Geological map. 43 


4. Harder and greyer sandstone. The bed has been broken up 
and re-cemented by a coarser, more salt-and-pepper-like sand. The 
pieces of the original bed are seen sticking out at all angles like 
drifted ice. On the east side of the valley of Maidani, this breaking 
up is not observed. 

5. Conglomerate composed of yellow limestone pebbles cemented 
by a very hard calcareous cement. The cement appears first to have 
coated the pebbles with two or three coats of various shades of yellow 
or brown, like a calculus of the bladder, This bed is seen always 
(west of the Indus) on the top of the nummulitic or bottom of the 
miocene beds. It is striking in appearance, especially when polished 
by a running torrent. 

6. Flesh-coloured, hard, nummulitic limestone, weathering rough, 
pitted and grey. It contains a few nummulites of small size and a 
few small bivalves. 

7. Limestone, argillaceous and yellow; it is arranged in concentric 
masses cemented by an earthy marly limestone. Both the rounded 
masses and the intervening earthy rocks are full of fossils ; 
N. Leevigata and N. Pushi are abundant; also a small flat species and 
two species extremely gibbose and always very abundant in muddy 
nummulitic limestone. Bivalves very numerous, Casts of Trochus 
very abundant. A large Spatanchus, 6 inches across, found here also. 

8. Limestone, glaring-white like chalk and not much harder than 
chalk. It contains the same fossils as the preceding layer, but no 
Spatanchus. K is of very great thickness and forms a high white 
cliff facing the east and remarkable from a great distance. 

9. Slate im a state of decomposition. It is interbedded with 
limestone and occasionally contains small nummulites; but it is 
generally without fossils. 

10. Carbonaceous shale with beds of “Rol” or alum shale and 
of lignite. The Rol and the lignite beds are generally in contact 
with the nummulitic limestone above. 

11. Shales of all colours, white, red, yellow, grey, olive, nearly 
black ; very calcareous, with thin beds of muddy limestone (very soft) 
containing debris of shells, rootlets and stems of plants. No 
nummulites in these beds. Some of these shales are a good fire-clay 
and are used to make crucibles. These shales are generally more or 


less wavy. 


44 Notes to accompany a Geological map. [No. I, 


Examination of the Lignites. 


The following samples were given to me by Lieut. Lane, District 
Superintendent of Police, Bunnoo. 

No. 1.—From a seam newly discovered near Chushmea, north of 
Moolakhel, 8 miles from the Indus. 

Best quality, with a resinous fracture and lustre ; jet black in colour; 
Sp. gravity 1.25. 


Volatile inflammable substances, . : : : a5 
Fixed carbon, 


Ash, ; : : ; : ; ; : ay 2 0t8) 


There is a partial caking when the lignite is burnt in a close vessel. 
The ash is a mixture of a reddish earthy powder, of hardened pieces 
of slaty shale (holding a little unreduced lignite) and of a fluffy 
white ash like wood-ash. The red earth and the pieces of shale are 
mechanical impurities. The white fluffy ash is the proper ash of the 
lignite. 

No. 2.—Best quality, as No. 1. Apparently a very little yellowish 
white clay adhering to the lignite which is 13 inch bedded. 


From the same locality as No. 1. 


Volatile inflammable substances, . “ : ou 
Fixed carbon, . : ; ‘ : : ; . 40 


Ash, . , ; ; : ‘ ° : ; 5a ELD 


Same remarks as for No. 1. 


No. 3.—Middling quality, the usual quality of the bed. The 
lignite is in thin plates like leaf bed; each thin plate is sometimes 
resinous in appearance, but more frequently has the appearance and 
Iustre of charcoal. It contains a considerable amount of yellow clay 


between the plates. It crepitates in water like salt deflagrating on 
fire. Its Sp. gravity is 1.28, 


1865.] Notes to accompany a Geological map. 45 


From the same locality. Given by Mr. Lane. 


Volatile inflammable substances, . ; : , y) 25 
Fixed carbon, . : . , . : : . AO 
Ash, ; : > . , ; : 35 

100 


NV. B—Some of the volatile substances were unreduced in the 
experiment, and consequently increased the percentage of fixed coal 
above its proper figure. The ash is mostly a reddish powdery earth 
with pieces of shale; very little fluffy ash. 

No. 4.—Middling quality like No. 3. Structure woody. 

Same locality. Given by Mr. Lane. 

Volatile inflammable substances, . : ; . 46.66 
Fixed carbon, : - ; Sea : , 20:83 


PE Nk oa a oy, ee aad yo OAD) 


99:99 

Ash, like No. 3. 

No. 5. Picked specimen, having the appearance of fine jet. 
Heavier than the preceding specimens and very resinous in 
appearance. . 

Obtained from a native who said that it came from a seam near 
Sooltan Khel. . : 

Volatile inflammable substances, . he ee Meus 
Himedearbon aims: ei ee ae iis 
ASH : . ; : , - ‘ ; ySEsd 


soEeg 
The ash was nearly entirely composed of white fluffy ash, like wood- 
ash. This lignite cakes a good deal in the close vessel, 


Average of four analysis of the Chushmea mine, 
Volatile inflammable substances, , : ~ 42.91 
Fixed carbon, ; 5 : ; F . » 33.95 


NSE a , E : m : : : pon kG 


99.96 


46 Notes to accompany a Geological map. [No. 1, 


I copy here Dr. A. Fleming’s analysis of the lignite of Kottree 
near the Chichalee Pass as it is evidently a continuation of the beds 
seen a few miles south of the Pass at Chushmea. 


Volatileinfammable matter, | . . . 86.421 
Carbon, . : : ‘ ; : - pe o39)/() 
Ashes, z 5 3 - : . 380.000 


100.000 


The coal or lignite from Sooltan Khel (see No. 5) comes nearer to 
the Baganwallah lignite as analyzed by Dr. A. Fleming. Compare 
my No. 5 with the following analyses copied from Dr. A. Fleming’s 


report :— 

Baganwallah, No. 1. ° ' Baganwallah, No. 2. 
Volatile, . SNS AUGANT Volatibes 00). Up teaser ate 
Carbon, . : . 41.36 Carbon, . ; a) 2590'S 
Ashes, : . ls s00 Ashes, . : - 1.840 

100.00 100.000 
Average. 
Volatile, . 4 : : : : ‘ . 89.547 
Carbon, ‘ ; ‘ A ; : : , 00.532 


Ashes, : ‘ ! : : : : 5 OL 20) 


PSE) 


To conclude, I enter here a table of the composition of the lignites 
of the Lowa Ghur, of Baganwallah, and of the coal of Raneegunj and 
Sirsol in Bengal and of some coal in the British Islands. 


4T 


Notes to accompany a Geological map. 


1865.] 


“HURHOUEA “WW LYAaTV 


166 og’ 769 OL'0L 69° O1t Vor 0266 €&'8 Tete ae a ae cS Sy 
668 094 os79 OLLP 669 goa Tg G&S'0G 00°ST cess *"* oe *** Toqreg PeXhy 
6871 0G'26 «6 9'8G—sC«OD TL ST Ss Gog G8& LVS'6& 99°97 T6'sp *"'f19}{VUL O[QVUIUIVBUL O[14BIO A, 


Ton Maye ‘OTeA MAT ‘SeMpog + “puasTem "poodkyuog "Joss 


*HOVTLV MA *SaTV AA. ‘GNVILOOD ‘SHIVA “IVONGG ‘SONVY LIVE “OONNAG, 


‘spunjsy ys ay) fo pun jobuag fo 1009 ay) {0 pup qolung oy fo apubuy ayy fo worupsodiuos oyp fo 0790) arapouncdmoQ 


48 Sceintific Intelligence. [No. 1, 


Screntiric [LyTrELLIGENCE. 


Mr. T. Tomlinson, late Superintendent of the Barrackpore Park, has 
recently succeeded in hatching an Ostrich by placing the fresh-laid egg 
in a box lined with straw and exposing it to the sun by day for some 
weeks, keeping it under a domestic fowl during the night. To 
prevent one side of the egg being more exposed than the other, it 
was occasionally turned over. ‘The new born bird is doing well. 


Col. Dalton from Chota-Nagpur announces the discovery of a vein 
of lead in a hill named Puttia near the village of Pelowa, Tuppeh 
Ramkola, in Sirgooja. 

From an analysis of the specimen forwarded by Col. Dalton, it 
appears to be pure galena with a small trace of silver and the ore is 
tractable. When fairly cleared, its value would be in England from 12£ 
to 13£ per ton. An attempt to work the mine was made, but the 


outturn not proving profitable, it was abandoned. 


The following is from our late Curator :— 
Belmont, St. Briavel’s, 

W. Gloucestershire, Dec. 2, 1864. 
My pear Grotre,—In the Reader for November 19th, you will read 
that a paper was read by me at the Zoological Society on November 
Sth; but I was not there, having left a short paper with Sclater. In 
the Proceedings, p. 335 of our Journal, I observe ‘ Kelis Jacquemonti’ 
mentioned. 'This I consider to be merely the longer-furred mountain 
variety of I’. chaus ; F’. ornata too, I now refer to F. torquata, F. Cur. ; 
and celidogaster turns out to be African, and distinct from vzverrina, 
F. torquata of Sykes being a striped domestic Indian cat,—at least 
identical with the latter, whether or not descended from domestic 
stock. A dead Tiger from Barrackpore is mentioned in the same page 
of the Journal. I hope this was skeletonized, because I could get 
you a Megaceros skeleton in exchange for it! Lastly, about the “ new 
species of Varranus” in the same page, I presume this to be the 
Hydrosaurus noticed by me from the Andamans and Nicobars, which 
I could not perceive to differ structurally from H. Salvator, I suppose 


1865.] Scientific Intelligence. 49 


you have received Giinther’s work on Indian reptiles, which will 
materially assist the study of them. I do not, however, agree with 
him in all cases ; for instance, his identification of the Bengal Emys 
ocellata with the Tenasserim £. Berdmorei.—He has certainly not 
seen specimens of the former, and I wish that some could be sent to 
him. The species is not very commonly brought to the Calcutta 
bazar, but by offering a slight reward to one of the museum servants 
a few might be obtained, and there is a good series of both races in 
the Society’s museum. I have written pretty regularly to Jerdon, 
communicating to him what I learn; but he has not largely availed 
himself of my notes in his Appendix, and I seldom hear from him. 
He never was a good correspondent. I certainly told him in good 
time for publication that the common Indian Curlew is not Numenius 
arquata, but N. major, Schlegel, figured in the Fauna Japonica ; and 
I sent British specimens of the former to the museum. He is quite 
wrong, too, in placing the Burmese Peafowl in Asim! The Indian 
species occurring so far round as Chittagong. The Gallus Tem- 
minckw, Gray (p. 541,) which he mentions as a peculiar species, is a 
most obvious hybrid between bankivus and furcatus, though differently 
coloured from the so-called G. aneus. In p. 481, he is quite wrong 
in identifymg Turtur chinensis with T. tigrinus : the former is much 
larger, with quite plain plumage on the back, and is correctly figured 
by Sonnerat. Both are in the Society’s museum. I cannot make out 
the middle-sized Indian Cormorant erroneously referred to sinensis in 
p. 862. P.870,1.3. For “ poliogenys,” read pyrrhogenys. P. 597. 
T. ocellatus, the Philippine species (/uzoniensis, Gm.,) is quite distinct 
from the Indian 7. pugnae, to which Jerdon’s other synonyms 
belong. Arboricola rufogularis, (p. 598) was sent by Tickell from 
Tenasserim, as noticed in one of my Reports. Another time I will 
annotate Jerdon’s work for you in detail. About the Darjeeling Kalij 
Pheasant (melanotus), these breed at the Gardens, and are distributed, 
but not any have died, to be promoted to the British Museum. A good 
pair of skins would accordingly be acceptable. Bruce has sent from 
China a noble pair of skins of Crossoptilon Mougolicum, Swinhoe, 
(auritum, Pallas, apud Sclater,) and ditto of a new species of 
Pucrasia, P. xanthospila, H. R. Gray, from the mountains N. W. of 
Pekin. The sexes of the former only differ in the male being larger 


7 


50 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 1, 


and spurred. Hodgson’s Cr. t2betanwm still remains unique, I believe. 
The localities assigned to many specimens in the British Museum are 
unreliable. Thus the Burmese lineated or pencilled Kalij is assigned to 
Bootan, and various Tenasserim squirrels, also to Bootan, all doubtless 
from the same collection, but received with the erroneous locality from 
the old India-house. The distinctions we recognise between Indian, 
Indo-Chinese and Malayan fawne are little understood by naturalists 
here who will have all alike, to be Indian. Giimther’s Indian reptiles, 
for example. About Sikhim and Asim monkeys. I look upon 
assamensis (original specimen in India museum,) as a mere variety 
(not unlikely an individual, var.) of rhesus, wanting the fulvous hue 
oi the hair on the hind-parts. JZ. pelops I know little of, but Jerdon 
should get this at Masuri. Of the Lungoors, I know nothing of more 
than one Himalayan species, which is Hodgson’s schistaceus. Does 
true entellus range, into Asém, and is it not the Hunuméan of the 
table-land of 8. India? Is not priamus peculiar to the ghats and 
mountainous country, as Johnii (verus) is certainly peculiar to the 
W. ghats? Ido not remember who wrote the Review of Jerdon’s 
work in the Annals, and cannot refer to it here. Smythe has yet to 
shoot the Shau, and perhaps the Tibetan Lynx. Is it the wild yak 
he thinks of sending home alive? The tame breed here as regularly as 
domestic cattle. A young bull was calved last year, and a cow this year, 
at the Zoological Gardens; both females hornless. Pallas refers to wild 
two-humped camels in the Mongolian deserts; and not many years 
ago the existence of wild yaks was doubted by Hutton and others. 
In the long stretch of desert country between the Red Sea and the 
valley of the Nile wild one-humped camels are numerous; and I see 
no reason why these should not be aboriginally wild, like genuine Asznus 
vulgaris in Africa (the a. tenispus, Henglin). There is a fine male of the 
latter now in the Zoological Gardens, a most decided and unmistakeable 
true donkey or Onager ; and the series of wild asinine animals (nclud- 
ing zebras) is complete, every known race or species being 
represented. All of the animals brought by Thompson were alive 
when I left London and the Hornbills in first rate condition. The 
Aceros nipalensis would be a grand prize; have not both semes 
the rufous plumage in the nest? Reversing the usnal arrange- 
ment, in Lhynchew and in Turma pugnax, the adult females are the 


1865.] Scientific Intelligence. 51 


more ornamented, and the young resemble the old males! The old 
she-rhinoceros soon made friends with the young ones, but is kept 
separate from them. Bos sondazcus did not die from the injury to the 
foot. That was a very slight affair and soon over; there was a 
‘gathering, when the animal walked lame, and he recovered as 
soon as it was lanced. He grew much, and became in fine condition, 
and when he died the mass of thickened cuticle had begun to form 
between the bases of the horns; but the colour of the coat had not 
begun to blacken. Poor fellow, he is now admirably stuffed, in the 
B. MW. He died of inflammation of the bowels. In the Zoological Gardens, 
are one pair Arboricola torqueola, two pairs Ortygorms gularis, and one 
pair of each Indian species of Galloperdix, all in first-rate health and 
condition. The ‘blood-pheasant’ (thaginis cruentus) from interior 
of Sikhim, is a great desideratum. A young African wild boar 
(S. Scropha vera) has been put to S. Andamanensis, but I believe 
with no result as yet. I suppose there is no chance now of getting a 
boar of the Andaman race. Thanks for the Darjeeling Shrews and 
Bats, which I look forward with interest to see. F. More, when 
I last saw him, was mainly interested in insects of economical value, 
as honey-bees, &c. Has the hive bee of Kashmir ever been scientifi- 
cally examined? It is likely enough to prove as distinct as the 
Ligurian Bee. Just before I left London I saw, with Wolf, in spirit, 
a most curious new mammal, sent by Du Chaillu from Fernando Po. 
Tt is an Otter-like modification of the order Insectivora, and the most 
distinct new genus of mammal that has turned up for a long time. 
Tt will be figured and described in the forthcoming Number of the 
Tr. Z. 8. Size of a large stoat, but more bulky, with tail exceedingly 
tumid at base, laterally flattened for the remainder. Whiskers very 
copious, thick and coarse, as in Cynogale Bennettw. Eyes small. 
Two of the hind toes connected, as in so many marsupials. General 
appearance, colour and fur, very otter-like. Front teeth hooked, 
approaching to Sorex. Alphonse Milne Edwards has published a 
monograph on the Chevrotains, upon which part of my note 
bears. I have sent the particulars to Jerdon, and by the way 
I wish Jerdon would contribute to the Journal a selection from 
the many notes that I have sent him. There are two groups of 
Cheyrotains (united by A. Milne Edwards,) viz. Meminna of India 


52 Scientific Intelligence. [No.-4, 


and Ceylon, and Tragulus of the Indo-Chinese and Malayan countries, 
—for Wf. malaccensis, Gray = I. indica. Of Tragulus, there are 
3 large races and 3 small, as follow :— 
1. Zr. napu, F. Cuv. = javanicus apud Gray and Cantor. One 
specimen in Calcutta museum. 


=o | 2. Tr. Stanle 
a4 4, yanus. 
= | 3. Ir. (like last, but with black sides of neck and breast-marks? 
n in Calcutta museum 6 ¢, and unknown here.) 
(4. Tr. javanicus (verus) = pelandoc, nobis, from Java only, L 
| suspect, and one $ only in Calcutta museum. Numerous 
3 specimens in Liverpool museum. 
wa a Tr. kanchil. Extends to 8. Tenasserim. 
6. Tr. afinis, Gray, placed as asynonym of Kanchil by Edwards, 


and the original specimen so named by Gray, from Malacca, is just a 
Kanchil wanting the medial breast-stripe ; but others sent by Mouhat 
from Cambodia appear to be a distinct race, whatever name it may 
bear. The Society's museum has all but the last, and the specimens 
should be re-labelled according to this present determination of them, 


1865.] Contributions to Indian M alacology. 69 


mouth. Aperture oblique, lunate, the breadth double the height, 
columella furnished with a spiral lamina which runs throughout the 
whorls, and renders the shell opaque around the umbilical excavation. 
Peristome simple, very slightly thickened inside, arcuate at the base 
oi the right margin ; margins distant, the columellar oblique. 


Millem. inch. 
Major diameter,...........s.scs00 10 0.4 
Minarmcitios 2 Gelder. lost ee 9 0.36 
Jy Sa Ret eet meee oe ee 7 0.28 


Aperture 4 millem. broad, 2 high. 

Animal small with a very narrow foot, a very small mucus pore at 
the end, and a small lobe above. 

Habitat—Arakan hills near Prome; more abundant on the Arakan 
than on the Pegu side. 

This very pretty little snail, which is nowhere common, is re- 
markable for the screw like lamina on the columella, running up 
throughout the whorls. The indentation on the base of the lowest 
whorl is also peculiar; it varies considerably in position and form, 
being sometimes double, but it is almost always present. The animal 
bears a great resemblance to that of Nanina pylaica, Bs. | 

The subgenus Sesara was founded by Albers for Nanina infrendens, 
Gould, (supposed at first to be a Helix, ) a peculiar little Molmein shell 
with teeth inside the peristome. I have no hesitation in uniting to 
this species, besides the closely allied WN. capessens, Bens., the T’ridopsis- 
like NV. pylaica, Bs, and the present species, as well as the two fol- 
lowing. WN. pylaica, N. capessens, N. infrendens, and the present 
species are all distinguished by peculiar additions to the peristome, 
and form together a well marked group, all being more or less 
depressly trochiform, horny, with closely wound narrow whorls, 
arcuately costulate above, and smooth beneath. 

N. helicifera was found rarely on the road between Prome and 
Tongoop, and somewhat further south. In the Bassein district it 


appears to be replaced by N. Basseznensis. 


6. N. MAMILLARIS, n. sp. 
Shell minutely perforated, very depressly trochiform, suborbicular, 
thin, horny; finely, closely and arcuately costulated above, the costu- 
lations passing over the periphery ; smooth, shining, and radiately 


10 


70 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


striated beneath. Spire depressly conoid, with convex sides, the 
apex slightly acuminate and papillar; suture but little impressed. 
Whorls 73, convex, closely wound, slowly increasing ; the last sharply 
keeled, flatly convex beneath, marked in nearly adult and sometimes 
in full grown specimens, with two or three small pits of variable 
form, opaque from corresponding internal calli, and generally arranged 
in an oblique line opposite to the mouth. Aperture oblique, sub- 
rhomboidally lunate, 3 times as broad as high ; columella furnished in 
young specimens with a more or less rudimentary spiral lamina 
running up the whorls, which is obsolete in adult shells. Peristome 
thin, slightly curved forwards at the base ; margins distant, columellar 
margin very oblique. 
Millem. inch. 


Wayjpridiameter te se ceraced-cee 11 0.44 
(Manor at toyita.c chon eee ee 10 0.4 
BASKIS Su tea ree Are Was 63 0.26 


Aperture 54 millem, broad, scarcely 2 high. 

Animal similar to that of WN. helicifera. 

Habitat—Akoutoung, Pegu—not rare. 

The close relation of this species to the last is unquestionable ; 
besides resembling it in general form, texture, and sculpture, and in 
the characters of the animal, young specimens possess a similar 
columellar fold, and indentations on the lower surface somewhat 
resembling those of NV. helicifera, though less deep and more opaque. 
Both these characters, however, appear to become obsolete in adult 
specimens of the present form. The two species are easily distin- 
guished by the absence of the columellar lamina in adults of WN. 
mamillaris, which may also be recognised by its acuminate apex, 
lower spire and flatter base. 


7. N. Bassernensts, n. sp. 

Shell minutely perforated, globosely trochiform, subcampanulate, 
thin, horny, closely, sharply and arcuately costulated above, the costu- 
lations passing over the periphery to the under surface, which is 
smooth, shining, and radiately striated. Spire obtusely conoid, with 
convex sides; apex obtuse; suture slightly impressed. Whorls 7, 
slightly convex, closely wound, slowly increasing; the last not de- 
scending, flatly convex beneath, more tumid near the mouth, keeled 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. | 71 


at the periphery, the keel vanishing near the mouth. Aperture lunate, 
oblique, breadth more than double the height; peristome thin, curved 
forwards at the base ; margins distant, columellar oblique. 

Millem. inch. 


Major diameter,..............0008 11 0.44 
Minor Gitio; oo ccten Soic less ss 10 0.4 
JSS, pad ee Ae Me ea 73 0.3 


Aperture 52 millem. broad, 2 high. 

Habitat—Southern portion of the Arakan range of hills near 
Bassein and Cape Negrais. 

This shell is distinguished from N. mamullaris by its non-acuminate 
apex, higher spire and more convex base, and from JN. helicifera by 
the absence of the columellar lamina, of which no trace appears in 
the present species. It appears to replace the last named shell in the 
southern portion of the Arakan hills. It is scarce, and I have met 
with but few specimens in good condition. I have never seen the 
animal, which, however, is doubtless similar to those of the two preced- 
ing species. 

Section Trochomorpha. 
8. N. conrinis, n. sp. 


Shell minutely perforated, trochiform, very thin, whitish horny, 
smooth, shining. Spire conical, apex slightly obtuse, suture scarcely 
impressed. Whorls 7, flatly convex, marked above with 4 or 5 spiral 
ribs and fine oblique lines of growth; the last sharply keeled, flatly 
convex beneath, and very finely radiately striated. Aperture oblique 
subrhomboidal, twice as broad as high; peristome thin, acute, straight ; 
margins distant, columellar subvertical, briefly and triangularly reflexed. 

Millem. inch. 


Major diamicters. i... 00.00 55..0a es 104 0.42 
Wirmormcdnitos, Vi. sk eae ; 4 0.38 
ASUS. 3 bce con ee eee e 7 0.28 


Aperture 5 millem. broad, 23 high. 
Habitat—near Thayet Myo, on the borders of British Burma; also 


near Ava. 
A near ally of N. arx, Bens., from Tenasserim, which, however, 
may easily be recognised by the concave sides of its spire. From other 


72 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


related species, as NV. enfula, Bens., N. cacuminifera, Bens., and N. 
attegia, Bens., N. confinis is distinguished by its sculpture. 
9. N. cuLMEN, n. sp. 

Shell very minutely perforated, trochiform, very thin, horny, trans- 
lucent. Spire conical, apex obtuse, suture impressed. Whorls 6, convex 
above and ornamented with fine raised spiral lines, and oblique striz ; 
the last whorl sharply keeled at the periphery, not descending, 
swollen and minutely decussately striated beneath, Aperture but 
little oblique, subquadrately lunate; height less than the breadth; 
peristome simple, thin; margins distant, columellar vertical, slightly 


reflexed above. 
Millem. inch, 


Major diameters: 2... .cinsees. 6 52 0.23 

Minor dittoel. aad ied peel 4 54 0.21 

PAGS hfe Gems abe AM olsen al te os 0.22 
Aperture 3 millem. broad, 2 high. 
Habitat—Akoutoung and banks of the Tsanda Khyoung, Henzada 


district, Pegu. 

Hasily distinguished from N. confinis and N. attegia by its smaller 
size and higher spire; from N. arx, by the sides of the spire bemg 
straight and not concave, and from the Bengal N. infula, Bens., by 
its sculpture, and its sharper keel. 

10. N. @RaruLator, n. sp. 

Shell perforated, turbinate, thin, whitish horny. Spire conical ; 
apex obtuse; suture impressed. Whorls 5, slowly and regularly in- 
creasing, convex, spirally lirate and marked with oblique striz of 
growth above; the last whorl keeled at the periphery, convex and 
decussately marked with concentric and radiating strie below, not 
excavated around the perforation. Aperture diagonal, subtrapezoidal, 
breadth exceeding the height; peristome thin ; margins distant, united 
by a callus; basal deeply sinuate ; columellar vertical, forming a right 
angle with the basal, and briefly triangularly reflexed above; reflexed 
portion thickened and passmg half round the perforation. 

Millem. inch. 
Major diametersey. neues 5) 0.2 
Minors itto, §.c:teets seamen see 4} 0.18 
OAL ROE AERATED. BRR EP nH te Bate 4 0.16 


—_ ss. 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 73 


Aperture 5 millem. broad, 2 high. 

Animal with a small mucus pore, and very small lobe above. 

Habitat—Irawaddy valley, Pegu. 

This pretty little species abounds near Thayet Myo, and occurs 
throughout the Irawaddy valley in British Burmah. I do not re- 
member meeting with it in Arakan. It is easily distinguished from 
all others of similar form among Indian shells, by its very oblique 
mouth, by the peculiar columellar margin of the peristome, and by 
the strong lirate sculpture. I have much doubt as to whether it 
should be assigned to Zrochomorpha, the species of which group are 
larger, and the animals somewhat different. 


Section Kaltella ? 
11. N. conuna, n. sp. 

Shell subperforate, turreted, white, horny, thin, translucent, marked 
with oblique sinuous subfiliform costulate striation, and, below the 
centre of the whorl, with very fine spiral lines, only visible under a 
powerful lens. Spire conical, apex rather obtuse, suture deeply sunk. 
Whaorls 6, very convex, keeled in the centre, the keel very fine, raised, 
thread-like, opaque and white; the last whorl bicarinate, the second 
raised spiral line being below the periphery ; flatly convex beneath, and 
marked by radiating strie and concentric impressed lines. Aperture 
oblique, tumidly and subangulately lunate, about equally broad and 
high ; peristome thin ; maigins distant ; columellar nearly vertical, very 
briefly reflexed at the penultimate whorl. 


Millem. inch. 
Diameter, ......... agel neat 13 0.07 
Plevobt.).. 1) Wate ais ea es a 4 2 0.08 


Habitat—Phoung ditto. Arakan. 
A minute species remarkable for its keeled and convex whorls. 
Only 4 specimens were found. 


Genus HELIX. 


Section Plectopylis. 
12. H. Karenorvum, n. sp. 
Shell sinistrorse, very widely umbilicated, discoid, flat above, solid, 
white, with rather irregular oblique pale chesnut streaks crossing the 
whorls, transversely and sinuously striated with decussating spiral 


74 Contributious to Indian Malacology. [ No. 2, 


lines above and below; epidermis thin, horny. Apex minutely 
granulate or sub-granulate, almost imperceptibly raised above the flat 
spire; suture not impressed, very narrowly marginate. Whorls 6, 
narrow and closely wound, flat above; the last angulate above the 
periphery, rounded beneath, descending close to the mouth, very 
slightly compressed behind the same. Umbilicus very shallow, 
exposing ail the whorls. Aperture, diagonal, truncately subcireular ; 
peristome white, reflexed throughout, margins joined by a raised bar, 
from the centre of which a lamina passes up the parietal side of the 
whorl to the plication, which lies at about + the circumference of the 
whorl from the mouth, and resembles that of Helix achatina, Gray ; 
the parietal transverse lamina being simple and oblique above, then 
bifureating, giving off the lamina which runs to the mouth, and two 
short basal supports. A thread-like lamina also runs along the 
extreme base of the parietal side of the whorl, and joins the aperture. 
Palatal teeth 5; the upper 3 and the lowest longitudinal, the upper- 
most very long and thin, the 4th vertical, corresponding to the fork 
in the parietal lamina. 


Millem. inch. 


Major, diameter’... 0.420 nae 13 0.52 
Miamon nth O we ceet ch tse ae cee 11 0.44 
Be 1 Samet ier Renae TAs SAI 4 0.16 


Habitat—Banks of Tsanda Khyoung, near Kaintha village, in 
Henzada district, Pegu. Larger variety ; major diameter 18 millem. 
minor diameter 15, height 5. A very few specimens were found on 
the banks of the Nungatho Khyoung, Henzada district. 

This shell combines the external form of H. lecophis, Bens., and 
H. refuga, Gould, with the internal plication of Hl. achatina, Gray. 
From both the first named species, however, the present may be easily 
distinguished by its more perfectly discoid shape, by its smaller 
height, and more open umbilicus, as well as by its colouring. Exter- 
nally, it is a very different shell from H. achatina, being of not more 
than half the thickness of that species. The internal plication, 
however, is absolutely undistinguishable. 

Like many other shells in Pegu, this species has evidently a very 
local distribution. In the spot where it was found first, among some 
limestone rocks forming a low ridge skirting the right bank of the 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 75 


Tsanda Khyoung, it was abundant, but it was not met with again 
until 3 or 4 specimens of the larger variety were found nearly 50 
miles further south. 

The locality given by Mr. Benson for Helix leiophis is Kwadouk 
near Thayet Myo. The shell also abounds at Akoutoung, on the 
Trawady, below Prome. 

13. H. pERarcta, n. sp. 

Shell sinistral, widely umbilicated, discoid, rather thin, white, 
transversely sinuously striated, with faintly marked decussating spiral 
lines above and below. Apex minutely granulate, slightly raised 
above the flat spire, suture rather deeply impressed. Whorls 6, 
convex above and at the periphery, the last a little compressed behind 
the mouth, descending suddenly to the aperture, which is oblique and 
roundly lunate ; peristome white, expanded all round; margins joined 
by a somewhat curved ridge, from the centre of which a lamella runs 
up the whorl towards the parietal plication, which, however, it does 
not join. The parietal vertical lamina is single, simple, rather short, 
slightly curved, with a rudimentary transverse plait at the top. Two 
free horizontal lamelle occur beneath that running to the aperture, the 
lowest being the longest and thinnest, and running back beneath the 
base of the vertical lamina. Palatal teeth 6, all horizontal except the 
4th and 5th, which are slightly oblique. Umbilicus open, deep, 
exposing all the whorls. 


Millem. inch. 
Major diameter,...... Seat a A 11 0.44 
WRG ORITEEOS ee Oe 9 0.36 
Feta sae ee Sadan: 4 0.16 


Habitat—Mya Leit Doung, near Ava. 

Distinguished from its allies, H. refuga, H. levophis, and H. Kareno- 
yum, by its deeper suture and rounded whorls, and internally by the 
shorter parietal lamina, and by the 5th palatal plait being less oblique 
than in /eiophis, and not backed by a second plait as in refuga. This 
species is the smallest known amongst those belonging to the Burmese 
types of Plectopylis. 

14. H. Feppent, n. sp. 

Shell sinistrorse, very widely umbilicated, discoid, flat above, thin, 

dull white, marked by rather irregular oblique sculpture both above 


< 


76 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


and below. Spire quite flat, apex not rising above the surface, suture 
impressed. Whorls 6}—7, narrow and closely wound, slightly convex 
above ; the last much broader, rounded at the periphery and beneath, 
descending abruptly close to the mouth. Umbilicus shallow, exposing 
all the whorls. Aperture more nearly horizontal than vertical, sub- 
circularly lunate. Peristome slightly thickened, expanded throughout, 
margins joined by a rib, from the centre of which a lamina sometimes 
runs up to the parietal plication, but is frequently interrupted a short 
distance within the aperture, and is always thicker and higher near 
the mouth than further back. Parietal plication consisting of a verti- 
cal lamina in front, and a second, slightly oblique, just behind the 
first, giving out the interrupted lamina running to the aperture from 


the top, and a shorter horizontal lamella from the bottom ; the hinder 
with small re-entering supports above and below. Beneath both is a 
narrow free thread-like horizontal lamella. Palatal teeth 5: Ist, 2nd, 
3rd and 5th horizontal, 4th vertical and stouter than the others; Ist 


and 2nd longer than the remainder. 


Millem. inch. 
Major diameter,........... disses 16 0.65 
Mimorilititoyy ciek-tickniendeSeiuae + 13 0.52 
cig bb risk. tis. 0% eal unde Salehe Au 44 0.18 


Habitat —Prome : rare. 

Of this unquestionably distinct species but 3 or 4 specimens were 
found by Mr. Fedden and myself. Both the external form and_plica- 
tion differ from those of all allied species. It is especially distinguish- 
ed by its rounded periphery, wider last whorl, and its irregular 
non-decussated sculpture externally, and internally by the double 


parietal lamina. 


Section ? 
15. H. potypLeuris, n. sp. 


Shell openly umbilicated, trochiform, rather solid, white, (probably 
horny in living specimens,) obliquely and closely costulated. Spire 
conoid; apex rather obtuse; suture impressed. Whorls 6, convex, 
slowly increasing ; the last not descending, surrounded by a raised 
*thread-like keel, convex beneath, and somewhat sinuously radiately 
costulated around the deep and pervious umbilicus. Aperture oblique, 


1865. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 17 


roundly lunate, almost circular; peristome thin; margins distant, 


columellar slightly expanded. 
Millem. inch. 


Major diameter,........... SENS 4 0.16 
Mimor ditto, ....ccsccsecsessesees 3200 an? OMG 
J Sun" | 22 gn 3 0.12 


Habitat—Arakan hills: rare. 

A prettily marked little species near H.. Bascauda, Bens., from 
which it is distinguished by its finer and closer sculpture, more open 
umbilicus, and less conical spire. It is very probably a Nanina, but 
the animal was not met with. 


f 


Genus BULIMUS. 
16. B. scropicunatus, n. sp. 

Shell subobtectly perforated, turritedly ovate, thin, horny, yellowish 
white, marked with vertical, subarcuate, rather irregular, closely set, 
raised lines. Spire turrited, apex obtuse, suture simple, impressed. 
Whorls 6, convex, the last rounded beneath. Aperture vertical, 
truncately ovate: peristome simple, thin; right margin considerably 
curved forwards ; columellar vertical, curving to the left near the base, 
frequently straight, rather broadly reflexed. 

Millem. inch. 


LAD Tai eg cay MED Coan iN ee aE iT 0.28 
ID RPAMCE EES 25 25,095 inacledsiesiea 3s 0.14 
Length of aperture, :2.......0.5 34 0.14 


Habitat—Pegu, west of the Trawady. 

The nearest ally of this species is its congener B. putus, Bens., 
which inhabits the same localities, and differs in its greater tumidity 
and less marked sculpture. There is, however, much variation in the 
first named character, and despite the great difference between the two 
forms in general, there is some appearance of a passage. T'wo speci- 
mens of B. putus which I possess, measuring respectively 7 and 8} 
millem. in length, are both 5 millem. in diameter. 

Both these species shew a tendency to a passage to Sprraais. 

17. 3B. puicrrer, n. sp. 

Shell obtectly perforated, ovately conical, rather thin, horny, finely 

striated. Spire conical, apex obtuse ; suture marginate, scarcely 


Vd. 


78 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


impressed. Whorls 5, planulately convex above, the last longer than 
the spire, somewhat tumid, rounded at the base. Aperture vertical, 
truncately oval, subpyriform; peristome simple ; right margin cutved 
forwards ; columellar callous, subvertical, slightly curved, rather broadly 
reflexed ; margins united by a callus bearing a small re-entering lamella 
about the centre. 
Millem. inch. 
Hengiihy eegihs st eevercaccanioas 9 0.36 
Diameterncd case, fis o2cilse 5d 0.22 
Aperture 5 millem. high, 24 broad. 
Habitat—Thayet Myo, Pegu: rare. 
A more tumid shell than B. putus, Bens., and easily distinguished 
from all other Indian and Burmese forms of the genus by the re-enter- 
ing parietal plait. 


Genus SPIRAXIS. 

18. 8S. PUSILLA, n. sp. 

Shell imperforate, ovate, thin, horny, yellowish white, costulately 
striated. Spire conically pyramidal ; sides straight ; apex rather acute ; 
suture impressed. Whorls 5, convex; the last longer than the spire 
(ratio = 4 : 3) and rounded beneath. Aperture rather oblique, subpy- 
riform ; peristome simple, acute, much curved forwards on the right 
margin ; columella scarcely twisted, reflexed, appressed on the whorl. 

Millem. inch. 


engine sem ccnces seers Bence 6 0.24 
DIDMEChEU eae eeasunenaeceen eae 33 0.14 
Length of aperture, ............ 3s 0.14 


Habitat—Prome district, Pegu : rare. 

I am not quite sure if all of the few specimens I possess of this 
peculiar small form came from Akoutoung, or whether some may not 
be from Thayet Myo. The shell resembles young specimens of 
Bulimus putus, Bens., so closely, that it can only be distinguished by 
the absence of any perforation. 


Genus ACHATINA. 
19. A. Prevnnsis, n. sp. 
' Shell oblong ovate, rather solid, dark reddish brown, horny, marked 
with distinct and regular impressed lines. Spire convexly conical ; 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 79 


apex obtuse; suture impressed, subcrenulate. Whorls 63, slightly 
convex ; the last ascending a little towards the mouth, and exceeding 
4 of the shell in length. Aperture vertical, truncately semicircular ; 
peristome obtuse, slightly thickened; margins joined by a callus; 
columella very much curved, projecting forwards at the base,. subver- 
tically truncated within the peristome. 


Millem. inch, 


PDair es: SIE rae a tase ij 0.28 
Jo STG ya a 34 0.14 
Length of aperture, ........ te 2? 0.11 


Habitat—Ivawady valley, Pegu : common. 

A pretty little species, darker in colour than any of its allies, except: 
perhaps A. gemma, Bens., and easily distinguished from all, by the 
columella being more arcuate, also by its more acuminate spire and 
blunter apex, and its much stronger sculpture. 


20.. A. PERTENUIS, n.. spi 


Shell very slender, turrited, thin, light horny,. polished, closely, 
minutely, and rather wregularly striated. Spire subulate, somewhat. 
acuminate towards the blunt.apex; suture impressed, subcrenulate. 
Whorls 11—12, convex, the last about + the length of the spire. 
Aperture oblique, ovately pyriform, peristome thin, margins united by 
a thin callus, columella moderately curved, obliquely truncated, 

Millem. inch. 


10 1) ee Rep aA 20 0.8 
PPA CREE 2 5. 12eIo G8) wstiecs - 43 0.18: 
Length of aperture, ........... - 4. 0.16 


Habitat—Tongoop, Arakan.. 

Var major, length 2634 millem. ; diameter 6; length of aperture 6. 
Oi another specimen ; length 23 millem.; diameter 53; length of aper- 
ture 5+. 

Habitat—Pyema Khyoung, Bassein district, Pegu: 

A much more slender species than A. tenuispira, Bens., (a variety of. 
which also abounds in partsof Pegu,) though there are signs of a 
passage. The present. appears to replace A. tenwisprra in Arakan and 
Bassein. Mr. Benson, to whom I sent a specimen, observes that it is 
intermediate between. A. tenuispira and A. hastula, Bens. 


80 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


Genus SUCCINEA. 

21. S. PLicatA, n. ‘sp. 

Shell depressly subovate, very thin, irregularly, obliquely and more 
or less coarsely plaited, pale amber in colour, horny. Spire short ; 
apex minutely papillar. Whorls 23; the last about 4 of the entire 
length. Aperture oblique, curved backwards at the base, nearly oval, 
openly angulate above; peristome simple ; columellar margin regularly 
bow-shaped ; right margin rather straighter. 

Millem. inch. 
MICH OTR eA eens 17 0.68 
MDE LED eee ected och 94 0.38 


Height, when laid upon the mouth, 6 millem. Aperture 14 millem. 
long, 8 broad. 
Habitat 


coarsely sculptured, occurred also south of Bassein in Pegu. 


Tongoop, Arakan: one or two specimens, rather less 


This species approaches S. semiserica, Gould, but is distinguished 
from that and from all other Indian species by its coarse sculpture. 
It has also a larger spire than S. semzserica. It is not common : indeed 
species of the genus Succinea are generally but very locally distributed 
in India and Burma. 


Genus CLAUSILIA. 

22. (C. FUSIFORMIS, n. sp. 

Shell not rimate, fusiform, horny, thin, white; obliquely, very 
closely and finely costulately striated throughout... Spire diminishing 
slowly at first above the middle, then rapidly attenuate towards the 
acute apex ; suture simple, scarcely impressed, deeper towards the apex. 
Whorls 9, convex above, flattened below, the last very little narrower 
than the penultimate. Aperture semioval, (nearly semicircular) ; upper 
parietal plait very fine; internal palatal teeth 7, the uppermost by far 
the longest. Peristome thin, expanded, not continuous, the margins 
being distant, and united by a thin callus ; columellar margin straight 
and very long posteriorly. 

Millem. inch. 


Vieng thy sstacccdtnndnsbiaapeeccpae 23 0.92 
Diametetyesae) doceed eee ae aa) 0.24 


Habitat—Arakan hills, west of Henzada. Very rare. 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 81 


But a solitary specimen was met with belonging to this form, which 
is more tumid in the centre than any of its allies, C. imsignis, Gould, 
&e. The non-continuity of the peristome may be due to immaturity 
in the specimen found. The shape of the mouth may also possibly be 
slightly modified in older examples, but the general form doubtless 
remains the same, and is alone sufficient to distinguish the species. 

A solitary specimen of another new form, much smaller than the 
above, being only 17 millem. long, occurred at Moditoung Tsekan, on 
the road from Prome to Tongoop. It is unfortunately bleached and 


worn, though perfect. 


Genus STREPTAXIS. 

23. S. Burmanica, n. sp. 

Shell ovately subglobose, umbilicated, thin, horny, white, marked 
throughout with fine and closely set sinuate costulation. Spire 
convex; sutures scarcely impressed. Whorls 6, the last 2 widely 
excentric, rounded at the periphery ; the penultimate broader than the 
last whorl; last flattened beneath, and angulately compressed around 
the umbilicus. Aperture oblique, irregularly semioval, with a single 
re-entering lamellar parietal ; peristome white, thin, expanded through- 
out, deeply sinuate above, at the junction with the penultimate whorl, 
compressed and curved forwards on the upper right margin, and some- 
times furnished with a very small internal tooth-like callous projection ; 
the two margins subparallel, distant, united by a thin callus. 

Millem. inch. 


Major diameters... 0.0... 2 o0de 10 0.4 
Minter dkboy 2 2ss2aep Ile, 7 0.28 
1S 013152 eee SE Ee SEE 6 0.24 


Habitat—Tongoop, Arakan. 

This is a very near ally of the Molmein S. Petitz, Gould, but it is 
distinguished from that shell and from S. exacuta, Gould, by the 
rounded periphery and more globose form. It is larger and less 
slender than S$. Andamanica, Bens., and is distinguished from all the 
above species, and also from the Nilgiri S. Perrotteti, by the greater 
size of the penultimate whorl in comparison with that of the antepenul- 
timate, a character to which my attention was called by Mr. Benson. 


_In Dr. Gould’s original description (an imperfect one) of S. Petitc, 


82 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


as republished in Otia Conchologica, p. 183, no mention is made of 
the angulation of the periphery, which, however, is referred to by 
Pieiffer, (Mon. Helic. I. 8). The character is certainly variable: in 
specimens in my own collection there is a considerable difference. 


Orprer,—PROSOBRANCHIATA. 
Family Cyclophoride. 

Genus CYCLOPHORUS. 

24. C. (Lagocheilus) tuvorinus. 

Shell narrowly umbilicated, conically turbinate, thin, dark horny, 
and ornamented throughout with oblique striz and with raised spiral 
lines, closer together at the periphery and within the umbilicus than 
elsewhere. Spire conical ; apex rather acute. Whorls 53, rounded ; 
the last cylindrical, not descending. Aperture oblique, subcircular, 
angulate above ; peristome simple, thickened, subexpanded, incised at 
the upper angle; columellar margin curved backwards. Operculum 
horny, greyish white, multispiral. 

Millem. inch. 
Major diameter, ) (si secacsie-tsin0 4 0.16 
Minor ditto, ..... aol Stetaenanen Ate 34 0.14 
PS RAS ari I hols ee hia ciel etodatha aeive ale 4 0.16 

Habitat—Akoutoung, Pegu. 

This form is allied to Cyclophorus scissimargo, Bens., and C. tomo- 
trema, Bens., forming with them the group for which Mr. Theobald 
has proposed the name of Lagocheilus. 'There appears good reason for 
associating these shells as a distinct subgenus, which perhaps repre- 
sents, in Burma, the group of Cyclophort comprising C. halophilus and 
its allies in Southern India and Ceylon. The present species is 
smaller and higher in the spire than either of the others. The animal 
of (. leporinus is short, dark in colour, with small black tentacles, and 
resembles ordinary Cyclophort in most characters. The only specimen 
obtained living and examined, possessed, however, the peculiarity of a 
groove down the middle of the caudal portion of the foot above. 

The peristome is simple in the only perfect adult specimen which I 
possess, but ina broken barely adult shell, there is a rudimentary 
duplication. The two lips are probably united in the full grown shell. 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 83 


I also met with a shell apparently belonging to this species, but 
not full grown, at Pyema Khyoung, south of Bassein. 

An immature specimen of probably a 4th species of Lagochezlus, 
with very fine and rather close equidistant spiral sculpture, was found 
by me in the neighbourhood of Ava. 


Gents PTEROCYCLOS. 
25. Pr. Feppeni, n. sp. 


Shell widely umbilicated, convexly depressed, smooth, finely striated 
rather thin, elegantly marked with alternating transverse zigzag stripes 
of white and chesnut, and with a moderately broad submedian band of 
darker colour. Spire nearly flat; apex but very slightly protruded ; 
suture deep. Whorls 42, convex ; the last rounded, descending towards 
the mouth. Aperture circular, slightly oblique ; peristome double; the 
two portions separated by a shallow groove, the inner cut away into a 
moderate sinus above, and the outer turned up into a small vertical 
wing, free from the penultimate whorl. Operculum concave within, 
the centre flat ; flatly concave without, with lamellar free edges to the 
whorls, thickest at the circumference. 

Millem. inch. 


Major diameter,........ sete cay 3 11 0.44 
IVENTLOT GELO} hese, ccpenslee dis aonss 9 0.36 
Js STE Se ee 8 ea ee 4 5 0.2 


Habitat--Thayet Myo, Pegu—rare. 


A smaller and more convex shell than Pt. cetra, Bens. from 
Molmein. Itis one of the most beautifully marked species of the 
genus; it resembles Pt. pullatus, Bens., in form, and in the peculiar 
characters of the operculum, and equals the handsomest specimens of 
Pt. rupestris, Bens., in its colouring. 

Named after the discoverer, Mr. Fedden, of the Geological Survey. 


Gents ALYC AUS. 

26. A. POLITUS, n- sp. 

Shell moderately umbilicated, turbinately depressed, smooth, polish- 
ed, shining, amber-coloured. Spire depressly conoidal ; suture deep ; 
apex obtuse, rather redder than the remainder of the shell. Whorls 
3g, convex; the last round, scarcely descending towards the mouth, 
very little swollen at the side, and ornamented on the inflated portion 


84 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


for a short distance with close fine costulation, which extends beneath 
to the umbilicus and renders the shell opaque in that spot. Constric- 
tion long, smooth, swelling considerably in front towards the mouth. 
Sutural tube short, about + to 4 of the periphery of the penultimate 
whorl. Aperture oblique, circular, deeply sinuate at the junction 
with the penultimate whorl, and at the lower right margin; peristome 
double, the imner lip projecting and continuous, outer lip retrorelict. 
Operculum horny, multispiral, externally concave. 


Millem. inch. 


Mayor diameters sce. se /awee c's «se 3 0.12 
W/E eT eye (eel FORMS OR See SOR REMoR ABE 24 0.09 
LASTS Sa eR Riana ene 1i 0.05 


Habitat—Phoung do, near Cape Negrais, Arakan. 


Very near A. humilis, W. Blanf., from Pegu, but distinguished by 
its lower spire, wider umbilicus, more sinuous mouth, and especially by 
its high polish, in which it is only equalled by A. nitidus, W. Blanf. 


27. A. GLABER, n, sp. 

Shell broadly umbilicated, conoidly depressed, solid, reddish white, 
the upper whorls darker, rather dull in lustre, smooth, except at the 
swollen portion of the last whorl, which is very finely and closely 
costulated. Spire depressly conoid; apex rather obtuse; suture im- 
pressed. Whorls 4, convex, the last obsoletely subangulate at the 
periphery, moderately swollen at the side, then constricted, descending 
a little near the mouth. Constriction of moderate length, smooth, 
slightly swollen in the middle. Sutural tube of moderate length, 
Aperture diagonal, circular ; peristome more or less distinctly duplex, 
thickened, moderately expanded. Operculum dark coloured, horny, 


externally concave, internally convex, with a prominent central nucleus. 


Millem. inch, 
Major mMameters os.) .cecceeues ; (e 0.30 
Mimor auto, Suc ac cserseneee 6 (0.24 
HAIG carer a eereckewae LP ELL se 4h 0.18 


Habitat 


This species closely resembles A. Ingranu, W. Blanf., for which T 


Akyak, Arakan; the hills south of the harbour. 


for some time mistook it, but it is distinguished by the absence of any- 
sculpture on the upper whorls, and also by the more oblique mouth, 


1865. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 85 


Genus DIPLOMMATINA. 

28. D. NANA, n. sp. 

Shell not rimate, dextrorse, subovate, rather solid, amber-coloured, 
very finely and closely filiformly costulated on the lower whorls, less 
closely on the upper, or, frequently, subdistantly costulated through- 
out. Spire conical, with sides scarcely convex above; apex rather 
obtuse, sometimes reddish, suture impressed. Whorls 6—6, rounded, 
antepenultimate the largest, the last rising considerably upon the 
penultimate. Aperture vertical, ear-shaped, nearly circular, columellar 
margin straight for a short distance and vertical, with an internal 
tooth. Peristome double, both portions expanded and appressed, the 
inner forming a thin callus upon the penultimate whorl. Operculum ? 


Millem. inch. 
1 E12 pe ee ee 24 0.09 
LTTE ge Belem si a pk Aa Ll 0.04 


Aperture with peristome about 2 millem. in diameter. 

Habitat—Akoutoung, Thondoung and Yenandoung in Henzada 
district, Pegu. . 

This species approaches D. polypleuris, Bens., more nearly than 
any other. It is distinguished by its more regularly ovate form, 
blunter apex, less swollen penultimate whorl, and more marked and 
distant sculpture. The latter character, however, varies. The 
specimens from Thondoung, a hill about 20 miles south of Akoutoung, 
being either closely costulate throughout, or subdistantly sculptured 


above, closely below; while in Akoutoung specimens, the costulation 
is subdistant throughout. As, however, I can trace no other distinec- 
tion between the shells, and the costulation varies in different indivi- 
duals from each place, I do not think there is any specific distinction. 
A still more minute species than the present exists in Pegu, and 
I found two dead specimens at the base of the Arakan hills in the 
Henzada district. As these specimens were not very well preserved, 
I abstain from describing them for the present. 
Family Helicimde. 
Genus HELICINA. 
29. H. ARAKANENSIS. 
Shell depressly turbinate, sublenticular, rather thin, obliquely striated 
above, radiately and very minutely beneath, polished, flesh-coloured, 
12 : 


86 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


with a darker red band in the centre of the whorls above, and another 
on the last whorl, just below the periphery ; apex yellow. Spire con- 
vexly conoid ; apex acute. Whorls 4, the last compressed and sharply 
keeled, moderately convex at the base, furnished with a polished sub- 
granulate central callus; columella very short. Aperture diagonal, 
triangular; peristome white, slightly expanded. Operculum light 
grey, shelly. 


Millem. inch. 


Mayormiamebert iiss. 6 0.24 

“ALTTEVC RS 26)5 50 Se IN Ae 5 0.2 

BNGEGIS PE Cts GEL SHS ORE CGN 33 0.15 
Habitat—Ramri Island, coast of Arakan. Rare. 


A smaller variety, measuring—major diameter 5, minor 44, axis 3 
millem., was abundant in the southern portion of the Bassein district. 
Near H. Mergwiensis, Pir. and H. Andamanica, Bens., but smaller 
than either. It is mainly distinguished from the former by the 
absence of the close spiral striation, so marked in that species, and 
from the latter by different colouring, higher spire and closer sculpture. 


— 


The preceding pages contain descriptions of the greater portion of 
the previously unpublished species of land shells in my collections 
from Ava, Pegu, and Arakan; I have still a few remaining, the dis- 
tinctness of which is probable, but they belong, for the most part, to 
critical groups, and require comparison with the original types of 
species, described by Mr. Benson and others. The following addition- 
al notes, on the distribution of previously described species, may serve 
to supplement the papers on the subject, by Mr. Theobald, in Jour. 
As. Soc, Bengal, Vol. XXVI. p. 245, and Vol. XXVII. p. 313. 


Nanina. 

Nanina petasus, Bens., is common about Thayet Myo and in the 
Arakan hills. My largest specimen measures 12 millemetres by 11 
in its two diameters. A smaller, closely allied shell, measuring 8 by 7 
millem., I was inclined to refer to Mr. Benson’s Helix aspides, on 
account of the arcuate and labiate basal margin of the aperture, but 
[ learn from the describer that it presents differences, although not 
sufficient to prove it a distinct species. A third still smaller form, 
with the thickening and curvature of the peristome exaggerated, and 


1865. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 87 


a somewhat flatter spire, measures only 5 to 54 millem. in its largest 
diameter, and may be a distinct shell. It, also, is from the Arakan 
hills. 

Nanina honesta, Gould, originally described from Tavoy, is found 
throughout western Pegu and Arakan, as well as at Molmein, where 
it was collected by Mr. Theobald. Dr. Gould’s description is very 
imperfect ; he does not even note the great obliquity of the mouth, 
which is the most striking character of the species. In the Arakan 
hills near Prome, and about Thayet Myo, a larger variety occurs, in 
which the angulation of the periphery entirely disappears in the adult, 
although the other characters are the same. The sutural margination 
is sometimes, though rarely, obsolete. Large specimens measure 14 
by 113 millem., and about 7 in height. 

NV. levicula, Bens., also first found by Mr. Theobald in the Tenas- 
serim provinces, is very common about Thayet Myo, Prome, and 
Akoutoung, and occurs also as far south as the Bassein district. It is 
frequently whitish in colour. It is allied to N. honesta, but easily 
distinguished, besides by its smaller size, by the fewer whorls and their 
more rapid rate of increase, and also by the total absence of sculpture, 
- There is much variation in size : my largest specimen measures 84 and 
7 millem. in its two diameters. The animal has a very small lobe 
above the mucus pore in the tail, which is truncated. The mantle is 
rather large. A single specimen of a shell, apparently identical, was 
found by me, some years ago, near Balasore in Orissa. 

NV. teatvina was evidently described by Mr. Benson, Gn the Annals 
and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1856, Ser. 2, Vol. XVIII. p. 252,) from an 
immature specimen. When adult, the peristome is white and slightly 
thickened within, and the body whorl internally of a milky white 
colour. This handsome species is found west of the Lrawady, from 
Thayet Myo to Bassein, and varies considerably in size, in the height 
of the spire, and in the degree of angulation above the periphery, 
The greatest change takes place in the latter character ; specimens 
from the district of Bassein being sharply angled, and even subcarinate, 
the angulation diminishing, however, close to the aperture; while, in 
specimens from Thayet Myo and Prome, the periphery is round. In 
height of spire, the shell varies from depressed to subturbinate ; in 
two specimens before me, one has a major diameter of 30 millem., and 
height of 13; the other with a major diameter of only 27, measures 


88 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


15 millem. in the axis, and this variation is seen in both rounded and 
subcarinate specimens. The largest specimen I possess, measures in 
its two diameters, 36 and 31 millemetres, and in height 18. 

N. pansa, Bens., was found near Akoutoung and Thayet Myo; and 
also, more abundantly, in the neighbourhood of Ava. 

N. (Lrochomorpha) attegia, Bens., abounds at Akoutoung below 
Prome. It is not common elsewhere, except about Prome, The 
animal has a mucus pore at the end of a truncated foot, and a lobe 
above, as in N, vitrinoides, Desh. A shell which Mr. Benson considers 
as probably identical with Helix diplodon, Bens., (a Khasi hill species) 
occurs rarely in the Arakan hills. It is a Nanina with a small lobe 
above the mucus pore near the end of the tail, which, however, is more 
flattened and less truncated than in species of the Trochomorpha section 
generally. 

No species of the Ariophanta section, so largely represented in 
India, has as yet been found in Pegu or Arakan ;* NV. retrorsa, Gould, 
being hitherto unknown N. or W. of Molmein. Macrochlamys and 
Trochomorpha (anless N, textrina and N, pansa belong rather to 
Hemiplecta than to the former,) comprise the great majority of the 
Nanine. The forms belonging to the first named section are so 
numerous, and distinguished by such minute differences, that their 
study is one of great difficulty. 

Helin, 

Amongst the true Helices in Northern Pegu, several forms assigned 
to the section Dorcasia, Gray, are conspicuous. They appear to re- 
present in Burma, H. fallaciosa, Fer., H. asperella, Pir., and their 
allies of the Indian peninsula, and they might all perhaps with greater 
correctness be classed together in the same section. Amongst these 
forms is H. similaris, Fer., of which H, scalpturita, Bens. and 
H. Zoroaster, Theobald, appear to be varieties. These shells oeeur in 
the drier portions of the Irawady valley, and are not found below 
Prome, but they extend northwards to beyond Ava. The variety 
named by Mr. Benson #. scalpturita sometimes wants the coloured 


* Nor is this section, so far as I know, represented in the Himalayas. 
N. Himolayana, Lea, being almost certainly N. interrwpta, Bens., and the 
assigned locality due to an error ; while H. cyclotrema, Bens., lately described 
from the hills N. of Tirhoot, is a sinistrorse member of the asperella group, and 
closely allied to that species, as may be seen from its expanded lip and granu- 
late surface, The animal is doubtless a true Heliw, and not a Nanina, 


1865. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 89 


bands, and passes into a shell closely resembling H. Peguensis, Bens., 
a more solid form, shells approaching which closely in every character 
except in being less solid, were found on the Shan hills, east of Ava, 
Mr. Benson considers these shells distinct from H. Peguensis, but there 
can be little doubt of their forming a link. The typical variety of 
H. scalpturita abounds near Mandélé. H. Zoroaster, Theobald, is a 
large H. similaris, and occurs abundantly at Thayet Myo and less so 
at Prome. 4H. bolus, Bens., abundant near Thayet Myo and Prome, 
is sometimes marked by a coloured band like that of H. similaris, and 
varies greatly in the height of the spire. The type is a well marked 
form, far more globose than the others, but yet it passes, by impercep- 
tible gradations, into simlaris. H. delibrata, Bens. is also allied to 
similaris although classed in a different section or subgenus by both 
Albers and Pfeiffer; it unites Dorcasia with the Trachea group, 
(Z. asperella and its allies). H. delibrata is not rare throughout 
Arakan; it occurs at Akyab, and in Pegu it is found at Akoutoung 
and other places; when fresh it has a subhispid epidermis, and fre- 
quently a rufous band above the periphery, like s¢mlaris and asperella. 

Somewhat allied to the semilaris group, but yet forming a distinct 
and well marked section, are H. tapeina, Bens., and its allies H. rota- 
tora, v. d. Busch, H. Oldhami, Bens., and H. Huttoni, Pir. To 
these, two other species have been added by Mr. Theobald, viz. : 
A. Phayret and H. Akoutongensis. The type appears almost peculiar 
to the Malay countries, one species only, H. Hutton:, occurring upon 
the Himalayas and other Indian mountains, and none in the plains of 
India. 

H. Oldham, Bens. is a well marked and easily distinguished form, 
with almost flat spire, very wide umbilicus, and the last whorl sub- 
angulate above the periphery and swollen beneath. The epidermis, 
when in good order, is subhispid, as in several other species of the 
group. This form was first found by Dr. Oldham at Mya Leit Doung, 
a few miles south-east of Ava, and I afterwards met with it in the 
Arakan hills, on the road between Prome and Tongoop. 

The other species pass into each other in the most perplexing 
manner, and there scarcely appears any choice between increasing their 
number indefinitely, and classing all together as varieties of one species. 

The little form known as H. Huttoni, Pir., is perhaps more easily 


distinguished than most of the others, as it is singularly constant in 


90 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


form. It is usually smaller than tapevna or rotatoria, and may gener- 
ally be recognised by its blunt periphery and the convexity both of 
the spire and base. Still, forms of H. tapeina approach it so closely 
that they may be said to pass into it. I found specimens of H. Huttoni 
in only one spot in Burma, viz. on Puppa hill, an isolated peak, 
nearly 5,000 feet high, in Upper Burma. The occurrence of a Hima- 
layan shell which is found as high as 6,000 and 7,000 feet in Sikkim, 
upon this solitary hill, where it is accompanied by peculiar species, as 
Alyceus Vulcani, W. Blanf. and Diplommatina Puppensis, W. Blant., 
and with a flora comprising plants, such as Pteris agwilina, belonging 
to a temperate climate, is very remarkable; especially as the same 
species was found by myself on the Nilgiri hills of Southern India, at 
an elevation of above 6,000 feet, and by Mr. F. Layard on the moun- 
tains of Ceylon. It is found both in the eastern and western Hima. 
layas, and has probably once enjoyed a far more general range in India 
than at present. Its occurrence, with go little variation, in isolated 
situations, is in favour of its being a distinct and natural species, a 
rank to which, morphologically considered, its claims are small. 

At Mya Leit Doung, the high limestone peak 15 miles south-east 
of Amarapoora, already referred to, and the locality whence Cyclopho- 
rus cryptomphalus, Bens., C. hispidulus, W. Blanf., Diplommatina 
exilis, W. Blant., Georissa frustrillum, Bens. sp., Hypselostoma Benso- 
nianum, W. Blanf., Helix perarcta, W. Blanf., and other peculiar 
species have been obtained, I found Mr. Theobald’s Heliw Phayrez, 
which appears to have some claims to be considered a distinct species. 
Mr. Theobald’s description (J. A. 8. B., 1859, Vol. XXVIII. p. 306) 
is very imperfect, and the following may serve to give a better idea of 
the shell. 

H. Puayret, Theobald. 

Shell moderately umbilicated, orbiculately conoid, rather solid, 
white, with a horny shining epidermis ; obliquely, coarsely and flex= 
uously plicately striated beneath the epidermis, bluntly angulate at 
the periphery. Spire depressly conoid; apex obtuse ; suture scarcely 
impressed. Whorls 6, slightly convex, slowly increasing; the last 
descending towards the aperture, where the angulation of the peri- 
phery dies out; convex beneath, compressed around the deep umbili- 
cus, which exposes all the whorls. Aperture subcircularly lunate, 
diagonal; peristome white, slightly expanded throughout; margins 


1865. Contributions to Indian Malacology. Of 
WK 


approaching each other, and united by a callus. Major diameter 18, 
minor 153, axis 8 millemetres. 6 

Habitat—Mya Leit Doung. Ava. 

This differs from all allied forms in its much coarser flexuous sculp- 
ture, and from most of them by its blunt angulation at the periphery. 
Tt is also, so far as I know, the largest form, belonging to this group, 
which oceurs in Burma.* 

H. tapeina is said by Mr. Benson to be distinguished from rotatoria, 
amongst other characters, by the greater regularity of the sculpture in 
the former shell, which contrasts with the irregularly flexuous stria- 
tion of the latter. I have never seen a typical specimen of H. rota- 
toria, which was originally described from Java, but Mr. Benson has 
identified with it a shell which abounds at Thayet Myo, Prome and 
Akoutoung, and a variety of which, with a flat spire, Mr. Theobald 
has called H. Akoutongensis. Of H, tapeina I possess specimens collected 
by Mr. Theobald at the original locality, the Khasi hills. These 
have a slightly more regular sculpture, an angulate periphery instead 
of the sharp compressed keel of the Pegu form, and a rounder mouth, 
but the spire is sometimes higher, sometimes not, and I can see no 
distinction in the umbilicus. In all the distinctive characters, varieties 
shewing gradation, occur in Burma. 

Leaving the question of specific distinction, the distribution of 
varieties of these shells in the Ivawady valley, so far as I have searched, 
is the following. 

On the Shan hills, east of the valley in which lie Mandélé, the pre- 
sent capital of Ava, and the older capitals, Amarapoora and Ava itself, 
I found a lenticular sharply keeled form, less swollen beneath, and, in 
general, higher in the spire than the Akoutoung form of rotatoria, 
with the sides of the spire straight, not convex. The epidermis, 
when in good order, and especially in young specimens, is hispid ; the 
sculpture rather variable, but flexuous. ‘This latter is also the case 
with the Akoutoung and Thayet Myo form of rotatoria. 


*Tn a letter received since the above was written, Mr. Benson informs me 
that H. Phayrez only differs from his type of H. tapeiina in its coarser sculpture. 
My specimens of the latter shell have a more angulate periphery. 

+ In Pfeiffer’s Monogr. Helic. Viv., however, H. tapeina (Vol. IIT. p. 254) is 
said to be “ Subtiliter granulato-striata,’ while H. rotatoria (Vol. I. p. 208) is 
described simply as “ oblique striata.’ The former is said to differ from the 
latter in sculpture, higher spire, narrower umbilicus and rounder aperture, 


92 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


In the Tsagain hills, west of the Irawady, opposite Ava, I obtained 
two forms, one bluntly angled at the periphery and approaching 4. 
Oldhami, in which however the spire is lower and the umbilicus more 
open. The sculpture, form of the whorls and of the mouth, (which is 
rounded with connivent margins and expanded throughout,) and the 
angulation of the periphery, are precisely similar to the same characters 
in my specimens of H. tapeina: the umbilicus is slightly broader, and 
the spire lower, sometimes as flat as in Akoutongensis. The dimensions 
are 15} and 14 millem. in the two diameters; height 6. The other 
form is extremely sharply keeled and lenticular, with an angulate 
lunate mouth, and a narrower umbilicus than the last, or even than the 
Cherra tapeina, but it has the same simple sculpture, differmg in this 
from the Shan hills form, which it otherwise resembles. It mea- 
sures 174 millem. by 16, and 9 in height. 

The next locality to the south in the Irawady valley at which I 
obtained forms of this type was at Thayet Myo. I have already re- 
ferred to the variety prevailing there, as well as at Prome and Akou- 
toung. Asa rule, the shells are small, thin, horny, and more or less 
hispid, very variable in the height of the spire, sharply keeled and 
with very fine, flexous striation. The major diameter is about 10 to 
12 millem. on an average. 

At Henzada, and in its neighbourhood, another form prevails. It 
is also met with at Akoutoung, but is rare, and it passes into the 
flatter form there prevailing. The Henzada shell has a much higher 
spire with very convex sides, and is, in fact, subcampanulate, the 
base, on the other hand, being flattened. It is sharply keeled, quite 
as sharply as the Akoutoung form, but it has the sculpture rather of 
H. tapeina than of rotatoria, and the epidermis, instead of being sub- 
hispid as in the latter shell, is merely granulate. A form, interme- 
diate both in height of spire and in sculpture between the Henzada 
and Akoutoung varieties, was found in the Arakan hills, between 
Prome and Tongoop. 

In the Bassein district, all the shells of this type are much the 
same. They have a sharp keel, moderate spire with convex sides, 
obtuse apex, and but little convexity beneath. They possess a granu- 
late epidermis and the sculpture of H. tapeina. 

The specimens with the highest spires, from Henzada, approximate 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 93 


in form to the Cambodia H. repanda, Pir., and may perhaps be 
identical. 

Tt will be seen how variable the forms are. The spire varies from 
flat to almost bell-shaped, the periphery from sharply keeled to angu- 
late, the whorls from subconvex to flat or nearly so; nor is there great- 
er constancy in the form of the mouth, the sculpture, the epidermis, 
or the breadth of the umbilicus. Distinct as many of the varieties 
appear to be, they all pass gradually into each other, and with the 
exceptions already described, I believe all the forms are most safely 
classed as varieties of one species. Whether this should be called 
rotatoria or tapeina is difficult to say, without more precise acquaint- 
ance with the types of those shells.* 

Not far from the tapeina group must be classed H. castra, Bens., 
which, despite its thin horny shell and sharp peristome, is not a 
Nanina, but a true Helix. It occurs throughout the Arakan hills, 
wherever I have searched, but is everywhere scarce. It has the 
widest range in the Indian area of any known Helix, being found in 
the Himalayas, in Orissa, in Ceylon, and throughout Burma as far 
south as the Tenasserim provinces. | 

Hi. climacterica, Bens. is very probably a Nanina, but I have not 
had an opportunity of observing the animal. The shell was found by 
Captain Ingram on the road from Prome to Tongoop, and I found it 
again in the hills, at the southern extremity of the Henzada district, 
and in Bassein. It occurred also in Long island, in the Bassein river. 
It is much smaller in general than the typical Khasi hill shell; I 
possess specimens, apparently fully grown, but measuring only 13 or 
14 millemetres in their major diameter. 

H., hariola, Bens. is a true Helix, and is found chiefly on trees near 
Thayet Myo and Prome. It isa rare shell. Near Ava it is replaced 
by a large sharply carinate form, which I found abundant at Thinga- 
dan, on the Irawady, about 80 miles north of Mandélé. This shell so 
closely resembles H. capitiwm, Bens., that I am much disposed to 
consider them identical, a view in which Mr. Benson, however, does 
not agree. At Puppa hill, near Pagan, already referred to as the 


* Mr. Benson, to whom I sent specimens, considers all the forms above men- 
tioned to be varieties of rotatoria, but some, especially that from the Tsagain 
hills, appear to me to be at least as nearly allied to tapeina. 


13 


94 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


locality where H. Huttoni, Pir., is found, I met with an intermediate 
variety, between the carinate form and the typical H. hariola. 

The Plectopylis group is represented near Ava by H. perarcta, de- 
scribed above, and further south by H. leiophis, Bens. This shell 
occurs near Thayet Myo, but I found it abundantly only at Akou- 
toung. Another form, which may be a small variety of lecophas, but 
which shews some differences in the internal plication, also occurs 
near Thayet Myo. At Prome, close to the Pagoda, I found H. Fed- 
deni, (described above) which, however, appeared very rare, as I only 
obtained two perfect specimens, despite much search. 20 or 30 miles 
south of Akoutoung, I found H. Karenorwm in abundance, and 2 or 3 
specimens of the large variety of the same shell still further south in 
the Arakan hills, nearly due west of Henzada. Elsewhere in the 
Henzada district and throughout Bassein, no species of the Burmese 
form of Plectopylis was met with, but the Himalayan and Khasi 
H. plectostoma, Bens. abounded south of the town of Bassein in sever- 
al places, Pyema Khyoung, Long Island, &. It was also found by 
Captain Ingram in Arakan, near Tongoop. 


Bulimus. 


A variety of the sinistrorse Bulimus Sinensis, Bens., measuring 26 
millem. in length and 15 in diameter, occurs near Prome. It has 
generally two dark stripes round the body whorl, but some specimens 
have other stripes, usually 3, above the periphery. Occasional speci- 
mens were met with further south. At Tongoop in Arakan, I found 
a much smaller variety, measuring only 20 millem. in length, and 124 
in diameter. At Akyab I also found this small variety ; some shells 
being entirely yellow without any stripes, like Mr. Theobald’s Mergui 
specimens, 

B. putus, Bens. is rather common at Akoutoung, less so at Thayet 
Myo, and scarce to the south : I found it, however, occasionally, in the 
Bassein district. 

B. pullus, Gray, occurs near Ava; but not, so far as I am aware, in 
Pegu. Specimens of B. cenopictus, Hutton, were also met with in 
Upper Burma. JB. gracilis, Hutton, occurs throughout Burma appa- 
rently. I have found a rather dwarf variety in Ava, Pegu and 
Arakan, and have received it from Molmein. 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Malacology, 95 


Achatina. 

Achatina tenwispira, Bens., of small size, is common at Akoutoung 
and further south. A small variety of A. crassilabris, Bens., occurs 
in Arakan, and another form, perhaps distinct, but closely allied, was 
found in the Shan hills near Ava. The species of Achatina do not 
appear to be numerous in Burma; they attain their maximum in the 
Indian area in the Western Ghats, and the hills of South India and 
Ceylon, and their numbers diminish to the eastward. 

Vitrina, 

Vitrina prestans, Gould, differing in no respect from the Molmein 
shell, and V. gigas, Bens., equally identical with the Khasi form, are 
both met with throughout the Arakan hills, though sparingly. A 
smaller species, which I had looked upon as the young of V. gagas, 
has been correctly separated by Mr. Theobald, and will doubtless be 
described by him. 

Ennea and Pupa. 

Ennea bicolor was met with near Tongoop in Arakan, and at one or 
two places in Pegu. Asin many other localities throughout its wide 
range, it is a scarce shell. 

Pupa Avanica, Bens. occurs near Ava. I found it abundantly on a 
small hill, a few miles north of Mandélé. 


Streptaxis. 

Besides the species above described from Arakan, a smaller form 
occurs in Pegu, which I consider a variety of S. Andamanica, Bens., 
the only difference I can detect being in the sculpture, which is some- 
what finer in the Pegu shells. 


Hypselostoma. 
I have nothing to add to the particulars of the distribution of the 
two species of Hypselostoma beyond those given in a preceding number 
of these contributions, 
CYcLOSTOMACEA, 


Cyclophorus. 

In the Shan hills east of Ava, I found two forms of large turbinate 
Cyclophort, one apparently a variety of C. speciosus, Phil., the other 
so closely allied that I doubt if it is wise to describe it as distinct. 
C’, speciosus does not appear to occur in Northern Pegu, but I found 


96 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


it at Rangoon, close to the Pagoda, abundantly south of Bassein, and 
at Tongoop in Arakan. At Akyab I found some dead specimens, 
which may possibly belong to this species, but they are thinner, with 
a rather narrower umbilicus, and less broadly expanded peristome, and 
one specimen is subangulate at the periphery. In these characters 
they appear to be intermediate between the Burmese C. speciosus, 
Phil., and the Khasi hill C. Pearsonz, Bens. 

At the base of the Shan hills, and also at Mya Leit Doung, I found 
the small species referred by Mr. Benson to C. cornu venatorium, Sow. 
Some living specimens at the former locality shewed the operculum to 
be normal. 

At Mya Leit Doung occurs also C. eryptomphalus, Bens. of which 
I obtained fresh specimens, with the colour and epidermis perfect. 
When in this state, it is the handsomest of the Burmese Cyclophori, 
and equal in beauty of colourmg to C. Svamensis, Sow., the dark 
blackish brown colour of the upper surface of the shell contrasting 
finely with the inregular zigzag white lines. The mouth, in my 
specimens, shews no distinct duplication: it is much thickened and 
expanded, as in C. speciosus or C. Svamensis, 

C. fulguratus, Pir., I did not find further north than Puppa hill. 
At Thayet Myo and Prome it is very abundant, and it occurs more 
sparingly throughout the Prome and Henzada districts, together with 
C. Theobaldianus, Bens, and C. patens, W. Blanf. C fulguratus is a 
handsome shell, varying greatly in size, my largest specimens from 
Thondoung, south of Thayet Myo, measuring 38 millem. by 30, the 
smallest, a dwarf specimen, also from Thayet Myo, only 20 millem. 
by 15}. ; 

Mr. Theobald, in a paper published in this Journal for 1863, 
(XXXIII. p. 376,) classes my C. patens asa variety of C. fulguratus. 
The types of both species occur together at Thayet Myo, and are very 
distinct, C. patens having a broad, rather thin disk-like expanded 
peristome, while the lip of C. fulguratus is much thicker but only 
moderately expanded. C. patens also is much smoother. However, 
intermediate forms may possibly occur, as they do between many other 
Burmese species. ; 

At Tongoop in Arakan, and on Ramzri island, I found a variety of 
the large C. aurantiacus, Schum. It approaches C. Theobaldianus 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 97 


Bens., but has flatter whorls, a sharper keel, a more acute apex, and 
rather less strongly marked sculpture. 

A small turbinate species of Cyclophorus, which I found at a con- 
siderable height on the Arakan hills between Prome and Tongoop, 
with a rounded periphery and very narrow umbilicus, requires compa- 
rison with (@. scwrra, Bens. Another form, with a subangulate peri- 
phery, was met with in Bassein district, and a third, rather larger, but 
otherwise identical, in Ramri island. All of these may be varieties of 
the same shell. All possess a very narrow umbilicus, a thin white 
expanded lip, and minute sculpture. 

None of the small discoid Cyclophori, so far as I am aware, occur in 
Pegu. C. hispidulus, W. Blanf., I described in a previous paper as 
occurring at Mya Leit Doung, Ava. C. calyx, Bens. is stated by 
Mr. Theobald to occur at Akoutoung, Pegu, and that locality has been 
quoted for it by Mr. Benson in describing the shell, and repeated by 
Pieiffer in Suppl. Mon. Pneum. p. 56. I think some mistake must 
have been made by Mr. Theobald in arranging and labelling the very 
extensive collections which he made in 1854-55, for the shell abounds 
in Molmein, while, although I have repeatedly searched all round the 
Akoutoung hills, I have not met with it. 

Leptopoma. 

In a previous paper (J. A. S. B. for 1862) reference was made to 
the occurrence of the Tenasserim L. aspirans, Bens., in Arakan, near 
Tongoop, and in the Bassein district of Pegu. It was found in great 
abundance in Long Island in the Bassein river. I also found speci- 
mens close to Akyab, in the hills on the opposite (south) side of the 
harbour. Some of these last are rather larger than the typical form, 
and measure 14 by 103 millemetres in the two diameters and 12 in 
height ; they are also smoother, wanting the raised spiral lines, and 
the last whorl is rounded or subangulate near the mouth: but other 
specimens are scarcely distinguishable from typical shells from Tenas- 
serim, among which also some of the above characters, and especially 
the sculpture, are variable. 

Pterocyclos. 

Pt. pullatus, Bens., has only been found near Akoutoung. In 
Arakan, near Tongoop, and again at Akyab, I found a species closely 
allied to Pt. parvus, Pearson. The Akyab specimens possess their 


98 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


opercula, which is flat like that of Pt. pullatus, and not convex as in 
Pt. rupestris, &c. These shells also closely resemble a species collected 
by Mr. Theobald at Cherra Poonjee, and referred by Mr. Benson to 
Pt. Albersi, Pir., which has a convex operculum, and a peculiarly 
shaped wing. The specimens from Tongoop and its neighbourhood 
had a much thicker epidermis than those from Akyab, and were 
larger, but otherwise similar.* 

No form of Cyclotus is known from Burma. I have shewn, in a 
paper published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for 
June, 1864, that the Cyclophorus calyx group approaches very closely 
to the true Cycloti, and represents them; while the Cycloti of India 
(e. g. C. subdiscoideus, Sow.) are allied to Cyclostoma, haying the 
peculiar cleft foot and mode of reptation of that genus. I have pro- 
posed to place them in a new genus, Cyclotopsis. 

Alyceus. 

Much concerning the distribution of the numerous species of this 
genus has been communicated in previous papers. A brief recapitula- 
tion may be useful. 

A. Ave, W. Blanf., is the only form as yet found on the Shan hills, 
east of Ava. A. Vulcani, W. Blanf., occurs at Puppa hill, Pagan. 
About Thayet Myo, A. sculptilis, Bens., is abundant, especially on 
the hills a few miles south of the town, where also A. arnullatus, 
Bens., was found in very small numbers, its minute size doubtless 
rendering the search for it difficult. A few specimens of a small 
variety of A. wmbonalis, Bens., first appeared here. They have a 
“yetro-relict’’ outer peristome, and coarse sculpture on the upper 
whorls. The typical variety is rather common at Akoutoung, the 
original locality. I found this species again at one spot, a little north 
of Bassein, near the village of Kani. The older specimens obtained 
there, and others from the base of the Arakan hills, west of Prome, 
had the outer peristome retro-relict as in the Thayet Myo variety, a 
peculiarity I never observed in the typical Akoutoung form. 


% Since the above was written, I have heard from Mr. Benson, who has kind- 
ly compared the species with Pt. parvus. In the latter, the wing runs up the 
penultimate whorl, while the wing and sinus of the Akyab and Tongoop species 
resemble those of Pt. pullatus. In other respects the form resembles Pt. parvus. 
Tt may be distinguished as Pt. Arakanensis, n. sp. I have not specimens at 
hand, so cannot add a complete description. 


1865. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 99 


At Akoutoung I also found A. humilis, W. Blanf., and at the same 
place, at Thondoung and at Yenandoung, two hills about 20 miles 
further south, I found a variety of A. Ingrami, W. Blanf., rather 
larger than the type from Tongoop in Arakan, and measuring 7 
millem. in the larger diameter. 

Another form of the same shell, with a less distinct subangulation 
of the periphery, and rather closer sculpture on the upper whorls, 
oceurred at Moditoung, on the Prome and Tongoop road, with 
A. graphicus, W. Blant, A. succineus, W. Blanf., neither of which 
has been found elsewhere, and one form of A. vestitus, W. Blanf. : 
A. nitidus, W. Blanf. and A. polygonoma, W. Blanf., were first found 
on the same road, but nearer to Tongoop. The latter I afterwards 
obtained in two or three places south of Bassein, the specimens being 
a little larger (6 and 5 millem. in their two diameters) than those first 
found. A. vestitus has only been found in the Arakan hills on the 
confines of the Henzada and Prome districts. 

Adding to these the two new species above described, A. politus 
from near Cape Negrais, and A. glaber from Akyab, we have 14 
species described from Ava, Pegu, and Arakan, besides 3 more from 
Molmein and Tenasserim, altogether nearly half the known species of 
the genus. 


Pupina. 

A species of Pupina occurs at Thayet Myo, Prome, Akoutoung, &e., 
closely resembling P. artata, Bens. from Molmein, but rather stouter 
in form and with a somewhat thicker peristome, which is frequently 
but not always orange in colour, instead of white. These differences 
do not appear, however, to warrant specific distinction, especially as 
there is much variation in the form of typical specimens of P. artata. 
A variety from Ava is closer to the type. A small form, probably 
another variety, occurred upon the Arakan hills near Prome. It is 
only 4 millem. long, but the specimens are unfortunately not quite 
fresh. My own specimens of P. artata trom Molmein are but 6 
millem. long. The operculum in fresh specimens is horny, not 
testaceous, the white appearance being produced by weathering, and 
I suspect the apparently paucispiral character to be due to the rapid 
increase of the interior whorls, which rest one upon the other, as in 


100 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


Cataulus. Near the}periphery, the whorls are more numerous, but 
their boundaries are indistinct. 

I have in this and other papers, already given all the details con- 
nected with the occurrence of the four species of Diplommatina as yet 
described from Burma. The only known Helicina from Northern 
Burma is also described above. 

Georissa. 

T have described (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. for June 1864) as a 
distinct genus, under this name, the species of Burmese and Khasi 
shells referred to Hydrocena by Mr. Benson, both the animal and 
operculum differing from those in that genus. But one species is 
known to exist in Pegu, G. pyzis, Bens., and I have met with that 
in many places west of the Irawady, from Thayet Myo to south of 
Bassein. G. Frustrillum, Bens., I only met with at the original local- 
ity, Mya Leit Doung, Ava. 


Tt is evident that two very distinct zoological provinces exist in 
Burma, exclusive of Martaban and Tenasserim, which form a third, 
characterized by the appearance of several Malayan generic types, such 
as Raphaulus, Hybocystis and Rhiostoma, and others apparently pecu- 
liar, as Sophina. The two northern provinces are: 1st, Arakan, with 
the southern part of Pegu near the sea, enjoying a very humid climate. 
2nd, Upper Burma, with, in many parts, a very dry climate. The 
boundary in the Irawady valley may be drawn roughly above 
Henzada, although species belonging to each fauna, as is usually the 
case, pass over the border. The first province, besides a considerable 
number of peculiar species, is especially characterized by forms 
common, on the one hand, to the Khasi hills, and even to the Hima- 
layas, and, on the other hand, to Tenasserim. Hxamples of the first 
are Helix plectostoma, Bens., H. delibrata, Bens., H. castra, Bens., &e. ; 
of the second, Cyclophorus awrantiacus, Schum., C. speciosus, Phil., 
Leptopoma aspirans, Bens., Nanina honesta, Gould, &e. In the Ava 
province, on the other hand, the forms which have also been found in 
India_are mostly inhabitants of the plains, such as Helia similaris, 
Fer., Bulimus pullus, Gray, and B. ceenopictus, Hutt. The genus 
Hypselostoma has as yet only been found within this province, or close 
to its borders. It is rich in species of Plectopylis, and in varieties or 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Matacology. 101 


allies of H. stmilaris. The Arakan Yoma north of Henzada separates 
the two provinces; the southern portion of the range, which is very 
low, rarely exceeding 1000 feet, is solely occupied by species belong- 
ing to the Arakan fauna. These provinces are also characterized by 
distinct forms of mammals and birds, and there is a great difference in 


their vegetation. 


In a list of Burmese shells, published by Mr. Theobald in 
J. A. S. B. for 1857, (Vol. XXVI. p. 251) occur the names of 
HI. petila, Bens., and H. mensula, Bens., from Thayet Myo, and 
H. precaria, Bens. from Tenasserim. These shells have never been 
described, and Mr. Theobald in this, as in other instances, has publish- 
ed lists of manuscript names communicated to him, some of which 
have subsequently proved to have been given in error. It is, I think, 
to be regretted, that in a recent paper J. A. 8. B. for 1863, Vol. 
XXXII. p. 374, Mr. Theobald has again included one of these aban- 
doned names, viz. H. petila, and he has also published the names of 
several of the species described above, and similarly communicated to 
him in manuscript. One of those thus published, Alyceus scepticus, 
has proved, on more careful comparison, and when additional speci- 
mens from other localities were procured, to be only a variety of 
A, Ingrami, and not a distinct species. Several of the names in 
Mr. Theobald’s paper are incorrectly given, e. g. Helix helicofera for 
Hi, helicifera, H. caussia for H. causia, H. pausa for H. pansa but 
these are probably errors of printing. The practice of including, 
amongst lists of species, manuscript names, without any reference 
to the fact of their being unpublished, and consequently of no 
authority, is much to be deprecated, as tending to confusion and the 


multiplication of synonyms.* 


Postscript —Since the above paper was penned, now nearly 6 months 
ago, I have received Mr. Theobald’s “ Notes on some Indian and 
Burmese Helicide, &c.” published in this Journal for last year, pp. 


* Besides the shells above mentioned in the Burmese list, the names of many 
other undescribed species occur in the paper, while many described species are 
omitted, 


14 


102 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


238, &e., which calls for a few remarks. Although I differ in many 
points from Mr, Theobald’s views as put forward in this paper and in 
the earlier one of 1863, especially those on the origin, migration, and 
distribution of specific forms, I see no object to be attained im answer- 
ing at length opinions long since refuted, as I believe, by far more 
competent authorities and far abler writers. The works of Hdward 
Forbes, Owen, Lyell and a host of others besides Darwin, will serve to 
shew the arguments relied upon by the great majority of hving natur- 
alists, to prove the doctrine of “ specific centres,” that is the theory 
that all members of the same species, whether existing or dead, have 
descended, not necessarily from one pair, but from one parent stock, 
living in one spot. To call this, however, the Darwinian theory, as 
Mr. Theobald appears to do. would be paralleled by calling the 
earth’s rotation round the sun the Newtonian theory. In each case 
the earlier theory is only a necessary step in the line of argument, and 
the hypothesis of the origin of species by means of Natural Selection 
is no more involved in the doctrine of specific centres, than was the 
theory of universal gravitation in that of the rotation of the planets 
around the sun. 

li I refer briefly to one remark of Mr. Theobald’s, (that im his first 
paper, J. A. 8. B. for 1863, Vol. XXXII. p. 376) it is because it 
appears to me the only argument of any importance which he has 
advanced in favour of his opinions. The question of the distribution 
of fresh water shells and especially of the bivalves, with their limited 
powers of progression, is a well worn argument in favor of the 
sporadic origin of species; that is, of the descent of each species from 
many parent stocks, existing in distinct and separate localities. But 
if all the facts of the case are fairly stated, there appears much, even 
in this instance, in favour of the doctrme of specific centres. The 
facts are briefly these. Many species of. Unio, e. g. U. marginalis, 
Lam. exist throughout a large tract of country, in almost every river 
and stream, and even in many ponds and marshes, although these 
rivers, &c. have no fresh water communication with each other what- 
ever, and the animal is incapable of living in the sea, or of traversing 
the land. On the other hand, the area inhabited by this species is 
continuous; that is to say, the same species does not occur in tropical 
Asia and tropical America, for instance. Other species are restricted 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Mulacology. 103 


to a single river and its feeders, as is the case, so far as is known, with 
U. olivarius, Lea. In other cases again, as in U. ceruleus, Lea, and 
its allies, one form is found over a considerable area, as Bengal, and in 
separate rivers, and is replaced at a distance, as in Scind and 
Western India, by forms which may either be considered as distinct 
species, or as local varieties, according to the value attached to specific 
rank. In the intermediate country of Central India, we find interme- 
diate forms. Now it is surely more philosophical to assume that we 
are only partially acquainted with the phenomena attending the means 
of distribution enjoyed by animals of low organisation, especially in 
the young state,* than to arrogate to ourselves complete knowledge of 
the subject, and to assert that no means of passage exist. If we sup- 
pose that facilities for migration exist, or have existed, with which we 
are unacquainted, all the facts above detailed are at once accounted for 
in the simplest manner, whereas on the theory that the species were 
originally created throughout the whole area, no explanation whatever 
is afforded of the limitation of that area, no cause shewn why the 
same species does not exist in other areas where the conditions are 
equally favourable for its existence, and still less is any explanation 
afforded of the gradual divergence of varieties at a distance from the 
typical form. Let it be distinctly noted that the case of mollusks 
and of other animals inhabiting fresh water is an exceptional one; in 
the vast majority of the members of the animal and vegetable king- 
dom, the phenomena are far more strongly in favour of the theory 
of specific centres. 

On another question, more especially treated in Mr. Theobald’s 
second paper, viz.: the impracticability of drawing a line between 
species and varieties in many cases, I entirely coincide; indeed in the 
preceding pages will be found remarks upon the varieties of H. sem- 
Jaris and its allies, and of H. rotatoria and its allies, similar in pur- 
pose to those of Mr. Theobald. LI must, however, object to the 
practice of publishing names, whether of varieties or species, without 
any description, or with such extremely inadequate details, as in the 
case of Helix Arakanensis and H. geiton. I can only say that, 


*Tt should not be forgotten that the ciliated fry of the Unionidae have very 
considerable power of locomotion, and that even the adults are amongst the 
most vagrant of bivalve shells, 


164 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


although I probably possess the former, I am totally unable to tell, 
from Mr. Theobald’s account, to which of the numerous varieties of 
H. rotatoria he has applied the name. Again, in this paper as in 
former ones, manuscript names are introduced without any reference 
to the fact of their being unpublished ; and, in two cases at least, I 
believe I can shew that these names would never have appeared, had 
they not been cited by Mr. Theobald. 

Ist. H. wnicincta was a manuscript name of Mr. Benson’s for a shell 
from Western India, described by Pfeiffer as H. propinqua. Mr. Ben- 
son’s name of course was never published, nor would it have seen the 
light but for Mr. Theobald, who, in his paper in 1863, gave H. uni- 
cincta as a species excluded from his list, without referring to the fact 
that no such name existed except in manuscript. In the present 
paper, H. propingua, Pir., is first given as a distinct species, and a 
few lines further on quoted as a synonym of H. wnicincta ; thus 
giving precedence to the manuscript name, in opposition to the laws 
of scientific nomenclature. 

2nd. H. anoplewris was a manuscript name given by Mr. Benson to 
some shells sent by Mr. Theobald to England, I believe in 1860 or 
1861. Mr. Theobald having kindly furnished me with specimens of 
the same shell, I found, on comparing them with the types of 1. orna- 
tissima, Bens., of which I had a good series, (the shell was first col- 
lected by my brother and myself and described from our specimens) 
that the species were identical in every respect. I wrote to Mr. Ben- 
son to tell him my opinion and on recomparing the forms, he found 
that he had been misled by an abnormal peculiarity in the solitary 
specimen of H. ornatissima which he had retained. 

Another name mentioned by Mr. Theobald, Helix submissa, Bens., 
is equally, so far as I am aware, undescribed. 

In the group placed by Mr. Theobald next after that in which the 
above shells are included, there is evidently a misprint, in the five 
shells from H. im/rendens, Gould, to H. sanis, Bens., being classed 
together. I have no doubt Mr. Theobald’s intention was to class 
together the three first, and, as a separate species, the two last.* 


* T am authorized by Mr. Theobald to notify that this error was due to a 
misinterpretation of his manuscript. His intention was that suggested in the 
text. Hp, 


1865. Contributions to Indian Malacology. 105 


As regards the new species described, Liman viridis, if it has no 
internal shell, and none is mentioned, can scarcely be a Limax. The 
characters given are mostly unimportant, while essential characters, 
such as the position of the mantle and breathing pore, surface of the 
mantle and body, carination or roundness of the back, form of the 
jaw and lingual teeth, are omitted. What advantage is gained by 
publishing names for a genus and two species of slugs, of which 
Mr. Theobald has unfortunately no notes, is not clear. Vitrina Pegu- 
ensis is the shell referred to above as undoubtedly a well marked 
and distinct species. Streptawis Blanfordi and Pupina Blanfordi are 
also mentioned above, they being, I believe, varieties of S. Andama- 
nica, Bens., and P. artata, Bens., respectively. Streptaxis Burmanica 
I have described above, and as my description is more detailed, and 
taken from a better and more typical specimen than Mr. Theobald’s, 
I have retained it. On the other species I have nothing to add. 

In Mr. Theobald’s 1863 paper, he referred my Cyclophorus patens, 
as I have before stated, to C. fulgwratus. I can scarcely believe that 
he is now serious in proposing to unite these shells, because one is 
searce and the other abundant, although that is the sole reason assign- 
ed. Even in this point, however, Mr. Theobald is not quite correct. 
T have found C. patens in some places the more common shell of the 
two. 

On the question of the restriction of the genus Nanina, I can only 
say that Mr. Theobald’s ideas are totally at variance with those of 
Pfeiffer, Adams, Gray, Albers, and other authorities. On the other 
hand he is probably correct in his opinion that HZ. pansa and some 
other shells do not belong to the section Macrochlamys of Benson, 
with which I had classed them. 


106 Notes on the Sandstone formation, &c. [No. 2, 


Notes on the Sandstone formation, &c. near Buxa Fort, Bhootan 
Dooars.—By Captain UH. H. Gopwin Austen, £.2.G.S., Survey- 
or, Topographical Survey. Plate IV. 


[Received 26th April, 1865.—Read 3rd May, 1865. ] 


Having heard from Asst.-Surgeon Fergusson, R. A. at Buxa, that 
he had found several pieces of coal in the bed of a nulla below the 
position near Santrabari, I paid a visit to the spot accompanied by 
that officer. Buxa Fort, at 2,400 feet, is situated near the foot of the 
first range of hills, that rise above it on the north to a height of 6,000 
feet above the sea; this ridge being the continuation of the western 
water-shed of the Tzinchu, the river from Tassi Chotzong in Bhootan. 
The rock of this range is a well stratified gneiss, thick beds of quart- 
zite occurring in it, being even schistose in places. The plateau on 
which stands the Fort of Buxa is composed of debris and talus from 
the hills above, and is situated in a valley formed by spurs from the 
northern ridge. The eastern of these spurs is of the formation 
mentioned above, but the western is found to be of sandstone, 
having a light ochre tint, coarse and micaceous, with here and there 
water-worn pebbles in strings; its stratification not being so well 
marked as in the sandstones of the Siwalik group. The ridges on the 
west of this are all of this same formation, but do not extend much 
higher than 5,000 feet. As one proceeds down the western spur to 
Santrabari, the sandstone is soon hidden by a surface talus of the 
older rocks, and the rock in siti is only to be seen by descending 
into the deep ravines. Crossing the stream at Santrabari, proceeding 
east and topping a spur covered with sal trees, I descended into another 
ravine, very precipitous on the western side: here the sandstone was 
well displayed, and several pieces of the coal were soon found in the 
bed of the ravine. The outermost beds of sandstone are very soft, with 
a light bluish tinge, and in them the coal, properly speaking lignite, 
was discovered, occurring in lumps and strings: these lumps shewed 
the woody structure well, splitting in the direction of the fibre. The 
form of a portion of a tree pressed into an elliptical shape, was 
well seen in one instance, but I could find no impression of leaves, 


im, 
' 


panynaping: 


‘ 


Journ, As. Soe. Bengal. Vol. XXXIV. Part 2, Pl. IV. 
Section near 


BUXA, 
BHOOTAN DOOARS. 


6060 Fut, 


Bhootia Stockade, 


\ Fort. 2,400 FE 


Santrabart 


1 of ( lignite)? 
<a | 


(Stqnea,) Hb Ho din Hsten Capt 


Surveyor, Top! Survey. 


Gness...... 


Sandstones with Lignite 


Cong larrer ates 0... sur. 


On Transfer Paper by Shaike Munnsehoddzens LITH: BY HOM. SMITH, SURVEYOR GENERALS, OFF/CE, GALCUTTA, JUNE (B65. 


1865.] Votes on the Sandstone formation, ée. 107 


The specimens had just the resemblance of drift wood imbedded in the 
sandstone. The dip was at a very high angle to the north, so that the 
beds were passed in succession going up the ravine, and had there been 
any thick seams, they must have been seen. Three hundred yards up 
the bed of the nulla, the softer sandstone was succeeded by one much 
harder, of a light colour and coarse texture. The lignite was found in 
this also, and the longest and thickest string yet seen was at this point. 
Yet, from the appearances of it and from so little lying in the water- 
courses, I did not think anything approaching to a seam was likely to 
be found; and, not having time to spare, I did not follow the ravine 
any higher. An inspection of the ravines to the east or west might 
bring to light larger masses of this lignite. The dip at this furthest 
point was N. H. by N. 70°. Inthe cliffs on the west, a very good section 
was obtained, and the highest beds, that appear upon the surface to be 
an unstratified talus, I now saw were horizontally bedded and resting 
quite unconformably on the sandstones below. These horizontal beds, 
of which about 150 feet was exposed, are composed of sandy clay and 
semi-angular gravel, with scattered large, partly water-worn masses of 
rock, some of large size. [ append a section (Plate IV.) to illustrate the 
Buxa formations, which, I trust, will make my description plainer. I did 
not succeed in finding any fossils :—a longer search would perhaps have 
ended successfully,—so that it is impossible to say in what formation 
this isolated mass of sandstone will find a place.* The plateau of the 
Buxa position is probably the highest level of the horizontally strati- 
fied gravels. I believe some specimens of the lignite have already 
been forwarded to the Superintendent of the Geological Survey. 
Some specimens in which the woody texture is well displayed shall 
be sent by first opportunity. 


* See a remark on this head in the Proc. As. Soc. for May, 1865, p. 91. 


108 Note on Lagomys Curzonie, Hodgson. [No. 2, 


Note on Lagomys Curzonie, Hodgson. By Dr. F. SvortczKa. 
[Received 7th December, 1864,—Read 7th December, 1864, | 


In the catalogue of the Mammalia of the Asiatic Museum, Mr. Blyth 
mentions Lagomys Curzonie, Hodgs. as a desideratum.* Mr. Adams 
quotes a “ Lagomys, sp.?” as occurring plentifully in Ladak, (Proc. 
Zool. Soc. Lond. 1858, p. 520) and Major Cunningham also speaks 
of a ‘smaller species of hare, or Lagomys”’ as extremely common all 
over Tibet. (Cunningham’s Ladak, p. 204.) 

On my visit this year to the eastern provinces of Ladak I was 
fortunate enough to procure several specimens of what I believe to be 
Lagomys Curzoné, Hodgs. (Vide Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 1857, 
Vol. XXVI, p. 207 and Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 1858, I. p. 80.) but 
Mr. Hodgson’s description of this animal is very brief, so that it is 
hardly possible to recognise the species among the numerous members 
of this genus. The following description is founded on four specimens, 
of three of which the exact measurements are given below. 

General hue of the upper body pale buff fulvous, with very slight 
rufous tint and tipped with dark brown; below whitish, with translu- 
cent dusky blue. The larger hairs of the fur measure about {th of an 
inch ; the lower part, for more than half their length, of a dark, slaty 
blue colour, with silky lustre; the next portion pale fulvous and 
the tip dark brown or black. The fur is full and very soft, as 
Hodgson remarks, and can be readily distinguished from that of 
L. rufescens, Gray. Chiefly in old specimens, there are, on the sides 
of the upper portion of the body, a few long hairs intermingled, which 
measure up to one and a quarter inches ; these are almost or entirely 
of a black colour. 

On the lower part of the body the hairs are, for two-thirds of their 
length, dark slaty blue, and the rest pale. 

The head measures nearly always one-fifth of the total length of the 
animal. The hairs on it are much shorter, and tinged with a dark 
rufous tint above; on the sides of the snout they are pale grey, in 
front of the eyes and below, pale white, while on the sides of the head 
itself there is a slight rufous tint marked, which is a little stronger all 
round the neck, and extends somewhat farther back on the upper body. 
The hairs round the neck are rather longer, but only half their length 

* 1863, p. 133, foot note. 


‘ee 


1865.] Note on Lagomys Curzonie, Hodyson. 109 


of a slaty colour, the rest being pale rufous; but a few of them are 
tipped with black. 

The end of the snout, and of the upper and lower lips are dark 
blackish. The hairs of the moustaches are very long; some of them 
measuring three inches: the upper ones are chiefly black, the lower 
white, or half black, half white. The ears are comparatively rather 
large, oval, terminating with a very obtuse point; they are well 
covered with hair, thickest on the outside: the hairs on the inner 
surface being pale yellow, those on the outer much longer and softer, 
and distinctly rufous. The feet and soles are in accordance with the 
general hue, of.a pale fulvous colour, only still lighter, and slightly, 
and only partially tinged with a rusty tint ; the toes are black, claws 
long and dark brown. 

The young animal does not differ in colour very much from the 
old one. It is usually much paler and the difference between the hue 
on the upper and lower portion of the body is far less distinctly 
marked, The slaty hue of the inner fur is also more translucent and 
the rufous tint on the head and the hinder part of the ears not so 
strong. 

The measurements of three specimens from Rupshu, the eastern 
province of Ladak, are as follow :— 


a. b. €. 

Total length of the animal, ... ... ¢.90 9.00 9.50 inches. 
Length of the skull, ... Pte AMER) Re OA Wi aso ees 
Proportion of the length of the seat to 

the total length, we SOO a Osa ORs) 
Width of the skull, ... ROL Sy aael Deven ln emer 
Proportion of width to length of the 

skull, She ae po OO) Oroe Oro 
Length from the snout to the ENiCrme cn Oh ion nie) Oem (inva: 
Length from the eye to the ear, ee Ongar eto WET es 
Length of the ear, ... fee ce O02 YI UG On ie 
Width of the ear,. Ee hU DO w VOLS mC OH maine 
Proportion of sridth to reals of the 

ear, a nm ee OSU OS Oe! 
Length of fore foot and nails, sco) KURO Lalon Mikel tye 
Tiength of himd foot and mails; ... .... 1.25 1.50 1.43 _,, 


i10 Note on Lagomys Curzonie, Hodgson. [No. 2, 


(a.) Young specimen from above the Gyagar lake in Rupshu. 

(b.) An old, full grown specimen from near Kozak on the Chomo- 
riri lake in Rupshu. 

(c.) Judging from the teeth, this seems to. be a very old specimen, 
from the east side of the Lanak pass, west of Haule. 

This latter specimen has the fur considerably worn off and injured. 
ft found in the skin of this and some other specimens, which I shot in 
the Puga valley, a great number of larve of an @strus, which causes 
the injury and a sort of roughness of the fur. As the tips of the hair 
get worn off, the hue becomes in some places dark spotted, which is 
caused by the slaty colour of the interior portions. 

It will be seen from the given measurements, that the skull of the 
young animal is in proportion to the entire body, a little longer and 
broader than that of the adult, and the ears are also somewhat larger. 
These proportions may be often observed in Mammalia of different ages. 

Lagomys Curzone is one of the largest known species of the genus. 
Our largest specimen measures 94 inches, which is only one line less, 
than the greatest measurement of Lagomys alpinus, Pallas. (Vide 
Waterhouse Mammalia, Vol. II., Rodentia, p. 16.) Mr. Hodgson’s 
specimens were much smaller and probably younger. I observed 
several which were not longer than seven inches, but most of them 
were about nine inches long. 

The people of Korzok called L. Curzome, Phise-karin, which 
means as I was informed, tazl-less Phise. Phise or Pheese is the 
name of Phaiomys Cucurus, Schreber, which lives here associated 
with the Lagomys and Arctomys. The name Phise-karin, I was 
told, is Tibetan, and the Ladak name for LZ. Curzonieé is Sabra. 
Hodgson gives the name abra ; it is, however, well known, that the 
letter s before many words is in some parts of Tibet pronounced, in 
others not so. 

The first place, where I met with L. Curzome, was a little above 
the junction of the Chomoriri with the Para valley at a height of 
about 15,500 feet above the level of the sea. It does not live usually 
at a lower elevation than this; and if otherwise, as in the lower parts 
of the Puga valley (14,500 feet,) it is always scarce. Round the 
Chomoriri lake, where there is comparatively plenty of vegetation, it 
is associated with Phaiomys Cucurus, Blyth, and Arctomys bobac, 


1865.] Note on Lagomys Curzone, Hodgson. 111 


Schreber.* The first never frequents a great elevation above the 
bottom of the valleys and is especially numerous in the neighbourhood 
of streams. Arctomys bobac (called by the Tibetans Phya) makes its 
very deep burrows mostly on the sides of the valleys and near their 
bottom; it ascends, however, the slopes of the hills in this portion of 
Ladak to a height of 17,800 feet. This greatest elevation, at which I 
observed it, was near the Samunda-la, south-east of the Chomoriri ; 
while the lowest was in the Para valley about 15,400 feet. It lives 
probably lower than this. 

L. Curzonie ranges, however, somewhat higher. TJ noticed it on 
the top of the Lanak pass at an elevation of 18,672 feet, where only 
two minute plants existed, Stracheya Tibetica, Bth. and Capsella Thom- 
soni, Hf. both flowering in August. It is found associated with 
Corcus tibetanus, Hodgs., Gyps fulvus, Gmel. and a new species of 
Procarduelis, among birds; an Argynnis, among butterflies and some 
common flies, forming the highest observed animal life in these 
hills. In fact it is difficult to design a limit to the height up to which 
L. Curzonié lives. I believe, it ranges as high as any trace of 
vegetation exists, which would be here about 19,000 feet, or very 
near it. Between the two given limits of the Para valley and 
19,000 feet, it is seen in great abundance all over the eastern portion 
of Ladak. It is certainly the species of Adams and Cunningham, as 
there is to my knowledge, no other Lagomys here, at least none so 
common. Its geographical range must extend farther to the east and 
south-east, as Mr. Hodgson obtained his specimens from the district 
of Chumbi, (north-west of Sikkim ?). I have not observed it Sourm 
of the Bara-latse range, either in Spiti or in the south-eastern part 
of Lahoul, the Chandra valley; although Phaiomys Cucwrus does 
occur in both provinces and even in Kulu. In Spiti, Lagomys Curzo- 
nié is represented by the smaller L. Royle, Ogilby, which there lives 
between 12,500 (above Lari) and 16,000 feet, but usually about 
13,000 feet. 


* Mr. Blyth (Cat. of the Mammalia ofthe Asiatic Museum, 1863, p. 109) unites 
and, I think, with good reason, Mr. Hodgson’s Arctomys tibetanus and hemachas 
lanus, [Himalayonus was not used by the first author] as well as Arct. fulvus, 
Eyers., with the species, which became first known through the travels of 
Pallas in Northern Asia, and which Schreber named A. bobac. 

+ Dr. Thomson (Travels, p. 144) mentions three plants on the Lanak pass, a 
little Arenaria or Stellaria and two Cruciferze, 


ven | Soe marl ny i! 


ele 


. o ; 
Li SRE area Matha ts BS 


Ll eeasewo nnn oleae Se 
if . j 4 i H Lat fen ae 
“ . ewes i 4 + 
‘a pee SRY Daren 16 Obes ee Th ER TA Brees 
y 33 ; 
‘ D j ea 
i ik ! y he a ree os) 
‘i f 4 
i ~t 7 
iS >t 
« 
Sie Na 
/ f HF 
‘ 
f i $ oy 
- aie i Lalas mise el koh 
\ id EE 
tet abe 
‘ bho Breer) i if fp 
i ) ig 
j f ei i 
t b... JHeeTEe UD yeah Cees ales Ri 3 
ted aii einale beuis addon Gaiiit Si teree) 
} 5 GALT D Aan atv ame De 
y 
des’ ‘ 


Plate IV. to illustrate Capt. Godwin Austen’s paper, will be issued 
with No. 3 of the Physical Science Part. 


ee ae erg he ak 3 SAN ngs wien son bata sd « és 


Myphed a dhs Wh 


ls ei 


JOURNAL 


OF TUE 


meal LO SOGiET Y. 


—}—. 
Part I1.—PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 


eee 


No. I1.—1865. 


~ 


Remarks on the Vegetation of the Islands of the Indus River.—By 
J. H. T. Arrcutson, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., F.L.S., Hxtr. Member, 
Royal Med. Soc., Edin., dc., Asst. Surgeon, Bengal Army. 

[ Received, 18th March, 1864. } 


As much interest is being attached to the local production of fire- 
wood for the use of the steamers that ply on the Indus river, I have 
the honor to forward the accompanying notes taken during a passage 
made up that river and its tributary, from Kotree to Mooltan, on 
board the steamer ‘ Havelock,’ Capt. Davis, Commander, which left 
Kotree on the 29th of August and reached Mooltan on the 16th of 
September. 

The river at the time of starting was at its highest, inundating 
much of the country and causing an immense number of islands to 
be formed in its course. 

It is the vegetation of these islands I would describe. It is not very 
extensive, but what there is of it is turned to much account and 
might be to more, — 

The following is a list of the Flora met with, viz. :— 

Acacia Arabica, L. 

A. Arabica, var Cupressina, 
Prosopis spicigera, L. 
Populus Euphratica, Oliv. 
8 


54 The Vegetation of the Islands of the Indus River. [No. 2, 


Tamarix Indica (= T. Gallica, L.) 
T. Dioica, Roxb. 
T. Orientalis. 
Phenix Dactylifera, L. 
Saccharum Munja, Roxb. 
S. spontaneum, L. 
8. eylindricum, Lam. 
Typha (angustifolia ?) 
Creeping amongst the above, climbing to the top of all, shewing off 
its lovely flowers, was Asclepias rosea, Roxb. in great beauty. 


Acacia Arabica, ‘Bubber’ (Scindee,) ‘Babool’ (Hind.) ‘ Kekur’ 
(Punjabee). A. A. var Cupressus, ‘ Caublee-bubber’ (Scindee). 

This tree with its variety grows in very great luxuriance and 
tolerably rapidly, and within 60 miles of Kotree it is in much greater 


abundance than further up the river; it here forms dense jungles 
and yields very fair timber. The tree itself is too valuable to be 
directly used for firewood, its chief timber being used for railway 
sleepers; the rest of the wood and branches only are converted into 
firewood or charcoal, and the bark and fruit reserved for tanning 
purposes, 

A tree (as it stands) that can yield from two to three sleepers, 
costs one Rupee, the buyer felling and carrying it away. White ants 
do not imjure the felled logs much, and the old wood is tolerably 
proof to their attacks. 

The timber of the Cupressiform variety is considered the better, 
being closer in grain, and harder than that of the common outspread- 
ing tree: being also of ‘greater length, and thus generally giving 
an additional sleeper. 

Prosopis spicigera, ‘ Kunda’ (Scindee,) ‘ Jand’ (Punjabee). 

This tree is not common-on the Balaas ; indeed it is scarcely to be 
seen in any quantity until we get above Sukker, and then chiefly on 
the mainland, where it is obtained largely, especially at one of the 
river wood stations called Jummalee. 

Its wood is good for fuel, but alas, too readily attacked by white 
ants. These insects seem to relish it:more than any other of the 
woods, and from the great loss it suffers from these destructive insects 


1865.] The Vegetation of the Fslands of the Indus River. 55 


whilst stacked, its collection for the supply of the steamers is 
prohibited. 

For the reasons. given against. its being stored for fuel, its timber 
is likewise not used by the natives for any purpose whatever, when 
other can be obtained. 

The fruit, however, called in. Scindee “ Singhar,” is.considered an 
excellent. vegetable, and is largely. eaten by the natives in. their thur- 
karies. 

Populus Euphratica, ‘Bahn’ (Scindee and Punjabee,) grows in great 
abundance on the Balaas, but more especially about a hundred miles 
above Kotree. It is a rapidly growing tree, producing very fair 
timber, with a white light wood, very useful for furniture and house- 
hold-work of a light nature, but which. does not, stand mueh. strain. 
It is a very dangerous. article as fuel in steamers, or when used for 
the railway, as the wood, owing to its lightness, flies up through the 
fiue when only half burnt. The officers commanding the steamers 
are very careful that none is ever taken on board, even by mistake, 
from the danger attendant on its use. 

The timber for furniture costs about 5 annas a cubic foot. 

Tamaria Indica, ‘ Laee’ (Scindee,) ‘ Jhao’ (Hind.) ‘ Furash’ (Pun- 
jabee). 

Yhis may be considered as the chief source of firewood from 
Mooltan to Kotree.. It grows in immense quantities, but above 
the union of the five rivers with the Indus, it becomes gradually 
replaced on the Balaa land by the Z. dzoica and it becomes more 
abundant on the mainland, where we find the 7. orientalis also 
occurring, but as a very much larger tree. These were all in 
blossom in September, presenting a very heath-like appearance just 
before the flowers expanded. The 7. Indica like all its congeners, 
grows very rapidly, producing in three or four years a deep red 
wood, very much like the Beef wood of. Australia. At this age 
it is best for fuel: the white and young wood makes but poor fuel, and 
is also rapidly destroyed by the white ant; whereas the red wood 
may lie for nearly four years without injury; but as it becomes 
completely dried and aged, it becomes more liable to the attacks of 
these insects. The cost of this wood at the river stations is 
15 Rupees for 100 maunds. 


56 The Vegetation of the Islands of the Indus River. [No. 2, 


Tamarix diowca, ‘ Pilchee,’ (Scindee and Punjabee,) first met with in 
any abundance on the Balaas near Bukree; above that station it 
gradually takes the place of Z. Indica. It is greatly used for all 
thatching purposes, basket-work, d&e. 

Tamarix orientalis, ‘ Asree-loua’ (Scindee,) is an unknown tree on 
the Balaas, but on the mainland it not unfrequently forms a prominent 
object im the landscape, generally near villages. The tree lives best 
in a dry and salt soil, where it very rapidly produces large timber, 
but this does not make such good fuel as the 7. Indica. 

The native names of these Tamarisks are much confounded even by 
the natives themselves. The name ‘ Furas’ in the Punjab is applied 
to all, but chiefly to 7’. Orzentalis. They are so very much like each 
other that this is not to be wondered at. Edgeworth, in his Flora 
Mallica, calls 7’. diowca, ‘ Lai,’ and 7. Galliica (= T. Indica) * Pilchi.’ 
I would consider the Scindee names as typical, from their being 
connected with something further than simply the tree as it grows, 
viz. in the one case the value of the wood for fuel, 7’. Indica, ‘ Laee,’ 
‘ Jhao ;’ in another the use of the shrub for thatching purposes and the 
known fact of this kind never producing wood, 7’ dioica, ‘ Pilchee ;’ 
and lastly with the fact that it forms a large tree, the wood of which 
is not so good for fuel, 7. Orientals, ‘ Asree-loua.’ 

Pheniaz dactylifera, is occasionally to be seen on the Balaa land 
between Sukker and Mooltan, where it is very common on the main- 
land also. A splendid grove of these trees, surrounding Sukker, is 
seen from a long distance off. After leaving Kotree some forty miles, 
we see none of this tree until Sukker comes in sight, whereas round 
Kotree it is very abundant, and at and near Mooltan it is also very 
abundant. 

Saccharum Munji, ‘ Moonj, (Scindee and Punjabee). Thousands 
of acres of river land are covered with this useful grass, the value of 
which might be greatly raised by the introduction of machinery 
for converting it into pulp for the Paper Maker. And Sukker would 
be the place for starting such an establishment, as it grows chiefly 
above Sukker, to which place it could be floated down the river at 
little or no cost. This very floating down would aid in the treatment 
required by all fibres to bring them into a fit condition for working. 


The surrounding country yields immense quantities of an Alkali 


1865.] The Vegetation of the Islands of the Indus River, 57 


(Sugee-muttee) with which the material could be cheaply bleached, 
then to be forwarded to England, to be converted there into finer pulp 
and paper. 

The great outcry at home since the commencement of the cotton 
famine has been for material, capable of being converted at a cheap 
rate, into paper of a fine quality. Coloured materials require much 
bleaching, and this in England is the expensive part of the process. 
Now if such a material as Moonj, which costs at the place of 
growth little more than the labour of cutting, could be bleached 
thoroughly with the alkali produced on the banks of the river, this 
would supply the great desideratum of the paper-makers. 

Ksparto (Stipa tenacissima) has been very largely used in England 
within the last three years, but its great drawback is the expense 
of bleaching it. 

- The Moonj is largely employed by the native boatmen in making | 
ropes for their boats, which they manufucture for themselves. 

Saccharum spontaneum, ‘Khaus’ (Scindee.) This grass grows in 
great luxuriance. It is chiefly used for thatching purposes, and 
makes tolerably good grazing for cattle, although as it. ages it 
becomes a very rough coarse grass, when the cattle seem to leave it 
alone. It begins to flower early in September, and its flowering has 
just ceased, when the S. Moonja commences to flower, which is about 
the beginning of October. 

Typha (angustifolia?) ‘Pun’ (Scindee,) is very common in the 
back waters, but more especially above Sukker. I cannot say it is 
even common below Sukker. The leaves are largely used for making 
matting (chuttie) and the soft down attached to the ripe fruit is used 
for stuffing pillows. The pollen is said by Lindley to be converted 
into bread in Scind. Although I made many enquiries relative to it, 
I could get no information about it. 

On examining the wood brought on board the steamer, (about which 
Capt. Davis gave me every information and assistance in his power, ) 
I found that nearly’ the whole of it consisted of the wood of the 
Tamarix Indica, and the wood was called Jhao. We occasionally 
took on board that of the Acacia Arabica called ‘Bubber.’ But I had 
to procure specimens of that of the Prosopis Spicigera called ‘ Kunda,’ 
and of the Populus Huphratica called ‘ Bahn,’ 


58 The Vegetation of the Islands of the Indus River: [No. 2; 


The Captain considered the billets that were large enough to be 
split into two, of the Jhao, when it was “as red as beef” as the best 
wood on the river. But his heart used to long for the wood he once 
got when up the Jhelum river. “ Cows, that’s the thing for driving 
the engines.” Olea Huropea, ‘Cow’ (Punjabee. ) 

Immense injury is done to the wood. after it is collected at the 
wood stations, by white ants, which will, in a very few days, if not 
carefully looked after, destroy a stack, leaving a mass of mud in place 
of the original wood. White ants will not attack the Jhao, if the 
wood is red, to the same extent that they do the other kinds of wood.. 

The soil of the Islands varies very much. It consists nearly 
altogether of a rich alluvial deposit at Kotree, gradually becoming 
more sandy as we ascend the river. This change to a sandy soil is 
very much more marked above Sukker, after which the soil really 
seems to be all sand with no earthy matter. Owing to this change 
in its composition as we gradually get above Kotree and approach ° 
Sukker those massings of the Acacia Arabica that we had down 
the river become less numerous and thinner: until at last by the 
time we have reached the junction of the five rivers with the 
Indus, we lose them altogether, as well as the Zamarix Indica, which 
is now replaced by the JZ. dioica. Moonj gets abundant above 
Sukker and the Islands are vety much less wooded, being more 
covered with grasses. 

I have no doubt that much of this river land which at present really 
lies waste, might be, with a little care and management, covered with 
trees capable of yielding both timber and firewood. We should look 
to timber as the ultimate object ; in doing so, we obtain firewood as a 
collateral result. In covering these islands with vegetation we aid 
in rendering them somewhat more permanent than they are at present, 
by the roots grasping and keeping together the soil. 

The following may be considered the history of one of these islands 
that may have remained permanent. 

In the month of September as the river falls, a mound of sand 
gradually appears, enlarging daily as the river becomes lower, and 
bare and barren. But as the September winds blow, they carry clouds 
of the seed of the Saccharum spontaneum from other islands; these 
iall on the soil and then readily germinate. Ina couple of months the 


1865.] The Vegetation of the Islands of the Indus River. 59 


S. spontaneum has sprung up, and its leaves now aid in catching the 
seeds of the Tamarix and S. Munja, which having ripened, are flying 
about at the mercy of the winds. The two latter lie dormant until 
the next year. In the meanwhile the S. spontanewm for a short time 
kept down by the cold season and eaten over by the cattle, has its 
growth stopped until March or April, when it springs up, and by 
September is in its full growth and blossom. The Tamarix and S. 
Munja being now, on the rising of the river in August, placed under 
favourable circumstances, begin to grow rapidly, and by the end of the 
second year cover the Balaa, killing out S. spontanewm to a great 
degree. Upon the island being flooded at the end of the second year, 
the vegetation on it catches the seeds floated down by the river, and 
these in their turn germinate and gradually develope a jungle. At 
very little expense, indeed, many of these Balaas might be sown 
broadcast with the seeds of timber trees, (Acacza or ‘ Sissoo’ are 
undoubtedly the best) about the beginning of August. When the river 
rose it would cover the islands and deposit sufficient alluvial soil to 
permit their germinating and taking root. The seeds would not be 
carried off by the currents, as they become entangled in the grass, 
which after an inundation is generally seen pressed flat to the surface: 
with a large amount of alluvial deposit keeping it down. 

Developing jungles on these islands, would not only supply timber, 
firewood, &c., but by making the islands permanent, would to a 
great extent assist in forming a permanent channel for the river, the 
absence of which is one of the great difficulties to be overcome at 
present by the navigator. 


60 Indian Gasteropoda., [ No. 2, 


Observations on certain strictures by Mr. H. F. Buayrorp, on my 
Paper on the distribution of Indian Gasteropoda in J. A. S., No. 
CCLXXXIX. Page 69.—By W. Tuxosan, Jr. 


(Received 21st May, 1864.) (Read 1st June, 1865.) 


My iriend Mr. Blanford, loc. cit., after reading the above paper; 
among other remarks, expresses himself as follows :— The sporadic 
origin of species is not held by any eminent naturalist of the present 
day, and Mr. Theobald had advanced no instance in its favour.” 

Now the peculiar distribution of a few species over an enormous 
area, was the reason for my preferring the supposition of a sporadie 
origin for them at least as the only intelligible one, and if for the 
majority of species, this view is not so imperatively requisite, yet for 
such species as Bulimus pullus, B. punctatus, B. gracilis, B. coenopictus, 
and others, it naturally suggests itself, though I doubtless must have 
expressed myself so badly as to warrant Mr. Blanford in denying my 
having “advanced any instance in its favour.” Rejecting however, 
the obvious view, as I hold it to be, of sporadic origin, it yet remains 
to be seen what explanation consonant with the Darwinian hypothesis, 
can be offered, and I shall eagerly listen to Mr. Blanford’s suggestions 
on this point. 

I see of course, that in terming the origin of any species ‘‘ sporadic,” 
I explain nothing, and that it amounts to a confession of ignorance, 
still this is a negative evil and leaves the ground clear for any 
superstructure which fresh light may enable us to add, but not so a 
positive assertion of a law, which, however, applicable in some cases 
and true to some extent, does not meet all, and appears contradicted 
by some. I will now advert to the first portion of Mr. Blanford’s 
stricture to the effect that I held views which no eminent naturalist 
did, and certainly such a statement was not encouraging, but on 
returning to station within the last month, I accidentally came 
across a work which considerably reassured me; though how far 
Mr. Blanford will admit the names of A. A. Gould and Louis 
Agassiz to be eminent in their department, after the quotation 
I shall presently make, I cannot say. Any how I find in the 


, 


“Principles of Zoology” by those Professors, my identical theory 


1865.] Indian Gasteropoda, 61 


laid down, on precisely the same grounds of certain peculiarities in 
the distribution of Fish, which appeared to me (though unhappily 
not to Mr. Blanford) so convincing in the case of the Land Shells. of 
India. 

So identical are the results and the proofs in either-case, that I 
think it necessary to.say, that till the present month, I had never seen 
the work I am about to quote from, or any writings whatever of either 
Gould or Agassiz, and that my views of the sporadic origin of certain 
species of shells were deduced from considerations touching: their 
distribution, and in ignorance of similar arguments, derivable from the 
study of an entirely different class. 

The following quotation from page 211 of the Principles of Zoology 
will prove how closely the estimate I formed of the practical effects 
of accidental distribution, corresponds with that. held by Gould and 
Agassiz. 

“448. Other causes may also contribute towards dispersing animals. 
Thus the sea-weeds are carried about by marine currents and are 
frequently met with far from shore, thronged with little crustaceans 
which are in.this manner transported to great distances from. the 
place of their birth. The drift wood which the Gulf Stream floats 
from the Gulf of Mexico even to the western shores of Hurope is 
frequently perforated by the Larvee of insects, and may probably serve 
as depositories for the eggs of fishes, crustacea and mollusks. It is 
possible also that. aquatic birds may contribute in some measure to 
the diffusion of some species of fishes and mollusks, either by the 
eggs becoming attached to their feet or by means of those which they 
evacuate undigested after having transported them to considerable 
distances. (Still all these circumstances exercise but a very feeble 
influence upon the distribution of species in general, and each country 
none the less preserves its peculiar physiognomy so far as its animals 
are concerned. 

“449, There is only one way to account for the distribution of 
animals as we find them, namely to suppose they are autochthonoi, 
that is- to say that they originated like plants, on the soil where they 
are found. In order to explain the particular distribution of many 
animals, we are even led to admit that they must have been created at 
several points of the same zone, en inference which we must make from 


9 


62 Indian Gasteropoda. [No. 2, 


the distribution of aquatie animals, especially that of fishes. Vi we 
examine the fishes of the rivers of the United States, peculiar species 
will be found im each basin, associated with others which are common 
to several basins. Thus the Delaware river contains species not found 
inthe Hudson. But on the other hand, the pickerel is found in both. 
Now, if all animals originated at one point and from a single stock, 
the pickerel must have passed from the Delaware to the Hudson or 
vice versi, which it could only have done by passing along the 
sea shore or by leaping over large spaces of terra firma; that is to say, 
in both cases it would be necessary to do violence to its organisation.’ 

This last argument must of course stand for what it is worth, and 
were it alone, would not be worth much, but we have here, with fish, 
as I have shown to be the case with Gasteropods in India, the grand 
fact of certain few species of enormous range, compared with the 
limited extent of their more numerous congeners and the absurdity of 
supposing that they have been thus widely distributed by any physical 
agency, which has left the great majority unaffected by its operation. 
Hence my reasons for leaning towards the ‘sporadic’? theory, for 
some species at least, not singly at all events, I am glad to see, if 
however, in company with no other physiologist than Louis Agassiz. 
I cannot conclude these observations without quoting a passage from 
the vitriolic pen of Dr. Knox, in his work on Race, where, though 
he holds that ‘‘ Time and developement change all things” (page 94, ) 
yet is very bitter on the absurdity of supposing that accrpEnT has 
anything to do with such changes. Knox on Race, page 90, “‘ When 
Tam told that there is a short-legged race of sheep somewhere in 
America, the product of accident, my reply is simply, I do not 
believe it, even although to make the story look better, it has been 
added that from among the few short-legged sheep accidentally 
produced in the flock, the owner was careful to extrude the long- 
legged ones, and so at last his whole flock became short-legeed, and 
he had no more trouble with it.—It is the old fable of Hippocrates 
and the Macrocephali reduced to something like a scientific formula. 
Transferred from sheep, it has been made the basis of a theory of 
race of mankind, reducing all to accident. By accident a child darker 
than the rest of the family is born; when this happens in the present 
day, it is also by courtesy called an accident, but its nature is well 


1865.] Note relating to Sivalik Fauna 63 


understood—not so in former times. This dark child a little darker 
than the others separates with a few more from the rest of the family 
and sojourns ina land where a hot sun embrowns them with a still 
deeper hue. In time they become blacker and blacker or browner and 
browner. Should they travel north instead of south, it is all the same ; 
for extreme cold produces the same effect as extreme heat! This is 
ancient and modern physiology !”’ 


PP PLPILIPILPL LLP LPI LIPID PIP PPPS PPL DD, 


Note relating to Swalik Fauna —By H. B. Mepricort. 
[Received 7th September, 1864. ] [Read 7th September, 1864. | 


The notice I have to bring before the Society may be considered a 
continuation of a series of brief but important communications, com- 
menced more than thirty years ago, and continued during some twenty 
years, as recorded in the volumes of the Journal of the Asiatic Society 
for that period. Those communications formed a current chronicle of 
the discovery of the Fauna Sivalensis. Had the account of those 
discoveries ever assumed a more connected and complete form, the 
correction I have now to make, would never have been needed, as it is 
but the statement of a fact, of which the evidence was in hand and in 
mind, although never expressed. Indeed, for the same reason, this 
fact can now be only indicated, its value being still unknown. This fact 
is—the existence of two vertebrate faune, possibly quite distinct, 
among the fossils hitherto collected from the so-called Sivalik rocks. 

In a recently published number of the ‘ Memoirs of the Geological 
Survey of India, Vol. III. Part 2, I have given a somewhat detailed 
account of the geology of the Sub-Himalayan region in North-West 
India. I therein established a threefold division of the great series of 
deposits coming under the general title of Sub-Himalayan. Concerning 
the lowest of these groups (Subathu, etc.) little or no  conflict- 
ing evidence presented itself. The two upper groups I described 
as in all respects more akin to each other, although still most 
clearly separable along a well marked boundary, at which the younger 
strata overlap the steeply denuded edges of the older, besides being 


64 Note relating to Sivalik Fauna. [No. 2, 


largely made up of their debris. Such evidence is so immutable to the 
geologist, and, when on so grand a scale, entails such grave consider- 
ations of time, that I presumed to call in question the one published 
statement (in Vol. III. p. 527 of the J. A. S. B. for 1834) of 
vertebrate Sivalik fossils having been found within the area of the 
older groups, not having myself succeeded in re-discovering fossils at 
the locality indicated. My scepticism was of course based upon'the 
@ prior? consideration of geological time; and because, as I state at 
p- 105 of my Memoir, no corresponding distinction has as yet been 
suspected by the authors of the Fauna Sivalensis. I made due 
attempts to authenticate the observation which I had called in question 
by referring to the original discoverers ; .as, however, in every reply 
I received, there was some trace of ambiguity, not wishing to give 
further trouble to my correspondents, I published the whole case in 
its unsettled form, giving ‘full directions for the application of the 
verdict on either side (see pp. 15, 16, 104—6, of my Memoir). 
I have now the pleasure to announce this verdict ; and, notwithstand- 
ing the precaution I took to provide for its application, the fact cannot 
well be stated without a few words of explanation. 

Ina letter dated the 16th July, 1864, Sir Proby.Cautley tells me that 
he has himself collected fossils on the north side of Nahan 7. e. in the 
rocks of my middle group, the same in every respect as those he 
had found more abundantly at the south base of the Sivalik hills, east 
of the Jumna. ‘The peculiar mode of occurrence of these fossils in 
the nodular clays (‘ clay-conglomerate’ of Cautley), as compared with 
those found in the coarse gravel deposits, could. not escape observation. 
The former were all small and fragmentary. Large masses of the clay 
had to be carted from the hills and broken up at leisure in search of 
the fossil remains. I need scarcely, however, state that the Sivalik 
fossils have hitherto been given and received as one undivided fauna. 
Every one interested in these subjects will join in the regret expressed 
by Sir Proby Cautley that it is now impossible to work the question out, 
unless upon fresh materials. He informs me that the large collection 
of these smaller fossils, sent by him with the others to the British 
Moseum, is now not to be found. 

To paleontologists then, we may now announce that a most interest- 
ing case awaits their investigation, namely, the comparison of well 


1865. ] Note relating to Sivalik Fauna. 65 


represented vertebrate faune, occurring in a series of beds, closely 
related in point of geological conditions of deposit, etc., and yet 
distinctly separated (broken) in time. 

The application of the fact to stratigraphical geology may now 
take shape. The strata at the base of the sections visible in parts of 
the Sivalik hills are representations of the Nahun group—the middle 
group of the Sub-Himalayan series. The expression of this on a map 
must still be arbitrary : for the true Sivalik strata (though so strongly 
unconformable with the ‘ Nahun’ strata along their junction with the 
inner zone of these Nahun rocks,) appear to pass conformably and 
even by gradation into the representatives of the Nahun strata in the 
eater zone. It is of course to be expected that a very close study 
will reveal traces of this unconformability in the sections of the 
Sivalik hills also; but in such massive, banked strata, from twenty to 
two hundred feet thick, the determination of such a feature will be 
very dubious. 

In physical geology this feature will be only another example, on a 
larger scale than those given in my Memoir, of the supposition I have 
offered in explanation of the mode of disturbance of all these Sub- 
Himalayan rocks—slow contortion and upheaval along narrow zones 
synchronously, with more or less uninterrupted deposition im the ad- 
joining exterior area. 


66 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2, 


Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. V. Descriptions of new land 
shells from Arakan, Pegu, and Ava ; with notes on the distribution 
of described species—By Wiuttam T. Buanrorp, A. &. S. I, 
Et. GS. 

[Received 11th March, 1865. ] 
Orprer,—PULMONIFERA. 
Family Helicide. 


Genus NANINA. 
Section Macrochlamys. 


1. N. compiuvratis, n. sp. 

Shell perforated, subglobosely depressed, thin, light-coloured, horny, 
smooth, polished, diaphanous, very minutely striated. Spire convex ; 
suture ina deep and rather broad groove, which becomes obsolete at 
the apex. Whorls 43, convex, sharply angulate above at the edge of 
the sutural groove; the last not descending near the mouth. Aperture, 
oblique, irregularly lunate, of the same form as the whorls, nearly 
equal in height and breadth; peristome thin, in one plane, simple ; 
margins distant, columellar briefly reflexed at the perforation. 

Millem. inch. 


Major diameter, .......«..00. se 10 0.4 
NUIT TEL O jy itpics ae sciencissene 9 0.36 
PASSAB ath dacsciee sioiwans pas se ee 64 0.26 


Aperture 5 millem. broad. 

Habitat —Arakan hills. 

This shell is closely allied to N. convallata, Bens. of the Tenasserim 
provinces, and replaces that shell in Arakan. It is distinguished by 
the smaller number of whorls, while the singular sutural channel is 
even more developed, but it varies slightly in size. 

2. N. NEBULOSA, n. sp. 

Shell minutely perforated, conoidly depressed, thin, light horny, 
not polished, minutely striated, and possessing a dull greasy lustre. 
Spire conoidal ; apex rather acute; suture impressed. Whorls 6, convex 
above; the last rather broader, subangulate above the periphery 
rounded beneath. Aperture slightly oblique, lunate, the breadth 
greater than the height; peristome simple, thin; columellar margin 
vertical, slightly reflexed, 


1865.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 67 


Millem. inch. 


Major diameter, 00.0. .0). 00000. 114 0.46 
WOR GIELO, 2.020) le sis owas aes 10 0.40 
2. SE. soca Oe REE ae oe eee 6 0.24 
Aperture 6 millem. broad, 43 high. 
Habitat—Akoutoung on the Irawady, below Prome, Pegu. 


This species may be distinguished from its numerous allies of the 
Macrochlamys section by its blunt angulation at the periphery and its 
dull lustre. Its nearly vertical mouth amply serves to shew its dis- 
tinction from N. honesta, Gould, which shell moreover is more polished, 
and differs in several other particulars. 


3. N. wypoLEuca, n. sp. 


Shell openly perforated, depressed, very thin, smooth, polished, 
horny ; dark brown above; lighter, frequently white below; faintly 
striated, obliquely above, radiately below, with extremely fine con- 
centric microscopic markings, which are frequently obsolete. Spire 
very little raised; apex rather obtuse; suture impressed, sometimes 
sub-marginate. Whorls 5, rather convex above; the last rather 
broader, rounded beneath, not descending. Aperture lunate, the 
breadth exceeding the height, nearly vertical; peristome acute, 
straight ; columellar margin descending with an oblique curve, scarcely 


reflexed. 
Millem. inch. 
Mayan diameter.) 5 sememnncaiqdoit- 12 0.48 
Mit SEITE EO 6. 5 on: ninsbiciclds diced de 103 0.42 
ISTE 2 Re ee ee ee aR 6 0.25 


Habitat—Akoutoung, Pegu. Scarce. 

Near NV. causia, Bs., but larger, more depressed, and with far finer 
microscopic spiral sculpture ; so fine indeed that it is difficult of detec- 
tion even under a powerful microscope. H. hypoleuca may be re- 
cognised by its pale base, and dark horny colour above, and by its open 
perforation. 

A small form, perhaps identical with the above, but only 5 or 6 
millemetres in diameter, is common in northern Pegu. I had con- 
founded it with N. causia, Bens., but Mr. Benson informs me that 


68 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2 


that species is very different. This small form differs from NV. hypoleuca 
in its more marked spiral sculpture, which, however, is still microscopic. 


Section Hemzplecta. 
4. N. Unposa, n. sp. 

Shell narrowly umbilicated, depressed, rather solid, white (? horny 
when fresh,) peculiarly marked with irregularly sinuous close spiral 
sculpture resembling scratches, and crossed by oblique lines of growth. 
Spire very depressly conoid ; apex obtuse ; suture impressed. Whorls 
5, rather rapidly increasing, somewhat convex; the last broader, 
rounded at the periphery and below; the spiral sculpture passing 
over the periphery and gradually dying out on the lower surface, 
which is marked by radiating striez. Mouth diagonal, broadly lunate, 
equally broad and high; peristome simple, acute; margins distant, 
united by a callus; columellar margin oblique, shortly reflexed above. 


Millem. inch. 
Major diameter,....... Le sha 36 1.45 
Minor aittos UU. VR eee. 31 1.24 
2S a1 sath) | bid ae AS bah a Reg 21 0.84 


Aperture 18 millem. broad. 

Habitat—Shan Hills, east of Ava. Distinguished by its peculiar 
sculpture ; which somewhat recalls that of Nanina Hwmphreysiana, 
Lea. All the specimens found were dead and bleached; fresh speci- 
mens possibly possess a coloured epidermis. 


Section Sesara. 
5. N. Wevicrrera, n. sp. 

Shell imperforate when adult, but with a deep umbilical hollow ; 
young specimens deeply perforate ; conoidly trochiform, subcampanulate, 
thin, horny, sharply and arcuately costulated above, the costulation 
continuing over the periphery; smooth, polished and finely striated 
beneath. Spire conoid, sides convex ; apex rather obtuse; suture im- 
pressed. Whorls 7—7}, closely wound, convex, increasing very 
slowly; the last angulate at the periphery in adults, sharply keeled in 
immature specimens, flattened beneath, more convex near the mouth, 
with one or two small, irregularly shaped indentations, (which are 
mostly opaque from a coating of white callus within the shell), on the 
lower surface, generally at a distance of about 4 a whorl from the 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


DMowA TC. SOCLEDY. 


—— 


Part I1—PHYSICAL SCIENCH. 


ees 


No. III.—1865. 


Notes on Central Asia.—By M. SrMEnor. (Communicated by Lieut.- 
Colonel J. T. Watxer, R. LH.) 


[Received 15th April, 1865. ] 


[In the year 1856, M. Seménof was deputed by the Imperial 
Geographical Society of Russia, on a mission of exploration into 
Central Asia.—On his return to St. Petersburg, he published a trans- 
lation of Ritter’s ‘‘ Hrdkunde von Asien” into Russian, and gave in 
the preface to the 2nd volume, an account of the results of his own 
explorations—The following notes are taken from this preface. At 
my request they were translated from Russian into English by Mr. R. 
Michel, F. R. G.S., whose name will be familiar to all who are ac- 
quainted with the numerous papers on the geography and trade of 
Central Asia, which have appeared of late years in the Journal of the 
Royal Geographical Society of London. J.T. W.] 5 

The second volume of the Russian translation of Ritter’s ‘‘ Asia” 
comprises a description of the North Western portion of the tableland 
of Asia, 7. e. that extensive region which stretches between the Altai 
and the Celestial mountains, from the Hastern extremity of the latter 
at Hami (Komul), to the Watershed of lake Balkhash. 

The range of country under consideration embraces the whole of 
the extinct kingdom of Djungaria, or the Chinese Province of Tian- 


16 


114 Notes:on Central Asia. [No. 3, 


Shan-bey-Lu (the region to the northward of the Celestial mountains, 
consisting of the districts of Ili, Tarbagatai, Gobdo, &c.) and like- 
wise the Russian districts of Alatavsk, Kopal and Ayaguz, which 
now constitute the new Semipalatinsk region. The whole of this 
country, including, both Chinese and Russian Djungaria, forms 
that most obscure and unknown portion of the interior of Asia 
which contains within it the very centre of the Asiatic continent, 
namely the gigantic mountain group of the Tengri-Tag, (a part of 
the Celestial mountains) situated at equal distances from the Black 
Sea, on the West, and the Yellow Sea on the Hast, the Obi Bight on 
the North and the Bay of Bengal on the South, and lying in the 
centre of the straight line connecting Cape Severovostochui in Siberia 
with Cape Comorin in India. : 

This region offers, moreover, special interest in physical as well as 
in ethnographical and historical aspects. Physically, it forms a dis- 
tinct limit between the highland and the depressed portions of Asia, 
and is remarkable for the contrast it presents between its gigantic 
mountain groups of the Bogdo and Tengri-Tag in the Celestial range, 
which tower far above the limits of eternal snows and are crowned 
with large alpine glaciers, and the low sandy and sterile steppe of the 
Bedpak-Dala, on the South West of lake Balkhash, which, in common 
with all the other sandy wastes of the Aralo-Caspian depression, bears 
the character of a bed of an inland sea, dried up during a very recent 
geological period. In ethnographical respects this region offers a 
contrast no less marked, between two numerically preponderating 
central Asiatic races—the Mongolian and Turkish,—whose rulers are 
Chinese and Russians, strangers from the far Hast and West, occupy- 
ing, in the same alluvial plain of the Balkhash, small populated oases 
in the midst of an indigenous population alien to themselves in speech 
and habits, and who are powerful not by reason of their numerical 
superiority, but by the weight of their civilisation, and the magnitude 
of their respective Empires, the most colossal on the face of the globe, 
Lastly, from an historical point of view this country presents features 
of a no less interesting character. It has served from time immemo- 
rial as the point of departure for migrating races from the highlands 
of Asia, the cradle whence they sprang, to the low arid steppes 
of the Aralo-Caspian depression, and to the still more distant and 


1865.] Notes on Central Asia. 115 


better favoured regions of the West. It was here, namely, in Djun- 
garia, and on the fertile and smiling banks of the Ili and Ittysh, that 
the migrating hordes lingered for some time, both, as it were, to 
venture out into the unknown plain stretching before them far away 
into the sandy ocean that separates Europe from Asia, until a new 
tide of popular migration forced them at last to strike their tents, 
and depart westwards from their mountainous halting grounds. It is 
also in the valleys of Djungaria that a few existing rude monuments, 
crude traditions, geographical names, and remnants of tribes who, in 
many cases, have lost their native dialect by intermixture with other 
races (the result of which appears in the name of Kassak or Kerghiz 
Kaisak), serve the scientific explorer as the only links for identifying 
the obscure and fragmentary allusions concerning these migrated 
hordes, which occur in Chinese and Russian chronicles. 

Although the physical and ethnographical characteristics of Central 
Asia have attracted the constant attention of some of the most learned 
men, such as Humboldt, Ritter, Abel Remusat, and Klaproth, the 
researches of these leaders of science could only be based on the 
most meagre data, namely on the dry and one-sided Chinese narratives 
which found a place in Chinese literature, from the period of the 
dismemberment of the Djungarian kingdom inthe middle of the last 
century, and also on the inaccurate, brief and conflicting accounts and 
itineraries of a few Asiatics, who succeeded in visiting Djungaria and 
Little Bokhara with caravans. All these materials were collected 
and carefully collated by Ritter and Humboldt; nevertheless. this 
region remained up to the most recent period, like the interior 
of Africa, completely inaccessible to Huropean science. 

Even Marco Polo, the most enterprising and reliable traveller of 
the middle ages, did not visit this region, but proceeded eastwards to 
China by a route that lay southward of the Celestial range. A few 
other travellers, it is true, passed through Djungaria; these were 
Plano Carpini (1246), Andre Songjumel (1249) and Wilhelm 
Rubriquis (1252) ; and they probably journeyed by way of lake Faisan 
to Karakorum the capital of the Mongol Khans. 

The same route was traversed by some of the subjugated Western 
princes, such as Yaroslof and Alexander Nevski of Russia and Getum of 
Armenia (likewise in the middle of the thirteenth century) tor the pur- 


116 Notes on Central Asia. [No, 3, 


S| 

pose of paying homage to the great Khan ; they, however, either left no 
description of their journey, or else their accounts are so meagre and 
confused, as for instance, the narrative of Prince Getum, that very few 
of the places mentioned in them can be identified. Much later, in 
1654, Fedor Isakonitch Baikof, the envoy of the Russian Tsar Aleksei 
Fedorovitch, proceeded past lake Faisan, and the upper course of the 
Black Irtysh, and traversed the whole of Djungaria, reaching the 
Chinese wall at Huhu-Hoton from whence he advanced to Pekin. 

Although Baikof’s marche-route (of course not in the form it is 
inserted in Wilson’s work from which it was derived by Ritter, but 
in the shape we find it in Spasskis’ “‘ Sibirski Vestnik’”) can, in 
the present state of our knowledge of the geography of Central Asia, 
be pretty readily applied to certain localities, still the information it 
contains is of a meagre character, and is greatly inferior to native 
Chinese accounts. 

The Southern border of the country now under consideration, 
7. e. the gigantic Celestial range, has not been explored by any 
European traveller up to the present day. The destruction, how- 
ever, of the kingdom of Djungaria, by the Chinese, led to its being 
surveyed under the superintendence of the European missionaries 
Felix d’Arocha and Hallerstein, by whom astronomical points were 
determined, not alone in the towns of Djungaria and Little Bukhara, 
but also at the very foot of the Celestial range, as at Hongor Olen 
the modern Konur-Ulen, and on the Southern shore of lake Issyk- 
Kul. As the Jesuits have left no record whatever of their having 
visited any part of the Celestial range, it must be naturally concluded 
that they themselves did not diverge from the highroads of Central 
Asia, but detached a party of Chinese topographers, instructed by 
themselves, to the base of the Celestial mountains. 

The first learned Russian traveller who penetrated into the part 
of Inner Asia described in the present volume, was the botanist Sivers, 
who in his hazardous and venturesome journey to the Tarbagatai, in 
1793, advanced as far as 47° N. Latitude. During the succeeding forty 
years, not one of the scientific explorers of Western Siberia succeeded 
in passing beyond the point previously reached by Sivers. 

The journey of K. A. Meyer in 1826, did not extend beyond the 
Arkat mountains, Chingiz-tan, and the Karkara district of the Kirghiz 
Steppe. The travels of Humboldt, and his associates, in 1828, did 


1865.] Notes on Central Asia. aby | 


not embrace even Djungaria, Their extreme limit was the Chinese 
picket of Baty, on the Irtysh, in 49° N. Latitude, and Humboldt’s 
greatest service in connexion with the geography of the interior of 
Asia consists in the critical elaboration of the materials relating to this 
subject in his classical ‘‘ Asie Centrale.” 

Some of these materials, namely the itineraries of Asiatic traders, 
who had visited different parts of Asia with caravans, were diligently 
collected at Semipalatinsk by Humboldt, and another portion of his 
materials was derived from Chinese sources that had been elaborated by 
the European Sinologists, Abel Remusat, Klaproth, Schott, Neuemann, 
St. Julien, Father Hyacinth, and others. 

Among the few unscientific eye-witnesses who, in the pursuit of 
trade, penetrated into Imner Asia, were some Russians, and among 
these in point of lucidity, and accuracy of information, the first place 
is undoubtedly occupied by the interpreter Putinsef, who, in 1811, 
visited Kuldja and Chuguchak, the most flourishing towns of Djun- 
garia. The narrative of this journey was published in the ‘“ Siberski 
Vestnik” translated by Klaproth, and served Ritter as one of the 
most valuable sources in elucidating the geography of this region. In 
addition to Putinsef, we may mention the miner Snegiref, who, towards 
the end of the last century, proceeded from the Altai to the neighbour- 
hood of Chuguchak, in search of gold; also the noble Madatof, who, 
in the early part of the present century, successfully reached India, 
starting from Semipalatinsk, and traversing lake Issyk-Kul, the Celestial 
mountains and Little Bokhara. A short account of Snegiref’s journey 
was printed in the ‘“ Siberski Vestnik,” but with Madatof’s expedition 
I am acquainted only through official documents preserved in the 
archives at Omsk, and as no original narrative was discovered by me, 
it must be presumed that none ever existed. I also found a short 
marche-route at Semipalatinsk, drawn up by the merchant Bubeninof, 
who, in 1821, proceeded from Semipalatinsk to Kashgar. This 
itinerary will be printed in due season, but from its brevity and 
scantiness of information, it is in no respect more valuable than the 
itineraries already printed and digested by Humboldt and Ritter, 

Such was the unsatisfactory condition of our knowledge of the 
geography of Central Asia in 1831, at the time of the appearance 
of that part of Ritter’s work which relates to it. It was only in 


118 Notes on Central Asia. [No. 3, 


the fourth decade of the present century that we became more 
familiar with Central Asia, from the side of the Djungarian and 
Kirghiz steppes, after the foundation of the Russian town Ayaguz, 
on the upper course of one of the rivers of the Balkhash basin, and 
aiter the submission of a portion of the great Hordes under Sultan 
Sik, son of Ablai Khan. These events gradually rendered not only 
lake Balkhash, but also the mountainous districts of Djungaria, more 
accessible to travellers. 

In 1834 the astronomer Fedorof was enabled to reach the embou- 
chure of the Lepsa, and determine its geographical position, under 
46° 23’ North Latitude. He also succeeded in visiting the southern 
shore of lake Faisan and in making a trigonometrical measurement of 
Tarbagatai. A little later, the relations of Russia with the Kirghiz 
Hordes became more satisfactory, and in 1840, 1841 and 1842 the 
learned travellers Karelin and Schrenk, penetrated into the moun- 
tainous portions of Djungaria or the Snow-clad Djungarian Alatau. 
Karelin explored the wild valleys of the upper courses of the Lepsa, 
Sarkan and Baskan rivers, as high as the snow-line. 

Alexander Schrenk visited, and it may be said discovered to science, 
the lake Ala-Kul, crossed over the Djungarian Alatau to the Chinese 
side, attained the upper course of the Tentek, and reached the snow 
line on several occasions. The extreme limits of his journey on 
the plain bordering lake Alakul, were the Chinese town of Chu- 
guchak, in Alpine Djungaria,—the hills skirting the banks of the 
Koksu river, and the river Chu (or Tzu) in the hungry Betpak- 
-Dalor desert, South West of lake Balkhash. Subsequently the 
voluntary submission of the remaining portion of the so-called Great 
Kirghiz Horde, in 1844, led to the Russian occupation of that rich 
and fertile portion of Djungaria, which is known under the name of 
the Semipalatinsk region, from the seven tributaries of the Balkhash 
that water it. The Russian town of Kopal was founded by Governor 


General Prince Gorchakof, in 1846, on a fertile plateau at the base 
of a snow-capped spur of the Djungarian Alatau. The establishment 
of this town ensured the development of the already existing relations 
of Russia with the neighbouring Chinese province of Ili. Although 
rapidly increasing, the trade with the Western Chinese region, through 
the towns of Kuldja, and more especially Chuguchak, encountered 


1865.] Noles on Central Asia, 119 


obstacles in its legitimate development from its transitive and contra- 
band character, as the Chinese of the Western region (Si-yui) were 
only able to have secret dealings with the Russians under a semblance 
of traficing with the Kirghizes. It was this disadvantageous state 
of things, that led to the mission, with objects partly diplomatic and 
partly geological, of H. P. Kovalefski accompanied by Vlangagli, an 
officer of mining Engineers. 

This expedition started from Kuldja, and skirting the Russian side 
of the Djungarian Alatau, traversed the valley of the Koksu, as far 
as the upper sources of this river, while, on the Chinese side, it reach- 
ed the town of Kuldia, on the Ili. The most important results of 
this mission in commercial, as well as in scientific respects, were the 
establishment of Russian trading factories at Kuldja and Chuguchak. 
The opening up of the Western Chinese region contributed largely to 
the increase of our knowledge of the geography of Asia, inasmuch as 
it threw two learned Chinese scholars into the commercial centres 
of Djungaria in the capacity of consuls. The local researches of these 
sinologists has opened a wide field to science. Mr. Fakharof, one of 
the consuls, has already collected materials of great value relating to 
the physical geography and cartography of Inner Asia; these mate- 
rials he has obtained during his stay at Pekin, from rare geographical 
works (namely the reports of the Survey made during the reign of 
Tsian-Sun) and from information supplied him by natives of the 
Western region. The foundation of the town of Kopal, which was 
in a satisfactory and flourishing condition, owing to the rapid develop- 
ment of agriculture aided by artificial irrigation, could not, however, 
secure the great Hordes, now under Russian dominion, against the 
bold attacks of the Buruts, or the so-called Black or Dikokamenni 
Kirghizes, who infested the valley of lake Issyk-Kul, and the 
neighbourhood of Tekes on one of the sources of the Ii. This was 
naturally to be expected from the position of Kopal which stood on 
the northern confines of the Hordes, whose southern boundary, beyond 
the Ili, remained completely unprotected. The unguarded condition 
of the frontier of the Russian Empire on this quarter induced Governor 
General Hasford to occupy the so-called Trans-[li country extending 
between the river Ili, and the snow-line of the gigantic Trans-Ili 
Alatau, with a view of securing the left flank of the Kirghiz Steppe 


120 Notes on Central Asia. [No. 3, 


which was under Russian protection, by making it conterminous with 
the peaceful frontier of China and the natural snowy mountain boun- 
dary. This well conceived plan was carried out with complete success. 
In 1853 the first Russian detachment, under the command of Colonel 
Gulkofski, was despatched: beyond the Ili; it, however, met with 
serious opposition from a strong body of Kirghizes belonging to the 
hostile tribes of the great horde who supported themselves on Fort 
Trichubek on the river Kesen. But in the following year the whole 
of the region was occupied by a force under Lieut.-Colonel Peremy- 
shelski, who razed the Kirghiz fort to the ground; after this some 
of the tribes submitted to Russia, while the most inimical fled 
into Kokanian territory, and to the banks of the Talas and Syr- 
Darya. 

The Russian detachment passed the winter in the sheltered valley 
of the Talgar, and in the ensuing year of 1855, General Hasford 
founded Fort Vernoé, at the base of the Trans-Ili Alatau, at the 
head of the Almatynka valley, which is picturesquely wooded with 
apple and apricot trees. 

The occupation of the fertile Trans-Ili region, well adapted for 
agricultural and gardening purposes, and in all respects bountifully 
endowed by nature, had the effect of protecting the great Hordes from 
the attacks of the Buruts, but placed its nearest tribes in the same 
position as that occupied ten years previously by the Great Kirghiz 
Horde. The powerful and numerous tribe of the Bogus, who occupied 
the picturesque valleys and table-land between the Celestial mountains 
and the Trans-[li Alatau, received neither countenance nor support 
from the Chinese, to whom they were nominally dependent, in resis- 
ting the fierce attacks of the Sary Bogish tribe; they had at the same 
time to repel, on another quarter, the depredatory incursions of some 
of their neighbours of the great horde. Consequently, soon after the 
occupation of the Trans-Ili region by the Russians, the High Manap 
of the Bogu tribe, the old Burambai, claimed the assistance of General 
Hasiord against the attacks of the neighbouring tribes, and volun- 
tarily tendered the submission of himself and his tribe to the Russian 
government. This led to the despatch of the first Russian detachment 
from Vernoé to lake Issyk-Kul, for the purpose of pacifying the two 
contending tribes, and making a reconnaissance of the hitherto unex- 


1865.] Notes on Central Asia. 121 


plored valley of lake Issyk-Kul. Colonel Khomentofski, the officer 
in command of this force, and General Siverhelm who was in charge 
of the Survey of the newly organized Semipalatinsk region, were the 
first educated Russians who beheld this extensive lake and the snowy 
summits of the Celestial range. Unfortunately this detachment in 
consequence of its critical position amidst the wandering mountain 
tribes, the animosity of one of which against the Russians was decided, 
while the friendliness of the other was open to much suspicion, was 
soon recalled, and the surveying parties were unable to penetrate into 
the interior of the Celestial mountains. The southernmost point 
attained at the foot of the Tian Shan, by Ensign Yayooski the topo- 
grapher attached to the expedition, was where the Fauku rushes out 
if its narrow defile on the Issyk-kul plateau. 

In the same year of 1856 I was sent by the Imperial Russian Geo- 
graphical Society on an expedition to explore those more accessible 
portions of Central Asia, which had previously been but little visited. 
Naturally the great object of attraction for me on this journey was the 
Tian-Shan or the Celestial range. The signification of this stupendous 
chain in position the most retired in the whole continent of Asia, had 
already been pointed out by Ritter and Humboldt ; but the labyrinth of 
the Celestial mountains had not as yet been penetrated by any scientific 
traveller.* All the learned and critical researches of Ritter and 


* Atkinson, the Hnelish artist, in his travels, which were published in 1858, 
gives an account of his journey from the river Kurchum, in the Southern Altai, 
across the Black Irtysh to lake Ubsa-noor, thence southwards, past Ulusutai, to 
the neighbourhood of the Chinese town of Barkul, at the base of the Tian-Shan ; 
travelling then parallel with this chain, though at a considerable distance from 
it, as far as the meridian of Bogdo O’la mountain, and finally proceeding in a 
North Westerly direction, past lake Kyzyl-bash, until he reached Jake Ala-kul 
in Russian territory. Unfortunately so extraordinary a journey, unprecedented 
in the history of the exploration of the Asiatic Continent, has had no beneficial 
scientific results. The narrative, which occupies 115 pages of text, so little 
characterises the explored region, that it might with equal fitness be applied 
to any portion of the Kirghiz Steppe. The critical enquirer finds nothing 
throughout the whole narrative, to satisfy him of the genuineness of the 
deseribed journey, which extends over no less a distance than 3,000 miles of 
Chinese territory. This is the more striking as undoubted proofs of the actual 
performance of journeys of which descriptions have been given, may easily be 
found in the short itineraries and accounts of travellers of different ages and 
nations; as for instance in the travels of Huc and Gabet, in the marche-rontes 
of Tartar traders, collected by Humboldt, and in the more ancient accounts of 
Baikof, Marco Polo, the Armenian prince Getum, in the marche-ronte of the 
army of Gulagu Khan, (compiled by one of his officers in the 13th century) 
and lastly in the narrative of the travels of the Buddhist Missionaries Fa-Hian 


EG 


122 Notes on Central Asia. [No. 3, 


Humboldt respecting this range partook, even by the admission of 
the latter, of the character of conjectural geography, founded on a 
comparison of the obscure and confused narratives and descriptions 


and Huan-T'san, in the 4th and 7th centuries. Concise though these accounts 
doubtless are, the learned critic soon discovers in them such local peculiarities 
as can only be descriptive of particular spots and localities, and as we become 
more intimate with the geography of the country to which such accounts 
apply, the more readily and clearly do we identify the points given in these 
marche-routes. To our great regret we do not find this to be the case in that 
part of Atkinson’s work which relates to Chinese Djungaria. From the com- 
mencement, in calling the Tian-Shan Sayan-Shan, he confounds, in name at 
least, the two principal mountain systems of Inner Asia; and in all the other 
portions of his narrative, where he does not confine himself to descriptions of 
the Steppes, the chase of wild animals, and the social customs of the nomads 
(descriptions which would apply with equal force and truth to the whole of 
Central Asia) but wishes to communicate something more definite and locally 
characteristic, he falls into numerous incongrnuities, Thus, to cite some exam- 
ples, he speaks of the Kara-Tyn snowy range, at the upper course of the Black 
Irtysh, as of a level steppe intersected by low ridges; again, from the Tannu 
mountains, situated at a distance of 120 milesto the N. HE. of Ubsa-noor, he 
sees the Bogdo-Ola in the Tian-Shan, which is about 750 miles away from 
this point. Lastly from the plain at the base of the Celestial range, he simul- 
taneously sees not only the Bogdo mountain, but also the Baishan or Pé— 
Shan (emitting smoke by Atkinson’s account), which is about 300 miles beyond 
to the westward, notwithstanding that the snowy Bogdo-Ola group stands 
out as is well known, considerably in advance of the main chain of the Celestial 
mountains, and the Baishan mountains rise on their southern slope, that is to 
say beyond its gigantic snowy ridge, in the neighbourhood of the Little Buk- 
harian town of Kucha. Similarly as little confidence do those inconsistencies 
inspire which occur in his account of the time occupied in performing the 
various journeys, and in his description of the distribution of the nomad Kirghiz 
population, throughout Chinese Djungaria. As regards ourselves personally, 
the inyoluntary doubts respecting the abovementioned portion of Atkinson’s 
travels are still further strengthened from information we gathered on the spot 
regarding his journeys, from the Cossacks who accompanied him, and from the 
commanders who provided him with escorts. Atkinson, during his many years’ 
residence in Siberia, visited the neighbourhood of Kopal, that had then just 
been founded, many valleys of the Djungarian Alatau, the lake Ala-Kul, 
Tarbagatai, the rivers Narym and Kurchum in the Southern Altai, the Teletsk 
Lake, Tunkinsk mountains of the Sayan range, Irkutsk Kiakhta, &c. but as 
regards his travels over an extent of more than 4000 verts in Chinese territory, 
accompanied by three Narym or Kuwrchwm Cossacks, I regret to say that I 
not only could not gather anything to confirm this fact, but I was con- 
vinced of its utter impossibility, from existing local conditions on the Russian 
as well as on the Chinese side, On the Russian, because the protracted 
detachment of these Cossacks, or their voluntary absence from the corps, is a 
fact that would leave behind it some record in the official archives, while on 
the Chinese side, the journey lasting more than six months, of a party unac- 
quainted with the local dialect, and passing through inhabited districts, along 
established routes, and across the picket and frontier lines, could scarcely escape 
the vigilant eyes of the Chinese authorities. Under all these circumstances, 
and in the absence in Atkinson’s narrative of any new data relating to Chinese 
Djungaria, this work cannot be considered as an acquisition to science, until 
the author adduces more definite information and stronger proofs, in corrobora- 
tion of his accounts which involuntarily inspire certain mistrust. 


1865. ] Notes on Central Asia. 133 


of Chinese and other Asiatic travellers, commencing from the Buddhist 
Missionaries Fa-Hyan and Huyan-Tsan of the 4th and 7th centuries, 
to the brief itineraries of the Semipalatinsk Tartar traders of the 
present century. Numerous questions, replete with interest to the 
seience of geography, could only be possibly solved by actual investi- 
gation on the spot. The configuration of the country, the direction 
of the upheaval of the mountain chain, its mean height, the altitude 
of its mountain passes, the height of the snow-line, the distribution 
of animal and vegetable organisms, the existence of Alpine glaciers or 
of volcanie action,—points all requiring either investigation, or 
confirmation. So far back as 1851 and 1852, during my stay at Berlin, 
I acquainted Humboldt and Ritter of my intention of proceeding into 
the interior of Asia as far as the Tian-Shan range. They both 
encouraged me in my difficult enterprise, but did not conceal their 
doubts as to the possibility of penetrating so far into the interior of 
the Asiatic Continent. The result of my deliberations with these 
leaders of science, strengthened me in my determination of attempting 
to reach the eternal snow-line of the Tian-Shan at all hazards. Hum- 
boldt attached so much importance to the investigation, even a cursory 
one, of this range, that I could not look at the undertaking but in the 
light of a holy mission, marked out for me by the Nestor of Huropean: 
savans. 

By the end of the summer of 1856 under the auspices, and with 
the co-operation of the Russian Geographical Society, I was already in 
Vernoé. Unfortunately, however, I arrived two months after the visit 
of a Russian detachment to lake Issyk-Kul. 

With a small escort of twelve cossacks, I succeeded, on the ,9- 
September, in reaching the eastern extremity of the lake, and had an 
opportunity of surveying from point Kuké-Kul-usun, the imposing 
range of the Tian-Shan, from the Djirgalau to the opposite extremity 
of the lake. To visit the chain itself was that moment impossible. 
My escort being so small, I was obliged to proceed very carefully, and 
passed the night among inaccessible defiles, anticipating every moment 
to be attacked by hostile bands of Kara-Kirghizes. 

Returning to Vernoé, and procuring a larger escort (40 cossacks) I 
proceeded through the wild Biam defile, at the upper course of the 
Chi, and emerged on the base of the Celestial range, near the Western 


124 Notes on Central Asia. [No. 3, 


extremity of the lake Issyk-Kul. Here I came upon numerous 
encampments of the hostile Sary-Bagysh tribe, who shortly before 
my arrival, had had a fierce engagement with a Russian detachment ; 
which had been sent out from Vernoé, to punish these mountaineers, 
for acts of violence and plunder. Notwithstanding that, I met with 
a hospitable reception from the Sary-Bagyshes who were comme- 
morating the death of many of their kinsmen who had fallen in the 
recent conflict, I was not able to penetrate beyond the first exposed 
rocky spurs of the Celestial range, nor to visit its wild defiles, being 
apprehensive of treachery from the revengeful mountaineers, who had 
lately been so severely punished by the Russians. 

However, in the spring of 1857, thanks to the escort kindly fur- 
nished me by Governor-General Hasford, who displayed great zeal and 
energy in furthering the organisation and exploration of the newly 
acquired region, I was enabled to realise all my plans. The deadly 
strife between the two Kara-Kirghiz tribes was then at its height, 
and the valleys of the Tian-Shan seemed quite inaccessible. A 
happy combination of circumstances, however, removed this apparently 
insurmountable obstacle to my journey. 

A rumour, that had spread with extraordinary rapidity, through 
almost the whole of the Mustag (the Turk name for the western 
portion of the Tian-Shan) of the approach of a strong Russian detach- 
ment, armed with terrible instruments of destruction,* for the purpose 
of assisting the Manap Burambai, produced a sudden panic among 
the Sary-Bagysh tribe, inducing them to relinquish, not only the 
camping grounds they had seized from the Bogus, but even their own 
native pasturages, from the upper course of the Djirgalan, along the 
whole border of Issyk-Kul, for an extent of more than 200 versts 
and to migrate to the upper course of the Syr-Daria (Marym). The 
Bogn tribe who had been previously attacked by the Bagyshes in the 
spring of 1857, and driven into Chinese limits, expected their complete 
destruction; the sudden flight of their enemies dispelled their fears 
and enabled them to re-occupy their former camping grounds, and 


* The exaggerated accounts respecting the strength of my escort were owing 
to my having really reached Burambaisatls accompanied by 800 horsemen; 
but tnese consisted of a body of Kirehizes of the Great Horde under the Sultan 
Tezek who had voluntarily joined my detachment. My own personal escort 
consisted of only 25 cossacks. 


1865. | Notes on Central Asia. 125 


even to reap the harvest that had been left standing in the fields by 
the Sary-Bagyshes. Attributing this favourable turn in their affairs 
to my approach, they rendered me every assistance for my journey. 
With such material assistance, I was able in July of 1857 to wind 
round Issyk-Kul from the south side and to reach the summit of 
the imposing and terrible Fatki-Davan mountain pass; I also 
sueceeded in gaining the sources of the Narym, which forms the 
system of the Syr-Daria or Jaxartes. Shortly after, I penetrated in a 
more easterly meridian, much farther into the heart of the Celestial 
range, and ascended one of the most elevated mountain groups of 
Inner Asia, that of the Tengri-Tag, which is crowned with a circle 
of alpine glaciers, and covered with a dazzling mantle of eternal 
snows. In the glaciers of the Tengri-Tag I discovered the source 
of the Sary-Djaza, which belongs to the system of the Tarym- 
gol or Erget the most remote of the considerable rivers of the Asiatic 
Continent. 

On my return to St. Petersburg in 1858, the Imperial Russian Geogra- 
phical Society, taking into consideration the great scarcity of asironom1_ 
cal points in the region I visited, organised at my recommendation, and 
with the co-operation of the Military Topographical Depét, a new ex- 
pedition, under Captain Golubef, for the purpose of determining astro- 
nomical points in Russian Djungaria, and on the Lake Issyk-Kul. By 
last accounts, Golubef had ascertained the position of three points in the 
valley of Issyk-Kul lake (on the Tekes river, and at the eastern and 
western extremities of the lake respectively), but he had not succeeded 
in penetratmmg into the interior of the Tian-Shan, owing to adverse 
circumstances, as the southern shore of the lake of Issyk-Kul was 
at that time occupied by the hostile Sary-Bagysh tribe; under such 
a state of things it would of course have been extremely rash to 
advance into the mountains, leaving hostile tribes in his rear. 

All the journeys and researches, since the year 1834, enumerated 
above, have considerably advanced our knowledge of the portion of 
Asia which we are now considering, and have removed it from the 
region of hypothetical speculation, to a certain basis of scientific 
investigation. On this account, therefore, the 2nd volume of the 
Russian version of Ritter’s Asia ought to be accompanied by copious 
and well established addenda, Unfortunately all the materials that 


126 Notes on Central Asia. [No. 3, 


might be used for such an amplification are as yet but little digested. 
The travels of Fédorof, Kardin, Schrenk, my own, the observations 
of Golubef, the data collected and elaborated by Fakharof, have not 
yet appeared in print, and only short notices of them have been 
presented. I am consequently necessarily obliged to withhold the 
supplementary matter to the 2nd volume, at all events until the 
publication of my travels which is now delayed by all my time and 
attention being engaged on questions of pressing and vital importance 
to Russia. 

With regard to the 3rd volume of the Russian edition of Ritter’s 
Asia, containing a description of the Russian Altai, the not unim- 
portant materials relating to these mountains, which were collected 
by me on my journey, have been partly digested since my return, and 
Tam therefore in a position to proceed at once with the publication 
of this volume with its supplementary portion. I think it necessary 
to allude briefly in this place to some of the general results of my 
visits to the Celestial mountains. They embrace three questions of 
the utmost importance to the geography of Asia, namely the height 
of the snow-line in the Celestial range, the existence of alpine glaciers, 
and the existence of volcanic phenomena in this region. ) 

On the first of these points I consider it incumbent on myself to 
dwell at length in reply to the doubts expressed by Humboldt as to 
the correctness of the elevation of the snow-line in the Celestial range, 
as determined by me. The height I fixed it at, namely 11,000 to 
11,500 feet, was ascertained by Humboldt from a letter I wrote to 
Ritter, which attracted his particular notice. This letter was pub- 
lished in the “ Zeitschrift fix Hrdkunde” with some explanatory 
remarks hy Humboldt. The method I adopted for ascertaining the 
height of the snow-line was not known to Humboldt, who grounded 
his supposition of an over-estimation of the elevation of the snow-line 
on certain theoretical and analogical considerations. 

Inaccuracies in the determination of the height of the snow- 
line may arise from two sources first from what is taken to be the 
snow-line, and secondly from an imperfect method of measuring 
heights. 

In the first instance the observer may be deceived either by taking 
dissolvable for eternal snows, or by fixing their limit of height in 


1865.] Votes on Central Asia. 127 


sheltered ravines or defiles which are hardly reached by the rays of 
the sun. Had I fallen into these errors in my determination the 
results-would have been to lower instead of to raise the height of the 
snow-line, as compared to its true limits. But these sources of error 
were fully anticipated and averted; my observations were made at 
points where regular layers of eternal snow occurred, and moreover on 
mountain-ridges and not in hollow depressions, in some of which 
I really did find eternal snows in some cases several hundred feet 
below the limit of 11,000. 

With regard to the other point, I must observe that the method of 
determining heights by the temperature of boiling water, is certainly 
one which is far from being perfect ; and leads only to approximate 
results ; but the inaccuracy of these results becomes more inappreci- 
able, the greater the height which is being measured. For inconsi- 
derable elevations this method of measurement cannot be adopted. I 
may, however, observe that the other method, namely that of commer- 
cial determination, can scarcely be expected to give more accurate re- 
sults when the conditions are unfavourable, as for instance on a journey 
through an extremely wild and dangerous region, where the traveller 
is obliged to form his own track, and stands every moment in danger 
of an attack; under such circumstances all simultaneous observations 
oi the barometer, at the base and summit of mountains, or a series of 
observations at any one point, are quite out of the question. Experi- 
ence has also shewn me the complete impossibility of keeping the 
barometers (I had two with me) from breaking, in a country so 
mountainous as that I traversed, where, on each expedition, the pack 
horses and camels stumbled repeatedly, and were occasionally dashed 
to pieces by falling over precipices. Hence travellers (Humboldt 
amongst the rest on his famous journey in the Andes and the 
Cordilleras) have invariably had recourse to the method of determining 
heights by the temperature of boiling water. The results obtained in 
this manner are regarded by science merely as approximations, until 
they are superseded by more accurate data, obtained when the region 
is more accessible to scientific exploration. 

Although incomplete, these results are nevertheless of undoubted 
value to science, as the magnitude of probable errors even under such 
an imperiect method, cannot exceed certain limits. 


128 Notes on Central Asia. [No. 3, 


But Humboldt could not have taken exception to the method used 
in measuring the height of the snow-line, in the Tian-Shan, because 
he at that time did not know what means were used for this purpose, 
and also because he himself adopted the same method on his journey | 
in the New World, which was so prolific of scientific results. Hum- 
boldt’s doubts respecting the probability of the height of the Tian- 
Shan snow-line (as fixed by me), being considerable, were based on 
considerations of comparative geography, and their soundness or other- 
wise may be easily tested, for they were founded on a comparison 
of their height of snow-line, 11,000 to 11,500 feet, with its well 
ascertained limits in nearly the same meridian (in the Altai, 6,600 
feet) or in the same parallel, (the Pyrennees, 8,400 feet and the 
Caucasus, 10,170 feet). 

In examining the observations made by any traveller respecting 
the elevatious of the snow-line, the most accurate scientific criticism 
must test their correctness, by the following theoretical investiga- 
tions. 

The height of the snow-line in a given range, must be calculated 
theoretically on the basis of a comparison with other ranges, on the 
same meridian, and the same parallel; the obtained results should 
then be compared with the figures arrived at by actual observation, 
and it must then be carefully considered whether the discrepancy that 

may occur can be at all attributed to considerations of climate, and 
local peculiarities. 

Humboldt, in his classical work ‘ Asie Centrale,” supplies us with 
the requisite figures for arriving at a definite conclusion. 

In the same meridian with the Celestial mountains we find that the 
height of the snow-line is as follows, 


In the Altai (Tigerski Belki) 

iat. blr Nor p aa lec ade 6,600 feet. 
On the Northern ee of the seen eeane range, 

Lat..32, North, (epee eee cece. | / LOMO OOBIEEES 


The Celestial mountains extend at the part visited by me, between 
Lat. 41° and 42° North which is consequently mid-way between the 
Altai and Himalayas. Taking the mean of the figures given above 
we shall get 11,100 feet for the height of the snow-line of the Celestial 


1865.] Notes on Central Asia. 129 


range. Inthe same zone, parallel with the Celestial mountains the 
height of the snow-line is as follows : 

In the Pyrennees ; (between Lat. 424° and 43° North), ... 8,400 it. 
On mounts Elburuz and Kazbek in the Caucasus (43° N. 


Ba eee re see esate: leawedeed bane all Mawel ues 10,170 ft. 
ni anennt) Ararat! (lat.;39% North), (22... 050. 2000 sc eieeeees es 13,300 ft. 
In the Rocky mountains of N. America (Lat. 43° N.)...... 11,700 ft. 


Humboldt, in his observations on my letter to Ritter, refers exclusively 
to the Pyrennees and to the Elburuz mountains. With regard to the 
first they cannot be taken at all into account in determining the height 
of the snow-line in the Celestial range, as they are situated in a moist 
sea atmosphere, where the snow-line must be considerably lower than 
in the continental climate of the interior of Asia. The Caucasus, 
however, supplies a better point of comparison, if treated with proper 
discrimination. The height of the snow-line of the Kazbek and 
Hlburuz occurs at 10,170 feet, under a latitude of more than 1$° to 
the northward that that of the Tian-Shan, and with a climate consi- 
derably more humid. On mount Ararat, where the surrounding 
atmosphere is drier, and the latitude 25° more to the south, we find 
that the height of the snow-line is 13,300 feet above the level of the 
sea. Ji a range of mountains existed between the Elburuz and mount 
Ararat, under climatic conditions of an imtermediate character as 
compared to those characterising mounts Ararat and Hlburuz, and 
situated under the same parallel as the Celestial range, the height 
of the snow-line of these mountains would be determinable at 11,300 
feet. All these figures, computed theoretically by comparing the 
heights of the snow-line on different parallels of the same meridian with 
the Celestial mountains, and on different meridians of the same parallel, 
coincide very nearly with my determinations. The considerable 
elevation of the snow-line of the Celestial mountains is to be explained 
by the peculiarity of their geographical position, and the character 
of the surrounding atmosphere. It is generally admitted as a fact 
that a dry atmosphere has the effect of elevating the line of eternal 
snow very considerably. Thus for instance the snow-line on the 
southern slope of the Himalayas occurs at 12,180 feet, while on the 
northern side it rises to 15,600 feet. This anomaly is only to be 


accounted for by the southern side of the range being exposed to winds 
18 r 


130 Notes on Central Asia. [No. 3, 


charged with the humid vapours of the Indian Ocean, which settle on 
the cold mountain slopes in the form of snow, while the winds on the 
northern slopes of Thibet are completely free from moisture. The 
extraordinary dryness of the atmosphere of the Celestial mountains, 
compared to the Altai and Caucasus, is strikingly exemplified by the 
following instances. In the neighbourhood of Riddersk, in the Altai 
mountains, the dew falls so heavily that the horseman is completely 
drenched, when riding through the high grass, while in the sombre 
forests of the North-Western Altai, called locally Taigi, the atmos- 
phere is still more humid, and rain, during some summers, falls inces- 
santly. Now during the two years I spent in the Celestial mountains 
and Trans-Ili-Altati I positively saw no dew; notwithstanding that 
the summer of 1857 was remarkably wet, and the Altai was rendered 
impassable from this cause, the fall of rain was very small. In addi- 
tion, the very vegetation of the Tian-Shan bears evidence to the 
dryness of the surrounding air. 

While the slopes of the Caucasus are clothed with dark and impene- 
trable forests, which proved so troublesome in the military operations 
of the Russians, the wooded surfaces of the Tian-Shan are of limited 
extent, and rhododendrons, which are so widely spread in the moist 
climates of the southern slope of the Himalayas and of the Caucasus, 
do not grow at all in the Celestial range. 

Ii to this extraordinary dryness of the air in the Celestial mountains, 
be added the intense heating of the broad plateau by the scorching 
rays of the sun, accompanied by cloudless skies and a rare atmosphere, 
a natural explanation will then be found for the height of the snow- 
line being at 11,000—11,500 feet. The few measurements of heights 
made by other travellers in Djungaria, and moreover by other methods, 
serve to confirm the accuracy of my figures. Fédorof determined 
trigonometrically, that is by the most accurate process, the altitude of 
the highest point in the Tarbagatai at about 9,900 feet. The Tarbagatai 
range extends under Lat. 47° N. and is consequently nearer by 1° of 
latitude to the Tigeretski Belki, than to the Celestial range. Com- 
puting the elevation of the snow-line of the Tarbagatai theoretically, 
by a comparison of the heights in the Altai and Tian-Shan, we should 
obtain a result of about 8,600 feet, while in reality the true elevation 
is considerably greater, as throughout the Tarbagatai range the existing 


1865.] Notes on Central Asia. 131 


snows with the exception of two patches, are only sporadic, and the 
snow-line is not below 9,500 feet. This case proves that the snow- 
line rises rapidly from the Altai to the Tarbagatai, owing to the 
greater dryness of a continental atmosphere. Lastly, the barometrical 
observations of Schrenck, in the Djungarian Alatai, in Lat. 45° N., fixed 
the limits of eternal snows at 10,700 feet. Calculating then the height 
of the snow-line in the Tian-Shan by a comparison of that of the 
northern slope of the Himalayan, and of the Tarbagatai ranges, we 
obtain 11,700 feet and 11,950 feet, if we take in the Djungarian 
Alatat. 

In this manner all the facts of the case, not alone those supplied us 
by comparative geography and climatology, but likewise those derived 
from the exact observations of other travellers, tend to confirm my 
figures, and prove them to be rather understated than magnified ; 
Humboldt’s doubts therefore as to the possibility of the snow-line of 
the Tian-Shan exceeding 11,000 feet elevation, are disposed of not only 
on theoretical considerations, but also by ocular demonstration. The 
interesting questions relating to the existence of fine alpine glaciers 
in the Tian-Shan, which is in intimate connection with that of the 
height of the snow-line, I solved in complete accordance with the 
previously expressed opinions of Humboldt and Ritter. I set out 
without any foregone conclusions on this point, but having experienced 
the remarkable dryness of the air in the Tian-Shan mountains, and 
having ascertained, on ascending the Fatiku Davan, that the height of 
the snow-line was higher than 11,000 feet, involuntary doubts entered 
my mind as to the possibility of the existence of real glaciers in the 
Tian-Shan. These doubts were, however, soon dispelled. At the 
sources of the river system of the Sary-Djaza, I came across five 
magnificent alpine glaciers and a “‘ Mer de glace” exceeding in size that 
of Chamounix. Notwithstanding some of the peculiarities of the 
Tian-Shan glaciers, owing principally to their prevalence at not more 
than about 2,500 feet below the limit of the snow-line, while in 
Switzerland they descend as low as 5,000 feet, their existence in the 
form anticipated by Ritter and Humboldt, on the strength of Chinese 
accounts, was fully confirmed. 

It now remained for me to prove, by actual observation on the spot, 
the existence or otherwise of volcanic phenomena in Djungaria, and 


132 Notes on Central Asia. [No. 3, 


in the Celestial mountains, to which Humboldt in his works so often 
alludes. I started on my journey firmly persuaded that I should find 
the conjectured volcanoes, or at all events some volcanic forms, and I 
sought diligently (as Schrenck did on lake Ala-kul) to establish the 
correctness of Humboldt’s surmises, with respect to the existence of 
volcanic phenomena in Central Asia, by which confirmation I knew a 
traveller would gain greater credit than by an incomplete refutation 
of the hypothesis. I was even aware that Humboldt was rather 
displeased with the researches of Schrenk who clearly showed that the 
island of Aral-Ttibe on lake Ala-kul was not of volcanic origin. 
The opinions entertained by Humboldt on the subject of the existence 
of voleanoes in Djungaria were favourite ones with him, and I regret 
that I was not able to confirm his cherished theory. Kullok peak, 
another of Humboldt’s mistaken volcanoes, was found to have no 
volcanic origin whatever. The hot springs, and the non-congelation 
of the waters of lake Issyk-Kul, were not accompanied by any 
voleanie forms in the Tian-Shan, and furthermore all the native 
accounts of phenomena which from their descriptions might be supposed 
to be volcanic, proved unfounded, and were at once disposed of on my 
examination of the localities where they were declared to occur. The 
result therefore of my researches on this point was that I became 
convinced of the complete absence of volcanoes, distinct volcanic 
phenomena, or even volcanic forms throughout the Celestial mountains. 
It is true that there existed in Djungaria at one period some 
“ Solfaters” or smoking cavities from which there was a discharge and 
deposit of sulphur, and that some of these fissures, out of which the 
Chinese obtain sulphur, emit smoke even at the present day. But a 
careful inspection of one of the extinguished pits satisfied me, that at 
all events in that case, there was no volcanic affinity. 

In the neighbourhood of the pits which I discovered in the Katt 
mountains, and in the Ili valley, I could trace no volcanic forms, but 
ironstone occurred, and owed its formation, as far as I could judge, to 
the pyrites that were widely spread in the vicinity; there was at the 
same time a discharge of sulphur emitted in the form of vapour out of 
numerous fissures and which left a deposit on the sides. It is to be 
taken into consideration that I found a coal formation largely developed 
throughout the Ti basin, and that coal is obtained by the Chinese in 


1865.] Notes on Central Asia. 1383 


the neighbourhood of Kuldja, in large quantities, from very deep 
seams. The whole process of the formation of sulphur can then in my 
opinion be reasonably explained by the combustion of some coal seams 
in this basin, which would at once set at rest the question of supposed 
volcanic agency. 

I cannot positively affirm that the origin of the other smoking pits 
of Djungaria, and particularly Humboldt’s famous ‘ Solfater’’ of 
Urumchi, is susceptible of the same explanation, although the analogy 
between all the Djungarian “ Solfaters’’ would appear to be confirmed, 
native accounts excepted, by the circumstance that the Chinese, who 
are very expert in recognising such sulphur formations, procure sulphur 
from the “‘ Solfaters” of Katt which I visited. 

With still less certainty can I deny the existence of volcanic pheno- 
mena or volcanic forms farther eastwards in the Celestial mountains. 
Humboldt in his observations on the letter I addressed to Ritter, 
which was published in the “ Zeitschrift fir Erdkunde”’ says that the 
Sangai, rising in the centre of the Ando-Cordilleras range, the most 
active of all the volcanoes in the world, forms around itself an island 
of trachyte, not more than two geographical miles in diameter. From 
this I must of course conclude that the observation of a single portion 
of the Tian-Shan visited by me cannot serve as a positive evidence of 
the absence of volcanoes and volcanic forms in other parts of this 
mountain system. My conclusions on this question generally have 
already been made public, in the letter here referred to, but I must 
likewise observe in addition, that all Asiatic accounts of phenomena 
which might be volcanic in appearance, should be treated by men of 
science with great circumspection, as many of these accounts have 
already proved fallacious. I would here also remark that the impres- 
sion produced on me personally by Djungaria and the Tian-Shan 
leaves great doubts in my mind as to the existence of volcanoes in this 
part of Asia, and as I am the only traveller who has visited the 
Tian-Shan, I cannot accept the belief in their existence, as an axiom 
requiring no proof or confirmation. 

My conclusion on this point, though negative, is one of the most 
important results of my journey. 

Ii, in aspiring after the truth, I have been compelled to express 
opinions on two points of such vast importance to the geography of 


134 Notes on Central Asia. [No. 3, 


Asia, which differ completely from those entertained by Humboldt ; 
whose faith in the existence of volcanoes in the Celestial mountains 
was as firm as that of Columbus in the existence of the New World, it 
does not necessarily follow that I cast a shade (in itself impossible) on 
the spirit of the great scientific genius of the age. Science is the 
eternal aspiration of the whole human race towards truth, and truth 
can only be grasped at out of a multitude of errors and misconceptions. 
No one moreover is more liable to fall into such errors than the 
pioneers of thought, who marshal their fellow creatures to the great 
goal of truth, and call into existence words of new thoughts and 
conceptions. 

These giant minds are followed by a train of disciples, for whom 
the path of investigation, and the final solution of great scientific 
problems, is rendered comparatively easy. Thus there are the men of 
genius in science, or the master minds, who conceive great thoughts, 
and the workmen who follow up such of these thoughts as are sus- 
ceptible of elaboration. Hach has his separate functions, but on the 
most humble labourer in the field of science devolves the sacred duty 
of pointing out and rectifying any error into which the eminent master 
may have fallen. And in such a case, the obscure advocate of truth 
should not be crushed by all the height and authority of genius, science 
being a problem open to solution to all humanity, and recognising 
no individuality or oligarchical superiority. The science of geography 
has lately been deprived of two of its most brilliant leaders— Humboldt 
and Ritter. To follow in their footsteps, to extend the circle of their 
researches, to strive after that eternal truth which they eagerly sought 
during their mortal careers, to correct the few errors which are inter- 
spersed through the wide field of their enquiries, these are the duties 
of every votary of science, even of the most humble grade, and will 
serve as the best testimony of admiration and respect to our great 
masters. May the present effort be taken as such an expression, and 
as one of the many proofs, that dying, Humboldt and Ritter have 
bequeathed to humanity a living record of their great genius. 


OO aaa 


1865. ] Notes of a trip up the Salween. 135 


Notes of a trip up the Salween—By Rev. C. Parisu. 
[Received 39th June, 1865.] 


In March last, as I had never travelled on the Martaban side of the 
Salween, and as I had been promised by Captain Harrison, the Deputy 
Commissioner of Shway-gyeen, that, if I would pay him a visit, he 
would accompany me through the Fir forests of the Yoonzalin, which 
I have long wished to see; I availed myself of a month’s privilege 
leave to take a trip northwards. Col. Fytche was going, at the same 
time, on his official tour to Shway-gyeen. His company was an 
additional inducement to go in that direction. 

The road to Shway-gyeen lies through Beling and Sittoung, and 
affords good riding ground all the way in the dry season, as it keeps 
to the plain, leaving the mountains on the right hand, that is, on the 
east. These mountains, which, N. HE. of Shway-gyeen, cover a great 
breadth of country, divide themselves towards the south into two 
narrow ranges, one of which separates the Yoonzalin and Salween 
rivers, terminating at their point of confluence: the other and longer 
range terminates at Martaban, and is the watershed between the 
Sittoung and Beling rivers on the west, and the lower Salween on 
the east. Westward of the latter range stretches a vast plain; and it 
is along this plain, parallel with the mountains, though at some 
little distance from them, that the road from Martaban to Shway-gyeen 
lies. 

While at Beling, on the way, I rode out in company with Ool. 
Fytche and Capt. Harrison to a place called Kothanaiong, about 7 
miles off, to see the Amherstia trees there. This place had often been 
mentioned as one where the Amherstia was to be seen in great 
perfection, and where, indeed, it might perhaps he wild. I was well 
rewarded, for a prettier little spot I never visited. The Amherstias, 
growing in a well-shaded place and watered by a perennial stream 
which tumbles down a steep granite hill, and is ingeniously directed 
hither and thither in large bamboo troughs, were, indeed, to be seen 
in the wildest luxuriance of growth. But Kothanaiong is a sacred 
spot. Here are Pagodas, Pongyee-houses, Zayats all around, A flight 
of stone steps leads from the bottom to the top of the overhanging 


136 Notes of « trip up the Salween. [No. 3, 


hill, which is about 600 feet high, and on which are more sacred 
buildings. The Amherstias, seen only round the principal Pagoda, 
were undoubtedly planted, although they are left now to take care of 
themselves, and have a wild appearance. Evidently, this is not a 
native habitat of the tree. 

From Beling we went on to a place called Kyik-hto. Hastward of 
this place and distant about 14 miles, is a remarkable mountain, called 
Kyik-hteo. Capt. Harrison, one of the very few Huropeans who had 
been there, assured me that it was well worth a visit, as there was, 
on the summit, a very singular hanging rock, surmounted. by a 
Pagoda. We went accordingly, riding the 14 miles to the foot of the 
mountain in the morning, and walking up it in the middle of the day. 
We reached the top 3,650 feet at 3.30 ep. m. The view from the 
sumunit is very fine, as all views from great heights are; but the many 
granite boulders which are scattered about, some of them perched and 
balanced in the strangest manner on the most prominent peaks, 
constitute the most remarkable feature of this mountain. On all the 
most striking of these boulders small Pagodas have been built; in 
several instances, I should say, at the extreme risk of life to the 
builders. As the only way of conveying a true idea of the appearance 
of these rocks, I send a rough sketch of two or three of them. 

There are two principal ones.—The one at the very summit is 
called Kyik-hteo ‘par excellence ;” the other, some little way down 
the hill is, Kyik-hteo galay, or, “ little Kyik-hteo.’” We could not 
ascertain for certain what their names signify, further than that 
“ Kyik” is “rock” or “ mountain-peak.” I have observed that the 
Burmese never know the weaning of the names which the mountains 
and prominent rocks in the country bear; the names being older than 
the Burman occupation of it. They are, I believe, generally Valaing, 
but sometimes Karen. The chief rock of all, which gives the name to 
the mountain, is simply a wonder. It is a huge rounded granite 
boulder perched on a projecting and shelving tabular rock at the very 
summit. This tabular rock is itself reached by a small foot-bridge, 
for it is separated by several feet from the mountain by a rent or 
chasm; and on the farther side it drops down perpendicularly, I do 
not know how many hundred feet, into a valley below. On the 
extreme verge of this flat sloping rock-table, and actually over- 


1865.] Notes of a trip up the Salween. 137 


hanging it by nearly half, is perched this wonderful boulder, which is 
about 30 feet high, and is surmounted by a small Pagoda about 15 
feet high. A rude bamboo ladder is leant against it on the inside, 
which enables an adventurous person to ascend. Every native will do 
this, but we, being both heavier and more awkward, preferred to 
remain at the bottom. 

Viewed on one side, it is difficult to understand why this rock does 
not slide off its shelving support into the valley below! As one looks at it, 
it appears as if, assisted with a little grease and a slight push, it must go! 
But there it hangs, as it had hung, and I suppose, will hang yet,—one 
might indeed almost say, there it s/zdes and will s/zde,—for many an age : 
“Labitur et labetur in omne volubilis evum;’ unless some earth- 
quake (and a very slight one surely would do it) should rudely shake 
it from its precarious foundation. This place is annually visited for the 
purpose of worship by people from all parts of the country round ; 
many, I am informed, going to it even from Moulmein. Many were 
already there, and very many more shortly expected, as was shewn by 
the temporary booths of grass which had been erected, and were 
calculated to hold several thousand people. Altogether, this is a 
remarkable place, very little known, and well worthy oi the trouble of 
visiting it from a long distance. 

I was disappointed, however, here, in a botanical point of view. 
I expected great things from a high mountain in a totally new part of 
the country; but I gathered scarcely anything. There were no 
Orchids at all. The Ferns, if any, were dried up; one or two new 
Acanthaceous plants alone rewarded my search. At this season the 
mountain is arid, and vegetation on it scanty. On the top there is 
little else besides long grass. 

We passed the night on the top; and descended on the opposite, or 
north side the next morning. Our ponies had been sent round, and 
were found waiting for us at the appointed place; and a ride of 18 miles 
brought us by evening into Sittoung. From Sittoung to Shway- 
eyeen the distance is about 40 miles. After two or three days spent at 
Shway-gyeen in making preparation, Capt. Harrison and I started 
upon our walking trip to the Yoonzalin district. 

The Yoonzalin river is a tributary of the Salween and takes its rise 
in (about) Lat. 18° 30’ and flows in a very tortuous course, but in 


19 


138 Notes of a trip up the Salween. [No. 3, 


a general southerly direction until it joins the Salween at Kankareet, 
a little below the Hat-gyee. It draims a very mountainous district, 
and during the rainy season, rolls down a considerable body of water, but 
during the dry weather, it is a shallow rocky stream, full of rapids and 
scours. It takes small boats 15 or 20 days to ascend from Kankareet 
to Pahpoon, about two-thirds of its course. It took us 5 days to 
descend that distance. 

The valley of the Yoonzalin is an extremely wild and almost 
uninhabited district. All the way from Bangatah in the valley of the 
Sittoung to Panpoon we did not meet with a single village. The 
Karens, the only inhabitants, are very few and scattered ; and they 
have been so harried during the last few years, by the incursions of 
the Shan Pretender who styled himself Aing-lowng, on the one side ; 
and by us, in our attempts to drive him out, on the other, that they 
have hidden themselves away in the most inaccessible places. Occa- 
sionally only we saw a stray house or two perched up on the top of 
some distant mountain, or on its almost perpendicular side, with no 
visible way of approach from the spot where we stood. When the 
inhabitants become reassured and gain confidence in the permanency of 
peace, they will no doubt increase, and settle down in more accessible 
places. 

IT will not attempt any description of the scenery of this district, 
because mountain scenery in one place is very like mountain scenery 
in another place; and because I have rarely found that attempted 
descriptions of the kind convey any definite picture to the mind.. All 
that needs be said is, that it was extremely wild and beautiful, and 
afforded all that endless variety of view which a chaos of mountains 
rudely thrown together, might be expected to afford. Neither shall I 
give the length of the stages which we performed, nor the names of 
the places where we halted ; for these places were not villages, only well 
imown spots conveniently chosen for the purpose, as combining the 
advantages of level ground and water. And the stages, if measured 
by miles, might appear small; though measured by labour, by no 
means so. A more laborious, at the same time thoroughly enjoyable, 
walking tour I never took. It is ceaseless ascent and descent, to the 
extent of several thousand feet a day, all the way. There are two 
words in Burmese for hill: Towng, and Kon. A Toung, hereabouts, is 


1865.] Notes of a trip up the Salween: 139 


a good stiff hill, in fact, a regular mountain. The word Kon seemed 
to be applied to any thing under 1000 feet. Two or three Kons 
go for nothing, no account is taken of them in the prospective march; 
if you should ask what it is like. After two or three days, one learnt 
oneself to despise a mound of 1000 feet. In this sort of travelling; 
one counts hours not miles; and, beginning to walk at 5.30 or6 a. M., 
a man has generally had enough of it by 11 or 12 o’clock, and 
rejoices to hear that the “tszkan” or halting-place is near at hand. 
And this is the country through which some enterprising person has, 
T believe, proposed to make a Railroad to China ! 

The extremely low temperature of the upper part of the: Yoonzalin 
district is remarkable. Immediately you get in among the moun- 
tains, even before crossing the watershed which divides the Sittoung 
and Yoonzalin, it becomes very much colder. It was the beginning 
of March; yet, at a place called Thayet-penkindat, on the west of 
the watershed, the nights and mornings were uncomfortably cold, and: 
the water in the stream excessively so. Before reaching this place, an 
elevation of at least 4,000 feet, has to be made from. Bangatah. 
Thayet-penkindat is the name given to a stockade which we have 
placed here. It is beautifully situated at the head of a fine valley, 
and is 2206. feet above the sea, and closely surrounded by mountains 
2000 or 3000 feet higher. The stockade is guarded by a Police force, 
and the site appears tobe well chosen, as it is situated at the entrance 
of the Pass into this part of the Yoonzalin. This Pass is called: Kyouk- 
taga or Rock-gate, and is a narrow defile, two or three miles long, 
The head of this pass is 3343 feet above the sea.* A small stream 
runs through it, and the vegetation consequently is very rank. I was 
told that I should probably find some new ferns here, but though. 
there were many species, there was nothing which I had not seen 
before. Near the head of the pass, however, I discovered a new 
species of Bulbophyllum, and one or two other orchids. 

Through this pass, we were in the Yoonzalin district, and, to my 
great delight, thenext day, among the Hirtrees. The sight and the 
fragrance of a Fir forest to me, who had not seen one for a long time, 
was most refreshing. The trees are all of one kind, Pinus longifolia; 


* The heights given have been furnished by Col. Blake, and are from his 
own measurements by an aneroid. 


140 Notes of a trip up the Salween, [No. 3, 


and cover the mountains from top to bottom. In many places it is 
the only tree visible. It attains a considerable height, 80 to 100 feet, 
and are, (the full grown ones) 8 to 9 feet in girth. The temperature 
of the tract or belt of country where the Fir grows, as I said just now, 
is extremely low. In the month of January, Capt. Harrison informs 
me, (for he had been here in that month) there is hoar frost, and a 
thin covering of ice forms on a basin of water by the morning. Even 
in March we found the nights and mornings so cold, that we were glad 
of thick over-coats and a blazing fire of Pine logs. At 11 and 12 
o'clock in the day, and while walking in the sun, the heat was not 
unpleasant. The vegetation gave indications of low temperature. I 
gathered violets in the valleys. Rubus was met with ; and instead of 
the Acanthacee and Zingiberacee, which cover the hills to the south 
but which were not seen here at all, Composite (among them a large 
Carduus) abounded ; many of them attaining to the dimension of large 
shrubs. The Composite, however, were not confined to the Fir tract. 
Of Epiphytic Orchidee, there were none: though I dare say that, in 
the rainy season, the terrestrial kinds would be numerous. As the 
forests were dry, ferns were scarce, though I was gratified at finding 
that singular little tree fern “ Brainea imsignis” in large quantities. IT 
had never met with it before. I gathered also Adiantum flabellulatum 
and Lindswa tenwifolia. 

Immediately we crossed the watershed to the eastward, though still 
among the mountains, the Fir trees ceased, and it became very hot ; 
and so it continued when we turned southward and crossed again into. 
the Yoonzalin valley. It is only in the upper Yoonzalin. that the tem- 
perature is so remarkably low, and that the Fir forests exist. Strange, 
however, to say, the Fir reappears in the Tenasserim provinces at 
Myawaddee, on the Thoung-yeen, some 50. miles due east of Moulmein, 
and thence stretches southwards for several miles, as I have myself 
seen. The tree there does not form forests, but is sparsely scattered 
among other trees; nor does it grow so large. But, and this is most 
*emarkable, in the Thoung-yeen valley, it is found on hills only about 
1000 or 1500 feet high, and descends nearly to the river; therefore in 
many places, cannot be more than 300 or 400 feet. above the level of 
the sea; and this in N. Lat. 16.°! 

Shortly after passing out of the Fir forests I was delighted to come 


1865.] Notes of a trip up the Salween. 141 


upon a truly splendid Bauhinia, which I discovered for the first time 
last year in the Thoung-yeen valley. Then, however, I met with but 
one tree—here now I found many, and all in flower. The flowers are 
very large, about 4 inches in diameter, of the purest white, save the 
single coloured petal which is streaked with purple and gold. It far 
surpasses B. Richardiana in beauty, for the petals of that plant are very 
narrow, consequently the flower looks poor, whereas, those of the 
species I am describing, are broad and meet at their margins, and this 
adds immensely to its beauty. The flowers also are of the sweetest 
fragrance, and are produced in profuse abundance all over the tree. I 
hope to get seedsof it. I left particular instructions with the head- 
man of that part of the district, to gather some when ripe and forward 
them to Capt. Harrison, who kindly promised to remember me in the 
matter. 

The most northerly point to which we went was Kanlado, another 
police station, and our frontier out-post. It is but some 15 miles 
from our boundary on the North, and not far from the Salween. 
There is a strong block-house here besides a stockade. It is situated 
on the top of a small cleared hill, and 1881 feet above the sea; it is 
surrounded on all sides by higher hills. This is the lively abode of 
the officer who has the honour of serving Her Majesty in the capacity 
of Assistant Commissioner of the Yoonzalin district. He, at least, if 
no one else, will rejoice at the completion of the projected Railway ; 
but he is likely to be the only passenger ! 

The vegetation of the hills round Kanlado is very different from 
that which is seen in the Tenasserim Provinces. The forests consist 
almost wholly of what the Burmese call Hngyen a species of Shorea, a 
middle-sized tree, at this season of the year in flower and without a 
leaf. The forests consequently have a bare wintry look, a condition 
of jungle never seen in the Tenasserim Provinces, where the whole 
country is densely green throughout the year. There are, of course, a 
few other trees mixed with the Shorea, such as Careya, Dillenia, 
Hugema, and Anneslea fragrans ; but not in sufficient quantities to 
alter the character of the jungle which is given by the prevailing 
Shorea. Orchids grow sparingly on the trees here, but some good 
kinds; Dendrobium Dalhousianum, formosum, and eburneum. The 
only other locality known for the last plant is the valley of the Shoung- 


142 Notes of a trip wp the Salween. [No. 8, 


yeen. Besides these, I collected two or three other species familiar to 
me, but not yet described or named. There was nothing absolutely 
new to me here; indeed, the whole expedition only yielded two new 
Orchidex ; the Bulbophyllum already mentioned as found in the 
Kyouk-taga ; and a Dendrobiwm with the flowers of D. aggregatum,. 
but with short, erect cylindrical pseudo-bulbs. 

From Kanlado, after a day’s halt, we bent our steps southwards and 
homewards ; as my limited time would not allow me to go further, 
not even to visit the banks of the Salween which is within an easy 
day’s march of Kanlado on the east. About half way between 
Kanlado and Pahpoon, we turned aside from our path to visit a water- 
fall on the Yoonzalin river. I had often noticed on a map made by a 
local surveyor, professing to be a map of this district, high up on this 
river, the words, “‘ Waterfall, 400 feet ;” but I could never find any 
one who had seen the waterfall. Now, a waterfall of 400 feet is a 
very unusual feature in the scenery of any country and a grand sight ; 
and I had long formed a secret resolution to find out this waterfall 
some day, and verify the statement as to its height. We were now at 
the very part of the country whence, if visited at all, it must be 
visited. I determined, therefore, not to return home without seeing 
it. Capt. Harrison, happily, was of the same mind; so, notwith- 
standing the assurance of the natives that the place was very difficult 
of access, and the mountain side very steep and slippery, we sent on a 
party in advance to find out a way forus and toclear the jungle sufficient- 
ly to make it passable. Arrived at the point of our road whence it was 
necessary to diverge from it to go in search of the waterfall, we struck 
off, and had certainly as hard a morning’s work before we reached the 
object of our search, as any man could desire: but we reached it about 
noon, and that was enough. 

On arrival we were at once gratified and disappointed : gratified at 
finding ourselves in a most romantic spot, and at the preparation 
made for us: disappointed at seeing no waterfall, although we were 
told that all that was to be seen lay before us. 

We had come prepared to rough it and sleep on the ground ; we 
were, therefore, agreeably surprised at finding a very capacious and 
exceedingly pretty structure built, and all ready for us. The site was 
selected with great taste, for on stepping up out of the thick jungle 


1865.] Notes of a trip up the Salween. 143 


by a small ladder on to our house, and on going to the front of a 
broad baleony or verandah ornamented with a balustrade, the whole 
made of bamboo, we found that the boughs of the trees had been cut 
away in front, and that we stood over a large circular pool of water 
into which the Yoonzalin poured itself on one side, and out of which 
it flowed on the other, and we had the best view that it was possible 
to have. We were in a perfect punch-bowl, shut in by almost perpen- 
dicular mountains on all sides. Before us lay the still pool, 60 feet 
deep and about 150 yards across: we heard the roar of the water 
rushing in and rushing out, but, so hemmed in with rocks is the spot 
that we could neither see the course of the river above or below. As 
I said, we were charmed with the place, but where was the waterfall 
of 400 feet? The reply was, that this was the “ Yaytagon” (so the 
Burmese call a waterfall) and that there was nothing more to be seen 
than this! A raft of bamboos was made for us, and on it we went 


close up to the ‘ 


‘embouchure” of the stream, the mouth of the passage 
through which the water from above pours into the pool. It was a 
singular sight. The whole of the waters of the Yoonzalin at this 
point are poured through a long, straight, and very narrow street of 
rock. The passage, or street as I call it, through the rock is perfectly 
straight, about 14 feet wide only, and having exactly the same width 
throughout its whole length, which is about 20 or 80 yards. The rock, 
granite, rises on either side of this passage to the height, in the centre, 
of about 50 feet in perpendicular walls with smooth faces, as straight 
and smooth as if measured with a plumb line, and cut with a hay- 
knife. As the water enters the upper end of this passage at a right 
angle, we could see no more of the river than the length of the 
passage, but we could hear the roar of the water as it boiled and 
bubbled in its tortuous and bouldered channel above. But though 
lashed into foam above, so smooth and polished is the narrow passage 
that the water glides through it with a surface like glass, and sinks at 
ounce to the bottom of the pool, causing little or no commotion init. I 
climbed to the top of the overhanging rock on one side to get a sight 
of the river above, but it takes so many short and sudden turns and 
the gorge in the mountains is so narrow, that I could see but a few 
yards upwards. Thinking that we had seen all that was to be seen, and 
having already spent a day and a half here, we determined to set out 


144 Notes of a trip up the Salween. [No. 3, 


on our return the next morning; but towards evening, some of our 
party, who had been exploring, came and informed us that they had 
discovered a way to get up the rocks on the opposite side, and that 
having ascended that way they had come upon a waterfall. As we 
wished not to leave the plaee without being able to speak positively 
on the subject of the fall, and thinking that there might yet be one 
higher up the stream but hid from our view, we resolved to stop 
another day, and explore on the morrow. We did so, and climbed 
the way pointed out to us; and thus, taking the passage before 
mentioned in the rear, we got a good view of the river for a mile or 
so above it. As far asthe eye could see, the course of the river lay 
through an extremely narrow valley and was impeded the whole way 
by huge granite boulders. The fall of level also was considerable ; 
and near the spot where we stood, it took a sudden perpendicular leap 
of some 30 feet, into a deep and very confined square hole, which at 
once turned the water at a right angle, whence it rushed on, and after 
2 or 3 similar sharp turns within the length of a hundred yards, dashed 
through the beforementioned passage into the pool. We had now 
seen all certainly and could positively assert that the greatest perpen- 
dicular fall the Yoonzalin makes here, is not more than 30 feet. 
Though disappointed of a grand sight, we yet considered ourselves 
well repaid for our toil by the general beauty of the spot and by the 
very remarkable character of that natural feature in the scenery which 
I have attempted to describe; the narrow street with perpendicular 
walls through which the whole river, as well when at its height in the 
rainy season, as in dry weather, has to make its way. Several_persons 
have thought that Pine logs might, in the rains, be floated down this 
river to Moulmein: but no one who had visited the Yay-tagon would 
allow it to be possible. No log could, I am convinced, pass this part 
of the river’s course without being broken to pieces. It is unfortunate 
that all the Pine forests should be above the fall. 

There was one drawback to our full enjoyment at this place. There 
is a pest here in the shape of a very small fly, met with happily no 
where else, which attacks every exposed part of the body most viru- 
lently. Its puncture immediately raises a blood pustule and causes 
considerable irritation for several days afterwards. I could scarcely 
sketch for these tormentors; and when we bathed, especially, their 


1865.] Notes of a trip up the Salween. 145 


attacks were so vigorous, that we wasted no unnecessary time in 
putting off and in resuming our garments. On the third day after 
our arrival we started for ‘‘ Pahpoon.” It was not far from “ Pahpoon”’ 
that, for the first time in the whole journey, we heard the cry of the 
Gibbon. Its cry was totally different from that of the Gibbon of the 
Tenasserim Provinces. The latter is a wailing, plaintive, and, to me, 
not disagreeable cry: but the cries of the Gibbon here were most 
discordant, and not unlike that of a pack of jackals. They can hardly 
be the same species. 

From Pahpoon, an obscure village on the Yoonzalin, we dropped 
down to Moulmein in boats. Onthe second day after leaving Pahpoon 
I noticed unexpectedly on the bank of the river, in one of the wildest 
spots, a fine Amherstza in full flower, about 30 feet high. I saw but 
one; for it was the middle of the day and hot; I had been, therefore 
lying down in the boat under cover, heedless of what I passed. I 
looked out of the boat casually, and saw this tree; so there may have 
been others which I did not see, both on the bank and in the adjacent 
jungle. I am sorry to say that my companion Capt. Harrison was a 
long way behind in another boat, so that I could not point it out 
to him; and he did not notice it, because, not caring for the character 
of the vegetation, he did not look out from his boat at all. 

Now, my reasons for saying that this was a bona fide wild tree are 
these: in all this district, the valley of the Yoonzalin,—there are no 
Pagodas or Pon-gyee houses, or spots sacred to the Burmese where 
they have erected buildings. The inhabitants of the district, in fact, 
are Karens and not Burmese; and these Karens are exceedingly few 
and scattered. After leaving Pahpoon, we did not see a single village 
on the banks all the way until we came to the junction of the Yoonza- 
lin with the Salween. There are, indeed, no doubt, a few villages a 
little way from the bank, here and there hidden among the trees, but 
these generally consist of but 2 or 3 houses: neither are they settled 
villages, for the custom of the Karens is to change the site of their 
houses continually. Besides the regular Karens, not being Buddhists, 
do not build Pagodas, nor do they ever trouble themselves to plant 
ornamental trees, as the Burmese always do. in their sacred places. 
Besides, the spot where this Amherstia was seen, was not at all a 
likely place for an Amherstia to have been planted by any one; but 

20 


146 Notes of a trip up the Salween. [No. 3, 


one of the wildest places imaginable. Had it been on & rismg ground 
on a high bank alone, or on any prominent point on the river, 1 
should have suspected that a hand had planted it : but it was on a low 
and sloping part of the bank, struggling for life with Calamus, Bauwhi- 
nia and tall grasses and such other tangled stuff as forms the common 
vegetation of our river banks in the wildest places; and behind again 
was dense jungle of the tallest trees. However, notwithstanding alk 
this, had it been seen in a fairly peopled district, I should have 
doubted; but in such a wild uninhabited country as the Yoonzalin 
is, LE see no reason for suspecting that it was not a genuine native.” 
Had Wallich’s first tree been here, I am satisfied that the idea of its 
not bemg wild would never for a moment have occurred to him. If 
am perfectly satisfied that the tree seen by me was a wild one. That 
the Amherstia in a wild state may be very scarce is not improbable, 
but that it should not exist any longer in that state, though possible, 
is, to say the least, very unlikely. Probably it is confined to a small 
area; and I am inclined to think still, as I always have thought, that 
its habitat is the banks of the Salween, and of the Yoonzalin, which 
runs nearly parallel with the Salween in about the latitude where I 
suppose it grows. Very. few Europeans, who would care to notice 
the vegetation of the country, have ascended either the Yoonzalin, or 
the Salween above the Great Rapid, that is to say, have been conti- 
nuously along its banks, so that a rare tree may, mot improbably, 
exist there, although it has not been seen on the latter river at all, 
nor on the former, except by myself, as I have described. 
I append a rough but tolerably accurate map of the country, 


* The Amherstia has never been found wild before. Wallich discovered it, 
i. e. first saw it, at a place called Pagdt, some twenty or thirty miles up the 
Salween. The trees which he savy are still there, at least some of them, and, 
are manifestly planted trees, being near an artificial tank, at the entrance to 
some sacred caves, 

I have long had an idea that the native habitat of the Amherstia would be, 
found to be somewhere high up the Salween, This is not at all unlikely, be- 
cause very little, indeed almost nothing, is known of the banks of this river: 
above the Hat-gyee, or Great Rapid, which is about 100 miles up the river. 


COLD ALLL PIP LLL LLDPE 


Journal As: Soc. Bengal: 


Vol: XXXIV PartII Plate V. 


p 


jeToungoo 


MAP 
ILLUSTRATING M® PARISHES NOTES 
OF A TRIP UP THE SALWEEN 


)) Zpah-Chioung 
( Feundery 


(5: way -goore 


‘ 
é 


Journ. As. Soc. Bengal. 
; as Vol_ XXXIV. Part. I. Pl. 6- 


On stone by Kristohurry Doss. 


Sketched by C. Parish. 
BOULDER TEMPLE AT KYIK-HTEO 


Journal As. Soc. B 


emma) As. Soc. Bengal. Vol. XXXIV. Part). Pl. 


Skelched hy C. Parish. On stone by Kristohw 
KYIK-HTEO-GALAY BOULDER PAGODA. 


LITH) BY Hof SMITH. S.G.0.CALCUTSA. 307 1kes. 


a 


Iogrn al As: Soe 


ourmal Ax: Soc 


Sketched hy C Parish. 


KYIK-HTEO BOULDER. PAGODA. 


LTH ORY Hoot SMITH, 5.6.0, CALCUEER OFF. Nes 
fh 


Vol XXXIV. Part Tl, P} 


On stone by Kristohurry 


De 


1865. ] Ox the Boksas of Bijnow'. 147 


Notes of Observations on the Boksas of the Bijnouwr District —By 
Dr. J. Ya. Stuwaret. 


[Received 10th January, 1865. | 


Travellers in Central America tell us that the phrase quien sabe 
(“ who knows?) stops them at every step, when they seek to inquire 
into the past history of the natives, and some analogous expression is 
probably in frequent use, in similar circumstances, among all barbarous 
or hali-civilized races who have no literature. In this country gwen 
sabe is fully represented by khabar nahin and Khuda jdne, and of these 
I have had much more than was pleasant, in trying to discover some- 
thing of the past history of the Boksas of the Bijnour district. My 
attention was first directed to the existence and peculiarities of these peo- 
ple, while making some investigations as to the food of the inhabitants 
of the district, and various circumstances subsequently led me to be some- 
what curious about them. And altheugh I have miserably failed in 
making out anything definite as to whence the Boksas came or from 
whom they sprung, a few facts have been elicited regarding the habits, 
mode of life and health of these who inhabit the Bijnour Forest and 
the Patli Doon, which may have some interest as relating to a section 
of this tribe, the last of which, it seems not unlikely, will be seen by a 
few more generations. 

This information was only acquired by a good deal of patient digging 
among these Boksas themselves, during several weeks of the cold 
season of 1862-63 when I visited a considerable number of their villages, 
and conversed with many of their inhabitants, including some of the 
most intelligent headmen among them. 

No detailed description of the Boksas, or of any section of them, 
has hitherto been published, but there are many scattered notices 
of those who inhabit the eastern portion of the Rohilkhund forests, 
in the reports and papers of Traill, Batten, Jones and Madden; 
and Sir H. M. Elliot, in his supplement to the Glossary, gives some 
interesting traditions as to their origin. Frequent reference will be 
made to these notices hereafter, but, meantime, a few general facts 
gleaned from these and other sources may be given regarding the distri- 
bution and characteristics of the eastern Boksas. Since our occupation of 


148 On the Boksas of Bijnour. [No. 3, 


Rohilkhund they would appear not to have extended in any numbers 
to the eastward of Kilpoory, beyond which the Tharoos, a similar race 
begin to prevail, and their chief settlements were near Guddurpoor 
and Roodurpoor. On the rearrangement of the canal system of that 
part of the Rohilkhund Tarai, the Boksas were concentrated to the 
north of Guddurpoor, where their settlement is now known by the 
name of Boksdr. Nearly 300 years ago this term was applied to a tract 
a little further to the eastward, in which, at that time, probably the 
greater number of the tribe resided. Captain Jones, about 1845, gave 
the number of inhabitants of (the present) Boksér as 2,293, and I 
have no information, subsequent to that date, shewing what proportion 
of the Boksas of the neighbourhood may still inhabit scattered 
villages. 

The Boksas inhabiting the forest to the east of the Ramgunga, 
who are called by those of Bijnour Paurbid Boksas, and sometimes 
Khalsé, ave described as mild, inoffensive and truthful, but indolent, 
fickle and unthrifty, and extremely ignorant; and, ere they were 
taken in hand by British officers, they are said to have been kept 
in grinding poverty by the usurers and their own Pudhdn. They 
are stated also to have shewn an invincible disinclination to settle 
down for more than two years on one spot, yet never to emigrate 
outside of the Forest and Tarai, to be excessively partial to the flesh 
of game, especially wild pigs, and to exhibit a “‘ wonderful immunity 
from the effects of malaria.” 

The Tharoos or Tharwi above alluded to, present many points 
of resemblance to the Boksas, though neither will acknowledge 
any connection with the other. But the former cover a much greater 
extent of country than the latter, as from the point a little west of 
the Sardah where the two tribes dovetail, the settlements of the 
Tharoos stretch eastward through the forests of northern Oudh and 
Goruckpore to the river Gunduck. 

I can find no evidence that on the east the Tharoos meet the 
Meches, who are called by Dr. Hooker ‘“ decidedly Indo-Chinese,” 
and who occupy a similar position abreast of Darjecling, to that held 
by Tharoos and Boksas to the west, and to whom they appear to 
possess a considerable resemblance. 

The fact of different segments of the Sub-Siwalik forest being 


\ 
1865. ] On the Boksas of Bujnour. 149 


inhabited by three tribes which acknowledge no relationship, and 
which, at the same time, have many peculiarities in common, is deserv- 
ing of more attention than it appears to have hitherto attracted. 

To the westward of the Ganges, there are some Boksa villages 
inside the Siwaliks, in the Dehra Doon, but I can discover nothing 
certain regarding their numbers, nor as to whether any of the 
tribe inhabit the forest outside the Siwaliks in the Saharunpore 
district. These western Boksas are called by those of Bijnour, 
Mehras or Meri, and are acknowledged by them as in every respect 
of the same caste with themselves. But isolated statements by 
‘members of such ignorant tribes can hardly be accepted without 
check, for the Patli Doon Boksas repudiated all bardddré with the 
Merz, as well as with the Purbid, whom they asserted to be nothing 
but Tharwi, and to eat frogs and lizards. 

We need not, however, suppose ther ignorance to be strikingly 
exceptional, for, at an early period of my inquiries, I was informed, 
upon what would ordinarily be called “good authority” in the 
Bijnour district, that the Boksas were chiefly remarkable for living 
in houses built on poles, for the indifference of their women to decent 
clothing, and for mainly earning a livelihood by gold-washing. As 
will be seen by and bye, there is some little truth in the last state- 
ment, while the two first are baseless. But this is beaten by the 
characteristics attributed to the Boksas of Dehra Doon by the other 
inhabitants of the district, who say that the former are famous for 
dealings in witchcraft, for successful treatment of insanity and syphilis, 
and for their pot-bellies, all which peculiarities probably originate in 
the imagination of the narrators. 

The number of inhabited Boksa villages in the Bijnour district 
outside the Siwaéliks, including two in the Patli Doon within 
the outer hills, is fifteen, of which the thirteen outside are pretty 
equally distributed over the Forest, but are rather more numerous 
towards its western end. Of these, four are situated near the base 
of the Siwaliks on the inner edge of the Forest, five on canals at 
some distance from either border of the latter, and four—all in 
the eastern part—on or near its outer edge in the Taréi proper. 
It is out of my power to give aught like a correct census of 
these, but the number of inhabitants in single villages, ranges 


150 On the Boksas of Bijnour. [No. 3, 


from twenty to at least two or three hundred in one or two of 
them. Having found out the exact number of persons in a few 
families, and made a good many inquiries, about most of the villages, 
bearing on the poimt of population, I should put down the total 
number of Boksas in this tract as at least two thousand, and possibly 
nearer three thousand. 

Of the fifteen villages, eleven were visited. All are built on 
the same plan of one straight street generally of considerable width 
(in some cases as much as forty to fifty feet) and kept very clean, 
in both respects, differing remarkably from the ordinary villages 
of the plains. The huts are placed end to end with intervals after 
every group of three or four, and the walls are, for the most part, built 
of wattle (of split bamboo) and dab, but sometimes of chhuppar, of 
which latter the roofs also are constructed. The houses are window- 
less, but each has a door in front and another behind, the latter 
affording access to the sheds for cattle, &e. The doorways and roofs 
are very low, and the floors of beaten earth are considerably raised 
above the general level of the ground, and are kept scrupulously clean. 
The only “furniture” in the houses, besides an occasional charpaz, or 
more frequently small chhappars (which are often used to sleep on, as 
cheaper than the former), consists of a few cooking vessels and one or two 
barrel-shaped utensils three or four feet high and fully as much round, 
made of wattle and dab, and used for storing grain. 

There is no change made in the houses or household arrangements 
during the rains, so that these western Boksas do not at any time 
“Jive in houses built on poles,” as is stated to be the case with those 
opposite Kumaon. 

The members of the tribe are of short stature and very spare 
in habit, in both respects, somewhat exceeding the ordinary Hindoo 
peasant of the district, from whom, however, they do not differ 
much in general build or in complexion. No measurements of 
their crania were made, but so far as ordinary inspection goes, their 
features are marked by several of the Turanian peculiarities. Thus,. 
the eyes are small, the opening of the eyelids being narrow, linear and 
horizontal (the inner angle not inclined downwards so far as I observ- 
ed), the face is very broad across the cheekbones, and the nose is 
depressed, thus increasing the apparent flatness.of the face, the jaw 1s 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnour. 151 


prognathous and the lower lip thick, and the moustache and beard are 
very scanty. Some of these peculiarities are much more marked 
in certain individuals than in others, but most of them were notice- 
able in almost every man’s face I saw, and it seems certain that a 
Boksa will at once recognize another to belong to his tribe even if 
he never saw him before, although some persons (Kumaonis) said 
they could not recognize one of the tribe until he spoke. 

The features of the few women that I had an opportunity of seeing 
closely, were comely enough and of the same general character as 
those of the men; but, as might be expected, in the children of both 
sexes and even in a descendant the above peculiarities were 
but little noticeable. Indeed, some lads were remarked in whose 
features could be discovered no difference from those of the ordinary 
peasant of the district. I cannot say, whether or not, it was owing to 
the Boksa peculiarities of feature striking one less after a time, but 
in the western part of the forest, which was visited last, “ features 
hardly so marked here” are noted more than once. 

As will be seen presently, I am inclined to lay considerable stress 
on the fact of the Boksas having features with so many points of 
resemblance to the Turanian type so well-marked, that they have in a 
general way been commented on by all previous observers. 

The dress of the men is the same as that of the ordinary native of the 
North West Provinces, but, except in one or two cases where the Pudhan 
may be presumed to have put on his “ Sunday clothes” for inspection, 
none of them wore turbans over the thin cotton cap which generally 
covers the head. The little boys run about 7 puris, or nearly so, the 
girls wear a scanty rag. The women’s dress consists of a petticoat, 
generally blue or of an orange-red, with a dirty-white or orange-red 
chaddar. 

The proper names, in use by the Boksas, are almost always the 
same as those of Hindoos generally, with a few exceptions such 
as Pili, Dhanni, Mangi and Kakha, which may be supposed to have 
been corrupted from Hindoo names. All of those, who were questioned 
on the subject, were quite positive that their language is quite the 
same as that of the other inhabitants of the district, and I heard of 
no words peculiar to these people, with the exception of some names 
of trees. The most remarkable of these is Kanddr for the Sal tree, 


152 On the Boksas of Bujnour. [No. 3, 


which, however, was only heard locally. Singular enough, the Tharoos 
as Madden mentions, apply a special name Koron, to that tree. But 
little stress, however, can be laid on any, specially in the names of 
plants, which, with the natives of other parts of India, are often found 
to alter within a few miles, even among the same or closely allied 
tribes. 

There are some peculiarities in the boli of the Boksas by which one 
of them is at once recognized by members of their own or other tribes. 
Thus 2 is constantly substituted for, as sdn for sdl and nath for 
lath, and less frequently changed into r, and 7 into J, as dari for dali 
and thalela for thanela. Two of these changes are often met together, 
as Baglana, which is very often substituted for Bagnala, the name of 
their chief village. One is struck also by a dialectic manner of 
pronunciation, which alters the short a, and occasionally the long a@ of 
Hindustani, into a sound approaching that of the French eu. Thus, 
Boksa is called Boksuh, and achha sukha rahtéd hai is pronounced 
achhuh sikhuh rahtuh hac. 

The earliest historical indication of the existence of the Boksas 
consists in the circumstance of a certain division of the Chourassi 
Mull in Rohilkhund, nearly 500 years ago, having been called 
Boksdér, a term which is now, as then, applied to a tract of country 
thickly inhabited by them (as well as to the tribe, and sometimes 
to a single village of the Boksas). With regard to the traditional 
origin of the race, the clear and connected statements given by 
Elliot and Batten on this head are by no means borne out by the 
discrepant and, in some cases, absurd scraps of information which only 
these western Boksas, and the three pwrohits who are their spiritual 
guides, can impart. The writers mentioned, state that the traditions 
of the Boksas make them out to be Powar Rajputs descended from 
Oodya Jeet, (or his relative Jug Deo) and his followers, who in the 12th 
century left his native place in Rajputéna on account of family quarrels 
and came, either mediately or directly, to settle here. 

In reply to the inquiries I made on these points, instead of 
frequently, or at all getting a connected account like the above, 
the only assertions that most of these Boksas agreed in, were two, 
viz., that they are of Rajput origin, although they confess that the 
Rajputs of the plains hold them impure on account of their less cleanly 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnour. 153 


habits, &c., and that they had come from the Dakkan, but even in this 
they were not unanimous. When they came to details, and many 
professed to know none, their statements were more varied than 
satisfactory. Thus, several of them agreed that they came from 
Dharanaggari, which, however, one man declared was close to Kangra 
Devi. One stated that they came from Delhi, and another that they 
had been driven from their original home in the Dakkan by the 
Marhattas; one pudhdn stated that they came from Chittorgurh, 
“beyond Delhi” in the wars of the old Rajas, and the most intelligent 
pudhdn of all, the only man among them that I met who could read, 
affirmed that they originally came from “‘ Boondee Kolah” having been 


? 


exiled thence “ by the king.” On this subject I found the three puro- 
hits quite as ignorant as the members of their flocks. 

A still more curious statement, than any of these was made by an 
intelligent old Bengali Baboo, who has held a village in the Boksa 
district for many years. He solemnly affirmed that, before the com- 
mencement of British rule, the Boksas were Mussulmans in faith and 
ceremonials, and that, in his time, they had Hosseini Brahmins as pwro- 
hits, and used verses of the Koran in their pwa. This is a very 
suspicious story, at the same time it is difficult to see what motive the 
man could have had in narrating it. 

It is not easy to reconcile the clear statements made to Elliot, 
especially regarding the origin of the tribe, with the above discordant 
and fragmentary information which alone is current among the western 
Boksas, and the explanation of the difficulty may be the following. 
Ii the story about Oodya Jeet is the true one, it would be more likely 
to be retained by the numerous and concentrated Boksas to the east 
oi the Ramganga, than by the few and scattered members of the tribe 
to the west. Or, if that tradition is, as there seems reason to suspect, 
a mere concretion, resulting possibly from the original conversion of 
the tribe by Rajputs, and their centuries of contact with Hindoo castes 
and traditions, it may, ina similar way, have more readily assumed a 
definite form, where the tribe was most numerous and united. 

Still less than my inclination to theorize definitely, are my quali- 
fications to dogmatize on such a subject, but the suspicion has 
grown on me, since commencing inquiries regarding these people, 
that their origin may be very different from what has ordinarily 

21 


154 On the Boksas of Bijnowr. [No. 3, 


been supposed. It seems exceedingly unlikely that, had they been 
a tribe of Rajput extraction whom mere accident had driven to take 
refuge in this inhospitable tract six or seven hundred years ago, they 
would have, for such a length of time, remained so isolated as they 
undoubtedly have been, from other sections of Rajputs. But thisis a 
minor difficulty, compared with the necessity to account for the very 
decided Turanian characteristics of feature which have been mentioned 
in detail, and which appear to be quite incompatible with a descent 
from any Indo-European race. 

It may be objected that the language of the Boksas, barring slight 
dialectic differences, is identical with that of the ordinary inhabitants 
of this part of this country. But, not to lay too much stress on the 
circumstance that, in a case of this kind, positive is much more valuable 
than negative evidence, it is a recognized principle in ethnology, that 
the physical structure of a tribe, and the nature of their language, may 
change at very different rates, the possible alterations, in each, depend- 
ing on yery different conditions, and supposing that the Boksa 
originally sprang from a source different from that of the ordinary 
Hindustani, and that the physical circumstances in which he is placed 
are not such as, even in the course of centuries, greatly to alter the 
peculiarities of feature, @&., by which he was at first distinguished, it 
is difficult to conceive any position in which his language would be 
more likely to be rapidly and, at last, completely changed, than that 
in which he is now placed. Scattered in scanty colonies, over a very 
narrow strip of country, the language of the inhabitants, on both sides 
of which (we assume), differs wholly from that in use by him,— 
when each successive political or social convulsion in the neighbouring 
tracts, and, for hundreds of years, we know that these were neither 
few nor slight, was seen to be followed by an influx of these outsiders, 
what more likely than that his language should, at last, become 
completely assimilated to that of the latter ? f 

The fact of the Boksas holding the Hindoo faith, and performing 
its rites, seems to me to present no stumbling-block in the way of 
adopting the view that they are of non-Aryan derivation. A race so 
few in number, and occupying so circumscribed a position, surrounded 
by Hindoos, and brought into close and frequent contact with them, 
would be likely to adopt the dominant religion almost as readily as 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnour. 155 


the dominant tongue. It is evident that, if my supposition is correct, 
all the traditions which assign to the Boksas a Rajput origin are 
baseless, but precedent are not wanting of tribes, assuming traditions 
in accordance with the history of their new co-religionists. Indeed, 
such traditions sometimes arise even where the smaller tribe has 
not adopted the religion of those who surround it. This is the case 
of the Nilgiri Todas whose ancestors are now represented to have 
been the palanquin-bearers of Kunya-Swami, a Hindoo deity, though 
the Todas, far from being Hindoos, seem to have no religious beliefs 
or ceremonies whatever. 

To the question, whence the Boksas came, and, if they are of 
Turanian origin, to which of the great tribes of that race are they 
nearly allied, the information at my disposal does not enable me to offer 
any definite answer. It may be, that they sprang from the same 
source as the Bheels, Gonds, Coles, and other so-called “ hill tribes” 
of Peninsular India, relics of the original Tamulian inhabitants of the 
country, still subsisting in the out-of-the-way corners into which they 
were driven by the Aryan influx. But it appears to be indicated by 
the fact of a series of analogous tribes occupying segments of the 
Sub-Himalayan forest-belt from Assam to the Jumna, and seems on the 
whole more probable, that the Boksas are the furthest authors of the 
stock whence sprung the aborigines of the northern part of the 
Malayan peninsula. In any case, if they are really non-Aryan, the 
complete substitution of Hindustani for their original language, and 
the thorough assimilation of their faith and customs to those of the 
surrounding race may form insuperable obstacles to their true relation- 
ships ever being found out. Here, however, I shall leave this subject 
to be discussed by those who are better qualified to handle it, in order 
to revert to less theoretical matters. 

The Boksas conform to the Hindoo religion in an ignorant, un- 
meaning way, ®nd the usual rites of that faith are performed on the 
occasion of births, marriages, and deaths. Marriage, as among the Hin- 
doos, takes place at 8to 10 years, and at this ceremony the pwrohit receives 
afee of about four annas. After a birth, he gets from four annas to one 
rupee four annas. The bodies of the dead are burned at the Ram- 
gunga, or other neighbouring large stream, and the phdl (ashes) are 
carried to Hurdwar, there to be consigned to Gunga ji, by a Brahmin 


‘ 


156 On the Boksas of Bijnour. [No. 3, 


who gets a rupee or two for his trouble. Besides his special fees, 
each purohit receives a general contribution from-every village in his 
beat, apparently amounting to about 5 maunds of grain each crop, which 
is allocated among families according to their means. 

In small matters also the Boksas adhere to Hindoo customs. Thus, 
they do not wear their shoes (when they have any to wear) during 
cooking, and they kill animals to be used as food, by ghatka a blow 
or cut on the back of theneck, and not by the throat-cutting haldl- 
karna of the Mussulmans. 

A good many of the tribe are said to profess special devotion 
to particular deities, the only ones named to me being the spouse 
of Siva; under her designations Bhowani and Devi, with Baba 
Kalu and Surwar Sakhi. Of the personality of the last, I could learn 
nothing. Kalu Saiyid is a local saint, who, curious enough, they state 
to have been a Mussulman, as indeed the appellation Saiyid, if it be 
not a corruption, would indicate, Some traditions about his life and 
death are current, and before his shrine, at the entrance to the main 
pass through the Siwaliks into the Patli Doon, Hindoos of all sects 
make offerings, and his name “ Kalu Sacyid ki jav’’ is invoked in the 
neighbourhood of the tomb on entering upon an undertaking, or when 
engaged in severe exertion such as heaving up a load, &e. 

The Boksas only marry among their own tribe, but there does not 
appear to be any restriction within its limits. In this tract they will 
have nothing to say to intermarriage with the Tharoos (who, they 
declare, ‘‘ eat frogs and lizards”), and there is some authority for 
believing that Elliot must have been misinformed, when told that 
some of the eastern Boksas, “in Kilpoory and Subna, occasionally 


vy} 


intermarry with the Tharoos.”’ The wife always follows the path of 
her husband, and the children that of their father, in regard toa 
difference to be presently mentioned. 

Their purohits are Gour Brahmins who hold the office here- 
ditarily. They do not live among their flock, but outside the 
forest tract, one residing at Afzulghur, towards the eastern end, and 
two in Nujeebabad towards the western end of the hathi. One of 
those of Nujeebabad has the six most westerly villages in his charge, 
the other has the three in the centre, and the Afzulghur man has the 


four easternmost with the Path Doon villages. I conversed with all 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnowr. 157 


of these pwrohits, and found two of them apparently most ignorant 
and stupid, while the third was fairly intelligent, sensible and com- 
municative. 

A considerable proportion of the tribe follow Ndnak Matha, 1. e. 
have adopted the Guru of the Sikhs as theirs, indeed they are 
called Sikh by their brethren, and not Ndnak shdhis as followers of 
Nanak are in Hindustan generally. The ordinary Boksa does not 
“take Nanak’s name” at all. In some of the villages, including 
Bugnalli which is by far the largest of all, the proportion of Sikhs to 
the others is very nearly or quite equal, but in some especially of the 
western villages, there are few or no Sikhs. 

Among so rude a people as the Boksas, it would be vain to expect 
to find any elaborate set of religious tenets either held or understood by 
such a sect as these Sikhs, and accordingly their one distinctive mark is 
avoidance of spirituous liquor, opium and charras, which the Boksas 
in general use freely. The Sikhs will not even smell spirits vo'uvtarily, 
nor will they use the hookah or eat in the house of one wko has 
smoked on the same day. It is said that the purohits also adhere to 
the latter rule. Tobacco is lawful to the followers of Nanak, and 
they, and the rest of the tribe intermarry without restriction, the 
wife and children as above mentioned invariably following the man’s 
sect. 

The Boksas bear an excellent moral character. I have no definite 
information as to their intimate domestic and social relations, but 
for three years at least, not one of the tribe had been a party 
in either a civil or criminal suit in the district courts. Any 
disputes that occur are referred to the village elders, and in extra- 
ordinary cases, it would appear that the pudhdn of one of the more 
important villages (Bagnulli or Chuttroowali) is called to adjudicate, 
but such quarrels of any moment are extremely rare. 

Their indolence and ignorance are fully as remarkable as their 
inoffensiveness. They have a strong objection to all labour which is 
not absolutely essential to provide means for subsistence ; for example, 
near some villages immense quantities of manure, of which they well 
know the value, were lying unused, the trouble of taking it to their 
fields being too much for them; and they assigned as the reason for 
not collecting Kino (Mrakkigond) in the forest that it. would be 
barri mehnat, although it is really very hght work, 


158 On the Boksas of Bijnour. [No. 3, 


They seem to have no spirit of inquisitiveness whatever, even in 
regard to points in which one would naturally suppose they might be 
interested. Thus it was frequently found, that they did not know 
who was the pwrohit of villages within half-a-dozen miles of their 
own: and several said that there were no Boksas beyond Nawab- 
poora, which is the most easterly village of this section of the 
tribe. As a specimen of their combined ignorance and credulity, 
I may mention, that a pudhdn of one of the largest villages having 
brought up his sick child, for some time declined to answer any 
questions, believing that by merely feeling its pulse the details of the 
disease would be discovered, and that any information from him would 
be superfluous. 

They have among them no arts or manufactures whatever, all clothes, 
leather, &c., being imported ; nor do they, so far as could be learned, 
use a single medicinal substance. I only met one Boksa who could 
read, and heard of one other. 

They are much more frank in manner than the villager of the 
plains of the North West Provinces, speaking their mind pretty 
freely, and they appear to have some sense of humour, which if the 
latter possesses, it never comes out in his intercourse with Huropeans. 
One of the Boksas when asked what remuneration he got for being pu- 
dhdn, answered with a grin ‘‘ Nothing but dzkkat ;” the question, ‘‘ What 
will you get, for having guided me, if you do not wait till my servants 
come up?” elicited “‘ Plenty of kdntd on my way back ;” an old fellow 
on seeing me examining under the ribs of some of the others for 
spleen, complacently patting his lank abdomen said with a droll 
expression such as is often seen to accompany some stroke of ‘‘ Scotch 
wut,” ‘ Do you think I’ve got spleen?’ And I had a hearty laugh, 
one intensely cold morning, when on my suddenly stopping to ask the 
old guide who, with chattering teeth, was panting up an acclivity 
after me, some question about their traditions, he replied ‘ I may 
remember by and bye, but its so bara jaara just now, I can recollect 
nothing.” 

Their only amusement seems to be the pursuit of game, terrestrial 
and aquatic, and they complained bitterly that the recent carrying out 
of the Disarming Act had deprived them of a chief means of 
ivelihood. They are excessively greedy after animal food, and 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnour, 159 


Mr. Batten informs me Boksas have told him, that without wild pigs 
a Boksa would die. This statement has probably something to do 
with their fondness for sporting, but, independent of this, wild pig is 
said to be almost a passion with them. 

The Boksas are undoubtedly restless in their habits, and there 
are more migrations from village to village than would appear to 
be absolutely necessary. Still, this propensity doubtless shows more 
strongly when contrasted with the generally extreme adhesiveness 
of the Hindustani agriculturist to his native village. Here, among 
the western Boksas, there is nothing like the “ Never stay in a 
place more than two years” which Jones and others state to be 
the case with their eastern confreres. On the contrary, most of the 
former appear never to shift their village at all, and the most exten- 
sive changes going on of late years among them, seem to arise from the 
Government orders to clear the Patli Doon. 

With the minor development of the nomadic instinct, shown by their 
restlessness, they evince unconquerable adhesiveness to their natale 
solum among the swamps and jungles. I could not hear of a single 
instance of a Boksa having emigrated from the forest belt, and they 
mentioned the existence of a tradition that no Boksa had ever gone 
abroad for service. 

Although they are so fond of flesh, they keep no goats or sheep, 
and in only one instance did I find that a few fowls were kept. 
Agriculture may be said to be almost their sole employment, but one 
or two others, which are followed by a few of them at times, may be 
here noted. 

A very small number of them ever engage in cutting bamboos 
or timber for export, and the collection of drugs and gums, which 
are largely produced and gathered in the forest, affords employment 
to almost none of the tribe. In some parts, however, they collect 
a few of these (viz. gum of jingan, Odina wodier, and sohanjan, 
Hyperanthera pterygosperma, kamela powder from the Rottlera 
tinctoria, aorila, fruit of Hmblica officinalis, and harra immature 
fruit of Terminalia chebula) for sale to the bunyas, who come hither to 
buy such things. I have already here mentioned, that the collection 
of the kino of the dhak they object to as being too laborious, and 
probably we must attribute to sheer laziness the fact, that they do so 


160 On the Boksas of Bijnowr. [No. 3, 


little in availing themselves of the natural products, which are literally 
scattered around them. 

But the most important and interesting of the extra-agricul- 
tural avocations the Boksas ever engage in, is gold-washing, and 
it deserves a somewhat more extended notice. Within the last 25 
or 30 years, the first part of the course of the Ganges, outside the 
Himalaya, furnished gold from its sands, but at present the Sona 
naddi in the Patli Doon, and the Ramgunga, below the junction of the 
former, are the only streams in this neighbourhood, whose sands are 
regularly or frequently washed. Little is done on the Ramgunga 
outside the Siwaliks, but there appeared every indication that the 
gold-washing was a regular employment of the Boksas on the Sona 
naddi, and there is reason to believe, that the proceeds derived- 
from that minor Eldorado -had a good deal to do with the 
manifest reluctance of these people to leave the Patli Doon, on the 
occasion of its being shut up for the preservation of the timber. In 
the aggregate, however, the amount annually collected does not seem 
to have been very large, for some years ago, the sum paid to Govern- 
ment by the contractor of the Doon as gold-dues was only 25 rupees 
yearly. 

The Boksas say that there is nothing in the appearance, of the 
gold-bearing sand to let them know if it will be productive or not, 
and only “ prospecting” by a trial will shew this. The sand itself is 
dug from the bed of the stream at many places extending over several 
miles, and the superficial layer generally contains much less gold than 
some of those a few inches below. In the sand, there seems to be a 
good deal of ferruginous matter, and there are iron-markings along 
many parts of the borders of the little stream, which here runs down 
an intra-Siwalik valley similar to, but very much smaller than the 
Dehra Doon. The soil, in and near the bed of the stream, is mostly 
gravel, and soft gray sandstone, similar to that of the Siwaliks, 
frequently crops out. 

Three or four people, often members of one family, work in a gang, 
each having a separate part ofthe process assigned to him. <A shovelful 
of the sand is first put upon a little close-set bamboo screen or sieve, 
placed over the upper hinder part of a flat toon-wood cradle (sand ), 
the lower end of which is open, and which has handles by which its 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnour. 161 


upper end can be tilted. Water is then poured on the sand from the 
mouth and lateral hole of a handled témré (pumpkin), the operator 
stirring the sand with his left hand while he sits alongside the cradle, 
which is raised a foot or two from the ground. 

The sand having been washed through, the gravel left on the screen 
is tossed off, but the screen itself is left on, so as to soften and equalize 
the fall of the water from the pumpkin passing through it on to the 
sand, which the left hand keeps stirring about, and raking backwards 
toward the upper end of the cradle. After all the lightest of the sand 
has thus been washed out, small quantities of the remainder are placed 
on a round, slightly hollowed plate of toon (phari) which is dexterously 
twirled and made to oscillate on the fingers of the left hand, while 
the washing is very gently continued. When as little as possible, and 
that consisting mostly of dark particles apparently of hornblende,— 
except gold, is left, mercury is rubbed with it by hand, to take up 
the gold, and the mercury is afterwards dissipated from the amalgam by 
heat. This finishes the process, which agrees almost entirely with that 
followed on the Bids, as described by Col. Abbott (J. A. 8. March, 
1847), the chief difference being, the trough used by the Boksas is consi- 
derably smaller. 

The mercury is supplied to the Boksas at two annas a manswrt 
paisa weight by the same bunyas who purchase the gold from them, 
sometimes giving them advances on the possible future production, at 
sixteen rupees atola. Several of the tribe, who could have had no 
possible collusion, stated that a gang of three or four people will 
average two annas worth of gold a day, and one man, of fair intelli- 
gence, said that into his village of under one hundred people, old and 
young, from one to two hundred rupees a year might come from gold- 
washing. 

The gold is here invariably in minute particles, and the Boksas 
cannot conceive of the metal as ever being found in large pieces or 
imbedded in solid rocks; and a theory I have heard of the manner 
of its production has the quality of being as simple as are the peo- 
ple who credit it. Thus, it is said that the sd? leaves which are 
burned by the forest-fires, act on any iron or copper which the 
soil or sand contains, so as to turn it into gold! 


22. 


162 On the Boksas of Bijnowr. [No. 3; 


The agricultural operations and implements of the Boksas are the 
same as elsewhere in the N. W. Provinces. The chief crops of the 
hot weather (kharif) are rice, of several varieties, and mandei (Mandua, 
Hleusine coracana), and of the eold weather (rabi) wheat with some 
barley, but besides these, most of the cereals grown in the open plain 
are also cultivated to some extent. Maize (makkz) is but rarely grown, 
as it is said ta be very subject to be eaten by wild anintals (elephants, 
pigs and jackals!) So great is the damage to the crops by these, that 
the inhabitants of one village said, that smce most of their guns were 
taken away, they had been obliged to give up cultivating a number 
ef their outlying fields in consequence of not bemg able to protect 
the crops. 

The pulses are very seldom cultivated, as the leaves are stated 
to be peculialy liable to the attacks of gindar, a kind of worm 
which injures the plants so much as to prevent their maturing their 
fruit. For this reason, almost all the pulse used is bought from the 
bunyas. Another imsect, swadi a sort of weevil, commits great 
damages among their stored grain, especially, they say, during the 
blowing of the purwa (east wind), 

Nor are the pumpkin tribe cultivated, the reason given for this 
being that they do not ripen their fiait. This, if really true, is a very 
eurious circumstance, the Forest tract being so moist that one would 
have supposed this class of plants would grow well. 

A good deal of sarson (Brassica campestris, mustard) and lahi (B. 
eruca, rocket) are grown, chiefly for their oil, that of the former being 
used as food, that of the latter for burning. The young plant of the 
lahi is also consumed as greens,—as in France and other parts of Conti- 
nental Europe,—and this is the only green vegetable they raise, such a 
thing as a garden being unknown among them. 

Their agriculture is probably very slovenly, if one may judge 
from the large piles of manure near some of the villages, which 
they will not take the trouble to remove to, and spread upon, their 
fields. A still stronger evidence of laziness in this respect is, that 
they do not, so far as could be learned, raise a single stalk of tobacco, 
(which all use), although large quantities are grown in each village every 
year by Sanis. The latter are men of the plains and almost all of 
them reside in the forest for a few months only of each year, specially 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnowr. 163 


for the tobacco-crop. A very few of them remain all the year in the 
forest (I met with one), and take two crops off the ground. The Sanis’ 
houses are almost invariably in a little cluster apart from the Boksa 
village. i could not clearly discover what terms as regards land-rent 
are made with the Boksas. The facilities for getting excellent 
manure render tebacco a very luxuriant and lucrative crop, but men 
ef the plains say, its quality is not so good as that grown outside the 
forest. The Boksas give as the reason why they do not grow tobacco, 
that it is unlawful for them to break off the top of the plant (as is 
done to prevent its running to stalk and flower) ; but this appears 
absurd enough, and the cause assigned for their allowing the Sanzs to 
cultivate their village-land on any terms, viz. that the Boksas have 
too jew men, seems to me almost equally so. It is to be found that 
laziness is the chief cause of both circumstances. 

T can only give details, as to the area of land cultivated in propor- 
tion to the number of inhabitants, in regard to one village, and that 
the most comfertable-looking of all those visited. It contained less 
than one hundred inhabitants of all ages, and the extent of land under 
cultivation, for ene or other or both crops, was about fifty acres. The 
Government land-rent paid by the Boksas appears to be in general 
exceedingly light. 

After what has been said of the agriculture of the Boksas, it 
will be apparent that their food is of the simplest. It consist of 
bread made of the flour of wheat, barley, or some of the millets, or of 
rice with a small proportion of dal, and more rarely some /ahi or 
wild herbs cooked as greens with a little oil. They also, as above 
indicated, consume a large amount of the flesh of wild animals com- 
pared with the ordinary inhabitant of the plains. And, were they 
always able to procure such food as the above, they would be, to say 
the least, no worse off than millions of the inhabitants of India. But, 
besides that the disarming process has affected their supply of meat, 
it will be at once evident, that if the proportion of land to popus 
lation throughout is similar to that in the village instanced above, 
eyen were it cultivated in the highest perfection, sufficient food could 
not be grown for the inhabitants. We accordingly find that, even in 
ordinary years, most of the Boksas live for months on a wild yam, 
ealled githi, which, fortunately for them, is found in abundance in 


164 On the Boksas of Bujnour. [ No. 3, 


these forests. The plant of which this is the root is the Dioscorea 
bulbijera, LL. (D. versicolor Wall; Helmia, Kunth) which is common 
in the Sub-Siwalik belt as well as in the Himalaya to some distance 
inward. It is of the same genus as the West Indian yam, and as the 
vatdlu which is cultivated for its tubers in most parts of India. The 
tubers of various other wild Dioscoreas are eaten in different parts 
of this country, and Buchanan Hamilton mentions one, with a similar 
native name gength, as being largely consumed by the savage Bhars 
(Tharoos?) of the Goruckpore jungles. The plant is a graceful 
climber having large handsome, heart-shaped leaves, and with little 
bulbs (whence the specific name) in the axils of the leaf stalks. The 
Boksas say the plant is always produced from these bulbs rather than 
from seed, and as the tubers examined had exactly the same kind of 
markings on them as the former, this is probably for the most part 
the case. The tubers themselves are found at varying distances, from 
a few inches to several feet, under the surface of the ground. The 
plant is luxuriant from the commencement of the rains in June, till 
about March, after which, as the stem dies away, there is no clue by 
which to find the tubers, so that, for at least three months of the year, 
they are seldom if at all dug. The Boksas declare that the gatha 
will not keep for more than a few days, after which it dries up or gets 
rotten, but, from various circumstances, it seems not unlikely that this 
was merely given as an excuse for their having none stored up. 

These tubers weigh from an ounce to (it is stated) five or six 
pounds, averaging perhaps a pound. For cooking, they are peeled and 
cut into phanks (slices), which are put into an earthen vessel with 
water and ashes, the latter being added in order to remove the excessive 
bitterness of the rawtuber. They are then cooked over a slow fire for 
from six to ten hours, generally in the night-time, and are afterwards 
washed before being eaten. An adult, it is said, will get through from 
two or four pounds at a sitting, using as a relish flesh (kahya) or 
pulse. 

The Boksas themselves assert that they always prefer the cereals 
as food when they can get them, and that it is only necessity which 
drives them to eat the githi. They say the latter merely acts as 
pet-boja and has no strength (kwvat) in it, and in the more prosperous 
villages it is never consumed except in time of famine. In some of 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnowr. 165 


the worst villages, again, they affirmed that during the two years of 
the late famine they had no vegetable food whatever, except the githi. 
Still, with the usual tendency of mankind to make the best of a bad 
bargain in such a case, they attribute various virtues to this kind of 
food. Thus, they state that it does not cause thirst or flatulence, 
and that their freedom from spleen is attributable partly to eating it. 
Their estimate of it, as tending but little to strengthen the body, is 
much nearer the truth, as like the other yams, it is mostly composed 
of starchy non-nitrogenous matter, and long-continued subsistence on 
any such diet will tend to debility of body. This must be kept in 
mind when we come to consider the general questions as to the 
health of these people. 

The Boksas are fond of tobacco, which, when they have no hookah 
by them, they smoke in a twisted-up leaf (patwirt) ; and they took 
kindly to Cavendish, which, however, they found very strong after the 
light unfermented tobacco they use. 

All the men except those who follow Nanak, indulge in spirit 
drinking. Some of them denied that their women drink, or said 
that they never do so until past the child-bearmg age; and one 
man indignantly asked ‘‘ What need have they for spirits, since they do 
not have to go out into the jungle, or sit for a whole night up in atdnd 
(=machdn) among the musquitoes, crying, hoo-hoo (to frighten wild 
animals from the crops ?)’’ But it seems certain that many of the women 
also drink. Boys begin to consume spirits at the age of ten or eleven, 
and the adults confess that they all drink whenever they can get liquor. 
Yet, it would appear, they very seldom carry it to intoxication or so far 
as to unfit them for work, but are generally contented with two or 
three glasses. The liquor, here as elsewhere in the district, is manu- 
factured from shira, and as it is sold at one anna and two annas a 
seer, this does not imply a very large consumption of alcohol. In one 
village, the abkdr informed me that his customers comprized about 
fiity adult males, and his sales per month were equal to 80 seers of 
two anna spirits, which indicates a not very considerable average con- 
sumption of the liquor such as it is. 

The best of their pwrohits often lectures them on their drinking 
habits, declaring that when they get a few annas they invariably run 
off to the bhatt: to invest them, but he confessed with some sadness 


166 On the Boksas of Bijnowr. [No. 3, 


that his admonitions do no good, while the Boksas standing round 
half-laughing denied the charge ef drinking more than is good for 
them. They affirmthat the spirits help, with githz and flesh to save 
them from spleen and badz. 

I now come to what is practically perhaps the most in- 
teresting question connected with the Boksas, viz., their general 
state of health and the diseases to which they are liable. And, in 
palliation of the meagreness of what I have been able to discover under 
this head, it must be remembered that, among savages like these, each 
little fact must be expiscated separately, and the information derived 
from one man checked by repeated cross-questioning of him and 
others. 

It may be premised that inoculation is quite unknown among 
them, and all denied that they use any medicinal substance whatever. 
As one man put it “ What medicine do we know except Bhagwan 
ki ndm 2” 

The only diseases unconnected with malaria regarding which parti- 
cular inquiries were made, were urinary calculus, leprosy, cholera and 
small-pox. Cases of the two first have occurred among the Boksas, but 
the aggregate number of the tribe is so small, that no generalization of 
value could be made as to the rareness or frequency of these diseases 
among them,as compared with the inhabitants of the district generally, 

Only one epidemic of cholera was mentioned to me. This occurred 
in 1862, and carried off nineteen people out of one middle-sized 
village. One sporadic case appeared in another village apparently 
about the same time. - 

The people were able to furnish some particulars of epidemic small- 
pox in five different villages, four of them apparently in the same 
year. ‘The details indicate very varying intensity, as in two of the 
epidemics, although a good many children had the disease, no deaths 
occurred, while in each of the other three, ten to twenty, mostly young 
persons, died. 

Ordinary intermittent fever is not unknown amongst the Boksas, 
but it is by no means common, and a number of those examined had 
had no attack for many years. Deaths occasionally occur from a form 
of fever which seems from their description to be a typhus with 
bilious complication, and which proves fatal in five or six days, if at all. 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnour. 167 


In a proverbiably malarious district like that inhabited by 
these people, one might- have been prepared to find the ‘ Spleen- 
test,” of some importance, and I was somewhat surprised to dis- 
cover that in not one of the numerous adults examined, was the 
spleen notably enlarged. Indeed most of them had never heard of 
such a thing as pilaz, while those who had, generally attributed thew 
freedom from it to—as usual the gzthz and alcohol they consume. 
The percentage of enlarged spleens among the inhabitants of a district, 
as a test of the intensity of malaria in it, was first proposed by Dr. 
Dempster, when on the “ Canal Committee” in 1847, and, since that 
time, it has been held as a dogma by probably the bulk of the profes- 
sion in India, that a large number of “ ague cakes” shew increased 
malarious activity in a district, while a blank return as to enlarged 
spleens would indicate absence or weakness of the miasm. Indeed, a 
report is on record, by a member of our service, who, when acting on a 
committee appointed to select a sanatarinm, having in the course 
of a few minutes examined some of the residents of the village, 
and found few or no enlarged spleens, immediately pronounced the 
site “free from fever influences.” But the almost total absence of 
spleen affection among this tribe, who inhabit from year to year, and all 
the year long, a tract where all the elements generally considered 
necessary, for the development of malaria are in full perfection for 
several months each season, and where it is but too certain that the 
miasm itself exists in the greatest activity at that time,—would induce 
us to believe, that there is still some datum to be discovered ere the 
“ spleen-test” theory can be formalized. 

Nor are we by any means at the bottom of the question 
of acclimatization so-called, in regard to a case apparently so 
simple as that of the Boksa living in comparative health throughout 
the year, in a tract twenty-four hours of many parts of which, at 
certain seasons, would be deadly to the newcomer. The Boksas’ 
comparative immunity from malarious fevers has frequently been 
attributed especially to two causes; Ist, their not going out of doors 
aiter sunset in the fever-season, and 2nd, their houses being raised on 
poles at that time. Unfortunately, among our Boksas, neither of these 
habits has any existence,—houses on poles are unknown, and although 
in the rains, the Boksas naturally are not inclined to go out after dark 


168 On the Boksas of Bryjnour. [ No. 3, 


op] 


if it is avoidable, yet they make no special difference on account of 
the risk of fever. Thus those whose turn it is to go out and spend a 
night up in the ¢dénd, in order to drive away wild beasts from the 
crops, do so in the rains as at other times. Nor are the Boksas the 
only people who may become “ acclimatized.”” I met at least one Sdné 
who had spent two complete years in a Boksa clearing and had no 
fever. Again, some others do not so easily undergo the “ acclimatiz- 
ing” process. I inspected one gote of herdsmen from near Almora, of 
whom a certain number had that season (as in other years) remained 
down to tend their herds throughout the rains, a very large propor- 
tion of them had had fever severely and at least one had very bad 
spleen. Very many of these gotzyas suifer severely in the forests during 
the unhealthy season. 

Ti we cannot as yet explain fully the cause of this difference, I may at 
least state in what respects the habitations of the Boksas and of the 
gotiyas ordinarily differ from each other, more especially as the differ- 
ences observed tend to confirm the truth of modern views as to 
sanitary improvements. The Boksa villages are generally situated at 
some distance from forest and jungle, in or near the centre of the wide 
open space comprising their fields; they consist of one very wide, 
roomy, clean street, unencumbered by out-houses, &c., the floors of the 
houses ‘are raised a foot or more above the surface of the ground, and 
are kept beautifully clean; the cattle are almost never lodged under 
the same roof with the human residents, except when there is great 
fear of tigers, and then they are in a separate chamber divided off by 
a well-lipped wattle and dab partition; nor is their dung allowed to 
accumulate close to, far less in the house. 

In almost all these respects, a gote shews a very marked difference 
from a Boksa village. The former consists of immense quadrangular 
sheds, which are not necessarily or often pitched in an open space, but, 
as more frequently happens, are surrounded close up to their doors by 
forest and brushwood. In these sheds the herdsmen and their herds 
live in common, the former occupying the inner, the latter the outer 
end of a shed. The floors of these are not raised above the level of 
the ground ontside, and the dung of the animals is not, so far as I 
could learn, removed for many weeks or months at a time, or at most 
only to just outside the doors, so that the whole place is one vast 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnour. 169 


dunghill and affords by no means a pleasant promenade even in the 
cold weather. With our modern views as to the effect that filth and 
close, foul air have on health, we need hardly wonder that the Gotiya 
is more subject to sickness than the Boksa, or that the latter attri- 
butes the greater liability of his neighbour to fever to the state of 
uncleanliness in which he lives. 

In the course of my inquiries among the Boksas, it became evident 
that there is a very strong scorbutic tendency amongst them, of which 
the state of the gums affords a fair indication. In this pre-eminently 
statistical age, it would have been more satisfactory had I been able 
to give a good many figures bearing upon this point, but my attention 
became directed to it so late that I can speak positively as to the state 
of the gumsin ten men only. These were taken promiscuously, and 
the gums of nime were more or less livid, spongy and hemorrhagic, 
the one exception, with sound gums, being a robust young lad. In 
order to have some ground for comparison, the gums of several scores 
of prisoners in the bijnour jail were subsequently examined on 
admission and at the time of discharge, and, with the exception of 2 
(or 3) old thin-blooded men, and one lad who had been subject to 
considerable privation ere admission, the gums of all were healthy. 
These were sound even in the case of several who had been for some 
months on the havalat diet, which consists of only 16 oz., of flour 
with 4 oz., of pulse or 10 oz. of fresh vegetables. 

The hemorrhagic tendency of the Boksas appears to be shewn also 
by the great frequency and fatality of dysenteric affections among 
them. Of seven deaths, the causes of which were at various times, and 
without special design, detailed to me, five were from simple dysentery 
or diarrheea, and two from dysenteric complications of fever and small- 
pox (respectively). 

It may bea question whether the malaria, though it does not 
cause fever among the Boksas to anything like the extent which 
might be expected, has not something to do with the lowering of the 
system indicated by these purpuric or scorbutic symptoms, but I do 
not think we have any cause for it beyond the wretched food on which 
many of these people live. It has been seen, that the area of land 
tilled in a village is generally much less than would provide a suffi- 
cient quantity of cereals for the inhabitants under any system of culti- 


23 


170 On the Boksas of Bijnowr. [No. 3, 


vation however energetic, and that consequently, exeept in one or 
two favoured villages in good seasons, the mass of these people mostly 
subsist for a great part of the year on the wild yam, which does not 
contain all the elements for properly replenishing the blood,—that 
their supply of pulse which might supplement this want is not large, 
and that they grow almost no vegetables. Doubtless the flesh they 
eat, when it can be got, tends to lessen the detrimental consequences 
of their monotonous and miserable diet, but with the Disarming Act 
even partially enforced, they do not get the full benefit of that 
palliative. They are, at the best, but spare small men, and become 
prematurely old and feeble. Men of forty I have noted as “thim, grey, 
and breathless,” and they themselves attribute their ailments to scanty 
food. 

It would appear that the state of system induced among the Boksas, 
by the circumstances of their diet, is similar to that arismg among 
some classes of the Irish from continued subsistence upon the potato 
alone, as detailed in a paper read to the Dublin Royal Society by a 
medical member in the course of last year. It is also analogous to that 
condition which is noted by Dr. Mouat as leading to the fearful mortali- 
ty among the Sontals, and members of other wild tribes in the jails of 
Bengal, and which has also at times been observed among prisoners 
in Great Britain, in consequence of ill-advised changes in the dietary. 
Within the last few months, the existence of a similar state of consti- 
tution caused by poor diet has been suggested, by an experienced 
medical officer, as predisposing to the fatality of epidemic fever among 
the prisoners in the Punjab jails. This state of system, as existing 
among the Boksas, is perhaps more nearly allied to scurvy than to any 
other disorder, and although they or other people, in a condition of 
freedom, in whom it exists, probably seldom die immediately from it, 
yet it renders them infinitely more liable to succumb to attacks of , 
epidemic or other disorders, 

It is likely that the debility so evident in the adults likewise 
exists in the children of this tribe. Besides the numbers of young 
persons alluded to above, as carried off by epidemics; of 14 instances 
in which the age at which death occurred was incidentally mentioned, 
eight occurred before puberty, only six afterwards; and in almost all 
the families whose circumstances happened to be detailed, the minority 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnour. 171 


only were then alive, and in only one of these, had so many as three 
persons reached manhood. 

The statements given above, however, though significant enough as 
indications, may not be very definite or on a sufficiently large scale to 
convince ; the following facts do not labour under the latter defect. 
Seven Boksa villagas have become extinct, and no new Boksa settle- 
ments have been formed within our limits, in the memory of living 
men, and as the Boksa does not emigrate from the forest, the question 
arises ‘‘ What has become of their former inhabitants ?’’ There is no 
trace of any of them having migrated to the villages of the eastern 
Boksas beyond the Ramgunga, and only a very few from the western- 
most extinct village Lullutpore, appear to have crossed the Ganges 
into the Doon Boksa settlements, so that naturally one might expect 
the existing villages to have increased. But the fact is that of seven 
of the villages, where special inquiries were made as to increase or 
decrease of the population of late years, the largest of all (Bugnulli) 
had slightly increased, two others had remained stationary, while the 
remaining four had decreased from 50 to 90 per cent., and either figure 
will leave a margin, even for the irrepressible inexactness of the 
oriental. 

While trying not to exaggerate the importance of these facts and 
indications, I cannot resist the impression that these western Boksas, 
the far outliers, as I presume, of one of the aboriginal races, are surely 
and not slowly, dying out. Several causes seem to contribute to this 
process. First among these may be put the unhealthy climate of the 
forest-tract, although it is impossible to say how, or to what extent, 
it acts in impairing the health of the race, or to separate its effects 
from those of the other agents in operation. Second, and most 
. palpable, is the miserable diet on which most of the tribe habitually 
subsist ; and third, the effect of epidemics is most fatal among a 
people whose blood is impoverished, and their strength impaired by the 
preceding causes. It has been seen that epidemics of small-pox, in 
particular, are frequent, and often fatal among the younger Boksas, 
and, had I remained longer in the district, I meant to have taken 
steps for sending vaccinators amongst them, so that the severity of this 
scourge might be lessened in its future visitations. It is possible, 
however, that ere this time the Boksas have come within the range 
of the general vaccine operations for Rohilkhund. 


172 On the Boksas of Bijnour? [No. 3, 


It might be supposed that Boksas are frequently killed by tigers 
and other wild animals, but I only heard of one man who had perish- 
ed thus, having been killed by an elephant. I was subsequently 
informed, on doubtful authority, of three of them having been killed 
by one tiger, in 1863. In all likelihood, the frequency of wild beasts 
near their villages at certain seasons, renders these people peculiarly 
wary. At the sametime they have the reputation of bemg very 
daring with tigers. I met one man who had been seized and mangled 
by a tiger a good many years before. The brute having been driven 
off by the other Boksas, who had no fire-arms, was shot by the 
wounded man as soon as he let him go, although he was laid up with 
his wounds for many weeks afterwards. 

In bringing to a close these obervations. on the western Boksas, 
attention may be directed to three special points which have come out 
more or less strongly in the course of them. 

The first of these is a fact, which may possibly be of some practical 
moment, viz., the certainty that, among the inhabitants of a striking- 
ly malarious tract, the proportion of enlarged spleens is not necessarily 
great, as the prevailing opinion would have us to believe. 

The second point is also of some importance, not only as bearing on 
the inquiry, as to how, and to what extent the Boksas resist the 
influence of the funereal tract in which they live, but as related to the 
great sanitary questions which are agitated in the present day: it 
relates also to the nature of some of the circumstances in the sites and 
construction We., of the Boksa villages, which apparently have some 
effect in warding off the deleterious effects of the climate, during and 
after the rains. 

The third point is a mere hypothesis, and consists in the suggestion 
that so far from the Boksas being Rajputs, who migrated hither many 
generations since from Rajputana, as the traditions of the eastern 
Boksas say, they are probably either the relics of one of those waves 
of aborigines which the advancing tide of Aryan immigration drove 
from the Gangetic plain into the wilder recesses of the country, or, as 
is more likely, they constitute one of the extreme branchlets of that 
stem of the Turanian tree, which, rooted beyond the Kuenlun, has, at 
various times, sent its boughs far and wide towards the south, The 
materials available to me, under this head, are so scanty that the case 


1865.] On the Boksas of Bijnour. Pee a 173 


has necessarily been left ‘not proven.’ Some other enquirer may be 
able to throw fresh light on this subject. 

But, even should these observations answer no very definite practical 
purpose, still, if my belief that the western Boksas are gradually 
vanishing be correct, it may be of some interest to have on record 
their peculiarities while they are still numerous and united enough to 
deserve and repay attention, and I shall not consider my labour lost, 
if, in the opinion of those whose views are worth having on such a 
subject, this end has here been at all adequately fulfilled. 


Religion, Mythology, and Astronomy among the Karens.*—By the 
Reverend F. Mason, D. D., Missionary to the Karen people. 


[Received 7th September, 1864. ] 


RELIGION. 


The Karens pray more, and make more offerings than the Burmese ; 
but their only object in these observances is to obtain benefits in the 
present existence, principally health and prolonged life, so they cannot 
be regarded as religious; while the Burmese make them to procure 
benefits in a future state, and are therefore a religious people, though 
by no means so moral as the Karens. 

The Karens believe in the existence of one eternal God, the Creator 
of heaven and earth, and have traditions of God, and the creation that 
must have been derived from the Old Testament Scripture. The follow- 
ing affords a specimen :— 

“ Anciently, God commanded, but Satan appeared bringing destruc- 
tion. 

Formerly, God commanded, but Satan appeared deceiving unto 
death. 

The woman H-u and the man Tha-nai pleased not the eye of the 
dragon, 

The persons of H-u and Tha-nai pleased not the mind of the dragon, 

* The following pages have been prepared in reply to “Queries respecting 


the human race addressed to travellers, by a Committee of the British Associa- 
tion for the advancement of science.” 


174 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 3, 


The dragon looked on them,—the dragon beguiled the woman and 
Tha-nai. 

How is this said to have happened ? 

The great dragon succeeded in deceiving—deceiving unto death. 

How do they say it was done? 

A yellow fruit took the great dragon, and gave to the children of God ; 

A white fruit took the great dragon, and gave to the daughter and 
son of God. 

They transgressed the commands of God, and God turned his face 
from them. 

They transgressed the commands of God, and God turned away 
from them. 

They kept not all the words of God—were deceived, deceived unto 
sickness ; 

They kept not all the law of God—were deceived, deceived unto 
death.” 

Other traditions may be found in the appendix to a little book pub- 
lished by the London Religious Tract Society called “The Karen 
Apostle.” 

The names Tha-nai, and H-w in the above verses are sufficiently 
near the Biblical names of Adam and Hve to show a common origin ; 
while they are so diverse from any mode of rendering those names 
adopted by either Roman Catholic or Protestant Missionaries as to 
prove they have not been derived from modern names. 

The scriptural traditions have been found principally among the 
Sgaus, and as we leave the Sgau tribes, we meet with others that 
seem to me to have had a Hindu origin. Such are some of the tradi - 
tions among the Red Karens. They say: “ Anciently God created 
the heavens and the earth, and he formed two persons. One was 
called ‘the female Tha-lu,’ and the other ‘the male Tha-lu.’ God 
placed these two persons to superintend the whole world. And God 
created trees, and animals of every kind, and he wrote their names in 
a golden book, and gave it to the two persons whom he created, and 
according to the names found in the book, they called every thing. 
God created all things by his word and his power. He created every 
thing with a body, with seed, and with fruit.” Thus far the tradition 
preserves a Biblical character, but they go on to say: “God did not 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 175 


ereate all things at once. When God created the earth at first it was 
not as large as a cotton spindle. There was not as much in it as 
there is in a butterfly. And God commanded that the male Tha-lu 
should rule over the sky, and the female Tha-lu should rule over the 
earth, and all the animals on it. And that which made the earth 
increase was the earth-worm, and that which made it firm was iron, 
and that which sewed the earth together was silk. And before the 
iron and the silk had united the ground, the whole earth was covered 
with water. God was not pleased with the look of it, and he separ- 
ated it by pressing the earth together with iron and silk, when the 
water flowed out and became rivers and seas, and the dry land appear- 
ed with its mountains and hills. And the three things that helped 
the earth, were the earth-worm, iron and silk. There was a spider in 
the sky, and he was able to pass to and fro between heaven and earth. 

“The first mountain that was created was Lwie-nya ; and the first 
rivers formed were La-ko-meu, 

Lie-la-sho, and 
Mai-e. 

* And the river Lie-la-sho had its sources among the mountains of 
Rako-sho. 

“‘ And God created a precious stone, and it became a great tree, and 
the first tree was Than-du, and the first grass was the Chrysopogon 
acicularis. And the first bird he formed was the Night-jar, and the 
first fish was Tai-pai-men-bu, and the first snake was Die-lo-to. 

** God created two suns, one was the husband and the other the 
wife, and they were shut within a palace with stone gates, and gave 
no light. God therefore gave the Pangolin to eat a hole through the 
gates which it did, and broke out all its teeth, and then the suns came 
forth, but the heat was so great that neither man nor beast could 
endure it. Therefore man entreated God to destroy one of them. 
And God told man to make a bow, and to shoot an arrow into the 
face of one of the suns. So the man went up into the valley of mount 
Ra-ko-sho, and shot an arrow into the face of one of the suns, and it 
ceased to give light and became the moon, which God appointed to 
rule over the night.” 

Another version of these myths is given as follows: ‘‘ The Red 
Karens say : Where, or how God came into existence, they know not ; 


176 Religion &e. among the Karens. [No. 3, 


but they know that there is a God who has power over all things; and 
that this God existed before the creation of the heavens and the earth. 
He was like the air, and lived in the sky, like the wind ; and like the 
wind he went about everywhere. This he did through his inherent 
power. 

“And God prepared himself to create the inhabitants of heaven, 
and the inhabitants of earth ; but before he created heaven and earth, 
he created two persons. The one a male, called the ‘male Tha-lu,’ 
and the other a female, called ‘the female Tha-lu.’ The signification 
of Tha-lu is to float about like the wind. They do not fall to the 
ground like a man from a tree top, but remain in the air. 

‘God put into the hands of these two persons the work of superin- 
tending the heavens and the earth. He appointed ‘the male Tha-lu’ 
to take care of heaven, and ‘the female Tha-lu’ to take care of the 
earth. Then when these people saw any deficiency, they asked God 
for what they required, and he gave them seeds and the elements of 
things, in order that they might make the earth complete. 

“Some say that he who created all things under the direction of 
God, was le-a-pai; but the greater part say they were created by ‘the 
male Tha-lu,’ and ‘the female Tha-lu,’ and that the person who 
shot the sun’s wife in the face was called Thye-kha. These four 
persons are regarded by the Red Karens as working for God continu- 
ally. They also speak of another super-human personage that they 
call Pai-ie-pai-bya.” 

All the Karen tribes have traditions of God having once dwelt 
among them, but as having forsaken them. The tradition is varied. 
Sometimes he is represented as dying and rising to life again; and 
sometimes simply as departing. We have in verse the following : 

* Ywah, about to return, commanded, commanded ; 
Ywah, about to depart, commanded, commanded ; 
He commanded the sun to come and weep for him, 
He commanded the moon to come and weep for him, 
He commanded birds to come and weep for him, 
He commanded squirrels to come and weep for him, 
Worldly people set themselves up ; 
Worldly people came not.” 

A Sgan story says: ‘‘ Anciently God dwelt with the Karens, and 

they said to him: ‘Thou art very old.’ He replied: ‘I will kill 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 177 


myself by a leap;’ and he called all his children to come and receive 
his dying commands. They came, and after each had been charged, 
he leaped into the sea. The Karens ran away into the jungles, but 
the white foreigners could not run, and they said to the Karens: 
“Hider brother, I will go to where father commanded me.’ The 
Karen replied: ‘I will not go.’ But the white foreigner went to his 
home, and leaping into the sea, brought up the body of his father. 
His father said to him, ‘I am not dead;’ and he gave orders to his 
children to come and receive his commands again, as he was about to 
go away. But the Karens had run away afar off, so he said to the 
white foreigners: ‘Do not stay here.’ And he washed them over 
with sandal wood, and said: ‘If you stay here, the Karens will perse- 
eute you.’ So they followed their father, and he gave them another 
country. 

“The Red Karens say that anciently, after the transgression, God 
called all the different races of men together to learn to read, and all 
went, and every one studied zealously except the Karen, who did not 
study in earnest like the White Foreigner, the Chinese, and the Bur- 
mese. He went to and fro, and played, and did not understand books 
like the others. After a while, God dismissed the people and all 
returned home, but the Karen was not skilled in books, like the other 
nations. Still God had given him a book, but when he would study 
it at home, his wife scolded him, and drove him off to work. He 
therefore forgot what he had learned, and did not take care of his 
book, 

“Qne day, while he was absent, his book fell into the fire, and was 
bummed, and being unable to write, the Karens have had no books from 
that time to the present. However, they observed the variegated 
marks left by the letters of their books in the ashes where it was burn- 
ed, and they made diligent efforts to embroider those forms on then 
dresses. Hence it is that the Karens are able to embroider different 
forms on their dresses. Had they not looked, and imitated the letters 
of the book that was burned, the Karens would not be skilled in any 
thing.” 

The above is from a Bghai assistant that spent two years among the 
Red Karens. 

24 


178 Relignon &c. among the Karens. [No. 3, 


Ta-YWwa. 

The Sgau and Pwo name of God is Ywa, but the Bghais use a pre- 
fix and say Ta-ywa. To this name Ta-ywa, they attach long fabulous 
legends of which the following is one; and appears to be of Hindu 
origin. 

The Elders relate concerning Ta-ywa and say: There was a woman 
who was pregnant, and when it was hot, she went and spread a gar- 
ment out to dry in the sun, but so soon as it was spread out, it ceased 
to be hot, and clouds came up. Then she cursed the sun, and asked : 
“ At first thou madest it hot, but now thou hast made it cloudy: 
Why is it so? The sun cursed her back in return, and said: “I wish 
thou mayst be pregnant three years, and when the child is born, may 
it be no larger than a jujube !” 

Aiter this, the woman remained pregnant three years, and at the 
end of that time, she was delivered of a son not larger than a jujube. 
The child eat, at first, as much rice at a meal, as can be put in the 
cover of a rice chutty; and after a little while, he eat a wash-bason 
full, and could wrestle with an ordinary man. After another short 
period, he eat as much rice as would cover a small table, and could 
wrestle with a strong man. 

He asked his mother why he was so small, and she repeated the 
circumstances as related above. Then he said: “T will go and compel 
the sun to make me grow larger.’ Every morning and every even- 
ing, he worked hard to make himself a bow; and when he had finished 
it, he went up to the sky, to the place of drawing water of the sun 
and moon, and there he met the children of the sun and moon coming 
to draw water. 

He bent his bow, and placed his arrow on the string, which was an 
Areca Nut tree as long as the height of a small mountain. Then he 
said to the children of the sun and moon, “ Go tell your father to come 
here, and make me larger.” 

The children of the sun and moon were afraid, and said to their 
parents: ‘‘ This man is very bold, and he said to us: ‘ Tell your father 
to come here and make me larger.’ And he was about to shoot us 
with his bow.” 

The sun said: “Tf that be the case, let a cock go down and pick 
him to death.” Ta-ywa drew his bow, laid on his gigantic Areca 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 179 


tree arrow, and took aim at the cock, saying: “ Tell your master to 
come down and make me great.” The cock flew away screaming with 
fnght, and told his master that Ta-ywa was very fierce. 

In like manner, the sun sent a hog, and the hog was afraid. He 
sent a horse, and the horse was afraid. He sent an elephant, and the 
elephant was afraid. Every thing was afraid of him. 

Then the sun said: ‘If it be thus, then make the waters rise, and 
he will be drowned.” So he made the waters rise, but Ta-ywa made 
a boat, and remained quietly in it. When the waters fell, the sun 
said to his children : ‘‘ Now that fellow is dead, go draw water.” So 
they went to draw water. 

Ta-ywa said to them again as before: ‘‘ Go tell your father to make 
me great.” The children were afraid, and returning to their parents 
said : “ That fellow is not dead.” 

Then the sun said: “If it be so, we must make it burning hot.” 
So he made it so hot that no one could endure it ; but Ta-ywa created 
a banyan tree, and dwelt under its shadow. 

After the heat had passed away, the sun said to his children ; “‘ Now 
that fellow is dead, go draw water.” They were met again as before, 
and sent back with the former message ; and they went and told their 
parents that they did not dare to go again to draw water. On hearing 
this, the sun made a bamboo tube, and went to Ta-ywa, who said to 
him; ‘‘ Make me great.” The sun took the bamboo tube, inserted it 
in him and blew him up larger, and larger, and asked: “ Large 
enough?”’ ‘Ta-ywa replied: ‘‘ Not yet large enough.’ He blew 
again, asked the same question, and received the same reply two or 
three times, till Ta-ywa was satisfied, but when he rose up, his head 
hit against the heavens. The sun then flattened it down with his 
hand till it was low enough, and then departed. 

When Ta-ywa returned home, the people said: “‘ He is very great.” 
And they envied him, and determined to kill him by stratagem. So 
they said to him: ‘“ Thy mother has no stones, on which to place her 
yice pot on the fire, let us go and bring her some stones.” Then they 
went, and sought out the largest stone they could find, and all the 
village went to work to dig it up, and in order that it might roll over 
him and kill him; they said: ‘‘ Go watch below, and carry it.”” So 
he went below on the side of the hill where they were digging, and 


180 Religion &e. among the Karens. [ No. 3, 


waited in the road to intercept it. When the stone came rolling down, 
he ran and took it up, and carrying it to the house said: “ Where 
shall I put it?’ They replied, ‘‘ The house will break down.” So 
he put it on the ground. 

Then they devised again to kill him, and said: “Thy mother has 
got fever, and there is no large wood to make a great fire for her, go 
and bring some.” So they sought out a large wood-oil tree, and went 
and cut it down, and told him he must receive it on his shoulder. 
He therefore caught it when it fell on his shoulder, and carrying it to 
the house asked: “Shall I put it in the house?’ The people re- 
plied: “‘ The house will break down.” So he threw it on the ground. 

Then the people said: ‘‘ Ah, the rock rolling on this man did not 
kill him; the wood-oil tree falling on him did not kill him; but were 
a tiger to seize him, perhaps he might die.” They therefore said : 
“Thy mother’s fever continues, though we have offered fowls and 
hogs to the spirits, but were we to offer a tiger, she would recover.” 
So the people made him go seek a tiger, in the hope that a tiger 
would seize him. He, however, had no fear, but went in search of a 
tiger’s track ; and after finding a very old one, he followed it up till 
he found the tiger, which he seized and carried alive to the house, 
when the people said: ‘‘ We are very much afraid. Go turn it loose.” 
So he took it back, and let it go free. 

While his concubine was seeking vermin in his head, she was moved 
with compassion for him, and the tears dropped on his thigh. He 
said: ‘‘ My faithful girl, what is it? It does not rain. Why is it 
that water drops on my thigh?” His concubine replied: ‘ Ah, my 
dear boy, people are envious of thee and laying snares to kill thee.” 
“‘ Indeed!” he answered, ‘‘ Is it really so? If people do not love me, 
then I will go away.” 

Every morning and evening, he worked on a bugle to give it a plea- 
sant sound. When he had finished it, it blew out of itself, “ Father 
and mother do not love me. Brethren two go abroad.” 

He said: “ That is pleasant,” and he prepared food for his journey. 
A hog of five spans round the body, five bundles of salt, five rolls of 
fish, and five baskets of rice. With this he started, and blew his 
horn as before, till he met with “ Long-legs” planting, who had a 
silk-cotton tree stuck in his hair, whose shadow covered seven coun- 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 18) 


tries. While he made holes for the rice, his thirty concubines chopped 
in the seed. He said: ‘“ Ah, the hardest thing is planting. Who is 
this that comes blowing a bugle? Let us wrestle.” 

Ta-ywa said: “ Ah, thy father and mother loved thee, so you can 
work and prosper; but my parents did not love me. They said I had. 
grown exceedingly great, so I came away.” 

Though Long-legs planted rice with thirty concubines to sow the 
seed for him, he said: “Ah, it was so with me. Because my legs 
were long, they did not love me.” He therefore prepared a hog of 
five hand-breadths, five baskets of rice, five bundles of salt, and five 
rolls of fish ; and when his thirty concubines came weeping after them, 
he spit on them, and they turned to stone. Then the two went on 
their way. 

Thus they travelled together, and the same scenes were enacted 
when they met in turn with Long-arms, Three-toothed, Broad-ears 
and Hollow-breast. 

Having become six in company, they travelled together till they 
came to a fork in the Sitang river, made by an island ; and there, they 
exhausted the water. Long-legs laid his legs across for a dam, Long- 
arms stuck his arms down perpendicularly for posts, and Broad-ears 
put his ear down on the interstices. Three-toothed bit up the fish, 
and Hollow-breast received them into his bosom. 

When they came to divide the fish, Long-legs wished for all he 
could hold on his legs; Long-arms for all he could hold in his arms, 
Three-toothed for what he could take up with his teeth; Broad-ears 
for what he could hold on his ear; and they asked Hollow-breast : 
“How much do you want?’ He replied: “I want all I can hold in 
my breast.” His associates answered: “ All the fish put together will 
not fill thy bosom. Why do you want so much?” And they quar- 
relled. 

Then Ta-ywa, Long-legs, and Long-arms went in one direction ; 
while Three-toothed, Broad-ears, and Hollow-breast went in another. 

Ta-ywa and his associates met with Shie-oo, and they said: ‘‘ We 
will cook rice.” They went and asked Shie-oo to give them some 
fire, but he said: “TI will not give to you. You must wrestle. If 


you throw me, I will carry the earth, but if you fall, you must bear 
up the earth.” 


182 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 3, 


This Shie-oo had a spur, like a cock, and when Ta-ywa wrestled 
with him, Long-legs came behind, and tripped up Shie-oo, but his 
spur entered the leg of Long-legs, and the blood flowed out like a 
river. When Shie-oo fell, Ta-ywa trod him down into the earth till 
he was immersed in it; and Long-arms thrust him down as far as his 
arms would reach ; and then Long-legs trod him down as far as his 
legs would go; and he went down below the earth, and has to carry 
the earth to the present time. When the earth quakes, people say: 
“ Shie-oo is raising himself.” 

Ta-ywa and his associates pursued their journey, and met with an 
empty house. After they had sat down, and drank water from a 
spout that brought down water from the brook above, they went up 
into the house, where they found a guitar. After Ta-ywa had tuned 
it, he played and sung: 

«The house is pleasant, is fair ; 
The owner is where? Is where? ” 

The place where he sat was on the head of a very beautiful girl, 
who was hidden in the crevice of the floor, and she pinched him. He 
thought an insect had bitten him, and taking a cleaver he opened out 
the crevice of the bamboo floor, when he came on the head of the girl. 

She said to them: “ Ah, my dear boys, how is it that you are here ? 
The great eagle has eaten my father and mother, my friends, and my 
brothers. My parents had compassion on me and hid me. How have 
you appeared? The great eagle will come and devour you.” 

They replied to her: “ My dear girl, do not be afraid. Go beat 
out paddy and cook rice for us. So she went and beat out paddy, and 
cooked rice, and eat with them. 

They asked the girl: “‘ At what time does the great eagle come ?” 
She answered: “‘ When the sun passes the meridian, when it is half 
way down, and at sun-set.” Then they said: “put up a split bamboo 
roof to the house, of seven layers; and below them a layer of iron.” 
This was done, and then they made a tin bow, and an iron bow. The 
tin bow, they called the silver bow ; and the iron bow, they called the 
old bamboo bow. ‘Then they called out to the eagle singing : 

“Every thing has the Hagle devoured, 
Father, mother, and a wide land. 


Has eaten father and mother, 
But me in compassion they hid,” 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 183 


** Aha,” the eagle exclaimed, ‘“‘ we said all were dead, and now we 
have found another quite unexpectedly.” The oldest eagle came, and 
the sky became full of clouds. It became dark, it thundered, and 
the sun set. The eagle perched on the branch of a large wood-oil 
tree, but the branch broke, and it then flew up to the top of the tree 
and perched there, where it broke off a branch and picked its teeth 
with it, when the arm and leg bones of men fell out between its teeth. 

Then it laughed, and said: “ Aha! I said: can there be any thing 
more left? and here is the veriest trifle. Shall I dirty my teeth 
with it?” 

Ta-ywa said: ‘Grandfather, you can devour me as a matter of 
course, but we try a bamboo, we try a tree. et us try each other 
once.’ 

The great eagle replied: “Why should we try? Be quiet, you 


? 


cannot do any thing.” 'Ta-ywa answered: “ Nevertheless, things are 
tried ; let us try.” 

The great eagle said: ‘Well then, how do you wish to try me?” 
He replied: “If you can strike through my roof then eat me; but if 
you cannot, you shall not eat me. 

Then the eagle pulled a feather out of his wing, and with it struck 
through the seven layers of bamboo, but it did not go through the 
iron. 

Ta-ywa immediately took the tin bow, and said to the eagle : 
“‘ Where is thy heart?” He pointed to a spot on his side. Then 
Ta-ywa shot at the spot, but the arrow did not enter; so the eagle 
said: “Ah, you cannot overcome. Wait, let me eat you.” 

Ta-ywa said: ‘‘ Grandfather, thou wilt eat me of course, but let me 
try a shot with this old bamboo bow.” The eagle answered: “ Eh, 
with the bow of glittering white if thou couldst not pierce me, how 
wilt thou pierce me with the rusty old bamboo one?” 

Ta-ywa said: “JI will try a shot. Where is thy heart?” He 
replied: ‘‘ My heart is at this variegated spot.” Then Ta-ywa shot, 
and the eagle fell dead. 

When he had killed one bird, he repaired the roof and made it 
stronger than it was at first. Then he called and sung again, and a 
second eagle came, with which a similar course was pursued, and it 
was killed like the first, and so again with the third and last, 


184 Religion ke. among the Karens. [No. 3, 


Then Ta-ywa ripped open the eagles, and took out the bones he 
found in them. The bones of men he placed in one pile, the bones of 
Women in another, and the bones of the girl’s father and mother in a 
third. Elephant bones, he placed by themselves; horses’ bones, he 
placed by themselves; oxen’s bones, he placed by themselves ; buffa- 
loes’ bones, he placed by themselves; hogs’ bones, he placed by them- 
selves; dogs’ bones, he placed by themselves ; fowls’ bones he placed 
by themselves. All kinds of animals, he placed their bones in separ- 
ate piles. 

This done, Ta-ywa made a strap, such as is used in holding a Karen 
basket borne on the back, on the head, and with it he struck the fowls’ 
bones, when the fowls rose to life, and flew crowing away. In like 
manner, he struck the bones of each animal, and the animals came to 
life again. Last of all, he struck the bones of man, and the men came 
to life again. Then Ta-ywa said: “ What has happened to you?” 
And they replied: ‘‘ We have been asleep.” 

Ta-ywa planted two herbaceous plants, and left Long-legs in charge 
of the place, saying, If the plants wither, follow on quickly after me, 
and then departed. 

He passed on and came to another empty house, where the hall was 
full of spiritous liquor. Here the same scenes were enacted as before, 
excepting that the girl was found in a spirit jar, and the destroyers 
were tigers. Before leaving, he planted the herbaceous plants, as 
before, and left Long-arms in charge. 

Again he continued his travels, and met with another house with- 
out inhabitant, but he found rice spread out on the verandah to dry, 
and a number of pots of spiritous liquor. He sought a bamboo tube 

vith which to suck it up, and having found one, he notched it at the 
bottom and drank. Here he found a handsome girl as before, and 
learned that three large Pythons had produced the desolation. 

He dug a gallery under ground with seven bends, and put her at 
the end. Then he made two swords, and killed two of the serpents as 
before; but when he struck the third, the blade of the sword flew out 
oi the handle, and Ta-ywa ran into the handle which the snake 
swallowed. 

Immediately, the plants left behind withered, and Long-legs, and 
Long-arms followed on to the assistance of Ta-ywa, Long-legs went 


1865.] Religion &e. among the Karens. 185 


kicking down the trees and bamboos as he went along, and the way 
being too narrow for Long-arms, he smashed down the trees and bam- 
boos with the swing of his arms; but when they arrived, the Python 
had gone away. 

Then they called it seven times, and the seventh time it came again. 
Aiter the usual discussion, the two attack it, slashing at its head and 
tail, and finally killed it. When it was slain, they ripped it open, and 
found Ta-ywa in it dead. He was restored to life as others had been 
before ; and then he separated from his friends and returned home. 

He returned to his grandmother and younger brother, and told the 
latter to cook rice, while he went himself to the forks of the river, 
where he and his companions had at first dammed up the stream. 
When he returned, his brother was boiling fish, and the tail of one 
moved up and down by the bubbling of the boiling water as if alive. 
He said to his brother: “‘ Why, it is alive! I went to look at the 
fish traps at the forks of the river, and have come back ; and why art 
thou cooking a live fish?”.. Then he took his bow, and shot his 
brother dead. , 

He afterwards thought to himself: I ought not to have shot my 
brother. Then he set fire to a tuft of reed and ran round the edge of 
the horizon three times, and when he got back, the tuft had not done 
burning. He said: “Iam very quick. I ought not to have killed 
my brother,” and he repented. 

After this, he was not happy, and he said: “TI will kill myself.” 
He made a bow, cocked the string, and laid on an arrow, and went to 
sleep beneath the arrow as he had set it, aimed at his head. <A dove 
flying by, hit the cock, and the bow went off. He caught the arrow 
flying with his hand; and this was repeated ten times; but at last he 
forgot himself, and the arrow hit him. 

For three years and three months, he grew very feeble, and at the 
end of this period, he called the monkey-tiger; and he sent him to 
call the Karens; and he called the Tupaia, and he sent him to call the 
Burmans. He loved the Karens more than the Burmans, therefore 
he gave the monkey-tiger a crayfish for food, that he might arrive 
quickly, because a crayfish is cooked in a short time, and he gave him 
a flint that he might get fire readily. 

25 


186 Religion dc. among the Karens. ~ [No. 3 


He had not much love for the Burmans, and that they might be 
slow in coming, he gave the Tupaia two bits of bamboo to rub 
together to obtain fire, and a bit of skin to eat, for it was difficult to 
cook, and the bamboos difficult to take fire. 

When they departed, the monkey-tiger went up round all the 
crooks of the gigantic bean creeper, and slept one night by the way. 
When he cooked his crayfish, he said: ‘“‘ Why, it is blood red!” And 
it was long before he arrived. 

But the Tupaia went rapidly. He was very hungry, so he roasted 
his skin a little, and eat it; and reached his destination in a short 
time. Hence the Burmans reached Ta-ywa first before he expired. 
They asked of him, and obtained horses, and elephants, and oxen, and 
buffaloes, and their dog asked for ears of paddy as large as the end of 
his bushy tail, and three crops a year. 

The Karens did not arrive till after Ta-ywa was dead, and burned 
to ashes. His mats, and fanning baskets and carrying baskets were 
burned up and just their form and variegated patterns left in the ashes, 
which the Karens looked upon, and imitated. 

Not satisfied, they followed on after the elephants, and tried to get 
on to their necks, but could not. Then he commenced driving bam- 
boo steps into their legs, as when ascending trees; but this made 
them run away. Failing with the elephants, they tried to drag along 
the buffaloes with ropes tied to their legs, but could not make them 
eo; and they tried the oxen with no better success ; but the hog they 
succeeded in dragging along ; so the Karens have hogs to this day. 

The latter part of this story is versified, as follows :— 

Go poison fish at Po, at Yau, 

Go to angle at Po, at Yan. 

Great frogs die, thou stayest to cook them, 

Great fish die, thou stayest to cook them : 

Thou remainest to cook them with thy brother, 

To prepare them, thou remainest with thy brother. 
Thou doest whatever cometh into thy mind. 

Thou cockest the bow, layest on a red arrow, 

Thou shootest dead thy younger brother : 

Then thou repentest, sorrowfully. 


Thou lightest the reed blossom, and boundest away 
Three times thou runnest round the horizon, 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 187 


Three times thou scamperest round the horizon. 
Thou returnest, and the rice is not hot, 

Thou returnest, and the fish is not hot. 

Thou doest whatever cometh into thy mind: 
Thou cockest the bow, layest on a red arrow. 
One arrow flies, thou arresteth it in its flight, 
Two arrows fly, thou arresteth them in their flight : 
Thou forgettest that the arrow is flying, 

The arrow hits thy heart. 

Three years, three months, thou failest. 

Thou sendest the Tupaia to Bamo 

Thou sendest the monkey-tiger into the country : 
But the monkey-tiger went slowly ; 

When the crayfish was cooked, he said: Why, it is red! 
The Tupaia went trotting along: 

He reached Ta-ywa before he died, 

Received extraordinary power to variegate cloth, 
To weave beautiful as the Python’s skin, 

And have rice crops three times a year ; 

Became great and returned to Bamo, 

But back went the poor to the hill of Kukoo, 


IpoLatry. 


Though the Karens can tolerate all sorts of absurd legends about 
God, yet they cannot endure idolatry. They seem to have no more 
sympathy with it than Christian nations. One of the commands of 
the elders says: “O children and grandchildren! do not worship 
idols or priests. If you worship them, you obtain no advantage there- 
by, while you increase your sins exceedingly.” 

They regard the Buddhistic religion of their neighbours with con- 
siderable contempt. One of the couplets that they sing, referring to 
the sleepy looks of the images says : 


* Gaudama is drowsy, 
He cannot save us,” 


Far off on the mountains, [ have often noticed one and another of 
the wild Karens wrapped up in a flashy yellow and tinselled robe, 
which he had abstracted from some pagoda; an act that the Burmese 
regard as the greatest sacrilege. 


188 Religion &e. among the Karens. [No. 3, 


Some of the Karen stories seem to have been composed to turn the 
worship of pagodas into ridicule; as in the followimg where the 
worshippers are represented as taking the language of a rat for that 
of their god. 

“ There was a lazy dirty Karen young man called Sanken, and he 
one day caught a white rat and was about to kill and eat it ; but the 
rat spoke up, and said: ‘Do not kill me. I will get you a wife from 
among the king’s daughters.’ So he let the rat go, and it ran into a 
hole in the royal pagoda. 

“ When the king came and prayed to the pagoda, he said: ‘ May my 
power and glory increase. May my subjects become more numerous.’ 
Then the white rat in the pagoda replied : ‘ If you will make Sanken 
your son-in-law, your power and glory will increase. Your subjects 
will become more numerous, your people will multiply.” The king 
supposed it was the image in the niche of the pagoda that spoke to 
him, and was astonished. He returned to the palace and told the 
Queen what had happened, but she would not believe it ; so they both 
went to the pagoda, and the king prayed as before, and received the 
same answer in the hearing of the Queen who was then convinced ; and 


they gave the lazy dirty Karen, one of their daughters in marriage.” 


1865.] Notes and Queries, 189 


Notes and Querves. 
Zoooay. 


Reliable information has at last been supplied by Dr. Jerdon regard- 
ing the workers of one of the Indian species of Dorylus, an Hyme- 
nopterous genus, which, as F. Smith observes in his British Museum 
Catalogue, ‘ at present (1859) consists of males only.’ The following 
extract from the Proceedings of the Entomological Society at their 
May meeting will perhaps induce others to carry on Dr. Jerdon’s 
observations should opportunity offer. 

Mr. F. Smith read the following letter from Mr. T. C. Jerdon :— 


“ Lahore, March 16th, 1865.” 

“| have at last got hold again, after a long absence, of the speci- 
mens of workers of Dorylus, and they are, as you suggested, evidently, 
LT think, Typhlopone. It is, however, strange to say, quite a Termes 
in its habits, working under ground entirely, and never coming outside 
except when the males are coming forth winged, when they accom- 
pany them in swarms to the holes by which they make their exit, 
I first observed the workers at Mhow, in Central India, where they 
had undermined a house so completely that the foundation had to be 
dug up, and I there saw the winged males (Dorylus) issuing out of 
the same holes as the workers. I afterwards saw them twice again; 
the last time in a green-house of the Botanical Garden at Saharunpore, 
N. W. Provinces. They were issuing every morning and evening in 
great numbers from a hole in the flooring (ime), and several winged 
individuals were with them, and these entered houses at night : this 
was in February. I have met with Dorylus in every station where I 
have been, and it is certainly curious that the workers are so little 
known, as they must have been observed occasionally by hundreds of 
Kuropeans. I have a lot in spirits and enclose you three or four in 
this letter, enough, I dare say, to show if it is the same species men- 
tioned in your ‘ Catalogue,’ T. Curtisii, or not. Dr. Jameson laughed 
me to scorn when I talked of digging up the flooring of his pet green- 
house, but if I ever get an opportunity of another nest in a get-at-able 
situation I will try and get at the mystery of the female. Surely, 
howeyer, some of the winged individuals must be females; if not, then 


190 Notes and Queries. [No. 3, 


the only other conclusion is that the female always remains apterous, 
and is impregnated in the nest ; or, if winged, that she is kept a forci- 
ble prisoner till her wings drop off. I would have written long ago, 
but was separated from the bottle contaiming the workers.” 

Mr. F. Smith thought there was now little doubt that Typhlopone 
was the worker of Dorylus, as had been suggested years ago by 
Shuckard. The female, however, was still unknown. 

Prof. Westwood enquired whether Mr. Smith was acquainted with 
the insect which Gerstiicker represented to be the female of Dorylus ; 
it was very different from Typhlopone. Mr. Smith replied that he 
had never seen the large female in question, but he believed its con- 
nexion with Dorylus to be purely conjectural. 


The following discussion took place at the same meeting in regard 
to the flashing of fire-flies. Observation, we apprehend, will establish 
the irregularity of these flashings, as testified to by Mr. Bates and 
Mr. Saunders :— 

The Rey. H. Clark read from ‘The Reader’ of the lst of April, 
1865, the following extract from a review of Cameron’s recent work 
on ‘ Our Possessions in Malayan India :’— 

“The following account of that very common tropical phenomenon, 
the light of the fire-flies, is altogether new to us, and not quite intelligi- 
ble. 
with each other so accurately, that thousands of them scattered over 


Does the author mean that the little insects actually keep time 


a shrub or tree all put out their lights at the same instant, and rekin- 
dle them with equal punctuality? If so, here is a new insect-wond- 
er, before which the economy of bees and ants will sink into insignifi- 
cance :—‘ The bushes literally swarm with fire-flies, which flash out 
their intermittent light almost contemporaneously ; the effect being 
that for an instant the exact outline of all the bushes stands prominent- 
ly forward, as if lit up with electric sparks, and next moment all is 
jetty dark—darker from the momentary illumination that~ preceded. 
These flashes succeed one another every three or four seconds for about 
ten minutes, when an interval of similar duration takes place, as if 
to allow the insects to regain their electric or phosphoric vigour.’ 
We commend this as a subject of investigation for those naturalists 
who are so fortunate as to live among fire-flies,”’ 


1865. Notes and Queries. 191 


Mr. Clark added that, though he was utterly unable to give any 
explanation of the phenomenon, he could so far corroborate Mr. Ca- 
meron as to say that he had himself observed this simultaneous flash- 
ing; he had a vivid recollection of a particular glen in the Organ. 
Mountains, where he had on several occasions noticed the contempora- 
neous exhibition and extinction of their light by numerous indivi- 
duals, as if they were acting in concert. 

Mr. Mclachlan suggested that this might be caused by currents of 
wind, which, by inducing a number of the insects simultaneously to 
change the direction of their flight, might occasion a momentary con- 
cealment of their light. 

Mr. Bates had never in his experience received the impression of 
any simultaneous flashing; on the contrary, he thought there was the 
greatest possible irregularity in giving and extinguishing the light, 
and that no concert or connexion existed between different individuals ; 
he regarded the contemporaneous flashing as an illusion, produced pro- 
bably by the swarms of the insects flying amongst foliage, and being 
continually, but only momentarily, hidden behind the leaves. Mr. 
Bates further remarked that the light-emitting insects were Lampy- 
ride, not Hlateride (Pyrophori), which rarely flew by night; the 
Lampyride had a weak vacillating flight, the number of species was 
very large, and he had himself found eighty or ninety species ; several 
species would flit about together, and in the squares of Para he had 
eaptured three distinct species; it would be curious if there were any 
concert or action in unison between individuals of different species. 

Mr. Clark remarked that the lights of the Lampyride and Hlateride 
were perfectly distinguishable; it was the former which gave the 
intermittent flashing light. 

Mr. W. W. Saunders had frequently observed the fire-flies in Ben- 
gal, at Pondicherry and at Madras; they usually flew at a height of 
ten to fifteen or twenty feet, amongst the foliage; he had never noticed 
any flashing or regularity of intermission, and thought that each indi- 
vidual was perfectly irregular, and independent in the exhibition or 
extinction of its light. 

M. Sallé (who was present as a visitor) had never observed any 
flashing or regular intermittency, or simultaneous emission or extine- 
tion of the light. 


192 Notes and Queries. [No. 3, 


Prof. Westwood was unable to recall any analogous phenomenon ; 
the simultaneity of the flight of Hmpis over standing water seemed 
to be the nearest in point. 


The following is from our late Curator. 
The Inuus assamensis. 

In the Notes and Queries published in the last page of the Society’s 
Journal for 1864, Capt. T. Hutton remarks that in my Catalogue of 
the species of mammalia in the Society’s museum, I “ make Jnuus 
assamensis of Maclelland and Inwus pelops of Hodgson to be one and 


? 


the same;” also, that I “never saw a specimen of Pithex (Inwus) 
pelops of Hodgson.” 

Referring to my Catalogue, I find that I placed Pithex pelops, 
Hodgson, as a synonyme of J. assamensis on the authority of the late 
Dr. Horsfield. Vide his Catalogue of the species of mammalia in the 
old India-house museum, now at Fyfe House. 

Capt. Hutton may remember that he brought two living individuals 
of what he considered to be J. pelops to Calcutta, many years ago, 
from Mussoorie, which I saw repeatedly in his presence, though not to 
much advantage in the small cage in which they were confined. 
When his family proceeded to England, those monkeys were shipped ; 
but what afterwards became of them, I am unaware. 

Did Capt. Hutton ever see a specimen of J. assamensis, that he is 
enabled to pronounce so confidently on its specifical distinctness from 
I. pelops ? 

Not long ago, I examined the original specimen of J. assamensis 
procured by McClelland, which still remains unique; and I could not 
perceive that it differs in any respect from the common J. rhesus, 
excepting that the hind part of the body is not, as usual, strongly 
tinged with bright ferruginous or tawny, being uniformly coloured 
with the rest ; and my present impression (liable to correction) is, that . 
it is merely an individual variety of colour of the common animal of 


Lower Bengal. 
Indian Rats and Mice. 


With reference to my paper on these animals (J. A. 8S. XXXII, 
327 et seq.), L hoped to have been able to reduce the number of nomi- 
nal species considerably, on examination of the specimens in the 
British museum and the India museum ; but the less known of them 


1865. ] Notes and Queries. 193 


are generally illustrated by such exceedingly bad and imperfect skins, 
that little can be satisfactorily made out from them. 

The Mus Hardwickti, Gray, (noticed in p. 830,) rests on a single 
specimen in the British museum. It is certainly distinct from Nesokva 
indica, having a much shorter tail, measuring (vertebra) but 24 inch ; 
the fur dense, shortish, and of uniform length. 

MM. (2) hydrophilus, Hodgson, (p. 831,) has very soft fur, much 
finer than that of NV. zndica. 

Nesokia Griffithi, Horsfield, (p. 532,) is founded on a young speci- 
men of N. indica. 

Mus setifer, Horsfield, (p. 334,) is founded on a bad and imperfect 
specimen of MW. bandicota, (p. 833); but MW. setifer apud Cantor, from 
Pinang, is very different, being identical with my I. andamanensis 
(p. 340.) The small specimen from Malacca in the Society’s museum, 
doubtiully referred to UW. setefer (in p. 855), is probably the young of 
M. andamanensis. ; 

MM. brunneus, Hodgson, (p. 335,) as illustrated by a good specimen 
in the India museum, is identical with MZ. nemoralis, nobis, (p. 340,) 
and Mr. Hodgson’s name holds precedence ; the species being nearly 
akin to MW. alexandrinus. 

M plurimammis, Hodgson, (p. 336,) in India museum, is a well 
marked species. 

“ M. decumanoides, Tem. (nec Hodgson,)”’ apud Horsfield, (p. 338,) 
is the common MW. rufescens, (p. 340); and the M. asiaticus, Gray, 
(p. 341,) appears to me to be no other. 

M. caudatior, Hodgson, and MM. cinnamomeus, nobis, (p. 341,) are, 
I think, identical; but the Nipalese specimens are much less brightly 
coloured than those from Burma. 

M. peguensis, nobis (p. 845.) I found a specimen of this strongly 
marked species, unnamed, from the Philippines, in the Derby museum 
of Liverpool. 

NM. bactrianus, gerbillinus, and Theobaldi, (p. 847,) are identical, as 
I suggested; and I have scen what appears to be the very same mouse 
from Syria and N. Africa. The specimen of I. bactrianus, originally 
described by me, is now in the British museum. 

M. Darjeclingensis, Horsfield, (p. 848,) comes exceedingly close to 
M. strophiatus, H. (p. 349); and M. terricolor, nobis, to M. minutoides 
of S. Africa, 


194 Notes and Queries. 


M. rama, Cantor; Syn. M. musculus apud Cantor, from Pinang. 
Akin to J. musculus, but more deeply coloured; the tail (vertebra) 
23 inch, with about 24 distinguishable vertebre. A miniature of 
WM. concolor, ( 344). 

This is a small further contribution towards the elucidation of the 
difficult group of Indian mwride ; and little or no progress can be 
made in the investigation of the series until much better specimens 
are available for examination. 


EK. Buyts. 


MINERALOGY. 


Syepoorite. In all works on Mineralogy, a simple sulphide of 
Cobalt, Co. 8, is said to occur in Rajpootana and to be used by Indian 
jewellers for giving a red colour to gold. In a recent paper in the 
Journal by Col. J. C. Brooke, mention is made of a cobalt ore, a sul- 
phuret, occurring with Copper ore at Khetree. Is this Syepoorite ? 
There is not a specimen in any of the principal museums of Europe, 
or at least there was not a few years since, and should a careful ana- 
lysis confirm the chemical composition assigned to the mineral, it is 
very desirable that specimens should be distributed. 

. W. T. Buanrorp. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


eer Tho SOC LE PY. 


—_ }—. 
Part IL—PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 


eee 


No. IV.—1865. 


Religion, Mythology, and Astronomy among the Karens.— 
By Rev. ¥. Mason, D. D. 


[Continued from page 188, Part II. No. 3.] 
MYTHOLOGY. 


Forure S7rare. 

Karen ideas of a future state are confused, indefinite, and contra- 
dictory. ‘They seem to be a melee of different systems. That 
which appears to me indigenous Karen, corresponds to the notions of 
the American Indians. It represents the future world as a counter- 
pait of this, located under the earth, where the inhabitants are 
employed precisely as they are here. When the sun sets on earth, it 
rises in the Karen Hades; and when it sets in Hades, it rises on this 
world. The following story is adduced by the Karens as proof of the 
accuracy of this cosmology. 

“The elders say: There was a man who had a wife that he loved, 
and she loved him in return. His wife died, which distressed him 
beyond measure, and he said. ‘If there be any one that will raise 
her up to life again, I will give him whatever he may ask.’ 

mest prophet or necromancer was found, who raised his wife from the 
grave, and restored her alive to her home in the night. She pursued 
her usual daily avocations throughout the night, but as soon as day- 
light appeared she died again, and remained dead all day, but revived 
at eve and went to work as people usually do in the morning. This 
course she pursued constantly. Hence it is manifest, that people in 
the next world work just as they do in this.” 


26 


196 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


To these ideas are appended others that appear to have been 
originally derived from the Hindus. They say that Hades has a king, 
or judge, who stands at the door to admit or reject those who apply 
for admission into his kingdom. He decides the future of each. 
Those who have performed meritorious works are sent to the regions of 
happiness above; but those that have done wickedness, such as 
“striking father or mother,” are delivered over to the king of hell 
who is in waiting, and who casts them down into hell; while those 
who have neither performed deeds of merit, nor are guilty of great 
crimes, are allotted a place in Hades. The Sgaus call this personage 
Yu, or Tha-mie-Yu and the Bghais Tha-ma. Both are probably derived 
from the Hindu Ya-ma; and his office and duties are as old as the 
earliest records we have of the Egyptian religion. 


Tur Spirrr Wortp. 

To a Karen, the world is more thickly peopled with spirits, than it 
is with men, and the occasions on which his faith requires him to make 
sacrifices and offerings to these unseen beings are interminable. 

Every human being has his guardian spirit walking by his side, 
or wandering away in search of dreamy adventures; and if too long 
absent, he must be called back with offerings. 

Then the spirits of the departed dead crowd around him, whom he 
has to appease by varied and unceasing offerings, to preserve his life 
and health. 

Again there are all the conspicuous objects of the material world 
—the lofty mountain, the wide river; the shady tree and the inac- 
cessible pricipice, every one of which, by the awe they inspire, 
demands reverence and respect from human beings, and punishes each 
breach of etiquette with sickness or death. These too must be 
propitiated, 

Thus, though the Karens have no cumbrous written ritual of ser- 
vices and ceremonies, like the Mahommedans, the Brahmins and the 
Buddhists ; they have yet an oral liturgy of observances, as burden- 
some as the services of the ancient Hgyptians or the Mosaic ritual. 


GUARDIAN SPIRITS. 
The word in Karen that designates the heart is also used for the 
mind and soul. The seat of all moral qualities is in the heart, and 
death is designated as the departure of the heart from the body. 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 197 


Some German critics say, that ‘‘ Psyche, in Homer, signifies only the 
breath and the life; never, as in the language of later times, the spirit 
or soul. Yet it goes to Hades and continues to live there.” There is 
something like Psyche, as thus defined, in Karen Psychology; yet in 
many points more like the genius of the Latins; but differing as it 
does from both, it will be better in this paper to designate it by its 
native name; and explain it by its attributes. The Pwas call it La, 
the Bghais Lai, the Sgaus Ka-la, and the Red Karens Yo. 

This La existed before man was born, comes into the world with 
him, remains with him until death, lives after death, and for aught 
that appears to the contrary, is immortal. Yet no moral qualites are 
predicated of it. It is neither good nor bad, but is merely that which 
gives life to mortality. 

The Las of a part of the dead remain on earth and become mischiev- 
ous spirits ; others go to Hades, where they are employed as on earth ; 
others go to hell, where they suffer punishment; while others go to 
the Deva heavens, where they enjoy happiness. 

Although in this state, the La and the man himself, the Ego, are 
said to be distinct ; yet in nearly all the representations of the future 
state, the man seems to be absorbed in the La; and inconsistent as it 
is with previous representations, it then appears equivalent to the soul. 

Sometimes it is spoken of as the man, before being united with the 
body. Thus a Bghai writes: 

“ The elders say: ‘The God of the whole human race resides at 
the foot of the sun, at the foot of the moon; aud people who are born 
are sent by God, and people who die are called back by God.’ 

“Men at the beginning are in the presence of God, and he sends 
them forth; but before sending them, he tries their courage. He 
takes a sword and lays it across an abyss asa bridge, with the edge 
uppermost, and orders them to walk over it. Those who dare to 
walk across it, are bold; and God sends them into the world men. 
Those who, after being urged two or three times, dare not go, God 
sends into the world women. 

“ When God sends them forth, he gives commands in relation to the 
times and the seasons of their return. It is related that a prophet, or 
necromancer, looking into the world of Spirits, On One occasion saw 
seven men and two women coming into the world, and he heard them 
talking with each other, The first man said, ‘ God has ordered me to 


198 Religion &ce. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


go and return.’ The second said: ‘God has ordered me to return, 
aiter Iam able to draw water.’ The third said: ‘God has ordered 
me to return, after Tam able to weed.’ The fourth said: ‘ God has 
ordered me to return, after [am able to make it easy for my father 
and mother.’ The fifth said: ‘“‘ God has commanded me to return, 
after I am able to go to the Burman and Shan country.’ The sixth 
said: ‘ God has commanded me to return, after I am able to cultivate 
paddy for my father and mother.’ The seventh said: ‘God has com- 
manded me to return, after | have married.’ 

“The prophet said that after this he saw them all born on earth, 
all boys, and he noted that they all died one after another, as he heard 
them say in his vision. 

“Of the two women, he said one carried two Kyee-zees, and the 
other a basket on her back, and a spinning wheel and distaff in her 
hand. The first one he heard say: ‘God has commanded me to stay 
with my Kyee-zees, till I am white-headed.’ The other one said: 
‘God has commanded me to spin thread and prepare cotton, till I am 
white-headed.’ The prophet said he saw both born in this world 
females, and the one came in possession of two Kyee-zees, and the 
other spun thread and carded cotton, in accordance with his vision.” 

According to a Sgau authority, the La promises God, before it comes 
into the world, that it will die by one or other of seven things it says - 
‘“* T will die in the mouth of a tiger. If Ido not die in the mouth of 
a tiger, I will die of some kind of sickness. I I donot die of disease, 
I will die by drowning. If I am not drowned, I will die by the hand 
of man. If I am not killed by man, I will die by a fall. If I am not 
killed by a fall, I will die by a blow. If I am not struck dead, I will 
die of old age.” 

The La sometimes appears after death, and cannot then be distin- 
guished from the person himself. One story says : 

““ After a certain woman’s husband had gone to the city, she died. 
On his return home, he met her La in the road, and taking it for his 
wife in the body, he said: ‘ Where art thou going?’ She replied: 
‘T am going to see my father and mother.’ He was not at all aware 
that it was her La, and she said to him, ‘Thou hast a long way to 
go, let us spend the night together here:’ He consented, and to 
obtain food for their supper, she went and asked it of her children, 
but they did not see her. 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 199 


“Though they did not see her, they still had some indications of 
her presence. While her daughter was beating out paddy, all the 
paddy suddenly leaped out of the mortar, and a fowl suddenly dropped 
down dead. 

** The man and his wife eat and drank together, and in the morning 
separated, to pursue their several journeys. 

** When the husband got back to his house, he found his wife dead, 
and his children and neighbours preparing for the funeral. Then the 
truth rushed on his mind, and he said: ‘ Children, I met your mother 
last evening in the road, and we spent the night together. She was 
going on a visit, but alas it was her La. Had I but knownit, I would 
have called her back.” 

Although the body and the La are represented as matter and 
spirit, yet in the following story, materiality seems to be Bossested by 
+ La. 

** A certain woman sickened and died, while her husband was absent 
ona journey. While he was returning home, he met her La on the 
way and asked: Where art thou going? She replied: ‘I am going 
to visit my parents.’ He then slapped her on the face with his hand, and 
she came to herself again and returned with her husband home. 

““ When they arrived at their house, they found the people mourning 
over her body ; but she immediately entered the body, and it came to 
life again as before.” 

The La may be separated from the person to which it belongs during 
life. In sleep it wanders away to the ends of the earth, and our 
dreams are what the La sees and experiences in his perambulations. 
When absent in our waking hours, we become weak, fearful, sick, and 
ii absence be protracted, death ensues. Hence it is a matter of the 
deepest interest with a Karen to keep his La with him; and he is ever 
and anon making offerings of food to it, beating a bamboo to gain its 
attention, callimg it back, and tying his wrist with a bit of thread, 

which is supposed to have the power to retain it. 

The forms differ in different tribes, though the thing is pene 
the same. A Bghai writes: 

“ Should a person be often sick; if he cannot walk without being 
weary, or work without feeling exhausted; if he has no appetite for 


his food; if he pines away, and has a sallow countenance; it is said 
that his La has left him.” 


200 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


Then his friends take a fowl and a garment of the invalid’s, and 
they spread a mat down at the top of the steps. The garment they 
place at the top of the steps, and taking a stick with which they stir 
the boiling rice, they strike the steps, saying : 

“ Mr. A. B., thy La has left thee, thy La has gone away. It is 
going to and fro; going to the Shans, going to the Burmese; and 
hence thou art afraid. Thy La has gone away, and thou art startled, 
thou art not strong, thou art not vigorous, thou art depressed, thou 
art heartless, thou hast a sallow countenance, thou hast a cough, 
thou hast difficulty in breathing, thou art weak, thou art weary, thy 
head is bald. 

‘ Now Li, I call thee, beat for thee. Here is the great hen-bird, 
here the great male fowl. Come, come, come. Come and dwell in’ 
thy dry place, in thy pleasant location, in thy house, as water tight as 
the bottle gourd, to thy divan, to thy bedstead. Come and eat the 
flesh of the female bird, the flesh of the male fowl.’ 

After the fowl is cooked, the fowl and rice are set out, and the sick 
man is made to take hold of the fowl’s head, when his wrist is tied 
with a thread, and then the above prayer is repeated. The string 
is then cut off, the end unravelled, and the cotton pulled from it 
and scattered on the head of the sick man, with the following 
blessing : 

‘Mayest thou live till thy head is white, and thy teeth broken, 
like this string !’ 

At the Sgau funerals, the presence of the La is said to be manifested 
thus. One end of a slender erect bamboo is attached to the bone of 
the deceased that has been taken from the funeral pyre. A small 
thread with alternate tufts of cotton and bits of charcoal, with a metal 
ring, or bangle, at the extremity is tied to the other end, which makes 
the bamboo bend down in a curve; and under the bangle, nearly 
touching it, is a brass bason containing a boiled egg. 

The closing ceremony of the bone feast, is calling the La of the 
deceased, which is supposed to be hovering around till the funeral 
rites are completed ; when, should it respond to the call, it is bidden 
to depart in peace to Hades. 

When the apparatus has been put in order, the relatives of the dead 
approach in succession and strike the edge of the brass cup with a bit 
of bamboo ; and when the one that was most beloved touches the cup, 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens, 201 


the La responds by twisting and stretching the string till it breaks, 
and falls into the cup; or at least shakes and rings against it. 

A hundred witnesses could be produced,-who have seen it done. 
Indeed the thread is of such slender material that a very little legerde- 
main would be required to break it under the weight of the bangle, 
and the bamboo is so slender, that still less would be necessary to 
make it spring up and down, and hit against the sides of the cup. 
But I have watched the whole ceremony, kept the crowd away from 
the machinery, and there was no more answer to the calls, than there 
was to the cries of the priests of Baal before Elijah. 

Prophets, or Necromancers, are said to have the power of going into 
the invisible world, and bringing back the La, when it has wandered 
away ; but the Elders warn their children against unrighteous prophets, 
who for the sake of gain, when they cannot find the La of the sick 
person, will bring the La of some other person in its place ; by which 
the disease is aggravated. 

Thus it would appear that a person may have another one’s La. 

The La is sometimes supposed to take the form or to inhabit insects. 
Thus when insects are flying around a light at night, the wish is often 
expressed that the Las of beasts and demons may be burnt to death, 
while the Las of human beings may avoid the fire and escape. Here 
when an insect flies into the fire, it is said to be the La of a beast, but 
when it hovers around and flies away, it is regarded as the La of 
a human being. 

According to the representations of some, but the idea does not 
prevail extensively, each person has seven Las that are constantly 
devising his death; which is only prevented by a guardian spirit 
that sits on his head. When that spirit jumps down, the man is lost, 
for then one or other of the Las rushes on him and kills him. These 
Las seem to be the personifications of evils, natural or moral. 

They are madness, epilepsy, lechery, wrath, the exhibition of dreams, 
the bearer of diseases and languor. “ If our mad La comes, we become 
insane ; if our epileptic La comes, we are seized with epilepsy; if our 
lecherous La comes, we become lost to shame; if our wrathful La 
comes, we are filled with anger, malice, and commit murder ; if the 
shower of dreams comes, we are overwhelmed with dreams; if the 
_ bearer of sickness comes, we are prostrated by disease ; and if languor 
comes, we feel unable to do anything. 


202 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


The La is not confined to human beings; as has been previously 
intimated, every living thing has its La. When sitting by the fire at 
night, and an insect flies into it and is burnt to death, a Karen will 
say: ‘‘ There the La of some animal has leaped into the fire and 
burnt itself to death. We shall have meat curry to-morrow. The 
snares and traps have caught something.” 

Plants too have their Las; and when the paddy appears sickly, it 
is said that its La has been devoured or led away, and it is called 
back in the following form : 

“La of large grained paddy, full grained paddy, come! If at the 
forks of the Salween and Sitang, come! « If in the west, come! If in 
the east, come! If in the mouth of the bird, come! If in the mouth 
of the squirrel, come! If in the mouth of the monkey, come! If in 
the mouth of the hog, come! If in the mouth of the rat, come! If 
in the mouth of the elephant, come! If in the mouth of the dove, 
come! Ifin the mouth of the sparrow, come! If in the mouth of 
the porcupine, come! If at the sources of the streams, come! If at 
the mouths of the streams, come! If in Siam, come! If at Ava, 
come! If at the corner of the kingdom, at the corner of the land, 
come! Come, come, comn, and dwell in the barn, come and reside in 
the granary.” 

Even inanimate things that can be put to useful objects, such as 
instruments, are supposed to have their Las. So if a man drops his 
axe while up a tree, he looks below and calls out: ‘“ La of the axe, 
come, come.” 

Looking then at La in all its usages, it seems to be the personifica- 
tion of the life, or efficiency of a person, or thing. 


DeparteD Spirits. 


The spirits of the dead resolve themselves into two great classes. 
Those who are not permitted to go to Hades, corresponding very 
nearly to the European notions of ghosts; and the spirits of the ances- 
tors of the Karens, who, on going to Hades, were awarded, on account 
of their good deeds, a place in the heavenly world, where they exercise 
a kind watch-care over their descendants on earth. ‘The offerings and 
prayers made to these beings seem to correspond to the Chinese worship 
of ancestors. 


1865.] Religion &e. among the Karens. 203 


Guosts. 
The unburied dead. 

The Greeks and Romans believed that those who were deprived of 
funeral rites, wandered about, and were not allowed to enter Hades ; 
so it is no marvel to find this now to be the popular faith in Hurope ; 
but it is not a little remarkable to find precisely the same rites preva- 
lent among the Karens. 

The Las of those who have been deprived of funeral rites, the Ka- 
rens suppose, wander about on earth, and occasionally show themselves 
to men as ghosts. 

The following story illustrates the character of these ghosts :— 

“Tt is related that a man was travelling and lost his way. When 
night overtook him, he made a fire at the foot of a large tree, and 
then ascending it, he built himseli a little booth among its branches 
in which to spend the night. Before he got to sleep, he heard the 
ghosts calling to each other, and, thinking they were the voices of 
men, he replied to them. 

“So soon as the ghosts heard him, one came upon him, and wrestled 
with him, and was repeatedly on the point of throwing him down, but 
he had a comb in his hair which in the struggle fell down into the 
fire below, and the stick-lac in the comb burnt with a very strong 
smell. This smell made the ghost cough and sneeze, cough and 
sneeze, till he could endure it no longer, when it ran away, and left 
him. Had it not been for the smell of the stick-lac, the man would 
have lost his life, and by this incident we know that ghosts. are afraid 
of the smell of stick-lac.” 

The sight of a ghost may be obtained by the possession of a skull, 
or part of one. 

“ Formerly,” say the Karens, ‘‘ there was a Burman killed by light- 
ning, and a Burman picked up a bit of his skull, and bringing it 
home put it in the ashes in the fireplace. In the night it became 
a man, came out of the ashes, and walked about the house, making a 
noise like the treading of a man, and the wile and children of the man 
were greatly afraid. In the morning it entered the ashes again, and 
became a bit of skull bone as before.” 

Some persons, we are told, breed ghosts. “If a person goes and 
takes the skull of a corpse, it becomes a ghost, and the possessor can 

27 


204 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


use the ghost to kill any one with whom he is angry. In the day 
time, it is a skull, or a bit of a one; but in the night, it is a man. 
None raise ghosts but wicked men and murderers.” 


Spirits of those who died by violence. 


Another class of ghosts, with a distinctive name, are those who 
have died violent deaths; ‘‘ who have been shot, died by the sword, 
died by falls or drowning ; have been killed by elephants or devoured 
by tigers.” The Las of these people do not go to Hades, but remain 
on earth preying on the Las of men. Hence they are propitiated with 
offerings, to induce them to free the Las they may have seized. To 
the previous class of ghosts no offerings are made. 

Nearly related to the preceding are the ghosts of wicked men who 
have been unjust rulers, or who have suffered death at the hands of 
justice for their crimes. They are regarded as taking the forms of 
birds and beasts; and when persons dream of elephants, horses, dogs, 
vultures, Burmans, or Burmese priests, they are said to see these 
ghosts. Unaccountable sounds and sights in the jungles are also attri- 
buted to them. 

Varied offerings are made to these last classes of ghosts, of which 
the following is a specimen :— f . 

After food has been set out for an oblation, the sick is sprinkled 
with powdered charcoal, and the following prayer is made :— 

“Here is property, receive the property, Talaing ghost, Burman 
ghost, horse ghost, elephant ghost, wild dog ghost, felis ghost, wood- 
pecker ghost, you call re re, ro ro at the foot of the paddy mortar, by 
the pile of chaff, at the brook, at the place of drawing water. This 
person going to the bank, going to draw water, going to the new field, 
going to the old field, you have speared him, you have shot him, you 
have struck him, you have beat him, you have switched him, you have 
whipped him, you have beset him. Pluck out the head of your arrow, 
pluck out the blade of your spear, pot up the wound, heal the gash. 
Let him be cool as water; let him sleep and be comfortable.” 


Guosts’ Dog. 


The wood-pecker is said to be the’ ghosts’ dog, and employed to 
hunt up game ior them, 


—~% 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 205. 


“Tt is related that formerly two men travelling were overtaken by 
night in a mountain gorge, where they built up a little booth in 
which to sleep. After dark, the wood-pecker screamed, and the men 
_ heard the ghosts saying to each other: ‘ The dog barks.’ 

“Thinking it was other men speaking, the travellers hallooed in 
reply, when the ghosts said : ‘ The monkeys are leaping, let us shoot,’ 
and immediately the snap of a bow was heard. Instantly one of the 
men was seized with a severe fit of shivering ; and he went home in 
the morning and died.”’ 

Hence the wood-pecker is a bird of omen, and when a Karen hears 
it scream, he cries out: “ Wood-pecker, shun me afar off. Shun my 
house, shun my road, shun my way, shun my field, shun my garden, 
shun the roof of my house, shun my place, shun my stream, shun my 
brook, shun the place where I draw water. Shun me, keep afar off, 
go thine own way, thine own road.” 


Sprrits or ANCESTORS. 


The Karens suppose that their parents who have performed merito- 
rious acts go to a place of happiness above, which seems to correspond 
to the Deva heavens of the Buddhists. The existence of God the 
original Creator of all things is quite ignored, and he appears to have 
no place init. It has its rulers and its subjects; and one of the names 
applied to them is the Burmese designation of Indra, the king of the 
Deva heavens. 

These beings are supposed to preside over births and marriages, and 
to exercise a general watch care over their children on earth; and the 
Karens make offerings to them, as their deified ancestors. 

There are different classes of worshippers or sects, as they may be 
denominated, who make different kinds of offerings. One set of wor- 
shippers offers only rice and vegetables; another offers fowls, another 
hogs, and another oxen or buffaloes. Those who sacrifice animals, 
sometimes offer all three as different rites, but those who. offer rice 
and vegetables never offer sacrifices. 

These different rites are hereditary in different families of the same 
or of different tribes. Those whose ancestors offered bloodless offerings, 
offer bloodless offerings ; and those whose progenitors sacrificed ani- 
mals, sacrifice animals. 


206 Religion.&c. among the Karens. | [No. 4, 


In the Tenasserim provinces, none are found who sacrifice oxen or 
buffaloes. At Toungoo, I have not met with those that offer only rice 
and vegetables; and among the Red Karens, the Bghai rite in which 
a hog alone is sacrificed is unknown. 

There is much confusion in the minds of the Karens in relation to 
the character of the beings addressed, and contradictory statements are 
made by different tribes, and by different individuals of the same 
tribe, and much diversity prevails in the forms and prayers. 

The following is a Sgau prayer, when offering a fowl :— 

‘Mothers and fathers, The-klu, I will offer you a great cock with 
a spur fit to stick a rice mortar upon. Take away sickness, take away 
disease, take away laziness, take away inefficiency, take away sleepi- 
ness, take away drowsiness, take away inability to obtain, take away 
inability to make a living, take away unsuccessfulness, take away 
want of success, take away debasedness, take away wretchedness, take 
away the whole.” 

The Bghai forms, given below, are used when the sacrifice is a hog, 
but the Bghais do not seem to have any definite ideas of the Beings 
to whom the offerings are made; much less so than the Sgaus. They 
require that the officiating priest shall be a woman, the oldest of the 
family. The husband has nothing to do in the matter; the woman 
and her relatives are the only parties concerned. If the husband is 
rich, he has to look to his own relatives to make the necessary offer- 
ings for him, in which he joins. A Bghai writes: 

“The first thing is to brew or distil spirits for three days. Then a 
little table is made with four bamboo posts. Leaves of a plant of the 
ginger tribe are next rolled up in a sugar loaf form, and three joints 
of bamboos are cut off even. Spirits are then poured into these three 
bamboos, and the conical rolls of leaves with bamboo bottles of drink 
are all set upright on the table. Then a living hog is put on a fan- 
ning basket. 

“The head of the offering, or priest, is a woman, and she takes one of 
the conically rolled leaves, and, turning to the table, she prays to Yau, 
as if he were present there. She prays thus: 

“QO, Yau-peu, thou dost now devour the whole family. We feed 

hee with old spirits, and a great hog. Heal us, watch over us, de- 
fend us. When we fall, raise us up; when we slip down, set us up 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens.  - 207 


again. Make us strong, make us vigorous; all of us. When we fall 
on the wood, hew it through; when we fall into the coffin, split it 
open, [. e. raise us up from the point of death]. Nstablish us, make 
us immoyeable. Let not plots, let not devices against us succeed. 
Let us have large crops, let us have good paddy. Let us have little 
grass, let us have few weeds. Let our labour be light, let us eat 
whatever we want. Jet us succeed in our works; let us eat with 
little work. Let the effects of our labours increase, let our produce 
swell up, like rice in boiling. Let us ascend to the tops of the moun- 
tains, let us descend to the depths of the valleys. Let us spear hogs, 
let us seize captives. Let us purchase kyee-zees, let us dig out the 
pangolin, [z. e. let us accomplish difficult things]. In the water, let 
us be great rocks; on land, let us be large wood-oil trees. Let not the 
tiger seize us, let not the tiger kill us. When the tiger would leap on 
us, may he growl; when man would seize us, may he cough. When 
tigers would leap on us, may they wait for each other; when men 
would seize us, may they feel abashed. Let us devour a stream to its 
source, let us eat a creek to its mouth, [¢. e. get possession of the 
whole valley]. Let us eat up the rock to atoms, let us eat the sand 
to dust, [7. e. overcome every difficulty ].” 

The priestess next lays her left hand on the neck of the hog, and 
with her right, she grasps the hand of the oldest person in the com- 
pany, and shaking it slowly up and down, she repeats the above 
prayer. In this way, she goes round the whole company from the 
oldest to the youngest, repeating the prayer with each. 

The hog is killed next, but it is not-killed with a knife or spear ; 
but a sharpened bamboo is forced into it on the right side, under the 
fore leg. When the bristles have been singed off, a part of the flesh 
is cooked with rice flour in a chatty, and a part in joints of bamboo ; 
but the head is hung up whole on the posts of the table. 

When the rice and meat is spread out, the priestess shakes hands 
again with each one, and prays as before. She then tastes the food, 
and after her the others taste it in succession, from the oldest to the 
youngest. 

This done, they rise up, and the priestess tastes the spirits; and, as 
before, all the rest follow her example according to seniority, After 
this they all return to the food again. 


208 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


At evening, the stomach of the hog is roasted, and all taste of it, in 
the manner described above. 

Next morning at dawn, they take the posts of the table, and throw- 
ing them away endwise, as they would throw a javelin, into the earth 
without the village, they say: ‘“‘ Now it is done, it is finished. Go. 
thy way, return to thy place.” 

After it is light, they cook the head of the hog, and eat it with any 
meat that may be left. On that day the people do not go away from 
the house. 


Witcues anp Wrzarbs. 


Next in order to the spirits of the departed dead, in Karen mytho- 
logy are their witches and wizards; but witches, among the Karens, 
are not persons who have made a compact with Satan, as Huropean 
believers in witchcraft suppose, but persons possessed with a demon 
which they call Nad, and the Red Karens Ne. The name does not 
correspond to the Burmese Nat, as some have thought, which denotes 
an entirely different being, but is equivalent to the Burmese Swng. 

According to one myth, the Na is an animal that God commanded 
man to eat at the beginning, with other animals, but neglecting to do 
so, it became invisible and now eats him. 

According to another legend, it is a human stomach ; those possessed. 
of Nas having stomachs, while others are destitute of that organ. 
One story represents a woman, who had incontinently married a man 
possessed of a Na, as saying: “I saw his stomach under his finger 
nail, but thought it was an insect.” 

One man, with a Na, was observed when asleep to be without a 
head, and to eat and breathe from the top of his neck. These are 
headless demons in the Hindoo mythology. 

A person possessed of a Na is said to devour people, but it is the 
La, or vital principle that it devours, not the body. When it eats the 
eyes of another, the eyes remain, but they are blind; the matter is 
left, but the life has gone. 

Sometimes the stomach is represented as going about devouring 
men, but more often the act is attributed to the person. One possess- 
ed by a Na sees men as beasts, and their eyes as fruit. 


In one story, a young man had married a woman with a N a, and 


Fin ie al 


1865. ] Religion &c. among the Karens. 209 


soon after marriage, she was seized with an intense longing for glitter- 
ing fruit.” He brought her all the fruits he could find, but none 
were of the right kind; and she sent him off to her mother, who 
lived in another village to ask her for some. Her mother said she 
knew what her daughter wanted, and told her son-in-law to go and 
visit the neighbours till she procured some for her. The old woman 
then went to pounding rice ina mortar before the house, when the 
children, who were playing around, came up, peered down into the 
mortar and said: “ Grandmother, what are you pounding here?” and 
as each one looked down into the mortar, an eye dropped in, and the 
children were suddenly struck blind. After she had thus obtained a 
sufficient quantity, she gathered them up, put them into a hollow 
bamboo, and sent them to her daughter by her son-in-law, with the 
charge that he should not unstopper it and look in by the way. He 
did, however, when hali way home, pull out the cork and look in, 
when he saw the eyes rolling about, and some of them jumped out, 
of the bamboo; and the eyes of the children that escaped were 
restored to sight again. Those that remained he carried to his wife, 
who devoured them with great, relish. 

Human beings often appear to a person possessed of a Na as rats, 
and are devoured as such. In one story a man is represented as 
going to the field, followed by his child, and on reaching the foot of a 
large tree, the power of the Na came upon him and he devoured his 
little boy, thinking him to be a rat. He then returned to his house, 
and brought back with him his other child, which he devoured in the 
same place that he had eaten up its brother. He next went and 
brought the mother to the scene of his former barbarities, but left her 
there a little while to look for a club to kill her. In the interval, a 
lizard in the tree that had witnessed the death of the children, told 
her what had occurred, and drew her up the tree out of her husband’s 
reach. When he returned, and could not get at his wife, he was so 
enraged that he began to devour his own flesh, and eat up his arms 
and legs close to the body. 

A person possessed of a Na has the power to take the form of 
another. In one story, an old man asks his nephew in the morning, 
why he came and shampooed him so severely during the night. The 
nephew declared he had not been near him, and gave his uncle a sword 


210 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


to smite the visitor if he came again. The next night, the supposed 
nephew was at the old man’s bedside again, and his uncle looked at 
him from head to foot, and he seemed to be his nephew so accurately 
in every part, that he could not use the sword against him. In the 
morning the nephew called, and asked if he had cut down his visitor. 
“No,” he replied, ‘he was from one end to the other so exactly like 
thee, that I did not dare to strike him.”’ The young man sharpened 
up his sword and made his uncle promise to cut down the man when 
he came again without hesitation. This he did, and struck off his 
head at a single blow, when he immediately disappeared. Next 
morning it was reported that a man had died in the village during 
the night, and when the nephew went to look at the body, behold it 
was headless; ‘“‘ so he then knew that a Na had attempted to devour 
his uncle.” 

The interchange of persons is sometimes represented as a change 
of skins. It is related that— 

“ Anciently there was a woman possessed of a N& whose name was 
Po-kla, and she was as black as a crow. She would exchange skins 
with other people; and when she met with a woman with a white 
skin, she would put on the white skin and clothe its owner with her 
own black skin.” 

In one story she is said to be the black slave of a young man of 
property that went abroad and brought home a handsome white wie. 
Soon after his return, Po-kla succeeded in exchanging skins with her 
mistress, and took her place as her master’s wife, without her master 
suspecting the change. The mistress was now beaten and cruelly 
used by her former slave. 

At the time of early paddy, she was sent into the field to drive 
away the birds; when all the doves and little birds came around her 
daily. She charged the birds not to eat the paddy, and she had no 
occasion to run after them, for they remained with her in the booth all 
day long. She ordered the dove to go and bring her fragrant oil 
from her grandmother’s house ; but when the dove reached there, she 
broke her wings, and for a long time she was unable to return. So 
soon, however, as the wings healed, she picked up the bamboo joint, 
which contained the fragrant oil, unobserved, and flew away with it 
to her mistress. Her mistress anointed herself with the oil, and be- 
came herself again, and even more beautiful. 


\ " 
_— apc poe 


; 
7 
3 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 211 


She then went and told her husband that she was his true wife and 
the other woman his slave, as he might know by looking at her tongue, 
which he would find to be black. It was found difficult, however, to 
obtain a sight of her tongue, for she was aware of the consequences. 
All attempts to make her laugh failed, but they struck her suddenly, 
when she screamed and exposed her tongue, which was seen a jet black. 
Her master then slew her with the sword. 

Then he wished to live with his true wife again, but she said he 
had defiled himself by his connection with the black slave, and she 
would have nothing to do with him, till he had steeped himself in 
water seven days and seven nights. He agreed to do the prescribed 
penance; but after he had been in the water one day and one night, 
he was almost dead with cold, and could scarcely speak, so his wife 
had compassion on him, took him out of the water, warmed him by 
the fire, and lived with him happily ever afterwards. 

The sensation in sleep, called ‘night mare,’’ is produced, the 
Karens say, by a Na being seated on the region of the stomach; an 
idea very analogous to that received anciently in Europe of its origin. 

Such an evil influence is supposed to emanate from persons possessed 
of Nas, that their praise is deemed injurious to the person or thing 
possessed. If one looks on a piece of grain and says: “ This is a 
very fine field ;”’ the grain withers, and becomes sickly. If he says 
to a parent: “‘ You have nice children ;” the children become sick 
and perhaps die. 

Hence it is not always safe to praise the Karens or their possessions ; 
for if any accident happens to them subsequently, there is great 
danger that the person who praised them will be reputed a Na. 

The belief in the existence of these Nas is still very strong, and 
the persons who possess them are deemed worthy of death. 

A few years ago, two young men appeared before a Karen Goung- 
khyruk in Mergui with a charge against a man of having a Na. The 
magistrate’s reply was of such acharacter, that they immediately went 
and killed the man in open day. 


Lorbs. 
In Karen mythology, every natural object has its lord or god in 
the signification of its possessor or presiding spirit. There is not only 
28 


212 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


a lord of the earth, but there is also a lord to every country and 
land and district. 


Lorp or THE Harta. 


The lord of the earth appears to be confounded with the king of 
Hades, and clearly comes from the Hindu pantheon, but probably 
through the Buddhists. The Sgaus furnish the following account of 
him :— 

“The lord of the earth existed at the creation of the world, and 
the elders say, he rules over the whole world. If we go to a distant 
region, and swear or use foul language, he makes the tigers devour 
us, or the serpents bite us, or brings sickness upon us. Hence, if we 
go to another district, or into the jungle, we are afraid to speak 
unadvisedly, or to use bad language. We fear the lord of the earth 
will hate us. Therefore before we eat, we offer him a little of our 
food, and pray: ‘ Lord of the earth, eat first and preserve us, O lord!’ 

“Ti we transgress in our language, while in a distant land, the 
lord of the earth will kill us before dark; but if we are in our own 
country, and are guilty of swearing or using indecent words, we make 
him an offering and pray: ‘ We are dark ignorant people. Whatever 
transgressions we may have been guilty of in our words by swearing 
or obscenity, do not, O lord, set against us. We will make offerings 
to thee annually, every year. If we do not die, your lordship shall 
eat of our food continually and of our children’s food, generation on 
generation.’ ”’ 

The spirits which are denied admittance into Hades and are con- 
demned to become evil spirits on earth, are regarded as the servants 
of the god of the earth, and employed to execute hig orders, 

Among the Sgaus in the south, an annual festival, usually in 
January, is observed, for making offerings to this god and his followers. 

The Bghais observe a similar custom, but it is varied a. little. 
Once in three years is the usual period for its performance ; but in 
calamitous times once in two years, while a succession of good crops 
and general prosperity will delay it to four or five years. The Bghai 
festival is held, when the paddy is well up, about the month of July. 

As the rite has been described to me, the first thing done is to 
take a hog to a central position in the village lands, and placing’ it 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 213 


under a Eugenia tree, there erect a booth. The Eugenia is chosen 
because regarded as a more holy tree than any other. The booth is 
for the “ four heads of the sacrifice,” or priests, and elders to occupy. 

When the booth is built, every man cuts three bamboos, one long 
one to represent a post in his barn, and two short ones which he ties 
to the long one, to represent the height to which he wishes his crop 
of paddy to reach when it is gathered into his barn. Then he makes 
in miniature, a paddy bin, a long pen, a hen coop, a trap, and a 
snare. : 

When these preparatory measures have been taken, one of the 
heads of the sacrifice calls the people together, and all the men 
assemble about the booth. The most wealthy elders sit together with 
“the heads of the sacrifice” in the booth, but the young people and 
the poor stay without. No women are allowed to be present. 

The ceremonies are introduced by “ the head of the sacrifice” taking 
a small branch of the Hugenia tree in his hand, when all present 
imitate him and take a leafy sprig of the tree. The leader lifts his 
clasped hands to heaven with the sprig between them, and prays; 
when all follow his example, each asking in his prayers for whatever 
he most desires. 

After the prayers, the head of the sacrifice rises up, and taking a 
spear, spears the hog to death. So soon as the blood begins to flow, 
all the people jump up, and each one seizes his bamboo which had 
been set against the tree, and calls out with a loud voice: “ May my 
barn be filled with paddy as high as my bamboo!” Some cry out, 
*T have caught many rats in my trap;’’ and others: “I have snared 
many wild fowls in my snare.” Some dance with shields that they 
have prepared for the purpose, and others beat drums, and blow pipes. 

They next take the hog to the village, and every man, young and 
old who is able, kills a fowl; and after they have cooked the hog and 
fowls, and prepared the food and drink properly, they carry the whole 
to the booth. There they place the food on a raised platform pre- 
pared for the purpose, and taking again sprigs of the Hugenia tree 
between their clasped hands, they all pray, saying : 

“Lord of the seven heavens and seven earths, lord of the water, 
lord of the land, Thie-kho-mu-kha, all of you, eat our property, eat 
eur pork, eat our fowls, make our paddy good, our rice good, make 


214 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


our daughters handsome, our sons skilful; give us food, give us drink, 
give us to become governors, give us to become elders ; enable us to 
buy kyee-zees, to spear with fatal effect; make our names famous, 
heard above and below; make us joyous and happy with our wives 
and children.” 

After praying, they rise up and dance again. When the dancing is 
done, they set the food in order in the booth, to remain there all night, 
as not a bit of it is to be eaten before the next day, and then return 
to their houses, dancing all the way home. The remainder of the 
day is spent in their houses, drinking, dancing, and beating kyee-zees 
and gongs. 

The next morning they all repair again to the foot of the Hugenia 
tree, when the heads of the sacrifice and the elders commence eating 
the food and drinking the spirits that have been prepared and placed 
in the booth. All are allowed to partake that choose, but the food is 
considered holy, and none but the holy, clean, and upright persons are 
considered as proper persons to partake of it. The question of fitness 
is left, however, for every one to decide for himself. If a man feels 
persuaded in his own mind that he is guilty of no transgression, but 
is upright and holy, he goes forward and partakes of the food ; but if 
his conscience reproves him for some wrong deed or word, he joins 
the throng outside the booth and occupies the time with others in 
dancing. Nor is unfitness to partake of this holy food confined to 
immoral acts. There are certain ceremonial uncleannesses which are 
regarded as unfitting a man to partake. Jor instance, if a man’s wife 
is pregnant, he is deemed unclean, and unfitted to eat of ‘this holy 
food. 

After the feast is finished, the company returns to the village, danc- 
ing all the way as before; and on arriving at the houses, one or two 
of ‘‘the heads of the sacrifice,” go to the brook and draw two bamboos 
of water for every family in the village. After the water has been 
drawn, “the heads of the sacrifice’ call all the members of each 
family to the hall or verandah; men, women, and children, and then 
he sprinkles or throws the water from one bamboo upon them. 
Those who get wet are said to be free from evil, because the water is 
“ holy water.” One bamboo full remains in the house till next morn- 
ing, when the owners go to the fields, and sprinkle it on their growing 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 215 


paddy ; and they say, because it is ‘‘ holy water,’ the paddy being 
wet by it will be good and abundant. 

In all these ceremonies women are carefully excluded, except in 
participating of the ‘“ holy water.” 

The four elders that are called “ the heads of the sacrifice”’ or priests, 
have special names or titles given them to distinguish their office. 

The first is called Deu-sai, 7. e. Lord of the village. 

» second ,, ,, Pghai-sen, ,, The Messenger. 
pabird, 5 ,, Ywa-san, (,, Keeper of the village. 
Peau 0, Sa-kai, » signification uncertain. 

These offices are strictly hereditary. The fathers of the present 
occupants held them, and their places, when they die, will be held by 
their sons. 

When the priests officiate, they have embroidered tunics given them 
by the people. Sometimes they are embroidered with silk, and often 
with red silk, and are made longer than ordinary garments. The 
people give them also ear knobs and beads, and think that it is very 
meritorious to do so. 

Some villages offer a cow or bullock instead of a hog, and one of 
the Mopaha villages near Toungoo were always in the habit of seek- 
ing a black bullock for sacrifice. Their desire was for one perfectly 
black, without a single white or red hair on it; and for such an 


animal they would give almost any price. 
Gopprss or THE Harvast. 


Another distinguished character is an old woman called grandmother 
Bie-yau, who presides over the paddy. She seems, from the account 
given of her first appearance, to have been originally a serpent, and is 
now a widow. 

“Tt is said, that in former times, a certain person cultivated paddy, 
and grandmother Bie-yau with her husband took the form of two 
pythons and wound themselves around his pile of paddy, when the 
paddy increased enormously. The owner of the paddy ignorantly 
killed the male snake and the female ran away, but she cursed him 
saying: ‘ We came in compassion and helped thee with so much 
paddy, and thou hast killed us! May thy three barns of paddy last 
only three months!’ His paddy was done in three months, and the 


216 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


owner had to borrow money to buy more, that he might live; and he 
finally became a slave.”’ 

Offerings are made to her in a little house built in the paddy field 
for her residence, in which two strings are put for her to bind the La 
of any person that may enter the field. The following prayer accom- 
panies the offerings :— 

“Grandmother, thou guardest my field, thou watchest over my 
plantation. Look out for men entering; look sharp for people 
coming in. If they come, bind them with this string, tie them with 
this rope, do not let them go. If they will pay fines of money, do not 
let them go; if they will pay fines of silver, do not let them go; but 
if they will pay fines in piles of paddy, barns of paddy, dismiss them. 
Kat, grandmother, guard my field, watch over my plantation. Pour 
down thy children’s rice and paddy, grandmother, or thy children’s 
fields will come to nought, sweep it off with thy hand, bring it down 
continually.” 

At the threshing out of the paddy another form of prayer is used 
as below. 

“ Shake thyself, grandmother, shake thyself. Jet the paddy ascend 
till it equals a hill, equals a mountain ; ascend as high as Mount Than- 
thie, as high as Mount Pshan-ghau ; ascend and become a conspicuous 
object, ascend and become a distinguished object ; ascend and look at 
the sun; ascend and look at the moon; ascend and look at the 
heavens, ascend and look below the earth. Let my paddy pile, grand- 
mother, be as large as a mountain. Shake thyself, grandmother, shake 
thyself.” 

Goppuss or Fortunn. 

There is a divine female who dwells on the summit of Than-thie, 
the highest mountain known in Burmah, who spends all her time in 
blessing and cursing. The elders said : “If she curses the leaves that 
they may fall, they fall; if she blesses the young leaves, they sprout. 
Ii she curses the trees to die, they die; if she blesses them to live, 
they live. Every thing, the elders say, takes place according to her 
imprecations.” 

When the long-armed apes are heard screaming at night, it is said 
they scream on account of having heard the imprecations of the goddess 
Ta-la, the name given to this lady. The apes on Than-thie, at the 


1865. ] Religion &c. among the Karens. 217 


south-east corner of Toungoo, hear her words and cry, and the lan- 
guage is taken up by all the other apes within hearing, and is thus 
passed on from one to another throughout the whole land. 


THUNDER AND LicguTnine. 


The thunderbolt is regarded as a living being. It has been seen 
and described by the elders as tearing up trees in the form of a hog, 
and about the same size, but with bat-like wings. When it utters its 
voice, it thunders, and when it flaps its wings, fire is produced, and it 
lightens. 

When it lightens in the evening near the horizon, and no sound is 
heard, it is said that the young thunderbolts are flapping their wings, 
but they are not old enough to make a noise so as to be heard far. 


Ratnpow. 


The Rainbow is deemed to be a spirit or demon, but the people 
are not united in regard to its true character. Some say it is a woman 
who died in pregnancy ; others, that it is a demon which devours the 
spirits of human beings, and then they appear to die by accidental or 
violent deaths ; and other theories are propounded. 

“The Rainbow can devour men,” says one. ‘“‘ When it devours a 
person, he dies a sudden or violent death. All persons that die badly, 
by falls, by drowning, or by wild beasts, die because the Rainbow 
has devoured their ka-la, or spirit. On devouring persons it becomes 
thirsty, and comes down to drink, when it is seen in the sky drinking 
water. 

*‘ Therefore when people see the Rainbow, they say: ‘The Rain- 
bow has come to drink water. Look out, some one or another will 
die violently by an evil death.” If children are playing, their parents 
will say to them: ‘ The Rainbow has come down to drink. Play no 
more, lest some accident should happen to you.’ And after the Rain- 
bow has been seen, if any fatal accident happens to any one, it is said 
the Rainbow has devoured him. 


NaraDs. 


The waters are inhabited by beings whose proper form is that of 
dragons, but that occasionally appear as men, and who take wives of 


218 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


the children of men, Unlike the Naiads of classic antiquity, they 
never take the forms of females, but always appear as men. 

One girl, who had been deceived and had taken an inhabitant of the 
water for her husband, was told that she might ascertain his true cha- 
racter by watching him privately when he bathed. She did so, and 
saw him in the water change to a monster dragon, with a crest as 
large as seven wide mats. He threw up the waters to the heavens, 
which descended in heavy rain. 

A water spirit called JMau-lau-kwie figures largely in the Karen 
myths. A girl is represented as having formed an acquaintance with 
this personage, and as holding clandestine meetings with him, when 
she went down to the stream to draw water. Standing on the bank 
she sung : 

“ Mau-lau-kwie, come, let us bathe together. 
Mau-lau-kwie, come, let us wash our faces together. 
Mau-lau-kwie, come with beads and rings ; 

Come, come, as thou art wont.” 

“ Mau-lau-kwie came, and they washed their faces together, and 
combed their heads together.” 

This occurred frequently, and the girl’s parents wondered at her 
long absence, when she went to draw water ; so they sent the younger 
children to see, and they came back with the report that their sister 
had a meeting with Mau-lau-kwie. Her father then sent her off to 
help her grandmother, and in the interval he went down to the water 
and called Mau-lau-kwie, as his daughter had done. He came at the 
call, when his father-in-law cut off his head with a sword, and split 
open his head with an axe. 

When the girl returned from her grandmother’s, she went down to 
the banks of the stream, and called her lover as usual ; but instead of 
Mau-lau-kwie, there came a long procession of tadpoles, crabs, cray- 
fish, shrimps, prawn, fish and crocodiles. She asked : ‘‘ What does 
all this mean? Where are you going? 

‘“ A crocodile replied ; ‘ Mistress, we are going to weep at the fu- 
neral of Mau-lau-kwie, 

His father-in-law cut off his head, 
Split open his skull ; 
Mau-lau-kwie is dead, is dead.” 
‘‘ She answered : ‘I will go with you.’ 


1865. ] Religion &c. among the Karens. 219 


“The crocodile said: ‘Thou canst not go;’ but she replied: ‘I 
will go.’ 

““ The crocodile then said : ‘ If thou wilt go with me, prepare seven 
cakes of bread, seven chatties of steamed rice, seven hams, and seven 
white cloths.’ She made the requisite preparations, and started off with 
the crocodile. The crocodile said to her: ‘When I wriggle my body 
about, throw down a cake, a chatty of steamed rice, and a ham.’ She 
went along, and fed the crocodile as he directed ; and they reached the 
body of Mau-lau-kwie, where she wept and sung: 

‘ There is no one to build the house, 

There is no one to build the dwelling ; 

The flying squirrel’s wings are split unequal. 
Would that I had died with my husband.’ 

At this juncture Mau-lau-kwie rose to life again; and, on uttering 
a word, the tortoise said Yd-law ; when Mau-lau-kwie, exhausted, fell 
down, and hit against the breast of the tortoise. 

Again they wept for Mau-lau-kwie, and when his wife sung, again 
he rose to life, and spoke a word; but the flying squirrel said Ya-lau, 
and Mau-lau-kwie fell against the flying squirrel, and tore his wings 
unevenly. Again they wept, and again his wife sung, and Mau-lau- 
kwie rose to life again ; and now to die no more. 

After Mau-lau-kwie’s wife had born a child, the family went to 
visit her parents; and one day she went out to visit the neighbours, 
and left the child in charge of its grandmother; saying to her: 
“* Mother, if the babe awakes, do not bathe it in the brass bason.”’ 

After the mother had gone out, the child awoke, and its grand- 
mother put it into the brass bason to bathe it, when it turned into a 
little yellow-tailed carp. The old woman broiled it, and when her 
daughter returned, told her what had happened, and what she had 
done. The mother took the fish, went down to the stream, and threw 
it into the water. Her sister followed to weep with her for the loss 
of the child, but the mother ran down the bank on the crooks of the 
gigantic bean creeper, and she did not dare to follow, but stood weep- 
ing at the top of the steep bank. Her father came and asked her, 
what she was crying for; and on hearing, he cut off the vine in anger ; 
and it fell down into his son-in-law’s great hall and filled it up. 


29 


220 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


His daughter called out: ‘ Father, thou hast given me up now. 
Thou hast cut off the gigantic creeper, and I can no more visit thee.” 
Her father heard these words, and he also heard his grandchild. 

“[T visited grandmother, I visited grandmother; grandmother gave 
me an egg to eat: I visited grandfather, visited grandfather ; grand- 
father gave me a fowl to eat.” 

He heard the voice of his daughter and the voice of his grandchild, 
and he dived down into the water time after time all day, but found 
nothing, and returned home at eve sorrowing. 


Deyaps AND OREADEs. 


The elders relate that Mount Kie-ku, in the Bghai country, 
and the peepul Tha-ka-u beyond the seas engaged in war. 

It arose on this wise. The peepul had a daughter whose name was 
Bu-ban, and the mountain had a son whose name was Phai-thau-o ; 
and the two were married. After the marriage, she came and lived 
with her husband’s family. 

She was possessed of miraculous, powers, and did not pound paddy. 
She would take a single kernel of rice, and split it in two, and then 
throw one half into the rice bin when it was filled with rice immedi- 
ately, and the other half she threw into the rice chatty which became 
filled with rice in the same manner. : 

Her neighbours were envious, and mount Bai-tha-lu seized her, and 
gave her to mount Po-phau; and mount Po-phau gave her to mount 
De-pha-ho ; and mount De-pha-ho put her in the stocks, which still 
remain. ‘There she sat, and wept, and blew her nose; and the marks 
of her finger nails, where she wiped her hand on the rocks, are yet 
visible. 

The peepul, Tha-ka-u, became very angry with mount Kie-ku on 
account of treatment his daughter had received, and made war with 
him. 

The peepul being in the sea, made the crocodiles his soldiers, and 
mount Kie-ku’s soldiers were thunderbolts. When they fought, the 
peepul made the waters rise, and soften the earth, and the crocodiles 
thrust their tails into the ground, so that the sides of the mountains 
slipped down. At each land slide, they would say : “‘ There dies an 
officer.” 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 221 


When mount Kie-ku attacked, he made it so hot that the sea was 
dried up, and the crocodiles could not live in it; and he threw his 
thunderbolts at the peepul, and when a branch was struck off, they 
said : “‘ There dies an officer.” 

The peepul came and fought the mountain several days, but getting 
the worst of it, he said: “I will retreat.’ In his retreat Phai-thau-o, 
his daughter’s husband, intercepted his path, and hid himself in a 
gorge by the way, watching for his father-in-law to come along. He 
had a sword, and a gold comb that shone like the sun, and to keep 
himself from being seen, he put his comb under his foot and trod on 
it. There he stood in the interstice of two rocks, and when one of 
the peepul’s officers came along, he smote him with his sword and 
killed him ; and so on, one after another, till he had nearly killed off 
the whole. There was only one left. He said to himself: ‘‘ They are 
all ended, and took up his comb, and put it in his hair again, which 
made him visible. 

The remaining officer said, as he came along: “A great many 
people have gone before, and yet the sound of horse or elephant is not 
heard ;”’ and starting on, he saw Phai-thau-o, whom he cut down and 
killed with his sword. 

Until this day, people say the matter is not finished. They have 
a saying: “‘ Mau-khe’s contention is not settled: Mau’s contention is 
not settled.” 

Brownizs. 

Now and then, we find a good natured spirit appearing in Karen 
stories that comes for some one’s benefit. Here is a specimen: 

“The elders say that there was once a poor orphan boy, that owned 
nothing but a dog with seven tails. On one occasion, he noticed his 
dog go and bark on a hillock in the field near his house ; but when he 
went there, he found nothing, so he came away. Still the dog remain- 
ed barking, and he went again and dug into the hillock, when he 
found a cavity with anegg init. He took the egg, intending to eat 
it, put it in a basket, and went to work in his field. During his 
absence, the spirit in the egg cooked the poor youth’s rice and 
curry for him; and when he came home, he found his meal ready 
prepared for him, but he was afraid to eat it, and he went to 
the neighbours to inquire if they could ‘explain the matter. They 


222 Religion &c. amony the Karens. [No. 4, 


replied to him roughly: ‘ Thou art an orphan, thy house is nasty and 
dirty, who dost thou think would go up into it?’ He returned to 
his house, and being very hungry, he said to himself: ‘If I die, I die, 
I will eat.’ So he ate, and nothing happened to him. 

‘“‘ The same thing occurred next day. His food was cooked and ready 
for him on returning from his labour. The following day, he deter- 
mined to watch; so after going away, he returned cautiously, and he 
saw a young woman come out of the basket. She went to the brook 
and brought water, and then cooked the rice. He showed himself to 
her, and she no more took the form of an egg, but became his wife. 
She said to him: ‘ My name is Miss Egg, but never speak my name. 


o53 
If thou dost, I shall disappear, and thou wilt see me no more.’ 

“ People frequently asked him for his wife’s name, but he never told, 
till they induced him to drink arrack to intoxication. Then he reveal- 
ed her name. When he came to himself his wife was gone, and he 
wept bitterly. 

“ His dog said to him: ‘ Master, don’t ery.’ We will go to where 
Mistress is.’ He answered: ‘If we go, shall we find her?’ The dog 
said: ‘ Follow me.’ So away they went together, till they reached the 
banks of the Salwen, when the dog said: ‘I will swim across. Take 
fast hold of my tail, and on reaching the other side, do not say : ‘ Good.’ 
Ii thou dost, my tail will drop off.’ He failed, however, to do as he 
was commanded, and on getting on shore he exclaimed: ‘ Good!’ 
when one of the dog’s tails dropped off. 

“ They kept on their way, till they reached another large river, where 
the same scene was enacted; and so on, till they had crossed seven 
large rivers and all the dog’s seven tails had dropped off. On losing 
the last, the dog said to his master: ‘I shall die, and there are many 
cross-roads on the way. If master goes on, let him take my body 
with him. On reaching the first crossings, eut off my head, and try 
on which road the blood drops. Follow the road on which my blood 
drops; and oncoming to a multitude of houses, try the foot of the 
steps of each house till my blood drops down on one. The house in 
which my Mistress lives, is the one on which my blood drops upon 
the steps.’ The dog ceased speaking, and immediately expired. This 
time the man followed his dog’s directions, and found his wife.” 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 223 


Fericism. 


The Karens, in some of their observances, come very near to the 
worship of “stocks and stones.’ Many keep stones in their houses 
that they suppose possess miraculous powers, and which seem to re- 
present the household gods of the ancients, 

A Bghai writes : 

“The elders say : Some stones are possessed of superhuman powers, 
and if we possess them, we shall succeed in our undertakings, and 
obtain a sufficiency of food. Ii we possess but a little, that little will 
not be expended by using, but will always be enough to supply our 
wants. 

““ Some stones are called paddy stones, because those who possess 
them, obtain good crops of paddy. Some stones are said to make us 
invulnerable; so that when javelins are thrown at us, spears thrust 
against us, or blows aimed at us with swords, we shall not be hit; or 
if hit, they will not enter our flesh. 

“These stones crave blood. If we do not give them blood to eat, 
they will sometimes eat us. So people kill hogs and fowls, and then 
pour the blood into a vessel, and put the stones into the blood. 

“Ti the stones are thrown away, after a considerable time, they 
will be sometimes found to have come back again to their old accus- 
tomed places. 

“Tn a village of thirty families, perhaps ten will have these stones; 
but in some villages nearly every family will have them. They are 
sometimes bought and sold, and those that are reputed good ones, 
will sell at from thirty to fifty rupees. Some that have been in a 
family a long time, the owners dare not sell. If a stone is sold at 
less than its real value, or is stolen, it will return to its former owner. 

“We have heard that the inhabitants of the village of Deu-mu-kha 
had a number of stones, the principal one of which they called 
Lwai. No one dared to touch or even look on these stones, excepting 
the officiating priests in the sacrifices to the lord of the earth. They 
had charge of the stones, and were called their lords or masters; and 
when a black bullock was sacrificed to the lord of the earth, a fowl 
was sacrificed to these stones in the same place. 

“Tt is said that the Burmese on one occasion made an attack on 


224 Religion &c. among the Karens. [ No. 4, 


this village and carried away all their stones; but afterwards all the 
stones came back to their old places. 

“When the teacher arrived, they carried away all their stones into 
the jungle, and built a chapel, and said; ‘If the stones come back, we 
will not worship God, but if they do not come back, as formerly, we 
will worship God.’ The stones have never returned, so the people 
worship God to this day. The inhabitants of that village stand in 
great fear of stones, more than ordinary. 

“We have also heard that the Pakus have stones, like a man’s fist, 
and when they have any hatred against any one, they will strike the 
impressions of his foot on the ground with one of these stones, and 
the man dies.” 

I have seen many of their stones, but there is nothing remarkable 
in them, and they possess nothing incommon. ‘They are most usually 
bits of rock crystal, or jasper, or some variety of chalcedony, but 
never of any value, or in any way curious. Occasionally they are mere 
lumps of stratified rock, remarkable for nothing but the numerous 
thin lines of strata displayed on their edges. 

The possession of one of these miraculous stones had much to do 
in dividing the Red Karens into two tribes, eastern and western, as 
they are now found. ‘The story has been related to me thus; “ There 
was a Sgau called Shapau, who possessed an exceedingly good stone. 
He set himself up as a kind of political teacher, and travelled about 
from village to village among the Sgaus and Pakus. They said to 
him, ‘ We cannot receive thee. If we receive thee, should the king 
at Ava hear of it, the Burmans will kill us all.’ 

“ As he could not succeed among his own countrymen, he took his 
wife and wife’s sister, and went away to the Red Karens. They 
received him and built him a house, and it was not long before he 
began to work miracles with his stone. The stone was remarkable, 
it is said, for having the power to change its colour. It could change 
from black to yellow or white at pleasure. The result was that all 
the Red Karens believed in him. They believed in him so fully that 
they were discussing the question of making him king. 

“ At this juncture, a son of the king of Ava rebelled against his 
father, but his father overcame him and he fled to Toungoo. He did 
not dare to remain long there, however, for fear of his father, so he 


1865. ] Religion &c. among the Karens. 225 


went into the Red Karen country, where he met with Shapau, and 
married his wife’s sister. In the end, the Burman succeeded in 
establishing himself in the eastern part of Karenee, killed his brother- 
in-law Shapau, stole his stone, and became king or chief of all the 
eastern part of the Red Karen country, where his descendants rule to 
this day.” 

Maatc. 

Karens believe in the magical properties of things, as illustrated in 
the following story :— 

Tue Maerc Rivne. 

“The Elders say, there was an orphan child brought up by his 
grandmother, who was so lazy that he would not open the skins of the 
wild plantains when he wanted to eat them, but made his grandmo- 
ther do it for him. He would do nothing but play, so he got the 
name of Mr. Laziness. 

“ His grandmother, finding a trading boat going down the river, 
persuaded the boatmen to take him along. When on board, he 
would not do anything. If the boatmen gave him food, he ate; if they 
gave him none, he fasted. They found him good for nothing but to 
watch their boat when they left it; and for this they gave him an 
occasional two annas or a quarter of a rupee. 

“One morning, when all the men had gone up into the town, and 
he was left alone in the boat, he heard that one of the citizens was 
about to kill a cat, and he asked permission to buy it, and it was sold 
to him. 

“ Again, about noon, he heard that another one was going to kill 
a rat, that had done some mischief, and he bought off that also for 
three pice. 

“ Towards evening, several of the citizens came along with a crocodile, 
that they had just taken, and were about to kill, for having devoured 
several men. This, with a dog, he bought for a quarter of a rupee. 
He put the crocodile into the boat, when it spoke and said to him: 
‘Master, thou hast had mercy on me and bought me, and [ shall not 
die. The reason I devour men is, that there is a gold ring in my 
head. The ring is under the flesh in my head, and whatsoever I 
desire, I obtain. Chisel it out, take it for thyself, and let me go into 
the water.’ So he took a chisel belonging to one of the boatmen, 


226 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


cut the gold ring out of the crocodile’s head, and let it go free in the 
water. . 

‘““ He put the gold ring on his finger, and when he desired silver, 
silver came into his box; and when he desired gold, gold came into 
his box. The boatmen came back to the boat at night, but knew 
nothing of what had happened; and he returned with them to his 
home. 

“ He told his grandmother to go to the king of the country, and 
ask his daughter in marriage for him. She said: ‘ Dost thou want to 
be killed by the king’s sword ?’—and refused to go. He replied : 
‘Ti thou dost not go, let thy arm come out of the back,’ and imme- 
diately her arm come out of her back. Being unable to withstand 
her grandson, she finally went to the king, and asked his daughter for 
him. 

“The king said: ‘Let thy grandson build a bridge of silver, and a 
bridge of gold from the foot of the steps of your house, to the foot of 
the steps of my palace, and then he shall have my daughter in mar- 
riage; but if he does not, then you shall die.’ The old woman returned 
weeping, but when she told the king’s terms, he bid her cheer up, for 
he could easily comply with them. 

“During the night, he desired a silver bridge and a golden bridge 
to stretch itself between his house and the palace, and it was done. 
So in the morning the king led his daughter over the golden bridge, 
and gave her in marriage to Mr. Laziness. 

“There was a Brahmin at court, who came to the princess, and 
said: ‘Thy husband wears a gold ring, and he will not allow thee to 
put it on thy finger.’ She replied: ‘If I ask him, he will.’ So she 
asked her husband to allow her to wear the gold ring, and he at once 
granted her request. 

“When the Brahmin saw the ring on her finger, he asked to see 
it; and she handed it to him. Immediately he put it on his finger, 
and exclaimed : ‘Fly away, fly away palace;’ and the king’s palace 
flew away to the other side of the ocean with the Brahmin and the 
princess in it. 

“The king said to his servants : ‘Because I received Mr. Laziness, 
I have lost my palace, go put him in prison, and to-morrow go and 
kill him,’ The king’s servants went and put him in prison. 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 227 


“He was accompanied to the jail by his dog, his cat, and his rat ; 
and he ordered them to go and fetch his gold ring from the Brahmin 
that night, and to be sure to be back before morning. Away they 
went at once. The dog swam across the sea, and the cat and rat rode 
on his back. 

“When they arrived at the Brahmin’s, they found him asleep under 
Wire musquito curtains. The cat told the rat to gnaw a hole through 
the curtain, which it did large enough for the cat to get in. They 
both went in, and the cat said : ‘ Rat, smell about, and tell me where 
my master’s ring is.’ The rat replied: ‘ I smell the ring in his mouth.’ 
The cat then said’: ‘I will bite him in the throat, and if he vomits 
up the ring seize it quickly.’ The rat replied : ‘ Perhaps our master 
will think we killed the Brahmin, and then he will kill us. To make 
him throw the ring out of his mouth, I will put my tail up his nostril 
and tickle him till he sneezes, and then he will throw the ring out of 
his mouth ; and then you must snatch it up immediately.’ 

“ The plan succeeded. They obtained the ring and both ran out of 
the house to the dog, that was waiting for them outside. He asked, if 
they had gotten the ring ; and on being told they had, he said: ‘ Give 
it to me, you cannot carry it safely.’ So they gave it to him, and he 
put it in his mouth. 

“The whole three returned then across the sea, as they came; but 
when half way back, the dog saw a pack of otters in the water and he 
barked at them, when the ring was thrown out of his mouth into the 
sea, where it was swallowed by a fish. 

“ The cat said: ‘ This is hard. The ring is lost, and our master will 
be killed in the morning.’ The rat said : ‘ The otters were the cause 
of this misfortune. Dog, go bite them on the rocks,’ The dog leap- 
ed on the rocks, and bit an old otter, saying: ‘It is on your account 
that we have lost the gold ring into the sea, and our master will be 
killed in the morning.’ The otter replied: ‘Do not kill me, I will 
get the fish for you.’ So he plunged into the water, brought up the 
fish that had swallowed the ring; and the cat ripped it up and took 
the ring out of its belly. They then continued their journey, and 
arrived with the ring without further accident, which they delivered 
to their master ; who then delivered himself from prison, and ‘brought 

30 


228 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


back the palace with the Brahmin in it. He slew the Brahmin with 
all his relatives, and exterminated the whole race.” 


GIANTS. 


Men-eating giants are among the supernatural beings with which 
a Karen has to contend; and their exploits are heard as often in 
Karen nursery tales, as they formerly were in Europe. Here isa 
specimen : 

“ The elders say that a little girl went down to the brook to draw 
water in the usual Karen bucket, made of a joint of a large bamboo. 
When she laid it on the surface of the stream to fill with water, it 
escaped from her hands, and floated away. She ran after it down the 
bank, till she reached a dam, which proved to be the dam of a giant, 
Soon after her arrival, the giant came down to fish, and was about 
to devour her; but she told her artless tale, and the giant spared her, 
and took her up to his house. Here they were met by the giantess 
who congratulated her husband on having picked up so nice a morsel 
for their dinner. However, the old giant protected the child, and she 
became their adopted daughter. 

“Qn one occasion, when the old people went out, as they said, to 
search for greens, they left the little girl in the house, and charged 
her not to look into two baskets that were in one corner of the room. 
Her curiosity being excited, no sooner was she left alone, than she 
peeped into the baskets. One was found filled with gold and silver, 
and the other with nothing but dead men’s skulls. 

“ Bver after making this discovery, she importuned the giants to 
allow her to return home; and they finally consented, but the old 
giantess required before her departure to look over her head once and 
pick out the vermin; an act of courtesy often performed by Karens 
for their friends. On looking into her hair, the little girl was 
astonished to find it filled with green snakes and centipedes. She 
called for an axe, and chipped away in the head of the old giantess 

til] she could endure it no longer, and then permission was given the 
little girl to depart. , 

“Before going, the giants told her his might take one of the 
baskets with her; whichever one she chose. She said; As you are 
getting into years, and cannot well weave baskets, I will take the old 


1865. ] Religion &e. among the Karens. 229 


one. This she knew contained the gold and silver; and she was 
permitted to take it. fh 

“When about to start, the giantess said : ‘ When thou reachest black 
water, comb thy hair and wipe thy teeth. When thou reachest red 
water, wipe thy lips; but when thou comest to white water bathe 
thyself.” She observed the directions given her, and reached home in 
saiety, where the fame of her gold and silver brought together all her 
friends and relatives; to each of whom she gave a bowl full, 

*“ Among those who received a bowl full of silver and gold, was one 
dissatisfied young man, who coveted more ; so he determined to try his 
future with the giant, and endeavour to obtain a whole basket full for 
himself. He succeeded in being adopted into the family, in being 
allowed to return, and in having the offer of a basket to take with 
him. He had not looked into the baskets, but like his predecessor he 
chose the old one. The same charge was given him in regard to 
crossing the streams, but he paid no attention to his instructions, but 
dashed across them and got home as quick as possible. On reaching 
his house, he opened the basket, when to his horror and disappoint- 
ment, he found the basket full of dead men’s skulls. Little time, 
however, was given him to brood over his misfortunes, for the giant 


_ followed rapidly after him, and devoured him on the spot.” 


OmeENs. 


The Karens, like other nations in their ignorance, believe in omens; 
and desist from a journey or an undertaking, when they occur. Like 
the Romans, a snake crossing the path, or a woodpecker tapping, 
stops a man by the way; as does the falling of a branch of a tree, or 
the bleating of the barking deer. . Sickness is supposed to be the 
consequence of non-observance, and a sacrifice is offered for an atone- 
ment. 

Among the Bghais an elder is called, and all the family assembled 
together: fhale and female, young and old. The elder then leads 
a dog round the assembled family three times, praying as he goes: 
“When we work, or labour; when we go, or return; at the bleat of 
the barking deer, at the voice of the otter, at the crash of a falling 
tree, at the sight of a snake, at the sight of a scorpion, at the sight 
of a large serpent, at the sight of a python, we ought to pause, or 


230 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


we become sick, we suffer and die. Now we offer thee food to eat, a 
great dog. Heal this man, let disease leave him.” 

The dog is then killed, and the elder sits down facing the whole 
family, with a green bamboo raised two or three feet, and stretched 
horizontally between them, over which he throws the dead dog, taking 
it by the legs; and the family catches it and throws it back at him, 
This ceremony is repeated three times, and then the dog is cooked 
and eaten. 


SooTHSAYING. 


Subjected, as a Karen is, to the multifarious dangers proceeding from 
the wrath of unseen spirits ; he tries, when he has come under the ban 
of one, and is prostrated by sickness thereby, to ascertain which, it is, 
that he may propitiate it by suitable offerings. 

To make the discovery, he resorts to prophets or necromancers, per- 
sons that have eyes to see into the unseen world, and to fowl’s bones. 
Omens too fall within the same category, as giving indications of the 
future. 


NECROMANCERS. 


There are persons among the Karens who profess to have eyes to 
see unseen spirits, to tell what they are doing, and even to go to Hades 
and converse with the spirits of the dead there. When a person is 
sick, these people, for a fee, will tell what spirit has produced the sick- 
ness, and the necessary offering to conciliate it. They will sometimes 
go to Hades and bring back the La that has gone thither, and resusci- 
tate the dead body. This is proven by the following story :— 

“The elders relate that there was a woman who had two daughters; 
and her husband died and left her a widow. 

“ After their father’s death, their mother treated them very cruelly, 
beating them continually, so that both died and left her alone. Then 
she grieved, and wept unceasingly, and refused to be comforted. In 
her distress, she went to a necromancer, and induced him to visit her 
children in Hades. He found the La of the youngest, and said to her: 
‘Thy mother on earth weeps for thee exceedingly. Go comfort her.’ 
The younger then sang to her elder sister. 

‘ Return sister, mother requests, 
She weeps for us in deep distress.’ 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 231 


“The elder sister responded : 
‘ Return not to her, sister dear, 
’Twas mother beat and sent us here.’ 
“The elder sister positively refused to return to the earth, but the La 
of the younger one came back with the necromancer, and on her arrival 
at home, the body came to life again.” 


Fowu’s Bonss. 


In the beginning, say the elders, God gave to the Chinese a book of 
paper, to the Burmese a book of palm leaf, and to the Karens a book 
of skin. The Chinese and the Burmese studied their books, and 
taught them to their children; but the Karens were indolent, did not 
value their book and laid it on the end of their house, where it was 
thrown down on the ground, and a hog came and tore it up. After 
the hog had gone, a fowl came and picked up all the fragments. 

It soon became apparent even to the Karens that the Chinese and 
Burmese greatly excelled them in knowledge through their acquaintance 
with books ; and they then regretted the loss of their own book. 

They concluded, however, that the fowl which had eaten up the book 
must possess all the knowledge that the book contained. They 
resolved therefore to consult its thigh bones, and note the marks and 
indentations made by the tendons on them as letters, and pray to it to 
reveal its knowledge. 

There is no superstition so commonly practised among the Karens as 
this. No measure of importance is undertaken, till a favourable response 
has been obtained from the fowl’s bones. 

The thigh bones of a chicken are taken out, and after prayer, and 
making a condition that the bones may exactly correspond, or they 
may differ in some particular; that the indentations for the ten- 
dons, may be alike or unlike, that the bones may be even or un- 
even; the two bones are held up abreast of each other, between the 
thumb and finger and carefully examined. It requires a practised eye 
to read the result accurately, and there are many nice distinctions, 
known only to the elders, who do not always agree in their readings. 

From my house in Karenee, I looked down into the court-yard of 
the Saubwa, where he was in consultation with some of his chiefs over 
the chicken bones. They were passed round from hand to hand, each 


232 Religion &c. among the Karens, [No. 4, 


giving his opinion, and the conclusion reached was, as I afterwards learn- 
ed, that the omens were favourable for a contemplated attack on a 
village in eastern Karenee. The fowl, however, deceived them that time ; 
fer some half a dozen wounded men of the village were brought in next 
day, and no plunder. 

The Bghais seem to regard the fowl as the bird of Indra, the king 
of the Deva heavens. Once a year, in February or March, every 
Bghai family holds a festival, in which every person’s wrist is tied 
with a thread, and prayers are addressed both to the fowl offered, and 
to Thie-keu, Mo-khie, or Indra. The rite is called: ‘“ The good to 
do;’ but of its origin and object, the natives can give no account 
beyond what is found in the forms themselves. An intelligent Bghai 
assistant furnishes the following statement : 

“When the time approaches, the people prepare beforehand ardent 
spirits, and buy hogs and fowls, and get every thing ready. When 
the time actually comes, the villagers perform the ceremony, two or 
three or four families a day, till it has gone through the whole village. 

“The first thing done is to bring up two jars of arrack, and secure 
them by tying them to a bamboo, and the next is to bring up a hog 
and fowls. ‘Then an eating dish is washed and filled with water, and 
set by the side of the jars with spirits. 

“ An elder is now called on, any one skilled in interpreting fowl’s 
bones, and a fowl is put into his hands. He cuts off the bill of the 
fowl, dips its head and feet in the water, and then drops the blood 
from the bleeding head on the forehead of the oldest man of the family 
that is performing the ceremony. 

“The master of ceremonies then addresses the elder, and says: 
‘The hand-tier devours thee. Thou hast the jaundice, thou art 
shrivelled up, thou art not strong, thou art weakly. Now we give 
food and drink to the hand-tier. Mayest thou be strong, mayest thou 
be vigorous. Mayest thou be established as the rock, indestructible 
as the hearth stones. Mayest thou have long life, mayest thou have a 
protracted existence.’ ” 

After besmearing the elder’s forehead with the fowl’s blood, the 
master of ceremonies pinches a few feathers and a little down from the 
fowl’s neck, and sticks them on the blood, where they adhere, per- 


haps for the whole day. 


1865.] Religion &c. among the Karens. 233 


He next addresses the fowl, and says: ‘ Arouse, arouse, Thie- 
keu’s fowl, Mo-khie’s fowl, we give thee food, we afford thee sustenance. 
~Thou drinkest in a knowledge of the future, thou eatest superhuman 
power. In the morning, thou seest the hawk, in the evening thou 
seest man. The seven heavens, thou ascendest to the top; the seven 
earths, thou descendest to the bottom. > Thou arrivest at Khu-the; 
thou goest unto Tha-ma [7. e. Yu-ma, the judge of the dead].. Thou 
goest through the crevices of rocks, thou goest through the crevices of 
precipices. At the opening and shutting of the western gates of rock, 
“thou goest in between ; thou goest below the earth where the sun travels. 
Temploy thee, I exhort thee. I make thee a messenger, I make thee 
an angel. Good, thou revealest; evil, thou revealest. Arouse thee 
fowl, arouse ; reveal what is in thee. Now I exhort thee, I entreat 
thee, if this man is to live to an old age, if his head is not to be bent 
down, ii he is not to come down crash, like a falling tree, let the 
right hand bone come uneven, let the bones be short and long. Thou 
art skilled in the words of the elders, thou knowest the language of 
old men. The good, thou fully knowest ; with the evil thou art - 
perfectly acquainted. Fowl, I exhort thee, I entreat thee; reveal 
whatever is in thee. And now, if this man’s head is to bend down, if 
he is to come down crash, like a falling tree, if he is to be unable to 
rest himself from incessant trouble; if unable to overcome obstacles 
which shall meet him on every hand; if unable to rise up or lie down, 
if his life is not to be prolonged, if he cannot live, then, fowl, come up 
unpropitious, come up with the tendon short on the right side, come 
wrong end foremost. If he be able to obtain sufficient to support life, 
if he be not overcome by feuds, fowl, come up even, Thie-keu’s fowl, 
Mo-khie’s fowl, I pull out thy feathers, I pull at thy skin, I dip thy 
head, I dip thy feet. Arouse fowl, reveal what is in thee.” 

Hyery one in succession is then besmeared on his forehead with the 
blood of a separate fowl; and then every one marks his own fowl by 
tying a string to it that he may recognise it after being cooked. 
Some tie a string on the neck, others on the leg, others on the wing, 
and others elsewhere. They next scorch off the feathers, and boil 
them. 

The hog is taken if the gall bladder be deemed a good one, otherwise 
it is rejected. When the rice and meat is cooked, they bring the rice, 


234 Religion &c. among the Karens. [No. 4, 


and the pork, and the fowls, and the threads, and the bamboo tubes to 
suck up the drink and the spirits; and all are placed together. 

The master of ceremonies then goes and puts two bamboo tubes 
into the left hand of one, and the gall bladder of the hog and the 
head of the fowl into his right hand; and then the elder of the family 
takes the thread and ties his wrist. Hach one in succession takes the 
articles in his or her hands mentioned above, and the elder ties every 
one’s wrist, at the same time praying with each: ‘‘ Mo-khe, the hand- 
tier, the good-to-do, we offer thee food and drink, spirits well prepared, 
a great hog. Defend us; when we go to and fro, look after us. If we 
fall, raise us up. When we go or return, when we walk on a branch 
or a beam, when the branches or creepers break down, when we 
go among the Burmese or other tribes, when we climb trees or descend 
into the waters, when we go up into the house, or return to the paddy 
field, may no accident befal us! Stretch forth thy hand, and help 
us; put forth thy foot and assist us. Go before us, follow behind us. 
Deliver us from demons, deliver us from ghosts.” 

After this the person whose wrist is tied, changes the things in 
his hands from right to left and left to right. Then each one tastes 
the spirits; after which each one tastes the fowl; and when this is 
done, an elder is called upon to pray, who prays thus : 

“ Mo-khe of mountain Kie-ku, Mo-khe of the seven heavens, Mo-khe 
of the seven earths, assemble together, even the blind, the deaf and 
the lame; and eat and drink the valuables.” 

A libation of spirits is then poured out; and after this the drama 
closes with spirits being served out for all to drink. 


ASTRONOMY. 
CosmoLoey. 


“There are seven heavens and seven earths.” This expression 
occurs frequently in Karen stories, but the people have no definite 
ideas on the subject. The sun is supposed to go round the earth. In 
the west are two massive strata of rocks which are continually opening 
and shutting. Between these strata the sun descends at sunset, but 
how the upper stratum is supported, no one can describe. 


1865.] Astronomy among the Karens. 235 


In the western ocean is an immense volcanic mountain, which is 
continually fighting with the water. They have a story which must 
be of common origin with Sinbad the Sailor. 

The Elders say there are fish in the sea as large as mountains, with 

trees and bamboos growing on them as on land. Voyagers have to be 
careful where they land to cook. They carry axes, and cut into the 
ground to try it. If juice springs up where it is cut, they know that 
they are on a fish ; but if the ground seems dry, they are on land, and 
go to cooking. 
It is related that a man landing on an island, went to cooking with- 
out trying his ground, and it proved to be a fish which sunk with him 
into the sea, and then swallowed him. When the man was in the 
fish’s belly, he said to the fish: ‘‘ When males acquire large game, 
they shout, and cry out in exultation, but you are silent. Are you not 
amale? Qn hearing this, the fish opened his mouth to scream, when 
the man leaped out and escaped.” 

The Elders say that when people kill one of these fish, it is impos- 
sible for them to eat it all up, and they burn its fat. With its bones 
they can make beams and rafters for houses. 


CoNSTELLATIONS. 


The Karens have names for a few of the most prominent constella- 
tions. The great Bear they call an elephant, and so do the Burmese 
and Hindus. The pole star is a mouse crawling into the elephant’s 
trunk. 

The southern cross they call Mai-la-ka, a name whose derivation is 
not obvious, but they regard it as some kind of animal ; for they say 
that Mai-la-ka and the elephant once dwelt together in the middle of 
the heavens, but they quarrelled and fought. Mai-la-ka seized the 
elephant by his tail, and the elephant took Mai-la-ka by his thigh, 
and in the struggle which ensued the two were thrown to the opposite 
extremities of the heavens, where they remain to this day. 

The Pleiades is called ‘the great house,” and is regarded as a family 
of persons, consisting originally of seven persons, but one has been 
lost, and there are only six now. Two men, one of their myths states, 
married here two sisters. The names of the men were Lan-to, and 
To-phau ; and of the women Tha-bgheu-mu, and Tha-bgheu-bghai, 

31 ; 


236 Astronomy among the Karens. [No. 4, 


While the men were out fishing, “the wife bearer,” or Orion, came 
and carried them off on his shoulder. The women cried out to their 
husbands : 

“ Lau-to, oh, Lau-to dear, 

Snatch up thy bow and spear, 

To-phau, oh, To-phau come, 

We’re carried away from home.” 


After calling a long time, their husbands heard their cries, and 
returned home, when they discovered that their wives had been carried 
away. They seized their bows and spears and followed on after “‘ the 
wife bearer.’”’ When they came within a spear’s throw of him, Lau-to 
poised his spear or javelin to throw it at ‘ the wife bearer ;” but his 
younger brother came behind Lau-to unobserved, and struck the 
handle of the javelin, so that it flew against his father-in-law’s house, 
and knocked a part of it down. To encourage their wives, the men 
sung : 

“ Tha-bgheu-mu, suffering dear, 
Tha-bgheu-bghai, have no fear. 
The bow’s bent, the string tight, 
Arrows ready, you in sight.” 

Then they followed on silently, and “ the wife bearer” thinking he 
was not pursued, stopped and set down his burden to rest; but while 
he was gone down into the water to bathe, the husbands arrived and 
carried their wives back home, and repaired their father-in-law’s 
house. 

Though the resemblance is remote, yet this story must have had a 
common origin with the Greek myth of Orion and the daughters of 
Oenopion. 

Some of the Karen constellations, to judge from their names, are of 
Karen origin. One is called the “ Burmese yoke,” from the resem- 
blance the stars are supposed to bear to the yoke a Burman carries on 
his shoulder, 

Some names are local and vary in different places. For instance, 
the Karens in the south call the Milky way the “Paddy Bin af 
while the Bghais denominate it the “ Bazar. street,’ because the 
streets in the bazar are usually an undistinguishable mass of people. 


1865.] Astronomy among the Karens. 237 


Comets. 


Comets are sometimes called ‘ Tailed-Stars,” sometimes “ Fire- 
Stars,” and sometimes ‘‘ Smoke-Stars.” In common with all other 
unenlightened nations, the Karens regard their appearance as indi- 
eating approaching war, famine, pestilence, or other public calamities. 


PLANETS. 


The Karens do not seem to recognize any planet, excepting Venus. 
They know the evening and morning star to be one and the same, and 
by some process not clearly understood, she is sometimes before, and 
sometimes after the sun. When a morning star, she is called the 
“Star receiving the morning ;’’ and when an evening star, the “ Star 
receiving the evening.” | 

SHootine Srars. 


Shooting Stars are said to be “ Youth Stars,” going to visit the 
“ Maiden Stars.” When a Karen girl sees one she exclaims, ‘“‘ May 
my hair grow as long as the path thou fliest !” 


Meteors. 


Meteors, the Karens say, are the animals that produce gold and 
silver, and when seen in the heavens descending to the earth, are sup- 
posed to be returning home. When a report is heard, as the Karens 
say there often is, itis the roar the animal makes.on entering the 
earth. Wherever they fall, gold or silver is certainly to be found in 
the neighbourhood. 


Division oF THE YEAR. 


The Karens divide the year into twelve lunar months, and, like 
occidental nations, they begin it with January, and end it with De- 
cember. This is contrary to the usage of all the nations that surround 
them; the Burmese, the Talaings, and the Shans commencing the 
year in March. “ The civil year,” says the Journal of the Asiatic 
Society of Bengal, “‘ commences differently in different parts of Thibet, 
varying from December to February. At Asadakh, it begins in De- 
cember. The months have several names expressive of the seasons, 
&c., but they are usually denominated numerically ; first, second, &c.” 
The Karens would seem then to have derived their calendar from 
Thibet, for while they make now the year to begin in January, yet 


238 Astronomy among the Karens. [No. 4, 


the months corresponding to June and July are designated numeri- 
cally ‘‘ the seventh,” and “ the eighth’? months, which must have 
originated from a system that made December the first month ; as our 
September and October must have been named, when the year was 
made to commence in March. 

The names of many of the months show that they were given when 
the Karens had the same habits that they have now. Thus January 
is “the searching month,” from the habit of going about in search of 
a suitable locality to clear a field. And February is “the hewing 
month,’’ because in this month the trees are cut down. Other names 
show that the seasons were the same when and where the names were 
given as they are now. Thus April is “the seed month,” because in 
this month the seed is sown; and August is “the month of gladness,” 
because the corn is then in the ear; like the month of Abib among 
the Hebrews; but that corresponded to April, indicating a different 
climate from the Karen. May is “‘the Crinum” or holy month, be- 
cause the Crinums, popularly called lies, are then in flower ; while 
December is denominated ‘‘ the month of the shades,” because in this 
month the Karens make their annual offerings to the shades of the 
dead. | 

The Red Karen names are usually coincident, but a few of the 
months have different names. July is not with them “ the eighth 
month,” though June is the seventh ; and August is not “the month 
of gladness,’”’ but is named from a feast that is made this month, and 
which is peculiar to themselves. 

A correspondent writes: “ In the month of Ai-du, the Red Karens 
kill hogs, and fowls, and oxen all at once, and make a feast in which 
the whole village eat and drink together. They beat drums, and fire 
off muskets, and have sham fights, firing at each other with nothing 
but powder in their guns, Accidents often happen, and houses are 
frequently set on fire. The feast is kept up for three days, and during 
their feasting the people send food and drink to their friends and 
relatives in other villages. The origin of the feast is not known.” 


239 


Karen Vocabulary. 


1865.] 


"aIny-DF “DIT 
‘ONT “ULING, 


"SOT 
“hol EU 


nour “wry 


"yany pure “yny “UIT 
ey eS) 
“Yow 
8 SOIUSIS Jo[dnoo sup, 
“AvT AL “Ung, 
AMS AGU 
‘any J, “WING, 
‘jortinbs B soylUsis a7 
"ng “OUuIry 
‘uag weyg 
“DID “OUL0OYT 


‘unybury, “SudIOyy 
OT TRL 

‘hoy wang 

"UorTT “ULRIG 


ey ANU 8 
IK 


BUC 


noyd 


oosN 
eu-v gq 


4OS FT 


oly 
orn, 
CMV 


ed 
Sunyyy 


eal 


Ol]-® T, 


OTM FT 
NON 
BM-BG 


Hoy 
Ae 


CU-Bq 


qIOMSFT 


noy 
omy FT 
nil 


Bd 
ney 


nA-WOry 
“OY YUDE) 


sywouay “nyjbunoz wo hosp 


OTM} FT 
°N 


BM8-89 


nod 


NVZ-O1]y. 
CU-GIT 


ory 


eA 
OH 
qoaig 
avy 
no, 


Id 
uo} 


Ary 


MAL 


‘pybdoyy 


oIMys Cue eli 
SIN oNG 

eT Aer-neg 

NS] ng Od 
eAU-BUL-009F] 

ned-Uld TL ‘oorHT 

eu-eq vue Aeu-eq 
OIMT YT OIMA YT 

suneyyy Avd-v J, 

OTM FTE Meaqy, 

TL SENN 

ony a 

OT OT al 
ed vig 

SunjiyT no J, 

Suey 
ory Ss« ATA 
‘NWOT, ‘Ong ‘Uawny poy 


OL TT OIM IFT 
®IN ®IN 
BM-0g eyyeaneg 
val 

neg pue nepy 
ned-orpned-olul-e yy J, 
Aeu-eg eued 
rea iDal ory 
Aed-eyy ol 
SHES Crh 
oI, omy, 
or hall 
eq-D9F oH 
Auld "Id 
ney, nay, 
viyy-Av AA neysnerpy, 
ETE | EDT 
“wmyog “noby 


‘SHWANONAG ‘O27 ‘IvaDg ‘AVG “ASITONG, HiIM ‘SdYOM NOUV] OLMSGNOG #0 TAPOTVIVO YW 


Soy 
keg 
MOLD 


MOO 


te) 
oreyng 


ouog 


‘dnog (<4 
yeog 


poolg 
‘dnog “ 
pag. 


MOLLY 


quy 
‘dnog “ 

VW 

“ysypbugy 


LNo. 4, 


Karen Vocabulary. 


240 


‘wary “URYyg 
‘uary “WING, 


“Uarry “URYG 
DANY) “CS 


SEMAN LUO) 
‘OFT “uRYg 
hunoyy “wang 


‘nligy “OK 


DI “uUByg 
‘bun “POLL, 
‘my “Yury 
‘ayy “eog. 
DY]. “weyg 
"yon ULI) 
‘Bunigy uryy) 


‘buns, “weyg 


‘DAT ‘OYSUTG 


“SY LDUA LT 


Oak 
aryye 
UBT 


SUL 
SUNN 


OV 


ny-e yf 
ng 
OOT-B YL, 


keg 
uey sy 
ney 
OW 
Bd 


Ae 
uesyy 


Ue4-We FT 


vB N 


‘ny jbUuno, 7, 


eyyy od-vy-vy, 


ory 
Bry 
ay | 
wing 


oly, 
Suny 


no 


oouyy 
Ss 


Suey 
suryg 
8 AN 
vd 


Avy 


a | a | 

B-B1F7 Bl-B IT 

oT bal 

FOYT, oys-ery 

DN nent 

ynoyL OH 

NeMY-O¥T nol 

88 HOS) 
YNO]-OY S{OoY-Noq Ney-ooyy 

Avy 

oA q -00F-01g 

ny-ny =| Mey 

old NET 

SIA IN O=2 1K 

ial ed 

om = Av 

Sues} pT 


nypy-Avpy 


O-ON tN 
‘OY YD) 
olny  nybdory 


osy-ey SunesyT Sunesy-vy 
Noy-nvpLOYY-oue Py oOyy-suvyy 


BN 


“Nl DD 


suey gq ovy, ory ned-vyy 
ery Aery Aery a | 
ey, Avqy-09 77 B-VIAy ey 
Surety) oH °H ol 
TEST EMRE TD tlh EMBEDS 
HUON nen nd N noN 
on a 8 | neiT On 
OY NeIY-00FT noyy-ooyy ous, 
ie ng ng ng 
como = BAT-OY YT OOT-NOYE 0049-0 YF 
: oq Ae qAvy-oy-Av g Avy-Avq-AR 
MU DY abil SUBS LAL 
suryg oud ney ney 
Sun-oy, OW OW 00-0] 
wud keyg ey, » ‘eq td 
OW AvpOop-v]-noyy AvW 


RYS-B 
nypy-Av py 
nN SunON 
Avpeyy-noAy-o 
BN ‘AV]-BY yy 


‘Ong 


“Wad DST ped 


VYS-VY] 
NOP] -V'T 
ney-At Ny 
ooy-Av NY 


LU ybg 


UBSY-BY 
OU - UV 
ON 


UN 


“roby 


qsvy 
yeory 
uoly 
asnoy 


Os10 AL 


WO FT 
Soy] 


proxy 
puryy 
UVAL 


yRox) 
4007 
TOMO] 
ally 
TOIL] 


oA 


queydoalq 
Yegy 


‘dnog “ 


It Wf 


“yspbugr 


241 


“nedd-vtmy) ‘WING, 
“DAU ET “ueys 


(6 


TAM) 
‘buy eyoyg 


Karen Vocabulary. 


‘D]-UDY YY “URIS 
“NOY ST UIT) 
“hu ueyg 


“Nay “uByg 


Apyuowt OF W110} 
‘OMloues OU SI oto, 


‘bunoy yy uryg 
‘007 “wang 


1865.] 


eyy-ey, «- A’Y}-eG-—-&Y-Ylog. 
uvy-Avpy Avpy,—-By-neg 
ney Oory 
eZ 
BULY) SIM SIM Y-vry 
NVUL-¥ NT hog noez-Aeny 
ey ae | vy 
ON @N 
CL 
Suey ONO THY 
o£ 

VI-v.L-¥}-00d-ey  nes-ery 
sunoig vy yy noy-eaqT 
NV]-VT 
SUNOY = neMYY,  nos-ery 
ney nod-W ny wy 
ery Bry vy 
nod, = Oru~ery 
od-v]-noy 
nex o7, 

sunoAy-e 7 ne] gq 
suok  nez-o7 
ney -vy-vig ‘op-log 


sunodpy 


POMEL 


vyy-oung 

oT 

Lae 

vuy) oIMy-eyp, 
OuL 

Mtg) 

tN 

RU 
Sule] 


eH 


08-tq 
esl 
-B AIT) On 


O[-3un07 FT 


SUNBY Sy Sunvy-oyyy 


OW 
wT 


OW 
OT 
oul 
-VMB-NOIFT 
vyd 
~nod-v yy 
00-nos fy] 


SUOTY-NO FT 
ni q{suopyd-nopy 


Aeys-9 7, 


Jo ‘Avyy-0f «= Avq4-0T v1]}-0T(unou) Jeg 
ey 
vdTyy -ood-AvT yy AUT peoy 
ODI ney = Oy ‘oT TOATYT 
°X PEM “ 
OA EKT! CA PIMY-VYY, | Ulezaelg 
vA 
Jo ‘oouy, nou, oul 0) 
Avy ACH BP SUIMOATT 
Aen Aen ®N SIN 
Aeyy, Aeqy, eyy, ‘dnog “ 
STIL STAL STN Sue NN 
alys-ny O8-tq os-eq ojmbsnyy 
OO-RY YT «= WVU-vTON-eIY QUO 
BATT NT-nVy yy oy-eyy “dnog “ 
oyg nu ney Nos-vyy UrILzUNOPT 
no hoy OW oYPIOP 
Aery Avy a | MOO] 
OlU-vy, «= OTU-Byy_— BANJ-B, 
Avyd 
ny-ne_ = -ey-no_ vyd-nd-vy_ 
nea nox n-vg, Aayuoyy 
nojd 
nof-o1g -eyj-eysgq ‘dnog “ 
vi-vy-AVI vd-orquvduy-eysg uty 


[No. 4: 


Karen Vocabulary. 


242 


“WAT “URI 
PS OTD 


“pay y, “Wang 
“phy ‘wing 
‘buy nquary 
‘fuoryT “eyodery 
bung Ur) 


“moreyy UL ys 1Oy 


plOM O[SUIS OU ST O10] T, 


tq =) 


“sy oulaeyy 


BM NY 
oH 


ens-ey, 
aL 
OYA 


‘SUNT 


BSE 
TLL 


oly d 


‘nyjbunoy, «0 hoy 


Kemyy = AVANT 
mows) -=127E 
nyy-Avyy nog 
eT i 
ON OL 
om] BU Led BAS 
oy yp yrop-ed-e yy, 
noAT(l ney 
ynoy yuo 
BSL VS 
coy = ny 


oyd-oyde 


vyj}-noy-vg -oAY-Nv I, 


Sia SNe 
Suey ney 

“OYSVO-F) 
‘py bdo pr 


AN NT 
nosy] 
Suray, 
oN 
Ssuniqq 
Suny 


vs] 
OO 


"NDT, 


KEMNT 
SUNON 


ial 
SUBM-¥T, 


Surly], 
Av 


oS 
ni 


Suory 
vus 
ooyy 
Suoy 
-od-ooy 


oud 
Suvyy 


‘ond 


nory ARMY ARAN 
neu-Vyy ON 
oAI on eH 
ug neq  nevA-vyy, 
neuh nod eT 
oyy-oyy Avut-noyy, AvW 
ot-ood-Aey, —0-BY}-0G 
oy so ‘oyyy = 10 “oy 
OOUI-v'T ny NI 
ney no'y ney 
Avyg keyg VsFL 
00% 00, nip) 
O]-ouL vy-ned OT 
-Vpy-nepy « -ey-neyy -od-vy-oopy 
od oud old 
Avy Av ney] 
"UalD YT poy “anybo *noby! 


Ulva 

. dnog cc 
Oye MA 
asey[tA 


aol], 


oo, 


TOOL, 
ung 


ouo}g 


IRA 
oyRug 


ANS 
ulyg 
(qaoa) “ 


yspbuyy 


1865.] 


Karen Vocabulary. 


243 


The following table exhibits the pronouns in all their forms, in the 


various dialects. 


Case Absolute. Nominative. Objective. 


I, as to me. 


Sgau Ya, or yay 
Pwo Yeu, or yawe 
Bghai Yay 
Mopgha Za 
Toungthu 
Red Karen 
Kay or Gai- 
kho 

Taru 

Thou, as 

to thee. 
Sgau Na, or nay 
Pwo Neu, or nawe 
Bghai Nay 


Mopgha Na 

Toungthu Na 

Red Karen 

Kay, or Gai- 
kho 

Taru 


As regards 

éc. 
Away 
Awe 


Sgau 
Pwo 
Bghai 
Mopgha 
Toungthu 
Red Karen 
Kay, or Gai- 

kho 
Taru 

32 


if, me. 
Ya, yeu seu Ya or yay 


Ya, or yeu Yeu 
Ya Yay 
Za Za 
Khwa 

Va 

Khye Khye 
Va 

Thou. Thee. 
Na, orneu Na 
Na, or neu Neu 
Na Nay 
Na Na 
Na Na 
Na 

Na 

Na 


Poss. Pron. 


my. 
As nominative, 


As nominative. 


Thy. 
As nominative, 


He, she, ut, Him, her, it, His, her, ts, 


they. them. 
A,orway Au 

A, or we Ku 

Seu 

O, or wo 
Wa 

A 


their. 


244 Karen Vocabulary. 


Case Absolute. Nominative Objective. 


We, as re- 

gards us. We. Us. 
Seau Pa way Pa, or peu Pgha 
Pwo Pa we Pa, or peu Peu 
Bghai Kay Ka,orwa Kay 
Mopgha Kay Ka Wau 
Toungthu Ne 
Red Karen Pay 
Kay, or Gai- 

kho Pa, or ka 

Taru Pa 

You, as re- You. You. 

gards you. 
Sgau Thu way Thu Thu 
Pwo Nathie Nathie Nathie 
Behai Thie Thie Thie 
Mopgha Nay Nay Nay 
Toungthu Nathie Nathie Nathie 
Red Karen Thie 
Kay, or Gai- 
kho Thu 


Taru 


[No. 4, 
‘Poss. Pron. 


Our. 
As, Nomin. 


7 


) 


Oo, or Hi. 


As nominative. 


Your. 


As, Nomin. 


245 


Karen Vocabulary. 


“a0. (a4 


gasp 
“yoy “ 


“py “UBys 


1865 J 


NOYS-T9t14) 

noys 
-OLMT 

noys 

ney], 

nou-neyg 

nvjzY-®y, 

vodyey,  ed-vy, 
sISETN] NOYS-No9 yy 

By 

vyoIsey, -noys-wy, 

“AU SI 400.1481], 

Oo Vs ‘UYD oIsey, neys-vy, 
noy noy wey 400%F AC MYT 
noyoy Byodeary yeu, neyg 
Yysnu NOW JOMNT AGM NT 
NYT, oug 

DUB Mg yeu) TOU) 
ysy “MULTE = yaary OLA] 
Uns “JOqTT, SUNY, nowy, 
bunosyy ueyg ot N noNy 
D-NUb "TRY, BT, ®L, 

ny? §—“oysr) 


“syunuary -hunoyz wo ‘ho 
Wh 
“A 


oTys 

-keuy 

S1Ys-9InG 

o1ys-Ny, 

noyyos 

“ory 

O7gR'T orlV 

ATA | vhVy 
arys 

-neyyog 

orysery nosyy 

OIMT ST OTM NE 

ouyT OOS} 

uw) Ke NT 

NYY OST] 

Avy, Avr 

OL TT OMT 

Noy, Ny, 

noyyo no NT 

Bry Ne, 
‘wybdoyy = =" nua 7 
x 


orsy-Ae i 


MENTE 
o1sy] 
go. 
-SunY I, 
ou 


-910Y-v'T 


Ssunejzye'T 


vhery 
OUEMEUINY 
BlSISyery 
OISye'T 


OTAT YT 


ous 


OMN 
ooy yy 
Aex 
ory 


sung, 


SINT 
eal 


Oe 


eyy-eyy ois-vAnNy omms-kv x orsy-fkr Ayr s 
HL SFys-taN o1ys-ABx orsy-Ae FUT 


SY -Oly[, OLYS- OTA], OTYS-OL MIT OISY-OTM!T 44105 


P-L, OLys-noyy, orgs-noyy, 


orl 
SOUR EH I 


Oll-@y, 
Kek-ey, 


09-BU) 
By 
“OY - 


BYY-B YL, 


Ney] 
vkd-ey, 


ds) 
OL 
Cink 
O}-8 J, 


MLL 
OWL, 
@L 


“ULLO fT 
pug ‘uae 


er aiee td: 


ou 


-TYS- 


Oly 


-O1ys-B 


OLle T, NYT, 


AeXey, 


OYSON 
BIOYSe y, 


Ose y, 
BY 
-OUJOTANT 
OYJOTMT 
By 
-OT NOY J, 
oy Noy], 
eAN 
OIM'T 


noy,y, 
©N 
BL 


"Udl 


see Rea g 


Avkeye y, 


SUUTSEUNY| 


BIOS, 


SEL 
By 
-OUJOTMT 
OYJOLAT 
ey 
-OY MoT T, 
oyjnoy J, 
ACK 
OLM'T 
noy 
10 “nou, 


ory 
"WL 


‘wmybg 


oIsy] 
“noyy, Ary, 
ory 
-9ISY-By, OATOM, 
pues 
oyyeyey -noyy, 
pop 
ekeyey, -unyy 
44 
sso] -WAA y, 


BJoISyB], UAH 


oIsyey, Uday, 
LIS CUNT 
ou FSET 
SIME wWeAeg 
LIDS = 
AvX eal 
SIATT = MOY 
noyy, oe, 
oIYy{. —-OAN, 
GL oud) 


‘nob “ysapbug 


[ No. 4s 


Karen Vocabulary. 


“urotpt we Aq 
possaidxyy =“ wa.le yy 
ut piom sodord oy 


“sy dpouiaay 


nou = oT-aTU 

-B\Vsqy-NP. —--B [BJT 
eUl-nodg 

Key-Avyd 
Nh EMBIENY 

ney ‘NY, 

Aeyq  neypd-v] 
-84-NU-Ly, -NU-ne} FT 

ot-ACU 
of-eYSy — -NeY YT 
noyy-nog oy-neg 
o0yf 00g 

neq. ‘Vad nory 
nog nory 

eMC] 
‘es nog 
eM (T nary 
V Vv 
ee) 

‘nyjbunoy, olny ‘wybdoyy 


BN LUG p 


or 


~B}-VY-N] 


BL] 
-Sune yy 


-AVYy-W 


Sune} yy 


sueyq 
-e]-neu 


orkut 
“8}-00-V 


99-01Aq, 
~Avwpy-V 
nofy, 

noy.od-v4 


-suneyz FT -nedu-nod Ty, 


oA-SUL 


atAU-v} 
~ABYS-B IM 


Aep-aq 
~Avyy-W 


ney, 
vyd 


-e}-NU-®y, 
no& 


-vu-suog ov-vAU-OT Sy “NoUu- NvY NY 
oyy-sury.g OOTY y-NeL yy Hoyy-nVq 


sunyd 


keg 
Arg 
nary 


Surryg 
@L 
Avy 
nory 

V 


‘ON 


OON, 


NY 


ney 


neg 


nog 
v 


“Ud WT Poy 


00g 


Aery 
Aery 
neg 
nary 


‘neg 
V 


‘Ww yb 


oTUe4y 
“OIN-CHL 


Kep-Avyqd 
“BIp-V 
Dy, 

neyq 
-8)-NU-1y, 

ero 
“ey-Avy yy 
oyy-neyg 
00g 


neq 
neg ‘ no'y 
oosy]T 


no'T 
Vy 


*noby 


kep-oy, 


é TOT M 
WoT MA, 


uot], 


MON 
uo 
Us 


MOTTA 
TUTM 
Ag 

OL 


WONT 
1U 


*yse pbug : 


247 


Karen Vocabulary, 


1865.] 


CUL-Vy «A -O1Z, 


nok-ey —s«OL-917, 
BU-oyoq  o]-06g 


Vv awd 

eryg es 

ny d nog 

nox ok 
ood 


— OOFY-No, -B-o'T 
OF-nvypy 
nvyy nog -No'T 


nosjy-noyy Nosy-neq 

Uy Rl-OW 

noyy-noqy—- Oy-neg 
GUI-DO (7, 


‘eu-vgq Avy-AvTg 


euc-nog nu-Av]q 
oA 
noA-BM(T 
nodA-og 
‘ok-og¢ ot -ART 
nou  oru-vy 
~BY-BUY- CTA -BUL Uy 
OA oo 
-B-O8-AV]T — -BUL-OFF 


e]-sury 


© OW-oury 


Avy] 
a as 
-SUNvY FT 
neu 
-BUNvY FT 


oA-SUNv) TT 
Oru 


Avy]-Nv]S 


Avy-0g 
Avy-oyy-Avgy oy-oygq  Avj-ex 
of-og  nodu-oyg 
oA-Av ov-oyg nof-ex 
Avy-@-O1S FT oy-egq Avy-oy.sg 
Vv AV Ay 
Av Joy-B4-o1q-Vq aryg 
00g ooud, og 
Sure X aK ox 
sunyd 
-B-O'T ooy ood-x-nery 
SUNVIP] noyy 
-no'T NEY -RVY-No'T 
Sunosy, 
-8u0g ooy-neg nos-noq 


Avy]-nV yy 


OOY-VV]ST Noy y,-nV @. 


09-01hq 


nodu-org 


ov-o1d 
arcu 


Avy-ne 
nou-ne(y 
nou-ogq, 


nod-neg 
‘noA-ogf 


o1u-v 


-ey-vy.s-nqy vy-Avys-ey -Avy-oopy 
OTAU-B} OLU-R4-NVY, 
-niu-Avy -O1-nd-o1yg -oowm-ney -ney.s-Avyy~MoLOU-o 7, 


oy-ney.d 


Avy-o1, 
‘Key-ne K 4 MOF 
oT HCE 
‘OT-1e K snyy, 
Av]-8-OIS FONUL MOFT 
Vv gon 
eal LAL 
00g IVON 
15,0 Ie 
ood-v-nory = UIT A 
OYy-Ney  ynoypyrAA 
nesy-noeq  uwooajoge 
vary MOTO 
oyy-neyg  oaoqy 
Avy-Avgq 3, @IOTL Ah, 
ou-Avg O10], 
o1-Avy ol TT 
ort 


-vy-ey-vy, Avp.109so 7X 


OTU- 


[No. 4, 


Karen Vocabulary. 


oO 


“ULOTPT 


ue Aq posseidxe st 


aad 


‘Udleyf UL LO 


A0J plOM OU STL O10 T, 


Pig meacienite | 


“SH LDUOYT 


"11Qbuno ZL, 


Suneyy 


ned sq 


OTT 
‘OM FT 
Ay 


Sury, 
Q 
ould 


CAV 


evad-vid-v} 
-v.id-vd-opi 


003-003 
Bj-VUl-no(y 


BULO-No 


kery 


nag. ‘vA (T 
00y 
-oMUI-neg 


BI-OA\ TAT 
ni 


1-8}-B 


‘O YU) 
40 ny 


neu 
-98-ny g 
SOTA 
Te) 
ny 
TO]-VIL.6 
~B]-T8] 
-ed-ay\y 
To[-eY.5-8] 
To] 
-SUIV} FT 


nU-V 


ok 
Ke-oT 


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1865.] The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. 251 


On the Pendulum operations about to be undertaken by the Great Trigo- 
nometrical Survey of India; with a sketch of the theory of theur 
application to the determination of the earth’s figure, and an account 
of some of the principal observations hitherto made.—By Capt. J. P. 
Basnyi, 2. £., 1st Assistant, Great Trigonometrical Survey of India. 


[Received 29th July, 1865. ] 


Whilst Lieut.-Colonel Walker, R. E., the Superintendent of the 
Trigonometrical Survey, was in England last year, General Sabine, the 
President of the Royal Society, solicited his attention to the importance 
of making a series of Pendulum observations at the stations of the 
Great Indian are, of a similar nature to those made by Captain Kater 
at the stations of the English arc, and by himself, Captain Henry 
Foster and others in various parts of both the Northern and Southern 
hemispheres. Pendulum observations were made on the French are 
by Arago, Biot and Mathien early in this century ; it is also the inten- 
tion of the Russian Government to have them made at the principal 
stations of the Russian arc: moreover there is hardly an instance of 
the measure of an arc which hag not been accompanied by such observ- 
ations. 

General Sabine offered to assist by placing at the disposal of the 
India Board the pendulums, clocks, and apparatus which he had 
employed in his own operations ; and he added that, should the India 
Board desire any opinion from the Royal Society on the subject, he 
would assemble a Committee for the purpose. 

Colonel Walker drew up a scheme and estimate of the probable 
expense, and submitted it with General Sabine’s letter for the approval 
of the Secretary of State for India, who, acting on General Sabine’s 
suggestion, requested the Royal Society to report on the plan of oper- 
ations proposed by Colonel Walker. 

The President accordingly called for opinions from several distin- 
guished Fellows, viz. Professors Challis, W. H. Miller, Stokes, H. J. 8. 
Smith, Dr. Robinson, Sir G. Everest, and Sir John Herschel; all in 
their replies were agreed on the scientific value of the operations, and 

33 


252 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. [No. 4, 


all, with the exception of Sir George Everest,* approved of the 
proposed plan of carrying them out; several made very valuable 
suggestions. 

The Secretary of State in Council consequently sanctioned the 
experiments, and on Colonel Walker’s recommendations he directed 
Captain Basevi, R. E., who was then in England on furlough, to 
proceed to Kew to learn the use of the Pendulum and apparatus, with 
the view of his conducting the experiments in India. 

Before detailing the proposed operations, a sketch of the theory, and 
of what has hitherto been done in the way of Pendulum experiments, 
may be interesting. The application of Pendulum experiments to 
determine the figure of the earth, is based upon a theorem demonstrated 
by Clairaut, which may be stated thus, that the sum of the ellipticity; 
of the earth, and the fraction expressing the ratio of the increase of 
gravity to the equatorial gravity is a constant quantity, and is equal to 
£ of the ratio of the centrifugal force to the force of gravity at the 
equator. Hence by ascertaining the difference between the polar and 
equatorial gravity, or, which is the same thing, the progressive increase 
in the force of gravity in going from the equator towards the pole, the 
ellipticity of the earth is at once determined. 

It is proved in mechanics that the forces of gravity, at any two 
stations on the earth’s surface, are proportional to the lengths of the 
seconds Pendulum at those stations, or to the squares of the number 
of vibrations made by the same pendulum in any given time, one 
solar day for instance. Here is at once an easy means of determining 
the variations in the force of gravity, and the solution of the problem 
of the earth’s ellipticity is reduced to the measure of the length of the 
seconds pendulum at a number of points on the earth’s surface, or, as 
has been most generally done, to the observation of the number of 
oscillations made by the same pendulum in a mean solar day. 


¢ 


This theory, however, supposes the pendulum to be a “simple pen- 


dulum” that is, to consist of a material point suspended by a string 
without weight, which is, of course a practical impossibility ; but as 


* Sir G. Everest proposed to employ only the Pendulum of an astronomical 
clock, but this method is objectionable, as the Pendulum cannot be said to be 
acted on solely by gravity. 

+ The ellipticity or compression, as itis sometimes called, is the fraction whose 
numerator is the difference between the polar and equatorial semi-diameters, 
and the denominator is the equatorial semi-diameter. 


1865.] . The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India, 253 


it is always possible to calculate the length of the simple pendulum 
which would vibrate in the same time as a given compound pendulum, 
the latter may be used for precisely the same purposes as the former. 

Besides this, there are several other conditions supposed to hold 
good, which in practice are never attained, viz. the are of vibration 
has been assumed to be indefinitely small, the length of pendulum 
to be constant, 7. e. unaffected by temperature, and the oscillations 
made in yacuo and at the level of the sea. Corrections have therefore 
to be computed and applied to the observations, for each of these 
assumptions. 

The time of vibration* in a circular arc is expressed in terms of the 
length of the pendulum, the force of gravity, and a series of ascending 
powers of the arc of vibration. The arc is always small, but still not 
so small that the terms depending on it can be wholly neglected ; the 
first term, however, of the series is all that is ever appreciable in 
practice. Again, the observations are generally continued for a con- 
siderable time, and the change in the arc of vibration has to be taken 
into account. It has been shewn mathematically, on a certain sup- 
position regarding the resistance of the air, and found to be the case 
practically, that the arc decreases in a geometric ratio, whilst the times 
increase in an arithmetic ratio, and on this principle the correctiony 
to the observed time of oscillation is computed. 

Secondly, a correction must be applied for the temperature of the 
pendulum: a change of temperature will, of course, by altering the 
length of the pendulum, affect the time of its vibration. This cor- 


i DNA LA ce ISIN Za noe N 2 
dst +(2) pcs Re (sm5) + are 
teste SMEG il as 


in which ¢ = time i” one oscillation. 
a = semi-circumference of a circle whose radius is unity, 
7 = length of the Pendulum. 
g = force of gravity. 
a = arc of semi-vibratiofi. 

+ The formula for this correction ig 
M. Sin(A + a) Sin (A-a) , 
32 Log Sin A—Log Sin @ 


n = number of oscillations made in a day; M = log?. e. modulus = 0°4842945 ; 
A the initial and a the final semi-arcs of vibration. Correction always additive, 


nN. in which 


954 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. . [No."4, 


rection® must be determined experimentally. Captain Kater immersed 
his pendulum in fluids of different temperatures, and measured with 
a micrometric arrangement the alterations in its length. Captain (aow 
General) Sabine observed the change in the number of vibrations 
made by a pendulum in different temperatures. This is the most 
direct method of obtaining the correction undoubtedly, but everything 
depends on the perfect compensation of the clock pendulum with 
which it is compared. 

Thirdly, the formula is only true for observations in a vacuum, 
and as observations have generally been made in air, or at all events 
only in a partial vacuum, the effect of the air has to be taken into 
account. This effect is to diminish the weight of the pendulum by 
the weight of the air displaced, or to diminish the apparent force of 
gravity in the same proportion. In the very large majority of ob- 
servations, the correction has been computed on this consideration 
solely ; but Bessel demonstrated in 1828} that this correction was 
insufficient, inasmuch as a portion of the surrounding air was set in 
motion by, and moved with, the pendulum so as to become part of the 
moving mass. The correction for this can only be determined prac- 
tically, as by swinging the pendulum in ‘media’ of different 
densities. It depends chiefly on the form of the pendulum. As this 
correction ‘‘ reduction to a vacuum” or “ buoyancy correction” as it is 


* According to Kater’s method—if 7 be the standard temperature which is 
generally taken as 62° Fahrenheit ; t the observed temperature of the pendulum : 
f its factor of expansion for 1° Fahrenheit, then correction = }4 n, f. (¢—7). 
positive when t > T. 3 

+ This circumstance was most clearly pointed out by the Chevalier du Buat 
in 1786, who made a number of experiments with pendulums formed of different 
substances, but his researches, which created a great sensation at the time, 
appear to have been completely lost sight of, and to have been unknown even 
to Borda, who was conducting his experiments, little more than ten years after 
the publication of Du Buat’s results. 

The true correction for buoyancy Mr. Baily has shown to be (Phil. Trans. 1832) 


B A f 
aX i .0023 (£329) where f, is the height of Barometer, and ¢, the tem- 


perature during the interval of observation. 
pendulum, and is determined from the formula 


Ne Ne 
gp” [1 + .0023 (t°—32°)]in which N’ is the number of 


C is a constant for the same 
(Ch 


vibrations in a mean solar day, B’ and t’ the barometer and thermometer read- 


ings, im oir; and N,” B,” t’’ the same quantities in a highly rarified medium, 
Pie xt’) 


pres: 


1865.] The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. 255 


called, depends also on the state of the atmosphere, it is necessary for 
its calculation, to record the readings of the barometer, when the 
observations are taken in air. 

The last correction is for the height of the station of observation 
above the mean sea level. The force of gravity varying inversely as 
the square of the distance from the earth’s centre, a pendulum swung 
at a certain elevation above the sea, will make fewer oscillations in a 
day than at the level of the sea, and a correction has to be added on 
this account. Dr. Young, however, demonstrated that the correction 
computed on this consideration alone, was too large, as it neglected 
the attraction of the elevated mass itself, and he showed how this 
might be approximately allowed for.* 

The general principle followed in determining the length of the 
seconds pendulum, is to observe the number of vibrations made by a 
pendulum of known length, in a mean solar day ; then the length of 
the seconds pendulum is found by multiplying the length of the given 
pendulum, by the square of the number of its vibrations in a day, and 
dividing by the square of the number of seconds in a day. 

The number of vibrations is generally determined by the method of 
coincidences. The detached pendulum is placed in front of a good 
clock, and adjusted to such a length as to gain or lose, (the latter 
generally) two beats upon the clock in some convenient time, 5 to 10 
minutes. Suppose the pendulums to be started together, then the 
longer one of the two will be left behind by the other, the distance 
between them continually increasing, until at length they will be at 
opposite extremities of their arcs of vibration at the same moment: 
the longer pendulum has now lost one oscillation on the shorter one, 
and both are apparently going at the same rate, but in opposite direc- 
tions; after a short time they will begin to approach each other, the 
distance between them gradually diminishing, until they both appear 
to coincide. It is clear that between two consecutive coincidences the 


* This correction is given by the formula — h zw, where n denotes the num- 
r 


ber of oscillations in a mean solar day, 7 the radius of the earth at the given 
station, h the height of the station above the mean level of the sea: wis an 
unknown quantity determinable from theory; on the assumption that the mean 
density of the earthis 6.5 and that of the surface 2.5 Dr. Young (Phil. Trans- 
actions 1819) showed that the correction for a station on a tract of table land 
would be reduced by ird or that the correction = 2 nh. 


256 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. [No. 4, 


jonger pendulum will have lost two oscillations on the shorter one. 
Hence all that is requisite in practice, is to observe as accurately as 
possible the intervals between the successive coincidences ; the number 
of vibrations made by the clock pendulum is determined by obsery- 
ations of the sun or stars, and then the number made by the detached. 
pendulum is computed by simple proportion.* 

The first pendulum observations of which any account is preserved 
are those made by Picard at Paris and Uranienburg (Tycho Brahe’s 
observatory) and those by Richer at Cayenne in 1672. These last 
observations are said to have attracted Newton’s attention, as they 
proved the variation in the length of the seconds pendulum in different 
latitudes, and it is generally stated that Richer made the discovery by 
accident. But it appears from Picard’s address to the French academy 
in 1671, that a variation had been already observed, and it is probable 
that Richer’s mission was undertaken partly with a view to throw 
light on the subject. Picard stated that ‘‘ from observations made at 
London, Paris, and Bologna, it would seem as if the seconds pendulum 
required to be shortened in approaching the equator, but that on the 
other hand, he is not sufficiently convinced of the accuracy of those 
measurements, because, at the Hague, the length of the seconds 
pendulum was found to be quite the same as at Paris, notwithstand- 
ing the difference of latitude.’’+ 

Near the end of the 18th century, Borda made his celebrated expe- 
riments for determining the length of the seconds pendulum at Paris. 
His apparatus, whichis named after him, consisted of a spherical ball of 
platinum attached by grease to a brass cap which had been truly ground, 
so as to fit it perfectly. The object of this attachment was to enable 
the observer to turn the ball round in the cap at pleasure, so as to 
destroy the effects of unequal density in different parts of it. A fine 
wire carrying the cap was fastened to the lower end ofa small 
cylinder, passing through the knife edge, which carried on its upper 
end a small moveable weight, by adjusting which the knife edge 
and cylinder could be made to vibrate independently in the same 

* If + = daily rate of the clock and I the mean interval of the coincidences, 
then the number of oscillations made by the pendulum in a day = 1 


— = (86400 + r) the lower sign is to be used when the 
clock is losing. 
+ Cosmos Vol. IV. page 25, Sabine’s translation. 


1865.] © The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. 257 


time as the pendulum, so that their effect might be neglected in com- 
puting the length of the simple pendulum. When in use, the knife 
edge rested upon a steel plate. The number of vibrations per diem, 
were ascertained by means of a clock, but Borda made a great improve- 
ment on the old method of counting the coincidences. He fixed a 
straight edge vertically, so as to coincide with the pendulum wire at 
rest, when seen through a telescope placed opposite. A cross was 
made on the bob of the clock pendulum, and the observation consisted 
in noting the times when the wire and cross disappeared together 
behind the edge. After a series of coincidences had been observed 
the length of the pendulum was measured by means of a horizontal 
steel plate, which was screwed up from below, so as just to touch the 
ball: then the pendulum was removed, and a bar, whose length had 
been carefully compared with a standard, inserted in its place. The 
bar had a 7 head, of which the lower surface rested on the upper steel 
plate, and a graduated rod, sliding on the bar, was adjusted to contact 
with the lower plate. The diameter of the platinum ball was then 
measured by means of the same slider, by placing it on the steel plate 
for the purpose; the brass cap and wire were then weighed. The 
apparatus was enclosed in a glass case, and the temperature was care- 
fully recorded. All necessary corrections were applied, excepting the 
true one for buoyancy. The whole process, which required very great 
delicacy, had to be repeated, and the length of the corresponding 
simple pendulum computed after each series of observations. Borda’s 
pendulum was about 12 feet in length. 

His method was followed by M. M. Arago, Biot, and Chaix, at 
Formentera, the southernmost station of the French arc, with this 
exception that they used a pendulum of only 3 feet in length. These 
observations were extended by Biot in 1817°to Leith, and Unst in the 
Shetlands, and in conjunction with M. Mathien, he observed at 
Dunkirk, Paris, Clermont, Bordeaux, and Figeac. From these opera- 
tions, Biot deduced an ellipticity of 33;. 

In about 1809, Captain Warren made some observations at the 
Madras observatory with a pendulum formed of a leaden ball suspended 
by a fibre made from the plantain leaf. The vibrations were counted 
and an assistant noted the times, from an astronomical clock. In order 
to measure its length, he attached some glass plates to a wall, and set 


258 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. [No. 4, 


off on them a scale, transferred from Colonel Lambtons’s scale; the 
length was then measured by a pair of beam compasses. The length 
of the seconds pendulum was found to be 39.0263 inches of this 
scale in air. 

In 1818, Captain Kater published his determination of the length 
of the seconds pendulum in London at Mr. Browne’s house, Portland 
Place, taken for the purpose of fixing the standard of English 
measures. His method was founded on the dynamical theorem due to 
Huyghens, that the centre of oscillation, and axis of suspension, are 
reciprocal in the same body; that is, if the body be suspended at its 
centre of oscillation, the former axis of suspension will pass through 
the new centre of oscillation, and the body will vibrate in the same 
time as before. The distance from the axis of suspension to the point 
called centre of oscillation, is equal to the length of the simple 
pendulum. 

In 1822, the English Government sent out an expedition under 
Captain, now General, Sabine, for the purpose of extending the 
enquiry commenced by Captain Kater; for both Kater and Biot had 
come to the conclusion, from a discussion of their experiments, that 
no decisive result of the earth’s ellipticity could be obtained from 
them, on account of the smallness of the comprised are, and the 
variations of local density. Captain Sabine visited thirteen stations 
between Bahia, S. Lat. 12° 59’ to Spitzbergen N. Lat. 79° 50’. 
He had with him three pendulums of Kater’s invariable pattern, 
which were all swung at each station. Besides these he had the two 
clocks and attached pendulums which he had already used on his 
arctic voyages. His method of observation was similar to Captain 
Kater’s; all the pendulums were swung in London at Mr. Brown’s 
house, both before and after the expedition. 

Captain Sabine subsequently determined the difference in the 
number of vibrations made by an invariable pendulum between London 
and Paris, London and Greenwich, and London and Attona. He also 
determined the true buoyancy correction for Kater’s convertible 
pendulum. 

In 1825 M. Bessel made his experiments for determining the length 
of the seconds pendulum at Konigsberg, with an apparatus constructed 
and partly designed by Repsold the celebrated artist of Hamburg 


1865.] The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. 259 


The apparatus was contrived so as to avoid any uncertainty in the 
centre of oscillation of the pendulum, as well as any error in the 
measure of its length, by observing the times of vibration of a pen- 
dulum ball suspended alternately by two wires, whose difference in 
length was known. 

A toise was set upright on a narrow horizontal plane firmly fixed to 
a perpendicular iron bar, and the contrivance by which the pendulums 
were suspended could be placed either on the horizontal plane, or on 
the top of the toise itself, so that the effective lengths of the wires 
differed in the two cases by an amount exactly equal to the length of 
the toise. The wires, which were of steel, were attached to a thin 
strip of brass which unwound itself over a small cylinder. The pen- 
dulum, thus suspended, described the curve called the evolute of the 
circle. At the lower end of the iron bar, there was a micrometer 
serew for measuring small differences in the height of the ball. 

The system of observation was as follows. At the commencement 
of a series of coincidences with the longer pendulum, the thermometers 
attached to the toise were recorded, and the reading of the lower 
surface of the ball was taken with the micrometer screw ; the pendulum 
was then set in motion, and after a sufficient number of coincidences 
had been observed, the readings of the ball and thermometers were 
again taken. Exactly the same process was then gone through with 
the shorter pendulum: then from the times of vibration of the two 
pendulums, whose absolute lengths were unknown, but whose difference 
in length was accurately known, the length of the seconds pendulum 
was easily computed.* There were a great many minute details to be 
attended to, all of which were carried out with the greatest ingenuity 


* Let t, &1, be times of vibration and length of longer pendulum. 


to le ” ) 3” shorter 9 
1, — 1, = difference in length = a 
L =length of seconds’ pendulum, 
1 L 
a a i We er 
Pee 
Peas bes Gon L, oF $2 — t,? 
peg L ee UM ae a 
Again me pion G75 278 


260 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. [No. 4, 


and nicety, and all conceivable sources of error were considered and 
their effects computed and allowed for. 

The coincidences were observed in a slightly different way from any 
preceding method. ‘The pendulum was enclosed in a wooden case, 
faced with glass to keep out currents of air, as well as to preserve as 
constant a temperature as possible; the clock was placed about 84 
feet in front of the pendulum, and between the two, the object glass 
of a telescope was adjusted to form an image of the detached pendulum 
in the plane of the clock pendulum, to enable them both to be seen 
simultaneously through the observing telescope, which was set up at a 
distance of about 15 feet. On the wire of the detached pendulum 
was fixed a small brass cylinder, painted black and called the coinci- 
dence cylinder; it weighed something under 4 grains, and could be 
brought exactly opposite the scale for measuring the arc of vibration. 

Captain Kater’s pendulum consisted of a bar of plate brass 1.6 
inches broad and }th of an inch thick: two knife edges of the hardest 
steel, attached to solid pieces of brass, were fixed to the bar at a dis- 
tance of rather more than 39 inches from each other ; when the pen- 
dulum was in use, these knife edges rested on horizontal planes of agate. 
At one end of the bar, immediately below the knife edge, was a large 
flat brass bob firmly soldered to it ; and on the bar, between the knife 
edges, were two sliding weights. The plan of operations was to 
observe the number of vibrations per diem, made by the pendulum 
when suspended, first, by one knife edge, and then, by the other ; 
and if these numbers were not identical, to make them so, by means 
of the sliding weights. The distance between the knife edges, that is, 
the length of the corresponding simple pendulum, was then measured 
by a micrometric arrangement. The method of observing the number 
of vibrations was as follows; to each extremity of the pendulum, a 
light deal tail-piece, well blackened, was attached ; and on the bob of 
the clock pendulum a white paper disc, equal in diameter to the 
breadth of the tail-piece, was fastened; the detached pendulum was 
now placed in front of the clock, and both pendulums being at rest, 
a telescope was alined, so that the blackened tail-piece exactly covered 
the paper disc. The telescope was also fitted with a diaphragm, con- 
sisting of two perpendicular cheeks, which could be adjusted so as to 
become tangents to the disc. Now, if both pendulums be set in motion, 


1865.] The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. 261 


the detached pendulum vibrating slower than the clock one, the tail- 
piece will be seen to pass across the diaphragm, followed by the 
white disc; at each succeeding vibration the disc follows closer and 
closer, first touching it, and at last becoming completely eclipsed by 


(4 


it. The exact time of this event, called a ‘“ disappearance,” is noted ; 


aiter a few more vibrations, the dise will reappear preceding the tail- 


’ is also noted ; 


piece ; the time of this event, called the ‘‘ reappearance,’ 
and the mean of the disappearance and reappearance, is taken as the 
true time of coincidence. It is immaterial in this method of observ- 
ation, whether the detached pendulum vibrates faster or slower than 
the clock pendulum, but it is a sine qué non that its arc of vibration 
be less. The result, introducing all corrections, except the true one 
for buoyancy, was 39.13929 inches, which is still the received length, 
although General Sabine in 1831, showed, by swinging the pen- 
dulum in air and in vacuo, that the buoyancy correction was different, 
according as the heavy weight was above, or below, the plane of 
suspension. 

Captain Kater, in the following year, 1818, made a series of expe- 
riments at the principal stations of the English Survey, from Shanklin 
in the Isle of Wight, to Unst in the Shetlands. He used in these 
observations a pendulum of a different pattern, known as “ Kater’s 
invariable pendulum.” With it, it is not possible, nor was it intended, 
to determine the length of the seconds’ pendulum, but it is essentially 
a differential instrument, and is used for measuring the differences 
in the number of vibrations at different stations. With these dif- 
ferences, ii at any one station the length of the seconds’ pendulum 
has been already determined, the corresponding lengths at the other 
stations can be ascertained. The invariable pendulum, is of the same 
dimensions as the convertible one, but is without the second knife 
edge, and tail-piece, and the sliding weights. The mode of observation 
is exactly the same. Captain Kater deduced values of the ellipticity, 
from consecutive pairs of stations; he considered 1, as a probable 
value (the same as M. Biot’s); but he remarks on the difficulty of 
deriving a satisfactory determination, unless the extreme stations 
comprise an arc of sufficient extent to render the effects of irregular 
local attraction insensible. 


In 1821-22, some very good observations were made by Mr, 


262 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. [No. 4, 


Goldingham, at Madras, and afterwards at a small island called Pulo 
Gaunsah Lout, lying nearly on the equator in Hast Longitude 98° 50’. 
The pendulum used was an invariable one, and observations were first 
taken with it in London, by Captain Kater. Fyrom the observations 
at Madras and London, Mr. Goldingham deduced an ellipticity of 54,. 

Captain Basil Hall, assisted by Captain (then Lieutenant) Henry 
Foster, made a series of experiments with an invariable pendulum in 
1820-23, at Galapagos, San Blas (Mexico), Rio Janeiro, and London 
(Mr. Browne’s house). Comparing the results at each of his own 
stations, with each of Captain Kater’s, he deduced ellipticities of 34,, 
=. and =|. 


314) 302° 

In 1822, Sir Thomas Brisbane took with him to Paramatta (near 
Sydney,) an invariable pendulum that had previously been swung in 
London, at Mr. Browne’s house. He deduced ellipticities of 51, and 
rhe comparing his observations with those of Kater in Tose and 

t Unst. 

In 1817, the French Government fitted out a scientific expedition 
under the command of Captain Freycinet, who was furnished with 
three invariable brass pendulums, one of which was similar to Captain 
Kater’s pattern, and the other two had solid cylindrical rods instead 
of a flat bar. He had also a fourth pendulum, with a wooden rod 
formed of two plates of deal firmly clamped together. Instead of a 
clock he used an astronomical counter, (“‘ compteur astronomique’’) 
whose beats could be adjusted to synchronism with those of the pen- 
dulum. The counter had a dial, which showed hours, minutes, and 
seconds, so that by comparing the time shown by this ‘ compteur” 
with that of a chronometer, he obtained the number of vibrations 
made by the pendulum in a certain interval, generally an hour or 40 
minutes. The pendulums were first swung at Paris, and afterwards 
at Rio Janeiro, Mauritius, Guam (one of the Ladrone Islands), Mowi 
(one of the Sandwich Isles), Cape of Good Hope, Port Jackson, 
Kawak (an island under the line, north of New Guinea) and Malouine 
or Falkland Isles. Rejecting the determinations at the Mauritius, 
Guam and Mowi, as they appeared affected to a remarkable degree by 
local influences, Captain Freycinet deduced an ellipticity of 545 from 
all four pendulums. 

On the return of Captain Freycimet, the French government sent 


1865 ] The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. 263 


out another expedition under Captain Duperrey. He was supplied 
with two of Captain Freycinet’s brass pendulums, viz. one with a 
cylindrical rod, and the one on Kater’s principle. He observed at six 
stations, viz. Ascension, Mauritius, Port Jackson, Falkland Isles, 
Toulon, and Paris. In deducing the ellipticity, he combined his 
results with those of Freycinet only, and obtained values varying from 
zee to on 0 0° 

During Ross’s voyage to Baffin’s Bay in 1818, some observations 
were taken at Brassa, in the Shetlands, and at Hare Island, with a clock 
fitted with an invariable pendulum vibrating on a knife edge, which 
rested on hollow agate cylinders. Observations were repeated at these 
stations, and a further set taken at Melville Island, on Captain Parry’s 
first voyage to the North Pole in 1819-20. Captain Sabine conducted 
both these experiments, using the same instruments. 

The ellipticity deduced from the experiments at Captain Sabine’s 
stations was 51,.z, from the same combined with Kater’s ,1,., and 
combined — with Biot’s 51,., and from a general combination of 
all of these, 54,.z. The observations of the detached pendulums only 
were used in these determinations ; for though the clock pendulums gave 
closely coinciding values of ellipticity, still being acted on by other forces 
than gravity, their results are less reliable, and are only valuable in so 
far as they afford an independent corroboration of the other results. 
Captain Sabine was not at first aware of the strict expression for the 
reduction to a vacuum, but after the publication of Bessel’s observ- 


ations in 1828, he had an apparatus specially constructed, and ascer- 
tained the proper correction practically, by swinging his pendulums 
In air, and in vacuo. 

The error from this cause, however, proved to be trifling, owing to 
his observations being strictly differential, so that only the differences 
between the corrections by the old and new formule entered. 

The most widely differing buoyancy corrections at any of his or 


Captain Kater’s stations of observation, computed by the old formula 


were + 5.75 vibrations at Sierra Leone and + 6.27 vibrations at 
Spitzbergen, in a mean solar day. These corrections, multiplied by 
the proper factor, 1.65, to reduce them to the new formula became ++ 
9.52 and + 10.38 vibrations, so that the number of vibrations in a 
mean solar day at Sierra Leone required to be increased by (9.52 — 5.75) 


264 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. [No. 4, 


3.77, and at Spitzbergen by (10.388 — 6.27) 4.11 vibrations. But the 
acceleration between the stations would only be increased by the 
difference between these numbers, or by 0.44 vibrations. It so happened, 
however, that even this difference was too large, for in the deduction 
of the temperature correction, the old buoyancy formula had of course 
been used; on applying a correction on this account, the above dif- 
ference required to be reduced by 0.36 vibrations so that the whole 
error on the acceleration of the pendulum between Sierra Leone and 
Spitzbergen was only + .08 vibrations. 

On this scale a black streak was painted, in the middle of which a 
space was left white, equal to the diameter of the coincidence cylinder, 
so that when the pendulum was at rest, the cylinder exactly covered it. 
Again, to the bottom of the clock pendulum a piece of blackened 
paper was attached, in which a hole had been cut of such a size that 
when both pendulums were at rest, it exactly coincided with the image 
of the white space on the black streak: hence when the pendulums 
were moving im coincidence, the coincidence cylinder was visible 
through the hole, and completely eclipsed the white space. Bessel’s 
result was expressed in lines of the toise of Peru, the standard used in 
the measurement of the Peruvian arc. 

In publishing these experiments, M. Besse! pointed out the true 
correction for buoyancy, which he had investigated by swinging in air 
two spheres of equal diameters, but of different densities, one being of 
brass and the other of ivory, suspended by a fine steel wire; and again 
by swinging the same brass sphere first in air and then in water. 
These experiments showed that the old formula for reducing obsery- 
ations in air to a vacuum gave too small a correction, and that it should 
be multiplied by a factor. 

Mr. Francis Baily made a long series of experiments on the cor- 
rection for buoyancy, which were published in the Philosophical 
Transactions for 1832. He used about 80 pendulums, all differing in 
form, weight, and mode of suspension. From these experiments he 
deduced factors for pendulums of almost every description that have 
ever been used, and computed also the weight of the air adhering to 
each, in other words deduced the wibrating specific* gravity of the 


* “The vibrating specific gravity of a compound pendulum is ordinarily found 
“a follows; Let d’, J” d/” ... denote the distance of the centre of gravity of each 


, ee 


1865.] The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. 265 


pendulum. He concluded from all his results, that even if a pendulum 
is formed of materials having the same specific gravity, yet if it be 
not of an uniform shape throughout, each distinct portion must be 
made the subject of a separate computation, in order to determine the 
correct vibrating specific gravity of the whole body, since each part 
will be differently affected by the surrounding air. 

The last extensive series of experiments were those taken in 
1828-31 by Captain Henry Foster, who was sent out on a scientific 
mission by the Board of Admiralty. He took out with him four 
invariable pendulums of different metals, two of Captain Kater’s 
pattern, and two of Baily’s convertible pattern. These last consisted 
of a plain straight bar, 2 inches wide, $ inch thick, and 5 feet 24 
inches long, having two knife edges 39.4 inches apart, but no heavy 
bob or sliding weights, as in Captain Kater’s pattern ; the synchronism 
was adjusted by filing away at one end of the bar; Baily’s intention 
was, that the pendulum should either be used as two different invari- 
able pendulums, or applied as a single convertible one for absolute 
determinations, at any station. The objection to the form is, that both 
the knife edges must be exactly perpendicular to the bar, or error is 
entailed, as the bar is not flexible like Kater’s. Captain Foster 
swung pendulums at all his stations, 14 in number, which were chiefly 
in the southern hemisphere. He made a set of observations at Mr. 
Browne’s house before the voyage; on the return of the pendulums 
to England, they were again swung at the same place, but by Mr. 
Baily, Captain Foster having been most unfortunately drowned in the 
River Chagres, in February 1831, just as his mission was completed. 
His observations were reduced by Mr. Baily, who obtained from them 
an ellipticity of 5,4.5- 

About this time the Russian government sent out an expedition 
under Captain Liitke, who used an invariable pendulum, formerly used 
by Captain Basil Hall. He swung it first at Greenwich, and after- 
* body respectively from the axis of suspension : w’, w’”, w’, ... the weight (in air) 
* of each body: s’, s’, s’”’, ... the specific gravity of each body determined in the 
“usual manner. Then will the required vibrating specific gravity of the pen- 
* dulum be 

wd wld? + wd” +... 


S=w’ d Oe oee idan ae 


Tagua W See 
U sf?’ s 


s 
(Philosophical Transactions, 1832.) 


266 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. [No. 4, 


wards at Ualan, in the Caroline islands, Guam, Bonin island (to the 
south-east of Japan), at Sitka in Russian North America, at Petro- 
paulowski, Valparaiso, St. Helena, and St. Petersburg. He deduced 
an ellipticity of 53, from his observations. 

Schumacher, the celebrated astronomer of Altona, conducted in 
1829-30, a series of experiments with Bessel’s apparatus, at the castle 
of Guldenstein, in order to determine the Danish standard, which was 
to be a certain fractional part of the length of the seconds pendulum, 
at the level of the sea, in latitude 45°. In order to estimate the in- 
fluence of the air, he used, instead of a ball, a hollow cylinder of 
platinum, made by Repsold, inside which a second solid cylinder, 
also of platinum, fitted perfectly true. The outer cylinder was closed 
by covers of the same diameter screwing on to it, which were both 
perforated ; the clamp holding the wire was fastened on to the top, 
and into the bottom was screwed a point with which the contact was 
made in measuring the height of the cylinder by the micrometer 
screw. 

The pendulum was swung under four different circumstances, viz. 
the long pendulum, with and without the inner cylinder, and the short 
pendulum, also with and without it; and as exactly the same surface 
was exposed to the air in each case, the influence of it could be 
computed, which was done by a formula deduced by Bessel. The 
reduction of the observations was made by Professor Peters. One 
novelty was introduced, viz. that of computing out the attraction of 
the ground on which the observations were taken. A square space 
having a side of 600 toises (1279 yards), in the middle of which the 
observatory was situated, was subdivided again into 36 squares of 100 
toises (213 yards) a side; in each of these borings were made, and 
specimens of the earth removed and their specific gravities determined ; 
as these were very nearly the same, a mean of the whole was taken. 
The height of the floor of the pendulum room was 343 toises (220.6 
feet) above the mean sea level, and the attraction of this plateau of 
the earth’s crust introduced a change in the length of the second’s 
pendulum of 0.000215 English inches. 

Carlini, whilst measuring the Piedmontese are in 1821-23, took a 
series of pendulum experiments at the Hospice on Mount Cenis, with 
the view of determining the density of the earth. His pendulum was 


1865.] The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India, 207 


formed of a heavy sphere suspended by a wire, which was attached to 
a kind of inverted stirrup ; in the part corresponding to the foot plate 
there was fixed a wheel with a sharp edge turning on its axis. This 
wheel was placed on a grooved plate and formed the knife edge for 
suspension ; the arrangements for observing were similar to Bessel’s, 
Corresponding observations, though not with the same apparatus, were 
taken by Biot and Mathien at Bordeaux. The result was a density 
of 4.95. 

One more attempt to determine the density of the earth by means 
of the pendulum was made in 1854 by the Astronomer Royal, Professor 
Airy, at the Harton Colliery pit. Two invariable pendulums were set 
up in the same vertical line, one at the top, the other at the bottom of 
the pit, and their coincidences with the pendulums of two clocks were 
simultaneously observed, the relative rates of the clocks being deter- 
mined by a galvanic apparatus. After each series of coincidences the 
pendulums were interchanged. The distance between the upper and 
lower pendulums was 1256 feet ; a careful description of the interven- 
ing strata was prepared and specimens submitted to Professor W. H. 
Miller who determined their specific gravities. The acceleration of 
the seconds’ pendulum below was 2.24 seconds per diem, and the 
resulting mean density of the earth was 6.565. 

The best value oi the earth’s ellipticity as yet deduced from pendu- 
lum observations is undoubtedly that of Mr. Baily’s. He combined 
all the observations taken with invariable pendulums, and aiter apply- 
ing to them all corrections, obtained a mean ellipticity of ;f;.5. The 
latest value of the same, from geodetic observations, is Captain 
Clarke’s, R. E. which includes the new Russian arc and is zgh55- 
The ellipticity obtained from observations of precession and nutation is 
sos5 (Aiy’s tracts). 

The apparatus for the Indian experiments, consists of two invariable 

-pendulums on Kater’s principle, a vacuum apparatus with air pump 
for exhausting, an astronomical clock by Shelton, a good battery of 
thermometers and a transit instrument. Both pendulums have already 
done good service: one having been used by General Sabine in his 
extensive range of experiments, the other by Professor Airy in his 
Harton pit experiments ; they cannot be considered, however, to have 
retained their original length, as their knife edges have been reground, 


39 


268 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. [No. 4, 


Each is composed ofa bar of plate brass 1.6 inches wide and rather less 
than an ith of an inch thick; a strong cross piece of brass is rivetted 
and soldered to the top to hold the knife edge, which consists of a 
prism of very hard steel, passing through the bar and adjusted at right 
angles to its surface. The prism is equilateral in section, but the edge 
on which it vibrates is ground to an angle of about 120°; the length 
of the bar from knife edge to the extremity is about 5 feet 14 inches. 
At 3’ 22” from the knife edge, a flat circular bob, also of brass 
nicely turned and pierced in the direction of its diameter, is firmly 
soldered on; the part of the bar beneath the weight, called the tail- 
piece, which is about 17” in length, is reduced to a breadth of 0.7 of 
an inch and is varnished black, in order to contrast better with the 
white disc on the clock pendulum, in the observation of the coinci- 
dences. 

The knife edges rest on agate planes set in a solid brass frame, 
which is provided with three levelling screws. On the outer side of 
each plane are Y’s, which are moveable in a vertical direction by 
means of an eccentric ; the knife edges rest in them when the pendu- 
lum is not in use, and by their means the observer is enabled to lower 
the pendulum down gently so as to bear always on the same parts of 
the agate planes. Each pendulum has its own set of planes, and will 
give different results if swung on any others. 

It has been decided to swing the Indian pendulums in vacuo, in 
order to secure the following advantages. When the pendulum has 
been set in motion, it will vibrate for a whole day ; its temperature 
will be more equable; it will not be disturbed by currents of air; 
and errors in the formula for the correction for buoyancy are unimpor- 
tant. The vacuum apparatus consists of a cylinder of sheet copper 
about 1 foot in diameter and rather more than 5 feet long, with 
hemispherical caps, the upper one of glass and moveable, the lower 
one of sheet copper and soldered to the cylinder. The upper end of 
the cylinder carries a strong brass plate, to which are attached the 
frames containing the agate planes and a bar of the same metal and 
shape as the pendulums ; placed side by side with a pendulum inside the 
apparatus, the bar and pendulum will be of the same temperature, and 
it is evident that thermometers attached to the former will give the 
required temperature of the latter. ‘Two delicate thermometers are 


1865.] The Proposed Pendulium Operations for India, 269 


attached to the bar, their bulbs being sunk in the metal. at points 
equidistant from. each other and the ends of the bar. The stem of the 
upper thermometer is inverted, and placed side by side with that of 
the lower thermometer, in order that. they may both be viewed 
through a moderate sized glass plate let into the cylinder. In the 
lower part of the cylinder there are four other windows, two on the 
line of the pendulums, to enable their coincidences.to. be observed ; 
the other two at right angles to these, to. give additional light and 
enable the observer to ascertain whether the detached pendulum is 
vibrating truly without wabble. There are two scales fixed at right 
angles.to each other, inside the cylinder, on a level with these windows, 
ene of which is used for measuring the arc of vibration of the pen- 
dulum, and the other to measure the distance of the pendulum: from 
the former scale, which is necessary to furnish the correction for 
parallax in the readings of the are of vibration: it is useful also in 
placing the pendulum at a constant distance from the clock, which is 
found convenient in practice. 

The upper 4’ of the cylinder is made of greater thickness than the 
rest, and at top is-a strong projecting flange which is intended to rest 
en a strong cast iron frame made in two pieces, so as to grip the 
cylinder round the thicker part just below the flange;: the halves of 
the frame are then firmly bolted together with nuts and screws. The 
upper surface of the flange is ground perfectly true to. receive a bell 
glass, the cap. already mentioned, which is like the receiver of an. 
ordinary air pump. ‘The eccentric for raising and lowering the pen- 
dulum. on to the agate planes passes through a stuffing box in the 
upper part of the cylinder. Motion is imparted to the pendulums by 
means of a fork and crutch turned by a spindle which passes through 
another stuffing box. 

The clock with which the vibrations are compared is firmly secured. 
to a wall, and the vacuum apparatus is erected in front, at a distance, 
of about 2 feet from it. The diaphragm for limiting the view of the 
disc is fitted inside the clock case. 

The telescope for observing the coincidences is placed on a small 
masonry pier at a distance of about 8 feet from the vacuum apparatus 
and is mounted so-as to slide laterally on a graduated horizontal bar ; 
it has also a slight vertical motion. The thermometers and barometers 


270 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. [No. 4, - 


are read from alongside of this pillar by means of a cathetometer, viz. ’ 
a telescope sliding up and down on a vertical rod. The object of this’ 
is to obviate the ill effects of any defect in the isolation of the appara- 
tus, as well as the influence of the observer’s person on the thermo- 
meters. 

As the disc on the bob of the clock and the tail-piece of the de- 
tached pendulum are too far apart to be viewed simultaneously by the 
telescope, a lens is placed between them, so as to throw the image of 
the white disc upon the tail-piece of the pendulum. The vacuum 
cylinder and all its adjuncts, air pump, &c. were made by Adie, and 
are the only new portions of the apparatus. 

The method of operation is as follows. After setting up the clock, 
the vacuum apparatus is inserted in the iron frame and suspended. 
either on wooden trestles or masonry piers; the frame is roughly 
levelled; the temperature bar is fixed in position; the agate planes 
are screwed on firmly to their bed plate, and are very carefully levelled 
by means of delicate spirit levels provided for the purpose. A pen- 
dulum is now inserted and let down upon its planes, but the clock 
must not yet be set in motion. The telescope is next set up on the 
prolongation of the line which passes through the two pendulums, 
when both are at rest. For this purpose it is moved laterally on its 
graduated support, until a very small portion of the paper disc, on the 
bob of the clock pendulum, is visible on one side of the tail-piece of 
the detached pendulum. The reading is noted, and the telescope is then 
moved in the opposite direction, until an equal portion of the disc is 
visible on the other side of the tail-piece ; the reading is again noted, 
and the telescope is set to the mean position. The pendulum is then 
removed, andthe diaphragm in the clock case adjusted, until its cheeks 
are tangents to the disc. The pendulum may now be replaced, and 
nothing remains to be done but to exhaust the air out of the apparatus 
and to set the pendulums in motion. 

The observations are made in exactly the same way as already de- 
scribed in the account of Captain Kater’s apparatus; the times of the 
disappearance and reappearance are both noted, and the mean taken as 
the true time of coincidence. The arc of vibration is then determined 
by noting the reading of the arc, when it is cut by the same edge of 
the tail-piece on each side of the vertical line. The thermometers and 


1865.] The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. 271. 


barometer are read by means of the cathetometer. It is usual to 
observe not every coincidence, but the first three consecutive coin- 
eidences, and then the 11th, 12th, 13th, then the 21st, 22nd, 23rd, and 
so on; aiter observing the first two or three, the times of the after 
coincidences can be easily computed with sufficient accuracy to intimate 
when the observer should be ready to note them. 

Tt is intended to have observations made generally along the Great 
Are at stations 2” apart in latitude, and at other points where it may 
be desirable to obtain data regarding local variations in the intensity 
of gravity. 

The pendulum experiments in this country will afford an independ- 
ent value of the ellipticity of the Indian are. It is also hoped that 
they will throw some light on the existing discordances between the 
astronomical and geodetic latitudes of the Indian survey. 

The amount of the deflections of the plumb line, due to the Hima- 
layas and elevated table lands to the north of India, have been computed 
by Archdeacon Pratt for the different terminal stations of the Indian 
ares; but these determinations are so much in excess of the results of 
the survey, that it is evident that the effects of the mountain attraction 
must be in a considerable degree compensated, either by a deficiency 
of density in the strata to the north, or by an excess of density in the 
strata to the south of the survey stations. 

Now the peudulum can undoubtedly be made the means of showing 
whether the compensation is to be attributed to either of these causes ; 
for, whilst the effect of a distant range of mountains on the vibrations 
would be quite inappreciable, any local variation in the density of the 
underlying strata would show itself most unmistakably ; so that by 
taking observations both at a normal station, and at a few points in 
its vicinity symmetrically situated around it, should there be any con- 
siderable excess or defect in the density of the strata to counteract 
the disturbance due to the mountain mass, the pendulum observations 


would not fail to point it out.* 


_ 


* Professor Stokes remarks in his letter on these operations: ‘‘ The pendu- 
“lum no doubt indicates only the vertical component of the disturbing force, 
© whereas it is the horizontal component in the plane of the meridian that aftects 
“the measures of arcs ; at any one station, of course, a horizontal disturbance 
“may exist without a vertical disturbance, and vice versa ; but in a system of 
© stations disturbances of the one kind must necessarily be accompanied by dis-~ 


272 The Proposed Pendulum Operations for India. [No. 4; 


The Indian operations will eventually be combined with those taken 
previously with similar instruments in other parts of the world, to 
deduce the ellipticity of the earth’s mean figure. Both Sir Jokn 
Herschel and Professor Stokes have remarked, in their letters on the 
proposed Indian operations, that almost all observations hitherto made 
have been taken at stations either on islands or coasts, so that a series 
along the centre of a continent is very much needed. A complete set 
of observations has been already taken at the Kew observatory by. 
Mr. B. Loewy, with the Indian apparatus; and on the completion of 


the experiments in this country it will be returned to Kew, in order 


that final observations may be taken, to show whether the pendulums 
have undergone any change in the interim. 

It is to be hoped, however, that so good an opportunity will not be 
lost cf extending these observations to stations easily accessible from 
India, though not included within its limits. On this head Professor 


Miller’s opinion may be quoted at length, “Much would be added to. 


the value of the observations made at the stations of the Indian 


survey, if, before the pendulums were brought back to England, 


observations could be made with them at some other points, especially 
points nearer to the equator, such, for stance, as the south coast of 
Ceylon, Singapore, or on the coast of Borneo. Another accessible 
point, interesting from being in a long line of depression, where a 
Jarge gravitation might be expected, is Aden.” 

The intention of the Russian government, to have similar obser- 
vations made along the Russian arc, has already been alluded to- 
Ii, aiter the return of the pendulums to England, they were to be 
swung at one of the Russian stations, it will be possible to. combine 
the Russian with the Indian operations, and deduce a value of the 
earth’s ellipticity from exclusively Continental observations, extending 
from Cape Comorin to the northernmost part of Finmark. 


*‘+urbances of the other kind. Indeed it is theoretically possible, from the ver- 
“tical disturbances, supposed to be known, actually to calewlate the horizontal 
“ disturbances, and that without assuming anything beyond the law of universal 
“ sravitation. Actually to carry this out, would probably require observations 
“to be made at stations more numerous than can be thought of, but the fact of 
“its possiblity shows how severe a check pendulum observations are capable of 
“ exercising on the results of geodetic observations.” 


—— 


1865.] Land and Freshwater Shells from the Shan States, 273 


Notes on a collection of Land and Freshwater Shells from the Shan 
States —Oollected by F. Fuppnn, Esq., 1864-65.—By W. Turoxatp, 
Junior, Esq. 

[Received 17th July, 1865. ] 

Mr. Fedden having kindly placed in my hands for examination a 
small collection of shells from the Shan states, I am led to offer the 
following brief remarks, though I have not the requisite time at 
my disposal at present, to describe the many novelties which the 
collection contains, most of which, however, Mr. Benson will shortly 
describe in the Annals of Natural History. Although the condition 
of many of the specimens is very poor, for purposes of describing 
specific characters, and many species are represented by a single 
individual, still the collection affords conclusive evidence of the great 
richness in terrestrial mollusca of the region where it was made, and 
interesting proof of the distribution of some shells, hitherto rather 
scarce in Indian collections. 


Fam. MeLanrapa. 


1. 1 Melania tuberculata, Mull. Species. 
Large and fine ... 1.90 0.60. 
2. 2 WM. variabilis ... Common. Melania, 2. 


Of this melania there are five marked varieties, some of which 
could doubtless be separated specifically by many systematists. 

8. 1 Glabra. A smooth var. from the tepid springs of Nam-moo. 

This var., in common with all the others, has the apex but 
little eroded, and differs but little from the ordinary smooth 
var. found in Pegu and Bengal. 

An average specimen measures 2.00 0.75, the measurement being 
taken along the long axis of the shell, and the transverse diameter of 
the last whorl. 

Qnd. Vittata. This var. is also smooth, but with more convex whorls 
than the last. The shell too is paler, with a dark median stripe becoming 
obsolete on the last whorls, but well marked on the earlier ones. 
Average size 2.00 * 0.75. 

3rd. Turrita. A black turrited var. sometimes slightly eroded at the 
extreme apex, and with the whorls ornamented with two or more, 


274 Land and Freshwater Shells from the Shan States. [No. 4, 


usually three, series of prominent tubercles, ranged in symmetrical spiral 
order with four non-tubercular spiral keels on the last whorl towards the 
mouth. The tubercles form oblique transverse ribs, but the ribs are 
a subordinate feature to the spiral ornamentation. 2.00 0.75. 

4th. Pyramidalis. Ornamentation like the last var. but form very 
squat, with rapidly increasing whorls. The shell is slightly ccerulescent, 
with four dark brown stripes visible in the interior, corresponding with 
the spiral keels outside. Columella slightly yellowish, apex but little 
eroded. 1.90 *& 0.85. 

Grotto in Nam-mah stream. 

2nd. Baccifera. This var. is intermediate in its character between 
vars. 2 and 3. Its whorls are ornamented with four or five rows of 
beaded keels, the transverse ribbing being often well marked likewise. 
Most of the specimens were dead shells. 1.90 0.75. 

It is noteworthy that the ordinary type of M. variabilis, or the huge 
specimens of the race met with inthe Arakan hills, are not represented 
in the collection, though the abundance of calcareous rocks and cale tuff 
would, prima facie, lead us to expect shells of similar, if not greater, 
dimensions. Climate and a lower average temperature of the streams 
in the Shan country may possibly explain the small size JZ. variabilis 
there attains, since I have a Maulmein shell which measures 4.00 
1.30, and Arakan specimens not rarely attain (decollated shells). 
8.00 «-1.3 

3. 1 Paludomus. 

A single specimen of a large paludomus, which I have not 
yet identified, occurred in the collection. 
Fam. Patupinipa. 

4. 1 Paludina naticordes, n. s. 

Two marked varieties of this shell occur. A smooth one with one, 
two or three filiform keels, and a strongly keeled var. with prominent, 
rugose keels. The species is probably undescribed and may be thus 
characterised. 

P. naticordes, Th.—Testa turbinata, sub-polita, solida, pallide flaves- 
cente cornea ad peripheriam cariné munita; marginibus callo junctis, 
callo columellari non raro valde incrassato, umbilicum obtegente. 

Varietas fasciata, fasciis duabus castaneis ornatur, hae superperipheri- 
ali, illé juxta suturam posité. Anfractu ultimo tertia notest a carina 


Vols Dex av, Ptoll Pi: IX 


4 Paludima naticoides n.s. var fasciata. 
a BoB d° d2 var. carinata. — : 


4. Melamia, v arial 8, Benson var vittata. 

A 2 ae .war. baccifera 

6 - d® var. turrita. 
“1 a? de 


aaa 
var. pyramidalis. 
BRAWN BY T.W. TURNER AND ON STONE BY KRISTOHURRY BOSS GOV" SCHOOL oF ART. 


LITH: BY H.M.SMITH, $.6, 0, CALCUTTA NOV: 1865. 


Rit, 


pe 


1865.] Land and Freshwater Shells from the Shan States. 275 


panlum remota. Callo flavescente, ore interiori ccerulescente. Anfrac- 
tibus 64. 1.45 x 1.10 

Var. carinata, Carinis quatuor fortissimis supra munitur, et infra 
peripheriam sex vel quinque levioribus; colore albido; epidermide 
flavescente ; fasciis nonnullis castaneis interdum ornata. 1.40 « 1.00. 

These two varieties pass into each other, but the peculiar columellar 
eallus is pretty constant inall specimens. But for this character, some 
of the smooth variety might be referred to P. Bengalensis, which 
is an extremely variable species. 

The strongly corded var. is well marked, but I have preferred taking 
the smooth shell as the type of the species, and have regarded the 
keeled individuals as hypertrophied, placing the greatest value, as a 
specific character, on the columellar callus, occurring in both varieties. 

2. P. melanostoma. Paludina...... 2. 

1. Bithinia nassa, n. s. 

Testa elongata, turbinata, polita, diaphand, solidiusculé. Labio 
expansiusculo, plica callosé extern’ munita. Anfractibus quinque. 
0.45 < 0.25. 

This is the only species of Bithinia in the collection, and it is well 
characterised by the strong rib-like fold strengthening the lip outside, 
somewhat as in “ nassa.”’ 

1. Ampullaria, sp. 

A small species similar to that found at Maulmein, but distinct 
from the smaller species met with in the Arakan hills. 

An ordinary specimen measures, 1.75. Aperture 1.25. A very large 
specimen of the Arakan species. 1.45. Aperture 0.95. 


Fam. Hexicip2. 


Of Helices -of all sections, the collection comprises twenty-three 
species, nearly one half of which seem undescribed. 

1 Helix, n. s. 

A large dextral species of six whorls partaking the characters of H. 
interrupta and H. senidecussata, but very distinct from either. All 
the specimens are unfortunately dead shells. Lat. 1.55 & Alt. 0.75. 

2. HA. Blanfordi, Th. 

This species was originally founded on a single shell from Darjiling 
in wy cabinet, which, from its sculpture, I had no hesitation in separat- 


36 


276 Land and Freshwater Shells from the Shan States. [No. 4, 


ing from its nearest ally H. cycloplaxw. It appears to be a common 
shell in ths Shan states, though not so in the Hastern Himalayas, but 
all the specimens are dead shells. They agree well with the type, 
though a trifle larger and more convex. 

3. Helix ansorinus, n. s. (MSS8.) 

A very marked form, but all the shells dead ones. 

The sculpture is very ornate and well marked. Shape somewhat as 
in H. Peguensis. 1.20 X 0.60. 
4. H. delibrata, B. 
Deak EIT 
6 
7 


Pe ee 
Ys Beer (approaches H. Guerin). 
9. H. sanis, B. 


Though a trifle larger than the type, I can see no sufficient reason 


a 


for separating this from the Andaman shell. A few dead specimens 
only are contained in the collection. 

10. #. infula, B. one or two specimens. 

11. #. attegia, B. one specimen. 


AGE eels 
cha ee ale GO ae 
els Bae 


15. H. similaris, Fer. var. 

This shell is somewhat variable. It is usually banded, but occasion- 
ally the band is obsolete. It tends to unite H. Zoroaster, Th. and 
H. bolus, B., closely approaching the former, but being less depressed 
and more tumid, though not so globose as the smaller sized H. bolus, 
B. 0.75 & 0.40. Another variety occurs which might be ranked as a 
large H. Zoroaster, Th., but it is not larger than the type of that shell, 
bnt shows a tendency to approach H, delibrata, B. in form and expanded 
peristome. 0.80 x 0.40. 

16. A. Oldhami, B. 

A little larger than the type which was from near Ava. 

17. H. Hutton, Pi. 

A single specimen of this widely spread species was in the collection. 

18. H. Avrakanensis, Th. A single specimen of this shell also 
accompanied the last, a trifle flatter that the type. 


1865.] Land and Freshwater Shells from the Shan States. 277. 


Lt 27 Rap gh a gan VL 
i.  Pleciopylis,...... sp. Plectopylis, ...... 1 
A described species, but not identified with certainty. 
1. Nanina vitrinoides. 
Abundant. 
2. N. consepta, B. NOMA, v0.2... seule outa cate 3 
Closer armed and one more whorl than the type, which was from 
near Maulmein. 
2 gs een ee 
1. Streptaxis Birmanica, Th. 
The variety wanting the marginal tooth. 
2. S. Blanfordi, Th. Three specimens, ............ 2 
1. Vitrina (Cryptosonea, Th.) prestans, Gould. 
Tolerably common.. 
22 ere 
ype as the last. A small species of the same, .....5........--. Die 
1. Bulimus Sinensis. 
A single specimen of this species which is tolerably common in the 
Pegu forests. 


3 A of the ‘‘ Gracilis” type, common, with deciduous 
epidermis. 

2. 2 ee eae ditto, common. 

PUENTE ECUISS ivooc.es00s common. 

SBE ses st 


6. B. Niligiricus. 

The occurrence of this shell is very interesting. It has eight 
whorls and differs slightly from the type, but not to a greater degree 
than Nilghiri specimens do from one another. Bulimus, ...0+- 6 

Achatina...four species. 


apes 


it etre 

All of the ordinary Indian type. Achating, vo 1c: 4 
Pupa.........In species with new. 
Eee eons I, PU Keeiet ent amet 
1. Clausilia, a large species, not rare. 

2. €..,.... a small species, rather rare. 


278 Land and Freshwater Shells from the Shan States. [No. 4 


3. C....... a larger species, common. 
All three seem new species. Claustlid, .c.ccscne 8 


Fam. Limnz1pz. 


Lymnea, a small species, Lijec 
Planorbis Coromandelianus, Fab. 
Very common, rather small Planotbis: 2o.-ae ae 


Fam. DrrromMMatInipa. 
Diplommatina, five species. 
As far as a cursory examination enables me to judge, all five seem 
undescribed : two are sinistral, the others dextral shells. 
Diplommatina,... 4 


Fam. CycLostomip2. 
1. Pteroeyclos. 
Probably a new species. Of the type of P. pullatus, B., but three- 
fourths larger. 
" 9. P. insignis, n. 8. 

Forma typica. Testa albid&; epidermiide flavescente sive castanea, 
decidua vestita, castaneo-fasciaté. Peristomate duplici, antice valde 
expanso. Operculo intus concavo, extra planiusculo, margine valde 
radiate hirsuto. Lat. 1.20. Lat. oris intus 0.65, 

This handsome shell seems tolerably abundant. 

EL CHOCY CIOS: ae) teem 

1. Cyclophorus speciosus, Phil. 

A common species, specimens of medium size. 

2. ©. cornu-venatorium, Sow. 

A single specimen occurs in the collection, rather more tumid thar 
Ava specimens. ; 

S iC ars. 

A distinct but not very well defined species, approaching near to 
C. excellens, but wanting the funiculate keel of that species. Only a 
few dead shells were collected. 

A ie AUS: 

A single broken specimen, but evidently a new species, recalling in 
form C. involvulus, only larger, and for its size a lighter shell. 

5. C. n.s. avery minute shell, smaller than C. Sczssemargo. 

Cyclophorus, ... 5 


1865.] Land and Freshwater shells from the Shan States. 279 


1. Pupina arula, B. Two specimens. 

2. P. artata, B. Two specimens. Pwpind, ii... Scene ad 
1. Alyceus, n.s. type of A. Ingrami, Bl. 

2. A. n.s. type of plectocheilus, B. 

= ae 

4. A. 

5. A. amphora, B. Two small specimens. 

Gas RA PMTs proce ens | 
i) Pomateas,~ 0. sz 

2. P. n.s. near P. Peguense, but with more convex whorls.. 


TE OUEC bocce 2 
CONCHIFERA, 
Fam. Unronipa. 
1. Unio ceruleus. Very fine. 
2. U.marginalis. Fine. 
3. Sp. fine. WO Bei eS 
One specimen occurs of a unio, remarkable for having two rounded 
osculating teeth, one in each valve, very near the anterior end. These 
teeth are smooth and apposed without interlocking. The species is 
also found in the Pegu Yoma hill streams. 


Fam. CycLapipm. 
Pe Coriculd 2.2.4.3. Common. 
A small species with yellowish epidermis. Corbicula,........ L 
Genera 24, species 77. 


Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. 
London, Sept. 17, 1865. 
My pear Grors, 

As you will doubtless print much of my last letter, I will add a 
few more items of intelligence concerning matters ornithological, as 
I have still been steadily engaged in my commentary on Jerdon’s work. 
This has now grown so extensive that I have divided it into four 
parts, which will probably spread over the Jdvs for next year. The 
first three, treating respectively of Jerdon’s three volumes, and the 
fourth, of Ceylon birds, not included by him, and a final tabular expo- 


280 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 4, 


sition of the Orns of the Indian special province of the Indian region. 
This I divide into 24 districts, and give one to four asterisks to each 
square, according to the amount of commonness of the species, and a 
cross where I regard it only as a casual straggler. So that consider- 
able information is conveyed at a glance. I next take up the Indo- 
Chinese or Ultra-Indian province, for which I have a fair amount of 
material. You will have received from Col. Phayre a short note from 
me respecting the middle-sized Indian Cormorant and one of the 
Ring-plovers. I now tell you about them more in detail. No. 1006 
of Jerdon will stand as G. fuscicollis, Stephens: Syn. sulczrostris, 
Brandt (figured in Gould’s B. Austr.), sulcirostris et stictocephalus, 
Bonap., leucogaster, Meyer (apud Jerdon), leucotis, Blyth, albiventer, 
Tickell and purpuragula, Peate,—Sinensis (apud Jerdon), G. K. Gray, 
cat. of Nipalese birds, Jerdon,—a somewhat formidable array of 
synonyms. Also, one common small Cormorant is the true pygmeus of 
Pallas. Next, about the Ring-plovers. No. 849. This is, as I mentioned, 
4B. curonicus, (Beseke), minor, Meyer, and Jndzcus, Latham : distinct 
from AZ. philippensis, (Scop.), which is a species intermediate to 
AZ. curonicus and 47. cantianus, obtained by Wallace in Borneo, Z. 
philippensis in nuptial dress, has the usual white forehead surmounted 
by a black band, also a black loral streak and auriculars in part ; 
crown rufescent-brown with a more rufous periphery; some black 
behind the nuchal collar above ; the black pectoral streak narrow or 
interrupted in front ; and the tail unbanded, with the outermost three 
feathers white ; legs pale in the dry specimens: length of wing 4 inch; 
of tarse 14 inch. It should be looked for in S. India. Of No. 850, 
there are two specimens in the India museum, one of which is the 
philippensis of Sykes’s list. After learning of the distinctness of phi- 
lippensis from curonicus, I re-examined Horsfield’s type specimen of 
his pusillus ; and though in bad condition, especially about the nape, 
I now recognise it as distinct. It is in winter dress, and has not the 
white collar seen at all seasons in others of the present group. As 
compared with ewronicus, the tail is more cuneated, with the dark 
band considerably less developed, shewing only as a narrow cross 
stripe on the outermost feathers. Perhaps it is Ch. Peroni, Sany., the 
description of which I have not yet seen. It should also be looked 
for in 8. India. Jerdon omits to include the Ch. nigrifrons, (Cuy.), v. 


jj ice 


1865. ] Scientific Intelligence. 281 


melanops, (Vt.), his russatus, an Australian species, of which he obtain- 
ed a single specimen near Madras in the month of June (7. e. during 
the southern winter), and which is now in the Society’s museum: 
of course an exceedingly rare and accidental straggler. The Indian 
Neophron turns out to be distinct and new, N. orientalis, nobis. It is 
not the Vuliwr meleagris of Pallas, which he describes as a rarity in 
the Taurian Chersonesus, and which is the black-billed N. perenop- 
terus. Four of our rarest alconide I have made out to be Japanese 
species, all priorly named by us ‘insulars.’ 1. Accdpiter nisoides, 
nobis (gularis, Schl., of which he notes a specimen from Nipél !)—2. 
Buteo aquilinus (v. leucocephala), Hodgson (hemilasius, Schl.),—3. 
B. plumipes, H. (Japonicus, Schl.),—and 4. Poliornis pygmeus 
(Buteo pygmeus, nobis, B. pyrrhogmys, Schl.), of which Helfer obtain- 
ed a specimen in the Tenasserim provinces. Athene castanotus, nobis, 
of Ceylon, is recognised as distinct, from castanopterus of Java by 
Schlegel. Jerdon’s No. 145 is not Zockus gingalensis (verus), but 
T. griseus (Buceros griseus, Latham, B. cineraceus, Sem.), as distin- 
guished from T. gingalensis of Ceylon, which, together with the other, 
inhabits that island. The two were discriminated by Layard (Ann. 
Mag. N. H. 1854, XIII, 260), though he describes both under cinga- 
lensis ; and he also indicates a second-Hydrocissa (akin to H, albiros- 
tris and H. conoisus) as inhabiting the mountains of Ceylon. Spzlor- 
nis bacha inhabits Ceylon in addition to Sp. cheela ; and the Parda- 
lotus pipra of Lesson is a second Cinghalese Prionochilus (seu 
Piprisoma) unknown to Layard. The large crimson Chrysocolaptes of 
Ceylon will rank as C. Stricklandi (Layard, v. carlotta, Malherbe), 
erroneously figured by Jerdon in his J//. Ind. Orn. as Brachypternus 
Ceylonus! No. 197 should be Megalaima Hodgsoni, Bonap, of N. E. 
India and the whole Indo-Chinese provinces, as far at least as Cambo- 
jia; where the species is mistaken by Schlegel for the Javanese 
corvina, which is wholly unknown in those parts: and M. viridis 
(apud Schlegel), of Java is quite distinct from J. viridis (verus) 0 
S. India, and is probably the true lineata, Vt., as Schlegel himself 
suggests. He also recognises the identity of No. 42 with the leuco- 
rypha of Pallas. The latter holds just the same relationship to 
H. rustica, which H. hyperythra (of Ceylon) holds to H. Daurica ; 
also Falco rulen apud Schlegel (the Shdhia) to F. peregrinus, 


282 Sctentific Intelligence. [ No. 4, 


Hypotriorchis severus to H. Subbuteo, Tinnunculus rupicolus (of 
Africa) to 7. Alaudarius, and Athene castanotus (of Ceylon) to A. 
radiatus. In all these cases the deeper coloured bird is more subtro- 
pical, less migratory (or even permanently resident), and does not visit 
temperate latitudes. Schlegel, with much probability, refers F. pert- 
grinator, Sundevall, to F. macropus, Swainson (v. melanogenys, 
Gould), the Australian Falcon which occurs in the Malayan province. 
I think I mentioned that I found a fine female Falco Babylonicus in 
the Worcester Museum; and this is probably the ‘ Red-naped Fal- 
con,’ L. peregrinoides apud G. K. Gray, of his Catalogue of the Birds 
of Nepal. The specimen in Worcester is like an adult female Pere- 
grine, only much paler, with all the markings.considerably less developed ; 
nape light cinnamon-rufous marked with dusky; the moustachial 
streak small; the upper parts cross-banded as in adult Peregrines: 
this rare Falcon belonging to the Peregrine subgroup, as distinguished 
from that of the Sakir, Lanan, and Lugger. About Zurnix, I stated 
(in Ibis, 1865, p. 33) that Ortygis luzoniensis of Horsfield’s list of 
Javanese birds was the species I now recognise as Z’. tanki (B. Ham., 
vy. joudera, Hodgson); and such a distribution rather puzzled me, as I 
knew no instance of 7’. tanki out of India proper. It is, however, of 
a nearly allied but smaller species proper to the Malayan province, de- 
scribed by Wallace from Timor as 7’. rufescens. Thus are here three 
allied species, Z’. maculosus in the Indo-Chinese province with China, 
7. tanki in the Indian special province, and 7. rufescens in the Ma- 
layan province. The proper name for the Indian Curlew will be 
Numenius lineatus, Cuy.: Syn. N. Major, Schlegel. 

D. G. Elliot of New York was here the other day, and picked up a 
few new Polyplectrons from Cochin China at Paris. He is about to 
bring out the Phasianide in grand style, from drawings by Wolf, 
some already made, and which you would most heartily admire. 

Now for some intelligence about what is doing in the Zoological 
Gardens, Regent’s Park. There are two small female African ele- 
phants now in London, one of which is safe in the Zoological 
Gardens. Also a pair of the superb Gazella Dama. A fine healthy 
Buceros Abyssinicus (Abba Gumba of Appendix to Bruce’s Travels), 
the long-legged ground Hornbill, a most curious kind, which stalks 
about in a style that would puzzle you altogether to make out 


Beni. 


1865.] Screntrfie Intelligence. 283 


what it was, if you were to see it stepping about at a distance. Hm- 
phatically a snake-devourer. Two young Wapitis came to light this 
week, the daughters of the fine Californian buck ! A lot of Ammoperdix 
Hleyr; and different species of Pterocles. Pt. alchata (I may have told 
you) has bred, and I saw the newly hatched chick, precox of course, 
but inactive, from the shortness of its legs. The Felis macroceles and 
two Ursus Malayanus which I brought doing well. A pair of common 
house Mainas at last; and I wish I could see a pair of common Indian 
crows, and the two common Indian vultures, Gyps indicus and G. 
bengalensis. Although the temperature has been extraordinarily high 
all this September, and people are panting and languishing as if they 
were in Sierra Leone, I observe with terest and considerable surprise 
that the Arctic Foxes are rapidly re-assuming their white winter coat | 
I hear of some extraordinary discoveries up one of the great tributaries 
of the Amazons, where the few scattered human inhabitants had never 
before been visited, and were unacquainted with the use of metal, 
using stone implements; and the animals quite tame and unscared 
by man—herds of Tapirs, which would allow their coats to be rubbed 
by a stick and enjoyed the titillation. I just lost a fine thing the 
other day at Stephens’s auction, a splendid skull of Dubalus brachyceros 
had been knocked down for eight shillings; and the purchaser would 
not part with it. You would otherwise have had it. 

P. S.—1 have been thinking that you would do well to re-publish 
my commentary on Jerdon’s Birds of India, if you could get Jerdon 
himself to annotate it, and thus afford him a convenient opportunity, 
of making known all that he may have to add, in order to complete 
our information on the subject up to the date of publication in the 
J. A.§. I much wish to know how his book has sold, and also what 
progress he is making with the other classes.of vertebrata. WN. B. 
Felis rubiginosa of the Coromandel Coast extends to Ceylon (Cingha- 
lese specimen in Belfast Museum); and my Cinghalese Secwrus Lay- 
ardi is in the Worcester Museum from Malabar, sent (with Presbytis 
Johnit, verus, &c.) by R.Cole of Madras. Also, in the Worcester 
Museum, a fine adult female of the rare Falco Babylonicus, alleged to 
be from Java, which I do not believe. Ihave seen a kitten of my 


Felis Jerdoni from Malabar, and I have little doubt that this jungle- 


cat there takes the place of L. rubsginosa of the Coromandel side of 
aT 


284 Screntific Intelligence. [No. 4, 


the Peninsula. I adda list of desiderata for the Zoological Gardens. 
You may smile at my enumerating common Vultures, Kites and 
Crows, Frogs and Toads; but these are just what are wanted— 
what nobody thinks of sending. The Batrachia might be sent in 
damp jars, and would endure the. voyage without food, though 
cockroaches might be given to them if available. WN. B. There are 
Australian Rallide and Pelicans in the Zoological Gardens; also 
Varanide, Scincide, and Snakes. Why’ not also Indian ? and 
operculated Shells (sent with opercle closed) as Ampullaria and Cert- 
thium telescopiwm ; even our big Achatina with its pseud-opercle 
closed. 

Mamuatta. Gibbons—Hunumin Monkey and other species of 
Presbytis—Wild Dog—Indian Wolfi—common Bengal Fox, one in 
Dublin Zoological Gardens, labelled—Jackal, C. aureus !—Viverra 
Zibetha—Arctonyx—Jungle-cats—4-horned Antelope—Gaydls and 
common Buffaloes (fine, as those of Burma)—Tapir—Rhinoceros 
Sondaicus (from Sunderbans or Burma) and kh. Sumatranus—any of 
the Himalayan ruminants— 7wpaia—Melogale—Pteromys—Atherura 
—Porcupine from Chittagong or Tippera. 

Avzs. lLories (any),—common Kites, 2 or 3 (not Brahmini)— 
Limnaétus niveus (of Serdon’s work)—Pontoaétus icthyaétus—Spilornis 
cheela (especially, to contrast with Sp. Hlgint)—Poliornis teesa— 
Aquila fulvescens (2 or 3 to contrast with the allied African species) 
—Agq. hastata—Ketupa Ceylonensis—Urrua bengalensis—U. Coro- 
manda—Ninox scutellatus—Gyps Indicus and G. Bengalensis (not Oto- 
gyps calvus. With the exceptions of the two common Bengal species 
of Gyps, the series of Old World Vultures is complete. WN. B. Neo- 
phron percnopterus of Africa has a black bill, in India a flesh-colowred 
bill !)—Barbets—Centropus rufipennis (very desirable. WN. B. ‘The 
two Indian Coéls are doing well)—Corvus splendens*and C. culminatus 
(pair of each, especially the former)—Dendrocitta rufa (very accept- 
able—Bhimraj—Shama—Sdt Bhai (Malacocircus)—Bdyas (Ploceus, 2 
or 3 pairs of each, which would doubtless breed)—Mainas of each 
species, Sturnopastor, and especially Temenuchus, pagodarum (2 or 3 
pairs of each)—Dengal Jungle-fowls, with white ear-lappet—A djutants, 
bothspecies— Ciconia leucocephala—Geronticus papillosus—Threskiornis 


melanocephalus; one already from Siam!—Gallicrea cristatus—Gallinula ~ ; 


- 


1865.] Scientific Intelligence. 285 


phenicura—Sarkidiornis melanonotus—A nas pecilorhyncha—A. caryo- 
phyllacea—Fuligula rufina—Pelicanus Philippiensis (small Indian 
Pelican, common in South India). If Pelicans can be sent from 
Australia, why not from India? I have mentioned that we have 
Australian Rallide alive, and also Gdienemus grallarius. By the 
way, the middle-sized Indian Cormorant still remains an enigma. I 
haye seen no specimen in England, nor is any such species recognised 
in Schlegel’s elaborate notice of the genus. Specimens (skins) of 
this bird would be most acceptable! It appears to be common in 
Kashmir. 

Tickell’s supposed new Gadidous fish is precisely what I told you it 
would be. There should be a plentiful supply in the museum, several 
dozens, which I procured in the Akyab bazar. It was- described and 
figured by Richardson, and since by McClelland (who associated it 
with the Gadide). I cannot refer just now, but the synonyms in my 
hand-writing should be on the label attached to the bottle; and that 
bottle I leit near the specimens of Polynemus, which Jerdon agreed 
with me.in considering the nearest ally. It just holds that sort of 
relationship to some of the Gadide, which the Scopelide do to the 
Salmonide ; only the latter are really more nearly allied, I think. 
There is a most interesting Australian Seal on exhibition at Cremorne, 
which I am anxious to see, and will do so soon. Vide a notice of it, 
in a letter from Bartlett to Gray, ina late No. of the Annals. So 
high a price is wanted for it that the Zoological Secretary has declined 
to purchase hitherto; but I fear that the exhibition of it brings in 
some £11 or 12 per. week to its proprietor! Of course I have been 
to see the African Elephant, which differs very much from the Asiatic. 

It is equally docile, but much more energetic and active, and Bartlett 
considers it the more intelligent of the two! Moreover it is very 
salacious, which the Asiatic is not (unless when regularly must). It 
was rather in bad case when it arrived, but is now in capital condition. A 
small African female Elephant is expected immediately ; and with it one 
of the long-leeged African ground Hornbills, Bucorvus Abyssinicus, or 
Abba Gumba of Bruce. The other Hornbills are doing admirably, viz. 
3 Homrai, one B. rhinoceros, 1 albirostris, and one small African 
Tockus. Two or three more of albirostris would be acceptable, and as 
many more species as possible, especially the large kinds; for they 


286 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 4, 


shew well in the spacious aviaries allotted to them. The yellow- 
quilled Porcupine (M/alabaricus, Sclater,) turns out to be my A. Ben- 
galensis, the yellow colour of the quills being only temporary. The 
3 handed Armadillo is a most interesting form, very different from 
Dasypus, and considerably akin to Glyptodon. There are a fine 
healthy pair of Chimpanzees, and female Orang-utan ; but no Gibbons, 
which are particularly wanted; especially as there seems every pros- 
pect now of these Apes living, as they are so very much better accom- 
modated. The Gazella dama lately added to the Garden is a fine 
acquisition ; and Burchell’s Zebra has bred. The Hagle you sent has 
assumed the mature plumage; and I think I may say that all, which 
you have sent, are doing well, the 2 Mycterie, 2 Tantalz, also pair of 
Hematornis Elgint, and pair of Hudynamys orientalis &e. Gallo- 
phasis lineatus has bred; and there is a young hen $ Swenhoer; also a 
half-bred Ocellated Turkey. Males of Phenicura Reeveswi and Diar- 
digallus, Also the Heliornis or ‘ Sun Bittern’ (a very curious form) ; and 
the black-necked Swans. Bengal Floriken in first-rate summer dress. 
It was sent by Babu Rajendro Mullick in 1857. How is he getting on, 
and his store of live-stock ? Three living Apteryx ! Sturgeon Still doing 
well. Garrulax Sinensis from China, quite lively and well: the same 
as the Tenasserim species. The new Cassowary which J described 
turns out to be the finest of them all. A living female at Amsterdam ; 
and its egg quite different from that of common Cassowary, or of 
Mooruk. I have seen the magnificent fossil head in the British Museum 
of Elephas primigenius lately dug up near Ilford in Essex, with superb 
tusks in socket—not curled up as in the Siberian specimens so often 
figured. Head very different from that of H. Indicus, more ike A/fr- 
canus, but the grinders are of the same type as the former. Another fine 
accession to the B. M. is an enormous aérolite from Australia. 

I must now tell you a few results of interest at which I have arrived 
concerning Indian birds. The paper is a very long one, and will probably 
spread over the Lis for all next year. When I have quite finished 
it, I contemplate working out the birds of the Indo-Chinese province 
or sub-region, and then those of the Malayan Peninsula. You may 
begin by expunging from your list Cotyle sub-soccata (identical with 
Sinensis), Luticilla pheniewra (as distinct from phonicuroides), Phyl- 
loscopus trochilus (disavowed now as Indian by Gould), and I suspect 


~1865.] Scientific Intelligence. 287 


also Sturnus unicolor (for which I believe old spotless specimens of 
S. vulgaris have been mistaken); Rhodophila melanoleuca, Genus 
quite identical with Oreicola, Bonap., as founded on two Timor 
species, melanoleuca and luctwosa ; and therefore I now call the Indian 
one QO. Jerdoni, and do not agree that Pratincola ferrea should range 
with it. (Vide Jerdon’s Appendix). The Horornis and Horestes 
series puzzled us much. Horornis fulviventer = Phylloscopus fusca- 
tus, nobis !—H. fuliginiventro, also a Phylloscopus, akin to last.—H. 
flaviventris a true Dumeticola ; and H. fortipes, I suspect, another 
Dumeticola, (to judge from my description of Hodgson’s specimen in 
J. A: S. XIV, 585, for I cannot find a specimen in the museums 
here.) This disposes of the four species admitted by Jerdon; but 
both in the British and India museums, I find numerous specimens 
marked Horornis assimilis, Hodg., and these are identical with the 
bird I formerly described as Drymoica brevicaudata. Afterwards I 
thought that this was the adult of Neornis flavolivocea, Hodg., of 
which I had only seen the young ; and this view is accepted by Jerdon. 
It turns out that the two are allied species, and Horsfield’s Sylvia 
montana constitutes a third; so I bring these three together under 
Neornis, and sink Horornis altogether. As for Horeztes, I know but 
of two species, the large H. major, and-the small H. brunnezfrons, 
(v. schistilatus), of which pollicaris is the young! Jerdon sends me a 
new Dumeticola ; making 3 Gf not 4) of this form, which I think 
might be very well merged under Locustella. Jerdon tells me that 
my Accipiter nisoides is common in the interior of the Himalaya; I 
can find no specimens, and two that he has sent me (as I presume for 
this) are decidedly A. Virgatus, which he should know well. His new 
swallow, Hirundo Tytlerx (Gn Appendix), I cannot distinguish from 
HZ. cahirica of Palestine and Egypt; but Adam’s species (referred to 
by Jerdon and H. fluvicola) is distinct, and Gould has named it 
empusa. Two species of Woodpecker are confounded under Chryso- 
colaptes sultaneus, viz. true sullaneus, H. (strenwus, Gould), which is 
considerably larger, rare, and known only from Nipal; and C. Deles- 
serti, Malherbe, from all India, Indo-China, and Malayan Peninsula. 
Zoothera imbricata, Layard—Oreocincla Nilgiriensis, nobis. Of Cuc- 
koos, our Himalayanus is the canoroides, Muller, and optatus, 
Gould; and this species is accepted as striatus, Drapeiz, by Schlegel. 


288 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 4, 


Tt would seem to be the commonest species of the archipelago. 
Wallace has also C. poliocephalus from Java. In the British Museum 
there is a Nipél specimen of what seems to me a small race of #. 
sparverioides, which I have named nisoides: wing 74 in.—Of H. 
nisicolor I have now seen several specimens. H. strenuus, Gould 
(B. As.), I think doubtfully separable from sparveroides ; and his 
hyperythrus is just the adult of Horsfield’s fugax, which I consider to 
be distinct from the Indian varius. The fugax I now recognise as 
HI. flaviventris, (Scopoli. Syn. C. radiatus, Gm. ; H. pectoralis, Caba- 
nis, and H. hyperythrus, Gould,—the adult; and C. fugax, Horsf., 
sparveroides apud von Schrenck,—the young.)—From China, Philip- 
pines, Borneo, and Java. My Geocichla dissimilis is Turdus chrysolaus, 
Temm., nec cardis (Jerd. No. 358). The Zragopan Duvaucelii, Temm., 
is Pucrasia castanea, Gould; and its true habitat probably Kashmir 
(Kdfiristan being altogether out of the question). I suspect that 
nipalensis, Gould, is merely a hybrid between it and the common 
Himalayan species, Arboricola. I have made out a list of 12 species 
of this group! Turnix Dussunvierit (vERUS) = Sykesi; and T. Dussu- 
mieri apud Jerdon must stand as tancki, B. Ham. (v. joudera, Hodg- 
son). Casarca leucoptera, nobis, is Anas scutulata, Mitller. 

This must do forthe present. I may add that the large striped 
Derbian Eland has a very different form of ear-conch from the common 
Eland, broad like that of the Kandoa, instead of lanceolate as in the 
humped cattle. This is a notable distinction. 

Nore on tue Pevra Parrivers (Arboricola, Hodgson). This groud 
of hill Partridges, with long (or moderately long) straight claws and 
spurless, is greatly developed in the jungle-clad hills of 8. EH. Asia 
and its islands, where probably, several species yet remain to be 
discovered. I think we can already enumerate— 


a. With the throat well feathered. 


1. a torquerors. (Tem., p. c. 462-3.) The only species known to 
me in which the sexes present a marked difference of plumage. 
Himalaya. 

2. Aa. nvFoGcuLARIS, nobis. S. E. Himalaya (at a lower altitude 
than the preceding race,) and also the Tenasserim mountains. (J. A. 
S. XXIV, 276.) 


x 
t 
Ne 
4 
of 


1865.] Scientific Intelligence. 289 
3. A. BRUNNEOPECTUS, Tickell. (J. A. S. XXIV, 276.) Tenas- 


serim mountains. 

4. a. gavanica. (Brown, J. A. Zool. pl. XVII; Temm., p. c- 
1488 : but guere—the red surrounding the eye?) Java. 

5. A. (?) Aigueinosa. (Hyton. P. Z. S. 1839, p. 106.) Malayan 


peninsula. 


b. With the throat thinly clad with feathers, shewing 


the crimson skin beneath. 


6. a. peRsonaTa. (Horsfield, Zool. Pes.in Java, fig.; Tr. Lum. 
Soc. XIII, 184.) Sumatra (?) and Java. 

7. <A. ATRoGULARIS, nobis. (J. A. S. XVIII, 819; Perdix oliva- 
cea of Buchanan Hamilton’s drawings, not of Gray, Hardw. Jil. 
Ind. Zool.) Hills bordering the valley of the Brahmaputra south- 
ward. 

8. A. INTERMEDIA, nobis. (J. A. S. XXIV, 277.) Probably from 
Arakan. 

9. a.cHarttonr. (Hyton. Ann. Mag. MW. H. 1845, XVI, p. 235.) 
Malayan pqpinsula : not uncommon about Pinang and Province Wel- 
lesley. (Type of Zropicoperdix, nobis, passim ?) 

10. a. catororus. (Tickell. J. A. S. XXVIII, 415, 453,) 


Tenasserim mountains. 


ce. With large bare space in front of neck. 


11. a. pounerunaTa. (Hardw. Jil. Ind. Zool.) Hab. 2 
12. «a. crupieutaris. (Swinhoe, Lbis, 1864, p. 426.) Formosa. 

Type of oreoperdiz, Swinhoe. 

N.B. The Perdix oculea, Tem. (Pig. et Gall. III, 408; Tetrao 
ocellatus, Raffles, Tr. Lin. Soc. XIII, 832; Hardw. ll. Ind. 
Zool. ;) of Mergui province and Sumatra, is the type of my Caloper- 
diz ; and P. thoracica, Tem. (Pig. e Gall. ILI, 335, P. and Arbori- 
cola sphenurus, Gray,) is the type of Bambusicola, Gould, to which a 
second species has been added by Mr. Swinhoe from Formosa, B. So- 
norivox, Gould. (B. As. pt. XVI.) 

The Partridges of the Peura group are best obtained from natives 
of the country who understand netting them. Comparatively few fall 


290 Scientific Intelligence. [ No. 4, 


to the gun. They rise singly in such difficult places, in steep bam- 
boo-clad hills, that even if occasionally hit by a snap-shot, they are 
oftener lost than picked up, in localities where a trained dog is an 
impracticable desideratum : but there are ways of netting them, for I 
have received from Sylhet several dozens at a time of live A. atrogu- 
laris ; and a lot of A. torqueola is similarly now and then obtainable 
at different hill stations. A pair of A. torqueola are now doing well 
in the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, London. 


Ep. Buiytnu. 


Erratum in Mr. Parish’s paper in Part II. No. ILI. of the 


Journal. 


Page 139 Line 35, for Pinus longifolia read Pinus Massoniana. 


Meteorological Observations. i 


Abstrae of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Caleutta, 
in the month of January, 1865. 


Latitude 22° 3371” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East. 


Veet 
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18.11. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


a 3 3 Range of the Barometer | S 8  |Range of the Tempera- 
& 5 S during the day. re g ture during the day. 
o= a | 
| 333] Max. | Min. | Dif. | SG | Max. | Min, | Diff. 
1s = 
% | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. aeaheak ft) ty) Oho 
a Sunday. { 
2 30.083 | 30.159 | 30.044 0.115 68.0 77 A: 59.2 | 18.2 
3 .090 158 046 | 112 68.4: 778 09.2 | 18.6 
oa 151 222 -105 Eialy/ 69.4 78.8 61.2 | 17.6 
5 -150 .238 .099 139 638.8 77.8 60.4 | 17.4 
6 eile .209 047 162 68.2 77.8 60.5 | 17.3 
¥i 055 137 | 29.997 140 68.7 77.5 59.8 | 17.7 
S | Sunday. 
_9 075 .156 | 30.017 139 68.6 76.8 62.0 | 14.8 
10 2075 148 019 | 129 65.7 73.4 59.0 | 14.4 
il .058 132 | 29.992 140 64.6 73.2 57.0 | 16.2 
12 .058 | 120 | 30,010 | 110 66.4 75.7 BStOn ides 
13 .073 .136 026 | 110 67.2 76.4) 59.2) | 17.2 
14 105 178 051 | 127 69.7 79.6 60.6 | 19.0 
15 | Sunday. | 
16 | AI9 191 | 065 126 | 68.8 78.0 | 61.4 | 16.6 
17 .089 165 .040 125 69.0 78,4 60.8 | 17.6 
18 110 181 -062 | 119 70.0 81.0 60.8 | 20.2 
iS 102 185 .035 150 70.7 81.0 60.8 | 20.2 
20 .089 2169 .030 139 70.1 80.9 61.0 | 19.9 
21 073 2146 .006 140 70.6 81.0 62.0 | 19.0 
22 | Sunday. 3 
23 .095 175 052 123 71.7 81.2 63.8 | 17.4 
24: -086 169 017 152 72.7 83.0 65.6 | 17.4 
25 054: 149 | 29.993 156 72.4 82.0 64.2 | 17.8 
26 29.979 053 .908 145 73:1 83.2 64.1 | 19.2 
27 914 | 29.993 844 149 73.6 49.1. 69.2 | 9.9 
28 .926 | 30.002 869 133 72.8 81,6 66.2 | 15.4 


29 | Sunday. 


30 30.003 .090 .922 168 70.9 80.3 62.4 | 17.9 
29.973 .050 908 142 69.0 77.2 65.5 | 11.7 


WM) 
ra 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
_ mometer Means are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day. 


rv Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
\ taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
wn the month of January, 1865, 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.— (Continued). 


a E S Bie eee ee 
= aii aedlae ge | 2S ee 
= a o mS SCR Rea eae 
s © : & | 23 lees pee 
A B Be ° Os S| 22 2 
Durer) ae 2 A = 25 2°O | Cease aeaeeee 
<a) a S no} ee} A OS = Ze = Ss 
es 2 3 =a faa as! o's ae ae) a 
Fe = 2 | @2 || 26) bo. team 
gE a a Bll ce a | oeee eee 
3 A P 8 fam of | $8 |e aa] Ses 
= a S) fa = = S = 
\ 
0 0 0 IGayolavsssy, |!) Ak, pera, |) WM eae. | 

1 Sunday. 

2 61.6 6.4 56.5 | 11.5 0.465 5.13 2.40 0.68 

3 62.4 6.0 57.6 | 10.8 483 32 30 70 

4, 62.8 6.6 57.5 | 11.9 ASL .30 56 67 

5 61.6 7.2 55.8 | 13.0 455 02 69 -65 

6 61.7 6.5 Boro iled 465 13 45 68 

Af 62.5 6.2 57.5 | 11.2 481 ol 38 .69 

8 Sunday. 

9 61.9 6.7 56.5 | 12.1 465 13 54 67 
TOs be Sipoel 7.0 53.1 | 12.6 415 4.61 Al .66 
il 57.7 6.9 52.2 | 12.4 402 48 30 66 
12 59.1 7.3 Bye | cAlsieil 418 64 53 .65 
13 60.4, 6.8 55.0 | 122 AA2 .90 A5 .67 
14 61.9 7.8 55.7 | 14.0 453 .99 94 63 
15 Sunday. 

16 61.3 7.3 a) || ealeyal 450 97 70 65 
ily/ 61.6 7.4 55.7 | 13.3 A538 5.00 76 64 
18 62.5 7.5 565 | 13.5 465 al 89 64 
19 62.6 8.1 56-1 | 14.6 459 04 3.14 62 
20 62.1 8.0 55.7 | 14.4 0453 4.99 04 62 
21 63.2 7A 57.3 | 13.3 AT8 |» 5.25 2.90 64 
22 Sunday. 

23 64.9 6.8 59.5 | 12.2 O15 64 4) 67 
24 65.1 7.6 59.0 | 137 506 53 3.15 64 

25 64,1 8.3 | 57.5 | 14.9 ABIL 27 33 61 
26 66.2 6.9 60.7 | 12.4 .536 86 2,93 .67 
27 68.8 4.8 65.4 8.2 .626 6.84 09 Sift 
28 67.2 5.6 62.7 | 10.1 72 26 45 2 
29 | Sunday. 

30 62.8 8.1 56.3 | 14.6 A62 5.07 3.16 62 
31 64.9 4.1 61.6 7.4: 552 6.08 1.68 78 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. iil 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of January, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon. 


S 3 a | Range of the Barometer = 5 Range of the Temperature 
=aac4 for each hour during As for each hour during 
H = oe the month. me the month. 
our. | 2 50, Aa 
ao? c : ep 
23 | Max. Min, Diff. Sc | Max Min Diff. 
= a 
=e — ae 
Inches. | Inches.; Inches.| Inches. fo) 0 0 0 
Mid- 30 06 ° 65 5 
night. .068 ' 30.139 | 29.884 | 0.255 - 70.8 61.4 | OA 
1 .061 134 878 .256 64.8 71.0 61.0 10.0 
2 .052 128 872 .256 64.1 70.8 60.6 10.2 
3 041 113 .869 244A 63.6 70.8 59.0 11.8 
4, .046 112 .883 229 62.7 66.8 58.8 8.0 
5 .047 .130 -890 .240 62.6 70.6 58.0 12.6 
6 .068 -149 .910 .239 62.1 70.4 57.4 13.0 
7! .090 -180 .938 242 61.8 70.2 57.0 13.2 
8 118 210 963 AT 64.6 70.2 59.4 10.8 
9 136 230 -983 252 69.0 7A.0 63.8 10.2 
10 140 238 | .993 245 | 72.1 | 4 75.6 65.0 10.6 
11 21 210 .976 204 74.8 78.2 69.0 9.2 
Noon. .094 Ave .938 .235 76.2 80.2 68.0 12.2 
1 .060 138 917 221 77.5 81.8 70.0 11.8 
2 .038 As 890 227 78.4 83.2 71.8 11.4 
3 .019 bl: .868 248 78.5 83.2 71.2 12.0 
4, .013 110 848 262 76.9 81.6 70.6 11.0 
5 .020 119 844 wD 75.3 79.4) 70.2 9.2 
6 .027 134 .862 22 72.8 76.6 68.4 8.2 
7 041 149 .870 .279 71.1 75.5 66.4 9.1 
8 057 161 932 229 69.7 74,2 65.2 9.0 
9 .067 ely) 912 263 68.4 Tides: 63.6 9.7 
10 .070 178 .883 .295 67.3 72,8 62.4 10.4 
= AL .071 AlyA! .950 221 66.4 72.0 61.8 10.2 


The Mean Heicht of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several hours 
during the month. 


iV Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of January, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


si 3 3 E S PEs S5e | 22 
E: Bulli 6 ba Si eee = | | = 2 
| etoW A bh ol eee 
suo, 8 ® & 2 26 |S Sede oe 
Hour. es 3 a s a. ‘s0° pes Ny sh Sr 
g ro) S rome Se os Cees} = 7s 
a0 3S = 34 Ho ss. eS AIS) 
| Be 6a a As ey leciaibesiee | 2 2 = 
23 > s pe | Se | Sec. | co oe lees 
Ih We A ) a = Mamet KS cor ae 
0 t) “@ ty) Inches. |Troy grs.|Troy grs. 
xe 609 | 46°) 572) 8.8 | 0.476 |} 5.28) | 170) ome 
a 60504 431) 57.4. 747 ANTS Oy 56 Wir 
2 60.1 | 4.0 | 56.5 WG\e) (AGS 18 AQ 78 
3 59.7 | 3.9 | 56.2 7.4 | AGL 14 AB 78 
4 59.0 | 3.7 | 55.7 7.0 | 453 06 33 79 
5 59.1 | 3.5 | 55.9 6.7 | .456 09 28 .80 
6 58.5 | 3,6 | 55.3 6.8 | .447 00 27 .80 
7 58.3 | 3.5 | 55.1 6.7 | 444 | 4.97 24 80 
8 60.1 | 4.5 | 56.5 Bal) WA6au Bais 60 76 
9 62,2 | 68 | 568 | 122 | .4’70 18 2.58 67 
do Gea) SAnl 570) dod Ne A7e 18 3.35 61 
ll 650) | 981 SSL) Gy) aor 34 92 5S 
Noon.| 65.5 | 10.7 | 580 | 182 | .489 81 4.35 BS 
1 65.8 | 11.7 | 57.6 | 19.9 |. .483 122, 82 52 
2 66.3 | 12.1 | 57.8 | 20.6 | .486 25 5.06 51 
Brill) Gea mean O57 4 PLM 280 18 a7 50 
4 65 B04 Wile) Wy 57200) 17, 76 16 4.70 52 
5 65.1 | 10.2 | 580 |17.8 | .489 82 08 BT 
6 | 653 | 75 | 59.3 | 13.5 | J511 58 3.13 64 
"7 647 | 64 | 59.6 |115 | (516 66 2,62 .68 
@) | 639))| Beri’ 598) "| 104M, (bit 63 30 vl 
9 | 631 | 53 | 589 | 9.5 | 504 56 .06 73 
20 | 62.4 | 49 | 585 | 88 |. .498 50 1.87 75 
AP Ne Glo | Aa 57.8 o | Bb ss 39 78 45 
} 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants, 


Meteorological Observations. Vv 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
an the month of January, 1865. 
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


He | So Ss 
68 |2ad 
.| 2 |© = S| Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
S| 43 18389 of the Wind. 
oe! ss os 
Shen jp 
| o  |Inches 
ER. .. | Sunday. 
2) LEU epee Cloudless: also slightly foeey at midnight, 
3,137.4) ,.. |S. E.&8.&N. EH. | Cloudless: also slightly foggy at 7 a. M. 
4; 139.0}. ... | NW. &N, Cloudless: also slightly fogey at 10 & 11 
5| 136.2) .... | N.& N.W. Cloudless. [P. M. 
Sikes. | N. Cloudless till noon: “i till5 p. w. cloudless 
afterwards also fogey at 10 Pp. mM. 
2) igh)... | Ho & N- ~ | Clondless: also fogey from midnight to 2 
A, M. 
8 ee ... | Sunday. 
9; 1382.4)... N, Cloudless. 
TOU ESAO |... N. &N. W. i till 4 A. uw. cloudless afterwards. 
41) 131.8) 2. | N.W. GN. Cloudless tilll p.m. \i & “i afterwards. 
PASSO} 3: W.&N. W. i till 7 A. mM. cloudless afterwards. 
13| 131.4) 1. |N.W.&W.&N. | Cloudless : also slightly fogey at 9&10 P.M. 
PA bao... | N. Cloudless. 
11) eee Pe Sunday. 
16| 132.4)... N.W.&S.&N. Cloudless till noon: Scatd. clouds till 6 
p. M. cloudless afterwards. 
A) '36.0) 2. | Wo & N. W. Cloudless till8 a. m. i till 5 p. uw. cloudless 
afterwards: also fogey from § to 11 P. M. 
18] 138.4:| ,.. W. Cloudless : also fogey at 7 a. um. & from 9 
to 11 P.M, 
19) 142.4) ... nf & N. W. Cloudless. 
20| 127.45 ... Ni & i till 7 a. M, cloudless afterwards. 
Palit.) 2. e & EH. &N. Cloudless. 
vows “oe Sunday. 
on eaaeOl | ou N. Cloudless til 5 a.m,—-i& “i till 6 Pp. uM. 


cloudless afterwards ; also foggy at 6 & 
7a.M. Gat8&9 P.M. 


PALANAN} ce. | Ni. We & N. Clondless till 4 4. um. “i till 7 ep. mw. cloud- 
less afterwards. 

25) MADD | ove N. W. & W. Cloudless tillnoon: i & “itill 7 P. mu. 
cloudless afterwards. 

26) 140.0| ... Ss. Cloudless till11 a. mw. ~itill 8 P. um. cloud- 
Jess afterwards. 

77 Ne aor 0.16 |S.W.&S8. - | Cloudy : also raining at 34.m.8 & 9 P. M, 
& thundering & lightning at 8 P. M. 

ABP LSS) 3, Ss. W. Scatd. clouds till 10 a. mw. “i afterwards. 

ah | ee ws | Sunday. 


30} 133.0; ... |N.&S.&N. W. Cloudless till 9 A, Mm. Scatd. clouds till § 
P. M. cloudless afterwards. 

31) Soe 0.32 |S. & N. W. Cloudless till 5 a. M. cloudy afterwards : 
also thundering & raining at noon. 


“S Cirri,—i Strati, 91 Cumuli, “i Cirro strati, ~i Cumulo strati, i Nimbi 
ade Cirro cumuli, 


vi Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of January, 1865. 


Montuty REsutts. 


Inches 

Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. eo es 930.066 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 A. M. on the 5th, so» 90.238 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 Pp. M. on the 27th, e- 29.844 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, 30 ee =: 00.8 9.4 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures,.. eo eo ee 30.143 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. fe os 2» 30.008 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .. ee =: 0135 

i o 

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. ee ee 69.5 
Max. Temperature occurred at 2&3 P.M. on the 26th, .. oe 83.2 
Min. Temperature occurred at 7 A. M. on the 11th, Bye oe 57.0 
BDaxtreme range of the Temperature during the month, .. c° 26.2 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, 50 ee eo 78.9 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. 30 60 50 61.7 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, .. 33 17.2 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. 50 a0 62.7 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, .. 6.8 
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, .. oe oe 57.3 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, ee 12.2 
Inches 

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. ee ee =: 0478 


Troy grains 


Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, ee ee ee 5.26 
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, es 2.62 
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.67 

Inches 
Rained 2 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, oe ee 0.382 
Total amount of rain during the month, 60 oo ee 0.48 


Prevailing direction of the Wind, .. oe ee N.& N. W. 


Meteorological Observations. vil 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
an the month of Jaunary, 1865. 


Montruty REsvtts. 


Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


1 


Hour. | 
g = E = 5 a BI S| : Si 5 | 
elle atl] |SiF ls! sie |siala|a 
NJ Siz |S) E. |slalels.iclalete lela eis iG\a 
No. of days 
Midnight. Se el Ue | By eG) 
1 8 if 1 1 3 1 7| $4 
= Ae lie Seal alts 3 
Of 8 2 2 2 4| | 4 4 
3 i 7 1 il 9 3 2) | 4 4 2 
9 12 Does aoe ane bh Lie fe 
10 10| | 2 8) yl) pa yl f 3) | 2 
11 Lu) |e ft Fa 73 73) fe 
Noon. 10) | 1 3 1) | 4 11) a) 6 
1 9 |2 1 Ab Sai 
2 13 al 2 1 9 
3 10) | 1 1 cl ele |S 
j 5 1} J 2} fil Psi fio 
2 ale liq 1) }al f2 10 2 
"7 7 ai 1 1 5 1 4 6 
8 6 1 2 1 4, 2) 175 5 
a 6 2) | 1) [4] fal [4 4 2 


Meteorological Observations taken at Gangaroowa near Kandy, 
Ceylon, in the month of January, 1864. 


Alt. 1560 ft.; E. Long. 80° 87’, N. Lat. 7° 17’. 

All the Instruments have been compared with standards. 

The tension of aqueous vapour, dew point and humidity, have been 
found from the readings of the dry and wet bulb Thermometers by 
Mr. Glaisher’s Hygrometrical tables (Hd. 1863). 

The dew is the weight in grains deposited on a square foot of 
ordinary woollen cloth exposed on a board from 6 P. M. to 6 A. M. 
or for as many hours as there is no rain. 

The rain guage is 45 feet above the ground. 

The ozone cage is hung about 25 feet above the ground. 

The direction of the wind given, is that of the lowest current by the 
vane, and of the currents above this by the direction in which the 
Nimbi and Cumulo-Strati clouds are moving. 

In this column a“ calm” signifies that the clouds are apparently 
motionless: “ variable,” that the clouds apparently in the same or 
nearly the same stratum move in no fixed direction, but their parts 
move as if in vortices, or different masses of them move up from 
different quarters as if into a vast vortex, this beg nearly always the 


ease before thunder storms. 
Entries, such as WS W and NN W or ESR ve signify that 
NN W tocalm, 
the clouds are evidently in strata of different altitudes, that those 
in the lowest stratum move from W S W;; those in the next higher 
from N N W; those in the next are apparently becalmed, and so on. 
The velocity and distance in 24 hours are given by Robinson’s 
Anemometer. 
In the column for Lightning and Thunder 
L —“ Lightning” when the flash is near enough to be visible. 
LR=“< Lightning Reflection” when the flash is so distant that 
only its reflection on the clouds or in the air is visible. 
“Morn,” is6 a. u., “ Even,’ 6 P. w. and “ Night,” 12 Pp. Mm. and 
“ fore’ and “ after” are prefixed to these, as ordinarily to “ Noon,” 
to denote the 3 previous and 3 following hours. 
R H. Barnes. 


il 


Meteorological Observations. 


GANGAROOWA NEAR Kanpy, CEYLON. 


| January, 1864, 


STOO ON 


Barometer 
reduced to 32° 


A. M. P. M. P. M. 
9.30 | 3.30 | 10.0 
28.393) 28.265] 28.362 
.870| .254| .376 
372| .256| .371 
.406) .269} .349 
.865| .229 2 
.360| .268 ss 
892 *. a 
3° bP) °° 
2? 33 3) 
be) bP) be) 
be) 5) 9 
410} .284. 4 
.420)  .279 r 
.874| .266] .372 
.378| .238] .343 
369} .239] .3845 
.382| .254/ .369 
.375| .247| .865 
.893| .254| .380 
419} .290| .396 
442) .294) .404 
.400| .291) .408 
.880| .262] .380 
880; .268] .378 
401| .277| .383 
.887| .263| .374 
.383| .268) .373 
.881| .260) .371 
.403| .284) .3879 
.395| .289) .398 
.403| .286) .404) 
28.390) 28.267 28.376 


Pressure of 


Thermometer. 


Dry Air: Dew Point. 
M. P. M. P. M. |A. M.|P. M.|P. M.|A. M.|P. M.|P. M. 
9.30 | 3.30 | 10.0 | 9.80} 3.30; 10.0/ 9.80) 3.30} 10.0 
27.769] 27.677) 27.780] 72.8) 75.1] 70.2) 65.3) 63.6] 63.3 
.757| +.606] .782!| 72.5) 76.8] 68.8) 64.8) 66.4! 63.9 
-765| .666] .840| 70.0) '75.0| 66.1| 64.5) 63.7) 60.7 
.828] .628| .714| 70.2] 73.4| 69.0} 63.1] 66,1| 65.8 

.717| 498 » | 71.5|75.7| 5, | 66.4) 69.9) ;, 

776} = .728 5 | 73.5] 79.0] 4, | 63.4) 61.4) ,, 

.783 ”? ” 72.0 29 Ey) 64.6 2 29 

29 99 99 99 9 99 99 29 29 

? ” ” ” y) 29 ry) 5) 3 

2 ” bP) 39 99 29 by) by) bP) 

5) By) 29 ” 9 DD 39 39 

“795! 597 » | 73.6)'75.0] ,, | 64.9]/68.1] 5, 

.736| .599 >> | 72.0| 73.7] ,, |68.0]67.8] ,, 
-788| .665] .808) 72.1] 75.0) 68.2) 63.5] 64.2) 62.4 
-767| 623} —.773) 70.7) '76.5| 68.3) 64.7| 64.9] 62.7 
843} .653)  .791| '70.0| 77.3] 65.0) 60.4) 63.5) 61.9 
804] .653]} 785! 69.7| '7'7.8| 69.4) 63.1] 64.2] 63.4 
772) .749) 898] 70.5) 76.8] 69.7! 64.3) 58.9] 57.1 
-928] .692) .879| 67.6] 76.0] 67.7|57.0| 62.3] 59.1 
-937| .799|  .905| 69.2} 75.0) 67.6| 58.0| 58.5] 58.5 
28.011; .782| .929]71.1| 76.3) 68.7) 54.9] 59.7) 57.6 
27.957| .745| .933] 71.9] 76.0) 68.1] 55.6] 61.5] 57.6 
.868| .733| .856]'71.5| 76.0) 70.4] 59.7| 60.6] 60.3 
810] .633| .765] 72.0| 77.2, 70.8 62.7| 65.8] 64.8 
-833| .715) .848] 73.0) 76.3) 69.8, 62.6) 62.3] 60.9 
-882} .689) .802| 71.4) 76.4) 68.9, 59.3) 62.91 62.8 
823) .646) .842)72.9|'77.1| 69.6 62.2] 65.2) 60.7 
872) .748}  .906] 72.0) 75.2 Oral 59.5] 59.7| 57.0 
-942) .792!| .881]'71.0)76.8 69.1) 56.7] 58.6 58.9 
.877| .830] .895|'71.6|77.9 69.5 60.0] 56.6] 59.2 
911} .797| .9381]71.2\76.9 68.9 58.6} 58.4) 57.5 
27.835) 2'7.690] 27.843] 71.4) 76.0 lee 62.9| 60.7 


Meteorological Observations. 


itt 


GANGAROOWA NEAR Kanpy, CEYLON. 


nm 

m 

oS 

Humidity. Si 

ty “ 2 

2 3 

ea| 2 

| EE 

a.m.|p.u.| Pu. | ao] & 

SOUS 

9.30/ 3.30 | 100/29 | ‘2 

Be 
779 | 672 | 785 | 5, |62.1 
774 | 706| 888] ,, |56.0) 
825 | 676 | 830] ,, | 55.6| 
780 783 892 |} 5, | 51.0] 
835 820 » 3 | 64.7 

708 624 ” » = 

780 > Ee) 33 39 

33 39 2 33 23 

3? 32 22 23 29 

32 22 33 33 2 

33 39 3) 29 22 

ae aeotp. | e155 

Sa seo a ty le ss 

maga GSS) S20 7 3. | ss 
s10 | 678 { 824] 4, |55.8 
728 634. 910 9 |o2.7 
796 | 631] 813} , | 55.1 
805 563 636 | 136.5) 54.1 
685 | 630 | 740 | 135.8) 50.8 
668 | 562 | 725 | 132.4) 50.0 
563 | 565 | 670 | 134.1/53.3 
561 | 610 | 685 | 136.0) 54.4 
662 | 590 706 | 131.9) 52.2 
725 | 682 810 | 139.6) 59.6 
700 | 624 | 732 | 135.9| 59.0 
654 | 636 | 833 | 135.2/ 56.2 
694 | 670 | 760 \ 137.4) 59.9 
646 | 582 | 650 | 141.6) 55.9 
606 530 | 696 | 133.2) 51.2 
666 | 536 695 | 136.6) 51.2 
642 523 660 | 132.7) 53.2 
721 | 647 | 760. | 135.6) 59.2 


| Maximum in Air. 


76.2) 62.2 


| Minimum in Air. 


b= a 
i= | Difference. 
=) 


i 
x 
bho 


15.0 


| 18.3 


2 
° 


10.6 


NORM ys Oo NN 
Oe tO-T oO oO 


Rain, 


A.M. | P. M. 
Total. 
9.30 | 10.0 


Meteorological Observations. 


iv 


GANGAROOWA NEAR Kanpy, CryLon. 


P. M. 3.30 


A. M. 9.30 


BhROOWROCO COOODSOD HNOSOSOSH FOORRGSGQ AWS | wo 
"TRIO, BODSH S Bower ASH WSSHAGSBS Mw ~ 
ne ri 
Si ee SS 
SOSOONSOS SOTSOSSS SCSOSSSSSO SSSWSSSD 999 S 
‘gnqVayg W SMqUITyy Sa an) | qi 
| Seq SSs SS SOOO qann~ TOW TaNMSODSS S a 
“snyeryg-opnUIND i) eSonHAS SG TOM OW NaN | a 
SOOOO00O CO5000090 OSOSSSS CSO095S909 999 S 
‘snumg | ro) 
Soo a ee ee 
SOOOOOO SCOOSCON SOSOSSSS SSSSHSS AWS rc] 
*sn[MUIN?-O4AT() iS A =) on | fo) 
SOOOOOO OCOO0000 SCSOSDSSDSS SSOOHSD9SS CSS a 
*g4yV14G-OLILD | CR | ri 
eee 
RRDHONSO SOSSCSSOOR WONSSSOS SOMOSSS Eoo = 
‘snartg | Oor S G6 Gow BSH Aro x ~ | xi 
SIG MISIOIS IO MSS IOS lS Cl nm Ceona et So SS See Xe) 
: BOON a SBASHSS SSHranS nS 19S 
TPO. 
SOOONSO GCOOO500 SCSOS0S095 SSSS999 S99 | g& 
“SNYVAIA D SNCUIT NT | S | 3S 
BHOoSeOoCoO SCOSCSSCON SOOOCSCO ONONOWHS ON — 
‘SHyBAPS “ONIN | Ro a So ® S 2 - © oR | 3S 
‘snug | SCOCDOCOCO CODOSSDOo COCO OSDSDo C99090099 99° | 2 
| eocogcs Soocses MOOOOOS SSOSOSCSSS 9290 Ney 
*SMMUINY)-O4ATC) | er) ros) = ros) 
“enqusg-o.ttg | oooooo°o ooooo0e oooooco MEME BCIEMEME) ooo | = 
SamMoeoe GVOOOooCo Gowns (_Secrors ooo ry 
sent | HOS SBASASOS SaOrK FO x 
: Lond = —— 
° oan oO aA MmOMm~OoRDOrs Mo in co re © aon 
post ‘Krenwe | AAD WOOD DR ARMA AAN ANAAANAN NOM | 


Meteorological Observations. 


GANGAROOWA NEAR Kanpy, CEYLON. 


mossg | BZOQSSLSSS SOSSSOH HKSAHHR BOOANRA was 19 
p SHANNA SG ARRHHOH HOHMASCM NAOH a} 
ied yooy Ur aOoTe | DOAN S H DNONH OE SCBNGFOOGS SHH 19 
a : 
= 
3 oe ye 5 
3 iS} ) So G crore monet 20220000 (a) () of o Co) o % 
= ‘S) slsbje (se 8 8 9 8 3 eo SR Eh stchel= fe dei eh Sl dela) 3 
S 4 By o8s ti Piri:iz £202,969 ,9 SA 5% 07,0 oF 3 
de shite aie seasptcaee : 
OE 2 oa7a AAAZAZA44Z4A Apa"4g4 AA 
eel ° Z 
<a) =| 
o8 
aes 2 co | Z As 
fer) 
® oO | BA se 2 0 G95 60 & g 5 AoA. yA elec og UU Jes pre z 
4 a Bie eS A,2n BSB OA aaa ae : 
— Be 2 at Ae 
2 ; SSSDSOSCSCSO CODDOSDS SCOSHANN AMDHNHAN AAA a) 
oe i 
Rg an SSO0DCOS SOOSDSOSS SCSOOHANHT MNOKRAMDM MDA a 
oO WV 9 my 
NOMSDSTOGD SCOSDSDSOSOSO WoSwewnnQ SCO!WMWMAQ COO (eo) 
“T8107. So On mo  OCoOmOnN rA BOBM HIS for) HH 
SSSOHASSOSO SCOOCSCSS O900599090 o9009009090 999 
‘SNIVIFE WD SNCUATNT on | a 
ES SOSC0O0CO SCSOOCOSCSS SOSC09DSDS SCOHWANSS COSC er) 
S *sn4e.19.g -O[ NUD i IROO for) | qo 
pal a 
Jj sag | SO09909000 C00900909 SCSOooDSD99 99099959 999 | g 
Ay : : 
ssnnamg-o.9 | 2909090000 ceo009000 CO009D90DS SOS99090909 S99 | : 
ee es Be 
sengjoaqg-or | SCO0900000 coo000090 cooSoo9o9o98 SS SSS98 SSS} | x 
NOmGOCO CDOOSDSCSOS WOOF O19 19 SHOmMeHO ore ror) 
So OF 6 SOBN BN WS ROD | ox 


‘SILI 


v1 


Meteorological Observations. 


GANGAROOWA NEAR Kanpy, CEYLON. 


STO OU 0 De | January, 1864. 


3.30 P. M. 


Direction of wind. 


Vane. 


seen 


\N W by W 


E 


Lower Clouds. 


Calm 
Calm 


SE,NNW &Calm 


None 
Variable 
None 
p) 


Variable 
Calm 
W, Calm 
SSE (?) 
ENE 
Variable 
None 


Calm 
Variable 
None 


Velocity in feet per 
Second. 


ro 


OOF bo 


Direction of wind. 


Vane. Lower Clouds. 
ENE None 
NE None 
EN #H None 
NNE ? 
N E None 
NE None 
Calm None 
N HE None 
NN E None 
N E by EH None 
ENE None 
EK by N None 
N HE None 
NE by E Ws WwW 
WwW ENE 
N E by H None 
NE None 
NNE None 
NE None 
ENE None 
N i by H None 
E 


10.0 P, M. 


in feet per 


Velocity 
Second. 


Soret 
ous bo 


Seooco0oo CCOFrF@®S 


OV 


eS 
So & 
3 


5.45. 


Meteorological Observations. vil 


GANGAROOWA NEAR KANDY, CEYLON. 


Distance in Miles in 
24 Hours. 


35.82 
22.48 
20.41 
36.29 
38.10 
54.41 
95.95 


142.18 
81.44 
44.17 
46.55 

104.87 
90.45 

103.91 


72.78 
59.33 
93.37 


68.57 


Lightning and Thunder. 


re ee es es ee ee 


Vili Meteorological Observations. 


GANGAROOWA NEAR Kanpy, CEYLON. 


= 
e GENERAL REMARKS. 
ri 
B 
~ 
SB 
=) 
q 
a 
5 
1 | Cool to warm, dry and fresh all day. 
2 Cool to warm, dry and fresh all day. 
3 | Fog till 8 a. M.; then fine, warm, dry and fresh. 
4 | Fine & fresh till noon; heavy nimb and drizzling rain after. 
5 | Fine till 8 « M.; then nimb & light rain; cloudy all day & rain in fore even. 
6 | Fine, dry & fresh all day. 
lf 
7 


8 | Cloudy with nimb ; showery & damp all day. 
9 | Light rain fore and after morn; fine afterwards, squally wind. 
10 | Cloudy with nimb; damp & showery nearly all day. 


12 | A little very light rain at 1 P. m. 
13 | Dull & cloudy with nimbus but no rain; squally wind in after even. 
14 | Cool to warm, dry and fresh all day. 


15 | Fog till 8 a. M.; cool to warm, dry and fresh afterwards. 

16 | Fog till 8 a. M.; cool to warm, dry and fresh afterwards. 

17 | Cold & damp at morn, mild to very warm, dry and fresh day. 
18 | Fog till8 a m.; after, mild to very warm, dry and fresh day. 
19 | Fog till 8 a. m.; cool to warm, dry and fresh afterwards. 
Fog till 8 a. M,; cool to warm, dry and fresh afterwards. 

21 | Cool to warm, dry and fresh all day. 


to 
cm) 


22 | The same as above; high wind till noon; moderate after. 

23 | Cold to warm, fresh; very dry afternoon; squally wind. [after even. 
24 | Fine, dry and pleasant till noon; close and oppressive afternoon, fore and 
25 | Damp at morn; very warm & close after 8 a.M. threatening nimb. in afternoon 
26 | Cool to warm, dry & fresh day; squally wind, at times high, [& fore even. 
27 | Cool to warm and fresh till noon, then sultry till 8 P. M. and again fresh, 
28 | Fine, dry & fresh all day ; in after even, squally wind, at times high. 


29 | Cold to hot, dry and fresh all day. 
30 | Cold to hot, dry and fresh all day. 
31 | Cold to hot, dry and fresh all day. 


Solar Halo on 15th. Lunar Halos on 14th, 15th and 16th, 


Meteorological Observations. ix 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of February, 1865. 


Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East. 


Feet, 
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18.11. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon. 


<a), 2s 
E 2 as Range of the Barometer 2 S  |Range of the Tempera- 
= 5 e during the day. pe 8 ture during the day. 
Date. | 7 a ES A = 
s+ | Max. | Min. | Dif. | 38 | Max. | Min, | Dif. 
= = 
Inches. | Inches. | tnches. | Inches: Cy) ft) 0 ft) 
1 30.002 {| 30.070 | 29.946 0.124 71.8 79.2 64.4 | 14.8 
2 043 106 993 113 72.1 79.6 66.6 | 13.0 
eit 3 036 115 986 129 73.0 81.2 67.4 | 13.8 
ae pes O07 086 933 158 73.0 81.3 66.2 | 15.1 
5 , Sunday. 
| 
6 .008 087 948 139 72.4 80.4; 64.4 | 16.0 
7 29.986 .092 909 183 | 71.2 80.1 61.2 | 18.9 
8 907 | 29.990 829 161 74.5 84.6 66.0 | 18.6 
9 -891 976 846 130 72.8 79.5 69.2 | 10.3 
10 873 953 802 151 73.0 81.2 68.6 | 12.6 
11 -900 998 1835 163 70.3 76.0 66.6 | 9.4: 
12 | Sunday. 
13 30.008 | 30.101 939 162 72.8 80.1 67.2 | 129 
14 .038 128 .985 143 71.5 80.6 62.2 | 18.4 
15 .060 157 | 30.015 142 | 717 814 | 63.8 | 17.6 
16 062 139 004: 135 72.9 83.3 62.6 | 20.7 
17 29.982 .064 | 29.901 163 74.8 84.6 65.4 | 19.2 
18 -913 | 29.986 851 135 77.0 87.1 68.0 | 19.1 
19 | Sunday. 
20 -929 | 30.025 876 | 149 78.6 87.8 70.2 | 17.6 
21 903 002 826 176 78.4 86.1 70.6 | 15.5 
22 888 000 .830 170 77.0 85.0 71.u | 13:9 
23 940 040 853 187 76.3 85.4 | 67.6 | 17.8 
24 963 .066 870 196 76.6 87.0 | 66.2 | 20.8 
25 949 058 .880 178 74.3 80.8 68.8 | 12.0 
26 | Sunday. 
27 994 .081 | .886 195 71.6 78.2 67.1 | 11.1 
28 30,065 157 | 30.013 144 72.2 80 64.6 | 15.6 
Ll 


_ The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
" mometer Means are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day. 


q 


BS Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
wn the month of February, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


5 is Be [ag |2¢ 
o . . 2 = 
é So) eens | | oe eee 
= < © 5 Pee isd ieee 
fe . | | ae eee 
A 5 3 = ° Sie BIOS | = BS 
Date.| © . = a) 2 22 |pss) Sos 
| © 8 & 3 = S) eh 32 |Z Sa! bos 
| Bo = 2 & 3 BS =a) Bs es I = 2) 
| c 5 fQ x iS q & a3 a) = 2 ss 
° oS ORS ao 
6 A = E aan Si || Sis 1) sears 
= a os) a = = is = 
0 oO o 0 Inches.| 1. gr. | TT. gr. 
1 67.0 4.8 63.2 8.6 0.582 6.37 2.08 0.75 
2 67.0 Bul 62.9 9.2 .576 ail 22, 74 
3 67.3 5.7 62.7 | 10.3 572 .26 50 72 
4 65.0 8.0 58.6 | 14.4 -A99 5.46 3.30 62 
5 Sunday. 
6 63.6 8.8 56.6 | 15.8 A67 ell 49 59 
7 62.5 8.7 55.5 | 15.7 450 4.94: .36 .60 
8. | 69.3 5.2 65.7 6.8 .632 6.89 2.29 75 
O21 68.8 4.0 65.6 7.2 .630 -90 1.81 79 
10 69.1 3.9 66.0 7.0 .638 98 78 .80 
11 66.7 3.6 63.8 6.5 993 52 .56 BL 
12 | Sunday. 
13 | 64.4 8.4 07.7 | 15.1 485 5.30 3.41 61 
14, 62.8 8.7 55.8 | 15,7 455 4.99 39 .60 
15 63.0 8.7 56.0 | 15.7 458 5.01 42 59 
16 64.1 8.8 57.1 | 15.8 A475 .19 54 60 
i ae OG-0) 8.8 59.8 | 15.0 520 .66 60 61 
18 69.7 7.3 64.6 | 12.4 .609 6.62 27 67 
19 Sunday. 
20 70.6 8.0 65.0 | 13.6 617 .68 -70 64 
21 70.1 8.3 64.3 | 14.1 603 53 78 63 
22 67.3 Sy 60.5 | 16.5 532 5.77 4.12 58 
23 65.5 10.8 57.9 | 18.4 488 29 40 .55 
24 68.1 8.5 62.1 | 14.5 561 6.08 3.69 .62 
25 67.1, |, (7.2 |! 621 |19.8) |" 560i |) “2 Orme 
26 | Sunday. 
27 66.5 5.1 | 62.4 9.2 567 22 2.18 74 
28 OC 63.9 8.3 57.3 | 14,9 A478 5,23 3.32 61 
| | 


All the Uygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. > 


Meteorological Observations. X1 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of February, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon. 


© 2 . | Range of the Barometer = oO Range of the Temperature 
oOo + 
i for each hour during me for each hour during 
H Pom the month. bo the month, 
our. | = So 5 2 
Bee = 2 
S52 | Max. | Min. | Diff.| 36 | Max. | Min. Diff. 
= = 
Inches. | Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| 0 cy) 0 0 
eS eng 53 70.2 
night. 967 | 30.058 | 29.873 | 0.180 0. 74.6 66.6 8.0 
1 957 051 .863 188 | 69.5 | 74.6 69.6 - 9.0 
2 947 044 | .853 191 | 69.1 | 73.6 64.6 9.0 
3 .937 .035 845 | .190 68.7 720 64.0 9.0 
4, 937 -036 | .842 194} 68.1 72.2 63.0 9.2 
5 951 044 | .854 190 | 674) 71.8 62.7 9.1 
6 969 068 |} .862 206 | 66.8 | 71.1 62,2 8.9 
7 994 086 | .888 1198 | 66.7 | 71.6 61.2 10.4 
8 | 30.023 112; .913 199 | 69.4 | 74.8 66.0 88 
2 048 | .141]} .945 196 | 72.8 | 78.6 67.8 10.8 
10 .059 157 | .953 .204 | 75.8 | 81.0 69.0 12.0 
il 048 ~| .157 | .917 240 | 77.1) 83.2 70.6 12. 
Noon. 020 | .184 | .904 2380 | 79.3 | 85.5 71.4 14.1 
i | 29.985 081 | .867 214 | 80.6 | 86.4 72.2, 14,2 
2 951 048 | .843 2050 (eS C Onl S 720 75.2 11.8 
3 .932 025 | .843 182 | 81.9 | 87.8 76.0 11.8 
+ Sel 015 | .826 189 | 81.3 , 86.8 75.6 11.2 
5 922, 019 | .822 197 | 79.9 | 86.0 74.0 12.0 
6 927 033 | .802 231 | 77.5 | 83.0 73.0 10.0 
7 943 047 | .824 .223 | 75.5 | 80.6 72.2, 8.4 
8 .958 055 ; .858 197 | 74.0 | 78.8 71.1 7.7 
9 974 .070 | .858 PALA 7S Nps) 70.1 7.2 
10 983 077 .866 211 | 71.7 | 76.4 68.6 7.8 
il .980 073 | .878 195 | 70.8 | 75.2 67.4 7.8 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther. 
mometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several hours 
during the month, 


xii Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of February, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


2 3 as 5 3 BO So Ss S a 
3 ermluite: Wie ge pes |252)Hes 
2 Come & eames 2) 2 2 
oe ° o S) oO » Ss 55 Umeha 
Hour. eS 3 a S ae Oo a 2 a E, = = 
| 3 2 = ay (unseat a4" 2 | @ ocr 
| = AS = = 5 i= a 75 2 
22 S Ss Sih mahi, iegeiion te ees |e 
o & ce a. As Sie | eles) |S Seer aeeeme 
= 5 >. E pe | ee | sie | eo oe eee 
a A S A S pay ene) ff) SSS Es 
o ry 0 o Inches. |Troy grs./Troy grs. 
Mid- | gga | 41 | -e28 | 74 | 0574 | -692 | 1493 | oe 
eaniit Ne a. ] . O04 5 . 
aa 65.8 3.7 | 62.8 6.7 B74 82 56 .80 
2 65.6 3.5 | 62.8 6.3 BTA 33 A5 i 
3 65.3 3.4 | 62.6 6.1 570 2 AO 82 
A, 64.8 3.3 | 62.2 5.9 563 2 134 82 
5 64.3 3.1 | -61.8 5.6 1555 14 25 83 
6 63.6 3.2 | 61.0 5.8 AL 5.99 27 83 
7 63.6 Ba MG al 5.6 543 6.01 122 83 
8 64.8 4.6 | 61.1 8.3 548 5.98 88 76 
9 65.8 70 | 60.2 | 12.6 527 76 2.95 .66 
10 66.7 8.6 | 60.7 | 146 536 82 3.58 62 
ll 67.3 98 | 604 | 16.7 .530 75 4.17 58 
Noon.| 67.9 | 11.4] 59.9 | 19.4 521 63 96 53 
1 68.1 | 125 | 59.3 | 21.3 bl 50 5.51 .50 
2 68.5 | 131 | 593 | 22.3 11 49 85 48 
3 68.3 |136 | 588 | 23.1 503 239 6.05 AT 
4 68.0 | 13.3 | 58.7 | 22.6 501 38 5,86 48 
5 67.9 | 12.0 | 59.5 | 20.4 515 5D 2RU ae 
6 68.1 94 | 61.5 | 16.0 550 96 4.08 .59 
7 68.9 7.5 | 62.7 | 12.8 572 | 6.22 3.24 .66 
8 67.5 6.5 | 62.9 | 111 576 29 2.75 .70 
9 66.8 6.0 | 62.0 | 10.8 559 sitrl .60 70 
10 66.5 5.2 | 62.3 9.4 2565 .20 23 74 
il 66.1 4,7 | 62.3 8.5 565 .20 .00 76 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants, 


Meteorological Observations. xiil 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
an the month of February, 1865. 
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


Ps | OO 
SE i265. 
eee ia | Pee go 
-| = |S & & Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
- Pia aoc of the Wind. 
Ala” jared 
| o  |Inches, 
1) 130.9 | S. W. & variable. ‘i & “i till 3p. m. cloudy afterwards, 
also drizzling at 3 a, M. 10 & 11 P, uM. 
2} 139.0) 0.10 | N. & N. W. Cloudy till 8 a. mw. Scatd. clouds till 5 P.M. 


cloudless afterwards also drizzling from 
midnight to5 a. M. & foggy from 8 te 


10 P. M. 

ot 140.40 =, W. Cloudy till 3 Pp, wu. cloudless afterwards. 

4 tee O eo lN. Wie Ws Clondless till 3 a. m. cloudy till8 a. M. 

Ni & i afterwards. 

Spies ce Sunday. 

6) 145.5 |W. &N. W, i. 

7 140.0 IN. W. & W. Cloudless till 10 a. um. “i afterwards. 

8) 137.2 |S. W.&S. Cloudless till 8 a. mw. 91 till 6 pv. m. cloudy 
afterwards also drizzling at 8 & 9 Pp. M. 

731i nee at Ss. W. &N. W. Clondy till 6r.mM. \i & i afterwards ; 
also drizzling atl &9a.uM. Gat 1, 5d 
& 6 P. M. 

10) 134.8) 0.72 |S. & N. W. ‘i & i till 4 a. u. cloudy afterwards, 


also thundering at 10 a. uM. & raining 
between 10 G11a.u. Gat4,5&11?, mu. 
cH ae 0.20 | 8. &58. H. & i. Cloudy : also drizzling after intervals. 


13| 140.4| ,.. |N.W.&N. &N. E.| i till 4 4. wu. cloudless afterwards: also 
slightly foggy at 11 P. u. 


G4) 141.27 oe N. W. Cloudless. 

15 139.5; ... | N.W.& W. Cloudless till 2 a. uw. Seatd. clouds till 11 
A. M, cloudless afterwards. 

16) 138.0 W. & WN. W. Cloudless. 

17| 139.2 W.&S Cloudless till6 a. mu. ‘i till 10 a. uM, “i 


& 
till 6 P. uM. cloudless afterwards. 
W. Cloudless till 7 a. um. “i till 6 p. mw. cloud- 


18} 140.7; ,.. |S. 
less afterwards, also fogey ato & 6 A, M, 
iL ww. | Sunday 
20| 143.0 S.&S8. H. Cloudless. 
2M FAVA) C. N. W. & W. Cloudless. 
22) ’3NG|.. 3. 8. &N. W. Cloudless till 5 a. mu. Scatd. clouds till 2 


p. M. cloudless afterwards, also slightly 
drizzled between 10 & 11 a. u. 
.W.&N., Cloudless. 
s. Cloudless till 11 a, m. 1 till 6 Pp. uy, cloud. 
less afterwards. 


Mi Cirri, —i Strati, \i Cumuli, -i Cirro strati, ~i Cumulo strati, W-i Nimbi 
\ i Cirro cumuli. 


4 


XIV Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
on the month of Kebruary, 1865. 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &c, 


Ba |PS 
os lees eye 
.| 2 |S S | Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
S| xs 1259 of the Wind. 
BS) Ss jax 3 
Ala = jas 
| o [Inches 
25| 139.5| ... | HE. & variable, Cloudless till 7 a. m. Scatd. clouds after- 
wards, also fogey between 4&7 A. M. 
& slightly drizzling at 94. uM. & 4 P. M. 
Z26it es 0.66 | Sunday. 
27; 1386.0} 0.18 | N. W.&N. Cloudy nearly the whole day; also thun- 
dering and raining between 1 & 2 a. uM. 
2B ASRON TING Wi. Cloudless till 5 a. mM. “i till9 a. Mu. cloud- 


less afterwards. 


Meteorological Observations. XV 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of February, 1865. 


Montruty Resvrts. 


Inches 

Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. oe -. 29.972 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 & 11 4. u. on the 15th & 28th, 30.157 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 6 Pp. M. on the 10th, «- 29,802 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, ae ee =: 0.85 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures,.. oe ee ee 930.062 
Ditto ditto Mime ditto © ee 36 -- 29.907 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .. ee 0,155 

cy) 

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. ee ee 73.7 
Max. Temperature occurred at 3 p. M. on the 20th, Ac ote 87.8 
Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the 7th, it aid 61.2 
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, ee 00 26.6 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, SC oo AO 82.1 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. ae «eo ate 66.5 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, .. 40 15.6 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. Ste 50 66.5 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, .. 7.2 
Computed Mean Dew-point forthe month, .. de as 61.5 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, oC 12.2 
Inches 


Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. ae ae 0.550 


Troy grains 
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, nc ve Ac 6.01 


Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, Ae 2.95 
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.67 

) Inches 
Rained 10 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, uh a 0.72 
Total amount of rain during the month, cn at Be 1.86 


Prevailing direction of the Wind, .. ae ith N. W. & W. 


XVi Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of Hebruary, 1865. 


Monruty Rersvrts. 


Vables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


Hour. 
= = =| a s S Ss I site 
° o ° ° ° ne) e ro) 
afal=| letile! (slele! lelEls|al ale 
N. S17 [2 | B. [ot foi ce |S-la loi [aE |e ta lea 1S |e lS 
No. of days. 
Midnight. 1) 1 , 8 3 4) 1 6 2 
1 1 11 | 8] 2) 4 4, 6} 1 
2 1 1 H 5 4) 1} 6 gy il 
3 1 1 fe) | 3) | 9} a7 1 
4 iL We a 2 6) 1410} 1 3 
5 3 1} yl 2 OM TU | 8 A 3 
6 3 1 1 1 2 1 8 li 
J 5 2 1 1 1 3 4 8 
8 6 2 2 1) 47 2 3 2 6 
9 5] 11 3| 2) |2| fai apal ail fe 
10 3 5 2 3} Ij A 3 4, 
11 3] | 4 4) }2, fa} aal fel fala 
Noon. 4, 4, 2 3] ff 2 3 2 4 
1 5 4 1 bh | Pet 3/ If 4 5 
2 1 1 2 2) 473 3 4 8 
3 1 1 1 2 1 3 7 8 
4. 4) 1} 1} 2) 9 2 2 4 9} 1 
5 3 1 1) 9 5) 1) 2 6| 1] 6 
6 1 1 2| W 4) 1} 5) 116 5 
7 1 1 5 6 6 5 
8 2 1 } 4 6| 1} 6 5 
9 2 il i) 5) A) 1 7 
10 2 1 | 7 4) 1} 4 6 
11 1 | 8 2 6| 2) 7 


Meteorological Observations. 


Xvi 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of March, 1865. 


Latitude 22° 33’1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East. 


Feet, 
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18.11. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


Date. 


| 


OCOntn anhwone 


27 
28 
29 
30 
31 


Mean Height of 
the Barometer 
at 32° Fabt, 


Inches. 
30.017 
29.966 

.923 
-909 


Sunday. 


927 
-930 
-929 
924 
948 
962 


Sunday. 


937 
951 
987 
39.004 
29.998 
961 


Sunday. 


.948 
-946 
893 
859 
838 
848 


Sunday. 


851 
828 
852 
859 
.880 


Range of the Barometer 
during the day. 


Max. 


Inches. 
30.094 
.040 
.000 
29.971 


992 
30.021 
29.996 
30.005 

043 

:023 


.009 
057 
029 
094, 
.090 
039 


-032 
-039 
29.975 
948 
908 
2920 


-932 
912 
21 
940 
.965 


Min. 


Inches. 
29,957 
.907 
.832 
-820 


852 
867 
580 
874 
888 
914 


2893 


887 | 


-900 
952 
937 
886 


894 | 


881 
819 
ATA: 
790 
795 


781. 
765 
.790 
813 
828 


Diff, 


Inches. 
0.137 
lio 
168 
allie 


140 
154 
116 
131 
155 
109 


ANE 


170 
129 
142 
153 
153 


138 
158 
156 
174 
118 
130 


151 
147 
131 
LPT 
135 


Mean Dry Bulb 
Thermometer. 


a 
gt 8 © 
oo 


73.4 


Range of the Tempera- 
ture during the day. 


Max. 


) 
82.3 
85.4 
84.4: 
83.8 


78.4: 
81.2 
76.0 
83.0 
85.4 
85.8 


86.7 
83.8 
843 
86.6 
87.8 
91,4: 


93.2 
91.2 
94,8 
94.4 
94.7 
96.3 


97.6 
97.8 
94.3 
93.8 
95.0 


Min. 


63.6 
66.8 
70.0 
68.8 


68.0 
68.1 
68.7 
69.2 
72.4 
71.5 


72.8 
70.8 
70.6 
68.0 
64.9 
69.2 


73.6 
75.2 
76.8 
71.8 
74.6 


74,0 


76.8 
76.2 
78.4 
76.9 
76.7 


Diff. 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther~ 
mometer Means are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day. . 


xvill Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of March, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—(Continued.) 


s i E S 5. |ag 16 
2 3 z a 2 a eee ane 
Seo A | gS ee eee 
= o S) = an) £o42|s62°3 
3 CS E 2 © pyc = De 
Date.| 7. 2 a) $$ fo = Bee ihc = on 
| 83 2 z = Si | BS || Seales 
| Bs a 2 ee Meee eN eels) os  — = 
Hees a a. 5 aS Mite ese sts) | se = 
$A a 5 po | > | 88 |2ag] S38 
| 2 a) os) a) = = S = 
| o 0 o 0 Inches. | i gr5 | Wier: 
1 64.5 8.5 57.7) 15.3 0.485 5.30 3.46 0.61 
2 69.3 6.6 64.7 | 11.2 611 6.65 2.92 70 
3 69.6 7.3 64.5 | 12.4 .607 .60 3.26 .67 
4 68.7 6.7 64.0 | 11.4 97 -00 2.93 69 
5 Sunday. 
6 68.5 3.1 66.0 5.6 .638 7.00 1.40 83 
Af 69.9 3.2 67.3 5.8 .666 .28 51 .83 
6.4 68.5 3.1 65.5 6.7 .628 6.88 67 81 
9 | 70.9 5.5 | 67.0| 94 | .659| 7.17 | 255 | 74 
10 | 72.0 5.9 67.9 | 10.0 .679 .36 .80 72 
1k 72.3 6.0 68.1 | 10.2 684 -40 88 72 
12 | Sunday. 
13 70.6 8.5 64.6 } 14.5 .609 6.58 3.95 .63 
14, 69.6 7.2, 64.6 | 12.2 .609 62 21 .67 
15 69.0 eg 63.6 | 13.1 .090 -40 40 .65 
16 65.9 11.0 58.2 | 18.7 493 5.34 4,52 04: 
17 65.1 ult? 56.9 | 19.9 A72 Al 72 02 
18 66.9 13.1 57.7 | 22.3 A85 «22 5.59 48 
19 | Sunday. 
20 0) 700 13.3 | 60.7 | 22.6 536 72, | 6.20 48 
21 70.5 12.4 61.8 | 21.1 .500 .95 5.84 col 
22 72.4 11.3 64.5 | 19.2 .607 6.50 .57 4 
23 72.4 102 65.3 | 17.3 .623 .69 499 Yi 
24 | 72.4 10.9 (eye! || alfeys 619 63 5.40 .55 
25 73.7 10.6 66.3 | 18.0 644 .89 a9 56 
26 | Sundoy. 
27 74.6 11.7 66.4 | 19.9 .646 88 6.14 08 
28 74.3 11.4 66.3 | 19.4 644 88 5.92 04 
29 778 6.7 73.1 | 11.4 .803 8.60 8.75 -70 
30 75.7 8.1 70.0 | 13.8 027 7.78 4.32 64 
31 | 74.4 10.2 67.3 | 17.8 666 12 5.27 08 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenw ich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. X1x 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of March, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


°c =; | Range of the Barometer = 3 Range of the Temperature 
age for each hour during Ag for each hour during 
He: = 2 = the month. Po the month, 
= tees RE 7 
2 Ge eS | 
= | Max. Min. Diff. Sc) Max. Min. Diff, 
= |  & 
Inches. | Inches.; Inches.| Inches. ty) 0 0 ° 
Mid- a "5 
night. 29.919 § 30.054 | 29.822 | 0.232 0 81,3 68.0 13.3 
if; .910 .043 813 .230 74.3 80.8 67.0 13.8 
2 .898 .033 .805 .228 Wall 79.4: 65.8 13.6 
3 .888 .018 -798 .220 73.2 78.8 65.2 13.6 
4, .888 -003 .802 201 72.7 78.8 64.4 14.4 
5 .905 .019 813 | .206 W221 78.6 64,0 14.6 
6 .926 .031 .832 .199 AL e/ 78.6 63.8 14.8 
7 .948 .042 854 .188 72.3 78.4 63.6 14.8 
8 .975 .065 .888 Gal 75.4 81.3 68 2 13.1 
9 .993 -083 -906 177 78.8 86.0 68.4 17.6 
10 .998 .094 .905 189 81.7 89.4 68.1 21.3 
11 .987 | .088 .896 192 84.2 93.2 74.0 19,2 
| | 
Noon. | .963 071 | .872 199 | 85.9 | 95.0 | 74.2 20.8 
1 .934, .040 .851 189 87.1 96.2 75.0 21.2 
2 898 | .005 811 194. 88.0 97.6 76.0 21.6 
3 877 '29.977 -776 .201 88.1 97.8 75.6 2222 
4, 867 | .965 TEA) | ells 87.7 97.6 74.9 22.7 
5 .865 .959 76d 194 86.4 96.1 72.6 23.5 
6 872 .957 177 .180 83.4 91.6 71.8 19.8 
7 .888 .969 791 178 89.9 88.0 70.8 17.2 
8 .906 -988 | .812 176 79.2 85.2 70.2 15.0 
9 .918 (30.001 .831 170 78.0 83.8 69.6 14.2 
10 ee \ 1015 1 837 LTB Wa 82:9 70.3 11.9 
11 924. .008 823 185 76.1 81.4: 70.0 11.4 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several hours 


during the month. 


20:< Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of March, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


2 3 3 E S 23 (sone 
oc nk MiMi ues = |= 22 
@ fs @ & o-8 mle | oss 
Se ie Se 2 Bees | 2s 
Hour. eS 3 a s wo “eO Om tenes oe 
ee Oe IOC he 2S | 2 22 
EO 3 3 Ee Foo 5 & oS a2 a 2 
ai tre Pee So oMeleai2 25 | 22s 
Ss |b) £2 | pa | ge | 8 6... BS 8 leis 
= a) ‘S) fa = SSCs ra gs 
1 
0 to) 7) () Inches. |'Troy grs./Troy grs. 
a 69.7 | 53 | 660 | 9.0 | 0638 | 695 | 236 | 0% 
il 69.55) 4:81. 66.0 8.2 | .640 99 13 17 
2 693 | 44 | 66.2 hes Wp Gee | GON 1.95 78 
3 69.2 | 4.0 | 66.0 He | NBS GOS 84 79 
4 68.9 | 3.8 | 65.9 6.8 | .636 96 72 .80 
5 685 | 3.7 | 63.5 6.7 | .628 88 67 81 
6 682 | 3.5 | 68.4 63 | 1626 87 eG 82 
7 686 | 3.7 | 65.6 Gi | ERO .90 68 80 
8 70.0 | 5.4 | 66.2 92 | .642 .99 2.4A 74 
9 70.9 7.9 65.4 13.4 .626 17 3.67 .65 
10 Fala OlON | G4e7) orn ona BT 4.80 58 
11 72.0 | 12.2 | 63.5 | 20.7 | .588 27 5.97 bl 
Woon, | F200 13.9) ||) 62.3)! 123.67) 565 01 6.86 AT 
1 79.1 | 15.0 | 631 | 240 | .580 16 717 46 
2 49.4, | 15.6 | 63.0 | 25.0 578 13 55 45 
3 793 |158 | 62.8 | 25.3 574 10 62 45 
4 792 |15.5 | 62.9 | 248 576 11 AS 45 
5 TG), PUB Eh APO AN ee. es 17 45 
6 ral dale |) 63.5) 1 1910) |) 5ssinl yao 5.67 53 
7 719 | 9.0 | 65.6 | 15.3 | .630 79 4.31 61 
8 is hE ak Was yy GAO 92 3.64 66 
9 Ty | BS |) Gea | ie 646 | 7.00 19 68 
10 71.0 | 60 | 66.8 | 10.2 | .655 11 2.78 72 
ll 70.7 | 5.4 | 66.9 9.2 | .657 15 AS 74 


_ 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants, 


Meteorological Observations. 


XX1 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 


in the month of March, 1865. 
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


zd jms 
Sey) See ae 
see jO = 9 | Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
=| #3 |282| ofthe Wind. 
n= = = 10 © 
0 _|Inches, 

1) 137.6 Ee Wer cnNi See Cloudless. 

2| 136.0 Per Se Cloudless till 9 a, mu. Scatd. clouds after- 
wards. 

ap fae OPP, 1S. Cloudy till 7 4. mu. Scatd. clouds till 8 

i Pp. M. cloudy afterwards. 
4 135.0 8. &N. 4. Cloudy till 10 a.m. ni & “i till 4p. mu. 
cloudy afterwards. 
7 eee 1.08 | Sunday. 
Gls 0.54 | H. GN. Cloudy also raining at midnight & 2 a. M. 
& drizzling from 4 to 8 P.M. & at 11 
p.M. & thundering at midnight & 5 
P.M. & lightning at 1 a. uM. & at 8 P.M. 
7| 135.4) 0.25 | N.& N. W. Cloudy till 10 a. mu. i till 3 P. wm. cloudy 
afterwards: alsoraining at9 & 10 A. M. 
& drizzling from 5 to 9 P. M. 
Sie --- S.W.&W.&S. Cloudy: also drizzling at 2,5 & 7 P. u. 
9} 137.0} ... |E.&W Cloudy till 7 a. um. i & “i afterwards. 
10) 141.0} 0.09 | H.&N. H.G&N. W.| -itill 6 a.m, thin clouds till 10 a.m. 
“i & 11 till 5 p. um. cloudy afterwards ; 
also drizzling from 7 to 10 p.m. & 
lightning at 7 P. M. 

11; 139.8 . |W.& N.W. Cloudless. 

2) ee . | Sunday. 

13| 145.8 N.WG&N. Cloudless till 3 a. mM, “itill3 P. Mm. Scatd, 

, clouds afterwards. 

14| 134.9) ,. |N.W.&GW.O&N, Ni & +i till 2 p.m. Scatd. clouds after- 
wards. 

15; 135.0; ... | N.W.&N. i till 4 P. uw. cloudless afterwards. 

16, 140.1) ... | W.&N. W. Cloudless. 

Abs AO) |e eel Nei Wi. GoW Cloudless till 11 a.m. “i il38 em Ni 
till 6 p. mM. cloudless afterwards. 

18, 141.0} .,, | W.& N. W. itil 7 a.m. “i till 6 Pp. M. cloudless 
afterwards. 

BON 50 Sunday. 

20 146.4 W.&S.&N.W. | Cloudiess till10 a.m, i & Yi till 2. 
cloudless afterwards. 

ZAL NAL OW)... S.W.&N. W. G&S.) -i till 1p. uw. 9i afterwards, 

22| 142.2) ... |S.W.&W.&S. i till 4 p.m. cloudy afterwards, also 
slightly drizzled at 8 ep. um. & lightning 
at 7 P. M 

23| 142.0 ye S.&N. W. i till 6 a. uw. cloudless afterwards. 

24) 141.0] ,,, |W. &S. W. Cloudless: also foggy from 3 to 6 A. M. 


\ i Cirro cumuli. 


} 


“Mi Cirri, —i Strati, \i Cumuli, -i Cirro strati, ~i Cumulo strati, -i Nimbi 


XXil Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
wm the month of March, 1865. 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &c, 


ts Oe) 
+ 2S Oe 5 Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 

S| 4s 1839 of the Wind. 

S| Sse fan - 

Ala jped 

==}. — —_ —— 

| 0 |Inches 

25) 142.0} ... |S. W. & W. Cloudless: also fogey from 5 to 8 A, M. 

26] vee =| Sundoyy. 

27| 141.6) ... |S.GW.&S. W. Cloudless. 

23) T4IOUs 27. 4) Se Cloudless, 

29| 137.0 aa Ws Cloudless till 3 p. mu. \-1 afterwards. 

30} 137.6) ... |S. &58. W. Cloudless till 8a um. i & “i till 4p, 
Scatd. clouds afterwards, also raining, 
thundering and lightning at 8 P. mM, 

31) 144.0; ... |S.W.&S. Scatd. clouds till 6 a.m. “i & i till 6 
p. M. cloudless afterwards. 


Meteorological Observations. XXili 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of March, 1865. 


Montuty ReEsvuts. 


Inches 
Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. oe e. 29,920 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a.m. onthelst & 16th,.. 30.094 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 Pp. M. on the 28th, e- 29.765 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, ee e- 0.329 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures,.. ae eo ee 30,000 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. oc 50 «- 29859 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .. oo §«©«.: 01 41. 
Oo 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. 50 AB 79.4 
Max. Temperature occurred at 3 P. M. on the 28th, 56 50 97.8 
Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the Ist, 5c 00 63.6 
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, .. Be 34.2 
Mean of the daily Max, Temperature, oe eo oe 88.5 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. ae AC os 71.6 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, .. Ad 16.9 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. a an 40.7 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, .. 8.7 
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, .. ae my 64.6 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, Bs 14.8 
Inches 
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. 50 e- 0.609 
Troy grains 
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, ae se ee 6.58 
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, mA 4.04, 
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.62 
Inches 
Rained 6 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, we oe 1.08 
Total amount of rain during the month, Ae a ee 1.96 


Prevailing direction of the Wind, .. a  S.&W.& N, W. 


XXIV Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of March, 1865. 


Montuty RESULTS. 


Wables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


Hour. 
3 § VS SS MN SH ens teehee 
cite eials] |sielel | stElsts) ale 
NJ 217 || EB. |elaleiS.claleielelaleiSigle 
No. of days 
Midnight. 2 Sa Hel 2 5} 1 3 
1 ay |i a fs| | 5] | 7 Ja 
2 ib) || Bil a isi | 5) Joel | 4 
3 i 2 1 H 5 5 8 4 i 
4 2 1 1 H 5 A, 8 4. 2 
5 2) [a 1| fs sl Pal 74 1 
6 2 1 Uy) 6 9 3 
7 2 1 1 7 3} fll 3 
8 ml 2 }5) je) [4 17 
9 3 2 i 1) 5 5 6 A 
10 A 2) 2| 1} 1) Yl 7 5 5 
11 A, 1) 3 ab egy 2 7 5 
Noon. 3 1 2 1 4 2 5 9 
1 1 NU Pepe Ta VPI) il 
2 3, [1 2 15) | 2} | sj apa 
3 2 1 2 1 6 7 9 
4, Teal foal i 5 4. 8 7 
5 2,111 2a fe | 3) ifs) | 5 
6 Li a 2) 2 1 9 3 5 6 
7 2) 1} 2) 2 1 110 2) 1} 5 5 
8 2) 1 3) 2 19) | 3lap7) ys 
9 i Th} AL 2 1} $10) 13 4 4 4, H 
10 2 1 f2; ita) 4) | 4 
All 3) 1 1 Aid 5) 4, | 


| 
| 


Meteorological Observations. XXV 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of April, 1865. 
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East. 
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in, 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


oo 2s 
2 E = Range of the Barometer eB 3 Range of the Tempera- 
oS during the day. ba ture during the day, 
cre ee 
Date. | _ e S 3 
S22] Max. | Min. | Dif, #& | Max. | Min. | Diff. 
a = 
Inches. | Inches. } Inches. | Inches. o (a) to) fa) 
1 | 29.885 | 29.974} 29.802 | 0.172] 849 96.4 | 75.0 | 21.4 
2 Sunday. 
3 843 .908 189 119 83.6 94.6 78.4) 16.2 
4, 842 918 7/85) 183 83.8 98.2 73.4 | 248 
5 .885 94:7 211 136 80.4 90.0 72.4 | 17.6 
6 814 888 HET 151 | °83.6 93.0 | 77.0 | 16.0 
7 -786 878 BD 163 85.3 94.6 79.0 | 15.6 
8 788 .853 731 122 87.5 96.5 81.6 | 14.9 
9 | Sunday. 
10 S811 .885 746 139 87.5 96.8 80.4 | 16.4 
11 .825 .908 rT 137 86.2 96.6 80.2 | 16.4 
12 872 949 £785 164 \ 85.1) 93.6 | 78.2 | 15.4 
13 .897 .985 .833 «152 84.3 92.1 75.2 | 16.9 
14, 877 964, «794 170 85.4 94.6 79.2-| 15.4 
15 .816 .885 Jol 154: 85.7 95.2 79.6 | 15.6 
16. | Sunday. 
ily! £729 795 .675 120 81.5 90.8 76.4 | 14.4 
18 824 -905 .716 189 82.6 92.4) 75.4 | 17.0 
19 879 -969 .809 .160 84.4 92,5 78.2 | 14.3 
20 761 .852 -664: | 188 85.4, 93.6 79.6 | 14.0 
21 701 778 622 .156 86.2 94.8 80.6 | 14.2 
22 J74A: -795 .673 122 79.6 91.1 3A | 17.7 
23 | Sunday. 
24, 714 -786 647 139 82.5 91.0 76.2 | 148 
25 .706 .786 629 Abi?) 85.7 93.8 79.8 | 14.0 
26 736 .808 653 155 86.4 92.6 81.4 | 11.2 
27 782 845 .693 152 84.6 91.4 Mine alias 
28 .729 .802 637 165 85.6 91.6 80.6 | 11.0 
29 .639 WS .526 .189 85.0 90.6 75.8 | 148 
30. | Sunday. 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Meaus are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day, 


XXxvi Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of April, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


: Re S peau eh ala a2 
A ey ee eee (oS | 22 
S S co) a is © C8 2) Sa a 
= é i 5 = 3: |e Sil ee 
=) > io 2 ie aS) 08'S = oe S 
Date. |). B= a i 3 Bo |228) $e x0 
Bou 3 a. coe = Ze x Es 
cf | Sl 8 | 8. | a: | £2 eee 
ee Ee S| @2 |" 2 eo. eae 
Ho = ‘5 2 nee Gules Sil Sse = 
5 A ae 8 Pa Ss Sf 2s aieap bese 
e a S) Q = = ee = 
0 te) 0 0 Iiaelnveys4 || NS are, || GEL eae 
1 78.2 6.7 73.5 | 114 0.814 8.70. a9 0.70 
2 \ Sunday 
3 74.8 8.8 68.6 | 15.0 .695 7 4A 4.59 62 
4 75.5 8.3 69.7 | 14.1 720 71 at) .64 
5 72.6 7.8 67.1 | 13.3 .661 13 3.8L .65 
6 77.8 5.8 Moet Oe) 819 8.78 .25 73 
7 79.3 6.0 75.1 | 10,2 .857 9.15 AID 12 
8 80.8 6.7 76.8 | 10.7 .905 61 .88 vi 
9 | Sunday 
10 78.0 9.5 ripepy |) Ris? 183 8.32 B17 62 
Oe ee 76 8.6 71.6 | 14.6 766 15 4.84 .63 
12 «| TT 7A 72.5) 1) 12.6 787 AL 16 67 
aS) ie ego OFZ 68:7 i 1bsG 697 | 7.44 84 61 
14, 77.6 7.3 TWAM, We 33533 778 8.381 Bi .66 
15 77.8 1.9 72.3 3.4 6783 .30 AA .65 
16 Sunday. 
il7/ 74.9 6.6 70.3 | 11.2 6134 7.90 3.41 -70 
18 75.9 6.7 71.2) 11.4 756 8.12 56 .70 
19) © 77.8 6.6 12: 11.2 .806 .63 .68 70 
20 | 78.3 dew exe) | Weal 809 63 4.05 .68 
21 199 5.3 75.5 | 10.7 868 9.25 3.74 71 
22 75.2 4A 72,1 7.5 178 8.39 2.30 79 
23 Sunday. 
24 78.8 3. 76.2 6.3 .887 9.54 10 82 
25 80.8 4.9 77.4 8.3 922 85 95 dl 
26 80.8 5.6 76.9 9.5 .908 .66 3.40 7A 
27 78.9 5.7 74.9 9.7 851 .09 30 713 
28 79.3 6.3 74.9 } 10.7 851 08 68 Affil 
29 78.6 6.4: 74.1 | 10.9 .830 8.87 66 71 
30 Sunday. 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. XXVIl 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of April, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


Hour. 


fet 
HOMO MOST OI Co DO HE 


A 
° 
iS} 
=) 


RPOMOOTA ABR we 


ae 


the Barometer 


Mean Height of 
at 32° Paht. 


Inches. 


29.806 


793 
-780 
-770 
oe 
790 
804 
.826 
848 
.863 
864 
804 


.830 
199 
769 
744 
129 
725 
Tk 
763 
784 
805 
815 
81L 


Range of the Barometer = 2 Range of the Temperature 
for each hour during Ae for each hour during 
the month. bo the month. 

ams 
=} & 
Max. Min. Diff, Se | Max. Min. Diff. 
= 
Inches.} Inches.| Inches. Cy) 0 0 oO 
29.904 {29.700 | 0.204 80.3 83.4 73.6 9.8 
.899 .686 213 79.9 83.0 73.8 9:2, 
884 673 211 79.9 82.6 TA 8.6 
.878 642 236 19 2 826 73.8 8.8 
.875 .646 229 79.1 82.8 72.8 10.0 
.898 651 247 78.5 82.6 72.8 9.8 
EOS .652 261 78.5 82.4 72.4 10.0 
.930 .659 271 79.6 84.0 72.6 11.4 
.962 .675 287 8 85.4: 76.0 9.4: 
O74 697 277 85.2 87.8 79.4 8.4 
.985 .686 299 87.6 89.6 82.0 7.6 
oral: .673 298 89.7 92.7 84. 8.7 
953 LOS eaO2 91.2 94.6 85.7 8.9 
-936 .623 313 92.3 97.0 86.4 10.6 
.917 598 319 92.8 97.4 83.4 9.0 
.883 558 325 92.6 98.2 84.0 14.2 
855 043 312 91.0 ; 97.8 75.0 22.8 
.836 -b26 310 89.6 96.2 73.8 2.4 
843 .039 304 86.6 93.4 73.6 19.8 
.900 099 301 84,2 90.8 72.8 18.0 
927 647 280 82.9 86.8 73.8 13.0 
931 694 PBY/ 81.7 85.0 73.8 11.2 
.906 648 258 81.4 84.4 73.6 10.8 
.919 648 271 80.5 84.4 73.4 11.0 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, 


as likewise the Dry aud Wet Bulb Ther- 


mometer Means are derived from the ‘Observations made at the several hours 
during the month, 


XXVill Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations — 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of April, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


= +3 3 
s Ss ae! 
Q eS ° 
eae 
eves ° o 
Hour. | = S e A 
g 2 1 
i=) S 
S38 Fa 5. 
eine | E 
= e >) 
Oo 10) 0) 
Mid- | 766 | 347.) 74.0 
night. 
1 76.6 31) 74,3 
z 76.3 3.2 TAL 
3 76.1 ay l 73.9 
4 "6.4 27 74.5 
5 75.6 2.9 73.6 
6 75.8 27 73.9 
7 76.4 3.2 44,2 
8 TESTI 4.5 74,5 
9 78.7 6.5 TAL 
2 8.4 74.2 


Woon. 79.7 ii) 728 
1 79.8 2S 723 
2 79.6 lies TA, 
3 79.5 Meyil 71.6 
4 78.8 12.2 (AN) 
5 78.5 TAAL 71.8 
6 78.0 8.6 72.8 
7 77.6 6.6 73.0 
8 77.0 5.9 72.9 
9 76.8 4.9 13.4, 

10 76.8 4.6 73.6 
11 76.5 4.0 Bri 
/ 


eee EEenEEaneed 


Point, 


J 


Dry Bulb above Dew 


0) 


6.3 


5.6 
5.4 
5.3 
4.6 
4.9 
4.6 
5.4 
doll 
Lou 
13.4 
16.2 


18.4, 
20.0 
21.1 
21.0 
19.5 
17.8 
13.8 
11.2 
10.0 

8.3 

7.8 

6.8 


f 


Mean Elastic force o 
Vapour. 


Inches. 


0.827 


.835 
-830 
824 
-840 
819 
824 
832 
.840 
830 
832 
614 


795 
783 
768 
766 
763 
oh 
£795 
801 
SST 
811 
817 
0519 


pour in a Cubic foot 


Mean Weight of Va- 
of air. 


Troy grs.|Troy grs. 


8.93 


9.01 
8.98 


Vapour required for 
complete saturation. 


Additional Weight of 


1.98 
al 
68 
64 
4.4: 
1 


Mean degree of Hu- 
midity, complete satu- 
ration being unity. 


All thle Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. XXIX 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 


in the month of April, 1865. 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


22| 127.5| 1.67 


1.36 


.| @ |© & 8 | Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
=| HS (282 of the Wind. 
5 3S 
Als aed 
o Inches 
EN t40.0)) 3. |S: Cloudless till 1 p.m. ~i & “i afterwards. 
Be w. | Sunday. 
3| 188.4) ... Ss. H.&S. Cloudy till 9 a.m. Scatd. clouds till 6 P.M. 
i afterwards drizzled at 4 Pp. uM. 
4) 141.0} 0.73 |S. W.& 8. E. i till 9 a. mM, “i till 4 Pp. . cloudy after- 
| wards, thundering, lightning, raining at 
6-7-9 & 10 p. mu. & hailstones fell between 
5 & 6 p. M. 
5) 132.0; ... |W. &S. GN. W. Citill1l vp. um. cloudless till 7 Pp. mM. i 
| afterwards. 
GietS6:0)}).. 2c S.&S. E. Seatd. clouds till 9 a. um, “i till 3 P. Mu. 
cloudy afterwards, thundering, lightning 
& raining between 6 & 7 P. M. 
eT AST2) 2. |S. aS H Cloudless till 4 a. uM. cloudy till 10 a. mM. 
| cloudless afterwards. 
8 139.0 S.&8, W..& W. Cloudy till 8 a. m. i till 8 Pp. u. cloudless 
| afterwards, 
eee Sunday. 
10) 136.0; ... |S.W.&S. Cloudy till 9 a. mu. cloudless afterwards. 
i 141.0 =o \asH cose MVE Flying clouds till 6 a. mu. cloudless after- 
wards. 
12) 133.5 eres Cloudless till 5 p.m. cloudy afterwards, 
#1 137.0|"... | S.&8 W. \ till 7 a. M. 91 till 38 Pp. M. \-i afterwards. 
14] 184.5| ... |S. &S. W. Cloudy till 7 a. m. -itill6 pP. u. cloudless 
afterwards, 
15} 136.0; ... |S. &S. W. \—i till noon, cloudless afterwards. 
1a ee ae Sunday. 
17| 186.5| .. |S. H&S, i till 10 a. m. cloudy afterwards, 
lightning at 9 & 11 P. u. 
18} 132.0| 0.17 | E.&8.&S8. EH, Cloudy till 4 a. mu. Scatd. clouds after- 
wards, raining & thundering at 4 P. M. 
19) 131.0; ... |S.&S8. W. Cloudy till 7 a. wm. Yi & itil8 p.m, 
clondless afterwards. 
ZOWUSTOW ic Ss. &S8. W. Cloudless till 2 a. wm. “i afterwards. 
21! 132.8' ... | S.&S. W. Ui till 4a. uw. cloudy till 8 a. Mm, “i till 4 


p. M. cloudless till 7 Pp. mM. cloudy & 
lightning afterwards. 

8. &S. H. Scatd. clouds till 1p. m. cloudy afterwards, 
raining between midnight & 1 a. Mu. & 
from 4: to 7 ep. M. thundering & lightning 
from 5 to 7 P. M. 

Sunday. 


Mi Cirri, —i Strati, 9i Cumuli, -i Civro strati, ~i Cumulo strati, -i Nim)b* 
\ i Cirro cumuli, 


Raax! Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Caleutta, , 
in the month of April, 1865. 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &c, 


~ Qe 
eg (25. 
o.S9 [ss 
.| 28 |S © 8] Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
S| 43 1888] ofthe Wind. 
S| GCs (ae 
S))| 2S let 
o  |Inches 
24) 128.9 S. E. & 8. Cloudless till 34.mM. 71 & “i till 7 P. uw. 
cloudless afterwards. 
25 LASS Sian else Cloudless till 5 a. mM. i & “i afterwards. 
26] 131.0 Sant: Vitil4a.m. “ié “itil 2m. itil 6 
p. M. cloudy afterwards, lightning at 7, 
10 & 11 Pe. u. 
WA TIBI Oy S Cloudy till 11 a.m. %1 till 7 Pp. m. cloud- 
less afterwards, drizzling at 2a. a. & 1 
p. M. lightning at midnight. 


28| 124.0] ... |S. (high.) i till 8 a. m. “i afterwards. 

2 313), || Se Scatd. clouds till6 P.M, cloudy afterwards, 
raining between 9 & 10 P. uM. lightning 
& thundering from 8 to 10 Pp. mu, 


4) 
co 
— 

SS) 
N 
(on) 
i=) 
(uy) 
Or 


BUT eae .. =| Sunday. 


Meteorological Observations. XXX1 


Abstraet of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
‘taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 


Qr 


in the month of April, 1865. 


Montruty Resvunts. 


; Inches 
Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. oe 56) ALS 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 A. mu. on the 13th, -. 29,989 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 p. Mm. on the 29th, se) | 2902 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, fe e- 0.459 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures, .. ae ee oe 29/871. 
Ditto ditto Wha, | ating. 955 ie 55 oq SHEN 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .. cei OMIA; 
0 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. ae ne 84.5 
Max. Temperature occurred at 3 P. M. on the 4th, a4 od. a whe 
Min. Temperature occurred at 6 A. M. on the oth, 50 ye 72.4 
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, ate es 25.8 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, ole ee ae 93.5 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. ate oo 50 77.8 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, .. iy 15.7 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. 20 50 77.7 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, .. 6.8 
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, .. 50 Ae 72.9 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, Bag 11.6 
Inches 
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. Be we 0.797 


Troy grains 


Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, ue a ox 8.52 
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, a 3.83 
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.69 
Inches 

Rained 8 days, Max. fall of rain during 24, hours, An ah 1,67 

- Total amount of rain during the month, ie Ls a 4.28 


Prevailing direction of the Wind, .. ee ae S.&8. W. 


XXXiL Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of April, 1865. - 


Montuty RESULts. 


Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


Hour. 
Be eT 1st /6] 16) (S0-leh iste 
eidle| leldlel lelelel |slelstsisl2 
Nuc; ce) Ee |e fon |ea |S. ee fos foo 1 a bs |e 1S |e 
No. of days. 
Midnight. 1 3) } 1 1 2 
1 il A) 1$18 1 1 
2 2 Br | 2 1} 1 
3 1 2 alt 2 il 
4, 2 2 2 1 3 
5 2 4, 7 2| |1 4, 
6 1 3 a il 
7 i 5 i 1 
8 2 5 7 1 1 
9 1 4, 9 1 1 
10 1 3 7 3 1 
11 1 1 8 A, 
Noon. Sia 5 5 1 
1 6) | 6 3 
2 1 6] | 8 3 
3 9| | 6 3 
4 5) 1) | 7} apa) fala 
5 1 4, 1f16| | 3) J 
6 2) 1 5) 2116 2 
7 1 4) 1118 1 1) 1 
8 1 1 yi} 1j 2 1 
9 aby ab) Bl} 1 2 
10 ALi ae 2) H 1j 1 1 
11 1] | 3) | 1 


a eel 


Meteorological Observations. XXXII 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of May, 1865. 


Latitude 22° 33’1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Hast. 
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


os aS 
= E = Range of the Barometer Pa 2 Range of the Tempera- 
oe during the day. Le ture duving the day. 
220. ER: 
Date.| _ a & = z 
| $22 {1 Max. | Min. | Dif. aa Max, | Min, | Diff. 
a = 
| Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. 0 (0) (0) 0 
1 | 29.542 | 29.609 | 29.452 | 0.157 | 849 92.0 | 77.6 | 14.4 
2 .608 673 | 551 122 85.6 92.6 79.4 | 13.2 
3 057 ~.625 438 187 85.9. 92.6 78.4 | 14.2 
4 506 .589 447 142 87.4 92.6 83.2 | 9.4 
§ ) «045 .657 .476 ASD. 87.0) 1) 94'8 ) 80:30) 14.5 
6 -682 806 590 216 | 81.9 93.4 | 73.0 | 20.4 
7 | Sunday. 
. | 
8 80 745 SSS 52) oe8e | 85.6.0 77.0) | 2S.6 
2 619 .678 584: | 144, 81.9 89.8 74.9 | 14.9 
10 643 “7iBS) | 089 NEO | Pee ll Bes 73.0 | 13.3 
KE 610 .669 21 148 84.0 90.5 78.0 | 12.5 
12 729 624) 16389 .185 4 Sae a 80:6) 1 1e.0) es 6 
13 .799 854 | .725| 129) 88.3 89.0 | 77.0 | 12.0 
14 | Sunday. 
| | 
15 .707 781 598 | .183 | 86,1 92.5 | 80.2 | 123 
16 -712 775 639. | 136 84.1 92.0 75.6 | 16.4 
ii 754 .826 | 684 | 142 84.0 92.1 76.8 | 15.3 
18 -764 823 TOL. | 122 86.4 92.4 79.6 | 12.8 
19 -786 851 116 | 135 86.6 93.2 82.0 | 11.2 
20 167 844 | 674 | .170 85.2 92.6 78.4 ; 14.2 
21 | Sunday., 
22 -787 .831 750 .081 79.8 87.8 76.6 | 11.2 
23 His 844 709 135 82.4 90.0 Tie UPS) 
24 -705 -785 605 | .180 82.1 88.2 76.8 | 11.4 
25 .639 692 543 149 78.8 84.6 76.8 7.8 
26 .622 681 582 .099 81.1 86.3 78.0 | 8.3 
27 617 .652 565 .087 82.3 88.5 79.0 9.5 


28 | Sunday. 


29 487 049 427 122 | 84.6 92.2 81.3 | 10.9 
30 459 001 415 .086 85.1 91.5 80.6 | 10.9 
31 486 .520 42 .078 83.4 87.8 $1.4 6.4 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day. 


XXXIV Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
wn the month of May, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


. Se 2 u Fy 
: 1 So Bade | 2 
5 2 Ea hye 2 Roce 2s 
2 Aan a ieee ke 
2 5 E 7 ) Sue SS | °@s 
Dateigc 2 a 5 So |S28) SE x 
| @ 6 3 2 a IE E er el ea 
28 2 & FS = S Cee Sse 
a) = s ae Rée Sey Meow ell cst 4S 
= faa} = A 2. a nts soe | ates 
=i = S Gs ae me S| £26 
5 & ce 5 an o> of |Sas) Sus 
= a S) a) = = S = 
0 O OL Pale © Iba || EG eae, |) ANE ea 
1 798 5.1 | 76.2) 8.7 | 0.887 | 9.49 | 3.00 | 0.76 
2 79.9 BT 75.9 5907 879 .38 38 74 
3 80.4: 5.5 | 76.51 9.4 .896 BY 80 74 
4 Bee et een) Gulch ee3 .973 | 10.36 .09 UG 
5 81.0 6.0| 77.4] 9.6 922 | 9.81 48 74. 
6 76.6 53 | 72.9 |» 9.0 HOT || BH | DSF 16 
7 Sunday. , 
Sid ln 1 G8 3.5 | 73.8] 6.0 822 87 | 1.88 83 
OV ities AG ava Voges .830 1925 eae 78 
10 75.2 Ah 23a aeTO 783 46 13 80 
aT a cou2 BES M Ai TeD pro 925 | 9.90 27 BE 
a2 1) eal Zeal erp ltl Nee VO Tal esol Ad, BT) 
TB eo ea | C74 Oe .830 91 -| 3.02 ie 
14 | Sunday. 
15 79.3 6.8 | 74.5 | 11.6 840 .96 .99 .69 
16 78.8 5.3 | 95.L al 9.0 857 | 9.17 04, 5 
17 79.4 46 | 762| 7.8 .887 bl | 266 78 
18 | 80.4 HO WARAN) LOR 1887 AZ | 859 is 
19 80.1 65 || (762 \) 10.4 .887 AT 67 72 
BO 789) 1 G3 | 74.p) 1) 10-7 840 | 8.98 63 J 
21 | Sunday. 
22 77.0 BBN 7.0) ole geass 854 | 9.22 | 1.58 .86 
23 | 4785 | 3.9] 758| 66 .876 Al | 2.20 81 
24 Feo eS Ou W760 saa 882 48 .03 82 
25 G68 Ve ee 7b ch oey 857 by dame ia O71 89 
26 | 778 3.3( 75.5 | 5.6 868 | 85. |). 2282) 0) ane 
BF 789s gael 782 hea 946 | 10.17 Ad 88 
28 Sunday. | | | 
29 | 81.0 26. apie 955 2.3 | 216 83 
$0) 4) (80.9.4) 4:2 780 7, 0 940 .05 2 .80 : 
31 | 80.8 2.6: 79.0 | 44 .970 42 | 1.54 .87 # 


All the Uygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorelogical Observations. XXXKV 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of May, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


i 2 wz | Range of the Barometer = 2 Range of the Temperature 
=& 4 | for each hour during 2a) for each hour during 
ice | = ae | the month, Po the month. 
meee EE tea acl Qs 
| 5 2 = N : | 4 & = " 7 
33 | Max. Min. Diff. Be | Aller Min. Diff. 
Ee S 
| | 
Inches. | Inches.| Inches. Inches.; 0 ry 0 0 
Mid- ‘50.661 | 29.827 |29.465 | 0.362 | 80.6| 85.0| 768 8.2 
night. } . ed aid. . a ~ . . A 
1 .651 811 458 .000 80.2 85.0 75.4 9.6 
2 .635 804 ANT Nor e-BS0/ 79.8 85.0 73.0 12.0 
3 | .642 -806 | 463 043 796 848 73.6 11.2 
4 .630 808 445 .863 79.7 83.8 hore 10.6 
5 651 824 449 .o10 19.5 84.0 73.6 10.4 
6 .667 .826 468 | .398 79.7 83.8 73.6 10.2 
U 681 | .832 A777 .000 80.7 | 84.6 73.0 11.6 
8 .693 842 AT5 | 367 82.7 87.0 74.2 12.8 
9 .705 854 | 492 | .362| 84.7 | 88.8 74.3 14.5 
10 702 | .831| .497 | .354| 862! 903] 76.0 14.3 
11 .692 843 A482 61 87.5 92.0 77.9 14.1 
eon, || G7) | 827 | .473 354 | 88.6 | 92.6 80.8 11.8 
1 650 | .806 |. .445 361 | 88.7 | 93.6 77.3 16.3 
2 | 625 | .784: A427 oor 88.8 94.3 77.5 16.8 
3 .605 UPF/S: 418 | .895 88.5 94.8 76.4 18.4 
4 587 .700 415 | .830 878 94.8 77.3 17.5 
5 092 .7d9 423 2320 86.5 94.4, 78.0 16.4 
6 601 De 429 B24 84.6 90.2 77.8 12.4 
ent) 626 teh A46 .o20 82.7 87.9 75.6 12.3 
8 645 | .773, 454 319 | 81.6 | 87.7 75.6 12.1 
9 661 | .786 A69 317 81.3 86.7 76.3 10.4 
Oe | 678 | |.815 486 .229 811 | 85.6 75.8 9.8 
11 G74 | .824| 473 |. .351 | 80.6 | 85.0 73.0 12,0 
| | 
| 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
miometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several howrs 


during the month. 


XXXV1 Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
inthe month of May, 1865. 


Huurly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


2 ies 3 E = 
S | o = o 

| Ble 2 

| 5 e Oy o 5 

Seances S 5 6 3 
Hour. | = = S a "S 3. 
| 2 3 ole =e 
= o by E boy eS 

a a iS) A = 

0 fe) fe) (0) Inches. 
oni W726 | 3.0 | 755 | BA | 086s 
| "7.5. | 2.9 | 75.6 AGB, || sey 
2 "7.2 2.6 | 75.4 4A 865 
3 77.0 2.6 | 75.2 4,4 .860 
4 77.3 2.4 | 75.6 A 871 
5 m73.| 22 | 75.8 3.7 876 
“Suh CS: 2.4 | 756 4 871 
ea Wai || 2 BE len 759 4.8 879 
8 789 | 3.8 | 76.2 6.5 887 
9 79.9 48 | 76.5 8.2 896 
io | S04 | 58) 76:3 9.9 890 
ll 80.9 | 66 | 76.9 | 10.6 908 
Noon.| 812 74 | 76.8 | 11.8 .905 
a7) 813 74 | 769 | 11.8 908 
B94) S12 76 | 766 | 12.2 1899 
3 80.9 ipa 76.3) 122 890 
4 80.6 DO NH || ah G 890 
5 79.9 | 66 | 75.9 | 10.6 879 
654 TO |) Sa 75.9 8.7 879 
q 73.4 | 43 | 75.4 73 865 
8 77.6 4.0 | 74.8 6.8 849 
9 77.7 3.6 | 75.2 6.1 .860 
10 77.9 3.2 | 75.7 5,4, .873 
Te Pacey 2.9 | 75.47 4.9 873 
} 


pour in a Cubic foot 


Mean Weight of Vas 
of air. 


Troy grs. 


9.37 


39 
315) 
.30 
40 
46 
40 
AT 
02 
.59 
.00 
64 


Additional Weight of 


Vapour required for 
complete saturation. 


Troy grs. 


1.64 


A9 
40 
.o9 
.o2 
20 
on 
7 
2.20 
.83 
3.49 
85 


Mean degree of Hu- 
midity, complete satu- 
ration being unity. 


} 
a 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. XXXVI 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of May, 1865. 
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


8 |g22 
-| 2s |S & 2! Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
2| #3 gee of the Wind. 
Al =~ led 
| © |Inches 
1 125.8} 0.48 |S. (high.) -ito8 a.m. Scatd. i & -ito4pP. M. 
| | overcast afterwards, Rain from 7 to 9 
P. M. 
2 129.0; ,.. |S. &S8. W. (high.) | Overcast to 8 a.m. i to 5 Pp. mM. Seud. 


afterwards. Thin rain at 1 a. M. 

3 123.0) 0.39 | 8. &S. W. (high.) | Overcast to 4 a. um. %i to 10 a. m. Seud to 
2 Pp. M. Overcast afterwards. Rain be- 
tween 5 &6p.mM. Thunder & lightning 
| from 7 to 9 P. M. 

4) 127.8| ... |S. (high) &S. HE. ito 4 a.m. Scatd. 91 & “i afterwards 
lightning at 8 P. M. 

5| 132.7) ... |S. &S8. W. Overcast to 9 a. mM. Scatd. "i & \-i to 5 
Pp. M, overcast lightning & thunder after- 
| wards. Thinrainat6a.u.&7&8P.M. 


6 127.0)) .. |\S.E&S.&E. Overcast light rain at 6, 7 & 11 Pp. u. thun- 
| 1,46 der at 6 & 11 p. u. lightning at 11 P. u. 

74 qlee | Sunday. 

8) 124.0; 0.36 |S. HE. & N. Overcast to 7 a. mM. Scatd. "i & “i to 6 


Pp. M. “iafterwards. Rain from 1 to3 
| Pp. M. thunder at 2 P. M. 
9 125.0| 0.62 |8.&8.H.&8.W.|-i& ito5 Pp. mu. overcast afterwards. 
| Rain, thunder & lightning at 8 P. M. 
10; 126.0; 1.65 |S. &8. W. Overcast to 11 a. um. Scatd. 91 & “i to 6 
P. M, overcast afterwards. Rain from 2 
to 7 a. uM. thunder & lightning from 1 to 
7 A.M. 
11} 120.0] 0.97 |S. Scatd. 91 & “ito 5 Pp. M. overcast after- 
wards. Rain at8 & 9p. m. thunder & 
lightning from 7 to 10 P. M. 


12; 121.6| 0.98 |S. H.& H. &N. W.| Overcast to 7 a. um. Seatd. oi & “i after- 
wards. Rain from 2to 7 A. M. lightning 
at midnight & 2 a. M. thunder at 2,6& 

: 7 A.M. 

13] 128.0| .,, H.& N. H. Scatd. 911 & ito 4a. mM, “i to 9 a, M. 
1 to 5 Pe. M. cloudless afterwards. 

12) ee ... | Sunday. 

£5) 135-01 5,, S. H. &S. Cloudless to 4 A. M. “ito8 A.M. i after- 

| wards, 

16; 133.0| 0.71 |S. &S. HE. Scatd. 91 & “ito 6p. mM. overcast after- 
wards. Rain from 6 to 8 P.M. lightning 
from 8 to 10 P. M. 


PA toe! 3. |S. & 8. W. Seatd. i & “i to9 a. M. Oi to4P, M. 
| overcast afterwards, lightning at 9 Pp, M. 


Mi Cirri, —i Strati, %i Cumuli, “i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, i Nimbi 
Wii Cirro cumuli. 


XXXViil Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
wm the month of May, 1865. 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &e, 


{3 Srre | 
| & 3 Pe 
|o8 |gacd 
.| 23 |S & 8) Prevailing direction | 
GS] ps laos 
43| Bra |. o © of the Wind. 
2 = Eat at 12 © 


18} 126.5; ... |S. &S8. W. 


19) 128.0) ... |S.&S W. 


20} 130.0; ... |S. &S. E. 
pada ... | Sunday. 
22| 116.0, 2.77 |S. & 8. H. 


23| 181.0| ... |S. E.&S8. 4&5, 


24| 118.0| 1.50|S.E.&8. 


25) ... | 1.08 | E. & variable. 
26) 121.0| 0.10 |E.&S.&8. E. 
27| 130.0| 1.02 | E.&S.E. &8. 


LA WR ... | Sunday. 
29) 130.0] 1.81 | 8, £.& 8. & W. 


30} 130.6 ere E. & variable. 
oli ... | 0.54 ,8S.&H.&S. H, 


| 


General Aspect of the Sky. 


ee a 


Overcast almost all day: Lightning from 
7 to 10 p. M. thunder at 8 & 9 ». mM. light 
rain at 11 Pp. M. 

Scatd. 91 & “i to 6 P. M. overcast after- 
wards. 

Overcast to 6 A. u. 11 & i afterwards. 


Scatd. "1 & i whole day, Rain at 6, 8, 
10 a. Mu. 2 & 3 Pp. M. thunder at 10 a. mu, 
lightning at 9 P. M. 

Scatd i & “ito 7 p. m. cloudless after- 
wards. Thin rain between Noon & 1 
P. M. 

Cloudless to 8 A. mM. Scatd. \i& \-ito noon 
overcast afterwards. Rain at 10 A. mM. 
1,5,6,8 &9 pe. m. lightning & thunder 
from 5 to 10 Pp. mM. 

Overcast allday. Rain from noon to 5 P.M. 

i to 5 a, M. overcast to 7 P. M. “i after- 
wards, rain between 9 & 10 A. M. 

Scatd. 91 & -ito7 Pp. m. cloudless after- 
wards. Rain at 3 A. M. noon to 2 P. M. 


Scatd. i & ito 2 P. M, overcast to 7 P. M. 
cloudless afterwards. Rain atl a. mM. 
& at 4,5 P.M. 

Scatd. 91 & i drizzled at 3 P. M. 

i to 8 a. M. overcast to 5 P. M. Scatd. 71 
& —iafterwards. Rain from 10 A. m. 
to 2 P. M. 


Meteorological Observations. XXXIX 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of May, 1865. 


Montuty Resvutrs. 


Inches 

Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. oC og RGB 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 a. M. on the 13th, -. 29.854 
Min, height of the Barometer occurred at 4 P. M. on the 30th, «. 29.415 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, oe «- 0.439 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures, .. 6c ae es 29-719 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. A bo oe | 29:51 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the aout Ke e- 0,141 

Co) 

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. oo oe 83.4: 
Max. Temperature occurred at 3&4 P.M. onthe 5th, .. os 94.8 
Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the 10th, Be A BD 
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, ne <i 21.8 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, te ee sie 90.3 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. ae ate ae 78.0 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, .. AG 12.3 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. 5 me 78.9 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Rb semometee, AC 4.5 
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, .. 50 66 75.7 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, AA ver) 
Inches 

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. 50 ao OHSS 


Troy grains 


Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, as me et 9.36 
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, a 260 
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.78 

Inches 
Rained 22 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, gy Le 2.77 
Total amount of rain during the month, Pc ¥ 3 co Sod 


Prevailing direction of the Wind, .. ‘a a S.&S.E. 


xl Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of May, 1865. 


Monvuny Resvuyts. 


Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


Hour. 
5] 16 Ss] 157 |e, .1S] (Sp ley sls 
eldls elals|] |SiBls| .|siFlsislel2 
N. E|2 |S] B \2|alals.e|s 2/2 Sle als S[e 
No. of days 
Midnight. 1 1) | 4) 913) | 4) | 2 Lae 
1 i 3) 7 3; #13] | 3) | 2) 1 2) 1 
2 1 Alias Verse les ah | aS) fea 1] 41) 2| oh ae 
3 1) | 2 1) | 6) as] 14! | 4) ay 1) apa 
4 1 2) 1 5) vo) Sia 2) a an tee 
5 Abert yt Gi | rb E83 | ae Pa a 1 
6 1) 4) Tt 5) ot 7) 4 6) ape 2| 2 
7 1| Jl 8} 1] 6) | 8} | 2 1} 1 
8 2) 1) 8| 17) Te 14 
y 1 6 | 9| | 6 [5 
10 7| 1| 6] 111) 2 3 
11 Bb] 76 M0) 3) eal Lene 
Noon. iy al 3) 2) 7| p11 5 
1 A) 2) 5) 1p 9] 1) 5) ap 3l Papa 
2 1) 1 3| 1] 2} [11 1) 7] 1) 3/1 
3 1 1f 2) 1] 4, 1f14) 1) 6 
4 21) 4) 1) 5) tia) 2 
5 1) 43) 2 2) 7) 2 a 1 
6 2) 18 3] | 8 1f11| 1) 2/1 1 
7 ial 3| | 9) 1/11 1) 1) 1/1 
8 4| | 8] 1/12] 2] 2] 2] 1) 1 
9 1 3) | 6] 1[15] 2] 1 1 
10 1 21-7) tel 
11 a4 2; | 8) [12] | 3} 1 i 


Meteorological Observations. xli 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of June, 1865. 


Latitude 22° 33’1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East. 


Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in, 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


La 


e aes Range of the Barometer ie 2 |Range of the Tempera- 
rs 5 3 during the day. b 2 ture during the day. 
me E 
Date. | “2 a A 5 
a2 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | $4 | Max. | Min, | Dif. 
= = 
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. 0) Oo 0 0 
= 29.526 | 29.582 | 29.491 0.091 83.9 90.8 80.2 | 10.6 
Bet 585 .633 039 094 84.2 89.0 80.4 | 8.6 
3 | @ -634 692 574) 118 87.0 91.4: 82.8 | 8.6 
4 Sunday. f 
5 646 701 O71 | 130 88.3 93.6 83.4 | 10.2 
6 663 | .722 593 129 88.4 94.4 83.2 | 112 
=e -670 740 .089 cleat 88.8 94.6 83.8 | 10.8 
8 617 - 688 539 | 149 88.6 94.4: 84.2 | 10.2 
9 a7, .569 438 136 88.4 93.0 850} 8.0 
10 A491 567 449 118 87.5 91.8 84.0 | 7.8 
oe 572 .628 oll cule 84.7 87.8 82.8 5.0 
12 581 .632 .510 122 86.4 95.4 80.0 | 15.4 
13 528 572 47 125 84,8 92.3 80.5 | 11.8 
14 A478 | 524) 418 | .106 86.5 92.4 80.8 | 11.6 
15 4g4| .526| .446| 080] 839 | 86.7 | 820] 47 
16 A495 41 439 102 82.5 87.1 79.6 | 7.5 
17 456 488 ALL 077 81.5 83.2 80.4 | 2.8 
18 451 .539 405 128 79.7 81.0 78.6 | 2.4 
19 561 642 495 L147 82.0 86.7 USO) She 
20 643 «700 | 597 | .103 85.8 91:2 81.4} 9.8 
21 .636 674 580 | 094 87.4 93.2 83.1 | 10.1 
22 615 .662 567 095 88.2 93.8 84.0 | 9.8 
23 573 619 502 Auer 89.0 95.0 84.2 | 10.8 
24 543 607 A91 116 88.3 96.0 81.0 | 15.0 
| 25 538 .600 ATI 1129 89.0 96.0 85.4 | 10.6 
26 567 .605 510 .095 87.8 - 94.2 84.2 | 10.0 
| 27 ,052 .613 468 145 838.9 95.4 84.3 | 11.1 
28 .590 51 408 143 86.2 89,0 83.4 | 5.6 
29 A433 A492, .370 122 65.2 90.8 §2.2 | 8.6 
1 30 A17 507 302 155 84.2 88.8 82.0 | 68 


‘The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
_ mometer Means are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day, 


xii Aifeteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of June, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


2 5 S Bos ag As 
o > 2 o = 
= 8 ee yee 2 go |e a eee 
z Pale) eo) BA ee eee 
| oe E 2 68 |mepe| Css 
pa E 2 3 = eee Dees | ye, = 
Date. . 2 A mn 3 = a5 Sees 
2h 2 co om oye = 
23 2 3 So eB | © 2) eee 
Soe 3 s 3 ES =O 22 ma 29 
g 3 Aa ia En © = 
AG on ay S Sai SiGe sn! ee = 
3% S a a bay Se a8 |s ee.| Sos 
= fa) os) aa) = = = = 
° Oo 0) ft) Inches.| I. er. _| Der. 
1 80.9 3.0] 788} 5.1 | 0.964] 1034 | 1.79 | 0.85 
2 81.1 SB. ly FSONay 58 .967 87 87 185 
3 82. 4.4} 80.0} 7.0 | 1.001 66 | 2.63 .80 
4 | Sunday. 
5 82.5 5.8 | 79.0| 9.3 | 0.970 81 | 3.49 75 
6 82.6 BiB Weal jae O38 973 34 50 75 
7 82.7 56] 793| 90 979 .40 .40 75 
pe pe ay Bi Ne FO bul Oa .986 AT 45 75 
BR. 1h 84:0 ABN BLA) 70) 047 |) asia Boyz .80 
10 | 82.9 Ab \ 80.00 74 .005 | 10.69 .80 79 
Bg 80.8 44) 4472) 475 | 0.916) 9.79 63 79 
12 | 816 48] 782] 8.2 946 | 10.09 97 i, 
13> |, B08 AO} 78.0 \ 68.) ‘940 05 AL 81 
ERS ery che c AS | 48.7) 47.8 961 24 86 78 
15 81.4 25 |, 4916)| 48 989 60 | 1.53 87 
16 80.0 2 li Rl e.8 £946 az AT 87 
ig. | 97 18) 278 4e ness 1952 25 .06 91 
1s | 785 WV preg Vs oA) :931 06 | 0.66 94 
19 79.3 AEN tripe Nt ATS 922 | 9.91 | 1.56 86 
20 | 82.2 26 OTe ioal .992 | 10.59 | 2.24 .83 
21 83. A2| 80.71 6:7 | 1.024 89 56 81 
22 | 838 4.4 | 81.2] 7.0 040 | 11.05 71 .80 
pa) | B45 A Ne Si Bile eS .050 13 95 79 
24 | 83.2 5B1| 801] 8.2 005 | 10.67 | 3.13 Ty 
25 84.4 46 | 816] 7.4 053 | 11.18 | 2.90 79 
26 83.3 45] 806] 7.2 .021 | 10.86 74 80 
27 83.3 5.6| 79.9! 9.0 | 0.998 59 | 3.45 75 
23 | 83.1 Bi. 80.9 |. 163) W080 99 | 2.00 | .85 ; 
29 | 81.8 3.4] 79.41] 58 | 0.983 AQ 12 83 : 
30 | 815 | 25) 796)\ 46 989 58 | 1.66 .86 é 
| 


—_——_—________, 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. 


lili 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of June, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon. 


| =; | Range of the Barometer 
| =sz for each hour during 
| -=— oe the month. 
Hour, | 2 <0 
| 3.32 |Max. | Min. | Dif, 
| & 
| if 
Inches. | Inches.; Inches.| Inches. 
Mid- = 
night. 29.564 | 29.684 |29.416 | 0.268 
Ei Dod .682 404 278 
2 543 677 398 279 
3 27 .667 391 276 
4 53d .653 2099 .264 
5 AZ .669 .095 L274 
6 50D .689 417 272 
G 072 -706 429 277 
8 582 Tie AZ8 299 
§ |} .b9L -740 A432 .308 
10 .090 728 | .429 299 
Tl 084 122 426 .296 
Noon. 570 .710 .405 .308 
te 502 .685 084 OL 
ied Se 659 | .369 .290 
3 513 698 .000 282 
4 | 497 | 614| .352.| .262 
5 496 .616 .366 | .200 
6 508 .613 .870 .243 
ts 525 .627 .380 242 
8 548 | .609 | 394 .265 
9 567 | .683 405 .278 
10 578 .688 426 262 
il 575 692 AB2 266 


| 


Mean Dry Bulb 
Thermometer, 


Range of the Temperature 
for each hour during 


Max. 


the month. 


Min. 


Diff. 


° 


Bs OID wT 
MROONBDA™ & 


= 
Q's 
NO 


11.6 


| | 
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the ‘Observations made at the several hours 


during the month. 


xliv Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of June, 1865. 


Huurly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


f 


| 2 3 ae: 5 23 | Sse) #2 

Bool B ils BA LS och Sin | aie me 

2 Ae ee & S82 | EE | Sex 

oe S Bae iale 2 as | 282 | oie 

Hour. | = ic A & a pce cede 2 eS pau 

a | 2 3 SSS EBS) 2 e.28/sE6 

ES S = 2 = Boo | Se | iseshe a epee 

me 4 a As e 3 epS"a (Sus. at ees 

a 3 z z SiR iee walls Gera ce S| [ss -= 

oie a ee ei) 2 = Seema l= & 

° fe) te) Ce) Inches. |Troy grs. Troy grs. 

aa 81.6 | 2.3 | 80.0 3.9 | 1.001 ! 10.72 1.41 | 0.88 
at 81.3 22 | 798 3.7 | 0.995 66 BA .89 
2 81.2 | 2.0 | 79.8 3.4 | .995 69 20 .90 
3 81.0 | 19 | 79.7 3.2 | .992 66 13 ‘90 
4 BLO.Y\ | Lion avo 3.2 | .992 66 13 '¢ |) So 
5 80.9 | 2.0 | 79.5 3.4 | .986 60 19 ‘90 
6 81.1 | 1.9 | 79.8 3.2 | .995 69 13 90 
" 81.2 ] 2.5 | 79.4 4.3 | .983 BA 58 87 
8 81.8 310 79.5 5.6 .986 D3 2.04, ok 
9 822 | 43 | 79.6 6.9 | .989 BA 56 ‘Sl 
10 82.7 51 | 79.6 8.2 | .989 i) 3.08 17 
11 83.1 57 | 79.7 9.1 992 58 ‘AT 75 
Noon.| 83.1 67. 179.0 Ol oF, 973 30 4.12 71 
1 83.5 | 68 | 79.4 | 10.9 | .983 39 2A 71 
2 83.4 7.0 492, 11,2 .976 00 04 .70 
3 63.4..\ Foo | 179.2) ) | 1am, .976 33 34 70 
4 S84. | 650|.079.2) 4) 10.40), S76m\) ap 3.98 72 
5 82.6 | 6.0 | 79.0 9.6 | .970 129 63 Th 
6 82.0 533 78.8 8.5 964 125 16 76 
"7 82.0 | 41 | 79.1 70 | .973 38 2.57 .80 
8 81.7 | 3.5 | 79.2 6.0 | .976 AB 118 .83 
9 81.7. | 3.1 | 79.5 53 | .986 (55 1.91 85 
20 81.7 | 27 | 79.8 46 | .995 64 67 86 
ll 81.6 | 26 | 79.8 4,4 | .995 66 58 87 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants, 


Meteorological Observations. xly 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
- taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of June, 1865. 
Solar Radiation, Weather, &e. 


4 {| oOo od 
25 |23_ 
.| 2 |© = & | Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
= be = |S 2.2 of the Wind. 
S |r ef 
Q = > ips 189 ras) 
Oo |\Inches, 
1 123.0} 0.30 | EH. &S.E.&S8. Overcast nearly the whole day. Lightning 
howaese S. from 7 to ll p.m. Rain at 
: Tel hee 
2 0.09 |S. & 8S. W. 5 oe Light rain between Noon & 1 
P.M, Thunder & Lightning at abdarghe 
&1A.M.2,5&8 P. mM. 
Shee} 2.) |S. & SS. WwW. Overcast to é A. M, Scud afterwards. 
A eas as =| Sunday. 
Het 296... 8. &S. W. Cloudless to 7 A. M. i afterwards. 
Gr takOy oS Sh Kito6A.M. %ito2pP. mM. ~“i& %ito7 ». uM, 
Cloudless afterwards. 
7| 131.0} S Cloudless to 2 a4. mM, “ito 6 A. M. i to 
6 P. M. overcast afterwards. 
8 1380.0 s. Scud to 9A, M. “ito 5 P.M. Scud after- 
wards, 
9| 124.2) .., Ss. Seud to 2 A.M. overcast to8 A.M, 71 & 
—i afterwards. 
i 0) ie B70 S. &S8. E. | Overcast to 3.4, Mu. 91 & ito 1 P. M. overs 
cast afterwards. Thin rain at 1 A. uM. 
55) See Pree S.8.&H.&8. Overcast. Drizzled at 1 a. mu. 
12) 134.0; 0.91 | S.W. & H. Light clouds to6 a.uM.“-i& %ito4 Pp, mM. 
overcast afterwards. Rain at 6,8 & 9 
P.M. Thunder at 6 Pp. mu. 
13] 129.6| 0.10 |S.W.&N.& W. Overcast to8 A. M. 91 & “i to 6 P. M. 
Overcast afterwards, light rain from 7 to 
10 Pp. M. 
Ae Se Wao GS. Wis, Light clouds to 2 4. M. “-itoll a. mM, ni 
& \—i afterwards. 
15) aes 0.53 |S. &8. W. ito 3 A. M. overcast afterwards. Rain 
| at 6 & 7 A. M. noon, 3 & 4 P.M. 
BG)... 1.16 |W. &S. W. Overcast. Rain from 1 to3 A.M. light 
: rain at 1 pv. mM. & from 7 to 10 P. M. 
17 0.14 |W. & S58. W. Overcast. Light rain after intervals. 
» is| ... |*262|W.&S.W. . Overcast. Rain whole day. Lightning at 
; 10 P. M. 
mag) ... |4126 |S. W.&s. Overcast, Light rain from Midnight to 
A.M. : 
20) 129.0) 0.41 |S. &S. W. Overcast to 7 a. mM. iG “-itoll a, uw, “i 
& Oi afterwards. Rainatl & 4 a. um. 


& at 5 P. M. 


Ni Cirri, —i Strati, \i Cumuli, i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, -i Nimbi, 
“ni Cirro cumuli. 

* Fell from 9 p. M. of the 17th to Noon of the 18th, 

+ Fell from 1 vp. m. of the 18th to 7 a. m. of the 19th, 


xlvi Meteorological Observitions. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of June, 1865. 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &c, 


be 2 
| 28 [os S 5 Prevailing direction 
2S) es 18 30 of the Wind. 
SB) Sea fate 
Q = m foe! In © 
fe) Inches 
21) 137.5 s. 
22) 130.2 Ss 
25) 133-0) Gens 
24; 188.0} 0.12 |S 
25| 128.0] ... s. 
26| 127.0| ... 8S. &S8. H. 


IW MOTO) | eiices S.E. & E. 
sliniees oe EK. & 8. & variable. 


29| 120.8] 0.28 | E.& N. E. 
30| ... | 0.71 |S.H.&N.E. & E. 


General Aspect of the Sky. 


Light clouds to 8 4. M,. “ito 4P. M, “ito 
7 p. m. cloudless afterwards. 

Cloudless to 4 A. M. i afterwards. 

ito 4a,.™M.; light clouds to noon, i 
afterwards. 

Overcast to 10 a.m. Mi & “i to 4P. uM. Yi 
& Oi afterwards. Rain at6&7 a. mu. 
Lightning towards W. at midnight. 

Cloudless to 5 A. M. %i to 8 P. M. overcast 
to 8 Pp. M. 91 & ~i afterwards. 

-id&é %ito3P. M. overcast afterwards ; 
Lightning towards 8. at 8p. mu. Light 
rain at 9 P. M, 

i & \-ito 8 a. M. Mito 7 P. m. cloudless 
afterwards. 

Cloudless to 3 A. M. overcast to 3 P. M. Mi 
& i afterwards: Light rain from noon 
to 3 P, M. 

“i & ito 8 A. M. overcast to6 P. M. Oi 
& -iafterwards. Rain at 3 P.M. 

Overcast. Rain after intervals from noon 
to 1l Pp. M. 


Meteorological Observations. xl vii 


Abstract of the Kesults of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of June, 1865. 


Montuty Resvuprts. 


Inches 
Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. ee -. 29,550 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 A. M. on the 7th, ». 29.740 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 Pp. M. on the 80th, e- 29,352 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, i na 0.388 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures,.. ee ee 2. 29.607 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. ate ate ee 29.489 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .,. se) OnkES 
fo) 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. ae ee 86.1 
Max. Temperature occurred at 4, P. M. on the 24th, ee as 96.0 
~ Min. Temperature occurred at 5 A. M. on the 19th, an ee mn AO) 
Lixtreme range of the Temperature during the month, oe oe 19.0 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, $3 sie 60 91.3 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. D6 oe ae 82.2 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, ., He 9.1 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. BE ar 82.1 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, .. 4.0 
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, .. O6 AG 79.3 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, AR 6.8 
Inches 
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. ds ee 60.979 
Troy grains 
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, ae ae ut 10.44 
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, Ae 2.51 
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.81 
, Inches 
Rained 17 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, ae Se 2.62 
Total amount of rain during the month, a ae aa 8.63 
Prevailing direction of the Wind, ., oe oe S.&S. W. 


are 


xlvili Heteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of June, 1865. 


Monruny RErsvnts. 


Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


Hour, | ; 
3 2 S iS 8 sl] Vsti is e|_: 
of .|o (o) ° ° of Ofs|Oof .lols 
sia) £\a)e] | S|F |S el siais|2 
N.S} |] EB. |e [oi (ch |S.)c8 fos |e IE ee te es dS |S lS 
No.of days 
Midnight. 1) 1 il 4 #3! 2) 1) & 1 
] “A: faa 1] | 4 } 4) 2) 2) a 
2 1) | 1 fi] alee f 3| 1) 3] 2) 
3 1 Ble 2] 1) 2) 2 6 
4 1 3) 42 f 2) 1) 4) 7 
5 1] 12 4, f 3] 1) 4) 2 
6 i) | 1 3| 1) 3 3) 1) 2) 1] 1/7 
7 1 Bld HG) 2) 5] 2] 2) 1 
8 3 eae 16) | 6) 1] 1 
9 1] | 1 3, 1 PES ea ih 
10 se fib) 4) 12 A 4) 1) 4) 1) 1 
11 B 12 3} 42 6] 1) 1] 1) 1 
Noon. i 2\ 1 A) 2) 2) {12 Dl ine 
1 Lf ect 2| { 8] 2113] 15] 2f 2] | ald 
2 2| 3} 1| 4) 1110) | 5) 1) 4) a 
3 1) 1 5) 2) 2) Sito) 4) Gee) at 
A, 5 2| 913) 1) 6) Ly 3) 1 
5 2 3) 138) fla) 2 7) 2h d 
6 1 4| | 2) |15) | 5) 1f 2) 1 
7 1 8] | 4) 1)16) | 4) 2 Hl 
8 1 A) 1518) 1) 4) 2) 1) 1 1 
) 1] | 3] 1,19] 2) 4) 37 1/1 1 
10 1) | 3] {18} | 5} 8b a} 1 1 
a4: i 5) 1417] 1} 3) 2) 1 1 ib 


- —$<—<—<—<—— ee ee 


Meteorological Observations. xlix 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of July, 1865. 


Latitude 22° 3371” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East. 


Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in, 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


= 3 e Range of the Barometer a S |Range of the Tempera- 

m5 5 during the day, D2 ture during the day. 

i ae = ~ 
Date. = A x i A ; 
| 224 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | $4 | Max. | Min. | Dif. 
= A 

| Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oO o 0 0 
1 | 29.523 | 29.584 | 29.465 0.119 84.3 88.6 80.8 7.8 
2 | 090 | -090 A87 103 85.2 90.8 81.7 9.1 
3 048 | 596 ATT 119 85.5 92.6 82.0 | 10.6 
4 494 073 ALT 156 85.0 89.5 82.0 7.5 
5 445 484 381 103 84.6 88.5 SIA ek 
6 455 .490 410 .080 | 84.6 88.3 8G | 637 
7 440 484, 380 | 104 | 83.7 86.9 81.6 5.3 
8 434 483 .398 | 095 83.4: 88.0 80.2 7.8 
9 457 .506 ALL 095 84.2 89.0 81.0 8.0 
10 AQ 047 | 456 | 091 85.4 | 91.4 81.6 9.8 
1 539| 605| .482| .123| 838 | 90.1 | 78.0 | 12.1 
12 022 577 444 | 133 81.4 85.0 78.4 6.6 
: 13 512 | .553 465 | 088 84.2 91.2 | 81.4] 9.8 
14 537 092 | 483 109 84.8 90.6 79.0 | 11.6 
15 58d | 087 | 482 | 105 82.6 85.6 79.6 6.0 
16 2024 562 | A486 | .076 825 87.1 UD 7.9 
17 536 587 495 092 82.7 85.6 80.0 5.6 
18 598 097 003 094 84,2 87.4 81.8 5.6 
13 540 585 | 479 -106 85.4 90.5 81.4 2B 
20 .082 631 2036 .095 85.2 88.6 82.6 6.0 
21 598 .656 007 ALY, 85 3 88.9 82.9 6.0 
22 604 655 2007 .098 85.7 90.8 82.5 8.5 
23 .640 .699 085 114 85.2 89.6 80.2 9.4) 
24 687 739 .628 eat 83.5 89.0 79.8 9.2 
25 -725 717A 566 108 81.7 83.8 80 2 3.6 
26 “719 Pee 678 094: 83.4 88 4 79.5 8.9 
27 708 158 659 .099 83.2 87.7 79.8 1.9 
28 “749 803 .700 1038 83.3 87.6 79.4 8.2 
29 £759 198 707 O91 82.1 85.2 78.5 6.7 
30 714 AT2 646 126 $2.0 88.4 77.4 | 11.0 
31 678 726 601 125 82.6 88.6 78.8 9.8 

| 
| | 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
_ mometer Means are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day, 


1 Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
an the month of July, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


‘ : E S SeaeeG sh | 4s 
B S| eee | ee) ee 
5 2 © B > So | 2 oe eis 
= © 5 ma % 6 fa2/ 8624 
s > i= Q o°o os os 
| ° o 3 a on Be Sl ay Te 
Date.| 7 2 A 3 ye (Ss ee sg S 
| 38 iB 3 = @| 5S |S Sieulpeetiens 
| B® 3 s ae | S| 6 o> ean cee 
ives pa Bs 5 | gs | e¢% |2238| Bs 
3 & Pe g PAY oe of |S ae| aos 
= a 3) Qa a Pushes = 
| o ) o 7) Ibnelnesy, | ME, re, |) ALL ete. . 
1 81.4 2.9 79.A, 4.9 0.983 | 10.51 Wee 0.86 
2 81.9 3.3 79.6 5.6 .989 .06 2.05 84 
3 82.1 3.4) 797 5.8 .992 09 13 83 
4 B98 in pS Lil ee Ol Tale 1:8 .992 {6 )\| mag? 85 
5 81.8 | 28] 798) 4.8 .995 64 75 86 
6 Si4y Me 8 2iloe VO 2uli 34 976 A5 94 84 
7 | 80.7 B:0n | 78.Gnln ol .958 .28 79 85 
8 80.1 3.3 77.8 5.6 934 OL 95 84 
Ot lee 79.8 4.4) 76.7 7.5 902 9.64 2.60 79 
10 BLO. gi) Vado ies TON 7-5 .937 | 10.00 68 79 
A) HeeOOi: AN) PS Sales ZS: ule ONG .946 13 | 1.97 84 
12 79.5 19) | ZS 2a (302 946 19 .08 .90 
13 BLS) ae 2:9) 79. 3uly 9 979 A8 76 86 
14 BLS) Gt) 8 ulin 7SiSwiy 6:0 964 31) ||P 205 83 
25 Ho vS04) We 2.2c le, 78.900 8,7 967 39 | 129 .89 
16 79.9 26] 781) 4.4 943 14 .50 87 
a7 79.9 28| 77.9| 48 937 .06 .66 .86 
18 81.4 2.8 79.4 4.8 983 ol 73 .86 
19 81.3 4.1 | 784) - 7.0 1952 7 alee .80 
20 81.8 3.4] 794] 5.8 .983 AQ 12 83 
74 Ie 81.8 3.5 79.3 6.0 719 AG 18 .83 
22 81.5 WF as) (3) |: siren 958 28 57 .80 
23 81.1 41} 78.2) 7.0 .946 ailil 50 .80 
24, 80.8 2.7 78.9 4.6 967 Ol 1.63 .86 
25 79.7 20) a 783al) 34 .949 122 “Ls 90 
26 80.7 27| 788] 4.6 964) 134 .62 87 
27 80.4 2.8 | 784] 4.8 952 21 68 .86 
28 80.7 2.6 | 78.9 | 4.4 .967 39 54 87 
29 79.6 23 Ne Ti Sialay Ae ie OBA .05 AG 87 
30 79.6 DA Noo TON Ant .937 .08 39 88 
3 TN Pes) | TNT 4.9 931 .00 .68 86 
| 


ll 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants, 


Meteorological Observations. li 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of July, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


S Pe a | Range of the Barometer = o Range of the Temperature 
Sas = for each hour during ea) & for each hour during 
H ee the month. bs the month. 
ao? 3 r Sees 5 P 
$4 | Max. Min. Diff, Se || Wiley Min. Diff. 
| =| 
Inches. | Inches.} Inches., Inches, Co) 0 tv) C1) 
* Mid- (99.587 | 29.778 | 29.432 82.1 
night. | 72° 29.7 29.432 | 0.346 2. 84,0 77.4 6.6 
1 BYE! .761 AQZ1 .340 82.0 83.8 77.9 5.9 
2 563 756 .410 846 81.9 83.8 77.8 6.0 
3 504 737 .395 042 81.7 83.4 77.8 5.6 
4 564 -740 .393 AT 81.6 83.5 478 5.7 
5 561 752 .388 364 81.5 83.4 77.9 5.5 
6 yi! -765 409 .300 81.6 83.0 78.0 5.0 
Z) BL shld A221 1806 82.2 84.0 79.2 4.8 
8 604 .790 438 1352 83.6 85.4 80.2 5.2 
9 .615 .803 476 827 84.7 87.5 81.8 5.7 
10 .615 .803 469 84 85.8 88.9 81.9 7.0 
11 .608 198 457 AL 86.5 90.4: 80.8 9.6 
Noon .595 788 A44 844 86.8 91.4 82.2 9.2 
1 .576 .768 431 BON. 87.4 92.6 82.6 10.0 
2 .008 Mesill 413 824 87.2 91.4 83.2 8.2 
3 se fh 29 .380 349 87.1 91.2 83.1 8.1 
4 825 711 381 .300 86.2 90.0 81.4 8.6 
5 p27 -708 ool 327 85.8 89.4 80.2 9.2 
6 535 739 384 .000 84.4 87.6 79.4 8.2 
7 553 753 | A414 8389 | 83.2 | 86.4 79.8 6.6 
8 DEL Ts | AZL 340 82.9 85.8 | 79.4 6.4 
9 3594 | .789 445 044 82.4 84.8 78.6 6.2 
10 .606 193 458 .3839 82.3 84.6 78.0 6.6 
il .606 784: 468 O16 82.2 84.4 78.1 6.3 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several howrs 
daring the month. 


li Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of July, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


ics 2 3 B S 46 $5 6 | ale 

3 5 3 fa S = ese |Fes 

Sy ole e| o|, Saolh Sek sae 

se) 8 Sha ine E 22 | ee eee 

Hour. | FS ce a 3 ‘wal 6 “ap O ome mg 2 

E = 3 SS sulle 2 @.8|/ 333 

| &°o 3S =} a4 Fo Sehpeee sy | a 28 

[Pee iia a |e] «= 2 | Soe | Ea 

[ee i) ao Ss sa moog o£ 5 

| 23 2 E pou | S> | Sou | B85 | Sas 

eres A 3S A = Sete ieee as 

o 0 0 0 Inches. |'Troy grs.|Troy grs. 
Mic | s01 | 20 | 7e7 | 84 | 0.961 | 1085 | 116 | 090 
"h?| 80.055) 2.0 FS878.6 3.4 | .958 182 We .90 
2 \ 79.9 2.0 78.5 3.4, .955 29 15 -90 
3 79.7 2.0 78.3 3.4 949 22 15 .90 
4 79.6 | 2.0 | 78.2 3.4 946 19 15 .90 
5 79.6 19 | 78.3 3.2 949 22 .09 .90 
6 Wo V 1.921) 97814 3.2 0952 125 .09 .90 
” 80.1 21 | 78.6 3.6 958 .30 24 189 
8 BOG 2.8 alee 7 518 4,8 964 184 69 86 
9 81.2 B50 1007817 6.0 .961 29 2.13 83 
10 81.6 Ae P78h7 rial 961 .26 57 .80 
age) BUS 4.6 | 79.1 74 973 38 72 79 
Noon. 82.0 4.8 79.1 7.7 973 .36 .85 .78 
1 82.5 4.9 | 79.6 7.8 .989 52 93 78 
2 82.4 48 | 79.5 Weil .986 49 .88 79 
3 82.4 4.7 | 79.6 7.5 .989 52 81 a) 
4 82.0 42 | 79.1 7.1 973 .38 61 .80 
5 Ly) 41 | 78.8 7.0 964 .29 4° | 80 
6 80.9 3.5 | 78.4 6.0 952 19 12 83 
7 80.4 2.8 | 78.4 4.8 1952 pall 1.68 .86 
8 | 80.3 2.6 | 78.5 4A 955 Bil 52 87 
9 80,1 BB ViiN78.5 3.9 955 A] 134 .89 
10 80.1 PN ME all -958 .30 .28 89 
11 80.1 21 | 78.6 3.6 .958 .30 24 .89 
} 


All tle Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. hi 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of July, 1865. 
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


Be leo & 
fae, | se 
j Sika = 7: : : 
-| “= | & 2 Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
S| #2 (s3e f the Wind 
$\ ss /38 S| of the Wind. 
Ala” ipso 


a ss fs es eS SS 


E. 1 & i. Rain after intervals. 

H. & 8. o1& i. Rain at 1 A. uM. noon 4, 6 & 
Ss 
H 


Ne 
i 
bo 
= 
oe 
oS 
i 
w 


8 P. M. 
wilde i& i. Rainat2 &4 p.m. 
4 Overeast to 10 A. M. Siafterwards. Thin 
rain after intervals. 
Overcast to 3 Pp. M, i afterwards. Rain 
occasionally, 
Scud from 8. to 5 a.m. Overcast tol 
Pp, M. 1 & “iafterwards. Thin rain 
at 6 A. M. & noon. 
Metres 10:25. |S ei & -itoll a.m. “~ito5p.u,i& ri 
afterwards. Thin rain at 5 a, um. from 
noon to3 Pp. M. & at 11 P. mu, 
ae, S. VWitolla.m.%ito7 p.m. “-iafterwards. 
Light rain from 6 to 8 A. M. 
SED Giles Ss. VWito 4p. uM. “iafterwards. Thin rain 
| at 10 a.u, & 4 P. mw. 
10} 127.5; 0.18 |S. &S. W. Mito7 a. mu. “i & 71to4 p.m. WWiafter- 
wards. Rain from 7 to 9 Pp. Mm. 
a 1 eager S.&S. W. ito 6 A.M. —i & oi to noon: “i to 7 


P.M. Overcast afterwards. Rain be- 
| paee* tween 1 &2p.mM. & from 4to1l1 Pp. m. 
Lightning towards W, at 11. p. u. 
11 eee J iS. & S. EH. \-i nearly the whole day. Rain after 
intervals. Lightning towards W. at 
| midnicht, 
| 114.0] 0.57 |S. ni& -ito2p.M. V-iafterwards, Rain 
from 3 to 6 P.M, 
14) 119.0| 2.79 | 8. ni& “ito 9 a.m, ito 7p. M.\~iafter- 
wards. Rain from 6 to 9 P. M. 
ES ene 0.35 |S. & 5S. W. Overcast nearly the whole day. Rain from 
: 5 to 8 A. M. 
Lig | ee 0.31 |S. Overcast nearly the whole day, Rain after 
: intervals. 
| or 0.11 |S.H.&S§. Overcast nearly the whole day. Thin rain 
at 8 a. mM. & from 10 to 1 P. mM. 
TSE ELAS | S. H. Overcast to 5 A.M. 11 & “i to 6 P.M. 
Cloudless afterwards. Light rain at 
midnight, 1 & 9 a. M. 


Mi Cirri, —i Strati, %i Cumuli, i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, i Nimbi, 
‘ni Cirro cumuli. 
* Well on the 11th & 12th, 


liv 


Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 


| Date. 


Bg [Be 
oo aed 
ws |5'S 3 
i374 |g oO = 
a's fase 
Sx lpg 1 © 
o  |Inches 
TAAL] — 553 
115.0) 0.33 
121.5) 0.39 
iby cy ees 
124.4) 0.15 
119.0} 0.52 
5 Jl 0:15 
130.1| 0.53 
121.0 | 
112.6| 0.25 


in the month of July, 1865. 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &e, 


Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
of the Wind. 
S. &S. H. Cloudless to 5 A. mu. 91 & Ni to 3 P, M. WE 
| to 7 P.M, cloudless afterwards. 
S.&S. H. Cloudless to 4.4. mM. “i & Ni to7 A. M. Wi 


to2p.M.—i& i afterwards Rain at 
lla.u.1&7 Pv. uM. 

S. &S. EH, \i & “ito 9 a.m. 91 & Seud. from § to 4 
P.M. Overcast to8 Pp. M. cloudless after- 
wards. Rain at 5 P. M. 


Ss. Cloudless to 44. M. 91 & “i to 7 Pp. wu. 
Overcast afterwards. 
Ss. Overcast to 5 aA. M. 91 & Seud from S. to 


5». uM. “iafterwards. Thin rain be- 
tween 7 &8 a.m. Gat9 &10P. mu, 
|S. Wito2 a.m. \i& Scud from 8. to 10 


A.M. Overcast afterwards. Rain be- 
tween noon &1 Pp. um. & from 4 to 11 P. uM. 


Ss. Overcast. Rainfrom7 to 11 a.m. & from 
3 to ll P.M. 

8. Overcast nearly the whole day. Rain at 
midnight & 1 & 10 a.m. & from 5 to 9 
P. M. 

s. Overcast to2 P.M. 91 & “i afterwards. 
Light rain from 7 to 10 a. u. & between 
6&7 P.M. 

Ss. Overcast to 9 A, M. 9ito5 P.M. Overcast 


afterwards, Light rain at 4, 6, 7 A. M. 
4p. mM. & from 6 to 10 P. M. 


-» 124 01| Ss. Overcast, drizzled after intervals, 
TUS) ped 8. & W. Overcast to8 A.M. V-iafterwards. Light 
| rain from midnight to3 A.M. &at3& 
6 P.M. ‘ 
en 8. & W. Overcast nearly the whole day, Lightning 
& Thunder from5to9Pp.M. Rain from 
2 to 11 P. M, 


* Well on the 29th & 30th, 


Meteorological Observations. ly 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of July, 1865. 


Montutny ReEsvrts. 


Inches 

Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. ee oo PREETI 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 & 10 A. M.on the 28th, .. 29.803 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 3 p. M. on the 7th, e- 29.380 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, oc ee 0.423 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures,.. O0 oo e. 29.625 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. cc se co | ZRLELS 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .. e» 0.106 

0 

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. 0 GO 83.9 
Max. Temperature occurred at 1 P. mM. on the 8rd, oe ee 92.6 
Min. Temperature occurred at Midnight on the 30th, G0 OG. 77 A, 
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, 50 ey 15.0 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, 00 ate Se 88.5 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. 50 a 50 80.5 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,.. ee 8.0 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. oye Ad 80.8 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, .. 3.1 
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, .. OC Sei 78.6 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, Ae 5.3 
Inches 

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. be a 0.958 


Troy grains 
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, oe ae vA 10.28 


Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, Ae 1,85 
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.85 

Inches 
Rained 29 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, ac ae 279 
Total amount of rain during the month, re mit ane TOE 


Prevailing direction of the Wind, .. oo oe 8. &S8. EB, 


lyi Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of July, 1865. 


Monruny REsvtts. 


Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


| 
Hour. h 
S| .|6 SHS WES es els cols. = 
alae elale| |slels] .|siBlsisia|2 
| 
No.of days. 
Midnight. 1 1) | 5) faz) 4) al a 
1 1 1] 1| 7| 2]20] 3) 2| 1 
2 1 1} | 6 1421) 11 1 
3 1 7 [21 1 i) aL 
4 1| | 6 118] 21 5 
5 1 8) 1/21) 21 1) 1 
6 1 Q| | 4) }22) 3] 21 1 
7 2 1] | 7 |19] 4) 2) 1 
8 2) 1 8) 1117] 5) 3) 1141 
9 2 6 1/20) 41 2) [4 
10 2) 1 6 2)20| 3] 2| Ja 
iat 2 6| 2118] 3) 4) 1) 1 
Noon. 2) 1 1) 1) 7) 120] 5} 1 
1 | 1) 0) 4) Gi il2a| sha 
2 2) 14 2) 1| 5] 1/20) 2} 2] 1 
3 hen ie 1| | 5| 2/21) 6} 2 
4 ea 2| 1] 6] 1}20} 6} 1 
5 1 1| | 7| 2:22] 7 
6 1 2| 1] 6| 1/18] 6) 1 3| 3 
7 1 1| | 4) |20] 8{ 3] 2f 2| 2 
8 it 1| | 3] {23/7 3/3 
9 1 1| 1) 6| 2119] 5! 2] 2f 2) 2 
10 1 1] | 7] 29] 511) | 2) 2 
11 2 5} 3/21| 3) 2) 1) 2] 1 
| 


| 
| 


Meteorological Observations. Ivii 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of August, 1865. 


Latitude 22° 33’1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East. 


Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


os. 
hes eo 
23 
| 3 se 
; Son 
Date. ee <3 
ors 
= 

| Inches. 

1 | 29.647 | 

2 | 689 | 
2. ey 2 
4 .701 
5 -700 
6 .688 
7 AAD 
8 .700 
9 665 
10 646 
iat .678 
12 .718 
13 .719 
14 .675 
15 .666 
16 724 
17 .733 
18 .638 
19 008 
20 488 
21 419 
22 AAS 
23 .068 
24 ' 584 
25 .568 
26 om 
27 470 
28 439 
29 634 
30 .624 
31 59L 


Range of the Barometer 
during the day. 


dependent thereon. 


Max. 


Inches. 
29.705 
-766 
chi 
761 
wf45 
.746 
164 
£767 
125 
.692 
122 
.770 
°762 
2127 
ay 
coz! 
779 
724, 
.606 
.539 
494. 
.Dd3 
622 
.636 
.608 
p93 
p40 
O91 
.685 
690 


640 | 


Min. 


) Inches. 
29.577 
627 
.640 
.629 
631 
617 
.656 
.613 
.590 
587 
.635 
.656 
654 
20998 
.610 
.678 
672 


447 
400 
.330 


11 
009 
AGS 
.080 
ll 
| 2083 
548 
2002 


2 


048 | 


388 | 
p24. 


aS 
5 3 Range of the Tempera- 
>= ture during the day. 
a: 

eae 
Diff. Sie Max. | Min. | Diff. 

a 

Inches. (0) 0 0 


0.128 83.0 87.2 79.8 | 
2139 81.3 84.9 
alg3 83.3 89.4: 79.7 | 
132 $4.6 89.4: 80.8 | 
114 86.0 92.6 81.4. | 
129 84.6 89.0 §2.0 
108 | 84.5 89.0 80.0 | 
lad 85.8 90.8 82.0 
ao) 85.5 90.2 81.7 
2100 86.6 91.5 82.4 
.087 85.4 90.6 826 
114 86.3 92.2 81.8 
108 | 86.1 92.1 82.4 
134 : , 
142 85.4, 90.8 81.6 
.093 83.4 89.0 80.8 
107 83 8 87.9 80.6 
181 84.5 92.1 
| 159 
139 
164: 83.3 87.0 80.8 
165 82.6 86 2 80.2 
098 84.4: 91.0 80.4: 
125 85.1 90.8 81.0 
103 84.0 89.2 81.6 


~J 
~T 
to 
cos1I STO 


ry 


. 


ABROWENTAOWNNENTEROHPUMAOCONANYVE 


(0.2) 
ie 
Lo 
— 


— 
NAA HACIA ACOOIWNOODS HOH DO IE 


125 85.4: 92.6 81.6 | 11.0 
.160 84.7 89.8 $2.2 | 6 
-280 81.2 84.4 79.0 4 
102 82.5 85.5 80.2 3 
142 | 85.1 | 90.0 81.2 8.8 
108 | 895.6 90,6 81.4 92 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Thers 


mometer Meaus are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day. 


Vill Ifeteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, — 
in the month of August, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—(Continued.) 


* : E S BR log = 6 
2 3 = a 2 SSS) )| = 2 
= mas oO oo) Satis ei =, 

= Ee 2 5 po (2s —e)/ ae 

| = © 6 “A ee cee Se | Se 

la! Sees 3 E a © ae 28'S = ¥ © 3 

ato de a = a i 6 rs 2 = “Sieo| to veten 

es 2 3 a S| Se) 53 |S eee 

a = = eu | 6 | Bo peee ogee 

Fl o - oy iS r= os a 8 ae SB rs) S re a 

$8 Pp a PAY Se Iams eure |) ce = 

= Qa S) Q a = S = 
o to) o o Inches: | @. gr. || O gn. 

A 80.8 2.2) 79:3) 93.7 || 0:979.| 10.51. |e oss 
2 79.2 2. TT 3.6 931 02 DP .89 
3 80.2 Sl e780) ih wei 940 .09 84 85 
4 81.1 SES WEN! AO .958 26 o2aK8 83 
5 82.0 4.0 | +792) 6.8 976 Al 50 81 
6 81.5 S1 WO ine be 979 48 | 1.91 85 
7 80.9 SG a wero peu 952 19 |) 256 .83 
8 81.3 ASA ae Mee Tr 943 .06 dig 78 
9 81.8 3.7| 79.2) 6.3 .976 A8 .29 82 
10 | 82.0 46 | 792) 47.4 .976 Al 73 79 
11 | 82.0 3.4| 79.6] 5.8 .989 56 aD .83 
12k BUS ASD eS. O alee ai, 2958 21 81 78 
13 82.0 Zell EN EO 973 38 BT .80 
14. 81.7 42 | 788) 71 964 29 58 .80 
16 | 813 4.1] 78.4) .'7.0 952 a7 51 .80 
16 80.7 227s 2718.8) ay AiG 964 384 | 162 87 
17 80.8 3:0n| wufeenal wall .961 81 79-| 85 
18 81.3 B25 FOU Mayo .973 42 93 84 
19 81.9 29 | 79.9 | 4,9 .998 67 79 .86 
20 81.7 3.4 | 79.3 | 58 979 AG. | 2a 83 
21 80.7 26] 789 | 4,4 967 39 | 1.54 87 
22 80.7 1.9) 79.4932 .983 56 ae .90 
23 81.4 04\ uf 3 Heeoel 979 A8 83 85 
24. 82.0 Api ieee AEB) 2995 64 93. | .85 
25 81.7 PHEW \ewerelobil te YS). dk aL Gro} 15 AQ 88 
26 81.8 3.6 | 79,3 | 6.1 | 0.979 AG) | zeae 83 
27 81.5 2M 79.3 uma 979 A8 | 1.94 84 
28 79.5 U7) aS 8 ee .949 22 | 0,99 91 
29 80.5 ZO 791 | 34 978 AT Ne Glee .90 
30 81.7 34 | 79.3) 5.8 979 sAG Banal 83 
21 81.5 Aan 78 Cale 720 958 .26 58 .80 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. lix 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Ouleutta, 
in the month of August, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


r S | Range of the Barometer = 3 Range of the Temperature 
= aS for each hour during fafa) Ss for each hour during 
Hour = £ ol the month. ca) the month. 
=o) at aS ena 
so? z : si 2 
S22 | Max. Min. Diff, Be |) Wiles Min. Diff. 
= asi = 
Inches. | Inches.; Inches.| Inches. Oo) 0 o 0 
Mid- |, ee : 
night. 29.646 ' 29.764 {29.396 | 0.368 82.6 84.8 49.8 5.0 
1 .633 758 319 see) 82.4 84.6 80.2 4.4, 
2 .620 744, eS iul! A433 82.1 84.4 80.2 AZ, 
3 611 734 .016 418 81.8 84.1 80.2 3.9 
4, 607 734 .325 409 81.6 84.2 79.4 4.8 
5 .615 146 1334 412 81.3 82.8 78.3 4.5 
6 630 .756 AT A409 813 82.8 77.6 5.2 
% .646 -765 1009 406 82.1 83.8 172 6.6 
8 .660 -767 405 .062 83.6 85.8 77.6 8.2 
9 .668 BACALL 431 046 85.1 87.6 78.0 9.6 
10 .668 776 AAZ Pao) 86.4 89.2 78.6 10.6 
ET 661 779 A439 040 87.6 90.6 79.4 11.2 
Noon. 642 J735D 417 .208 88.4 91.4 80.6 10.8 
1 .620 J734 402 302 88.5 91.6 81,2 10,4 
2 595 .710 -360 .850 | . 88.3 92.2 81.4 10.8 
3 576 .698 344 1304 87.7 92.6 82.6 10.0 
4 .063 .686 «2393 .8090 87.1 91.4 82.8 8.6 
5 063 691 ,830 261 86.3 90.4 82.8 7.6 
6 LOWE 697 eal .366 85.3 88.2 83.0 5.2 
7 .590 .716 .oD9 .863 84.5 86.8 81.6 5.2 
8 617 736 | 2379 Sea 7/ 84.1 86.4 81.9 4.5 
9 640 755 409 046 83.8 85.6 81.1 4.5 
10 604 -766 | 424 342 83.4 85.0 80.7 4.3 
il .658 - 771 A416 1305) 83.0 84.8 81.0 3.8 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several hours 
during the month. 


Ix Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of August, 1865. 


Huurly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


2 3 3 E = Ze S.5 eae 

| @ =e 3 /é 2 Pace oe | Has 

| e | @ |e) S$. | 32 (Seger 

fy Bptes i) 5 io) ° »'s OFSes yeas 

Hour. | = S 3 a r ee a0 a 3% Se 2 

3 2 3 & . Se os aoe cas 

i) 3 = Be Flo ea. ae = a2 

ga | a B |me| «= | eee | 282] Ba 

s 5 p g pu | SE | $30 | 528 | sae 

= A Ss) A = SESS | ates as 

| 
0 0 0 0 Inches. |Troy grs.|Troy grs. 

ae 80.8 | 1.8 | 79.5 3.1 | 0.986 | 10.60 1.08 | 0.91 
1 80.8 1.6 | 79.7 2.7 992 | .66 0.95 92 
2 80.6 15) 7915 2.6 .986 .60 91 92 
8 80.4 1.4 | 79.4 2.4 .983 .58 82 .93 
ae | RDS 130 zo 2.2 .983 58 16 .93 
5 80.0 Sh |e 7 9E: 2.2 973 49 nD 93 
6 80.0 11-33 79,1 DR?, 973 49 15 93 
7 80.5 16 | 79.4 Df .983 56 .95 92 
8 81.1 25 | 79.3 4.3 979 51 1.52 87 
9 81.6 3.5 | 79.1 6.0 .973 .40 2,17 83 
10 81,8 46 | 78.6 7.8 958 21 85 78 
ll 82.3 5.3 | 79,1 8.5 973 34 3.18 77 
Noon 82.4, 6.0 | 78.8 |.9.6 964 23 61 74 
1 82,5 6.0 | 78.9 9.6 967 .26 62 74 
2 82.4 5.9 | 78.9 9.4 .967 28 52 75 
3 82.2 5.5 | 78,9 8.8 967 28 28 .76 
4 82.0 | 5.1 | 78.9 8.2 967 30 03 7 
By 1 BLY 4) Ali 78.5 7.8 955 18 2.84 78 
eh] Bie 3.9 78.7 6.6 961 26 38 gi 
y | 81.2 2.3 | 78.9 5.6 967 34 01 84 
g | 81.2 2.9 | 79.2 4.9 976 5 1.76 86 
94 81.1 27 | 79.2 4.6 976 AS 65 86 
10 81.0 2.4 | 79.3 41 979 51 AD .88 
11 81.0 2.0 | 79.6 3.4 .989 63 19 90 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. Ixi 


dbstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of August, 1865. 
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


————— | 


Pas Se 
So | 2 O: 
Seaete te S| 
-| 2s © & Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
= ge: 8 2 2| of the Wind. 
Q S = to 10 
| 


131.7| 1.72*| 8. & 8. HE. Overcast to2 P.M. “i & “i afterwards, 
Rain from Midnight to 9 a. m. 
0.75 |S. &S8. H. Overcast. Rain at midnight & 3 4.M, & 


from 5 to 1] a. mM. 


126.0 is “i & “ito2 P.M. Overcast afterwards. 
ele acca AS Ni & Oi. 
TS T(9 1) Sel SS “i to 8 a. M. Scud. from S. to 7 a.m. i 
afterwards. 
| 122.4, | Ss ito 7 Pp. M. “i afterwards. Thin rain at 
| | 2&4-.M. 
7| 124.0 Ss Overcast to6 A.M.%ito5 p.m. Cloud- 


less afterwards. Thin rain at-1 & 3 

e A.M. & 5 P. M, 

S. & S. W. Cloudless to4 a4. uM, —-ito3 P.M. i & 71 
afterwards. 
Ss Yi&é “ito2P.m. Overcast afterwards, 
| Rain at 24. uM. & 3 P, M, 

70) 129.0) _ ... Ss. “i to 6 A, M. Mi afterwards, 
iS} 
iS) 
S 


8 128.4 
9| 125.0, 0.22 
11| 131.4 | Vito7 A. M. %i to 3 P. mM, Cloudless 


afterwards. Light rain at 2 & 3 ep. M. 
i to 6 A. M. Ni to 2 P, M. Vi afterwards. 


12| 1316]... 


13} 127.0 | Cloudless to 5 A. M. Xito9 P.M. Clouds 
| less afterwards. Light rain at 8 Pp. uM. 
P40). s. Cloudless to 5 A.M. “ito 6 P.M. “i to 
the HE. afterwards. Thin rain at 1 Pp. u. 

15| 137.0| ... |8.H. GE. &S. “ié Sito 10 a.m. “iafterwards, Light 
rain between 2 & 3 P. M. 

16) 126.0, 020|S.E.&E.&S. Cloudless to 2.4. M. Overcast to 7 Pp, mM. 
Cloudless afterwards. Rain at 2, 3,5 
& 6 P. M. 

17; 129.6; 0.13 |S. Overcast to 7 aA. mM. W-itol P.M. Overcast 
to6 P.M. Cloudless afterwards. Rain 
at1,5&6 A.M. 

WStse)  ., | |S. & B. Cloudless to 4 4.M. ito 7 Pp. mu. Cloud. 
less afterwards. Light rain at 3 P. M. 

19) 132.0} 0.18 |S. &S. E. Cloudless to5 a.M. %ito8 P.M. Cloud- 
less afterwards. Thin rain at 2,3 &6 
p, M. 


4 129.0\ 0.12 E.&S.E. si, iiGaein et 2 See 


| 


Ni Cirri, —i Strati, \i Cumuli, i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, i Nimbi, 
‘ni Cirro cumuli. 
* Fell from 2 Pe, M, of the 31st July to 9 A. mM. of the Ist, 


Ixii Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
wn the month of August, 1865. 


_ Solar Radiation, Weather, &e, 


Bene | as 
See 
.| 22 |& & §| Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
2| 83 1/838] ofthe Wind. 
A|a% (gus 
| oO  |Inches| 
2M eee 0.51 | N. E. & H. Overcast to 1p. mu. “~ito9 p.m. Over- 
cast afterwards, Rain at10 A. Mu. noon, 
1,3 &11 P, u. 
22] ... 0.44 | S. H. & EH. Overcast to 4 P.M, V-ito 8 p.m. Cloud- 
less afterwards. Drizzled after intervals. 
23) 120.0} 0.13 |S. Cloudless to 38 a. M.°1 to9r. mu. Thin 
rain at 4 & 8 a. M. noon & 5 P. M. 
24) 129.8) ,.. |S.&S8S. HE. Overcast to 7 A, M. Mito 8 P. mM. VW-iafter- 
wards. Light rain at 2 4. M. 
29 126.5) 0.22 | Variable. Overcast to 7 Pp. M, W-i & Lightning after- 
wards. Thunder at 9 A, M. 
26 137.4; ... | N.E.&S. Clouds of various kinds. Lightning at 
midnight & 1 a. uM. 
27, 122.4) ... | N.& N.E. Overcast to 2 Pp. M. V-iafterwards. Light 
rain at 3,5 & 11 P.M. 
28)... 0.79 |S.H.& EH. & 8. Overcast. Rain from midnight to 2 P, u. 
& at 7 P. M. 
29) ase 0.58 |S. E. &S, Clouds of various kinds. Rain at 3, 6, 10 
& 11 A. M. 
30 129.0 A Ss. & W. Cloudless to 5 A. M. i afterwards. 
31} 129:0))) Ss. & W. \-ito7a,M. ‘ito 10a.mM. Overcast to 
| 4p.mM. Cloudless afterwards. 


Meteorological Observations. 


Ixiii 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 


in the month of August, 1865. 
Moyrury Rusvurrs. 


Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. ee 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 11 a. M. on the 17th, 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 2 a. M. on the 28th, 


Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, Be 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures, . wa we 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. 56 ao 


Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .. 


Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. = 40 
Max. Temperature occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 5th & 26th, .. 
Min. Temperature occurred at 7 A. M. on the 2nd, ne 
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, te 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, oe nie 

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. oC ate 


Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, .. 


Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. i 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Diicriioweite, 
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, .. ae 


Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, 


Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. hs 


. Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, is ae 
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, 


Inches 
29 623 
29.779 
29.311 

0.468 
29.685 
29.553 

0.132 


° 
84.5 
92.6 

We 
15.4 
89.7 
81.1 

8.6 


81.3 
3.2 
79.1 
5.4: 
Inches 
0.973 


Troy grains 


Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 


Rained 22 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, as 
Total amount of rain during the month, ay ay: 


Prevailing direction of the Wind, .. nic Ae 


10.4.2 
1.93 
0.84 


Inches 
172 
5.99 


S.&5S. 8, 


Ixiv Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of August, 1865. 


Montruny Rersvrts. 


Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


Hour. 


Rain on. 


Rain on. 
Rain on. 
Ss. E 
Rain on 
W. 
Rain on 
Rain on. 


Calm. 


es 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
: 
| 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


Midnight. 


pay 
We) 
NW w wre 


iS) 


BWW wOrhNE 


fe 


ae 
FPOoOwMONOQOBWNE 
HERP WN NH EE Eee 
02 00 
= 
WHwWANTNAE Ee Pw 
bo bo 
DBONRHAUMUMANE Pe 
bo eo 
_— 
oo 
— 
Ep wpe 
pee 


Noon. 


PH ww 
bo 
bw oo 


eb 
pam 


rc 
a 


— 

Oy 

— 
Be} Or 
ENED HH 


wDe Bre Db 


— 
— 


Ww wndH 
~ 
c= 
— 


BPOOODVTANL WH 
wwNwnNwrbenwrwmwanwDy 
— 


eS 
to 
Or 

ell eellendlae 


Meteorological Observations. i 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of September, 1865. 


Latitude 22° 33’1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Bast. 
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in, 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


| id 2 = Range of the Barometer z 3 Range of the Tempera- 
mes during the day. ae ture during the day 
peas S 3 
Date. | "93 e 5 
| 352 | Max. | Min. | Dif. SG Max. | Min. | Diff. 
= = 
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Co) 0 0 0 
1 29.645 | 29.705 | 29.596 0.109 85.2 87.7 83.4 4.3 
2 .680 027 .625 102 83.9 88.8 79.2 9.6 
ee) .663 125 584 141 84.5 89.8 81.0 8.8 
4 .629 .692 551 141 84.4 89.4 81.8 7.6 
5 599 -665 027 138 85.2 89.8 81.4 8.4 
6 620 -701 .006 135 84.5 88.0 82.2 | 5.8 
7 673 128 .604 124 85.4 91.8 82.4 9.4 
8 .629 .696 553 143 82.3 84.8 80.4 44 
9 580 .638 013 125 81.3 83.8 79.6 4.2 
10 .580 .620 019 101 81.5 85.0 80.2 48 
11 .570 .629 014, 115 81.7 86.4 79.6 6.8 
12 601 .667 045 122 81.0 86.6 78.2 8.4 
13 .669 «145 614 | ollB3} 78.5 81.2 76.8 4.4 
14 .756 .809 701 .108 79.3 84.6 75. 9.2 
15 770 .833 .694, 139 83.4 88.6 78.6 | 10.0 
16 -733 .806 634, 172 85,2 90.3 80.4 9.9 
17 -702 072 .619 153 86.7 91.4 81.8 9.6 
18 .689 «759 084 175 87.1 93.0 82.2 | 10.8 
19 -686 Bape .603 148 86.6 92.8 82.4 | 10.4 
20 .656 Bliss 584, | 129 83.8 89.0 79.0 | 10.0 
21 .624; .670 549 | 121 85.2 90.4 81.1 9.3 
22 645 .696 604 .092 85 4: 90.2 80.8 | 9.4 
23 .673 127 .630 .097 85.5 89.6 82.2 74 
24 723 789 .676 113 84,0 896 79,2 | 10.4 
25 | .784 .638 727 111 84.9 91.2 79.2 | 12.0 
26 1D S00 855 732 123 85.8 91.6 81.9 9.7 
27 -761 £932 .689 143 86.1 90.7 82.2 8.5 
28 707 784 .638 146 85.8 90.4: 82.2 8.2 
29 .696 754 .635 119 85.3 90.6 83.4 7.2 
30 .718 780 .660 .120 86.6 91.8 §3.2 8.6 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day, 


il Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of September, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.— (Continued.) 


is Sua se S A | 2 See 
la s = a 2 a. | eee 
S Ps iS) OR oi A Ss 
| aes ow Ss & Ps | Seeie ries ase 
| aa Co) ° SO ao aa a) = 2 “= 
1 3 5 E 2 © Le | Pee =: 
Dptedl wae = Q 6 a9 Secs] SS) Ss 
| 22 2 0 eS FSS) 288 
| 23 2 3 a ca os |zo8t| Pls 
| Bo = s Ae BS | Os | ees ec meee 
9 Q 3 Ais a ofS Sa 
a6 Ru =) As as As (© sig 
® A 2 5 a ee | $8 |cs ave.) Seas 
= a) i) a = = cS = 
EEE eS 
| o to) O) oO limes, | 2s re, | M. ee, 
a 4, P23 2.9 80.3 | 49 | 1.011 | 10.80 | 1.81 | 0.86 
5.1. (8.4 2.5 79.6 | 4.3 | 0.989 .60 nae .87 
3 B15 |. 8.0 79.4, | |5.1 .983 pik 84 85 
4 81.9 | 2.5 80.1 | 4.3 | 1.005 JB 56 87 
5 S18 034 79.4) 5.8 | 0.983 49 | 2.12 .83 
6 B22) eS 80.6 | 3.9 | 1.021 Be | 1a 88 
7 | 82.4 3.0 30.3. Bil O11 .80 .88 «85 
s | 80.9 1.4, 79.9 | 2.4 | 0.998 74 | 0.84 93 
y 79.7 1.6 78.6 | 2.7 .958 .32 92 .92 
10 797 1.8 78.4 | 93.1 952 PS | TOG 91 
il 79.8 19 Wish) | Be 955 .29 .08 91 
12 79.1 1.9 77.8 | 93.2 934 On .07 90 
13 77.5 1.0 GSS) Le 905 | 9,79 | 0.56 95 
14 V7 9 Wael 76.9} 24 .908 82 ae .93 
15 80.4 | 3.0 FE | Be 949 | 10.18 | 1.78 85 
16 81.5 a7 78.9 | 6.3 .967 84 | 2.27 82 
17 82.2 4.5 HISD I” eho 986 51 67 .80 
18 82.4 4.7 79.6 3) .989 52 81 79 
19 81.8 48 78:90 aie: .967 .30 84 .78 
20 80.5 3.3 78.2 | 5.6 946 3) 9 BEST 84 
21 Bless eso 78.6 | 66 958 23 | 2.38 81 
po 2706 Nes Ty |p G8) 868.| 9.27 | 3.41 a3 
23 80.0 | 5.5 6A oA 885 46 .26 74: 
DA | 79.2 4.8 Tpsie) | 876 39 | 2.78 77 
25 | 80.6 4.3 Bi.6 | e738 928 .93 56 .80 
26 | 81.3 4.5 78.1 a .943 | 10.06 an 78 
27 B02 jenn 76.1 | 10.0 885 | 9.44 | 3.51 73 
28 80.4 | 5.4 76.6 9.2 .899 .59 24, 75 
29 | 80.8 4.5 TON TK .928 Ign! \ 2i7e 78 
30 | 80.9 5.7 | 77.5) 91 .925 .86 | 38.28 1D 
| | 
| | 
| | 


es, 


All the H7gvometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. lil 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of September, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon. 


c s a | Range of the Barometer | s o Range of the Temperature 
= g= for each hour during oS for each hour during 
Hoe = = aa the month. aS) the month. 
. oo a (= I 
= ect eo | 
S23 | Max. Min. Diff, se | Max. Min. Diff. 
= = 
Inches. | Inches. Inches.) Inches. Co) Oo) (0) o 
Mid- 29.69 yi : 5 pe 
night, | 7°: 93 | 29.815 |29.599 0.216 82.5 84,6 78.0 6.6 
1 .683 811 584 227 82.3 84.2 78.0 6.2 
2 .670 .796 563 230 82.2 84.0 78.4 5.6 
sep 200k -786 003 233 82.0 84.2 78.6 5.6 
4, .657 792 DAT 245 81.7 84.4 | 78.0 6.4, 
5 .665 .798 Ad 249 81,5 84.5 77.5 7.0 
6 .678 812 DOA .258 81.2 84.6 75.6 9.0 
Zi 694 .832 .569 .263 82.0 85.2 75.4 98 
8 714 Sol 1587 264 83.4 86.8 Go 11.3 
9 726 .850 098 202 84.7 88.1 75.4 12,7 
10 727 .855 594, 261 85.7 89.8 76.1 13.7 
11 7138 1854 586 .268 86.7 91.2 76.9 14.3 
Noon. 691 835 567 .268 87.4 92.0 78.4 13.6 
1 .669 .807 DAT .260 87.5 92.8 80.5 12.3 
2 645 TES -528 247 87.5 93.0 79.6 13.4 
3 | 622 | 748 | 1593 | 295 | 874! 9201 795 12.5 
4, 614 UES 013 222 87.0 91.6 79.6 12.0 
5 .618 132 O14 218 86 6 91.4 79.2 12.2 
6 633 “744A .039 .205 85.3 89.4 76.8 12.6 
7 .655 .767 D9 .208 84.5 88.2 774 10,8 
8 .678 .796 OTA 222 83.6 87.4 77.4 10.0 
9 697 .806 588 218 83.L | 86.0 77.8 8.2 
10 707 | .808 601 .207 82.8 | 85.4 77.8 7.6 
ED 704 .810 611 199 82.5 | 84.8 78.1 6.7 
| | 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several hours 
during the month, 


iv Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteoroloyical Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of September, 1865. 


Hourly Means, Xe. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 


dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


ae) Sf) 8) |) Bisilinve ae eile seamen 

mf BS 8 8 he eels 

S| Ek bp Soecet Ss eee 
> Bepiss ° ° Sis 56 5 

Hour. | BS = a Se $ : anO" ae: Se 

5 2 3 SUE) Site eS a,2/|3S68 

Eo 5 = SS Ao Eni eee || a Boe 

2s oe a As Ga | 6 53 | Sosa moeee 

| as b g py oe & Ow See ats 

B fa) s) Qe len meme edn oe as 

0 ty) ty) ty) Inches. |Troy grs.|Troy grs. 
} 

as 807 | 1.8 | 794 7) 8a) | 0.983) 10.56 1.08 | 0.91 
1 BOGi yy) 79.4, 2.9 .983 .56 .02 91 
2 80.5 | 1.7 | 79.8 2.9 979 53 01 91 
3 BoB NY 1 79.1 2.9 973 47 .00 91 
4 80.2 ese omy cane | 2.6 978 AT 0.90 92 
5 80.0 15 | 78.9 2.6 967 Al .90 92 
Se ne ee 78.8 2.4 964, .40 81 .93 
mo) BOIL ey ye 7 ot 2.9 973 47 1.00 91 
gs | 80.4 3.0 | 78.3 5.1 949 .18 .78 .85 
9 80.7 | 4.0 77.9 6.8 937 .02 2.40 81 
10 80.9 | 48 | 77.5 8.2 925 9.88 .92 Sek 
11 81.3 5.4 | 78.1 8.6 .943 | 10.04 3.14 76 
Woon.| 81.3 | 611] 77.6 | 98 | .928 | 9.87 58 73 
qi]. (sie 64) 7785 102 919 78 AA di 
Bi} (8100 6.5 Pinel 10.4 913 72 ail 72 
3 | 809 65.1 770s) tod 910 .69 76 72 
4 80.9 6s 772, 9.8 916 75 54 73 
5 81.1 5.5 | 77.8 8.8 934, 95 19 76 
6 81.2 | 4,1 78 7.0 949 | 10.14 2.50 .80 
7 Sl. | Sd. 787 5.8 961 .29 .06 .83 
me |) S09. P27 79.0 | 4.6 .970 40 1.63 87 
H | 807 5| 2A4F 790 41 .970 2 44, .88 
10) 10/805 4 23780 3.9 967 .B9 .36 88 
ll 80.5 | 2.0 | 79.1 3.4 973 AT il .90 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. Vv 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
an the month of September, 1865. 
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


2) 137.0| 1.76 |S. & W. 


3) 138.0; .. |W.&8S.&8. W. 


seneatietsh. ig alts Op 
ar Yeo 0) °c. tH, 


6 een 76s || ONS 


(3 aan 0.21 | N. 
ee O42 He de NG. Hs! 
HON. Parra 8. Hea Ny he 


LA Soper 0.78 | H.&N. EH. ON. 
12| 123.5) 0.12 |N.E &E. 
Le er 2.36 |H. & 8. H. 
4)... 111 |H. GS. EH. 


15| 124.0; ... | E. &&. 


16, 132.8) .. |S.&N.E. 
| 


. . oo 
tS oo > 
=osd Ses 
eos Fah aang 
3 2's © § € |Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
=| #3 18.32| ofthe Wind. 
Ss S = eH 
A | = eod 
=| ee ae ee a 
| o  {Inches. 
1 |S. Overcast. 


Overcast nearly the whole day, Rain from 
3to7 a. um. & from noon to 2 P. M. 
Thunder towards N. at 9 p. m. 

i & Nito7 A.M. 91 to5e. mM. Overcast 
afterwards, Thin rain at 10 & 114. m. 
&6P.M. Thunder towards N. W.at7 
p. M. Lightning towards N. from 7 to 9 
P. M, 

%1t06 A.M. Overcasttolla mu. i & 
“i afterwards. Thin rain at 10 & 11 
A. M. 

\Wito5a.M. ito 3 Pp. mM. Clouds of 
different kinds afterwards. Light rain 
between 7 & 8 P. M, 

Li1& oi to7 a M.c1to3P.M. Overcast 
afterwards. Rain at5 a.u.& 4 Pp. m. 
ito2Pp.M. Overcastafterwards. Thin 
rain between midnight & 1 A. uw. & at4& 

& 7 P.M. 

Overcast. Scud. from N. at 6 & 7 a. M, 
Thin rain from 9 a, M. to 9 P. M. 

Overcast nearly the whole day. Light rain 
after intervals. 

Overcast to 7 p. M. Cloudless afterwards. 
Thin rain at 74. M. & from 10 to 1 P.M. 
& at 4 Pp. M. 

Overcast nearly the whole day. Rain from 
38 to8 a. M. & from 1 to 8 P, M. 

Overcast. Scud. from EH. from 8 to noon, 
Thin rain after intervals. 

Overcast. Scud. from 8S. HE. from 6 to 10 
P.M. Rain from 4 A. M. to 11 Pp. uM. 

Overcast to 5 P. M. Seatd. “i afterwards. 
‘Rain from 5 to 11 a. mM, & between 4 & 
5 Pp. M. 

Overcast to 8 A.M. %ito 6 Pp, M. Clear 
afterwards. Thin rain between 3 & 4 
P. M. 

Clear to’7 A.M. %ito6e.mM, Clear after- 
wards. Lightning towards S. H at7 P.M, 


Mi Cirri, —i Strati, %i Cumuli, i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, i Nimbi, 


“i Cirro-cumuli. 


Vi 


Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of September, 1865. 


Oo od 
ms S 
3) es |on 
a 126 : 
99 |sQlsg 
so Bre 
~ Ree \2 5 
S| xs 1a 3s 
8S) Sea laws 
Ala = |jpoo 
| 
fe) Inches 
17) 187.4 
1 
18) 144.0 


19) 143.9} 0.47 


23) 130.0 


24) 140.4) 0.41 


25| 141.8| 1.16 


26| 142.0) ... 


27| 140.0) 
28 135.4 
29) 130.0 


30! 139.4 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &c, 


Prevailing direction 
of the Wind. 


8S. & HK. 
8. & E. 


N. W. & variable. 


N. W. &N. 

N. & N. W. 
N.W.& W.&N. 
W. 

S.& EH. 


|S. &S. W.& HE. 


General Aspect of the Sky. 


Clear to 7 A, M. “iafterwards, Lightning 
& Thunder at 8&9 Pp. uw, Light rain 
between 8 & 9 P. M. 

Clear to 5a. M. Siafterwards. Lightning 
towards N, W. at 7,8 & 9 Pp. uM. 

Clear to 4 a. mM. ito 7 a. M. “ito 6 P. M, 
Overcast afterwards. Lightning from 
Midnight to 8 a. u. & at 7 Pp. M. Rain at 
8&9 P.M. 

Clear to 5 a.m. Clouds of different kinds 
afterwards. Rain & Thunder at 1,2 & 
3p.M. Lightning at 7 P.M. 

Clear to 8 A.M. “ito 6 p.m. Clear after- 
wards, Rain between 3 & 4 P. M, 

Clear to9 4.M. 71 & -ito7 P.M. Clear 
afterwards. 

Clear to 5 a.m. i to10 a.m. “ito 5 P.M. 
Vi afterwards. 

Overcast to 10 a. M. Si afterwards. Rain 
at 2, 3-10 & 11 P. uM. 

MWito4 a.m. “ito 4 Pp. uw. clear after- 
wards. Thunder & lightning towards 
S. W. at 3 a. M. rain from 2 to 4 A, M. 

Clear to 5 a. M. “ito 2 Pp. M. ‘i to6P. M. 
clear afterwards, 

Clear nearly the whole day. 

Ni to 7 a. M. %i afterwards. 

Vito 3 A.M. 1 to3 Pp, M. -i afterwards. 
Thin rain at 4 vp. M. 

Overcast to 5 A. M, Cito 5 P. M. clear after- 
wards. 


ee 


Meteorological Observations. 


Vil 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteoroloyical Observations 


taken at thé Surveyor General’s Office, Caleutta, 
in the month of September, 1865. 


Montuty Rursvuprs. 


Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. ac oe 
Mas. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 A. M. on the 26th, a. 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 P. mu. on the 9th, Re 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, Be nas 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures,.. 06 66 AG 

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. ale 00 ae 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .. ote 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. ee 00 
Max. Temperature occurred at 2 P. M. on the 18th, oe aie 
Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the 14th, ae ae 
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, 00 - 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, ate se ae 

Ditto ditto Min. Gibvonmes AA O06 ee 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, .. ae 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. 50 Ao 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, .. 
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, .. ee He 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, oc 
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. aie Pee 


Inches 
29.676 
29.855 
29.513 

0.3842 
29.737 
29.609 

0.128 


80.7 
3.5 
78.2 
6.0 
Inches 
0.946 


Troy grains 


Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, ate ate 56 10.13 

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, ee 211 

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.83 

Inches 

_ Rained 21 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, Ae ne 2.36 

- Total amount of rain during the month, «e se es 10.25 
Prevailing direction of the Wind, .. eo eo E.&N.&S, 


q 


viii Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Caleutta, 
in the month of September, 1865. 


Monruny Resuptrs. 


Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


Hour. 
°o lo} lo} ° OF -| oO Ci he 
siAls elle] |e|ele| .|stel. 
Note [oh EB. |g S.\ce la |e (EF lata 
No, of days. 

Midnight. 3) 4 4 6 | 3) Js) fil | 4) pa 
if 3] 1 4 A Ea (A Pe ZS pe if! 
2 5) 1 3 SI Gl Zeeland alo amano 
3 6) 1] 4) 1) 4) | 2) | ap 2) a 4) 4 2 
4, 7) 1j 2) 1) 7 2 6| 1) 1) | 5] 1} 2 
5 6| 21 2 "il @ 6) yall 5) 1S! 
6 5| 47 2) 1 5] 1) 2) 4 G| Fa) 7 5] a4 
7 5| | 3] 2f 6] 3] 1] | 5] Fa) 7 5) a4 
8 6} | 6) 2) 4) 1) 2) 1) a) Fe) We 3| 
9 PALA Pees el Shea tall || 2: 
10 7| 1) 4 7 2) 21 2) 2 5| 213 
11 5 1) 5 Way 

Noon. 2) 3] 8) 1) 4 1 2 4, 6) 1 
1 5| | 3] 1h’ 8| 3] 2| 2 4) at 2) 4) [a2 
2 5| 1] 3| 5| 3] 3] | 4) af 1} 1] 4) 5 
3 3| 1) 2) 1 5] «| 4 1t 6] if 1) a 3] 6 
4 8 bf 1) 6| 2) 4) | 6) at) 94 
5 TAA iol 6) | 3) 1) 6) 138 Bi a 
6 7 Wd 7| 1/ 3) 1] 5) 172) J 4) fa 
7 al al 1| 6) 1) 2) | 5) 73) Pal 
8 7| 1 8| 21 3/115) |2l tal qi 
9 5| [1/1 9] 2] 3} |e) api) | 4) f2 
10 Ele bl 10| 2} 2; | 7; f 2) 14) F2 
can 3| | 4 6/1] 2| | 8) | 2] 114 1 


Meteorological Observations. ix 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of October, 1865. 


Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East. 
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon. 


% 2 = Range of the Barometer B S |Range of the Tempera- 
S 5 = during the day. BA ture during the day. 
cen As 
Date. |" me sS iB 
5 23 Max. Min. Diff. & a Max. Min. | Diff. 
= = 
Inches. | Inches. |} Inches. | Inches. 0) 0 a) 0 
ie 29.727 | 29.796 | 29.656 0.140 87.2 92 2 83.3 8.9 
2 718 LOG -640 BB 86.7 92.2 81.2 | 11.0 
3 | .763 al 716 115 87.4 93 2 82.2 | 11.0 
aii 1153 824 692 »Lda 87.2 93.1 81.3 | 11.8 
5 “751 812 692 120 87.2 | 92.8 82.2 | 10.6 
6 wip: .807 687 120 87.4 93.0 82.5 | 10.5 
7 2788 842 736 .106 86.9 92.6 81.2 | 11.4 
8 .855 912 801 ll 87.1 92.8 82.6 | 10.2 
9 864 931 788 143 86.8 93.4 82.0 | 11.4 
10 873 944, .823 «121 85.8 92.1 81.4 | 10.7 
11 .882 951 815 136 85.9 91.8 81.6 | 10.2 
12 -884 951 821 .130 84.7 91.2 79.8 | 11.4 
13 .890 .962 2839 alize 83.4 90.8 78.2 | 12.6 
14, 914 .999 .863 136 85.3 92.2 80.0 | 12.2 
15 922 | 30.005 854: 151 84.8 92 790 | 13.6 
16 .887 | 29.953 824 “L229 84 4 91.4 78.5 | 12.9 
17 859 .929 -807 122 83.8 90.2 77.4 | 12.8 
18 .855 915 794 2h 83.6 89.8 77.4 | 12.4 
19 .876 943 Ter 166 $4.3 99.0 79.0 | 110 
20 .918 987 867 .120 83.8 90.0 78.0 | 12.0 
21 904 .969 846 123 83.0 87.6 798 7.8 
22 853 922 -799 123 83.8 90.6 78.9) |) JIR7 
23 842 915 .808 107 84.0 91.4 79.0 | 12.4 
24, O47 JS 7L .807 110 81.3 $2.0 74.8 | 14.2 
25 .856 .935 .O15 120 80.5 89.6 72.6 | 17.0 
26 .857 SEE 804 29 81.0 89.8 72.8 | 17.0 
27 .009 904 786 118 81.9 90.2 74.0 | 16.2 
28 . 873 .935 -830 105 82.9 91.4 76.6 | 148 
29 918 998 .863 ABB 82.4 89.6 76.2 | 13.4 
30 904 983. | 833 145 81.5: 88.8 75.6 || W32 
31 .875 a2 .807 145 79.5 86.6 73.4 | 13.2 
: . 


: Sp ARSE Ee AR 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Meaus are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day, 


x Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of October, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


2 Pea 2 Pee) 2 = 
= 4 £ a 9 2 | eel eee 
= 2 © 3 pS 9 2 eae 
S 5 5 a 2 i S| yace = 
Date | oe | 2 | aS| 2.) #2 (eee 
| OD 2 no) = — MH O's —-o @ 2 o's 
fae 3 Seon eee = 
a fa . = ae | 6 3. |-ReSsocl cee 
® A fe S ae oF S48 |san| S55 
= fa) S) a = = - = 
eee 
o o 0) 0 Ihn@lngs, || “MU, fare, | AL, fete. 
1 81 2 6.0 77.6 9.6 0.928 9.87 *| 3.50 0.74 
2 79.9 6.8 75.8 | 109 876 .39 .85 71 
3 80.0 74 75.6 | 11-8 871 .20 4.20 .69 
4. 80.0 7.2 Mowe belies 873 28 -09 .69 
5 79.8 7.4 75.4 | 11.8 .865 .20 oll'7/ .69 
6 79:9) ae d.d 75.4 | 42.0 .865 .20 25 .68 
7 79.9 7.0 Teal |) Wile 873 30 3.95 70 
8 199 Sse 75.6 | 11.5 871 25) 4.08 .69 
9: 9 80.9 5.9 77 A, 9.4 922 83 3.38 74 
10 80.6 5.2 77.0 8.8 .910 71 12 76 
11 80.1 5.8 76.0 9.9 1882 AL 46 13 
12 79.6 5.1 76.0 8.7 882 43, 2.99 76 
13 78.8 4.6 75.6 7.8 871 30 63 78 
14 Tsp 6.2 74.8 ) 10.5 849 06 3.08 72 
15 76.9 7.9 71.4) 18.4 761 8.13 4,33 65 
16 76.7 Gi GAs8y ea 758 alll .20 66 
17 76.3 7.5 71.0 | 12.8 751 04 .06 .66 
18 76.3 7.3 71.2 | 12.4 756 .10 3.93 .67 
19 | 76.7 7.6 71.4 | 12.9 761 13 4.15 .66 
20 77.7 6.1 73.4 | 10.4 igoll .69 3.41 72 
21 784 4.3 eet 1.8 873 9.38 2.44) 79 
22 78.6 5.2 75.0 8.8 854 14 -96 76 
23 75.7 8.3 69.9 | 14,1 725 7.76 A.A 64 
24 | 71.5 9.8 64.6 | 16.7 609 6.55 .69 08 
25 70.7 9.8 63.8 | 16.7 093 09 09 08 
26 | 71.8 9.2 65.4 | 15.6 .626 73 AL .60 
27 73.9 8.0 68.3 | 136 .688 7.39 .05 65 
OBEN ides 6.8 (ales |) wets) 758 8.13 3.66 .69 
29 76.2 6.2 71.9) | £O%5 7173 29 182 sf 
30 74.3 7.2 69.3 | 12.2 711 7.64 67 68 
31 72.1 74: 66.9 | 12.6 657 09 7 67 
| 


I 


Ail the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants, 


— a 


Meteorological Observations. xi 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
an the month of October, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon. 


S 3 | Range of the Barometer = 3 Range of the Temperature 
mages for each hour during As for each hour during 
Hour = g i the month. bo the month. 
“| oa & aq 8 
so : : S| | 0 9 
Zoe Max. Min, Diff, BS Max. Min. Diff. 
= = 
Inches. | Inches.} Inches.| Inches. Co) 0 0 0 
Mid- 
night, 29.847 ' 29,923 (29.732 0.191 81.1 85.0 76.4 8.6 
1 .839 .918 719 oh) 80.7 84.3 76.0 8.3 
2 .832 .908 .709 199 80.3 84.0 75.2 8.8 
3 .828 .903 -706 197 80.0 83.6 TAA, 92 
4 831 914 -708 .206 79.6 83.4 73.6 9.8 
5 844 931 722 .209 79.2 83.3 72.8 10.5 
6 861 949 .138 Pal ||) YO) 83.5 72.6 10.9 
Zi .882 974 154 .220 80.2 85.0 73.8 11.2 
8 901 .997 773 224: 82.8 86.4: 77 A 9.0 
9 915 |39.004 OL 227 84.8 88.2 79.8 8.4. 
10 914 -005 766 239 86.7 90.0. 83.0 7.0 
il 897 {29.988 747 241 88.5 90.8 83.6 7.2 
Noon. 871 975 -716 259 89.4 92.0 86.6 5.4 
1 -840 .919 .695 224, 90.0 92.8 85.2 7.6 
2 .813 .889 664 225 90.4 93.0 85.3 EE 
3 798 871 648 223 90.8 93.2 85.0 8.2 
4 “791 .863 .640 .223 90.2 92.8 84.4: 8.4 
5 -798 .873 649 224 89.8 93.4 83 1 10.3 
6 .807 879 671 .208 86.5 89.6 81.6 8.0 
7 2824 894 .690 204 84.8 88.4 80.2 8.2 
8 .846 -920 | 712 .208 83.8 87.2 78.8 8.4 
9 .857 .930 AUS .203 82.9 86.6 78.0 8.6 
10 .863 .932 733 .199 82.1 86.0 77.0 9.0 
1 807 934: 1734 -200 81.4 85.6 76.2 9.4: 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several hours 
during the month. 


xil Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Resuits of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of October, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


To) 45 = = ay ae) Ga one nee 
= o =| 3) ° SiS 2) ge S = eS 
| 2 = 5 |A 2 ieee 
Pook | Bee Sod ce eee eee 
a | a1 = 
Hour. S = = a “Ss 5 4 O E o a 5 a oP 
z =| 3 2 Sots Ss alicla a2 2 ees 
|} &°o 3 = aya Fo eS eS a ees 
= 8 b 8 pay oF oo | SS os een 
& a) 5) Qa = = igeeen we gé 
0 to) oO ty) Inches. |Troy grs.|Troy ers. 
He "7.7 | 34 | 753 | 58 | 0862 ! 929 | 188°] 088 
an 77.6 SP al) ioe 5.3 865 134 .70 685 
9 \ 77.4 2.9 | 75.4 4.9 865 34 57 86 
et ay Be 2.8 75.2, 4.8 .860 28 53 .86 
Aa) 2700 2.6 | 75.2 4.4) .860 .30 39 87 
Bi 3Bie 2.5 | 74.9 4.3 851 21 135 87 
6 76.5 2.5 74.7 4,3 846 16 BY el| | sir 
"7 76.9 3.3 | 74.6 5.6 843 .09 79 84, 
Rol Bish 5.7 73.1 9.7 .803 8.61 3.14 are 
9 a7 2 61719) 1,12.9 773 .26 4,20 .66 
10 97.5 912 | 7210 14,7 776 125 93 63 
1 76.) WO 712 Wf 756 .02 5.78 58 
| 
Noon.| 77.5 | 11.9 | 70.4 | 19.0 .736 7.79 6.46 Rats4 
Coil See aleee a 697 we eos 720 61 89 53 
el Bo deem Gos) | oni 711 50 7.17 51 
3 | "7.0 | 13.8 | 68.7 92,1 697 3D 49 50 
Ao WEL aed 69.2) 2110 708 48 iil 51 
Bel 97%. | ASA OA 10/4 .736 19 6.63 54 
6 Pea lo S44 73 si 803 8.56 4,54 .65 
7 783 6.5 AWipe (alta .819 76 3.70 70 
8 78.2 5.6 | 74.3 9.5 835 94 .16 74 
9 78.0 4.9 | 74.6 8.3 843 9.05 2.74 Sehr 
10) 7 4.4, 74.6 75 843 05 46 79 
11 77.7 3.7 75,1 6,3 857 “20 04 82 
} 


ane 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants, 


° ‘ opt 
Meteorological Observations. xi 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 


in the month of October, 1865. 
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


= S| So 2 
Sots ss 
.| 2 |O & = |Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
= ce 3 = oe of the Wind. i 
A,S7 jewd 
0 {|Inches. 
1) 142.2 ‘ N.W.&S8S Clear. 
2) 139.4 N. W. Clear. 
3) 140.0 W.&N. W. Clear. 
4) 140.0 NV Clear to noon, Scatd. “i to 5 p. M,, clear 
afterwards. 
Bi 144.5] ... W.&N. Clear. 
6 138.0 N.W.&N.&W. | Clear. 
7| 139.9 | Be leWeyds Ne Wi Clear to 7 a. um, ‘ito the H. to 3 P. u., 
- clear afterwards, 
8} 189.7| ... W. Clear. 
9} 138.0 W.&S. Clear to 11 a. M. “i to 5 P. M. clear after- 
wards. 

10} 189.0} ,, 8. &58. W i to 5a.M. “ito noon, clouds of various 
kinds afterwards. 

31} 142.0| ... s.&8S. W Clear to 11 A. M, i round the horizon to 
6 Pp. M., clear to 9 P. M. i to the N. 
afterwards. 

1G) IS fea eee S.&S. W.& EH. Mnitoll a.m. .%ito5p,mu.“~itothe S. 
W. afterwards. 

13} 139.0} .... S.GS. W.&S. H. | Clear to 44, m. Overcast toll a. mM. i 
to 6 Pp. M. “~i to the W. afterwards. 

$4 142-0)... H. & W.&S. W. “itol0 a.m. i to5 Pp. m., clear after- 

| wards. 

45) 149.4)... W.&S. Clear to noon, %i to 4 P. m., clear after- 
wards. 

EG LSSS i)... N. W. Clear to 10 A. M. Xi to 4 P. M., clear after- 
wards. 

i GAZ. Nod No W. Clear to 9 A. M. Sito 5 P. M. olear after- 
wards. 

oSt42G | 22 oN. & N. W: Clear to 9 a.M. Mito 6 P. mM, “i to the 


. 


H, afterwards. 

19} 143.0) «.. | N.&W.&N. W. i to 8 a. M. clear to 10 a. m. Scatd. 11 

EB afterwards. 

20} 144.4| ,.. | S.&H, Clear to 9 a.m. Scatd. 9i to 5 P. u., clear 
afterwards. 

FAV UB ENG | TSM Clear to 5 a. M. Wi to 7 P, M., clear after- 
wards. 

221 139.0| ... | W.&S. E. Clear to 7 A. M. Seatd. i to 4 P. u., clear 

afterwards, 


_ ~NiCirri, —i Strati, \i Cumuli, ~i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, W-i Nimbi, 
- Wi Cirro-cumuli. 


X1V 


Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
wn the month of October, 1865. 


to 
w 


Sh ty 
®D TS Ole 


wwe 


| Date. 


Solar 


Max. 


Rain Gauge 


5 feetabove 


Ground. 


oa 
6 
ie) 
= 
(@) 
a 


ee 


tee 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &e, 


|W. & 8S. 


E. & N. 
N.GN, E. 


Prevailing direction 
of the Wind. 


Vivo @o SS VIM 
W.&S. W. 


General Aspect of the Sky. 


a Eg ST 


“Wi to the KE. & N. W. to 4 a.m. “-ito8 
A. M., clear afterwards. 

Clear. 

Clear, 

Clear. 

Clear. 

Clear to 4.4.M,“i to5 p. m., clear after- 
wards, ~ 

Clear to 10 a. mu. Scatd. ito 9 P. M., 
clear afterwards. 

Clear to 4.4. mM. “i & ‘i tonoon. Seatd. 
oi to 6 P. M., clear afterwards. 

Clear to8 A.M. Stratonus to 3 P.M, “i 
afterwards, 


Meteorological Observations. XV 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of October, 1865. 


Montuty Rusvurrs. 


Inches 

Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. a0 eA ZoISAS 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. mM. on the 15th, s» 380.005 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 P. m. on the 2nd, -. 29.640 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, we Ano OSes 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures,.. 50 ae se 2ST 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. 56 60 ae 298790 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .. So OE) 

oO 

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. 50 ee 84.4 
Max. Temperature occurred at 5 P. M. on the 9th, 50 BS 93.4 
Min. Temperature occurred at 6 A. M. on the 25th, ay Ae 72.6 
Haxtreme range of the Temperature during the month, ate ms 20.8 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, Ubgierars oe 50 91.0 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. ae oe se 73.8 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, .. nif 12.2 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. ae ae Wr 4 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, .. 70 
Computed Mean Dew-point forthe month, .. ae a 72.5 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, we 11.9 
Inches 

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. ae So OGY 


Troy grains 


Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, ac oe ee 8.42 
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, ee 3.89 
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.68 

Inches 
Rained No days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, at Wi Nile 
Total amount of rain during the month, os oe ae Nil. 


Prevailing direction of the Wind, ,. on oo wo WL & 8S. 


Xvi Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of October, 1865. 


Montruty REsvyts. 


Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


Hour. 
5 5 §| .|6 elishic 6 el Sed Sites 
2/4 | 2 ells] |sie\sl .|.Sielsislel2 
No Siz [ce Bok [os |e 18.8 a (SIE lela leis sia 
No, of days. 
Midnight. A 1 3 5 5) 43 8 2 
1 5 1 3 4, 6) 13 7 2 
2 4 1 2 5 6| 43 i 3 
3 A 1 2 4 17] 13 7 3 
4 4, 1 3 3 "| 43 i 3 
5 A 1 3 2 8| | 3 7 3 
6 4 1 if 3 7| 9 4 7 4 
7 A, 2 2 "| 5 7 A 
8 5 2 4) | 8 9 3 
9 5 1| i 5] # 5! (10 4 
10 2 3] 6| #3] #11 6 
11 2 1 2 1 Wy Gah 6 
Noon. 2, 2 2 3| 12! [10 
1 A 2 2 5 8| }10 
2 4 1 1 1 4| 413 Z 
3 2 1 4| 14) $10 
4, 3 1 3 4, 9| fil 
5 4 1 1 3 4) 412 6 
6 5 2 5 2| 412 5 
7 4 2 1 5 PA | (2 5 
8 2 1 6 1 3 2| (12) 14 
9 2 1 7 1 3 2) fil 4 
10 2 1 6 2 4| | 3] [10] | 38 
11 3 1 5 A Al 13 8 3 


i A SE A 


—— 


Meteorological Observations. Ixxxi 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Caleutta, 
in the month of November, 1865. 


Latitude 22° 33’1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East. 


Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon. 


o5 pasa 
2oxv Range of the Barometer a 2  |Range of the Tempera- 
"ep 5 Ss during the day, eae: ture during the day. 
| oe E °o la 3 a 
Date. | “~ E s 3 
252 { Max. | Min. | Dif. SE Max. | Min. | Diff. 
= = 
— oo Cael ——~—= 
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. to) ry 0 o 
1.6 | 29.802 | 29.863 | 29.732 0.131 78.6 85.7 BO) | Wz7/ 
2 801 .867 745 a2, 79.5 87.3 72.5 | V4.8 
8 878 .953 817 136 81.0 88.2 73.8 | 14,4 
4, 925 | 30.006 .853 LEE 79,7 86.8 71.4 | 15.4 
5 .923 | 29.989 .876 A) 80.5 85.8 74.8 | 11.0 
6 -931 | 30.007 873 | .184| 79.6 86.8 | 74.6 | 12.2 
7 .899 | 29.965 8427) Gk23° [5976.5 85.4 | 67.0 | 18.4 
8 .860 .918 “791 27 77 A 86.4, 68.6 | 17.8 
9 .866 .929 822 | 107 78.5 86.4 70.5 | 15.9 
10 .851 .920 .802 118 80.7 87.4 (5.6 HES 
aa [2 .863 -929 822 | 107 80.6 87.2 VIKO) |) We 
12 874 941 818 123 | 79.4 85.1 | 74.7 | 10.4 
13 887 .964 .839 | 125 \ 77.4 85.7 71.8 | 13.9 
14 -926 | 30.008 850 | PLS Si ees90 87.8 72.2 | 15.6 
15 .970 051 921 | .130 80.0 86.8 Hees | UE 
16 30.018 .094 .953 141 79.3 86.5 T2 Si loen 
17 ,063 .133 | 30.005 128 77.8 86 0 71.5 | 14.5 
18 .085 156 021 UBS 78.0 86.4 71.2 | 15.2 
19 .092 164 .034 130 77.0 84.8 70.4 | 14.4 
20 043 126 | 29.976 .150 75.4 83.6 69.0 | 146 
21 29.984, .050 911 | 139 73.8 82.2 66.6 | 15.6 
22 .997 ,068 948 .120 73.6 82.2 66.0 | 16.2 
23 30.036 118 .979 .139 Wout 82.2 66.3 | 15.9 
24, 024, .108 954 154: 72.8 81.6 66.0 | 15.6 
25 29.974, .058 -900 158 71.8 81.0 64.5 | 16.5 
26 .949 .014 .888 126 70.2 774: 63.6 | 18.8 
27 -980 .060 919 141 69.7 78.2 62.3 | 15.9 
28 30.008 .075 .960 Ne 69.5 78.2 61.6 | 16.6 
29 ,008 .084 941 143 70.6 81.1 61.6 | 19.5 
30 29.984, .059 908 151 71.2 82.0 63.0 | 19.0 
° 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Thers 
mometer Means are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day, 


Ixxxii Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Obacknaianns 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of November, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


2 , 5 S Bs aE Ag 
2 3 3 a a ae |>3 | BE 
& t _ [S) oe tS et A = < 
= rs) 5 Sa) 6 Sty RON) ere ees 
3 iS 3 oa 2 2S) | ISto ea eeoees 
Date.| ©. 2 a 3 2eo |SE5| 2os 
35 = 2 SB Gas Se | bog 
= Ss = ® Bo: Qs > 2 |e oe She 
a8 a 5 | ae 2 |) BO | ee eu ee 
faa) Sh — ay 3 os ma 
2S : iS) Ais = we) SSS 
® A Lee g Peay oF ® sae} ots 
| = a S) a = = 3 = 
° ( t) oO Inches.| T. gr. | T. gr. 
1 719 6.7 67.2 | 11.4 0.664: 7.19 3.19 0.69 
9) 72.9 6.6 68.3 | 11.2 .688 43 .23 70 
3 74.1 GON ae F693) ule 7 ay lth 64 50 69 
4 72.8 69 68.0 | 11.7 681 .oD ABi/ .69 
5 75.0 5.5 (lees 9.4, 1753 8.13 2.85 74 
6 70.2 }) 9.4 63.6 | 16.0 590 6.36 4.33 .60 
7 67.4 | 9.1 61.0 | 15.5 AL 5.87 3.88 .60 
8 69.4 | 8,0 63.8 | 13.6 093 6.42 59 64 
S| | 71.6 6.9 66.8 | 11.7 .655 7.09 .26 .69 
10 74.6 6.1 70.3 | 10.4 734 92 Ale 72 
rial 738 | 6.8 69.0 | 11.6 704 FeSr/ Ad: 69 
12 (eRe Tp 98: 67.0 | 12.4 659 12 50 .67 
13 70.4 7.0 65.5 11.9 628 6.81 .20 68 
14 VPP NW Teper We tafe Tle .668 7 21 29 .69 
150 PM ET2.0) Ae 67.9 | 12.1 679 33 48 63 
16 71.7 | 76 | 66.4 12.9 646 6.98 61 .66 
17 70.2 | 7.6 | 649 | 12.9 .615 67 AG .66 
18 | 70.3) Biman 64.9 | 13.1 .615 67 52 .66 
19 69.4 76-| 64.1 | 19.9 599 50 89 66 
20 67.8 726, Wi G25 12.9 .068 18 25 .66 
21 | 66.0 7.8 60.5 13.3 032 5.81 17 .65 
22 66.0 | 7.6 60.7 | 12.9 536 84 .09 .65 
23 67.1 6.6 62.5 | 11.2 .568 6.21 2.75 .69 
24, 65.6 { 7.2 | 59.8 | 13.0 2520 5.68 3.03 65 
OF 1) 268.40 Ul ps4 56.7 | 15.1 469 13 .B2 61 
26 62:8. | 074 56.9 13.3 AT 2 18 2.87 64 
27 6UGy Haves Sail 14,6 444) 4.89 3.04 62 
28 | 62:3° fo Wie2 56.5 | 13.0 A465 5.12 2.76 .65 
29 | 62.5 8.1 | 56.0] 146 58 302 | Sue 62 
30 (| 63.9 (hee 58,1 13.1 AQ1 9) 2.91 .65 
| | 
| 
| 
= Gi) ee 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants, 


Meteorological Observations. ixxxili 


_ Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of November, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon. 


ue . 
S 3; | Range of the Barometer = 8 Range of the Temperature 
P= for each hour during Ag for each hour during 
Hour 2 the month. Pan) the month. 
ay or 8 As 
xo : = =i & n 4 
S54 | Max. Min. Diff. Sc | Max. Min. Diff, 
= = 
Inches. | Inches.| Inches.| Inches. 0 0 0 0 
Mid- 
nicht, {29-949 | 80.099 [29.787 | 0.812 | 73.8] 79.4) 65.4 | 140 
i 942 095 774 .o2L 72.6 78.6 64.8 13.8 
2 933 .088 768 .020 W211. 78.4: 64.0 14.4 
3 .927 -084 .769 2015 71.4 77.8 63.4 14.4 
4, .926 08l 773 .308 70.7 76.8 62.6 14,2 
5 939 .089 778 pole: 70.1 76.3 61.6 14.7 
6 954, 106 .800 .306 69.6 75.6 61.6 14.0 
% .978 126 815 Rolal 70.0 76.2 61.6 14.6 
8 30.001 146 -036 .oL0 72.8 79.6 65.0 14.6 
9 O21 164 052 012 76.0 83.0 67.7 15.3 
50 019 161 861 .300 78.9 84.6 G2 13.4 
11 | 29.998 140 838 .302 81.9 86.4 74.6 11.8 
Noon. 966 13? li 302 82.5 86.2 76.6 9.6 
1 934 074 .768 .006 83.5 86.8 772 9.6 
Z .910 -050 740 .oL0 84.3 87.8 77.0 10.8 
3 897 | .084 739 295 84.1 88.2 77.0 11.2 
4; 895 .035 3732 003 83.0 87.0 76.8 10.2 
5 904: .039 LV 292, 81.5 86.2 75.0 11.2 
6 915 055 aT .298: 79.3 83.8 72.8 11.0 
i, 933 -067 776 291 77.8 82.4 70.5 11.9 
8 -952 091 801 .290 76.6 81.8 69.2 12.6 
93 .966 Algal 811 000 75.5 80.8 67.9 12.9 
10 970 | .109 .815 2294 74,5 79 A 67.0 12.4 
il .966 104 810 294 73.6 79.3 66.2 13,1 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several hours 
during the month. 


Ixxxiv Meteorological Observations. 


Abstiact of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of November, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


| 2 3 3 E = we S68) a8 
a = Sy Ie 8 Fe |see | Hee 
< Ay a) 5 3 a) “8p 2e re) 2g = 
2. z E e Ss 2 o's 8 2 Oo 5 
|} oO S o ° Ss) = =I = o = 
Hour. | 28 B Qa B 2 “=O E Bm Sp a oP 
A LE ht See Sled 2 Sloe ae ee 
=a 3S = el Alo Bue. Be 2 = 22 
> 8 ian) 2 FA-s Ss eis Becee Ie 
= 3 b g po | E> | $5. |S 6 | Seas 
Le hes A 3 A S se | Be oT ec 
O) ee ) 0) Inches. |Troy grs.|Troy grs. 
a | 686 | 47 | 648 8.5 | 0.613 | 6,71 2.13 | 0.76 
“4 | 67.9 4.7 | 64.1 8.5 599 55 al 76 
2\ 674 | 47 | 63.6 8.5 | .590 A5 .08 76 
3 | 66.9 4.5 | 63.3 Bul 584 AL 1.94 Jefe 
A 66.4 | 4.3 63.0 etl 578 85 83 78 
5 | 66.0 41 62.7 7.4, 572, 30 43 a 
6 | 65.6 | 4.0 62.4) 72, 567 24 .66 279 
7 | 65.8 4.2 | 62.4 7.6 567 23 17 78 
s | 669 | 5.9 | 622 | 10.6 563 615 2.56 Til, 
a) | 68a 79 | 622 | 13.4 570 20 3.40 65° 
10 | 69.4 | 9.5 62.7 16.2 572 19 4.28 59 
7) | «702 | 108 | 626 + 184 570 14 5,00 5D 
Noon.| 70.7 | 11.8 | 62.4 | 20,1 .567 .08 56 52 
1 70.9 | 12.6 | 62.1 | 21.4 561 O01 99 .50 
2 71,5 | 128 | 62/5 } 2118 568 .07 6.21 49 
3 FAO, whist |) 6l:8ie Nye2i2 55D 5.94 27 .49 
4 70.9 | 12.1 | 62.4 | 20.6 567 6.06 5.76 51 
Ser FS) IOS 642 e738 601 AG 4.85 57 
6 FG), etal 9166.2 AY ii 642 93 3.66 .65 
7 | 71.3 6.5 | 66.7 | 111 653 7.07 .06 70 
8 70.7 5.9 | 66.6 | 10,0 651 .07 2.70 Ure. 
9 70.1 5.4 | 66.3 9.2 644 .02 AA 74s 
10 | 69.5 5.0 | 66.0 8.5 .638 6.95 23 76 
il 68.9 4,7 | 65.6 8.0 .630 .89 04 Tee 
) 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


en 


=_ 


Meteorological Observations. Ixxxv 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calewtta, 
in the month of November, 1865. 
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


Oo oO 
28 |23 | 
| 23 |O & & Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
‘SAS Begs of the Wind. 
a s = |e isd 
: o_ _|Inches. 
a} 133.0)... |.N. Ni. : 
2| 137.8 N.& N. W. ‘ito lp. mM. clear afterwards. Slightly 
fogey from 9 to 11 Pp. M. 
31 141.8} .. |N.&N.W.& W. Clear to 10 4. uM. “i & Xi to 3p. m., clear 
afterwards. 
4| 138.7 N.&N. W Clear to noon, Scatd. “i to 5 p. m., clear 
afterwards. 
EPtAd Oi tee, bl, N. Gy N. Woe Clear to 6 a. M. Mito 5 P. M., clear after- 
wards. 
GPa40.0| ... | N.&N. W. Clear. Slightly foggy at midnight. 
7| 140.2 ' N.W.&N Clear. 
SIge law | Ns We GN. Clear. 
9) 131.8 N.&N.W.& W. | Clearto6 a.m. ito6 Pp. m., clear afters 
: wards. 
10} 120.0| «. | N. fito8 a.m. Wi to 6 P. M., clear after- 
wards. 
11) 129.0| .. | N. \i nearly the whole day. 
12} 131.90 | aoa MNT 2 \n ito 6 Pp. M., clear afterwards. 
13° 139.9 N. Scatd. \i to 5 a. M. light clouds to11 a.m. 
Ni to 5 Pp. M., clear afterwards, 
PA TAG A. ae. 2) N. & IN. 1. Clear to 4 a. M., clouds of different kinds 
to Noon, ‘i to 5 P. M., clear afterwards. 
15| 1848| . N Clear to 4 a. Mm. Scatd. ‘i to 6 P. u., clear 
afterwards. 
1G 136-2 |). | Ne Clear to 104, M., “ito 7 >. M., clear after- 
wards. 
17) 137.0 N. Clear. 
18 139.0 ee Ns Clear. 
79| 139.4; ... |N. Clear. 
PLO | ic) Ne Clear to 6 A. u. Scatd. \i to 6 Pp. M., clear 
| afterwards. Slightly fogey at 9 & 10 
P, M. 
21) 135.0| .. | N.&E Clear. Slightly foggy to 1 A, mM. 
22 1260). ... | N.& E Clear. 
23| 135.0; .. |N.W.&N.&E, | Clear. 
2 HBGZ eat (ON. Clear to 5 A. M, Scatd, ‘i to 6 P. uw, clear 
afterwards. 
25) foe aise | N. Clear to 4 A. M, Scatd. “i afterwards, 
26, 127.0| .. |N. Clear to 3 4, M, “i afterwards. 


Ni Cirri, —i Strati, 0i Cumuli, i Cirro-strati, 11 Cumulo-strati, i Nimbi 
“ni Cirro-cumuli, 


Ixxxvi Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
wm the month of November, 1865. 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &c, 


= {se 
Se ae 
.| 23 |S & §| Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
2| we 188 of the Wind. 
a; Sse @ SH A 
Al AF jad 
| o  |Inches = 
247) 1290) 3... | NoW.G WN. Ni to 1 A. Mm. clear to 5 a. mM. “i to6 P. M., 
clear afterwards. Slightly fogey at 7 
P. M. 
ys IS{0s) I 355 NI orem ne Clear to5 A.M. ‘ito 7 P. M., clear aftere 
wards. 
29) 13620), 5, |) Wie Clear. Slightly fogey at 1 A. mM. 
30} 138.8; ... | W. Clear. Slightly foggy at 10 P. M. 


Meteorological Observations. 


Ixxxvii 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 


taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of November, 1865. 


Montuty Resvutts. 


Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. AC 60 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 A. mu. on the 19th, oe 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 P. M. on the Ist, Hes 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, AR Be 
Mean of the Daily Max. Pressures,.. ee eo oe 

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. ce oo A 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .. ee 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. a0 ae 
Max. Temperature occurred at 3 P. M. on the 38rd, o° ae 
Min. Temperature occurred at 6 & 7 a. M. on the 28th & 29th, ae 
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, wih AR 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, oo eo 20 

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. oe 2° ee 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, .. 06 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. ac we 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, .. 
Computed Mean Dew-point forthe month, .. SS ee 


Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, 50 


Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. te as 


Inches 
29.950 
30.164 
29,732 

0.432 
30.623 
29.890 

0.133 


69.1 
Tce 
64.0 
12.4 
Inches 
0.597 


Troy grains 


Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, oo ee ai 
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, Bia 
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 


Rained No days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, ale aa 
Total amount of rain during the month, Se de BY 


6.49 
3.23 
0.67 


Inches 
Nil. 
Nil. 


Prevailing direction of the Wind, ., oo oe N. & N, W. 


IXXxViii Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of November, 1865. 


Montruty REsvyts. 


Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


Hour. 


Rain on. 
Hy. 


Rain on. 
SS) 
Rain on. 


Rain on. 


N. 


s. 


N. W. 
Rain on. 
Calm. 
Rain on. 
Missed. 


Rain on. 
WwW 
Rain on. 


inal 


| 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


No, of days. 


Midnight. 17 


a 


bo bo 


_ 
ve) 

RSPNwmNNwNNWh 
eS 


WOO Ode 
a) 
w) 


a 
Rr Ooo 
bo 
ie 
oo out 
WNNNNWWWWWwWWwWwWLh 
Re wOoW EOE OUD 


Noon. 23) 


ES 


WE 
a 


paar 


NTCOCOONTNTNTOOUOE 


a 
FPOUOOMONOA UHL WHE 
_ 
con) 


NNWWNRHEHEE DPD 
WwkePeREWWNWNNHDNWW 


e 
eS 
Re eee ee 


ay 


| 
| 
| 


Meteorological Observations. Ixxxix 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of December, 1865. 
Latitude 22° 3371” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Hast. 


Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft, 11 in, 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon. 


—_— tN 


is = Range of the Barometer & 3  |Range of the Tempera- 
th 2 = during the day. ba ture during the day. 
= 20 Be 
Bates: = Fe ss = 
s22 | Max. | Min. | Dif, a Max. | Min. | Diff. 
te a 
Inches. | Inches. } Inches. | Inches. Co) te) 0 0 
1 29.970 | 29.049 | 29.906 0.143 72.9 83.5 65.1 | 18.4 
2, 984 .051 928 123 72.7 82.6 66.0 | 16.6 
3 | 30.011 .079 955 Mia) 752 85.6 | 67.4 | 18.2 
4; — .020 114 .960 154 | 74.9 83.6 | 67.8 | 15.8 
5 29.999 O71 :929 142 74.0 82.2 68.2 | 14.0 
6 30.031 .093 .934: 109 | 72.8 81.4 64.8 | 16.6 
7 .013 .098 957 BUA 27229 81.8 65.0 | 16.8 
8 29.972 051 927 124 75.3 83.4 69.4 | 14.0 
9 30.010 .090 964. .126 74.3 82.2 67.8 | 14.4 
10 .042 134 .995 (US) || CB) 78.8 61.4 | 17.4 
11 .060 164 975 .189 67.6 76.3 59.5 | 16.8 
12 .062 154 | 30.005 149 | 64.9 74.5 | 56.8 | 17.7 
13 ,029 .107 | 29.950 157 66.3 76.2 58.0 | 18.2 
14 .054 .139 .993 146 67.1 77.4 58.6 | 18.8 
15 .066 .150 995 | 155 68.3 77.8 60.0 | 17.8 
16 053 abe BT | 133 68.3 77.8 60.2 | 17.6 
17 031 .103 985 118 68.3 78.7 60.0 | 18.7 
18 021 .082 at | Auinl 69.0 79.0 60.6 | 18.4. 
19 .037 «112 974 138 69.5 79.4 60.2 | 19.2 
20 .092 185 | 30.048 137 70.4 80.6 61.5 | 19.1 
21 101 172 043 5129 72.0 82.6 62.8 | 19.8 
22 .126 196 064 182 71.9 81.2 63.6 | 17.6 
23 101 178 043 135 71.0 80.4 62.8 | 17.6 
24, .068 139 .005 134 71.7 81.0 64.3 | 16.7 
25 | .060 156 | 29.975 181 71.9 81.8 63.8 | 18.0 
26 015 .096 94,0 BSG edzed 82.0 64.8 | 17.2 
27 29.974: 052 909 143 74.2 81.7 67.0 | 14.7 
28 .940 .016 .883 133 Ups \\ > teil) 66.5 | 14.5 
29 30.011 .070 965 105 71.5 76.2 68.4: 7.8 
30 .050 146 .976 170 68.1 VEG) 62.6 | 12.0 
31 .035 134: .966 168 68.5 78.0 60.0 | 18.0 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther« 
- mometer Meaus are derived from the hourly Observations made during the day, 


xé Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of December, 1865. 


Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


5 E i epee ee be |b 
CMC eee es es 
BB 2 = ro) me ww 9 Ss 

= to) zy a > lo) ° 5 . Ha = > 

lites > E § ons ess) Sos 

a 2 2 % = OREO 2) tore = 

Date. | = 2 QA Sb ao SB El |, © BP en 

~~ s To) 3 Oo 80:5, = a8 ~ g S 

22 2 @ ae Sl euloe ls 2 H | e 25 

eo 3 = pa 3 AS ae) Fen lh rs eees 

| = faa) 2 a= = on bd 

| =e) a fo) Aaa as Bo L Ss £°6 

eg bs g bay SS SS Po oon 

= A o) a = = 3 = 
0 r) o fy) Inches.| T. gr. | T. or, 
1 66.2 6.7 60.8 | 12.1 0.537 5.88 2.85 0.67 
2 68.3 4 64.8 7.9 613 6.72 1.96 sit 
3 67.8 7A 62.6 | 12.6 .570 20 3.17 66 
4 68.0 | 6.9 63.2 Wilde 082 Ais) 2.95 68 
5 68.9 5.1 65.3 8.7 623 81 23 75 
6 66.2 6.6 60.9 | 11.9 539 5.90 81 .68 
q 65.9 7.0 60.3 12.6 .028 78 95 .66 
8 70.1 5.2 66.5 8.8 .648 7.06 34 75 
9 66.1 8.2 60.4 | 138.9 530 5.78 3.34 63 
10 61.5 8.4 54.8 | 15.1 440 4.83 15 61 
11 58.9 8.7 AS) |) ilayae 398 .40 04 59 
12 57.4 (43) 51.4 13.5 892 1380 2.50 64 
13 59.9 6.4 54.8 15 44.0 .86 29 .68 
14 610 FPG DOva peel 0 A59 5.09 20 79 
15 | 62.6 5.7 58.0 | 10.3 489 40 20 aff 
16 62.0 | 63 57.0 ( 11.3 A73 22 38 69 
17 62.0 6.3 57.0 11.3 473 22 38 69 
18 62.4 6.6 57.1 11.9 A75 23 53 67 
19 62.7 6.8 57.3 12.2 A7B 126 62 67 
20 63.8 6.6 98.5 11.9 498 47 63 68 
pi | 648 | 7.2\ | 59.0 | t80 506 |  .54 | .96 | .65 
22 65.3 | 66 60.0 | 11.9 523 73 75 68 
23 65.0) 4 98G:0 60.2 | 10.8 27 78 AIT 70 
24 65,3 | eo 61.1 10.6 DAB 95 48 71 
25 66.8 5,1 62.7 9.2 572 6.27 21 74, 
26 67.5 5.2 63.3 9A 584 09 29 7A 
| 68.5 Dei 64.5 9.7 607 62 AT 73 
28. | 68.5 | 4.3 65,1 7.7 619 78 1,93 78 
29 ‘| 67.9 | 3.6 {| 65.0 6.5 617 Atle 61 SL 
30 | 62.1 6.0 57.3 | 10.8 478 5.27 2.28 70 
31 61.8 | 6.7 56.4 | 12.1 464, ne A 67 
| 


} 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants, 


Meteorological Observations. ‘ xel 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of December, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon. 


=) =; | Range of the Barometer. = 5 Range of the Temperature 
aaa for each hour during m2 for each hour during 
Hak = = a the month. Po the month, 
"(rag Aa 
zo? 5 é s & -* , 
Z24 | Max. Min, Diff. Se | Max. Min. Diff. 
= S 
Sse — Sy 
Inches. | Inches.| Inches.| Inches. 0) C0) 0 0 
| 
Mid- y 
nicht. 30.035 30.153 {29.954 0.199 67.3 72.8 60.8 12.0 
1 .028 148 .936 le, 66.5 72.8 59.8 13.0 
2 -020 elise 912 221 66.0 42,2 590 13.2 
3 012 124 .905 219 65.3 72.0 58.8 13.2 
4. .010 107 8388 219 64.6 71.2 58.4 12.8 
5 021 114 899 215 64.1 71.0 58.0 13.0 
6 .035 126 .910 2216 63.6 69,4 57.0 12.4 
&i .058 145 945 .200 63.5 70.0 56.8 13.2 
8 .087 174, 991 1838 66.3 2.3 60.4 11.9 
9 -109 194, |30.005 189 69.8 75.3 63.0 12.3 
10 ot: 196 .016 180 73.3 49.2 67.8 11.4 
aE .092 182 004 178 75.8 81.8 71.0 10.8 
Noon. -058 144 |29.974, So: Ih lease 83.0 72.2 10.8 
1 .022 116 93 180 79.0 84.7 TAL 10.6 
2 | 29.995 -088 907 181 79.9 | 85.6 74,2 11.4 
3 -980 .066 887 wZ9 79.9 84.8 74.5 10.3 
4 -976 .064 083 181 78.5 83.5 73.4 10.1 
5 .985 .067 .886 181 76.9 81.3 71.8 9.5 
6 996 084 901 183 7A.2 78.3 68.2 10,1 
7 '30.014 104 924 .180 72.3 76.2 66.0 10.2 
3 ,030 123 953 .170 71.0 75.2 65.0 10.2 
9 043 ,150 974 176 69.8 74.1 63.4: 10.7 
10 048 159 .979 180 68.8 738 62.6 11.2 
il 044: 0157 972 185 68.1 73.0 61.8 Tee 


The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther- 
mometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several hours 
during the month. 


xii lileteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of December, 1865. 


Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements 
dependent thereon.—( Continued.) 


= S E S 28 ose 33 
| 3 5 3 A 2 Pe ess |Fes. 
| : ip aiee & S62 | EE | See 
Be Bol eee 8 | eS See 
How. | FS = a S Bae llc eg | mea 
| iw 2 S12 sill 2 Sap 2 Seas) Seeee ees 
eS Ej = 33 Flo Be. sak = 2 
SE a a aecieiere ie Ghers es Re | Bee 
= 3 P 8 aoc ac) oe S| Ses 
= a) 'S) Q =) Se Se. | enim as 
| 
| o o oO Inches. |Troy grs.|Troy grs. 
s | 
Mi | 688 | 85] 61.0 | 68 | 0541) 5.69))) Lea iioes 
a | 63.3 3.2 | 60.7 58 | .536 .93 26 83 
2 63. 3.0 | 60.6 5.4 | 584 92 16 |, 84 
3 | 62.5 2.8 | 60.3 5.0 528 87 .06 "85 
a) 6S 2.7 | 69.7 4.9 518 76 .02 85 
5B | 614 | 2.7 | 59.0 ig 506 .63 04 S84 
6 61.0 | 26 | 58.7 4.9 | .501 5S 0.99 85 
” 61.0 | 2.5 | 58.7 Zick Mn ASO) 58 97 85 
8 62.8 | 3.5 | 60.0 GR ees .80 1.35 81 
9 64.3 | 5.5 | 59.9 a9 521 73 2 22, 72 
Ip | 656 | 77) bos gel iets .60 3.24 63 
11 66.5 | 9.3 | 60.0 | 15.8 | .528 68 .86 .60 
| | 
Noon. | 66.6 | 111] 588 | 18.9 | .503 4A 4.66 5d 
1 66.9 | 121 | 58.4 | 20.6 | 496 85 5.15 51 
2 67.0 | 129 | 580 |} 21.9 | .489 27 51 49 
3 668 | 18,07 |) 57.6) 4) 22/38) 483 .20 58 48 
A 66.6 | 119 | 58.3 | 20.2 | .494 34 01 2 
5 67.0.) (910 6040 4 T6Be 2525 .69 4.17 58 
6 | 67.0 | TZ 62/0) 22 ta) 550 mala 2.99 67 
7 | 664 | 59 | 61.7 |10.6 | .554 205 58 71 
8 65.8 | 5.2 | 61.6 iA ly pee .06 19 74 
9 | 65.3 4.5 | 61.7 8.1 Bb4 09 1.86 77 
10 | 65.0 | 38 | 62.0 6.8 | .559 16 BD .80 
il 645 | 3.6 | 616 6.5 | .552 .08 AT 81 


All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 


Meteorological Observations. 


KCl 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of December, 1865. 

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. 


Max. Solar 


Rain Gauge 


vacation. 


| 


5 feet aboy 
Ground. 


\i Cirro-cumuli. 


| Prevailing direction 


of the Wind. 


a ES 


fe) 


Be & 
Estee 
eee 


W. & variable. 


N. W.&N. 
W.&N.&N. W. 
W.&N.W.&S, W 
N. 

N.&N.W. & W. 
W.&N. W. 

S.& W. 

S. 

WwW. 


General Aspect of the Sky. 


Clear : slightly foeey from 2 to 7 A. M. 

Clear: slightly fogey from 1 to 9a. m, 

Clear to 5 a. mM. ‘ito ll a. mw. Scatd. Wei 
& -ito3 p,m. “i afterwards. 

Scatd. i to 6 a. Mm. Scatd, ‘i to 2 P. M. 
Scatd. ito 6 vp. mM. “i afterwards. 
Scatd. -i to3 a.m. “ito 9 A, M. Ni to 

5 p. M. clear afterwards. 
Scatd. \i to 6 a. M, clear afterwards. 
Clear, foggy at 11 Pp. M. 


Clear nearly the whole day, Slightly 
fogey at 4 A. M. 

Clear. 

Clear to 3 A. m. “Wi to 11 A. mM. clear 
afterwards, 

Clear. 


Clear, slightly foggy from 9 to 11. p.m. 

Clear, slightly foggy from 9 to 11 P. Mm. 

Clear, slightly foggy at Midnight & 1 
A. M. & from 9 to 11 P, M. 

Clear, shock of an earthquake at 6 h. 45 m, 
P. M. 

Clear, slightly foggy at 10 P. M. 

Clear, slightly foggy from 4 to 7 a. M. & 
from 8 to 11 P. M. 

Clear, slightly foggy at Midnight, 6 A.M. 
& from 8 to 11 P. M. 

Clear, slightly foggy from 9 to 11 P. M. 

Clear, slightly foggy at Midnight. 


.| Clear, slightly fogey at 10 P, M. 


Clear. 

Clear, slightly foggy from 8 to 10 rv. Mm, 
Clear, slightly foggy from 7 to 11 p. M, 
Clear, forey from 5 to 7 A. M. 

Clear, fogey at 5 & 6 A. M, 

Clear to 11 4. M, i afterwards, 


NiCivri, —i Strati, 9i Cumuli, i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, i Nimbi, 


X¢Clv Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of December, 1865. 


Solar Radiation, Weather, &c, 


Sums o ®d 
.| 2 |O & = |Prevailing direction General Aspect of the Sky. 
2| 2 ae & of the Wind. 
ale lqed 
o  \Inches, z 
29| 138.0 Ww.&S Clear to 7 A. M. i afterwards. 
29| 128.0 F N. & W. Overcast to 6 Pp. M. clear afterwards, fogey 
at 9 P. M. 
3032.0) = N Clear, foggy at 11 P. mu. 


31| 130.0| |. |N.& W.&N.W. | Clear, fogey at Midnicht &1 a. u. & at 
8 P. M. 


Meteorological Observations. xcv 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of December, 1865. 


Montuiy REsvtts. 


Inches 

Mean height of the Barometer for the month, .. ee o. 30,034 
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. M. on the 22nd, -- 980.196 
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 p. mM. on the 28th, e- 29.883 
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, ee ee §=«.: 00.18 
Mean ofthe Daily Max. Pressures,.. 30 ae Sou Opleles 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. se ee e- 29.973 
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .. ee 0.140 

Co) 

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. oo 20 71.0 
Max. Temperature occurred at 2 P. M. on the 3rd, ee oe 85.6 
Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. u. on the 12th, ne Se 56.8 
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, 50 be 28.8 
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, ee eo oo 801 
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. be oo oe 63.4 
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, .. we 16.7 
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. BB ee 64.7 
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, .. 6.3 
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, .. se Se 597 


Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed Mean Dew-point, we 11.3 


Inches 

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .. oe ee «0.518 
Troy grains 

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, ee ee ee 5.69 
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, « 2.56 
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.69 
Inches 

Rained No days. Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, 56 re Nil, 
Total amount of rain during the month, ae ae ie Nil. 


Prevailing direction of the Wind, ., ee ee N.& W.&S8. 


xevi Meteorological Observations. 


Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations 
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, 
in the month of December, 1865. 


Monruty Rrsvuts. 


Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind 
blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour, 
when any particular wind was blowing, it rained. 


Hour. 
5 5 Sey ie) ae) balls! Kelsi Ei 
aiels slale| |elele| | ste lsisial2 
|NS (A (2) B le lala Selo lee leialals sie 
No. of days. 
Midnight. 10} | 1 2 }11) | 2' | 3) 2 
1 9} | 2 3 si f 4) | 2] 2 1 
2 10} | 2 il | 9) J 3l P3l y2 ih 
3 9 2 1 1} | 9} ¢2| f4 2 1 
4, 11 Wa | oh ake i 3} 3 1 
5 11 f11) Jl) 73} | 4 iL 
6 10) | 1 i) 72) 74) 13 
7 11 PAU Gp ey 1 2 
8 ast of 2 ee eb TN 3 
9 11 1 3 2) | 4) fl} 25 4 
10 11) | 3 1 | 6; fl) 75) | 4 
11 9) | 2) 2 1S) ayes) iy 
Noon. 11) 1 » 2 1 5 i10 2 
1 5) | 6 13| 17 
2 7| 14 72) | 9| [9 
3 6, 1| | 3 13} | 8 
4 5! | 4 11| fil 
5 7 1} | 2) fF 2) 7s fil 
6 7 1 1) Wa es 9} |9 
Gi 7 1} | 2) | 4) | si 79 
8 8} ta! 15) | 2! 7 8| 16 
9 12) is} Ja TAP 
10 cH) (a ashe iereshv) fyal Ii a! 
ar 8| 1 3 19} 72] Fal [4 
2 SN Bae OU) 1 Bee ee 


INDEX I. 


—= 
PART IIL.—NATURAL SCIENCE. . 

Page, 

Aitchison, Dr. J. E. T., on the vegetation of the Islands of 
dass.) 2. a aa das 53 
Analysis of Lowa Ghur Lignites, a oy) AEBTOR 42 
Arakan, description of new = seins THON ea ca ae 66 
Asia, notes on Central, _... Eh Daas SES 
‘Asthenurus Atripinnis, a new Gonna ai Gadi! na ee 32 
Astronomy among the Karens, ae jh SATS LOD 
Attraction, on Local, . Bat 2/ 
Austen, Capt. Fer Godwin, on Aare Bios Sandstone... OMT OG 
Ava, description of new land shells from,. 66 

Basevi, Capt. J. P. Pendulum operations of Trigonometrical 
Survey, 251 

Barnes, R. H. "Meteorological observations at Gangaroowa, 
Kandy, bas one bee bce iE seg 
Bijnour District, Boksas of, 147 
Blanford, H. F., W. Theobald’ s Obecmeiiene on el ohne by,.. 60 
2 gah Wee T., Contributions to Indian Malacology, ... ... 66 
a ” Note on Syepoorite, ... fs caaenlige 
Blyth, Edward, on Innus Assamensis, H.. WET Sime ge teed [19 ) 7. 
Pee | On Indian Rats gnd Mice, ue At) deh 
es Fe Letter from, : Hy, BSS ope 48 
5 Ps: 4A QRS 
Note on fee eae Partridges, ahs CEAUCLASS 
Boksas of the Bijnour District,.. ua. ie , gO eeRIET 
Buxa, Bhootan, Sandstone of, ri) ae ou: Seats eG 
Calcutta, Meteorological observations, ate tit apes 
Central ‘Asia, notes on, .. ee Odo dih. Haars 
Contributions to Indian Malacology, Neh 66 


Dalton, Lt.-Col. T., Tour in 1863-64 in Tributary Mehals. Ht. 1 
ere "On discovery of lead at mele Ram- 


kola, ae 48 
Dorylus, Dr. T. C. Jerdon on, J5e6k UUs ESS 
Karth’s Crust, 2 aa on Constitution of, 500 as 34 
Fire-flies, Flashing of,.. . ake ale sue iees TanEeOU 
Gadide, Description of new Genus, : 32 
Gangaroowa, Kandy, Meteorological Observations at, i, seq. 
Geological Map of Lowa Ghur range, notes on, : 42 


Indian Malacology, contributions to, aes Coo 66 


li Index. 


Page 
Indus river, vegetation of Islands of the, ... Se bia 53 
Tnnus Assamensis, a 60 so 55, Goole 
Jerdon, Dr. J. C., on Dorylus, ae ae bee ee 868 
Lagomys Curzoniz, ¥ S00 sos ae 9 WN 
Lead at Tuppeh Ramkola, ‘Sirgooja, ee a 48 
Local Attraction and its relation to mean ficure of earth, ae 34 
Lowa Ghur, Geology and Analyses of Lignites; sieie ae 42 
M: ilacology, contributions to Indian, joa 66 
Mason*D. Ds Rey. F., Religion &e. among the Karens, . 178, 195 
Mean Figure of Earth, Bele Ses B4 
Medlicott, HajBs Note on Steal Fauna, Nas 23 aS 63 
Mchals, Notes of tour in 1865-66 in Tributary, ae 1 
Meteorological Observations at Gangaroowa, Kandy, Ceylon, 1. seq. 
a Calcutta, he soe 1, SEQ? 
Mice, Indian Rats and, oats one Fee oo SEO 
Notes and queries, .. ate oe Ber peclains kes) 
Ostrich, Artificial hatching of eggs of, See 48 
Parish, "Rev. C., Notes of a trip in Yoonzalin District, Pied 
Partridges, Note on Peura, 288 
Pendulum operations of Government ‘Trigonometrical Survey, 251 
Pegu, description of new shells from, _... ee aoe 66 
Peura Partridges, note on, So wie. Iploke SURI 
Pratt, Archdeacon, on Local Attraction, &e., Be ae 34 
Rats, "Indian, 3e4 555 see sae see 
Salween river; Trip down ‘the, sie oo2 Sad 2. AE 
Sandstone, at Buxa fort, Bhootan, ... sete cect hee ate! eee 
Scientific Intelligence, OMe 500 2 2 Oe 
Semenof, M., Notes in Central Asia, ue ding © cejee ee ml gliss 
Shan States, "Land and Freshwater shells of, 1k sah hanes 
Siwalik Fauna, Note on, ... ate eaen ee 63 
Stewart, Dr. ip L., on the Boksas of Bijnour, at oa eh 
Stoliczka, Dr. Note on Lagomys Curzoniz, 108 
The obald, Jur., ae W., Land and Freshwater shells of Shan 
States, ... Me 213. & 
Observations on certain strictures by 
H. F. Blanford, Lan eee 60 
Tickell, Lt.-Col. S, lity AN New Genus of Gadide, i mer 32 
Tt rigonometrical Survey, Pendulum Operations of, soa ae 
Tuppeh Ramkola, Discovery of lead at, ... ue ae 48 
Vegetation of Islands of Indus river, 53 
V erchere, Dr. A. M., on Geology, Map of Sheen Ghur range,. 42 


Yoouzalin District, notes of a tpn, Naeee a vaginal 


DL LLLLILLIPLOPLLIFLILLIIIIIII 


Index. 


INDEX. II. 


—a= fe 


ii 


New Genera and species described in this Volume. 


Asthenurus, 


Pterocyclos 


Alyceus 


Diplommatina 


Helicina 


Nanina 


Helix 


Pisces. 
Order, Malacopterygii Subbrachiati. 


Family, Gadidee. 


Atripinnis, (Tickell,) ues fon by 
Mollusca, 

Order, Prosobranchiata, 
Section Holostomata. 
Family, Paludinidae. 
Paludina naticoides, W. Theobald, Jnr. . 274 
Bithinia nassa. . sf s See) 

9 

Family, Cyclophoride. 
Feddeni, W. T. Blanford, : 83 
Insignis, W. Theobald, ane 278 
Politus, be aoe 83 
Glaber, ae ben Pe es 84 
Nanas 0 ss ay 85 
Arakanensis, W.T. Blanford, 85 
Order, Pulmonifera. 
Family, Helicide. 

Compluvialis, W. T. Blanford, 66 
MNebulosa 2. ..s: “i Sect. Macrochlamys, 66 
Hypoleuca, eames “6 if 67 
Winvdlosa yo) ie. oie 6 - "Hemiplecta, 68 
Helicifera,....... PBK 
Mamillaris, mel - “fs rF Sesara, 69 
Basseinensis, ...... 70 
Woliniss:), saat eee Od 
Wulmien, ces. osc: ‘ 35 ,, Trochomorpha, 72 
Gratulator, ......... sev uantees 
Conula, Soh aes: ys = » Kaliella, 73 
Karenorum, Sa erhes 
IPE AMC UA, 5) ap'vice d's 2c re Ef Plectopylis, 75 
Beddent, ...s.s00ss ose. 
Polypleuris, 3 (Ree 76 
Ansorinus, W. Theobald,” ee Pemre ( 


iv Index. 
Page 
Bulimus Scrobiculatus, see sie Seen) ee 
Plicifer,... a a5 ae voce SE 
Spiraxis _ Pusilla, a56 505 500 PN Shes 
Achatina Peguensis,- ae 5.09 ws aaa) 
Pertenuis, ... oe mS ae tliat: Some aie 
Succinea _Plicata, ae Boe sae we FEO 
Clausilia Fusiformis, W. T. Blanford, ... don ate Oe 
* Streptaxis Burmanica, un ee ers ip OIL 

ERRATA. 
rr O@ owe ome 


Page 135, seq. for “ Notes of a trip up the Salween” read ‘‘ Notes of 


39 


a trip in the Yoonzalin District.” 

273, below M. variabilis for ‘ could” read ‘‘ would” for ‘“ 3-1” 
read “var. Ist.” 

274, for “ naticordes” read “ naticoides” for ‘‘notest” in last 
line, read “‘ subest.” 

276, for “it is not larger,” read ‘it is not only larger.” 

277, for “armed” read “wound.” For “‘cryptosonea’” read 
“eryptosoma.”’ For “in species with new’ read “two 
species, both new.” 

278, “ Diplommatina 4” read ‘‘ Diplommatina 5,” 


5 
é